FOUNDED 8Y I GOL.DWI.M SMITH I i'-Vjl J IDictotta Ibistot^ of the Counties of Enolanb EDITED BY WILLIAM PAGE, F.S.A. A HISTORY OF LANCASHIRE VOLUME I A HISTORY OF LANCASHIRE IN SEVEN VOLUMES THE VICTORIA HISTORY OF THE COUNTIES OF ENGLAND LANCASHIRE LONDON ARCHIBALD CONSTABLE AND COMPANY LIMITED This History is issued to Subscribers only By Archibald Constable & Company Limited and printed by Eyre & Spottiswoode H.M. Printers of London INSCRIBED TO THE MEMORY OF HER LATE MAJESTY QUEEN VICTORIA WHO GRACIOUSLY GAVE THE TITLE TO AND ACCEPTED THE DEDICATION OF THIS HISTORY THE ADVISORY COUNCIL OF THE VICTORIA HISTORY His GRACE THE LORD ARCH- BISHOP OF CANTERBURY His GRACE THE DUKK OF BEDFORD, K.G. President of the Zoological Society His GRACE THE DUKE OF DEVON- SHIRE, K.G. Chancellor of the University of Cam- bridge His GRACE THE DUKE OF RUTLAND, K.G. His GRACE THE DUKE OF PORTLAND, K.G. His GRACE THE DUKE OF ARGYLL, K.T. THE RT. HON. THE EARL OF ROSEBERY, K.G., K.T. THE RT. HON. THE EARL OF COVENTRY President of the Royal Agricultural Society THE RT. HON. THE VISCOUNT DILLON Late President of the Society of Antiquaries THE RT. HON. THE LORD LISTER Late President of the Royal Society THE RT. HON. THE LORD ALVERSTONE, G.C.M.G. Lord Chief Justice THE HON. WALTER ROTHSCHILD, M.P. SIR FREDERICK POLLOCK, BART., LL.D., F.S.A., ETC. SIR JOHN EVANS, K.C.B., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., ETC. SIR EDWARD MAUNDE THOMP- SON, K.C.B., D.C.L., LL.D., F.S.A., ETC. Director of the British Museum SIR CLEMENTS R. MARKHAM, K.C.B., F.R.S., F.S.A. President of the Royal Geographical Society SIR HENRY C. MAXWELL-LYTE, K.C.B., M.A., F.S.A., ETC. Keeper of the Public Records COL. SIR J. FARQUHARSON, K.C.B. SIR Jos. HOOKER, G.C.S.I., M.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., ETC. SIR ARCHIBALD GEIKIE, LL.D., F.R.S., ETC. REV. J. CHARLES Cox, LL.D., F.S.A., ETC. LIONEL CUST, M.V.O., M.A., F.S.A., ETC. Director of the National Portrait Gallery CHARLES H. FIRTH, M.A., LL.D. Regius Professor of Modern History, ALBERT C. L. G. GUNTHER, M. A., M.D., F.R.S., PH.D. Late President of the Linnean Society F. HAVERFIELD, M.A., LL.D., F.S.A. COL. DUNCAN A. JOHNSTON, C.B., R.E. Late Director Genertloftbc Ordnance Survey PROF. E. RAY LANKESTER, M.A., F.R.S., ETC. Director of the Natural History Museum, Seuth Kensington REGINALD L. POOLE, M.A. University Lecturer in Diplomatic, Oxford ]. HORACE ROUND, M.A., LL.D. WALTER RYE W. H. ST. JOHN HOPE, M.A. Assi-.tant Secretary of the Society of Antiquaries Among the original members of the Council were THE LATE MARQUESS OF SALISBURY THE LATE DR. MANDELL CREIGHTON, BISHOP OF LONDON THE LATE DR. STUBBS, BISHOP OF OXFORD THE LATE LORD ACTON THE LATE SIR WILLIAM FLOWER and THE LATE PROFESSOR F. YORK POWELL General Editor— WILLIAM PAGE, F.S.A. GENERAL ADVERTISEMENT The VICTORIA HISTORY of the Counties of England is a National Historic Survey which, under the direction of a large staff comprising the foremost students in science, history, and archaeology, is designed to record the history of every county of England in detail. This work was, by gracious permission, dedicated to Her late Majesty Queen Victoria, who gave it her own name. It is the endeavour of all who are associated with the undertaking to make it a worthy and permanent monument to her memory. Rich as every county of England is in materials for local history, there has hitherto been no attempt made to bring all these materials together into a coherent form. Although from the seventeenth century down to quite recent times numerous county histories have been issued, they are very unequal in merit ; the best of them are very rare and costly ; most of them are imperfect and many are now out of date. Moreover, they were the work of one or two isolated scholars, who, however scholarly, could not possibly deal adequately with all the varied subjects which go to the making of a county history. In the VICTORIA HISTORY each county is not the labour of one or two men, but of many, for the work is treated scientifically, and in order to embody in it all that modern scholarship can contribute, a system of co-operation between experts and local students is applied, whereby the history acquires a completeness and definite authority hitherto lacking in similar undertakings. The names of the distinguished men who have joined the Advisory Council are a guarantee that the work represents the results of the latest discoveries in every department of research, for the trend of modern thought insists upon the intelligent study of the past and of the social, institutional, and political developments of national life. As these histories are the first in which this object has been kept in view, and modern principles applied, it is hoped that they will form a work of reference no less indispensable to the student than welcome to the man of culture. THE SCOPE OF THE WORK The history of each county is complete in itself, and in each case its story is told from the earliest times, commencing with the natural features and the flora and fauna. Thereafter follow the antiquities, pre-Roman, Roman, and post-Roman ; ancient earthworks ; a new translation and critical study of the Domesday Survey ; articles on political, ecclesiastical, social, and economic history ; architecture, arts, industries, sport, etc. ; and topography. The greater part of each history is devoted to a detailed description and history of each parish, containing an account of the land and its owners from the Conquest to the present day. These manorial histories are compiled from original documents in the national collections and from private papers. A special feature is the wealth of illustrations afforded, for not only are buildings of interest pictured, but the coats of arms of past and present landowners are given. HISTORICAL RESEARCH It has always been, and still is, a reproach that England, with a collection of public records greatly exceeding in extent and interest those of any other country in Europe, is yet far behind her neighbours in the study of the genesis and growth of her national and local institutions. Few Englishmen are probably aware that the national and local archives contain for a period of 800 years in an almost unbroken chain of evidence, not only the political, ecclesiastical, and constitutional history of the kingdom, but every detail of its financial and social progress and the history of the land and its successive owners from generation to generation. The neglect of our public and local records is no doubt largely due to the fact that their interest and value is known to but a small number of people, and this again is directly attributable to the absence in this country ot any endowment for historical research. The government of this country has too often left to private enterprise work which our con- tinental neighbours entrust to a government department. It is not surprising, therefore, to find that although an immense amount of work has been done by individual effort, the entire absence of organization among the workers and the lack of intelligent direction has hitherto robbed the results of much of their value. In the VICTORIA HISTORY, for the first time, a serious attempt is made to utilize our national and local muniments to the best advantage by carefully organizing and supervising the researches required. Under the direction of the Records Committee a large staff of experts has been engaged at the Public Record Office in calendaring those classes of records which are fruitful in material for local history, and by a system of interchange of communication among workers under the direct supervision of the general editor and sub-editors a mass of information is sorted and assigned to its correct place, which would otherwise be impossible. THE RECORDS COMMITTEE SIR EDWARD MAUNDE THOMPSON, K.C.B. C. T. MARTIN, B.A., F.S.A. SIR HENRY MAXWEIX-LYTE, K.C.B. J. HORACE ROUND, M.A., LL.D. W. J. HARDY, F.S.A. S. R. SCARGILL-BIRD, F.S.A. F. MADAN, M.A. W. H. STEVENSON, M.A. F. MAITLAND, M.A., F.S.A. G. F. WARNER, M.A., F.S.A. riii FAMILY HISTORY Family History is, both in the Histories and in the supplementary genealogical volumes of chart Pedigrees, dealt with by genealogical experts and in the modern spirit. Every effort is made to secure accuracy of statement, and to avoid the insertion of those legendary pedigrees which have in the past brought discredit on the subject. It has been pointed out by the late Bishop of Oxford, a great master of historical research, that ' the expansion and extension of genealogical study is a very remarkable feature of our own times,' that ' it is an increasing pursuit both in America and in England,' and that it can render the historian most useful service. CARTOGRAPHY In addition to a general map in several sections, each History contains Geological, Oro- graphical, Botanical, Archaeological, and Domesday maps ; also maps illustrating the articles on Ecclesiastical and Political Histories, and the sections dealing with Topography. The Series contains many hundreds of maps in all. ARCHITECTURE A special feature in connexion with the Architecture is a series of ground plans, many of them coloured, showing the architectural history of castles, cathedrals, abbeys, and other monastic foundations. In order to secure the greatest possible accuracy, the descriptions of the Architecture, ecclesiastical, military, and domestic, are under the supervision of Mr. C. R. PEERS, M.A., F.S.A., and a committee has been formed of the following students of architectural history who are referred to as may be required concerning this department of the work : — ARCHITECTURAL COMMITTEE J. BILSON, F.S.A., F.R.I.B.A. W. H. ST. JOHN HOPE, M.A. R. BLOMFIELD, M.A., F.S.A., A.R.A. W. H. KNOWLES, F.S.A., F.R.I.B.A. HAROLD BRAKSPEAR, F.S.A., A.R.I.B.A. J. T. MICKLETHWAITE, F.S.A. PROF. BALDWIN BROWN, M.A. ROLAND PAUL, F.S.A. ARTHUR S. FLOWER, F.S.A., A.R.I.B.A. J. HORACE ROUND, M.A., LL.D. GEORGE E. Fox, M.A., F.S.A. PERCY G. STONE, F.S.A., F.R.I.B.A. J. A. GOTCH, F.S.A., F.R.I.B.A. THACKERAY TURNER. GENEALOGICAL VOLUMES The genealogical volumes contain the family history and detailed genealogies of such houses as had at the end of the nineteenth century seats and landed estates, having enjoyed the like in the male line since 1760, the first year of George III., together with an intro- ductory section dealing with other principal families in each county. The general plan of Contents and the names among others of those who are contributing articles and giving assistance are as follows : — Natural History Geology. CLEMENT REID, F.R.S., HORACE B. WOODWARD, F.R.S., and others Palaeontology. R. L. LYDEKKER, F.R.S., etc. {Contributions by G. A. BOULENGER, F.R.S., H. N. DIXON, F.L.S., G. C. DRUCE, M.A., F.L.S., WALTER GARSTANG, M.A., F.L.S., HERBERT Goss, F.L.S., F.E.S., R. I. POCOCK, REV. T. R. R. STEBBING, M.A., F.R.S., etc., B. B. WOODWARD, F.G.S., F.R.M.S., etc., and other Specialists Prehistoric Remains. SIR JOHN EVANS, K.C.B., D.C.L., LL.D., W. BOYD DAWKINS, D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S, F.S.A., GEO. CLINCH, F.G.S., JOHN GARSTANG, M.A., B.Litt., F.S.A.,and others Roman Remains. F. HAVERFIELD, M.A., LL.D., F.S.A. Anglo-Saxon Remains. C. HERCULES READ, F.S.A., REGINALD A. SMITH, B.A., F.S.A., and others Domesday Book and other kindred Records. J. HORACE ROUND, M.A., LL.D., and other Specialists Architecture. C. R. PEERS, M.A., F.S.A., W. H. ST. JOHN HOPE, M.A., and HAROLD BRAKSPEAR, F.S.A., A.R.I.B.A. Ecclesiastical History. R. L. POOLE, M.A., and others Political History. PROF. C. H. FIRTH, M.A., LL.D., W. H. STEVENSON, M.A., J. HORACE ROUND, M.A., LL.D., PROF. T. F. TOUT, M.A., PROF. JAMES TAIT, M.A., and A. F. POLLARD History of Schools. A. F. LEACH, M.A., F.S.A. Maritime History of Coast Counties. Prof. J. K. LAUGHTON, M.A., M. OPPENHEIM, and others Topographical Accounts of Parishes and Manors. By Various Authorities History of the Feudal Baronage. J. HORACE ROUND, M.A., LL.D., and OSWALD BARRON, F.S.A. Agriculture. SIR ERNEST CLARKE, M.A., Sec. to the Royal Agricultural Society, and others Forestry. JOHN NISBET, D.OEC., and others Industries, Arts and Manufactures ) „..,_ -IT- f By Various Authorities Social and Economic History J Ancient and Modern Sport. E. D. CUMING and others Hunting \ Shooting I By Various Authorities Fishing, etc./ Cricket. HOME GORDON Football. C. W. ALCOCK THE ORIA HISTORY WH.UAML THE VICTORIA HISTORY OF THE COUNTY OF LANCASTER EDITED BY WILLIAM FARRER AND J. BROWNBILL, M.A. VOLUME ONE LONDON JAMES STREET HAYMARKET 1906 DA 1,10 L2VI, V. I County Committee for Xancaebire THE RT. HON. THE EARL OF DERBY, K.G., P.C., G.C.B. Lord Lieutenant, Chairman His GRACE THE DUKE OF BUCCLEUCH, K.G., K.T. THE RT. HON. THE EARL OF WILTON THE RT. HON. THE EARL OF ELLESMERE THE RT. HON. THE EARL OF LATHOM THE RT. HON. THE EARL OF SEFTON THE RT. HON. THE VISCOUNT CROSS, P.C., G.C.B., G.C.S.I. THE RT. HON. THE VISCOUNT RIDLEY, M.P. THE RT. HON. THE LORD BALCARRES, M.P. THE RT. HON. THE LORD STANLEY, P.C., C.B., M.P. THE RT. REV. THE LORD BISHOP OF LIVERPOOL THE RT. REV. THE LORD BISHOP OF MANCHESTER THE RT. HON. THE LORD KENYON THE RT. HON. THE LORD LILFORD THE RT. HON. THE LORD SHUTTLEWORTH, P.C. THE HON. WILLIAM R. W. PEEL, M.P. THE HON. ARTHUR STANLEY, M.P. THE RT. HON. A. J. BALFOUR, P.C., M.P. THE RT. HON. SIR WILLIAM H. WALROND, BART., P.C., M.P. THE RT. HON. SIR JOHN T. HIBBERT, P.C., K.C.B. SIR JAMES DE HOGHTON, BART. LT.-COL. SIR HENRY EARLE, BART. SIR GILBERT GREENALL, BART. SIR THOMAS BROCKLEBANK, BART. SIR JOHN ORMEROD S. THURSBY, BART. SIR WILLIAM H. HOULDSWORTH, BART., M.P. SIR WILLIAM AGNEW, BART. SIR DUDLEY B. FORWOOD, BART. SIR JOHN E. S. MACLURE, BART. SIR LEES KNOWLES, BART., M.P. SIR WILLIAM W. B. HULTON, BART. SIR EDWARD L. WILLIAMS, M.I.C.E. SIR CHARLES W. CAYZER, M.P., F.R.G.S. SIR HENRY SETON-KARR, C.M.G., M.P. COL. DAVID AINSWORTH, D.L., J.P. COL. RALPH J. ASPINALL, D.L., J.P. RALPH ASSHETON, ESQ., M.A., D.L., J.P. THE REV. CANON AYRE COL. IRELAND-BLACKBURNE, D.L., J.P. COL. H. B. H. BLUNDELL, C.B., M.P., D.L. FREDK. STAPLETON-BRETHERTON, ESQ., D.L., J.P. W. FITZHERBERT-BROCKHOLES, ESQ., D.L., J.P. VICTOR C. W. CAVENDISH, ESQ., M.P., D.L., J.P. H. S. COWPER, ESQ., F.S.A. OCT. LEIGH CLARE, ESQ., M.P. CHAS. A. CRIPPS, ESQ., K.C., M.P. COL. H. T. CROOK ALFRED EMMOTT, ESQ., M.P. JOHN FELL, ESQ., D.L., J.P. JOHN FORMBY, ESQ. xi COL. WM. HY. FOSTER, D.L., J.P. WM. J. GALLOWAY, ESQ., M.P. HARPER GAYTHORPE, ESQ., F.S.A. (Scot.) JOSEPH GILLOW, ESQ. ROBERT GLADSTONE, JUNR., ESQ., B.C.L., M.A. JAS. GRIMBLE GROVES, ESQ., M.P. EDW. MARSHALL-HALL, ESQ., K.C., M.P. ERNEST F. G. HATCH, ESQ., M.P. CHAS. HESKETH BIBBY-HESKETH, ESQ., M.A., D.L. T. CANN HUGHES, ESQ., M.A. WM. B. HUNTINGDON, ESQ., D.L., J.P. W. FERGUSSON IRVINE, ESQ., F.S.A. COL. GEORGE KEMP, B.A., M.P. JOHN KERR, ESQ., M.P. WM. F. LAWRENCE, ESQ., M.A., M.P. WILLIAM ALEX. LINDSAY, ESQ., K.C., M.A., F.S.A., Windsor Herald. DAVID MAC!VER, ESQ., M.P. ROBT. PlERPOINT, E$Q., M.P. R. D. RADCLIFFE, ESQ., M.A., F.S.A. W. O. ROPER, ESQ., F.S.A. COL. C. M. ROYDS, C.B., M.P., D.L., J.P. J. P. RYLANDS, ESQ., F.S.A. COL. THOS. MYLES SANDYS, M.P. DAVID JAS. SHACKLETON, ESQ., M.P. EDW. JAS. STANLEY, ESQ., M.P., D.L. C. W. SUTTON, ESQ. PROFESSOR JAMES TAIT, M.A. AUSTIN TAYLOR, ESQ., M.P. GEORGE TOULMIN, ESQ., M.P. PROFESSOR T. F. TOUT, M.A. ROBERT A. YERBURGH, ESQ., B.A., M.P. THE RT. HON. THE LORD MAYOR OF LIVERPOOL THE RT. HON. THE LORD MAYOR OF MANCHESTER THE WORSHIPFUL THE MAYOR OF BACUP THE WORSHIPFUL THE MAYOR OF BARROW-IN-FURNESS THE WORSHIPFUL THE MAYOR OF BOLTON THE WORSHIPFUL THE MAYOR OF BOOTLE THI WORSHIPFUL THE MAYOR OF BURNLEY THE WORSHIPFUL THE MAYOR OF BURY THE WORSHIPFUL THE MAYOR OF COLNE THE WORSHIPFUL THE MAYOR OF DARWEN THE WORSHIPFUL THE MAYOR OF ECCLES THE WORSHIPFUL THE MAYOR OF HASLINGDEN THE WORSHIPFUL THE MAYOR OF LANCASTER THE WORSHIPFUL THE MAYOR OF NELSON THE WORSHIPFUL THE MAYOR OF PRESTON THE WORSHIPFUL THE MAYOR OF ROCHDALE THE WORSHIPFUL THE MAYOR OP ST. HELENS THE WORSHIPFUL THE MAYOR OF SALFORD THE WORSHIPFUL THE MAYOR OF SOUTHPORT THE WORSHIPFUL THE MAYOR OF WARRINGTON CONTENTS OF VOLUME ONE Dedication ...... T The Advisory Council of the Victoria History vii General Advertisement .... . vii The Lancashire County Committee xiii Contents XV List of Illustrations ..... xvii Preface xix Table of Abbreviations .... xxiii Natural History Geology By H. BOLTON, F.R.S.E. Palajontology ..... By R. LYDEKKER, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.L.S. 3' Botany ...... By HARRY FISHER 37 Zoology Marine ...... By JAMES JOHNSTONE, B.Sc. (Lond.) 87 Non-Marine Molluscs By B. B. WOODWARD, F.G.S., F.R.M.S. 97 Insects By W. E. SHARP, F.E.S IOI Spiders By the late F. O. PICKARD-CAMBRIDGE, M.A., revised and corrected by the Rev. O. PICKARD-CAMBRIDGE, M.A. '45 Crustaceans ..... By the Rev. T. R. R. STEBBING, M.A., F.R.S., F.Z.S '57 Fishes By JAMES JOHNSTONS, B.Sc. (Lond.) 179 Reptiles and Batrachians . „ „ „ . . . 188 Birds By H. O. FORBES, LL.D 189 Mammals ..... >» »>•••• 206 Early Man By JOHN GARSTANG, B.Litt., M.A., F.S.A. 211 Anglo-Saxon Remains .... ,. v » • 2S7 Introduction to the Lancashire Domesday . Text of the Lancashire Domesday By WILLIAM FARRER ..... 269 283 Feudal Baronage ..... 29I Index to the Lancashire Domesday 377 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE The Mersey. By William Hyde Frontispiece Contorted Beds in Clitheroe and Blackburn Railway 1 1 Arrowheads and Miscellaneous Small-worked Flints from the) . Neolithic Floor of South-east Lancashire . . .[ ' ' W-pagf plate, fatmS 214 Mottled Stone Celt from Windy Harbour, Pendle 217 Celt with flattened sides from Leagram Hall . . . . . . . . .217 Stone Celts and Hammers of Lancashire ...... full-page plate, facing 2 1 8 Stone Adze from Greenheys, Manchester . . . . . . . . . .219 ,, „ „ Corporation Street, Manchester ........ 220 Large Adze from Cheetwood, Manchester . . . . . . . . . .220 Section of Stone Axe from Harpurhey, Manchester 221 Stone Axe found at Wilpshire, near Blackburn 222 Perforated Stone Axes and Axe-Hammers of Lancashire . . . full-page plate, facing 222 Axe- Hammer from the Lune, near Lancaster . . . . . . . . -223 » „ from Heaton Chapel . . . . . . . . ... .224 ,. „ found near Lancaster . . . . . . . . . . .225 Small Hammer from Queen's Park, Bol ton . . . . . . . . . .226 Round Stone Hammer from Goosnargh . . . . . . . . . .227 Bronze Celt with slight Flanges, from Read . . . . . . . . . .230 Palstave found at Ainsworth . . . . . . . . . . . -231 „ from Martin Mere . . . . . . . . . . . -231 Bronze Palstave from Ashworth Moor . . . . . . . . . . .232 Plain Socketed Celt from Winmarleigh 232 Bronze Implements of Lancashire ....... full-page plate, facing 232 Ribbed Socketed Celt from Winmarleigh . . . . . . . . . -233 Celt with Outcurving Edge from Winmarleigh . . . . . . . . -233 Celt with Recurving Edge from Winmarleigh . . . . . . . . -233 Bronze Dagger from near Colne . . . . . . . . . . .234 Bronze Spear-head from Preston . . . . . . . . . . -23; Spear-head looped on Shaft, from Irlam . . . . . . . . . .236 Bronze Implements from Winmarleigh, North Lancashire . . . full-page plate, facing 236 Spear-Head looped in Blade from Piethorne, near Rochdale 237 Section of a Bronze Age Tumulus at Winwick . . . . . . . . .241 Patterns upon Cinerary Urns from Darwen .......... 242 Urn with Punctuated Decoration from Darwen ......... 242 Urn from Blackburn 243 Plan and Section of Timber Burial Circle, &c., at Bleasdale 243 Wooden Canoe and Pottery Vessels of Bronzs Age, from Lancashire . full-page plate, facing 244 Sword and Sheath from Warton 247 Late Celtic Dagger-Sheath from Pilling Moss 247 Bronze Beaded Torque from Mow Road (Rochdale) 248 Wooden Dug-out Canoe from Barton-upon-Irwell ........ 248 Wooden Dug-out Canoe found at Irlam .......... 249 Dug-out found at Crossens ............ 249 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Coins from the Cuerdale Hoard . . . . Bronze Brooches from Claughton ..... „ Boss of Shield from Ribchester .... Fibula of White Metal from Claughton .... Silver Cup found on Halton Moor ..... „ Torque found at Halton Moor ..... Fragment of Cross-head at Winwick, Lancashire . Cross in Bolton Parish Church, Lancashire .... Whalley : Cross in Churchyard (front and back views) . Hornby : Loaves and Fishes, Cross-shaft in Church Lancaster : Cross of Cynebalth Cuthbertson Halton : West face of Cross in Churchyard and Detail of East Fa Heysham : Lower part of Cross-shaft in Churchyard Hog-backed Stone in Churchyard Seals of Feudal Barons of Lancashire : — Plate I Plate II. . Plate III -C . . Plate IV. PAGE full-page plate, facing 258 full-page plate facing 262 „ „ 262 . . . . 263 . 264 full-page plate facing 264 266 266 292 296 LIST OF MAPS Geological Map, Northern Section „ Southern Section Orographical Map . Botanical Map. Pre-Historical Map . Anglo-Saxon Map . Domesday Map Feudal Baronage Map PAGE between xxviii, I » I*, '3 „ 24, 25 „ 36, 37 ,, 2 I O, 21 I » 256,257 „ 268, 269 „ 290, 29I xviii PREFACE THE County Palatine of Lancaster presents to the eye of the traveller and historian alike a wide diversity of characteristics, physical, social, and industrial. The western or coastal region is flat, or very slightly undulating, whilst the eastern and northern regions consist of extensive areas of moorland and fell, intersected by deep and once secluded valleys. Inhabited at the Con- quest by a sparse population mainly dwelling in the open country, the hills and pastoral region in course of time afforded settlements to the gradually increasing population, under conditions somewhat removed from the old-established village communities with their feudal influences. Whilst the western and southern regions were in the main composed of large estates held by knightly families and their dependent franklyns or freeholders, the eastern and northern regions consisted of small estates painfully improved from the woods and hilly wastes by the predecessors of the small yeomen and copyhold tenants, a vigorous and thrifty race of men, whose rapid disappearance during the last half- century amounts almost to a grave national and social disaster. From the race inhabiting these small pastoral estates sprang the great bulk of the spinners and weavers, artisans and colliers, who have done so much to give to this county that industrial supremacy which has long distinguished it in common with the neighbouring county of York. The impetus which led to the result was largely due to the limited application of labour required upon small pastoral estates, whereby the leisure time of the inhabitants was available for home industries, a condition which did not obtain on the arable lands of western and south-western Lancashire. A hardy life, an invigorating climate and surroundings, engendered industry, thrift, and inventiveness. Wool, the raw material for manufacture, and water power for the fulling mills necessary to finish the woven cloth, were available in every valley, whilst an unlimited supply of materials for building and of fuel for burning engendered amongst the people a love of substantially built homesteads and homely comforts. Trading centres naturally sprang up in such places as Manchester, Liverpool, Warrington, Wigan, Preston, and Lancaster, due to their situation upon frequented roads giving communication between the west of England and the lowlands of Scotland on the one hand, the eastern PREFACE shires and Ireland by way of Chester, Liverpool, Formby, Preston, and Lancaster on the other. Such is a brief outline of the causes and conditions which have made the Lancashire of to-day. To give some account of the race of men who utilized these natural conditions for the development of their native county, and of the gradual growth and ultimate result of their work, is one of the main purposes of this history. In this and in other direc- tions the design and scope of The Victoria County Histories differ materially from any other county history hitherto published. The plan of execu- tion is described in the general advertisement, and will be found to embrace natural history ; pre-historic, Roman, and Anglo-Saxon remains ; a topographical account of each parish, township, and manor ; chapters on ecclesiastical history, architecture, agriculture, industries, social conditions, schools, sport, and family history. In dealing with the wide field of learning, the services of specialists in the various branches of knowledge here represented have been secured, with the object of placing upon record in a scientific and entirely original manner as much matter touching local history and its kindred subjects as may be contained in a work of limited size and cost. The chapters on pre-historic, Roman, and Anglo-Saxon remains are admittedly brief and fragmentary ; but there is, unfortunately, no such interest or activity of research in these directions as to encourage the hope that greater light may be thrown locally upon these periods of history within the era of the present generation.1 In the department of natural history a great amount of work has been and is being done.8 In the department of topography only one important history of the county has been written. In 1836 Edward Baines, M.P. for Leeds (1834— 1841), published A History of the County Palatine and Duchy of Lancaster in four quarto volumes, a work which since then has been slightly enlarged, but not greatly improved, in an edition edited by John Harland, F.S.A., in two quarto volumes issued in 1868-1870, and another edition by James Croston, F.S.A., in five quarto volumes issued in 1888—1893. A more scholarly work dealing with a portion of north-east Lancashire is The History of the original Parish of Whalley and Honor of Clitheroe by Thomas Dunham Whitaker, LL.D., F.S.A., i8oi.s The same author also wrote An History of Richmondshire, two volumes, 1823, a work dealing with part of the ancient archdeaconry of Rich- mond, in which were formerly included the Lancashire hundreds of Lonsdale and Amounderness. In scope, however, this work can hardly be described as a topographical history, consisting merely of historical collections illustrated by engravings of local scenery painted by Turner. Valuable collections of historical materials in the history of the 1 The published works illustrating this department are The History of Manchester, by the Rev. John Whitaker, 1771-5 ; Roman Lancashire, by W. Thompson Watkin, 1883. 3 The Natural History of Lancashire, Cheshire, and the Peak in Derbyshire, by Charles Leigh, Doctor of Physick, 1700. 8 A second edition was issued by the author in 1806, followed by a third edition in 1818. In 1872 a fourth edition, revised and enlarged, was edited by John Gough Nichols, F.S.A., and the Rev. Ponsonby A. Lyons, B.A. PREFACE county were made by Roger Dodsworth1 (1585-1654), Christopher Towneley8 (1604-1674), Richard Kuerden8 (1623-^ 1690), Randle Holme (1627-1699), and his son Randle Holme* (died 1707), and the Rev. F. R. Raines6 (1805-1878), but no attempt has hitherto been made to utilize these collections for the history of the county. During the last twenty years transcripts of charters from these collections and of a great part of the Duchy and Palatinate of Lancaster records have been made, these being supplemented by abstracts of many records of the Crown, and of documents in museums, public libraries, and in private hands. In the department of printed works the volumes of the Chetham Society, the Lancashire and Cheshire Record Society, the Lancashire and Cheshire Antiquarian Society, and the Historic Society of Lancashire and Cheshire contain a vast amount of original material, which in the main has been critically and carefully edited. By utilizing a selected portion of this mass of material it will be possible to give a succinct and precise account of each parish and town- ship with the descent of each manor and large estate from the earliest time to the present day. Four or five volumes will be devoted to this department of history, the remaining subjects being dealt with in volumes i, ii, and vii. The editors are under great obligations to Mr. Edmund Dickson, F.G.S., Mr. Harper Gaythorpe, F.S.A. (Scot.), and Mr. H. Murray for information in the department of Natural History and Mr. W. E. Gregson, Mr. W. F. Irvine, Mr. R. D. Radcliffe, Mr. J. P. Rylands, Mr. C. W. Sutton, and other members of the Lancashire Committee for their active and friendly services. They also wish to express their thanks to Sir John Evans, K.C.B., Col. Fishwick, F.S.A., Messrs. Longmans, Green & Co., and the Society of Antiquaries for the use of blocks, and to the British Numismatic Society, and Mr. P. W. P. Carlyon-Britton, F.S.A., for the loan of a series of casts of the coins found in the Cuerdale hoard. 1 In the Bodleian Library, Oxford. For material relating to this county the most important volumes are Nos. xxxix, liii, Iviii, Ixi, Ixii, Ixx, Ixxxvii, cxxxi, cxlii, cxlix, cliii. 8 The greater part of these MSS. was dispersed at the Towneley Hall sale in 1883. Twenty volumes of transcripts of charters were acquired by the Trustees of the British Museum ; the most important being Add. MSS. Nos. 32,103, 32,104 (B.B.), 32,105 (C.T.), 32,106 (E.E., F.F.), 32,107 (G.G.), 32,108 (R.R.). A dozen volumes are in the possession of William Farrer, the most important being those marked by Chr. Towneley D.D., H.H., and O.O. Eighteen volumes were acquired by the Feoffees of Chetham's Library, the most important volumes being C. 8-13 (A-Y), C. 8-14 (C.C.), C. 8-7 (P.P., W.W.). 8 Six volumes are preserved in the College of Arms, one volume is in the British Museum, Harl. MSS., No. 7,386, and two volumes are in Chetham's Library. These MSS. consist of brief abstracts made from original documents, mostly charters, and of abstracts of Chr. Towneley's MSS. The caligraphy and the paper and ink used by the compiler render the deciphering of these MSS. a work of great difficulty. 4 Preserved in the British Museum, the most important volumes being Harleian MSS., Nos. 2,042, 2,063, 2,077, 2,085, and 2,112. '& These consist of forty-five volumes of Lancashire MSS., and are preserved in Chetham's Library TABLE OF ABBREVIATIONS Abbrev. Plac. (Rec. Abbreviatio Placitorum (Re- Chartul Chartulary Com.) cord Commission) Chas Charles Acts of P.C. . . Acts of Privy Council Ches Cheshire Add Additional Chest Chester Add. Chart. . . Additional Charters Ch. Gds. lExch. Church Goods (Exchequer Admir Agarde .... Admiralty Agarde's Indices K.R.) Chich King's Remembrancer) Chichester Anct. Corresp. . . Anct. D. (P.R.O.) Ancient Correspondence Ancient Deeds(Public Record Chron Close .... Chronicle, Chronica, etc. Close Roll A 2420 Office) A 2420 Co County Ann. Mon. . . . Annales Monastic! Colch Colchester Antiq Antiquarian or Antiquaries Coll Collections App Appendix Com Commission Arch Archaeologia or Archaeological Com. Pleas . . Common Pleas Arch. Cant. . . Archaeologia Cantiana Conf. R. . . . Confirmation Rolls Archd. Rec. . . Archdeacons' Records Co. Plac. . . . County Placita Archit Architectural Cornw Cornwall Assize R. . . . Assize Rolls Corp Corporation Aud. Off. . . . Audit Office Cott Cotton or Cottonian Aug. Off. . . . Augmentation Office Ct. R Court Rolls Ayloffe . . . Ayloffe's Calendars Ct. of Wards . . Court of Wards Cumb Cumberland Bed Bedford Cur. Reg. . . . Curia Regis Beds Bedfordshire Berks .... Berkshire D Deed or Deeds Bdle Bundle D. and C. . . . Dean and Chapter B.M British Museum De Bane. R. . . De Banco Rolls Bodl. Lib. . . . Bodley's Library Dec. and Ord . . Decrees and Orders Boro Brev. Reg. . Borough Brevia Regia Dep. Keeper's Rep. Derb Deputy Keeper's Reports Derbyshire or Derby Brit Britain,British, Britannia, etc. Devon .... Devonshire Buck Buckingham Dioc Diocese Bucks .... Buckinghamshire Doc Documents Dods. MSS. . . Dodsworth MSS. Cal Calendar Dom. Bk. . . . Domesday Book Camb Cambr Cambridgeshire or Cambridge Cambria, Cambrian, Cam- Dors Duchy of Lane. . Dorsetshire Duchy of Lancaster brensis, etc. Dur Durham Campb. Ch. . . Campbell Charities Cant Canterbury East. Easter Term Cap Chapter Eccl Ecclesiastical Carl Carlisle Eccl. Com. . . Ecclesiastical Commission Cart. Antiq. R. . Cartas Antiquae Rolls Edw Edward C.C.C. Camb. . . Corpus Christ! College, Cam- Eliz Elizabeth bridge Engl England or English Certiorari Bdles. Certiorari Bundles (Rolls Engl. Hist. Rev. . English Historical Review (Rolls Chap.) Chapel) Enr Enrolled or Enrolment Chan. Enr. Decree Chancery Enrolled Decree Epis. Reg. . . . Episcopal Registers R. Rolls Esch. Enr. Accts. . Escheators Enrolled Accounts Chan. Proc. . . Chancery Proceedings Excerpta e Rot. Fin. Excerpta e Rotulis Finium Chant. Cert. . . Chantry Certificates (or Cer- (Rec. Com.) (Record Commission) tificates of Colleges and Exch. Dep. . . Exchequer Depositions Chantries) Exch. K.B. . . Exchequer King's Bench Chap. Ho. . . . Chapter House Exch. K.R. . . Exchequer King's Remem- Charity Inq. . . Chart. R. 20 Hen. Charity Inquisitions Charter Roll, 20 Henry III. Exch. L.T.R. . . brancer Exchequer Lord Treasurer's III. pt. i. No. 10 part i. Number 10 Remembrancer TABLE OF ABBREVIATIONS Exch. of Pleas, Plea R. Exchequer of Pleas, Plea Roll Memo. R. . . . Mich Memoranda Rolls Michaelmas Term Exch. of Receipt . Exch. Spec. Com. . Exchequer of Receipt Exchequer Special Commis- sions Midd Mins. Accts. . . Misc. Bks. (Exch. Middlesex Ministers' Accounts Miscellaneous Books (Ex- K.R., Exch. chequer King's Remem- Feet of F. . . . Feod. Accts. (Ct. of Wards) Feod. Surv. (Ct. of Wards) Feud. Aids . . . Feet of Fines Feodaries Accounts (Court of Wards) Feodaries Surveys (Court of Wards) Feudal Aids T.R. or Aug. Off.) Mon Monm Mun brancer, Exchequer Trea- sury of Receipt or Aug- mentation Office) Monastery, Monasticon Monmouth Muniments or Munimenta fol Folio Mus Museum Foreign R. . . . Foreign Rolls Forest Proc. Forest Proceedings N. andQ. . . . Notes and Queries Norf. .... Norfolk Gaz Gazette or Gazetteer Northampt. Northampton Gen Genealogical, Genealogica, etc. Northants . Northumb. . Northamptonshire Northumberland Geo George Norw Norwich Glouc Gloucestershire or Gloucester Nott Nottinghamshire or Notting- Guild Certif.(Chan-) Guild Certificates (Chancery) ham Ric. II. Richard II. N.S New Style Hants .... Hampshire Off. Office Had Harley or Harleian Orig. R. . . . Originalia Rolls Hen Henry O.S Ordnance Survey Heref. .... Herefordshire or Hereford Oxf. Oxfordshire or Oxford Hertf. . . . . Hertford Herts .... Hertfordshire Page Hil Hist Hilary Term History, Historical,Historian, Palmer's Ind. . . Pal. of Chest. . . Palmer's Indices Palatinate of Chester Hist. MSS. Com. . Historia, etc. Historical MSS. Commission Pal. ofDur. . . Pal. of Lane. . . Palatinate of Durham Palatinate of Lancaster Hosp Hospital par Parish, parochial, etc. Hund. R. . . . Hundred Rolls Parl Parliament or Parliamentary Hunt Huntingdon Parliament Rolls Hunts .... Huntingdonshire ParL Surv. . . . Parliamentary Surveys Partic. for Gts. Particulars for Grants Inq. a.q.d. . Inquisitions ad quod damnum Pat Patent Roll or Letters Patent Inq. p.m. Inquisitions post mortem P.C.C Prerogative Court of Canter- Inst Institute or Institution bury Invent Inventory or Inventories Pet Petition IPS Ipswich Itinerary Peterb pu:l Peterborough Philip rail. . Pipe R Pipe Roll Jas James Plea R Plea Rolls Journal Pop. Ret. . . . Population Returns Pope Nich. Tax. Pope Nicholas' Taxation (Re- Lamb. Lib. . . Lambeth Library (Rec. Com.) cord Commission) Lane. «... Lancashire or Lancaster P.R.O Public Record Office L. and P. Hen. VIII. Letters and Papers, Hen. VIII. Proc Proc. Soc. Antiq. . Proceedings Proceedings of the Society of Lansd. . . . Lansdowne Antiquaries Ld. Rev. Rec. . . Land Revenue Records pt Part Leic Leicestershire or Leicester Pub Publications Le Neve's Ind. . Le Neve's Indices Lib Library R Roll Lich Lichfield Rec Records Line Lincolnshire or Lincoln Recov. R. . . . Recovery Rolls Lond London Rentals and Surv. . Rentals and Surveys Rep Report m Membrane Rev Review Mem Memorials Ric Richard TABLE OF ABBREVIATIONS Roff. .... Rochester diocese Topog Topography or Topographi- Rot. Cur. Reg. Rotuli Curia Regis cal Rut Rutland Trans Transactions Transl Translation Treas Treasury or Treasurer Sarum .... Salisbury diocese Trin Trinity Term Ser Series Sess. R Sessions Rolls Univ , University Shrews Shrewsbury Shrops .... Shropshire Valor Eccl. (Rec. Valor Ecclesiasticus (Record Soc Soc. Antiq. . Society Society of Antiquaries Com.) Vet. Mon. . . , Commission) , Vetusta Monumenta Somers Somers. Ho. Somerset Somerset House V.C.H Vic , Victoria County History Victoria S.P. Dom. . . . State Papers Domestic vol Volume Staff. .... Staffordshire Star Chamb. Proc. Stat Star Chamber Proceedings Statute Warw. . . . . Warwickshire or Warwick Steph Subs. R. . . . Suff. Stephen Subsidy Rolls Suffolk Westm. ... Westmld. . . Will. . . . . Westminster . Westmorland . William Surr Suss Surrey Sussex Wilts . . . Winton. . . . Wiltshire . Winchester diocese Surv.'of Ch. Liv- Surveys of Church Livings Wore. . . . . Worcestershire or Worcester ings (Lamb.) or (Lambeth) or (Chancery) (Chan.) Yorks . . . . Yorkshire A HISTORY OF LANCASHIRE HISTOKY OK LANCASHIRE GEOLOGICAL M > - NORTHERN SECTION K.XI'I., \NATION OK rill.OI'ltINt; MM, S3*~»*"" JKwwurx Ml ;-,±;;:'?D/iM"<"" """'iw^f ; ' ' .'.••-.. - '.<.?•- GEOLOGY THE Geology of Lancashire is of such a character that probably no other county in England can so well show the mercantile develop- ment due to its mineral wealth. The Furness and Ulverston districts with their rich deposits of haematite have furnished an abundance of iron ore, and the rich Coal measures which cover a large portion of the county have alone rendered possible the creation of huge manufacturing towns crowded with factories and workshops, whilst the low Triassic plains, with overlying superficial deposits, which form the seaboard from Liverpool to Fleetwood yield a soil well adapted for agriculture. The Carboniferous Limestone and Millstone Grit are admirably fitted for road- making and building purposes, and many of the shales and under-clays asso- ciated everywhere with the coal, and the thick layers of boulder clay, are equally useful in the manufacture of bricks and coarse pottery. Many of the large towns are crowded so closely together as to be practically continuous, and it is no fanciful figure of speech to say that at least the southern half of Lancashire is one great workshop. The general sequence of formations is as follows : — Blown Sand Alluvium . Glacial Drift . . Boulder Clay and Sands. _. . f Keuper Marls and Sandstone. 1 nas ' ' ' t Bunter Sandstone and Pebble Beds. n . f Sandstones, Marls, and thin Limestones. Permian . . . j Magnesian Limestone. TCoal Measures. Carboniferous . . -< Millstone Grit. [_ Mountain Limestone Series. ("Bannisdale Flags. Silurian . . •< Coniston Grits and Flags. LStockdale Shales. r Coniston Limestone Series. Ordovician . . < Borrowdale Volcanic Series. |_Skiddaw Slates (in part Cambrian ?). PALMOZ01C The only exposures or the older Palaeozoic rocks (Ordovician and Silurian) in Lancashire are limited to the Ulverston, Coniston, and Cartmel area, which is geographically a part of the Lake District. They consist of a small patch of Skiddaw Slates, the Borrowdale Volcanic series, and the Coniston Limestones seen in the neighbourhood of Ireleth, and a much larger northern area covered by the Stockdale Shales, Coniston Flags and Grits, and the Bannisdale Flags. ORDOVICIAN SKIDDAW SLATES The Skiddaw Slates, which occupy a considerable area in the adjacent county of Cumberland, consist of from 10,000 to 12,000 feet of dark grey slates, mudstones, and grits, which have undergone so much alteration since they were deposited that the task of determining their genera) i I A HISTORY OF LANCASHIRE sequence and stratigraphical position has proved a most difficult one. At one time they extended much farther to the south-west, as a great part of the northern portion of the Isle of Man is made up of them. The Skiddaw Slates are, as a rule, unfossiliferous, although some of the less altered beds have yielded a fauna sufficiently distinctive to determine their true position. The most abundant organic remains are those of graptolites, of which 59 species are known. Other forms are brachio- pods, such as Lingula brevis, genera of trilobites belonging to /Eglina, Agnostus, and dsapkus, small crustaceans known as Caryocaris, and doubtful remains of plants. Miss G. L. Elles, who has made a special study of the Skiddaw Slates,1 is of opinion that the fauna is in the main of Arenig age, but that certain of the beds belong to lower and higher horizons. BORROWDALE VOLCANIC SERIES Towards the close of the Skiddaw Slate period the Lake District became a centre of great volcanic activity, showers of ashes and streams of lava being thrown out intermittently, and alter- nating for a while with the sediments then forming on the sea floor. Eventually the only accumulations taking place were those derived from the volcanoes, one or more of the latter rising above the sea-level into enormous mountains. The total thickness of lavas and ashes has been estimated at about 1 2,000 feet. They overspread a great portion of the Lake District, which owes most of its wild, rugged and mountainous character to them. The Borrowdale Volcanic Series crosses the Lancashire border on its north-western side, and occupies a north-east and south-west strip of ground some sixteen miles in length and four miles in breadth at the widest point, lying between the boundary and a line drawn from the northern end of Lake Windermere to Broughton-in-Furness. This area presents all the characteristic features of the Lake District, and is very mountainous, the chief elevations being Dunnerdale, Coniston Old Man and Grey Friars. Most of the earlier lavas poured out during the Borrowdale Volcanic period were andesitic in character, whilst towards the close they assumed the condition of rhyolitic felsites. Many of the fine ash beds have undergone cleavage, and are now quarried for roofing slates. Near Coniston, ores of copper and iron occur in the beds, and mining of the former was carried on for many years. THE CONISTON LIMESTONE SERIES This series represents the upper limit of the Ordovician in North Lancashire, and has been classified by Dr. J. E. Marr as follows : — AshgiU G™P . . , p, . ( Applethwaite Beds, 100 feet. Coniston ) \ Conglomerate, 10 feet. Limestone > Sleddale Group . . < 0 -i T? j u j c . I j Stile End Beds, 50 feet. ( with Yarlside Rhyolites above. Roman Fell Group . Corona Beds, 100 feet. The series is generally accepted as the equivalent of a part of the Bala Beds of Wales, the remaining part of the Bala Beds and the Llandeilo being represented by the Borrowdale Series, whilst the Skiddaw Slates are, without doubt, in part of Arenig age, and may also in part correspond to the Tremadoc Slates and Lingula Flags. On the Lancashire border, the Coniston Limestone Series does not seem to attain a greater thickness than 300 to 500 feet, and only the upper members are represented, namely, the Apple- thwaite Beds, Staurocephalus Limestone, and Ashgill Shales. The Applethwaite series consists of very fossiliferous calcareous shales and limestones, with a white horny limestone at the top of the series, which in Dr. Marr's opinion is the equivalent of the Keisley Limestone. At Ireleth the beds rest on the Borrowdale rocks, whilst they can also be traced from the mouth of the Duddon northwards to near Ambleside. Good exposures of the Coniston Limestone Series are seen near Sunny Brow on the west of Windermere, and on the high moorland to the south-west of Coniston Water, the Applethwaite beds being especially fossiliferous. Dr. Marr, who has given considerable attention to these beds, states that the best section of the lower part of the series is shown at High Pike Haw, near the head of Appletreeworth Beck, whilst the upper portion is excellently displayed in Ashgill Quarry. The Ashgill Shales. — These consist of grey and green calcareous shales with limestone, and have a variable thickness. They are well developed at Ashgill ; at Rebecca Hill quarry, north of Dalton in Furness ; near Coniston, and at various places in Westmorland. 1 Quart. Jaunt. Geol. Soc. liv. 463 (1898). 2 GEOLOGY LIFE DURING ORDOVICIAN TIMES The abundant graptolite fauna of the Skiddaw Slates has been well worked out by Miss G. L. Elles, and her general conclusions have been already mentioned. It must not be supposed, however, that the whole of the fauna of these beds has been fully determined, as such is hardly likely to be the case for a long time to come owing to the great changes which have taken place in the character of the beds since they were deposited. Strong cleavages have been induced sufficient to convert the mudstones into slates, and the beds have also been invaded by intrusive rocks and much altered by contact-metamorphism. Before the close of the Skiddaw Slate period the volcanic eruptions which were to give rise to the overlying Borrowdale Volcanic Series had commenced, so that thick ash beds and lava flows alternated with the last phases of marine sedimentation. Many of the ash-beds have undergone a later cleavage development, and are at times almost indistinguishable from the true slates. The Coniston Limestone series has yielded a large number of fossils peculiar to the Bala Beds of North Wales. Amongst these are several corals, including Monticulipora (Favosites) fibrosa and Heliolites interstinctus. Brachiopods are especially distinctive, and include such well-known forms as Orthis calligramma, 0. porcata, 0. e/egantula, Leptcena sericea, and L. (Strophomend) rhomboidalis. The Ashgill Shales are characterised by the trilobites, Trinucleus concentricus, Phacops mucronatus, and P. apicu/atus, together with species of Orthis and Strophomena. A very complete list of fossils from various horizons is given in Dr. Marr's paper on the Coniston Limestone Series.1 It is needful to remember that the Ordovician strata of the English Lake District and North Lancashire are the equivalents of the vast mass of slates, grits, and limestones which in North Wales form the Arenig, Llandeilo, and Bala groups, and that it is also quite possible that the lower portion of the Skiddaw Slates may prove of Cambrian age and to belong to the Tremadoc or Lingula Flag series. SILURIAN Rocks of Silurian age form a broad fringe to the south of the Borrowdale Volcanic Series in the Lake District, the Ordovician beds already considered forming but a narrow ribbon between them. Almost the whole of North Lancashire north of a line drawn from Lindale and Ayside to Cartmel, Ulverston, and the Duddon is occupied by these rocks, and they stretch across the eastern half of Cumberland to Yorkshire. The series consists of shales or mudstones, flags and grits which reach a thickness of between 14,000 and 15,000 feet. They have been divided as follows: — Kirkby Moor Flags 2,000 feet Bannisdale Flags 5>2O° » Upper ( Coniston Grits and Flags .... 4,000 „ Coniston •] „ , , , „, , f Browgill Beds Group (Stockdale Shales { Graptolitic Mudstones . 200-450 Basement Bed The Basement Bed which at Austwick possesses the character of a calcareous conglomerate, rests unconformably upon the upper members of the Ordovician series,2 or, as near Souththwaite, upon a series of slates with gritty bands, which pass into rocks sometimes called ash-beds. Below the latter are flaggy slates passing down into the Coniston Limestone. At Skelgill and Pullbeck, near Ambleside, the place of the conglomerate is taken by grit bands and calcareous beds, whilst in other places it seems to be absent. A marked unconformity separates the basement beds from the under- lying Ordovician, and this is also accompanied by a marked Silurian fauna in the upper beds. STOCKDALE SHALES These consist of blue mudstones and calcareous and graptolitic shales, which are divided into — Browgill Beds and Graptolitic Mudstones. The Graptolitic Mudstones are of great interest notwithstanding the thinness of the beds, owing to the prevalence of graptolites. The dark shales or mudstones are especially prolific in species of graptolites, the chief zones being in descending order as follows : — Monograptus spinigerus Monograptm argenteus „ Clingani „ fimbriatus convolutus Dimorphograptus confertus i Geol. Mag., Dec. iii. (1892), ix. 108-1 10. 2 T. McK. Hughes, Geol. Mag., iv. 352 (1867). 3 A HISTORY OF LANCASHIRE The lower zone lies in calcareous shales. Numerous other genera and species occur, amongst them being Rastrites peregrinus, Diplograptus Hughesiiy Climacograptus normalis, etc. Crustacea are represented by trilobites such as Addaspis, Praetus, Harpes, Pbacops, Encrinurus, etc. ; brachiopods by Leptesna quinquecostata and Atrypa flexuosa ; cephalopods by Orthoceras. Dr. J. E. Marr, when discussing the general facies of these beds,1 drew attention to the fact that the dominant forms were almost all Silurian, and indicated a relation to the May Hill beds of Wales. A similar conclusion has been reached by other observers, and the beds together with the overlying Browgill or Pale Shales series are now classed as equivalents of the Llandovery Group. The Browgill beds, which are frequently termed the Pale Shales, are very similar to certain beds associated with the Graptolitic Mudstones. They have a thickness of about 1 30 feet, and have yielded graptolites and brachiopods, examples of Monograptus lobiferus having been found in them on Applethwaite Common, and Stricklandinia lirata in the Pale Shales of Rebecca Hill near Ulverston. CONISTON GRITS AND FLAGS Coniston Flags. — The Coniston Flags, which have a great thickness and are well exposed in the Coldwell and Brathay quarries, about two miles south-west of Ambleside, consist of finely laminated blue flags, overlaid by three series of flaggy and calcareous grits. Dr. Marr divides them as follows: — ( Upper Coldwell Beds . J Middle I Lower Brathay Flags. — The Brathay Flags are of fine texture, and cleave readily, and make up about a third of the total thickness. They are sparingly fossiliferous, and have yielded Favosites asperat Monograptus priodon, RetioKtes Geinitzianus, and a few other forms, chiefly in the neighbourhood of Stockdale. The Coldwell Beds are made up of basal coarse grey grits, middle calcareous flaggy grits of a blue colour and fairly fossiliferous, and an upper series of blue to grey gritty flags, which exceed in thickness the middle and lower beds and Brathay Flags combined. The Upper Coldwell beds are well seen in a quarry 200 yards south of the Coldwell quarry. The numerous fossils obtained from the Middle and Upper series include the corals, Petraia, and Favosites fibrosa ; a trilobite, Phacops obtusicaudatus ; brachiopods such as Ortbis and Strophomena, cephalopoda, amongst which are six species of Orthoceras, and malacostraca ; Ceratiocaris and Peltocaris being found in the upper beds at Troutbeck and Rebecca Hill. The Brathay Flags are of Wenlock Group age, whilst the Coldwell Beds correspond to the lower portion of the Lower Ludlow Group. Coniston Grits. — These beds have a thickness of from 4,000 to 4,200 feet and consist of flags and felspathic grits. In the Sedbergh district they have yielded a suite of fossils which show them to be closely related to the Coniston Flags below, the grits and flags together corresponding to the whole of the Lower Ludlow Group of Shropshire and Wales. BANNISDALE FLAGS This series of beds, which attains a thickness of over 5,000 feet in the adjoining counties of Westmorland and Cumberland, consists of slates, grits and flags. Their representatives in the Lancashire area are to be found in the Upper Ireleth Slate group described by Sedgwick in 1 846, who showed that they could be traced along the line of strike by Coniston Water and Windermere to Long Sleddale and Bannisdale Foot. The great slate quarries at Ireleth are opened in these rocks. KIRKBY MOOR FLAGS This group overlies the Bannisdale series beyond the Lancashire border on the north-east. OLD RED SANDSTONE Between the uppermost members of the Silurian in Lancashire which we have now dealt with, and the Carboniferous, there intervenes the- Old Red Sandstone, a great deposit of red and grey sandstone, and flagstones, with conglomerates and shales. Although representatives of this system occur in adjacent counties, there is yet no evidence of its occurrence within the county beneath the Carboniferous Limestone. As, however, the Upper Old Red conglomerate underlies the Car- boniferous Limestone in Cumberland, it is possible that if the base of the latter was exposed in Lancashire, we should also find the conglomerate beneath it. The conditions which existed in 1 ' On Some Well-defined Life-zones in the Lower Part of the Silurian (Sedgwick) of the Lake District,' Quart. Journ. Geol. Sac. (1878), xxxiv. 879. 4 GEOLOGY Old Red Sandstone times were a natural prelude to those which brought about the formation of the limestone and limestone-shale of the Lower Carboniferous Series, and it is therefore necessary to a full knowledge of the latter that the main facts be at least outlined. There is abundant evidence to show that a prolonged period elapsed after the formation of the Silurian, during which the deposits of the latter were subjected to considerable change and denudation. Only after prolonged erosion of their upturned edges, which formed part of a land surface, did a period of subsidence set in, and a series of depressions form, within which the red sandstones, shales, and conglomerates of the Old Red Sandstone were deposited. The character of these deposits clearly shows that they must have been accumulated not far from land, and the accepted belief is that the areas of subsidence, whilst in all probability connected with the sea at first, gradually became inland waters, passing in fact from a marine to a lacustrine condition. The extensive development of the Old Red Sandstone deposits indicates also that a large continental tract must have existed around the areas of sedimentation from which the material was derived. The sandstone and conglomerates formed at the close of that period gradually gave place to calcareous muds and limestones, the latter showing that after a period of rest a slow and wide- spread period of depression had again set in. As subsidence went on the Old Red Sandstone lakes became once more merged into the sea, and as the movement continued the continental land surface also sank beneath the water, until marine conditions were established over almost the whole of England, Wales, and Ireland, and the southern half of Scotland, with the exception of a few island masses, one of which stretched from Leicestershire into Wales, occupying what is now St. George's Channel, and striking northward to the North of Ireland and the western coast of Scotland. As the sea area increased, beds of silt and mud took the place of pebbles and sand banks, to be overlaid in turn by purely marine deposits. CARBONIFEROUS The thick limestone beds which were gradually accumulated over the sea floor show that the water was clear and fairly destitute of material derived from the land. That these marine con- ditions were permanent for a long time is shown by the thickness of the Carboniferous Limestone, which in the neighbourhood of Clitheroe has been estimated at over 3,000 feet, without the base being seen. The waters of the carboniferous sea were tenanted with an abundant marine fauna, crinoids and corals predominating, the former to such an extent that great thicknesses of rock were built up almost entirely of the broken-up and commingled stems. Limestones of this character are well seen in the neighbourhood of Clitheroe, Whalley, and Whitewell, and also at the Salt Hill quarries. The corals grew either singly or in colonies, the latter often covering large areas with a thick layer of one species only. This was especially the case with forms like Lithostrotion, Syringopora, etc. Brachiopods and pelecypods were well represented, and abundant evidence is furnished of shark-like fishes by the presence of teeth, spines, and scales. The boundaries of the Carboniferous sea are indicated by the intercalation of beds of mud and sand around the edges of the massive lime- stone, and by a thinning of the latter. It is by the careful mapping of these estuarine and littoral deposits that it has been possible to determine the main outlines of the sea area. The formation of the thick limestone gradually began to fill up the sea-floor, and the materials brought to the sea margin by rivers, or derived from the eroded coastlines of the land, were carried farther and farther out until muddy and detrital deposits extended over the greater part of the sea- floor, and the formation of the Pendleside Group (' Yoredale Series ')* began. The filling up still continued until large areas of the sea were cut off wholly or partially from the rest, and by the constant discharge into these of river waters marine conditions gave place to brackish, and the latter to fresh water, until, by the accumulation of sand and silt, the Millstone Grit Series was formed. At times, shallowing of the enclosed areas proceeded so far that vegetation extended from the land over the muds and sands, so giving rise to the thin coal seams occasionally found in the Millstone Grits. Subsidence still continued, but irregularly, so that a prolonged period of rest resulted in some lagoons becoming filled up and overgrown by coal forests, whilst very slow subsi- dence, and the continuance of shallow conditions, permitted the deposition of inshore materials, such as coarse sands, to be overlaid in turn by fine muds, when a greater subsidence caused the shore line to recede, and only finer water-borne material to be carried so far out. In this way arose the alternation of sandstones, grits, shales, and coals which make up the Lower Coal Measures. The same process of subsidence followed by periods of rest brought about the formation of the Middle Coal Measures, only in this case, the land-derived waste was mainly deposited in the form of fine mud, probably owing to the general level of the land from which it was derived being so low that only the finer material could be carried in suspension by rivers. The existence of a low 1 The name • Pendleside Group' is here used in preference to ' Yoredale Series,' as the latter division at the typical locality in Wensleydale is considered to be on a lower horizon and equivalent to the upper portion of the Carboniferous Limestone. Hind and Howe, Quart. Joum. Geol. Soc. 1901, Ivii. 376. 5 A HISTORY OF LANCASHIRE land surface with sluggish rivers would thus account for the greater prevalence of shales and the feeble development of sandstones which mark the Middle Coal Measures. Similarly it has been held that the great development of grits and sandstones which form the Millstone Grit can only be accounted for by a general and rapid upheaval of the land surface at the close of the Pendleside period, by means of which rivers acquired greater velocity and destructive power, and were thus able to carry heavy loads of sand and pebbles from the land into the sea. The former wide extension of the Coal Measures over England, and their development over many parts of the continent of Europe, point unmistakably to the existence of vast tracts of alluvial land at this time, and these in turn were probably but the maritime plains of a huge continent whose inland surface was very mountainous, watered by a heavy rainfall, and drained by mighty rivers. The Upper Coal Measures, best seen in the neighbourhood of Manchester and along the southern borders of the Lancashire coalfield, differ markedly from the rest of the Carboniferous series in being made up mostly of red, green, and purple shales and clays, with thin limestones and sandstones. Coal seams only occur in the lower portion. The character of these deposits seems to indicate that the conditions we have already described were followed by the formation of freshwater lakes cut off from the sea and subject to evaporation. The limestones are such as would be formed by precipitation, whilst the prevalence of ferric oxide would seem to show that it was deposited as the sediments were formed, every grain being coated with it, a circumstance hardly likely to occur in sea-water or where the sea had access. As is evidenced to-day in many parts of the world, landlocked waters subject to evaporation are but little fitted to support life, and the deposits formed under similar conditions in Upper Coal Measure times show a great reduction in numbers as contrasted with the rest of the series, whilst, with the exception of the ostracods and Spirorbisy those species which persisted are found to be dwarfed and thin-shelled, whilst fish remains are rare. Considerable attention has been paid of late years to the palaeontology of the Carboniferous System and the occurrence of life zones, and it may be regarded as certain that the facts which are being collected will result in some modification of the existing and generally recognised sub- divisions. These at present are as follows : — ( I Upper. TT ,-, , ., Coal Measures / Middle. Upper Carboniferous (Lower. { Millstone Grit Series. f Pendleside Group ('Yoredale Series'). Lower Carboniferous < Mountain or Scar Limestone. I Lower Limestone Shale. THE CARBONIFEROUS OR MOUNTAIN LIMESTONE This lowest visible member of the series rises to the surface in North Lancashire, occupying a tract of country between Barrow in Furness, Dalton in Furness, and Ulverston, thence passing eastwards by a few outliers to Cartmel and Burton in Kendal, from which it trends south by Carnforth to near Morecambe. The rocks then dip to the south-east under the Millstone Grit country, rising again to the surface in the Forest of Bowland, or Bolland, and the Longridge Fells. From here they sweep round the Millstone Grit hills to the river Hodder, Whalley, and Clitheroe, where they form a strong anticline known as the ' Clitheroe Anticlinal.' To the south-east of Whalley and Clitheroe they dip from the anticlinal under the Pendle Range and the Burnley Coalfield, to again re-appear in the Todmorden and Hebden Bridge valleys over the Yorkshire border. The Carboniferous Limestone country is well marked, rising into bold hills along the flanks of which are majestic mural cliffs or ' scars ' formed by the outcrop of the massively bedded limestone. Such ' scars ' are perhaps best seen in Derbyshire, but examples are not unfrequent in North Lancashire, in the Cartmel and Ulverston districts, in the Longridge Fells, and near Clitheroe, Whitewell, and Whalley. It will be perceived that the Carboniferous Limestone really forms two basin-shape de- pressions or troughs, with the Clitheroe Anticlinal between. The Carboniferous Limestone of the Furness and northern district is chiefly remarkable for the extensive deposits of haematite which occur in it, usually in the form of irregular masses and pockets.1 At Clitheroe it consists of a lower black biturninous bed overlaid by shales containing Fenestellts, and a massive light-coloured limestone seen at Salt Hill and Coplow quarries, near Clitheroe, Worsaw Hill, and other places. The lower black limestone can be seen at Horrocksford quarries, the Bold Venture limeworks, and Tiviston 1 J. D. Kendall, The Iron Ores of Great Britain and Ireland (1893), pp. 54, 64. 6 GEOLOGY Lane, whilst on the north side of the latter is a quarry showing the intervening shales. It is in the higher bed of limestone that crinoid stems occur in greatest abundance, the upper 40 feet at Salt Hill being almost entirely made up of them. The same, or a similar bed, is seen at Whitewell. Many of the rough field walls are built of this rock, which readily breaks up, the crinoid stems weathering out in high relief. Both the lower and upper beds are much quarried for lime-burning, that derived from the black limestone being especially good. PENDLESIDE GROUP This group, as its name implies, occurs on the flanks of Pendle Hill, of which it forms what have been called the buttresses of the north-western slope. This slope rises to a height of 1,831 feet, and shows a regular succession of deposits from the Carboniferous Limestone to the Pendle Grit. The stream courses from the summit have cut down through the beds, so that it is possible to work out in them the full succession, and Dr. Wheelton Hind and Mr. J. Allen Howe have determined the sequence as follows l : — Pendle Grit, or ' Upper Yoredale Grit.' Holland Shales, including the ' Lower Yoredale Grit,' or Pendleside Grit. Pendleside Limestone with overlying Shales and Mudstones. Black Shales with a few bands of impure Limestones. Shales with Limestones. — These beds consist of shales, thin limestones, mudstones, and at times thin ironstone. They are exposed in the Pendle branch of the Worston Brook by the lane east of Worston, and the brooks flowing from Lower Gills to Ings Beck near Skeleron Mines.2 The upper beds consist of limestone from one to three feet in thickness, which regularly alternate with clayey shale. In brook courses, as at Angram-Green near Worston, the rocks form a series of waterfalls, owing to the markedly unequal erosive action of the streams upon the clay-shale and limestones. The Geological Survey calculated the thickness of this division as close upon 2,500 feet thick, but the estimate is considered too high by Dr. Hind and Mr. Howe, who calculated it at 1,500 feet.3 Many of the springs issuing from these shales are charged with sulphuretted hydrogen. The Pendleside Limestone has a thickness estimated by Professor Hull at 350 feet, and consists of a series of thin limestones and shales below, passing into thicker beds of limestone and a few shales above, the upper member being a bed of large hard ' bullions,' which contain a goniatite, Glyphioceras reticulatum. The upper limestones contain crinoid stems and examples of Productus scabriculus and P. semireticulatus, forms which pass up into the Millstone Grit and Lower Coal Measures. The black shales at the base contain species of Chonetes, Productus, Prolecanites, and Orthoceras. The series is also developed around the flanks of Longridge Fell, where it contains well-bedded dark limestones and shales. Sections can be seen in a quarry north of the Longridge and Clitheroe road, three-quarters of a mile east of Thornley Hall.* At Black Hall and Cold Coats quarries, the lower beds are fairly fossiliferous, numerous species of goniatites being found, together with Posidoniella lesvis and Posidonomya Becheri. Bolland (Bowland) Shales, with the 'Lower Yoredale Grit: — The 'Lower Yoredale Grit ' forms a lenticular mass of grits and sandstones, with shales and ironstone interbedded. By the officers of the Geological Survey it was regarded as lying at the base of the black Bolland Shales, but by Messrs. Hind and Howe is included in the latter. By these authors it is also termed the Lower Yoredale or Pendleside Grit. The beds are local, although acquiring a thickness of 750 feet at Weets, immediately west of the Great Barnoldswick Fault. The topmost bed is well shown in Little Mearley Hall Clough, where it forms a well-marked conglomerate. The Bolland Shales on the northwest side of Pendle Hill are about 700 feet thick, and consist mainly of black shales. They are usually calcareous, very fissile, and full of flattened fossils in a poor state of preservation. In the thin ironstones which accompany the shales the fossils are better preserved and uncrushed. The shales are very bituminous and not unfrequently smell strongly of rock oil. This bituminous character has in the past often led astray coal seekers, who have been convinced that the beds belonged to the coal measures, the shales of which they so much resemble. Not merely is there a superficial resemblance, but many of the fossils of the Bolland Shales are identical with those of the Lower Coal Measures ; amongst these may be noted Posidoniella tew, Orthoceras, Goniatites, and fragmentary fish remains. 1 'The Geological Succession and Palaeontology of the Beds between the Millstone Grit and the Lime- stone-Massif at Pendle Hill.' Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. 1901, Ivii. 348. 2 Prof. E. Hull, 'The Geology of the Burnley Coalfield,' Mem. Geol. Survey, p. 17. 3 Op. cit., p. 349. * Hind and Howe, op. cit., p. 352. 7 A HISTORY OF LANCASHIRE We are strongly of opinion that the identity of lithological character of these beds with those of the Millstone Grit Series and Lower Coal Measures, coupled with a fauna which is practically the same in all, will eventually result in the old stratigraphical boundaries between them being set aside, and the whole series grouped together, as indeed they ought to be. Pendle Grit, or ' Upper Yoredale Grit.' — The summit of Pendle Hill is occupied by a massive bed of grit sometimes known as the Pendle Grit. It is a fine-grained sandstone, rarely passing into a conglomerate, and containing much felspar and mica. It has been correlated with ' Farcy's Grit ' in the Peak district of Derbyshire.1 Quarries are opened in it on the south side of the Nick of Pendle, where it is seen to contain large ovoid concretions marked with brown and yellow bands. The same beds form the summit of Longridge Fell, and constitute the greater part of the Fells around the Ribble and Hodder basins. It is also to be seen near Mellow, along the north side of Billington Moor, and so on to Whalley. The occurrence of the massive Pendle Grit on the summit of Pendle has served to protect the latter from suffering so heavily from the effects of denuding agents, which have lowered the sur- rounding country. That Pendle was subjected to these forces is shown by the deep ice scratchings impressed on the surface of the grit during the glacial period, and still to be seen on a freshly exposed surface. Probably also, this Sandstone capping was equally effective at a still earlier period, just as it is to-day, now that Pendle rises so grandly out of the surrounding low country to an elevation which can be seen across two score miles of country. Lying above the Yoredale or Pendle Grit are a series of shales but seldom seen, but where exposed, as in the road between Offa Hill and Stank Top, having a thickness of about 2OO feet. Shales and sandstones occupying the same position are seen north of Foulridge. Above these shales we meet the lowest member of the Millstone Grit Series, known as the Fourth Grit, or Kinder Scout Rock. MILLSTONE GRIT SERIES The Millstone Grit Series is extremely well developed in Lancashire, where it forms a well- marked boundary to the Coal Measures on the east and north. The eastern flanks of the Millstone Grit rise up into the elevated moorland hills which form a natural boundary to Lancashire and Yorkshire. This region may be rightly regarded as an outlying portion of the Pennine Chain, which runs as an elevated ridge from Derbyshire to the borders of Scotland. The Millstone Grit of the northern border of the coalfield rises up into a similar range of bare and bleak moorlands, running from a little west of Blackburn to Colne and Skipton, between which places it merges into the hill ranges of the eastern side ; on the western side, the series extends northwards by Longridge and Great Mitton. South of a line drawn from Blackburn to the Holme Valley between Burnley and Todmorden, the coalfield encloses two other areas of Millstone Grit, the most westerly forming Anglezark Moor, and the easterly the hill district of Rossendale. In the latter area the grits form what is known as the ' Rossendale Anticlinal.' North of a line drawn from Garstang to Long Preston is an extensive area of Millstone Grit the westerly border of which reaches the coastline in the neighbourhood of Heysham, where it forms a line of low cliffs, upon which Heysham Church is built. From Heysham the grits pass in a northerly direction to a little east of Kirkby Lonsdale. Skirting the whole of the comparatively unimportant Ingleton Coalfield, except on the north-eastern side, they swell out into Yorkshire as far as Clapham and by Giggleswick. Within this area are included the Bleasdale Moors and the Forest of Bowland with its two inliers of Carboniferous Limestone. Throughout the Lancashire coalfield wherever the Millstone Grit occurs, the surface features are of a remarkable character. The moorlands are everywhere bare, lofty hills, rising in many places to heights of 1,200-1,900 feet, and supporting a sparse vegetation of heather, cotton grass, &c., whilst extensive areas are covered with thick beds of peat. The hill sides are often steeply scarped, and stand out as bold bluffs of grit, sometimes fantastically weathered, and deeply indented along their margins by steep narrow gullies, usually termed 'cloughs,' which form the beds of mountain streams. The doughs, or ravines, run upwards into the hills, where they finally disappear on the moorland. For the greater part of their length, however, they present features widely different from those of the hills which enclose them. The steeply sloping sides are usually formed in their lower half of scree material derived from the weathering of the sandstones and shales above, and on the material thus accumulated, vegetation 1 R. H. Tiddeman, in « Geology of the Burnley Coalfield,' Mem. Geol. Survey, p. 23. GEOLOGY grows rank and abundant. Many of the common forest trees grow along the sides of the cloughs, whilst the undergrowth is a tangle of the wild raspberry, bramble, honeysuckle, and ivy. Marshy spots are carpeted with Sphagnum moss, whilst great clumps of bracken fern, horse-tails, and mare's- tails grow in sheltered spots. The bracken fern frequently grows up above the timber line amidst the grass and heather. The stream courses are littered along the greater part of their length with flood debris of stones, and frequently it has happened that a period of flood has caused a great pile of debris to accumulate in the main track of the stream, so that further progress downwards of the water could only be effected by the cutting of a new passage to one side, when the stream, once diverted, has continued to cut into the side of the clough until a vertical cliff has been formed, often of great height. In this way a clough is sometimes seen to suddenly widen out into a sort of sylvan amphitheatre, the bottom of which is filled with a level tract of bog or meadow land covered with ferns and trees, and bounded by the stream, which margins on the opposite side a tall cliff festooned with trailing ivy, honeysuckle, ferns, and flowering plants. Another special feature of these moorland cloughs is the frequency of waterfalls, owing to the marked difference in hardness of the sandstones and intervening shales. When the stream of water in its downward course passes from a sandstone to a shale, the rate of destruction of the latter is greater owing to its softness. It therefore follows that after a time there is a perceptible drop in the stream level at the point where it passes from one rock to the other. This alteration of level is naturally increased in the course of time, both by the weight of water dropping from the higher level and by the wearing effect of debris brought over, until a well- defined waterfall results. Once the waterfall is formed, it begins to be cut backwards by reason of the shale which underlies the grit rock being picked out by the water of the pool formed below the fall, and by spray being continually driven against it, until the outer ledge of rock over which the water pours ceases to be supported from below, and it is hurled down, a new ledge or lip appearing behind it. The destruction of the outer lip of the fall is accelerated by the fact that the grits are usually open-jointed, and water continually finds its way down to the pool by a passage through these crevices, some distance back from the edge of the fall. The passage of water through these open joints results in their widening and thus allows more water to pass, the process, when long continued, cutting off more or less completely the outer masses of rock until the succeeding flood waters dislodge them altogether. Waterfalls which have arisen in this manner are common in all cloughs and add considerably to their beauty. Where a rock is massively bedded and well jointed, the fall is broken up into irregular steps formed of the various bedding planes, and the water leaps from step to step, forming miniature cascades all the way. Where the sandstone is passing into a shale or where the rock of the fall consists of bands of shale and grit, the face of the fall slopes outwards, and the water rushes down its length like broken water down a weir. In some cases, a thick bed of hard grit rock overlies a still thicker bed of softer shale, and where this occurs the water drops clear from a projecting ledge of sandstone into the pool below. The increased volume of mountain streams due to lateral feeders results in the cloughs becoming widened out, and the sides are thus better exposed to the action of storms of wind and rain, and frosts. As a result, they are destroyed more rapidly, and the greater part of the cliff- like character is lost in the steep scree slopes already mentioned. The characteristics of these cloughs have been thus fully dealt with because they are one of the most distinctive physical features of the moorland areas formed by the Millstone Grit, and also because along their stream courses it is possible to trace the upward or downward succession of the strata over great distances. The Millstone Grit Series everywhere underlies the productive measures, and rises into moorlands on the north and east. As its name implies, the series consists of beds of hard quartzose grits, often very coarse, and interbedded with bituminous shales and a few thin coals. In a few cases, the coals have been worked to a limited extent, but they are generally much too thin to pay for working. The grit rocks are largely quarried for flags, building-stone, paving-stone, and road-metal. The massively bedded rock bands furnish huge blocks, used as engine beds and supports for heavy machinery. The grits contain casts of Lepidodendroid and Sigillaroid trees, not unfrequently many feet in length, and two to three feet in diameter at the base. In most cases, these tree trunks have been much flattened, but erect stumps, still circular and 6 to zoo feet in height, are found, as at Oldham Edge, with the marks of the leaf-bases clearly impressed upon them. 9 2 A HISTORY OF LANCASHIRE On the other hand, the intervening shales contain brackish and marine forms of life more nearly related to those of the Yoredale shales and Carboniferous limestone below. A species of Lingula is most common, but species of Productidts, Streptorhynchus, Spirifera, Aviculopecten% Modio/a, Posidoniella, and Goniatites also occur. Fish remains are rare. The Millstone Grit Series is separated into four divisions : — First Grit, or Rough Rock. Second Grit, or Haslingden Flags. Third Grit. Fourth Grit, or Kinder Scout Rock. Rough Rock One or, more usually, two beds of massive coarse grit, separated by a twelve to eighteen inch seam of coal called the ' Feather Edge ' Mine. Shales Usually thin and at times absent. In the Rossendale area from 30 to 100 feet thick. Second Grit, or Haslingden Flags. Fine-grained hard grey sandstone forming three beds in the Rossendale district. Shales A shale series containing a thin coal at the base, and a workable seam at Mossley and Mottram, in Cheshire. Third Grit Fine grits and flagstones, the lower beds being especially thick and Shales Shales with two thin coals near the base. Fourth Grit, or Kinder Scout Rock Massive coarse sandstone grits, with conglomerates and shales. It must not be supposed that the sequence of beds given here can always be determined. Many of the grits are much current-bedded, whilst their thickness is constantly changing, and important members are in some places absent. The Kinder Scout and Rough Rocks are the most stable members of the series, the Second and Third Grits being more lenticular in form, so that their thickness, even in adjoining districts, may vary extremely. Kinder Scout Rock. — This rock consists of two or more beds of grit, varying in their character from ordinary sandstones into conglomerates, the pebbles consisting of quartz which is mainly milky in colour, the glassy form being less constant. Rotten felspar and flakes of mica are also abundant, so that the coarser grits have a granite-like appearance. The extensive Millstone Grit capping of the Anglezark, Wheelton, and Withnell Moors and Bromley Pastures is formed of this grit. To the north of Anglezark Moor is a long elevated ridge of Kinder Scout Rock, passing from Holster Hill two miles north of Hoghton Tower in a direction E 38° N. by Mellor, Whalley Nab, and Wiswell Moor to Nick of Pendle. Along the foot of Pendle and at Newchurch-in-Pendle outcrops are numerous. In the neighbourhood of Cocker Hill the grit consists of two beds of coarse sandstone separated by about 125 feet of shale. The total thickness has been estimated by Prof. Hull as between 750 and 800 feet. It forms a well-marked feature in the neighbourhood of Foulridge, north of Colne. The Kinder Scout Grit is well seen to the east of Oldham cropping out in the valley of the Tame from Warmton Wood to Harrop Edge, and stretching on into Cheshire and Yorkshire. On the Yorkshire side of the boundary at Chew Brook and Greenfield the grit rises into bold, majestic cliffs. The thickness is here estimated at 500 feet, but this is increased at Saddle- worth owing to the greater development of one of the beds of shale. A fine section is exposed along the Mottram and Staleybridge road at Roe Cross, where the total thickness has increased to about I,ooo feet. Shales. — The shales seen on the flanks of Winter Hill are supposed by Prof. Hull to lie above the Kinder Scout Rock and below the Third Grit. They attain a thickness of 350 to 400 feet. In the river Darwen below Malmesbury Mill they show a thickness of 625 feet, and the bottom is not seen. They have been traced to Whalley, where they occur in the bed of the river Calder and also between Wiswell Moor and Sabden. Between Rough Lea Water and the road from Colne to Foulridge exposures are difficult to find, but numerous sections occur south of the canal reservoir. In ironstone nodules from the shales, and in the shales themselves, have been found Goniatites, Posidoniella lavis, and fish remains, together with Calamites. Two thin coal seams occur at the base of the shales in Dean Brook at the northern end of Rivington Hill, and also at Grange Brook near Belmont. At Pule Hill on the eastern side the shales vary from 100 to 300 feet in thickness. They show a tendency in both localities to become sandy or flaggy. GEOLOGY The Third Grit. — This consists of two, sometimes three, beds of grit, flagstones, and shales, the lowest bed being especially massive and at times passing into conglomerate. The grit occurs at Belmont between Turton and Rivington, where it forms the cliff known as ' the Ratchers,' and then runs northwards, being again seen in Roddlesworth Brook below Tockholes. Along the Pendle range two and sometimes three beds of grit divided by shales are met with, the basement bed being especially coarse or passing into conglomerate. A good section of this bed is exposed in a cutting of the Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway at Brown Hill, about two miles north of Black- burn. Here the beds are violently contorted, owing to the proximity of a fault passing from N.N.W. to S.S.E. Contorted Beds in Clitheroe and Blackburn Railway. The Third Grit is exposed at various places along the Sabden valley north-eastwards to Colne and Foulridge, and down the eastern side of the coalfield by Widdop and Stiperden Moor to the heights above Littleborough, where the top bed is pierced by the Summit tunnel on the Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway, and southwards to Stalybridge. At Ramsden Clough and Clough Foot in Dulesgate, a thin coal and shale parting occurs in the top bed of grit. A similar thin coal seam lies under the grit at Black Clough. The Third Grit is well exposed at Gauxholme in Dulesgate, and along the Irwell valley between Rawtenstall and Waterfoot in Rossendale. In the latter district it contains two thin coal seams. Below Rawtenstall it forms the floor and sides of the Irwell valley from Holden Wood to Ramsbottom, where it can be seen at several places along the railway. Shuttleworth Moss and Harden Moor are capped by the upper beds of grit. Shales below Second Grit. — These shales have not received much attention, except from the late E. W. Binney, who described them as the ' Holcombe Brook Series,' at which place they contain three thin seams of coal, one being 15 inches thick and formerly worked at Cheeseden Brook. Similar thin coals have been found in the shales in the Foulridge district, notably at Laneshaw Bridge, and on Pule Hill on the eastern side. Second Grit, or Haslingden Flags. — This valuable series reaches its highest development in the Rossendale area and the Whitworth and Facit valleys. It consists of fine grained sandstones well bedded and exceedingly hard and durable. The utilisation of these beds has increased considerably during recent years, so that over large areas on the Brandwood Moors, Cowpe Moss, and at Back Cowm, the hill crests are being studded with great quarries. In the Rossendale area the Haslingden Flag Rock consists of three beds of grit, averaging 36 feet in thickness, and separated by 30 to 100 feet of shale. Away from this particular area the beds deteriorate in character, and even pass into ' raggy ' shale as at Newchurch-in-Rossendale. In the Pendle Range they approach the overlying Rough Rock, being only separated by 15 to 2O feet of shale. On the eastern side they are feebly repre- sented. North of Rivington the series is well developed and can be seen in the valley below the Anglezark Lead Mines on the western and southern slopes of Rivington Pike, and at Tockholes, and in the river Roddlesworth. First Grit, or Rough Rock. — The Rough Rock forms the highest member of the Millstone Grit, and may usually be recognized by its coarse character and the presence of a thin coal seam in its upper portion. It is not very useful as a building stone, being often soft and incoherent and readily breaking down into a coarse sand. For this reason it is sometimes called the ' Sandrock,' and the coal seam the ' Sandrock Mine.' More commonly the latter is styled the ' Feather-Edge ' Mine. Quartz pebbles occur abundantly in the beds, and hand specimens of the latter may at times be mistaken for a conglomerate. The Rough Rock forms a capping to many of the hills in the Mill- stone Grit areas, and hence can be easily traced around the coalfield. From Hoghton Towers, where it forms a lofty hill and is estimated at 400 feet thick, to the south slopes of Pendle and east- wards to Colne, it is well in evidence, the latter town being built on a ridge of this rock. Good exposures can be seen in the river bottom on the eastern side of the town. In the Anglezark area it is found at Pike Low, Withnell, and Stanworth Edge, and crops in massive beds at the top of Blackburn Park. At Winewall, near Colne, large quarries are opened in it, and south from this point it forms a hilly crest by Entwistle Moor, Shedden Edge, and Stiperden Moor to the Ports- mouth valley at Red Water Brook. On the opposite side of the valley it is continued along the side ii A HISTORY OF LANCASHIRE of Thieveley, Flower Scar Hill, and Dulesgate (where the ' Feather-Edge ' coal is seen at Banks Mill) to Shore and Littleborough. In the Rossendale area, the lower bed of grit and the ' Feather-Edge ' coal are present as a surface bed below the peat over the Brandwood, Cowpe, and Knoll Moors, whilst at Bacup the upper bed can be seen in Bankside Quarry resting directly upon the coal. The conformation of Brandwood Moor, Seat Naze, and the flanks of Cribden have been largely dependent upon the occurrence of this grit. In the case of the former it forms a complete capping, and, judging from the abundant evidence of glaciation, has served to protect it during the glacial period. At Bury the ' Feather-Edge ' coal is two feet thick, and is not overlaid by grit. It has been worked on Scout Moor, near Edenfield. Holcombe Moor is largely capped by this rock, and we also find it on Darwen Moor, Bunkers Hill, Tockholes Fold, and other places. Along the northern side of the Burnley coalfield the various members of the Millstone Grit series dip southwards, the Rough Rock having a strong dip. The same upheaval has brought up the overlying Lower Coal Measures, the seams of which were formerly termed ' Rearing mines.' It must not be forgotten that the Millstone Grit series in Lancashire forms but a small portion of an extensive mass of sandstones and shales which spread over the high ground of the West Riding of Yorkshire and stretch southwards and eastwards into Cheshire, Derbyshire, and North Stafford- shire. Taken as a whole, these irregular deposits of sandstones and shales are indicative of a lengthy period of subaerial denudation of older crystalline rocks of a granite texture ; hence the prevalence of decayed felspar and mica in the sandstones, and also of a corresponding sedimentation along the borders of the old Carboniferous limestone sea. The labours of Professor Green and others have shown that the greatest amount of deposition took place over Lancashire and South Yorkshire. Outside this area the grits thin off, especially to the north and north-west. Dr. Sorby, from a study of the current-bedding which is so marked a feature of the sandstones, concluded that the material of the grits in Lancashire and Yorkshire was brought by currents flowing from north-east to south- west, and an examination of the mineral constituents led him to suppose that the main mass of the grits was derived from the destruction of a western prolongation of what is now Scandinavia, this prolongation, if we follow Professor Hull's view, being part of a continental land which stretched from Scandinavia over the north of Scotland and Ireland into the North Atlantic. It is quite possible also that some of the grits and shales on the southern side of these counties were derived from a central land area which occupied the middle of the old Carboniferous sea. At this time, as during the deposition of the Pendleside (' Yoredale') Group, the north- easterly part of this sea had become landlocked, either by blocking up of its outlets or by upheaval of the sea floor. The enclosed inland sea, by the gradual spreading out over its floor of sand and mud brought by rivers from the north and east and south, became converted into a huge swampy marsh- land, enclosing large lagoons with communicating channels, and over these the Coal Measures were in turn deposited. COAL MEASURES The Lancashire Coal Measures, which were accumulated upon the substructure of grits and shales, are divided into the lower, middle, and upper series, but the boundary lines are purely arbitrary and drawn for convenience rather than as indicating any real change in the deposits or their contents. Speaking generally, the Lower Coal Measures are specially marked by shales containing sup- posed marine forms of life, thick beds of grit, and but few and thin coals. The Middle Coal Measures form the productive measures, marine bands, with a single exception, being absent. The Upper Coal Measures contain a few coal seams in their lower half, the upper beds consisting of red shales and thin limestones. Topographical Features. — The topographical features of the Lancashire Coalfield are well marked. On the south and west it is bounded along a line of faulting by the low Triassic plain of Cheshire and western Lancashire. Along the northern and eastern sides it is shut in by a series of lofty moorlands covered by extensive peat deposits and overgrown with heather. The flanks of the moorlands are deeply gashed by the narrow ravines called ' cloughs ' (see p. 8), the sides of which, clothed with the bracken and other ferns, lodge a few hardy trees and shrubs. Here and there the ravines have vertical walls of massive grits or well-bedded shale. At the base of the highest moorlands are low rounded foot-hills whose sides and crests are clad with trees or occupied by grazing farms. These hills consist of the upper members of the Mill- stone Grit, or of the Lower Coal Measures, in which grit rocks are a strong feature. The hill slopes are usually steep. Most of the mining of the Lower Coal Measures is done by means of 'adits' which pass into the sides of the hills or else by shafts which rarely exceed 100 yards in depth. HISTOKY OK I.ANCASIIIHK Blat-kjoo] I tL& GEOLOGICAL VJX ;;:/,:"••;, rUrt - SOUTHERN SECTION „„„„., I Keuper Mart* J Ranter Smditont | Bretvia and Stuuist, -.oal Jteasures <£ Yomhilr Rorks, Maintain 1 Or LimtR\ \anj lnwer Linvstani Shale GEOLOGY The southern fringe of the coalfield might be described as a hummocky country, a series of shallow river valleys separated by low, broadly rounded hills. It is along this southern fringe that the rich Middle Coal Measures chiefly occur, only a few isolated patches being found in the northern half, the chief of which is known as the BurrJey Coal Basin. The large cotton and iron manufacturing towns of Lancashire lie along the lower parts of the valley systems, the flanks of the moorlands being occupied by grazing farms, and the crests by quarries. On the south and west of the Lancashire Coalfield is the great Cheshire and west Lancashire plain of Triassic rocks. The district is almost entirely agricultural, flat and monotonous. Mining History. — Whether coal mining was practised in Lancashire by the ancient Britons is a point upon which there is no certain evidence. Previous to the time of the Roman occupation, the county was largely forests and swamps, and the ease with which wood could be obtained discounts any theory of coal working by the Britons. That coal was mined and used as fuel by the Romans is very probable, for Whittaker, the Lancashire historian, has recorded that the evidence of a large coal fire, and an abundance of ashes and scoriae were dug up in the ' Castle Field ' in the Roman centre of Mancunium or Manchester.i Whether coal was used in Lancashire by the Saxons is not known. That the coal was taken out at a remote period has been proved by the finding of old workings and old implements of mining, such as oaken shovels tipped with iron, etc. Coal was mined in the Burnley area in the time of Henry VIII.,3 but only with the com- mencement of the nineteenth century did mining become important, its progress being synchronous with the development of woollen, iron, and cotton industries. LOWER COAL MEASURES These measures bound the northern side of the South Lancashire Coalfield, and send three arms northwards through the Millstone Grit country to the Burnley Coalfield, which they com- pletely encircle. Immediately to the south of the latter coalfield they cover a tract of country fifteen miles long from east to west, and three to five miles broad from north to south. The Lower Coal Measures include all the beds lying between the Upper Rough Rock of the Millstone Grit Series and the floor of the Arley Mine (also known as 'Little DelP at St. Helens, ' Riley Mine ' at Bolton, and ' Dogstone Mine ' at Bury). They consist mainly of shales, with thin bands of nodular ironstone, sandstones and thin coals, reaching in all a thickness of 1,200 feet along the line of the ' Rossendale Anticlinal.' Not more than six coal seams are present in the series, the total thickness rarely exceeding ten feet. The accompanying generalized section in the Rossendale area serves to illustrate the position and thickness of the seams : — ft. in. ft. in. Pasture, Bassey and other thin coals . 431 o Shales and Grits 20 o Upper Mountain Mine Coal ... i 6 Lower Foot Mine Coal .... 08 Shales Firecla Strata Coal 3" O 2 Bassey or Salts Mine Coal . . 2 to 3 o 56 0 Shales and Grits . . 100 o Upper Foot Mine First Coal o IO in Four Coal .... O 8 Rough Rock . . Mine Shales 30 o where they | Lower Mountain or unite. Canister Mine 1 Coal .... 26 The coal seams are frequently termed ' Mountain Mines,' owing to their general ocurrence on the high ground. But three are of commercial importance, viz. the ' Gannister,' ' Yard ' or ' Lower Mountain Mine,' the ' Upper Foot ' or ' Bullion Mine,' and the ' Upper Mountain Mine.' The ' Bassey ' or ' Salts Mine ' is a very impure coal and not much used. It is worked to some extent in the Blackburn area. The Upper Mountain Mine and the Gannister seam have been largely worked by adits and shafts to supply the wants of the numerous cotton manufacturing towns of Lancashire, and are still largely used. The chief coal supply from the Lower Coal Measures will, in the future, have to be drawn from a four-foot seam formed by a union of the 1 History of Manchester, i. 301. 2 Hull's Coalfields of Great Britain, ed. 4, 1891, p. 220. '3 A HISTORY OF LANCASHIRE Gannister and Upper Foot seams, which takes place along an irregular north-west and south-east line a little to the north of the Rossendale anticlinal. Although up to the point of union the individual thicknesses of the two mines are but two feet six inches and eight inches respectively, yet at their junction the united seams swell out to a thickness of nearly eight feet, and the average over a great area is four feet. The special features of the union of these two seams were dealt with by J. Aitken,1 and his explanation is probably the correct one, viz., that a part of the Gannister area was one of subsidence, the submersion going on until a sufficient depth beneath water was obtained to allow of the deposition of sufficient detritus to form the rock mass overlying that mine and separating it from the thin coal above. He goes on to say in his paper : ' It would further appear that the surface over which the four-foot coal was then in process of formation remained stationary and undisturbed, and that the operations of nature were not in any way interrupted.' This view is supported by the fact that the coal of the Four-Feet Mine is considerably thicker than the aggregate of the two mines while separate, the growth of vegetation over the area being evidently continuous during the period in which the submerged portion was being silted up. When the latter had taken place, the coal forest grew out over the shallows, giving rise to the thin ' Upper Foot ' coal, after which the whole area occupied by the Four-Feet Mine and the Upper Foot coals was submerged, and a uniform deposit of mud took place. The Upper Foot Mine is worthy of note, not on account of its thickness, which is almost invariably 1 2 inches, but because of the occurrence of great quantities of ' bullions ' or coal balls within it, each bullion ball containing portions of coal plants in which the structure has been so well preserved as to allow of the closest microscopical investigation. From these bullions were obtained the stems, etc., of coal plants described by Binney, Carruthers, Williamson, Hick, Scott, and others. Upon the coal are found numerous flattened limestone nodules called ' bawn-pots,' each with a thin crust of iron pyrites and containing well-preserved examples of Goniatites, Orthoceras, Pterino- pecten (Aviculopecten\ and Posidoniella. The coals are all bituminous and caking. Iron pyrites occurs as nodules in some of the coals, and also as a thin film upon joint planes, in some cases (the upper seams) so abundantly as to seriously injure the usefulness of the coal. The demand for these coals is entirely local, and their use as fuel is restricted to engine boilers and the open fireplaces of the people. The fireclays under the Gannister seams have been worked at times in conjunction with the coal, as they make excellent firebricks, drain pipes, etc. Works of this description can be seen at Colne, Townley near Burnley, Sharneyford, north-east of Bacup, Littleborough, and other places. MIDDLE COAL MEASURES We have already alluded to the broken-up character of these measures, whereby small isolated portions have been dignified with the name of coalfields. The most southerly patch is the Manchester coalfield, which is about four miles long from north-north-west to south-south-east, and a mile and a half broad across its greatest diameter. This coalfield, whilst relatively insignificant and now little used, is of considerable geological importance in that the upper coal measures are well developed. The Middle Coal Measures are deep seated and scarcely touched, owing to the great thickening of the barren measures below the Four-Feet coal of Bradford and Clayton. This latter seam was formerly supposed to be the equivalent of the Worsley four-feet seam, which marks the upper limit of the Middle Coal Measures in other parts of Lancashire, but more recent researches seem to render this correlation doubtful. Attempts to reach the thick coals of the Middle Coal Measures have hitherto failed, the unproductive beds lying below the Bradford Four-Feet having been penetrated by Mr. Livsey to a depth greater than should have been necessary had the Crumbourke and Rams Mines occupied the same position relatively to the Bradford Four-Feet as they do to the Worsley Four-Feet. Professor Hull is of opinion that at least 616 yards of barren measures will have to be penetrated below the Bradford and Clayton Four-Feet seam before a workable coal is reached. In this present state of our knowledge it is best to regard the presence of the Middle Measures as certain, and the upper limit as undetermined. The Upper Coal Measures which have been worked in this coalfield will be dealt with elsewhere. SOUTH LANCASHIRE COALFIELD This coalfield, which is extremely irregular and much cut up by faults, can be best dealt with by a division into districts. 1 Trans. Manchester Geol. Sue., v. 185. GEOLOGY As a whole it covers a tract ot country thirty-two miles long from east to west, and averaging six miles in breadth.1 To the north it runs out upon the Lower Coal Measures, to the south it dips under a narrow band of Permian sandstones and marls, the whole being faulted down beneath the Trias of the Cheshire plain, which extends into the margin of the coalfield in a few broad triangular tongues. To the east, as to the north, the measures run out upon the Lower Series, whilst to the west they are faulted down to a great depth under the Trias, which here forms a low, flat maritime plain. Although it would thus appear that the coalfield is compact, yet faulting and denudation have been so extensive that no complete correlation of the coal seams has yet been established. Whilst also some of the seams are fairly persistent, others thin or swell out, whilst hundreds of feet of shale in one place are represented by a few feet of sandstone in another. It is possible that some of the thicker and more valuable coals are persistent over a great part of the coalfield, being known under different names in different districts, and altering somewhat in their character. The extreme east of the coalfield we may define as the (A) OLDHAM AND DUKINFIELD AREA The best general section is that given by Professor Hull 2 and reproduced here. COAL SERIES OF OLDHAM AND MIDDLETON Bardsley Colliery Ft. In. ' Bardsley Rock ' Sandstone . . Shale Stubb's Mine (Coal) Ft. 45 31 Ins. Blenfire Coal : 6 Coal and cannel, I ft. 1 1 in. . ") 7 Dirt, o ft. 6 in. (very variable) Metal (Shale) 25 2 Shale, with three thin seams of coa Park Mine (coal, with parting of clay Shale 29 ft., Foxhole's rock 79 ft. 8 in Foxhole's Mine Soft Metal 76 3 108 2 32 6 Sandy Shale and shale .... 6 Great Mine : 8 Top coal, I ft. 1 1 in. . . . "1 4 Clay, o ft. 5 in 6 Coal, 3 ft. 6 in \ 76 9 7 Cannel Strata, principally shales, with s coal seam 16 inches Hathershaw Mine .... Shale, with two seams of coal . Rock and rock bands, with wate (Chamber rock) .... Shale and sandstone .... Nield or Upper Chamber Mint (sometimes absent) . . . 187 2 51 88 38 2 54 6 Clay, oft. i£in Bottom coal, 4 ft. o in. . . J 8 Sandstone with shale, with shells . 2 Little Coal o Sandstone and shale with fish remains Black Mine (the best seam in the 6 district) 3 Shales, sometimes strong with two coal seams o Stone Mine ; 33 2 66 4 117 9 3 9 2 6 Lower Chamber Mine : Coal I ft. 5 in Stone, I ft. 2 in. (roof dark stone')? 3 4 Dirt, o ft. 4 in Coal, I ft. 2 in Dirt, o ft. 8 in 4 3 of white rock 21 4 7 Coal, o ft. 8 in. . g Lower Bent Mine Strata 2 97 8 6 Glodwick Colliery Shale and bands of sandstone Red sandstone, with plants (Blenfirt Rock) 66 146 Hollingworth Coal Strata O Neddy Mine Strata, with several thin coals, about 9 Royley Mine (with a partingof shale) I 234 2 441 4 6 o 6 o o The two sections are practically continuous, the interval between the base of the Bardsley Colliery section and the Blenfire rock of Glodwick being occupied by a series of shales and sandstones. 1 Hull's Coalfields of Great Britain, ed. 4 (1881), p. 197. 3 'Geology of the Country around Oldham,' Mem. Geol. Survey, p. ^\, 1864. 15 A HISTORY OF LANCASHIRE The chief coal seams of the Oldham area * are about ten in number. The most valuable and the one which has been most worked is the Black Mine, averaging four feet in thickness. Another seam of considerable importance is the ' New Mine ' of the Ashton-under-Lyne district, which lies below the Black Mine, and about 100 yards above the Royley or Arley seam. It may be Suivalent to the Neddy Mine of Oldham, or one of the thin seams below it. The Lower Bent ine or Peacock coal is of good quality and much used. The ' Great Mine ' of Oldham yields over 8 feet of coal, but at Ashton-under-Lyne it includes dirt bands. Higher in the series than any given in Professor Hull's list are the Great and Roger Mines of Ashton-under-Lyne and Dukinfield. The former is 6 feet thick, the latter 4 feet, and the interval is but 32 yards. Still higher in the series, and at some 400 to 500 yards above the Great Mine, is the Yard Mine of Moston, which is supposed to represent the Bradford Four-Feet. Nowhere in this area is the whole of the Middle series present from summit to base, unless it be to the south of Dukinfield and at Moston. Between the Great and Yard Mines at Dukinfield is a coal seam about eighteen inches in thickness, the shale roof being rich in fossils, and containing ironstone balls very similar to those over the Upper Foot of the Lower Coal Measures. This horizon is exposed in the banks of the river Tame, near the bend west of Dunkirk Colliery, and was also cut through in sinking the shaft of the Ashton Moss colliery. The remarkable feature of this horizon is that it has yielded Goniatites, Pterinopecten, &c. The late J. W. Salter regarded the fauna of this horizon as comparable to that of the Lower Coal Measures of Shropshire, and as markedly different from that of the Lancashire Lower Coal Measures. This can now hardly be said to be correct, as the observations of the writer have shown that the ' Marine Band,' as it is often called, has yielded several species of fossils characteristic of the latter. The fauna of the Marine Band most closely approximates that of the Upper Foot or Bullion and Mountain Four-Feet Mines, and the differences are probably those naturally due to a later development. (B) BOLTON AND BURY AREA In this area the Middle Coal Measures reach fully a thousand yards in thickness, and scarcely any portion remains untouched, mining being particularly active. The best generalised section of it is that of Professor Hull, curtailed from a much more detailed section published by J. Dickinson, Esq., late Chief Inspector of Mines. GENERALISED SECTION BETWEEN MANCHESTER AND BOLTON Worsley Four Feet Coal Strata Ft. . . . . 4 782 In. 3 Five Quarters Coal Ft. 266 In. 6 Bin Coal Strata Albert Mine Strata '.'.'.'. 78 6 o .3 Trencherbone Coal Strata Cannel Mine (Cannel only 6 inches) . 5 102 4 "»8 o o 6 Crumbourke Coal Strata Rams Mine .... 4 . ... 144 5 o o 6 Saplin Coal Strata Plodder Coal 4 107 •7 o o o Strata White Coal Strata . . • • 3 o Yard Mine Strata 168 o Black Coal -3 o Three Quarters Mine 2 o Strata Old Doe Coal . . . Strata . . . . . 45 . . . . 8 71 o o a Strata Arley Mine 206 4 o o (Slightly modified from Hull's Coalfields of Great Britain, 1881, pp. 2O2, 203.) Fourteen seams are worked, yielding nominally about sixty feet of coal, but from this must be deducted the thickness of shale partings, bass, and dirt bands, which frequently occur. The lowest bed of the series is the Arley Mine. 1 It must not be forgotten that the Oldham Middle Coal Measures are flanked to the north and east by ground in which coals of the Lower Series are extensively mined. 16 GEOLOGY The Cannel Mine, which occurs some way above it, is remarkable in that it consists of a basal layer of bituminous coal and an upper layer of cannel which has a thickness of 3 feet at Wigan and thins away in all directions from it ; the common coal thickens as the cannel diminishes. The coal itself has yielded numerous remains of fish-teeth, spines, scales, &c., as well as large Stigmarian roots. The Trencherbone is of good quality in some parts of the area, whilst in others it contains so much dirt as to prove unworkable. At Tyldesley it is associated with a bastard cannel. It is in great demand as a house coal, and large quantities are sent into Manchester and other towns. The Doe Mine and Rams Mine are also good and in great request. The Worsley Four-Feet, which marks the upper limit of the Middle Measures, has been worked at Leigh, Pendleton, and other places, and is a good coal. A great fault known as the Irwell Valley Fault cuts through this area from the Millstone Grit, north of Bolton, in a south-east direction to Manchester, along the line of the valley of the river Irwell ; the downthrow is to the north-east, and is over one thousand yards. The various seams given on the section abut against the fault in regular order from north to south on the upthrow side ; on the downthrow side the seams are shifted to the northwards, and a narrow tongue of the Trias runs up into the middle of the coalfield. (C) WIGAN AND ST. HELENS AREA The St. Helens district forms the most westerly section of the South Lancashire Coalfield, that of Wigan lying between it and the Bolton area. In this area, as in that previously mentioned, the Middle Coal Measures are about 1,000 yards in thickness. Notwithstanding their nearness only two seams of St. Helens — the Little Delf and Rushy Park — have been directly correlated with two of Wigan, viz. the Arley Mine and Smith Coal. The remaining seams are not equally capable of correlation owing to the changing character of the coals themselves, to alterations in thickness and character of the intervening non-productive measures, and to extensive faulting. 1 COMPARATIVE COAL SERIES St. Helen's Ft. In. Lyon's Delf. 2 8 Measures 55 ° London Delf 2 6 86 2 Potato Delf (v nth partings) . . 5 3 ST. HELEN'S AND WIGAN Wigan Measures 41 9 Earthy Coal (with partings) ... 62 Measures with Coal, 2ft. . . . 121 6 157 St. Helen's Main Delf . • • • 9 Cannel .... 2 . . . 18 Four-feet Coal .... • • • 3 56 . . . 2 Measures Ravenhead Higher Coal . „ Warrant . . „ Main Delf . Measures Bastion's Coal .... Measures . . . 271 • • • 3 . • • 4 . . . 7 . . . 66 . . . 4 . . . 22 Coal-seam of Red Rock Brow Riding Mine Measures Ince Yard Mine .... Measures Ince 4~feet Mine .... Measures with 3 coal-seams. Ince 7-feet Mine .... Measures (Wilcock or( Coal 2 ft. 1 1 in. \ Furnace \ Clay o ft. 6 in. ( Coal ( Coal I ft. 8 in. y 9 2 18 56 2 271 3 4 7 66 4 22 3} 2 2 0 0 O 11 oj 9 3 0 Pemberton 5-feet Mine .... Little Coal Pemberton 4-feet Mine .... Wigan 4-feet Mine Measures Ft. 4 36 2 108 3 150 6 71 252 3° 2 45 387 5 90 4 72 1 ' Geology of the Country around Wigan,' Mem. Gcol. Survey, by Prof. E. Hull (i 5z), p. 12. A HISTORY OF LANCASHIRE St. Helen's (continued) Wigan (continued) Higher Roger coal Measures Ft. 6 123 48 78 5 333 4 161 3 300 1800 ging frc In. 6 o 4 3 8 o 3 8 6 0 0 o o «n 3 Wigan g-feet mine (inferior) Measures ! Cannel (varying from i ft. 8 in. to 3 ft.) average Measures (varying from oft. to 15 ft-) i King coal Measures Ravin Mine (inferior) .... Measures with 2 ft. coal .... Haigh Yard coal . . . Ft. In. 9 o 280 o 2 6 to 15 O 3 6 66 o 3 ° 168 o 3 ° 150 o I 1 186 o 4 o 300 (?) o 1800 o are usually Sir John coal Flaggy Delf Measures Lower Roger coal (with partings) . Measures (with thin coal seam). Rushy Park Coal Measures Bone coal Measures Smith coal (Orrell 5 ft.) . . . . Measures Little Delf Strata, principally shales .... Gannister beds The best coals are those avera Arley Mine (Orrell 4 ft.) . . . Strata principally shales .... Gannister beds . to 4 feet. Seams which are thicker of poorer quality and contain dirt bands. Northwards of St. Helens, a great slice of the Middle Measures is cut out by the great Up- Holland Fault, which has a throw of 700 yards. This fault, like all great faults in the Lancashire area, ranges approximately N.N.W. and S.S.E., and is roughly parallel to the Irwell Valley Fault already mentioned. It brings in the Lower Coal Measures on its eastern side. (D) BURNLEY COAL FIELD This area of Middle Coal Measures is surrounded by the lower series and overlaid by Glacial drifts, no upper series being present. The best section obtainable is that of Fulledge, which, omitting detail, is as follows : — FULLEDGE SECTION Ft. In. Strata 14 O Doghole Coal 5 O Strata 16 O Charley Coal i o Strata 2 9 Kershaw Coal 3 5 Strata • 71 o Coal 3 IO Strata 10 2 Burnley 4~feet 4 0 Strata • 25 O Old Yard Coal .... 5 I Strata • 177 6 Lower Yard Coal. . . . 2 ii Ft. 77 3 23 2 62 2 44 4 116 2 96 2 Strata Low Bottom Coal Strata Cannel Strata Fulledge Thin Bed Coal Strata Great Mine Coal . . . Strata China Bed Coal . . . Strata, with thin coal . Dandy Bed Coal . . . Strata Arley Mine Coal . . . Neglecting thin coals, the section shows about 40 feet of coal lying in a dozen seams. Of these, the Arley Mine is most valuable and has the greatest development, outcropping around the whole Coalfield. One seam, the Californian or Thin Bed, possesses a strong shale roof which is remarkably fossiliferous, no less than 26 species being recorded from it, most of which are fishes. When surveying the Burnley Coalfield prior to 1874, Professor Hull calculated the Arley Mine to have an area of about 23 square miles. Allowing 5,000 tons per acre, he estimated the total yield as 73,600,000 tons, of which about one-tenth had been extracted, leaving, after deduction for loss and waste, 65,000,000 tons to be mined in the future.1 The total yield to 1874 of the whole coalfield was estimated at 18,500,000 tons, leaving 89,000,000 tons to be mined.8 1 'Geology of the Burnley Coalfield,' Mem. Geol. Survey (1875), P- 7$. 8 Op. tit., p. 83. 18 GEOLOGY The basin-like area of this coalfield causes the mines lying above the Arley to have a much diminished superficial area, so much so that Professor Hull calculated that the Mountain Four-Feet Mine, which passes under the whole of the Middle Measures, may yet be made to yield 100,000,000 tons, or more than the whole of the seams of the Middle Series. UPPER COAL MEASURES These measures are better developed in the Manchester area than in any other part of England. The development is, however, altogether local, the other areas of Upper Coal Measures in Lancashire being of insignificant proportions. A small patch of shales and flaggy sandstones in the Wigan area, overlying a coal supposed to be the Worsley Four-Feet, belongs probably to the lower part of the Upper Series. Another small patch occupies the southern border of the South Lancashire Coalfield in the neighbourhood of Leigh, Worsley, and Pendleton. A portion of the same measures forms a similar border to the Middle Series from Kingley to Prestwich, but has been carried to the north by the great Irwell Valley Fault. The Upper Coal Measures along the southern border are partially concealed by the overlap of Permian and Trias. Since they are mainly unproductive, they have not been exploited. They consist of reddish shales, clays, and sandstones with thin bands of limestone and a calcareous haematite, worked at Patricroft. They also contain a coal known as the Yard Coal of Pendleton. MANCHESTER COALFIELD This small coalfield has already been mentioned as one in which the Middle Coal Measures are still untouched, the rocks nearest the surface belonging solely to the upper series. Considerable light has been thrown upon these by the construction of a new line of railway along the eastern outskirts of Manchester in 1890-91. The succession of beds belonging to the Upper Coal Measures was exposed, as well as their junction with the Permian. Full details of the sections are to be found in papers of C. Roeder, C. E. De Ranee and J. W. Brockbank.1 The series as a whole consists of reddish mottled clays, shales, and sandstones, with thin bands of limestone. At Ardwick, near the centre of the coalfield, and in the railway section to the south, twelve beds of limestone are shown, the total thickness in the former case being 29 feet, in the latter 21 feet 4 inches. The general dip is southwest, the lowest members of the series cropping in the north-east of the district, and being succeeded regularly by others until the thin limestones of the upper part come in along the southwest border. Below the lowest limestone are about 200 yards of strata under which the following section was obtained at the Bradford Colliery : — * BRADFORD AND CLAYTON COAL SERIES Ft. In. Ft. In. Openshaw Mine 3 ° Four Feet Mine • • 3 IO Strata about 135 o Strata 108 o Charlotte Mine 2 O Yard Mine . ... £ to i o Strata 210 o Strata 210 o Three Quarter Mine ... I 7 Two Feet Coal 20 Strata 15 o Strata 120 o Coal o 10 The total thickness will not fall far short of 2,000 feet. All the seams have now been worked out, but twenty years ago several collieries were busily engaged. It must not be supposed however that the coalfield is exhausted, for underneath the 2,000 feet of Upper Measures is a rich Middle Series similar to that of Oldham, Ashton-under-Lyne, and Dukinfield, and it is very probable that this will eventually be sought for and mined. Should this ever be the case, and the Middle Coal Measures be reached, another 80 feet of coal, spread over nearly 4 square miles, will be added to the coal resources of Lancashire. 1 Trans. Manch. Geol. Soc., xxi (iSgo-i-z), and Proc. Lit. and Phil. Soc., Manchester, for same year. * ' Geology of Country around Oldham, including Manchester and its suburbs,' Mem. Geol. Survey (1864), p. 35. 19 A HISTORY OF LANCASHIRE POST-CARBONIFEROUS CHANGES The causes which have operated in altering the character of the Lancashire Coal Measures since their deposition are of three kinds, viz. flexures or folding, denudation, and faulting. FORMATION OF SYNCLINES AND ANTICLINES 1. Careful mapping has shown that the whole of the Carboniferous system of Lancashire has been thrown into a number of anticlines and synclines along a line running west of north and east of south, the axes of the folds being north of east and south of west. This folding caused the separation of the Burnley Coalfield from that of South Lancashire, the crest of the intervening arch, 'the Rossendale Anticlinal,' being afterwards denuded down to the Millstone Grit Series. The former field owes its preservation to the formation at this time of the Pendle Hill Range, in which the lower beds are brought up again to the north of the coalfield in a line parallel to the Rossendale anticlinal. The approximate age of this system of folds is indicated by the occurrence of Permian deposits in the Pendle range lying upon the upturned and denuded edges of the Coal Measures, and even overlapping on to the Millstone Grit.1 This evidence shows that the development was post-Carboniferous and pre-Permian, and that denudation of the Coal Measures preceded the deposition of the Permian. 2. The high ground on the east of the Lancashire Coalfield, in which the Millstone Grit Series outcrops, owes its origin to a simple fold formed subsequently to those we have considered, and developed along a north and south line. The fold as a whole gave origin to the Pennine chain of hills now forming the main axis of elevation in the north of England. This huge fold cuts off the Lancashire Coalfield on the west from that of Yorkshire on the east. That the two were formerly continuous is abundantly proved by the close correlation which can be established between them, and the regularity of succession upon each side of the axis of upheaval. The age of this north and south flexure is not by any means clearly determinable. That it was formed before the deposition of the Trias is proved by the latter lying upon the Lower Carboniferous along the southern extremity of the Derbyshire hills,2 but that it was post-Permian, as is supposed by Professor Hull, rests upon the belief that a great anticlinal fault traversing Lancashire and contem- poraneous in its development with the upheaval of the Pennine chain is older than a second fault which it meets to the south of Staffordshire. The anticlinal fault fractures the Coal Measures, and passes under the Trias in Staffordshire without fracturing them, but the second fault which it joins fractures both. Immediately to the south of the Lancashire Coalfield the anticlinal fault is accompanied by a parallel series, one of which, known as the ' Red Rock Fault,' throws in the Permian Sandstone against the Carboniferous. If the anticlinal fault and the parallel system above mentioned are of the same age, as seems most probable, it follows that the former, as well as the latter, is of post-Permian age ; and since the anticlinal fault is directly connected with the upheaval of the Pennine Chain, the age of the latter appears to be established as post-Permian and pre-Triassic. It would thus appear that the dominant features of the topography of Lancashire were determined by the formation of two systems of folds and the denudation of their crests before the commencement of the Mesozoic. FAULTING 3. The third change which was induced in the Lancashire Coal Measures was caused by the great system of faults which strike across the coalfield from N.N.W. to S.S.E. That these are post-Triassic is shown by their continuance into the Trias of the Cheshire plain. That they are possibly post-Jurassic is assumed, because the continuity of deposition was not interfered with from the top of the Trias to the close of the Jurassic so far as is known. The more important of these faults will be dealt with under their respective districts. OLDHAM DISTRICT Several faults start in the neighbourhood of Ashton-under-Lyne and range north-west as far as Rochdale and Hey wood, with downthrows of from 100 to 200 yards. Immediately to the east of this district in the Millstone Grit country runs the great Pennine Fault, passing almost north and south, and bringing up the Pendleside (' Yoredale ') shales against the Millstone Grits. 1 Hull ' Observations on the Relative Ages of the Leading Physical Features and Lines of Elevation of the Carboniferous District of Lancashire and Yorkshire,' Quart. Journ. Geol. Sac., xxiv. 323 (1868). 8 Hull, op. cit., p. 329. GEOLOGY BOLTON AND BuRY AREA The chief fault is that known as the Great Irwell Valley Fault, having a downthrow to the east of over 1,000 yards, and crossing the whole of south Lancashire. Further to the south it is con- tinued into the Trias of Cheshire. A great fault bounds the north-east border of the Manchester Coalfield, and passing N.N.W. across the Trias, runs fairly parallel to the Irwell Valley Fault across the coalfield to a little west of Bury. WIGAN AND ST. HELEN'S DISTRICT The main faults of this district are the Great Upholland Fault, with a downthrow of 650 yards and a set of five faults at nearly equal distances of 1,400 yards from one another ; these are : — 1 . Great Pemberton Fault. 2. Great Shevington Fault. 3. Giants Hall Fault. 4. Great Standish Fault. 5. Great Haigh Fault. All the faults mentioned thus far belong to the N.N.W. or post- Jurassic System. They are accompanied by smaller faults which run out from them at acute angles or remain parallel, and by a system of east and west faults of less importance which break up the ground between them. This latter series was doubtless in part developed when the Pendle range system of folds was formed. COAL MEASURE FLORA The flora of the Lancashire Coal Measures has long been famous, largely because of the excellent preservation of vegetable tissues in nodules overlying the Bullion Seam or Upper Foot Coal. These nodules supplied material to Lindley, Hutton, Brongniart, Binney, Carruthers, Williamson, Solms-Laubach, and Hick, whereby they were enabled to throw a flood of light upon the structure and relationship of the coal flora. The study of the minute structure of coal plants has also been a favourite subject with the miners, and many can be found to-day with valuable cabinets of coal slides and all the machinery necessary for their production. Their knowledge of the structure of these plants is considerable, and Williamson and others have testified repeatedly to the energy and skill with which these men have prosecuted their studies and produced valuable results. The study of the external features of coal plants has not been followed so assiduously, probably because of a perplexing synonomy, and the want of books dealing with this section of the subject. As a result, the published list of coal plants is by no means complete. The great bulk of the coal flora consisted of ferns and Lycopodiaceae, the latter, however, not restricted to the coal measures, the casts of large trunks being not unfrequently found in the sand- stones of the Millstone Grits. The shale roofs of the coal seams are the chief repositories of fossil plants ; ferns, Catamites, and Lepidodendra occurring in abundance. All the under-clays or seat-rocks contain Stigmaria, whilst the roof of the Bullion Seam contains the irregularly rounded nodules already mentioned, in which, amidst a tangle of broken-up vegetable matter, are found stems, twigs, and fruit of Catamites, Lepi- dodendron, and other plants, with their minute structure perfectly preserved. In addition to the shale-roofs, plant fossils are found in some of the shales and sandstones. In some cases ironstone nodules occur in the shales containing well-preserved ferns and Lepi- dostrobi, especially in the shales under the Doe Mine of the Middle Coal Measures of Pendleton. The sandstones often contain casts of trunks and faint impressions of leaves and ferns, covered by a thin layer of carbon. Ferns are most abundant so far as regards species in the shales of the Middle Coal Measures, where they are better preserved than those of the Lower series. The stems of Catamites and Lepidodendron are also less crushed. Plant remains of any description are scarce in the Upper Coal Measures, Neuropteris and Spbenopterls being the most common. The most common plants of the Lancashire Lower Coal Measures are : — Alethopterts lonchittca Lepidodendron obovatum Mariopteris muricata >> aculeatum Sphenopteris Schillingsit Sigillaria elegam Lepidodendron opbiurus Trigonocarpus Parkinsoni A HISTORY OF LANCASHIRE The most common plants of the Middle Measures are : — Spbenopteris furcata Sigillaria ovata „ trifoliolata „ reniformis „ Footneri „ Saulii Mariopteris muricata Lepidodendron ophiurus Pecopteris Miltoni „ aculeatum Alethopteris decurrens Bothrodendron minutifolium „ Serlii Cordaites Neuropteris gigantea Lepidostrobus variabilis „ obliqua Trigonocarpus Parkinsoni „ heterophylla „ Dawsii Calamocladus equisitiformis ,, Nceggeratbi Catamites (Stylocalamites) Suckmuii Carpolithus inflatus Sigillaria tessellata Some of the Middle Measure sandstones occasionally yield fine specimens of Halonia and the large leaves of Cordaites. LOWER COAL MEASURE FAUNA The fauna of the Lower Measures is quite as sharply marked off from that of the Middle Series as are the plant fossils, and for this reason must be dealt with separately. The lowest forms of life represented are worms, of which two species are known. The one (Arenicola carbonaria] is only known by worm burrows, and tracks, whilst the other (Spirorbis pusillus) has left a minute coiled shell. Brachiopoda are represented by Lingula cf. mytiloides. The ordinary mollusca or bivalves are most common, especially Carbonicola (olim Anthracosia), the chief species being : — Carbonicola robusta Carbonicola subconstricta „ acuta „ aquilina „ rugosa Other common forms which link these coal measures with the Millstone Grit are Pterinopecten (olim Avicuhpecteri) papyraceus and Posidoniella laruis and P. minor. Gasteropoda are feebly represented by a few undescribed species. Cephalopoda are chiefly found in the upper part of the measures in the roof and shales asso- ciated with the Mountain Four Feet or Bullion Mine ; the common forms are : — Gastrioceras (plim Goniatites) Listeri „ „ carbonarium Dimorphoceras Gilbertsoni Glyphioceras (olim Goniatites) reticulatum „ „ diadema „ „ paucilobum Several species of Orthoceras occur, but few are well defined, Orthoceras obtusum being the most marked. Crustacea are represented by several species of ostracods and by a few rare forms of malacos- traca, of which Pygocephalus Cooperi, Anthrapalamon Etberidgei, and Prestuiichia rotundata are the chief. Fishes were fairly abundant in numbers and species, the remains, chiefly teeth and scales, but at times whole fishes, being found in the black shales. The commonest forms are Coelacanthus elegans, Rhizodopsis sauroides, and Strepsodus sauroides. A small amphibian, Hylonomus Wildi, has been recorded from the ' soapstone ' bed over the Mountain Four Feet Mine of Colne and Trawden. For a full list of the fauna the reader is referred to papers by the author.1 MIDDLE AND UPPER COAL MEASURE FAUNA Recent researches on the part of the writer have shown that the fauna consists of 75 genera, which include 137 species, and further work by other observers has shown that the numbers will be increased. Whilst as in the Lower Coal Measures the mollusca remained the dominant forms mainly owing to the great increase in the three genera, Carbonicola (olim Antbracosia\ Naiadites (olim Antbra- coptera)t and Antbracomya, the fishes show an even more pronounced development. Cephalopoda and brachiopoda only occur at one horizon, viz. the ' marine band ' at Ashton-under-Lyne and Dukinfield. 1 ' The Palaeontology of the Lancashire Coal Measures,' Trans. Manch. Geol. and Mining Soc. xxviii. 22 GEOLOGY The Middle Measures of the Bolton, Oldham, and Rochdale districts have yielded a number of rare and interesting crustaceans ; and work which is now being carried on at Sparth Bottoms near Rochdale in shales over the Arley Mine bids fair to reveal many new forms. Fossil fishes are represented by large spines, teeth, scales, and not rarely by whole fishes. Seven species of Pleuracanthian spines are known, the commonest being Pleuracanthus larvmimus. All these spines consist of a stout bony rod which was imbedded in the body muscles of the fish, either behind the head, or in front of each of the paired fins. The hinder surface of each spine is armed with small acutely pointed denticles arranged in two or even more rows. Larger and stouter spines, often a foot in length, and ornamented by oblique rows, or tubercles, have received the name of Gyracantkus, whilst spines ornamented by longitudinal ridges are known as Sphenacanthus. Many of the Lower Coal Measure fishes continue to exist, and the black shales forming the roof of several of the thick coal seams are veritable storehouses of fish remains. Amphibia are not satisfactorily represented, although certain large ring vertebrae and small ribs are known and doubtfully referred to Archegosaurus. UPPER COAL MEASURE FAUNA As already stated, the fossils found here are scanty and small. The period was one in which extinction was going on. Spirorbis pusillus, and ostracods, the latter of several species, alone seemed to have flourished in anything like numbers, whilst Anthracomya Phillipsii, and A. lievls var. Scotica are the only common forms amongst the mollusca. Arthropods are represented by Estheria tenella, and Leaia Leidyi var. WiUiamwniana. The fishes were mainly Pleuracanthus, Gyracanthus, Ctenodus Murckisoni, and Megalichthys Hibberti, a typical Middle Measure form. Small phalanges referred to Laby- rinthodon were found by Mr. Chas. Roeder at Longsight and are the only remains of amphibia known from these beds. PERMIAN Strata belonging to this period formerly occupied a much greater area in the county than now, the formation having been extensively swept away by post-Permian denudation, which was possibly rendered more effective by a considerable amount of earth movement, such as faulting. (See p. 20.) Much of the existing Permian strata is covered by the Trias or Glacial Drift, so that the only portions readily accessible are small and comparatively unimportant. A narrow band of Red Sand- stones, Marls, and Limestones borders the South Lancashire Coalfield from Sutton near St. Helens, Edge Green, Leigh, and Astley to Eccles. At the latter place, and again at Salford and Cheetham Hill, the formation has been faulted northwards by the Great Irwell Valley and other faults, which here traverse the coalfield. The fact that the Permian has shared in the movement and faulting of the coal measures indicates that the latter movements took place after the deposition of Permian and not before. The Red Sandstones, Marls, and Limestones are best seen on the east side of Manchester from Collyhurst to Stockport. They were also cut through in the making of the Fallowfield and Burnage section of railway on the east of Manchester, where their junction with the Coal Measures below could also be seen. Small patches of the Permian sandstones occur west of Preston, on the banks of the Ribble near Clitheroe, on the Ingleton Coalfield, and in the Furness district. At this latter place the beds are much obscured by drift. The position of the Permian has been determined in a number of cases by means of borings made in search of iron ore. The Red Sandstones are seen at High Cocken, north of Barrow, and quarried at Hawcoat, whilst old quarries opened in the same rock exist in the grounds of Furness Abbey. The Magnesian Limestone which underlies the sandstone is also present in the Furness district, and has been worked at Old Holebeck. The smaller patches which occur near Clitheroe and elsewhere owe their preservation to their position on the downthrow side of faults. They are outliers of the great mass of Permian strata which formerly existed. Fossils are poorly preserved in the Permian sandstones and marls, the latter yielding at various places examples of Schizodus and Bakevellia, whilst the thin limestones are at times crowded with species of Rissaa, Turbo, etc. Polyzoa are not un frequent in the Magnesian Limestone. The Permian System as a whole consists of the following divisions : — Upper Red Sandstones, Marls, and Clays, with thin limestone. Magnesian Limestone. Marl Slate. Lower Red variegated Sandstones, Marls, and Breccias. Only the Upper Red Sandstone and Magnesian Limestone are exposed in the county. 23 A HISTORY OF LANCASHIRE MESOZOIC PERIOD The formation of the red sandstones and marls which we have considered under the name of Permian brought to a close that period of geological time known as Palaeozoic, and was in turn succeeded by the Mesozoic, in which higher orders of animals and plants appeared, and in which the rocks were less mechanical in origin, and owed more to accumulation in quiet waters and the aggregation of the remains of various life forms. The rocks of this period have also suffered much less by earth movement and change than the older rocks. The distinction between Palaeozoic and Mesozoic rocks is a purely arbitrary one, retained for convenience, but possessing no actual justification, as in many places no satisfactory line can be drawn between the Permian and the Trias, the one apparently passing gradually into the other. TRIAS The various members of the Triassic System which are represented in Lancashire are the following : — Upper Trias or Keuper Lower Trias or Bunter Keuper or Red Marls. Keuper Sandstone. Upper Red Mottled Sandstone. Lower and Upper Pebble Beds. Lower Red Mottled Sandstone. The Triassic rocks occupy a large extent of the flat country forming the Lancashire sea-board from Liverpool to Morecambe Bay, which it encircles as far as Walney Island and the south part of the Furness district. The greatest breadth of this lowland plain is in the neighbourhood of Preston, where it is about 20 miles across. The Triassic beds have been brought against the edges of the older rocks by a great fault system in post-Triassic time, with a western downthrow. BUNTER The Bunter Sandstone and Pebble Beds are well developed in the neighbourhood of Liverpool, where they have received considerable attention from local geologists. The Bunter Sandstone usually lies deep, but could formerly be seen at Eastham and Ince before the making of the Man- chester Ship Canal. It is also seen at Eccleston Hall, near St. Helens. The beds are famous for the amount of water they contain, and many borings have been put down into them, from which a huge supply is obtained. The Pebble Beds are well exposed near Liverpool, and in quarries at Wavertree, the section at Olive Mount being especially good. By the late G. H. Morton they were divided in the Liverpool area into Lower and Upper Pebble Beds, the latter containing few pebbles. The Upper Red Sandstone is exposed in nearly all the railway cuttings on the north, east, and south of Liverpool, and it lies in massive beds often of a bright red colour, streaked with grey. At Liverpool it is usually too soft to use as a building stone, but at Frodsham, Runcorn, and Ormskirk it is very hard, although it weathers badly. KEUPER The Keuper Sandstones and Marls which form the Upper Trias lie at the surface to the west of the Bunter series, the two running side by side from Liverpool northwards, the Keuper Series forming a goodly portion of the coastline, though occasionally obscured under a heavy load of Glacial drift, or Blown sand. At one time the Keuper Sandstone was extensively quarried at Liverpool, the lower beds forming a good building stone. That obtained from Runcorn is even more durable. Just outside the county boundary at Storeton in the Wirral peninsula, extensive quarries are opened in the Keuper Sandstone, and have yielded sandstone slabs showing a most interesting series of footprints, ripple markings, and rain pittings. The footprints, which are of large size and five-toed, are believed to have been made by an amphibian closely allied to, if not identical with, the Labyrinthodon. To the animal which made them the name of Cheirotberium has been given. To smaller footprints of a different type the name of Rhynchosaurus has been given. Remains of the latter have also been found in Warwickshire. The Keuper Red Marls consist of red and grey marls and shales, with bands of sandstone. The thin flaggy sandstones are often ripple-marked, and their surfaces are at times studded by beautiful pseudomorphous crystals of common salt. A large area of the Red Marls stretches from Formby to Southport, having been proved by borings, but it is all deeply covered by drift. At Runcorn the Marls are seen on the banks of the Weaver. Near Fleetwood, at Preesall, a boring put down in the 24 GEOLOGY Marls reached a bed of rock-salt at a depth of 258 feet, the rock-salt with a layer of shale being nearly 300 feet thick. Rock-salt is of widespread occurrence in the Keuper Marls, more especially in Cheshire, where, in the Marston Mine, are two beds, one 85 feet thick and the other 1 06 feet.1 PLEISTOCENE GLACIAL PERIOD After the deposition of the Trias there is no evidence of rocks of later age in Lancashire until we reach the Glacial Drift, a thick layer of boulder-laden clay and sands which occupies the bottoms of the valleys in the Coal Measure country and occasionally spreads up their sides, even to a height of over a thousand feet. On the low Triassic plain the boulder clay masks the solid geology almost everywhere. It must not be supposed, however, that rocks later than the Trias and older than the Glacial Drift never were laid down in the Lancashire area, because the presence of a small patch of Lias in Cumberland, at Orton, west of Carlisle, and the presence of extensive deposits of Liassic and Cretaceous age in the north of Ireland, indicate that these formations had a much greater develop- ment than now, and might very probably have extended over the county, and have been denuded before the Glacial Period commenced. The Glacial Period occurred when the greater part of the British Isles and Northern Europe became covered in by snowfields and mighty glaciers, the climatic conditions being such that the snows of winter were not wholly dissipated in summer, and the accumulation of snow thus formed increased until the mountains and mountain valleys were filled, and a downward movement com- menced which went on until the lower levels were encroached upon and covered, and the ice sheets ultimately reached the sea, and even travelled over parts of its area. The conditions were in all probability like those which now exist in the Alps, but were more widespread and general. Where rocks or mountain-tops projected through the snow and ice, masses were broken off by the expansive force of water in its freezing, melting and re-freezing, the blocks from time to time falling upon the glacier fields and becoming entombed in them by the opening of crevasses. The lower layer of the snowfields became compacted into ice by the superincumbent weight, the passage of water, and partial melting. Every high mountain peak became a centre of dispersion, and from the centres of high altitude, such as the mountainous region of the Lake District, North Wales, and similar areas, there began a steady outward flow of glaciers to lower levels. As the glaciers moved along, their great weight and the stones locked up within caused them to exercise an erosive action upon the ground over which they moved. The surface soil was worn away until the hard rock was reached, and the latter then became deeply scratched and polished by the slowly sliding mass of stones and ice. As far as the glaciers travelled, so far, of course, were stones carried away from their parent source, and strewn along the course of the glacier stream. The grinding-down of the surface rocks and the ice-borne stones gave rise to clays, which were deposited over the whole country traversed. How much rock material was thus carried away from the high ground, and deposited upon far-away and lower levels, we shall never be able to accurately determine, but there is no doubt that it was enormous. By some authorities it is believed that many, if not all, the basins of the lakes in the Lake District were ground out during this period, the old river valleys everywhere widened, and the hill crests much reduced in height. In some cases river valleys were filled up by earthy material and ice, and the general ice movement passed across them and not along their length. By a close study of the boulders of rock now found in the glacial clays, and an equally careful mapping of the ice scratches upon the rocks below, it has been possible to trace the general course of these ' erratics,' as they are called, back to their source, and to construct maps showing the lines of flow and centres of dispersion. In this way, for example, it can be shown that the glacial clays of Lancashire are derived from the Lake District and the south of Scotland, examples of Criffel granite being strewn in the Boulder Clay along the Cumberland coast, and as far south as Liverpool and the Wirral peninsula. Rocks derived from the Lake District are numberless in the clays of Lancashire, most of them being derived from the mountainous district on the west of Westmorland, but others from the Shap Fell area. They consist mainly of flattened and polished specimens of felspathic rocks, rhyolite, Shap granite and slate, intermingled with local rocks which were also caught up and carried forward. In many places the clays contain boulders of large size, weighing tons, and in several Lancashire towns these have been set up in parks and public places. A fine example is to be seen in the quadrangle of Victoria University at Manchester. The Boulder Clay in the Furness district is known as Pinel, and contains fragments from the Coniston Grits and Shales in 1 For particulars relating to the Triassic rocks see G. H. Morton, The Geology of the Country around Liverpool, ed. 2 (1891), with Appendix (1897). 25 4 A HISTORY OF LANCASHIRE addition to those mentioned. Sections in the Boulder Clay can be seen almost everywhere, and are especially marked on the coast, where at times they form cliffs, as at Blackpool, from 40 to 70 feet in height. One interesting feature of the Lancashire drift which still requires working out is the occur- rence of broken and comminuted shells, and isolated valves. These are found even in the inland clays. Amongst others, the writer has found valves belonging to species of Cardium, Jlfactra, Mytilus, and a portion of the test of an Echinoderm. Foraminifera also occur. In many places the drift can be divided into three parts, a middle division of sand being inter- calated between lower and upper Boulder Clays, or Drift. Pockets of sand, sometimes of large size, at times occur interbedded with the clays.1 Post-Glacial Deposits. — To this category belong the extensive peat deposits of the moorlands and plains, which are often of considerable thickness, especially in the ' Mosses,' as Chatmoss, etc., and contain trunks and stumps of trees, sometimes in such profusion as to indicate that many districts and even hills were densely wooded instead of bare and bleak as we now see them. Here also must be placed the banks and deposits of Alluvium at the mouths and along the sides of many of the rivers, and the extensive dunes and sandhills which are so striking a feature of the coast between the mouths of the Mersey and the Kibble, near Blackpool, and at Walney Island. In the neighbourhood of Fleetwood, Poulton, and Blackpool, these later deposits have been classified by the officers of the Geological Survey as follows : — Blown Sand . Post-Glacial Recent Upper ' Cyclas ' clay, sand, etc. Upper ' Scrobicularia ' clay. Marsh clay and tidal alluvium Peat. j Lower ' Cyclas ' clay. Pre-historic . . < Lower ' Scrobicularia ' clay. I Presall Shingle. A somewhat similar division holds good for the district around Southport, the place of the Presall Shingle being taken by the Shirdley Hill Sand and Lower Peat. BLOWN SAND Sandhills are forming so extensively along the Lancashire coast that a few words need to be written respecting them. The set of sea currents is such along the coast from north of Liverpool to Fleetwood that almost continuous sandy beaches are formed. Indeed, these have accumulated in some places to such an extent that the sea appears to be retiring from the land. This is well seen at Southport, where marine lakes and promenades take the place of what was once open beach swept by every tide. The exposure of the sandbanks at low tide to the sun results in the upper layer of sand becoming dried, when it is easily moved by the wind and swept inland, where it collects against any obstacle, such as fences or buildings, and accumulates until it at length overtops them, and falls over upon the other side. In this way a low eminence is formed, which is continually being added to on the seaward side and as continually being reduced by the surface being carried further inland. In this way an extensive belt of arable land has been covered over, and the encroachment has become so serious that vigorous attempts are made to stop its further progress by planting ' starr- grass,' Psamma arenaria, and Ammophila arundinacea, whose long-matted roots hold the sand together, whilst the leaves protect the surface. Southport is entirely built upon blown sand, which can also be seen inland behind it. At Formby the sandhills are three miles in width, although it is stated that none existed so late as 1690, the whole deposit having been formed since by the silting up of the then Formby Harbour, and the formation of a sandbank against the land, from which the loose sand was carried landwards. Between Formby and Birkdale, near Southport, many farms have been entirely covered up within the last hundred years, and houses completely buried. The sand often contains shells and shell fragments, which have been also wind-borne, and, these decaying, the carbonate of lime of which they consisted becomes dissolved in the acid-laden rain, and, being afterwards reprecipitated, it serves as a cementing material to the sand, which thus becomes solidified, and even impermeable to water. Between Fleetwood and Rossal the sand is extremely large-grained. 1 There is a considerable literature dealing with the Glacial Drifts, and we are indebted especially to Mr. T. Melkrd Reade, Mr. R. H. Tiddeman, and Mr. C. E. De Ranee for records of &cts and explanations. 26 GEOLOGY Pre-hhtoric Man. — Examples of flint arrowheads, scrapers, polished stone axes, and the various other implements used by Palaeolithic and Neolithic man have been found very generally distributed, more especially on the moorlands bordering on Yorkshire, where they occur under the peat. A fine series of these, collected by Dr. Colley Marsh, Mr. Parker, and others, is to be seen in the Rochdale Museum, and many collections are in private hands. The abundance and widespread character of these implements point to Lancashire having been well populated by Early Man, whilst the rinding of the bones and teeth of the red deer, ancient British ox, and other animals shows that the fauna was of a more varied nature than is now the ECONOMIC GEOLOGY Useful Minerals. — The opening pages of this paper made mention of the many and great industries carried on in Lancashire, and dependent more or less upon the character of the geology. It now remains for us to consider what the mineral wealth consists of, and to what extent it is utilised. Coal. — The chief source of mineral wealth is of course coal, which is mined over the whole of the coalfields. The thin seams of the Lower Coal Measures have been to a large degree worked out, the only seam of any importance remaining to be exploited being the Gannister, and that portion of it more especially which is united to the overlying Bullion seam to form the Mountain Four-Feet. This latter seam lies around the fringe and beneath the whole of the Burnley Coal- field, and has been comparatively little worked. The coal is bituminous, and not so good as in the Gannister proper, but as the seam is of greater thickness than the latter, and may improve when followed deeper, it is extremely likely that it will be increasingly used in the future. All the seams of the Lower Coal Measures have been, and are now, where mining in them is still carried on, worked solely for local consumption, the many factories and industries and the homes of the people supplying a constant and near market. The main source of the coal supply is the Middle Coal Measures, the seams of which are thicker and contain much better coal than is found in the Lower Series. The potential yield of the Lancashire Coalfield has been estimated by Professor Hull 3 and others on several occasions, and lastly by a Royal Commission on Coal Supplies.8 The investiga- tions of the latter, based upon the evidence supplied by mine managers, engineers, and geologists, lead to the conclusion that most coal seams of a thickness of twelve inches and upwards can be safely, and in all probability profitably worked down to a depth of 4,000 feet. The finding of the Royal Commission can be best expressed in tabulate form as follows : — Tons of Coal remaining unworked in Seams of Coal which are : Inches, 12-15. Inches, 15-18. Inches, 18-24. Inches, 24 and upwards. Total Estimated Quantity of Coal remaining Unworked. 156,451,034 206,122,247 392,731,612 4,594>249>544 5,349-554.437 Estimated Quantity not capable of being worked due to Barriers required to be left or for support of Surface Buildings, etc. : Seams of Inches, 12-15. Scams of Inches, 15-18. Seams of Inches, 18-24. Seams of Inches, 24 and upwards. 4,108,961 7,383,851 15,917,265 220,955,775 1 Morton, Geology of the Country around Liverpool, ed. 2 (1891). • Hull, Mm. Geol. Survey, ' Geol. of the Burnley Coalfield, Coal Fields of Great Britain,' ed. 4 (1891). Our Coal Resources at the Close of the Nineteenth Century (1897). 8 Final Report of the Royal Commission on Coal Supplies, Part I. General Report, 1905. Published by His Majesty's Stationery Office. 27 A HISTORY OF LANCASHIRE Loss in Working due to faults and other natural causes in Seams of: Indie* 12-15- Inches, 15-18. Inches, 18-24. Inches, 24 and upwards. Total Estimated Deductions due to all the Foregoing Causes. 33,882,284 48,740,170 61,596,103 718,462,301 1,111,046,710 Estimated net available Tons remaining unworked, 4,238,507,727. The output of the Lancashire collieries for the year 1903 was 24,517,761 tons. At the same time there was also raised 24,442 tons of clay and shale, 190,406 tons of fire-clay, and 287 tons of iron pyrites; giving a total yield from the mines of 24,732,139 tons, and finding employment for 93,912 people. The clay, shale, and fireclay are all used in the manufacture of bricks, tiles, coarse earthen- ware, and pottery. The fireclays are capable of withstanding an intense heat after they have been moulded into bricks without much material change, hence the bricks manufactured from fireclay are much used in furnaces, hearths, and other places where there is great heat. Iron pyrites is worked for the manufacture of sulphuric acid and sulphate of iron. Clay. — Lancashire being a most densely populated county, and the solid geology to a large extent obscured by thick deposits of boulder clay, it has naturally followed that the latter has been made good use of in the manufacture of bricks. Temporary brick-kilns are frequently established in the vicinity of large towns where building operations are in progress, the clay being obtained close to the site of the kilns by removing the surface soil. The bricks thus obtained are not so close in texture or so durable as those manufactured from the better class of shales and are chiefly used for internal walls. In many cases, the coal shales are quarried at the surface and moulded into bricks, and it is probably clay obtained not merely from the Glacial drift but also from the clayey shales which goes to make up the 1,418,340 tons of clay which represents the output ot Lancashire for 1903. Sandstone. — The main supply of sandstone in Lancashire is obtained from the Millstone Grit series, many of the beds being massive, and nearly all exceedingly durable. The sandstones of the Lower and Middle Coal Measures are worked to a less extent, those of the former, whilst of fair thickness and fairly durable, at times being even equal to the Millstone Grit, yet, being also more current-bedded and jointed than the former, can only be worked with a greater waste, and are therefore not so economical. In most cases also where Lower Coal Measure sandstones occur those of the Mill- stone Grit are not far off, and almost invariably at a greater altitude on the flanks or tops of the hills, from which the stone can be conveyed by its own weight down inclined rails to sidings connected with the railways which traverse all the chief valleys. Most of the stone is used for road and street paving in the large towns, or for building stones, whilst the thicker and more massive beds furnish huge blocks for engine beds, foundations, retaining walls, and structures requiring great weight and strength. Many of the beds both of the Millstone Grits and Lower Coal Measures split up into slabs of from two to four inches in thickness, and are cut up for flagstones. The readiness with which the stone can be worked, and its nearness to the towns, accounts for one feature of Lancashire towns which often puzzles visitors from other counties : in nearly all the towns the great bulk of the buildings and dwelling houses have the outer walls built of the local rocks, houses entirely constructed of brick being not so numerous. One other feature to be seen in the agricultural districts surrounding the large towns is the prevalence of stone walls dividing the meadows, which are mostly laid down in grass. The multiplicity of these walls of dark weathered stone, and the absence of the pleasant hedgerows and earthen banks which are so common a feature in most counties, give the landscape a hard and chilly look, and lead one erroneously to suppose that the industrial districts are barren and devoid of shrubs, trees, and copse. Sandstone quarries are numerous, especially in the hill ranges north of Manchester, which stretch on to Rochdale, Littleborough, Whitworth, and the spurs running into the Rossendale valleys. The industry is a very important one, no less than 760,534 tons being quarried in 1903. Limestone. — The quarrying of limestone is not much behind that of sandstone in the weight of output, 612,427 tons being quarried in 1903. Much of this is burnt for lime, used in the towns or on pasturage, and a great quantity is used as building stone. In the limestone districts, the lime- stone is used in the construction of nearly all buildings, and also for rough walling. It thus takes the place of sandstone in other parts of the country, and being of a light grey colour the towns are much cleaner looking and more cheerful. The Carboniferous Limestone in Lancashire is not so metalliferous as we find it in Derbyshire 28 GEOLOGY for example, for, although lead, zinc, barytes, and other minerals are known to occur, the veins are hardly profitable. Lead mining has been carried on at several places, as at Rimmington, near Clitheroe, but very little mining is done now. The Limestone of the Furness district is the great repository of iron ore, which has been deposited in it as the result of chemical replacement. Iron Ore. — The output of Iron Ore, in the form mainly of haematite, in 1903, was 382,271 tons. The haematite occurs in masses filling up irregular cavities in the limestone. It is generally believed that the iron owes its position and condition where found to having been carried to the spot by underground waters in solution, and that a gradual displacement took place of the limestone by haematite. The original source of the iron was probably the red rocks which overlie the limestone, although it must not be forgotten that iron is a mineral universally diffused and there- fore capable of being brought from many sources. MISCELLANEOUS Rock salt and brine to the amount of 216,785 tons was obtained in 1903 from the Triassic marls, whilst the older rocks in North Lancashire yielded 20,576 tons of slate and 1,300 tons of igneous rock. Gravel and sand was used to the extent of 50,673 tons. If we tabulate the minerals and quantities mined in 1 903 in Lancashire alone the result is : — Tons. Tons. Coal 24,517,761 Rock Salt and Brine 216,785 Clay 1,418,340 Gravel and Sand 50,673 Sandstone 760,534 Slate 20,576 Limestone 612,427 Igneous Rocks I>3°° Iron Ore 382,271 Iron Pyrites 287 Giving a total output of 27,980,954 tons, and also finding employment for 102,298 people. The total value of minerals raised in Lancashire during 1903 much exceeded £10,000,000. Soil. — Most of the soil of Lancashire is cold, owing to the subsoil being in large part derived from and resting upon the boulder clay. As a result, Lancashire cannot claim a high position for agriculture. On the limestone, the soil is thin, but usually covered with short, sweet turf, which makes it good for sheep. In the Coal Measures and Millstone Grit districts, the land is mainly cut up into grazing farms, whilst the maritime plain, with its underlying Trias, makes good meadow and pasture land, and here agriculture reaches its highest level. Dependence of Scenery upon Geology. — In few counties is the relation of scenery to the geology better illustrated than here. North Lancashire, with its hard slates, grits, and interbedded volcanic series, rises into a bare mountainous country, and is geographically part and parcel of the rugged Lake district. Where the Carboniferous Limestone reaches the surface, the country is picturesquely scarred with mural cliffs, supporting an abundant vegetation, whilst the succeeding Millstone Grit and Coal Measure country rises into bleak brown moorlands, intersected by narrow valleys supporting a bare pasturage and grazing ground. Many of the hills are step-like, owing to the shales weathering away into steep slopes, leaving the sandstone and grit beds standing out in high relief. The softer Permian and Triassic rocks have been ground down to a low-lying plain, on which by skilful and diligent methods agriculture has made most progress. ALLUVIAL DEPOSITS1 Above a horizontal plane, approximately marked by the 25-feet contour above Ordnance datum, the purely alluvial deposits of Lancashire are found in the river valleys, and are well represented in almost all valley bottoms and in the excavations of the Manchester Ship Canal. The bottom lands are formed by accretion during flood overflows. Sometimes, as in the Lune, alluvial terraces occur at higher levels cut out of the drift. Outside these limited riverine deposits the soil of the country is largely formed by the subafirial crumbling of the boulder clays and sands, of which a mantle covers the country up to more than 300 feet above Ordnance datum.3 This sheet of drift spreads over and obscures the pre-glacial topography of the county, so that what in former times was a diversified landscape, standing at a higher level relatively to the sea, is now a somewhat monotonous gently undulating plain — the characteristic feature of south-west Lancashire. The second physical feature of this portion of the county is of more geological interest, i By T. Mellard Reade, F.G.S., F.R.I., B.A. 3 A much greater altitude than this is given in Man and the Glacial Period, 178. 29 A HISTORY OF LANCASHIRE inasmuch as it brings us nearer to the historic period. It consists of a second plain formed entirely by the deposition of marine or estuarine sands, muds, and clays. These beds nearly all lie below the 25-feet contour and are the mixed detritus and sediments brought down by the Mersey, Ribble, and Lune, which have been sorted and deposited on the coast between the mouths of these rivers. The lands over which the Liverpool and Southport Railway runs are part of this plain of deposition, which has added many square miles to what is now the county of Lancaster. The muddy sediment, of which these ' Formby and Leasowe Marine or Estuarine Beds' are composed, is crowded with Foraminifera, as was proved by borings at Altcar, recently made by the Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway.1 The mollusc Scrobicularia piperata, in a vertical position as it lived, also occurs, showing that some of the beds were laid down between tide marks. Perhaps the most interesting deposit of all is the peat and forest bed, which was known over a century ago. A description and plate of it appeared in the Gentleman's Magazine in 1796, p. 549. This bed underlies the moss lands, and upon it the sand-dunes previously described in the chapter on Geology have been built up by the wind. They occupy an area between Liverpool and Southport of 22 square miles. The outcrop of the peat and forest bed at and south of the Alt mouth is still to be seen, but it has of late been much destroyed by the inroads of the sea.8 Geologically the most interesting fact in connection with the extensive post-glacial deposits is the proof they afford that oscillations of the land with respect to the sea level have taken place in very late — probably miocene time (see Dawkins' Prehistoric Man) — geological times. The peat and forest bed with stools of oak, birch, and pine are washed by the tide now at the Alt mouth, and elsewhere they have been proved by dock and other excavations to occur below low-water mark — situations where it would be impossible for trees to grow now. This belt of alluvial deposits extends northwards with little interruption past the Fylde country to the mouth of the river Lune, and with some intervals extends to the river Duddon. Here knolls of boulder clay rise through the moss lands and are distinguished by their greenness. Excellent sections of the deposits and underlying boulder clay and rocks were disclosed in the excavations of the Midland Railway dock at Heysham, and are described in the Proceedings of the Liverpool Geological Society, session 1901-2 (Reade). All the fringes to the solid land of south-west Lancashire are but parts of an extensive belt of deposition, remains of which occur all round the British Islands. Still more extensive plains form a large part of Belgium, and the excavations for the Bruges Ship Canal presented excellent sections showing a similar series of estuarine and peat beds with the remains of trees.8 Before artificial drainage and pumping was resorted to, much of the land was little better than a series of marshes, and many meres, such as Martin Mere, near Southport, existed, but on a smaller scale. The land is now under cultivation, excepting where built upon, as at Southport and Birkdale, and is peculiarly favourable to the growth of potatoes, which are produced in great quantities. The more sandy portions are in some cases used for growing asparagus, which seems to like the soil and saline surroundings. The mean rainfall at Park Corner, Blundellsands, for twenty-nine years, 1876—1904, is 29*95 inches. Enough has been said to show that this desolate-looking coastal plain abounds in lessons of the greatest interest from a geological, historical, and a human aspect, lessons of a kind that are absent in more beautiful landscapes. 1 Proe. of the Liverpool Geol. Soc. 1903-4. 3 A full account illustrated with maps and sections of the geological and physical feaures will be found in the Proc. of the Liverpool Gecl. So:., Session 1871-2, by T. Mellard Reade. » Q.J.G.S., 1898, pp. 575-58'- PALEONTOLOGY PUBLISHED records of the occurrence of remains of mammals from the superficial deposits of Lancashire appear to be comparatively few, and many which have come under the writer's notice are of interest from an historical rather than from a zoological point of view. Sir Richard Owen,1 for instance, called attention to the discovery of a large antler of the red deer (Cervus elaphus] in 1727, which was drawn out of Ravensbarrow Hole, adjoining Holker Old Park, entangled in a fisherman's net. A sketch of this specimen was transmitted to the Royal Society of London by Hopkins, and is reproduced in the Philosophical 'Transactions? Although the terminal branches of the crown are broken off, this antler measures 30 inches in length ; the basal circumference being 10 inches, and the length of the brow-line 1 6| inches. The tide flows constantly over the spot where this specimen was found, and the adjacent land is high. The antlers attached to the skull of another stag of the same species discovered beneath a peat-moss in another part of the county, and figured by C. Leigh in his Natural History of Lancashire , Cheshire ; and the Peak of Derby- shire (1700), are equally fine, each measuring 40 inches in length. Red-deer antlers are also recorded from Preston, and they have been likewise found in several other parts of the county. Other cervine antlers recorded by Leigh as having been obtained from the marl beneath the peat between Martin's Mere and Meols (now North Meols) have been identified with the great extinct Irish deer, or ' Irish Elk ' (Cervus giganteus),3 such remains being stated by Mr. C. E. de Ranee4 to be far from uncommon in the county. From shell-marl underlying the peat near Whittingdon Hall the antler of a reindeer (Rangifer tarandus} is said to have been obtained ; 6 while remains of the great extinct wild ox, or aurochs (Eos taurus primigenius) , are recorded from Preston. During the excavation of Preston Docks a number of mammalian remains were discovered. Accord- ing to Mr. E. Dickson (Proceedings Liverpool GeoL Assoc. v. 258, 1887) they included 30 pairs of red deer antlers and 50 odd ones, 25 aurochs' skulls, two skulls of the domesticated Celtic shorthorn, one skull of a pilot-whale (Globicephalus me/as), and two whale-vertebras. The skull of a hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibius major), said to have been found in the county under a peat-bog, is figured in Lee's work, the figure being reproduced in plate xxii. fig. 5 of Buckland's Reliquicz Diluviana? Mammalian remains of late Pleistocene age have been found in some abundance on the Cheshire side of the mouth of the Mersey7 and a few are recorded from the Lancashire bank. Mr. G. H. Morton,8 for instance, Brit. Toss. Mamm. and Birds, 473 (1846). s Vol. xxxvii. No. 422. Owen, op. cit. 467, and De Ranee, 'Superficial Geology of Liverpool' (Mem. GeoL Survey, 1877), 77. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. xxvi. 668 (1870). 6 Harting, Extinct British Animals, 65. Owen, op. cit. 401. ^ Moore, Trans. N. H. Soc. Lane, and Cheshire, x. 265 (1858). Geology of Country round Liverpool, ed. 2, 250. 31 A HISTORY OF LANCASHIRE records the discovery of the skull of a brown bear (Ursus arctus] in 1876, at Bootle, during the excavation of the Alexandra Dock ; and likewise states that a skull and other bones of the same species have been found in the Bewsey Valley, near Warrington. With regard to the Bootle specimen, it has been suggested from its battered appearance, that it may have remained for some time on the surface of the ground before being embedded in the clay, or may have been washed out of an earlier deposit and re-buried. A few antlers and bones of the red deer, together with bones of the horse and undetermined cetaceans, are likewise recorded by Mr. Morton from Bootle ; and the same writer states that a horn-core of the aurochs has been obtained from this neighbourhood. The latter specimen was exhibited to the Zoological Society by Mr. J. G. Millais in April, 1905. Recently Prof. W. B. Dawkins (Mem. Manchester Lit. Soc. 1 904) has described remains of the straight-tusked elephant (Elephas antiquus] from Blackpool. From Prehistoric and Pleistocene deposits to the Keuper, or upper division of the Trias, is a long leap, but intermediate formations are lacking in the county. As regards the Keuper and the other divisions of the Trias, vertebrate fossils are represented solely by footprints of the primeval salamander known as Chirosaurus (otherwise Chirotherium) and perhaps also of the reptile Rhynchosaurus of the Trias of Shropshire. The great majority of these footprints are met with in one particular horizon at Storeton and other localities in the Wirral peninsula on the Cheshire side of the river, but, according to Mr. Morton,1 specimens of both types were discovered many years ago by Mr. A. Higginson in a quarry, long since buried, where now stands Rathbone Street, at the corner of Washington Street, in the city of Liverpool itself. A report on these tracks has been recently drawn up by Mr. H. C. Beasley,2 who has also figured8 the type specimen of C. herculis from Cheshire. The next and only other formation from which vertebrate fossils appear to have been recorded within the limits of the county is the Carboniferous, which has yielded evidence of two kinds of labyrinthodont amphibians, and also a considerable number of fish-remains from all the three divisions of the Coal Measures. Information with regard to these fish-remains from the neighbourhood of Prescot and St. Helens will be found in Mr. Morton's book* and likewise in Dr. A. Smith Woodward's invaluable Catalogue of Fossil Fishes in the British Museum. Of the Carboniferous fishes of the Little- borough district Mr. E. D. Wellburn 6 has drawn up a careful list. All the specimens from the latter district, it may be mentioned, are from the Lower Coal Measures. Finally, Mr. H. Bolton,6 in 1875, published a synopsis of all the known fish-remains from the county, which embraced thirty-seven species, arranged in twenty-three genera, to which he added another in the following year. Since the present article was in type Mr. Bolton has published (Trans. Manchester Geol. Soc. vol. xxviii. pts. 19 and 20) a new and revised list of the Carboniferous fish-fauna of the county. The most interesting Lancashire vertebrate fossil is undoubtedly Hylonomus wildi, a representative of that group of small labyrinthodont or 1 Op. cit. no. 2 Rep. Brit. Assoc. for 1903 (1904). 3 Pnc. Liverpool Geol. Soc. xlii. 81 (1901). * Pp. 48-55. 5 Pnc. Torks. Geol. and Poly t. Soc. xiii. 419-430. 6 Trans. Manchester Mic'r. Soc. 1895, 13 pp. 2 pl«. 32 PALEONTOLOGY stegocephalian amphibians known as Microsauri. It was described by Dr. A. Smith Woodward in the Geological Magazine for 1891 (p. 211), and belongs to a genus of which the first known specimens were collected by the late Sir William Dawson from hollow Lepidodendron trunks in the Nova Scotian Coal Measures. Of that genus it is the only known British repre- sentative. The second and more typical Lancashire labyrinthodont, which was obtained by Mr. Wild in the Middle Coal Measures of the Bardsley Colliery, is at present undescribed. It is regarded by Mr. Bolton as probably referable to the Carboniferous and Permian genus Archegosaurus. Passing on to the Coal Measure fishes, and commencing with those primitive Palaeozoic sharks known as Ichthyotomi, the first specimen to record is a spine from the Lower Foot Mine at Littleborough, identified by Mr. Wellburn with Pleuracantbus cylindricus^ a species known elsewhere from the Coal Measures of Scotland, Northumberland, Yorkshire, and Staffordshire. Mr. Bolton includes in his lists P. lavissimus, P. undulatus, P. erectus, and P. denticulatus ; the first of these is a good species, but the second is a synonym of the first, and the other two are founded on spines. The allied genus Diplodus is represented in the county by two species, D. gibbosus and D. tenuis, of which the first alone is recorded from Littleborough ; D. tenuis has a distri- bution very similar to that of Pleuracanthus cyclindricus, but D. gibbosus is not known to occur in Scotland. Among the more typical sharks, the Palaeozoic family of Petalodontidae, characterized among other features by the pavement- like dentition of a peculiar type, is represented by several species in the Car- boniferous of the county. Firstly, we have Ctenoptychius apicalis, typically from Staffordshire, recorded by Dr. Smith Woodward as a Lancashire fish ; while Mr. Bolton mentions a second species, C. lobatus, typically from Scotland. Mr. Wellburn includes in his Littleborough list a member of another genus, Callopristodus pectinatus, first described from the Scottish coal-fields. To another family of Palaeozoic sharks, the GochKodontidai, whose nearest relationships are probably with the Port Jackson sharks (Gestraciontula), belongs Pleuroplax ranking of which remains are recorded from Littleborough, the species having a wide distribution in Britain. The Northumberland species P. attheyi appears in Mr. Bolton's list. Next on our list comes a species of the genus Sphenacan- tbus (belonging to the family Cestraciontidce), which Mr. Wellburn considered might be new ; it is represented by a spine from the Lower Foot Mine of the Littleborough district, said to be unlike any hitherto described. Mr. Bolton's Lancashire list includes, however, only the widely distributed S. hybodoides. Certain other specimens from the Littleborough district are of the type of those to which the ill-defined name Stemmatodus has been applied, such speci- mens being probably dermal ossifications belonging to Pleuracanthus or one of the allied genera. The imperfectly-known genus Tristychius or Petrodus is represented in the Yoredale rocks near Todmorden. A single spine from the Littleborough district is assigned to Acanthodes wardi, a species typically from Staffordshire belonging to an altogether peculiar group of Palaeozoic sharks collectively known as Acanthodii ; remains of the same genus are recorded by Mr. Morton from St. Helens, and the species occurs in Mr. Bolton's list. Following this come two representatives of the lung-fishes, or Dipnoi, belong- ing to the extinct genus Ctenodus, which takes its name from the somewhat 1 33 5 A HISTORY OF LANCASHIRE comb-like structure of the palatal teeth. The first species, C. murc&isoni, is common to the upper Coal Measures of Shropshire and Lancashire and to the middle Coal Measures of Staffordshire ; while the second, C. cristatus, is widely distributed. Sagenodus incequalis, which has an equally wide range, appears in Mr. Bolton's list, where the fish known as Hybodopsis tvardi is likewise recorded as a Lancashire species. The great group of fringe-finned enamel-scaled fishes, of which the African bichirs and reed-fish are the sole survivors, are represented in the county by an undetermined species of Rhizodopsis recorded by Mr. Wellburn from the Littleborough district, and also by scales from Pendleton and the Victoria pit which have been identified with R. sauroides. The large and well-known Megalichthys hibberti^ of which the remains occur in all the British coal-fields, is common to the Lancashire area, as are also the species known as M. inter- medius and M. pygmaus, which appear in Mr. Bolton's list. Teeth and scales of this genus are also recorded from St. Helens. Very widely spread is a species, Ccelacanthus e/egans, of another genus of the same group, which is common to the Coal Measures of North America and Great Britain, and of which remains have been recorded from Lancashire. Bones and teeth of a second representative of the same genus from the St. Helens neighbourhood are identified with C. lepturus. Of fish-spines or ' ichthyodorulites ' of uncertain systematic position from the Coal Measures of the county, Mr. Bolton records the types respectively known as Gyracanthus formosus, Oracanthus milleri, and Lepracantbus colei. In the Geological Magazine for 1896 the same gentleman describes a fish-spine from the county which, under the name of L. spinatus, he identifies with the American generic type Listr acanthus. Leaving the fringe-finned group for that section of the enamel-scaled series in which the fins are of a more ordinary type of structure, we find the great Palaeozoic family P alceonucidae represented in the Coal Measures of the county by three species of the genus Elonicbthys, namely E. aitkeni, E. semistria- tus, and E. egertoni, all of which occur in the Littleborough district, while the genus is also recorded in Mr. Morton's list from the Victoria pit in the St. Helens neighbourhood. The first named species is typically a Lancashire fish. In addition to these we have from the Littleborough district another member of the family in question, Rbadinichtbys monensis, a species typically from Anglesea belonging to a genus with numerous representatives. A scale of Rhadinicbtbys is also recorded by Mr. Morton from the Victoria pit ; and Mr. Bolton includes in his list the two species known as R. wardi and R. planti, the latter being typically from the present county,1 while the former was described on the evidence of Staffordshire specimens. Lastly, Acrolepis hopkinsi, which occurs at Littleborough, belongs to a large genus, and is common to the Carboniferous of Derbyshire, Yorkshire, Lanarkshire, and Belgium. The remaining fishes recorded from the Coal Measures of the county are mostly referable to the family Platysomatida^ the members of which are readily distinguishable from the Palaoniscida by the much deeper and more rhomboi- dal form of the body. Among these Cbirodus granu/osus, which is not included in the Littleborough list, is recorded elsewhere from Staffordshire and Lanark- 1 Traquair, Gfol. Mag. (3) v. 253 (1888). 34 PALEONTOLOGY shire. The second species, Platysomus parvulus, which is common to the Littleborough and St. Helens districts, and is also widely distributed in the north of England and Scotland, is a member of the type genus. A second representative of the same genus, P. forsteri, is included in Mr. Morton's list from the Victoria pit. At the close of his list of the species from the latter locality Mr. Morton adds the following note : — ' The genera Ccelacanthus, Ctenoptychius, Diplopterus, Gyrolepis, Holoptychius, Megalichthys, and Platysomus, have been recorded from various localities in south-west Lancashire, but since Mr. William Peace, of Wigan, collected fish- remains associated with the cannel coal of that place, fifty years ago, so little has been done that the list requires revision.' From the Millstone Grit of the county Mr. Wellburn1 has recorded the following fishes, viz. : Pristodus falcatus, Psephodus, sp. Pcecilodus jonesi, Orodus elongatus, Helodus, sp. Acanthodes ivardi, Climatius, sp. Euctenodopsis (gen. nov.), Acondylacanthus, sp. Ccelacanthus,yp.Rhadinichthys, spp. Elonichthys aitkeni, and Acrolepis hopkinsi. ADDENDUM The following species of Carboniferous fishes appear in Mr. Bolton's list of 1905 in addition to those above-mentioned, viz. : — Pleuracanthus alatus, P. cylindricus, P. serrafus, Helodus simplex, Psephodus magnus, Sphenacanthus hybodoides, Hoplonchus elegans, Gyracanthus formosus, Euctenius unilateral!*, Ctenodus cristatus, Strep Sodus saur aides, S. sulcidens, Elonichthys striatus, and Mesolepis scalaris. 1 Geol. Mag. (4), viii. 216 (1901). 35 BOTANY FOR the purposes of Topographical Botany Lancashire was divided by Mr. H. C. Watson into three vice-counties, namely, V.C. 59, South Lancashire ; 60, West Lancashire ; and 69, Lake Lanca- shire. This last vice-county, however, was combined with West- morland, but for this article only that part of Watson's vice-county which lies within the boundaries of the county of Lancaster is treated of. V.C. 59. — Lancashire South is all the county north of the Mersey and south of the Ribble. Its flora, as regards flowering plants and mosses, is about as well known as any tract of land of similar size in Britain. The density of its population is only exceeded by that of Middlesex, and therefore great changes have taken place in its plant life during the past century. Some of the more interesting plants have disappeared from the mosses through drainage and the rapid spread of the towns. There are one or two cloughs in the east which afford a home for a few uncommon plants, and the sand- dunes of the coast have lost few of the rare plants which have been known to grow more or less abundantly there for over a century. The highest ground in this vice-county is Pendle Hill, 1831 feet, in the north-eastern corner near Clitheroe, a striking feature in the landscape when seen from the main line of the Midland Railway at Hellifield, as it is also from the other side from various standpoints. The summit of this hill is just above the superagrarian zone of Watson, and is the only land in this vice-county within the inferarctic zone. All the eastern side of the vice-county is hilly, but the rest is very little above sea level in any part. There are no rivers of importance within its boundaries. The geology is uniform and of no special interest to the botanist. The great port of Liverpool accounts for a considerable alien flora, propagated by seeds in ballast and in other ways common to all great seaports. Many of these seeds are very small and are easily blown by the wind from quays and wharves on to the banks of estuary and canal. Some few of these are spreading, but the majority only flower once and then disappear. Some of the larger seeds fall in the water, and are thrown up later amongst the dredg- ings, and soon produce flowers when the conditions are favourable. Almost all these aliens are annual or biennial. This extensive alien flora makes up in a measure for the loss of the few rare natives. Few districts have been so thoroughly and carefully worked by such a number of able bryologists during the last sixty years, therefore it is not likely that many additions will be made to the moss flora in the future. Little or nothing has been done with the fungi,1 the alga? have been neglected,1 and the lichens have only recently had any attention. No attempt has been made to study the myce- tozoa of any part of the county as far as is known.1 The student need not therefore travel far for material of interest and importance. There is no published flora of this vice-county. There are, however, several local floras 1 Thus comparing very unfavourably with the county of York. 37 A HISTORY OF LANCASHIRE which taken together furnish a good deal of information. These are the floras of Manchester, Liverpool, and Ashton districts, each and all covering an area beyond the county border, so that unusual care has been necessary in writing this article to avoid errors, because the county is not mentioned in a great number of cases. This vice-county is remarkable amongst other things for the number and excellence of its artisan botanists who lived during the past century. V.C. 60. Lancashire West. — The Kibble divides this from V.C. 59. It is all on the east side of Morecambe Bay, has Yorkshire on its eastern boundary, and Westmorland on its northern. Excepting the greater height of its fells and moorland it is not different to South Lancashire to any great extent. Its flora is more montane. Greygarth Fell, in the extreme north- east corner, is the highest ground (2050 feet). Just outside this county this same fell rises some 200 feet more. Several uncommon montane plants grow here, but it is not quite so rich in upland forms as some of the neighbouring fells outside the county. A number of uncommon plants grow in the cloughs and on the moor- land fells to the south of Greygarth. This vice-county was one of the least known, botanically, until the last decade, when Messrs. Wheldon and Wilson determined to make it their special study. Thanks to their enthusiasm and zeal it is now quite as well known as any county. It must be remembered, too, that many of the localities lie far away from a railway. The two botanists named above have in progress a flora of West Lancashire. There is a great deal yet to be done as regards the algs, fungi, and mycetozoa. The chief river is the Lune. It rises in Ravenstonedale, in Westmor- land, running northwards, then westwards it receives numerous becks, full of trout. Turning to the south, past Tebay, it separates Westmorland from Yorkshire; and just below Sedbergh (i m.) it receives a considerable trout stream, the Rawthey, which rises on West Baugh Fell, and is mainly a Yorkshire river. The Lune runs to Middleton, with Rigmaden on the other bank, where is the well-known trout fishery. Three miles down, Barbon Beck joins the Lune on the right bank. After passing through the beautiful park and grounds of Underley, the Lune passes Kirkby Lonsdale, entering Lancashire a quarter of a mile below the bridge. Two miles down it receives Leek Beck, and between Thurland Castle and Arkholme it is joined by the Greta. The Lune then runs to Melling and Hornby, where the Wenning meets it on the left bank after its junction with the Hindburn river, which is formed of three considerable becks. Passing Caton and Halton, receiving three small becks, the Lune runs to Lancaster. Up to this point the river is remarkable for the purity of its water, but below Lancaster the state of the river is most unsatisfactory. This vice-county may be divided into three main divisions, as suggested by Messrs. Wheldon and Wilson : — i . North Division. — Separated from remainder of vice-county by the Lune as far as its junction with the Wenning, beyond which this tributary forms the line of demarcation to the Yorkshire boundary. Carboniferous limestone, Yoredale series, Millstone grit, with small tracts of Upper Silurian, Coal measures, and Permian sandstone are represented here. The coast line consists of alternations of sandy shore, muddy salt-marshes, and rocky cliffs. 38 BOTANY Compared with South Lancashire or any other division of West Lancashire this is the most interesting botanical district. It is more varied geologically than the other parts, and its numerous woods, scars, and crags, its hills and glens, its tarns, limestone pavements, and ' pot holes ' are the homes of many uncommon plants. The highest ground is 2,050 feet. 2. East Division. — Consists of elevated, bleak and barren moorlands, intersected by deep wooded glens or cloughs, each with its stream of sparkling water derived from extensive spongy peat-beds, which are fed by frequent rains and cloud fog. The remainder of this division is less interesting, consisting of upland pastures with some low land on the banks of the rivers. The strata are almost entirely composed of the Yoredale series (grits and calcareous shales) and Millstone grit. The highest ground is Wardstone (1,83 6 feet). There are only small patches of limestone near Chipping and Whitewell. 3. West Division presents a marked contrast to those already dealt with. It consists of a nearly level plain, termed the Fylde (or garden) lying between the estuaries of the Lune and Ribble, and intersected about midway by the Wyre. Its highest ground is not anywhere more than 130 feet, and usually only from 25 to 60 feet. The shale consists principally of Permian sandstone and Triassic marl, generally overlaid with glacial drift, and in the northern and central portions are the scanty remains of what was formerly an immense peat-moss. This has been extensively reclaimed and the greater part of this division is now highly cultivated. The coast-line exhibits muddy salt marshes and sand- dunes resembling those of South Lancashire (V.C. 59) and Cheshire (V.C. 58). These aboriginal features are rapidly disappearing before the operations of the builder and agriculturist and the extension of foreshore improvements by various watering places. To the north of Blackpool are low cliffs of glacial drift. The more interesting plants are those of the dunes, salt-marshes, and peat-mosses. V.C. 69. Lake Lancashire (without Westmorland), all the county north of Morecambe Bay. — On the west it is separated from Cumberland by the Duddon, the same river and the Brathay and part of Elter Water are its northern boundary, dividing it from Cumberland and Westmorland, thence the boundary southwards is along the west shore of Windermere, then up the east shore for four miles. It then turns eastwards for a mile and a half, and then southwards, following the river Winster to Lindale, crossing the river twice. The boundary runs south to Morecambe Bay, a mile to the east of Grange, and half a mile to the west of the Winster mouth, having Westmor- land all along its eastern border. Walney Isle on the south-west, opposite Barrow, is included in this vice-county. This part of Lancashire is almost an island, the two rivers Duddon and Brathay rising near the three-shire stone. The highest ground is Coniston Old Man, 2,633 feet. Two of the Seathwaite fells are over 2,500 feet. All the fells about Coniston, from the northern boundary of the vice-county to Broughton and Waterhead, are composed of middle slates; there are no exposures of granite as in Cumberland (Skiddaw, etc.) . The south-eastern boundary of these slates is marked by a variable band of limestone (only partially calcareous), dark in colour and intermingled with beds of shale. These rocks belong to the Lower Silurian system. To 39 A HISTORY OF LANCASHIRE the Upper Silurian belong the Coniston grits (flags and greywacke) and Coniston flags. The Mountain limestone is abundantly exposed near Ulverston, Conishead, and Grange, near which is the precipitous headland known as Humphrey Head, long known to botanists. Rocks of Permian age occur near Dalton-in-Furness, passing north-westwards along the coast of Cumberland, and south-eastwards across Morecambe Bay to near Lancaster in V.C. 60. The flora of this vice-county is somewhat different to that of the other two, owing to the great mass of slate which rises some 500 feet above that of the highest ground of the other two vice-counties. It is not however richer in forms. The plants of this slate region are like those of the lake mountains, but a number of the rarer plants of Cumberland are wanting in this vice-county. It is less varied geologically and of much smaller size than Cumberland, which has ground rising to over 500 feet beyond that of the highest point in Lake Lancashire, and also has considerable exposures of granite. The limestone tract is of much interest, as a considerable proportion of the plants which are more or less peculiar to that formation in west and north central England and Wales are to be found. The flowering plants of this portion of the county are well known, but the cryptogams have been neglected. The woods along the shores of Windermere will furnish a very large fungus-flora, and a wide and beautiful field is open to the student. This vice-county is about 25 m. from N. to S. and 13 from E. to W. Besides the rivers already mentioned as forming boundaries there is the Crake, also lakes Coniston Water, Esthwaite Water, Blelham Tarn, Tarn Hows Tarn, Levers Water, Goats Water, Low Water, and Seathwaite Tarn. LIST OF WORKS RELATING TO THE LANCASHIRE FLORA The works here enumerated refer to either one of the three divisions or vice-counties or to some portion of them, or contain more or less frequent references to localities for plants found in the county. Gerard, J., The Herbal!, 1597 Luxford, G., The Phytologist (old ser.), 1841-8 — The Herbal! (cA. by T. Johnson), 1633 Jopling, Furness and Cartmel, Ulverston. Plants: Merrett, C., Pittax, 1 666 Furness by Aiton ; Cartmel by Wilson, W., 1 843 Ray, J., Catalogus Plantarum Anglite (ed. l), 1670 Buxton, R., Botanical Guide to Manchester, Flowering — Catalogs Plantarum AngRee (ed. 2), 1677 Plants, Ferns, Mosses, and Algae found in- — Synofsis Methodlca Stirfium Britannica (ed. i), 1690 digenous within 16 miles of Manchester. — Synopsis Methodica Stirpium Britannica (ed. 2), 1696 Quoted in this article as Buxton's G., 1849 — • Synopsis Methodlca Stirpium Britannica (ed. 3, Newman, The Phytologist, 1849-1854 Dillenius), 1724 Dickinson, Dr. J., The Flora of Liverpool, 1851 Wilson, John, A Synopsis of British Plants on J. Ray's — The Flora of Liverpool Supplement (Mosses), 1855 Method, 1 744 Marratt, F. P., ' Mosses of Liverpool and Southport,' Hudson, W., Flora Anglica, \ 762 in Phytologist. This contains Dr. J. B. Woods' Withering, W., Botanical Arrangement (ed. l), 1776 ' Bryology of Southport,' 1855 — Botanical Arrangement (ed. 2, J. Stokes), 1787; Wilson, Wm., Bryologia Britannica (ed. 3), 1855 and later editions down to (ed. 7) 1830 Irvine, The Phytologist (new ser.), 1855-1863 Turner and Dillwyn, Botanists' Guide, 1805 Linton, W. J., The Lake Country, 1864 Smith, Sir J. E., Engl. Flora (1824-8) and vol. v., — Ferns of the Lake Country (ed. 2), 1878 pt. i. by W. J. Hooker Aspland, L., Guide to Grange. Plants by A. Mason Watson, Hewitt CoKerd, New Botanical Guide, 1835-7 and L. Aspland, 1869 — Cybele Britannica, 1847—1852 Liverpool Nat. Field Club, Flora of Liverpool, 1872 — Compendium of the Cybele, 1870 Linton, Rev. E. F., Catalogue of Plants of West Lanca- — Topographical Botany (ed. i), 1873 shire in Botanical Locality Rec. Club, 1874 — Topographical Botany (ed. z, Baker and Newbould), Hodgson, Miss E., 'Flora of North or Lake Lanca- 1883 shire,' in Journal of Botany, 1874 Hall, T. B., A Flora of Liverpool, 1839 B^er, John Gilbert, F.R.S., Flora of English Lake Wood, J. B., Flora Mancuniensis, 1840 District, 1885 40 BOTANY Cash, James, 'The Early Botanical Work of the late Will. Wilson,' in the Naturaftst, 1887 Whitehcad, John, ' Mosses of Ashton-under-Lyne District,' in the Naturalist, March and April, pp. 85-100. The District Flora, or Flora of Ashton - under - Lyne. Mosses by Whitehead, Hepatics by G. A. Holt, 1886 Martindale, J. A., The Westmorland Note Book, 1888-9 Gerard, J., and Newdigate, C. A., Flora of Stonyhurst District (ed. 2), 1891 Petty, L., ' Plants of Leek,' in Naturalist, 1893 — ' Constituents of the North Lancashire Flora,' in Naturalist, with complete Bibliography and interesting Biographical foot-notes, 1894 — 'Plants of Silverdale,' in the Naturalist, 1902 Wheldon, J. A., 'The Mosses of South Lancashire,' in Journal of Botany, April 1898 — ' The Mosses of South Lancashire ' in Journal of Botany, January, 1899 — ' West Lancashire Flora Notes,' in Naturalist, 1900 — ' Mosses of the Mersey Province,' in Naturalist, 1900 — The North of England Harpidia (after Renauld) contains numerous Lancashire localities, 1902 Wheldon, J. A., The Southport Handbook for the British Association, 'Mosses and Hepatics,' 1903 — Various papers in the Naturalist, 1903 — and Wilson, Albert, 'The Mosses of West Lan- cashire (Hepatics), in Journal of Botany, \ 899, 1901, 1902 — 'Add. to the Flora of West Lancashire,' in Journal of Botany, 1900-1-2 — ' Notes on the Flora of Over Wyresdale,' Naturalist, 1901 — ' Kantia submersa in Britain,' in Journal of Botany, 1903 Rogers, Rev. W. Moyle, M.A., Handbook of British Rubi, 1900 Horrell, E. Chas., 'The European Sphagnaceae,' in Journal of Botany, 1901 Bennett, Arthur, various papers in the Naturalist, Journal of Botany, Botanical Exch. Club Reports, etc., down to 1902 Batters, E. A. L., LL.B., 'Catalogue of Marine Algae,' in Journal of Botany Supplement, 1902 Green, C. T., M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P., etc., The Flora of Liverpool District (edited for the Liverpool Nat. Field Club), 1902 Pearson, W. H., British Hepatic* SHORT PAPERS AND REFERENCES TO LANCASHIRE PLANTS Sidgwick, N. V., in the Naturalist, 1894, p. 49 Stabler, George, in the Naturalist, 1896-7 Lees, F. A., M.R.C.S., etc., in the Naturalist, 1897, p. 127 ; 1899, p. 299 ; 1900, p. 5, etc. Henry, John, in the Naturalist, 1897, pp. 127, 339 Hamilton, W. P., in the Naturalist, 1898, p. 28 Petty, L., in the Naturalist, 1899, p. 330; 1898, p. 258 ; 1903, p. 84 Friend, Rev. H., in the Naturalist, June, 1901 Kirkby, Wm., in the Naturalist, 1902, p. 316 Bailey, Charles, F.L.S., Botany of Manchester District for British Association, 1887 — Numerous records in Botanical Exch. Club Reports — Numerous records in Journal of Botany Dixon, H. N., M.A., F.L.S., in Journal of Botany, September, 1 899 The herbarium of the British Museum contains many Lancashire plants. Recently it has been enriched by the purchase of Mr. W. H. Pearson's valuable and extensive collection of Hepaticae. It would be impossible to enumerate all the local herbaria, although some are of much value. The herbaria of Bicheno and Motley at Swansea contain plants found in Lanca- shire, as stated in the Naturalist for November, 1902. There are very few plants of any value in them, and some are more than doubtful. A few important plants are in the museum at York. The writer has left the most pleasant task for his last remarks. He has received considerable help from several well-known botanists. First and foremost, his most cordial and sincere thanks are due to Mr. J. A. Wheldon of Liverpool for the loan of his papers, books with marginal and foot-notes, for reading and correcting manuscript, and for useful suggestions, which have always been done without the least delay. To Mr. Albert Wilson for his MS. of Lake Lancashire mosses, and for help in other ways. To Mr. Arthur Bennett for a list of the Naidacese and Characes of the county, examples of which plants in his collection from Lancashire are marked thus ! in this article ; also for help in other ways. To Mr. E. C. Horrell for his help with Sphagna. To Mr. Symers M. Mac- vicar for opinion on Hepatica?. To Mr. J. Cosmo-Melvill, M.A. (who kindly searched in vain for further records of Alga?), for much help in various ways. To Professor Carr, M.A., etc., for the loan of books, and the use of his extensive library. To Mr. William West of Bradford. To the Rev. W. i 41 6 A HISTORY OF LANCASHIRE W. Mason for a MS. list of flowering plants from all the three vice-counties. To Mr. C. Crossland for much help with fungi, and to Mr. J. A. Martindale for help with lichens. N.B. — The writer wishes it to be clearly understood that the com- monest of British flowering plants and mosses, including hepatics, are not enumerated. This was unavoidable. EXPLANATION OF SIGNS t signifies possibly introduced, * probably or cer- tainly introduced in the county, and -f- more than three stations known, ' r. r.' is an abreviation for ' very rare.' A full stop after a locality signifies that the writer has gathered the plant there. Otherwise the name of finder is given. CLASS I.— PH^NOGAMIA SUB-CLASS I. — DICOTYLEDONES Order I. — Ranunculaceet *Clematis Vitalba, L. [59] 69. Limestone rocks near top of Yewbarrow-over- Grange, etc. ; J. G. Baker, W. Fog- gitt, F. Clowes Thalictrum dunense, Dumort. 69. Walney, J. Lawson. Ray, Fascic, 1688. Ch. Bailey, 1872. Journ. of Sot. p. 61. 60. Lytham, Ashfield — minus, L. Aggreg. incl. T. majus. 59 and 60. Top. Bot. 69. Linton and Miss Hodgson — collinum, Wallr. 60. Da/ten Crag, Sydney Wilson with Wheldon and A. Wilson. (6.1899.) This should be abundant on the limestone of 60 and 69, but Mr. Wheldon says it is not — majus, Crantz. 69. See Baker's flora, 1885, p. 1 6, and Petty's Consti- tuents Ranunculus circinatus, Sibth. 59. Canal near Ford; Wheldon. +. nr. Liverpool, Green's F/. Little Crosby, Rev. W. W. Mason. 60. Canal nr. Lan- caster, Wheldon. 69. Nr. Hum- phrey Head; H. T. Soppitt — fluitans, Lam. 59. ' Dugdale,' Top. Bot. 60. In Ribble; Fl. Stony hurst — Drouetii, Godr. 59. F. M. Webb, MS. Top. Bot. Nr. Great Crosby; Green's Fl. A bear; Wheldon. 60. Top. Bot. Nr. Arnside Tower, but in Lane.; C. Bailey. Ponds at Win- marleigh; W. and W. (not typical, Groves) — heterophyllus, Web ex p. 59. Common ; Green's Fl. 60. Nr. Morecambe; Wheldon. 69. Urstoick Tan; Plumpton; Miss Hodgson var. submersus (Hiern). 60. Between Silverdale and Arnside ; C. Bailey — peltatus, Schrunk. Aggreg. incl. flori- bundus, etc. 59. Top. Bot. F. M. Webb. Common, Green's Fl. Nr. Oldham; Whitehead, Wheldon. +. 60. Top. Bot. Hiern. + CLASS I.— PH^NOGAMIA (continued) SUB-CLASS I. — DICOTYLEDONES (continued) Order I. — Ranunculacete (continued) Ranunculus diversifolius, H. C. Wats. 59. Ditches at Lydiate; Wheldon — Baudotii, Godr. 59. Top. Bot. Nr. Old Formby Church; J. H. Lewis. 60. Hiern. Top. Bot. St. Anne's ; Pres- ton to Hey sham Peninsula ; W. and W. var. confusus (Godr.). 69. In Winder- mere ; Hiern. Baker's Fl. — Lenormandi, F. Schultz. 59. Top. Bot. Goodlad, sp. Oldham; Whitehead, Wheldon. Ashtm Moss; White- legge. Liverpool district ; Green's Fl. 60. Hiern Hb. Top. Bot. O. Wyreidale;+. W. and W. 69. Coniston ; J. Backhouse, Junr. See Phytol.il. 467(1846) — Lingua, L. 59. Tudor MS. Top. Bot. Liverpool district ; Green's Fl. Little Crosby; Hightown ; Wheldon. 69. Hawkshead ; Derham, 1718. Baker's Fl. + — auricomus, L. 59. Goodlad Hb. Top. Bot. Liverpool district ; Green's Fl. Reddish; Whitehead. Buxton's G. p. 74. 60. Simpson, sp. Top. Bot. Silverdale ; A. Wilson. +. 69. Petty's Constit. + — acer, L. var. tomophyllus (Jord). 60. Silverdale; + ; W. and W. var. Boreanus (Jord.). 59. +. 60. +. Wheldon var. rectus, Bor. 60. Caton ; + ; W. andW. — sardous, Crantz. 59. Top. Bot. Liverpool distr. ; Green's Fl. Nr. Leigh; Buxton's G. 60. Boswell ms. Top. Bot. 69. Barrow ; J. Henry, + ; Petty's Constit. — parviflorus, L. 59. Top. Bot. Crosby; Bootle; Withering. No modern record Caltha palustris, L. var. minor, Syme. [59. Speke ; T. Gibson. Green's Fl.} 60. Graveffi C lough ; Tambrook Fell; W. and W. 69. Seathtvaite Tarn; Walna Scar; Miss Hodgson Trollius europxus, L. In most places of Yorkshire and Lancashire. Gerard, Herball, 1597, p. 809, and first as British. 59. Goodlad Hb., Tap. Bot. Thornham ; Pilsworth ; R. Bux- ton in Whitehead's Fl. About Bol- ton ; Buxton's G. p. 75. 60. +. A. Wilson. 69. Plentiful, frequently reported since 1 796 BOTANY CLASS I.— PH^ENOGAMIA (continued) SUB-CLASS I. — DICOTYLEDONES (continued) Order I. — Ranunculacea (continued) *Helleborus viridis, L. 60. Top. Hot. ' na- tive.' Silverdale, ' native.' A. Wil- son. 69. Nr. Grange ; Miss Hodg- son and others * — foetidus, L. 60. Gatebarrow Wood, near Silverdale ; ' where it is perhaps native,' A. Wilson. Barton nr. Pres- ton ; H. Beesley (Denizen, Ar. Ben- nett, Wheldon) Aquilegia vulgaris, L. t59- Green's Fl. and Buxton's G. 60.* Hiern MS. Top. Bot. Silverdale, 1864, abun- dant, C. J. Ashfield. Rev. W. W. Mason, 1902. Wheldon and Wil- son. + . 69. Frequent, and re- peatedly recorded since 1843 Actsea spicata, L. 60. Pot-hole, Leek Fell, 1888 ; A.Wilson //.— Berberidex Berberis vulgaris, L. 59. Top. Bot. *Dick- inson's Fl. Knotvsley ; + ; ' ? na- tive or denizen,' Green's FL 60. Silverdale ; A. Wilson. 69. ' Doubt- fully wild,' Miss Hodgson. ' Seems planted,' Petty, Constit. [Epimedium alpinum, L. 69. Alien. Miss Burton, Petty in Naturalist, December 1898] HL—Nymftuface* Nymphsea lutea, L. 59. 60. 69. Castalia speciosa, Salisb. 59. F. M. Webb. cat. Top. Bot. ; Green's Fl. ; Buxton's G. p. 71. Aintree ; Wheldon. 60. Top. Bot. Linton cat. ; Havies Water ; Jenkinson 1775. Still there, Petty, 1893 (A. Wilson 1904. +). 69. Not unfrequent ; Baker's Fl., p. 245. and others iy.—Papaverace W. andW. Swartzia montana, Lindb. 60. Ease Gill, c. fr. ; A. Wilson. By the Greta ; W. andW. Seligeria pusilla, B. and S. 60. Caton ; Wheldon — recurvata, B. and S. 59. Bamjbrd Wood; Whitehead. Ashworth Wood; Whel- don. 60. Caton; Wheldon. Nr. Kirkby Lonsdale ; W. and W. Brachyodus trichodes, FUrnr. 59. Bolton ; Ainsworth ; Scholefield. 60. Nr. the foot of Graveirs Clough, c. fr. ; + ; W. and W. Dichodontium flavescens, Lindb. 59. Pendk Hill; Wheldon. Bamford ; Buxton's G. 60. Not uncommon by streams. Nr. Lancaster; Holt. Caton ; +; Wheldon Dicranella crispa, Schimp. 59. Oldham ; Whitehead. Pmtwich ; Tatlow. Nr. Warrington ; W. Wilson — secunda, Lindb. 59. Boggart Hole Clough ; Kent. Sailot's Shore; Percival. Rad- cliffe ; Buxton's G. — rufescens, Schimp. 59 Wheldon's paper, 7. ofB. Jan. 1899. 60. Bindburn ; + ; W. and W. — Schreberi, Schimp. 59. Nr. Bardsley ; Weldon. Rochdale ; Holt. + ; Buxton's G. etc. 60. Nr. Lancaster; Hamilton 69 A HISTORY OF LANCASHIRE CLASS V.— CRYPTOGAMIA CELLULARIA (cunt.) CLASS V.— CRYPTOGAMIA CELLULARIA (cont.) SUB-CLASS— MUSCINE/E (continued) Order — Musci (continued) Sub-Order VI. — Dicranaceae (cont.) Dicranella squarrosa, Schimp. 59. Bamford Wood; Whitehead. Healey Thrutch ; W. Wilson. Pendle Hill; Wheldon. 60. Udale; + ; W. and W. Leek Fell. 69. Conlston Old Man Blindia acuta, B. and S. 59. Bamford Wood ; Holt. 60. O. Wyresdale ; W. and W. GravelPsC lough; Grey garth ¥ ell ; A. Wilson. var. trichodes, Braithw. 59. Wheldon [Dicranoweisia crispula, Lindb. 59. Rochdale ; + ] Campylopus flexuosus, Brid. Common on the fells. 59. 60. 69 var. uliginosus, Ren. 60. + ; A. Wilson var. paradoxus,Husn. 60. Halton ; + ; W. and W. var. zonatus, Milde. 60. Clougha ; + ; W. and W. * — pyriformis, B. and S. 59, 60. Common ; W. and W. C. fragilis, B. & S. 59. 60. W. and W. — atrovirens, De Not. 60. Clougha; + ; W. and W. 69. Conlston Old Man — brevipilus, B. and S. 60. 'Rare.' Clougha; 1 88 1. G. Stabler Dicranodontium longirostre, B. and S. 60. Hell Crag, Tarnbrook Fell; O. Wyres- dale ; W. and W. var. alpinum, Schimp. 60. Thrushgill Fell ; Greygarth Fell; A. Wilson Dicranum Bergeri, Bland. 59. Riiley Moss ; W. Wilson — scoparium, Hedw. 59. 60. 69 var. orthophyllum, Brid. 59. 60. W. and W. var. turfbsum, Boul. 60. W. and W. var. paludosum, Schimp. 60. Whitting- ton Moor; Dalton Hall; A. Wilson var. ericetorum, Corbiere. 60. Cocker- ham Moss ; + ; W. and W. var. spadiceum, Boul. 60. Greygarth Fell, 2,000 ft. ; + ; A. Wilson (rare) — fuscescens, Turn. 60. O. Wyresdale ; + ; c. fr. in several localities ; W. and W. 69. Conision Old Man var. falcifolium, Braith. 60. Clougha ; Wheldon. Upper Roeburndale ; A. Wilson Sub-Order VII. — Fissidentacea: Fissidens exilis, Hedw. 59. 60. Blackpool; Wheldon. Lea ; H. Beesley — viridulus, Wahl. 59. Walton ; nr.Jintret; Wheldon. 60. Bank of Wyre ; + ; Wheldon var. Lylei, Wils. 59. Kirkby ; Whel- don and Beesley. Rainford ; Whel- don. 60. Nr. Garstang ; A. Wilson _ pusillus, Wils. 59. Wmiutck; W. Wilson. 60. W. and W. — incurvus, Starke. 59. 60. Nr. Stonyhurst ; Wheldon SUB-CLASS — MUSCINEJE (continued) Order — Musci (continued) Sub-Order VII. — Fissidentaceae (cont.) Fissidens tamarindifolus, Wils. 59. Ashton ; Whitehead. Clifton Junction ; Hunt — bryoides, Hedw. 59. 60. 69 — crassipes, Wils. 59. Hulme ; W.Wilson. 60. Crook of Lune; W. and W. — osmundoides, Hedw. 59. Fo Edge ; Scond Moor,- Percival. If kite ley Dean; Holt. 60. Nr. Gravels Clough, e. fr. ; W. and W. — adiantoides, Hedw. 59. 60. 69 — decipiens, De Not. 60. Only on the lime- stone in the north ; W. and W. + — taxifolius, Hedw. 59. 60. 69 Sub-Order VIII.— Grimmiaceae Grimmia maritima, Turn. 59. Dingle; Marrat. 60. Abundant on rocks about Lower Heysham ; Wheldon — Doniana, Sm. 59. 60. Clougha ; Wolf Fell; Greygarth Fell; A. Wilson. 69. Coniston Old Man — trichophylla, Grev. 59. Aigburth ; Gar- ston ; Marrat Rhacomitrium aciculare, (L.), Brid. 60. Fre- quent among the fells. O. Wyresdale ; W. and W. Ease Gill var. denticulatum, Wils. 59. Nr. Bolton; Scholefield — protensum, Braun. 60. Nr. Dolphinholme ; Wheldon. 69. Coniston — fasciculare (Schrad.), Brid. 59. Pendle Hill; Wheldon. \Smithdown Lane; Marrat, etc. ; extinct.] 60. Com- mon in the hilly districts, O. Wyres- dale ; + ; W. andW. — heterostichum (Hedw.), Brid. 59. Aig- burth ; Smithdown Lane ; Marrat. West Derby ; Skellon. Probably ex- tinct, Wheldon. 60. Frequent on the fells ; + ; W. and W. var. alopecurum, Hub. 60. Ease Gill ; U. Roeburndale; A. Wilson. 69. Abundant on Coniston Old Man. Some forms approaching type var. gracilescens, B. and S. 60. Grey- garth Fell, 2,000 feet. A. Wilson. 69. Coniston Old Man, 2,630 feet — lanuginosum, Brid. 60. Common. W. and W. 69. Hamps Fell; A. Wilson, MS. Coniston Old Man — canescens, Brid. 60. Nr. Marshaw, O. Wyresdale. +. W. and W. Coscindon cribrosus (Hedw.), Spreng. 69. Coniston ; Binstead, Holt Ptychomitrium polyphyllum (Dicks), Ftirnr. 59. Walton ; Skellon. Garston ; San- som. (Extinct, Wheldon in litt.) Worston ; Wheldon. 60. Longridge Fell; Clougha; DamasGill; Wheldon. Garstang; + ; A. Wilson. Ease Gill; W. and W. 69. Nr. Grange; A. Wilson, MS. Hedwigia ciliata, Ehrh. 69. Nr. Higher Neta- ton,on Silurian rocks ; A.Wilson, MS. 70 BOTANY CLASS V.— CRYPTOGAMIA CELLULARIA (cant.) SUB-CLASS — MUSCINEJE (continued) Order — Musci (continued) Sub-order IX. — Tortulaceae Acaulon muticum (Schreb.), C. Mdll. 59. Maghull; Skirby ; Walton; Wheldon. Nr. Blacklej ; Buxton's G. * — mediterraneum, Limpr. 60. Muddy bank nr. Bispham ; H. Beesley Pottia recta, Mitt. 59. Manchester; Hunt. 60. Nr. Garstang; A. Wilson. Nr. Carnforth ; Silverdale ; + ; W. and W. — Heimii (Hedw.), FUrnr. 59. Southport ; Marrat. Ht.WarriagtonW.Wdxm. Hightown; + ; Wheldon. 60. Fre- quent along the coast ; W. and W. Lytham; Yates, Wheldon. +; Wh. — intermedia, Filrnr. 59. 60. and f. lit- toralis (Mitt.), W. and W. — Wilsoni, B. and S. 59. Southport ; Wild, 1876 — minutula, Ftlrnr. 59. Very frequent, Walton; Aintree ; + ; Wheldon. 60. Caton ; + ; Wheldon. Tunbrook Wood; H. Beesley. Chipping; A. Wilson — lanceolata, Ftlrnr. 60. Nr. SilverJale ; A. Wilson Tortula pusilla (Hedw.), Mitt. 59. Between Broadgreen and Roby ; Harrison — rigida, Schrad. 59. Blackburn; Burnley; Hunt. Nr. Maghull; Wheldon • — ambigua, Angstr. 60. Garstang ; + ; A. Wilson. Scorton ; H. Beesley — abides, De Not. 59. Blackburn; Hunt. Walton ; Wheldon. Burnley ; Schole- field. 60. Lytham; Wheldon. + . W. and W. — mutica, Lindb. 59. Mitton ; Clitheroe ; Chatburn; Wheldon. 60. Nr. Stony- hurst ; nr. Lancaster ; nr. Kirkby LonsJale ; + ; W. and W. — ruralis, Ehrh. 60. Silverdale ; nr. White- well ; Wheldon. 'Rare' * — ruraliformis, Dixon. (T. ruralis var. arenicola, Braithw.) 59. Southport; Hunt. Frequent from Crosby to Southport; Wheldon. 60. Abundant on the sand-hills ; Wheldon — papillosa, Wils. 60. ' Very rare.' Silver- dale ; Nowell. Nr. Heysham ; Whel- don Barbula lurida, Lindb. 60. ' Rare,' Caton ; + ; Wheldon — spadicea, Mitt. 59. Pend/e Hill; Wheldon. 60. Preston ; Ease Gill; + ; W. and W. — recurvifolia, Schimp. 60. Silverdale ; + ; W. and W. — cylindrica, Schimp. 59. Chatburn ; Whel- don. 60. +. W. and W. *— vinealis, Brid. 59. Southport; Marrat. Walton ; + ; Wheldon. 60. Most frequent on the sandhill ; +. W. and W. — sinuosa, Braithw. 60. Silverdale ; Whel- don CLASS V.— CRYPTOGAMIA CELLULARIA (cont.) SUB-CLASS — MUSCINE./E (continued) Order — Musci (continued) Sub-Order IX.— Tortulace* (cont.) Barbula Hornschuchiana, Schultz. 59. New- ton ; W. Wilson. Burnley ; Dearden. Southport; Wheldon. 60. Throng End; nr. Blackpool; W. and W. St. Ami* ; Wheldon — revoluta, Brid. 59. Childwall ; Harrison. Clifton ; Hough End Hall; Buxton's G. Leptodontium flexifolium (Dicks), Hampe. 59. Manchester; Hobson. 60. Nr. Lancaster; Holt. Greygarth Fell; W. andW. +. Clougha ; Wheldon Weisia crispata, C. Mtlll. 60. Confined to the scar limestone of the north, where it is abundant. Silverdale ; Borviick ; Warton ; A. Wilson. Tealand ; Trow- barrotv ; ThrangEnd; + ; Wheldon. Da/ton Crag, W. and W. 69. Grange; A. Wilson, MS. Grows in rock crevices often with Funaria calcarea and Bryum murale, also with Polygonatum offic.,L. rigida, Polyp, calc., Hylocom. rugosum, and Scap. aspera ; Wheldon. SeeJ.ofB. Sept. 1899, p. 375 — squarrosa, C.M. 59. Nr. Parkside ; W. Wilson. Walton ; Wheldon. 60. Coat Banks, Preesall ; Wheldon — microstoma, C.M. 59. Walton ; Wheldon. KersalMoor; Buxton's G. 60. White- well ; F. C. King. Silverdale; W. and W. Preesall; Wheldon — tenuis, C. M. 59. Broughton ; Holland Wild — rupestris, C. M. 59 60. +. W. and W. — verticillata, (L.), Brid. 60. Garstang; A. Wilson. Wash Dub Wood; nr. Abbey stead; W. and W. + Trichostomum crispulum, Bruch. 59. Chat- kurn ; Wheldon. 60. Apparently only on the limestone area. Dalton Crag; -f ; W. and W. — mutabile, Bruch. 59. Dingle; Marrat. Gashing, 1898, Wheldon. 60. Silver- dale ; Lindeth; Wheldon. Lancaster; W. P. Hamilton var. littorale, Dixon. 59. Southport; Cash. Hall Road; Wheldon. 60. Silverdale ; A. Wilson var. cophocarpum, Schimp. 60. Silver- dale ; Wheldon — flavovirens, Bruch. 60. St. Anne's ; Cash. Lytham; Preesall; Heysham ; Wheldon — nitidum, Schimp. 59. Pend/e Hill; Chat- burn (var.) ; Wheldon. 60. Common on the scar limestone, Silverdale ; + ; W. and W. — tortuosum, (L.), Dixon. 60. Frequent. Silverdale; + ;W.andW. Lancaster; W. P. Hamilton. Ease Gill, Leek Fell. 69. Grange ; A. Wilson, MS. var. fragilifolium, Dixon. 60. Ease Gill, 2,000 feet ; + ; W. and W. Pleurochzte squarrosa, Lindb. 60. Limestone rocks near Silverdale ; Wheldon A HISTORY OF LANCASHIRE CLASS V.—CRYPTOGAMIA CELLULARIA («»/.) SUB-CLASS — MUSCINE./E (continued) Order— Musci (continued) Sub-Order X. — Encalyptacez (Only the common species have been found) Sub-Order XI.— Orthotrichaceae Zygodon Mougeotii, B. and S. 59. Fo Edge ; Percival. 60. 'Rare.' Middle Gill, Hindburn; Ease Gill; A. Wilson. 69. Coniston Old Man, 2,630 feet — Stirtoni, Schimp. 60. Limestone rocks nr. Whitewell, March, 1903. W. and W. MS. — conoideus, Hook and Tayl. 59. Man- chester; Hobson. 60. Trees by Lune, K. Lonsdale ; Wash Dub Wood; wood below Whitewell, ' fruiting freely, a rare occurrence' ! 1903. W. and W.MS. Ulota Drummondii, Brid. 60. Tree by the Keer, in Wash Dub Wood; W. and W. — Bruchii, Hornsch. 60. On ash in pot hole on Leek Fell; Docker ; nr. Wray ; A.Wilson. Hindburn ; Wash Dub Wood, with the last sp. ; + ; W. and W. — crispa, Brid. 59. Rainhill ; Higgins and Marrat. 60. Ease Gill; A. Wilson, MS. Orthotrichum rupestre, Schleich. 60. ' Rare,' Silverdale; nr. Leek ; W. and W. Ease Gill; A. Wilson, MS. — anomalum, Hedw. var. saxatile, Milde. 59. Clithene; + ; Wheldon. 60. Ease Gill; Dalton Crag ; + ; W. and W. 69. Grange; A. Wilson MS. — cupulatum, Hoffm. 60. Silverdale ; + ; W. and W. var. nudum, Braithw. 60 . Leek Beck ; A. Wilson. Whitewell ,- W. and W. — leiocarpum, B. and S. 60. Silverdale ; A. Wilson - Lyellii, Hook, and Tayl. 60. Melling ; + ; A. Wilson — rivulare, Turn. 59. Clitheroe, sparingly; Wheldon. 60. Caton ; Hamilton. Preston; Mitton ; Wheldon. Nether Barrow; A. Wilson, MS. + — stramineum, Hornsch. 60. Over Kellet ; Whittington ; Tealand ; A. Wilson. Nr. Cockleach; Wheldon. Nr. Kirkby Lonsdale ; W. and W. — tenellum, Bruch. 60. Nr. Garstang; nr. Arkholme, on ash ; A. Wilson Sub-Order XII. — Schistostegaceae Schistostega osmundacea, Mohr. 59. Between TyUesley and Worsley; Evans. Chad- wick; nr. Bo/tons W. Wilson. Clif- ton Junction ; Hunt Sub-Order XIII.— Splachnaceas Splachnum ampullaceum, L. 59. Prob- ably common on the mosses formerly, but now very rare (Wheldon). Wool- ston Moss; W. Wilson (extinct, Wheldon in litt.). Nr. Blackley ; Bux- ton's G. Unsworth Moss ; Percival CLASS V.—CRYPTOGAMIA CELLULARIA (ant.) SUB-CLASS — MUSCINEJE (continued) Order— Musci (continued) Sub-Order XIII.— Splachnaceae (cont.) Splachnum sphaericum, L. 59. Chat Moss; Grindon. Woolston Moss; W. Wilson. Rochdale; Belfield. Wbiteley Dean; Holt. 60. Greygarth Fell; Botton Head Fell; A. Wilson. O. Wyres- dale; Grizedale Hd. ; Wolfhok Crag; W. and W. Tetraplodon mnioides, B. and S. 59. Rain- ford Moss; Skellon. Wlndle Moss; Higgins; Chat Moss; Grindon ; Wool- ston Moss; W.Wilson. 60. Clougha; Wheldon. Marshaw Fell; A. Wil- son. Cockerham Moss, 1881 ; A. Wilson, perhaps exterminated Sub-Order XIV.— Funariaceae Discelium nudum, Brid. 59. Manchester, 1795 ; Caley. (Probably Boggart Hole C lough, Wheldon). Sailor's Shore, etc. ; Whitehead. So/ton ; Sims. + ; Wheldon in J. of B., January, 1 899. 60. O. Wyreidale; Abbeystead Fell ; + ; W. and W. Ephemerum serratum, Hampe. 59. Liver- pool Bot. Gardens ; Skellon. Walton; Wheldon. Wilgrave ; Dallam ; W. Wilson. 60. Lytham, 1 88 1 ; Whel- don (infrequent) Funaria fascicularis, Schimp. 59. Railbanks, Walton ; Wheldon — Templetoni, Sm. 59. Clifton ; Prestwich; Horsefield — calcarea, Wahlenb. 60. Frequent on limestone in the north, Silverdale ; + ; W. andW. 69. Hamps Fell; A. Wilson, MS. Sub-Order XV.— Meesiace* Amblyodon dealbatus, P. Beauv. 59. Sand- hills, Crosby to Southport ; Marrat (still plentiful, Wheldon, in litt.). 60. Lytham ; St. Anne's, c. fr. ; Wheldon. Nr. Gravel's Clough ; Tarnbrook Fell; A. Wilson. Over Wyresdale ; W. and W. Clougha, 1 88 1 ; Stabler Meesia trichoides, (L.), Spruce. 59. South- port ; Marrat (Wheldon). Sailor's Shore; Percival. Formby (very fine), Freshfield, c. fr., 1903 ; Wheldon in litt. 60. St. Anne's; Wheldon Sub-Order XVII. — Bartramiaceae Catascopium nigritum, Brid. 59. Southport; Higgins. Formby ; B. B. Scott (both confirmed by Wheldon). Freshfield; Captain P.G.Cunliffe. Birkdale ; Cash Bartramia GEderi, Swartz. 60. ' Rare,' Ease Gill; Leek; A. Wilson — ithyphylla, Brid. 60. ' Rare,' Ease Gill; A. Wilson. Greygarth Fell; W. and W. — pomiformis, Hedw. 59. Walton; dying out rapidly. Fazakerley ; Wheldon, + ; 69. Frequent, Garstang; Ease Hill; nr. PilKng; + ; W. and W. 69. Ceniston BOTANY CLASS V.— CRYPTOGAMIA CELLULARIA (coat.) SUB-CLASS — MUSCINEJE (continued') Order — Musci (continued) Sub-Order XVII. — Bartramiaceas (cant.) Philonotis calcarea, Schimp. 59. Formby ; Dr. Braithwaite, Wheldon, and H. Beesley, 1903 ; Wheldon, in litt. 60. Marshaw Fell ; Tarnbnok Fell; above O akenc lough ; all $, W. andW. Breutelia arcuata, Schimp. 59. Nr. Man- chester; Bradbury in Turner's But. G. 1805. 60. Nr. Leek; Middlebarroto; Hindbum; A. Wilson Sub-Order XVIII.— Bryacere Leptobryum pyriforme, (L.), Wils. 59. Formby; Higgins. Clifton Junction; + ; Holt. Ashtm; Southport; Walton; Whel- don. Rusholme ; Cash. Not native in all these, some would be in garden ground, etc. Perhaps native on the sandhills, Wheldon, in litt. 60. Sandhills, Lythatn ; Wheldon Webera elongata, Schwaegr. 59. Shawforth ; Horsfield. 60. 'Rare.' Ease Gill; W.and W. Nr. Garstang; H. Beesley — annotina, Schwaegr. 59. Winviick ; Pad- gate ; W. Wilson. Taunton; Whel- don. Clifton; Holt. BamJordWood; Holt, Whitehead. 60. Tootell Heights; Clougha ; Wheldon. Barnacre ; A. Wilson. Nr.dftw; W.and W. — commutata, Schimp. 59. Pendle Hill; Wheldon — erecta(Roth.),Correns. 60. TatkamMoor, Hindburn; W. and W., September, 1902 Plagiobryum Zierii, Lindb. 60. < Rare,' V. Ease Gill, 1,500 feet ; A. Wilson Bryum filiforme, Dicks. 59. Clifton Viaduct; Buxton's G. 60. Lower Ease Gill, on Silurian rocks ; A. Wilson — pendulum, Schimp. 59. Common on the sandhills from Hightown to Southfort ; W. and W. 60. Frequent, Black- pool to Lancaster and Garstang; + ; W. and W. — Warneum, Bland. 59. Southport ; Mar- rat, W. Wilson, still plentiful, Wheldon, 1903. BirkJale; Wild, abundant in 1903, Wheldon. Form- by ; Freshjield; still plentiful, 1903, Wheldon. 60. St. Anne's; Whel- don — calophyllum, R. Br. 59. Southport; Marrat, still there, Wheldon, 1903. Taunton; Gordon and Whitehead. Ainsdale; Wheldon, plentiful still, 1903 — Marratii, Wils. 59. Southport; Ainsdale; Marrat, 1854 ' I think this is now lost as a Lan- cashire plant,' Wheldon, in litt. (Phytologist, Dec., 1858, pp. 638- 643, ibid. April, 1859, pp. 104- 107) 1 73 CLASS V.— CRYPTOGAMIA CELLULARIA (cont.) SUB-CLASS — MUSCINEJE (continued) Order — Musci (continued) Sub-Order XVIII.— Bryacese (coat.) Bryum lacustre, Brid. 59. Taunton ; Schimper, Whitehead, and Gordon. Freshjield; Ainsdale; Southport; Hunt. Still occurs in all these localities, Wheldon in litt. 1903 ; also a little seen at Birkdale, 1903. 60. 'Rare.' St. Anne's ; Lytham, c fr., Wheldon — inclinatum, Bland. 59. Sandhills, Crosby to Southport; Marrat. Ashton-under- Lyne; Whitehead. Chadbum; Whel- don. 60. Frequent, but less so than B. pendulum ; W. and W. — uliginosum, B. and S. 59. Southport; Wood, 1843, Marrat, W. Wilson, still there and at Formby, Wheldon in litt. 1903. Nr. Manchester; Wood. Sailor's Shore ; Percival. Taunton; Prestviich; Hunt. 60. St. Anne's; Wheldon — turbinatum, Schwaegr. 59. Scar Wheel, Broughton; Dr. Wood. Clifton June- ton ; Wild. Adams Gordon and Whitehead ! — pseudo-triquetrum, Schwaegr. 59. Rain- ford Moss; + ; W. and W. etc. 60. Common on the fells ; W. and W. var. compactum, Schimp. 59. South- port, 1863 ; Whitehead. Birkdale ; Ainsdale; Wheldon — neodamense, Itz. 59. Southport, Dr. Wood, 1859 ; Percival and Rogers, June, 1875, c". fr. Ainsdale, 1860. Hb. Brit. Mus. (young fruit). Formby; (fr. 1905.) Freshjield; Wheldon, who showed it to Dr. Braithwaite in 1903 — affine, Lindb. 59. Oxford; W. Wilson. Eccles; OldTrafford; Hunt. Taun- ton ; Whitehead. 60. Longridge Fell; Wheldon. Greygarth Fell; A. Wilson — Donianum, Grev. 59. Wimoick Quarry ; W. Wilson. Quarry, nr. Kirkby ; Wheldon — alpinum, Huds. 60. O. Wyresdale ; Tarnbrook Fell; Marskaw Fell; W. and W. Ease Gill; A. Wilson. +. Clougha ; Wheldon in litt. — roseum, Schreb. 59. Bootle ; Skellon (not there now, Wheldon in litt.) Hightown, under Salix repens ; Whel- don. Blackley; Hobson, 1839. 60. ' Very rare ' and barren. Nr. Fair- haven ; Wheldon. Silverdale ; A. Wilson. 69. Tewbarrow, in mossy limestone rock crevices ; A. Wil- son, MS. Mnium serratum, Schrad. 59. Between Birkdale and Ainsdale; Marrat. BamfordWood; Holt. Clifton Junc- tion (Wheldon in J. o/B.). 60. Dale Gill, Hindburn; A. Wilson. Ease Gill; Near Whitwell ; W. and W. Longridge ; H. Beesley IO A HISTORY OF LANCASHIRE CLASS V.— CRYPTOGAMIA CELLULARIA (font.) SUB-CLASS — MUSCINE./E (continued) Order — Musci (continued) Sub-Order XVIII.— Bryace* (cont.) Mnium orthorrhynchum, B. and S. 60. ' Rare.' Ease Gill; A. Wilson — stellare, Reich. 59. Between Birkdale and Ainsdale; Marrat. 60. Rocks by the Brock; A. Wilson. Hoddet Valley ; Wheldon — subglobosum, B. and S. 59. Ashton ; Reddish; Whitehead. + ; Wheldon in J. ofB.}3.t\. 1899. 60. Fairsnape Clougb; c. fr.; Wilson. Blaze Moss; +; W. and W. Sub-Order XIX. — Fontinalaceae Fontinalis antipyretica, L. var. gracilis, Schimp. 60. Leek Beck ; Ease Gill ; A. Wilson. Roeburndale; W. andW. — squamosa, L. 59. Blackley ; Miller. 60. ' Rare.' Udale ; W. and W. Leek Beck; A. Wilson Sub-Order XX. — Cryphseaceae [Obs. C. heteromalla, Mohr., has never been found in Lancashire] Sub-Order XXII.— Hookeriacese Ptcrygophyllum lucens, (L.), Brid. 59. 60. Not common, fruiting in some upland doughs ; W. and W. Sub-Order XXIII. — Leucodontaceae Myrinia pulvinata, Schimp. 59. Jackson's Boat; Buxton's G. ' Now lost.' J. A. W. Antitrichia curtipendula, Brid. 'Apparently very rare." 60. On a wall in Wash Dub Wood; near Leek ; W. and W. Sub-Order XXIV.— Leskeaceaj Heterocladium heteropterum, B. and S. 59. Bamford Wood; Whitehead. Bo/tan ; Makin (Dixon). Rowley Moor; Buxton's G. Jumbles; Percival and Rogers. 60. Nr. Buttons W.andW. Nr. Hindburn ; Clougba ; Wheldon Thuidium recognitum,Lindb. 59. Ni.CAat- burn ; Wheldon. 60. 'On the lime- stone only, rare.' Silvera'ale ; +; W. and W. — delicatulum, Mitt. 60. Lower Ease Gill, July, 1903. A. Wilson in litt. Sub-Order XXV.— Hypnacex Climacium dendroides, (L.), Web. and Mohr. 59, 60. Common, but very rarely found in fruit. (Hightown ; Fl. L'pool) Cylindrotheciumconcinnum(De Not) Schimp. 60. Silverdales Wheldon. Da/ton (>«#,• A. Wilson Orthothecium intricatum, B. and S. 60. 'Rare and barren.' Nr. Leek; nr. Silverdale ; A. Wilson CLASS V.— CRYPTOGAMIA CELLULARIA (cont.) SUB-CLASS — MUSCINE^; (continued) Order— Musci (continued) Sub-Order XXV.— Hypnacea; (cmt.) Brachythecium glareosum, B. and S. 59. Whitehead and Grindon. 60. W. andW. — albicans, B. and S. 59. Whitehead and Grindon. 60. W. and W. — salebrosum, B. and S. ' Rare.' 59. 60. Nr. Preston ; H. Beeslcy var. palustre, Schimp. 59. Crossens ; Wheldon. Simmwitd ; Wheldon and Beesley. 60. St. Anne's; Wheldon — rivulare, B. and S. 59. Whitehead and Grin- don. 60. ' Frequent ' ; W. and W. — velutinum, B. and S. var. intricatum, Hedw. 60. Catforth; H. Beesley var. praelongum, B. and S. 60. Lytham ; H. Beesley. (Both confirmed by Dr. Braithwaite) — populeum, B. and S. 59. Whitehead and Grindon. 60. Not very common ; W. and W. — plumosum, B. and S. 59. Whitehead and Grindon ; 60. Frequent in east and fruiting; W.andW. — caespitosum, (Wils.), Dixon. 59. Dal/am ; Longford; W. Wilson. ' Extinct.' Chemicals in refuse in stream ; Whel- don Hyocomium flagellare, B. and S. 59. Bamford ; Whiteley Dean ; Holt. Clithene ; Wanton; Wheldon. Rowley Moor ; Buxton's G. 60. Frequent in east by streams, Ease Gill; + ; W. and W. Eurhynchium speciosum, Schimp. 59. Nr. Aintree ; Wheldon ; 60. Nr. Preston ; H. Beesley — hians (Hcdw.), Lesq and James. 60. Caton; Wheldon — abbreviatum, Schimp. 60. Silverdale; Wheldon — tenellum, Milde. 60. Silverdale; Wheldon. Scorton; H. Beesley. 69. On lime- stone rocks, Grange ; A. Wilson, MS. — megapolitanum, Milde. 59. Crosby; Harrison, W. Wilson. Birkdale; Wheldon. 60. ' Rare,' St. Anne's ; Fairhaven; c fr. ; Wheldon Plagiothecium depressum (Bruch), Dixon. 60. ' Rare and sterile,' U. Roeburndale ; A. Wilson — Borrerianum, Spruce. 59. Bamford ; Holt. 60. Common ; W. and W. 69. Coniston var. collinum, Wils. Clougha ; W. and W. (The Coniston plant should perhaps be placed here.) — pulchellum, B. and S. 59. Burnley ; Dearden. 60. ' Rare,' Clougha ; W. andW. Amblystegium Sprucei, B. and S. 59. SoutJ)- fort_;_Wood, 1853 " v.), Lindb. 59. Un damp sricks in a ditch near Aintree ; Whel- (Hedw.), On damt don. Paddington ; Wilson. (A rac cale, P. de Beauv.) 74 BOTANY CLASS V.—CRYPTOGAMIA CELLULARIA (tout.) SUB-CLASS— MUSCINE/E (continued) Order — Musc't (continued) Sub-Order XXV.— Hypnaceae (cent.) Amblystegium irriguum, B. and S. 60. ' Rare." NT. Lancaster ; Hamilton. Nr. Silver- dale; A. Wilson — Juratzkanum, Schimp. 59. Birkdale ; nr. Aintree; Wheldon. 60. Nr. Glas- son ; Wheldon. Lea ; Beesley — fluviatile, B. and S. 60. Leighton Beck ; on stones in Lune below Kirkby Lonsdale; Ease Gill; A. Wilson. Halton; W.andW. — filicinum, De Not. var. Whiteheadii, Wheldon. ^.Southfort ; +; Whel- don. Rainford; Beesley and Wheldon. 60. Between Lytham and St. Anne's; Wheldon. Distr. Haddington ; Dixon. Tar. elatum, Schimp. Soutbport, 1882 ; Holt A. CAMPYLIUM Hypnum — elodes, Spruce. 59. Soulhport ; W. Wilson, Marrat. Birkdale; Burscough ; + ; Wheldon. 60. ' Rare,' St. Anne's ; Wheldon. Hatves Water; Silverdale ; A. Wilson — polygamum, Schimp. $<).Warbreck Moor; Wheldon in litt. 60. Mostly on sandhills, St. Anne's ; + ; Wheldon. Ribbleton ; nr. Preston, not sandhill; Beesley B. ' HARPIDIUM ' (' Harpidioid ' Hypna, after Renauld, arranged by J. A. Wheldon) Hypnum aduncum, Hedw. Group typicum, Ren. forma falcata, Ren. 59. Wheldon and Holt. 60. Wheldon forma gracilescens, Ren. 59. W. Wilson. 60. Wheldon forma tenuis, Ren. 59. Holt var. aquaticum, Sanio. 59. W. Wilson, Wheldon. 60. H. Beesley var. diversifolia, Ren. 59. Wheldon. 60. Wheldon Group Kneifii, Ren. var. polycarpon, Bland. 59. Wheldon. 60. Wheldon var. attenuatum, Boul. 59. Wheldon. 60. A. Wilson var. intermedium, Schimp. 59. Whel- don, Holt. 60. A Wilson f. penna, Sanio. 59. Wheldon f. laxifolia, Ren. 59. Wheldon, Holt. 60. H. Beesley Group pseudo-fluitans, Sanio var. paternum, Sanio. 59. Wheldon, Holt. 60. H. Beesley f. gracilis. 59. Wheldon CLASS V.-CRYPTOGAMIA CELLULARIA (cant.) SUB-CLASS— MUSCINEJE (continued) Order — Musci (continued) Group pseudo-fluitans (cent.) Hypnum Sendtneri, Schimp. ' In marshes near the sea, but also inland.' f. vulgaris, Sanio. 59. Wheldon. 60. Wheldon f. trivialis, Sanio. 59. Renauld in Hum. Muse. Gall. p. 374 — Wilsoni, Schimp. Southport (locus classi- cus), W. Wilson. Birkdale ; Ainsdale ; W. Wilson. Still abundant in these localities, Wheldon. 60. St. Annis ; Wheldon var. hamatum, Schimp. 59. Wheldon. 60. Wheldon Obs. This rare moss, named by Schimper in honour of the well- known Lancashire botanist Wm. Wil- son, has only been found in three other localities. — lycopodioides, Schwaegr. 59. Ainsdale ; Soutbport; W. Wilson, Marrat, etc. 'Where it still grows abundantly, and occasionally fruits.' Formby ; Wheldon. 60. St. Anne's ; Wheldon — uncinatum, Hedw. ' Frequent in sub- alpine places, not a marsh plant.' f. plumosa, Ren. 60. Nr. Preston ; H. Beesley. Grey garth Fell ; A. Wilson — fluitans, L. Not common, except in parts of East Lancashire. 60. Lower Bleas- dale; + ; W.andW. Group amphibium, Ren. var. Jeanbernati. 60. O. Wyresdale ; Greygarth Fell; + ; W. and W. f. tenella, Ren. 60. Bleasdale Fell; + ; W. and W. f. condensata, Ren. 60. White Moss, Hindburn ; W. and W. var. atlanticum, Ren. 59. Pendle Hill; Wheldon ; 60. Wyresdale ; Greygarth Fell; + ; W. and W. var. elatum, Ren. et Arnell. 60. Cocker- ham Moss ; W. and W. var. gracile, Boulay. 59. Pendle Hill; Wheldon. 60. Longridge Fell; + ; W. and W. var. setiforme, Ren. 60. Goodber Com- mon ; A. Wilson var. Payoti, Ren. [60. Greenbank Fell; W. and W. ' Not typical.'] Group falcatum, Ren. var. falcatum, Schimp. 59. Pendle Hill; Wh. 60. Nr. Garstang; + ; W. and W. var. ovale, Ren. MS. in litt. ad Whel- don. 59. Pendle Hill; Wheldon. 60. Greygarth Fell, \ 800 ft. ; A. Wilson Group exannulatum, Ren. (H. exan- nulatum, Gtlemb.) 60. Calder Galley ; + ; A. Wilson. Not very common 75 A HISTORY OF LANCASHIRE CLASS V.— CRYPTOGAMIA CELLULARIA (cent.) SUB-CLASS — MUSCINE^E (continued) Order — Musci (continued) Group exannulatum, Ren. (continue*/) var. pinnatum, Boul. 59. PendkHlll; Wheldon. 60. H'mdburn ; + ; W. andW. f. acuta, Sanio. 60. W. and W. f. stenophylloides, Ren. 60. W. and W. f. polyclada,Ren.MS. 60. W.andW. var. falcifolium, Ren. 60. O. ffyres- dale ; W.andW. (also f. inundata, Ren.) var. brachydictyon, Ren. 60. Long- ridge Fell; + ; W. and W. var. purpurascens, Schimp. 60. Calder Valley; + ; A. Wilson. 69. Bar- row ; Mrs. Monsarrat. var. molluscum, Sanio. 60. Crag Wood, near Chugha ; Wheldon in litt. ' new to Britain.' Sub-group Rots, Ren. 59. PendleHill; Wheldon (a form) var. falcifolium, Ren. 59. Simonswood Moss ; Marrat. Martin Mere, near Southport; Wheldon. 60. St. dime's; + ; W. and W. f. viridis, Boul. 60. Above Mar- shaw ; A. Wilson f. inundata, Ren. 60. O. Wyresdale ; W. and W. verniscosum, Lindb. 60. Bog nr. Decker; A. Wilson var. majus, Lindb. 60. Bog nr. Docker; A. Wilson revolvens, Swartz. f. typica, Ren. 59. Pendk Hill; Southport; Ainsdale; Wheldon. 60. St. Anne's ; Roebun:- dale ; + ; W. and W. var. Cossoni, Ren. 59. Southport; Holt. Birkdale ; Wheldon (f). 60 Docker ; U. Roeburndale ; W. and W. f. falcata (Sanio), Ren. 60. Udale ; W. and W. var. intermedium (Lindb.), Ren. 59. Soutbport; Whiteley Dean; Holt. Ainsdale; W. Wilson. (Still there, Wheldon.) 60. Leighton Beck; W. andW. . falcata, Sanio. 59. Southport; Holt. Formby; Wheldon scorpioides, L. ' Deep bogs, either siliceous or calcareous, rather rare.' 59. South- port ; Marrat. Nr. Todmorden ; Nowell. 60. Siherdale; + ; W. and W. giganteum, Schimp. 60. St. Anne's ; Ease Gill; nr. Docker; A. Wilson falcatum, Brid. 59. Clifton ; Wild, Dixon. Burnley; Scholefield. 60. Berwick Swamp; Hawes Water; + ; W. and W. intermedium, Lindb. 59. Ainsdale ; W. Wilson. Southport; Holt. 60. Udale ; W. and W. Leigbton Beck ; A. Wilson CLASS V.— CRYPTOGAMIA CELLULARIA (co«t.) SUB-CLASS — MUSCINE.»: (continued) Order — Musci (continued) Sub-group Rotae, Ren. (cont.) Hypnum intermedium, Lindb. (continued) f. falcata, Sanio. 59. Southport; Holt. Formby; Wheldon1 c. DREPANIUM — Patient!*, Lindb. 59. Newton; War- rington ; W. Wilson. Hale ; Marrat. 60. Ease Gill; Warton ; Garstang; Lower Bleasdale ; A. Wilson [ — crista-castrensis, L. 59. Whitworth ; Grin- don. ' Error,' Holt, etc.] D. LlMNOBIUM — palustre, L. 59. Wheldon. 60. Common and fruiting ; W. and W. var. hamulosum, B. and S. 60. Wyres- dale ; Wheldon — ochraceum, Turn. 59. Whiteley Dean; Holt. 60. O. Wyresdale; + ; W. and W. Ease Gill; A. Wil- son var. flaccidum, Milde. 60. H'mdburn ; Marshaw Fell; W. and W. var. complanatum, Milde. 60. Hind- burn ; A. Wilson E. CALLIERGON — stramineum, Dicks. 59. Prestw ich ; Per- cival. Simons-wood; Marrat. 60. 'Plentiful,' Ease Gill; Hindburn ; A.Wilson; +. — cordifolium, Hedw. 59. Several places ; c. fr. in two ; + ; Wheldon. 60. Siherdale ; + ; W. and W. — sarmentosum, Wahlenb. 60. North side of Marshaw Fell, alt. 650 ft. only ; ' a remarkably low altitude for this moss.' W. and W. — Schreberi, Willd. 59, 60, 69. Hylocomium brevirostre (Ehrh.), B. and S. 59. Clitkeroe; Worston ; Wheldon. Trovib arrow ; Wheldon. Gatebarrow ; nr. Leighton Beck; A. Wilson. Tarnbrook Wood ; H. Beesley — loreum (L.), B. and S. [59. Waver tree ; Marrat.] 60. Abundant, locally. Udale ; + ; W. and W. — rugosum (Ehrh.), De Not. 60. ' Very fine and locally abundant on the scar limestone in the north, unknown elsewhere.' Thrang End; Troto- barrow ; Da/ton Crag ; Siherdale to Hatves Water ; W. and W. Leighton Beck; A. Wilson. 69. Tewbarrow, very fine ; A. Wilson, MS. IThe last two species are included under ' Harpidium ' by Dixon, but not by Renauld and Wheldon, who place falcatum under Cratoneuron. BOTANY CLASS V.—CRYPTOGAMIA CELLULARIA (cent.) SUB-CLASS — MUSCINEJE (continued') Qrder — Hepaticte Sub-Order I. — Jungermamaceas Frullania Tamarisci (L.), Dumort. 60. Oliver- dale ; Ease Gill; + ; W. and W. — fragilifolia, Taylor. 60. Ease Gill; Da/ton Crag; W. and W. Lejeunia Mackaii (Hook), Spreng. 60. Over Kellet ,- A. Wilson. Tealand ; Woodwett ; Trowbarrow ; Dalton Crag; W. and W. — calcarea, Lib. 60. Ease Gill, 1905. W. and W. in litt. — Rossettiana, Massal. 60. Leefers Wood, Kellet Seeds, 1905 ; W. and W. in litt. — ulicina (Taylor), Spruce. 60. Wood below Whitewell, March, 1903 ; W. and W. A. Wilson in litt. Radula complanata (L.), Dum. ' Rare,' Silver- dale ; between Caton and Aughton ; W. and W. Porella laevigata (Schrad.). 60. Silverdale ; Trowbarrow; W. and W. Blepharostoma trichophyllum, (L.), Dumort. 60. Clougha; Wheldon Trichocolea tomentella (Ehrh.), Nees. 59. Rochdale; G. A. Holt. 60. Wood- well; Ease Gill; Colder Valley ; + ; W. and W. Lepidozia cupressina (Swartz.), Pearson. 60. Clougha ; G. Stabler. Long Crag, O. Wyresdale ; ' always associated with L. Pearson!, M. Taylori, Bazz. trilobata, and D. fuscescens,' W. and W. — Pearsoni, Spruce. 60. ' Frequent on higher grit-stone moorlands,' Hell Crag, O. Wyresdale ; -f- ; W. and W. — setacea (Web.), var. setularioides, Nees. 59. Simonswood Moss; Wheldon. 60. Cockerham Moss; Jones and Whel- don Bazzania trilobata (L.). 60. Clougha; + ; W. and W. Hlndburn ; A. Wilson Kantia submersa, Arnell. 60. Cockerham Moss; W. and W. /. oj Bot. January, 1903 — Sprengelii (Mart.). 59. Walton ; Kirkby ; Rainford ; Wheldon. 60. Longrldge c. fr. ; Wheldon. + ; W. and W. — arguta (Mont, et Nees), Lindb. 59. Ormskirk ; Wheldon. 60. Quern- more; Colder Wood, nr. Garstang ; W. and W. Cephalozia catenulata (Htlben) Lindb. 59. Kirkby, in a damp quarry ; Wheldon — lunnlaefolia, Dumort. 59. Carr, nr. Netherton; Wheldon. 60. Cocker- ham Moss; Kempk End; Clougha; + ; W. and W. — Lammersiana (Huben). 59. Kirkby ; Si- monswood ; Wheldon. 60. Pilling; Wheldon. Upper Grizedale ; A. Wilson. Cockerham Moss, C. per. W. and W. CLASS V.—CRYPTOGAMIA CELLULARIA (cont.) SUB-CLASS — MUSCINEJE (continued) Order — Hepaticte (continued) Sub-Order I. — Jungermaniaceae (cent.) Cephalozia connivens (Dicks.), Lindb. 59. Chat Moss ; W. H. Pearson. Simons- wood Moss; Wheldon. 60. White- stone Chugh; W. and W. in litt. Longridge Fell; Wheldon — fluitans (Nees), Spruce. 59. Barton Moss; W. H. Pearson. Rainford Moss; Wheldon. 60. Tarnbrook Fell; Cocker- ham Moss; + ; W. and W. Ark- holme Moor ; A. Wilson — heterostipa, Spruce. (See Jungermania inflata, var.) Dr. Spruce is said to have changed his opinion in the latter part of his life regarding the position of this plant — Sphagni (Dicks.), Spruce. 59. Whiteley Dean; Holt. Rainford Moss; S<- monswood Moss ; Wheldon. 60. ' Rather rare,' Uda/e ; + ; W. and W. — denudata (Nees), Spruce. 59. Clifton Junction; C. J. Wild. 60. Tarn- brook Fell; A. Wilson Scapania compacta (Roth.), Dumort. 60. Arkholme Moor ; Wash Dub Wood; A. Wilson — resupinata (L.), Dumort. 60. ' Frequent.' Tarnbrook Fell; + ; W. and W. var. minor. 60. Long Crag; + ; com- mon on the fells, W. and W. — aspera, Mttll. and Bern. 60. ' Locally abundant on limestone rocks,' Silver- dale ; Longridge Fell ; + ; W. and W. 69. Grange ; A. Wilson, MS. — nemorosa (L.), Dumort. 59. Bamford Wood; Clifton Junction; Holt. Knows- ley ; Higgins and Marrat. Nether- ton ; Wheldon. 60. Greygarth Fell ; W. and W. Warton ; Upper Grize- dale ; A. Wilson — purpurascens (Hook.), Taylor, MSS. 60. Longridge Fell; Wheldon. Clougha ; + ; W. and W. Hindburn ; A. Wilson. 69. Coniston Old Man — irrigua, (Nees), Dumort. 59. Bog nr. Netherton ; Wheldon. 60. £amacrt,nr. Garstang; Greygarth Fell; A. Wilson — curta (Mart.), Dumort. 59. Barton Moss ; Dr. Carrington. 60. Ease Gill ; W. and W. 69. Coniston Old Man up to 2630 ft. Diplophyllum obtusifolium (Hook.), Dumort. 59. Damp sandstone rocks, nr. Kirkby; Wheldon Lophocolea cuspidata, Limpr. 59. Nr. Formby; Wheldon. 60. Wall, nr. Leek; A. Wilson. Leagram Hall; Wheldon — heterophylla (Schrad.), Dumort. 59. 60. ' Very common,' W. and W. Chiloscyphus polyanthus (L.), Corda. 59. 60. < Very common,' W. and W. var. pallescens (Schrad.). 59. Bamford Wood; Reddish; Rainford Moss; Netherton ; Wheldon. 60. Nr. PilRttF; Wheldon 77 A HISTORY OF LANCASHIRE CLASS V.—CRYPTOGAMIA CELLULARIA (cont.) SUB-CLASS — MUSCINE.S: (continued) Order — Hepaticte (continued) Sub-order I. — Jungermaniacea; (cont.) Mylia Taylor! (Hook.), B. Gr. 60. O. Wyres- dale ; Mars haw Fell; Long Crag; Tarnbrook Fell; + ; W. and W. Greygarth Fell, 20506. — anomala (Hook.). 59. Barton Moss ; Pear- son. 60. White Moss; Hindburn; Cockerham Moss ; W. and W. Plagiochila spinulosa (Dicks.), Dumort. 60. Clougha ; Halton ; W. and W. Grey- garth Fell; Wheldon. Ease GUI. 69. Coniston. +. Jungermania cordifolia, Hooker. 60. Udale ; Ease Gill: Tarnbrook Fell ; + ; W. and W. — riparia, Tayl. 59. Bamford Wood; G. A. Holt — inflata, Huds. var. laxa, Carr. 59. S<- monswoodMoss ; Beesleyand Wheldon var. heterostipa (Spruce), Lindb. Tarn- brook Fell; Wheldon. Greygarth Fell ; 21 Oct. 1903 — turbinata, Raddi. 59. Southport; G. E. Hunt and Dr. Carrington Obs. Recorded as J. affinis, Wils. Its rediscovery would be interesting. 60. Nr. Wennington ; W. and W. — sphaerocarpa, Hook. 60. Kemple End ; Wheldon. Hindburn ; + ; W. and W. — Flcerkii, W. and M. 60. Commonest ' barbata ' form, Wheldon in lit. var. Naumaniana, Nees. 60. Heights Wood; Wheldon — barbata, Schmidel. 60. Much rarer than J. Flcerkii, but frequent. Hindburn ; Udale; +. W. and W. — Lyoni, Tayl. 60. Clougha ; Wheldon. Greygarth Fell; W. and W. Ease Gill — gracilis, Schleich. 60. Clougha; Udale; O. Wyresdale ; + ; W. and W. — incisa, Schrad. 60. Clougha Pike; Whel- don — capitata, Hooker. 60. Udale ; W. and W. — bicrenata, Schmid. 59. Whiteley Dean, nr. Hollingworth Lake ; G. A. Holt — ventricosa, Dicks. 59. Bamford Wood; Clifton Junction; Holt. 60. W. and W. 69. — minuta, Crantz. 60. Clougha; Hell Crag; Great dough ; Tarnbrook F. ; + ; W. andW. — crenulata, Sm. 60. ' Very frequent,' nr. Garstang ; Ease Gill ; + ; W. and W. Eucalyx obovata (Nees), Lindb. 59. Bam- ford Wood; Clifton Junction; Holt. 60. Udale s + ; W. and W. Thrushgill Fell; Ease Gill; A. Wil- son Nardia compressa (Hook.), B. Gr. 60. Long- ridge Fell; nr. Wolfhole Crag; Hay- lot Fell; W. and W. CLASS V.—CRYPTOGAMIA CELLULARIA (cont.) SUB-CLASS — MUSCINEJE (continued) Order — Hepaticte (continued) Sub-order I. — Jungermaniaceas (cont.) Nardia silvrettas (Gottsche), Pears. 59. Gor- pley dough, Todmorden ; G. A. Holt 'This locality is within the Lanca- shire area,' being 3 miles S.W. of Todmorden. Albert Wilson in litt. - Marsupella emarginata (Ehrh.), Dumort. 60. Udale ; + ; W. and W. Saccogyna viticulosa (L.), Dumort. 59. Bamford Wood; C. J. Wild. 60. Ease Gill; W. and W. in litt. 1905. ' r.r.' Fossombronia caespitiformis, De Not. 59. Taunton; Whitelegge. Clifton Junc- tion; Cheetham Hill; Holt — pusilla (L.), Dumort. 59. Bowker Bank ; C. J. Wild var. ochrospora, Lindb. Wintvick ; W. Wilson. Eccles ; Dr. Carrington Petalophyllum Ralfsii, (Wils.), Gottsche. 59. Southport; Dr. Carrington, C. J. Wild, W. H. Pearson Moerckia (Dikena) hibernica (Hook.), Gottsche. var. Wilsoniana, Gottsche. 59. Southport; Dr. Carrington, 1863. C. J. Wild, 1882. W. H. Pearson, Crosby to Southport; Wilson and Marrat. Formby ; Jones and Whel- don, August, 1905 For synomyms see Du Mortier, Hep. Eur. pp. 1 36-7, and later works Blasia pusilla, L. 59. Daisy Nook; Sailor's Shore; Holden dough; Whitehead. 60. Caton Moor; + ; W. and W. TathamBeck; A.Wilson Pellia Neesiana, (Gottsche). 60. Hindburn; Gravelfs dough ; Greygarth Fell; W. and W. Whiteray Gill, Hindburn; A. Wilson — calycina (Tayl.), Nees. 59. Southport; Rainford; Walton; Wheldon. 60. Longridge; St. Jnne's ; Wheldon. Hindburn ; Arkholme ; A. Wilson Aneura palmata (Hedw.), Dumort. 59. Park Bridge; R.Roberts. (Fl. Ashton and Pearson's Hep. 45 1) — multifida (L.), Dumort. 59. Walton Junc- tion ; Formby; Wheldon. 60. Nr. Stonyhurst ; nr. Loud Lower Bridge ; Wheldon — latifrons, Lindb. 59. Walton; Wheldon — sinuata (Dicks.). Dumort. 59. Bamford Wood; Clifton Junction ; Whitehead. Walton; Rainford; Netherton; Wheldon — pinguis (L ), Dumort. 59. Taunton; Cheet- ham Hill; CKfton Junction; White- head. Walton; Formby; Southport; Pendle Hill; Wheldon. 60. 'Fre- quent on the fells.' O. Wyresdale ; + ; W. and W. Metzgeria pubescens (Schrank), Raddi. 60. Silverdale; Over Kellet ; + ; W. and W. Ease Gill; A. Wilson — conjugata, Lindb. 60. Throng End; Wheldon BOTANY CLASS V.—CRYPTOGAMIA CELLULARIA (cont.) SUB-CLASS — MUSCINEJE (continued) Order — Hepaticx (continued) Sub-order II. — Marchantiaceae Reboulia hemispherica (L.), Raddi. 59. South- port; Crosby; Marrat. Nr. West Derby ; Harrison. Churcbtown ; Wheldon. 60. Middlebarrow ; Leek Fell; A.Wilson. Da/tan Crag ; Bur- wick; Whitewell ; W. and W. Chomocarpon quadratus (Scop.), Lindb. 59. Sand-hills, Formby; Soutbfort ; Wh. 60. Wash Dub Wood; Gravel! s dough; Dolphinholme ; + ; W. and W. There are two forms in the county ; for description see Lindberg's last work. C. commutatus is an arctic plant. Lindberg also corrects the spelling of the generic name of Corda CLASS V.—CRYPTOGAMIA CELLULARIA (cent.) SUB-CLASS — MUSCINE/E (continued) Order — Hepatic* (continued) Sub-order II. — Marchantiaceae (cont.) Lunularia cruciata (L.), Dumort. 60. Between H a/ton zndS/yne; Wheldon. Garstang; A. Wilson. Nr. Hurst Green; W. & W Sub-order III. — Ricciaceae Riccia glauca, L. 59. Walton ; Aintree ; Whel- don. 60. Nr. Marlon Mere, 1905. Wheldon in litt. var. minima. 59. C. J. Wild — Lescuriana, Aust. 60. Limest. rocks, nr. Silverdale, 1904 ; W. and W. in litt. Ricciella fluitans (L.), Braun. 59. Ashton- under-Lyne ; ]. E. Sunderland, J. T. Newton. Moston ; R. Lees. Reddish Canal ; Holt. Pearson's Hep. rep. Sub-order IV. — Anthocerotaceae Anthoceros punctatus, L. 59. Formby ; Ain- tree; Wheldon SUB-DIVISION AND CLASS.— CHARACE/E ORDER CHARES Chara fragilis, Desv. A. Bennett ! in litt. 59. H. Searle, Hb. Ar. Bennett. 1882. J.ofB. March, 1885, pp. 8 1 -8 3 . West Kirby ; C. T. Green. Reddish ; + ; Whitehead, Wheldon. 60. Silverdale ; Leek; Petty. Nr. Leighton Beck, Silverdale; A. Wilson. 69. VrsvAck Tarn; Miss Hodgson — aspera, Willd. A. Bennett ! in litt. 60. Canal nr. Cabus, July, 1901. H. Beesley, W. and W. — contraria, Ktttz. Lancashire ; A. Bennett ! in litt. 59. Birkdale, 1898, 'abundant.' Southport ; Ainsdale, ' sparingly ; ' Wheldon — hispida, L. 59. H. Searle, 1884. J.ofB. March, 1885. Ponds on Caton Moss ; Buxton's G. App. Nr. Birkdak ; Wheldon. 60. Silverdale, 1890 ; C. Bailey — vulgaris, L. A.Bennett ! in litt. 59. Buxton's G. App. 60. Stonyhurst ; Croushaw Reservoir; quarry nr. Leagram Mill ; Fl. Stony hurst var. longibracteata, Kutz. 59. H. Searle, 1882. /. ofB. March, 1885. Nr. Crossens ; nr. Wal- ton: Wheldon. Guidebridge ; Whitehead. 60. Between Blackpool and St. Anne's ; Wheldon ORDER CHARES (continued) Chara vulgaris, L. (continued") var. papillata, Wallr. 59. H. Searle, 1882. Mouth of Alt; Wheldon — Braunii, Gmelin. Lancashire ; ' probably intro- duced, A. Bennett ' ! in litt. (with cotton from Egypt probably, J. C. Melvill, in litt. 59. Canal at Reddish; Whitehead, Armitage, Wheldon ORDER NITELLE^E Tolypella glomerata, Leonh. Lancashire ; A. Bennett ! in litt. 59. Birkdale ; Wheldon. 60. Nr. Lan- caster, 1900,- Wheldon — intricata, Leonh. 60. Canal nr. Cabus; W. and W. Nitella flexilis, Ag. or N. opaca, Ag. 59. Chorlton Fields. 60. Abundant in Grizedale Reservoir ; ' not yet found in fruit,' W. and W. — opaca, Agardh. Lancashire ; A. Bennett ! in litt. 59. Waterhouses; Park Bridge; Filton Hill; Whitehead. 60. Garstang; A. Wilson. 69. T. Hebden. J. ofB. March, 1885 SUB-DIVISION AND CLASS.— ALG^E A. FRESH WATER In the Appendix to Buxton's Botanical Guide to environs of Manchester (16 miles radius), 1849, there are a few records by Professor Wm. C. Williamson, F.R.S., and Mr. Joseph Sidebotham. The following list contains all the species named therein, very little having been added since so far as is known. There must be upwards of a thousand species of F. W. Algas, including diatoms, in the whole county. The meagre lists given below will show how much might be done. B. G. App. = Buxton's Guide Appendix. CLASS FLORIDE.E Batrachospermum moniliforme, Roth. 59. Reddish ; + ; B. G. App. CLASS CHLOROPHYCE^E Coleochaste scutata, Breb. 59. In a pond in Victoria Park ; B. G. App. CEdogonium Rothii (Le Cl.), Pringsh. 59. Victoria Park; B. G.App. * = Additions since B. G. App. 1849. CLASS CHLOROPHYCE^E (continued) Bulbochaete setigera (Roth.), Ag. 59. Chorlton Field; : B. G. App. *Hormiscia subtilis (Kutz.), De Toni. 60. Summit of Greygarth Fell. 21 Oct. 1903 Chaetophora cornu-damae (Roth.), Ag. 59. Victoiia Park ; + ; E.G. App. 70 A HISTORY OF LANCASHIRE CLASS CHLOROPHYCE^E (continued) Chztophora tuberculosa (Roth.), Ag. 59. Chorlton Fields; B. G.App. — elegans (Roth.), Ag. 59. Common (locally). B. G. App. Draparnaudia plumosa, (Vauch.), Ag. 59. Chorlton ; B. G. App. — glomerata (Vauch.), Ag. 59. Reddish; B. G.App. Cladophora glomerata (L.), Kiitz. 59. Abundant (locally). B. G. App. Mougeotia genuflexa (Dillw.), Ag. 59. In almost every ditch ; B. G. App. Zygnema Vaucherii, Ag. var. stagnale (Hass.), Kirchn. 59. Common in ditches ; B. G. App. Spirogyra gracilis (Hass.), Kiitz. 59. Boggy pools ; B. G. App. Fam. DESMIDIACE.K Cylindrocystis Brebissonii, Menegh. (59.) E.G. App. (no loc.) Closterium Dianae, Ehrenb. (59.) B. G. App. (no loc.) — moniliferum (Bory), Ehrenb. (59.) B. G. App. (no loc.) — Leibleinii, Kiitz. (59.) B. G. App. (no loc.) — acerosum (Schrank), Ehrenb. (59.) B. G. App. (no loc.) - Lunula (Miiller), Nitzsch. (59.) B. G. App. (no loc.) — lineatum, Ehrenb. (59.) B. G. App. (no loc.) — striolatum, Ehrenb. (59.) B. G. App. (no loc.) — juncidum, Ralfs. (59.) B. G. App. (no loc.) — turgidum, Ehrenb. (59.) B. G. App. (no loc.) — Ralfsii, Breb. (59.) B. G. App. (no loc.), conf. needed — rostratum, Ehrenb. (59.) B. G. App. (no loc.) *Tetmemorus penioides. 69. Among Sphagnum, Fumess Fells. M. C. Cooke in GreviSea, vi. 1886 *Cosmarium Sphagnicolum, West. 60. Summit of Greygarth Fell. 21 Oct. 1903 'Staurastrum margaritaceum (Ehrenb.). Menegh. 60. Summit of Greygarth Fell. 21 Oct. 1903 Fam. PALMELLACEJE Raphidium polymorphum, Fresen. var. falcatum (Corda), Rabenh. (59). B. G.App. Apiocystis Brauniana, Nag. 59. Broad Green, Liver- pool; W. Narramore CLASS MYXOPHYCE^.— Order HORMOGONE/E Tolypothrix distorta (Fl. Dan.), Kiitz. 59. Very common ; B. G. App. Lyngbya Martensiana, Menegh. 59. Abundant on boggy pools ; B. G. App. Symploca muralis, Kiitz. 59. B. G.App. (This and the last need confirmation) Oscillatoria tenuis, Ag. 59. B. G. App. 69. Cmiston OldMan. 29 Oct. 1903 (ascending to i.yooft.) CLASS DIATOMACE^E = BACILLARIE^E Achnanthes minutissima, Kiitz. (59-) Pond in Bot. Gardens Cymbella lanceolata, Kirchn. Stauroneis Phcenicenteron (Nitsch.), Ehrenb. Navicula viridis, Kiitz. Gomphonema acuminatum, Ehrenb. — dichotomum, Ktltz. Eunotia Arcus, Ehrenb. Ditches, Independent College Synedra capitata, Ehrenb. — ulna, Ehrenb. — affinis, Ktttz. var. fasciculata (Kutz.). V.H. (Needs confirmn.) Meridion circulare, Ag. Diatoma elongatum, Ag. — vulgare, Bory. Surirella biseriata, Breb. Charlton Fields Meloseira varians, Ag. All the above diatoms are recorded in Buxton's Guide App., and are said to be more or less com- mon, but no locality is given excepting as quoted above. Presumably they were found in the Lancashire area, otherwise they would not be considered common about Manchester. The following from Buxton's G. App. must be considered ambiguities if not errors : — Gyrosigma hippocampus, Hass. Shinctocystis librilis, Hass. Fragilaria pectinalis, Lyngb. — hyemalis, Lyngb. — rhabdosoma, Breb. Navicula platystoma, Ehr. There is also Mr. Comber's list of Diatomacese found in the neighbourhood of Liverpool, publ. in Trans, of Historic Soc. of Lane, and Chesh., vol. xi. 1859. Mr. ]. A. Martindale very kindly furnished a summary of Fresh Water Algae, and one of Desmids only, for Westmorland and Lake Lancashire, V.C. 69. Diatoms are not included, there being no reliable information in reference to them. The lists were very carefully drawn up by Mr. Martindale, from the Journal of the Roy. Microsc. Soc. 1884, 1886, and 1892, and the plants were collected and vouched for by Mr. ]. P. Bisset, Alf. W. Bennett, and Wm. West. The total number of species recorded, 35 Fr. Water Algae (excl. Diatoms) ; 167 Desmids, for V.C. 69. Lake Lancashire. The district is the Lancashire Leven, that is, the lower portion. Less time was spent here than in the upper (Westmorland) portion ; the number of species is therefore greater for the latter. Mr. Martindale, however, thinks the lower Leven basin will be found quite as rich in forms as the upper. SUMMARY OF FR. WTR. ALGJE (EXOLG. DIATOMS). V.C. 69 Palmellace* . Protococcaceae Volvocineae . Zygnemaceae . Vaucheriaceae . Ulvaceae . . Confervaceae . CEdogoniaceae . Ulotrichaceae . Chroolepidez . Chactophoracea Chroococaceae Nostochinex . Scytonemeas . Trichophoreas Chantransiaceas . Batrachospermeae . Lemanaceae . Total . So Gonatozygon . Sphoerozosma . Hyalotheca . Gymnozyga . Bambusina Desmidium SUMMARY BOTANY GENERA AND SPECIES OF DESMIDIACE^E Docidium . Closterium. Mesotoenium . Tetmemorus . Spirotcenia Micrasterias . Euastrum . . Cosmarium Calocylindrus . Xanthidium . Cylindrocystis . . 1 7 Arthrodesmu . 42 Staurastrum '. 4 Total . • '3 • 4 • 32 167" LIST OF MARINE Of V.C. 69. Lake Lancashire, compiled by J. A. MARTINDALE, revised by E. M. HOLMES. x Collected chiefly near Barrow-in-Furness Authorities for records : Martyn's Plant* Cantabrigiensis, 1763 ; Dr. Gibson, Handbook to the Lakes, 1854; Miss Hodgson, Ulverston ; Mr. W. B. Kendall Enteromorpha compressa, Grev. (Dr. Gibson) Monostroma lactuca (L.), J. Ag. (Dr. Gibson) Ulva latissima, J. Ag. (Dr. Gibson) Cladophora pellucida, Klitz. (Robson's Brit. F/. 1777) — Hutchinsiz, Harv. (Dr. Gibson) — utriculosa, Ktltz. var. laetevirens, Hansch. (Dr. Gibson) — rupestris (L.), Ktitz — glaucescens, Guff. (Mr. Kendall) Bryopsis hypnoides, Lamour. (Dr. Gibson) — plumosa (Huds.), C. Ag. (Dr. Gibson) Vaucheria litorea, B. and Ag. -j — synandra, Woronin I M j j. _ Thuretii, Woronin Nordstedt. — sphoerospora Dictyosiphon fosniculaceus (Huds.), Grev. (Dr. Gibson) Punctaria latifolia (Roth.), Grev. (Mr. Kendall) — plantaginea, Grev. (Dr. Gibson) Ectocarpus confervoides (Roth.), Le Jol. f. siliculosa (Dillw.), Kjellm. (Dr. Gibson) Pylaiella litoralis (L.), Kjellm. (Dr. Gibson) Arthrocladia villosa, Duby. Miss Hodgson Elachista fucicola (Veil.), Aresch. (Dr. Gibson) Sphacelaria cirrhosa (Roth.) C. Ag. (Martyn's PL Cantab. 1763) Cladostephus spongiosus (Lightf.), C. Ag. (Miss Hodgson) Stypocaulon scoparium (L.), Ktltz. (Dr. Gibson) Leathesia difformis (L.), Aresch. (Miss Hodgson) Scitosiphon lomentarius (Lyngb.), Jag. (Mr. Ken- dall) Fucus ceranoides, L. (Dr. Gibson) — vesiculosus, L. (Dr. Gibson) — serratus, L. (Dr. Gibson) Ascophyllum nodosum (L.), Le Jol. (Dr. Gibson) Pelvetia canaliculata (L.), Decaisne et Thuret. (Dr. Gibson) Halidrys siliquosa (L.), Lyngb. (Dr. Gibson) Dictyota dichotoma, Lamour. (Dr. Gibson) Padina pavonia, Gaill. • (Martyn's Fl. Cantab. 1763) Porphyra laciniata, C. Ag. (Dr. Gibson) Chondrus crispus (L.), Stack. (Dr. Gibson) Phyllophora membranifolia (Good and W.), J. Ag. (Miss Hodgson) Ahnfeltia plicata (Huds.), Fries. (Mr. Kendall) Gracilaria confervoides, Grev. (With. Arr. 1796) Calliblepharis ciliata, Ktltz. (Rodymenia ciliata, Miss Hodgson) Lomentaria articulata, Lyngb. (Dr. Gibson) — clavellosa, Gaill. (Miss Hodgson) Champia parvula, Harv. (Dr. Gibson) Chylocladia kaliformis, Grev. (Dr. Gibson) Nitophyllum laceratum, Grev. (Mr. Kendall) Laurencia obtusa, Lamour. (Dr. Gibson) — pinnatifida, Lamour. (Dr. Gibson) Chondria dasyphylla, C. Ag. (Miss Hodgson) Polysiphonia urceolata (Lightf.), Grev. f. formosa, J. Ag. (Dr. Gibson) — fibrillosa (Dellw), Grev. (Dr. Gibson) — migrescens (Huds.), Grev. f. affinis, Harv. (Miss Hodgson) — fastigiata (Roth.), Grev. (Dr. Gibson) Antithamnion plumula, Thur. (Dr. Gibson) Ceramium rubrum (Huds.), C. Ag. f. prolifera, J. Ag. (Miss Hodgson) — flagelliferum, J. Ag. (Mr. Kendall.) (?H. F.) Microcladia glandulosa (Soland.), Grev. (Mr. Kendall) Gloiosiphonia capillaris, Carm. MS. (Miss Hodgson) Rare. Dumontia filiformis (Fl. Dan.), Grev. (Dr. Gibson) Corallina officinalis, L. (Dr. Gibson) Since the latest records of the above list a number of marine algae have been recorded as follows :— Trans. Liverpool Marine Biological Committee, containing reports and memoirs of work since 1885. The marine algae were named by Prof. R. J. Harvey Gibson, Prof. Weiss, Dr. Darbishire, and others. Trans. L'poo/ Bio/. Sac. vol. 5, 1890—1, pub. 1891, pp. 83—143, contains a revised list of marine algae of the L.M.B.C. District. Reprinted in vol. iii. of Reports on the Fauna of U pool Bay, 1892, with pagination altered to 65-125. The first list of algas was published in 1886, pp. 312-314, by Alfred Leicester. There are ten memoirs of the L.M.B.C., containing full descriptions of typical marine plants and animals. The greater number of these memoirs relate to animals. The district embraces not only Lancashire, but the whole coast from S.W. Scotland to Cardigan, and the Isle of Man. A list of marine algae extracted from the above Transactions was given in the Southport Handbook, Brit. Assoc. meeting, 1903, under Zoology, but no localities are given ; therefore the plants mentioned must not be considered as belonging to the county, with- i 81 ii A HISTORY OF LANCASHIRE out reference to the above Transactions. Two very common plants are recorded in Ann. Rep. Manch. Mlcr. Soc. for 1889, pp. 114-116. These are F. vesiculosus and F. nodosus. The following six species of marine algas are recorded in ' A Catalogue of the British Marine Algae,' by E. A. L. Batters, LL.B., Supplement to the Journal of Botany, 1902. Of the six species only three are additional to the list compiled by Mr. Martindale. They are marked thus.* Vaucheria litorea, B. and Ag. Ulverston 'Sphacelaria plumigera, Holmes. Addingham, Walney 1. *Padina pavonia, Grillon. Walney 1. Lomentaria articulata, Lyngb. Walney I. *Ceramium Deslongchampsii, Chauv. Ulvmton — flabelligerum. Ulverston Dr. H. Stolterforth, M.A., of Chester, named all the marine diatoms for the Liverpool Marine Biol. District. The account is published in 2nd Report of the L.M. B.C., 1889. None of these records refer to Lancashire, but to Cheshire and North Wales. A bibliography of Liverpool, etc., is given. It is unaccountable that Lancashire Algae (including Diatoms), both of fresh and salt water, should have been so neglected, more so than any other county apparently. For further references see Dr. Van Heurck's Synopsis, ch. iii. p. 43, etc. Series II.— Tribe III. Basomyces rufus, DC. 60. Middle Gill, H'mdburn ; nr. Gressintham ; W. and W. CLASS LICHENES (Lichen forming Fungi) More conveniently placed here than under the class Fungi proper. No attention was paid to the lichens until the present decade. Messrs. Wheldon and Wilson have recently devoted some time to the study of West Lancashire species. The following list, which is based on their MS. must not therefore be taken as representative of the lichen flora of the county. Many of their doubtful plants have been submitted to Messrs. J. A. Martindale and E. M. Holmes. See Journal of Botany, September, 1904. FAM. II.— COLLEMACEI Tribe II. — COLLEMEI Lichina confinis, Ag. 60. Tidal rocks, nr. Silverdale; W. and W. Collema granuliferum, Nyl. 59. Birkdale ; Wh. 60. Silverdale ; + ; Wh. and Wi. — melaenum, Ach. 60. Tealand ; Wheldon — furvum, Ach. 60. Siherdale ; W. and W. — flaccidum, Ach. 60. Nr. Henridden ; W. and W. — pulposum, Ach. 60. Nr. Tealand — multipartitum, Sm. Eng. Sot. 60. Silverdale ; near Whitcwcll; W. and W. — isidioides, Nyl. 60. Warton Crag; Martindale Collemodium plicatile, Nyl. 60. Silverdale Cove; near Whitewell ; W. and W. — fluviadle, Nyl. 60. Stones in R. H odder ; Wh. — Schraderi, Nyl. 60. Da/ton Crag; W. and W. "Leptogium pulvinatum, Nyl. 60. + ; Wi. — lacerum, Gray. 60. Dalton Crag; Ease Gill; W. and W. FAM. III.— LICHENACEI Sphinctrina turbinata, Fr. 69. Nr. Ferry Hotel, Windermere ; J. A. Martindale in litt. Coniocybe pallida, Fr. 60. Clougha ; R.Jacob Calicium hyperellum, Ach. 60. Between Hornby and Melling; nr. Wennington ; Wh. and Wi. Trachylia tympanella, Fr. 60. Greystoneley ; Crag Wood; W. and W. FAM.— SPH^EROPHOREI Sphsrophorus coralloides, Pers. 60. Graveirs Clough ; Clougba; W. and W. 69. Conistm Old Man. — fragilis, Ach. 60. GravelPs Clough; Bottom Head Fell; Deer dough; Woljhole Crag; Wh. and Wi. FAM.— STEREOCAULEI Stereocaulon evolutum, Graewe. 60. Clougka. Deer Clough ; W. and W. — denudatum, Florke. 60. Head of Great Clough ; Grey garth Fell; W. and W. — condensatum, Hoffm. 60. Wolfhole Crag; W. andW. FAM.— CLADONIEI Cladonia pyxidata, Fr. Common. 59. 60. 69. var. chlorophaea, FlOrke. 60. Tatham Moor ; W.andW. 69. Nr. Ferry Hotel, Winder- mere; Martindale. Waterhead, Coniston var. pocillum, Fr. 60. Shore at St. Anne's ; Wheldon — pityrea, Florke. 60. Gully nr. Lea Fell; W. and W. — fimbriata, Fr. 60. Railbanks, Silverdale ; Parlick Pike, etc. ; W. and W. var. tubaeformis, Fr. 59. Netherton ; Whel- don. 69. Waterhead, Coniston * — fibula, Nyl. var. subcoronata, Nyl. 69. Ferry Hotel, Windermere ; Martindale — ochrochlora, Florke. 69. Nr. Ferry Hotel, Winder- mere ; Martindale — cervicornis, Schaer. 60. Clougha; Long Crag, etc. ; W. and W. — lepidota, Nyl. 60. Clougha; Wheldon. Ward- stone; W. and W. — furcata, Hoffm. 59. Hightown ; Wheldon. 60. Whiteviell, etc. ,• W. and W. Greygarth Fell. 69. Coniston Old Man 82 BOTANY Cladonia furcata, Hoffm. (continued) — var. corymbosa, Nyl. 60. Greygarth Fell var. spinosa, Hook. 69. Nr. Ferry Hotel, Windermere ; Martindale * — racemosa, Hoffm. f. recurva, Florke. 69. Coniston Old Man — pungens, Flarke. *C. muricata, Crombie. Grey- garth Fell, 2,050 ft. ; A. Wilson — squamosa, Hoffm. 60. Clougha Pike ; W. and W. L. Easegill; Wilson. Greygarth Fell — caespititia, Florke. 60. Common ; W. and W. — coccifera, Schuer. 60. Clougha, etc. ; W. andW. — digitata, Hoffm. 60. Grizedale; Clougha; + ; W. and W. — macilenta, Hoffm. 60. Common on the fells ; W. and W. 69. Coniston Old Man var. coronata, Nyl. 60. Greygarth Fell — bacillaris, Nyl. 60. Clougha ; Middle Gill; W. and W. var. subcoronata, Nyl. 69. Coniston Old Man — Florkeana, Fr. forma. 60. Grizedale Hd. W. and W. Cladina rangiferina (L.) Nyl. 60. Greygarth Fell ; A. Wilson. — silvatica, (Hoffm.), Nyl. 59. 60. On all the fells ; A. Wilson. 69. Common var. alpestris, Nyl. 60. Wardstone Breast ; W. and W. — uncialis, Nyl. 60. Tambrook Fell ; Clougha, etc. ; W. and W. Greygarth Fell f. adunca, Cromb. Greygarth Fell, 2,050 ft. ; W. and W. Series III.— Tribe IX. Ramalina farinacea, Ach. 60. Ireby ; nr. Leek ; A. Wilson — fraxinea, Ach. 60. Nr. Burrow ; A. Wilson — fastigiata, Ach. 60. Lower Ease Gill; A. Wilson — polymorpha, Ach. 60. Nr. Heysham; W.andW. — scopulorum, Ach. 60. Heysham ; Wh. var. incrassata, Nyl. Heysham ; Wheldon — cuspidata, Nyl. 60. Heysham ; Middleton (and f. minor) ; W. and W. Tribe X. USNEI Usnea hirta, Hoffm. 60. Whitewell; Trough of Rowland; W. and W. Leek ; Wi. — ceratina, Ach. var. scabrosa, Ach. 60. On grit rocks, Clougha ; Ease Gill; W. and W. — dasypoga, Nyl. var. plicata, Nyl. 60. Nr. Lower Emmetts ; W. and W. — articulata, Hoffm. 59. Burnley ; Crombie (pro- bably extinct) Tribe XL, Nyl Alectoria bicolor, Nyl. 60. Clougba ; W. and W. — jubata, Nyl, var. lanestris, Ach. 60. On fir tree, Marshaw Fell: W. and W. Tribe XII., Nyl Cetraria islandica (L.) Ach. f. crispa, Ach. 60. Summit of Greygarth Fell — aculeata (Ach). Fr. 59. 60. 69. Very common on the fells, f. hispida 60. 69. Platysma glaucum (L.) Nyl. 59. Wh. 60. Common ; W. and W. f. ampullaceum, Crombie (a monstrosity, caused by a parasite, Abrothallus Smithii) 59. Coin (first detected here as British Crombie, p. 227) var. tenuisectum, Crombie. 60. Clougha ; Martindale. Hell Crag, Wardstone, etc. ; W. and W. — triste (Web.). (Parmelia tristis, Nyl.) 60. Hell Crag; Long Crag; W. and W. Series IV. Tribe XIII., Nyl Evernia prunastri, Ach. 59. Langho ; Wh. 60 Tealand, etc.; W. and W. 69. (Martin- dale) f. sorediata. 60. Whitewell ; Leek; W. and W. — furfuracea, Fr. 59. Pendle Hill; 60. Greygarth Fell (2,000 feet), etc. ; W. and W. Parmelia perlata, Ach. 60. Lower Ease Gill; A. Wilson. 69. Nr. Windermere Ferry Hotel- Martindale — cetrarioides, Nyl. 60. Chaigley ; nr. Clougha ; W. and W. — laevigata, Ach. 60. Whitewell ; W. and W. — scortea, Ach. 69. Nr. Ferry Hotel, Windermere ; }. A. Martindale (in litt.) — saxatilis, Ach. 59. Maghul! ; Wh. 60. (W. and W.) ! 69. (Martindale) ! — sulcata, Tayl. 59. Netherton ; Wh. 60. (W. and W.) 69. (Martindale) — omphalodes, Ach. 59. (Wheldon). 60. (W. and W.) — Borreri, Turn. 60. Nr. Aughton ; W. and W. — caperata, Ach. 60. Ireby ; nr. Caton ; etc. W. andW. — conspersa, Ach. 60. Ease Gill; W. and W. 69. Nr. Ferry Hotel, Windermere; Martindale — prolixa, Nyl. 60. Ease Gill; W. and W. — • exasperata, Nyl. 60. Do/phinholme, etc. ; W. andW. — subaurifera, Nyl. 60. Nr. Kirkby Lonsdale ; Whitewell; W. and W. — fuliginosa, Nyl. 59. Netherton; Wheldon. 60. Whttestone, etc. ; W. and W. 69. Windermere; Martindale v. laete-virens, Nyl. 59. Wheldon. 60. (W. and W.) — lanata, Wallr. 60. Hell Crag — physodes, Ach. 60. Frequent, W. and W. Tribe XV., Nyl Peltidea aphthosa, Ach. 60. Middle Gill; Hindbuni; Silverdale ; Ease Gill ; W. and W. Solorina saccata (L.), Ach. 60. Ease Gill Kirk; Silverdale; W. and W. Daltm Crag; A. Wilson Peltigera canina (L.), Ach. 59. 60. 69 — rufescens, Hoffm. 60. (W. and W.) f. prxtextata, Flk. 69. Nr. Feny Hotel, Windermere ; Martindale. Coniston — polydactyla, Hoffm. 60. Lower Baiter ; W. and W. 69. Nr. Ferry Hotel, Windermere; Mar- tindale — horizontalis, Hoffm. 60. (W. and W.) A HISTORY OF LANCASHIRE Tribe XVI., Nyl Physcia parietina (L.), De Not. 59. 60. 69 — ciliaris, DC. 60. Aughton ; W. and W. 'rare' — lychnea, Nyl. 60. Nr. Whltewell ; W. and W. — pulverulenta (Schreb.), Nyl. 59. Kirkby ; Whel- don. 60. Silverdale; Tea/and; Wh. Nr. Carnforth; Wi. — pityrea, Nyl. 60. Silveretale ; nr. Carnforth ; W. and W. — stellaris, Nyl. v. leptalea, Ach. 59. Kirkby; Wh. 60. Between Carnforth and O. Kellet ; Wi. Eaves Wood; Wh. * — tenella (Scop.), Nyl. 60. Greystoneley ; White- well; W. and W. Nr. Carnforth; Wi. — aipolia, Nyl. 60. Nr. Gressingham ; W. and W. Tribe XVII. Gyrophora cylindrica (L.), Ach. 69. Coniston Old Man (2,630 feet and 1,780 feet) — torrefacta (Lightf.), Crombie. 60. Frequent above 1,500 feet ; W. and W. — polyphylla (L.), Turn, and Borr. 60. Wardstone; FoxdaleHead; Grizedale Hd. ; Long Crag; Gt. C lough of Tarnbrook Fell; W. and W. Wall. Lower Ease Gill; A. Wilson — flocculosa (Wulf.), Turn and Borr. 60. Tarn- brook Fell; Gravell's C lough ; W. and W. — hyperborea, Ach. 60. Leighton's Lichen Flora Series V. — PLACODEI, Nyl Pannaria brunnea, Nyl. 60. Lower Ease Gill ; W. andW. Pannularia nigra, Nyl. 59. Clitheroe ; Wh. 60. Silverdale ; nr. Leek Hall; Whltewell; Grey- sloneley; Warton Crag; W. and W. Coccocarpia plumbea, Nyl. 60. Nr. Aughton ; nr. Arkholme ; W. and W. Leproloma lanuginosum, Nyl. 60. L. Ease Gill; W. andW. Lecanora crassa, Ach. 60. Nr. Berwick ; W. and W. Silverdale; Wh. 69. Hamps Fell, Grange; A. Wilson, MS. — saxicola, Ach. 60. Nr. Whltewell; nr. M filing — callopisma, Ach. 60. Silverdale ; W. and W. — sympagea, Nyl. 60. Whltewell ; Berwick ; Hornby ; W. and W. — tegularis, Nyl. 60. Silverdale ; Lower Emmetts ; Wh. and W. — lobulata, Somm. 60. Silverdale ; W. and W. — xantholyta, Nyl. 60. Over Kellet; A. Wilson. Silverdale; Wheldon — pruinosa, Nyl. 60. Nr. Wennington ; W. and W. — laciniosa, Nyl. 60. Nr. Carnforth; W. and W. — vitellina, Ach. 59. Maghull ; Wheldon. 60. Berwick ; Caton ; Aughton ; Hornhy ; W. and W. — erythrella, Nyl. 60. Ease Gill; W. and W. — ferruginea, Nyl. 60. L. Ease Gill; W. and W. — galactina, Ach. 60. Ease Gill; A. Wilson — chlarona, Nyl. 60. Abbeystead; W. and W. — coilcarpa, Nyl. 60. L. Ease Gill ; W. and W. — allophana, Nyl. 59. Kirkby ; Wh. 60. Wash Dub Wood; Abbey stead — rugosa, Nyl. 60. Siherdale ; Yeaknd ; W. and W. — glaucoma, Ach. 60. Greygarth Fell; A. Wilson — varia, Ach. 60. Nr. Whltewell ; W. and W. 84 Lecanora conizaea, Nyl. 59. Maghull; Wheldon. 60. Whltewell; W. and W. Barnacre ; A. Wilson — conizaeoides, Nyl. 60. Silverdale; Whltewell; Wheldon — intricata, Nyl. 60. L. Ease Gill; W. and W. — expallens, Ach. var. lutescens, Nyl. 60. Below Kirby Lonsdale ; W. and W. — badia, Ach. 60. L. Ease Gill; W. and W. — symmictera, Nyl. 59. Palings, nr. Wheldon — polytropa, Schaer. 69. Coniston Old Man, 2,633 — ventosa, Ach. 60. Ease Gill; W. and W. — tartarea (L.), Ach. 60. Wolfbole Crag; Ward- stone ; Clougka, etc ; W. and W. — subtartarea, Nyl. 60. Nr. Burrow ; W. and W. — parella, Ach. The Perelle d'Auvergne of S. France. 59. Netherten ; Wheldon. 60. Nr. Carnforth; A. Wilson. Me/ling; W. and W. 69. Wlndermere; Martindale — subfusca, Nyl. 60. Hornby ; W. and W. — atra, Ach. 60. Trees, nr. Caton ; Wheldon — ochracea (Schaer). 60. Silverdale ; W. and W. — irrubata, Ny-. 60. Siherdale ; Wheldon — privigna, Nyl. 59. Maghull ; Wheldon — pallescens, Nyl. Nr. Dalton Hall; W. and W. — calcarea, Somm. f. contorta, Nyl. 60. Silver- dale ; W. and W. Sub-Tribe III., Nyl Pertusaria globulifera (Turn.), Nyl. 60. Crook of Lune ; W. and W. 69. Nr. Ferry Hotel, Wln- dermere; Martindale — velata, Nyl. 60. Black Chugh ; W. and W. — dealbata, Nyl. 60. Middle Gill, Hindburn, and Tarnbrook Fell; W. and W. — lactea, Nyl. 60. Nr. Hornby; Caton; W. and W. — communis, DC. 60. Hindburn ; W. and W. Wennington; Wilson. 69. Nr. Ferry Hotel, Windermere ; Martindale — aipolia, Nyl. 60. Gressingham ; W. and W. f. rupestris, DC. 60. Black C lough ; W. and W. — Wulfenii, DC. 60. Middle Gill; Weljkele Crag, on trees ; W. and W. — amara, (Ach.), Nyl. 59. Clitheroe; Wh. 60. Whltewell, etc., W. and W. 69. Wlndermere; Martindale Phlyctis agelaea, Korb. 60. Nr. Wennington; W. and W. Thelotretna lepadinum, Ach. 60. Whltewell, W. and W. 69. Nr. Ferry Hotel, Windermere; Mar- tindale Urceolaria scruposa, Ach. 59. Rainford ' ; Wheldon. 60. Chugha ; Whitestone Clough ; W. and W. * — bryophila, Nyl. 60. On Cladonia pyxidata and mosses in Whitestone Clough; W. and W. FAM.— LECIDEINEI Lecidea lurida (Swartz.). 60. Dalton Crag; W. andW. — crustulata (Ach.). 60. Dale Gill, Hindburn; Clougha; W. and W. — lucida, Ach. 59. Nr. Liverpool; Sir J. E. Smith. 60. Meting, etc.; Wh. and Wi. 69. Nr. Ferry Hotel, Windermere ; Martindale BOTANY FAM.— LECIDEINEI (continued) Lecidea decolorans, FlOrke. 60. Clougha; Wh. Ward- stones W. and W. — enteroleuca, Ach. 60. Grey garth Fell ; A.Wilson — parasema, Ach. 59. RainforJ. 60. Silver/tale ; Yealand; Wh. Wash Dub Wood; W. and W. var. tabescens, Leight. 60. Nr. Haioes Water; Wheldon — • uliginosa (Schrad.), Ach, 60. Wardstone Breast ; W. and W. — coarctata (Sm.). 60. Hindburn ; W. and W. — plana, Lahm. 60. Clougha; Wheldon — lactea (FlOrke). 60. Ease Gill; W. and W. — fusco-atro, Ach. f. fumosa, Ach. 60. L. Ease Gill; W. and W. — subkochiana, Nyl. 60. Greygarth Fell; W. and W. — contigua, Fr. 59. Netherton ; Wh. 60. White- stone Chugh ; + ; W. and W. f. platycarpa, Fr. 60. Gravel? s Chugh; W. and W. 69. Nr. WinJermere ; Martin- dale — confluens, Web. 60. Wall on summit of Grey- garth Fell; Wilson. Great Chugh ; W. and W. - calcivora (Ehrh.). 60. SilverJale; W. and W. — canescens, Dicks. 60. Borteitk ; W. and W. SilverJale; Wheldon — myriocarpa, DC. 60. Melting; W. and W. Caton ; Wh. — caeruleo-nigricans, Nyl. 60. Frequent about SilverJale; Teaknd ; Wheldon. Dalton Crag; A. Wilson — lenticularis, Ach. 60. SilverJale ; W. and W. — albo-atra (Hoffm.). 60. On oak, Bamacre ; A. Wilson — aromatica, Ach. 60. Warton Crag ; A. Wilson — exauthematica, Sm. 60. Nr. Howes Water ; Wheldon. Dalton Crag; A. Wilson — pelidna, Ach. (umbrina, Ach.). 60. Lower Ease Gill; W. and W. — sabuletorum, FlOrke. 60. Dalton Crag; A. Wil- son — endoleuca, Nyl. 60. Below Kirkby Lonsdale ; W. andW. — muscorum (Swartz). 60. L. Ease Gill; W. and W. — geographica (L.) 60. Great Clough ; W. and W. Ease Gill; A. Wilson. 69. Coniston Fells — concentrica, Dav. 60. Gravel!'' 't Chugh; 60. Whitewell; W. and W. — rimosa, Dicks. 60. Greygarth Fell ; A. Wilson — cupularis (Ehrh.). 60. Greygarth Fell; nr. Hatves Water; A. Wilson — parasitica (FlOrke). 60. On Lecan. parella, Ease Gill; W. and W. — coriacella, Nyl. 69. Coniston Old Man; ]. A. Martindale (in litt.) Lecid FAM.— LECIDEINEI (continued) XL neglecta, Nyl. 60. An undeveloped state of this (Lepraria lobiferaria, Nyl.), spreading over mosses, Borwick, etc. ; W. and W. FAM.— GRAPHIDEI Opegrapha atra, Pers. 60. Dolphinholme ; Wheldon — herpetica, Ach. 60. Nr. Abbeystead ; W. and W. — varia, Pers. 60. (W. and W.) f. notha, Ach. Barnacre ; Wi. f. pulicaris, Lightf. 60. Silver- dale; W. andW. — vulgata, Ach. 60. Homes Water ; Whitewell; W. and W. — saxatilis, DC. 60. (W. and W.) — Chevallieri, Leight. 60. (W. and W.) Arthonia Swartziana, Ach. 60. Wash Dub Wood ; W. and W. — pruinosa, Ach. 60. Nr. Abbeystead; W. and W. Graphis elegans, Sm. 60. Roeburndale ; O. Wyres- Jale; Whitewell; + ; W. and W. — scripta, Ach. 60. Roeburndale ; Abbeystead ; + ; W. and W. — sophistica, Nyl. 60. SilverJale ; Whitewell; Ease Gill: W. and W. PYRENOCARPEI FAM.— ENDOCARPEI Endocarpon miniatum (L.), Ach. 60. SilverJale; Hodder Valley, etc. ; W. and W. 69. Yew- barrow; A. Wilson, MS. v. complicatum (Sw.). 60. Hatves Water ; Wheldon. Leek Fell; Wilson — rufescens, Ach. 60. Hawes Water ; Wh. Warton Crag; Wi. 69. Hamfs Fell; A. Wilson, MS. FAM.— VERRUCARIEI Verrucaria calciseda, DC. 60. SilverJale ; Wh. Whitewell; W. and W. — Dufourei, DC. 60. Ease Gill; SilverJale; W. andW. — nitida, Weig. 60. SilverJale; Wh. Whitewell; W. and W. - glaucoma, Ach. 60. SilverJale ; W. and W. — conoidea, (Fr.). 60. Over Kellet ; A. Wilson — margacea, (Wahlenb.). var. ^Ethiobola.Wahlenb. 60. Wash Dub Wood Beck ; W. and W. — nigrescens (Pers). 60. SilverJale ; Wheldon — rupestris, Schrad. 60. Ease Gill; W. and W. — epidermidis, Ach. 59. Netherton ; Wheldon — immersa, Leight. 60. Ease Gill; W. and W. — gemmata, Ach. 59. Trees near Clitheroe ; Whel- don. Nr. Whittington ; W. and W. — maura, Wahlenb. 60. S. of Hey sham ; W. and W. — mauroides, Schasr. 60. L. Ease Gill; W. and W. — chlorotica, Ach. 60. SilverJale ; W. and W. SUB-DIVISION AND CLASS.— FUNGI Of this great and important sub-division of the vegetable kingdom with its groups and classes, not a single order has had any attention given to it. As far as publications go, there are only the most casual references to solitary species. The only attempt at list-making is one of eight species, all found in the north of the county. All these eight species are more or less well known parasites on herbaceous plants, and as all flowering plants and many flowerless plants have theirs, there should be found in the county some two to three thousand forms. Of the fifteen hundred British Agaricaceae only two names have been put on paper in a little-known periodical, that is as far as we can ascertain. 85 A HISTORY OF LANCASHIRE Three other Hymenomycetes in the same periodical, and twenty miscellaneous species, belonging to various groups and orders, constitute the records. There may be old records, and some in local societies' publications, unknown to us. A well organized mycological society is much needed in the county, having members residing in all the vice-counties. However energetic the student may be he cannot alone investigate more than a small portion of a county the size of Lancashire, even if he gave all his leisure hours to the study of its fungi. It does not seem desirable to enumerate the recorded species of fungi, but the references are given below. Grevilka, March and June, 1886 ; March and Decem- Gardener's Chronicle, 28 July, 1888, p. 104, fig. II ber, 1887 ; June and September, 1889 ; Wesley Naturalist, June, September, i?"° December, 1890 1889, etc. The Naturalist, June, 1901 ; November, 1896, etc. Rep. Manch. Microsc. 1889, pp. 117-118 Midland Naturalist, July, 1888, p. 189 Research, November, 1889, p. 114 The vertical range in Lancashire of some more or less well-known Agaricacese may be of interest, as they have not previously been recorded for the county. The observations were made in the middle of the autumn of 1 903 by the writer of this article. In other parts of the county some of these fungi, now recorded for the agrarian zone of Watson, may be found just within the Inferarctic zone, that is, where the land rises to that height. Lepiota granulosa, Batsch. . . . Clitocybe brumalis, Fr. Greygarth Coniston Fell. Old Man. Feet. Feet. 2,050 2,62O — 1,600 Naucoria semiorbicularis, Bi Stropharia stercoraria, Fr. . Greygarth Conirton Fell. Old Man. Feet. Feet, ill. . 2,050 1,150 . . 2,6oo Mycena galericulata, Scop. . . . — filopes, Bull, forma .... — pullata, Bolt Omphalia fibula, Bull, v. Swartzii, Fr Entoloma sericeum. Bull . 400 — 1,15° 400 I, ICO 1,700 — semiglobata, Batsch. Hygrophorus laetus, Fr. . — obrusseus, Fr. — Colemanianus, Blox. Marasmius androsaceus, Fr. . . 2,300 . . — 900 . . — 800 (L.)i — 400 ZOOLOGY MARINE ZOOLOGY It is quite impossible, in an article of this nature, to treat the invertebrate fauna of the sea fringing the coast of Lancashire in anything like detail. An immense amount of investigation has been carried out during the last twenty years, and the fauna and flora of the Irish Sea have now been investi- gated more completely than most other similar areas of the British seas, the Firth of Forth and St. Andrew's Bay in Scotland and the English Channel being excepted. There are now two biological stations in the northern part of the Irish Sea — one at Piel in the Barrow Channel, and the other at Port Erin in the Isle of Man. Four distinct organizations — the Lancashire Sea Fisheries Committee, the Liverpool Biological Society, the Liverpool Marine Biology Committee, and the Southport Society of Natural Science — are now in existence and are still investigating Lancashire waters. The marine zoology of this area has therefore received and is still receiving very considerable attention. Physically the Irish Sea is for the most part a shallow water basin. The North Channel which connects it with the Atlantic and the Firth of Clyde is, in places, of considerable depth (over 140 fathoms), and on the south St. George's Channel varies from 40 to about 90 fathoms. To the westward of the Isle of Man there is a deep depression in which depths of 50 to 80 fathoms may be found. With these exceptions the greater extent of the Irish Sea area is comparatively shallow. The southern entrance is wide, but the northern inlet is very restricted, and to this cause is due the peculiar conditions of the tides. The tidal wave coming in from the Atlantic impinges obliquely on the south-west coast of Ireland, and there splits up into three main streams. One of these passes up the English Channel and enters the North Sea through the Straits of Dover, but, becoming reflected from this narrow outlet, sets up very peculiar tidal phenomena. Another main stream passes up the Bristol Channel, producing the high tides in the Severn. The remaining stream passes up through St. George's Channel into the Irish Sea. Continuing on, the Atlantic tidal crest passes round the north of Scotland, entering the North Sea, but a part of it also runs down the North Channel, and so enters the Irish Sea from the north. Thus there are two main tidal streams entering the latter basin from different directions, but in consequence of the much wider southern channel, more water enters the Irish Sea from the south than from the north. There is therefore a very evident surface drift of the water from south to north, helped no doubt by the prevailing west to south winds. These two tidal streams meet in a straight line drawn from the north of the Isle of Man across to Morecambe Bay, and from the Isle of Man to the Irish coast. Between the Irish and Manx coasts there is a large area where tidal streams practically do not exist, and where the water simply rises and falls. All along the east Irish coast the velocity of the stream is small, but 8? A HISTORY OF LANCASHIRE over towards the coasts of Lancashire and north Wales it is very much greater, and in the bays and estuaries of that side the stream is very rapid and the rise of the water is very great. Thus at Liverpool the maximum velocity of the stream in the River Mersey is from 7 to 8 knots per hour, and the maximum tidal rise during spring tides is over 30 feet. It is due to these conditions that the gradient of depth in the Irish Sea is much greater on the Irish than on the Lancashire side. Starting out from (say) Dundrum Bay on the former side we encounter the 5O-fathom line at about 1 5 miles from the coast, and long before we reach the Calf of Man we are in water of about 80 fathoms in depth. But crossing from Fleet wood towards the Calf, the gradient is very much less, and the average distance of the lo-fathom line from the coast may be stated as about 10 miles. The 2o-fathom contour is about 20 to 30 miles from land, and between the Lancashire and Manx coasts the greatest depth is not over 20 fathoms except for one considerable depression. It is a credible hypothesis that Morecambe Bay itself has resulted from the rapid eastward stream due to the meeting of the north and south tidal streams, and however this may be it seems certain that the shallow water area along the coast of Lancashire is due to erosion of the coast-line in the past, and the distribution of the debris so formed by the strong easterly and north-easterly tidal streams. The peculiarly evanescent nature of the Lancashire coastal waters is due to the shallow sea so produced, and to the great rise and fall of the tides. Twice a day practically the whole of Morecambe Bay and great stretches of the Lancashire coast are laid bare and become dry land. Sand is the characteristic bottom deposit in the sea off the coast of Lancashire. Here and there the bottom consists of sand with varying pro- portions of mud, and far out at sea we find extensive deposits of calcareous matter, shells and comminuted fragments of the same, with material resulting from the denudation of calcareous rock, also deposits formed by calcareous algae. For the most part the Irish Sea bottom is clean sand or shelly gravel, and affords good trawling ground. Only here and there do we find rough ground on which the trawl net cannot be used. The greater portion of the inshore sea bottom consists of sand or mud, with in places very restricted patches of rough stones or gravel. We find as a result of the shallow seas and the rapid tidal streams that the sea water off the Lancashire coasts hardly ever presents that pellucid appearance which may be observed in the sea off a rocky coast, or far out from land. The rapid tidal streams stir up the bottom and cause muddy particles to be carried about in a state of suspension. River waters also carry down a considerable amount of suspended inorganic matter to the sea. There are no great rivers falling into the Irish Sea on the coast of Lancashire, but those that do exist exercise a considerable influence on the specific gravity of the sea water, which nowhere has the high density characteristic of truly oceanic water. As a general rule the specific gravity is less than 1*026, and is often very much less than that. Hydrometer readings of i -o 1 6 have been made in the River Mersey off Liverpool landing stage, and readings of less than 1-020 in the Crosby Channel. On one occasion (Nov. 1904), I found the specific gravity of the sea water a mile or two off Blackpool to be no more than 1*021. About a week before this date there had been exceptionally high floods in MARINE ZOOLOGY both the Kibble and Wyre, and the fresh water carried down by these rivers was, even a week later, floating at the surface of the sea in admixture with normal sea water. The characteristic marine fauna of the Lancashire inshore waters is the result of these physical conditions — the shallow depths, the extensive sand and mud deposits, the rapid tidal streams and the great rise and fall of the tides, and the somewhat low salinity due to river water. While these conditions produce a fauna which to the marine zoologist is somewhat lacking in variety, and may be described as commonplace, they have at the same time made the Lancashire inshore waters and the foreshore between tide marks one of the most valuable inshore fishing grounds round the British Islands, and one which presents many features of interest. Shellfish beds are thickly distributed over the whole of the Lancashire coast, and the cockle fishery of Morecambe Bay is without exception the most valuable round the British Islands, while some parts of the coast yield mussel fisheries not much less important. Practically the whole of the northern part of Morecambe Bay consists of cockle-bearing sands. Here and there over this extensive area, and also at the mouth of the Ribble estuary and out from the Mersey along the Lancashire coast from Liverpool to Formby Point, cockle beds are abundantly distributed. The exact positions of these beds are always changing, for the formation of such a shell-fish bed depends on the deposit of the cockle ' spat ' or ' seed ' — that is the minute free swimming larvae of the mollusc. During the spring of the year the cockle spawns, and after a week or two the eggs so produced develop into larvae provided with ciliated swimming organs. These larvae are borne in the water by the tides and currents, and the place where they settle down depends on the winds, tides, and other conditions. When they do settle down in the sand a cockle bed is pro- duced and sometimes an incredible abundance of these shellfish results, so that the molluscs may actually smother each other. In a few months these shell- fish may grow from half an inch in diameter to nearly twice that size and become big enough to be taken by the fishermen. Walking over a cockle bed one does not at first see many signs of the presence of these bivalves, for they are buried in the top layer of the sand with only the tops of their siphons pro- jecting, presenting the appearance of a pair of small dark holes (the ' eyes ' of the cockles). Sometimes a tuft of alga? attached to the posterior end of the shell betrays the presence of the mollusc, and the appearance of the ' groats ' (a north Lancashire term) also indicates where a cockle lies hidden. The ' groats ' are the extruded strings of faecal matter lying on the surface of the sand. Few people have any idea of the value of this humble mollusc to the Lancashire fishermen, and it will surprise most to learn that from five to ten thousand tons of cockles may be taken annually from the Lancashire foreshores. The habitat of the mussel is somewhat different from that of the cockle. While the latter mollusc lies buried in the sand and unattached to any sub- stance, the mussel lives above the surface and is attached to stones, etc., by means of its byssus. In almost every case a deep deposit of mud, sometimes several feet thick, may be formed between the layer of mussels and the solid substratum of stones or gravel, etc. (the mussel 'skear'), to which the molluscs are attached, this process being accompanied by the gradual lengthening of the A HISTORY OF LANCASHIRE byssus. Sometimes this muddy deposit becomes so unresistant as to be washed away by the tides, and then the mussel bed is for a time destroyed. Mussel beds of greater or less extent are to be found all along the Lancashire coast, but the most extensive accumulations are at Morecambe and Heysham. Here there are literally miles of mussel beds, and in some years over 2,000 tons of this animal may be sent away from Morecambe alone. The mussel thrives best in localities where it is not uncovered by the tide for a very long interval, and where some considerable proportion of fresh water finds its way into the sea. Unhappily it must be added that it finds a certain admixture of sewage matters a reason for self-congratulation. Although these two animals, the cockle and mussel, form perhaps the most abundant element of the Lancashire marine inshore fauna, the shrimp, prawn, and ' fluke ' are not far behind them. The shrimp (Crangon vu/garis) is found all along the Lancashire coast a mile or two from low-water marks, but it is particularly abundant about the banks off the estuaries of the Mersey and Ribble, and in Morecambe Bay, and hundreds of boats are almost con- tinually fishing for it there. The value of this little crustacean to the Lancashire fishermen, and to the shrimp potters of Southport and Morecambe, cannot be less than about £50,000 annually. The prawn, 'red shrimp,' or ' sprawn ' (not the true prawn, but Pandalus montaguf) is found also in all parts of Lancashire waters, but it is particularly abundant in the inshore waters near Fleetwood (hence the term Fleetwood prawn). It inhabits rough stony ground, while the shrimp prefers sand or sand and mud, and it is caught in trawl nets fitted with extra stout foot-ropes so as not to catch on the stones among which the prawn lives. Then in addition to this characteristic ' shellfish ' fauna, consisting of the cockle, mussel, shrimp, and prawn, we find that the Lancashire inshore seas contain enormous numbers of young fishes of comparatively few species. This indeed is the most striking feature of the inshore marine fauna. Nowhere round the British Islands (nor indeed on the north European coasts, so far as I am aware) do we find so abundant a piscine fauna. The whole of the inshore waters, but particularly those off the Mersey, off Blackpool, and in Morecambe Bay, are a vast ' nursery ' for young pleuronectid fishes, particularly dabs, plaice, and soles. With these are associated shrimps, ' sprawns,' and a host of invertebrates belonging to comparatively few species. I will illustrate the general character of the fauna of these nursery grounds by quoting the results of a haul with a shrimp trawl witnessed by myself in August, 1899. The shrimp trawl was dragged for about an hour over two miles of sand and mud in the vicinity of the Deposit Buoy off Burbo Bank at the mouth of the Mersey. There were caught : 896 dabs (Pleuronectes limanda), 285 whiting (Gadus mer/angus), 265 plaice (Pleuronectes plate ssa) , 257 soles (Solea -vu/garis), and 18 ray (Raia c/avata). All these are of course edible fishes. But in addition to such hauls of these common fishes, of which the above figures may be regarded as fairly representative, others are always found, whiting (Gadus eeglejinus), cod (G. morrhua), herring (Glupea barenga), sprats (C. sfratta), and gurnards (Trig/a spp.) being most common. Inedible fishes such as the solenette (Solea luted] , butterfish (Cenfronotus), the bullhead (Coitus scorpio), the sand eels (Ammodytes tobianus and lanceolatus), the toad 90 MARINE ZOOLOGY fish (Liparis montagui), the lump sucker (Cyclopterus lumpus), and others are (some of them at least) always present. A remarkable fish which is always present in more or less abundance is the virulent ' stinger ' Trachinus vipera. A huge host of invertebrates is always present. Chief among these is the swimming crab Portunus depurator, and it is remarkable that an unusually large proportion of these are infested with the parasitic cirripede Sacculina. Starfishes (Asterias) are extraordinarily abundant at times, and during the summer months the Medusa? Rbizostoma, Aurelia, and Cyanea are present. Sometimes the former is a great nuisance to the shrimping boats. Large forms, a foot or more in diameter, are so abundant at times as to clog up the net with broken fragments. If these are allowed to dry on the meshes a fine dust is formed when the latter are shaken out which produces most unpleasant effects on the nasal and respiratory epithelia, due no doubt to the dried substance of the nematocysts of the medusa?. Other crabs, the shore crab (Garcinus), spider crabs such as Hyas, Stenorhynchus, the hermit crab (Pagurus), and the edible crab (Cancer), are often present. The squid (Lo/igo) and the cuttle fish (Sepia), mostly young specimens, occur during the autumn. The Ctenophore Pleurobrachia is incredibly abundant at times, being just large enough to be retained by the meshes of the nets. Shrimps and ' sprawns ' are found, the former in immense numbers, the latter rarely ; and small lobsters are frequently present. Zoophytes are rare. The above forms may be regarded as fairly representative of the inshore marine fauna of Lancashire waters. The abundance of the fishes varies with the season, but large numbers are always present. As many as 15,000 dabs and 10,000 plaice have been taken on the shallow water grounds off Blackpool. About the middle of June (but the precise season varies) small pleuronectid fishes are extraordinarily abundant. If one walks along the shore about that time, following the receding tide, almost anywhere on the Lancashire coast — say on the shore near the New Brighton Pier — it is possible to observe and collect great numbers of small plaice and dabs in the pools left by the tide. These are then no bigger than the thumbnail. A few weeks later they disappear, having sought deeper water. Further out at sea, beyond the zone of which I am now treating, the fauna changes somewhat. I may give as an instance a haul with a shrimp trawl near Liverpool Bar, in water of 6 fathoms. On this occasion over 17,000 specimens, belonging to thirty-four genera and thirty-nine species, were identified. The fishes were sole, plaice, dab, cod, whiting, haddock, herring and sprat, skate, ray, goby, ' stinger,' and the ' pogge ' (Agonus cataphractus) . The Mollusca were the mussel (Mytilus edulis), 'hen pens' (Tel Una tenuls and Mactra stultorum), the whelk (Fusus antiquus). The Crustacea were various, swimming crabs (Portunus spp.), the hermit crab (Eupagurus bernhardus), shrimps, Sacculina, several Amphipoda, Copepoda (Longipedia coronata, Ectinosoma spinipes, Sunaristes paguri, Dactylopusia rostrata, Cletodes limicola, Caligus rapax) ; the sea-mat (F/usfra). The polychsetes were the sea mouse (Aphrodite), the sand-pipe (Pectinaria), and Nereis; the starfish, Asterias. The zoophytes were Hydractinia echinata, Sertularia abietina, and Hydrallmania falcata. The coelenterates were the Medusa? Aurelia aurita and Cyanea. Because of the extensive sand and mud flats, the Lancashire coast does A HISTORY OF LANCASHIRE not form a very inviting shore collecting ground. An abundant and varied shore fauna is only to be seen on a coast with rock pools, caves, seaweeds, and the like. Nowhere on the Lancashire littoral do we find such conditions. Only here and there by taking advantage of the lowest spring tides do we find shore collecting at all attractive. But even the ordinary beach, unattrac- tive as it may appear to the casual naturalist, yields a fair abundance of forms if studied minutely. Thus Dr. Chaster has recorded no less than 150 species of Foraminifera and 140 species of Mollusca from the ordinary beach round Southport. At a few places we do find a shore fauna of considerable interest to the amateur zoologist, and I may give as an instance the shore in the vicinity of the Lancashire Fishery Research Station at Piel in the Barrow Channel. There we have on the one hand the sandy flats with occasional Zostera meadows on which small crustaceans abound, and on the other the ' Scars ' — rough stony ground with seaweed — which are exposed at low spring tides. Mussels, cockles, and periwinkles are of course abundant. In association with the former Molluscs we find the extraordinary Trematode ILeucitbodendrium somaterice, Lev., which is the cause of the pearls so abundant in the mussels on the Piel foreshore. This animal, as Dr. H. Lyster Jameson has shown, passes through larval stages in the cockle and mussel, and in the latter becomes encysted and surrounded by the calcareous investment which becomes the pearl. The adult stage of the Trematode is found in the ' Scoter ' or Black Duck, which feeds on the mussel. Other Mollusca are abundant ; oysters are found, though not frequently ; Mytilus modiolus, the horse mussel, is frequently dredged in Barrow Channel ; ' hen pens ' (Mactra, Scrobicularia, and Tellina) may be got alive, and dead valves of the tapestry shell ('Tapes), Nucula, the spiny cockle (Cardium ecbinatum), Psammobia, Donax, and others are numerous. The Clam (Mya arenaria) is quite common, and it often harbours the peculiar commensal Nemertine (Malacobdelld) in its mantle cavity. The whelks Bucclnum undatum and Fusus antiquus, the dog whelk (Purpura lapillus], and the limpet (Patella vulgata] are of course abundant. Nudibranchs such as the sea slugs Doris and Eolis are present, and the gelatinous spawn of the former may always be got during the early summer. Cephalopods turn up ; Octopus is often got in the stake nets. Many Crustacea occur, such as the crabs Cancer, Carcinus, Portunus, Hyas, Stenorhynchus, and the hermit Pagurus. The beautiful fairy prawns Hippolyte varians, H. cranchii, H. fascigera, and H. pusiola may be got here in greater abundance than anywhere else in the Irish Sea. These animals are remarkable for the adaptation of their colour markings to that of the seaweeds on which they are found. This form of adaptation has been explained as one of ordinary protective resemblance, but the phenomenon is far from being a simple one. Mysis neglecta, a common Schizopod, is extremely abun- dant. At least four genera of Pycnogonids may be collected — Nympbon, Pallene, Ammothea, and Anoplodactylus. Of the Ecbinoderms, the starfishes or ' crossfishes,' Asterias and Cribella, the Sun star (So/aster), and the urchin (Echinus] may be obtained alive, and dead tests of the heart urchin (Spatangus] and Ecbinocardium can be picked up. On this side of Morecambe Bay the common starfish has proved itself at times an intolerable nuisance, for many acres of the beach may be literally carpeted with these animals, which can be extremely destructive to the mussel beds. The starfish pulls apart the valves 92 MARINE ZOOLOGY of the mollusc by long continued traction by its tube feet, and then inserts its eversible pharynx between the valves and devours the soft body of the mussel. Anemones, of which Actinia is the commonest, used to be abundant on the piles of the old pier and may still be obtained from the rock pools. Simple and compound ascidians are very abundant on the same ground, Ascidia and the peculiar colonial Perophora on the stones, and the compound forms Botryllus and Amaroucium on the seaweeds. Worms are abundant, the commonest being the lugworm (Arenicola), which forms an extensive bed, and Sabellaria, the agglomerated sand tubes of which form the hard sandy excres- cences known locally as ' knarrs.' Sabella, Serpula, Terebella, Pectinaria, and Onuphis (the latter rare) are other common tubicolous Polychaetes, and the errant forms Phyllodoce, Scoloplus, Nereis, and Aphrodite may also be obtained. The two former worms deposit green and red albuminous cocoons containing their eggs, and these little masses, about the size of a grape, are very abun- dant here during the spring and in Morecambe Bay generally, where they were formerly supposed by fishermen to be the spawn of the plaice and flounder. Nemertines may also be taken, but they are not abundant. These are the common forms which can always be collected, but there are in addition hosts of amphipods and microcrustacea among the seaweeds and on the bottom deposits. Zoophytes are not uncommon. Incidentally it may be remarked that the mud flats yield a great abundance of diatoms. PLANKTON By plankton is understood the drifting pelagic microscopic life of the sea. This department of local marine zoology has received very considerable attention during the last twenty years. The late Mr. I. C. Thompson of Liverpool and the late Mr. R. L. Ascroft of Lytham both devoted much attention to this subject, and our knowledge of it is to a great extent the result of their joint labours. The former was one of the original members of the Lancashire Sea Fisheries Committee, and perhaps more than any other member of that Board encouraged and assisted in the scientific investiga- tion of sea fisheries questions. The uniformity of composition which one finds in oceanic plankton is wanting in that of inshore waters, where there is much greater variety in the collections made in different places and at different times in the year than in deep water far removed from land. At the beginning of the year the plank- ton of the Lancashire coastal waters is rather scanty. We find the Chastogna- than worm Sagitta usually very abundant ; Copepods too, belonging to the genera Acartia, Galanus, Pseudocalanus, Anomalocera, Lias, Euterpe, Oitbona, and many others. Then about the beginning of March the pelagic eggs of teleostean fishes — the plaice, cod, haddock, whiting, dab, flounder, and many others — appear, and persist till about the beginning of May. Following these we often find the larvae of the same fishes, though it is rare to find these little creatures in the surface tow-nets. About this time of the year the larvas of various crustaceans appear in great abundance. The commonest is perhaps that of Balanus balanoides, the Barnacle or ' Scab.' I have seen a tow-net gathering containing practically nothing else than the nauplii of this Cirri- 93 A HISTORY OF LANCASHIRE pede. Somewhat later in the year these nauplii disappear and are succeeded by the ' Cypris ' stage of the same barnacle. The adult creatures resulting from this latter form then begin to settle down on all solid objects in the shallow water and they become a great nuisance to fishermen by encrusting the bottoms of their boats. Other crustacean larva? are the nauplii of cope- pods, and the zoea stages of the crabs Carcinus, Portunus, and Cancer. About the end of March and the beginning of April diatoms appear in great abundance, the principal genera being Coscinodiscus, Biddulphia, Chceto- ceros, and Rhizosolenia. After lasting for a month or so the diatoms become very scarce and towards midsummer may almost disappear from the tow-net gatherings. About this time of the year the gelatinous alga Halospbeera viridis becomes very abundant. This form is always accompanied by a great mass of mucus which almost at once clogs up the meshes of the tow-nets and prevents the latter from 'fishing.' Another common constituent of the summer plankton is the flagellate Noctiluca miliaris, a common1 cause of the phosphorescence of the water at this time and later in the year. Noctiluca is curiously restricted in its distribution. It appears in abundance all along the north Welsh, Cheshire, and Lancashire coasts in inshore waters, and it may reach out as far as the Liverpool N.W. and the Morecambe Bay light-ships; but it does not appear to get into Manx waters, nor is it common in the Firth of Clyde. Other flagellates are Ceratium tripos and J urea, but these are not abundant. The ctenophores Pleurobrachia and Beroe also appear in the summer, the former being at times especially abundant. The Larvacean tunicate Oikopleura occurs also in the summer and autumn. During the autumn months diatoms may again become abundant. Medusoids, the zoea and megalopa stages of crabs, and the larva? of the shrimp also occur. Copepods and the ubiquitous Sagitta form the bulk of the plankton and last until the begin- ning of the winter. Then the abundance of the plankton undergoes decrease and copepods form its principal constituent. This general scarcity in mass and lack of variety in forms lasts during the colder winter months. SUM MART OF LANCASHIRE AND IRISH SEA INVERTEBRATE ZOOLOGY PROTOZOA Two hundred and forty species of Foraminifera were recorded in the British Association List of 1 896. Radiolaria and Infusoria are practically unworked, though both groups are abundantly represented. Quite recently the study of the parasitic Sporozoa has received much attention, and the following forms are recorded : Glugea (Nosemd) lophii, G. stephani, G. anomalum, Sphterospora platessa, and the remarkable Lymphocystis johnstonei. PORIFERA (Spmges) The sponges are fairly well known. Fifty-nine species were recorded in the B.A. List of 1896, of which five were new to science when first described in Lancashire waters. CCELENTERATA (Jelly-fish, sea anemones, etc.) Ninety-two species of Hydroids, 43 Hydromedusae, 2 Siphonophores, 4 Ctenophores, 3 Alcyonaria, and 22 Actinians, are recorded in the B.A. List. The strictly Lancashire forms constitute only a fraction of this list. All the Hydromedusae are, however, found in the inshore 1 But by no means the exclusive cause. Occasionally when the water is phosphorescent the tow-nets may yield no organisms which are to be regarded as light-producing ones. In such cases the cause is no doubt some photogenous bacterium. 94 MARINE ZOOLOGY Lancashire waters, and also the Ctenophores, but the county waters contain relatively few of the zoophytes, and not all the Actinians described. The Siphonophores are Agalmopsis elegans, Sars., and Vtlella pe/agica, Esch. These are to be regarded as visitants only. PLATYHELMINTHES (Flat worms) Thirty-three species of Turbellaria are recorded in the B. A. List of 1896 and in subsequent lists. Most of these have been described from Manx waters, but there can be little doubt that they exist also on the Lancashire coasts, which, in many places, furnish a suitable habitat for these creatures. Trematoda or ' flukes ' are all parasitic in fishes, sea birds, and marine mammalia, larval stages being, however, found in every class of invertebrata. It is only recently that these animals have been worked at, and then only in connexion with the economic investigations of the Lancashire Sea Fisheries Committee. It is mainly because of the great importance that these parasites may possess in connexion with disease that this study has become of such importance. About a dozen ectoparasitic and four or five endoparasitic Trematodes have so far been recorded from fishes caught on the Lancashire coast. This can only be a small fraction of the number of these worms that are no doubt present. Of the ectoparasitic forms, four, Diplectanum esquans, Diesing, Leucithodendrium somateria;, Lev., Microcotyle lairacis, van Ben. and Hesse, and Placunella pini, van Ben. and Hesse, were new to the British fauna when recorded from Lancashire. Cestoda or tapeworms are as yet practically untouched, only about three species having been actually recorded from Lancashire fishes. These are Bothriocephalus punctatus, Tetrarhynchus tetrabothrius, van Ben. and T. erinaceus, van Ben. ECHINODERMATA (Starves, etc.) Thirty-five species of Echinoderms are recorded in the B. A. List of 1896. Most of these occur on the Lancashire shores and sea, but the crinoid Antedon, the rosy feather star, is found about Puffin Island on the south and round the Isle of Man. The sea-cucumber, Cucumaria plancei, was first found in Britain in this district. I have seen it in great abundance in Luce Bay, north of the Irish Sea proper. The commonest forms, such as Asterias, Echinus, So/aster, Spatangus, Ophiocoma, and Ophiura, are, however, very abundant. I have known a tow-net gathering taken off the mouth of the Kibble to consist of practically nothing else than the pluteus larvae of some Echinid. ACANTHOCEPHALA This small group of parasitic worms is apparently represented by Echinorhynchus acus only. CH^TOGNATHA Sagitta tipunctata, Quoy and Gaimard, the arrow worm, is the only species recorded from Lancashire ; but I think that other species probably exist and have not been discriminated. NEMERTINEA Twenty-six nemertines are recorded in the B.A. List of 1896. HIRUDINEA (Leeches) The well-known skate-leech, Pontobdella muncata, and a leech from the angler fish, are the only hirudineans recorded. GEPHYREA Only Thalassema lankesteri, Herd., and Phascolosoma vu/gare, de Bl., are recorded, but no doubt other species exist. The former species does not belong to Lancashire waters, being got far out at sea. CH^TOPODA Ninety species of Chaetopods (including the Archiannelids and Myzostomida) are recorded in the B. A. List of 1896. Not all these are recorded from the Lancashire shores, but there is little doubt that the majority are to be found if properly looked for. POLYZOA About 150 species and named varieties are recorded in the B. A. List. 95 A HISTORY OF LANCASHIRE BRACHIOPODA Only two species, Terebratula caput-serpentis, Linn., and Crania anomala, Mull., are known from the Irish Sea. CRUSTACEA The Crustacea have received more attention than any other marine group. The number of recorded species in the various sub-groups are: Brachyura, 28 ; Anomura, 13; Macrura, 23 ; Schizopoda, 18 ; Cumacea, 20 ; Isopoda, 22; Amphipoda, 134. The Copepoda have received an exceptional amount of attention ; about 260 species are now recorded, and of these nearly 50 are parasitic forms inhabiting fishes. Cirripedia are represented by eleven species. Balanus balanoides, Linn., the common barnacle or ' scab,' is, of course, the most abundant. At certain seasons in the year (March-April) the tow-nets at Piel may contain 'practically nothing else than the nauplius larvae of these pests. The extraordinary form Sacculina carcini is very abundant on the crabs captured off the mouth of the Mersey. Peltogaster, a peculiar cirripede parasitic on the hermit crab, has also lately been recorded. Ostracoda are relatively abundant, about fifty species being recorded. PYCNOGONIDA These are represented by twelve species. MOLLUSCA This group has naturally received very much attention ; 98 species of Lamellibranchia are recorded, about 175 species of Gastropoda, 10 species of Chiton, 3 scaphopods ; Dentalium enta/e, Linn., D. tarentinum, Lam., and Siphonodentalium lofotense, Sars. The cephalopods are Sepiola atlantica, Lam., and S.scandica, Steenstrup, Rossia macrosoma,De\[e Chiaje, Loligo media, Linn., and L. forbesi, Steenstrup, Sepia officinalis, Linn., and Eledone cirrosa, Lam. TUNICATA Fifty-four species in all have been recorded from the Irish Sea. Most of these have been recorded from Puffin Island and Port Erin, and only four species are apparently recorded from the Lancashire coast. But there is no doubt that this is far below the number that might be found if looked for in suitable places. LIST OF PUBLICATIONS REFERRING TO THE MARINE ZOOLOGY OF LANCASHIRE 1. Bryerly, Isaac, Fauna of Liverpool, 1856. 2. McNicoll, D. H., Handbook for Southport, 1859. 3. Herdman, W. A. (Editor), Fauna of Liverpool Bay, 5 vols., 1886, 1889, 1892, 1895, 1900. Liverpool Marine Biological Committee. 4. Herdman, W. A. (Editor), Annual Reports Port Erin Biological Station, 1894 to 1904. Liverpool Marine Biological Committee. 5. Annual Reports Lancashire Sea Fisheries Laboratory, 1892—1905 ; Liverpool. 6. L.M.B.C. Memoirs. Monographs on Irish Sea Animals and Plants : Ascidia, W. A Herdman, 1899; Cardium, J. Johnstone, 1899; Echinus, H. C. Chadwick, 1900; Codium, R. J. Harvey Gibson and Helen P. Auld, 1900; Alcyonium, S. J. Hickson, 1901 ; Lepeophtheirus and Lerntea, A. Scott, 1901 ; Lineus, R. C. Punnett, 1901 ; Pleuronectes, F. J. Cole and J. Johnstone, 1901 ; Chondrus, O. V. Darbishire, 1902 ; Patella, J. R. A. Davis and H. Fleure, 1901 ; Arenicola, J. H. Ashworth, 1904; Gammarus, Margaret Cussans, 1904. London, Williams and Norgate. 7. Proceedings and Transactions Liverpool Biological Society, vols. 1-18. Liverpool, 1887- 1904. 8. Reports of the Soutbport Society of Natural Science : Southport, 1892-1904. 9. British Association Handbook : Liverpool, 1896. I o. British Association Handbook : Southport, 1 903. NOTE. — Nos. 3, 4, 5, and 6 are reprinted in Proceedings and Transactions Liverpool Biological Society. 96 MOLLUSCS NON-MARINE Except in the northern or lake-district portion of the county there is little limestone, while the drift deposits that mask the plains, the peat-beds, and the sand-dunes of the coast do not offer favourable conditions for mollus- can life. Hence land-snails are not individually very numerous in Lancashire. That so many species are recorded is we believe mainly due to the industry and enthusiasm that seem to permeate north country naturalists. The freshwater shells on the other hand abound, while it is among the brackish water forms that the few possible additions to the list are chiefly to be sought. Of the 140, or so, species known to occur in the British Islands, 106 have been recorded for Lancashire. This is a very considerable proportion, and the number is not likely to be much increased by future researches. Three aliens of note have invaded the county : — Specimens of Pupa quinquedentata (Born) [= cinerea, Drap.] are recorded by Mr. Wrigglesworth from Church, and by Mr. Long from near Stonyhurst, whither they have probably been brought from the continent by some student. Physa heterostropha, Say, a North American freshwater species, has been taken in canals at Gorton and Droylsden, and may ultimately become naturalized. Another freshwater form from the United States, Planorbis dilatatus, Gould, is almost certain to do so ; it has been found in abundance at Pendleton, Gorton, Burnley, Stoneyholme, and Gannow, and is supposed to have been introduced adhering to cotton bales. The more representative Lusitanean or south-western forms are absent, and the white-banded snail (Helicella virgata) and the heath snail (H. itala), so abundant in our southern coasts, occur but sparsely on the sand hills of the Lancashire sea-board ; while the common garden snail (Helix aspersa] is not so universally distributed as it is further south. Certain well-known southern or continental forms are missing from the fauna, such as the Kentish snail (Helicella cantiana}. On the whole, therefore, the assemblage may be considered to present a normally British facies. The literature on the subject consists largely of scattered notes, the most complete list for the county being a paper by Mr. R. Standen (Naturalist, 1887, pp. 155—176), while the Manchester district has been dealt with by Mr. C. Oldham (Science Gossip, xx. 213), and the neighbourhood of Burnley by Mr. F. C. Long (Journ. Burnley Lit. & Phil. Soc., No. 17, 1901). For the sake of uniformity the same nomenclature is here followed as in other volumes of the Victoria County Histories, but for the most recent information on this subject reference should be made to the List published by the Conchological Society. 1 97 13 A HISTORY OF LANCASHIRE LIST OF THE NON-MARINE MOLLUSCA A. GASTROPODA I. PULMONATA a. STYLOMMATOPHORA Testacella kalwtidea, Drap. Clayton Hall, Accring- ton — icutulum, Sby. Cuerden Hall, Preston Limax maximus, Linn. -- flavus, Linn. Oldham ; Preston; Swinton ; Liverpool — arborum, Bouch.-Chant. Grange ; Didsbury ; Greenheys Agriolimax agi'estis (Linn.) — Itevls (MUll.). Riversvale ; Southport Amelia sowerbii (Fer.). Southport Viirina pellucida (Mull.) Vltrea crystallina (Mull.) — luclda (Drap.). On a fernery, Avenham Lane, Preston ; Swinton ; Clayton-le- Moors ; Grange — alliaria (Miller) — £/tf£/vj(Brit.Auct.). Coniston ; near Preston ;near Chatburn ; Manchester ; at Whalley Nab and other localities in the Burnley district — cellaria (Mull.) — nitidula (Drap.) - fun (Aid.) — radlatula (Aid.) — excavata (Bean.). Coniston ; Clifton ; Preston ; Manchester ; Bardsley ; Southport ; Liver- pool — nltida (Mull.) — fuha (Mull.) Anon ater (Linn.) — hortensis, Fer. Common : also the var. citi-ulea, by some considered a species — circumscriptus, John. Coniston — subfuscus (Drap.). Near Widness ; Bardsley ; Southport Punctum pygmaum (Drap.). Barlow Woods ; Grange ; near Lancaster ; near Southport ; Liverpool PyramiJularupestris(T>r3.p.'). Grange; Carnforth ; Clitheroe district ; near Whalley — rotunJata (Mull.) Hellcella virgata (Da. C.). Sandhills at Southport ; and at Rossal — itala (Linn.) Rare : Southport ; Carnforth ; near Silverdale — caperata (Mont.) Hygromia fusca (Mont.). Hough-end-Clough ; Barlow Moor Woods ; Clerkhill Wood — granulata (Aid.) — hlsplda (Linn.) — rufescens (Penn.) Acanthinula aculeata (Mull.). Local Vallonia pulchella (Mull.) Helicigpna laplclda (Linn.) — arbustonim (Linn.) HeRx aspersa, Mull. Common : a reversed mons- trosity was taken in Whalley Churchyard Helix nemoralis, Linn. Common in places : supposed to be decreasing round Southport ; a re- versed monstrosity was found at Burnley — hortensis, Mull. Buliminus obscurus (Mull.) Cochlicopa lubrica (Mull.) Azeca trident (Pult.) Ccfdlianella acicula (Mull.). Near Silverdale Pupa anglica (Fer.). Lord's Wood ; Whalley ; Clerkhill Wood — cylindracea (Da. C.) — muscorttm (Linn.) Sphyrajium edentulum (Drap.). Carnforth ; around Whalley ; Molly Wood, Rosegrove Vertig) antivertigo (Drap.). Barlow Wood (2 speci- mens) — substriata (Jeff.). Preston ; Grange ; Holden Clough ; Riversvale ; Clerkhill Wood — Pygfttfa (Drap.). Grange ; near Ashley Mill ; Clitheroe ; Farington ; Southport ; near Silverdale — alpestris, Alder. Holker, near Cartmel ; Clerkhill Wood (rare) ; Grange ; near Silverdale — pusilla, Mull. Grange ; Silverdale ; near Lake Windermere Balefl perverse (Linn.) ClausUia laminata (Mont.) — bidentata (Strom.) Succinea putris (Linn.) — ekgans, Risso. b. BASOMMATOPHORA Carychium minimum, Mull. Ancylus fluviatilis, Mull. Velletia lacustris (Linn.) Limn L" f common — vittatus, r . J Limonius cylindricus, Payk. Common on the sandhills Sericosomus brunneus, L. Chat Moss, Simonswood Adrastus limbatus, F. Common Agriotes sputator, L. „ — lineatus, L. „ • — obscurus, L. „ — pallidulus, 111. Dolopius marginatus, L. Abundant Corymbites pectinicornis, L. Damp mea- dows near the Bollin — cupreus, F. Bolton var. aeruginosus, F. Bolton • — quercus, Gyll. \ Agecroft, var. ochropterus, Steph.j Ringley Wood — aeneus, L. Almost certainly occurs on ELATERIDJE (continued} the moors, although it does not ap- pear to have been recorded Campylus linaris, L. Frequent on the mosses DASCILUD^E Helodes minuta, L. Common — marginata, F. Ringley Wood Microcara livida, F. Abundant Cyphon coarctatus, Payk. 1 Generall — vanabilis, Thumb. } - pallidulus, Boh. J C0mmon — padi, L. In fir woods ; abundant LAMPYRID.S Lampyris noctiluca, L. Does not appear to have been recorded from the county, although it certainly must occur TELEPHORID^E Podabrus alpinus, Payk. Bollin Valley Ancistronycha abdominalis, F. On moors near Bolton Telephorus. All our species have been re- corded except T. oralis, Germ., T. figuratus, Man., and T. obscurus, L. The latter however probably occurs in the northern part of the county. The most interesting record is that of T. darwinianus, Sharp., from the Southport shore — paludosus, Fall. Is recorded from Ring- ley Wood, Mere dough, Bolton Rhagonycha unicolor, Curt. Ringley Wood, one specimen All our other species except R. elongata, Fall., occur commonly Malthinus punctatus, Fourc. Generally common Malthodes marginatus, Lat. Southport — dispar, Germ. Bollin Valley — minimus, L. Abundant — misellus, Kies. ' Clifton near Manchester ' — atomus, Thorns. ' Barton Moss ' (see E.M.M. vii. 107) MELYRID^ Malachius bipustulatus, L. Very occasional, but generally distributed Haplocnemus nigricornis, Fab. Recorded by Chappell near Manchester CLERID^ Thanasimus formicarius, L. One speci- men Mossley Hill, Liverpool Necrobia ruficollis, F. Not uncommon — violacea, L. „ „ — rufipes, De G. „ „ LlMEXYLONID^E Hylecaetus dermestoides, L.") Recorded by Limexylon navale, L. J Reston from Stretford near Manchester ' many years ago,' and there is reason to INSECTS LIMEXYLONID/E (continued) suppose that both species may have been imported to that locality in timber PTINIDJE Niptus hololeucus, Fald. Generally distri- buted — crenatus, F. Near Manchester Trigonogenius globulum. This species has been recently introduced to the British list by Mr. Tomlin on speci- mens occurring in a granary at Old- Anobium domesticum, Fourc. ) Generally — paniceum, L. j distributed Ptilinus pectinicornis, L. Southport, Stock- ton Heath, IParrington Dorcatomachrysomelina, Sturm. ) In rotten Anitys rubens, HofF. j oak, Tra/ord Park, Manchester ClSSID.ffi Cis boleti, Scop. Is the only member of the genus at all abundant, but the following have also been recorded : — — villosulus, Marsh. Childwall near Liverpool — bidentatus, Ol. Bolton — festivus, Panz. Near Manchester — vestitus, Mell. „ „ Octotemnus glabriculus, Gyll. Generally distributed LONGICORNIA CERAMBYCID^ Aromia moschata, L. Not uncommon on willows about Southport and near Harrington Clytus arietis, L. Generally distributed but not common Rhagium inquisitor, F. Not uncommon — bifasciatum, F. „ „ Strangalia armata, Herbst. Frequent Grammoptera ruficornis, F. Common LAMIIDJE Acanthocinus aedilis, L. Has often been taken in South Lancashire ; probably imported from Scandinavia in pit props Leiopus nebulosus, L. Not uncommon in oak woods Saperda scalaris, L. Formerly taken in some abundance by the old collectors in the ' cloughs ' round Manchester Stenostola ferrea, Schrank. Manchester dis- trict Owing to the presence in South Lan- cashire of large quantities of foreign timber, principally pine and larch im- ported in the bark, and used extensively I L.AMUDJE (continued) in the colliery districts for pit props — the occurrence of many rare British and European wood feeding Coleop- tera is not unusual. Such records are of course difficult to dissociate from those of the indigenous fauna, and the possibility of such involun- tary immigrants becoming tempor- arily established in the natural timber of the district adds to the ambiguity of many of these recorded occurrences PHYTOPHAGA BRUCHIDJE Bruchus pisi, L. ) „ „ , - runmanus,Boh. Have a11 occurred .„ ,-,' ( in warehouses — villosus, F. ) EuPODA Donacia crassipes, F. Windermere, War- rington — versicolorea, Brahm. Ballon, Southport, Clifton near Manchester — sparganii, Ahr. Bolton Canal at Clifton - dentipes,_F. } Recorded from near — limbata, Panz Manchester — bicolora, Zsch. — obscura, Gyll. Recorded by Chappell from ' Castle Mill,' Bollin Valley — simplex, F. Bolton, Clifton — vulgaris, Zsch. Ince Blundell and near Manchester — sericea, L. Generally distributed Zeugophora subspinosa, F. Ormskirk, on white poplar Lema lichenis, Voet. Generally distributed — melanopa, L. „ „ CAMPTOSOMATA Cryptocephalus labiatus, L. Common on birch on all the mosses — fulvus, Goez. Generally distributed — biguttatus, Scop. Recorded by Chappell from Chat Moss, August 1865 (E.M.M. ii. 85). Other species probably occur in the county, but they do not appear to have been re- corded. CYCLICA Chrysomela staphylea, L.\ Generally com- — polita J mon — orichalcea, Mall. \ Recorded from var. hobsoni, Steph. /near Manchester Timarcha tenebricosa, F. Bolton Phytodecta olivacea, Forst, and its varieties not uncommon on broom Gastroidea. Both our species occur not uncommonly Phasdon tumidulus, Germ.] — armoraciae, L. — cochleariae, F. (Generally dis tributed 23 A HISTORY OF LANCASHIRE CYCLICA (continued) Phyllodecta vulgatissima, L. Scarisbrick — vitellinae, L. Generally abundant Hydrothassa marginella, L. 1 Occur com- Prasocuris phellandrii, L. J monly — junci, Brahm. Chat Moss, Southport Luperus rufipes, Scop. Commonly — flavipes, L. Less frequently on birch on the mosses Lochmaea capreas, L. Ainsdale — suturalis, Thorns. Abundant on hea- ther Galereucella nymphasa, L. Common — calmariensis, L. „ Sermyla halensis, L. Abundant on Galium on the sandhills HALTIOE Longitarsus. Of this large genus, difficult as its members are to determine, probably many more occur than have been recorded, viz. : — — luridus, Scop. Chat Moss ; frequent — suturellus, Duft. „ „ — melanocephalus, De G. „ „ — suturalis, Marsh. „ „ — pusillus, Gyll. „ — jacobaeae, Wat. „ — ochroleucus, Marsh. „ — lasvis, Duft. „ Haltica ereceti, All. „ Phyllotreta atra, F. Birkdale — exclamationis, Thunb. „ — undulata, Kuts. Common — nemorum, L. „ Apthona nonstriata, Goeze. Common on iris Sphaeroderma. Both species common Apteropeda orbiculata, Marsh. Bollin Valley Mantura rustica, L. Generally distri- buted — obtusata, Gyll. Chat Moss — chrysanthemum, Koch. Near Southport, Chat Moss Crepidodera transversa, Marsh. Generally abundant — ferruginea, Scop. Generally abundant — aurata, Marsh. „ „ — helxines, L. Churchtown, Southport — chloris, Foud. One specimen, South- port Hippuriphila modeeri, L. Generally dis- tributed Chaetocnema hortensis, Fourc. Southport Psylliodes chrysocephala, L. Not uncom- mon — affinis, Payk. Generally distributed — picina, Marsh. Southport district — marcida, 111. „ „ — cuprea, Koch. „ „ CRYPTOSOMATA Cassida viridis, F. Common — flaveola, Thunb. Occasional — vibex, F. Hightown — sanguinolenta, F. One specimen taken near Birkdale HETEROMERA TENEBRIONID^ Blaps mucronata, Latr. Generally abun- dant in cellars — mortisaga, L. Recorded from Liver- pool Heliopathes gibbus, F. \Abundant on the Microzoum tibiale, Redt.J coast sandhills Phaleria cadaverina, Latr. Not uncommon under refuse on the shore Most of the ' grain warehouse ' species of the genera Tenebrio, Alphi- tobius, Gnathocerus, Palorus, Tribol- ium and Latheticus occur frequently in the towns of South Lancashire, but as such species as have become estab- lished here, as well as others which appear incapable of the adaptation necessary to ensure permanent resi- dence, must be constantly recruited by immigration through such ports as Liverpool and Manchester, it be- comes impossible to decide whether any particular record of such species refers to indigenous or imported specimens Helops striatus, Fourc. Abundant — pallidus, Curt. Probably occurs on the sandhills, as it has been taken at New Brighton on the Cheshire side of the Mersey estuary CISTELID;E Cistela marina, L. Common in flowers of the dwarf rose which flourishes on the sandhills LAGRHDJE Lagria hirta. Also frequent on the sand- hills MELANDRYID^E Tetratoma. The rare species T. desma- resti, Latr., and T. ancora, F., have both been recorded from near Man- chester by Chappell Abdera quadrifasciata, Steph. Recorded by Edleston from Dunham Park Melandrya caraboides, L. Crosby near Liverpool Phloeotrya rufipes, Gyll. Simonsivood Moss PVTHIDJE Salpingus castaneus, Gyll. Simonswood Moss Lissodema cursor, Gyll. Reported from near Manchester by Chappell and Reston 124 INSECTS PYTHIDJE (continued) Rhinosimus. All the British species occur not uncommonly CEDEMERnxS Oncomera femorata, F. Silvenlalt, N. Lane. Nacerdes melanura, Schm. Common in Liverpool and other towns MORDELLID^: Anaspis. Only the universally distributed species have been recorded RHIPIDOPHORID^E Metascus paradoxus, L. Not uncommon in wasps' nests ANTHICIDJE Notoxus monocerus, L. Common on the coast Anthicus floralis, L. Abundant — bimaculatus, 111. Occurs not uncom- monly in carrion on the coast. Until Mr. Tomlin discovered this species in Glamorganshire in 1898 it had only been recorded in Great Britain from Wallasea in Cheshire and the Formby coast in Lancashire Meloe proscarabzus, L. The only species recorded RHYNCOPHORA Pl.ATYRRHINID.ffi Choragus sheppardi, Kirby. ' Near Man- chester,' Chappell (E.M.M.xi. 15) CuRCULIONID-ffi Rhynchites minutus, Herbst. Generally distributed — nanus, Payk. Abundant on birch on the mosses — uncinatus, Thorns. Eirkdale ; very common DeporaOs megalacephalus,*| Occur not un- Germ. I commonly on — betulae, L. J birch Apion. Besides the universally distributed members of this large genus the following have been recorded in the county : — — rubens, Steph. Soutbport district — viciae, Payk. „ „ — confluens, Kirb. „ „ — aethiops, Herbst. „ „ — spencei, Kirb. „ „ — unicolor, Kirb. „ „ — tenue, Kirb. „ „ — pubescens, Kirb. „ „ — marchicum, Herbst. „ „ Otiorrhynchus atroapterus, De G. Very occasional on the coast sandhills — maurus, Gyll. Recorded from near Staleybridge by Chappell CURCULIONIDJE (continued) Otiorrhynchus rugifrons. Agecroft, Man- chester — muscorum, Bris. Hightown near Crosby — scabrosus, Marsh. Generally common — ligneus, Ol. „ „ — picipes, F. „ „ — sulcatus, F. „ „ — ovatus, L. „ „ Strophosomus. All our species except S. fulvicornis, Walt., have been re- corded Brachysomus echinatus, Bonsd. One speci- men, Aigburth Sciaphilus muricatus, F. Common Tropiphorus tomentosus, Marsh. Anfield Liverpool, Northenden, Agecroft — carinatus, Mull. Recorded from Chorlton near Manchester by Mr. Kidson Taylor Liophloeus nubilus, F. Generally dis- tributed Polydrusus pterygomalis, Boh. Bollin Valley — confluens, Steph. Occasional — cervinus, L. Abundant Phyllobius. All the British species have been recorded more or less com- monly Philopedon geminatus, F. Abundant on sandhills and occasionally inland Occur not infre- quently Alophus triguttatus, F. Generally dis- tributed Sitones griseus, F. Common on the sand- hills — flavescens, Marsh. — suturalis, Steph. — cambricus, Steph. — humeralis, Steph. — sulcifrons, Thumb. — tibialis, Herbst. — regensteinensis, Herbst. — lineatus, L. — puncticollis, Steph. — hispidulus, F. Hypera punctata, F. — rumicis, L. — plantaginis, De G. — polygon), L. — variabilis, Herbst. — nigrirostris, F. — trilineata, Marsh. — suspiciosa, Herbst. Represented on the sandhills by a very elongate varietal form which has been (in other localities) erroneously referred to H. elongata, Payk. The type form occurs near Manchester suuuuiua i „ c Local but not — thrasonella, Scop. — haworthana, Steph. — fischeriella, Zell. — equitella, Scop. North Lancashire ; rare Perittia obscurepunctella, Staint. Liverpool, Grange Heliozele sericiella, Haw. Local — staneella, F. Manchester (Staint. Man.) — resplendella, Staint. „ „ „ ARGYRESTHIID^E Argyresthia. The only abundant species is A. nitidella, F. — conjugella, Zell. \ Local but not un- — gaedartella, L. J common Local and rare, principally on the mosses and at Grange : — — ephippella, F. — semitestacella, Curt. — albistria, Haw. — spiniella, Zell. uncommon 140 INSECTS ARGYRESTHIID^: {continued) Argyresthia semifusca, Haw. — mendica, Haw. — glaucinella, Zell. — retinella, Zell. — brochella, Hb. — dilectella, Zell. — andereggiella, Dup. — curvella, L. — sorbiella, Tr. — pygmseella, Hb. — arceuthina, Zell. — aurulentella, Staint. Cedestis farinatella, Dup. Grange, Chat Moss Ocnerostoma piniarella, Zell. Not un- common among firs Zelleria hepariella, Mann. Grange — insignipennella, Staint. „ GRACILARIIDJE Gracilaria alchimiella, Scop.l Generally — syringella, F. J abundant — stigmatella, F. — elongella, Z. — pnasiampennella, Hb. — auroguttella, Steph. J — semifascia, Haw. Grange — populetorum, L. „ Coriscium curculipennellum, Hb. Rare ; Grange, Windermere — sulphurellum, Haw. Hale near Liver- pool Ornix avellanella, Staint. Very local — torquilella, Staint. „ „ — guttea, Haw. „ „ — betulas, Staint. -i Recorded from the — loganella, Staint. mosses principally — scutulatella, V in the north, Staint. Grange, Wlnder- — scoticella, Staint. J mere COLEOPHORID.S: Coleophora alcyonipennella,") Koll. I Generally — pyrrhulipennella, Zell. | common — nigricella, Steph. J — fabriciella, Vill. Local and uncommon — discordella, Zell. „ „ — albicosta, Haw. „ „ — murinipennella, „ Zell. — csespititiella, Zell. „ „ — anatipennella, Hb. „ „ — laripenella, Zett. „ „ — juncicolella, Staint. „ „ — laricella, Hb. „ „ — fuscedinella, Zell. „ „ — gryphipennella, „ „ Bouchd — viminetella, Zell. „ „ COLEOPHORID/E (continued'] Coleophora lutipennella. Local and un- common — fusco-cuprella,H.S. Grange — paripennella, Zell. „ — virgaureae, Staint. „ — bicolorella, Scott. „ — limosipennella, Fisch. „ — wilkinsoni, Scott. „ — niveicostella, Zell. Manchester — therinella, Tgstr. Preston — siccifolia, Staint. „ — adjunctella, Hodg. „ — salinella, Staint. Fleetwood — tripoliella, Hodg. ,, — deauratella, Lien. Windermere ELACHISTID.S Batrachedra praeangusta, Haw. Local ; Chat Moss, and the sandhills CEnophila v-flava, Haw. Ashton-on-Ribble Chauliodus chaerophyllellus, Goez. Rare and local ; Grange district Laverna propinquella, Staint. Local — lacteella, Staint. „ — ochraceella, Curt. „ — atra, Haw. „ — miscella, SchifF. Grange — rhamniella, Zell. „ — decorella, Sta. „ — hellerella, Dup. Preston district — vinolentella, H.S. „ „ Chrysoclysta aurifrontella, Hb. Common — schrankella, Hb. Local — bimaculella, Haw. Grange, Windermere — terminella, West. „ „ Antispila pfeifferella, Hb. Pendlebury near Manchester Stephensia brunnichella, L. Grange Elachista albifrontella, Hb. Generally common — rufocinerea, Haw. Generally common — argentella, Clerck. „ „ — trapeziella, Staint. — apicipunctella, Staint. — luticomella, Zell. — kilmunella, Staint. — nigrella, Haw. — megerlella, Zell. — cerussella, Hb. — gleichenella, F. Grant — atricomella, Staint. „ — densicornella, Hodg. „ — cinereopunctella, Haw. „ — subnigrella, Doug. „ — bedellella, Sircom. „ — adscitella, Staint. „ — taeniatella, Staint. „ — gangabella, Fisch. „ — biatomella, Staint. „ — pollinariella, Zell. „ Local, but not uncommon 141 A HISTORY OF LANCASHIRE ELACHISTIDJE (continued) Elachista dispunctella, Dup. Wmdermere — perplexella, Staint. — humilis, Zett. „ — obscurella, Staint. „ — zonariella, Tgstr. „ — serricornis, Logan. Pilling Moss — subalbidella, Schlg. „ „ — triatomea, Haw. Morcambe — rhynchosporella, Staint. Generally on the mosses Tischeria complanella, Hb. Generally common — marginea, Haw. Generally common — angusticolella, Z. Manchester (Staint. Man. ii. 413) — dodonsea. Grange, Wmdermere LlTHOCOLLETID^ Lithocolletis. This extensive genus is, thanks principally to the labours of Mr. Threlfall of Preston, rather largely recorded from the county — cramerella, F. — alnifoliella, Dup. — ulmifoliella, Hb. — pomifoliella, Zell. — spinicolella, Staint. — faginella, Mann. — quercifoliella, Zell. — corylifoliella, Haw. — tristrigella, Haw. — trifasciella, Haw. — spinolella, Dup. — viminitorum, Staint. — salicolella, Sircom. — coryli, Nic. — messaniella, Zell. — scopariella, Zisch. — ulicicolella, Vaugh. Local and — viminiella, Sircom. more — nicellii, Zell. less rare — dunningiella, Staint. — frolichiella, Zell. — stettinensis, Nic. — kleemanella, F. — schreberella, F. — emberizaepenella, Bouch£.y — roboris, Zell. Wmdermere district — amyotella, Dup. „ „ — hortella, F. „ „ not com- mon LITHOCOLLETID.S: (continued) Grunge Lithocolletis tenella, Zell. m district — heergeriella, Z. Wmdermere district — irradiella, Staint. „ „ — lautella, Zell. „ „ — caledoniella, Staint. „ „ — torminella, Frey. Recorded by Stain- ton from Manchester — vacciniella, Scott. Occurs on the mosses. — quinqueguttella. From the coast at Lytham LYONETIID-ffi Lyonetia clerkella, L. Grange, Liverpool, Bowdon near Manchester Cemiostoma spartifoliella, HbA j — wailesella, Staint. — laburnella, Staint. — scitella, Z. Opostega saliciella ,Tr.| Mosses in Grange — crepusculella, Z. } and Preston dists. Bucculatrix nigricomella, Zell. Near Grange — ulmella, Mann. — demaryella, Dup. — frangulella, Goeze. — thoracella, Thunb. — cristatella, Zell. — cidarella, Tisch. Manchester — maritima, Staint. Fleetwood NEPTICULID.S: Nepticula. The only species which can be called generally common are N. aurella, F., and N. floscatella, Haw. Otherwise nearly the whole of the genus has been recorded from either Grange, Wmdermere, the Preston dis- trict, or Bowden near Manchester. The following however as given in South's lists have not been noted : — — basiguttella, Hein. Preston — headleyella, Staint. „ — quinquella, Bedell. ,, — sericopeza, Zell. „ — acetosae, Staint. „ — agrimoniae, Heyd. „ — continuella, Staint. ,, Bohemannia quadrimaculella, Boh. Preston Trifurcula pulverosella, Staint. Grange Fairly common and widely dis- tributed HEMIPTERA HETEROPTERA Plant bugs This is an order which has been and is but little studied by local entomologists, and for the few species enumerated below the writer is indebted almost entirely to a list published in the Naturalist of 1882 by B. Cooke of the species taken by him near Manchester, and to notes 142 (continued) Lyctocoris campestris, F. INSECTS made by Dr. Chaster of Southport of occurrences of the order in that district. There is no doubt that very many more species exist and will be recorded as the attention of local students is directed to this generally neglected order. The nomenclature here followed is that of the Hemiptera Heteroptera of the British Islands^ by E. Saunders, the most recent work on the order. PF.NTATOMiD.flE Corimelaena scarabaeoides, L. This dis- tinctly southern species has been taken near Southport by Dr. Chaster Piezodorus lituratus, F. Manchester BERYTIDJE Neides tipularius, L. On the coast sandhills Berytus minor, H.S. „ „ Metacanthus punctipes, Ger. „ „ Nysius thymi, Wolff. Southport Rhyparochromus chiragra, F. „ Stygnus rusticus, Fall. „ — pedestris, Fall. Generally distributed — arenarius, Hahn. „ „ Ischnorhynchus geminatus, Fieb. General on heather Ttapezonotus agrestfe. Fall. ) Generall Drymus sylvaticus, F. * ,. ., J , Scolopostethus neglectus, Ed.) TlNGIDID^E Serenthia laeta, Fall. Southport district Orthostira parvula, Fall. „ „ Derephysia foliacea, Fall. „ „ Monanthia cardui, L. „ „ Piezostethus galactinus, ^ Fieb. \Mancheste Acompocoris pygmasus, Fall, j district Triphleps minutus, L. J — majusculus, Reut. Southport Microphysa elegantula, Baer. „ Aradus depressus, Fab. Manchester HYDROMETRIDJE Hydrometra stagnorum, Linn. 1 Generall Velia currens, Fab. [distributed Gerns lacustns, L. ) — thoracica, Schum. Bolton district — costas, H.S. „ „ — odontogaster, Zett. „ „ REDUVIID^; Reduvius personatus, L. Warrington Nabis major, Cost. Common — limbatus, Dahlb. „ — ferus, L. Southport — rugosus, L. „ Ploiaria vagabunda, L. Manchester SALDID^E Salda pilosa, Fall. Southport — saltatoria, L. „ — littoralis, L. „ — orthochila, Fieb. Greenfield — scotica, Curt. Shores of Wmdermere CIMICID.* Ceratocombus coleoptratus, Zett. South- port •143 Pithanus maerkeli, H.S. Manchester Miris calcaratus, Fall. Generally common — laevigatus, L. „ „ Megaloceraea erratica, L. „ „ — ruficornis, Fall. „ „ Leptopterna ferrugata, Fall. „ „ — dolobrata, L. Near Manchester Phytocoris tilias, F. Not uncommon — dimidiatus, Kbm. „ — ulmi, L. „ Calocoris sexguttatus, F. „ — fulvomaculatus, De G. „ — bipunctatus, F. „ Plesiocoris rugicollis, Fall. Southport Lygus pratensis, F. Generally distributed — viridis, Fall. „ „ — pabulinus, L. „ „ — pastinaca?, Fall. „ „ Liocoris tripustulatus, F. „ „ Poeciloscytus unifasciatus, F. Southport Rhopalotomus ater, L. Common Orthocephalus saltator, Hahn. Southport Dichyphus epilobii, Reut. — pallidicornis, Fieb. I Manchester Cyllocoris histrionicus, L. district ./Etorhinus angulatus, Fall.J Globriceps cruciatus, Reut. Southport — dispar, Boh. „ Mecomma ambulans, Fall. „ Cyrtorrhinus caricis, Fall. „ Heterotoma merioptera, Scop. „ Macrotylus paykullii, Fall. „ Conostethus salinus, Sahib. „ — roseus, Fall. „ Amblytylus brevicollis, Fieb. „ Phyllus palliceps, Fieb. „ Psallus ambiguus, Fall. „ Plagiognathus arbustorum, F. „ — viridulus, Fall. „ A HISTORY OF LANCASHIRE CAPSIDJE (continued) Plagiognathus roseri, H.S. Soutbport — bohemanni, Fall. „ — pulicarius, Fall. „ NAUCORIDJE Nepa cinerea, L. Southport, Manchester, Bolton Notonecta glauca, L. Generally common Corixa geoffroyi, Leach. „ „ — fossarum, Leach. „ „ — fallenii, Fieb. „ „ — atomaria, Illig. Bolton district NAUCORID/E (continued) Corixa lugubris, Fieb. Bolton district — hieroglyphica, Duf. „ „ — sahlbergi, Fieb. „ „ — limitata, Fieb. „ „ — moesta, Fieb. „ „ — fabricii, Fieb. „ — linnaei, Fieb. Southport, Bolton [These records of Corixae are due to Mr. Oscar Whittaker of Bolton, who has specially studied this genus.] HEMIPTERA HOMOPTERA Frog-hoppers, etc. The only information we have recorded as regards this section of the order is contained in the list of Ben Cooke published in the Natu- ralist, 1882, already referred to. The following is a summary of his observations, which are restricted to the district immediately round Manchester and Southport. As regards the remainder of the county no authentic information is available. ClXIID/E Cixius nervosus, L. Manchester district — cunicularis, L. „ „ — pilosus, Ol. „ „ DELPHACIDJE Liburnia pellucida, F. Manchester district — discolor, Boh. „ „ — fairmairei, Ferris. „ „ CERCOPIDJE Aphrophora alni, Fall. Manchester district Philaenus spumarius, L. „ „ — lineatus, L. „ „ BYTHOSCOPID.S: Macropsis lanio, L. Manchester Bythoscopus flavicollis, L. „ Pediopsis nassatus, Germ. „ Idiocerus adustus, Schaff. „ — populi, L. „ Agallia puncticeps, Germ. „ Idiocerus adustus, Schaff. Manchester, Riv- ington, Southport TETTIGONIDJE Evacanthus interruptus, L. Manchester ACOCEPHALIDJE Strongylocephalus agrestis, Fall. Acocephalus rusticus, F. Manchesle f — bifasciatus, L. ' Southport — albifrons, L. — flavostriatus, Don. TYPHLOCYBID^ Alebra albostriella, Fall. Dicraneuravariata, Hardy. Eupteryx tenellus, Fall. — urticas, F. — pictus, F. — stachydearum, Hardy. — pulchellus, Fall. Typhlocybasexpunctata, Fall — quercus, F. — ulmi, L. — geometrica, Schr. — rosae, L. — blandula, Rossi. All recorded from Man- chester dis- trict or from Southport Athysanus subfusculus, Fall. — prasinus, Fall. Deltocephalus abdominalis, F. — sabulicola, Curt. — striatus, L. — socialis, Flor. — ocellaris, Fall. — pulicaris, Fall. PSYLLID.S Psylla forsteri, Flor. — alni, L. — salicicola, Forst. — mali, Schbdg. Psyllopsis fraxinicola, FSrst. Trioza urticae, L. Manchester district Manchester, Southport 144 SPIDERS ARACHNIDA As long ago as 1861 a 'List of Southport Spiders,' by the Rev. O. Pickard-Cambridge, was published in A Handbook for Southport by David McNicoll, M.D. and edition, pp. 102-109. Additions have subsequently been made by Mr. C. Warburton, of Christ's College, Cambridge, and Dr. A. Randell Jackson, M.D., of Hexham, to the Southport list, whilst Mr. Linnsus Greening, F.L.S., of Warrington, the Rev. J. Harvey Bloom, and Mr. W. Falconer have contributed various species to the county list. The present author has also been able to add considerably to the number during rambles in the fell and valley districts of Duddon Vale and Coniston, as well as on the coast at Blackpool and Grange. The number of species of spiders recorded reaches two hundred and thirty-one (231) ; of Pseudo-scorpions one only, and of Harvestmen seven ; the total number of spiders recorded as British being between five and six hundred ; of Pseudoscorpions 22, of Harvestmen 24 species. The list of all these Arachnida might be greatly increased, for Lancashire affords an abundant variety of good localities with its fells and vales, its sand-dunes and southern sea-board. In the following list where no authority or collector is quoted the author takes responsibility. ARANE^E ARACHNOMORPH& DYSDERID.E Spiders with six eyes and two pairs of stigmatic openings, situated close together on the genital rima ; the anterior pair communicating with lung-books, the posterior with tracheal tubes. Tarsal claws, two in Dysdera, three in Harpactes and Segestria. 1 . Harpactes hombergii, Scopoli. Grange ; Southport (A. R. J.). Not common. Found under bark of trees and amongst moss. Recognizable by its linear ant-like form, black carapace, pale clay-yellow abdomen and three tarsal claws. 2. Segestria senoculata, Linnaeus. Grange, Broughton, Coniston ; Warrington (L. G.) ; Southport (A. R. J.). Not common. Under bark of trees, in the crevices of loose stone walls, and amongst detached rocks. Recognizable by its linear form and the black dia- mond-shaped blotches on the dorsal surface of the abdomen. 3. Oonops pulcher, Templeton. Grange ; Southport (A.R.J.). Rare. A very small linear brick-red spider, found beneath stones and amongst dry grass. It possesses six large oval pearly-white eyes. DRASSID^E Spiders with eight eyes situated in two transverse rows. The tracheal openings lie immediately in front of the spinners. The tarsal claws are two in number, but the anterior pair of spinners are set wide apart at their base, and the maxillae are more or less impressed across the middle. They are usually found beneath stones, logs, and bark of trees, amongst dry leaves in woods, and one species usually occurs in outbuildings. They are all nocturnal in their habits. 4. Drassodes lapidosus, Walckenaer. Coniston, Lancaster, Duddon Vale, etc. etc. ; Southport (A. R.J.). Very common under stones all over the fells. The male dwells within a silken domicile together with the female, and becoming mature earlier awaits patiently the coming of age of the female. Known also as Drassus lapidicolens. 5. Drassodes cupreus, Blackwall. Coniston, Duddon Vale, Southport (O. P.-C., A.R.J.). Very common, and in similar situations to the last species. It is rather smaller, coppery red in colour with a black marginal band to the sternum. The mandibles differ also in their armature and the vulva is different to that of D. lapidosus. It may take rank as a sub-species. Known also as Drassus cupreus, 6. Drassodes reticulatus, Blackwall. Lancaster, J. Blackwall. The types of this species having been lost, it is difficult to say what it may be. 7. Drassodes pubescens, Thorell. Garstang (L. G.). A rare species, resembling a very small D. lapidosus, and can be recognized by a comparison of the genitalia in both sexes as well as by a different relative position of the eyes (O. P.-C.). 8. Drassodes troglodytes, C. L. Koch. Southport (O. P.-C., A. R. J.) ; Coniston, Dud- don Vale. This species is common under stones on the fells. It is known also as Drassus troglodytes and D. clavator o. Prosthesitna nigrita, Fabricius. Southport (C. W.). 145 A HISTORY OF LANCASHIRE 10. Prostbesima Latrrillii, C. L. Koch. Southport (A. R.J.). 1 1 . Prosthesima electa, C. L. Koch. Southport (O. P.-C., A. R. J.). A rare spider in England as a rule, but abundant on the sandhills of Southport and probably occurring all along the coast. Known also as Draaus fumllus, Blackwall. 1 2. Scotophams blackwallii, Thorell. Garstang (L. G.) ; Southport (A. R. J.). A dark elongate mouse-grey spider, often found wandering about the walls of dwelling and outhouses at night. Known also as Drassus blackwallll and Drassus serlceus, Blackwall. CLUBIONID^E Spiders with eight eyes situated in two transverse rows. The tracheal openings lie immediately in front of the spinners ; but the anterior pair of spinners are set close together at their base. The tarsal claws are two in number ; the maxillae are convex and not im- pressed across the middle. The spiders are found in a variety of situations, under bark of old trees or on palings, amongst dry grass or cut rushes, whilst many are to be beaten from the foliage of trees or may be found wandering at night on palings or the walls of outhouses. 13. M icaria puficaria, Sundevall. Barton Moss (L. G.) ; Southport (O. P.-C., A. R. J.) ; Coniston, Duddon Vale. A brilliant little spider with iridescent scales on its body. Not uncommon running about in the hot sunshine. Known also as Drassus nltens and D. micatis, Blackwall. 14. Micariosotna festivum, C. L. Koch. Lancaster ; Southport (A. R. J.). Very similar in general appearance to the last species, but small and even more ant-like. Known also as Phrunllthus festivus and Drassus propinquus, Blackwall. 15. Zora maculata, Blackwall. Grange ; Southport (A. R. J.). Common. Known also as Hecaerge maculata, Bl., and H. splnlmana, Bl. 1 6. Agroeca brunnea, Blackwall. Southport, O. P.-C. ; Lancaster ; Grange. Rarely found amongst dead leaves and at the roots of herbage in woods. Known also as Agelena brunnea. 1 7. Agroeca pnxlma, O. P.-Cambridge. Southport (A. R. J.). 1 8. Agroeca celans, Blackwall. Grange; (W. F.). 19. Agroeca gi-acilipes, Blackwall. Southport (A. R. J.). 20. Clubiona terrestris, Westring. Grange; Warrington (L.G.). Southport (O.P.-C.). Sub. Clubiona amarantha. Not uncommon on the foliage of trees and shrubs, or running about at night on palings or on the walls of outhouses. Known also as Clubiona amarantha, Blackwall. 21. Clubiona lutescens, Westring. Southport (A. R. J.). 22. Clubiona stagnates, Kulczynski. Grange ; Lancaster ; x Southport (O. P.-C., A.R.J.). Not uncommon amongst sedge-grass on the river banks or in the mosses. Known also as Clubiona grisea, Thorell. 23. Clubiona reclusa, O. P.-Cambridge. Grange ; Warrington (L. G.). A rather rare species, found amongst shrubs and bushes. The female spins together two bramble or other leaves and constructs therein an egg-cocoon. Previously the male and female may both be found together in the domicile. 24. Clubiona phragmitis, C. L. Koch. Warrington (L. G.) ; Southport (A. R. J.). A very common species amongst cut rushes near the banks of streams, marshes, and mosses. It can often be found also under the bark of posts or pollard- willows in similar situations. Known also as Clubiona holosericea, De Geer, and Clubiona deinognatba, O. P.- Cambridge. 25. Clubiona neglecta, O. P.-Cambridge. Birkdale Park, Southport, W. Falconer (A. R. J.). 26. Clubiona pallidula, Clerck. Warrington (L. G.) ; Southport (O. P.-C., A.R. J.) . A large species, usually fairly common amongst bramble bushes, where the female makes her egg- cocoon within the folded leaves. Known also as Clubiona epimelas, Blackwall. 27. Clubiona trivialis, L. Koch. Warrington (L. G.) ; Coniston. Birkdale Park, Southport, W. Falconer (A. R. J.). Rare amongst heather in the fell districts. 28. Clubiona diversa, O. P.-Cambridge. Southport (A. R. J.). 29. Clubiona subtilis, L. Koch. Lancaster (O. P.-C.). A rare species. Known also as Clubiona pollens, Blackwall. 30. Clubiona comta, C. L. Koch. Grange (A. R. J.). A very pretty species, not uncommon amongst trees and bushes. The abdomen is striped diagonally on each side with red-brown. 31. Chiracanthium erraticum, Walckenaer. Lancaster (O. P.-C.) ; Grange. Not uncommon in the folded leaves of various species of brambles in the summer-time. The spider resembles a Clubiona, but has longer legs and a red stripe down the abdomen. l There appears to have been some confusion in the author's mind here. The spider found by me at Southport, Handbook for Soutbfort, 1861, p. 106 (and supposed to be Clubiona stag- natilis, Kulcz. by the author), was without a doubt Clubiona bolosericea, Blackwall, and was so identified for me by Mr. Black- wall. This last species is identical with Clubiona grisea, L. Koch, of which I possess types from L. Koch, as well as the male type of Mr. Blackwall's C. bolosericea. What Kulczynski's C. stagnatilis may be I do not know, as I have never seen a type of it. The spider, however (No. 22), intended is probably Clubiona holosericea, Blackwall, as recorded (Handbook if Southport).— O. P.-Cambridge. I46 SPIDERS 32. Chiracanthium lap'idlcolens, Simon. Southport (A. R. J.). THOMISID^E Spiders with eight eyes, situated in two transverse rows, two tarsal claws, and anterior spinners situated close together at their base. Maxillas not impressed. The crab-like shape and sidelong movements of these spiders are their chief characteristics, enabling them to be easily distinguished, as a rule, from the more elongate Drassidtf and Clubtonid Found in plenty on the walls of outhouses, . . . . . . squatting in a small hollow. Its appearance is an ,. Kn°wn als° ,as. ?**!&* lugubre and Nemastma infallible sign of the approach of autumn. hmoculatum, Fabncms. 235' £££?& S±co. p.-c.). *"- ».) Mr. J. T. Moore recorded a specimen in the Httle fish fn s^low waTer 'near th'e f * b Spotted Goby. Gobius minutus, Gmel. into the market in the form of ' cod steaks,' a portion of the trunk being utilized by the fisher- men for this purpose. 13. The Weever or ' Stinger.' Trachinus vipera, Cuv. and Val. A very common little fish on the shallow water fishing grounds all along the Lancashire coast. It has poison organs in connexion with the spine of the first dorsal fin and with the opercular spines. Shrimp fishermen have a very wholesome dread of this fish, and never attempt to sort out a catch of the shrimp trawl when they see it except with a piece of stick or a marlinespike. The wounds made by the poison spines are, though not dangerous, exceedingly painful. 14. Larger Weever. Trachinus draco. Linn. Very uncommon. I have only known one Liverpool N. W. light vessel were identified by specimen to be taken off the Lancashire coast. It was sent to me by a shrimper who caught it off the Mersey estuary. Very common in Lancashire shallow waters. 22. Speckled Goby. Gobius parnelli. Day's G. Parnelli is only the estuarine ' race ' of G. minutus.1 23. Transparent Goby or Nonnat. Aphia pellu- cida (Nard.) I have seen great numbers of this little fish near Roa Island in the Barrow Channel. 24. Dragonet. Callionymus lyra, Linn. The Gemmous dragonet, ' skulpin,' or ' bishop.' Very common everywhere in shallow water. 25. The Spoiled Dragonet. Callionymus macula- tus, Bon. Very rare in the Irish Sea, though no doubt it is often confused with C. lyra. Some specimens taken by Mr. J. A. Clubb in 1902 off the 181 1 Holt and Byrne. Rep. Board of Agriculture and Technical Instruction, Ireland. Fisheries. Pt. 2. Scien- tific investigations, 1902. A HISTORY OF LANCASHIRE my friend Mr. Andrew Scott. C. maculatus is smaller than C. lyra, and differs principally in the pigmentation of the anterior dorsal fin. 26. The Lumpsucker or Hen Fish. Cydopterus lumpus, Linn. Quite common on the Lancashire coast. The female lays her eggs in rock pools in a large mass the size of a man's head, and the male stands by and aerates them by movements of his tail. Fishermen often mistake these eggs for those of the salmon, which they resemble only in colour, being, however, much less in diameter. 27. Sea-snail or Sucker. Liparis montagui (Don.) Commonly taken in the shrimp nets in the estuaries. It has been found in the Mersey as far south as Garston (A. Scott). 28. Sucker. Liparis vulgaris, Flem. Not so common as L. montagui, but with much the same distribution. 29. Double-spotted sucker. Lepadogaster blma- culatus, Don. Frequent in shallow water. 30. Cat-fish or wolf-fish. Anarrhichas lupus, Linn. Very uncommon. A specimen in the Liver- pool Public Museum and another in the Zoology Museum at the University of Liverpool are pro- bably local. 31. Butterfly Blenny. Blennius ocellarius, Linn. A single specimen was dredged by Capt. A. Wignall near Morecambe Bay light vessel, and was identified by A. Scott. 32. Shanny. Blennius pholis, Linn. Very common in shore pools between tide marks on the Lancashire coast. 33. Butterfish. Pholis gunnellus (Linn.) Day, Centronotus gunnellus. Very common in shore pools and beneath stones. This pretty little fish lives well in small marine aquaria. The female may often be found in the spring coiled round a mass of her own eggs. 34. Ballan Wrasse. Labrus maculatus, Bl. This species has been found in the Barrow Channel. The Fisheries steamer has trawled it from the offshore grounds between Lancashire and Isle of Man. 35. Gold Sinny. Ctenolabrus rupestris, Linn. Herdman and Dawson record this fish from Liverpool Bay. ANACANTHINI 36. Cod. Gadus callarias, Linn. (Gadus morrhua of most authors.) The cod is of course very common in Lan- cashire waters, though in the inshore waters it is mostly small ' codling ' that are caught. The cod spawns in deep water, and the eggs may be found about March. In June young cod about an inch long may be seen on the shore waters. In Lancashire waters these little fishes often have a peculiar chess-board arrangement of pig- ment on their sides. They occur mostly among seaweeds or on rocky ground. Towards the autumn they disappear. Codling are common all along Lancashire inshore waters, and are caught both by line and trawl, but chiefly by the latter. 37. Haddock. Gadus /eglefinus, Linn. The haddock is abundant in Lancashire waters, but it is rather a capricious fish and occasionally seems to shun our inshore waters. Some years ago it was very abundant. It is caught both by line and trawl. 38. Whiting. Gadus merlangus, Linn. Whiting are perhaps more abundant in Lan- cashire waters than either cod or haddock. This is particularly the case with small fish (5 to 7 in. long) in the winter, several thousands being sometimes taken in one haul of a shrimp trawl. The brain of whiting caught in Lancashire waters is very often infested with the Trematode, Gasterostomum gradlescens, and the cranial cartilage with the Myxosporidian, Sphaerospora platessa. 39. Coal-fish or Bluffin. Gadus virens, Linn. Not so common as the above species of Gadidae. It is sometimes very abundant in the Barrow Channel off Roa Island. 40. Bib. Gadus luscus (Will.) Not at all abundant. I have seen it in Barrow Channel. 41. Poor-cod or 'Power' Cod. Gadus minutus, Linn. More common than the bib. It is very often taken in the trawl in Lancashire inshore waters, but never in quantity. 42. Pollack. Gadus pollachius, Linn. This fish is less abundant than any of the above gadoids. It has been taken in the trawl off Blackpool. 43. Hake. Merluccius vulgaris, Cuv. Scarce in Lancashire waters. 44. Fork-beard. Phycis blennoides (Brun.) Mr. Andrew Scott records a specimen which came ashore on Roa Island in the Barrow Channel and was killed by some boys It is very uncommon in the Irish Sea. 45. Ling. Moha vulgaris, Flem. Rare in Lancashire, but occasionally taken in the trawl. 182 FISHES 46. Five-bearded Rockling. Onus muste/a, Linn. (Day's Motella mustela.) Not at all uncommon in Lancashire waters. I have obtained a medium-sized specimen from the shore in Barrow Channel. 47. Three-bearded Rockling. Onus tricirrhatus (Bl.) Fairly common. 48. Halibut. Hippoglossus vulgaris, Flem. The halibut is very scarce in Lancashire waters. I have not seen a specimen myself from inshore waters. When it does occur it is usually small. It is more often obtained south of the Isle of Man. A fisherman on Bardsey Island told me of a specimen taken on a line which weighed 80 Ib. It was sold at Pwllheli for 8;. 49. Long rough Dab. Drepanopsetta platessoides (Fabr.) Day, Hlppoghssoldes limandoides, Very scarce in the Irish Sea. I have seen three or four specimens taken about midway between Lancashire and the Isle of Man. It is so uncommon that there is no local name for it, and it is usually called a ' kind of megrim.' 50. Turbot. Rhombus maximus, Linn. Rather uncommon. Small specimens are, however, taken in shallow inshore waters in the shrimp net. We have had it from the inshore waters of Blackpool, from Morecambe Bay, and from Barrow Channel. Turbot and brill in Lancashire waters are usually infested with the tapeworm Bothriocephalus punctatus. 51. Brill or 'Brett.' Rhombus lce Individually the sole is the most valuable fish It is interesting to note that nearly 20 per caught in Lancashire waters. It is found every- cent. of the fish so marked and liberated in where, but some grounds, as for instance in the Lancashire waters were found during the first neighbourhood of the Liverpool N.W. lightship, four months. This shows the intensity of the are very lucrative. The sole fishery in Lancashire fishing that goes on within territorial waters. It waters has been steadily improving for the last half-dozen years. 63. Lucky Sole. Solea variegata (Don.) Very uncommon. Mr. A. Scott recorded a specimen from near the Morecambe Bay light- ship in April 1894. It is a smallish fish. 64. Solenette. Solea lutea (Risso.) This is a small fish 3 to 5 inches long which is abundant on the shrimping grounds, especially in the Mersey estuary. It used to be mistaken for the true sole, which it resembles when the latter is young. It is thicker, redder, and has coarser scales than the latter. About half, or even more, of the small 'soles' got on the Mersey shrimping grounds are solenettes. The solenette becomes mature when about 3 to 5 inches long. There are probably three species of Solea which are confused together by fishermen, especially offshore trawlers. Solea variegata and Solea lutea are certainly confounded, and are both called 'Lucky Soles.' Probably S. lascaris is also found, but I am not aware of any indubitable record of its occurrence in strictly Lancashire waters. means that 20 per cent, of all the fish on the bottom in that area were caught by fishermen during the same period. 58. Lemon Sole. Pleuronectes microcepha/us, Don. Not very abundant and usually got in offshore waters. 59. Dab. More commonly called ' Garve ' and ' Skear-back.' The most abundant pleuronectid in local waters. I have known as many as 15,000 to be taken in one haul of a shrimp net off Blackpool. The dab is not regarded as a valuable food-fish and does not command a very good price. It is more distinctively an inshore fish than the plaice. There appears to be a curious complementary relation between the abundance of plaice and dabs in Lancashire waters. It is often the case that when plaice are scarce dabs are abundant and vice versa. Of late years dabs have become more abundant here than plaice. It is just possible that the restrictive measures imposed on trawl-fishing in Lancashire waters have benefited the dab to a greater extent than plaice. This is all the more probable since the dab is a species which spawns when it is (compared with plaice) relatively small. The relatively wide trawl and stake net meshes enforced now by the Fishery Board may possibly have produced this increase in the number of dabs in Lancashire waters. 60. Flounder. Also called 'White Fluke.' Pleuronectes flesus^ Linn. Common. The best grounds for the flounder are perhaps in the Lune and Ribble estuaries. Flounders obtained from the former ground are often infested with the sporozoan parasite, Lymphocystis johnstonei, Woodcock, 1 a most re- 1 Woodcock, Lancashire Sea fish. Laty. Report fir J9°3> PP- 63-72, Liverpool, 1904. PERCESCOCES 65. Grey Mullet. Mugil chelo, Cuv. This mullet is found all along the Lancashire coast in summer. Large numbers of the young occasionally enter Morecambe Bay and have been mistaken by fishermen for young salmon. I have seen them in abundance in Fleetwood Dock, and they are said to be very numerous in the Cavendish Dock at Barrow. They are frequently caught in stake and seine nets at Southport and in Morecambe Bay. The other grey mullet, Mugil capita, may occasionally turn up in Lancashire waters and may have been confused 184 FISHES with M. chela, the two species being very simi- lar, but I am not aware of any certain record of the occurrence of the former fish. 66. Greater Sand-eel. Ammodytes lanceolatus, Lesauv. Not a common fish in Lancashire waters, but a specimen has been taken in Morecambe Bay. 67. Lesser Sand-eel. Ammodytes tobianus, Linn. Much commoner than the greater sand-eel. It is caught almost everywhere in shallow waters, and is a common fish in the shrimp nets. There is a fishery for sand-eels at Fleetwood, where they are simply dug out of the sand. 68. Garfish or Greenbone. Be/one vulgaris, Will. The occurrence of this fish is rather capricious. It is occasionally taken in Ulverston Channel in stake nets, and it has been caught in the Queen's Dock at Liverpool and in the Man- chester Ship Canal at Eastham ! HEMIBRANCHII 69. Three-spined Stickleback. Gasterosteus acu- leatus, Linn. Locally, Jack Sharp. A semi-marine species. It occurs near Piel in the Barrow Channel. **yo. Ten-Spined Stickleback. Gasterosteus pun- gitius, Linn. This stickleback is recorded by Scott from the Barrow Channel. 7 1 . Fifteen - spined Stickleback. Gasterosteus spinacbia. Linn. Scott has recorded this fish from Morecambe Bay and from the Barrow Channel. Sticklebacks are often infested with the Myxo- sporidian parasite, Glugea anomala, which forms little globular swellings underneath the skin. A number of these fishes from a pond in the public park, Preston, were sent to me some time ago, all infested with this Sporozoon. Ap- parently the parasite caused no inconvenience to the fishes. LOPHOBRANCHII 72. Broad-nosed Pipe-fish. Siphonostoma typh/e, Linn. A shore fish which is very rare in Lancashire waters. 73. Pipe-fish. Syngnathus am!, Linn. This is the common pipe-fish. It is got very frequently in the shrimp nets and in the shore pools. PLECTOGNATHI 74. Sun fish. Orthagoriscus mala (Linn.) This fish must be very rare off the north-west coast of England. It is recorded in the stock books of the Liverpool Public Museum as having been taken 'off Southport' in 1864. I am not aware of any other record of its occurrence in the North Sea. HAPLOMI *75. Pike. Esox lucius, Linn. Common in rivers and meres. OSTARIOPHYSI *j6. Carp. Cyprinus carplo, Linn. In Bryerly's time l the carp was common in ponds and streams, but it is certainly much rarer now. 77. Roach. Leuciscus rutilus (Linn.) Not uncommon. 78. Chub. Leuciscus cephalus (Linn.) Not at all common. *79- Dace. Leuciscus vulgaris (Linn.) Bryerly states that Leuciscus lancastriensis was common in 1856 in the streams about War- rington. L. lancastriensis is identical with L. vulgaris. *8o. Minnow. Leuciscus phoxinus (Linn.) Common. *8i. Rudd. Leuciscus erythr aphtha Imus (Linn.) This is Bryerly's L. caeruleus. *82. Tench. Tinea vulgaris. Linn. Common in ponds. *83- Bream. Abramis brama (Linn.) In ponds and streams. *84. White Bream. Abramis blicca (Bloch) Bryerly recorded this fish from the Weaver. *85. Loach or ' Beardie.' Nemacheilus barbatu- tar, Rond. Not uncommon in smaller streams. 1 Isaac Bryerly, Fauna of Liverpool, 1856. MALACOPTERYGII **86. Salmon. Salmo salar, Linn. 1901 a salmon smolt about £ Ib. in weight was Taken by seine nets, 'hang-nets,' 'heaves.' taken by the fishery steamer John Fell, off This fish also occurs frequently in the stake nets Blackpool, about two miles from land. This fish was feeding voraciously, when taken, on young fish (sprats or herrings), and its stomach in Morecambe Bay and elsewhere, and it is sometimes taken in the trawl. Our knowledge of the salmon in the open sea is very scanty. In also contained the remains of brittle stars and 185 A HISTORY OF LANCASHIRE sponges. I believe that this is the first recorded instance of a salmon smolt being found in the open sea. The Lune is the chief Lancashire salmon river, and indeed this is one of the best salmon streams in England. During late years a deteriora- tion in the value of the Lune salmon fisheries has been noted, and one cause assigned is the excessive amount of netting at the mouth of the estuary. But I think the other alleged cause, the growing pollution of the stream, is a more important factor. All the sewage from Lan- caster, from an infectious disease hospital, and the effluents from several factories, enter the portion of the estuary where salmon are found. The effect of this pollution is perhaps not so much to kill the fish — it is not bad enough yet — as to prevent them going up the river. Attempts have been made in recent years to compel the local authorities concerned to adopt sewage purification measures, but these have so far been fruitless. **87. Sea Trout. Salmo trutta, Linn. Sea trout are very often taken along the sea coast. Fishermen in Lancashire distinguish between several kinds of salmonidas, giving them local names, such as ' mort," ' fork-tails,' etc., but most probably all these are to be referred either to the salmon or the sea trout. *88. Trout. Salmo fario, Linn. The Ribble is the best Lancashire trout stream. 89. Sparling. Osmerus eperlanus (Linn.) Sparling are common enough in Lancashire waters to form the material for a fishery. They are taken by seine nets in Morecambe Bay when the fishery lasts, (legally) from I November to 31 March. They are also got occasionally in Barrow Channel, and in the shrimp trawl nets off Blackpool. They are very small (3 ins. or thereabout) in the latter habitat. **go. Grayling. Corregous thymallus (Linn.) In Bryerly's time the grayling was taken abundantly in the Mersey near Garston Dock. 91. Anchovy. Engraulis encrasicholus (Linn.) The anchovy is a rare visitant to Lancashire waters. I have seen specimens taken by Capt. Eccles in the shrimp trawl in the Mersey estuary and off Blackpool. It is so uncommon that fishermen usually fail to recognize it. 92. Herring. Clupea harenga, Linn. There is no real fishery now for herring in Lancashire waters, though they are caught off the Isle of Man and in Welsh waters. They used to be abundant in Morecambe Bay, but have deserted this district for many years on account of the increased steam traffic in the bay, some fishermen say. They were, however, rather abundant in the Mersey between Rock Ferry and Eastham a few years ago, and some boats from Morecambe followed the fishing there with much success. They occur very frequently, however, though not in sufficient numbers to make a remunerative fishery, and are constantly met with in the trawl nets. 93. Sprat. Clupea spratta, Linn. ' Sprats ' are always mixtures of the true sprat and the herring. They are very abundant at times. In 1902 great quantities were taken by the shrimp boats off Southport. In this case the fish were caught by being ' meshed ' during the ' shooting ' and hauling of the shank nets. The fish live in the intermediate and upper layers of the water and were caught by the net in descending and ascending. 94. Twaite Shad. Clupea Jinta, Cuv. All silvery fishes in and about Morecambe Bay are known as ' shads.' The twaite shad is, however, very uncommon. It has been taken in the Mersey (20 October, 1876, Moore, Liver- pool Public Museum), at Formby, and off Blackpool. APODES 95- Eel. Anguilla vulgaris, Turton. Common along the shores in many places. 96. Conger. Conger vulgaris, Cuv. The conger is common in Lancashire waters. It is caught in the trawl and by lines. I have caught it on the Scars in Barrow Channel in low water by the 'gaff.' The immature stage is the well-known Leptocephalus. Mr. A. Scott captured a number of these in 1898 in the Barrow Channel by placing a fine net in the sand gutters through which the last of the tide was ebbing. These, however, were rather the transitional stage between Leptocephalus and the young congers than the true leptocephaline larval stage. GANOIDS 96. Sturgeon. Acipenser sturio, Linn. The sturgeon is not a true member of our local piscine fauna, but is to be • regarded as a rather rare visitant. Still, it occurs now and then. Frequently got at Morecambe in Burrow's Balks ; a specimen caught at the end of 1 904 was between 9-10 feet long. One was caught by some salmon fishermen using a draft net in the Leven. This example was sent to Mr. Broadbent, fishmonger, Barrow, who sent the head to Mr. A. Scott at Piel. The fish was 8 feet long and weighed 4 cwt. 1 86 FISHES CHONDROPTERYGIANS 97. Toper. Galeus vulgarh (Linn.) Locally, Darwen Salmon. This large dogfish has been taken at the mouth of the Mersey, in the river above Liver- pool, and elsewhere. It is, however, rather rare. Along with (no doubt) other dogfish it is sold occasionally as human food. 98. Pike Dog. Acanthlas vulgarh, Risso. The commonest ' dog ' in Lancashire waters. I witnessed a haul of a fish trawl made by Capt. 102. Monk or Abbot. Rhina squatina (Linn.) Frequently taken in the trawl nets in offshore waters. 103. Torpedo. Torpedo nobi/iana, Bonap. The electric ray is very rare in purely Lan- cashire waters. The stock books of Liverpool Public Museum record one as having been caught in Meols Bay, Southport, in 1884. This specimen, which does not appear to be in the museum, however, weighed thirty pounds. Wignall off Liverpool N.W. lightship in Sep- 104. Skate or Bluet. Raja bath, Linn, tember, 1904, in which there were 350 dogfishes, mainly Acanthlas. Dogfishes have, during the last few years, proved a veritable plague to fishermen. They occur in great numbers, eat fish from lines, and destroy nets. No method of getting rid of them is likely to prove effective, and it is only by making use of them as human food, openly and not surreptitiously, that their evil effects may be minimized. I have eaten dogfish and found it not unpalatable. 99. Lesser spotted Dogfish. Scyllium canicula (Linn.) Less abundant than the preceding species. This and S. catulus are known to fishermen as ' fay-dogs.' 100. Larger spotted Dogfish. Scyllium catulus, Gunn. Least abundant of the ' dogs.' I have seen it off the Mersey estuary. Very abundant in all parts of the Lancashire district. 105. White Skate. Raja alba, Lac£p. I have not known personally of the capture of this fish, but according to Day it is recorded from Liverpool. Bryerly recorded it from Liverpool as R. marginata. These records are, however, very doubtful. 1 06. Ray. Raja clavata, Linn. This is the commonest ray. It is always abundant. 107. Spotted Ray. Raja maculata, Mont. Also abundant. 108. Starry Ray. Raja radiata, Don. Rarer than any of the above Raj x. 109. Cuckoo Ray or Butterfly Ray. Raja circu- laris, Couch. Not at all common, but got in the trawl now and then. Probably Raja miraletus. Black-mouthed Dogfish. Pristiurus melano- Couch has been confused with this species. stomus (RafHn) A specimen of this fish in the Fisheries Museum at Liverpool University is probably local. no. Sting Ray. Trygon pastinaca, Cuv. This species is recorded in the stock books of the Liverpool Museum as having been found off the Mersey estuary. CYCLOSTOMES ** 1 1 1 . Sea-Lamprey. Petromyzon marinus, Linn. These ' fishes ' are rare in Lancashire waters, but have been taken in the shrimp trawl from the Ribble estuary, the Mersey, and the inshore grounds off the latter estuary. ** 1 1 2. Lamprey or ' Silver-eel.' Petromyzon fluviatilis, Linn. Common. It has been got from Piel, Ulver- ston Channel, and off Morecambe. I have seen a flounder caught in the Lune which bears the wound inflicted by the suctorial mouth of the lamprey. It ' sucks ' on to living fishes. Fisher- men call it the ' nine eyes ' or ' nine holes,' a name which is curiously enough cognate with the German popular name for the species, ' Neunauge.' 113. Hagfish. Myxlne glutlnosa, Linn. I am doubtful as to whether this species really occurs in Lancashire waters. Capt. Wignall, however, informs me that he has seen cod with the internal anatomy destroyed, leaving only skin and bone, and my friend Mr. F. J. Cole tells me that this is the effect produced by hagfishes, which bore into the body of dead fishes like the cod and devour the interior parts. An asterisk (*) indicates occurrence in fresh water only, two asterisks (**) in both fresh and salt water. 187 REPTILES AND BATRACHIANS Neither the reptiles nor batrachians of Lancashire call for much attention. Scarce in Britain generally, these two groups are scarcer still in Lancashire, where uncultivated land now hardly exists except on the sandhills fringing the coast and in parts of the Furness district. This record of the local reptilian and amphibian fauna is taken from the lists given in the British Association handbook for Liverpool and Southport, except those for the Furness area, which have been collected by Mr. Harper Gaythorpe, of Barrow. REPTILES LACERTILIA i. Sand Lizard. Lacerta agilis, Linn. This species used to be, and indeed still is, abundant on the sandhills of Formby, Seaforth, and Southport. It is recorded from Walney Island, Piel Island, and Yarlside, but it is never- theless rare. It is, however, now becoming rarer than it used to be. 2- Viviparous Lizard or Swift. Lacerta vivipara, Jacq. On the mosses and rarely on the sandhills. It occurs at Weston, near Runcorn, and on Latrigg Moss near Broughton-in-Furness. 3. Slow-worm or Blind-worm. Anguis fragi/is, Linn. Found occasionally in the Leyland district and in woods in the Lake district. On the whole it is fairly common in Furness, but more so at Woodland than anywhere else. OPHIDIA 4. Viper or Adder. Vipera ierus, Linn. Very common at Woodland and on the Fells about Torver and among heather and peat mosses. Four were destroyed at Haverthwaite station in June 1905, the largest being 4 feet long (R. Lord, Kirkby-in-Furness), also common on Warton Crag and at Kellet (W. Farrer). 5. Common or Ringed Snake. Tropidonatut natrix, Linn. This snake has been found at Crake Valley and at Woodland (M. Rodgers, Barrow). These two species of snakes are said to occur in south-west Lancashire, but it is rather doubt- ful whether they do or not. Specimens have been reported as occurring in the immediate neighbourhood of Southport, but it is easy in such cases to satisfy oneself that such have not been imported. ' Snakes ' in the Furness district are called 'Hag- worms' by the country people. BATRACHIANS EC AU DAT A 1. Common Frog. Rana temporaria, Linn. Even the common frog does not appear to be so common now as was formerly the case. 2. The Toad. Bufo vulgaris, Linn. Common over the county. 3. Natterjack. Bufo calamita, Laur. Both species of toad are fairly common. They are most abundant on the Formby and Southport sandhills in the slacks. But owing to the drain- ing of the latter B. calamita appears to be becom- ing less common. It is said to be common enough at Mureside Mosses (between Woodland and Broughton-in-Furness) (T. Johnstone, Woodland). CAUDATA 4. Crested Newt. Molge cristata, Laur. 5. Common Newt. Molge vulgaris, Linn. Both these newts are said to be well distributed over Lancashire — that is, the portion of Lanca- shire still capable of forming a habitat for them. The crested newt is neither so abundant nor so well distributed as M. vulgaris. Molgepalmata, Schn., was recorded byBryerly in 1856 as rare. Three small specimens were taken in a shallow stream at Upton. It is very doubtful if it exists in Lancashire to-day. BIRDS Lancashire is rich in respect of its bird life. It forms one of the larger counties of England, possessing an extensive sea-board, and is well endowed with mountain and plain, with wood, river, and lake. It can consequently present to the ornithologist a very representative series of species in the majority of the avian families, and in most districts numerous individuals of each. Situated, however, in the north and west of England, its position is less favourable for receiving visits from the stream of migratory birds passing to and from the continent of Europe than the eastern and southern counties, where so many tarry for a time every spring and autumn. In general, the entire coast of Lancashire from the mouth of the river Duddon to the estuary of the Mersey is fronted by an enormous expanse of sandbanks, hundreds of square miles in extent, left dry by the sea at low water. In Furness, the country landward of the high-water mark forms a plain several miles in width, which rather abruptly rises to an altitude of over 2,500 feet in Furness and Dunnerdale fells. The whole district is rich in tracts of wild crag, elevated moorland and forested slopes, with abundance of brakes and timbered parks interspersed amid the extensively cultivated low- lands and the upland grass farms. In this portion of the county also occur the largest stretches of fresh water, Lake Windermere, Coniston and Esthwaite Waters, and numerous larger or smaller tarns. Many rare species of birds, therefore, survive in the seclusion of this safe sanctuary, and hosts of water- fowl find here unmolested nurseries. Within its boundaries still breed the merlin, the wood warbler, the dipper, the raven, the carrion crow, the great and lesser spotted woodpeckers, the hen-harrier, the white-tailed eagle, and the peregrine falcon. To Furness appertains Walney Island, which has long been noted as one of our chief safe nesting places for terns and limicoline birds. At the southern extremity of the island there is situated the largest of the two important gulleries in the county, the other being that on Cockerham Moss on the south-eastern shore of Morecambe Bay. Leigh, the historian of Lancashire in 1700, remarks that there were there vast quantities of sea-gulls : ' in the breeding time the whole island is near covered with eggs or young ones, so that it is scarce passable without injuring them.' In the list of rare visitors to Walney Island, the Duddon Sands, or the adjacent bay of Morecambe, occur the names of the barnacle goose, the scaup, the redbreasted merganser, the avocet, the whimbrel, and the eared grebe. During autumn and spring on migration, and in winter — especially if severe weather prevail — thousands of ducks, geese, swans, curlews, and dunlins find these sands an inexhaustible feeding ground. The coast between Morecambe Bay and the boundary of Cheshire is indented by the estuaries of the Lune, the Wyre, the Ribble, and the Mersey. The greater part of the long sea line of this region is fringed with sand dunes varying from one to four miles in width, and from 20 to 189 A HISTORY OF LANCASHIRE 30 feet in height. Between these dunes and a line drawn roughly from Lancaster through Preston and Wigan to Manchester, Lancashire is prac- tically a level plain undulating eastward, rarely anywhere rising over 400 to 500 feet. Eastward of this line the country gradually ascends through the foot hills and outliers of the Pennine Range to the boundary of Yorkshire. A special feature of the plains is the extensive area covered by peat mosses. In former days these were vastly greater ; but now they are less continuous and more isolated. Yet still between the Ribble and the Mersey there is an almost continuous belt, twenty miles in length by some three miles in width, dotted with numerous meres and pools, the remnants of the more extensive water-expanses, some of which nearly equalled Lake Windermere in size, so that at one time the name of Lake Lancashire was given to these lowlands. In like manner the great woods and smaller plan- tations, still so abundantly preserved, are but the residue of the almost un- broken forest which once clothed this part of England and harboured so many now vanished species of animals and plants. Countless parks, shrubberies and orchards diversify the surface of the county in the midst of cultivated farms or extensive permanent grass-lands. Lancashire, south of the Fells, therefore presents suitable cover and abundant food supply for most species of birds. Still year after year constant drainage, the continuous additions being made to the arable land, and the growth of the population with the demand for wider areas for human habitation, are curtailing and extinguishing these pleasant habitats and driving their feathered tenants to other sanctuaries. Many species are now far less frequently met with than even a few decades ago ; some have entirely deserted us with little hope of their ever returning. The little bittern, the hobby, and, it is to be feared, the kite, are lost to us ; the honey-buzzard, the bittern, the night-heron and the wryneck are aves rarissimce ; the cross- bill, the chough, the carrion crow, the buzzard, the marsh harrier, the nut- hatch, and the tree-creeper, become rarer every season. The almost entire absence of shore rocks deprives the county of many of our common sea-birds as breeding species, the majority of which would certainly nest under different conditions, such as the puffin, most of the gulls, the guillemots, the chough, the rock-dove, the cormorant, and the shag. As might be expected, however, from the extent of our maritime sandbanks, our lakes, meres, rivers and the wide river-like ditches cut through the mosses, the number of sea or fresh-water-loving birds is very large. No fewer than seventy-nine can be enumerated either as resident or visiting species, and, as already said, during migration and in severe winters vast flocks congregate on the sandbanks, on the mudflats of the estuaries, and on our inland waters. Several species have been recorded for the first time as British birds from Lancashire, namely, the black-throated wheatear, the collared pratin- cole, the sociable plover, the great snipe, the white-faced petrel, and the lanner falcon ; while such rarities as Montagu's harrier, the goshawk, the honey- buzzard, the red-footed falcon, the glossy ibis, the spoonbill, and the Siberian thrush, have all been observed or taken in it. Several of these records are becoming ancient history ; many of those visitors have not for many years passed this way again. A goodly number of the specimens upon which these records are founded were fortunately acquired by the thirteenth Earl of 190 BIRDS Derby, in whose magnificent collection they were preserved till they passed by bequest to the custody of the city of Liverpool in 1851. Duck decoying is now almost extinct in Lancashire. In former days it was carried on in several localities ; but Hale, on the Mersey, the seat of the Ireland-Blackburnes, is the only place where a decoy still continues to be worked. It is provided with five pipes, and has been operated for over 150 years. The chief species that are captured in it are mallard and teal, with a fair proportion of wigeon in most years. Fowlers, on the other hand, are numerous, and are successful in securing every season thousands of scoter, scaup, mallard, curlews, geese, and dunlins by means of douker or fly-nets. The former are suspended a foot or two over the birds' feeding grounds between tides, in diving down to which they get entangled by the neck and drowned in the rising water. The latter, often of great length and some four feet in height, are set on the sands athwart the track of the birds hastening to their feeding banks from which the sea has just retreated. Vast numbers of teal and snipe are also taken in horsehair snares, known as ' panties,' set in lone spots in grassy marshes, and on prepared and baited places when the ground is snow-covered. The ignoble skylark-fowler employs the usual clap-net. Dr. Leigh's History of Lancashire, which contains numerous quaint observations on natural history, has the following interesting note on the ' fowling ' of mallard without their capture : ' but the most remarkable thing of the Wild Ducks is the way of feeding them at Bold in Lancashire. Great quantities of these breed in the summer season in Pits and Ponds within the Demesne, which probably may entice them to come into the Moat near the Hall, which a person accustomed to them perceiving, he beats with a stone on a hollow wood vessel ; the Ducks answer to the sound, and come quite round him upon an Hill adjoining to the Water. He scatters corn amongst them, which they take with as much Quietness and Familiarity as Tame ones ; when fed they take their flight to the Rivers, Meers, and Salt-marshes.' The latest list of birds enumerated as British contains 475 species ; but of these 72 have been disallowed as not sufficiently authenticated. Those, therefore, with a good title to the designation number only 403. Of this total 269 are entered in the following list as having been observed in Lancashire, so that only 134 have not yet favoured us by residence or visit. Of the 269 Lancashire birds, 136 nest with us as residents (93), or as summer visitors (43). The majority, just over a half (69), of these are passerine birds, while larine, limicoline, picarian, and accipitrine species form the bulk of the remainder. Winter sojourners or migrants making a short stay on their autumn and spring passages number 77 : 46 being anserine or limicoline. The balance of 56 are stragglers and occasional visitors, the greater number (48) belonging to anserine, larine, and limicoline species. 1. Missel-Thrush. Turdus v iscivorus, Linn. 3. Redwing. Turdus i/iacust Linn. Locally, Stormcock, Shirley. A common winter and spring visitor, fre- Common throughout the county, but more quenting lower grounds than the fieldfare, abundant year by year. Often frequents shrub- beries and orchards throughout the winter. 4. Fieldfare. Turdus pi/aris, Linn. 2. Song-Thrush. Turdus musicus, Linn. An autumn and winter visitor, often in large Met with everywhere and apparently increas- flocks in the Mersey Valley and on the lower ing in numbers. Fells. 191 A HISTORY OF LANCASHIRE 5. Siberian Thrush. Turdus sibiricus, Pallas. 1 8. Blackcap. Sylvia atricapilla (Linn.). Seen by the writer in his garden in Liverpool A summer immigrant and lowland wood- many occasions during the severe winter of lander, only very occasionally wintering in the county. 19. Garden-Warbler. Sylvia hortensis (Bech- 1895. 6. Blackbird. Turdus merula, Linn. Abundant. 7. Ring-Ousel. Turdus torquatus, Linn. A summer immigrant, nesting more abun- 2Q QoUrfgct dantly in the Fells than elsewhere. 8. Wheatear. Saxicola atnanthe (Linn.). Locally, Stone-chack, Wall-chack, White-rump stein). A common summer migrant, often seen late in autumn in gardens and orchards. Regulus cristatus. K. L. Koch. A fairly common resident, more conspicuous after the close of the breeding season, when it occurs in small companies. A summer resident, arriving at the end of 2i. Firecrest. Regulus ignicapillus (Brehm). March or early in April. Common on the low- Qne of twQ occurrences of this species are lands and sandy hnks near the coast. recorded, but none of them appear absolutely 9. Black-throated Wheatear. Saxicola stapazina, authentic; the record (Zoologist, 1903, p. 455) Vieillot. °f tne finding of a male specimen near South- A specimen taken at Bury, 8 May, 1875, P°rt> in °Ct°ber '9°3> Proved erroneous. was the first record in the British Islands. 22. Chiffchaff. Phylloscopus rufus (Bechstein). (P. Z. S. 1878, pp. 881-997). Figured in I«v»ty, Petty-chaps. Saunders' Manual, p. 23, and by Dresser, Birds A ^ summer ^.^ arrjving ear,y jn April> of Europe, under the name of Saxicola rufa (Hart- ing, Handbook of British Birds, p. 353). 10. Whinchat. Pratincola rubetra (Linn.). A summer visitor to all our wastes, moor- lands, and low-lying open country. 11. Stonechat. Pratincola rubicola (Linn.). Locally, Stone-chack, Flick-tail. A resident, frequenting commons and furzy wastes. Irregularly distributed. 1 2. Redstart. Ruticilla pboenicurus (Linn.). Locally, Jennie Red-tail. An early spring immigrant and summer resi- dent, sparingly distributed. 13. Black Redstart. Ruticilla titys (Scopoli). A rare autumn and winter visitant. 14. Robin or Redbreast. Erithacus rubecula (Linn.). Abundant. 15. Nightingale. Daulias luscinia (Linn.). The majority of the records of the occurrence of the nightingale in this county are insufficiently 23. Willow - Warbler. Phylloscopus trochilus (Linn.). Locally, White Wren, Peggy Whitethroat. A quite common summer visitor. 24. Wood- Warbler. Phylloscopus sibilatrix (Bech- stein). Locally, Fell Peggy. A summer immigrant, especially frequent in the more wooded districts among the Fells. 25. Reed- Warbler. Acrocephalus streperus (Vie- illot). A summer immigrant, local and not uncom- mon by the margins of our meres and osier thickets. 26. Sedge - Warbler. Acrocephalus phragmitis (Bechstein). Locally, Water Nanny. A summer visitor, common on meres and reedy swamps. 27. Grasshopper - Warbler. Locustella neevia (Boddaert). A generally distributed species, arriving early authenticated, but its presence in the Irwell ;n M~ and' spending the summer with us in valley seems worthy of respect. No authentic { numbers than usually supposed, nest has ever been taken. The writer may mention here that he saw it at close quarters in 28. Hedge-Sparrow. Accentor modulans (Linn.), his garden at Hoylake, in Cheshire, in 1900. Locally, Hedge-dunny, Dunnock, Dykey. , .... . , c , • /TJ L • \ A resident common throughout the county 1 6. Whitethroat. Sykta cmerea (Bechstem). ^ ^ ^^ Locally, Peggy Whitethroat. A common summer immigrant. 17. Lesser Whitethroat. Sylvia carruca (Linn.). Locally, Hazel-linnet. An occasional summer visitor. 29. Dipper. Cine/us aquaticus, Bechstein. Locally, Bessy Ducker, Water-Ouzel, Betty Dowker. Numerous in all streams, especially in the higher parts of the county. 192 BIRDS 30. British long-tailed Tit. Acredula rosea (Blyth). Locally, Bottle Tit. A fairly abundant species, especially in wooded districts. 31. Great Tit. Parus major, Linn. Locally, Ox-eye Tit. An abundant resident. 32. British Coal-Tit. Parus britannicus, Sharpe and Dresser. A resident but local. It is numerous in some districts of the Fells. More often observed in winter than at other seasons. 33. British Marsh Tit. Parus palustris, Linn. A resident nesting species, but not so abund- ant as the last, except in the localities it affects, where considerable flocks may be seen in late autumn and in winter. 34. Blue Tit. Parus ceeruleus, Linn. Locally, Blue Nope. A very common resident, in winter tame and familiar, loving the neighbourhood of dwellings. 35. Nuthatch. Sitta cassia, Wolf. Locally, Kitty Wren. An extremely rare summer visitor. It is said to have bred near Manchester. (Mitchell, Birds of Lancashire, p. 38.) Its last recorded occur- rence is September 1880. 36. Wren. Troglodytes parvulus, Koch. Locally, Kitty Wren. An abundant resident. 37. Tree-Creeper. Certhia familiaris, Linn. A resident, but becoming rarer than it formerly was. A few pairs, however, nest annually in most of the woods throughout the county. 38. Wall-Creeper. Tichodroma muraria (Linn.). A very rare straggler. The second specimen in England, after 1792, was shot at the village of Subden, Pendle Hill, 8 May, 1872. (Zoo- logist, 1876, p. 4839 ; Birds of Lancashire, ed. I, p. 56, with plate ; ed. 2, p. 60, woodcut.) 39. Pied wagtail. Motacilla lugubris, Temm. Locally, Water Wagtail. An abundant resident, but more conspicuous in early autumn, when it frequents lawns, moist pathways, and wet sandy patches in companies of two or three pairs together. It is scarcer in winter. 40. White Wagtail. Motacilla alba, Linn. A spring visitor, and less common than the preceding species, but occurring probably ' more frequently than is supposed ' (Mitchelf). It nests on many of our mosses. 4 1 . Grey Wagtail. Motacilla melanope, Pallas. A resident, but nests in Lancashire less fre- quently than the pied wagtail, though still numerous on the rocky streams of Langridge Fell. 42. Yellow Wagtail. Motacilla rail (Bona- parte). Locally, Yellow Hand-stir, Seedfore. A not uncommon summer visitor, nesting in maritime and inland meadows. 43. Tree-Pipit. Anthus trivialis (Linn.). A summer immigrant, well distributed espe- cially near woods. 44. Meadow-Pipit. Anthus pratensis (Linn.). Locally, Titlark. Abundant everywhere. 45. Richard's Pipit. Anthus richardi, Vieillot. Specimens of Richard's pipit were killed at Crosby and on the Wyre in 1869. (Mitchell, Birds of Lancashire, ed. 2, p. 48.) 46. Rock-Pipit. Anthus obscurus (Latham). A resident species, common along the coast and margins of our large estuaries, and on Walney Island, where it breeds. (Harting, Zoologist, 1 864.) 47. Golden Oriole. Oriolus galbula, Linn. There are several records of the species as a summer visitor, but none of its having nested in the county. 48. Great Grey Shrike. Lanius excubitor, Linn. An occasional visitor in late autumn and in winter. An adult female specimen was shot at Urmston in January 1904. (Zoologist, 1904, p. 115.) It used to breed at one time among the sandhills. Mr. H. Murray saw one shot at Chorlton near Manchester in 1905. 49. Red-backed Shrike. Lanius collurio, Linn. A summer visitor. There are frequent re- cords of its having bred in the county. (Zoolo- gist, 1896, p. 70.) 50. Woodchat Shrike. Lanius pomeranus, Sparr- man. Two occurrences of this species are on record. (Mitchell, Birds of Lancashire, ed. 2, p. 53.) 51. Waxwing. Ampelis garrulus, Linn. There have been several invasions of con- siderable numbers at a time of the waxwing, generally at long intervals, and as a rule in mid- winter. 52. Pied Flycatcher. Muscicapa atricapilla, Linn. A summer visitor on migration ; some few breed annually. 53. Spotted Flycatcher. Muscicapa grisola, Linn. A common summer visitor. 54. Swallow. Hirundo rustica, Linn. A summer visitor universally distributed. First seen in 1903 as early as the end of March, near Liverpool. In North Lancashire during the very unseasonable May of 1886 between six and 3 25 A HISTORY OF LANCASHIRE seven hundred swallows perished from cold and 67. Lesser Redpoll. Linota rufescens (Vieillot). wet. (Zoologist, 1886, p. 248.) Great flocks frequent our meres in autumn before their migration flight. 55. House-Martin. Chelidon urbica (Linn.). Equally common with the last species but later in arriving. For some unknown cause it is often weeks later in some years than in others in returning to its annually frequented haunts, though abundant in neighbouring districts. Numerous house-martins succumbed to the disastrous weather of May 1886. 56. Sand-Martin. Cotile riparia (Linn.). Locally, Grey Bob, Jitty. A resident, common in the lowlands of the northern districts, where it nests freely. 68. Twite. Linota Jlavirostris (Linn.). Locally, Moor Linnet. A resident species nesting on all heaths and moors both in the uplands and lowlands. 69. Bullfinch. Pyrrhula europaa, Vieillot. An abundant resident. 70. Pine-Grosbeak. Pyrrhula enucleator (Linn.). There exist two records of the occurrence of A summer visitor, numerous wherever it finds tne pine-grosbeak, one prior to 1837 at Hurlston, suitable sandbanks. 57. Greenfinch. Ligurinus chloris (Linn.). Locally, Green Linnet. A resident and generally distributed species. and the second in February, 1895, at Rochdale. (Mitchell, Birds of Lancashire, ed. 2, p. 75.) 71. Crossbill. Loxia curvirostra, Linn. The crossbill appears at intervals of a few In times of hard frost it frequents dwellings in year s in small flocks which frequent the pine association with starlings, sparrows, robins, and gulls. 58. Hawfinch. Coccothraustes vulgaris, Pallas. Resident and fairly numerous, and becoming more so of late years. 59. Goldfinch. Carduelis elegans, Stephens. A resident and widely distributed species, but less numerous than formerly. 60. Siskin. Carduelis spinus (Linn.). Locally, Aberdevine. A winter visitor in small flocks. There is a record of the siskin having bred near Lancaster in 1836. (Mitchell, Birds of Lancashire, ed. 2, P. 63.) 61. House Sparrow. Passer domesticus (Linn.). Abundant. 62. Tree Sparrow. Passer montanus (Linn.). A resident occurring sparingly throughout the county. 63. Chaffinch. Fringilla ccelebs, Linn. Locally, Pink-pink, Fleckie. A resident, and very common everywhere. 64. Brambling. Fringilla montifringilla, Linn. An occasional mid-winter visitor. 65. Linnet. Linota cannabina (Linn.). Locally, Brown Linnet, Gorse-finch. A resident and common species throughout the county in whin-covered moors and especially in gorse fields not far from the sea. 66. Mealy Redpoll. Linota linaria (Linn.). This species was caught occasionally twenty years ago on Mellor Moor, as Mr. R. J. Howard has satisfied himself. (Saunders, in Mitchell's Birds of Lancashire, ed. 2, p. 73 «.) 194 plantations. The occurrence of a bird of the year at Morecambe in 1883 suggests its having been bred in the county (Birds of Lancashire, ed. 2, p. 76). In former times this species nested regularly. 72. Corn-bunting. Emberiza miliaria, Linn. A resident and locally abundant species, espe- cially on the lowlands of the Mersey Valley. 73. Yellow Hammer. Emberiza citrinella, Linn. Locally, Goldfinch, Yellow Yoldring, Bessy Blakeling. Abundant everywhere, often frequenting farm- yards and lawns in company with sparrows. 74. Cirl Bunting. Emberiza cirlus, Linn. A very rare visitor. It is recorded to have bred at Formby (Mitchell, Birds of Lancashire, ed. 2, p. 79). 75. Ortolan Bunting. Emberiza hortulana, Linn. A male of this species was killed near Man- chester in November, 1827 (ZoologicalJournal, iii. p. 498), and figured by Selby. (Mitchell, Birds of Lancashire, ed. 2, p. 79.) 76. Reed Bunting. Emberiza schaeniclus. Linn. Locally, Blackcap, Reed Sparrow. A common resident, locally distributed. 77. Snow Bunting. Plectrophenax nivalis (Linn.). Locally, Shore Lark, Mountain Bunting. An annual winter visitant to our shores in considerable numbers. 78. Lapland Bunting. Calcarius lapponicus (Linn.). A very rare winter visitant, and only four times observed in Lancashire between the years 1834 and 1882. BIRDS 79. Starling. Sturnus vu/garis, Linn. Locally, Shepster. A resident, abundant everywhere, nesting in hollow trees and about dwelling houses so numerously as to amount now to a nuisance. Its numbers are increasing with great rapidity every year. During winter immense flocks con- gregate in every suitable shrubbery. 80. Rose-coloured Starling. Pastor roseus (Linn.). A rare visitor on migration during autumn. 81. Chough. Pyrrhocrax graculus (Linn.). The chough, or red-legged crow, as it is often called, has no suitable breeding place nearer to Lancashire than Anglesea and the Isle of Man. It frequents the Fells, however. It is said to have nested formerly, if not now, at Whitbarrow in Morecambe Bay, just over the Westmorland border. 82. Jay. Garrulus glaudarius (Linn.). A resident. Common in woods where it is not persecuted by gamekeepers. 83. Magpie. Pica rustica (Scopoli). Locally, Piet, Pyanet. A common resident, but more abundant in the uplands and Fell districts. 84. Jackdaw. Corvus monedula, Linn. An abundant resident throughout Lancashire, breeding in steeples and in old beeches and oaks. 85. Raven. Corvus corax, Linn. The raven is a resident breeding annually among the cliffs in the high Fells and on crag ledges of the unfrequented dales of the northern districts. 86. Carrion-Crow. Corvus corone, Linn. Locally, Kar-crow, Doup-crow. A resident species, occurring locally, but every- where becoming rarer through persecution. Its nesting places are chiefly in the retired districts of the Lancashire lakeland. 87. Grey or Hooded Crow. Corvus comix, Linn. Locally, Manx Crow, Royston Crow, Sea Crow. A late autumn and winter visitor to our shores from the Isle of Man chiefly. In the early hours of a November morning they may often enough be heard announcing their arrival to sleepless dwellers near the coast. In the hurricane of 3 December, 1821, a very large number of wild birds, such as 'sea-crows, snipe, and other aquatic birds,' were washed ashore dead on the Lancashire coast. (Bland, Annals of Southport, p. 82.) 88. Rook. Corvus frugilegus, Linn. An abundant resident. During severe winter rooks may be seen feeding along the shore singly or in pairs widely separated, in company with plovers, gulls, and starlings. 89. Sky-Lark. Alauda arvensis, Linn. Abundant. 90. Wood-Lark. Alauda arborea, Linn. A once abundant but now very rare species, yet still probably often undistinguished from the sky-lark. 91. Shore-Lark. Otocorys alpestris (Linn.). A very rare visitor and only in winter. 92. Swift. Cypselus apus (Linn.). Locally, Devil skirler, Develin, Devil Screamer. An abundant summer visitant. 93. Alpine Swift. Cypselus melba (Linn.). Of this bird only two occurrences are on record. (Mitchell, Birds of Lancashire, ed. 2, p. 102.) 94. Nightjar. Caprimulgus europcsus, Linn. Locally, Night Hawk, Fern Owl. A summer visitant, common in suitable locali- ties. 95. Wryneck. lynx torquilla, Linn. Locally, Lang tongue. Formerly numerous, but now a very rare summer visitor. Observed on Stiperden Moor, Burnley, on 30 August, 1905. 96. Green Woodpecker. Gecinus viridis (Linn.). Locally, Heyhough (Leigh). A resident and not uncommon in thick woods, where it nests, but scarce elsewhere. 97. Great Spotted Woodpecker. Dendrocopus major (Linn.). A sparsely distributed resident, chiefly fre- quenting our fir woods. Specimens were taken on Cartmell Fell and near Ulverston in Novem- ber 1889. It nests in Witton Park, Blackburn. (Zoologist, 1904, p. 260.) 98. Lesser Spotted Woodpecker. Dendrocopus minor (Linn.). A resident species, but much more rarely seen than the previous species, yet probably more numerous than is generally supposed. Nests are found every year. [Great Black Woodpecker. Picus martius, Linn. Yarrell (History of British Birds, ed. 3, ii. 138) records that an individual had been shot in the county by Lord Stanley, but it was proved to be a mistaken idea. (Harting, Handbook of British Birds, p. 304.)] 99. Middle Spotted Woodpecker. Dendropicus medius (Linn.). One visit of this species to Lancashire is on record. (Pennant, Brit. Zool. i. 180.) [' The Brazilian Magpie.' Rhamphastidarium '95 A HISTORY OF LANCASHIRE Leigh, writing in 1700 in his History of Lancashire (i. 195), records : 'About two years ago in the same violent hail storm [which brought the Tropic Bird, see p. 198 infra} the Brazilian magpie was "found dead on the coasts of Lanca- shire." ' The figure 2 on ' Table ye I of Birds,' opposite p. 195, represents unquestionably a Toucan, but as Professor Newton suggests (Diet, of Birds, s.v. Toucan, p. 977), it may have escaped from captivity. Some probability, how- ever, is given to its having really been brought by the storm from the occurrence of another southern and western bird — 'the Tropic bird' — thrown on the Lancashire shore by the same storm.] I oo. Kingfisher. Akedo ispida, Linn. A resident occurring on streams and meres, where not too frequented, in large and apparently increasing numbers through the operation of the Protection Acts. It occasionally nests on sea- washed cliffs. i o I . Roller. Coracias garrulus, Linn. An irregular summer migrant of whose occur- rence some half dozen records, more or less authentic, exist. 1 02. Hoopoe. Upupa epops, Linn. Formerly an irregular visitor to Lancashire, occurring generally in spring and autumn, more rarely in winter and summer ; now very rare. A specimen taken at Knowsley in 1815 is pre- served in the Lord Derby Museum, Liverpool. A late visit on record is from Walney Island in 1884. (Macpherson, Fauna of Lakeland, p. 169.) A specimen shot at Sale near Manchester in 1905 passed through Mr. H. Murray's hands. 103. Cuckoo. Cuculus canorus, Linn. A constant annual summer visitor. It is still to be heard in the larger shrubberies even within the city bounds, generally in the stillness of the early morning before the din of its turmoil begins. 104. White or Barn-Owl. Strix flammea, Linn. Locally, Howlet, White Owl. A resident species and quite common. 105. Long-eared Owl. Am otus (Linn.). A resident, but more sparsely distributed than the last species, yet plentiful in some parts of the county. Nests in Witton Park, Blackburn. (Zoologist, 1904, p. 259.) 1 06. Short-eared Owl. Asia accipitrinus (Pallas). The short-eared owl arrives in small companies generally in autumn and winter, and becomes fairly evenly distributed over the county. A good few remain and nest annually in suitable spots, such as unfrequented moors and dry mosses. It was seen in considerable numbers at Walney Island in 1891, and a pair bred there in 1885, as certified by Mr. Howard Saunders. (Mitchell's Birds of Lancashire, ed. 2, p. 1 1 7.) 107. Tawny Owl. Syrnium aluco (Linn.). Locally, Wood-owl. Resident and still fairly common despite the persecution to which it is subjected. It is more frequent in our wooded districts. 108. Tengmalm's Owl. Nyctala tengmalmi (J. F. Gmelin). A single specimen is recorded as taken near Preston in Mitchell's Birds of Lancashire, ed. 2, p. 119, the bird being now in the Nottingham Town Museum. 109. Little Owl. Athene noctua (Scopoli). The single record for Lancashire occurs in the Naturalist's Scrap-book, 1863, part 5. 1 1 0. Scops-Owl. Scops giu (Scopoli). One insufficiently authenticated occurrence of this bird is on record. (Mitchell, Birds of Lan- cashire, ed. 2, p. 1 20). in. Marsh-Harrier. Circus aruginosus (Linn.). Formerly a not uncommon straggler over most of the low-lying parts of the county, but now very rare. 112. Hen-Harrier. Circus cyaneus (Linn.). Locally, Ringtail, Blue Glede. Rather rare. It nests from time to time a- mong the Fells, and is seen occasionally still on the low heather-clad hills and on the plain. 113. Montagu's Harrier. Circus cineraceus (Montagu). Has been recorded twice from Lancashire, once from Walney Island in 1874, and once from Whitendale Moor in 1889 (Mitchell's Birds of Lancashire, ed. 2, p. 123.) 114. Buzzard. Buteo vulgaris, Leach. A local much persecuted resident, nesting now only in our lake districts, where it receives less molestation from gunners and gamekeepers. The bird breeds more abundantly in Westmor- land and also numerously in Anglesea, and from these localities many of our Lancashire frequenting individuals doubtless come. 115. Rough-legged Buzzard. Buteo lagopus (J. F. Gmelin). A rare autumn visitor, putting in an appearance at intervals of a few years in the neighbourhood of the rabbit warrens along our coasts or in the interior of the county. 1 1 6. Spotted Eagle. Aquila maculata (J. F. Gmelin). One occurrence of this species is recorded for 1875 from Walney Island by Mr. W. A. Durn- ford in his Birds of Walney (1883). 196 BIRDS 117. Golden Eagle. Aquila chrysaftus (Linn.). Durnford in the Birds of Walney notes one occurrence of the golden eagle near Furness Abbey in 1815. 1 1 8. White-tailed Eagle. Haliaetus albicilla (Linn.). The present writer thinks that the white- tailed eagle may still probably breed from time to time somewhere on the heights of this or the neighbouring counties, for several immature specimens have been taken along the coast and at other places. One killed at Blundellsands in 1895 was brought to him in the flesh on 3 December, and is now preserved in the Lord Derby Museum in Liverpool. 119. Goshawk. Astur palumbarius (Linn.). The goshawk has twice been recorded from the county, in the years 1838 and 1863 respec- tively. (Mitchell, Birds of Lancashire, ed. 2, p. 127.) 120. Sparrow-Hawk. Accip'iter nisus (Linn.). A resident and still fairly abundant notwith- standing the hostility of every gamekeeper towards it. 121. Kite. Milvus ictinus, Savigny. Locally, Gled. Formerly more frequently met with than now in Lancashire as elsewhere, where it nested, though rarely in the tall trees, among the Fells and in a few other favourable places. It does not appear to have been noted, however, during the last quarter of a century. [Swallow-tailed Kite. Elanoidesfurcatus(lu\nn.). A specimen from the Macclesfield Museum sold at Stevens' Auction Rooms in London in June 1 86 1 was said to have been shot on the Mersey in June 1843, DUt lt mav ** we^ nave escaped from captivity as been wafted to our shores by westerly winds. A very doubtful record, which is not sufficient to qualify for the Lancashire register.] 122. Honey-Buzzard . Pernis apivorus (Linn.). An occasional summer visitor to Lancashire ; but it has not occurred for many years now. Two female specimens, one shot (in Knowsley Park by the Hon. E. G. Stanley) in October, 1818, and a second at Rainford in 1835, are preserved in the Lord Derby Museum, Liver- pool. [Greenland Falcon. Falco candicans (J. F. Gmelin). An insufficiently authenticated record exists of an adult specimen having been shot on a vessel coming into the port of Liverpool in the middle sixties. (Gregson, Proc. Hist. Sac. of Lancashire and Cheshire, 1865-6).] 123. Peregrine Falcon. Falco peregrinus. Tun- stall. A resident still in small numbers in the Fells, where amid their wild isolation a few broods are annually reared. One with a dunlin fast in its talons was taken by a fisherman on the marsh near Carnforth in 1900. It is not infrequently seen in some districts in spring. 124. Lanner Falcon. Falco feldeggii, Schl. A female was picked up newly shot on the sea-shore near Carnforth, in April 1 902, after fre- quenting the district for some weeks. (Robinson, Zoologist, 1904, p. 75.) No record is forthcoming that the bird was an escape from confinement. 125. Hobby. Falco subbuteo (Linn.). An occasional spring and autumn migrant, now very rarely seen, though more frequent in former times, and for the last twenty-five years no occurrence has been recorded. A specimen shot at Knowsley is preserved in the Lord Derby Museum in Liverpool. 126. Merlin. Falco atsalon, Tunstall. A locally distributed resident nesting on the hill sides and high moors and visiting the low- lands but rarely, and usually chiefly in winter, and these generally young birds. A very beau- tiful partial albino, shot at Lower Darwen, near Blackburn, in October, 1891, is preserved in the Lord Derby Museum, Liverpool. 127. Red-footed Falcon. Falco vesper tinus, Linn. A rare straggler, observed in the county only three times, all in the year 1843, one ^rom Heaton Park and two from Prestwich Clough — the latter record, however, leaves much to be desired in the way of authentication. 128. Kestrel. Falco tinnunculus, Linn. Locally, Windhover. A common resident, the best known and the oftenest seen of all our hawks, nesting in all suitable plantations, and often formerly among the coastal sandhills. It is still much persecuted by gamekeepers, although now it derives some indirect, rather than intentional, benefit (so far as its persecutors are concerned) from the Bird Protection Acts. 129. Osprey. Pandion haliat'tus (Linn.). Locally, Fishing-hawk. A not infrequent spring and autumn visitor, frequenting our inland meres. 130. Cormorant. Phalacrocorax carlo (Linn.). Locally, Scarf. A resident ' common in these parts ' (according to Leigh) in 1700, but not nesting within our 197 A HISTORY OF LANCASHIRE area as there are no suitable building sites, but as it breeds in North Wales and in Cumberland it frequents our coasts and rivers, often ascending the estuaries for some distance chiefly in autumn and winter. It may be noted that the 'Liver' in the arms of the Corporation of Liverpool has been supposed to be the cormorant, as the same appears in the arms of the earl of Liverpool and is described in Burke's Peerage as a ' Cormorant holding in the beak a bunch of seaweed,' for which, however, as Prof. Newton remarks, there is no authority. 131. Shag or Green Cormorant. Phalacrocorax graculus (Linn.). An occasional visitor. The same observations apply to the shag as to the cormorant, except that for some reason it visits our coasts less fre- quently than the latter. 132. Gannet or Solan Goose. Sula bassana (Linn.). A frequent visitor to Liverpool Bay ; more fre- quently seen 8— 10 miles off the coast and during winter. [The Tropick Bird. (? Phcethon tsthereus (Linn.). 'About two years ago (1698) by a violent hailstorm . . . there was brought a bird all white (except only a short red beak) about the bigness of a pigeon. . . I could apprehend it to be no other than what our travellers call the Tropick Bird, met with usually in crossing that Line.' (Leigh, History of Lancashire, i. pp. 164, 165 ; Table ye I of Birds, fig. 3). The illustration (1. c.) certainly represents a species of Phathon which must no doubt have been brought from the S.W. regions of the Atlantic by the storm]. 133. Heron. Ardea cinerea, Linn. Locally, Crane, Yern, Longricks, Jammy, Heron- shaw. Many heronries have existed in the county at one place and another within the last fifteen years, but the extension of cultivated land and the consequent destruction of the plantations frequented by the birds have greatly reduced their number. Isolated nests are occasionally found in suitable places throughout the county. The most important heronries still remaining are at Ince Blundell near Waterloo, where about a score of pairs breed annually, and at Scarisbrick, near Southport, where there is a colony of twenty- five to thirty pairs. Another colony of ten to twelve pairs finds a home at Ashton, near Lan- caster (Mitchell, Birds of Lancashire, ed. 2, p. 143). Macpherson (Lakeland, p. 223) records three other heronries : one of ten to twelve pairs at Roundsea Wood, which was destroyed in 1886, but exists probably somewhere not far off, as young birds were seen on Roundsea Moss in 1891 ; a second in the Rusland Valley, where annually from eight to ten pairs nest, and the third at Whittington near Kirkby Lonsdale. The bird is far from an uncommon fisher by the banks of all our streams and canals and by our mere margins. Notwithstanding Lancashire's poverty in heronries large and flourishing colonies exist in Yorkshire and Cheshire, from which come many of our very welcome visitors. 1 34. Purple Heron. Ardea purpurea, Linn. One visit of this species is recorded in 1887 (Pickin, Zoologist, 1887, p. 432). 135. Night Heron. Nycticorax grisius (Linn.). No certain record of the occurrence of this species can be traced during the last twenty years ; but Mr. Davies, of Lymm in Cheshire, possesses a specimen, received by him in the flesh, killed at Newton-le-Willows some < ten or twelve years ago' (Coward, Zoologist, 1904, p. 314). 136. Little Bittern. Ardetta minuta (Linn.). In past years an occasional summer visitor, but no record exists of its presence within our boun- daries for many years past. 137. Bittern. Botaurus stellaris (Linn.). Locally, Butter-bump, Bittery, Bog-bumper, Mue- A very frequent visitor in winter, but not now known to nest within the county, although there can be little doubt that it once did so when drainage was less undertaken, and our meres and mosses were, therefore, more extensive and further from human habitation than to-day. 138. American Bittern. Botaurus lentiginosus (Montagu). One clearly authenticated occurrence is re- corded from Fleetwood on 8 December, 1 895 (Cooper, Zoologist, 1846, p. 1248). 139. Glossy Ibis. Plegadis falcinellus (Linn.). This species has been observed on four occa- sions in Lancashire during the past century. A specimen, preserved in the Lord Derby Museum, Liverpool, was shot at Ormskirk, and bequeathed to the city by the thirteenth Lord Derby in 1851. Some local interest attaches to this bird, as to it, amongst others, has been assigned the original of the ' Liver ' in the arms of the City of Liverpool. ' The mysterious bird that figured on the ancient Corporation Seal seems to have been an eagle, the well-known symbol of St. John the Evan- gelist ' (cf. Picton, Memorials of Liverpool, i. p. 1 8, and Newton, Dictionary of Birds, sub voce ' Lever or Liver'; also under Cormorant, No. 129, supra). 140. Spoonbill. Platalea leucorodia, Linn. The spoonbill is recorded only once from Lan- cashire— the specimen now in the Preston Mu- seum having been taken on the Ribble in 1840 (Mitchell, Birds of Lancashire, ed. 2, p. 148). 198 BIRDS 141. Grey Lag-Goose. Anser cinereus, Meyer. This bird is seen annually during the spring and autumn migration in flocks which rest on the sandbanks off the mouths of the Mersey and Dee, and in Morecambe Bay on the large tract of land reclaimed since 1863 in the Ribble estuary. While other waders have ceased to find it a suitable rendezvous, geese of several species annually muster on it to the number of many thousands (Mitchell, Birds of Lancashire, ed. 2, p. 151). A pair nested on the Formby Sands in 1904, but on their eggs being taken the birds took their departure. [Egyptian Goose. Chenalopex eegyptiacus (Linn.). Shot on several occasions on the Ribble, but probably an escape from confinement (Mitchell, Birds of Lancashire, ed. 2, p. xi.)]. 142. White-fronted Goose. Anser albifrons (Scopoli). A winter visitor, seen and obtained on several occasions among flocks of migrating geese. 143. Bean-Goose. Anser segetum (J. F. Gmelin). The bean-goose is often shot on passage during the spring and autumn migration, and so occa- sionally comes into the poultry markets of our large towns. 144. Pink-footed Goose. Anser brachyrhynchus, Baillon. An annual winter visitant, assembling with other species of geese in our larger estuaries, visiting the mouth of the Ribble in large flocks every year to feed on the early bent-grass shoots abundant there. 145. Red-breasted Goose. Bernicla ruficollh (Pallas). Two are said to have been shot between 1832 and 1837 in the flooded marshes at Sowerby near Garstang (Hornby, Zoologist, 1872, p. 3236 ; Harting, Handbook of British Birds, p. 435). 146. Barnacle Goose. Bernicla leucopsis (Bech- stein). An annual winter visitant, resorting in large- flocks to Walney Island and to the shores of Morecambe Bay, and to the sandbanks in the estuaries of the Ribble and the Mersey. 147. Brent Goose. Bernicla brenta (Pallas). An annual winter visitor to all suitable banks and shores throughout the length of the Lancashire coast, and to many of the lakes, though not in large numbers. [Canada Goose. Bernicla canadensis (Linn.). Though often obtained on the coast, probably an escape from confinement.] 148. Whooper Swan. Cygnus musicus, Bech- stein. A winter visitor, especially in severe winters such as 1895, when they were reported from the meres, lakes, and estuaries of the county in considerable numbers. 149. Bewick's Swan. Cygnus bewicki, Yarrell. A winter visitor, generally in flocks, but so rare in Lancashire that only a few records exist during the past thirty years. 150. Mute Swan. Cygnus olor (J. F. Gmelin). Individuals of this common domesticated species, which often make their appearance for a time on formerly untenanted waters, are doubt- less young birds driven from some private enclosure by their parents when about to nest again in the spring. 151. Sheld-Duck. Tadorna cornuta (S. G. Gmelin). The sheld-duck is a resident and nests in all suitable places along our coasts, such as the Formby sandhills, among the warrens near the Ribble, and abundantly on Walney Island. 152. Mallard or Wild Duck. Anas boscas, Linn. Locally, Mere Duck. A common resident, breeding in all our meres, and occasionally also far from water. In winter large numbers of migrants from the Continent augment our resident flocks. Several hundreds are taken every year in the large decoy at Hale. 153. Gadwall. Anas strepera, Linn. A rare winter visitor to our inland waters, of whose occurrence several records exist, but pro- bably it is oftener seen than identified and recorded. 154. Shoveler. Spatula clypeata (Linn.). Locally, Spoonbill-duck. An annual winter visitant to all the marshes, meres, river pools, estuaries, and lakes of the county ; a few probably every year remaining to breed. 155. Pintail. Dafila acuta (Linn.). A regular winter visitor in increasing numbers to our estuaries and inland waters, and probably some remain to nest, though no record so far exists of their having done so. 156. Teal. Nettion crecca (Linn.). A resident, breeding in all suitable heathlands in almost every district of Lancashire. During autumn the home flocks are greatly increased by migrants from the Continent. Over 450 teal on an average are annually captured at the decoy at Hale. 157. Garganey. Querquedula circia (Linn.). A rare spring and autumn migrant, observed three or four times only. 158. Wigeon. Mareca penelope (Linn.). During winter numerous flocks of this duck visit the larger estuaries along the coast and 199 A HISTORY OF LANCASHIRE some of the meres. Considerable numbers are annually taken in the decoy at Hale, now the only remaining one in Lancashire. 159. Pochard. Fuligula ferina (Linn.). A winter visitor, more numerous in some seasons than in others. 1 60. Ferruginous Duck. Fuligula nyroca (Gtll- denstadt). Locally, White-eye. None of the records of the occurrence of this duck in Lancashire are sufficiently authenticated. The same applies to that reported from near Runcorn on the Cheshire side of the Mersey. (Mitchell, Birds of Lancashire, ed. 2, p. 175.) 161. Tufted Duck. Fuligula cristata (Leach). A winter visitor, never very common, but apparently increasing in numbers. Although some pairs usually remain over the summer there are only a few records of this species breeding within the county. 162. Scaup Duck. Fuligula marila (Linn.). Locally, Bluebill, Cockle Duck. An annual winter visitor to our off-shore sandbanks and estuaries, where it is caught in vast numbers in the douker nets set by the Morecambe Bay fowlers. This very maritime species has been taken on our inland lakes (Win- dermere) and reservoirs (near Hyde Park Road Station, Manchester). 163. Goldeneye. Clangula glaucion (Linn.). Locally, Mussel Cracker. An annual winter visitant. 164. Long-tailed Duck. Harelda glacialis (Linn.). This species has been recorded only three or four times from Lancashire, and always in winter. A female specimen was shot in the River Keer, in 1901. 165. Eider Duck. Somateria mollissirna (Linn.). A very rare winter visitant. 1 66. Common Scoter. (Edemia nigra (Linn.). Locally, Black Douker. The Common Scoter arrives in great flocks on migration in our larger estuaries and Morecambe Bay. It derives its local appellation from being the duck taken in largest numbers by the douker netters. 167. Velvet Scoter. (Edemia fusca (Linn.) . An infrequent winter visitor to off-shore sand- banks and to the larger estuaries ; occasionally it frequents the lakes and inland open waters. 168. Surf Scoter. (Edemia perspicillata (Linn.). A specimen shot by Mr. R. H. Thompson off the shore at Lytham, 9 December, 1882 (Zoologist, 1884, p. 29), is the only recorded occurrence of this species in the county. 169. Goosander. Mergus merganser, Linn. Locally, Sparling-fisher (Leigh), Dun-diver (the female), Sparlin' Fowl (Willoughby), Gravel Duck. An occasional winter visitor in small flocks. 170. Red-breasted Merganser. Mergus serrator, Linn. A winter visitor in considerable numbers to the larger estuaries and Morecambe Bay, visiting also Lake Windermere. 171. Smew. Mergus albellus, Linn. A rare winter visitant during specially severe weather. 172. Ring-Dove or Wood-Pigeon. Columba palumbus, Linn. Locally, Cushat, Queeze. A widely distributed resident. 173. Stock-Dove. Columba cenas, Linn. A resident, common along the coast on the sand-dunes, among which it nests. Its numbers are increasing. It is met with occasionally inland. 174. Rock-Dove. Columba livia, J. F. Gmelin. To the absence in Lancashire of rocks suitable for the nidification of this bird is due the rarity of its occurrence within the county. Mr. W. Farrer of Carnforth mentions that several breed yearly on Jackscar, between Carnforth and Silverdale. 175. Turtle-Dove. Turtur communis, Selby. A rare straggler in summer. 176. Pallas's Sand-Grouse. Syrrhaptes paradoxus, (Pallas). To two at least of those extraordinary irregular (and at present inexplicable) migratory move- ments, originating on the Asiatic steppes in special force in 1863—4 and 1888—9, during which hordes of this species travelled across Europe and reached its western shores, we are indebted for the inclusion of a considerable number of this beautiful species in the avifauna of Lancashire. During both these irruptions large flocks reached the British Isles, of which a portion appeared in the Island of Walney on 22 May, 1863, the day after their being observed in Northumberland. In 1888 a larger number of birds visited Lanca- shire, the earliest of them reaching Walney Island on 19 May. 177. Black Grouse. Tetrao tetrix, Linn. Locally, Black-cock. An introduced species, at one time fairly abundant on certain of the Fells and Dales, but now very rare if not exterminated. 178. Red Grouse. Lagopus scoticus (Latham). Resident and abundant on the upland moors, of Furness specially. BIRDS 179- Pheasant. Phasianus colchicus, Linn. Abundant. 1 80. Partridge. Perdix cinerea, Latham. An abundant resident. [The Red - legged Partridge. Caccabis rufa (Linn.). This species was on more than one occasion introduced into Lancashire, but none have sur- vived, as in some other counties, to become naturalized residents.] 181. Quail. Coturnix communis, Bonnaterre. A resident, but less numerous than formerly. [Virginian Quail. Ortyx virginianus (Linn.). Several attempts to introduce this species into Lancashire have failed, as they have also done in other parts of England.] 182. Land-Rail. Crex pratensis, Bechstein. Locally, Corn-crake, Draken Hen. An abundant summer immigrant ; resting abundantly. 1 83. Spotted Crake. Porzana maruetta (Leach). An autumn immigrant, less frequently observed than other rails. It winters occasionally ; three occurrences are recorded in 1898 and one in 1904, all from the Rusland Valley in Furness (Zoologist, 1 904, p. 460) ; and with little doubt it occa- sionally nests in Lancashire. 184. Little Crake. Porzana parva (Scopoli). Some half dozen specimens are recorded as having been taken in the county (Mitchell, Birds of Lancashire, ed. 2, p. 2Oi). 185. Baillon's Crake. Porzana bailloni (Vieil- lot). Two occurrences only of this species are on record (Mitchell, Birds of Lancashire, ed. 2, p. 2OI ; Macpherson, Fauna of Lakeland,?. 343). 1 8 6. Water-Rail. Rallus aquaticus, Linn. Locally, Scarragrise. A numerous and widely distributed resident. [Purple Gallinule. Porphyrio caruleus (Van- delli). A specimen shot near Grange in 1876 (Zoolo- gist, 1877) was doubtless an escape from confine- ment.] 187. Moor-Hen. Gallinula chloropus (Linn.). Locally, Water-hen. A resident, frequenting all our tarns and meres. 1 8 8. Coot. Fullca atra, Linn. Locally, Lake-hen. An abundant resident, frequenting and nesting on our various lakes and in all reedy tarns and pools. 189. Crane. Grus communis, Bechstein. Only once observed within the county (Mitchell, Birds of Lancashire, ed. 2, p. 206). 190. Little Bustard. Otis tetrax, Linn. Four specimens of this species have been re- corded from Lancashire (Mitchell, Birds of Lancashire, ed. 2, p. 206). 191. Collared Pratincole. Glareola pratincola, Linn. This species was taken for the first time in Britain at North Meols, near Ormskirk, in the spring of 1805 (cf. Trans. Linn. Sac. Ix. p. 198). The specimen is now preserved in the Lord Derby Museum, Liverpool. Though taken many times since in England, it has not occurred again in Lancashire. 192. Dotterel. Eudromias morinellus (Linn.). A spring and autumn visitor on migration, spreading over the county, frequenting mosses and estuaries, then proceeding on its way. A few probably occasionally remain to breed. 193. Ringed Plover. sEgialitis hiaticula (Linn.). Locally, Sand-lark, Tullet. An abundant resident. 194. Golden Plover. Ckaradriusp/uvia/is,L,inn. Locally, Sheep's Guide. A spring immigrant distributed sparsely over the county, breeding in suitable localities and frequenting the shore in winter. 195. Grey Plover. Squatarola helvetica (Linn.). A winter visitant. 196. Sociable Plover. Vanellus gregariu (Pallas). A solitary straggler has been recorded from Lancashire. The unique specimen recorded first as a cream coloured courser by Mitchell (Birds of Lancashire, ed. 2, p. 212) is said to have come from St. Michael's-in-Wyre in 1860. The stuffed specimen was exhibited by the late Mr. H. Seebohm at a meeting of the Zoological Society in 1888 ; but there is no actual authenti- cation of the bird having been captured in the county. 197. Peewit or Lapwing. Vanellus vulgaris. Bechstein. Locally, Peewit, Green Plover, Puetts. Resident throughout the year, congregating in large flocks in spring in their nesting quarters. Very abundant on Walney Island. Some dis- tricts are entirely forsaken by the lapwings after their young are reared, and are not again visited till the following spring. In other districts they remain the entire year through, or, if not, immi- grants from elsewhere fill their places. 198. Turnstone. Strepsilas interpret (Linn.). A spring and autumn visitor to our coasts. It not infrequently appears in full summer dress on A HISTORY OF LANCASHIRE Walney Island and along the shores of More- cambe Bay in May (Mitchell). 199. Oyster-Catcher. Hiematopus ostra/egus, Linn. Locally, Sea Pie. A resident frequenting the entire shore line of the county ; it is specially abundant on Walney Island, where it breeds freely, as it does on the sandhills further south. 200. Avocet. Recurvirostra avocetta, Linn. A very rare visitor. It has occurred on Wal- ney Island and on the Kibble (Mitchell, Birds of Lancashire, ed. 2, p. 217). 201. Grey Phalarope. Phalaridopus fulicarius (Linn.). An irregular autumn visitor. Mr. Macpherson records specimens from Walney Island and Win- dermere (Fauna of Lakeland, p. 368). 202. Red-necked Phalarope. Phalaridopus hyper- boreus (Linn.). A very rare autumn and winter visitant to our estuaries. One is said to have been shot near Southport in 1832, and during the last ten S;ars eight specimens have been brought to Mr. . Murray, all shot on Cam forth and Martin Marshes. 203. Woodcock. Scolopax rusticula, Linn. An autumn visitor on migration, arriving in large numbers and remaining over the winter. It breeds in the northern districts of the county. 204. Great Snipe. Gallinago major (J. F. Gmelin). An autumn and winter visitor. It was first recorded as a British bird from this county. The specimen passed into Sir Ashton Lever's Museum, thence into the hands of an unknown purchaser on the dispersion of that celebrated collection. A specimen in the Lord Derby Museum, Liverpool, was shot by the late Edward J. S. Hornby, Esq., at Winwick, Lan- cashire. 205. Common Snipe. Gallinago ccelestis (Fren- zel). Locally, Heather-bleat. Resident and abundantly distributed over Lan- cashire, nesting in all suitable places. The resident flocks are largely augmented in numbers during winter by immigrant visitors. 206. Jack Snipe. Gallinago gallinula (Linn.). Locally, Indcock. A fairly abundant winter immigrant. 207. Dunlin. Tringa a/ptna, Linn. Locally, Sealark, Oxeye, Sea Mouse. A winter visitor frequenting in countless thousands the off-shore sandbanks along the coast ; some few annually remain to breed, and are known to do so in fair numbers on Carnforth and Martin Marshes. 208. Little Stint. Tringa minuta, Leisler. A scarce spring and autumn visitor on migra- tion. 209. Temminck's Stint. Tringa temmincki, Leisler. A rare spring and autumn straggler on migra- tion, more rarely observed than the little stint, there being only a couple of records of its occur- rence ; but probably it is often unrecognized. 210. Curlew Sandpiper. Tringa subarquata (Gttldenstadt). A fairly common spring and autumn visitant to our shores, occasionally travelling inland. 211. Purple Sandpiper. Tringa striata, Linn. An annual winter visitor, but far from common. 212. Knot. Tringa canutus, Linn. Large flocks of knots annually visit More- cambe Bay and the Mersey and Ribble estuaries as spring and autumn migrants. 213. Sanderling. Calidris arenaria (Linn.). A spring and autumn visitor on migration to our off-shore sandbanks, often in very large flocks. 214. Ruff. Machetes pugnax (Linn.). A fairly common spring and autumn visitor. 215. Buff-breasted Sandpiper. Tringites rufescens (Vieillot). Very rare straggler. Recorded only once, from Formby, in 1829. 2 1 6. Common Sandpiper. Tetanus hypoleucus (Linn.) Locally, Sand-snipe, Sand-lark, Willie Liltie. A summer immigrant which breeds on the Fells and uplands of the county. 217. American Spotted Sandpiper. Tetanus macularius (Linn.). A North American species, of which four examples, well authenticated, have straggled into Lancashire in two closely set years, 1863 and 1865. 2 1 8. Wood Sandpiper. Tetanus glareola (J. F. Gmelin). A rare autumn and winter straggler. 219. Green Sandpiper. Tetanus ochropus (Linn.). A regular autumn visitor on migration to most of the inland streams. 220. Redshank. Totanus calidris (Linn.). An autumn and winter visitant, occasionally in large flocks ; but a few always reside through- BIRDS out the year, nesting only in a very few localities, Carnforth and Martin Marshes, Winster Valley and Walney Island among them. 221. Spotted Redshank. Totanus fuscus (Linn.). Locally, Dusky Redshank. A spring and autumn migrant of rare occur- rence. 222. Greenshank. Totanus canescens (J. F. Gmelin). An annual visitant in autumn, sparsely distri- buted on the coast, usually in small flocks. 223. Red-breasted Snipe. Macrorhamphus gri- seus (J. F. Gmelin). Two occurrences of this N. American species are on record (Zoologist, 1875) in the years 1873 and 1891 respectively, both by Mr. J. B. Hodg- kinson (Harting, Handbook of British Birds, p. 436 ; Mitchell, Birds of Lancashire, ed. 2, P- 235). 224. Bar-tailed Godwit. Limosa lapponica, (Linn.). Locally, Curlew Knave. A short sojourner in spring and autumn on passage. 225. Black-tailed Godwit. Limosa belgica (J. F. Gmelin). A rarer visitant than the last, but a few are seen every year, as a rule in the autumn. 226. Curlew. Numenius arquatus (Linn.). A resident and abundant species, visiting Walney Island in large flocks, nesting on the Fells, the upland moors, and on the mosses of the lowlands. In autumn and winter frequenting in great numbers the off-shore sandbanks. 227. Whimbrel. Numenius phceopus (Linn.). Locally, Curlew Hilp (Leigh), Curlew Knave. Rarer than the curlew, the whimbrel visits our shores, especially off Morecambe Bay, only in autumn and spring on migration to and from its nesting grounds. 228. Black Tern. Hydrochelidon nigra (Linn.). A fairly frequent sojourner on its passage in spring and autumn to and from its nesting haunts. A specimen is recorded from Ashton- on-Mersey on 3 November, 1893. 229. Gull-billed Tern. Sterna anglica, Mon- tagu. One occurrence of this species is recorded from Lancashire, but it lacks sufficient authenticity. 230. Sandwich Tern. Sterna cantiaca, J. F. Gmelin. Locally, Cat Swallow. A summer immigrant nesting on Walney Island among the black-headed gulls. Rare elsewhere and taking its departure at the end of summer. 231. Roseate Tern. Sterna douga Hi, Montagu. A rare summer visitor, breeding on Walney Island from time to time. It nested at one period on the isolated islet of Foulney, but does so no longer. 232. Common Tern. Sterna fuviatilis, Nau- mann. Locally, Sea Swallow, Sparling. A summer visitor breeding in many places along the coast in suitable and undisturbed locali- ties, especially on Walney Island in association with black-headed gulls, and often among the Formby sandhills. 233. Arctic Tern. Sterna macrura, Naumann. Locally, Sea Swallow, Sparling. A summer visitor, but few in numbers. Walney Island is one of its chief haunts in Lan- cashire, where it nests in association with gulls and other terns. 234. Little Tern. Sterna minuta, Linn. Locally, Sea Swallow, Sparling. A summer visitor nesting on Walney Island. 235. Sooty Tern. Sterna fuliginosa, J. F. Gmelin. This West Indian species was caught alive 9 October, 1901, in a street in Hulme, near Manchester (Bull, B.O.C. xii. 26). 236. Sabine's Gull. Xema sabinii (Sabine). Two specimens from Morecambe Bay are on record, obtained in October, 1893, and at the same place Mr. Moor of Morecambe has shot three specimens within the last few years. 237. Little Gull. Larus minutus, Pallas. An irregular autumn and winter straggler, of which four or five occurrences are recorded (Mitchell, Birds of Lancashire, ed. 2. p. 254 ; Jourdain, Zoologist, 1904, p. 193). A specimen was shot by Mr. Murray's son on Carnforth Marshes in 1902. 238. Black-headed Gull. Larus ridibundus, Linn. Locally, Chir-Maws, Cockle Maw. A resident, and abundant on our inland waters in great and increasing numbers. Many colonies breed in the sandhills and marshy parts of Walney Island. It is often seen far inland. 239. Common Gull. Larus canus, Linn. An annual visitant throughout the winter, but the species breeds nowhere in England. 240. Herring-Gull. Larus argentatus, J. F. Gmelin. Locally, Silver Gull. A resident, abundant on the coast at all seasons, but nesting only in a few places now, mainly at Foulshaw Moss, near Morecambe Bay, 203 A HISTORY OF LANCASHIRE in association with lesser black-backed gulls. (Macpherson, Fauna of Lakeland, p. 428.) 241. Lesser Black-backed Gull. Larus fuscus, Linn. 251. Razor-bill. Alca torda, Linn. A resident, but chiefly an off-shore living species, rarely, if ever, breeding in Lancashire, purely through lack of such suitable localities as it finds abundantly on the Isle of Man and in Resident, and numerous all the year round ; N> Waks_ Mitchell records evidence of the but now its nesting places are confined to small colonies ' on the low grounds round the estuary coast of the Kent ' (Mitchell) ; also on Walney Island and Foulshaw Moss, near Morecambe 252. Guillemot. Bay. It formerly bred on Piling and Cockerham nesting of this species once on the Furness Uria troile (Linn.). The guillemot, being like the razor-bill a Mosses, but of late years it has not been observed rock-loving species, does not nest in Lancashi nesting there. It is quite commonly met with a few miles off shore. After storms it is very frequently thrown 242. Great Black-backed Gull. Larus marinus, Qn the beach dead> Linn. Locally, Devoke Water Maw. A resident species, frequently seen on the Mersey during winter, and numerous a few 253. Black Guillemot. Uria grylle (Linn.). An extremely rare visitor, and then generally in the winter. It would doubtless find a home miles off shore all the year round. It nests on on our coasts if they had been furnished with Piling Moss in numbers, and on the Fells near rocks> whlch thls blrd invariably loves to frequent. Rusland, not far from Morecambe Bay (Mac- 254. Little Auk. Mergulus alle (Linn.), pherson, Fauna of Lakeland, p. 432). -phe little auk is seen mainly on our shores as 243. Glaucous Gull. Larus glaucus, Fabricius. fl°tsam and jetsam after very cold and stormy weather. Macpherson records the capture alive A very rare visitant. 244. Iceland Gull. Larus leucopterus, Faber. Seen on Duddon Estuary, 24 October, 18 (Macpherson, Fauna of Lakeland, p. 437.) 245. Kittiwake. Rissa tridactyla (Linn.). of specimens near Coniston and Windermere (Fauna of Lakeland, p. 446). 255. Puffin. Fratercula arctica (Linn.). Locally, Coulterneb. The puffin, like the last species, is generally seen on our shores dead after storms. It would A resident, abundant all the year round, but nodoubt nest -n Lancashjre jf there ^ such sites as the Welsh coast and the Isle of Man provide. 256. Great Northern Diver. Colymbus glacialls, because of the absence of rocks it does not nest within our boundaries. 246. Ivory Gull. Pagophila eburnea (Phipps). This species is said to have been killed o Linn. An annual winter isitant in small numbers. yeral occasions in Morecambe Bay, but none It is occasionally taken in nets set for ducks. Colymbus arcticus, Linn. Only a very occasional visitant. Podicipes cristatus of the records seem quite sufficiently authenti- _. cated; Mr. Macpherson, however, vouches for 257- Black-throated Diver. one taken near Kendal 'within a short flight of the sea coast' (Fauna of Lakeland, p. 438). One shot on Foulshaw Moss in 1847 is now in the 258. Red-throated Diver. Colymbus septentri- collection of Dr. Jackson, of Carnforth. onalh, Linn. An annual visitor in winter. 247. Great Skua. Megalestris catarrhactes (Linn.). A rare visitant at various seasons of the year ; but as it keeps off-shore its visits are probably not so rare as supposed. 248. Pomatorhine Skua. Stercorarius pomato- rhinus (Temminck). A more frequent visitor than the great Skua. 249. Arctic or Richardson's Skua. Stercorarius crepidatus (J. F. Gmelin). A few specimens are observed in most years. 259. Great Crested Grebe. (Linn.). Locally, Diver. A resident, and numerous on our inland meres and lakes, nesting annually in suitable localities. In severe weather it frequents estuaries and the sea coast. 260. Red-necked Grebe. Podicipes griseigena (Boddaert). Only a very occasional winter visitant, especially in severe weather. 250. Long-tailed or Buffon's Skua. Stercorarius 261. Slavonian Grebe. Podicipes auritus (Linn.). parasiticus (Linn.). A goodly number of occurrences have been recorded, but at long intervals of time. Of the occurrence of this species only a few records exist ; but the bird has not been observed during the past twenty-five years. 204 262. Eared or Black-necked Grebe. nigricollis (C. L. Brehm). Mr. Hugh Hornby possesses a specimen ' killed near Lune Mouth late in March or early in April, 1886' (Saunders, in Mitchell's Birds of Lancashire, ed. 2, p. 262). An adult male specimen, in full summer plumage, was captured alive at Middleton, near Lancaster, 28 July, 1 904 (Robinson, Zoologist, 1904, p. 350). 263. Little Grebe or Dabchick. Podicipes fluvi- atilis (Tunstall). Locally, Douker, Little Diver, Foot-in-arse. BIRDS Podicipes stormy weather, viduals a When it occurs several indi- re generally observed together. 266. Wilson's Petrel. Oceanitesoceanicus(KuM}. A specimen was washed up ' on the north- west shore of Walney Island in November, 1890 ' (Macpherson, Fauna of Lakeland, p. 457.) 267. Frigate or White-faced Petrel. Pelago- droma marina (Latham). A dead specimen was washed up after the severe gale of November, 1890, 'on the outside A resident species which breeds regularly in of Walney Island ' (Macpherson, Fauna of Lake- most suitable places throughout the county. 264. Storm-Petrel. Procellaria pelagica, Linn. This species is never seen except after gales and stormy weather, when it is sometimes cast up on the shore dead, or occasionally blown inland. 265. Leach's Fork-tailed Petrel. Oceanodroma leucorrhoa (Vieillot). This petrel reaches Lancashire only after land, p. 458). 268. Manx Shearwater. Pitffinus anglorum (Temminck). A not infrequent winter visitant. 269. Fulmar. Fulmarus glacialis (Linn.). A very rare visitant, reaching our coasts during or after severe weather. There are three or four occurrences on record. 205 MAMMALS The generally recognized British mammal fauna of the present day com- prises seventy-three species, of which, excluding the domesticated mammals, Lancashire has forty-seven representatives. The most notable absentees occur among the Cheiroptera and the Cetacea, and of the sixteen species of the former admitted into the British list, seven have so far been recorded for the county. Among the unregistered species, however, the hairy-armed bat (Pterygistes leisleri] and the whiskered bat (Myotis mystacinus), whose range has been recorded as extending to the ' Lake District,' without specifically mentioning any locality in Lancashire, will almost certainly be yet discovered within our limits when the bats have been more numerously collected and more carefully identified in the northern part of the shire. Of the remain- ing species of bats three are doubtfully British, and four are confined to the south of England. Of the unrecorded cetaceans four are unknown to have visited the western coasts of Britain ; one, Risso's grampus (Grampus griseus), is a very rare visitor to our seas ; and the other two, the black-fish (Globi- cephalus me/as) and the lesser rorqual (Baleenoptera acufo-rostrata), will in all probability, from their known wide range, be yet recorded as Lancashire visitants. Indeed, among the remains of various animals found in the excava- tions on the margin of the Ribble for the Preston Docks, no fewer than three skulls of the black-fish were discovered, besides the jaw-bone of a right whale (Balcena mysticetus) and the skulls of a porpoise and of a species of grampus. The most remarkable cetacean on our list is the great hump-backed whale, which, venturing into the Mersey in 1863, became stranded so far from the sea as the mud flats near to Speke Hall. The only other group in which Lancashire falls short of the full tale of English species is the Carnivora, in which no representative of the ringed seal (Pboca hispida) has yet been met with ; nor, indeed, has the species been recorded from the shores of any western county of England. The enormous and increasing sandbanks fringing the whole coast line from Cumberland to the mouth of the Dee are loaded with rich molluscan and ophiuroid deposits, and the waters overflowing them teem with polyzoa, crustaceans, and fish-fry. These sandbanks are just the localities towards which cetaceans and marine carnivores would be attracted ; and doubtless these unsupervised areas are visited by species of both groups, during their migrations, far oftener than can be observed from the shore. The ceaseless extension of the boundaries of our towns and cities ; the increase of chemical and other industries which invade with their fatal fumes ever broadening tracts of country ; the continous reduction by drainage of the mosses and meres which in Lancashire were once (and even yet are) so 206 MAMMALS extensive ; and, above all, the intrusion of man into every nook and corner of districts which long were sanctuaries for every beast of the field, are all having a reducing effect on its mammalian, especially its carnivorous, fauna. The fox, the otter, the badger, and the pine marten are becoming rarer every year, and will soon have passed altogether, if indeed the last-named, together, too probably, with the wild cat, has not already become extinct in Lancashire. The charming diminutive harvest mouse, whose grass-ball nest filled with tiny young was ever the delight of the old-time scythe-man, has been all but exterminated by the modern reaping machine. The present fauna has, however, long lost its most imposing members. It would have been possible a few centuries ago to have seen wild, amid the uplands of lakeland Lancashire and in the open glades and in the once dense but now vanished forests of the plain, some noble and formidable quadrupeds. The wolf, whose lair was among the crags of the Pennines and the Fells, was only finally exterminated in the seventeenth century. Innumerable wild boars infested the woods, and large beaver communities the banks of many of the streams. Herds of red-deer, generally more splendidly antlered than the species is to-day, roamed over the opener parts of the county till the close of the seventeenth century. If tradition may be trusted, one of the last retreats where the wild white cattle of Britain, the direct offspring — probably mingled with other blood — of the urus, lived and bred unparked and in a state of nature was the far-extending ancient forest of Bowland, just as they had ' bredde in times [longer] paste at Blakele.' Hence, doubtless, was obtained the foundation of those herds which during the past 500 years or more were enclosed in parks in many parts of Lancashire, such as at Houghton Tower, Whalley Abbey, and Middleton Hall, where the cattle roamed in a quite undomesticated state. According to Leigh's History of Lancashire, the herd of Sir Ralph Ashton at the last-mentioned hall was still wild as late as the year 1700, and apparently the bulls still sported flowing manes, an ancestral heritage which is generally hardly to be discerned in the majority of their male descendants to-day. Various other domestic breeds appear to have been specially reared in the county. The author just quoted notes that 'Lancashire . . . is most remark- able for breeding Cattle of a size more than Ordinary large, particularly about Burnley and Maudsley, from which places I have known Cattle sold at extraordinary rates, an heifer sometimes amounting to £15 or >C2° » the ground they feed upon is usually upon an ascent, and the grass shorter than in lower grounds.' A native breed of cattle which has now become nearly extinct had long horns, a thick firm textured hide with long thick shaggy hair variable in colour, large hoofs, and a coarse thick neck. Baines, too, speaks of ' a herd of black sheep which used to graze on the pastures of Higher Furness, furnishing wool that in former times rendered the woollen manufacture of Kendal and Cartmel famous throughout England.' The Haslingden sheep are probably the remains of the ancient Lancashire horned breed which had a grey face and carried a heavy fleece. The Hardwick breed in Higher Furness, which is hornless, produces short wool, and has the face and legs speckled. Any detailed notice, however, of the species of mammals which once inhabited the county, but have been entirely removed from the roll of living creatures, must be left to the palaeontologist to supply. 207 A HISTORY OF LANCASHIRE CHEIROPTERA 1. Lesser Horse-shoe Bat. Rhinolophus hippo- 5. Pipistrelle. Pipistrellus pipistrt/lus, Schreber. siderus, Bechstein. Bell — Scotopbllus pipistrellus. Rare. Locally, Flittermouse. 2. Long-eared Bat. Plecotus auritus, Linn. Not uncommon. Common. 3. Barbastelle. Barbastella barbastellus, Schreber. 6. Natterer's or Reddish-grey Bat. Myotis nat- KM-Barbastellus daubentonH. terert> Lelsler' Rare Bell — Vesperl'iKo nattereri. 4. Great or White's Bat (Noctule). Pipistrellus ^V^nT,' A specimen was taken at . , o , , v Cheetham Hill. Manchester, Christmas 1092. noctula, ocnreDer. Bell — Scotophilus noctula; White — Vesper ARo alti- *, • , , -T-T volans ; Thomas— Pterygiste, noctula. 7- Daubenton s Bat. Mjttu daubentom, Leisler. Now very scarce. Lancashire is, so far as known, its north-western limit. Not uncommon in wooded localities. INSECTIVORA 8. Hedgehog. Erinaceus europ&us, Linn. Locally, Urchin. Abundant. 9. Mole. Talpa europaa, Linn. Locally, Moodiwart, Mowdywark, Want. Abundant, occasionally albino. 10. Common Shrew. Sorex araneus, Linn. Quite common. linutus, Linn. 11. Pigmy Shrew. Sore* Bell— Sorex pygmtttu. Occurring sparsely. 12. Water Shrew. Neomys fodiens, Pallas. Bell — Crossoput fodiens. Common. CARNIVORA 13. Wild Cat. Felii catus, Linn. About a century ago the wild cat was to be seen on Cartmel Fell and other parts of Lake- land in considerable numbers, and it was, though extremely rare, still to be met with fifty years ago, but it is much to be feared that it is now extinct in Lancashire. 14. Fox. Vulpes vulpes, Linn. Bell— Vulpes vulgaris. Numerous. 18. Weasel. Putorlus nivalis, Linn. Bell — Mustela vulgaris. Abundant. 1 9. Otter. Lutra lutra. Linn. Bell — Lutra vulgaris. Still abundant in many of the upland streams on which they are regularly hunted. Not in- frequently reported from the River Alt. 20. Badger. Meles melts, Linn. Bell— Meles taxus. Locally, Brock. Abundant about 150 to 200 years ago. Now rare. Five taken by Mr. Gillow's keepers on 15. Pine Marten. Mustela martes, Linn. Bell — Martes abletum. Locally, Fox Cork, Mart Cork, Mart, Sweetmart. Warton Crag 7 or 8 years ago. Tolerably numerous in the uplands, Coniston 2i. Common Seal. Phoca vitulina, Linn. Hills, Windermere and Furness districts. An old female specimen was caugl Valley, Furness, in May 1902 (Archibald, Zoolo- j — Not uncommon in Morecambe Bay, in the Mer- >ld female specimen was caught in the Rusland sey and Ribble estuaries, and along our shores. gist, 1904, p. 455). 1 6. Polecat. Putorius putorius, Linn. Bell — Mustela putorius. Locally, Foumart, Fitchet. Not nearly so common as the weasel, but more numerous formerly ; yet abundant in some localities. 17. Common Stoat. Putorius ermineus, Linn. Bell — Mustela erminea. Common. Very rarely seen in the white garb of winter except among the high Fells, and there often partially changed only. 22. Harp Seal. Phoca grcenlandica, Fabricius. An occasional visitor to the estuary of the Mersey ; one was taken in Morecambe Bay on 23 January, 1868 (Turner, Journal Anat. and Phys. ix. 163). 23. Hooded Seal. Cystophora cristata, Erxl. A specimen was found alive on the Lancashire shore of the Mersey on 3 February, 1873 (Moore, Proc. Lit. and Phil. Soc. Liverp. xxvii. p. Ixxiii.). 24. Grey Seal. Halicharus grypus, Fabricius. Bell — HaRchterus gryphus. A specimen was captured in 1861 in the Canada Dock, in Liverpool. 208 MAMMALS RODENTIA 25. Squirrel. Sciurus hucourus, Kerr. Bell — Sciurus vulgar'u. Abundant in all our thicker woods. 26. Dormouse. Muscardinus avellanarius, Linn. Bell — Myoxut avellanarius. Local. Colonies occur here and there in woods in the western and northern districts of the county. 27. Common or Brown Rat. Mus aecumanus, Pallas. Too abundant. 28. Black Rat. Mus rattus, Linn. The black rat occurs from time to time in various parts of Lancashire. A few find sanctuary in Walney Island (Macpherson, Fauna of Lake- land, p. 81). One was caught in Liverpool in 1896. 29. House Mouse. Mus musculus. Linn. Abundant. 30. Wood Mouse or Long-tailed Field Mouse. Mus sylvaticus, Linn. Generally distributed. 3 1 . Harvest Mouse. Mus minutus, Pallas. Very sparingly distributed ; once abundant in fields and ricks, but the use of reaping machines has destroyed the nests and young so that now the species is almost extinct. Advertisement extensively made recently for specimens brought not a single favourable reply. There is a speci- men from Halsall Moss, Southport, in Owens College Museum, Manchester University. 32. Water Vole. Microtus ampbibius. Linn. Bell — Arvuola amphibiui. Common. 33. Field Vole. Microtus agrestis, Linn. Bell — Arvicola agrestis. Fairly common, and generally distributed. More abundant in some years than in others. 34. Bank Vole. Evotomys glareolus, Schreber. Bell — Arvicola glareolus. Locally, Red Field Vole. Fairly common locally. It lives on the margins of thickets, and winters among heaps of turnips. 35. Hare. Lepus europteus, Pallas. Bell — Lepus timiJus. Abundant, but diminishing in numbers. 36. Rabbit. Lepus cuniculus, Linn. Very abundant ; extensive warrens exist along the sea coast. Melanistic varieties are not uncommon. UNGULATA 37. Red Deer. Cervus elaphus. Linn. The red deer, indigenous and abundant in England from prehistoric times, was from the Roman period down to the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries widely distributed in Lancashire (as in other counties) upon the wooded heights and vales of the Fells and in the forests of the lowlands. After the middle of the seventeenth century the herds in their wild state became fewer and fewer, and those now existing, though probably retaining some of the blood of their feral ancestors, are all preserved and largely winter-fed. 38. Fallow Deer. Cervus dama, Linn. The fallow deer, though in prehistoric times indigenous to England, is at the present day to be found — in Lancashire, at all events — only con- served in private parks. 39. Roe Deer. Capreolus capreolus, Linn. Bell — Capreolus caprea. There are at the present day, it is supposed, no truly indigenous roe deer in Lancashire, unless those in the woods of Higher Furness may be so, since it is believed that in some districts of Cumberland a few descendants of indigenous herds still survive. CETACEA 40. Common Rorqual. Balanoptera muscu/us, Linn. Remains of this species have been obtained on the coast (Silloth excavations, Proc. R. Phys. Soc. viii. 336). 41. Hump-backed Whale. Megaptera boops, Gray. An occasional visitor. A specimen in the Lord Derby Museum, Liverpool, was stranded on a sandbank near Speke, many miles up from the mouth of the Mersey, on 17 July, 1863. 42. Bottle-nosed Whale. Hyperoodon rostratus, Chemnitz. An occasional visitor. A specimen now in the Nottingham Museum was stranded near Speke, some distance up the River Mersey, in 1 88 1. Examples have been taken stranded in Morecambe Bay (in 1887) and at Cocken-in- 209 27 A HISTORY OF LANCASHIRE Furness ; others have been taken on the East Hoyle Bank, which is at the mouth of the Mersey, but towards the Cheshire side. [The Narwhal. Monodon monoceros, Linn. This species, now almost extinct, has been recorded within the historical period from the coasts of Lancashire. H. H. Johnston, British Mammals, p. 380.] 43. Grampus or Killer. Orca gladiator, Lac£- pede. A rare visitor to Morecambe Bay and to the Mersey. 44. Porpoise. Phoccena communis, F. Cuv. Very commonly seen off the coast, and strag- glers have been taken in the estuary of the Mersey, in Morecambe Bay, and at Walney Island. 45. Dolphin. Delphinus delphis. Linn. Often seen off the coast, and specimens have been taken in the estuary of the Mersey and in Morecambe Bay. 46. White-beaked Dolphin. Delphinus albi- rtstris, J. E. Gray. A specimen now in the Lord Derby Museum, Liverpool, was stranded on Hilbre Island, at the mouth of the Dee, after apparently passing down the Lancashire coast. 47. Bottle-nosed Dolphin. Tursiops tursio. Seen in the estuary of the Mersey. ADDENDA 17. Common Stoat. Putorius ermineus, Linn. 37. Red Deer. Cervus elaphus, Linn. Mr. H. Murray received eight specimens in A few are now at large in Wyresdale, Lons- winter coat (white) during the last winter, all dale, and Kentdale, which have been released taken within two miles of Carnforth. for chase by the late Wyresdale deerhounds and the existing Oxenholme pack. \ EARLY MAN THE physical boundaries of the county of Lancashire, which separate it for the most part from its neighbours, impart to its story an individuality that would not have been possible in a piece of land arbitrarily divided as by a county boundary only. In the extreme north-west, however, there lies a detached portion known generally as Lancashire over Sands, which cannot well be separated physically from the counties of Cumberland and Westmorland : the antiquities of this district, therefore, although described in the present articles, do not enter into the general consideration of early culture-development in the county. So far as evidence shows, it was to the moorlands of the Yorkshire border, though bleak and inhospitable, that man was first tempted to come and settle. The undrained lowlands around the coast were for the most part marshy and uninhabitable, while the uplands and valleys lying between were still largely covered with primaeval forest. There can be no certainty, however, in the matter. The disposition of early man is indicated for the most part by sporadic finds in recent times of a small number only of the objects and implements he used; hence, while the suggestion remains of some places in which man lived, the lack of finds in other places does not exclude the possibility of habitation there. Of the people themselves scant traces have been found. The human skulls found in making deep excavations at Preston for the Ribble Docks constitute the most reliable evidence. They were found associated with bones of the urus, which was already extinct at the dawn of this era, and with remains of earlier ages. The an thropometrical analysis of these (p. 256) shows them to belong probably to a population of mixed race — the original stock of neolithic times upon whom had come the Celtic element usually associated with the rise of the Bronze Age in art; but the numbers of examples are too few to warrant any general conclusion. Other than these, the perishable bones from a few burials in isolated spots and the charred remains of those who were cremated are all that remain of man himself. Some of his burial places, however, are known. The long barrows characteristic of stone-using man, indeed, are few and uncertain; but possibly some mounds on the moors above Rochdale, particularly those which lie towards Extwistle near to Burnley and some few at Wavertree near Liverpool, as will be shown later, may be assigned to this period. The round barrows and burial mounds of the early metal age, however, are more numerous and more readily identified. The neighbourhood particularly of Winwick, near to Warrington, has yielded the best examples. The moors around Rochdale and Bolton in the south, and Bleasdale and Lancaster in the north of the county, are sites of a fair A HISTORY OF LANCASHIRE number of interesting interments of that age, while here and there at different places — Bolton, Darwen, Blackburn, and elsewhere — isolated burials have from time to time been brought to light. The evidence of burial places ranks first in importance. As usual there is little or no trace of the places where man really lived, although the localities where implements have been found, particularly in accumulation, is some suggestion. The ancient canoes found at Preston, Martin Mere, Barton, and Irlam, are better evidence of settlement, but the precise period of these objects themselves is not at all certain. In lack of direct testimony the most prob- able indication is, then, the vicinity of funereal mounds. Save for such indirect (and non-exclusive) testimony there is little guide to the problem — with one notable exception. The moors and hilltops of the Pennine range present a tract less liable than elsewhere to the disturbance of cultivation, and have yielded to the patient researches of enthusiastic investigators the know- ledge that at a remote period numbers of flint-using people dwelt there in settlements, finding the situation probably as advantageous for their own safety as it was for descending to the woods and valleys for food. There is little trace of man, but certain evidence of his handiwork in myriads of flints, flakes and chips, arrow-heads and knives, hammer-stones and the cores from which the flakes have been chipped, even his stores of flint and graphite, etc., abounding chiefly in the range of hills that lies eastward and northward from Rochdale and Ashton-under-Lyne. The flint is not geologically indigenous, and the absence of metal tools amongst the wealth of stone objects throughout this tract points to a settlement there of a neolithic population as early at least as present evidence shows man to have found his way at all into the county. Of the metal-using or Bronze Age which followed there is more general evidence of remains though less definite evidence of settlement. Undoubtedly the group of bronze implements containing a great spear, dagger, and eight axe-heads, found at Winmarleigh in the north of Lancashire,1 ranks first, though late in date, among the relics of that age. The vicinity of Warrington, and the range of upland lying north of Manchester by Bolton- le-Moors, also bear indirect witness of habitation in the weapons and inter- ments which have come to light. The mountain range to the east, and more particularly the river valleys and the sites of former marshes now reclaimed, contribute also their portion of evidence. The later Celtic period, characterized by the introduction also of iron among the metals worked, is represented somewhat sparsely, but some of the remains of this time are of exceptional character. The iron sword from Warton, north of Lancaster, in the British Museum ; the bronze sword- sheath from Pilling Moss, in the museum at Salford ; and especially the bronze torque found at Mow Road, near Rochdale, now in private possession, rank among noteworthy examples of late Celtic art. The classification of objects under three main divisions called the Stone Age, Bronze Age, and Iron Age respectively, is conventional and generally adopted, but it should be recognized at the outset as a mere convenient terminology, liable, as is often the case, to error of general inference. The basis of the nomenclature is the most characteristic material employed in 1 Preserved in the museum at Warrington, Plate V. EARLY MAN three successive major stages of development; but the distinction does not imply man's exclusive use of these materials, except at the superior limit of time. Some of the best examples of stone implements are the small polished hammers found in ' round barrows,' the burial mounds characteristic of the bronze age associated with the early Celtic population.1 The overlap indicated is general, and it is by no means possible to assign some objects to any special age. Since, however, some method of classification is necessary for dealing with numbers of ancient remains, especially in regard to the implements and weapons, which are the most plentiful, a Bronze Age is usually supposed to begin with the first observed use of bronze, and similarly an Iron Age with the incipient use of that material. But neither the periods themselves in respect of different localities nor the materials involved in each are mutually exclusive. In the following pages the remains of Early Man are described under three main heads as follows : — 1. Stone implements and remains of the Neolithic Period. 2. Bronze implements and remains of the Early Celtic Period. 3. Iron implements and remains of the Late Celtic Period. 4. Remains not included in this classification, being of doubtful age or miscellaneous character. This nomenclature is not so concise as the usual ' Stone Age, Bronze Age, and Iron Age ' upon which it is based, but it is proportionately less open to misinterpretation. It has also one other advantage in that it continues to associate the remains with the idea that a people made and used them. In any other regard the objects lose their chief interest as material remains of the human past, and become merely lifeless examples of special forms or technical series. To separate archaeology from its relation to humanity is not only to deprive early history of its fundamental material, but is inimical to a proper interpretation of all early remains. It should never be forgotten in the study of these objects that they are the products of man's hands, made by him to serve some purpose ; therefore every fact of human interest associated with an object of antiquity should be deemed equal in importance with the form and character of the thing itself. Such facts are perhaps scanty and to be gleaned only partially and indirectly, as from the position and place in which an object is found, its association with other objects, its own use and theirs. It is only in this way that it may be possible for intelligent and tempered imagination to catch a glimpse of the real life of olden times. I. STONE IMPLEMENTS AND REMAINS OF THE NEOLITHIC PERIOD The county of Lancaster has yielded no evidence of man in that primitive stage of development which is defined from the rough imple- ments of stone which he used as palaeolithic. Rough implements of stone are found, indeed, but from their association generally with objects 1 E.g. the urn at Winwick, near Warrington, containing a bronze dagger and small stone axe-hammer, p. 240. 2I3 A HISTORY OF LANCASHIRE of more elaborate workmanship, such as delicate arrow-heads with barbs, it is plain that these are merely the ruder implements of man who had already attained the neolithic culture. This in itself would not be evidence of a stone age, purely defined, for the use of stone for implements continued down to historic times, and some of the best products of the art of stone-working were fashioned during the Bronze Age which succeeded ; but in regard to a variety of these, which are both very numerous and confined to a particular region, there is evidence in the absence of metal among the stone, as well as the intrinsic testimony of the finds themselves, that they were produced by a Stone-Age people settled in the locality. The region indicated is the range of moorland that forms the south-eastern boundary of the county and separates it from Yorkshire ; and the objects found freely on hilltops denuded by the wind, and in other places from 4 to 5 .(sometimes 10) ft. below the surface, are the cores of flint, the chippings and flakes, ' borers and gravers,' scrapers and small hammer-stones, which the flint worker of the neolithic age lost or rejected. In one place, on March Hill, have been found ' innumerable minute chippings of flint,' and on the same hill a ' half-made arrow-head.' On Knoll Hill again was found a core amidst numerous chippings, one of which, identified by its patina, fitted exactly in the place whence it had been struck. It is interesting to read the account of what students of these remains see of the life of neolithic man himself in the traces of his handi- work. ' He was undoubtedly a hunter, from the arrow-heads and spear- heads he has left behind him. He clothed himself in skins, for we find the flaying knives which he used to separate the skin from the carcase, the scrapers with which he removed the fat and hair from the hides. We also find the perforators used for boring the eyes in his bone needles with which he made his clothes. We find his graving tools for ornament or possibly tattooing, and we find the reddle and graphite which he used for personal adornment. We have found his hearth or dwelling-place, a rubble of millstone grit ; the ruins of rude sandstone shelters ; the iron pyrites and the hard hsmatite by which he got his light, and the charcoal, the remains of his long extinct fire.' l The burial places of these people, which are usually the more sure indication, are in this case less easy to identify from the accounts which have been published. Of the many burial mounds which are found along the same range of hills it seems probable that the majority at least belong to a later age. The area through which these remains are found is fairly extensive. The town of Rochdale is about its centre. Southward it reaches by the heights above Oldham almost to Ashton-under-Lyne. Westward it is bounded only by the edge of the moorland which spreads out beyond Bury towards Bolton-le-Moors. Northwards it follows the high crest of the Pennine range as far as Burnley, while towards the east it passes beyond the Yorkshire border. The small objects themselves are so numerous that it is not possible to describe them in detail in the manner subsequently adopted for the classes of larger antiquities. A few types of worked flints are 1 Vid. Trans. Rochdale Lit. and Set. Sue. 1 897. ' Flint Implements,' W. H. Sutcliffe ; also various contri- butions by Dr. Colley March. 214 UPPER Row :— BROWN WARDLE HILL (four). Row :— MARCH HILL — RUSH HILL — BLACKSTONE EDGE — MARCH HILL— CUPWITH HILL K.NOWL Hi] BLACKSTONE EDGE — BROWN WARDLE HILL. THIRD Row :— FOXSTONE EDGE— BROWN WARDLE— RUSH HILL— MIDDLE HILL. 1 M • • UPPER Row :-BROWN WARDLE-MARCH HILL (two)-BROwN WARDLE-MARCH H.LL-KKOWL HILL-BROWN WARDLE SECOND Row :— BROWN WARDLE— ASHWORTH MOOR— ROUGH HILL— BROWN WARDLE (two)— HUNGER HILL THIRD Row :— MARCH HILL— BROWN WARDLE-MARCH HILL— ROUGH HILL-BROWN WARDLE— ROUGH HILL — WORSTHORNE MOOR. PLATE I.— ARROWHEADS AND MISCELLANEOUS SMALL-WORKED FLINTS FROM THE NEOLITHIC FLOOR OF SOUTH-EAST LANCASHIRE. Tofat, faf, 214. EARLY MAN selected as illustration, and the distribution of them is indicated by lists of ' findspots.' The arrow-heads, however, are few in number and of special interest : they are not altogether peculiar to this area, being found also at Manchester, and even towards the mouth of the Mersey at Wavertree near Liverpool. The flint chippings of the Pennine range, from their very numbers, combined with the absence of metal among the deposits, constitute the only definite evidence of habitation during the neolithic period. The stone implements described below, classified as celts and perforated implements, adzes, axes, hammers, and the like, are not necessarily to be considered as the product of a purely Stone Age, though of neolithic character. i. ROUGHLY-WORKED STONES Cores and flakes, and evidences of flint-working associated with these early inhabitants of the South Lancashire moors, have been found at many sites. Among them, in the main or central area, Brandwood Moor, Brown Wardle Hill, Cow Heys, Crow Knoll, Culvert Clough, Flower Scar Hill, Foxton Edge, Great Winning Gulf, Hades Hill (on the border), Haulgh, Helpet Edge, Hunger Hill, Longden End Moor, Lower Moor, Rushy Hill, Robin Hood's Bed, Ramsden, Rough Hill, Todmorden (on the border), Turnshaw Hill, Wardle Moor, Well i' th' Lane ; especially also at Besom Hill, Blackstone Edge, Bull Hill, Knoll Hill, Middle Hill (Wardle), Readycon Dean, Tooter Hill, Trough Edge, and Wardle. From Bolton-le- Moors comes a ' flint-polisher ; ' and from Hollingworth Lake, as from Trough Edge, Knoll Hill, Middle Hill, etc., roundish hammer-stones, and ' thumb-stones.' Further south, in the Manchester area, similar finds are recorded : at Broughton, Cheetham, Chorlton-upon-Medlock, Kersal Moor, Moss Side, and RadclifFe, near Bury. From the Irwell House grounds, Lower Broughton, is an interesting specimen with serrated edges, found in the gravel about 5 ft. deep. To the north the boundary of the settlement seems to be reached at the Worsthorne Moor, though isolated finds of small workings have been made at Mellor, Clitheroe, Longridge, Chipping, Bleasdale, and elsewhere as previously mentioned. A selection of typical worked flints from the moors around Rochdale is seen in Plate I. Other discoveries of miscella- neous worked flints have been made in association with interments and funeral deposits, and as such will be referred to in a later section. 2. ARROW-HEADS With a few exceptions the finds of shaped arrow-heads are associated with the same area of neolithic settlements. The small pointed flints which might have been used as tips of arrows have been freely found wherever flint- working has been evidenced. A series of these is illustrated in the upper photograph of Plate I. Arrows fashioned with a definite form, lozenge-shaped, leaf-shaped, and winged, are also common : Tooter Hill and Culvert Clough have yielded good examples. A fine class of barbed arrow also was produced by these 215 A HISTORY OF LANCASHIRE flint workers. On Bull Hill, near Bury, one measuring rj in. in length and i in. across the barb was found in the vicinity of numerous flakes and chips and small shaped flints. Others are recorded from Blackstone Edge, Foxton Edge, Great Winning Gulf, Hunger Hill, Knoll Hill, Middle Hill, and Walsden Moor. Barbed arrow-heads of similar workmanship have been found but rarely elsewhere. Such cases are, therefore, the more interesting. One of these comes from the hilly ground north of the Ribble, where a barbed flint arrow- head, 1 1 in. in length and i-jj-in. across the barbs, was picked up on Long- ridge Fell. A more notable instance is that found at Wavertree, near Liverpool, a beautiful specimen, which was near to and apparently associated with some cinerary urns and interments of the Bronze Age. The explanation of this as a survival of flint usage among the population during the Bronze Age would be possible ; but there is some suggestion of even earlier interments in the vicinity, and while the sum of present evidence indicates only the one moorland region as certainly inhabited during a neolithic age, that was not necessarily the only area so occupied. Even on those moors and uplands, at an average height of 1,300 ft. above the sea, the peat covers this * neolithic floor' to an average depth of 4ft., which in some instances is much increased. But on lower ground, in the great excavations made, for instance, for the Ribble Docks and the Manchester Ship Canal, objects of bronze were found even more than 20 ft. below the surface. Hence it is possible that the cultivated tracts below still cover the traces of the earliest population. In Lancashire over Sands, though not apparently connected in any way with the local settlements on the Pennine Hills of south-east Lancashire, there seems to be indication of neolithic population, particularly in some remains found high up in the indent between the boundaries of Cumberland on the one hand and of Westmorland on the other. Here in the vicinity of lakes and hills and wooded valleys was a region likely to attract early settlement. At Hawkshead and at Torver, on either side of Coniston Water, have been found remains of burial places associated with small objects and implements of flint ; in the former case a ' beautifully-worked flint knife.' l As before, the presence of stone implements alone is not a sufficient criterion in itself for the determination of the date of the burials ; but in the same region other signs of flint-working have been noticed. Southward, at Broughton-in- Furness have been found flakes and cores, scrapers, small arrow-heads, and the general indications of neolithic habitation, which is traced as far to the south as Grange-over-Sands on the east and Kirkby Ireleth on the west. 3. STONE CELTS Among the more interesting stone implements of the county must be placed several great stone celts, of polished surface, two of them found in the south of the county at Newton-le- Willows and Flixton respectively, and other two on the hill slopes of Pendle. A fifth was found just over the Yorkshire border at Saddleworth ; while a sixth of analogous character is exhibited in the museum at Preston.3 1 See p. 245. * There is reason to doubt the accuracy of the label which states that this object was found at Longridge. 216 EARLY MAN These implements, which are of the form illustrated by the figure No. i, were probably used as hoes, and the purposely flattened sides characteristic of them seem to have been designed to better secure the implement from lateral movement in its haft. The polish upon the broad ends, and occasionally small chips, show them to have been considerably used in hoeing and digging the soil. The greatest of these, from Newton-le- Willows, where it was found near the Vulcan Foundry, now preserved in the museum at War- rington, was described when found as a club, owing to its remarkable length of 17$ in. It is 3! in. in greatest width and 2j in. broad. The material seems to be smoothed flint, which has become coated with a calcareous skin. It was found about 2 ft. below the surface, in cutting a drain in a field near the Vulcan Foundry at Newton. (See photo on Plate II. No. 3.) The flattened sides, a conspicuous feature in the Newton celt, are not apparent in that found at Shaw Hall, Flixton, now in the Blackmore Museum at Salisbury. This object also has the comparatively great length of 12$ in. One of the Pendle celts, now in the museum of Black- burn, with a length of i if in. is next in point of size. Its width is 3 Jin., thickness 1 1 in. Itsmaterial is described as felspathic porphyry. One side is smoothly polished as if by continued use in soil. It was found at Wiswell near Whalley in 1835. The other celt from Pendle, the subject of the figure No. i, is the most remarkable for its ap- pearance, though least of the four in size. Its length is 10 in. and breadth 2 in. It was found in a turf pit near Windy Harbour Farm on the north end of the hill.1 The material is a kind of green-stone, mottled, and the surface is beautifully polished. Among the small class of stone celts some of them retain the flattened side. Two very good specimens were found at Leagram,8 the one under the Hall itself, and the other northward in the Pale Farm, near the Loud. The former, which is illustrated by fig. 2, is 4! in. by 2| by i, and the latter somewhat FIG. i. — MOTTLED STONE CELT FROM WINDY HAREOUR, PEN- OLE. Scale, 1:2. FIG. 2. — CELT WITH FLATTENED SIDES FROM LEAGRAM HALL. Scale, I : 2. ro-1TEra"?' StMt Implements, 2nd ed. p. 117— from which the figure is taken by kind permission of Sir John Evans. * Where they were preserved in the Hall by the late John Weld, Esq., from whose MSS. this information is derived by courtesy of his daughter. 217 28 A HISTORY OF LANCASHIRE larger, with a length of 5! in. These two celts are similar in general character, being worked on the side in three main triangular curved faces, of which one includes the cutting edge. A curious example is a celt from Royton Park, of which one side only is flattened. The material is a green-stone, and its size is somewhat great, being 9 in. in length by a| in. wide. ' It is well polished and has a fine edge.'1 The other celts of the county fall chiefly under two classes, those which are smoothed all over, and those which, though worked with care, are not actually of smooth surface except near the cutting edge. Of the smooth kind that from Orford, seen in the photo No. i of Plate II. is a remarkable example. Its size is 5f in. by 2i by ij ; and its material is a 'hornstone flint.' The surface curves truly and is smoothly polished, while the cutting edge is continuous, smooth, and sharp. It is now in the museum at Warrington, near to where it was found. Another typical celt is seen in the photo, Plate II.-2. It is of rough polished body which is smoothed towards the edge. Its length is 4 in., width i fin., and thickness fin. The material is light-coloured limestone. This celt was found in Parliament Fields, Toxteth Park, Wavertree, and it remains appropriately in the public museum of the city of Liverpool. Most of the Lancashire celts, which are somewhat numerous, tend towards the last-named type. Two from the vicinity of Rochdale are examples. One of these from Wardle is 4! in. in length ; * the other from Milnrow is some- what larger, being 5 in. long by 2f broad : the material is black and very hard.1 A polished flint celt was found at Morecambe in 1878, 5 ft. deep in the clay.8 It seems to have been about 5 in. long by 2 broad. Another celt, found on Pilling Moss, also in North Lancashire, seems to have been of curious size, measuring 7 in. by 3! in breadth. Other celts, of which no complete description is available, were found near Blackpool in the sandhills toward Lytham, at Chorlton-cum-Hardy in Back Lane, at Droylesden in the Moss, at Lancaster, and apparently at ' Sawick ' in the Moss, about nine miles from ' Martin Mere.'* A stone celt 8j in. long by 2 J wide was found near Weeton in the Fylde, the site of some British interments probably of the Bronze Age. A flint celt of smaller size was found at Walmsley near Bolton, in a tumulus of boulders containing a skeleton and an urn, which from its decoration seems to be of the Bronze Age. This association lends to the celt an historical importance. Small flint instruments have been found in tumuli and interments at Cliviger, Littleboro,' and Stonyhurst also. Three curious implements should be mentioned. One of them is specially of interest, and seems to be unique among the records of the celts found in the county. This is a stone celt, or ' axe,' found in the Liverpool Docks,6 with the rare feature of a groove down the sides for the better fitting or fixing of the handle.6 The second is a roughly chipped 1 Information of Mr. S. Andrew. s Fishwick, History of Rochdale, p. 4. * Weld MSS. 4 Leigh, Natural Hist, of Lane., Ches., and the Peak, Bk. i. pp. 17, 181. Sawick is generally identified with Salwick in the Fylde : though Martin Mere is variously identified with Marton Mere in the Fylde, and Martin Mere near to Southport. 6 Trans. Hist. Soc. of Lane, and Ches., 1867, p. 15. 6 Two similar implements of interesting character are exhibited at Ashton-under-Lyne, in the Stanford Park Museum, but the probability is that they were imported. It is interesting to compare these with those used in the mines of Alderley Edge (Roeder : L.C.A. xix. 1901). 218 3. GREAT CELT or FUNT, FROM NEWTON-LE-WILLOWS (WARRINGTON MUSEUM). .2:5. 4. AxE-H 5. SMOOTH AxE-H S. LARGE ROUN PLATE IF.— STONE CELTS AND HAMMERS OF LANCASHIRE (Chiefly in the Museum at Warrington.) EARLY MAN implement probably used as a pestle,1 which seems to resemble a celt in general outline ; and the third is an implement of the form of a rough celt. This is in the museum at Preston, where it is described as * a stone- hammer found at Longridge, composed of Yoredale grit.' Its dimensions are 7 in. by aj by if. In Lancashire over Sands the finds of stone celts are curiously localized in an interesting manner to the central district of Furness, with the exception of some implements found deep in the peat at Wray Hill near to Ambleside on the northern boundary of the county. From Furness Abbey, it is said, comes a celt nearly 9 in. in length, with a width of 2f in. and thickness ij in. Other celts are reported to the east at Roose- beck near Aldingham and to the north at Stainton near Dalton. Further to the north-east again the area of finds embraces Ulverston, where a polished celt was found in some old workings of a haematite ore mine. At Penning- ton near Conishead a little way to the south was found a celt somewhat peculiar in form. It is of a green-stone, and is described as resembling ' the butt end of a long celt of a common north country type, broken off short, then roughly chipped to a new edge. The edge thus formed has never been polished like the rest of the weapon.' Its present length is about 3i in., breadth ijin., and thickness i in. It was turned up by the plough in a field on Castle Hill. The area of stone celts reaches eastward as far as Cartmel, where an implement of grey schist, measuring 8i in. by 3^ in., was found on Winder Moor. 4. PERFORATED STONE IMPLEMENTS (a) Adze-like in form, with the hole transverse to the plane of the cutting edge. — The city of Manchester furnishes the best example of adze-like stone implements. Those preserved in the Uni- versity Museum are shown in the following diagrams, Nos. 3-5, as they well illustrate the form and character of this class. The first of them, fig. 3, was found at Green- heys, in a brickyard in Upper Lloyd Street. It is interesting typologically from its resem- blance in plan to the rounder stone hammers described as mace-heads, etc., and in section to the rougher axe-hammers, having one end sharp and the other blunt. It has obviously been considerably used. It is 4^ in. in length by 2f in. in width, with a thickness of ijin. The second example, fig. 4, shows a more clearly adze-like implement, longer in proportion, which has been used obviously as an adze-hammer. It was found in 1870, in Corporation Street, 25 ft. below the surface, and is of a smooth glacial rock. It measures 5 in. by 2^ in., with a thickness of ijin. It has the feeling of a well-advanced Bronze Age implement. i Described as from near Blackpool. Weld MSS. 219 FIG. 3. — STONE ADZE FROM GREENHEYS, MANCHESTER. I : 2. FIG. 4. — STONE ADZE FROM CORPORATIC STREET, MANCHESTER. 1:2. A HISTORY OF LANCASHIRE The third illustration of this class, fig. No. 5, shows a larger and rougher stone, unfortunately broken. It was found in clay which was ' undisturbed,' at a depth of 1 3 ft., in Cheetwood, near Manchester. The preserved portion, however, well shows the general cha- racter of the implement, which though larger than the foregoing is pierced with only a small hole, measuring *.in. diameter. The width of this imple- ment is 3 Jin.; in thickness it narrows slightly from near the end (if in.) to- wards the centre (i^in.). It measures 4 in. from hole to end. The end is roughly dressed to an edge towards one side, and the faces seem to show patches of the original surface of the stone. The form of the implement indeed seems to have been suggested very largely by the shape of the original stone before dressing. The material is a fine gritstone. A fourth example of this class found at Preston in or near the docks resembles the latter somewhat closely, not only in the fact that it also is broken in half, but that it has been fashioned to a similar form which seems to have been suggested by the original stone. The end is dressed to an edge. Like the last described its thickness decreases from near the end, where it is I J in. to I in. in the middle, being about 3^ in. wide throughout. From hole to end it measures 44 in., and it was presumably about twice that length. In this classification there naturally occur forms which cannot be strictly separated, but rather link the types naturally. In addition to that already described from Greenheys, Manchester, which links with the class hereafter described under 'round hammers and mace-heads,' there may be noted particu- larly the rounded hammer from Goosnargh, fig. 12, which merges with both types, and might be regarded also as a small adze-like implement. (b) Axes with one end rounded. — The double axe proper is not represented among the stone imple- ments of the county. The speci- men figured on Plate III. No. i simulates the double axe in section, but is seen to belong to the next class of axes with one end rounded — as classified by Sir John Evans. It was found near Mode Wheel, Salford, in cutting the Ship Canal, 1890. Its length is 6jin., and greatest width 3 in.; its weight is i Ib. 13 oz. The photograph shows the character of this interesting implement, which in one respect FIG. 5. -LARGE ADZE FROM CHEETWOOD, MANCHESTER, i : 2. EARLY MAN again links the varieties of axes, in that it seems to have been used to some extent as an axe-hammer, though not fashioned for that purpose. A smaller implement of similar form was found in the old bed of the Roch [formerly Roach} stream, near Oakenrod, Rochdale, and is thus described by its former owner : ' It is 4 in. long, and the hole for the handle is unusually large, being nearly an inch in diameter. The clearly-marked ridge which runs on two sides of the stone would seem to indicate that the implement was made in imitation of a cast metal one.' l The surmise is more than possible. The smoothed perforated implements of stone are for the most part indubitably of the Bronze Age ; indeed Sir John Evans shows good reason to believe that perforated stone implements in general belong to a time subse- quent to the introduction of metal-working. A third example also from near Manchester, shown in fig. 6, is typical of this class. It was found near Turkey Lane, Queen's Park, Harpurhey, 3 ft. from the surface, in clay. It is of gritstone, described as 'grained sandstone, with decomposition on the surface.' Its length is 6f in., width 2| in., and greatest height 3 in. The top surface is gently hollowed towards the socket hole ; and the lower side is partly chipped and broken away. At the one end the sides curve rapidly to the sharpened edge, while the other end preserves its ori- ginal curved form unbroken. It is a good specimen. The annexed diagram is due to the courtesy of the curator of the Queen's Park Mu- seum at Manchester, where the object is preserved. To this class must be referred also a series of implements of larger and rougher character, all of them from North Lancashire. The record of them" is fairly clear, and in some cases the implements themselves have been preserved. From Bowland is a specimen loj in. long, with a width and depth respectively of 3£in. The perforation varies from i|.in. to ijin. in diameter, and is placed far back from the sharp edge, dividing the implement at J to | of its length. The edge is very chipped and the opposite end preserves a well-rounded form. The object is heavy and massive in appearance ; it was obviously designed as a single axe and was used as such. It was found, it is related, in 1860, in draining near Cow Ark in Bowland, 'a short distance from the Roman Road.' A second specimen is from Claughton. It was found near the surface of the ground in a field near the Hall, where it now remains. It is of a more solid and smaller design than the last. Its length is j\ in., with a width, however, of 4 in. and height of about 3^ in. The hole, which is more centrally placed, is unusually large, varying from i j in., in the middle, to ^\ in. in diameter. As in the previous instance, the broad cutting edge 1 Fishwick, op. cit. p. 1 3, with figure. The object is now in the Rochdale Museum. a Weld MSS. FIG. 6. — SECTION OF STONE AXE FROM HARPURHEY, MANCHESTER. Scale, I : 2 linear. (Queen's Park Museum, Manchester.) A HISTORY OF LANCASHIRE is much chipped, while the after part, though originally rounded, shows also from the wear of its surface that it had been used as a hammer.1 A third specimen was found near Lancaster, and is more nearly of the design of that first described from Bowland, being 9! in. in length, and divided very unequally by the perforation. Though chipped at each end, it was designed as a single axe with one end rounded, and the surface hollows slightly towards the hole. It is 3^ in. wide, and 2 J in. deep at the cutting edge, which does not expand as in the former cases. The hole is placed at £ of the length from the rounded end.1 The fourth specimen, fig. 7, is from further to the south, near the Ribble valley, having been found at Wilpshire near Blackburn. It somewhat resembles in form the axe-hammer, described in the next section, which was found in the Lune near Lancaster (fig. 8). It has the same curious pro- jections to the already great width, and the same lack of special character in the section. The edge, however, is better marked, while the opposite end, instead of being flat for use as a hammer, is rounded and well preserved. The per- foration is near the centre and varies from 2 J in. to I J in. in diameter. (c) Axe-hammers of stone. — The distinction drawn be- tween axes rounded at one end and axes flattened at one end is one of original form rather than of usage. The former, it has been seen, though not so conveniently shaped for the purpose, were commonly used as hammers. The latter class, which it remains to describe, is more numerously represented in Lancashire than any other variety of implement. The rough and larger stone hammer characteristic of the northern counties is frequent in Lancashire, particularly in the northern part of the county. Other large axes are noticeably shaped with broadened cutting edge. Others again have peculiar flanges and projections ; while not uncommonly there occur the small smooth hammers often associated with bronze or metal tools. The implements from Lancaster and Tatham are excellent examples of the rough axe-hammer of the north. The Lancaster specimen, found in the bed of the Lune, is 9 J in. long, with a width of 4| in. and depth of 2| in. The material is a fine gritstone. The edge, as seen in the diagram, fig. 8, is very much dulled, and the flat hammer end also shows signs of use. A photograph is shown on Plate III. No. 4. A similar implement seems to have been found at Barnacre near Lancaster ' by a farmer while ploughing at Carter Houses. It must have been originally about 12 in. in length, and weighs 61b." FIG. 7. — STONE AXE FOUND AT WILPSHIRE BLACKBURN. 1 Weld MSS. 3 Trans. Lane, and Ches. Antiq. Soc. 222 1. FROM MODE WHEEL (SALFORD Mus.). 2. „ MELLOR (BLACKBURN Mus.). 3. „ TATHAM (SALFORD Mus.). ST. HF . Mus.). Mus.). PLATE III. — PERFORATED STONE AXES AND AXE-HAMMERS OF LANCASHIRE. Scale, 2 : 5 (nearly). To face page ^^^. EARLY MAN An axe-hammer found at Low House, Milnrow,1 might be cited as a further illustration of this class, though smaller, smoother, and generally of more finished appearance. It is 6| in. long, and broad in proportion to its length. Another rough implement, from Tatham, is shown in Plate III. No. 3. It was found at Green Hill Farm, 10 miles east of Lancaster. It is Sin. in length and 4 in. in width, with a depth of about 2 J in. The perforation is large and placed well back. The material is ' grey trap.' A feature of some special interest in connexion with this object is the appearance of the surface, which suggests that the stone was naturally formed and had been dressed down only on one side to this shape and pierced with a handle hole. A somewhat similar implement is recorded also from Lindale (over Sands). In the examples previously considered there is an absence of definite attempt to fashion the implement to a standard pattern ; rather it appears from the sections figured that the form of the natural stone in those cases determined the ultimate shape. The county, however, provides a good series of axe-hammers of a special form, which is distinguished by the widening of the implement, in section, towards the offensive edge, giving to its contour a curve outwards rather than in- wards in that direction. A typical example was found in 1855 at Mellor, a small village lying some 3 miles westward of Blackburn. A photo of this specimen may be seen on Plate III. No. 2. It is just over 8 in. in length and 3 in. in breadth. Its depth varies from 2 in. at the narrowest part, about the hole, to 3! in. near the edge. The head is broad and flat and the perforation is placed at about 5 of the length from that end. The material is an igneous rock from the north. Several implements not proportionately so broad resemble the Lancaster and Tatham hammers as regards their section and general appearance. That found at Heaton Chapel, 5 miles south-east of Manchester, now preserved in the museum of that city, is a good example. It is about yj in. long by 3! in. wide and 3 in. deep. The material is familiar fine gritstone. The surface from patination has almost the appearance of being original and undressed, but the sides incurve uniformly towards the edge and the head is fairly hammer-like. Its general features are indicated in the diagram, fig. 9. A great stone-hammer in the museum at Preston, of similar general character, is described as having been found at Longridge, a village 7 miles north-east of that town. Its length is ioi in., width 4 in., and depth 3! in. ; and its weight 5 Ib. i oz. The hole is small, the head rough 1 Roch. L. and Sc. Soc, vol. vi. 223 FIG. 8. — AXE-HAMMER FROM THE LUNE, NEAR LAN- CASTER. Scale, 1:3. (Chadwick Museum, Bolton.) A HISTORY OF LANCASHIRE and roundish; and the general appearance is not that of the Lancashire implements. A nice specimen, smaller, and better finished, was found, as it seems,1 near Blackpool, in 1881. Its dimensions are 8i in. by 4 in. by 3 in. in depth, and it weighs 5 Ib. It hollows slightly on the surface about the hole, which seems well cut ; while the hammer end seems especially to have been squarely dressed. Several good implements preserved in the county museums are of the same type as that from Mellor (see Plate III). At Chipping, which is not far distant to the north, was found one of 9 in. length and 4 in. breadth. Its depth increases from aj in. near the hole to 3^ in. towards the edge. Its weight is 5 Ib. 1 1 oz. The head is broad but not truly flat, and the perfora- tion is rather central. This specimen is in the museum of Preston. In the museum at Bolton there is to be seen another interesting example, found in 1897 while ploughing near the church at Blackrod, which is not far from Wigan. It measures 8j in. in length, about 3 in breadth, with a depth vary- ing from 2j to a| in. In form it is not symmetrical, having on one side a con- spicuous flattening where the original surface of the stone has been used with- out dressing. The material seems to be a fine local gritstone. In the same museum is a portion of an instrument which seems from its preserved part to have been almost the largest of its kind in the county, measuring "j\ in. from edge to perforation and 4 in. in width. It belongs also to the type of the foregoing, with a depth which increases from 2j in. at the hole to 3^ towards the edge. It was found at Silverdale in North Lancashire in i8/i.2 A specimen with non-expanding edge, lojin. long, 4$ in. wide, and 2|in. deep, was found in 1903 on the Burnley side of Pendle Forest in Ogden Clough. The perforation divides the length in the proportion of 2 : 5 from the hammer end, and measures about i| in. across. The weight of the object is 6 Ib. i o oz., and the material seems to be a fine gritstone, with polished surface.8 There is a slight smooth longitudinal depression, like a groove, running down towards the edge from the hole, in the middle of one face. This seems to have been worn by use, for the edge also shows signs of greater wear and redressing towards that side. Among the axe-hammers of the county are three or four of special interest. That found at Dean, near Bolton, as the photograph reproduced on Plate II. No. 4 suggests, has a broad flange to the head when viewed at the side. It is a nicely shaped implement, 9^ in. long and 3! in. broad, with a depth which gradually increases from 2 in. near the perforation to 3! in. at the edge. The head is 2| in. across the surface, and 2| in. over the FIG. 9.— AXE-HAMMER FROM HEATON CHAPEL (Manchester Museum). I : 3. Weld MSS. * Information of John Allen, Esq. Journ. Brit. Arch. Ante. xxix. p. 304 (No. 2). EARLY MAN flanges by the side. It is an excellent specimen, now in the museum at Warrington. A second special form is in the museum at St. Helens, where it was found about 1 2 ft. from the surface near the corner of Corporation Street and Hall Street in 1879. It is about 9 in. long, with a depth increasing from 2j in. at the hole to 3^ in. at the edge and 2j in. at the head. Its special features are the lateral flanges on opposite sides of the hole, which increase its breadth from 3 in. to 3! in. over all. The photograph of Plate III. No. 5 shows this feature, which is not common. A hammer of similar form seems to have been found at Throstle Nest, near Manchester, having a length of 1 2 in., but there is some obscurity about the record : l the description indicates a large double hammer, with side flanges as before. Another very unusual form shown in fig. 10 is described as found near Lancaster.2 It is of massive ap- pearance, 9 in. long and 3 in. wide, with a depth of 3 in. at the cutting edge and 2J in. at the butt. It seems to have one side almost flat, while the other inclines suddenly just beyond the hole towards the edge, giving the appearance of an angle in the side and a general lack of symmetry. The edge is chipped, and the head curved and somewhat rounded. Two excellent examples of the small smooth stone axe- hammers of the Bronze Age are recorded, the one from Winwick, now in the museum at Warrington, the other from Claughton, where it re- mains in the Hall. The former was found in an urn which lay ' in some soft black stuff inside a tumulus ' at Middleton, Winwick. With it was associated a bronze dagger, described on page 235 (Plate IV. No. 7). In length it measures 4| in. by i& in width. Its depth varies from i in. to 2 in. over the outcurved edge, and if in. across the flanges of the head, which are shown in the photograph of Plate II. No. 5. The hammer face itself is about f in. across, and the weight of the implement about 9 oz.8 The second example, from near Claughton Hall, is said to have been found in 'cutting through a tumulus in 1882, in a wooden cist, together with an iron axe, spear-head, sword, and hammer. There must, however, be an error in this account, and as an urn containing burnt bones was found in the same tumulus with this Saxon and Danish interment, it seems probable that the objects belonging to different burials, primary and secondary in the barrow, became mixed during the 27 years that elapsed between their discovery and FIG. 10. — AXE-HAMMER FOUND NEAR LANCASTER. 1 See a sketch hung in the Salford Museum. 8 Arch. Journ. 1860, xvi. 295, plate 25. 225 Weld MSS. 29 A HISTORY OF LANCASHIRE the communication to the Archaeological Institute.' * The implement itself, as seen in the photograph on Plate II. No. 6, is the best of its kind which the county has provided, being true of finish, smooth of surface, and symmetrical in form. Its upper and lower surfaces are hollowed towards the hole, which is centrally placed as regards the body of the implement. The sides curve round uniformly, at the one end drawing in to the edge, which is regular, at the other end inclining more directly towards the head, which is dressed in a circle and presents a disc-like surface as a hammer. This end is partly chipped by use, and there is a small modern break in one end of the cutting edge ; the implement is now broken in two halves but accurately joined. It measures about 4^ in. in length, 2 in. in depth, and aj in. in breadth. The perforation measures ij in. across at each end, diminishing to | in. about the middle.8 In addition to the implements described others have been found but less completely recorded. From Clitheroe, for instance, were ' a stone hammer and two axes ' ; from Hopwood a ' stone axe-hammer ' ; from Martin Mere ' a hatchet of dark stone found in peat ' ; from Turton, in Charters Moss, a ' perforated stone hammer ' ; from Heaton and Quernmore, near Lancaster, ' a rude stone ham- mer-head.' (d) Round perforated hammers, mace-heads, etc. — In grouping together all the perforated stone hammers of roundish form, there are neces- sarily included several which it is hardly possible to separate from the adze-like implements on the one hand, and the smaller stone hammers just described on the other. That from Bolton Park is an instance, fig. 11. It is of quartzite, nicely formed. Its length is 3! in., width about 2! in., and depth ij in. One end is somewhat adze-like, the other is hammer-like. It was found buried in sand at the east end of the pro- menade in Queen's Park, Bolton, where it now remains in the Chadwick Museum. It is an interesting object. The maul-head from Silverdale, in North Lancashire, preserved in the same museum, is of similar general character. It is more definitely flat in form, but without any edge, being hammer-like at both ends. The hole is very much aslant in the section of this implement. Its length is 3^ in., breadth 2j in., and depth in general ij in. A further instance may be cited. There was found in 1 879 while draining at the Stakes, Bowland, a perforated implement more round in form than the foregoing, and in this case clearly of adze-like section. Its extreme length is 4Jin., width 3^ in., and depth ij in.8 An implement found, as it seems, at Goosnargh, near to Longridge, north of Preston, is described by a sketch in the museum at Salford. It seems to be definitely rounded and of adze-like section, fig. 12. Its length is 3J in., and breadth 2j in. : the perforation is small. It links in type FIG. ii. — SMALL HAMMER FROM QUEEN'S PARK, BOLTON. I : z. (Chadwick Museum, Bolton.) 1 Evans, Stone Imp. p. 1 08. rfW. - artesy Fitzherbert Brockholes, Esq. of Claughton Hall. 226 » Weld MSS. EARLY MAN the roundish hammers just described with those definitely round in form which follow. Of these round perforated implements, that from Irlam, in the museum at Warrington, and two from Alexandra Park, in the Queen's Park Museum at Manchester, are typical illustrations. The first-named is shown in the photograph on Plate II. No. 8. It is about 4J in. by 4 in., with a per- foration ijin. by ig in. The outer edge is chipped all around, but the hole remains smoothly polished. It is of grey gritstone, and was found in the Ship Canal works at Irlam in 1890. The two stones from Manchester are not quite similar. They were found in laying out Alexandra Park in that city. The one is 4| in. by 4 in., with a thickness of fin., and a perforation ij by i|- in. as in the former instance. The other is nearly round, being 4! in. across, except where it is chipped ; in thickness it just exceeds i in., and its perforation is i£ in. Both implements are badly chipped all around their outer edge, preserving, however, a good surface to their perforations. Another large round perforated stone is illustrated in the Salford Museum, where it is described as a ' stone fishing-net weight.' It is apparently 6J in. in diameter, and was found at Stalybridge, on the border of the county. The beautifully rounded specimen of a ham- mer, or more probably a spindle-whorl, shown on Plate II. No. 7, is in the museum at Warrington. It was found at Haydock, which is about two miles north-east of Newton, in a pit, 2 ft. below the surface, in clay. ' Beneath was every appear- r i»l TM u- • £ el- I- FlG- I2-— ROUND STONE HAM- ance of a paved way. The object is of light MER FROM GOOSNARCH. grey burr stone,' and measures af in. in diameter, Scale, i : 2. with a thickness of f in. The perforation mea- sures TV in. across, and is countersunk from each side. It is a well-finished specimen, and for the county of Lancashire apparently unique. An example is shown in a museum at Ashton-under-Lyne, but its provenance is doubtful. Another, rough and small, but fairly round, was found at Hollingworth Lake, near Rochdale. (e) In Lancashire over Sands : Stone hammers have been found through much the same area as that already indicated in the case of stone celts and other implements. Isolated instances, indeed, occur in the region of the Lakes, as at Wray Hill, near the head of Windermere, and at Torver, which is east of Coniston Water. At Rusland also, which lies between Coniston Water and the pool of Lake Windermere, was found in 1881 a comparatively large implement, measuring 9^ in. by 3^ in., with a depth at the hole of af in. An even larger hammer is recorded from Rampside, in the extreme south of Furness, with a length of loin, and breadth 4^ in. It was found there in the churchyard. In the eastern part of the county, at Ayeside, near Newby Bridge, was found in a wood a perforated hammer 8| in. in length, with a width of 3! in. and depth of 3 in., weighing 4^ Ib. ' It is considerably rounded in both 1 Arch. Journ. xv. 233. 227 A HISTORY OF LANCASHIRE directions at the butt ; the edge is narrower, and one side is much more rounded than the other. The edge is carefully ground, but further up the face the surface shows that it has been picked into form.'1 A little to the south another stout axe-hammer was found at Lindale. The implement has considerable breadth, and the butt is square. A per- forated stone hammer 6| in. long was found at Cark, in a ploughed field. Its width was 3 fin. and depth aj in. It shows considerable signs of abrasion at the pointed end. Still further south, at Flookburgh, several stone hammers are reported to have been found. In the Furness peninsula a number of stone hammers are recorded. One from Harbarrow, near Dalton, now in the museum at Warrington, has a length of 7! in., being 3! in. wide and about aj in. thick. It bears evidence of use at its shaped end. A hammer found in 1886 at Barrow-in-Furness, measuring loj in. in length and 4! in. in width, is the largest yet found in the district. Further south, at North Scale, in the Island of Walney, a perforated stone hammer was found as recently as 1 90 1.3 A curious implement comes from Bank Ground, on the east margin of Coniston Water. It is about 8 in. long, broad and heavy at one end and narrow at the other. The thick end is perforated with a narrow hole. One side is flat, the other is formed into two rounded ridges. It is suggested that this implement, which was hardly a hammer of usual character, may have been carried and used suspended by a cord to the waist. It has been considerably used.3 5. CLASSIFICATION OF LOCALITIES Flint chippings, and small worked flints. — Bleasdale ; Besom Hill, Black- stone Edge, Bolton-le-Moors, Broadwood Moor, Brown Wardle Hill, Broughton ; Bull Hill, Bury ; Cheetham, Chorlton upon Medlock ; Chip- ping, Clitheroe ; Cow Heys, Crow Knoll, Culvert Clough, Flower Scar Hill, Foxton Edge, Great Winning Gulf, Hades Hill, Haulgh, Helpet Edge, Hollingworth Lake, Hunger Hill, Kersal Moor, Knoll Hill, Longden End Moor ; Longridge ; Lower Moor ; Mellor ; Middle Hill ; Moss Side, RadclifFe ; Readycon Dean, Rushy Hill, Todmorden, Tooter Hill, Trough Edge, Turnshaw Hill, Wardle Moor, Well i' th' Lane. OVER SANDS. — Broughton, Cartmel, Dendron, Gleaston Castle, Grange- over-Sands, Hawkshead, High Haume, Kirkby Ireleth, Torver. Arrow-heads. — Blackstone Edge, Bull Hill, Culvert Clough, Foxton Edge, Great Winning Gulf, Hunger Hill, Knoll Hill ; Longridge Fells ; Middle Hill, Tooter Hill, Walsden Moor ; Wavertree. Stone celts. — Blackpool, Castleshaw, Chorlton cum Hardy, Droylesden, Flixton, Lancaster, Leagram (2), Liverpool Docks, Longridge, Milnrow, Morecambe, Newton-le- Willows, Orford, Pendle (Windy Harbour), Pilling, Royton, Saddleworth, Salwick, Walmsley, Wardle, Wavertree, Weeton, Wiswell. 1 Evans, Stone Imp. p. 178. * Described in the Antiquary, Nov. 1901, p. 323. 8 Proc. Soc. Antiq. Ser. II. xii. 229. 228 EARLY MAN OVER SANDS. — Cartmel, Conishead, Dalton-in-Furness, Furness Abbey, Pennington, Roosebeck, Stainton, Ulverston, Wray Hill. Perforated stone implements : Adzes : Manchester (three, Cheetwood, Corporation Street, and Greenheys), Preston (R. Ribble). Axes : Mode Wheel, Oakenrod. Axe-hammers : Barnacre, Blackpool (near), Blackrod, Bolton Park, Bowland, Chipping, Claughton (two), Clitheroe, Dean, Heaton, Hopwood, Lancaster (Quernmore), Lune R., Longridge, Manchester (two, Throstles Nest, Withington), Martin Mere, Marton, Mellor, Milnrow, Preston (Saddleworth), Silverdale, St. Helens, Tatham, Turton (Charters Moss), Walton-le-Dale, Wilpshire, Winwick. Hound-hammers : Ashton-under-Lyne, Bowland, Haydock, Irlam, Silverdale (Stalybridge), Torver. OVER SANDS. — Ayeside, Barrow-in-Furness, Cark-in-Cartmel, Conis- ton Lake, Dendron, Flookburgh, Harbarrow, Lindale, Rampside, Rusland, Torver, Walney Island, V/ray Hill. II. BRONZE IMPLEMENTS AND REMAINS OF THE EARLY CELTIC PERIOD The title of this section, as was previously explained, does not exclude from classification as objects of the Bronze Age implements other than those of bronze, as for example many of the perforated stone hammers already described ; nor is it intended to imply on the other hand that all the imple- ments described hereafter were made before the introduction of iron. The implements of bronze from Lancashire are not so numerous as those of stone, but they form an interesting series, which to some extent illustrates in itself the sequence and development of the various types. The difficulty experienced in the earlier chapter in separating the different classes of objects is not met with in this section, for though some types of implements are seen to be transitional, as for instance those which mark the evolution of palstave from celt, yet none are so markedly intermediary that they cannot be assigned readily to one or other of the standard classes of bronze imple- ments as defined by Sir John Evans in his Ancient Bronze Implements of Britain. i. FLAT CELTS Three flat celts of bronze apparently complete the record for the county. Two of these are in the museum at Warrington, near to where they were found, while the third, from Read, is in the British Museum. The first of these, from Risley, is plain and typical of a simple celt. It is 4Jin. in length, and measures 2 in. across the broadest part of the curved edge. It is somewhat corroded, but was probably Jin. in thickness. The second example is similar in form, but decorated. It is said to have been found with two others at Read in Lancashire. It is about 8 in. in length. The illustration1 (fig. 13) shows its form and decoration. 'The 1 Taken by kind permission from Sir John Evans, indent Bronze Implements, fig. 6, p. 47. 229 A HISTORY OF LANCASHIRE central space between the two series of ridges, and also the margins of the faces, are ornamented with shallow chevrons punched in. The sides have been hammered into three facets, and this has produced slight flanges at the margins of the faces. The facets are ornamented with diagonal lines.'1 The Read celt is seen to have tended towards side flanges. The third, from Rixton, shows also an incipient feature, in a low ridge, just perceptible to the touch, about midway of the tang, obviously designed to resist the thrust of the handle in use. See the photograph in Plate IV. No. i . The Rixton celt is plain, though it has been erroneously described as ' decorated with punctured lines.' There seems to be no information as to its discovery. Its length is 6| in. The tang widens gradually from ijin. towards the cut- ting edge, which outcurves, having an extreme width of 3! in. The development of ridge and flange illustrated by the foregoing leads directly to the evolution of the palstave.3 2. PALSTAVES Perhaps the simplest form of palstave, nearest allied to the flat celt, is that found at Southworth near Warrington. It is not in good preservation, but it seems to be without side flanges, and almost of flat section, broken only by the definite ridge which was designed to hold back the handle. Its length is 3 in. from edge to ridge, and 4! in. over all the pre- served portion. The edge is not outcurving, measuring only i| in. at its greatest width. It is possible that the portion of the tang which is broken was pierced for a rivet hole, a very unusual feature. See Plate IV. No. 2. The second of these implements, which is also in the museum at War- rington, illustrates a further stage of development, revealing the palstave in its simple form. The edge is still hardly outcurving, but the other end is grooved for reception of the handle, showing a narrower section than the blade at that point, and it is supported on each side by simple flanges and ridge, against which to fix the handle. The length of the blade is 3^ in., and of the whole 6 in., with a width at the edge of 2j in., and at the ridge of i in. The thick- 1 Evans, Bronze Imp. 47 and Fig. 6. 8 An instrument which from the picture given, Leigh, Nat. Hist. Lanes, Plate iv. No. 4, seems like a palstave, is recorded to have been found in a moss at Salwick, Martin Mere ; but it is not possible from the illustration to define its precise nature, nor from the description to identify the site. 230 Fie. 13.— BRONZE CELT WITH SLIGHT FLANGES FROM READ. Scale, i : 2. (British Museum). EARLY MAN ness of the blade is about half an inch, and over the flanges one inch. See Plate IV. No. 5. This implement is said to have been found with a small bronze ring (Plate IV. No. 4) at Win- wick, which is the site of other dis- coveries associated with the interments in Highfield Lane and elsewhere. A very similar implement l seems to come from Martin Mere, west of South- port. It is somewhat timeworn, but seems to have measured about 4! in., the blade being 2j in. long. The width of the edge is 1 1 in., and of the haft and blade i&in. The thickness at the ridge was about I in. The museum at Bolton contains one of the best palstaves of the county, found in 1810 in Charters Moss at Turton, four feet below the turf. It bears the definite trace of ornamentation upon its face, as shown in the photograph on Plate IV. No. 3. In other respects it is simple in design. The edge is widened by the broadening of the blade itself, being 2f in. across at its widest point, and the blade i in. at the ridge. From ridge to edge measures nearly 4 in. The groove and flanges are well defined. A palstave described3 as found at Ainsworth near Bolton on Cockey Moor has special features. A loop is provided at the side near the ridge for fixing the implement to the handle by a loose thong for security in case the hafting should give way. The cutting edge outcurves, measuring 2J in. from tip to tip. The implement is nearly 6 in. in length. Down the middle of the face runs a low rib, which gives way on each side to a lower facet or panel which constitutes the chief decoration, as shown in fig. 14. A second palstave from Martin Mere1 is shown in the annexed sketch, fig. 15, because of a special feature. Unlike those previously described, the grooves for fitting the handle are placed in the plane of the cutting edge, that is to say at the sides, as shown in the figure. The object is also unusual in shape. It is 5 in. in length, the blade being at in. The width is $ in. over the flanges and f in. on the blade, which is of prolonged form, widening suddenly to the edge, where it measures i| in. across. The thickness uniformly decreases from | in. at the end and £ in. at the top of the blade to the edge, which is sharp. 1 Now in possession of Mr. H. Taylor. 3 Lane, and Ches. Ant. Sac. xii. 209. 231 FIG. 14. — PALSTAVE FOUND AT AINSWORTH. (From a Drawing.) I : 2. Fig. 15. — PALSTAVE FROM MARTIN MERE. I : 2. A HISTORY OF LANCASHIRE The palstave latest found is also among the most- interesting (fig. 16). 'A bronze palstave was found in February, 1905, under gin. of soil about five miles to the north-west of Rochdale, at about 900 ft. above ordnance datum, during the excavations of the Ashworth Moor Reservoir, and is now in the possession of the .Board in their offices at Heywood near Manchester. The implement is encrusted with various salts of copper and is of an olive- green colour. It measures 5! in. in length, with a maxi- mum breadth of 2yV in. across the blade. There is a well- marked stop 3^ in. from the anterior extremity of the blade. The ridged wings are continued as moulding on the face of the blade, but curved in a contrary direction so as to enclose a space below the stop ridge, thus producing a semi-elliptical ornamentation. The thickness of the metal at this point is f in., whereas it is f in. above the stop ridge. The sides are slightly concave and are roughly diamond shape, measuring if in. across at their maxima. There is a slightly defined transverse ridge 2| in. from the anterior extremity. The joint of the two moulds in which it was cast can be traced upon the sides of the instrument, and appears as if one of the moulds had been somewhat deeper than the other. There is no loop.' * A further palstave, of simple type, with well-preserved edge, is said to have been found in excavating for a reservoir in 1884 at Cant Clough, which is 3^ miles north-east of Burnley. Bronze palstaves are reported also from Egbert Dean, Sharpies, and from Weeton in the Fylde, but descriptions are wanting. FIG. 16.— BRONZE PALSTAVE FROM ASHWORTH MOOR. 3- BRONZE SOCKETED CELTS Five examples of socketed celts preserved in the museum at Warrington well illustrate the varieties of this class of implement found within the county. Four of them indeed come from the same site, Winmarleigh near Garstang, in North Lancashire, where two finds, possibly from the same source, dis- closed eight socketed celts with two spears and a dagger of bronze, which constitute by far the most striking deposit of the age. These objects are all preserved in the same museum : they are illustrated by photograph on Plate V., and are described together in connexion with the spears in Section 4. The first sketch, fig. 17, shows the simplest of these celts, without rim or decoration. The imple- ment is hollowed to receive the handle, and is provided with a loop whereby to attach it to the staff. It is 2$ in. in length, if in. across the mouth, and if in. across the edge at its widest point. This celt was found with the dagger and two other celts at Winmarleigh, as described in the next section. FIG. 17. — PLAIN SOCKETE FROM WINMARLEIGH. : CELT 1 From MSS. of Mr. W. Baldwin, by courtesy of Mr. W. H. Sutclifie. 232 PLATE IV. — BRONZE IMPLEMENTS OF LANCASHIRE. (Chiefly in the Museum at Warrington.) To face page 232. FIG. 1 8.— RIBBED SOCKETED CELI WlNMARLEICH. 2 : 3. EARLY MAN A number of socketed celts are recorded l as having been found in the River Ribble, the locality not being stated. They seem to have been five in number, mostly looped. Of these, one was quite plain like the above, 2 fin. in length, but was provided with a rim around the mouth, to which the loop was attached at one end. The next sketch, fig. 18, shows a difference of feature in the double rim about the mouth of the implement and the three elementary ribs along the length. The blade is not outcurving to widen the edge. Its extreme length is 3! in., breadth at mouth ijin., and across the edge i|in. This implement was found at Winmarleigh with two spears and four other celts, as described in the next section. One other of the celts from the same site is of this character. Quite similar, too, is one found at Walton-le-Dale, on the Ribble near to Preston (in the parish of Cuerdale). This one is 3! in. in length, with a breadth of ij in. across the mouth and 1.5. in. across the edge. There is a feeling to the touch that the ends of the decorative ridges are very slightly bulbed, as in the case of the Winwick celt, Plate IV. No. 6. The marks of the casting are quite plain around the sides of the weapon. This celt is in the museum at Preston, and it seems to correspond with that described * as having been found at Cuerdale in 1838 by men in deepening a ditch, between three and four feet from the surface, about three or four yards from a spear-head described in the next section. The next figure, fig. 19, shows a third of the Winmarleigh celts, varying from the former examples in the broad outcurve of the sides towards the edge, which is 2 in. across. The rim is i J in. wide, and the implement 2| in. in length. It is decorated, as before, with three plain ribs. It was found with the spear and four other celts, as subsequently described. Three others of the celts from the same site are of this character. The fourth of the Winmarleigh celts is an isolated specimen, distinguished by the sharp recurve of the ends of its outcurved edge, as shown in the annexed drawing, fig. 20. In other respects it is similar to those which have been described, and it is ornamented with the same three ribs along the face. Its length is 3 in., breadth across the mouth i J in., and across the edge, extreme measure, 2 in. Like the previous example it was found in the deposit of two spears and five celts described on p. 236, and illustrated in Nos. 1—7 on Plate V. l Trans. Manchester Lit. andPhil. Sac. v. 527, 534, with plate. » Arch. Journ. viii. 331-2. 1 233 30 FIG. 19. — CELT WITH OUTCURVING EDGE FROM WINMARLEIGH. 2 : 3. FIG. 20. — CELT WITH RECURVING EDGE FROM WINMARLEIGH. 2 : 3 A HISTORY OF LANCASHIRE A fifth celt, also in the museum at Warrington, is shown on Plate IV. No. 6. It is an excellent example of celt elaborately decorated with chev- ron ornament, the ends of the ribs upon its surface terminating in nodules towards the edge.1 It was found at Winwick near Warrington.2 It is 4^ in. in length, if in. across the mouth, and ai in. from tip to tip of the edge. It is certainly the best specimen in the county. Miscellaneous finds of celts have been made in various places. At Wegber near Carnforth, for example, several bronze celts are reported to have been found with other implements about 17 ft. below the surface, in a fissure in a limestone quarry. Also at Marton in the Fylde, it is said, was found near ' Robbins Row ... a Celtic axe, lying in the peat about a yard from the surface, with a handle of more than a yard in length, nearly the thickness of a man's wrist. At the side there was a loop.' 8 A looped celt or palstave seems to be indicated; and doubtless many others have escaped record. 4. WEAPONS The county provides a fair series of offensive weapons in bronze, with some of exceptional quality. Some of the accounts of discoveries are meagre and lead to much difficulty in identification. In making a selection for illustration the deposit from Winmar- leigh again becomes conspicuous, providing in the great spear-head described last in this section one of the most remarkable objects of bronze in the country. (a) Knives. — Of knives there are two doubtful re- cords, both found in association with decorated pottery in burial mounds of the Bronze Age. The best defined is that from Haulgh, where what seems to have been a bronze knife 4$ in. long and igin. broad is recorded as found in a tumulus about a quarter of a mile south-east from Bolton parish church. The implement is provided with three rivet holes for hafting, which is characteristic, but the point is bent back and the illustration of it leaves its real nature somewhat uncertain.4 At Darwen was found a piece of bronze of similar outline in very similar association. The object, however, is very much decayed and twisted, and its real character is uncertain. Its length is 6j in., with a greatest width of aj in. (b) Daggers. — The bronze implement shown in an- nexed figure No. 21 is of exceptional interest. It was found in 1845 about 2j ft. from the surface of the ground in a field about half-way between the towns of Burnley and Colne.6 It is apparently a dagger with a narrow tane in which is a rivet-hole. The tane r IG. 21. — DRONZE DAGGER i-ii-ti « FROM NEAR COLNE. 1:2. is smooth and the rivet-hole seems to have been 1 See also Bronze Imp. p. 123, fig. *Ttarnber,56cfeM4 18,328. 8 Information of W. Farrer, Esq. 36. Arch. Journ. xv. 236. Hist. Soc. Lane, and Ches. iv. 132. 234 EARLY MAN wrought. The mid-rib is rounded. The surface of the implement is corroded in places, and the edge also chipped. It is just over 9 in. in length, the tang is 3 in. long, and the greatest width ij in. Tanged daggers are extremely rare, being known chiefly from the Arreton Down deposit, in the Isle of Wight. There, in 1735-7, some nine blades of the class (though differing in detail) were found near Newport, upon the Down, with other objects of the same material.1 Though rare, the geographical distribution of this class is somewhat wide. A specimen comes from Matlock, Derbyshire, a second from Burwell Fen (both in the possession of Sir John Evans), another from Swaffham Fen, Norfolk (now in the Cambridge Museum), and another from Plymstock, in Devon. Ireland and the Continent also have yielded examples.3 The class is difficult to distinguish from a type of spear-head, to which Sir John Evans and Mr. Franks seem disposed to assign it.8 A fine offensive weapon, sharp at both edges and point, was found at Winmarleigh in association with three celts previously described. The details of its discovery are somewhat dubious, but it is said to have been ' found in a box near Garstang ' with the other implements. Its length is 9! in. over all, with a 7! in. blade. In width near the handle it measures 1 1 in. ; it then narrows slightly and recurves outwards, as shown in the photo, Plate V. No. u, measuring i § in. before turning again to the point. The handle was made firm by a longitudinal ridge on the tang which it enclosed. The photograph on Plate IV. No. 7 illustrates a third dagger of interesting character, though much smaller in size. It was found with an urn and stone hammer (Plate II.-5) in a tumulus at Highfield Lane, Middleton, Winwick. The end of the handle or tang is broken near and partly through a rivet-hole. Over all the weapon measures 4^ in., with a blade of length 3 in., and breadth near the handle of i J in. In shape, as may be seen from the illustrations, it differs from the foregoing. From its association it seems to be definitely a relic of the Bronze Age, and it is characteristic also of the deposits placed with interments early in the Bronze Age. A bronze dagger, with spear-head and arrow-head, is vaguely reported from burials on Lancaster Moor. (c) Spear-heads. — Three excellent spear-heads are preserved in the museums of Preston and Warrington.8 The former is shown in fig. 22. It is the plain leaf-shaped type, with long socket and a rivet-hole for fixing the shaft. It measures gin. over all, with a 6| in. blade, which is if in. across at its widest point. The mouth of the socket is ijin. in diameter. It is recorded to have been found with many other remains, human and 1 Antueohga xxxvi. 326. » Evans, Bronze Imp. p. 260. s Mane. Lit. and Phil. Soc. Trans, v. 527, No. 6. 235 FIG. 22. — BRONZE SPEAR-HEAD FROM PRESTON. I : 2. (Preston Museum.) A HISTORY OF LANCASHIRE animal, in the excavations made in the Kibble in 1885 for construction of the Preston Docks. It therefore seems to be distinct from an entirely similar implement described as a Roman spear-head found within three yards of a bronze celt (previously mentioned) in 1840,* at Cuerdale (Walton-le-Dale) by some men in deepening a ditch, at 4 ft. from the surface. Another spear-head is recorded as found with other bronze implements, socketed celts, etc., in the River Ribble, but the details are wanting.3 A finer example is that from Winmarleigh, found with the great looped spear described below. It is of similar general character, but with a regular deep sharpened edge along both sides. It measures 8f in. over all, with a blade of 6j in., and width ij in. The socket is just over an inch in diameter at the mouth, and as in the former case tapers gradually in straight convergence to the point. It is in excellent preservation. See the photo- graph of Plate V. No. 6, which illustrates this object among its deposit. An interesting socketed spear-head was found at Irlam, near Manchester, in digging the Ship Canal, at a depth of 20 ft., and is now preserved in the War- rington Museum. The blade is small, 3 in. in length, i Jin. in width, and the socket for the most part is external to it, the implement measuring over all 5! in. The socket is rimmed at its end, and provided on each side with a prolonged loop for securing to the shaft. Between the loop and the blade on the side are a series of notches (fig. 23). A double looped spear-head is reported to have been found near Leigh,8 but the record is deficient. The spear-head from Piethorne, near Rochdale, where it was found at the waterworks, is double- looped in the blade, and though weather-worn is an interesting object. It measures over all 6| in., with a blade 5 in. long and if in. wide across the loops. The socket is very wide in proportion, measuring ire in. at the mouth. The implement is otherwise leaf-shaped, as seen in fig 24, and converges in section uniformly as in the other instances. The great spear-head from Winmarleigh, now in the museum at Warrington, is of similar type, leaf-shaped, with loops in the blade. This weapon surpasses all others of the county not merely for its size and preser- vation, but for the fine workmanship and finish of detail. The photograph Plate V. No. 7 shows this splendid specimen with the other implements found on the site. It measures 19^ in. over all, with a blade about 16 in. long and 3i in. wide. The loops are symmetrical curves from the socket in the width of the blade. The socket is somewhat slender, being ij in. wide at its mouth, and it tapers elegantly to the point. A rivet-hole is provided for fixing the shaft. This spear-head and that described previously (No. 6) are recorded to have been found, together with the five celts (Nos. 1—5 in Plate V.),in 'a strong, rude, oaken box, with pins of the same, at Winmarleigh near Garstang.' FIG. 23. — SPEAR-HEAD LOOPED ON SHAFT, FROM IRLAM. Scale, I : 2. (Warrington Museum.) 1 Joan. Brit. Arch. Ass. viii. 332 » Mane. Lit. and Phil. Soc. Trans, 236 527, No. 6. » Ibid. v. 531. To face page 236. EARLY MAN FIG. 24. — SPEAR-HEAD LOOPED i BLADE FROM PIETHORNE, NEAR RoCHDALS. I : 2. The dagger described above (No. n), with the celts (Nos. 8-ro), is reported verbally to have been found ' in a box at Winmarleigh, near Garstang,' whence they were secured. It seems very possible that they form part of the same deposit, and that the latter were retained by those who handed over the former. Otherwise the latter were a distinct deposit, and the tradi- tion of the other discovery clings to them. However that may be, they form from one site a group of implements and weapons of excel- lent quality and exceptional interest, including one of the best spear-heads of the country, a second which is smaller, a dagger, and eight socketed celts, of which seven are ornamented with ribs. The group is shown in Plate V. 5. BRONZE IMPLEMENTS FROM NORTH OF THE SANDS Several small hoards of bronze implements are recorded from this district. At Kirkhead, near Allithwaite, in the floor of Kirkhead Cave, which has yielded implements of the preceding ages also, were found with some pieces of rude pottery, a fluted earthenware bead, three bronze rings, a bronze pin ' enamelled,' a piece of a fibula, a bronze palstave and spear-head, a large bronze celt ; also a flake of flint, a bone amulet (carved from the head of a human femur), and a quantity of human bones. At Little Urswick also, near Stone Walls, some workmen discovered under a flat stone a deposit which seemingly included several examples of the later bronze work. The record mentions a long spear-head (or possibly a sword), which was deliberately broken ; and near to this four or five ' celts or axes of brass,' which were probably bronze socketed celts, though described as axe-hammers ; also four or five rings. The latter were 'large enough to go over the hand, and had an external eye to them as if for the purpose of being strung.' Some interesting finds of isolated implements or groups are also recorded. Two or three bronze palstaves were ploughed up at Flookburgh ; a bronze celt and armlet have been traced to Furness, and in Cartmel parish several bronze implements there found seem to resemble socketed celts from the description given. A great bronze celt, 9 in. long and 8 in. broad, is recorded as found in the ruins of Gleaston Castle : and the find of two bronze celts from Stainton, near Dalton, was recorded in the newspapers of 1894. A bronze spear-head is reported from Dalton in Furness ; and an implement described as found with the fragments of a cinerary urn at Stainton simulates a spear- head also. A bronze dagger was found at Page Bank, near Leece. 6. CLASSIFIED LIST OF LOCALITIES Flat Celts. — Rixton, Read, Risley (Martin Mere). Palstaves. — Ainsworth, Martin Mere, South worth, Turton, Winwick, Sharpies, Weeton. 237 A HISTORY OF LANCASHIRE Socketed Celts. — Marton, Kibble, Walton-le-Dale, Winmarleigh, Win- wick. Weapons. — (a) Knives : Darwen, Haulgh. (b) Daggers : Colne Winmarleigh, Win wick. (c) Spear-heads : Irlam, Leigh, Piethorne, Walton-le-Dale, Winmarleigh. OVER SANDS. — (a) Palstaves : Flookburgh, Kirkhead. (b) Celts : Cartmel, Furness, Gleaston Castle, Kirkhead, Little Urswick, Stainton. (c) Weapons : Dalton, Kirkhead, Leece, Little Urswick. III. INTERMENTS AND BURIAL URNS Without considering the whole subject of Bronze and Stone Age burials it would not be possible with the evidence accessible to discriminate between the periods of the early interments in Lancashire of which there is record. Those who have given to this branch of the subject their closest attention find in it great difficulties, and differ among themselves in their interpretation of the results. In general there is a disposition to draw hard and fast lines between different types of interment as representing different and distinct epochs of culture and development, which the evidence of observation does not warrant. The Lancashire burials do not help to solve the great problem, but partake fully of its difficulties. The great area of flint chippings in the south-east of the county, which we have accepted as evidence of a settled stone-working people in a neolithic age, is still without any representative and analagous class of recorded burials. A number of burial mounds, indeed, with interments apparently all by cremation, are found about these hills, but the urns found in these, the stone circles, and other features, are for the most part of the type usually assigned to the Bronze Age, and indeed here and there a small pin or other object of bronze has confirmed the date. But not even small pieces of metal are found upon these ' neolithic floors.' Looking at the problem of the settlements and culture-phases of early man in Lancashire with due regard to the physical features of the county, the possibility must be admitted of an even broader overlap of Bronze and Stone Age than is usually conceded. The aboriginal workers of stone may have still retained their homes upon the eastern hills, while elsewhere, nearer the coast or upon the river valleys, bronze-using man gradually made his way ; possibly the use of bronze might find its way without ethnical movement. However that may be, unfortunately we can only admit the insufficiency of local evidence. Hence in regard to these interments, those which bear trace only of stone implements are distinguished from those showing bronze, as belonging possibly but not necessarily to an earlier phase of culture development and ar. antecedent population. i. INTERMENTS WITH ASSOCIATED STONE DEPOSITS On Hades Hill, near Rochdale, in a depression which separates that hill from Rough Hill, 1,380 ft. above sea level, an approximately round, but deformed, barrow has been explored. Its dimensions give 52 ft. north to 238 EARLY MAN south and 45 ft. east and west, with a rise of 3 ft. above the surface : being placed upon a slope it has probably slipped and suffered slight change of form. ' It was constructed as follows : a circle of large and rough native sandstones was laid on the surface of the ground, marking the extent of the supposed mound. Near the centre of this circle the urn was placed, mouth upwards, probably in a cairn of stones ; then a quantity of rough sandstone was thrown in, and afterwards covered with sandy clay or loam.' l The urn was of the two-tier variety, hand-made, decorated on the outside, on the apex, and on the interior by rope pattern in chevron designs. The contents were burnt human bones, burnt flint implements and flakes, and a ' broken nodule of jasper flint.' In the barrow itself were found also the burnt tooth of an ox, animal bones, charcoal, numerous flint flakes and implements, among them a barbed arrow-head, pieces of coal and quartz pebbles. This is a characteristic interment. Technically this mound and urn must be assigned to the Bronze Age ; but the deposit itself is significantly suggestive of the neolithic area amid which it is placed. The excavation of a barrow at Littleboro', further to the east, showed it to contain a similar interment, consisting of an urn, calcined bones, and small pieces of flint. But it is further to the north, on the moorland hills that lie away towards Burnley, that interments of this character are more numerously recorded. These are almost homogeneous, and the single discrepancy of a bronze pin occurring in one instance, only strengthens the suspicion that the real age of these neolithic sites may have been contemporary with the incipient use of bronze, and reciprocally, that these ' round barrows ' were fashioned by a people accustomed to the use of flint and to whom bronze was rare. To quote a few examples : At Worsthorne, near Black Hameldon Hill, was a barrow 30 ft. in diameter and 4 ft. in height, in which were found ' flint flakes and arrow-heads,' the centre was occupied by stones arranged like a long sarco- phagus with two large stones as cover ; on the same site a tumulus 2 1 ft. in diameter yielded an unglazed urn ; a third mound was surrounded by a stone circle, and in it were found calcined human remains ; at Briercliffe, in the same region, was a tumulus and earth circle, 27 ft. in diameter, with a ' food- vessel ' ; near it was a circle of seven stones, from which came ' unglazed urns, human remains, and flint arrow-heads ' ; at Hellclough was another circle of seven stones, an urn, and the bones of two persons, with the bronze pin previously mentioned ; a third circle of seven stones yielded, in addition to an urn and bones, a flint axe. Further again to the north, on the hillside which forms the northern bank of the Kibble near Stonyhurst, there was examined a circular tumulus which was 1 1 5 ft. in diameter, with the result that a ' small flint knife or scraper ' was found with ' crushed bones in charcoal,' a bone hone 4 in. long, and the handle of a vessel (seen subsequent to the excavation), the edge of which was crimped. The bone hone was worn as by the sharpening of a metal instru- ment upon it. At Wavertree, near Liverpool, there have been made finds of no less importance. Some cinerary urns, reported to be eight in number, containing burnt human bones and ashes, seem, from those which are preserved in the City Museum of Liverpool, to have been possibly of very early date, 1 In Rocb. Lit. and Set. Sx. 1898. Sutcliffe, ' Hades Hill Barrow.' 239 A HISTORY OF LANCASHIRE lacking the decoration characteristic of the advanced Bronze Age. With them were found two small scrapers and other objects of flint, includ- ing a barbed arrow-head, an excellent specimen. Apparently near to these urns was another tumulus of sand with a chamber of hewn stones. These vary in size from about 3 ft. by 2 ft. to about 6 ft. by 5 ft. There may have been more of them, but early last century they were removed to their present position1 where by the name of the Calderstones they are preserved at the foot of Druids' Cross Road. The arrangement of the stones, as has been suggested,2 must have been dolmen-wise. The large flat stones probably formed the cover of a chamber or chambers formed by the smaller ones. Within, there is record of the discovery of several urns and general evidence of burials by cremation. The suggestion of tradition implies that the urns found did not and would not contain all the ashes uncovered. An additional interest is lent to these stones by the ' cup and ring ' markings, designs of spiraloid form, incised upon them. It is diffi- cult to believe that these are earlier than a Celtic age, but they are not necessarily contemporary with the construction of the tomb. The general character of the burial and construction of the tumulus accords with an early date, based upon the results of study in other places of Britain and the Con- tinent. Considering the local history also, probably there is no error in assigning it to a date at least as early as the overlap of Neolithic Age and Bronze Age. Some burials found at Stretton, near Warrington, seem somewhat analo- gous. ' The bodies lay in sand, each surrounded with ashlars placed at the side and head and feet, the bones being 1 6 in. below the surface. The side bones had not been placed perpendicularly, but inclining to one another like the roof of a house.' Two small urns of baked clay, about 4 in. deep and 3 in. in diameter, were found, with black ashes, charcoal, and general indica- tions of firing. One of the urns had a pinched ornament on the neck, and another is quite plain. 2. INTERMENTS WITH ASSOCIATED BRONZE DEPOSITS Winwick, in the neighbourhood of Warrington, has yielded up, in some of the interments which have been recorded, evidence of real importance to archaeology. That period early in the Bronze Age when as yet only simple weapons and implements were fashioned of that material seems to be indicated by a deposit found in one of the tumuli at Highfield Lane. In it were found a small bronze dagger, with rivet-hole in tang (described above in Plate IV. No. 7), and a small polished stone hammer (Plate II. No. 5), both within an urn. The decoration of some pottery from the site shows a simple linear design resembling parallel veins of a leaf. The dagger is of a type found in the Yorkshire ' Round Barrows,' and the association of a polished stone implement is not uncommon. The Bronze Age has certainly begun, and it provides a better example of a stone implement than anything of the Neolithic Age. The terminology is obviously not adequate ; the word ' chalcolithic ' might be used to represent this phase. At Winwick also, and 1 E. W. Cox, Lane, and Ches. Ant. Sor. x. 252 (1892). 8 Prof. Herdman, 'The Calderstones' 1896, in pamphlet. 240 EARLY MAN possibly associated with the tumuli of the place, were found a flanged bronze palstave and flat ring about 2 in. in diameter (Plate IV. Nos. 4, 5). Unfortu- nately the evidence concerning this find is not clear. On accepted theory, the palstave should belong almost to a second phase of the Bronze Age, and it is an object rarely found in funerary deposits : a bronze socketed celt with chevron ornamentation (Plate IV. No. 6) found in the same vicinity seems to indicate a continuous Bronze Age population in the locality. Not more than a mile from Winwick, at Kenyon, there have been found other funerary mounds apparently of this same age. One of the most recently discovered was disturbed in making a diversion of a road, but a description of the tumulus and its contents has been skilfully rescued.1 The mound was about 3 3 ft. in diameter and 3 ft. 6 in. in height, of the form shown in the annexed section (fig. 25). Portions of two urns were recovered. On one of these ' the outside surface of the lower portion for a depth of 3 in. is plain, An equal width above this is ornamented with small triangular indentations and short incised lines, forming chevrons in encircling rows. The upper portion is divided by three angular cordons into two hollow grooves, the lower of which is evenly marked with incised chevrons, and the upper one filled with a zig-zag moulding, dotted over with similar triangles and chevrons. The top of the everted rim is likewise covered with chevron markings in FIG. 25. — SECTION OF A BRONZE AGE TUMULUS AT WINWICK. three rows.' Nearly eighty years ago fragments of an urn were found in the same vicinity decorated with 'large triangular or lozenge-shaped grating, marked with incised lines,' and with the urn a bronze pin or small implement with a flat tang. Further north, at Bolton, a tumulus was opened about a quarter of a mile south-east from Bolton parish church. It proved to be a Bronze Age 'barrow, about 30 ft. in diameter and 46. deep, made of small boulders. About the centre was a cist urn, 4 ft. 6 in. long by 1 2 in. deep, of four up- right stones and a coverer, lying nearly north and south. The skeleton lay in a contracted attitude, with head to the north. Near to the head lay an incense cup 4! in. by 3 £ in. high, and a bronze spear-head 4f in. long by i § in. broad.' The bowl was in excellent condition, with three rows of pattern incised, of which the first and third were adjoining triangles of parallel lines enclosed, with the interstices marked with lines in the complementary direc- tion ; the second tier has a deviation of vertical dotted lines. The bronze implement is a knife or knife-dagger, apparently with two sharp edges, having three rivet holes at the base for affixing it to its handle.8 The vicinity bears other traces of burials, not only in tumuli which are preserved or recorded, as that at Walmsley, which contained a skeleton, urn, and flint celt, but in the 1 Lane, and Chei. Ant. Soc. xxi. (1904). Thos. May, Notes on a Bronze Age Barrow. 8 Hist. Soc. Lane, and Cbes. iv. p. 132. I 241 31 A HISTORY OF LANCASHIRE stone circles which here and there, as at Anglezarke and in places on the Extwistle and Lancaster moors, give indication of tumuli which have disap- peared from the surface. At Darwen, further to the north on the same upland, several burials are recorded. In the grounds of White Hall was a mound 30 yds. in diameter, and of a height about i o ft. or 12 ft. maximum, above the contour of the ground. The mound is described as ' na- tural.' In it were ten distinct inter- ments, some being FIG. 26.— PATTERNS UPON CINERARY URNS FROM DARWEN. burnt bones without urns or cist ; others in urns, one of which was in an inverted position. On the top of each of the cinerary urns was a rough flat stone surrounded and covered by small stones carefully filled in. The cinerary urns are mostly of the two-tier variety, with rectilinear decoration. The variety of designs found in association is of some special interest, and is illustrated in the sketch appended, fig. 26. One of them with punctuated decoration is less common, and shown in fig. 27. An incense-cup, plain, and bronze implement, presumably a knife-dagger, much corroded, were found in the same place. From the height of Revidge, above Blackburn, comes also a characteristic burial of the early Bronze Age, with a simple urn of two decorated tiers and overhanging rim (fig. 28), a bone pin about 2 in. long, and a bronze pin-head. The whole seems to have been enclosed as usual below a mound, while the urn was found inverted in a bed of sand. Further north again, upon the moors around Lancaster, burials of the Bronze Age are even more numerous than elsewhere recorded. In one spot were found a number of urns, about 2 ft. below the surface, lying in pairs at intervals of a yard, in a row which extended east and west. One was enclosed in four flag-stones, with a fifth at the top. A bone pin, ' bronze arrow-head and spear-head,' are recorded among the deposit. The same alignment was noticed in another instance, at a place distant about a quarter of a mile, where one of the urns has two 242 FIG. 27. — URN WITH PUNCTUATED DECORATION FROM DARWEN, EARLY MAN tiers, with the designs shown in the urn from Revidge, only with the triangular motive on the upper tier. There was found in this instance also an 'ornament of limestone, 4 in. long, convex in front, and flat at the back,' with the ends punctured — apparently an armlet. But all these yield in point of interest and detail of discovery to that found on the moors at Bleasdale, in the same district of north Lanca- shire. There the late Mr. Jackson recently discovered and explored a group of prehistoric remains, placed in a striking position on a knoll of boulders in the middle of an amphi- theatre of moorland hills, about 650 yards due west from Higher Fair- snape Farm. Of these he has handed down an exact and careful record,1 which Professor Boyd Dawkins has supplemented with some illuminatory notes. In the construction of the circles which enclosed some cinerary urns, wood was found in this case to have supplied the place of stone. There were two circles, one enclosed by and touching the other towards the east. The diameter of the smaller was 75 ft., and of the larger circle twice that 1 Lane, and Ches. Ant. Sac. xviii. 1900, pp. 1 14-124.. FIG. z8. — URN FROM BLACKBURN. Plan of Sepulchral Remains. Horizontal Scale about 3 4 feet = I inch. oaken Principals and Secondaries of Outer Circle. Vertical Scale about 34 feet = J inch. FIG. 29.— PLAN AND SECTION OF TIMBER BURIAL CIRCLE, &c. AT BLEASDALE. From L. C. 243 A HISTORY OF LANCASHIRE figure, which, it is pointed out, is in its turn half the diameter of Stone- henge. The outer circle (see fig. 29) consisted of round logs of oak, placed closely side by side. The lower ends of some of them have been noticeably trimmed with a metal axe or adze ; a fact which serves as a useful criterion in assigning a date to the remains. The inner circle is more complex in structure. It is formed of an outer ring of earth, the ' vallum,' about 5 ft. wide and 9 in. high, composed of clay thrown out of the ditch on the inside, which latter is about 5 ft. deep. Inside this again was a low mound, formed also of clay out of the ditch, in which lay concealed a circle composed of eleven rounded oak logs, forming a circle 34 ft. in diameter. In the centre of this were found a group of urns, lying with wooden ashes, in a small rectangular hole. The urns contained calcined bones, and inside one of them was a third smaller vase ; these are shown by photograph on Plate VI. The pottery and the cuts upon the wooden parts are evidence which lead Professor Dawkins to conclude that ' this remarkable burial place falls into line with the large series of burial mounds of the Bronze Age which lie scattered, not only over the area of the British Isles, but over by far the greater portion of Europe.' In other places the material employed for the circles and fences is stone. Here, in place of stone, wood was employed. In this respect the Bleasdale burial place is unique.1 In the vicinity of Manchester also have been observed traces of interment by cremation, in the survival of cinerary urns, unaccompanied, however, by any deposit of metal or stone. At Redbank was found an urn ' of late British period ' in 1830. At Clifton, on the banks of the Irwell, some work- men in making a trench through gravel came upon part of a skull, with signs of cremation also. A small ' incense cup,' decorated in three tiers, was found on the spot. In 1873, in the grounds of Broughton Hall, in the course of excavation, a V-shaped trench was observed, 3 ft. wide, which descended 7 ft. below the surface. An urn was lying in the middle of the trench filled with mixed materials. It was of coarse clay of a reddish colour, hand made. Its height was 5 in. and 6 in. across its widest parts ; the pottery is i in. thick all over. The ornamentation is composed of lines lying diagonally, incised with a pointed stick. In the northernmost part of the county also, at Yealand, which is z| miles west of Carnforth, have been found traces of ' neolithic settlement,' and among them ' many barrows of earth and stone.' In one of them was recently found about * three or four quarts of human bones calcined,' and adjoining the urn a human skeleton and a large (? glass) bead of blue colour. 3- INTERMENTS IN LANCASHIRE OVER SANDS Passing north of the Sands a remarkable series of barrows and burial urns give evidence of the habitation of early man, for the most part, so far as can be judged, during the Bronze Age. In the nearer district of Cartmel, at Allithwaite, has been found a small earthen urn containing calcined bones in Yew Tree Field. In Cartmel itself, on the site of the new burial ground, an Lane, and Ches. Ant. Sar. xviii. 1900, p. 123. 244 WOODEN DUG-OUT CANOE, FROM P SMALL POTTF.RY VASE, FROM WADSWORTH MOOR. Scale, 2 : 3. (British Museum.) 4. INCENSE Cup, FROM CLIFTON, MANCHESTER. Scale, 2:3. (British Museum.) PLATE VI. — WOODEN CANOE AND POTTERY VESSELS OF BRONZE AGE FROM LANCASHIRE. To face page 244. EARLY MAN urn containing bones and ashes ; and in Aynsome Lane, an urn 14 in. high containing a quantity of half burnt bones and ashes. For the same geographical reason, probably, which results in a scarcity of all antiquities in the eastern portion of this district, where it abuts upon Westmorland, no burials are recorded between Cartmel and the head of Lake Windermere. At the latter place, in Hawkshead Hall Park, a little to the south-east of the mill-pond, was a cairn ; and a stone circle occurred east of Knipe Ground plantation, with more cairns a little more than half a mile south-south-west of this last. Interments seem to have been made in the first instance in a small square hole, which had been covered with a boulder. Amongst the burnt human remains was a small flint knife. West of Coniston Water at Torver (Bleaberry Hawes) is recorded a cairn 29 ft. in diameter, amongst others, with a burial cist and cremated interments, among the remains of which were found fragments of pottery and of worked flints. In the first case stones showing the action of fire were found all the way through, as well as small quantities of charcoal. From this place southward there is a continuous area of prehistoric interments. Just north of Knapperthaw, which is near to Lowick, are remains of a stone circle, which has been erected upon a stone ring platform or embankment. On the north-west side still remain five stones of small size, while the position of others is traceable. Probably the circle was about 90 ft. internal diameter. There was sign of an inner chamber on the north-west, and, to the south-west, of an entrance or gap in the ring, supposed to be ancient. Near Kirkby Ireleth, at Heathwaite, were two small barrows, close to two stone circles, called the ' Giants' Graves,' which on being excavated about two years ago were found to contain the bones of men covered by a flat stone. ' In one was a fragment of a stone ring about two inches in diameter.' At Ireleth Mill, also, were found eight urns without tumuli, arranged in a line north-east to south-west, each containing human bones. At Stainton, near Dalton, where some direct evidences of the Bronze Age have been found, there has been discovered also a large cinerary urn, with upper band, and ' rudely ornamented with diagonal lines forming a pattern.' A small bronze implement was found within. Another similar urn found at hand contained a smaller vessel, which is said to have held the calcined remains of a child. At Birkrigg Common, which is east of Dalton, on a part overlooking the village of Bardsea, was a circle about 10 ft. in diameter surrounded by ten unhewn stones, each about 3 ft. in height. It has long been called the Druids' Temple. This does not seem to have been explored. But on Kirkby Moor there has been found evidence of interments in association with stone circles and cairns. Further south, at Scales, near Aldingham, as long ago as 1803 there were found remains of cremated interments in an urn under a small cairn. Near to this spot was found also ' a tomb in which two persons had been interred, having a broad, flat limestone laid over it, upon two upright stones at the end.' At BayclifF, near to the same place, are recorded some sepulchral urns from near the Moat and Colt Park ; while in the southern limit of the peninsula, at Roose, has been found a burial by cremation, accompanied by vases of pottery deposited. The body seems to have been 245 A HISTORY OF LANCASHIRE burnt upon the site, then covered over by a pool or mere of earth, upon which ' two or three hundred cartloads of earth ' had been piled. The vases, with their punctured and incised chevron patterns, may have belonged to the Bronze Age ; but some features of the burial are apparently very early. 4. CLASSIFICATION OF LOCALITIES Bleasdale, Broughton Hall, Broughton (Manchester), Clifton, Cliviger, Darwen, Haulgh, Kenyon, Lancaster, Littleborough, Manchester (Red Bank), Revidge (Blackburn), Stonyhurst, Walmsley, Warton, Wavertree, Weeton, Winwick, Yealand. Over Sands : Aldingham,Allithwaite, Aynwine Lake, Rawcliffe, Birk- rigg, Cartmel, Ireleth Mill, Knapperthaw, Roose, Scales, Stainton, Torver. IV. IRON IMPLEMENTS AND REMAINS OF THE LATE CELTIC PERIOD It is hardly possible to see evidence in surviving remains of an Iron Age proper in Lancashire, intervening between the Bronze Age and the Roman occupation. Our record of iron implements of Celtic fabric is small indeed ; but to these must be added other implements or their attachments, recognized by their art as belonging to the Later Celtic phase of culture. There is nothing apparently which special criticism would date earlier than the first century B.C. ; but in the paucity of evidence the origins of this new phase of civili- zation remain obscure. The subject, however, is of special interest, and a reasonable inference may be made from the condition of the county as revealed when the first light of history dimly penetrates the darkness that hitherto has enfolded early man in all respects, except the general characters of his art in making weapons. If the account of Ptolemy is to be regarded as evidence, it seems clear that there was at least one settled and organized community in Lancashire at the time the observations were being made from which his notes were derived. Its name, Rigodunum, which is also essen- tially Celtic,1 suggests the headquarters of a considerable community. There is reason to believe it possible that the situation of this place was at or near to Lancaster ; 2 and it was precisely in that vicinity that such evidence of Late Celtic art as exists is mostly to be found. It must not be forgotten, also, that the best bronze implements, already described, come from the same region ; and that while they suggest at least an earlier Celtic settlement, there is no reason to suppose they are the tokens of a purely bronze-using popu- lation. Looking again at the map, and considering also the general principle involved in the slow movement of culture waves and of people, it must be conceded as probable that in our northern county, open as it is to the south, while shut off to the north and west by its hills and the sea, the successive ages merged completely, culturally and ethnologically. That, in a word, the development of a full Iron Age, as technically defined, by no means eradi- cated the blood and art even of the Neolithic Age, much less of the first Celtic people of the Bronze Age, which was nearer and more akin. 1 Rlx rigps, a king ; Dunon, a town or fortress. — Prof. Rhys. * Lane, and Ches. Ant. Soc. vol. Hi. ' On the Rigodunum of Ptolemy.' 246 EARLY MAN Our first example is an iron sword, with bronze hilt and sheath, from Warton, near Lancaster. The two portions, sword and sheath, have become adherent and worn by corrosion, but the annexed restoration, in fig. 30, is courteously supplied by the Ethnographical department of the British Museum, where the object is preserved. It is a simple type. The handle is distinguished by the circular ball enclosed in the triangular end, in which circles and lines are blended with the characteristic geo- metrical and symmetrical effect. The grasp is embellished by three nicked, rounded ridges which run around it, one at each end, and one in the middle, where the thickness is somewhat greater. Opposed pear-shaped ornaments com- plete the decoration of the hilt. The sheath is much worn ; but down the attachment, which is fixed by pins, may be recognized a fine rope pattern, lying vertically down the middle. The date of this interesting relic, if the product of normal develop- ment, should be the first century B.C. Another relic of late Celtic work is a dagger-sheath from Pilling Moss, south of Lancaster, now in the mu- seum at Salford. The figure, fig. 31, illustrates this object in every detail. The position of the attachment, and the binding rings, are of interest ; and the circular ornament of the tip is apparently unique in character. There seems to be no record of its discovery. It was found in Pilling Moss, near to Garstang. Its length is nf in. Its date might be as late as the first century. Some bronze fittings, enamelled, but without decoration, said to have been found at Walton-le-Dale, and now in the museum at Preston, may be assigned to Celtic workmanship. Passing from the implements of war, the most striking object is a bronze-beaded torque, or necklet, found near Handle Hill, at Mow Road, near Rochdale, where it now remains in possession of the lord of the manor. It is figured in fig. 3 a.1 A workman found it beneath a flagstone at the root of an oak tree. Technically this object belongs to FIG. 31.— LATE CELTIC the class of beaded torques :— ' Rather more than one DAGGER-SHEATH FROM P,L- i_ ir i_ 11 • i /- i i , r »-INC Moss. (Salford half the collar is composed of bronze beads of two Museum.) i : 3. 1 Taken from Fishwick, op. cit., by courtesy of the author. 247 Fie. 30. — SWORD AND SHEATH FROM WARTON. (BRITISH MUSEUM.) Scale, i : 4. A HISTORY OF LANCASHIRE different shapes (one convex and the other concave) strung alternately on a piece of iron of square cross section, so as to prevent the beads from revolving. The remaining segment consists of a bronze tube of rectangular cross section ornamented with the Late Celtic design.' l The two halves of this necklet are dowelled together with iron pins, fixing an iron tooth at each end which fits into an appropriate socket in the other half. It weighs about 5 oz. and is about 4 in. in diameter. It is a splendid specimen. A torque of three beads, the ma- terial bronze and of Late Celtic fabric, was exhibited by the Lancashire and Cheshire Historic Society in their collection now placed in the Liverpool Museum. Unfortunately much local archaeology is lost together with the descriptive papers of the Society.2 From Liverpool also comes a bronze coin of British workmanship. The description 8 is as follows : — Obi}. Two boars back to back ; beneath each an amulet ; in the centre behind them a wheel with a line carried on between their backs. Rev. A horse to the right above, and below uncertain objects. The cha- racter of the coin is allied to those which may be assigned to the Icenian district. Naturally the list of the Late Celtic remains is longer than is here represented. But the history of Late Celtic art in the county is interwoven with the Roman occupation, and later also the Anglo-Saxon period ; hence the description of further remains of these dates, though Celtic in original motive, may be sought in the special sections dealing with those periods. FIG. 32. — BRONZE BEADED TORQUE FROM Mow ROAD (ROCHDALE). Scale, I : 2. V. CANOES There remains an interesting series of wooden canoes or boats, among other miscellaneous remains, which cannot be ascribed in the present state of know- ledge to any particular place in the history of Early Man. There is little or nothing in these objects intrinsically whereby to date them : some of them may indeed have been fashioned after the com- ing of the Anglo-Saxons ; hence evidence derived from the circumstances of the dis- FIG. 33. — WOODEN DUG-OUT CANOE FROM BARTON-UPON-!RWELL. (Manchester Museum, Owens College. I : 96.) l Romilly Allen, Celtic Art, p. 1 1 1, w. photo to face p. no. » Hist. Sac. Lane, and Chei. xxxi. 1 1 7, pi. xii. 8 Sir John Evans, Ancient British Coins, p. 1 20, with fig. 248 FIG. 34. — WOODEN DUG-OUT CANOE FOUND AT IRLAM. (Salford Museum.) i : 108. EARLY MAN covery becomes of special importance. It is known that dug-out canoes were used as late as the sixteenth century for special purposes. They have been found in various places, generally at considerable depths below the ground. That found at Barton-upon-Irwell (Man- chester Museum) was excavated at a depth of 27 ft. ; that from Irlam (Salford Museum) about the same; those from Martin Mere were found 'in the peat' (one from Crossens is at Cam- bridge Hall, Southport) ; two from Preston (in the Harris Museum) at about 14 ft. ; while two were found near Warrington (in the public museum of that place) at about 1 8 ft. below the surface. These depths alone, whether caused by accumu- lation, or less often by the object itself settling in marshy ground, indicate in each case a proportionate antiquity. The canoe at Barton-upon-Irwell lay about 400 yds. from the present bank of the river at a depth of 27 ft. It is 13 ft. 8 in. in length, with a breadth of 2 ft. 7 in. fore and 2 ft. 2 in. aft. It has suffered considerable damage, but its form may be gleaned from the accompanying diagram, fig- 33- There is a hollowed log or small trough, sometimes thought to be a dug- out canoe, from the same site, also in the Manchester Museum. It was found in 1889 in the Traffbrd Hall cutting of the Manchester Ship Canal, about six or seven hundred yards east of Barton Bridge. It is presumably modern. The canoe from Irlam, fig. 34, now in the Salford Museum, is some- what similar in general character. The stem is more curved : .the bow does not project as a nose like the former example, and it has been pierced at some, time for a painter. Its greatest length is 9 ft. 6 in., width 2 ft. 4 in., and depth 1 1 in. It was found in cutting the Manchester Ship Canal, 25 ft. from the surface. Eight canoes were recorded by Leigh 1 to have been found in the peat of Martin Mere. One from this vicinity is in the Cambridge Hall at South- port. It is longer than those previously described, measuring 1 6 J ft. over all, with a greatest width of 3jft. and depth of i ft. It differs also in form (see fig. 35), tapering regu- larly towards one end. Both ends are narrowed, and the bottom is round. It seems to have been patched at some time with pieces of lead, and it has been suggested that the monks of Burscough, whose house stood on the lake, may have used FIG. 35.— DUG-OUT FOUND AT CROSSENS. (Cambridge Hall, Southport.) I : 216. 1 Leigh, op. cit. bk. I, pp. 17, 1 8 1. I 249 A HISTORY OF LANCASHIRE and repaired it. It was dredged up near Crossens : there is no evidence in this case of great antiquity. The two canoes from Preston are of greater interest, not only because they differ somewhat in construction from those previously described, but also because the circumstances of their discovery are known and have been carefully recorded. In a considerable excavation made for the construction of the Kibble Docks at Preston, various objects of antiquity were come upon at levels which varied from 10 to 20 ft. below the surface, including a bronze leaf- shaped spear-head, shown in fig. 22, and animal remains of the urus or wild ox. Associated with these were a series of human skulls, described in a later section, p. 256, which, though too few in numbers to war- rant any general conclusion, suggest by their range of indices that mixing of races which, as the evidence of art also shows, took place at the uprising of the Bronze Age with the incoming of a Celtic element among the population. The great antiquity of this stratum is well substantiated, and is of importance in considering the date of unknown types. The first of these canoes lay, when found, on a bed of gravel 14 ft. below the surface, at a distance of 130 ft. from the present river bank. It is 8ft. 9 in. long, 2ft. 6 in. across in extreme width, and has a greatest depth of i ft. Its stern was closed by a stern-board inserted in a groove, cut in the sides and bottom. The prow projects 10 in. forward of the dug-out portion. The stern is hollowed from the root of the tree-stem. The second of the Preston canoes (see Plate VI.— i.) is smaller and less elaborate. Its length over all is 7 ft. 8j in., with greatest width 2 ft. 8 in., and width at the stern 2 ft. 2 in. Its depth is i ft. 2i in., while the bottom remains i J in. thick in the middle and 4* in. thick at the stern. In the bow is an irregularly-shaped hole. There are traces of clean cutting produced by sharp metallic tools. It was found at a depth of 13 ft., about a quarter of a mile east of Penwortham Church. Hitherto there has been found no criterion for assigning a date to such dug-out canoes from intrinsic evidence. The mere fact of simplicity of construction must not be taken alone as a sign of great antiquity. Movable stern-boards, also, are found alike in association with lake dwellings of the Bronze Age,1 and in a deposit of Late Celtic times at Buxton.* The only satisfactory dating of these canoes must be separately done from the special associations of each example. The Preston canoes seem to be as early as the Bronze Age, and the oldest in the county ; while that from Crossens may not be as old as Norman times. There remain two canoes,8 found near Warrington in the Arpley Fields, each found about 20 to 25 yards northward from the former bank of the Mersey at that place before the cutting of the Ship Canal, and at a depth of about 18 ft. below the surface of the ground. One canoe is ribbed in two places and of considerable elaboration. It is furnished with a seat in the broader end, and several pegs are fitted regularly around the gunwale. Each one is rounded, and several plug holes are provided 1 Proe. SK. Antiq. Scot. xi. 21. » Ibid. 206. 8 Admirably described and illustrated, Hist. Soc. Lane, and Ches. N.S. x. 97, Madeley on 'Two Ancient Boats found near Warrington.' 250 EARLY MAN centrally. The whole length is 12 ft. 4 in., width 2ft. 10 in., and depth 1 2 to 1 5 in. The other canoe is smaller and less elaborated, with a length of i oft. 8 in., breadth about 2ft. 6 in. towards the prow and i ft. 10 in. nearer the stern. The prow is beaked while the stern is rounded. There is again a suggestion of peg holes, but the canoe is very poorly preserved. The evidence of association takes these canoes back to considerable antiquity, certainly before the urus became extinct in the locality. TOPOGRAPHICAL AND BIBLIOGRAPHICAL LIST OF PREHISTORIC ANTIQUITIES FOUND IN LANCASHIRE The complete bibliography on the subject of Early Man in Lancashire may be found in The Archaeological Survey of Lancashire, edited by W. Harrison, Esq. and issued under the auspices of the Society of Antiquaries, which constitutes the essential preliminary index to the antiquities of the county. Recent finds and researches made since 1896 have augmented this list, and are incorporated below. Much information not separately acknowledged has naturally been derived from correspon- dence with archaeologists in the county and from personal inspection of the various museums and numerous private collections. AINSWORTH, COCKEY MOOR. — Bronze looped palstave [Lane, and Ches.Antiq. Soc. Trans, x. 249], p. 231. fig. 14. ANGLEZARKE. — Stone circle [Ibid. x. 249], p. 242. ASHTON-UNDER-LYNE, Museum. — Perforated round stone hammer or mace-head, p. 227. ASHWORTH MOOR, near Rochdale. — Bronze palstave [at Heywood Waterworks], p. 232, fig. 1 6. BARNACRE, near Garstang. — Stone axe-hammer [Ibid. xii. 135], p. 222. BARTON-ON-!RWELL. — Dug-out wooden canoe [Mane. Lit. and Phil. Soc. Trans, xxxii. 243 ; Manchester Mus.; Owens College], p. 249, fig. 33. Hollowed log [Lane, and Ches. Antlq. Soc. Trans, x. 249 ; Manchester Mus.], p. 249. BESOM HILL, near Oldham. — Flint chippings, etc. [Ibid. x. 251] p. 215. BICKERSHAW HALL, near Wigan. — 3 celts [Lane. C. iv. 308]. BLACKBURN, Revidge. — Tumulus, urn, interment, bone pin, bronze pinhead [Lane. Local Gleanings, iii. 382 ; Law. and Ches. Antlq. See. Trans, v. 272, Plate 4 ; Blackburn Mus.], p. 242, fig. 28. BLACKPOOL. — Stone polished celt [Weld MSS. ; Lane, and Ches. Antlq. Soe. Trans, vi. 1 80] p. 218. Stone axe-hammer [Weld MSS.], p. 224. BLACKROD, near Wigan. — Axe- hammer of stone [Lane, and Ches. Antlq. Soe. Trans, xvi. 158 ; Bolton Mus.], p. 224. BLACKSTONE EDGE. — Neolithic flints, arrow-heads, etc. [Fishwick, op. cit. 3, 4 ; Rochd. Lit. and Phil. Soc.], pp. 215, 216. BLEASDALE, near Garstang. — Flint implement [Lane, and Ches. Antlq. Soc. Trans, x. 249] ; tumulus, timber circles, urns, interments [Ibid. xvii. 254-280], p. 243, fig. 29, Plate VI. BOLTON. — Roundish perforated hammer [Bolton Mus]. Neolithic chippings, flint implement, etc. [Ibid. v. 329 ; x. 249], p. 226, fig. II. BOWLAND.— Perforated stone axe [Weld MSS. ; Lane, and Ches. Antlq. Soe. Trans, iv.], p. 221. Perforated round stone hammer [Weld MSS.], p. 226. BRANDWOOD MOOR, near Rochdale. — Neolithic chippings, etc. [Fishwick, op. cit. 314], p. 215. BROUGHTON. — Mound, urn, interment [Lane, and Ches. Antlq. Soe. Trans, v. 296 ; Salford Mus.], p. 244. BROUGHTON (LOWER), Manchester. — Neolithic chippings, flint implement, etc. [Ibid. v. 330 ; x. 250], p. 215. EDGE. — Flint chippings, etc. [Ibid. vi. 139]. WARDLE HILL, near Rochdale. — I BROWN WARDLE HILL, near Rochdale. — Neolithic chippings, etc. [Fishwick, op. cit. 3, 4], p. 215. Flint knife [MSS. of W. Baldwin]. BULL HILL, near Bury. — Neolithic chippings [Lane, and Ches. Antlq. Soe. Trans, iv. 304. Arrow-head and flakes [Ibid. iv. 305-6 ; v. 328-9], pp. 215, 216. BURNLEY, Cant Clough. — Bronze palstave [Information of J. Allen, Esq.], p. 232. CASTLESHAW.— Two stone celts. [Mr. W. Andrew.] See also Royton Park and Milnrow. CHARTERS Moss. — See Turton. CHEETHAM, Manchester. — Neolithic chippings, etc. [Ibid. x. 251], p. 215. CHEETWOOD, Manchester. — Perforated stone adze [Manchester Mus.], p. 220, fig. 5. CHIPPING, near Preston. — Stone axe-hammer ; small worked flint [Preston Mus.], pp. 215, 224. CHORLTON CUM HARDY, Manchester. — Stone celt [Ibid. x. 250], p, 218. CHORLTON UPON MEDLOCK, Manchester. — Neolithic chippings, etc. [Ibid. v. 328], p. 215. CLAUGHTON HALL. — Perforated stone axe [Weld MSS.], p. 221 ; tumulus, small polished axe-hammer of stone [Evans, Stone Imp. p. 188 ; Arch. Journ. vi. 74], p. 225, Plate II.-6. 251 A HISTORY OF LANCASHIRE CLIFTON, Manchester. — Urn, ashes [Arch, ix. 191 ; xliii. 362], p. 244. CLITHEROK. — Neolithic chippings, etc. [Lane, and Ches. Antiq. Sac. Trans, v. 331], p. 215 ; stone hammer and two axe-hammers (?) [Mane. Geol. Soc], p. 226 ; bronze celts, looped [Hist. Soc. of Lane, and Ches. iii. p. 26, pi. I.]. CLIVIGER. — Tumuli, stone circles, urns, interments, small flint implements [Lane, and Cbes. Antiq. Soc. Trans. xi. 156 ; Burnley Lit. and Phil. Soc.], 218. COLNE. — Bronze dagger [Information of Mr. W. Farrer], p. 234, fig. 21. Cow HEYS, near Rochdale. — Neolithic chippings, etc. [Fishwick, op. cit. 3, 4], p. zij. CROSSENS (Martin Mere). — Wooden dug-out canoe [Lane, and Cbes. Antiq. Soc. Trans, xvii. 264 ; Southport, Cambridge Hall], p. 249, fig. 35. CROW KNOLL, near Oldham. — Neolithic chippings [Fishwick, op. cit. 3, 4]. CUERDALE.— See Walton-le-Dale. CULVERT CLOUGH, near Rochdale. — Neolithic chippings [Ibid. 3, 4], p. 2 1 5 ; leaf-shaped arrow-head \Rochd. Lit. and Phil. Soc.], p. 215. DARWEN, OVER. — Tumulus, urns, bronze dagger [Alrum, Hist, of Blackburn, 23 ; Liverpool Mus.], pp. 234, 242, figs. 26, 27. DEAN, near Bolton. — Stone axe-hammer [Evans, Stone Imp. 128 ; Journ. Brit. Arch. Asm. xv. 232 ; Warring- ton Mus.], p. 224, Plate II.-4. DROYLESDEN. — Stone celt [Higson, Droylesden, 29, 30] ; [rhafted bronze axe, Ibid.], p. 218. EGBERT DEAN. — See Sharpies. FLIXTON. — Large stone celt [Evans, Stone Imp. 107 ; Arch Journ. vii. 389 ; Blackmore Mus.], p. 217. • FLOWER SCAR HILL, near Rochdale. — Neolithic chippings [Fishwick, op. cit. 3, 4], p. 215. FOXTON EDGE, near Rochdale. — Neolithic chippings, barbed arrow-head of flint [Ibid, 3, 4], p. 215, 216. GARSTANG. — See Barnacre, Claughton, Pilling, Winmarleigh. GOLDSHAW BOOTH, Pendle. — Perforated stone hammer [Baines, Lane. iii. 234]. GOOSNARGH, near Preston. — Rounded stone hammer, perforated, pp. 220, 226, fig. 12. GREAT WINNING GULF. — Flint chippings, arrowhead, etc. [Lane, and Cbes. Antiq. Soc. Trans, v. 328], p. 215. HADES HILL, near Rochdale. — Neolithic chippings, etc. [Fishwick, op. cit. 3, 4], p. 215. Barrow, urn, tumulus, and flint objects [Rocbd. Lit. and Phil. Soc. vii. 56-63], p. 238. Arrow-head, barbed, from near the barrow. HAMELDON HILL, BLACK (Worsthorne). — Barrow [Burnley Lit. and Phil. Soc], p. 239. HAULGH, near Bolton.— Barrow, stone chamber, urn, interment, bronze knife [Hist. Soc. of Lane, and Ches. iv. 130], pp. 234, 241. HAYDOCK. — Round hammer or spindle-whorl [Journ. Brit. Arch. Assoc. xv. 233 ; Evans, Stone Imp. 206 ; Warrington Mus.], p. 227, Plate II.— 7. HEATON CHAPEL. — Stone perforated hammer [Baines, Lane. iv. 484 ; Manchester Mus.], p. 223, fig. 9. HELPET EDGE, Rochdale. — Neolithic chippings, etc. [Fishwick, op. cit. 3, 4], p. 215. HIGH HODDER BRIDGE, near Clitheroe. — Stone hammer (?) [Blackburn Mus.]. HOLLINGWORTH LAKE, near Rochdale. — Flint chippings and worked stones [Rochdale Mus.], p. 216. Rounded perforated hammer [Rochdale Mus.], p. 227. HOPWOOD. — Stone axe-hammer (?) [Journ. Brit. Arch. Assoc. xv. 232 ; Evans, Stone Imp. 178], p. 226. HUNGER HILL, near Rochdale. — Neolithic chippings, arrow-head [Fishwick, op. cit. 3, 4], p. 215. IRLAM. — Rounded perforated hammer of stone [Lane, and Ches. Antiq. Soc. Trans, x. 250 ; Warrington Mus.], p. 227, Plate II.-8. Bronze looped spear-head [Ibid. x. 250 ; Warrington Mus.], p. 236, fig. 23. Wooden dug-out canoe [Ibid. x. 250 ; Salford Mus.], p. 249, fig. 34. KENYON. — Tumulus, urn, bronze pin [Ibid. x. 250 ; Warrington Mus.]. Bronze Age barrow, urns, interments, [Ibid, xxi.], p. 240, fig. 25. KERSAL MOOR. — Neolithic chippings, etc. [Salford Mus. ; Ibid. v. 238, x. 250, xii. 118], p. 215. KNOLL HILL, near Rochdale. — Neolithic chippings, etc., arrow-head [Ibid. xxi. v. 328], pp. 214, 216. LANCASTER. — Perforated stone axe-hammer [Weld MSS.], p. 225, fig. 10. Perforated stone axe [Weld MSS.], p. 222. Stone celts [Watkin, Roman Lane. 164-5]. Armlet of stone [Evans, Stone Imp. 427 (2nd ed.)]. Urns, interments [Journ. Brit. Arch. Assoc. xxxiii. 125 ; Antiquary, May 1901], p. 242. LANCASTER (near, in bed of the River Lune). — Axe-hammer of stone [Chadwick Mus. Bolton], p. 222, fig. 8. LEAGRAM.— Two stone celts [Weld MSS.], p. 217, fig. 2. LEES (Thornley), near Oldham.— Bronze spear-head, broken [Lane, and Cbes. Antiq. Soc. Tram. xix. 240]. LEIGH. — Bronze looped spear-head [Mane. Lit. and Phil. Soc. v. 531], p. 236. LITTLEBORO'.— Tumulus, urn, interment, flint implement [Rochdale Mus.], pp. 218, 239. LIVERPOOL. — Stone axe, grooved [Evans, Stone Imp. 151 ; Hist. Soc. Lane, and Ches. xx. 15], p. 218. Stone implements [Evans, Stone Imp. 87 ; Hist. Soc. Lane, and Ches. xix. 168]. British coins [Evans, Coins, 1 20], p. 248. LONGDEN END MOOR, near Rochdale. — Neolithic chippings [Fishwick, op. cit. 3, 4], p. 215. LONGRIDGE, near Preston. — Perforated axe-hammer [Lane, and Cbes. Antiq. Soc. Trans, v. 329 ; Preston Mus.], P. 223. Stone implement (rough celt), p. 219. Barbed arrow-head [Weld MSS.], pp. 215, 216. LOWER MOOR, near Todmorden. — Neolithic chippings [Fishwick, op. cit. 3, 4], p. 215. 252 EARLY MAN MANCHESTER. — See Cheetham, Cheetwood, Chorlton-cum-Hardy, Chorlton upon Medlock, Clifton, Heaton, Lower Broughton, Kersal, Moss Side, Salfbrd, Withington. MANCHESTER, Alexandra Park.— Two round perforated stone hammers [Queen's Park Mus.], p. 227, Plate II.-8. Corporation Street. — Stone adze-hammer [Queen's Park Mus.], p. 219, fig. 4. Greenheys. — Stone adze-hammer [Manchester Mus.], p. 219, fig. 3. Red Bank.— Neolithic chippings, etc. [Lane, and Ches. Antiq. Sac. Tram. iii. 254] ; arrow-head [Man- chester Mus.] ; urn [Ibid. v. 295], p. 244. Queen's Park. — Perforated stone axe [Queen's Park Mus.], p. 221, fig. 6. MARTIN MERE.— Stone hatchet, (?) eight wooden canoes [Leigh, op. cit. i. 17, 181], p. 249. Two bronze palstaves [Lanes, and Ches. Antiq. Sue. Trans, xxi.], p. 231, fig. 15. Canoe found at Crossens [Southport, Cambridge Hall], p. 249, fig. 35. MARTON (Fylde). — Stone celt, looped bronze celt or palstave [Thornber, Blackpool, 8, 328], p. 234. MELLOR, near Blackburn. — Stone axe-hammer, small worked flint [Blackburn Mus.], pp. 2 1 5, 223, Plate III.— 2. MIDDLE HILL, near Rochdale. — Neolithic chippings, arrow-head [Lane, and Ches. Antiq. Sue. Trans, v. 328]. MIDDLETON. — See Winwick. MILNROW, Rochdale. — Stone axe-hammer [Ibid, xviii. 1 86 ; Rochdale Mus.], p. 223. Stone celt [private information], p. 218. MODE WHEEL.— Perforated stone axe [Ibid. x. 251 ; Salford Mus.], p. 220, Plate III.-I. MORECAMBE. — Flint celt [Weld MSS.], p. 218. Moss SIDE, near Manchester. — Neolithic chippings [Lane, and Cbes. Antiq. Soc. Trans, x. 251], p. 215. Portion of bronze collar. Mow ROAD, near Rochdale. — Bronze torque, with iron pins [Arch. xxv. J95]> p. 247, fig. 32. NEWTON-LE-WILLOWS. — Stone celt [Journ. Brit. Arch. Assoc. xv. 231-2 ; Evans, Stone Imp. 107 ; Warrington Mus.], p. 217, Plate II.-3. OAKENROD. — Perforated stone axe [Fishwick, op. cit. 13], p. 2ZI. OCDEN CLOUGH, Pendle Forest, near Burnley. — Perforated stone axe-hammer, p. 224 [Information of J. Allen, Esq.] OLDHAM.— See Besom Hill, Crow Knoll, Piethorne. ORFORD, near Warrington. — Stone-celt [Journ. Brit. Arch. Assoc. xv. 231; Warrington Mus.], p. 218, Plate II.— I. PENDLE. — See Goldshaw Booth, Ogden Clough, Windy Harbour, Wiswell. PIETHORNE, near Oldham. — Bronze spear-head [Lane, and Ckes. Antiq. Soc. Trans, xix. 271 ; Oldham Mus.], p. 236, fig. 24. PILLING, near Garstang. — Stone celt [Ibid. v. 328], p. 218. Bronze celt [Ibid. xix. 248]. Bronze dagger -sheath [Hist. Soc. Lane, and Ches. iv. 105 ; Lane, and Ches. Antij.Soc. Trans, xiii. 134 ; Salford Mus.], p. 247, fig. 31. PRESTON. — Stone celt, p. 219. Bronze spear-head [Ibid. v. 343 ; Preston Mus.], p. 235, fig. 22. Two wooden dug-out canoes [Ibid. v. 344; Preston Mus.], p. 250, Plate VI.— I. Skulls, pp. 250, 256. Ribble, near. — Portion of stone adze [Ibid. v. 329; Preston Mus.], p. 220. QUERNMORE, near Lancaster.— Stone hammer-head (?) [Baines, Lane. iv. 484], p. 226. RADCLIFFE, near Manchester. — Neolithic chippings and worked flints ; arrow-heads [Lane, and Ches. Antiq. Soc. Trans, v. 328], p. 215. RAMSDEN, near Todmorden.— Neolithic chippings [Fishwick, op. cit. 3, 4], p. 215. READ. — Bronze celt [Lane, and Ches. Ant'tq. Soe. Trans, xiii. 127 ; Evans, Bronze Imp. 47], p. 229, fig. 13. READYCON DEAN, near Rochdale. — Neolithic chippings [Fishwick, op. cit. 3, 4], p. 215. REVIDGE, see Blackburn. RIBBLE, River.— Five bronze celts and spear-head [Mane. Lit. and Phil. Soc. v. 527, 534], p. 233, 236. RISLEY, near Warrington. — Flat bronze celt [Proc. Soc. Antiq. (Ser. 2) v. 423 ; Evans, Bronze Imp. 46 ; Warrington Mus.], p. 229. RIXTON, near Warrington.— Flat bronze celt [Arch. Journ. xviii. 154; Evans, Bronze Imp. 46 ; Warrington Mus.], p. 230, Plate IV.-i. ROBIN HOOD'S BED, Blackstone Edge. — Neolithic chippings [Fishwick, op. cit. 3, 4], p. 215. ROCHDALE.— See Ashworth Moor, Brown Wardle Hill, Brandwood Moor, Culvert Clough, Cow Keys, Foxton Edge, Flower Scar Hill, Great Winning Gulf, Hunger Hill, Helpet Edge, Hades Hill, Knoll Hill, Longden End Moor, Middle Hill, Rushy Hill, Rough Hill, Readycon Dean, Robin Hood's Bed, Turnshaw Hill, Trough Edge, Well i' th' Lane, Wardle Moor, Tooter Hill, p. 215. ROYTON. — Stone celt [Lane, and Ches. Antiq. Soe. Trans, viii. 1 80], p. 218. ROUGH HILL, near Rochdale. — Neolithic chippings [Fishwick, op. cit. 3, 4], p. 213. RUSHY HILL, near Rochdale. — Neolithic chippings [Ibid. 3, 4], p. 215. SADDLEWORTH (on the Yorkshire border). —Stone celt. SALFORD.— See Broughton, Mode Wheel. Neolithic chippings [Lane, and Ches. Antiq. Soc. Trans, v. 329]. SALWICK. — Stone celt [Leigh, Bk. i. 181], p. 218. SHARPLES, Egbert Dean. — Bronze palstave [Hist. Soe. Lane, and Ches. iv. 131], p. 232. SILVERDALE.— Roundish perforated hammer [Bolton and Leicester Museums ; Lane, and Ches. Antiq. Soc. Trans. v. 329 ; Evans, Stone Imp. 320], p. 226. Stone axe-hammer, broken [Journ. Brit. Arch. Assoc. xxix. 304-5 ; Bolton Mus.], p. 224. SOUTHWORTH (Croft) near Warrington.— Bronze palstave [Warrington Mus.], p. 200, Plate IV.-2. 253 A HISTORY OF LANCASHIRE SNODDLE HILL. — Circle of stones : cist ; flint objects ; circular ornament perforated [MSS. of W. Baldwin, Esq. ; Manchester Museum]. STALYBRIDGE (Cheshire border). — Perforated round stone hammers [Salford Mus.]. ST. HELENS.— Stone axe-hammer [St. Helens Mus.], p. 225, Plate III.-j. STONYHURST. — Tumulus, urns, interments, flint implement [Lane, and Ches. Antlq. Sue. Trans, xii. 30 ; xiii. 27], pp. 218, 239. STRETTON, Warrington. — Fragment of urns [Hist. Soc. Lane, and Ches. i.-ii. 33], p. 240. TATHAM.— Stone axe-hammer [Lane, and Ches. Ant'tq. Sac. Trans, v. 329 ; Salford Mus.], p. 223, Plate III.-3. THROSTLE'S NEST, Manchester. — Stone hammer [Salford Mus.], p. 225. TODMORDEN. — See Lower Moor, Ramsden, etc. Neolithic chippings [Ibid. x. 252], p. 215. TOOTER HILL. — Neolithic chippings, arrowheads [Ibid. iv. 305], p. 215. TOXTETH PARK, Liverpool. — See Wavertree. TROUGH EDGE, Rochdale. — Neolithic chippings, arrowhead, etc. [Fishwick, op. cit. 3, 4], p. 215. TURNSHAW HILL. — Neolithic chippings, etc. [Ibid. 3, 4], p. 215. TURTON, Charters Moss. — Stone axe-hammer (?), bronze palstave [Journ. Brit. Arch. Assoc. xxvii. 526; Lane, and Ches. Antlq. Soc. Trans, xii. 48], pp. 226, 231, Plate IV.-3. Chetham's Close. — Stone circles [Hist. Soc. Lane, and Ches. iv. 131-2; Lane, and Ches. Antlq. Soc. Trans, xi. 1 5 5, xii. 42]. WALMSLEY, near Bolton.— Tumulus, urn, interment, stone celt, flint [Hist. Soc. Lane, and Ches. iv. 1 3 1], p. 2 1 8. WALSDEN MOOR. — Arrowhead, p. 216. WALTON-LE-DALE (Cuerdale, near Preston). — Bronze socketed celt [Evans, Bronze Imp. 119; Journ. Brit. Arch. Assoc. viii. 332], p. 233, Plate IV.-6. Bronze spear-head [Evans, Bronze Imp. 314; Lane, and Ches. Antlq. Soc. Trans, xiii. 130, 155]. Bronze trappings [Preston Mus.], p. 247. WARDLE, near Rochdale. — Neolithic chippings, etc. [Fishwick, op. cit. 3, 4], p. 215. Stone celt [Ibid.], p. 218. WARRINGTON. — Wooden dug-out canoes [Warrington Mus.], p. 250. See also Kenyon, Orford, Risley, Rixton, Stretton, Southworth, Winwick. WARTON. — Tumuli, urns, interments [Arch. ix. 211, 217]. Iron sword with bronze handle [B.M.], p. 247, fig. 30. WAVERTREE. — Remains of tumuli, urns [Arch, xliii. 347], p. 239. Calderstones, disturbed dolmen or chamber of tumulus [Herdman, The Calderstones~\, p. 240. Flint arrow-head and flake, stone celt [Evans, Stone Imp. 347 ; Liverpool Mus.], pp. 216, 218. WEETON. — Tumulus, urns. Stone celt [Lane, and Ches. Antlq. Soc. Trans, v. 328], p. 218. Bronze palstave [Fishwick, Kirkham, 5], p. 232. WECBER, near Carnforth. — Stone hammer, bronze celts and spear-heads [Lane, and Ches. Antlq. Soc. Trans. ii. 116; v. 327], p. 234. WELL i" TH' LANE, near Rochdale. — Neolithic chippings, etc. [Fishwick, Rochdale, 3, 4], p. 215. WILPSHIRE, near Blackburn. — Perforated stone axe [Weld MSS.], p. 222, fig. 7. ~ 3ne celt [Evans, Stone Imp. 1 06; Hora WINMARLEIGH. — Five bronze celts and two spearheads [Arch. Journ. xviii. 158], p. 236, Plate V.-I-7, WINDY HARBOUR, Pendle.— Stone celt [Evans, Stone Imp. 106 ; Horae Ferales, ii. 7, B.M.], p. 217, fig. I. figs. 18-20. Three bronze celts and dagger [Journ. Brit. Arch. Assoc. xv. 234], p. 235, Plate V.-8-II, fig. 17. Bronze tubes [Warrington Mus. ; Evans, Bronze Imp. 1 1 8, 314, 335, 466]. WINWICK. — Tumuli, urns, stone axe-hammer and bronze dagger ; palstave and ring ; bronze socketed celt [Warrington Mus., Journ. Brit. Arch. Assoc. xiv. 269 ; xv. 236 ; xvi. 295 ; Arch. Journ. xviii. 158 ; Evans, Bronze Imp. n 8, 314, 335, 466 ; Hist. Soc. Lane, and Ches. xii. 190], p. 225, Plate II.-5 ; p. 231, Plate IV.-4 ; p. 234, Plate IV.-6 ; p. 235, Plate IV.-7 ; p. 240. WISWELL, near Pendle. — Stone celt [Blackburn Mus.], p. 217. WITHINGTON, near Manchester. — Axe-hammer of stone [Lane, and Ches. Antlq. Soc. Trans, x. 251]. WORSTHORNE. — Neolithic chippings, tumuli, urns, ring mounds, etc. [Booth, Grave Mounds, Burnley Lit. and Phil. Soc.], pp. 215, 239. YEALAND. — Urn, interment [Arch. vii. 414], p. 244. LANCASHIRE NORTH OF THE SANDS ALDINGHAM. — Urns [West, Antlq. ofFurness, 389], p. 245. ALLITHWAITE. — Urns, interments [Watkin, Roman Lane. 215 ; Baines, Lane. iv. 718], p. 244. AYESIDE. — Stone implements [Evans, Stone Imp. 178], p. 227. AYNSOME (Cartmel). — Urn, interment [Stockdale, Ann. ofCartmel, 251], p. 245. BARROW-IN-FURNESS. — Stone axe-hammer [Lane, and Ches. Antlq. Soc. Trans, v. 328; Cumb. and Westmld. Antlq. Soc. Trans, xiv. 442], p. 228. Perforated pebble [Barrow Nat. Field Club, xv. 1 1 7]. BAYCLIFFE (Aldingham). — Interments [Jopling, Fumess and Cartmel, 96], p. 245. BIRKRIGG COMMON. — Stone circle [Arch. xxxi. 450], p. 245. BROUGHTON-IN-FURNESS. — Stone implement, flint flakes, and arrowheads [Baines, op. cit. iv. 641 ; Lane, and Ches. Antlq. Soc. Trans, v. 328], p. 216 CARK-IN-CARTMEL. — Perforated stone hammer [Cumb. and Westmld. Anfiq. Soc. Trans, ix. 203], p. 228. 254 EARLY MAN CARTMEL, Winder Moor.— Urn, interment, stone celt, stone implements, bronze implements [Stockdale, op. cit. 250, 255 ; Baines, op. cit. iv. 712], pp. 219, 237, 245. CONISHEAD. — Stone celt (curious) [B.M.]. CONISTON LAKE.— Stone implements [Cumb. and Westmld. Antlq. Sue. Trans, ix. 203-4], p. 228. DALTON IN FURNESS.— Bronze spear-head [Lane, and Ches. Antlq. Soc. Trans, xiii. 139]. Weapons [West, op. cit. 345 ; Sword, Cumb. and Westmld. Antlq. Soc. Trans, xv. 165]. Stone celt [Barrow N. F. Club, xv. 117]. DENDRON.— Stone implements [Cumb. and Westmld. Antlq. Soc. Trans, ix. 504]. Two flint implements. FLOOKBURGH.— Stone implements [Stockdale, op. cit. 250] ; bronze palstaves [Cumb. and Westmld. Antlq. Soc. Trans, viii. 265], p. 237. FURNESS ABBEY.— Stone celt [Ibid. xv. 168], p. 219. FURNESS.— Stone implement [Arch. xxxi. 452] ; bronze celt and armlet [Lane, and Cbes. Antlq. Soc. Trans. Z521. P- 237- GLEASTON CASTLE. — Stone implement [LonsJale Mag. iii. 383] ; bronze celt [Arch. v. 106], p. 237. GRANGE-OVER-SANDS. — Stone implement, flint implements [Lane, and Ches. Antlq. Sac. Trans, x. 250], p. 216. HARBARROW, near Dalton. — Stone hammer [Ibid. xii. 146 ; Warrington Mus.], p. 228. HAWKSHEAD. — Tumulus, urn, interment, flint implement [Cumb. and Westmld. Antlq. Soc. Trans, iii. 254]. Stone implement, pp. 216, 245. HEATHWAITE. — Interments [Arch. xxxi. 452], p. 245. HIGH HAUME. — Stone implements [Lonsdale Mag. iii. 383 ; Barber, Prehistoric Furness, 20]. IRELETH MILL. — Urns, interments [Ibid. 30 ; Cumb. and Westmld. Antlq. Soc. Trans, ix. 202 ; Arch. liii. 414], p. 245. KIRKBY IRELETH. — Flint implements, p. 216. KIRKBY MOOR. — Stone circle, cairn, flint implements, etc. [Arch. xxxi. 450]. KIRKHEAD. — Bronze celts and miscellaneous [Arch. Journ. xxv. 324 ; Evans, Bronze Imp. 168], p. 237. KNAPPERTH AW.— Stone circle [Barber, op. cit. 23 ; A. liii. 418]. LINDALE. — Stone axe-hammers [Arch. xxxi. 452 ; Evans, Stone Imp. 204], p. 228. MOOR HEAD. — Two stone implements [Cumb. and Westmld. Antlq. Soc. Trans, xv. 169]. PAGE BANK. — Bronze dagger [Lane, and Ches. Antlq. Soc. Trans, x. 251], p. 237. PENNINGTON, near Conishead. — Stone celt [Cumb. and Westmld. Antlq. Soc. Trans, ix. 503], p. 219. RAMPSIDE. — Stone axe-hammer [Lane, and Ches. Antlq. Soc. Trans, v. 328], p. 227. ROOSE. — Tumulus, urns, interments [Arch. Journ. iii. 68], p. 245. Stone adze {Barrow N. F. Club, xv. 1 1 7]. ROOSEBECK, near Aldingham. — Stone implement [Far. ii. 17], p. 219. RUSLAND. — Stone axe-hammer [Cumb. and Westmld. Antlq. Soc. Trans, ix. 203], p. 227. SCALES. — Urns, interment [West, op. cit. 392 ; Barber, op. cit. 26], p. 245. Two stone celts [Barrow N. F. Club, xv. 1 18]. STAINTON. — Urn with bronze weapon [Fur. ii. 37], p. 245. Urn, stone celts, iron implements [Barber, op. cit. 31]. Two bronze celts, p. 237. STATION (Barrow). — Stone celt, stone axe-hammer [Barrow N. F. Club, xv. 1 17-1 18]. TORVER. — Stone hammer, p. 227. Tumuli, urns, interments, bone and flint objects [Cumb. and Westmld. Antlq. Soc. Trans, ix. 502], p. 245. ULVERSTON. — Stone celt, stone implements [Cumb. and Westmld. Antlq. Soc. Trans, ix. 204 ; Salford Mus.]. URSWICK.— Bronze sword (?) [Barber, op. cit. 1 8]. Six socketed celts [Pres.], p. 237. WALNEY ISLAND. — Stone axe-hammer [Barrotv N. F. Club, xv. 1 17], p. 228. North Scale.-Urn. WINDER MOOR. — See Cartmel. WOODLANDS.— Stone implement [Lane, and Ches. Antlq. Soc. Trans, x. 252]. WRAY HILL. — Stone implements, celts and hammers [Cumb. and Westmld. Antlq. Soc. Trans, ix. 204]. 255 A HISTORY OF LANCASHIRE 13 w *n <«-»•- 00 t^^O N ^- H- t^-t O ~^0 ^ *"* lwt^ "" ** t-x |5S|&S$ O M -*-0 O ** N « "I] I M I |S| I I I I s I M I I I I I ls«« 1^1 I 5----^! I &r i i i i ^ | JS.S.N.I |^o | || I £7E£l I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I _. _^ _ _ — — w - ^ S^S £."£.1* o" N *5i •T'S S 5-8 if^^l^: ! 1 2^1 5-b I I E1?^! <™£l *l I I I I I 1 I I I I I I I I I I I It '2=S I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I •3 -a. l^^a;^^? ^^>o"§-^^ Ct^ t^ * ' f 1»^ *• ' I " •S R^CUNIBAL «° THCUTHBCEREfHTING] which is translated, Pray for Cynebalth Cuthbertson. The cross is in fair preservation, and capable of full restoration as seen from the illustration ; its height may have been 6 or 7 feet. In the centre and the centres of the arms are circular bosses, and a characteristic pattern of interlaced ropework surrounds them. The rope terminates below in a curious head. The ornamentation of the reverse is less decorative, being an incised geometrical pattern enclosed in a small incised circle at the centre. The sides are plain. The next in importance of the Lancaster crosses was found as recently as 1903, built into the north wall of the church. Its shaft only is preserved, the ornamentation being scrollwork of Anglian type. On one face at the top of the shaft is an inscription : — + ORATE P[RO] ANIMA HARD • • • I • A third fragment of a cross-shaft has Anglian scrollwork on all sides ; and a fourth is a cross of Anglian type, with two birds above the arms and two figures below which have beasts' heads and human feet. On two sides is the straight-lined interlacing design known as ' cat's cradle,' which is also found on one of the crosses from St. Oswald's, Durham. A fifth stone is part of a standing slab, after the fashion of a modern tombstone, 3 feet high and 5 inches thick, which was originally finished with a crosshead. It has on one side a design of double spiral knots, and on the other a large circular plait, above which is a stag chased by a hound. The decoration is very like that on a similar slab at Melling. Other fragments are (i) the centre of a crosshead, having over the figure of Christ a large circular boss with five balls on it ; (2 and 3) pieces of two cross-shafts with Anglian scrollwork ; and (4) part of the shaft of a cross of later style than the rest, carved on all four sides, but much defaced. One subject may be Adam and Eve on either side of the Tree of Knowledge. The village of Bolton-le-Sands, some 3 or 4 miles to the north of Lancaster, contains in some fragments of sculptured stone evidence of its pre-Norman origin. One of these is a portion of a cross decorated with bold interlacing design. Another is a portion of a ' hog-backed' gravestone. One side is decorated with the customary roofing-tile pattern, the other with a design supposed to -represent Eve and the serpent. In the churchyard at Halton, near Lancaster, is a tall cross-shaft, which is of particular interest as a specimen of what has been called the pagan-christian overlap. The crosshead, of which only part is ancient, was ornamented with interlacing designs. At the top of the shaft are the evangelistic symbols, one on each face. Below are parts of four arched panels containing figures, but this part of the cross has been broken and lost, and a piece of plain stone 1 Lane, and Ches. Antlq. Sw. Trans, xxi. 44-55. 266 HORNBY: ' LOAVES AND FISHES' CROSS-SHAFT IN CHI Bart. LANCASTKR : CROSS OF CVNEBALTH CUTHBERTSON Tojace page 2 56. HALTON : WEST FACE OF CROSS IN CHURCHYARD, AND DETAIL OF EAST FACE. To face page 266. ANGLO-SAXON REMAINS is now inserted. At the base of the shaft are scenes from the Sigurd legend : Sigurd roasting the heart of Fafnir, and putting his burnt finger to his lips. Above are birds in a tree ; and below, Sigurd is seated at a forge, with Regin's headless body, and a piece of knotwork representing Fafnir above him. On the north side is Sigurd's horse Grani, riderless, and above him dragons perhaps representing the snakes of Gunnar. On the south side are panels of foliage, and on the west a scene which may be meant for the Resurrection. The style of decoration is late, and probably the cross is not earlier than the eleventh century. Parts of several other crosses have been set up within the church under the tower, with figure subjects in panels, and scrollwork of Anglian type. The fragments are built up on each other to a height of 1 1 feet, but they clearly belong to at least two separate crosses. In the same vicinity is Heysham, which possesses the ruins of a very early church of a type which is Celtic rather than Saxon. It stands on a rocky knoll to the west of the present church, and close to it are eight graves cut in the rock, with sockets at their heads, in which crosses have probably been set. The rock surface bears traces of having been carved with an inter- lacing pattern. In the churchyard of the present church is the lower part of the shaft of a cross with interlacing panels at the base, and spiral foliage pattern of Anglian type on the sides. On one face is a seated nimbed figure under an arch, and on the other a gabled building with three windows in which three human heads appear, while below is a central doorway in which stands a figure swathed in what may be grave clothes. It has been explained as the raising of Lazarus, or the Resurrection. In the churchyard is also a hogback stone 6 feet in length, with zig-zag lines in imitation of tiling on the top, and at each end an animal clasping the stone, as on other specimens of this form of monument. The subjects on the sides have been variously explained as a stag-hunt and as scenes from pagan mythology.1 In the latter case the stone would belong to the same category as the Halton churchyard cross. Eight miles from Lancaster is the ancient village of Hornby (the ' Hornebie ' of Domesday), where in the church is the upper portion of a cross, which from the decoration upon it is commonly called the ' loaves and fishes cross.' The portion is only about 2 feet in length, but the sculpture indicated is apparently unique in this country, representing two fishes below five loaves, above which is a conventional tree enclosing a figure on either side. The three other faces of the stone are decorated with devices of interlacing and coiling rope, while a panel at the top of the back seems to enclose an angel figure. The details of the work are very highly finished, and of unusual excellence. A fragment of a second cross, part of the lower arm of the head, with a zig-zag pattern, is also preserved in the church. In the churchyard is a pyramidal stone 6 feet 2 inches high, with a semi-circular arch in low relief on each face, and on the top the socket for a cross-shaft. Two miles to the north-east is Melling, where there are portions of a sculptured slab of the same type as that found in Lancaster parish church, 1 This monument has naturally been much discussed and described. See Lane . and Ches. AnAq. Soc. Trans. (1841) ; Colley Marsh, 'The Pagan-Christian Overlap.' 267 A HISTORY OF LANCASHIRE and a short portion of a shaft of a standing cross, decorated with various devices of basket-work or interlacing ornament. The early crosses so completely described by Mr. Allen and Mr. Taylor now become valuable material for the history of Anglo-Saxon Lancashire. They are prima facie evidence of Christian churches at eleven sites, adding to our certain list recorded in the Domesday Book a further seven names, and confirming the existence of churches in four other cases. Nothing could be more valuable than such evidence ; for the critical study of these monuments, together with the scanty evidence of records, coins, and other remains, throws some light upon this obscure period. The history of the settling, the organization, and the struggles of the successive peoples, how- ever, cannot be traced in detail until the evidence of the early place-names is available and Celtic tradition has been carefully explored. Especial thanks are due to Mr. Henry Taylor for the loan of photo- graphs which he has had taken for his forthcoming work on early Lancashire crosses, many of which have been reproduced for the illustrations of ancient crosses accompanying this article. The author also wishes to express his obligations to the curators of the various museums in Lancashire and many others who have helped him in compiling this article. 268 HEYSHAM : (i) LOWER PART OF CROSS-SHAFT IN CHURCHYARD (2) HOG-BACKED STONE IN CHURCHYARD. To face fag, 268. NOTE TO DOMESDAY MAP COMPILED BY WILLIAM FARRER In this map the names of places mentioned in Domesday are shown. Those marked * were capital manors, having berewicks or dependent manors belonging to them. Those manors which had belonged to the king before 1066 have a line under their names ; those which Tostig held before 1066 are distinguished with a broken line. In 1086 all the manors lying within the regions which after- wards formed the county of Lancaster were in the king's hand, ex- cept five manors between Cockerham and Lancaster. The boundaries of hundreds and other territorial regions which existed at the date of Domesday have been constructed generally from the evidence of the survey itself, and differ from those which existed in I2I2.1 'Kendal,' i.e. that part of Westmorland which lies in the valleys of the Kent and Lune, was included in Domesday with Fur- ness, Cartmel, Lonsdale and Amounderness in a ratable area con- taining 500 carucates. Certain manors in Cumberland territorially connected with Furness and Cartmel, and others in the Ewcross wapen- take of Yorkshire, similarly connected with Lonsdale, do not appear to have belonged to this geldable area. For convenience of reference it is to be noted that five manors in 'Kendal,' viz.: Jalant (Yealand), Dalton, Hotun (Priest Hutton), Warton and Berewic (Berwick) were incorporated in the county of Lancaster about the end of the eleventh or early in the twelfth century, when ' Kendal ' was added to Westmorland. The modern names of rivers and lakes — including Marton mere in Amounderness and Martin mere to the south of the Ribble, both now reclaimed— are given for convenience of reference as landmarks ; they are not — with the exception of the rivers Ribble and Mersey — mentioned in Domesday. The sparsity of place names in south and east Lancashire was not entirely due to paucity of manors, but partly to the character of the survey, which sometimes omits the names of manors or berewicks dependent upon capital manors. Thus Domesday enumerates 15 manors in Newton hundred, 34 manors in Warrington hundred, 21 berewicks in Salford hundred, 28 manors in Blackburn hundred, and 12 manors in Leyland hundred, without recording their names. In North Lancashire, on the other hand, the areas which contain few or no names of manors were regions either of peatmoss, as in the northern part of Amounderness and near the coast between the rivers Kent and Winster ; or moorland and wood, as in the north-east of Amoun- derness and between the upper waters of the Wyre and the valley of the Lune ; or rocky fells and rough pasture, as in the mountainous parts of Kendal, Cartmel and Furness. The coast line is taken from the oldest Ordnance survey maps. 1 Haigh is shown as belonging to the hundred of Warrington, Aspull as belonging to that of Salford. w DOMESDAY SURVEY EJCASHIRE as a county finds no place in Domesday Book ; to obtain a view of it as a whole it is necessary to search for its component parts in the returns of two other counties. At the date of the survey the lands forming the southern half of the present county were taken with Cheshire,1 under the title of 'The land between Ribble and Mersey,' of which the return occupies little more than a page and a half of the record (f. 269^). The lands comprised within the northern portion were included in Yorkshire, the details being found at the end of the return of the land held by the king (ff. 30 1£, 302)," except for seven manors which are entered in the return of the lands held by Roger of Poitou (f. 332)*; these two sets of entries together occupy only three-quarters of a page. That these items were thus disconnected was due not only to the fact that there was no such comital entity as ' the shire of Lancaster ' at this time, but also to the circumstance that the lands originally granted in this district to Roger of Poitou, which embraced the greater part of these regions, were at the time of the survey almost entirely in the hands of the king. These disconnected returns, when brought together and examined, yield but little satisfactory information as to the holders of lands in 1086, and but few details of the condition and value of these regions. Those for the land between Ribble and Mersey are the fullest, but possess the tantalizing cha- racteristic, common to other great manors comprising many berewicks or dependent manors, of being a summary rather than a detailed survey. The returns for the district north of the Ribble are even less satisfactory, and consist of little more than lists of manors with their geldable areas, or rather assessments, after the manner of a geld-book. The impression left upon the mind by a careful study of these returns is that a general picture of the state of these regions at the time of the conquest and immediately afterwards may be broadly sketched from the materials here provided, but that no detailed or precise description is possible. One important feature which presents itself at the outset of our examination of this record is that we have to deal with regions upon the borderland of the ancient kingdoms of Mercia, Northumbria, and Cumbria, possessing all the unstable characteristics of debatable lands subject to conquest and colonization by the ruler of any one of these three principalities, followed by re-conquest and re-colonization, perhaps often repeated. This position of insecurity and instability was further accentuated by the opportunity for foreign invasion afforded by the long irregular coastline with its bays and estuaries, extending 1 There is no evidence that the district was under the jurisdiction of the sheriff and shire-mote of Chester. There is reference to shire-mote and (shire-)reeve, but nothing to show what shire-mote and sheriff" is meant. 3 The facsimile edition of Domesday Book (1861) omits the return of half the manor of Burrow, and erroneously includes the Yorks manor of Oulston (f. 330). 3 Roger's name is omitted in the list of tenants in chief (f. 298^). 269 A HISTORY OF LANCASHIRE from the Duddon to the Mersey : opportunity which the occurrence of many old Norse place names along the coast, and even inland, shows was abundantly seized by the roving bands of Danes and Norsemen who infested the Irish sea during the century preceding the Norman invasion. From these circumstances of position it follows that boundaries would seldom be of old standing, nomenclature would bear the marks of intermixed tongues, and land tenure would show customs more or less foreign to each other co-existent. The combination in this county of Northumbrian, Mercian, and Danish place names, to which so long ago as 1801 the historian, Dr. Whitaker, called attention,1 bears witness to the intermixture of languages ; of the confusion of customs and tenure, such features as the overlapping of the hide and the carucate, the simultaneous use of such terms as wapentake, shire, and hundred, and the incidence of thegnage, drengage, and cornage tenure side by side, are eloquent. The question of the boundaries can best be settled by separate consideration of the several regions which were eventually united to form the county of Lancaster. Of these regions, that between Ribble and Mersey was the most homo- geneous and bore evidence of the oldest settlement. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle8 records the conquest of this region by the English king in 923, when it appears to have been severed from the kingdom of Northumbria and united to that of Mercia. As one result of this conquest, it was placed under the ecclesiastical administration of the bishop of Lichfield, of whose diocese it continued to form part until the foundation of the see of Chester in 1541. Another result of the re-organization at this time is probably to be seen in the remarkable double assessment of the district which an examination of the Domesday survey reveals. Throughout England there were two systems of assessment for the geld: in the one the hide, and its quarter, the virgate, were the units ; in the other the carucate, or ploughland, and its eighth part the bovate, or oxgang. The latter system, which was prevalent in the counties colonized by the Danes, is also marked by the tendency of the vills to be assessed, either singly or in groups, in multiples of six carucates s ; the other system being marked by a similar recurring multiple of five hides. In the southern portion of Lancashire we have the unique feature of the one system superimposed upon the other. This land between Ribble and Mersey was rated at the time of the Domesday survey at eighty hides, less one — the exempted hide being probably land belonging to the parish churches4 ; and the record informs us (f. 269^) that in each of these hides there were six carucates. At the time of the survey this region was sub-divided into six hundreds, which took their names from the king's six capital manors of West Derby, Warrington, Newton in . 52. Anglo-Saxon Chronicle (Rolls Ser.), i. 196. » Round, Feudal England, pp. 69 et seqq. * Although church lands were liable to pay geld before the conquest, as stated in the survey, some church lands in this region were evidently not included in the total of 79 hides. For example, Bootle cum Linacre was rated at 2 carucates and another carucate belonged to the church of Walton ; records of the thirteenth century prove that this township contained 3 carucates, and yet only 2 carucates were included in the Domes- day total of 79 hides. The survey also records holdings of 3 hides, 2 hides and I hide, held by knights in 1086, with half a carucate added in each case. It seems probable that these half carucates represented church lands, and their attachment to fees of one or more hides may well have some bearing on the question of the exemption of certain church lands from geld. 270 DOMESDAY SURVEY Makerfield, Salford, Blackburn, and Leyland, and it seems probable from their assessments that the five-hide unit was in force here as in other counties. Thus, West Derby contained approximately 120 carucates or 20 hides, Newton 30 carucates or 5 hides, Warrington 58 carucates or nearly 10 hides, Salford I2ii carucates or just over 20 hides, Blackburn 96 carucates and Leyland 54, or together 25 hides. At the same time the existence of the six-carucate unit appears not only from the assessment of six carucates as one hide, but also from the assessments of the parishes, so far as it is possible to reconstruct these by grouping the Domesday vills or manors and summing up their individual carucage as deduced from records of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. It will be found that if the hundreds be thus divided into parishes, the assessment of these latter will as a rule be approximately a simple multiple of six carucates. A good example is the hundred of West Derby where the parishes are rated in carucates as follows : — Halsall 1 2, Ormskirk 1 2 J, Sefton 23 £, Walton 36!, Huyton 12, and Childwall 22^. Allowing for the difficulty of reconstructing the groups this is sufficiently near, and a still better case is Leyland hundred where we find Penwortham 9 and Leyland 9, Croston 17!, Eccleston i8j. We have thus what we may call a normal English, or hidal, assessment imposed upon a normal Danish, or carucal, assessment ; the latter, instead of being abolished, surviving, possibly for purposes of local taxation and jurisdic- tion. A further interesting Danish survival is to be found in the style of wapentake applied to the court of the hundred or ' shire,' to use the title applied to these hundreds for centuries after the conquest, and even now em- ployed colloquially by some of the oldest inhabitants. The boundaries of this interesting and unique region were clearly defined by physical objects, the Mersey on the south, the Ribble on the north, and the Pennine range on the east, a western spur of this range which divides the watershed of the river Aire from the western Calder constituting a natural boundary on the north-east. Immediately to the north of the Ribble lay Amounderness, within the ancient kingdom of Northumbria and diocese of York, to whose cathedral church this district was granted by King Athelstan in 93O.1 But, as in the case of an earlier grant to the monastery of Ripon, it was not destined long to remain in the hands of the church, and by the end of the Confessor's reign it was entirely in the hands of Tostig, earl of Northumberland. The wasted condition of Amounderness in 1086 may have been due at least as much to the deposition and outlawry promulgated against Tostig by the gemot at York in 1065, followed by the slaughter of his followers and the plundering of his possessions by his enemies,2 as to the Conqueror's ravages. The whole of this region was dependent on the capital manor of Preston, and was probably divided into four parishes, — Preston, Kirkham, Kirk Poulton, and St. Michael on Wyre. After the conquest it was treated as a hundred, and the whole was brought within the metes of the Forest of Lancaster. On the south the Ribble formed the natural boundary, and on the east its tributary the Hodder and the fells of Bowland and Bleasdale, while the vast peat mosses of Pilling, Cockerham, Winmarleigh, and Garstang formed a natural division from Lonsdale on the north. 1 Historians of the Church ofTork (Rolls Ser.), iii. I. a Freeman, Norman Conquest, ii. 491-5. 271 A HISTORY OF LANCASHIRE In the regions to the north of Amounderness, Earl Tostig's manors com- prised the greater part of territories known as Lonsdale, Kendal, Cartmel, and Furness. Under his capital manor of Grindleton, which lay across the Kibble facing the most northerly point of the land between Kibble and Mersey, were grouped the twelve manors which constituted the territory known as Bowland. Intermingled with Tostig's vast estate were: (i) Torfin's chief manor of Austwick, in Yorkshire, with two adjacent manors in that county, the three distant manors of Caton, Claughton, and Warton, in Lancashire, and eight manors in Westmorland; (2) Chetel's Yorkshire manor of Bentham, with Wennington, Tatham, and Farleton, in Lancashire ; (3) a small group of manors near Lancaster (Ashton and Cockerham) ; (4) Gillemichael's great Westmorland manor of Strickland, including Kirkby Kendal. All these manors we may look upon as having belonged to followers of Tostig, holding as thegns under the earldom of Northumbria. Evidence of this seems to be afforded by the fact that the regions lying between the Duddon and the Kibble, including Kendal, but excluding those manors which lay in Ewcross wapentake and in Bowland, were united for the levying of geld into a division assessed for 500 carucates.1 Perhaps this ownership also explains the com- plete break up of these estates after the conquest and their re-arrangement in new manorial groups. Having thus examined the physical divisions of the embryo county of Lancaster, we may next consider the personal and statistical condition of these districts at the time of the conquest, as revealed in Domesday Book. Passing over, for the moment, the royal demesne, and turning to the manors held in thegnage and drengage, we find a few thegns in possession of a larger franchise than the majority enjoyed. Between Kibble and Mersey, the most important of these was Ughtred, thegn of Roby, Knowsley, Kirkby, Little Crosby, Maghull, and Achetun (i.e. Bickerstaffe) , in which manors he held two hides, woodland two leagues in length and as much in breadth, and two eyries of hawks. Altogether seventeen manors in West Derby hundred had been in the possession of ' Uctred.' In the case of Kirkdale we are able to identify the owner with the thegn of Roby, because he is sub- sequently stated to have certain franchises in connexion with Kirkdale and Little Crosby ; it is therefore probable that it was the same Ughtred who held Aughton, and the three manors of Dalton, Skelmersdale, and Uplither- land, a manor in Lathom, another in Hurleton (including Scarisbrick), and a moiety of Martin. As Lathom at an early date gave its name to the family who were for centuries settled there, and under whom Hurleton and Scarisbrick were held by the yearly service of 8s., or at the Domesday rate of 32^. for the carucate ; and as the same family also held Roby, Knowsley, Huyton, and Tarbock for one knight's fee, it seems probable that Ughtred of 1066 was the predecessor of the Lathoms, and possibly immediate 1 In the districts north of the Ribble the incidence of ' hundreds ' consisting of 1 2 carucates in groups of 7 (84 car.) is remarkable. Thus Amounderness consisted of 4 parishes containing 1 68 carucates, or two groups of '7 hundreds.' Lancaster, Cartmel, and Furness contained 248^ car. or 3^ car. less than three groups of ' 7 hundreds,' Kendal contained exactly 84 car., or one group of ' 7 hundreds.' Again, the Yorkshire dis- trict of Craven, including Ewcross wapentake and Bowland, contained 504 car. 6 bov., or 6 bov. more than six groups of ' 7 hundreds.' Thus the component parts of Lancashire north of the Ribble, with Kendal and Craven, contained 1,005 car. 2 bov., a total which closely approximates to 12 groups of '7 hundreds' (12x7x12 = 1,008 car.). Mr. Round has called attention to these groups of 7 hundreds in feudal England, 78-9. DOMESDAY SURVEY predecessor of that Dunning1 who was living in the early years after the date of Domesday, and with whom the genealogy of the ancient family of Lathom commences. For some of his lands Ughtred enjoyed greater liberties than his neigh- bours, in that he was exempt from all forfeitures, except breach of the peace, premeditated assault (forsteal), house-breaking, renewing a fray after having sworn to desist, failure to pay a debt when condemned to do so by the reeve, and disregarding a summons from the reeve to attend him upon a set day, for which offences he was liable to a fine of 40^. Another thegn, by name Dot, held one hide in Huyton and Tarbock exempt from all customary services except geld. No other thegns held manors in West Derby hundred of more than average size or exempt from forfeitures ; except that fifteen manors rated at three hides had been pardoned the rent of 4/. 14-c. 8*/., which they had formerly paid to the king. These three hides were also exempt from paying fines for bloodshed and rape, which fines were retained by the thegns instead of being handed over to the king. These remissions were possibly granted to compensate for the low-lying position of these manors and their liability to inundations. In Newton hundred two of the fifteen drengs, who held 24 carucates amongst them, had 5 carucates in their two manors, and took to their own profit the forfeitures of bloodshed and rape, and likewise the pannage of swine belonging to their men or under tenants. The thirty-four drengs in Warrington hundred, whose manors averaged a carucate and a half, do not appear to have differed much in status. In Salford hundred the manors or berewicks were of much larger size, twenty-one berewicks containing iij hides and loj carucates, being an average of 3! carucates each. The survey makes particular mention of one thegn, Gamel of Rochdale, who held the whole of that lordship in 1066, but at the date of Domesday had lost all but two carucates — possibly repre- senting his demesne of Castleton. He was exempt from all customary services and forfeitures, except for theft, house-breaking, ' forsteal,' breach of peace, neglecting the reeve's summons, and renewing a fray after swearing to desist ; for which offences a fine of 40^. was the penalty. In this hundred there were in 1066 derelict or waste lands belonging to the demesne rated at 12 carucates. The unfertile, cold, and hilly nature of part of this hundred seems the most likely explanation of the statement in the survey respecting the thegnslands, that ' some of these estates were quit from all custom except [Dane-] geld, and a few are even quit from [Dane-] geld.' In Blackburn hundred the twenty-eight manors held by freemen averaged just over 2j carucates each. It is, however, probable that the individual manors varied considerably on either side of the average. When we cross the Kibble to examine the survey of the regions lying to the north, the question presents itself whether the Conqueror's surveyors ever visited the regions of Amounderness, Lonsdale, Kendal, and Furness. The account of them in Domesday Book partakes more of the nature of a Geld book than of a survey, and one cannot avoid coming to the conclusion either that the district was not visited, or that it was so nearly waste in 1086 that it was not possible to survey it further than appears to have been done. 1 Testa de Nevill (Rec. Com.), 402^, I 273 35 A HISTORY OF LANCASHIRE Amounderness in 1066 consisted of 62 vills — 3 of which belonged properly to Lonsdale. All these vills were berewicks of the capital manor of Preston, and owned Tostig as lord. Whilst the value of the land between Kibble and Mersey was depreciated by the events which followed the Norman invasion only to the extent of 25/., or from I45/. 2s. zd in 1066, to iao/. when Roger of Poitou received it, Amounderness fared grievously. At the date of the survey only 16 out of 62 vills possessed inhabitants, and these but a few, whilst the remainder were derelict, and devoid of stock, crop, or inhabitants. Probably this deplorable condition was not so much due to the levy of oxen, sheep, swine, corn, and other stores made by the Conqueror's army in passing through these regions, as by the devastations committed by Tostig's enemies in his lands, owing to his unpatriotic attitude, and during his prolonged absence from his earldom previous to the conquest. The survey gives us no hint as to the value or condition of Lonsdale, Kendal, Cartmel, or Furness, either before or after the conquest. The reduction in the assessment to Danegeld made in or before the reign of Henry I. amounting to 143 carucates1 in these regions, proves how greatly they had suffered impoverishment since the days before the conquest. Little can be added to that which is already known concerning the pre- conquest lords of the regions north of the Kibble. As already shown, Tostig held Amounderness, Halton, Whittington, Beetham, and Furness, with their respective members, embracing a territory rated at 419 carucates, of which 386 lay in Amounderness, Lonsdale, Kendal, Cartmel, and Furness, with 14 carucates in Ewcross wapentake, co. York, and 19 carucates in Millom (' Hougun '), co. Cumberland. Thorfin, who held the Yorkshire manor of Austwick, with its members — of which those in Kendal and Lonsdale contained 33 carucates — may possibly be identified as the thegn who also held the manor of Winterburn in Craven, with seven berewicks under Roger of Poitou (f. 332). Chetel, who held the Yorkshire manor of Bentham (6 carucates) and three other manors in Lonsdale rated at 12 carucates, cannot be certainly identified with any of the thegns of this name who held manors in Craven. Other thegns in Lonsdale were Ulf and Machel, who each had a manor and 2 carucates between them in Cockerham ; Cliber, Machern, and Gillemichael, who had manors rated at 10 carucates in Ashton, Ellel, and Scotforth, the last named being perhaps the Gillemichael who had a manor in ' Stercaland,' now Strickland Ketel and Strickland Roger, rated at 20 carucates in the whole, with 9 other manors, including Kirkby Kendal, of which Dalton alone was in Lonsdale ; Ulf, who had a manor rated at 9 carucates in Melling, with Hornby and one moiety of Wennington; Orm, who had a berewick of the manor of Melling, supposed to be Wrayton, rated at ij carucate ; the same or another Orm, who had a manor in Thornton in Lonsdale (3 carucates), co. York, and a moiety of Burrow rated at 3 carucates ; Duuan, who had Kirkby Cartmel (6 carucates), that is the village and church of Cartmel ; Ernulf, who held the manor and vill of Aldingham (6 carucates), and his neighbour Turulf, who had a manor in Ulverston (6 carucates), of which Bolton, with Adgarley and Dendron, were either berewicks, or were then 1 This total is obtained by a comparison of the figures given in Dom. Bk. with those recorded in the Testa de Neviff. 274 DOMESDAY SURVEY lying waste. After Tostig, the most interesting person mentioned in the survey of this region is Ernuin the priest, who held Beetham and possibly its members under Roger, and occurs as ' the man of Roger of Poitou ' in the survey of Roger's fees in Lincolnshire1, in which county and in Nottingham- shire he or his father may perhaps be identified as the ' Ernuin ' who held several manors before the conquest.2 He seems also to have held a manor in Bedfordshire, which his father had held under King Edward as the king's man.8 In Lincoln city he had a house which had been Earl Morcar's, and in the same county a small estate at Widme,* which he held of King Edward in alms ; another at Ingham, which he had received from the king and queen ; and a third at Fillingham, which he had held of the queen. His father appears to have been named Ernuin Catenase, and to have held the manors of Scagglethorpe and Upper and Nether Poppleton, co. York, which a jury declared that Ernuin the priest ought to hold of Robert Malet.6 From these references it would appear that Ernuin had been one of King Edward's priests, and had been presented to more than one church, Beetham being one of them. To roughly fill in the picture, of which the outlines have been given, and so to obtain a more or less complete view of Lancashire and its inhabi- tants at this early date, is not difficult. In 1066 no monastic house held a single carucate of land in these regions, notwithstanding the gifts in time past of Cartmel and Amounderness to religious uses. The parishes were few in number, and their endowments did not usually exceed i carucate, sometimes falling as low as ^ bovates, as at Blackburn. No large estates existed, nor does the status of the two or three thegns who held estates somewhat larger than their neighbours point to a condition different from that of the more free thegns found in other parts of England. The land between Ribble and Mersey was, with the exception of the demesne, almost entirely in the hands of thegns, or of their Northumbrian peers, drengs, 1 57 holdings consisting of a homestead and, on an average, z\ carucates of land. In Childwall there were four ' radmans,' e the ' rad- chenistres ' of the southern counties, holding 3 carucates between them. The country may well be described as a huge manor of royal demesne, where the ownership by the sovereign precluded the rise of any great estates or changes of any considerable moment in the status of its inhabitants. The customary services of the thegns in West Derby hundred are fully described in the survey (f. 269 b.} and with little variation applied also to the thegns of the other hundreds between Ribble and Mersey. Each thegn by custom paid a rent (called carucate geld) to the king of two ores of pence — that is 32^. — for each carucate of land, apparently in addition to a rent (farm) of similar amount, and likewise by custom assisted to build or repair the king's houses and other buildings, and all works in or about the king's halls and demesne lands. He also assisted in the construction and repair of ' fisheries ' (piscarite), which comprised fish-stalls7 or weirs and traps for eels, the former being the primitive method for taking salmon then and for centuries after in vogue, which consisted in making pools or weirs in tidal water, where fish 1 Dm. Bk. i. f. 352. 2 Ibid. f. 290 and 352. 3 Ibid. f. 211. * Ibid. £371. 5 Ibid. f. 374, col. i. 6 Of ' riding-men ' and their services, see Dom. Bk. and Beyond, pp. 305-7 ; V.C.H. Worcestershire, i. 250 7 Locally known as ' fish-yards,' and further north as ' fish-garths.' 275 A HISTORY OF LANCASHIRE which came up with the tide were left impounded after the ebb, and were taken at low water in nets, or by spears ; he alscnxssktedjn^ making enclosures (haice) in the woods and wastes, fenced by hedges, walls, or pales, ~ wher-e-caitle or deer could be impounded and better protected from the attack of beasts of prey ; and ' deer-hedges ' (stabiliturtz) , also called deer-hays or deer-stalls, which he assisted to construct in the forest when the king came to hunt, so that the deer might be driven within reach of the king's spear or bow in the manner of a modern ' drive.' x Every thegn who should fail to come at the reeve's summons to assist in these customary duties incurred a penalty of 2s., and afterwards came and laboured at the work until it was finished. In these duties it would appear that the thegns were by custom fellow-workmen with the villeins, but in Salford hundred some thegns were exempt from performing these customary works, and — as the record elsewhere states — the thegns of this hundred and those of Leyland were exempt from working at the king's hall. Each thegn in West Derby hundred was also compelled to send his reapers for one day in August to cut the crops on the king's demesne lands, and failing to do so incurred a penalty of 2s. ; but whilst the drengs of Newton hundred owed this service for two days instead of one day only, the thegns of Salford and Leyland hundreds owed no reaping service in August. Of ploughing service there is no mention, and probably the thegns and drengs were exempt from this servile work, which the villeins performed at this time and for genera- tions after, together with many other duties required in the cultivation of the demesne lands.3 In many parts of England the ' radmans ' ploughed and harrowed, mowed and reaped, in the king's or lord's demesne lands, and did whatever was required of them,8 but of their services in these districts nothing is told us. The survey makes no mention of the number of villeins, bordars, oxmen, or serfs existing in 1066 between Ribble and Mersey, but gives some particu- lars thereof applicable to the demesne of Roger of Poitou and the demesne of his knights in 1086. These particulars are not in any way remarkable, though attention may be called to the three bondwomen (ancillce) mentioned in the hundred of West Derby, as the exact position and significance of this class is still one of the incompletely solved problems of Domesday. When we turn to the consideration of the values recorded in the survey, we meet with several questions difficult of solution. The thegns, we are told, paid for each carucate a customary due of 2 ores of pence, i.e. 32^. When, therefore, we find a large number of cases in which the value of 2 carucates of land was 64 pence, or of half a hide 8 shillings, it appears at first as if this customary due was identical with, and the sole constituent of, the annual ' render.' But the case of the two manors of Toxteth,4 where in each case 2 carucates were worth only 4 shillings, suggests a doubt as to this identity, which is strengthened when we examine the return of these hides in the parishes of Ormskirk and Halsall, which are stated to have been exempt from 1 See also Dora. Bk. \. 56 b ; Ibid. f. 179. For examples of similar service, see Boldon Book, P.C.H. Durham, i. » See Dam. Book and Beyond, p. 56. « ibid, p 56, in notis. 4 The assessment area is recorded in each case as I virgate (equal in this district to i£ carucate) and half a carucate of land. Probably only the virgate paid rent. ' Reddebat ' and ' valebat ' are here interchangeable terms. 276 DOMESDAY SURVEY all customary dues except [Dane-] geld, particular mention being made of their exemption from the ' geldum carucatarum terrae,' which must refer to this due of 2 ores. In the manorial holdings which make up these 3 hides we find that the value per carucate is in most cases considerably higher than in the other manors of West Derby, the whole — including half a carucate in Altcar, which was waste and valueless — paying 3/. js. 4 • Wood(Iand) 2 leagues long and broad and Roger of Poitou held the land between Ripe > f '. . 6 [Ribble] and Mersha [Mersey]. Now the king holds (it). Dot held HITUNE [Huyton] and TORBOC f. 269 b. [Tarbock]. There (is) i hide quit from every due (consuetude) except (praeter) geld There BETWEEN RIPA [RIBBLE] AND MERSHA is ^ fof >, P g ^ ^ 2Q ^ [MERSEY] Ungs. Roger of Poitou held the under-written land T> iru u c FT UT 1^1 between Rfhhle and Mersev Bernulf held STOCHESTEDE [Toxteth]. There between Ribble and Mersey. (is) l yirgate of ^ and ha,f a camcate of land< It rendered 4 shillings. IN DERBEI [WEST DERBY] HUNDRED There King Edward had one manor called Stainulf held STOCHESTEDE [Toxteth]. There DERBEI [West Derby], with 6 berewicks. ^ v.rgate of land and half a carucate of land. There (are) 4 hides. There is land for 1 5 ploughs. Il WaS W°rth 4 Alllm^ (There is) forest 2 leagues long and i (league) i These 2 hides were thus distributed ._Rob broad and a hawk's eyry. 2 carucates, Knowsley 4, Kirkby 2, Little Crosby 3, TT , , ,, , _ Maghull J, and Aughton $. Total 12 carucates Uctred held 16 manors, RABIL [Roby], = 2 hides. ' Achetun 'here represents the township of CHENULVESLEI [Knowsley], CHERCHEBI [Kirkby], Bickerstaffe, lying next Aughton on the east. 283 A HISTORY OF LANCASHIRE Five thegns held SEXTONE [Sefton].1 There (is) i hide. It was worth 16 shillings. Uctred held CHIRCHEDELE [Kirkdale]. There (is) half a hide quit from every due (consuetude) except geld. It was worth 10 shillings. Winestan held WALETONE [Walton-on-the- Hill].* There (are) 2 carucates of land and 3 bovates. It was worth 8 shillings. Elmaer held LIDERLANT [Down Litherland]. There (is) half a hide. It was worth 8 shillings. Three thegns held HINNE [Ince Blundell] as 3 manors. There (is) half a hide. It was worth 8 shillings. Ascha held TORENTUN [Thornton]. There (is) half a hide. It was worth 8 shillings. Three thegns held MELE [Ravensmeols] as 3 manors. There (is) half a hide.8 It was worth 8 shillings. Uctred held ULVENTUNE [Little Woolton]. There (are) 2 carucates of land and half a league of wood. It was worth 64 pence. Edelmund held ESMEDUNE [Smithdown].* There (is) i carucate of land. It was worth 32 pence. Three thegns held ALRETUNE [Allerton] as 3 manors. There (is) half a hide. It was worth 8 shillings. Uctred held SPEC [Speke]. There (are) 2 carucates of land. It was worth 64 pence. Four radmans held CILDEWELLE [Childwall] as 4 manors. There (is) half a hide. It was worth 8 shillings. There was a priest there having half a carucate of land in alms.8 Ulbert held WIBALDESLEI « [part of Much Woolton]. There (are) 2 carucates of land. It was worth 64 pence. Two thegns held UVETONE [part of Much Woolton] as 2 manors. There (is) i carucate of land. It was worth 30 pence.7 1 The 5 manors in Sefton embraced the town- ship of Sefton with the hamlets of Lunt and Netherton. 8 There was also one of the 6 berewicks of the manor of West Derby, also embracing Aintree, the modern township of Fazakerley, and the hamlet of Newsham. The church of Walton had also some glebe land here, perhaps 5 bovates. The whole land of Walton was probably one hide. 8 Interlined. * Now involved in Toxteth Park. 6 As in the case of Bootle, the half carucate would be in addition to, not included in, the half hide. 6 This name is entirely lost. It does not occur elsewhere. The 12- 1 3th century rating of Much Woolton (3 carucates) shows that the place is involved in that township. 1 Perhaps a clerical error for 32 pence. Leving held WAVRETREU [Wavertree]. There (are) 2 carucates of land. It was worth 64 pence. Four thegns held BOLTELAI [Bootle] as 4 manors. There (are) 2 carucates of land. It was worth 64 pence. A priest had I carucate of land (here belonging) to the church of Wale- tone [Walton-on-the-Hill].8 Uctred held ACHETUN [Aughton]. There (is) I carucate of land. It was worth 32 pence. Three thegns held FORNEBEI [Formby] as 3 manors. There (are) 4 carucates of land. It was worth 10 shillings. Three thegns held EINULVESDEL [Ainsdale]. There (are) 2 carucates of land. It was worth 64 pence. Steinulf held HOILAND [Upholland], There (are) 2 carucates of land. It was worth 64 pence. Uctred held DALTONE [Dalton]. There (is) I carucate of land. It was worth 32 pence. The same Uctred (held) SCHELMERESDELE [Skelmersdale]. There (is) i carucate of land. It was worth 32 pence. The same Uctred held LITERLAND [Uplither- land].9 There (is) I carucate of land. It was worth 32 pence. Wibert held ERBNGERMELES [Argarmeols].10 There (are) 2 carucates of land. It was worth 8 shillings. This land was quit except of geld.11 Five thegns held OTEGRIMELB [North Meols]. There (is) half a hide. It was worth 10 shillings. Uctred held LATUNE [Lathom] with i bere- wick. There (is) half a hide. Wood(land) i league long and half (a league) broad. It was worth 10 shillings and 8 pence. Uctred held HIRLETUN [Hurleton] " and half MERRETUN " [Marton Hall]. There (is) half a hide. It was worth 10 shillings and 8 pence. Godeve held MELINGE [Melling]. There (are) 2 carucates of land. Wood(land) I league long and half a league broad. It was worth 10 shillings. 8 Later records prove that Bootle and Linacre, re- presenting these four manors, consisted of 3 carucates of land. The church land was, therefore, not in- cluded in the 2 carucates. 9 Now involved in Aughton. 10 A township partly lost in the sea and partly in- volved in Birkdale. 11 This note applies to this and the remaining manors of the hundred. See the Introduction. 18 Comprising the joint townships of Scarisbrick and Hurleton, the latter now involved in Scarisbrick. 18 Now involved in the township of Burscough. 284 THE HOLDERS OF LANDS Uctred held LEIATE [Lydiate]. There (are) 6 bovates of land. Wood(land) i league long and 2 furlongs broad. It was worth 64 pence. Two thegns held 6 bovates of land as 2 manors in HOLAND [Downholland]. It was worth 2 shillings. Uctred held ACRER [Altcar]. There (is) half a carucate of land. It was waste. Teos held BARTUNE [Barton]. There (is) 1 carucate of land. It was worth 32 pence. Chetel held HELESHALE [Halsall]. There (are) 2 carucates of land. It was worth 8 shillings. All this land used to pay geld (geldabai), and 15 manors1 used to render nothing to King Edward save geld. This manor of DERBEI [West Derby] with these aforesaid hides used to render to King Edward 26 pounds and 2 shillings of farm (de firmd). Of these 3 hides were free, the rent (censum) of which he pardoned to the thegns who held them. These used to render 4 pounds and 14 shillings and 8 pence. All these thegns had by custom to render 2 ores of pence for each carucate of land, and by custom used to make the king's houses and (the things) which appertained thereto (ibi pertinebant) as the villeins (did), and the fisheries (ptscarias) and the enclosures (hatas) in the wood, and the deer hays (stabilituras) ; and (he) who went not to these (tasks) when he ought paid a fine of (emendabaf) 2 shillings and afterwards came to the work and laboured until it was completed. Each one of them sent his reapers one day in August to cut the king's crops. If not he paid a fine of 2 shillings. If any free man committed theft, or 'forsteal' (foreste[), or ' hdmfare ' (heinfara), or broke the king's peace, he paid a fine of 40 shillings. If any committed bloodshed (fadebat san- guinem), or rape (raptum de femina), or if he (qut) remained away from the ' shiremote ' (siremet) without reasonable excuse, he paid a fine of 10 shillings. If he remained away from the hundred (court) or went not to a plea when the reeve (prepositus) ordered, he paid a fine of 5 shillings. If (the reeve) ordered anyone (cut) to go upon his service and he went not, he paid a fine of 4 shillings. If anyone wished to withdraw from the king's land, he gave 40 shillings and went whither he wished. If anyone wished to have the land of his deceased father, he paid a relief (relevabat) of 40 shillings ; (he) who would not, the king had 1 Those enumerated in the ten preceding para- graphs, commencing with Erengermeles. both the land and all the goods (pecuniam) of the deceased father. Uctred held CROSEBI [Little Crosby] and CHIRCHEDELE [Kirkdale] as one hide, and it was quit from every due except these 6 : breach of the peace (pace infracta), forsteal, ' hdmfare,' and a fray (pugna) which continued after oath made (to desist), and if (when) bound by the reeve's judgment (constrictus jus ticia prepostti) he did (not) pay anyone a debt, and if he did not observe the term given by the reeve ; (for) these (offences) he paid a fine of 40 shillings. But he paid the king's geld (geldum) like (sicut) the men of the country. In OTRINGEMELE [North Meols], and HERLE- SHALA [Halsall], and HIRETUN [Hurleton] there were 3 hides quit from the geld (geldum) of carucates of land and from the forfeiture of bloodshed (sanguinis) and ravishment (violentid) of a woman. But they rendered all other dues. These men now hold land of this manor of DERBEI [West Derby] by the gift of Roger the Poitevin : — Geoffrey8 2 hides and half a carucate of land, Roger8 1} hide, William* ij hide, Warin • half a hide, Geoffrey • I hide, Tetbald ij hide, Robert 2 carucates of land, Gilbert 1 carucate of land.7 These have in demesne 4 ploughs and 46 villeins, and i radman and 62 bordars, and 2 serfs and 3 bondwomen. Between (inter) (them) all they have 24 ploughs. Their wood(land is) 3^ leagues long and i£ league and 40 perches broad,8 and there (are) 3 eyries of hawks. 3 Perhaps Roger of Poitou's sheriff, »nd predecessor of Godfrey who was sheriff in 1094. The fee might consist of I hide in Walton, 4 car. in Garston, 2 car. elsewhere, and \ car. belonging to the church of Walton. 8 Possibly I hide in Sefton, 2 car. in Toxteth, and I car. in Thornton. He was probably Roger de Mountbegon. (See the Introduction.) * William Fitz Nigel, lord of Halton, co. Chester. This fee consisted of the greater part of Ughtred's manors in Roby, Knowsley, Kirkby, etc., and subse- quently formed part of the ' fee of the constable of Chester ' within the co. of Lancaster, also known as the fee of Widnes. 6 Possibly Warin Bussel, and the fee the manor of Kirkdale, which was afterwards a member of the Bussels' barony of Penwortham. 8 ' Goisfridus homo Rogeri ' occurs in the survey of Roger of Poitou's Lincolnshire fees as tenant of Osgodby. Dom. Bk. i. f. 352. 1 Robert and Gilbert were possibly officers of Roger's household. 8 These particulars confirm the suggested identities of the fees created by Roger before 1086. The bulk of the woodland in the chief manor of West Derby and in Ughtred's manors lay between Walton on the west and the boundary of this hundred on the east, and between Lathom on the north and Huyton on the south. 285 A HISTORY OF LANCASHIRE In each hide there are 6 carucates of land. The whole is worth 8 pounds and 1 2 shillings. And the demesne of this manor which Roger held is worth 8 pounds. There are now in demesne there 3 ploughs and 6 oxherds and I radman and 7 villeins. IN NEWETON HUNDRED In NEWETON [Newton in Makerfield] there were 5 hides, T.R.E. Of these I was in demesne. The churchi of that manor had I carucate of land, and St. Oswold of that vill (Winwick) had 2 carucates of land quit in all (things) (per omnia). The other land of this manor 1 5 men who were called drengs (drencbsf held as 1 5 manors, but they were berewicks of this manor, and between (them) all they rendered 30 shillings. The wood(land) there (is) 10 leagues long and 6 leagues and 2 furlongs broad, and there (are) eyries of hawks. The freemen of this hundred, except 2, were subject to the same customs (erant in tadem consuetudine) as the men of DERBERIE [West Derby], and in addition (phis) to those they 1 It is uncertain whether the church of Wigan or the church of Walton-on-the-Hill is here referred to. This hundred, as the name suggests, was probably carved out of the hundred of West Derby, in which the parish of Walton-on-the-Hill was the most impor- tant, and contained most of the demesne manors. The great inquest of service made in A.D. 1212 records that ' Robert de Walton holds the third part ' of the church of Winwick, two-thirds being held by Richard, the parson of Winwick. The parson of Walton-on- the-Hill at that date was named Robert de Walton, so that there appears to have been some ancient con- nexion between Winwick (the parish in which New- ton lies) and Walton-on-the-Hill. The fact that Newton is not in the parish of Wigan militates against the identity of that church as ' the church of that manor ' (Newton). On the other hand, the ecclesiastical manor of Wigan has always been taken as rated at one carucate of land. 3 In the hundreds of West Derby and Salford the tenants of manors are described as thegns, in the hundreds of Newton and Warrington as drengs, and in the hundreds of Blackburn and Leyland as freemen. This apparently puzzling classification was merely due to the variable names by which the tenants of manors were locally known, or to the variable terms employed by the clerks who made the returns from the different manors. That there was no real difference between those described by these three names is well illustrated by the return for Newton hundred. ' Fifteen men whom they call drenchs hold the other land of this manor as 1 5 manors, but they were berewicks of this manor ' (of Newton). ' The freemen of the hundred of Newton, ercept two, were in the same custom as the men of [West] Derby.' The matter illustrates the Mercian conquest of this ancient portion of Northumbria in the year 923. Little wonder that a century and a half later official terms belonging to both these kingdoms should be found in ordinary use within this hybrid region. reaped on two days in August in the king's cornfields (cv/turis). Those two (men) had 5 carucates of land and the forfeiture of bloodshed, and of an outraged woman (fem'int violentiam passe), and the pannage (pasnagium) of their own men. The king had the other (forfeitures). This whole manor used to pay in rent (de firma} to the king 10 pounds and IO shillings. Now there are there 6 drengs (drengbi) and 1 2 villeins and 4 bordars. Between (them) all they have 9 ploughs. This demesne is worth 4 pounds. IN WAUNTUNB HUNDRED King Edward held WALINTUNE [Warrington] with 3 berewicks. There (is) I hide. To that manor used to belong 34 drengs, and they had as many manors, in which there were 42 caru- cates of land and i^ hide. Saint Elfin held I carucate of land quit from every due except geld. The whole manor with the hundred used to pay in farm (de firma) to the king 1 5 pounds, less 2 shillings. Now there are in demesne 2 ploughs and 8 men with I plough. These men hold land there. Roger I carucate of land, Tetbald i£ carucate, Warin I carucate, Ralph (Radulfus) 5 carucates, William8 2 hides and 4 carucates of hind, Adelard I hide and half a carucate,* Osmund i carucate of land. This whole (demesne) is worth 4 pounds and 10 shillings. The demesne (of the chief manor) is worth 3 pounds and 10 shillings. IN BLACHEBURN HUNDRED King Edward held BLACHEBURNE [Blackburn]. There (are) 2 hides and 2 carucates of land. The church had 2 bovates of this land, and the church of St. Mary had 2 carucates of land in WALLEI [Whalley] quit from every due. In the same manor (there is) wood(land) I league long, and as much broad, and there was a hawk's eyry there. To this manor or hundred belonged 28 free- men holding 5^ hides and 40 carucates of land as 28 manors. The wood there (is) 6 leagues long and 4 leagues broad, and they were subject to (erant in) the aforesaid customs. In the same hundred King Edward had HUNNICOT [Huncoat] of 2 carucates of land, and WALETUNB [Walton-le-Dale] of 2 caru- cates of land, and PENILTUNB [Great Pendleton] of half a hide. The whole manor with the hundred used to pay in farm (de firma) to the king 32 pounds » William Fitz Nigel, baron of Halton, co. Chester. See above, note 4, p. 285. * This appears to be Whiston 2 car. with \ car. belonging to the church of Prescot, and 4 car. in Parr and elsewhere, perhaps in Windle, 286 THE HOLDERS OF LANDS and 2 shillings. Roger of Poitou gave the whole of this land to Roger de Busli and Albert Gres- let, and there are so many (tot) men there who have nj- ploughs, whom those (two) have granted to be quit (from rent) for 3 years, and therefore it is not now valued (appreciatur). IN SALFORD HUNDRED King Edward held SALFORD [Salford]. There (are) 3 hides and 12 carucates of waste land and forest 3 leagues long and as much in width and there (are) many enclosures (hate) and a hawk's eyry. King Edward held RADECLIVE [Radcliffe] as 1 manor. There (is) i hide and another hide belonging to Salford. The church of St. Mary and the church of St. Michael1 held in MAMECESTRE [Man- chester] i carucate of land quit from every due except geld. To this manor or hundred belonged 21 bere- wicks which as many thegns held for as many manors, in which there were n| hides and io£ carucates of land. (There are) wood(lands) there 9^ leagues long and 5 leagues and i furlong broad. One of those (men), Gamel, holding 2 hides in RECEDHAM [Rochdale] was (habebat) quit of his customs except these six, theft, ' hamfare,' fore- steal, breach of the king's peace, neglect of a term set by the reeve, continuance of a fray after oath made (to desist). (For) these he made amends (by) 40 shillings. Several (aliqwg) of these lands were quit from every due except geld and some few (aliquanta) are quit from geld. The whole manor of Salford with the hun- dred used to render 37 pounds and 4 shillings. Now there are in demesne in the manor 2 ploughs and 8 serfs and 2 villeins with i plough. This demesne is worth 100 shillings. Of this land of this manor (these) knights hold by the gift of Roger of Poitou, Nigel 3 hides and half a carucate of land,8 Warin 8 2 carucates of land, and another Warin i J caru- cate, GeofFrey i carucate of land, Gamel * 2 caru- cates of land. In these (lands) there are 3 thegns and 30 villeins and 9 bordars and a priest and 10 serfs. Between (them) all they have 22 ploughs. (This demesne) is worth 7 pounds. 1 These are the respective invocations of the churches of Manchester and Ashton-under-Lyne. * This fee comprised the manor of Manchester with half a carucate belonging to the parish church of St. Mary. s This was probably Warin Bussel and the 2 car. the manor of Ashton-under-Lyne, which was after- wards a member of the barony of Penwortham. The church of St. Michael was not included in this fee. * Supposed to be Gamel the thegn of Rochdale holding a greatly diminished fee there under Roger of Poitou in 1086. IN LAILAND HUNDRED King Edward held LAILAND [Leyland]. There (are) i hide and 2 carucates of land. Wood(land) 2 leagues long and i (league) broad and an eyry of hawks. To this manor belonged 12 carucates8 of land (rectius, 12 berewicks) which 12 freemen held for as many manors. In these (are) 6 hides and 8 carucates of land. (There is) wood(land) there 6 leagues long and 3 leagues and I furlong broad. The men of this manor and of Salford used not to work by custom at the king's hall nor to reap in August ; they only made one enclosure (haia) in the wood and had the forfeiture of bloodshed and of an outraged woman. In the other customs they went with (erant consortes) the other above(mentioned) manors. The whole manor of Lailand with the hun- dred used to pay in farm (firma) to the king 19 pounds and 18 shillings and 2 pence. Of this land of this manor Gerard* holds ij hide, Robert 3 carucates of land, Ralph 2 carucates of land, Roger 2 carucates of land, Walter i carucate of land. There are there 4 radmans, a priest, and 14 villeins and 6 bor- dars and 2 oxherds. Between (them) all they have 8 ploughs. (There is) wood(land) 3 leagues long and 2 leagues in width and there (are) 4 eyries of hawks. The whole is worth 50 shil- lings. In part it is waste (ex parte est wasta). King Edward held PENEUERDANT [Pen- wortham]. There (are) 2 carucates of land and they used to render 10 pence. Now there is a castle there, and there are 2 ploughs in the demesne and 6 burgesses and L radmans and 8 villeins and 4 oxherds, tween (them) all they have 4 ploughs. There (is) half a fishery, wood(land), and eyries of hawks as in the time of King Edward. It is worth 3 pounds. In these 6 hundreds, Derbie, Neutone, Walin- tune, Blacheburne, Salford, and Lailand, there are 188 manors, in which there are 80 geldable hides less one. In the time of King Edward it was worth 145 pounds and 2 shillings and 2 pence. When Roger of Poitou received (it) from the king it was worth 120 pounds. Now the king holds (it) and has in demesne 1 2 ploughs and 9 knights holding a fee. Between them and their men there are 115 ploughs and 3 oxen. The demesne which Roger held is valued (at) 23 pounds and 10 shillings.7 (That) which he gave to knights is valued at 20 pounds and ii shillings. 6 Car. interlined. * ' Girardus homo Rogeri ' held Legbonrne, county Lincoln, under Roger of Poitou, Dm. Bk. i. i. 252 b. 1 This total agrees with the figures given in the survey, but the total value of the demesne held by the knights, without including anything for Blackburn hundred, was 22/. iz/. and not 2O/. I it. as stated. A HISTORY OF LANCASHIRE EURVICSCIRE THE KING'S LAND IN EURVICSCIRE [YORKSHIRE], WEST REDING r. 301 b. M.1 In MELLINGE [Melling] and HORNEBI [Hornby] and WENNIGETUN [Wennington] Ulf (had) 9 carucates to geld. B.1 In the same place (ibidem) Orme had i carucate and half (a carucate) to geld. M. In TORRETUN [Thornton-in-Lonsdale, co. York] and in BORCH [Over (?) Burrow] Orm (had) 6 carucates to geld.8 C°AGEMUNDRENESSE [AMOUNDER- NESS] In PRESTUNE [Preston] Earl Tostig (had) 6 carucates to geld. Thereto these lands belong : — Estun [Ashton-on-Ribble], 2 carucates; Lea [Lea], i carucate ; Salewic [Salwick], I caru- cate ; Clistun [Clifton], 2 carucates ; Neutune [Newton (with Scales)], 2 carucates ; Frechel- tun [Freckleton], 4 carucates ; Rigbi [Ribby (with Wrea)], 6 carucates ; Chicheham [Kirk- ham], 4 carucates; Treueles [Treales (with Wharles and Roseacre)], 2 carucates ; Westbi [Westby], 2 carucates; Plunton [(Field) Plumpton], 2 carucates; Widetun [Weeton], 3 carucates ; Pres [Preese], 2 carucates ; Wartun [Warton], 4 carucates ; Lidun [Lytham], 2 carucates; Meretun [(Great and Little) Marton], 6 carucates; Latun [Lay- ton (with Wardbreck)], 6 carucates; Stain- inghe [Staining (now Hardhorn, with Newton)], 6 carucates; Carlentun [Carleton], 4 caru- cates; Biscopham [Bispham (with Norbreck)], 8 carucates ; Rushale [Rossall], 2 carucates ; Brune [Bourn Hall], 2 carucates; Torentun [Thornton], 6 carucates ; Poltun [Poulton-le- Fylde], 2 carucates; Singletun [Great and Little Singleton], 6 carucates; Greneholf [Greenhalgh (with Thistleton)], 3 carucates ; Eglestun [Great Eccleston], 4 carucates ; another Eglestun [Little Eccleston], 2 caru- cates ; Edeleswic [Elswick] , 3 carucates ; In- scip [Inskip], 2 carucates ; Sorbi [Sowerby], i carucate ; Aschebi [a lost vill involved in Myerscough], i carucate; Michelescherche [St. Michael-on-Wyre], I carucate; Catrehala [Cat- terall], 2 carucates; Clactune [Claughton], 2 carucates ; Neuhuse [Newsham], i carucate ; Pluntun [Woodplumpton], 5 carucates ; Broc- tun [Broughton], i carucate ; Witingheham [Whittingham], 2 carucates ; Bartun [Barton], 4 carucates ; Gusansarghe [Goosnargh], i caru- cate ; Halctun [Haighton], i carucate ; Trele- 1 In this county manors and berewicks are indicated in the survey by the letters M. and B., with a numeral when the entry refers to more than one manor. 8 Then follow details of the manor of Bolton in Wharfedale (six lines at the head of col. 2). felt [Threlfall, in Goosnargh], i carucate ; Watelei [Wheatley (with Thornley)], i caru- cate ; Chipinden [Chipping and Chippingdale], 3 carucates; Actun [Aighton], I carucate;3 Fiscuic [Fishwick], I carucate ; Grimesarge [Grimsargh (with Brockholes)], 2 carucates ; Ribelcastre [Ribchester], 2 carucates * ; Bilewrde [Dilworth], 2 carucates ; Suenesat [Swainseat, in Nether Wyresdale], I carucate ; Fortune [For- ton], I carucate ; Crimeles [Crimbles], i caru- cate ; Cherestanc [Garstang], 6 carucates 6 ; Rodeclif [Upper Rawcliffe (with Tarnicar], 2 carucates ; another Rodeclif [Middle Raw- cliffe], 2 carucates ; a third Rodeclif [Out Raw- cliffe], 3 carucates ; Hameltune [Hambleton], 2 carucates ; Stalmine [Stalmine (with Stainall)], 4 carucates ; Pressouede [Preesall (with Hack- insall)], 6 carucates ; Midehope [Mythop, a hamlet of Weeton], i carucate. All these vills belong (jacent) to Prestune, and (there are) three churches.6 Of these (vills) sixteen are inhabited by a few people, but it is not known how many the inhabitants are. The rest are waste. Roger of Poitou had (this). M. In HALTUN [Halton] Earl Tostig had 6 carucates of land to geld. In Aldeclif [Ald- clifFe], 2 carucates ; Tiernun [Thurnham], 2 carucates ; Hillun [Hillham, in Cockerham], I carucate ; Loncastre [Lancaster], 6 carucates ; Chercaloncastre [Kirk Lancaster],7 2 carucates ; Hoton [Hutton, in Bulk], 2 carucates ; Neutun [Newton, now in Bulk], 2 carucates ; Ovretun [Overton], 4 carucates ; Middeltun [Middle- ton], 4 carucates ; Hietune [Heaton], 4 caru- cates ; Hessam [Heysham], 4 carucates ; Oxene- clif [Oxcliffe], 2 carucates ; Poltune [Poulton- le-Sands], 2 carucates ; Toredholme [Tor- risholme], 2 carucates ; Schertune [Skerton], 6 carucates ; Bare [Bare], 2 carucates ; Sline [Slyne (with Hest)], 6 carucates ; Bodeltone [Bolton-le-Sands], 4 carucates ; Chellet [Nether Kellet and Over Keller.], 6 carucates ; Stopel- tierne [Stapleton Terne], 2 carucates ; Neuhuse [Beaumont, in Skerton ?] 2 carucates ; Chrene- forde [Carnforth], 2 carucates. All these vills belong to Hal tune [Halton]. M. In WITETUNE [Whittington] Earl Tostig had 6 carucates of land to geld. In Neutune [Newton, in Whittington], 2 carucates ; Ergune [Arkholme], 6 carucates ; Ghersinctune [Gres- singham], 2 carucates ; Hotun [Hutton Roof], 3 carucates ; Cantesfelt [Cantsfield], 4 caru- 8 Including Bailey and Chaigley. 4 Probably including Button. 6 Including Winmarleigh, Cabus, Cleveley. Nateby. and Kirkland. 6 Kirkham, Poulton-le-Fylde, and St. Michael's on Wyre. 7 An ecclesiastical manor embracing part of the town, like the manor of Kirkland in Kirkby Kendal. 288 THE HOLDERS OF LANDS 2 carucates ; Clivertun [Crivelton, in Newton, in Yarlside], 4 carucates ; Ouregrave [Orgrave], 3 carucates ; Meretun [Martin], 4 carucates ; Pennegetun [Pennington] 2 carucates ; Gerle- worde [Kirkby Ireleth] 2 carucates ; Borch [Broughton in Furness], 6 carucates ; Berretseige [Bardsea], 4 carucates ; Witingham [Whicham, Cumb.], 4 carucates ; Bodele [Bootle], 4 caru- cates ; Santacherche [Kirksanton, Cumb.], I carucate ; Hougenai [Whitbeck or part of Millom (?), Cumb.], 6 carucates. All these vills belong to Hougun [Millom, Cumb.]. f. 303. 9 M. In STERCALAND [Strickland Ketel and Strickland Roger, Westml.], Mimet [Mint House, or Mint Feet, near Kirkby Kendal, Westml.] , Cherchebi [Kirkby Kendal, Westml.] , Helsingetune [Helsington, Westml.], Steintun [Stainton, Westml.], Bodelforde [a lost hamlet of these cates ; Irebi [Ireby], 3 carucates ; Borch [Nether (?) Burrow], 3 carucates ; Lech [Leek], 3 carucates ; Borctune [Burton-in-Lonsdale, co. York], 4 carucates ; Bernulfeswic [Barla- wick, a hamlet of Burton, co. York], i caru- cate ; Inglestune [Ingleton, co. York], 6 caru- cates ; Castretune [Casterton, co. Westmor- land], 3 carucates ; Berebrune [Barbon, co. Westmorland], 3 carucates ; Sedberge [Sed- bergh, co. York], 3 carucates ; Tiernebi [Thirnby, in Whittington], 2 carucates. All these vills belong to Witetune [Whittington]. 1 2 M. In OUSTEWIC [ Austwick, co. York] and Heldetune [Halgtone1 (?) co. York], Clapeham [Clapham, co. York], Middeltun [Middleton-in-Lonsdale, co. Westml.], Manz- serge [Mansergh, co. Westml.], Cherchebi [Kirkby-Lonsdale, Westml.], Lupetun [Lupton, Westml. Holme Westml. [Warton These Torfin had as twelve manors, there are 43 carucates to geld. 4 M. In BENETAIN [Bentham, Yorks.], Win- inctune [Wennington], Tathaim [Tatham], Fareltun [Farleton], Tunestalle (Tunstall], M. In ULVRESTON [Ulverston] Turulf (had) Chetel had 4 manors and in them are 18 caru- 6 carucates of land to geld, cates to geld and 3 churches.* In BODELTUN [Bolton with Adgarley], 6 caru- M. In HOUGUN [Millom,' co. Cumberland] cates. In Dene [Dendron], I carucate. Earl Tostig had 4 carucates of land to geld. In and cuaata respectively7 and the correctness of Chilvestreuic [Killerwick, m Monsell, par. the identity of the respective vills belonging to Mil- lom, Furness, and Cartmel, and the fact of the reduc- tion of rating, may be proved by the great inquest of service of A.D. 1212, which assigns 20 J carucates (half Furness) to the heir of William, son of Michael de Furness, and a like extent (making in all 41 caru- cates) to the abbot of Furness. To William Marshall, to whom King John had given Cartmel, are assigned 9 carucates of land. — Testa de Nevill (Rec. Com.), 406^, 407. (2) The quo viarranto rolls afford conclusive evi- dence of the antiquity even in 1292 of the jurisdiction and prerogative of Millom as a manorial lordship. By the verdict of a jury the lords of Millom were declared to have exercised from time out of mind free chase between the waters of Esk and Duddon, half the chattels of felons convicted in the court of Millom, gallows at Millom, and amends of the assize of ale broken, and infangenethef in Millom, Seaton (Hall), Bootle, Kirksanton, 'Bretteby,' andSilecroft (p. 123^). The erection of Dalton-in-Furness and Gleaston into centres of feudal administration belongs to 2O carucates of land to geld. M. In CHERCHEBI [Cartmel] Duuan (had) 6 carucates to geld. Kirkby Ireleth], 2 carucates ; Sourebi [Sowerby Hall], 3 carucates ; Hietun [Heaton, in Dalton], 4 carucates ; Daltune [Dalton in Furness], 2 carucates ; Warte [Wart, in Dalton], 2 caru- cates ; Neutun [Higher and Nether Newton, in Cartmel], 6 carucates ; Walletun [Walton Hall, in Cartmel], 6 carucates ; Suntun [in Hawcoat], 2 carucates ; Fordebodele [Fordbootle, in Yarl- side], 2 carucates ; Rosse [Roose, a hamlet in Yarlside] 6 carucates ; Hert [Hart Carrs, in Leece], 2 carucates ; Lies [Leece], 6 carucates ; another Lies [Leece], 2 carucates ; Glassertun [Gleaston], 2 carucates ; Steintun [Stainton], 1 Burton's Monasticon Ebor. p. 369. s Bentham, Tatham, and Tunstall. 3 The identity of Witingham with Whicham, Bodele with Bootle, and Santacherche with Kirksan- ton, all in Cumberland, needs no remark. That of Hougun with Millom and Hougenai with Whitbeck rests upon the following considerations : — (i) The number of carucates in Hougun, Cherchebi, Ulvrestun, and Bodeltun (comprising Furness, Cartmel, and Millom) amount to 119 carucates, of which the 5 vills assigned to Cumberland contain 19 carucates. The hundred carucates which remain may with certainty be identified and apportioned — to Furness 82 carucates, and to Cartmel 18 carucates. This rating was reduced after Domesday to 41 carucates period much later than Domesday. Therefore the temporary association of Millom, Furness, and Cartmel under the ownership of Tostig made the existing manor and court of Millom the natural caput of these regions for administrative purposes and for the collection of Danegeld and all other issues of land. (3) There is apparently some etymological connexion between Hougun (O. Norse Haugr, a mound, a hill) and Millom (O. Norse Melr, a sandhill, and holmr, here meaning a ' meadow on the shore.') 289 37 A HISTORY OF LANCASHIRE EURVICSCIRE [YORKSHIRE] THE LAND OF ROGER OF POITOU1 col. ii. 2 M. In LANESDALE [Lonsdale]2 and COCRE- HAM [Cockerham] Ulf and Machel had 2 caru- cates to geld. 1 Col. i contains the survey of Roger's lands in Craven ; Col. 2, the manor of Gretlintone and its members in the district adjoining Craven known as Bowland. Next follow three ' Lancaster ' entries. 2 Perhaps Bank Houses and Cockersand, between the rivers Lune and Cocker. 3 M. In ESTUN [Ashton, near Lancaster] Cliber, Machern, and Ghilemichel had 6 caru- cates to geld. In Ellhale [Ellel], 2 carucates. In Scozforde [Scotforth], 2 carucates. M. In BIEDUN [Beetham, Westml.], Earl Tostig had 6 carucates to geld. Now Roger of Poitou has (it) and Ernuin the priest under him. In Jalant [Yealand], 4 carucates ; Fareltun [Farleton, Westml.], 4 carucates ; Prestun [Preston Richard, Westml.], 3 carucates ; Bere- wic [Berwick], 2 carucates ; Hennecastre [Hin- caster, Westml.], 2 carucates ; Evreshaim [Hever- sham, Westml.], 2 carucates ; Lefvenes [Levens, Westml.], 2 carucates. 290 FEUDAL BARONAGE THE growth of the present county of Lancaster out ot the debatable lands lying on the borders of the ancient kingdoms of Mercia, Northufnbria, and Cumbria, has been touched upon under the Introduction to the Domesday of Lancashire, where indications of the formation of the later baronies have been slightly traced ; but no account of these baronies would be complete without a few words upon the origin and early history of the honour of Lancaster, which extended, from the time of its creation, into eight counties, besides embracing the whole of what is now Lancashire. The Domesday fief of Roger of Poitou, after undergoing some modification after 1086, and again after 1102, became the main con- stituent of the honour of Lancaster, also known during the twelfth century as the ' honour of Count Roger of Poitou.' The creation of this honour, by consolidating and establishing the redistribution of north-western England, made between 1086 and 1090, decided the boundaries of this and the adjoining counties, casting once for all into this county Furness and Cartmel,1 which geographically belong more properly to Westmorland ; the parish of Warton, which had belonged to Kendal ; Lonsdale and Amounderness (or ' Lancaster,'8 as these districts were frequently described), which had been surveyed in Domesday under Yorkshire ; and ' the land between Ribble and Mersey,' which, although a distinct region from Cheshire3 in Domesday, had been surveyed as a district attached to that county. In 1 102 the honour of Count Roger fell by forfeiture into the hands of Henry I. The question at once arises, What were then the component parts of that honour ? Did it comprise the fief which Roger had held before the survey was made, or had the changes of 1086-1090 carved out the entire fief which was afterwards known as the honour of Lancaster ? A charter of Roger to the abbey of Sees, dated 1094, throws some light upon the question. In it Count Roger bestows on the brethren of that house the churches of Heysham and Preston in this county, of Stainsby in Derbyshire, of Cotgrave and Crophill in Nottinghamshire, of Weekley in Northamptonshire, of Kelsey, Wellingore, Navenby, and Boothby in Lincolnshire, and the church of St. Peter in Lincoln.* Four of these manors, Weekley,6 Wellingore, 1 On 17 January, 1258, writs of military summons were issued to the marchers of Cartmel and Kendal in common with those of Northumberland, Cumberland, and Westmorland. Close R. 22 Hen. III. m. 12 d. 8 When itinerant justices were assigned in 1 176 to visit the counties of England in six circuits, ' Loncastre ' was one of those comprised in the sixth circuit. Reg. Hoveden (Rolls. Ser.), ii. 88. In 1179, when justices were assigned to hear the complaints of the people, ' Inter Rible et Meresee ' and ' Loncastre ' were included in the last of the four circuits. Ibid. ii. 191. 8 In the confirmation charter of Henry I. to Pontefract Priory, Whalley, Clitheroe, Colne, and Burnley are described as lying in ' Cestreschira.' Chartul. of Pontefract, Yorks. Rec. Soc. xxv. 102. * Chartul. of St. Martin of Sees, 103^. The church of St. Peter belonged to 'Albert 'in Domesday. (Dom. Bk. i. 336^). This was probably one of the churches of Albert Grelley, tithes of which were given to St. Martin of Sdes. It was given to the priory of Wenghale, in Lincolnshire, a cell of St. Martin of S6es, probably founded before 1086 by Roger of Poitou, who gave to it one carucate of land in Kelsey. Rtt.Hundred. (Rec. Com.), i. 328, 370. 6 V. C. H. Northants, \. 307^. A HISTORY OF LANCASHIRE Navenby, and Boothby, had belonged to the king at the time of Domesday, the church of Wellingore then belonging to the church of St. Peter in Lincoln.1 We have therefore good evidence that Roger's Domesday fief had been augmented by additions from the royal demesne between 1086 and 1094.* All the places named in this important charter afterwards belonged to the honour of Lancaster,8 except Weekley in Northamptonshire, and that also appears to have passed to Stephen of Blois, but as a member of the honour of Mortain and not of Lancaster.4 As regards this county it cannot be doubted that the whole was in Roger's possession in 1102 and passed in its entirety to Stephen. If doubt exists as to every region of the county having been in Roger's possession, it would be in reference to Furness ; but even this uncertainty is set at rest by a charter of John of Mortain which refers to Furness Fells as having been held by Roger of Poitou, and after- wards by Count Stephen.6 Four great manors of Leicestershire which were crown lands in Domesday6 belonged to the count of Mortain when the Leicestershire survey of r 1 24-9 was made.7 It is impossible to say whether these were given to Roger of Poitou by Rufus or to Stephen of Blois by Henry I. ; nor is there any certainty when Thorp Constantine in Stafford- shire, Kirkby in Kesteven and some other Lincolnshire manors, Anston in Yorkshire, and Drakelow in Derbyshire, were added to the honour.8 The same uncertainty exists as to the exact period when Roger's three Essex manors, some part of his Suffolk possessions, Willoughby in Nottingham- shire, Lound and * Blanghesbi ' in Derbyshire, passed from his honour. Two facts which may possibly have some bearing upon the early history of the honour call for notice here: (i) Towards the end of Stephen's reign Ranulf Gernons, earl of Chester, confirmed Howick, in the parish of Penwortham, to the monks of Evesham, to enjoy it as fully as they had held it ' tempore comitis Rogeri Pictavensis et tempore Rannulfi comitis patris mei.' 9 This assertion that Ranulf Meschin had held the land between Ribble and Mersey at some period between 1102 and 1118, in the absence of any confirmatory evidence, should be received with caution. (2) In 1176 the sheriff of Lancaster accounted for the farm of half the manor of Marton in Amounderness as an escheat of the fee of Peverel.10 In 1199 the sheriff claimed allowance, when accounting for the farm of the honour, 'for £10 which he was wont to receive yearly by the hand of the sheriff of Notting- ham towards the farm of the county of Lancaster,' this sum representing the third penny of the counties of Notts and Derby which John had given to William Ferrers when creating him earl of Derby.11 The inclusion of the 1 Dom. Bit. i. wjb. 9 The Lindsey Survey shows that Stephen of Mortain also held in Lincolnshire 1 1 bovates in Wadding- ham which had been crown land and land of the king's thegns in 1086, 4 bovates in Clisby and 4 bovates in Howsham, which had been crown land in 1 086. 8 Testa de Nevil! (Rec. Com.), 325^, 326. * V. C. H. Northants, i. 387. 6 Coticher of Furness, Chetham Soc. (New Ser.), vols. 9 and II, pp. 63, 419. * Dom. Bk. i. 230. 7 Round, Feudal England, 202-3. 8 For details of other manors which were members of this honour — not held by Roger of Poitou — cf. Lane, and Ches. Rec. Soc. vol. 48, pp. 99-114. 9 Chartul.of Evesham, Cott. MSS. Vesp. B. xxiv. fol. 7 56 ; Farrer, Lanes. Pipe £.319. The monks had received Howick from Roger of Poitou. Harl. MSS. No. 3,763, fol. 58. 10 Farrer, Lanes. Fife R. 3 1 . ' The vills of Ashton (near Preston) and the two Marions (in Amounder- ness) are escheats of the king of the honour of Peverel. The earl of Ferrers holds them. The same Earl William holds Blackrod of the same honour.' Exch. K. R. Kts. fees, \, m. 4. 11 Farrer, Lanes. Pipe R. 104-5, 108 ; Tait, Medieval Manchester, 179 ». 292 JOHN, COUNT OF MORTAZN, c. 1183-1199. SEALS OF FEUDAL BARONS OF LANCASHIRE. — PLATE I. To face page 292 FEUDAL BARONAGE third penny of these counties in the farm of the honour of Lancaster is difficult to explain except on the supposition that when Henry II. gave the honour to his younger son, John of Mortain, he added this sum in augmenta- tion of the issues of the honour. The tenure of three Lancashire manors by the Peverels, as part of their honour of Nottingham, seems to suggest that Henry I. had given these manors to William Peverel before he gave the honour to his nephew, Stephen of Blois.1 The date of the grant of the honour of Lancaster to Stephen can only be surmised, as there are no charters of Henry of later date than 1 102," nor of Stephen of earlier date than 1 123,* to tell us who was in possession of the honour during the years intervening between these dates. But we know from the Lindsey Survey that in, or perhaps a year or two before, 1118, Stephen was in possession of the lands in Lindsey which had belonged to the honour of Count Roger. The principal acts recorded of Stephen, whilst count of Mortain, in reference to the honour, were the foundation in 1123 at Tulketh, near Preston, of a monastery in connexion with the abbey of Savigny in Mortain;* a confirmation to Robert de Molyneux of Sefton of his land in Downlither- land; 6 the translation in 1127 of the monks from Tulketh to Furness and their endowment with half the land of Furness; 8 the re-grant in 1 123 of the church of St. Oswald at Winwick to Nostell Priory, which Roger of Poitou had formerly granted; 1 the infeudation of the ancestor of Leon de Manvers in lands in Anston in Yorkshire, and in Holme and Gamston in Nottingham- shire.8 These grants were all made while Stephen was count of Mortain. The Pipe Roll of 1 130 records some important agreements made in the king's court by some of Stephen's principal thegns between Ribble and Mersey with their chief lord.9 As king he confirmed his grant of Furness to the monks from Savigny and also confirmed to them the grant of Muncaster made by William de Lancaster, ' quas est de feodo meo,' words which suggest that Stephen had received Coupland also, when he acquired the honour of Lancaster.10 The history of the honour during Stephen's reign presents many difficulties. Between 1141 and 1143 we find David of Scotland in possession of the land north of the Ribble,11 and in 1 147 we find the earl of Chester in possession of the land between Ribble and Mersey.1* The former claimed ' Lancaster ' as part of the ancient kingdom of Northumbria; the latter had either forcibly seized the southern region or claimed it on the grounds of a former grant to Ranulf Meschin, the possibility of which we have hinted at above. In the former case, which is the more probable, the earl's possession of this region may have dated from the time between 1 1 40 and 1 1 46, when 1 It has been suggested by Mr. Planche (The Cony, and his Companions, ii. 269) that Adeline de Lancaster, wife of William Peverel of Nottingham, was a daughter of Roger of Poitou. If this were so, a more probable explanation of the connexion of these manors with the honour of Peverel would be that they had formed part of Adeline's endowment. Farrer, Lanes. Pipe R. 382. * Ibid. 427 ; Symton of Durham (Rolls Scr.), ii. 267. Ibid. ii. 267. The Coucher of Furness gives the date as 1124. (p. 8). Farrer, Lanes. Pipe R. 427. 6 Ibid. 301. Man. Angl vi. 92 ; Testa de Nevill (Rec. Com.), 405^. Lane, and Ches. Rec. Soc. xlviii. 105. * Farrer, Lanes. Pipe R. I. i Coucher of Furness (Chetham Soc.), 125. " Tail, Medieval Manchester, 167-8. i Ibid. 169 ; Farrer, Lanes. Pipe R. 275-7. 293 A HISTORY OF LANCASHIRE he took advantage of the anarchy to possess himself of ' a third part of the realm,' J the regions held for a time beneath his sway extending from sea to sea and forming a great triangle with Chester at its apex and Lincoln and Coventry at the extremities of its base.8 We may briefly note the recorded facts which probably led to the honour passing out of Stephen's hands. In February, 1136, Stephen ceded Doncaster and Carlisle to Henry, son of David of Scotland, and David then restored to Stephen the strongholds and lands which he had seized. Three years later, by the treaty of Durham, Henry was recognized by Stephen as earl of Northumberland.8 It is not improbable that David acquired the honour of Lancaster north of the Ribble by this treaty, as between 1141 and 1143 David issued charters confirming to the monks of Shrewsbury their possessions in Amounderness. Although the charters are addressed to his justices, barons, etc., of the whole honour of Lancaster,4 it is most improbable that David was at this time in possession of the remainder of the honour. In 1141 the earl of Chester made claim to Carlisle and Cumberland as part of his rightful patrimony.6 David however continued to hold Carlisle and some portion of the honour of Lancaster until May, 1 149, when the treaty of Carlisle was arranged between David, young Henry of Anjou, and the earl of Chester, one of the conditions of which included the grant to the earl by David of ' Lancaster ' north of the Ribble in exchange for the withdrawal of the earl's claim to Carlisle.6 There is no evidence that David ever held any other part of the honour than that which lay to the north of the Ribble. None of his charters to Shrewsbury Abbey relate to that abbey's possessions between Ribble and Mersey, and the earl of Chester was clearly in possession of Lancashire south of the Ribble in 1147 when he confirmed to the monks of Shrewsbury all the possessions which they had received from Roger of Poitou and his sheriff.7 The treaty at Carlisle in May, 1149, was aimed against Stephen, who had regained much of his lost position since 1 146, and the earl's desire to again humble the king explains why he was willing to accept ' Lancaster ' from David and sacrifice his cherished desire for Carlisle. But this triple alliance came to nothing, for within a few weeks of the meeting at Carlisle, Stephen, who had led his forces into Yorkshire to oppose the dangerous confederacy, won over the crafty earl by the grant of numerous castles and lordships in the Northern Midlands, including Tickhill and the honour of Blyth, the land between Ribble and Mersey, the land of Roger of Poitou from Northampton to Scotland, except the land of Roger de Montbegon in Lincolnshire, and the whole honour of Lancaster. On 27 July, 1 149, about two months after the abortive treaty of Carlisle, and doubtless after the agreement made with Stephen, the earl at Lancaster confirmed to the priory of Lancaster all the possessions and liberties which they had received from Roger of Poitou.8 Again, in 1153 the honour was the subject of barter in the conflict between Stephen and Henry of Anjou, for just as in 1 149 Stephen had won over the earl of Chester by vast concessions, so four years later, when Henry 1 Gesta Stephani (Rolls Ser.), iii. 117. 3 Round, Engl. Hist. Rev. x. 87, 91. • Sym. of Durham (Rolls Ser.), ii. 287, 300. * Farrer, Lanes. Pipe R. 274-5. 6 J°kn ofHexbam (Twysden), 268. 6 John ofHexham, Surtees Soc. vol. 44, p. 159. 7 Farrer, Lanes. Pipe R. 277. 8 Farrer, Lanes. Pipe R. 396. Amongst the witnesses were William FitzGilbert (de Lancaster), Richard the Butler, Michael le Flemyng, and Roger Gernet, all tenants of fees lying to the north of the Ribble. 294 FEUDAL BARONAGE came again to prosecute his claim, he lured back the unscrupulous earl by grants exceeding in magnitude those conceded by Stephen.1 Henry's charter was issued at Devizes and regranted Stephen's concessions to the earl, in- cluding ' totum honorem comitis Rogeri Pictavensis ubicunque aliquid haberet,' the great honour of William Peverel and many other fiefs.8 The earl had hardly taken possession of these vast territories when death removed him from the scene, and made way for the conclusion in November of the same year of a compromise between Henry and Stephen, embodied in the treaty of Wallingford. By the promise to Stephen's only surviving son, William Earl Warenne, of all the fiefs which his father had held before he became king, including of course the honour of Lancaster, Henry disposed of the claim to the crown which the son of Stephen might have made.3 In 1 155, Henry II. was perhaps in possession of the honour during the minority of the earl of Warenne, and confirmed to Shrewsbury Abbey the gifts of ' Earl Roger, surnamed the Poitevin,' of his sheriff Godfrey, of Pain de Vilers, and of William, constable of Chester.* Very soon after this, Warenne was in possession of the honour, or of the greater part of it, for there is no record of the date when the king of Scots surrendered ' Lancaster.' This must in any case have occurred before the spring of 1158, for in January the earl accompanied Henry to Carlisle, and either in going or returning confirmed an agreement and exchange of lands made between Ewan, abbot of Furness, and his neighbour, Michael le Fleming.6 In August of the same year the earl went to Normandy, and was with the king in the Toulouse campaign of 1159. His death occurred in the retreat from Toulouse in October of the same year.8 His dealings with the honour as recorded by charters are few in number. He confirmed Broughton in Amounderness to Ughtred son of Huck, ancestor of the Singleton family,7 and gave land in Walton, Waver- tree, and Newsham, near Liverpool, to Waldeve de Walton to be his serjeant of the wapentake of West Derby.8 The honour probably formed part of his widow's dower until her re-marriage in 1164 to the king's illegitimate brother Hameline.9 It was then resumed by the crown, and from Michaelmas 1164 until Midsummer 1189 the issues were yearly accounted for in the Pipe Rolls. Immediately after his accession Richard granted to his brother John, count of Mortain, amongst other vast possessions the castle and honour of Lancaster, with the county.10 For the next five years it remained in John's hands. Many of his charters of this period have been preserved, and the terms of many others are recoverable from his confirmations of former grants, made after he succeeded to the crown.11 In 1194 the honour was resumed by the crown in consequence of John's rebellion. The king of Scots promptly took occasion to press his claim to the county together with North- 1 Round, Engl. Hist. Rev. x. 91. * Farrer, Lanes. Pipe R. 370. 8 Rymer, Feedera (Rec. Com.), i. 18. 4 Farrer, Lanes. Pipe R. 284 ; Tait, Medieeval Manchester, 174. 6 Farrer, Lanes. Pipe R. 315 ; Duchy of Lane. Anct. D., L. 342. 6 Eyton, Itin. of Hen. II. 40, 48 ; Round, Cal. of Doc. France, 285. 7 Farrer, Lanes. Pipe R. 430. 8 Testa de Nevill (Rec. Com.), 403. 9 Farrer, Lanes. Pipe R. xii ; Lanes. Inquests (Rec. Soc.), vol. 48, p. 23. During this period, and in fact during the earl's absence in France, Reginald de Warenne seems to have had the charge of the honour Ibid. 286. 1" Benedictus (Rolls Ser.), ii. 78 ; Hoveden (Rolls Ser.), iii. 6. 11 Farrer, Lanes. Pipe R. passim ; Chart. R. (Rec. Com.), si. 24-8. 295 A HISTORY OF LANCASHIRE umberland, Cumberland, and Westmorland ' de jure predecessorum suorum,'1 but without effect as regards this county. The knights taken in Lancaster castle upon its surrender — by Theobald Walter, as we may suppose — were summoned to Winchester to make their peace with Richard on the day after the king's second coronation.8 The Pipe Rolls of this and the following year contain numerous references to the fines made ' pro habenda benevolentia Regis.'8 From 1 194 until 1267 the honour remained in the crown. The reign of John was an important period in the history of the honour. Primarily for his own advantage the king took steps to increase the revenue and develop the resources of the county, some of his measures — as, for instance, the foundation of the burgh and port of Liverpool* and the charter of liberties to the knights, thegns, and free tenants dwelling within the metes of the forest of the honour of Lancaster6 — having far-reaching consequences in the future development of the county. In the intervening period before the grant of the honour and county to Henry's youngest son, Edmund, on 30 June, 1267, we may notice the grant of the king's demesne land between Ribble and Mersey in 1229 to Ranulf, earl of Chester and Lincoln, for a goshawk yearly,6 which, upon the partition of the earl's possessions in 1233, fell to the share of William de Ferrers, earl of Derby, in right of his wife, Agnes, the third sister of earl Ranulf.7 After the death of Edmund, the honour descended to his son, Thomas of Lancaster, upon whose attainder and death in March, 1322, it escheated to the crown. By Act of Parliament on 7 March, 1327, the attainder of Earl Thomas was reversed, and his brother, Henry Plantagenet, succeeded to his title and possessions as earl of Lancaster, earl of Leicester, and High Steward of England. Henry died on 22 Sep- tember, 1345, and was succeeded by his only son Henry, who was created duke of Lancaster in 1351 with Palatine jurisdiction for life within the county.8 Upon his death in 1361 the honour reverted to the crown, but his daughter, and eventually sole heir, Blanche, having married John Plantagenet, styled ' of Gaunt,' fourth (but third surviving) son of Edward III., her husband claimed and obtained the honour, and finally, in 1362, the entirety of Duke Henry's possessions, being in the same year created duke of Lancaster and endowed with like Palatine jurisdiction.9 On 28 February, 1377, the county was erected into a Palatinate for the life of the duke, and in 1396 these rights were further extended and settled in perpetuity on the dukes of Lancaster. Gaunt died on 3 February, 1399, when his only son, by Blanche, his first wife, succeeded as duke of Lancaster, and on 30 September following was elected king, as Henry IV., when this and all his honours merged in the crown.10 One of Henry's first acts as king ' was to grant in Parliament a charter, in which the lands and possessions of the Duchy of Lancaster were declared to be a separate inheritance distinct from the lands and possessions of the crown. The prerogatives of the king were annexed to all the possessions so separated, but .... the ordering of all matters connected therewith was 1 Hoveden (Rolls Ser.), iii. 243. * 18 April 1194. Ibid. 243. « Farrer, Lanes. Pipe R. 77, 89. * Pat. R. (Rec. Com.), 7$b. * Chart. R. (Rec. Com.), 25 ; Farrer, Lanes. Pipe £.418. c Cal. Chart. R.\. 101. 7 Cal. Close R. 1231-1234, 169, 267, 283 ; Excerpta e Rot. Fin. (Rec. Com.), i. 267. In 1251 William de Ferrers obtained a charter of free warren in his demesne lands in the manors of Liverpool, West Derby, Everton, Great Crosby, Wavertree, Salford, Bolton le Moors, Pendleton, Broughton, Sweinshurst, Burton- wood, and Chorley. Cal. Chart. R. i. 373. « Cokayne, Comp, Peerage, v. 7 n. » Ibid. 8. "> Ibid. 9. 296 FEUDAL BARONAGE vested in an establishment called the Chancellor and Council of the Duchy.' l Henry IV. added no new possessions to the Duchy as enjoyed by his father, but Henry V., by a statutory charter granted in Parliament in the second year of his reign, annexed and incorporated the inheritance of the house of Bohun, which he had derived by hereditary right from his mother, with the inheritance of the Duchy of Lancaster, which had descended to him from his father. By this measure the Bohun possessions were absorbed in the greater estate and thenceforth clothed in like manner with all the prerogatives of the king, but in administration distinct from other lands of the crown. From the reign of Henry V. to that of our present sovereign, King Edward VIL, the rulers of this realm have enjoyed the splendid inheritance of the Duchy of Lancaster, both out of and within the county Palatine, as an estate with sovereign prerogatives entirely distinct and separate from the crown of England.9 In dealing with the feudal baronage of this county those fees have been selected for notice which at some period or another were described as baronies, and the holders of them as tenants by barony, who paid for their relief, not the knight's customary relief of five pounds for each fee, but an arbitrary sum. Not included in this category are the half knight's fee of the Moly- neux family at Sefton; the fee held in this county by the Marsey family, with three knights' fees in co. Nottingham; the extensive fee held by the family of Gernet, chief foresters of Lancashire; and the fee comprising the south-eastern half of Furness, which was held by the Fleming family, and was long known as Micheland, from Michel le Fleming, the first grantee. These may possibly have ranked as baronies at one time or another during the first century after Domesday, but of this there is no evidence, nor can the enjoyment of special franchises, nor inclusion amongst the ' barones comitatus ' of the holders of these fees, be considered as sufficient justification to include their fees among the Lancashire baronies.8 THE BARONY OF THE CONSTABLE OF CHESTER WITHIN THE LYME* The earliest infeudation within the district afterwards known as Lan- cashire of which there is any indication was that by which four hides and one carucate of land between Ribble and Mersey were conferred upon the constable of Hugh Lupus, earl of Chester,* but whether by the Conqueror himself or by Roger of Poitou, after he had received his English fief, and whether to Nigel, the first constable, or to William, his son and successor, it is not possible to determine.8 The inclusion among the barons of Roger of Poitou of a great Cheshire feudatory — who also held lands in distant parts of England under the earl of Chester — was probably due to the dictates of 1 Dep. Keeper's ^oth Rep. p. vi. J Ibid. W. Hardy, Charters of the Duchy of Lane, in which volume all the charters and acts of Parlia- ment affecting the Duchy from 1342 to 1558 are set forth in full. 3 Cf. Tail, Medieval Manchester, pp. 182-197. * Dugdale, Baronage, i. 100 ; Cotton MSS. Cleop. C. iii. f. 332 b (Man. Ang. vi. 315). 6 See the chapter on Dom. Bk. p. 280 above. 8 The statement which originated with Dr. Kuerden that William fitz Nigel acquired Widnes by mar- riage with the heiress of Yarfrith, a supposed pre-Conquest baron of Widnes, obtains no confirmation from Domesday nor from any other known record, and may well be discredited. I 297 38 A HISTORY OF LANCASHIRE policy, but an infeudation before the commencement of Roger's tenure of the land between Ribble and Mersey remains a possibility. In the absence of details in the survey it is only possible to hazard a guess that the i$ hide in West Derby hundred comprised the manors of Knowsley, Roby, and Kirkby, and the 2| hides and i carucate in Warrington hundred, the manors of Widnes, Appleton, Cronton, Cuerdley, Sutton, Eccleston, and Rainhill. After the date of Domesday, but whether by Roger of Poitou or by Henry I. is uncertain, some eight additional manors between Ribble and Mersey, and perhaps also the manor of Staining in Amounderness, were added to William fitz Nigel's fief, which was thereafter known as the lordship of Widnes, and is described in the Inquest of Service of 1212 as 'four knights' fees of the barony of the constable of Chester within the Lyme,' l that is, of the Cheshire honour of Halton. This lordship or barony occupied the curious position of being territorially dependent upon the Cheshire honour of Halton and feudally dependent upon the honour of Lancaster.8 Few acts of William fitz Nigel in connexion with his Lancashire manors remain upon record. An obscure manuscript compiled by Christopher Towneley contains a copy of a charter, executed before 1117, by which William fitz Nigel founded a priory of Austin canons at Runcorn,8 and endowed it with the churches of Periton, co. Oxford, and of Castle Donning- ton, co. Leicester, lands in the counties of Chester, Lincoln, and Leicester, and in this county two oxgangs of land in Widnes, with common right of the underwoods and feeding grounds belonging to Appleton and in Cuerdley, with two-thirds of the demesne tithes in ' Sutton beyond Meree ' (in the parish of Prescot), which Thurstan gave, and two-thirds of the demesne tithes in Staining, in Amounderness, with the moiety of that vill, namely three ploughlands.4 His death probably occurred before H3O,6 but he was certainly living in 1125, when he attested Walter de Gant's confirmation of his former gifts to Bardney.8 He is described in another charter7 of Walter de Gant as 'nepos meus,' which suggests that he was cousin-german of Walter. This is rendered the more probable from the cousin's sister being styled Agnes de Gant.8 The connexion may have been by descent from common grand- parents. His son and successor, William fitz William, removed the priory of Runcorn to Norton, and further endowed it with the vill of Norton in exchange for Runcorn and Staining,9 which latter vill was afterwards bestowed upon the abbey of Stanlaw. He also confirmed his father's gifts to Norton Priory by a charter executed between 1138 and ii5o,10 and he or his suc- cessor also gave the moiety of the demesne tithes of Widnes and two oxgangs of land in Tarbock. All these gifts were confirmed by Henry II. in a charter which passed at Wallingford about 10 April, 1155." William fitz William died in Normandy, so says the chronicler of Norton,13 presumably before 1 149, when Eustace fitz John, his successor, attested a charter of Ranulf, earl of 1 Testa de Nevill (Rec. Com), 403^. 8 Dep. Keeper's 43^ Rep. App. 212-30 ; P.R.O. Lists and Indices, v. 1-9, 75-88. » Towneley MS. Chetham Lib. C. 8, 8. * Ibid. 1 An entry under co. Leicester, in the Pipe R. 0/31 Hen. 7. (Rec. Com.), p. 88, seems to show that he was dead before 1 1 30. It records that William fitz William, the constable, rendered account of 40 marks for a final agreement which the king had made for him against the earl of Chester. « Mm. Angl. \. 6306. 1 Ibid. 629^. » Ormerod, Hist, of Ches. (edit. Helsby), i. 69 ij. • Ibid. 10 Ibid. 11 MM. Angl. vi. 3 1 4*. w Ibid. 3 1 5 J. 298 FEUDAL BARONAGE Chester, as ' constabularius Cestrie.'1 Dying without issue, William's inheri- tance was divided between his two sisters, Agnes, who had married Eustace fitz John,8 lord of Knaresborough (being his second wife), and Maud, who had married Albert Grelley, lord of Manchester.8 The share of the inheritance which fell to Eustace fitz John comprised the lordship of Halton, in Cheshire — except Daresbury — and the lordship of Widnes in this county — except Cuerdley — together with the office of constable of Chester, which lands and office were duly confirmed to him by Ranulf, earl of Chester.* He was slain in an ambuscade of Welshmen at Counsylth, near Basingwerk, in July, 1 1 57, whilst engaged in the invasion of North Wales.6 Richard, his son by Agnes his second wife, succeeded him as constable of Chester, and apparently attested a royal charter in the autumn of 1 1 57, at Falaise.6 The date of his death is unknown, but probably occurred before 1163, in which year, or very soon after, a royal charter was attested by his son John, who had succeeded him as constable of Chester, and in 1 166 gave 1,000 marks to have the lands of his mother, Albreda de Lisours, lady of Sprotborough.7 In 1172 John, constable of Chester, founded the Cistercian abbey of Stanlaw, in Cheshire,8 and endowed it with the vill of Staining, in Amounder- ness, and other estates.9 Early in 1 1 8 1 he was sent with Richard de Peche to take charge of Dublin after the recall of Hugh de Lacy.10 To the Knights Templars he gave one ploughland, probably representing a third part of the manor of Great Woolton. The remainder of the manor he conferred upon the Knights Hospitallers.11 To Salop Abbey he confirmed the third part of the vill of Thelwall, which his predecessors, William the constable and William his son, had given to the monks of that house.13 He also founded the hospital of Castle Donnington.13 He was present at the coronation of Richard on 3 September, i iSg.14 He married Alice, daughter of Robert de 1 Farrer, Lanes. Pipe R. 319. * Mon. Angl. vi. 955. 8 Ibid. 315 b ; Duchy of Lane. Misc. -g%. * Ormerod, Hut. of Ches. (edit. Helsby), i. 52. 6 Witt. ofNewburgb (Rolls. Ser.), ii. c. 5. Agnes his widow remarried Robert fitz Count, who styled himself constable of Chester once at least. Man. Angl. iii. 434 ; vi. 955-6. 6 Round, Cat. ofDocts. France, 215. 7 Pipe R. Soc. ix. 51. At Michaelmas, 1166, John, constable of Chester, paid 100 marks of the greater sum of 1,000 marks for livery of his mother's lands. Albreda de Lisours married secondly, William de Clerfait, and thirdly, about 1170, William fitz Godric, by whom she had issue William fitz William, lord of Sprotborough in 1194, who was ancestor of the earls Fitzwilliam (Pipe R. 24 Hen. II. Ebor.). William de Clerfait, whose name occurs on the Pipe Roll of 2 Hen. 11. (Rec. Com.), p. 27, had married for his first wife Avice de Tanai, by whom he had Sibil, who married Ralph de Till! ; Mon. Angl. v. 487; Hunter, Deanery of Doncaster, i. 333 ; Round, Peerage Studies, 48. William fitz Godric was lord of Emley, co. York. His name occurs in the Pipe Roll of 1170 in an entry repeated until 1176, when he renders account of £100 to have the mother of John the constable to wife with her lands. Pipe R. Soc. xxv. 102. His father appears to have been Godric, son of Ketelbern, or Chetelbert. Burton, Mon. Ebor. 332 ; Pipe R. 31 Hen. I. (Rec. Com.), 33. 8 Ann. Mon. (Rolls Ser.), i. 187, the foundation charter is dated 1278. Coucher of Whalley, Chetham Soc. x. i. » Ibid. xi. 419. 10 Hweden (Rolls Ser.), ii. 253. Round, Geof. de Mandevilk, 390-1. 11 Inf. of 1212, Lane, and Ches. Rec. Soc. vol. 48, p. 41. His brother, Robert fitz Richard, was prior of the English Hospitallers from about 1187 to 1214, but not continuously. Hist. Soc. Lanes, and Ches. N.S. vol. 1 8, p. i"j6n. i* Reg. of Salop Abbey, MS. penes W. Farrer,. No. 317. is Mon. Angl. vi. 765. i* Benedict (Rolls Ser.), ii. 80. 299 A HISTORY OF LANCASHIRE Essex, by Alice his wife, sister of Aubrey de Vere, earl of Oxford,1 and died at Tyre in the Holy Land during a crusade in the year 1190.* Roger, his son, having succeeded him as constable of Chester, was in 1191 appointed by the chancellor, during the king's absence, governor of the castles of Not- tingham and Tickhill. During the struggle between John, count of Mortain, and the chancellor, about Midsummer, 1191, two of the constable's knights whom he had left in charge of these castles treacherously surrendered them to John.* For this act the constable proposed to hang them, but being unable to find them he hanged two of their associates instead. In revenge John laid his lands waste as far as lay in his power.* Upon the death of Robert de Lacy, the last of his line in direct descent, in 1193, the Lacy fee, including the honour of Clitheroe with the liberty of Rochdale, in this county, and the honour of Pontefract with the liberty of Bowland, in Yorkshire, descended by his will to Albreda de Lisours, his cousin.6 The year following, by fine made at Winchester (21 April), Albreda settled the whole estate which had been Robert de Lacy's upon her grandson, Roger, the constable, who thereupon assumed the name of Lacy and became possessed of the honours of Clitheroe and Pontefract, in addition to his own patrimony of Halton and Widnes. The year following he paid a fine of 2,000 marks for the king's confirmation of this settlement, and had livery of Robert de Lacy's possessions — which had been in the king's hand during part of the year 1 194 — except the castle of Pontefract.8 The lordship of Sprotborough, a member of the honour of Tickhill and the inheritance of Albreda de Lisours, appears to have been delivered to her son John, the constable, in 1 166, and to have descended to Roger, his son and heir, but by force of the fine of H94,7 it was settled upon Albreda for life, 1 Rot. tie dominabus, ed. Grimaldi, 1 5 ; Round, Geof. de Mandevllle, 393 1 ». According to the Coucher of Whalley he had in addition to his eldest son Roger, four sons, Eustace, Richard, Geoffrey, and Peter, and a daughter Alice. Some, if not all, of these five children were bastards. Coucher if Whalley, Chetham Soc. z; Ormerod, Hist. ofChes. (edit. Helsby), i. 694 £. William de Mandevill == Aubrey de Vere, cr. = Alice de Clare, dau. lain I 1141. Chamber- ,3 3, died of Gilbert de Clare, diedc. 1131. 1 William de=Beatrice. Say. (i)Geoffrey= deMande- I =Rohese de «s Vere, died | (2) Payn de Beauchamp, (i) Robert r= de Essex. I =AlicedeVere,= aged 60 in =(2) Roger 6tz Richard of Aubrey de — Vere, 1st vill, 1st i 107 (?). of B edford. ii 4-5- Warkworth. earl of Ox- earl of Es- ford. sex, died 1 "44- 1 r^ . I T^Kn fit I f Say, ancestor Say. Mandev 11, Mand mlL Beauchamp. John ht fits Eus tace, con- Roger of Vere, 2nd of Fitz Piers, earls of Es- 2nd earl of Essex, died 3rd earl of Essex, died Arms:'j2nar- stable of Chester, died IIQO. Clavering and Wark- earl of Ox- ford. Anns sex. Arms: 1 1 66. 1189. ffules, a bend.' Arms: >B*ar terlf worth. 'Quarterly, 'Quarterly, or and pie,.' or and gules, bend sable, o ver Arms : •Quarterly, guleiandor a mullet ar all a lab cl arg •nt.' or and gules, gent in the abend sable.' first quar- » Rog. de Hoveden (Rolls Ser.), iii. 88 ; Benedict (Rolls Ser.), ii. 148. 3 Rog. de Hoveden (Rolls Ser.), iii. 134, 172. 4 Benedict (Rolls Ser.), ii. 232-4. 6 Daughter of Robert de Lisours, lord of Sprotborough, by Albreda his wife, sister of Henry, father of Robert de Lacy (Whitaker, Hist, of Whalley, edit. Nichols, i. 239). « Pipe R. 7 Ric. I. Ebor. 7 Duchy of Lane. Great Coucher, ii. 1 10 ; Ormerod, Hist. ofChes. (ed. Helsby), i. 695 ; Rec. Soc. Lanes, and Ches. vol. 39, p. I. 300 FEUDAL BARONAGE with remainder to her younger son, William fitz William, by her third husband, William fitz Godric,1 to hold of Roger de Lacy by the ancient service of eight knights. In 1194 Lacy accounted of £43 1 5-r. of the scutage of his honour of Pontefract for the king's ransom,8 and the year following, in consequence of the agreement made with his grandmother, Albreda, gave the king a fine of 2,000 marks for livery of Robert de Lacy's honour of Clitheroe, with the lands and castles, except the castle of Pontefract, which the king retained in his own hand.8 In 1196 he was excused the scutage due from 8j knights' fees of the honours of Clitheroe and Widnes for the second scutage of Normandy,* but paid the quota due from his Yorkshire fees.6 He was, however, excused the quota due in that county for the third scutage of Normandy,8 and the year following had acquittance to the same scutage for his 8 J fees in this county.7 Between 1 200-1 205 he obtained three royal charters. The first restored the land which Guy de Laval and his predecessors had held since the time of King Stephen, representing twenty knights' fees of the honour of Pontefract.8 For this Roger proffered a fine of 500 marks, which was not discharged until 1207.' The second granted to him the manor and soke of Snaith, to hold for the service of one knight.10 The third granted to him a fair with liberties to be held yearly at Clitheroe on the feast day and on the morrow of St. Mary Magdalene.11 ' The constable of Chester was a notable figure in both English and Norman affairs in the early years of John's reign. He was one of those barons who swrore fealty to the king at Northampton, before the chancellor and justices, immediately after his accession.13 On 16 September, 1199, he was in the king's retinue at Bourg le Roi, in Maine,13 and in 1 200 was sent to escort William the Lion to Lincoln, and was present when the Scottish king did homage there to John on 22 November.14 In 1201 King John sent him, in company with William Marshall, earl of Striguil, each attended by zoo knights, to restrain the king's enemies in the marches of Normandy.16 During the progress of 1 The Rev. Joseph Hunter, in his South Yorkshire (i. 334), mentions a transcript, preserved among Hugh fitz William's MSS. of an agreement made between William fitz William and Roger de Lacy, at Darrington, in 6 Ric. I. respecting money to be paid in consideration of the agreement of 1194 quoted above. In a suit with Alex, de Crevequer touching lands at Hopton, near Mirfield, he is described as ' Willelmus filius Willelmi filii Godrici ' (ibid). He had a brother described as ' Thomas filius Willelmi filii Godrich 'in 1225: Close R. (Rec. Com.), ii. 74, 81. * Pipe R. 6 Ric. I. Ebor. 8 Ibid. 7 Ric. I. Ebor. 4 Farrer, Lanes. Pipe R. 94. He appears not to have acknowledged half a knight's fee in Appleton, a recognition of which Agnes Bonetable had sought against John, constable of Chester, in 1182 (ibid. 47), and with her husband, Richard de Venables, sought against Roger in 1199 (ibid. 1 06). 6 Pipe R. 6 Ric. I. Ebor. « Pipe R. 8 Ric. I. Ebor. 7 Farrer, Lanes. Pipe R. 98. 8 Duchy of Lane. Misc. Ptf. i. No. 36, m. 3. In 1203 the knights and free tenants of the fees late held by Guy de Laval in England, belonging to the honour of Pontefract, were commanded by writ to be sub- missive to the constable of Chester (Pat. R. i. 26). » Rot. de Oblat (Rec. Com.), 26, 74 ; Pipe R. 4 John, Ebor. 10 Chart. R. (Rec. Com.), 152 ; cf. Red Book of Exch. (Rolls Ser.), 490. 11 Duchy of Lane. Misc. Ptf. i. No. 36, m. 3. 13 Hoveden (Rolls Ser.), iv. 88. 18 Chart. R. (Rec. Com.), 23*. 14 Hoveden (Rolls Ser.), iv. 140, 142. 18 Ibid. iv. 163. 3OI A HISTORY OF LANCASHIRE Philip of France's campaign in 1202-3, when Normandy was lost by the English and Philip became supreme in Maine, Anjou, and Touraine, the constable of Chester was stoutly resisting a siege in the castle of Chateau Gaillard. After a strenuous resistance lasting nearly twelve months, during which the garrison were reduced to the necessity of eating horseflesh, the constable and his garrison, as a final effort, made a sortie, but were eventually taken prisoners with much difficulty on 6 March, I2O4-1 Matthew Paris relates that the French king, in recognition of the constable's gallant defence, put him in free custody.8 King John, having lent the constable £ 1,000 for his ransom,8 sent word on 3 May to the constable's knights and free tenants to raise money for repayment,* but Roger being presently liberated in exchange for Savari de Mauleon, the king appropriated the ransom.6 In reward for his services Lacy was appointed sheriff of Yorkshire and Cumberland at Michaelmas following, which offices he held until 1209," in which year he also acted as a justice before whom fines were levied.7 He was in constant attendance upon or in communication with the king, as proved by the rolls,8 and upon terms of familiarity and friendship, as shown by entries on the Prasstita Roll of sums of 4OJ. and 2§s. lost by the king to the constable whilst playing 'ad tabulas,' i.e. shovel-board, at Freemantle, on Sunday, 29 January, 1211.' In the autumn of 1210 he seems to have led an expedition against the Welsh.10 Dr. Whitaker and Mr. Ormerod repeat from the Historia Laceiorum several improbable stories relating to him.11 Roger confirmed his father's gifts to Stanlaw Abbey,12 and added of his own gift the church of Rochdale and six oxgangs of land there of the Lacy inheritance which had descended to him through his grandmother." Within his fee of Widnes he gave the manor of Little Woolton to the same abbey.1* He also enfeoffed Robert de Flaynsburgh in io§ oxgangs of land within the liberty of Rochdale in marriage with the daughter of Robert de Liversedge, and Gilbert de Lacy, of Cromwellbothum, in the same extent of land there, in marriage with Agnes, daughter of John de Hipperholme.16 His death occurred on i October, 1211, after a pro- tracted illness, during which he was invested with the monastic habit in the abbey of Stanlaw, where his remains were buried.18 Accordingly, we find that at Midsummer, 1212, when the great inquest of service was taken, his lordships of Penwortham, Clitheroe, and Widnes were in the king's hands.17 1 Matth. Paris, Chron. majora (Rolls Ser.), ii. 89, 101. * Ibid. ii. IOI. 8 Close R. (Rec. Com.), i. \b ; Rot. de liberate, 103. * Pat. R. (Rec. Com.), i. 41*. 5 Ibid. 73^. A graphic description of these events will be found in Norgate's England under the Angevin Kings, ii. 411, 417-23. A letter from John to the constable of Chester begs him to hold the castle to the uttermost. Rymer, Faedera, (Rec. Com.), i. 90. 6 Dep. Keeper's Thirty-fnt Rep. App. 276, 363. 7 Fines (Rec. Com.), i. Ixv. 8 Close, Pat. Chart, and Liberate R. (Rec. Com.), passim. » Rot. de Prtestit. (Rec. Com.), 238. 10 Ibid. 229. 1 Hist, of W 'bailey (ed. 1876), i. 241 ; Ormerod, Hist. ofChes. (ed. Helsby), i. 695^; Man. Angl. vi. 315^. 2 Coucher ofWhalley, Chetham Soc. 1 6. 3 Ibid. 135; Inq. 0/1212, Lanes, and Ches. Rec. Soc., xlviii. 40. * Coucher ofWhalley, 804 ; Inq. 0/1212, 41 . 6 Lanes. Inq. Rec. Soc. xlviii. 38-9. 16 Cott. MS. Titus F. iii. 244^, 258. His epitaph is recorded in Cott. MS. Cleop. C. 3, f. 325*. See Man. Angl. v. 648. l? Lanes. Inq. Rec. Soc. xlviii. 34-38. 302 FEUDAL BARONAGE The following particulars of the fees in this county belonging to the constable's three baronies are taken from the Inquest of I2I21 ; supplemented by that of the Gascon scutage made in 1242-3.* WEST DERBY HUNDRED Widneifee Appleton, Crouton and ) Widnes . . . . J £ knight . . 1212 ( Roger[rectius John],Con-) ( stable of Chester . } 1242-3 The earl of Lincoln's heir [Edmund de Lacy] Sutton, Eccleston, and) Rainhill . . . . J I knight. . (William, son of Matthew) | [de Daresbury] . . j William de Daresbury Knowsley, Huy ton. and ) Tarbock . . . . [ I knight. . {Richard, son of Robert i [deLathom] . . j Robert de Lathom Little Crosby £ and 55 knight Richard de Molyneux Adam de Molyneux Robert de Stockport Kirkby $ knight . . Hugh de Moreton . . . i Roger Gernet ^Thomas de Beetham Maghull T& knight . Alan de Halsall . . . Simon de Halsall Astley J0 knight Hugh de Tyldesley Henry de Tyldesley Penwortham fee Kirkdale J knight . . {Quenilda, daughter of) Roger [de Kirkdale] J William, son of William de Walton {[Robert Russell or Alanj William de Coudray North Meols J knight . . de Singleton, Alan de ^ The heir of Robert de Meols] 3 . . . . j Meols Argarmeols [now Birkdale] £ knight . . {The heirs of Richard, son) of Roger [see p. 368] J Thomas de Beetham Robert de Stockport LEYLAND HUNDRED Ulneswalton I knight . . f [Adam, son of Ulf de) { Walton]*. . . . j Warin de Walton Richard Banestre Walter de Hoole Bretherton ^ knight . [Richard the butler]6 . . Richard de Thorpe William de Brexes Thomas de Garston Simon del Pool Clayton le Woods, Pen-) wortham . . . . j A, A knight- [Gerald de Clayton]« . . Robert de Clayton Hutton £and jfoknight f[Elias de Hutton, or the) { abbot of Cockersandp} The abbot of Cockersand Longton & knight . ([Richard, son of Warin) \ de Farington]8 . . j Robert, son of Richard Longton, Ley land, and) Euxton j ^ knight Robert Bussell .... Robert Bussel Shevington, Charnock-) Richard & Welsh Whittle J J knight . . [Thurstan Banastre]9 . . The heir of Robert Banastre BLACKBURN HUNDRED Clitheroe fee Little Mitton .... & knight • • John Punchardun Wiswell and Hapton . . i knight . . f Henry de Blackburn the'j heir of William de^ Arches! 10 . . ) Adam de Blackburn Roger de Arches Testa de Nevill (Rec. Com.), 403. Farrer, Hist, of North Meols, 8. Cockersand Chartul. (dhetham Soc.), 47 1 . Cockersand Chartul. (Chetham Soc.), 408. Lanes. Inj. Rec. Soc. xlviii. 72 ». » Ibid. 396-7. * Lanes. Inq. Rec. Soc. xlviii. 36. 6 'Testa de Nevill (Rec. Com.), 403*. 8 Priory of Penwortham, Chetham Soc., o.s., xxx. 10 Lanes. Fines, Rec. Soc. xxxix. 27. 303 A HISTORY OF LANCASHIRE Clitheroe fee — continued. Towneley, Coldcoats, and) Snodworth' . . . } Twiston ...... -j^j knight . Extwisle ...... -j^j knight . AteST.MTl!7'} *kn.ight- Downham ..... ^ knight . Foulridge ...... £ knight . Rishton ...... ^ knight . Billington ...... £ knight . Altham ...... J knight Great Harwood J knight . Clayton le Moors . . . j knight . Walton in le Dale ... I knight . /[Geoffrey, son of Robert \ I thedeanofWhalley]8} fjohn,constable of Chester] [Adam de Preston ?] 8 . . [Hugh de Mitton]* . . [John,constable of Chester] /[John, constable of Ches-) I ter]« } [Roger de Praers]7. . . [Eliasde Billington]8. . [Richard de Altham]9 . [Richard Fitton] 10 . . [Ralph de Clayton ?] . . [Thurstan Banastre] . . 1242-3 Henry Gedleng (The heir of the earl of { Lincoln Adam de Preston Ralph de Mitton Robert de Chester8 John de Criggleston /William the Marshal (Hugh de Mearley (Parva) /Gilbert, son of Henry [de ( Rishton] Adam de Billington | The heir of Hugh de Al- { tham Hugh Fitton Henry de Clayton | The heir of Robert I Banastre AMOUNDERNESS HUNDRED Penwortham fee Warton £ knight i knight, I knight Frees and Newton . Freckleton, Whittingha Newton and Elswick (The heirs of Richard, son] ( of Roger [see p. 368]] /[Robert, son of Gille-) 1 michael] . . . . j (Richard, son of Roger) 1 de Freckleton . . 1 Thomas de Beetham William de Frees Richard de Freckleton Maud, the wife of Roger, survived her husband, and was living about 1220—1225, having had assigned to her in dower 28 librates of land in Ingoldmells and Holton le Moor, co. Lincoln, besides the demesne manors which belonged to the honour of Pontefract.11 In addition to John, his eldest son, he had issue Roger, who in 1215 was in the custody of the queen as a hostage,19 and subsequently of the earl of Chester.18 John de Lacy was probably under age at the time of his father's death, as he did not obtain livery of his possessions until about 26-29 Juty> 1213, when he undertook within four years to pay 7,000 marks for livery of his inheritance and to be discharged of his father's debts to the Exchequer, further binding himself by oath and by his charter to serve the king faithfully under pain of forfeiture.14 His castles of Pontefract and Donnington were withheld until the following year, when the king, being In Billington. Pontefract Chart. Yorks. Rec. Soc. xxv. 226. Brother of John de Lacy, constable of Chester. Ormerod, Hist, of Ches. (edit. Helsby), iii. 301. Ibid. 267. 8 Whitaker, Hist. of fPballey, e&t. 1876, ii. 189. 4 Lanes. Fines, Rec. Soc. xxxix. 34. ' Whitaker, Hist. ofWhalley (edit. 1876), ii. in. 8 Whitaker, Hist, of Whalley (edit. 1876), ii. 377. 10 Ibid. 388. Testa de Nev ill (Rec. Com.), 348^, 370. The statement, which originated in the Historia Laceiorum (Man. Angl. vi. 315), that Roger de Lacy's wife was Maud, sister of [Bevis] de Clare, treasurer of York, is, of' course, a grotesque error, seeing that Bevis de Clare, alias de Fairfax, was treasurer of York from 1285 to about 1291. Cal. Pat. R. 1281-92, pp. 193, 435. 13 Pat. R. (Rec. Com.), i. 143^. In 1226 Roger was receiving £30 a year for his maintenance in the king's service, Close R. (Rec. Com.), ii. 113. Another son, Robert, is said to have been appointed constable of Flamborough, and to have been ancestor of the constables of that place. Add. MSS. 26,741, f. 263 ; Peachman, Compleat Gentleman (1622), 171. 1s Pat. R. (Rec. Com.), 189*. 1* Rot.- de Finibus (Rec. Com.), 48 3 , 494 ; Close R. (Rec. Com.), i. 1 47, 1 69 ; Pat. R. (Rec. Com.), 1 1 9^. 3°4 FEUDAL BARONAGE favourably inclined to the young constable, remitted part of his fine.1 During the greater part of the years 1213 and 1214 he appears to have been with the king in Poitou.2 Nevertheless, in 1215 he joined the confederate barons, and was one of the twenty-five appointed to see to the observance of the Great Charter.3 On the last day of 1 2 1 5 he had a safe-conduct to make his peace with the king, who was anxious to secure his service,4 which being done, the next day he had warrants to the sheriffs of cos. Northumberland, York, Nottingham and Derby, Lincoln, Leicester, Northampton, and Oxford for the restoration of his estates ; 6 and three months later, having pledged his fealty to the king,6 was commissioned to bring three other Yorkshire barons to the king for pardon,7 and at the end of April had letters of protection to visit his estates in seven counties.8 During the summer of 1216 he was in attendance upon the king, but soon after withdrew himself, and in Sep- tember his land of Naseby in Northamptonshire was delivered to Ernald de Amblevill.9 In the meantime his castle of Donnington had been destroyed by the king's order,10 whilst he also shared in the excommunication imposed upon the confederate barons by Innocent III.11 After Henry's accession he had letters of safe-conduct on 27 April, 1217, to William Marshall to treat about his pardon,13 and in August following his estates were restored to him.13 In November he was commissioned to conduct the king of Scots and Robert de Ros from Berwick to the king.14 The following year (1218) he accompanied the earl of Chester to the Holy Land, and was present at the siege of Damietta.16 As far back as March, 1215, he had taken the cross.18 After his return to England towards the end of 1220, he obtained the king's approval for levying an aid from his Oxfordshire tenants towards his expenses in the crusade.17 He led the Lancashire forces which were engaged in February, 1221, in the reduction of Skipton Castle, then held against the king by the party of William of Aumale,18 and the year following was one of the justices appointed to see to the perambulation of the forests in cos. York and Nottingham.19 At the end of 1223 he joined the earl of Chester in the opposition to the government by the justiciar, but the earl, being threatened with excommunication, surrendered his castle, whereupon his constable did the same.20 Six months later he assisted to quell the rebellion of Falkes de Breaute, and was with the king in June and July at the siege, and probably at the capture, of Bedford castle.21 In October the king made him a present of a valuable goshawk.22 In May, 1225, he was appointed to escort the young Roger Bigod, who had married the king of Scots' sister, to 1 Close R. (Rec. Com.), 151^. His sureties were twenty knights. By 26 July, 1214, he had found further sureties, viz., his brother Roger and four of his principal vavassours, and obtained possession of Donnington Castle. Ibid. 167, 169 ; Pat. R. li<)b. 8 Chart. R. (Rec. Com.), 196-201^, pass. s Stubbs, Select Charters (ed. 1870), 298. * Pat. R. (Rec. Com.), i6z£. 5 Close R. (Rec. Com.), i. 245. 6 Rymer, Feed. (Rec. Com.), i. 137. 1 Pat. R. (Rec. Com.), 176. 8 Ibid. 179. 9 Close R. (Rec. Com.), i. 289. 10 Matth. Paris, Chron. majora (Rolls Ser.), ii. 171. " Ibid. ii. 1 66. U Pat. R. 1216-25, 112. 13 Close R. (Rec. Com.), i. 318. i* Rymer, Toed. (Rec. Com.), i. 149 ; Pat. R. 1216-25, I22- '« Matth. Paris, Chron. majora (Rolls Ser.), ii. 230. 16 Gervase of Cant. (Rolls Ser.), ii. 109. " Pat. R. 1216-25, 284. 18 Close R. (Rec. Com.), i. 474^, 546^. i» Ibid. 503^. so Matth. Paris, Chron. majora (Rolls Ser.), ii. 260-1 ; Stubbs, Constitut. Hist. ii. 36 : cf. Pat. R. 1216-25, 481. 21 Close R. (Rec. Com.), i. 606, 6106, 635. 22 Ibid. 627, 652*. i 305 39 A HISTORY OF LANCASHIRE spend a visit at the Scottish court.1 Early in 1226 he had a warrant for holding his courts of Penwortham and Rochdale with the pleas belonging as he and his predecessors had held them before the war,2 and the same year was appointed a justice in eyre in cos. Lancaster and Lincoln.3 The year following the king granted to him the vill of St. Botolph (Boston) and Holland with its fairs for his maintenance in the king's service,4 and in September sent him on an embassy to Antwerp.6 In January, 1229, he was appointed to conduct the king of Scots from Berwick to meet the king at York,6 and in September, 1230, was a commissioner to treat for a truce with France,7 while in July, 1231, he was in the king's service in Wales.8 Upon the death of the earl of Chester in 1232, John de Lacy, his nephew, succeeded him as earl of Lincoln,9 in right of his second wife Margaret, only daughter and heir of Robert de Quincy and Hawise, fourth sister and co-heir of Earl Ranulf. He had previously married Alice, daughter of Gilbert de L'Aigle, by whom he appears to have had no issue.10 He married Margaret de Quincy before 2 1 June, 122 1, when he had livery of Winborneholt Chace, co. Dorset.11 In 1233 he joined the confederacy under the Earl-Marshal against Peter des Roches, but the bishop corrupted him by a bribe of 1,000 marks13 and won his adherence to the king, to whom he continued loyal for the remainder of his life. He was constable of Whitchurch Castle at this time,13 and of Chester and Beeston castles in i237,u m which year he was one of the witnesses to the confirmation of the charters15 and present at the queen's coronation.16 On 20 November he was one of three sent by the king to the legate Otho and the prelates at the council held at St. Paul's to forbid them to do anything against the dignity of the crown.17 Having attached himself completely to the court party, he now became one of the king's unpopular counsellors,18 and using his influence over the king, obtained a conditional grant of the marriage of Richard de Clare, first earl of Gloucester, for his eldest daughter Maud, promising 5,000 marks for the grant, 2,000 of which the king afterwards remitted.19 This marriage, being arranged without the consent of the barons, caused grave dissatisfaction, especially on the part of the king's brother, Richard, earl of Cornwall, who reproached the king for being thus influenced by Lincoln.20 The latter made his peace with the king's brother, who was also Richard de Clare's step-father, by means of prayers and gifts.21 The earl was appointed sheriff of Chester in 1 Pat. R. 1216-25, 527- * close R- (Rec- Com.), ii. 93$. s Ibid. 151. *Ibid. 202*. 5 Rymer, Feed. (Rec. Com.), i. 187 ; Pat. R. 1225-32, 162. 6 Rymer, Toed. (Rec. Com.), i. 193 ; Close R. 1227-31, 229. 1 Rymer, Toed. i. 198 ; Pat. R. 1225-32, 359, 394-5. 8 Close R. 1227-31, 534. 9 Matth. Paris, Chnn. majora (Rolls Ser.), iii. 230. The letters patent creating him earl of Lincoln and granting him £20 in lieu of the third penny of the county, were dated 23 November, 1232, Pat. R. 17 Hen. III. pt. ii. m. 9 ; Ormerod, Hist. ofChes. (edit. Helsby), ii. 697. 10 Mm. Angl. vi. 315^ ; Cokayne, Comp. Peerage, v. 90. Alice was apparently the daughter of Gilbert by Isabella, relict of Robert de Lacy (d. 1193). Seep. 319 below. Also cf. Mon. Angl. vi. 315^. ; Close R. (Rec. Com.), i. 14*. 11 Close R. (Rec. Com.), i. 462*. 12 Matth. Paris, Chrm. majora (Rolls Ser.), ii. 356-7. 13 Pat. R. 1 8 Hen. III. m. 17. u Pat. R. 21 Hen. III. m. 5. 15 Stubbs, Select Charters, ed. 1870, 356. 16 Matth. Paris, Chrm. majora (Rolls Ser.), iii. 338. " Ibid. Hist. Angl. ii. 400. " Ibid. Chnn. majora, iii. 412 ; Diet. Nat. Biog. xxxi. 380. 19 Pat. R. 21 Hen. III. m. 5. 20 Dugdale, quoting Matth. Westm., Baronage, i. 102^. 81 Diet. Nat. Biog. xxxi. 3803. 306 FEUDAL BARONAGE 1236 and again in 1239.' He died 22 July, 1240, after a long and tedious sickness,* and was buried at Stanlaw Abbey, to which he had given the church of Eccles, half the church of Blackburn, and land in Staining, Hardhorn, and Newton in Amounderness.8 His wife Margaret survived him, and afterwards married Walter Marshall, earl of Pembroke, her dower being assigned in 1241, in the counties of Lincoln, Nottingham, York, and Lancaster, viz., 40 knights' fees, besides many demesne manors.4 Edmund, only son of John de Lacy by Margaret de Quincy, his second wife, was a minor at his father's death, being born after 26 May, 1228.* Through the influence of Peter of Savoy he married Alicia, elder daughter of Manfred III., marquis of Saluzzo,6 a marriage which, according to Matthew Paris, occasioned much discontent among the nobles of England.7 Edmund was never formally invested with the earldom of Lincoln. He is named simply as Edmund de Lacy in a commission of 2 September, 1255, with the king's brothers Geoffrey and William, and the earls of Norfolk, Warenne, and Albemarle, to conduct the king and queen of Scotland to the king, but in the letters of safe-conduct to the same king and queen, dated three days later, as Edmund de Lacy 'earl of Lincoln.'8 But again on 17 January, 1258, he is summoned with his knights to do military service in Scotland as Edmund de Lacy.9 Again, in 1249, I25I> an(^ I257> ^e was tne recipient of charters of free warren in his demesne lands, of markets at Bradford in Yorkshire and Rochdale, and of a market and fair at Tanshelf in his manor of Pontefract, but in no case is he styled ' earl of Lincoln.' 10 The fact was that his mother being countess of Lincoln in her own right, her son could not be earl during her lifetime, and dying before her never attained to that title.11 Notwith- standing this he seems to have enjoyed the third penny of co. Lincoln, as his father had done.13 He is said to have founded the hospital of White Friars at Pontefract.13 To Stanlaw Abbey he gave the other half of the church of Blackburn with his body, and the vill of Cronton. By Alice his wife he had issue Henry,14 his heir, John, and Margaret, who both died young.15 He died 5 June, 1258, and was buried at Stanlaw.16 Henry de Lacy was born on Christmas Day, 1 249," and on 22 December, 1256, was contracted to be married by his father (with the king's consent, obtained by a fine of ten marks of gold) 18 to Margaret, eldest daughter and heir 1 Pat. R. 21 Hen. III. m. 5 ; Pipe R. 24 Hen. III. Ches. 2 Matth. Paris, Hist. Angl. (Rolls Ser.), ii. 436, where his arms are given in trick. Examples of his seal are given by Ormerod and by Whitaker. s Mm. Angl. v. 647*. 4 Close R. 25 Hen. III. m. 9 and m. 16 ; Rec. Soc. Lane, and Ches. vol. 48, p. 157. 6 Excerpta e Rot. Fin. (Rec. Com.), ii. 54. 6 Matth. Paris, Chron. majora (Rolls Ser.), iv. 628. 7 Dugdale, Baronage, i. lozb. The king in 1246 had promised Philip, count of Savoy, that he could marry one of the count's granddaughters to Edmund de Lacy, ' qui si vixerit comes erit Lincolnie.' Rymer, Toed. (Rec. Com.), i. 264. 8 Pat. R. 39 Hen. III. m. 3. Rymer, Foed. (Rec. Com.), i. 327. » Close R. 42 Hen. III. m. izd. 10 Cal. Chart. R. i. 346, 356, 362, 472. 11 She is repeatedly styled countess of Lincoln in the Rolls. She lived until shortly before Michaelmas term, 1267 ; Curia Reg. R. 181, m. n. 12 Cal. Close R. 1307-13, 285. « Man. Angl. vi. 1581. 1* Coucher ofWhalley (Chetham Soc.), 77, 811. 16 Dugdale, Baronage, i. 103. 1° Cott. MS. Cleop. C. iii. 330*. His epitaph is given on f. 325^. Man. Angl. v. 647-8. W Inj. p. m. Yorks. Rec. Soc. xii. 51. See the Lanes. Inq.p.m. Rec. Soc. Lanes, and Ches. vol. 48, 213-9. In Cal. of Close R. 1272-9, p. 462, he is said to have been of full age on St. Hilary, 56 Hen. III. i.e. 13 January, 1272. This perhaps refers to the date when he was entitled to be styled earl of Lincoln. « Excerpta e Rot. Fin. (Rec. Com.), ii. 249. 307 A HISTORY OF LANCASHIRE of William Longespee, third earl of Salisbury, and in her own right countess of Salisbury. She predeceased her husband and died 22 November, 13IO.1 During his minority he and his lands were under the guardianship of his mother, who gave a fine of >C3>755 f°r ^is privilege.8 Henry was involved in 1 269 in a quarrel with the earl of Surrey as to certain pasture lands, and a threatened appeal to arms was only prevented by the king's intervention.8 He was one of the most prominent figures of Edward I.'s reign, and throughout a strenuous life both at home and abroad never wavered in his devotion to his sovereign. In 1267 he had an allowance of £300 out °f ^e issues of Lincoln and Grimsby by the king's appointment, and the year following, upon doing his homage, with Margaret his wife, had livery of her inheritance.* In November, 1270, he executed an agreement with his mother Alice confirming the appointment of her dower made by the king, and granting to her the manors of Holton le Moor, Alkborough, and Wadenhoe, in exchange for her dower in Halton in Cheshire, Widnes, and Almondbury, except the herbage of Marsden, co. York.6 On 5 April, 1272, he was appointed governor of Knaresborough Castle,6 and the next month went abroad for a short time,7 but returning was knighted on " 1 3 October by King Henry, and girt with the sword as earl of Lincoln on the occasion of the wedding of Edmund, earl of Cornwall, together with the earl and fifty-four besides.8 In 1273 he was at the siege of Chartley Castle, from which Robert de Ferrers had recently ejected Hamon Lestrange, to whom the king had given it.9 In 1274 he was com- missioned to pursue malefactors in cos. York and Nottingham, and to lodge them in the county gaols.10 In 1276 he served in the Welsh campaign and led the forces which laid siege to Castle Baldwin. The year following he besieged and took the castle of Dolvorwyn.11 He was appointed to escort Alexander III. of Scotland on his visit to England in the summer of izj%™ and was appointed joint-lieutenant of England on 27 April, 1279, during the king's absence in France.13 In 1282 and 1283 he was engaged in Wales, and for his aid in the subjection of that principality received from the king the land of Denbigh and there built Denbigh Castle.1* On Christmas eve, 1283, he had licence to alienate the church of Whalley to the monks of Stanlaw, whom he encouraged to translate their convent to Whalley, which they did in April, I296.15 He had licence to sport along the banks of the river Stour, without falcons, during the winter of 1284-5, an<^ seems to have indulged in this sport with similar licence in the winters of 1292-3 and ^oS-g.16 He accompanied the king on his three years' visit to Gascony,17 from April, 1286, to early in 1289, and was one of the commissioners appointed to treat with the guardians of Scotland in 1290 touching the interests of their queen and Cokayne, Comp. Peerage, v. 91. * Pat. R. 54 Hen. III. m. 27. floret Hist. (Rolls Ser.), iii. 17 ; Dugdale, Baronage, i. 103^. Close R. 52 Hen. III. m. 5, m. 12. 6 Duchy of Lane. Misc. Bks. No. 2, fol. 242, No. 49. Pat. R. 56 Hen. III. m. 16. 1 Cal. Close R. 1272-9, 45. Annales Man. (Rolls Ser.), ii. 1 1 1 ; Cal. Close R. 1272-9, 383. Arms of ' Le Conte de Nichole, esqua tele d'or et de goulz ung bend sable & ung labell argent.' Armytage, Glovei's Rolle of Armes, No. 9. Cal. Pat. R. 1281-92, 53. 10 Ibid. 1272-81, 67. Ibid. 1 89-229, pass. Brut y Tytvyjogion (Rolls Ser.), 365-6. Cal. Pat. R. 1272-81, 268. 1S Ibid. 309. 14 Ibid. 1281-92, 13 to %2,pass. ; Leland, Itin. v. 46-48. is Cal. Pat. R. 281-92, 109 ; Coucber of Whalley, 188-90 ; Mm. Angl v. 639. 16 Cal. Pat. R. 1281-92, 134 ; 1292-1301, 3 ; 1307-13, 146. 17 Ibid. 1281-92, 23 1-302, pass. 308 FEUDAL BARONAGE realm, in which capacity he was present at the Parliament of Brigham.1 In November, 1290, he was given extensive power to inquire of and punish those guilty of homicides and depredations throughout the realm.2 Early in 1291 he made preparations to go abroad,8 but in June was in the king's service in Scotland. That year he was present at Norham, and in 1292 at Berwick, during the deliberations relative to the Scottish succession.* The same year he was one of those appointed to decide on the claims of William de Ros and John de Vaux ; 6 and was one of the executors of the will of Eleanor, the late queen consort." At this time, having lost both his sons by unfortunate acci- dents,7 he resigned to the king his lordships of Ponterract,8 Clitheroe, Halton, Denbigh, and other lands, which the king afterwards granted to him and to the heirs of his body, with remainder to Edmund, earl of Lancaster, the king's brother, and the heirs of his body.9 Two years later ( 1 274) his possessions in the counties of Chester and Lancaster and elsewhere were settled upon him for life, with remainder to Thomas, son of Edmund, earl of Lancaster, and Alice his wife, only daughter of Henry, and the heirs of their bodies, with remainder to Thomas's right heirs.10 The earl of Lincoln was sent in May, 1293, to Philip of France to treat for peace, and about the merchant ships of Normandy which had recently been captured by the English.11 In June, 1294, he obtained a charter for a market and fair at Burnley, and free warren in his demesne lands of Penwortham, Tottington, and Cliviger.13 The same year, in October, he was on his way to Gascony, but whilst still at Portsmouth was recalled by the outbreak of war in North Wales. On 1 1 November, whilst proceeding to the relief of his castle of Denbigh, he was defeated by his own Welshmen with great slaughter, himself escaping with difficulty.13 He was occupied in the Welsh war until May, 1295. On 14 January, 1296, he sailed from Plymouth with the earl of Lancaster on his way to Gascony. After pillaging St. Matthieu, near Cape Finisterre, they landed at Blaye in mid-Lent and marched against Bordeaux, which they unsuccessfully besieged. On the death of the earl of Lancaster on 5 June Lincoln was chosen to succeed him as the king's lieutenant by the voice of the whole army. He defeated Robert of Artois before Bourg-sur-Mer, and besieged Aux for seven weeks in July and August with great vigour, but was at length forced to retire to Bayonne. In February, 1 297, the citizens of Bellegarde, then besieged by the French, appealed for assistance. The earl marched out to their aid, but was defeated and forced to retreat once more to Bayonne. However, in the summer he made a successful raid towards Toulouse, which lasted until Michaelmas. He then retired to Bayonne for Christmas, and about Easter, 1298, returned to England.1* On 15 May, 1299, Prince Edward appointed 1 Cal. Pat. R. 1281-92, 372 ; Bain, Cal. of Docs. Scotland, i. 159, 163, 171. 3 Ibid. 1281-92, 408. 3 Ibid. 410-2, 420 * Will. Rishanger, Chron. (Rolls Ser.), 253-4. 6 Ibid. 266. « Cal. Pat. R. 1281-92, 476-8. 7 His eldest son Edmund was drowned by falling down a well at the Red Tower in Denbigh Castle, and his second son John was killed by falling from a tower at Pontefract Castle. Cott. MSS. Cleop. C. iii. 328^; Leland, I tin. v.6i. » Cal. Pat. £.1281-92,512. » Duchy of Lane. Misc. Bks. No. 1 1, ff. 37 d, 69 d. 1° Dugdale, Baronage, ii. 104 ; Fine R. 20 Edw. I. mm. I, 7 ; Chart. R. 21 Edw. I. No. 29 ; 22 Edw. I. Nos. 2-4. 11 Tho. Walsingham, Hut. Angl. (Rolls Ser.), i. 43 ; Ypodigma Neustriae (Rolls Ser.), 190. » Duchy of Lane. Misc. Bks. No. n, f. 25. 13 Cal. Pat. R. 1292-1301, 87, 116 ; Tho. Walsingham, Hist. Angl. (Rolls Ser.), 1.48. 14 Diet. Nat. Biog. xxxi. 374, from the Chron. (Rolls Ser.) ; Nicolas, Caerlavcmk, 95. 309 A HISTORY OF LANCASHIRE him to arrange the marriage between himself and Isabella of France.1 He was one of the nobles who swore on the king's behalf that he would reconfirm the charters on his return from the Scottish war, in which campaign he accompanied the king, and was present at the battle of Falkirk on 22 July.8 The same month he was summoned to the council at York to deliberate on the affairs in Scotland, and in July, 1 300, was present at the siege of Caerlave- rock, where he commanded the first division.' In October he went with Hugh Despenser on a mission to Rome to complain of the injury done by the Scots, and later to arrange the terms of peace between the kings of England and France.4 In February, 1301, he was appointed governor of Corfe Castle,6 and in March was directed to attend the Prince of Wales on his invasion of Scotland at Midsummer. During September and October he was engaged in the subjection of Galloway,8 and early in 1302 was appointed one of the envoys to treat for peace with Philip of France, and in connexion with these negotiations was constantly in France until the proclamation of peace at Paris on 20 May, 1 303^ In October he went abroad to take possession of Gascony in the king's name, remaining there for the following year.8 On 1 6 Sep- tember, 1305, he was one of the commissioners appointed in the Parliament at Westminster to arrange the affairs of Scotland, and in the same Parliament was a receiver and trier of petitions from Gascony.9 On 1 5 October he was sent on a mission to Lyons with presents to Pope Clement V.10 When he returned to London on 16 February, 1306, he was publicly received by the mayor.11 Later in the year he went to Scotland with the Prince of Wales, who was ordered to act by his advice.12 In July, in this year, contemplating the foundation of a college at Oxford, he obtained licence to alienate in mort- main the advowsons of five churches in cos. Lincoln and Northampton to thirteen scholars to dwell in the proposed house.13 In January, 1307, he was one of the commissioners appointed to hold a Parliament at Carlisle,1* and during the summer accompanied King Edward on his march to Scotland, and was present at his death at Burgh-on-the-Sands on 7 July.15 Towards the end of the year he was engaged in a mission to France.16 Having attended Edward II. into Scotland, he was present at the king's coronation at Westminster on 25 February, 1308, when he carried one of the swords of state.17 He advised the king in the first council after his coronation to confirm by writ his promise to ratify whatever the nation should deter- mine.18 The monk of Malmesbury says that Lincoln gave his assent to the creation of Piers Gaveston as earl of Cornwall in August, 1307, and advised 1 Rymer, Foedera (Rec. Com.), i. 905. 3 Diet. Nat. Siog. xxxi. 374. 8 Ibid. Nicolas, Caerlavenck, 96. « Henri le bon Conte de Nichole ' bore a banner of yellow silk with a purple lion rampant (p. 5). * Cat. Pat.R. 1292-1301, 538-43 ; Rishanger (Rolls. Ser.), 195-6, 451. 5 Cal. Pat. R. 1292-1301, 564. 6 Bain, Cal. of Docs. Scot. ii. 1191, 1224, 1235, 1240. 7 Rymer, Foedera (Rec. Com.), i. 952-5 ; Cal. Pat. R. 1301-7, 30-128 pass.; Chron. Edw. I. and II. (Rolls Ser.), 1.127-9 5 Hemingburgh (Eng. Hist. Soc.), ii. 230. 8 Cal. Pat. R. 1301-7, 157, 209. • Rolls of Par!. (Rec. Com.), i. 126, 159. 10 Rymer, Foedera (Rec. Com.), i. 974; Cal. Pat. R. 1301-7, 380. 11 Chron. Edw. I. and II. (Rolls Ser.), i. 143-4. ls Chron. Lanercost (Bannatyne Club), 204. 13 Cal. Pat. R. 1301-7, 455 ; 1307-13, 1 1 ; Rymer, Foedera, i. 990. i* Rolls of Par/. (Rec. Com.), i. 188-9; Parl- Writs. (Rec. Com.), i. 183. 15 T. Walsingham, Hist. Angl. (Roll Ser.), i. 1 16. 1« Cal. Pat. R. 1307-13, 13, 32. " Parl. Writs (Rec. Com.), ii. 10. 18 Stubbs, Constit. Hist. edit. 1880, ii. 346. 310 FEUDAL BARONAGE the king that the separation of this earldom from the crown was within his power.1 From being Gaveston's chief supporter after the king, he later became, through the former's ingratitude, one of his chief enemies,3 his hos- tility to the favourite being already active in February, 1308.* But in July, 1309, he was once more won over to Gaveston's side, only, however, to be speedily alienated by Gaveston's coarse familiarity in styling him ' pot-belly ' (boele crevee), in reference to his figure. As a consequence, Lincoln joined with his son-in-law, Thomas, earl of Lancaster, and other earls, in refusing to attend the council summoned to York in October, 1309.* At Stamford on 6 August previously he had joined in the letter of the barons to the Pope.5 He was one of the petitioners for the ordinances and one of the ordainers elected on 20 March, 1310, to supersede the king's authority until Michael- mas, 1311.' Lincoln, however, seems to have acted with some duplicity, as he is alleged to have had a secret understanding with the king,7 who appointed him to be guardian of the kingdom during his absence in Scotland in Sep- tember, 1 3 1 o.8 Lincoln spent Christmas at his manor of Kingston in Dorset, probably engaged in sporting for wildfowl,9 but early in the next year he returned to London, where he died at his house in Holborn, afterwards called after him ' Lincoln's Inn,' on 5 February, and on the 28th of the same month was buried in the Lady Chapel of St. Paul's Cathedral.10 He had been a large contributor to the ' new work ' at the cathedral.11 Bishop Stubbs, quoting some chronicler, describes him as 'the closest counsellor of Edward I.' li! His uncertain action in 1310 was perhaps due to the conflicting feelings of loyalty to his old master's son and of perpetuating his old master's policy.13 On his death-bed he is represented as counselling his son-in-law to opposition to the royal authority.14 Hemingburgh describes him as ' courteous, handsome, and active,'15 and elsewhere he is represented as ' active in war and ripe in counsel.'16 The ' Compoti ' of the earl's Lancashire and Cheshire manors were published by the Chetham Society in 1884," the Lancashire inquest after his death having been printed in 1868." Alice, his daughter and heir, was born in 1283, and was contracted in marriage to Thomas, son of Edmund, earl of Lancaster, the king's brother, in 1292, whom she married on 28 October, I294.19 She left him in 1318, and took refuge with John, earl of Warenne.20 After Thomas's death she married (before 1326) Eubolo L'Estrange. He died in 1335 and his widow married in February, 1336, Hugh de Freyne, who died the same year. The countess herself died 2 October, 1348, having borne no issue. 1 Chron. Edto. I. and II. (Rolls Ser.), ii. 155 ; Stubbs, Constit. Hist. ii. 347*. 2 Chron. Edw. I. and II. I 5 8. « Chron. Lanmost (Bannatyne Club), 211. * Hemingburgh (Eng. Hist. Soc.), ii. 275. 6 Chron. ofEdtv. I. and II. (Rolls Ser.), i. 161. 6 Rymer, Foedera (Rec. Com.), ii. 105 ; Rolls of Par!. (Rec. Com),i. 445 ; Hemingburgh, ii. 276 ; Stubbs, Constit. Hist. ed. 1880, ii. 356. 1 Bain, Cat. of Docs. Scot. iii. 177. 8 Cal. Pat. R. 1307-13, 282. » Ibid. 146 ; Cal. of Docs. Scot. iii. 197. 10 A magnificent tomb supporting a cross-legged statue of the earl in linked mail perished in the great fire of London, but a representation has been preserved by Hollar. Whitaker, Hist, of Wkalley, ed. 1876, i. 248 ; Wever, Funeral Monts. 366. His arms are described by Ormerod, Hist, of Ches. (ed. Helsby), i. 6993. 11 Dugdale, St. Paul's, ed. 1818, ii. w Stubbs, Constit. Hist. ed. 1880, ii. 346. 13 Diet. Nat. Biog. xxxi. 375. i* Walsingham, Hist. Angl. (Rolls Ser.), i. 130. 15 Op. cit. ii. 74. i« Trokelowe (Rolls Ser.), 72. n (Old Ser.), vol. 112. is (Old Ser.), vol. 74 (i). i» Chron. Edto. I and II. (Rolls Ser), ii. 54- w Ibid. 3" A HISTORY OF LANCASHIRE The baronies of Clitheroe, Penwortham, and Widnes, with the lordships of Rochdale and Tottington, remained in the hands of the crown from the attainder of Earl Thomas in 1322, until the reversal of the judgment in 1327, when they were delivered to Henry, earl of Lancaster, brother and heir of Thomas.1 In 1351, upon the creation of his son Henry, as duke of Lan- caster, they became merged in the duchy of Lancaster with the rest of the county and honour. CHART TO ILLUSTRATE THE DESCENT OF THE EARLDOMS OF LINCOLN AND SALISBURY TO ALESIA, WIFE OF THOMAS, EARL OF LANCASTER Hugh, earl of = Chester. = Bertrada, daughter of Simon, Sayer deQuinci, created = Margaret, daughter and count of Montfort and earl of Winchester co-heir of Robert, earl Evreux. 1207, died 1219. of Leicester, died 1 23 5. Ranulf, earl of Chester, Hawise, 4th daughter = created earl of Lincoln and coheir of her 1217, died s.p. 1232, brother, suo jure coun- left the latter dignity tess of Lincoln, to his 4th sister. 1 = Robert, eldest son, pre- deceased his father in 1217. William de Longespde, = jure uxoris earl of Salisbury, died 1226, created earl of Salis- bury by Ric. I. Roger, earl of Winches- ter, died s.p. 1264. = Ela, daughter and heir of William, earl of Salisbury (died s.p. in 1 196), countess of Salisbury, died 1261. Alice, daughter of=(i) John de Lacy,: Gilbert de constable of L'Aigle, died s.p. Chester, earl of before 1221. Lincoln, 1232, jure uxoris, died 1240. r (2) Margaret, mar.= (2) Walter Mar- William Longe- = before June, shall, earl of spec, earl of 1 22 1, suo jure Pembroke, died Salisbury, died countess of Lin- s.p. 1245. 1250. coin, died 1267. Edmund de Lacy, con- = Alice, daughter of Man- stable of Chester, died I fred III, marquis of 1258. Saluzzo, living 131 1. William Longespee, earl = Matilda, daughter and ofSalisbury,dieds.p.m. heir of Walter Clifford. 1256. Henry de Lacy, con-=(i) Margaret, suo jure =(2) Joan, daughter of stable of Ch. of Lincoln 1272, died s.p.m. 1311. r countess of Salisbury from 1 26 1, died 1310. William, lord Martin of Kemys. Alice, suo jure countess of Lincoln, =Thomas Plantagenet, and probably countess of Salisbury, earl of Lancaster and died s.p. 1 348. Married three Leicester, died s.p. times. 1322. THE BARONY OF LACY, OF CLITHEROE Of the various baronial families which obtained a footing in this county as feudatories of Roger of Poitou that of Lacy was the most powerful, and destined to become pre-eminently the greatest. Its first appearance in the county was not at so early a date as that of the constable of Chester, or that of Montbegon, dating after the completion of the survey, and L. T. R. Misc. Enrolled Accts. No. 312 68-78. FEUDAL BARONAGE perhaps early in the reign of Rufus. The original fee then received was the honour of Clitheroe, consisting of the hundred of Blackburn, to which it is probable that Henry I. added the parish of Rochdale in the hundred of Salford, part of the parishes of Ribchester and Chipping in the hundred of Amounderness, and the vill of Little Mitton, all of which were afterwards held by the service of five knights. After the termination of the original line in 1193 by the death of Robert de Lacy, the honour of Clitheroe passed to Roger, constable of Chester,1 and augmented the constable's fief within the county to nine knights' fees. In 1205 this fief was further in- creased by Roger de Lacy's purchase from the Bussels of the barony of Penwortham.3 A further augmentation took place in 1235, when John de Lacy, earl of Lincoln, acquired the fee of Tottington from Henry de Monewden.8 From this time the Lacy fee within the county consisted of 144, out of a total of less than 26 knights' fees, or rather more than half. Ilbert de Lacy, the first of his line, received a large fief from the Con- queror in the counties of York, Lincoln, and Nottingham.* He seems to have belonged to a family which held two knights' fees of the bishop of Bayeux at Lassy, and Campeaux in La Calvados.6 He was the founder of the castle of Pontefract, the ' caput ' of his Yorkshire fief, in which he founded the church of St. Clement during the reign of the Conqueror.8 To Selby Abbey he gave the manor of Hamilton,7 and to St. Mary of York lands at Stretton and Garforth with the church there, which Rufus confirmed in 1088— 9. 8 He survived until early in the reign of Rufus, from whom he had a charter confirming to him the custom from the castellary of his castle (of Pontefract), as he had it in the time of the king's father and in the time of the bishop of Bayeaux.9 After his death his son, Robert de Lacy, was con- firmed by King Rufus in the possession of all the land which his father had held and of which he had died possessed, both within his castellary of Ponte- fract and outside of it.10 An exchange which Robert made with Urse d'Abetot of the manor of Ingoldmells for that of 'Witchona' was confirmed by the king, probably in 1095." The circumstances in which the honour of Clitheroe and hundred of Blackburn were apparently conferred upon' Robert de Lacy in the time of Rufus have been touched upon in the chapter of the Domesday survey,12 and will also be referred to in the account of the barony of Grelley of Manchester. During the reign of Rufus he also received from Roger of Poitou the manors of Great Mitton and Slaidburn with the region of Bowland, in the district of Yorkshire known as Craven, a gift subsequently confirmed by Henry I., in or about the year 1102, to be held of the king, as it had been held of Count Roger.18 This region was conterminous with Blackburn hundred on the 1 See p. 300 above. 3 See p. 336 below. s See p. 325 below. 4 He was also tenant of many manors in counties Oxon., Bucks, and Lincoln, under the bishop of Bayeux, Dom. Bk. i. 145, 155^-6^, 342-3. 6 Red Book of the Excb. (Rolls Ser.), 646. In 1 146 Robert, earl of Gloucester, released to Philip, bishop of Bayeux, the fiefs of Ilbert and of Gilbert de Lacy, which they held of the church and bishop of Bayeux at Lassy and Campeaux, or elsewhere ; Stapleton, R. Scacc. Norman, ii. p. Ixx. 6 Torks. Arch. Journ. xiv. 155, where, however, many of the gifts to this church attributed to him were given by his grandson Ilbert. See Dodsworth's MSS. cxviii. 76. 7 Chartul. of Selby (Yorks Rec. Soc.), i. 282-3. 8 Mm. Angl. iii. 54.7. » Duchy of Lane. Misc. Ptf. i. No. 36, m. 6. w Ibid. 11 Pipe R. Soc. \. i ; Duchy of Lane. Royal Charters, i. 13 See p. 282. 13 Farrer, Lanes. Pipe R. 382. 1 313 40 A HISTORY OF LANCASHIRE north-west, the river Kibble forming the boundary, and was afterwards sub- ject in many feudal respects to the honour of Clitheroe. The supposition that Robert de Lacy received these territories from Roger of Poitou in the reign of Rufus is further strengthened by the fact that after Roger's fall in 1 1 02, Henry I. granted by charter to Robert five carucates of land, which had previously belonged to Warin Bussel's fee of Preston, or perhaps of Pen- wortham in Chippingdale, Aighton, and Dutton, three manors lying adjacent on the south-western border of Bowland.1 By charter dated in the court at Pontefract, on the feast of St. Clement, 3 Henry I. (23 November, 1102), Great Mitton, within the region of Bowland and Aighton, one of the three manors comprised in the last-recited gift of Henry L, was granted with other lands in the honour of Clitheroe to Ralph le Rous by Robert de Lacy, to hold by knight's service.* This charter is of two-fold importance, for it not only testifies that Robert was at this time in possession of Clitheroe, Bowland, and lands in Amounderness hundred, west of the Ribble, but it goes some way towards contradicting the statement of the monk of St. Evroul, which is also at variance with later evidence, that Robert was brought to trial in 1102 for participation in the rebellion of Duke Robert of Normandy, and condemned in the king's court to forfeit his honours and depart the realm.' In 1325 several royal charters in favour of Robert de Lacy, besides those already cited, were preserved at Pontefract Castle. In one of these Henry I. gave him all the lands which remained out of his possession belonging to his castellary of Pontefract, which the king had deraigned against him, to hold in fee and inheritance with soke and sake.4 In the reign of Rufus, Robert de Lacy founded a house of Cluniac monks at Pontefract and endowed them with lands and churches in his fief of Pontefract,' and early in the reign of Henry I. he gave to certain Austin canons the site upon which was afterwards built the abbey of St. Oswald of Nostell, and land in Hardwick.' After Robert's for- feiture and banishment, Henry I., whilst the castle and honour of Pontefract were in his hands, gave to the canons there established the woodlands which lay around the site of their church, and twelvepence a day out of his farm of Yorkshire.7 But this was some years after the king's accession, for in the latter part of the year 1 109, we find Robert de Lacy attesting the royal con- firmation charter in favour of the church of St. Cuthbert of Durham, granted at a great council held at Nottingham.5 Somewhat later he attested an agreement made by Archbishop Thomas II. (1109-1114), by which the clerks of St. Oswald released to the monks of Charite at Pontefract and to the priest of Featherston the parochial rights of the monks over the land of Nostell and Hardwick.' Of about the same date, viz., in 2, was his charter to the monks of Pontefract, made by the advice of Archbishop Thomas and with the king's consent, of his demesne of Dodworth.1* But shortly after these acts > Farrcr, Ltma. Ptft R. 381. This gnat, like that o£ Rowland, was found among the records preened at Pontefract Castle in 1315, when a calendar of them was made by the order of Edw. IL, which is now prc- serred amongst the Duchy of Lane, records in the Publk Record Ofice. (Mbc. Pt£ L No. 36.) * Towndey MSS. roL H.H. fna W. Fairer, No. 3896, from the Gt. Coocber of the Dody ofLaac. ; L~a.PjftR. 385. » Ordericos Vit. x. t. rriii. ; xL a. L and ii. * Dnchy of Lane. Misc. Pt£ L No. 36, m. I . * CtcrtmL tfPmtrfnct (Yorfcs. Rec. Soc.), 17. * Aim. Jmg/L TU 9*. •Ibid. * Durham Ckan.L ;9 ;S*r*»&r.L PL xniL i. putt. » Ibid. L »5 j aba No, H. p. 18. 3*4 ROGER DE LACY, CONSTABLE OF CHESTER, 1193-1 ROGER, CONSTABLE OF CHESTER, 1190- JOHN DE LACY, EARL OF LINCOLN, 1232-1240. SEALS OF FEUDAL BARONS OF LANCASHIRE, PLATE III. HENRY DE LACY, EARL OF LINCOLN, 1272-1311. to face page 314. FEUDAL BARONAGE he lost his English fief and departed the realm. The chronicles throw no light upon the causes of his banishment, although his supposed attitude on the occasion of duke Robert's rebellion in 1102 suggests that his sympathies lay with the duke against his sovereign. Perhaps the events which passed in Normandy between the seizure and imprisonment of Robert of Belesme in November, 1112, and the insurrection of Villerai and other lords of Belesme and Ponthieu, which terminated with the fall of the castle of Belesme in May, 1114, may account for de Lacy's fall. Whatever the causes it is certain that this event happened shortly before the date of the Lindsey survey, which was made between 1115 and 1 1 18, for in that record we find Hugh de Laval in possession of the extensive estates which Ilbert de Lacy had held under Odo, bishop of Bayeux, or in chief, at the compilation of Domesday.1 The date of Robert's death is unknown. By Maud his wife, who survived until after 1 1 50,* he had issue Ilbert, Henry, a third son who was slain at the battle of the Standard, and a daughter Albreda, married in or before 1130 to Robert de Lisours,8 from which marriage descended the later line of Lacy. In or before the year 1120 Hugh de Laval made great gifts of lands and churches in his honour of Pontefract to the priory founded there by his predecessors, adding thereto the church of Slaidburn in Bowland, and in ' Cheshire ' the church of Whalley, the chapel of his castle of Clitheroe with tithes of the demesne of the castle, the church of St. Mary Magdalene in Clitheroe, and the churches of Colne and Burnley.4 His bestowal upon the canons of Nostell 6 of many churches and much land within his honour of Pontefract was effected about the same time as the gifts to Pontefract, being confirmed by Henry I., together with the earlier gifts of Robert de Lacy and many of his chief feudatories,6 by a charter said to have been dated on 4th of the Ides of January (10) ii2i.7 Hugh de Laval died shortly before Michaelmas, 1130, at which time Richard Guiz owed two war-horses for confirmation of land in Yorkshire given to him by the said Hugh,8 and ' William Maltravers a thousand marks for Hugh's lands for fifteen years, and one hundred pounds for the marriage of his widow and her dower after the lapse of the said term.' Maltravers appears to have withheld the church of Whalley from the monks of Pontefract and to have stayed their action to recover the same by the grant of a mark yearly, so long as he might hold the honour of Pontefract.10 This was for no long time, for as soon as the death of Henry I. was known, Maltravers was mortally wounded by the hand of one of his own knights, Pain by name, and having taken the monastic habit died three days later.11 1 Lindsey Survey, edit. Greenstreet, passim. 3 Chartul. of Pontefract (Yorks. Rec. Soc.), 469. s Pipe R. 3 1 Hen. I. (Rec. Com.), 8. The reference to Albreda as the sister of Ilbert de Lacy points to the death of Robert de Lacy having occurred previously. * Chartul. of Pontefract (Yorks Rec. Soc.), i. 21. The position of Richard, bishop of Hereford (consecrated 1 6 January, 1 120), last amongst the witnesses, suggests that this charter was expedited at a date very near the bishop's consecration. 6 Man. Angl. vi. 92^. « Ibid. 92. 7 Ibid. 90. The possessions of the canons of Nostell were also confirmed by Pope Calixtus II. in the first year of his pontificate (1119-20). The charter attributed to Robert de Lacy I. by the editors of the Monasticon, and by them described as the charter of foundation, belongs to Robert, the last of the old line of de Lacy, who died in 1193. Many writers of histories (cf. Hunter, Doncaster, ii. 201-2) and compilers of chartularies have wrought great confusion by mistaking the charters of the later Ilbert and Robert for those of the Ilbert of Domesday and of his son. 8 Pipe R. 3 1 Hen. 1. (Rec. Com.), 34. 9 ibld. 10 Chartul. of Pontefract (Yorks. Rec. Soc.), 535. 11 Chron. of Stephen, Ric. ofHexbam (Rolls Ser.), 140. 315 A HISTORY OF LANCASHIRE King Stephen immediately restored the honours of Pontefract and Clitheroe to Ilbert de Lacy, son of Robert,1 and pardoned his men all forfeitures com- mitted after the death of King Henry until the king's coronation, and especially of the forfeiture for the murder of Maltravers.2 Ilbert was a staunch supporter of King Stephen, and is found in frequent attendance upon him. At Easter, in 1136, he attested at Westminster a royal charter con- firming the bishopric of Bath to Robert, bishop elect,8 and the same year he attested the royal charter to Winchester and the second charter of liberties granted by the king at Oxford,* and another to Cluny Abbey dated at Win- chester.6 He was one of the leaders of the English at the battle of the Standard, fought near Northallerton on 22 August, 1 138, where his younger brother was slain, the only life lost amongst the English knights.6 He fought for his sovereign at the battle of Lincoln in February, i I4i,7 where it would seem that he was either slain or taken captive and died in captivity, for there is no further chronicle of his acts. He married Alice, daughter of Walter de Gaunt, the founder of Bridlington Abbey, by whom he had no issue. She married, secondly, Roger de Mowbray, and gave to Pontefract Priory a carucate of land in Ingoldmells, with which she had been endowed by her first husband.8 Ilbert's next heir was his brother Henry, but the latter did not at once succeed to his brother's fief. Possibly he was under age at the time of Ilbert's death. The honour of Pontefract is said to have been conferred by Stephen upon William de Roumare,9 who had then recently been created earl of Lincoln ; 10 but the statement must be entirely discredited, and is probably due to confusion with Gilbert de Gaunt — created earl of Lincoln by King Stephen in 1 147, apparently during the lifetime of the other earl — who laid claim to the honour of Pontefract against Henry de Lacy, who, how- ever, seems to have been then old enough and powerful enough to resort to force for the recovery or defence of his inheritance.11 The contention between the two claimants was waged without apparent interference by the king, and eventually ended in favour of de Lacy, but not until the priory of Pontefract had been laid in ruins.13 Possibly de Lacy at this time obtained 1 Chron. of Stephen (Rolls Ser.), iii. 140 ; Sitrtees Soc. xliv. 64-5, 119. 2 Duchy of Lane. Misc. Ptf. i. No. 36, m. I. s Madox, Hist, of the Exch. i. 14. * Ric. ofHexham (Rolls Ser.), 150 ; Round, Gee/. ofMandevllk, 263. 6 Round, Cal. of Docts., France, 509. 6 Alfred ofRicvaux, 182 ; Matth. Paris, Chron. majora (Rolls Ser.), i. 258, 260 ; Hove Jen (ibid.), i. 196. 7 Ord. Vitalis, Hist. Ecd. xiii. c. xliii. « Chartul. of Pontefract (Yorks. Rec. Soc.), 527. 9 The authority for this statement is Yorke's Union of Honour, where it is stated that Stephen gave the earl in 1141 the manor of ' Chirchecon ' (Kirketon, i.e. Tickhill), the castle of Gainsborough (rectius Conis- borough), and the castle of Pontefract. So far as the first two places are concerned the statement is correct, as an abstract of this grant — in which Kirkton and Gainsborough are mentioned — remains on record. But as regards Pontefract Castle, the same record, by its failure to make any mention of that place or castle, entirely refutes the statement. Dtp. Keeper's 3 1st Rep. App. i. i. 10 Round, Geof. de Mandeville, 271. 11 Gilbert de Gaunt married Roesia, daughter of Richard fitz Gilbert, styled ' de Clare,' and sister of the half-blood to William de Roumare, earl of Lincoln, the date of whose death is very uncertain, but apparently occurred some years after Gilbert de Gaunt had been created earl of Lincoln. The fact that Alice de Gaunt, relict of Ilbert de Lacy, was sister of Gilbert, and at this time held one-third of the de Lacy estates in dower, in some measure may account for her brother's designs upon the honour of Pontefract. 12 Chartul. of Pontejract (Yorks. Rec. Soc.), 49. Gilbert de Gaunt, under sentence of excommunication, covenanted to pay the monks of Pontefract 6 librates of rent yearly in consideration of the great injuries which he had caused to them during the war between him and Henry de Lacy. Ibid. 520-1. The gift of I carucate of land in Ingoldmells by Alice de Gaunt, relict of Ilbert de Lacy, for which she had the consent of Henry de Lacy (ibid. 527), and the gift of Alice de Rumelli of a carucate in Broughton in Craven (ibid. 476), were probably made in consideration of the injury suffered by the monks of Pontefract at this time> FEUDAL BARONAGE succour at a critical moment by coming to terms with Guy de Laval, by a compact which seems to have involved the sacrifice of one-third part of the honour.1 These events transpired about the year 1147, a year notable in the history of this family for the foundation by Henry de Lacy of an abbey of Cistercian monks brought from Fountains at Barnoldswick, in Craven, a vill which he held of Hugh Bigod, earl of Norfolk,8 having probably been acquired by one of Lacy's predecessors by reason of its con- tiguity to the hundred of Blackburn. In 1 153 the abbey was removed to a more genial site in Airedale, afterwards called Kirkstall.3 Amongst other benefactions Henry de Lacy gave to this house half a mark yearly for altar lights, and a mark yearly for the abbot's vestment, charging his farm of Clitheroe with the payment.4 Before 1 153—4 he gave lands in Grindleton to the abbey of Salley, which William de Percy had founded in H47.B It is difficult to arrive at the proximate date of Stephen's charter to Henry de Lacy, granting to him in fee the castle of Almondbury, near Huddersfield, the land of Dalton, near the same, and the castle of Barwick in Elmet.6 These places had belonged to the honour of Pontefract since the Conquest, and had doubtless been taken into the king's hand during the civil war for the sake of the castles, which may have been built during the war. The restoration of these places probably took place during the lull which lasted from 1147 to Ir52- There is no evidence that Henry de Lacy actively supported either side during the period of war which lasted from 1141 to 1147, perhaps by reason of his youthfulness or on account of the sickness from which he at that time suffered, as we are told ; 7 but Henry, after his accession to the crown, pardoned Lacy anything that the latter had forfeited in the war previous to the pact made between Duke Henry and Stephen.8 Another royal charter of the same period testified that the king and his mother, the Empress Matilda, had pardoned Henry de Lacy and his heirs the anger and illwill which Henry, the king's grandfather, had borne towards Robert de Lacy, the father of Henry, and whatever Henry had forfeited before he did homage to the king, and further granted and con- firmed to him and his heirs the honour of Pontefract, with all its appurte- nances both in England and in Normandy.9 In 1158 Henry de Lacy was pardoned the sum of £38 6s. %d. in Yorkshire due towards the ' donum ' assessed in H56.10 This relief was probably in respect of military service performed in the Welsh campaign of 1157, in which Eustace fitz John was slain. So also in 1165 he was pardoned the scutage due upon the five knights' fees of his honour of 1 Dugdale, Baronage, \. 99 ; Madox, Hist, of the Exch. i. 643, note b. 3 Man. Angl. v. 530. His charter declaring the boundaries between Barnoldswick and the forest of Blackburnshire, and a letter to Henry II. praying for confirmation of the grant of Barnoldswick to the monks of Kirkstall, are in the Coucher of that abbey. Thoresby Soc. viii. 1 89. The bounds of Barnoldswick were perambulated at the time of the foundation of the abbey to establish the boundary between that vill and the forest of Blackburnshire. Man. Angl. v. 532 ; Co. Plac. Lane. No. u. Coucher of Kirkstall (Thoresby Soc.), 54-?. 3 Surtffs Soc. xlii. 90. De Lacy's confirmation of the place of Kirkstall and Barnoldswick, and other lands given by his feudatories, was attested by Henry Murdac, archbishop of York, who died in October, 1153. Coucher of Kirkstall (Thoresby Soc.), 5o». 4 Man. Angl. v. 535. 6 Jbid. v. 5153. 6 Duchy of Lane. Misc. Ptf. i. No. 36, m. 2 d. ; Torks. Tofog. Jourti. xv. 1 1 8. 7 Man. Angl. v. 530. « Duchy of Lane. Misc. Ptf. i. No. 36, m. 3. 9 Ibid. m. I . Apart from any consideration that Hen. II. may have had for de Lacy's possible services in the past, it is obvious that he would be eager to win over to the crown the support of so potent a noble 10 Pipe R. (Rec. Com.), 147. 317 A HISTORY OF LANCASHIRE Clitheroe, because his knights had served with the king in Wales that year.1 Three years later he accounted for the scutage due from 42^ and j\ knights' fees of the honour of Pontefract and 13! of new feoffment.* In 1171 he was amerced >£ioo by the justices in eyre of the forest for a hart killed in the royal forest,8 and next year he rendered account of the scutage due from his Yorkshire fief.4 In 1173 he was with the king at Breteuil in the campaign against the French king.6 In 1175 he attested the royal confirma- tion in favour of Welbeck Abbey, dated at Nottingham,8 and in 1 1 77 attested the king's award between the kings of Castille and Navarre.7 About the month of May that year he set forth with the earl of Essex and other notables to join the count of Flanders in a crusade.8 From this expedition he never returned, dying, as it was believed, in the Holy Land on 25 Sep- tember following.9 His wife is said to have been Albreda,10 sister of William de Vesci, parson of Barwick in Elmet.11 By her he had issue an only son Robert. Only three infeudations which he made in the honour of Clitheroe have remained upon record. To Hugh, son of Leofwin, he gave the manors of Altham, Clayton le Moors, Accrington, and a moiety of the manor of Billington ; ia to Robert Banastre, lord of Makerfield, he gave Walton in le Dale, Mellor, Eccleshall, Little Harwood, Over and Nether Darwen,13 and to Richard Fitton he gave Great Harwood.1* All these grants belong to the period 1 160-1 177. Robert de Lacy is first mentioned in one of his father's charters belong- ing to the year ii6o.16 Before 1183 he gave an oxgang of land in Great Marsden to his maternal uncle, William, son of Eustace de Vesci,16 and two oxgangs there to the monks of Pontefract.17 In 1185 he gave 40 marks to have certain of his men, who were said to have slain outlaws, tried in the king's court.18 He was present at the king's coronation in i iSg,19 and about this time gave to Kirkstall Abbey a vaccary and woodland at Roundhay;30 and for the welfare of the soul of Isabel his wife, and of his own soul, gave all Accrington, with the wood there called the Hay, and also Rushton Grange, in Bowland,31 and confirmed many grants to the priory of Nostell.28 He like- wise warranted by charter to William de Arches the grants of his ancestors to William's predecessors of the liberty to take venison in their fee in Wiswall, Hapton, and Osbaldeston.23 To Efward Brun he gave half a caru- 1 Farrer, Lanes. Pipe R. 6 ; Pipe R. Sac. 52 ; Staff. Collect, i. 45. 8 Pift R. Soc. xii. 88. In 1 166 Henry de Lacy returned his fees of this honour as yyf fees, including i8J held by Guy de Laval, 2 held in alms, his own, viz. -foj of old feoffment, and just over 1 8 of new feoffment. Red Book of the Exch. (Rells Ser.), 421-4- In 1 172 the numbers were 43! and 31^ respectively. Madox, Hist, of the Exch. i. 629. 3 Pipe R. Soc. xvi. 73. * Pipe R. Soe. xviii. 61. ' Benedict (Rolls Ser.), i. 51. « Man. Angl. vi. 875. 1 Hove Jen (Rolls. Ser.), ii. 131. 8 Benedict (Rolls Ser.), i. 159. A great battle was fought at Rames in Palestine on 26 November, 1177. 9 Men. Angl. v. 533*. 10 Towneley MSS. Chetham Lib. C. 8, 8 ; Brooke, Discovery ofErnrs (1723), 63. U Man. Angl. v. 533$. 18 Whitaker, Hist, oj Whalley, edit. 1876, ii. 265. A Hugh, son of Lefwin, was amerced in Yorkshire in 1175 for having received goods from Flanders into his shop. Pipe R. Soc. 21 Hen. II. 180. is Hist. ofWbattf), ii. 330. u Ibid. 388 n. 16 Cbartul. of Pontefract (Yorks. Rec. Soc.), 30. is Ibid. 42. William de Vesci died before Easter, 1183 ; Grimaldi, Rot. de dominabus, 5. 17 Chartul. of Pontefract, 26. " Pipe R. 3 1 Hen. II. Yorks. ro. 5 d. i» Benedict (Rolls Ser.), i. 80. so Man. Angl. (Dodsworth), vi. 862 ; Chartul. of Pontefract (Yorks. Rec. Soc.), 315. si Coucher of Kirkstall (Thoresby Soc.), 196, 199. S3 Man. Angl. 71.92. S3 Duchy of Lane., formerly Cl. xxv. bdle. R. 1 3, v. FEUDAL BARONAGE cate of land in Briercliffe and 30 acres of wood in Rowley.1 To Adam de Blackburn, his clerk, he gave the moiety of the church of Blackburn, which Adam's ancestor Richard had held, and the benefice which the said Richard held in the church of Whalley.2 To Robert son of Henry he gave half the vill of Ribchester in thegnage for 7 shillings yearly, reserving the advowson of the church.3 His wife's name was Isabella,* in one place named Sabina,6 of unknown parentage, by whom he had no issue. She afterwards married Gilbert de L'Aigle.6 Robert died on 21 August, 1193, shortly before the commencement of John's rebellion, and was buried in the abbey of Kirkstall.7 With his death terminated the old line of Lacy. His two honours of Clitheroe and Pontefract passed at his death to the daughter of his aunt, Albreda, wife of Robert de Lisours, named after her mother who died in 1 1 66. The younger Albreda had married before 1 142 Richard fitz Eustace, constable of Chester in right of his mother, who died before 1 163," leaving issue John, constable of Chester, who predeceased his mother. In the account of the barony of the constable of Chester it has already been shown that Albreda, the relict of Richard fitz Eustace, after the death of Robert de Lacy, released to her grandson, Roger, constable of Chester, the honours and estates which had descended to her upon the death of her kinsman in 1193, tne ^ee of Sprotborough being reserved to her for life with remainder to her son William fitz William, to hold of Roger and his heirs by the ancient service of eight knights' fees.9 Under this settlement the honours of Pontefract and Clitheroe passed to the line of the constables of Chester, who assumed the surname of Lacy, and eventually became earls of Lincoln of that line. THE BARONY OF MONTBEGON10 There is ample evidence of the creation of this fee soon after the Con- quest in the references in Domesday to manors held by Roger, the man of 1 Towneley MSS. Chetham Lib. C 8, 8. * Coucber of Whalley (Chatham Soc.), 76. 8 Duchy of Lane. Misc. Ptf. I, No. 36, m. 7. * Comber "*. 3°°- I 329 42 A HISTORY OF LANCASHIRE Charter.1 He was appointed also, with Richard de Copeland, a justice of the forest in this county, for the perambulation and disafforesting of those places so to be dealt with according to the carta de foresta? and was himself served with a writ to disafforest wood and moor in Heaton under Horwich, which Henry de Boulton claimed as his tenement, and in Anderton, which Thomas de Burnhull so claimed.8 In 1222 he proffered 5 marks and a palfrey to have a fair yearly at his manor of Manchester on the eve and the feast of St. Matthew the Apostle,4 and in 1227, when the king attained his majority, obtained a charter of this privilege.6 He died towards the end of the year 1230,' after returning to England from the expedition to Poitou, where his health had been undermined by exposure and improper food.7 The abbot of Vaudey, the executor of his will, had livery of his chattels in January, 1231." The inquest of service of 1212 contains full particulars of his fee in this county, from which it may be of interest to tabulate the names of the tenants by knight's service, their tenements and quota of service, comparing the same with similar particulars for the years 1242-3. IN CO. LANCASTER" 1212 242-3 -„. , . i • u j (Matthew, son of William de") Withmgton cum mem- ikiughtandl Hath Matthew de Hathersage bns ' Jud8e (Roger, son of the said William] Barton upon Irwell cum ) membris . . . . j i£ knight , (Gilbert de Notton, jure uxoris} \Edith, lady of Barton . . . .J • Gilbert de Barton Worthington . . ,\ Coppul i knight , Thomas de Worthington . jWilliam de Worthing- { ton Childwall ... A Aspull . . . .1 Turton . . . j |t knight Richard, son of Robert de Lathum Robert de Lathum Brockholes . . . J Harwood .... 4 knight . f Roger de Samlesbury .... (Alexander de Harwood . . . ('[William de Samles- ([John de Harwood] Dalton 1 Parbold L I knight . [Roger, son of William de Kirkby] Robert de Lathum Wrightington . . .j Pilkington . . . . • (i knight . 1 1 judge . t Alexander de Pilkington . Roger de Pilkington Rumworth . . . .) Lostock J J knight . [Richard de Pierpont] .... Richard de Pierpont Clayton i Droylsden . . • • f J knight . [Richard, son of Robert de Byron] ((Changed to socage JFaikworth . . J ( enure) Cotgrave . CO. NOTTS i knight . Robert Grelley 1Z Abbot of Swineshead 13 8 Pat. R. 1216-25, 57° » cf. 575. i Ann. de Burton (Rolls Ser.), i- 232. s Ibid. 576. * Fine R. 6 Hen. III. m. 3. ' Chart. R. 1 1 Hen. III. m. 4 ; Cal. Chart. R. 56. « Fine R. 15 Hen. III. m. 8. 1 Matth. Paris, Hist. Angl. (Rolls Ser.), ii. 328. The chronicler describes him as ' vir nobilis et potens. 8 Cal. Close R. 1227-31, 474. 9 Exch. K.R. Kts. fees. Bdle. i, No. 9, m. 5 ; Testa de Nevill (Rec. Com.), 4.04*. 10 Testa de Nevill (Rec. Com.), 397^. " Lanes. Fines, Rec. Soc. ixxix. 90. 12 Testa de Nevill (Rec. Com.), 22*. ls Ibid. 3^, 76, i ib. 33<> FEUDAL BARONAGE CO. LINCOLN Bloxholme . . Swineshead . Sixhills . . . Hainton Bracebridge . Canwick . . . Tunstead Risby. . . . Willisham . . (Little Blakenham ] (Almesburn 1B . | knight I knight J knight i knight . 1212 1242-3 [Robert Grelley] i Thomas Grelley8 Robert Grelley s Thomas Grelley, Mar- garet his mother hold- ing in dower * m L o 11 T R f Thomas Grelley 8 [Robert Grelley] B < J 7 CO. NORFOLK I knight . [Robert Grelley] 8 , I knight i knight i knight) J knight) CO. SUFFOLK [Robert Grelley] » . Robert Grelley " . Thomas Grelley ! Robert le Breton u Thomas Grelley13 On 3 January, 1231, the king received the homage of Thomas Grelley, son and heir of Robert.18 In June, 1242, he was summoned with horses and arms to accompany the king in the campaign for the recovery of Saintonge.17 In the summer and autumn of the following year he was in Gascony in the king's service, and had acquittance of his yearly render for ward of Lancaster Castle.18 In the summer of 1244, in obedience to the royal summons, he was in Scotland on the king's service.19 In 1245 tne king presented him with five bucks and fifteen does, taken alive in the park of Macclesfield, for the restocking of his park,20 and four years later he obtained a charter of free warren in his demesne lands in Manchester.21 In the spring of 1258 he was summoned to serve in the Welsh expedition,22 and, taking a prominent part in the crisis of that year, was one of the twelve elected by the barons under the Provisions of Oxford to treat with the king's council on behalf of the commonalty touching the common need, and also one of the twenty-four elected to treat about the raising of an aid.23 In 1259 he was appointed warden of the king's forests south of the Trent.2* Two years later we find his name amongst those summoned to assemble before the king in London after Easter,25 and the same year he was summoned to serve in the expedition against Llewelyn.28 In 1259 3 Tata de Nevill (Rec. Com.), 319. 4 Ibid. 312^, there ' Crek ' appears for ' Grelley.' 6 Testa de Nevill (Rec. Com.), 411. 7 ibid. 324^. 9 Testa de Nevill (Rec. Com.), 411. For ' Constude ' read ' Tonstude.' 11 Tata de Nevill (Rec. Com.), 291^. ™ Ibid. 295^. i* Inq. p.m. 25 Edw. I. 51. 1B Ibid. 1 No return in 1212. s Ibid. 346. 6 No return in 1212. 8 No return in 1212. 10 No return in 1212. 13 Ibid. 411. i" Fine R. 1 5 Hen. III. m. 7. 17 Close R. 26 Hen. III. pt. i. m. 3 d. In response to an earlier summons in May, 1 242, he gave 100 marks besides his ordinary scutage to be freed from foreign service, but afterwards accompanying the king had acquittance of castleguard (Dugdale, Baronage, i. 608 ; Roles Gascons, 1013, 1556), was allowed I oo marks for his passage, and was excused debts amounting to £70 mostly due to Aaron of York ; Roles Gascons, i^6c, 1460, 1556. 18 Close R. No. 56, m. 7. He had proffered 100 marks not to transfrete, but had afterwards accompanied the king. Ibid. m. 2. 19 Ibid. No. 58, m. 4 ; Rot. de Summon. 28 Hen. III. m. I. 20 Close R. 29 Hen. III. No. 59, m. I. si Cal. Chart. R. i. 342. & Close R. 42 Hen. III. m. 1 1 d. 23 Annales Man. (Rolls Ser.), i. 449, 450 ; Stubbs, Select Charters, ed. 1870, 381, 385. ** Pat. R. 43 Hen. III. m. 2. « close R. 42 Hen. III. m. \(>d. «« Ibid. m. 9 Dom. Bk. i. 265. 8 Mm. Angl. ii. 386. » Ibid. 387. 10 Ibid. v. 628 ; Ormerod, Hist, of Cbes. edit. Helsby, ii. 862. 11 Ormerod, Hist. ofChes. ii. 864-6 ; Beamont, Annals rf Warrington, 31. i» Pipe R. 2 Hen. 11. (Rec. Com.), 45 ; ibid. 23 Hen. II. (Pipe R. Soc.), 26. Ralph son of Robert Pincerna held 10 solidates of rent in Budiford in I Ric. I., ibid. (Rec. Com.), I Ric. I. 117 ; and in 3 John, ibid. 3 John, I. 338 FEUDAL BARONAGE proffered 10 marks for a recognition of his land of Cossington, co. Leicester,1 an estate which his heirs held of the earls of Chester. Robert de Ingleby, the son, dying without issue between 1175 and 1189, was succeeded by his sister Edelina, wife of Walter de Somervill, by whose marriage the greater part of her brother's inheritance passed to that family.* The only document which in anywise connects Richard the butler, of Warrington, with the above family is a deed addressed to Walter, bishop of Lichfield (1149-1159), by which Richard Pincerna grants to God, St. Mary, and St. Giles of Calk, 8 virgates of his demesne land in Durandesthorp (Donasthorpe, co. Derby), to which Beatrice, his wife, Ranulf the clerk, and Hugh, his brothers, and several Derbyshire men were witnesses.8 Donas- thorpe was a member of the earl of Chester's fee in Derbyshire,* and, like Ingleby, had probably been added to the earl's fief in that county after the for- feitures of i io2.6 The attestation of the grantor's wife, Beatrice, and the fact that Calk Priory was found in possession of burgage property in Warrington at a later date, seem to confirm the opinion that the grantor was Richard, the first of the family of Butler who were barons of Warrington. As Richard the butler, he attested many charters of Ranulf, earl of Chester, in the last decade of Stephen's reign.8 In 1165 he had acquittance of the sheriff's demand for 8 marks of a scutage in connexion with the Welsh campaign of that year, having performed military service with the king in person.7 The only recorded feoffment which he made in his Warrington fee was to Waldeve de Walton, master serjeant of the wapentake of West Derby, of lands in Eggergarth, in Lydiate.8 His death occurred in or before 1176.' William, his son, was in ward of Ralph fitz Bernard, sheriff of Lancaster, during his minority,10 and probably attained his majority between 1185 and 1 190. He was in arms against the king with his chief lord, John of Mortain, in 1 193—4, but made his peace with Richard in 1194 by payment of a small fine of 30 marks.11 He confirmed to the priory of Thurgarton the church of War- rington, the church of Titheby with the chapel of Cropwell, and the carucate of land in Cropwell which Matthew de Vilers, his grandfather, gave to that house.18 His first wife, whose name was Dionisia, was probably the mother of his issue. She died before 1215, in which year William the butler obtained a letter from the king in support of his suit for the hand of Aline, the relict of William de Furness, who died in 1 2O4-13 He married this lady shortly after. About the year 1205 he attested a charter of Ranulf, earl of Chester, as the latter's butler.11 1 In 1237 Roger de Somervill held half a fee in Cosinton, viz. one half of the earl of Ferrers, the other of the seneschal of Mohaut (Montalt). Testa de Ntvitt (Rec. Com.), 92. » See Mm. Angl. ii. 362; Inq. p.m. 18 Edw. I. No. 113; Ormerod, Hist. ofChes. ed. Helsby, ii. 864-6; Testa de Nevill, cos. Derby, Staff, and Leicester, pass. 8 From the original formerly in the possession of the Rev. W. Massie of Chester. Beamont, Annals of Warrington, 34. * Durandestorp was part of Nigel de Stafford's fief in Domesday (Dom. Bk. i. 278). Engelebi was divided between Nigel de Stafford, Ralph fitz Hubert, the king, and the king's thegns (ibid, passim). 6 Beamont, Annals o/ Warrington, 35. 8 Ibid. 3 3 ; Farrer, Lanes. Pipe R. passim. The earliest appears to be a charter dated at Lincoln on the eve of the feast of SS. Simon and Jude (27 October), probably in the year 1145. Dep. Keeper's l^th Rep. App. i. 7, No. 65. 7 Farrer, Lanes. Pipe R. 6. 8 Inq. 0/1212, Rec. Soc. Lanes, and Ches. xlviii. 10. » Pipe R. 23 Hen. II. Notts. 10 Int. 0/1212, Rec. Soc. Lanes, and Ches. xlviii. 6. " Farrer, Lanes. Pipe R. 77. 18 Mm. Angl. vi. 191. " Lanes. Pipe R. 180, 252. " Cat. Pat. R. 1317-21, 26. 339 A HISTORY OF LANCASHIRE The details of his knights' fees and the names of his tenants by knight's service are as follows : BETWEEN RIBBLE AND MERSEY— 2 FEES Tyldesley (i car.)1 . . Culcheth (4 car.)2 . . Rixton and Glazebrook (2 car.)8 . . . . Atherton (i car.)*. . . Little Sankey (i car.)6 . Penketh (i car.)8 . . . Lydiate (6 oxg.) • • •] Eggergarth (2 oxg.) . J Thornton (i car.) . . . Thornton (i car.) . Ince Blundell (3 car.) . .1 Barton (4 oxg.) . . . J Hoole (2 car.) .... Halsall (i car.) .... Windle (i car.) . . . Becconsall (i car.) . . . Laton with Warbrcck Bispham with Norbreck Cropwell Butler (6 car ?) Kinelton .... Calverton (i car.) . . Owthorpe .... Newbold . . . 1212 1242-3 Hugh, son of Henry de Tyldesley Henry de Tyldesley Hugh, son of Gilbert de Culcheth Gilbert de Culcheth Alan de Rixton . . Alan de Rixton A fee «* Henry, son of William de Atherton Robert, son of Thomas . . . Robert, son of Robert de Sankey f Benedict, son of Simon de Halsall ^ \ Henry, son of Gilbert de Walton 8 Robert, son of Richard de Moly- neux9 Gilbert, son of Eawin de Thorn- ton™ William de Atherton Robert de Samles- bury Roger de Sankey (William de Lydiate 1 William de Walton Adam de Molyneux Robert, son of Robert de Thornton Jfee ifee A fee A fee In alms . William Blundell Richard Blundell Robert de Vilers Robert de Vilers Alan, son of Simon de \ Halsall of Robert) ~, . , ^ AI c AI j r j \r-\ \ The earl of Ferrers Alan, son of Alan de de Vilers ) Windhull ) Hospitallers of Jerusalem . . . Same as 1212 IN AMOUNDERNESS— i FEE i fee In demesne f The heir of Emery ( the Butler IN NOTTINGHAMSHIRE11 Walter de Stanton . . /•Walter de Stanton J Alina, relict of Emery I the Butler Treyford « Croxton . Fillingham . . Ingham . Cold Hanworth Ellsham . . . Bultham . . . Fillingham . Ingham . i , (Robert de Vilers .... e ' I William de Vilers .... £ fee . William, son of Pain de Vilers i fee . William, son of Pain de Vilers IN CO. SUSSEX John de Vilers John de Vilers John de Vilers Robert de Vilers Robert de Vilers IN CO. LINCOLN1* ("Robert, son of Richard I fee . I Robert, son of Richard (.Robert, son of Richard /Robert Breton . . . £ fee . | Robert Breton . . . (Robert Breton . . . I fee . Henry, son of Ralph . i fee . William, son of Winnoc Richard,son of Robert de Croxton £ fee John de L'Isle £ fee Robert le Breton, i fee Henry and Simon de Fillingham 1 Cocktrsand Chart. (Chetham Soc.), 714 ; Testa de Nevilt (Rec. Com.), 402. * Laves. Inf. Rec. Soc. Lanes, and Ches. xlviii. 9. * Ibid. 9. * Ibid. * Ibid. 10. « Ibid. 10. 1 CoekenanJ Chart. (Chetham Soc.), 632 ».; Lanes. Inq., Rec. Soc. vol. xlviii. 8. 8 Lanes. Inq. Rec. Soc. vol. xlviii. 10. » Ibid. 7. 10 Ibid. 8. 11 Testa de Nevill (Rec. Com.), 3, 7, n, 22 ; Lanes. Inq., Rec. Soc. vol. xlviii. 5-11. i' This manor was not a member of the honour of Lancaster but of that of Arundel. 18 Testa de Nevill (Rec. Com.), 304, 315, 326, 408 ; Lanes. Inq., Rec. Soc. vol. xlviii. 10-11. 340 FEUDAL BARONAGE William the butler died before 20 November, 1233, when Emery his son had livery of six knights' fees which he held in chief, the two fees between Ribble and Mersey being then held of the earl of Ferrers.1 Emery died before 4 September, 1235, when the earl gave the king £100 for wardship of the heir.3 His wife Alina had her dower in Cropwell.8 She was probably the daughter and heir of Stephen de Upton, lord of Upton, co. Warwick, who was returned in 1236 as holding one knight's fee in Upton,4 which fee the heir of Emery le Botiler held in 1242.' William, his son and successor,' attained his majority about the year I245.T In 1249 he held Exhall and Foleshill of Roger de Montalt of Hawarden, co. Flint, as of his manor of Coventry,8 and in 1268, after the death of William Mauduit, earl of Warwick, was returned as holding of him one knight's fee, probably in Upton.9 On 20 October, 1255, he had a grant of a yearly fair at Warrington to be held on the vigil, the feast, and the morrow of the Trans- lation of St. Thomas the Martyr.10 The grant of a weekly market on Wednesday at the manor of Laton, in Amounderness, was made on 26 October, 1257, in error to 'Robert' the Butler.11 On 5 February, 1259, upon his appointment as sheriff, the county and castle of Lancaster were delivered to William the butler as custos,13 and so continued in his charge until Michaelmas following. In 1260 he was summoned to attend a council in London with other magnates of the kingdom.13 About the year 1 260 William the butler acquired Burtonwood from Robert de Ferrers, earl of Derby, with vert and venison in his woods and lands in Sankey, Penketh, and Dallam for a yearly quit-rent of one penny.14 The earl also resigned his mesne lordship over the manors of Halsall and Windle, which had been created by Pain de Vilers I., and had been acquired by the earl's grandfather apparently from Warin de Vilers, lord of Hoole, a supposed younger brother of Robert de Vilers, living in 1 2 1 2.1B He also enfeoffed William the butler in the mesne lordship of Bold, quit of suit to the wapentake court of West Derby, and from the yearly thegnage rent of los. due for this manor.1' As a vassal of the earl of Derby he took part in the barons' rebellion of 1264, but after the battle of Evesham made his peace with Henry, in September, 1265, and recovered his lands," only, however, to be again dispossessed the year following. On 25 October, 1266, his lands in cos. Notts, Warwick, Leicester, and Lancaster were given to David, son of Griffin, for 200 librates of land,18 but seem to have been restored to him a few days later 1 Rot. Fin. 1 8 Hen. III. m. 1 1 ; Close R. 17 Hen. III. m. 4. » Fine R. 19 Hen. III. m. 4. s Testa de NeviU (Rec. Com.), 398. * Ibid. 83, 89. * Ibid. 99^ ; cf. Close R. 29 Hen. III. m. 2. ' In a deed granting to the priory of Lancaster the site of a grange in Laton he is described as ' Willelmus filius Almarici le Botyler' (Reg. of Lane. Priory, 438). 7 When he contributed £8 for eight fees to the aid to marry the king's eldest daughter (Pipe R. 30 Hen. III. Lane. m. I2 was *n the retinue of Robert de Assheton, kt. banneret, in the king's service in Ireland.13 About the year 1364, Butler married Alice, daughter of William de Plumpton, kt., and relict of Richard Sherburn, kt.u In 1376 he was returned to the Parliament summoned to meet at Westminster on 12 February,16 again in 1377 to the Parliaments summoned for 27 January and 13 October,16 which latter sat for sixty-six days, and again to the Parlia- ments of 1378 and 1380." In 1386 he was one of the king's commissioners in the Scrope and Grosvenor trial, being styled ' Baro de Weryngton,'18 and the same year with other Lancashire knights led ten men-at-arms and thirty archers of his own retinue into Ireland on the king's service.19 In 1388 he 1 Chron. (ed. Berners, 1812), i. 109. * Staff. Collections (New Ser.), vi. (2), 40, 52. 8 Ibid, xviii. (2), 214. * Misc. R. Chanc. bdle. 20, No. 23, m. 2. 6 Chetham Soc. (Old Ser.), xcv. 7 ; Dep. Keeper's ^th Rep. App. No. 3, 535. Writ of D.C.E. tested 18 April ; Dep. Keeper's ^znd Rep. App. No. 4, 353. Sir John Butler had livery 6 August, 1380. Ibid. 6 Duchy of Lane. Misc. Bks., No. xiii. 48^, 55^, 214. 7 Parl. Rei.\. 177. He and his colleague each received 4*. a day. 8 Ibid. 1 88. 9 Dugdale, Baronage, 653. French R., 43 Edw. III. Staff. Coll. viii. 112. 10 Duchy of Lane. Misc. Bks., No. xiii. 64! 11 Ibid. 651$. In 1378 the duke of Lancaster directed the Chancellor to send the great seal of the duchy into the castle of Liverpool to remain in the custody of Mons. John Butiller, constable of the same, during the chancellor's absence from the duchy. Palat. of Lane. Chan. Misc. bdle. i. file 9. m. 4. i» Duchy of Lane. Misc. Bks. xiii. 154^. Letter dated 18 July. On 22 November the receiver was ordered to pay him £56 8/. 8 Ibid. 270-1; 11 Lichfield Epis. Reg. Bothe. 12 Beamont, Annals of Warrington, 284, 288. In January, 1463, the custody of William, son and heir of William Troutbeck, kt. was committed to John Butler, kt. and Margaret his wife. Cal. Pat. R. 1461-7, 209. 13 The late Mr. Beamont, in Annals of Warrington, 303-23, disproves the ancient tradition of the murder of Sir John Butler in his bed at Bewsey by ' Lord Stanley, Sir Piers Leigh and Mr. William Savage.' The different accounts of the tragedy are interesting and curious, but no satisfactory theory as to the origin of the story has yet been put forth. ^Chetham Soc. xcix. 73-4. Writ of D.C.E. dated 28 April, 1463. Dep. Keeper's 37^ Rep. App. ii. 177- 18 Metcalfe, Book ofL. 3. 347 A HISTORY OF LANCASHIRE of the half blood, son of John Butler and Margaret Stanley, was his next heir, then aged 10 years.1 Thomas Butler had livery of his inheritance upon attaining his majority on 4 July, 1482.* He married Margaret, daughter of John Delves of Doddington, kt.s At the intended coronation of Edward V. in 1483 he was summoned to receive the order of knighthood,4 but did not receive it until the coronation of Elizabeth, queen to king Henry VII. on 25 November, 148 5.* In 1486 he was placed on the commission of the peace for the county.8 In 1498 he was summoned to show his title to markets and fairs at Laton and Warrington, free warren in his demesne lands, wreck of the sea and gallows in Warrington and Laton, a court with view of frankpledge in his manor of Bewsey, waif and stray, and amends of the assize of bread and ale broken, a free fishery in Warrington and Laton, and a ferry over Mersey.7 In reply he cited the charters shown by his ancestor William the butler to the justices at Lancaster in 1292, and declared his descent as kinsman and heir of the said William, namely as son of John, son of John, son of William, son of John, son of William [son of William, son of Henry], son of the said William, lord of Warrington.8 In 1505 the king appointed him master forester of the forests and chases of Toxteth, Croxteth, and Simons- wood, and seneschal of Liverpool.9 In 1513 he was present at the battle of Flodden Field, when several of his free tenants and retainers were slain.10 By his will dated in 1520 he founded a grammar school at Warrington, which he endowed with lands purchased at Chaddock, in Tydesley.11 He died on 27 April, 1522, and was buried in Warrington Church, where Dodsworth saw his marble epitaph in 1625, and his arms impaling Delves in the east window.12 His only son and heir, Thomas Butler, was aged 28 at his father's death.13 He was knighted at Greenwich before the coronation of Queen Anne Bullen, on Sunday before Whitsunday, I533-1* Soon after coming into possession of his inheritance he incurred great debts, probably by gaming and cock-fighting,16 to meet which he alienated the manor of Cropwell- Butler, co. Notts.18 In 1534 he served the office of sheriff of the county,17 and the same year alienated his manor of Exhall, co. Warwick, to Julius Nethermill, alderman of Coventry.18 In 1508 he was married to Cecily, daughter of Piers Legh, of Lyme, kt., but this union was dissolved before I542,19 in or before which year he had married Elizabeth, daughter of Edward Sutton, kt., and relict of John Huddleston of Sawston, co. Cam- 1 Metcalfe, Bk. of Kts. 81-3 ; Inq. p. m. exemplified 17 May, 1482. Duchy of Lane. Enrollments in Chanc.; Add. MSS. No. 32,108, f. 239. It was during the minority of William Butler that the Legh rental of 1465 was compiled. Cbetkam Soc. (Old Ser.), xvii. 8 Add. MSS. No. 32,108, 240. 3 Beamont, Annah of Warrington, 337. Ibid. 339-40. 6 Metcalfe, Book of Kts. 19. • Dep. Keeper's 4O/A Rep. App. iv. 540. 7 Palat. of Lane. Writs, Lent, 13 Hen. VII. « Dodsworth MSS. cxlix. no. 9 Dep. Keeper's 40/4 Rep. App. iv. 544. 10 Beamont, Annals of Warrington, 384-6. n Ibid. 408, 41 1. 12 Ibid. 414. The epitaph is now in the Warrington Museum. 13 Duchy of Lane. Inq. p.m. vol. v, No. 13. The record contains a list of the free tenants of the barony of Warrington circa 1326. w Metcalfe, Book of Kts. 62. ls Beamont, Annals of Wcrringion, 424-5. 18 Thoroton, Hist, of Notts, edit. Throsby, i. 193. " P.R.O. Lists and Indexes, vol. ix. is Dugdale, Hist, of Warwick, 1 14, 796. 19 Annals of Warrington, 422, 452. 348 FEUDAL BARONAGE bridge.1 In 1543 he sold to the king lands in Burtonwood and Great Sankey of the yearly value of £50 i2s* He died on 15 September, 1550, being succeeded by Thomas, his son and heir, then aged 37 years.3 Thomas Butler, esq., married in 1543 Eleanor, daughter of John Huddleston, of Sawston, co. Cambridge, whose widow, Thomas Boteler, the father, had married in 1542.* He was returned to serve the county in the Parliament of 1553." About the year 1560 he married, as his second wife, Thomasina, whose family name is unknown.6 She died in 1573 and was buried in the church of St. Andrew by the Wardrobe, in London.7 In 1574 he married as his third wife, Anne, daughter of Edward Norris of Speke.8 He was knighted in the house of Sir Nicholas Bacon, Lord Keeper of the Great Seal, in May, 1 577.' Shortly before his death, being in fear that his son and heir, Edward Butler, would dissipate his patrimony, he made a lease of the whole of his estate to his daughter Elizabeth, to commence from the death of his said son, if the latter died without issue.10 He died on 22 September, 1579, Edward his son being 26 years of age.11 Edward Butler, the last of his line, was a man of singularly weak character. Four years previous to his father's death, and in anticipation of that event, he caused his father grievous distress by an attempt to alienate the family estate to Sir William Boothe of Dunham. This proceeding, which is believed to have been the outcome of a visit made by Edward Butler to his distant kinsman, the earl of Leicester, at Kenilworth in 1575, upon the occasion of the Queen's memorable visit, was discovered by his father in 1579, who immediately repaired the contemplated mischief by obtaining a re-grant of the estates to himself from Sir William Boothe.12 But immediately after his father's death Edward Butler proceeded to bar all claims upon the estates, so as to secure to himself an estate in fee simple. Having secured this result, he conveyed his estates in 1581 to his kinsman .the earl of Leicester, subject to certain powers of appointment to wife or wives, sons and daughters, and to certain unusual provisions affecting the earl and himself.13 By various subsequent deeds the estates were further secured to that unscrupulous nobleman. In 1586 Edward Butler died childless, having married firstly in 1563, Jane, daughter of Richard Brooke of Norton, co. Chester ; from whom and at whose instance he was divorced in 1569 or 1570, owing to his extraordinary behaviour in refusing to consum- mate the marriage.14 He married secondly, in or before 1586, Margaret, daughter of Richard Maisterson, of Nantwich.16 His will is dated on 2 November, I586.18 With the death of this weak and capricious youth terminated the line of the Butlers, barons of Warrington. 1 Beamont, Annals of barring/on, 452. * Ibid. 455. 8 Duchy of Lane. Inq. p.m. vol. ix. No. 22. * Annals ofWanington, 468. 6 Par!. Ret. i. 379. 6 Perhaps she was a Croston of Croston Hall, near Chorley. See the Visit. ofWartu. Harl. Soc. xii. 357 ; Annals of Warrington, 473. 7 Harl. MSS. No. 3,610, 39 ; Stowe, Survey, ed. 1618, 641. « Annals of Warrington, 482. » Metcalfe, Book ofKts. 130. 10 Annals of Warrington, 485. 11 Duchy of Lane. Inq. p. m. vol. xiv. No. 2. 12 Beamont, Annals of Warrington, 482, 484-5, 493. U Ibid. 498-500. W The story is recorded in Chetham Soc. xcviii. 100. 16 Annals of Warrington, 509. 18 Ibid. 512-5. A survey made for the earl of Leicester on his acquiring this inheritance is quoted in the introduction to the ballad entitled Sir John Butler in Bp. Percy's folio manuscript (N. TrUbner & Co. 1868), iii. 205. 349 A HISTORY OF LANCASHIRE THE BARONY OF BUTLER OF AMOUNDERNESS1 Hervey * Walter, the first of this family upon record, was the tenant in the time of Henry I. of a small fee which he held of the honour of Lancaster, comprising the chief manor of Weeton (or Witheton, as it was formerly and more correctly written) in Amounderness, held by the service of half a knight, and the manor of Boxstede, co. Suffolk, held by the same service,8 and Newton, co. Suffolk, for one seventh of a knight's fee. He also held lands in Belaugh and ' Hulmested,' co. Norfolk.4 He or his son may possibly be identified as Hervey son of Hervey who in 1130 rendered account in co. Suffolk of 10 marks for his land which he had recovered from, or held of, Hamon Peche.6 In the great inquest of service taken for this county in 1212, he is specifically named as the father of Hervey Walter, and also as having enfeoffed Orm son of Magnus in marriage with his daughter Aliz of 4 caru- cates of land in Rawcliffe, Thistleton, and Greenhalgh, members of his fee of Weeton.' The issue of this marriage was Roger son of Orm, lord of Hutton in Leyland hundred, father of Elias de Hutton, who gave his manor of Hutton to the canons of Cockersand between the years 1201 and I2io.7 Hervey Walter II., son and heir of the above Hervey, advanced the fortunes of the family by his marriage with Maud, daughter of Theobald de Valoignes, lord of Parham, co. Suffolk, and sister of Bertha, wife of Ranulf de Glanvill, the justiciar under Henry II.8 To this kinship with the house of Glanvill was undoubtedly due the great advancement obtained by the sons of Hervey Walter under Henry II. and Richard. Upon the foundation of Butley Priory by Ranulf de Glanvill in 1171, Hervey gave to that foundation all the land he had in the vill of Wingfield and elsewhere, doubtless of his wife's inherit- ance.9 In this county he gave, with the consent of Theobald his son, land in Medlar to Roger de Heaton, of Heaton, near Lancaster.10 William son of 1 Dugdale, Baronage, i. 633. This barony consisted of the following townships and hamlets, situate within the hundred of Amounderness : — Weeton, half of Marton, Greenhalgh with Thistleton, Wesham, Treales, Wharles, and Roseacre, Out Rawclifte including Middle Rawcliffe. These vills were rated at 1 6 carucates of land and were held by the service of half a knight. To the barony originally belonged Boxstede, co. Suffolk, held by the service of half a knight, and Old Newton, in the same county, held by the service of one-seventh part of a knight. 3 Mr. Round has called attention in his Peerage and Family History (122 note) to the ' Herveus pincerna' and ' Herveus botellarius,' who attests, with other officers and tenants of the castle of Dol in Brittany, two charters to the abbey of St. Florent, one bearing the date 1086 (Cal. of Docs. France, 416), as the possible ancestor of the Butlers of Ireland. This Hervey may perhaps be identified as the Hervey, son of Hubert, who with his father attested a charter ofBaderon to the nunnery of St. George at Rennes circa 1080-90 (Genealogist (New Ser.), xviii. l). It is also to be noted that Edmund Butler, styled earl of Carrick, held in 1298 of Richard Fitz John, his uncle, part of the manor of Skelbrook, co. York (forks. Inq. p.m. (Rec. Soc.), xxxi. 86), which had formed part of the Domesday fief of Hervey de Campels, the bishop of Bayeux's vassal. There is, however, nothing to show that the Butlers of Ireland descended from either of these Herveys. Nor is there anything to show that the Butlers had any interest in Skelbrook before the marriage of Theobald IV. to Joan, sister of Richard Fitz John. Mr. Glanville-Richards has collected much information relative to the bearers of the name of Hervey in the twelfth century, and suggests as the possible ancestor of Hervey Walter a certain Hervey of Gisors, eldest son of Theobald Pain, whose family held the hereditary office of castellan of Gisors, and were Bretons by race (House of Glanville, xviii.). Hervey appears to have been a common name amongst the Bretons. 8 Testa de Nevilt (Rec. Com.), i-jb, 403^ ; Pipe R. Soc. xvii. 20. * Ibid. 6 Pipe R. 31 Hen. I. (Rec. Com.), 98. For the connexion between Glanvill and Peche see Glanville- Richards, Ho. of Glanville, 18. 8 Testa de Nevill (Rec. Com.), 403^ ; Lanes. Inq. Rec. Soc. xlviii. 37. 7 Chartul. of Cockersand, Chetham Soc. (New Ser ), xliii. 408. 8 Dugdale, Baronage, i. 633^ ; Mm. Angl. vi. 1 128. » Mm 4ngl. vi. 380. lOFarrer, Lanes. Pipe R. 437. 350 FEUDAL BARONAGE Hervey, who held lands in Selfleet temp. Henry II., given by Ranulf de Glan- vill or Henry II. to Butley,1 was probably a younger brother of Hervey II. and father of William Hervey, who held Boxstede in 1212, for the service of half a knight's fee of the honour of Lancaster ; 3 which fee continued in his descendants for some generations. In 1158 Hubert Walter, possibly a younger brother of Hervey Walter, rendered account of 40^. of the pleas of Wandelbery in cos. Norfolk and Suffolk.3 Hervey Walter had issue five sons, Theobald, Hubert, Walter, Roger, and Hamon.* Hubert was born at West Dereham, in Norfolk, where he founded an abbey in 1188. He was educated in the house of his uncle the justiciar, to whom on his ordination he became chaplain.6 In 1186 he was dean of York; in 1189 was elected bishop of Salisbury; and from 1193 to his death in 1205 held the see of Canterbury. His bones were identified in Canterbury Cathedral in 1890." He joined with his brother Theobald in the gift to the canons of West Dereham of land in Ickleton, co. Cambridge, which Hamon Walter, probably their younger brother, held ; 7 to which foundation Peter Walter, probably another kinsman, also gave a rent out of his mill of Istede. Whilst Ralph fitz Robert of Middleham, co. York, was in his custody, Hubert gave land in Saxthorpe, co. Norfolk, to his brother Theobald ; to recover which Ranulf, brother of Ralph, paid a fine in 1205.* Theobald, the eldest son and heir, inherited his grandfather's estate, as appears by an agreement which he made in the king's court in 1195 with his kinsman, William Hervey, whereby the latter took half a knight's fee in Boxsted, half a knight's fee in Hulmestead, and the third part of a fee in Belaugh (which Peter Walter held) to hold of Theobald, releasing in return all claim to Theobald's other lands.9 Theobald first comes into notice circa 1 182 as one of the witnesses with John, the king's son, of Ranulf de Glanvill's charter to Leystone.10 It was probably through the instrumentality of Glanvill that Theobald, in 1185, accompanied John to Ireland. The expedition crossed from Milford Haven to Waterford in the latter part of April, whilst five vessels sailed later from Chester with the ' harnesium ' of those of John's company who had been left behind for lack of transport.11 Immediately upon landing, Theobald received from John a grant to Glanvill and himself of 5J cantreds in Limerick ;1S and the same year with the men of Cork he fought and slew Dermot Mac Arthy.13 Before 1 189 he received from John the fief 1 Man. Angl. vi. 380 ; cf. Testa de Nevill (Rec. Com.), 295. * Testa de Nevill (Rec. Com.), ijb, 408^. His descendant William Hervey died seised of Boxstede in 1256 ; Cal. Inq.p. m. Hen. HI. i. 101. 8 Pipe R. 4 Hen. II. (Rec. Com.), 130. * Mm. Angl. vi. 380. Theobald and Roger attested Ranulf de Glanvill's foundation charter of Ledstone Priory in 1182. Ibid. vi. 881. s Man. Angl. vi. 899 ; Hoveden (Rolls Ser.), ii. 310. 6 For particulars of the numerous offices he held and his acts see Hook, Lives of Archbps. of Cant. ii. 584-656 ; Diet. Nat. Biog. xrviii. 137 ; Mem. ofRic. I. (Rolls Ser.), ii. pass. 1 Chart. R. (Rec. Com.), zib. 8 Rot. de Fin. (Rec. Com.), 369. Waleran, Ralph, and Ranulf, the three sons of Robert fitz Ralph of Middleham, by his wife Helewise, daughter of Ranulf de Glanvill, the justiciar, were each in turn in ward of Hubert Walter. Gale, Regist. Honoris tie Richmond, App. 235 ; Genealogist (New Ser.), iii. 32-3. 9 Pipe R. Soc. xvii. 20 ; Rot. Cur. Reg. (Rec. Com.), i. 105. This fine is interesting as affording evidence by the endorsement which it bears that Hubert Walter and the king's barons of the exchequer at this time introduced the chirograph of a fine in three parts, of which the foot was to be preserved in the Treasury. 10 Mm. Angl. vi. 88 1 ; Eyton, Itinerary of Hen. II. 24. n Eyton, Itinerary of Hen. II. 263-4. 1* Carte, Life of James, Duke of Ormonde ; Glanville-Richards, Records of Glanville, 65. M Giraldus Cambrensis, Expugnatio (Rolls Ser.), v. 386. 351 A HISTORY OF LANCASHIRE of Arklow, afterwards confirmed to him by William Marshall on becoming jure uxoris lord of Leinster,1 and in 1 188 he attested the charter of his brother Hubert, then dean of York, founding the abbey of Premonstratensian canons at West Dereham.* In 1189 he accompanied his uncle Glanvill to France, witnessing with him a charter of Henry II., confirming the translation of the canons of Swainby to Coverham in Richmondshire.8 Soon after his accession to the honour of Lancaster in 1 189, John granted to Theobald for his homage and service all Amounderness for the service of three knights' fees, the grant comprising the town of Preston with the demesne lands belonging to it, all the demesne lands of the hundred or wapen- take with the service of knights and freemen in the hundred, the wapentake court with the pleas, and the forest of Amounderness with pleas of the forest, reserving only pleas of the crown.* Mr. Round tells us that from 1185 to 1193 Theobald 'was in constant attendance on John, witnessing his charters to St. Augustine's, Bristol (Mon. Angl. xi. 367), and Jerpoint Abbey in Kil- kenny (ibid. vi. 1 132), and receiving from him, as lord of Ireland, the office of his 'butler.' He first assumes this style (' Pincerna ') when testing John's charter to Dublin, 15 May, 1192, at London (Mun. Doc. p. 55; St. Mary's Chart, i. 266-70) ; and it was apparently about this time that he received a grant from the archbishop of Dublin as ' pincerna domini comitis Moretoniae in Hibernia' (Cott. MS. fol. 266), a style proving that he was appointed by John. He now adopted a fresh seal, adding to his name (Theobald Walter) the style ' Pincerna Hiberniae.' This has escaped notice. Hence he is occasionally, in his latter days, spoken of as ' le Botiller,' or ' Butler,' which latter became the surname of his descendants.'6 Towards the end of 1192 he was with John at Nottingham,8 and on 12 June, 1193, with John at Dorchester.7 Mr. Cokayne considers that the grant of the office of ' Butler of Ireland ' would probably comprise baronial rank and position for the holders of that office.8 Theobald is said to have subsequently obtained the valuable monopoly of the prisage of wines in Ireland, which was purchased by Act of Parliament in 1811, from his successor, the first marquess of Ormonde, for £216,000.' Some strength is given to this statement by the petition to Parliament in 1335, of James Butler, first earl of Ormonde, in which he declared that his ancestors, time out of mind, had enjoyed the prisage of wines in the four towns of Dublin, Drogheda, Waterford, and Limerick, by rendering 40^. for each cask at the exchequer in Dublin.10 He adhered to John in the rebellion of 1 193-4, when he held the castle of Lan- caster on the latter's behalf; u but in February, 1 194, being summoned by his brother Hubert, then justiciar, to surrender, he delivered it to him, and through his mediation made his peace with Richard,12 who immediately appointed him sherifF of the county (which office he retained until John's accession)18 and on 22 April, 1 194, re-granted to him the hundred of Amoun- derness, to hold as before by the service of three knights.14 In August of the 1 Carte, quoted by Round in Diet. Nat. Blog. viii. 77-8. * Mon. Angl. vi. 900. s Mon. Angl. vi. 920^. * Cott. MS. Titus B. xi. fol. 252. * Diet. Nat. Biog, viii. 78. « Cott. MS. Titus, B. xi. 347. ' Farrer, Lanes. Pipe R. 416. 8 Complete Peerage, ii. 94. * Carte, Life of James D. of OrmonJt. 10 R. Pad. (Rec. Com.), ii. 90. " Hoveden (Rolls Ser.), iii. 237. 12 Ibid. is P.R.O. Lists and Indexes, vol. 9. 14 Cart. Antiq. R. 24^. ; Farrer, Lanes. Pipe R. 81, 434. 352 FEUDAL BARONAGE same year he was appointed by his brother, then archbishop, collector of the money for his tournament licences.1 In 1 196 he was pardoned the quota from his three Amounderness fees to the second scutage of Normandy, assessed the preceding year,2 and the year following had similar remission in respect of the third scutage,3 having doubtless performed personal service with his knights and men-at-arms. Shortly after this, Theobald endowed certain Cistercian monks from Furness with the church of St. Michael on Wyre and lands there, including the Hay of ' Wirisvalle ' (Wyresdale), but within a year or two translated them to his possessions in Ireland, and established them at Wotheny, or Wythney, in the parish of Abington, co. Limerick.* This was his first foundation in Ireland,5 but subsequently as butler of Ireland, he en- dowed another house of Cistercian monks at Arklow, who likewise came from Furness, for the welfare inter alias of his father, Hervey Walter, and mother, Maud de Valoignes,6 and about the year 1 200 founded a house of canons at Nenagh, in the county of Tipperary.7 Between 1 1 94, and the accession of John, he endowed the canons of Cockersand with the Hay of Pilling, in the wapentake of Amounderness.8 Owing to this benefaction he has been erroneously described by Dugdale, and by innumerable writers since Dugdale's time, as the founder of Cockersand Abbey. In 1 196 he obtained from the monks of Shrewsbury a recognition of his title to the advowson of Kirkham Church,* and from the monks of Sees, a like recognition touching Preston Church, subject to a fine upon presentation, whilst to the last-named monks he re- leased all claim to the advowson of the churches of Poulton and Bispham.10 In 1197 he acted as a justice itinerant, assessing a tallage in Colchester.11 Upon the accession of John, who was incensed at his defection to Richard in 1 194, Theobald lost possession of Amounderness, and was removed from the office of sheriff of Lancaster, held by him since Easter, 1194. His Irish posses- sions were also seized and his fief of Limerick13 sold on 12 January, 1201, to the king's favourite, William de Braose, but by the interest of his brother, the archbishop, he redeemed his lands for 500 marks, and within a year became Braose's tenant.13 On 2 January, 1202, he obtained a re-grant from John of the wapentake of Amounderness.1* Theobald married Maud, daughter of Robert Vavasour, of Denton and Askwith, co. York, and had with her the manors of Edlington and Shepley and lands in Bolton by Bowland, co. York, and Narborough, co. Leicester.16 He probably died before 8 October, 1205 (when Narborough was delivered to Thomas Basset),16 and is said to have 1 Hoveden (Rolls Ser.), ii. 268. * Farrer, Lanes. Pipe R. 94. " Ibid. 98. * Farrer, Lanes. Pipe R. 336-40, Cott. MS. Titus, B. xi. fol. 252^. Farrer, Lanes. Pipe R. 340. • Man. Angl. vi. 1128. Ibid. vi. 1 145. 8 Chartul. of Cockersand (Chatham Soc.), 375. Lanes. Finis (Rec. Soc.), xxxix. 2. 10 Ibid. 6. " Pipe R. 9 Ric. I. ro. t,d. Hoveden states (iv. 1 5 2-3) that all his Irish possessions were sold to William de Braose, but Mr. Round has pointed out that only his Limerick fief was sold. (Diet. Nat. Biog. viii. 78^.) 18 Hoveden (Rolls Ser.), iv. 153. u Liberate R. (Rec. Com.), 25. Theobald seems to have acted with harshness and injustice to his tenants of Amounderness. There are numerous references to complaints and pleas instituted against him whilst out of favour with John (l 199-1201) by those whom he had dispossessed, in Rot. Cur. Reg., Rot. de Oblatls, Abbrev. Plac. (Rec. Com.), and other contemporary records. At an inquest held in 1253 an Amounderness jury declared on oath that Theobald had been deprived of Amounderness by King John by reason of the manifold transgressions done by him against sundry liege men of that wapentake, who had complained to the king. Inq. p. m. 37 Hen. III. No. 16 ; Lanes. Inquests, 191. 16 Dodsworth MSS. xxxiii. 17, 21 ; Cal. of Close R. 1227-31, 87. Mr. Cokayne identifies Norbury as Newbourgh, co. York, but Narborough, co. Leicester, is clearly the place referred to. Cf. Testa de NeviU (Rec. Com.), 98 ; feud. Aids, iii. 101. i« Close R. (Rec. Com.), i. 54. 1 353 45 A HISTORY OF LANCASHIRE been buried at Wotheney. His widow was married by her father to Fulk fitz Warin,1 and duly obtained her dower in Amounderness, and in her late husband's Irish estates.8 Theobald's estates in Norfolk and Suffolk, which he held of Robert fitz Roger, were committed to the latter in ward, whilst his Irish estates were delivered to William Marshall, earl of Pembroke.8 The heir was only five years old at his father's death, and with his sister was first committed to the charge of his kinsman, Robert Vavasour,* afterwards to Gilbert fitz Reinfred,5 in 1213 to Philip Mark, sheriff of Nottingham,6 and in February, 1214, to the bishop of Winchester,7 the justiciar. In 1214 Reginald de Poinz obtained the marriage of the heir in favour of his daughter, and possession of his lands, including the manor of Saxton, co. Nor- folk, but the king retained Amounderness.8 The same year Geoffrey de Mareys, justiciar of Ireland, was commanded to deliver Theobald Walter's castles of Roscrea, Thurles, Lusk, ' Armolen,' and ' Kakaules ' to Reginald de Poinz,9 who answered the year following for the scutage of a knight's fee in this county and of another in co. Norfolk, as guardian of Theobald's lands.10 In 1219 young Theobald was in the care of Geoffrey de Mareys, justiciar of Ireland, who had charge of his Irish estates.11 The year following, his sister Maud, who had been brought up in the household of Gilbert fitz Reinfred, baron of Kendal, and after his death by his son, William de Lancaster, was delivered to his charge.12 About Midsummer, 1221, Theobald attained his majority and was put in possession of his English and Irish estates.13 He at once entered upon active service, being with the earl of Pembroke in Lincolnshire in 1223." The year following he obtained a grant of half the manor of Marton in Amounderness for his maintenance in the king's service,15 and for two years had charge of the king's castle of Roscrea.18 Two years later he obtained remission of a great part of his father's debts, in consideration of three years (1226-8) to be spent in the king's service in Ireland.17 In 1228 he was one of the main- pernors to secure the delivery of the king's castles in Ireland by Geoffrey de Mareys upon his resignation of the office of justiciar of Ireland in favour of Richard de Burgh.18 By his marriage with Joan, eldest sister and eventual co-heir of Geoffrey de Mareys the justiciar,19 he had issue 1 Robert Vavasour gave 1,200 marks and two palfreys to have his daughter's marriage with her dower in Ireland, and in England, except in Amounderness. Rot. de oblat. (Rec. Com.), 383. 3 Close R. (Rec. Com.), i. 6$b, 223^, 352 ; Pat. R. (Rec. Com.), i. 74^,- Rot. tie Fin. (Rec. Com.), 383. 3 Close R. (Rec. Com.), 65^, 68, 6<)b. * Pat. R. (Rec. Com.), i. 59. '> Ibid. 35. « Close R. (Rec. Com.), i. 151^. 1 Pat. R. (Rec. Com.), i. i lob. 8 Close R. (Rec. Com.), 163^, 167, 208 ; Testa de Nevili (Rec. Com.). In 1212 Anselm de Newton held the seventh part of a knight's fee in Newton by Stow, co. Suff., of the heir of Theobald Walter. Testa de Nevill (Rec. Com.), i-jb. » Pat. R. (Rec. Com.), I2ob, 1216. 10 Ibid. 140*. 11 Close R. (Rec. Com.), i. 400 ; Pat. R. (Rec. Com.), i. 1 106. 12 Pat. R. 1216-25, 235. She is said to have married Thomas de Hereford (Lodge, Peerage of Ireland}, but it is clear that she became the wife of Gerald de Prendergast, a great Irish baron ; Cal. Inf. p. m. i. 64. Their only daughter and heir married John de Cogan, father of another John de Cogan. Gerald de Prendergast married secondly the daughter of Richard de Burgh, feudal lord of Connaught, and by her had issue an only daughter, aged 10 years in Lent, 1252 ; Cal. Gen. i. 45. Carte (Life of James, Duke of Ormonde, pp. xii.-xiv.) has suggested, on the strength of a Plea Roll of 1295-6 (Plac. 24 Edw. I. m. 68), that Theobald Walter had by a previous marriage a daughter Beatrice, who married, first, Thomas de Hereford, and, secondly, in her father's lifetime, Hugh Purcell. Mr. Round considers this not improbable. Diet. Nat. Sing. viii. 78^. 13 Close R. (Rec. Com.), i. 463*, 505-}. " Ibid. 573. « Ibid. 60 1 b. 18 Pat. R. 1216-25, 4*6, 43° ; 1225-32, 62. 17 Close R. (Rec. Com.), ii. 92^ ; Pat. R. 1225-32, 41. 18 Pat. R. 1225-32, 178. 19 Lodge, Peerage of Ireland, iv. 5, describes her as Joan, sister and co-heir of John de Marisco. 354 FEUDAL BARONAGE Theobald III., his son and heir.1 This wife lived but a few years, for in 1225 he married, through the instrumentality of his royal patron, Roesia, daughter and ultimately sole heiress of Nicholas de Verdon.2 In the autumn of 1 2 29 he crossed with the king to Brittany,3 continuing abroad at least seven months engaged in the Gascon campaign, in which almost all the Lancashire barons, and indeed the strength of the nation, took part.* From this expedi- tion he apparently did not return, for he was dead on 1 9 July,5 and his lands in this county and in Norfolk, Suffolk, and Ireland, as well as those of his first wife's inheritance in the hundred of Norton, co. Somerset, together with the heir and his marriage, were committed to the charge of Richard, earl of Cornwall.8 His widow Roesia survived him, and upon the death of her father, Nicholas de Verdon, about a year after her husband's death, inherited a great estate, giving 700 marks for her relief and that she might not be constrained to marry.7 By Theobald Butler she had with other issue a son, John de Verdon, who gave 1,300 marks in 1247, after his mother's death, for livery of his inheritance.8 From him descended the Lords Verdon, who in 1857 were represented by the Lords Stourton and Petre, the Baroness le Despencer, and the duke of Buckingham and Chandos.9 The direct heir of Theobald II. was Theobald III., who was under age at his father's death, still under age in 1236, when he held half a knight's fee in Weeton and RawclifFe, of ancient feoffment,10 and in 1243, wnen the 'heir of Theobald Walter ' was returned as holding one-third part of a knight's fee in Weeton and Treales.11 In 1 247 he held four knights' fees in Gowran, co. Kilkenny, of the earl of Gloucester.12 He is said to have married Margery, eldest daughter of Richard de Burgh, feudal lord of Connaught and Lord Deputy of Ireland. Theobald did not long enjoy his inheritance, for he died before 5 November, 1248, and was buried in the conventual church of the Friars Preachers at Arklow.18 The year following, his Irish estates, together with those of Richard de Burgh, were committed to the custody of Peter de Birmingham.14 He also held in addition to his estate in this county the vill of Shepley, co. York, and the manor of Belaugh, co. Norfolk. Theobald IV., his son and heir, was aged about six years at his father's death.16 In 1250 the issues of the land and the marriage of the heir were given to Peter of Savoy,16 but the following year John fitz Geoffrey, justiciary of Ireland, gave 3,000 marks for the custody of the same.17 Theobald IV. attained his majority about 1265. The same year he was one of the Irish nobles who aided Prince Edward against the Mortimers in 1 Geoffrey, reporting to the king in 1226 that Theobald was ill-affected and counselling his removal from the castle of Roscray, mentions that Theobald had married his daughter and had issue by her. Royal Letters Hen. III. (Rolls Ser.), i. 293. 8 Close R. (Rec. Com.), ii. 60, 6ob. s Close R. 1227-31, 256. 4 Ibid. 413 ; Pat. R. 1225-32, 360. 6 ibid. 421-3. « Close R. 1227-31, 370; Excerpta e Rot. Fin. (Rec. Com.), i. 200; Testa de Nevill (Rec. Com.), i6ib. 7 Excerpta e Rot. Fin. (Rec. Com.), i. 217-8 : cf. Dugdale, Baronage, i. 472. 8 Excerpta e Rot. Fin. ii. 1 1. » Cokayne, Camp. Peerage, viii. 24-5. 10 Testa Je Nevill (^c. Com.), 411 ; Lanes. Inq. Rec. Soc. xlviii. 145. 11 Testa de Nevill (Rec. Com.), 397*. " Cat. Pat. R. 1272-81, 353. He is said to have been lord justice of Ireland in 1247 with John de Cogan (Haydn, Bk. of Dignities, ed. 1851, 438), but this appears very unlikely, and is probably an error founded on the fact that Edmund Butler acted in 1312 as deputy of John Wogan. See p. 357 below. " Cokayne, Comp. Peerage, ii. 95. 1* Excerpta e Rot. Fin. (Rec. Com.), ii. 44. '« Cal. Inq. p. m. i. 37 ; Inq. p. m., Yorks. Rec. Soc. xii. 1 8. M JUnv. R. Original. (Rec. Com.), i. 1 2. 17 Excerpta e Rot. Fin. (Rec. Com.), ii. 96. 355 A HISTORY OF LANCASHIRE his successful campaign which culminated at Evesham.1 By charter dated at Denewell, 11 January, 51 Henry III. (1267), he granted to his beloved kinsman Richard le Botiller (brother of William le Botiller of Warrington) all the lands he had in Out Rawcliffe.8 In 1275 he was plaintiff in a plea in the King's Bench to recover land in Edlington, co. York. The pleadings prove the correctness of the descent given above.3 He married John fitz John's* sister Joan, fourth daughter of John fitz Geoffrey fitz Peter and sister, and ultimately co-heir, of Richard fitz John,6 baron of Berkhamstead, co. Herts.6 Joan survived her husband, and in 1298 had her pourparty of her brother's inheritance assigned to her.7 She died early in 1303." Theobald IV. sat in the Irish Parliaments of Edward I. In 1 277 he was summoned to send his service against Llewelyn, and again in 1282 to serve in person against the Welsh.9 He died in Ireland10 26 Sep- tember, 1285." Theobald Butler V. was under age at his father's death, William the Butler of Warrington having custody of two-thirds of the lands in this county during the minority of the heir.12 In 1291 Theobald was commanded to do homage to Edmund, earl of Lancaster, in respect of the fee which he held of the honour of Lancaster.13 In 1294 he pledged his manor of Weeton to Richard fitz John as security for a debt of 560 marks which had not been redeemed at the latter's death.1* The same year he was summoned to perform military service in Gascony,15 and in that and the two following years was enjoined as one of the ' Fideles ' of Ireland to place himself under the orders of the justiciar of Ireland touching military service.18 His name stands the fifth, without any territorial designation, on the roll of the Parliament of 1295. He accompanied the king to Scotland in 1296, and died unmarried at his manor of Turvey, 14 May, 1299, and was buried in Wotheney Abbey.17 Edmund Butler, brother and heir of Theobald, sat in the Parliament of 1302. He was knighted by the king in 1309 in London.18 I Annaks Mon. (Rolls Ser.), ii. 365. * Sealed with a chief indented (Dodsworth MSS. cxlix. 114, 1166), arms evidently of affection adopted with variations by Butler from Glanvill, as also were the arms of the lords of Middleham. In Charles's roll (No. 665) the arms of 'Tebaud le Botiler ' are given as or, a chief indented azure, similar to those assigned to Raulf le Fitz Randolf in Glover's Roll (No. 136). 3 In the King's Bench in 1275 he demanded against Agnes Bacun — who called to warrant Fulk, son of Fulk fitz Warm, and, further, John Vavasour— I carucate of land in Edlington which he pleaded had been in the seisin of his ancestress Maud in the time of King John, from whom the right descended to Theobald, as son and heir, from whom it descended to another Theobald as son and heir, and from that Theobald to another Theobald as son and heir, and from that Theobald to this Theobald, the plaintiff, as son and heir. De Bane. R. 3 Edw. I. No. 7, m. 29. * John fitz John, Theobald's guardian, was grandson of Geoffrey fitz Peter, chief justice of England. Chanc. Inq. p. m. 4 Edw. I. No. 47. 6 Chanc. Inq. p. m. 52 Edw. I. No. 50. « The lands which Richard fitz John held in chief of the king were extended at £45 I 1 2s. id. Inq. p. m. Yorks Rec. Soc. xxxi. 87 note. 7 Fine R. 26 Edw. I. m. 9 ; 27 Edw. I. m. 2. 8 Chanc. Inq. p. m. 31 Edw. I. No. 32. » Palgrave, Part. Writs, i. 485. 1° The Patent Rolls of Edward I. prove that he spent most of his time in that country. II Inquests were taken after his death in cos. Lane, and York. Lanes. Inq. Rec. Soc. xlviii. 264 ; Turks. Inq. Rec. Soc. xxiii. 44, 68. The escheator accounts for £33 zs. %tl. assized rent of Weeton, co. Lane, and for £5 from Shepeley, co. York, which had been Theobald le Botiler's ' qui obiit in Hibernia, a festo Sancti Mathei, apostoli, anno xiii. finiente, quo die rumor venit de morte ejusdem,' to 20 Feb. I4th year. Pipe R. 1 6 Edw. I. Esch. Acct. i« Cal. Pat. R. 1281-92, 226. 1S Ibid. 417. 1* Chanc. Inq. p. m. 25 Edw. I. No. 50*. u Gascon R. 22 Edw. I. m. <)£6o a year.7 His wife was Philippa, the eldest of the four daughters and co-heirs of Hugh de Bolebeck (died 1262), who, as son of Margery, eldest sister and co-heir of Richard de Munfichet (died 1267) was entitled to the third part of the barony of Munfichet, including the manors of Stansted Mountfichet, Great Holland, Tolleshunt Tregoz, East Ham and West Ham, co. Essex, and Barrington, co. Cambridge.8 In 1265 and 1266 Roger was sheriff of Lancaster; in 1271 keeper of Ingle wood Forest.9 In 1275 he obtained the king's confirmation of the grant from Margaret de Brus, daughter and co-heir of Peter de Brus by his wife Helewise de Lancaster, of the forest of Rydal and of her pourparty of Ambleside and Loughrigg.10 In 1276 certain encroachments which he had made upon land belonging to Furness were the subject of an agreement with the monks of that house.11 In 1280 he obtained a charter for a market and fair at Diversion,13 and four years later granted to the burgesses of that town a charter of liberties similar to those enjoyed by Kirkby Kendal.13 He died before 18 April, 1291, when John his son, who was probably a minor at his father's death, did homage and had livery of his inheritance.1* John de Lancaster of Rydal15 was summoned to Parliament as a baron from 1297 to 1 30 1,16 and in the former year was also summoned to protect the Scotch marches, in which service he seems to have been constantly employed during the three following years.17 He was one of the signatories to the barons' letter to the pope in i3oo.18 In 1306 he had licence to alienate in mortmain the advowson of the church of Barton, co. Westmorland, to the 1 Lanes. Inq. Rec. Soc. xlviii. 235, 253. 3 Torks. Inq. Yorks. Rec. Soc. xii. 147-8. 3 See Nicholson and Burn, Hist. ofCumb. and WeitmU. i. 29-63. 4 Roger de Lancaster's arms were, ' Argent two bars gules, on a canton of the second a lion passant guardant or.' Armytage, ' Charles' Role of Armes,' No. 264. 6 Couc/ter of Furness, Chetham Soc. (New Ser.), xi. 328-9, 347. « Close R. 39 Hen. III. m. 3. 7 Ibid. 5 I Hen. III. m. 6 d. 8 Ibid. 52 Hen. III. m. 8 ; Cal. Inq. p.m. i. 150, 217 ; Cal. Gen. i. 224 ; Feud. Aids, ii. 149,010. 9 Close R. 55 Hen. III. m. 3. 10 Chart. R. 3 Edw. I. m. 4, No. u. 11 Coucher of Furness, Chetham Soc. 384. « Chart. R. 8 Edw. I. m. 4, No. 28. 13 Courier of Furness, Chetham Soc. 425. 1* Fine R. 19 Edw. I. m. iz. 15 ' Sire Johan de Lancastre ' bore arms — ' de argent, a ij barres e un quarter de goules ; en le quarter un lupard de or.' Nicolas, Roll of Arms, p. 12, 18 Cokayne, Complete Peerage, vol. iii. 17 Cal. Pat. R. \ 292-1 301, pass. 18 Rep. on Dignity of a Peer, App. i, 126 ; The Ancestor, vii. 256, where an illustration of his seal is given, No. 35. 365 A HISTORY OF LANCASHIRE prior and convent of Warter.1 Having settled his estates,2 he died without issue in 1334, when the barony became extinct.3 A short time previous to his death he sold his half part of Ulverston to John de Harrington.* He appears to have had an elder brother of the half blood, Robert de Lancaster, who in 1282, during the lifetime of his father, held the manors of Barton and Witherslack of William de Lindsay.6 John de Lancaster and Annora his wife had licence in 1320 to settle the manor of Rydal and a messuage in Barton upon John, son of this Robert de Lancaster of Howgill, and his heirs, reserving to themselves life estates6 and after their lives, a life estate to Roger, brother of the first-named John. After Annora's death John de Lancaster of Howgill succeeded to the manor of Rydal, which continued in his line until the failure of male issue, when it passed by marriage to Thomas Fleming, kt., ancestor of the present possessor.7 THE BARONY OF NEWTON IN MAKERFIELD8 This liberty is almost conterminous with the Domesday hundred of Newton. During the twelfth century it was charged in the ' corpus comi- tatus,' or sheriffs charge, at the assized rent of £8 i6j. 4J<. In some of his seals a rather larger shield appears between 2 water bougets with the legends — SIG : ROBERTI DE BANASTR' fa or S' ROBERTI BANASSTER %. This seal is exemplified by Chris. Towneley from the de Hoghton charters in Add. MSS. No. 32,106, ch. 520. All his later sealings were made with the 3 chevronels. 3 Lanes. Fines (Rec. Soc.), xxxix. 100. z Ibid. 125. * Cal. Chart. R. i. 458. 6 Chart. R. No. 53, 42 Hen. III. m. 5. 6 Cur. Reg. R. No. 1 86, m. 24^. 1 Cal. Pat. R. 1272-81, 342. 8 Ibid. 406. 9 Ibid. 450 ; Cal. Close R. 1279-88, 395. 10 Ches. Inq. 41 Edw. III. No. 3. " Chartul. of Nostel, Cott. MS. Vesp. E. xix. f. 179. 18 ' Prout ad me pertinet racione baronie mee occasione hujusmodi latrocinii ubi sacrabel sequitur.' Cockersand Chartul. Chetham Soc. 643. 13 Coucher of W bailey, Chetham Soc. 113-6. 372 FEUDAL BARONAGE of Gilbert Woodcock, who had lands in Cuerden by the feoffment of Roger, son of Henry de Cuerden.1 She survived her husband,8 whose death occurred in lagi.8 He had issue one son, James, who predeceased his father, and a daughter Clemence,* who had Mollington Banastre in marriage with William de Lea, of Lea, near Preston, whose son Henry de Lea, kt., was beheaded in 1315^ participation in the rising which Adam Banastre, kt., led against Thomas, earl of Lancaster ; 6 and a daughter Sibil, married to Richard de Hoghton, of Hoghton, kt. James Banastre married Elena, daughter of William the butler, of Warrington, and had issue an only daughter Alesia, who was contracted in marriage to John, son of John de Byron, kt. John de Byron, the father, was guardian of Alesia and of a portion of her inheritance in 1292, at which time she is described as being under age and the wife of the younger John de Byron, in the record of a plea at Lan- caster, in which she and her husband had been summoned to prove their warrant to hold a market and fair in Newton and to have free warren there and in Makerfield, Woolston, and Walton-in-le-Dale.6 Before November, 1295, young John Byron was dead without issue, and the earl of Lancaster had granted the marriage of his widow to his friend John de Langton for 250 marks.7 The grantee was probably John de Langton, Keeper of the Rolls to Edward I., appointed chancellor in 1292, and bishop of Chichester in 1305.® If so he married the heiress to his younger brother, also named John, before the end of 1297, when John de Langton and Alesia his wife were found to hold a knight's fee in Newton of Edmund, earl of Lancaster.9 Early in 1301 John de Langton, brother of the chancellor, at the latter's instance, obtained a grant of a weekly market, two fairs yearly, and free warren in Newton in Makerfield and also in Walton-in-le-Dale.10 His wife, who was living in 1310, predeceased him.11 As John de Langton, kt., he had frequent letters of protection from Edward II. whilst in his service.1* He was living in 1328, but died before July, I333-1* In 1325 he was in the retinue of the earl of Warenne in Guyenne, and the year previous was summoned from co. Leicester to attend a great council at Westminster.14 His son Robert de Langton, chr., was one of the commissioners of array in this county in 1335 to raise troops in the county and lead them to the marches of Scotland.16 In 1341 he had a licence to crenellate his mansion of Newton in Makerfield.18 In 1344 he was one of the commissioners of array for the raising of 500 archers in the county for service in Scotland.17 Upon 1 Dr. Kuerden's MSS. See Ormerod, Hist. ofChes. ed. Helsby, ii. 574. 3 Coucher ofWhallty, Chetham Soc. 117. 8 He was living on 3 Feb. 1291, when lands in Walton-in-le-Dale were released to him (Add. MSS. 32,106, f. 150^). In Michaelmas term, 1291, Alesia, the relict of Robert Banastre, was claiming dower against a large number of the tenants of Alesia, wife of John, son of John de Byron, of lands in Hindley, Walton, and Cuerden, and against Ellen, the relict of James Banastre. Alesia de Byron's lands were partly in the custody of her father-in-law, John de Byron, and partly of Edmund, the king's brother. (De Bane. R. No. 91, m. 157.) 4 Add. MSS. No. 32,106, ch. 338. 6 Dodsworth's MS. cxlii. f. 37. « Plac. de Quo War. (Rec. Com.), 373^. 7 Dodsworth MS. cliii. 136. 8 Foss, Judges of England, 1870, 395*. 9 Lanes. Inj. Rec. Soc. xlviii. 298. 10 Chart. R. 29 Edw. I. m. 12. » Cal. Chse R. 1307-13, 257. ™ Cal. Pat. R. temp. Edw. II. 1' Cal. Chse R. 1327-30, 336 ; 1333-7, IZI- In !332 ne sealed a letter of attorney with his paternal coat Vair. Chetham Soc. (Old Ser.), xcviii. 23. Seal of [? Ralph] de Langton, Argent, 3 chevronels gules. Roll of Lanes, arms, temp. Edw. III. penes W. Farrer. See Hut. Soc. Lanes, and Ches. (New Ser.), i. p. 154. 1* Gascon R. 1 8 Edw. II. m. 1 1 d. ; Palgrave, Par!. Writs, i. 640. 16 Rot. Scot. (Rec. Com.), i. 321^. 18 Cal. Pat. R. 1340-5, 304. 17 Rot. Scot. (Rec. Com.), i. 649*. 373 A HISTORY OF LANCASHIRE the collection of the aid granted in 1346 he was returned as holding of Henry, earl of Lancaster, one knight's fee in Walton-in-le-Dale, and one knight's fee in Newton in Makerfield, Lowton, Kenyon, Arbury, and the moiety of Gol- borne.1 He died in 1 36 1, his eldest son John having predeceased him, leaving issue Ralph, who was found heir to his grandfather in January, 1362, being then aged twenty-one years and upwards.2 During his grandfather's lifetime the manors of Newton and Walton had been settled upon his father, whilst the third part of the manor of Langton, co. Leicester, the manor of Hindley, and half the manor of Golborne were settled upon Robert, younger brother of John de Langton.8 Ralph de Langton, kt., was a witness in the Scrope and Grosvenor case in 1386. In 1391 he settled lands upon his son and heir, Henry, in marriage with Agnes, daughter of John de Davenport,4 and five years later, in conjunction with his wife Joan, daughter of William de Radcliffe of the Tower, settled lands on his three younger sons, Nicholas, Thomas, and Geoffrey.6 He died 7 April, 1406, leaving Henry his son aged 40 years.6 Henry Langton paid £8 for relief of his lands in January, 1407,* and died in 1419, Ralph his son and heir being then aged twenty-three years.8 Ralph Langton, chr., married Alice, whose parentage is unknown, and died in 1431, leaving issue an only son, Henry, then aged twelve years,9 in ward of Thomas Longley, bishop of Durham, and others, who were returned the same year as holding half the manor of Newton; Alice, relict of Ralph Langton, chr., and Agnes, relict of Henry Langton, each holding a fourth part of the manor in dower.10 Henry Langton, esq., died in 1471, and two years later his son Richard was found to be of full age.11 Richard Langton, kt., was made a knight banneret by Lord Stanley at Hutton Field in 1482, on the return of the army from Scotland.18 He married Isabel, daughter of Thomas Gerard of Bryn, kt., and died in 1500, leaving issue Ralph, aged twenty-six years, who had been married to Joan, daughter of Christopher Southworth of Samlesbury, during his father's lifetime. Thomas Langton, styled baron of Newton, great grandson of Ralph, was made a Knight of the Bath at the coronation of James I. In 1589 he was concerned in a fatal affray at Lea Hall, when eighty of his tenants and servants engaged with thirty tenants and servants of the owner of that place, Richard Hoghton of Hoghton Tower, esq., in an attempt to recover cattle seized by Mr. Hoghton, and as a result of other mutual provocations. Mr. Hoghton was unfortunately slain, and although no jury could be empanelled to try the indictment preferred against Sir Thomas and his accomplices for murder, the latter was in the end constrained to alienate his manor of Walton-in-le-Dale to the murdered man's representatives for the sake of peace ; in whose descendant it remains vested at this day.1* Sir Thomas died without issue in 1604, when his inheritance by virtue of a settlement made in 1594, passed to his cousin Richard Fleetwood, afterwards created a bart., of Col wick, co. Stafford, 1 feudal Aids, iii. 85, 91. This aid was collected in 1355. * Inq. p.m. 36 Edw. III. pt. I, No. 116. 8 Chetham Sot. (Old Ser.), xcviii. 23-4 ; Lanes. Fines, Rec. Soc. xlvi. 194. From the younger Robert descended the family of Langton of the Lowe in Hindley. * Add. MSS. No. 32,106, ch. 620. « Ibid. ch. 571. 6 Inq. p.m. Towneley MS. D.D. No. 1,501 penes W. Farrer. The inquest is fully abstracted in Dep. Keeper's 3 yd Rep. App. p. 6. 7 Add MSS. ch. 32,106, ch. 840. 8 Jnj. p. m. Chetham Soc. xcv. 137. » Ibid. xcix. 31. W Feudal Aids, iii. 1 94. u Inq . p. m. Chetham Soc. xcix. 93. 12 Metcalfe, Book ofKts. 7. " Whitaker, Hist, of Wballey, ed. 1876, ii. 334. 374 FEUDAL BARONAGE grandson of John Fleetwood of Penwortham, and of Joan, eldest daughter of the first Thomas Langton, kt.1 Thomas Fleetwood, bart., son and heir of Richard Fleetwood, the first baronet of Colwick, sold the reputed barony of Newton with the members in 1660 to Richard Legh of Lyme, esq., for a consideration of jC3»5°°» having previously alienated to the same purchaser other portions of his estates in the years i6$$-6-j? From Mr. Legh the reputed barony has descended to his present representative, Thomas Wode- house Legh, second Baron Newton (cr. 1892), who is the twenty-fourth reputed baron of Newton-in-Makerfield in succession from Robert Banastre, the first grantee. 1 Chetham Sw. xcix. 93-100 ; ibid. li. (Old Ser.), 746-255. A pedigree of the Langton family will be found in Baines, Hist, of Lanes, ed. Croston, iv. 382-3 ; and of Legh of Lyme and Golborne, 384-90. » MS. Abstr. of title, penes W. Farrer. 375 INDEX TO DOMESDAY OF LANCASHIRE Adelard, 280, 2863 Ascha, 284* Athelstan, King, 271 Belesme, Robert of, 279 Bernulf, 283* Busli, Roger de, 281, 282, 287* Bussel, Albert, 281 Bussel, Geoffrey, 281 Bussel, Boissel, Warin, 280, 281, 282, 283, 2853, 2874, zndnotes. See also Warin Catenase, Ernuin, 275 Chester, earl of, 280 Chetel, a thegn, 272, 274, 285*, 289* Cliber, a thegn, 274, 290^ Dot, a thegn, 273, 280, 2833 Dunning, 273 Duuan, a thegn, 274, 289* Edelmund, 2844 Edward, King (The Confessor), z75,277,'283<7, 2863,287*, 2873 Elland, family of, 282. See also Gamel Elland, Hugh de, note 282 Elmaer, 2844 Erneis, 278 Ernuin the priest, 275, 2903 Ernulf, a thegn, 274 Evesham Abbey, 282 Furness Abbey, abbot of, note 2893 , monks of, 279 Furness, Michael de, son of. See William son of Michael de Fur- Gamel (of Rochdale), a thegn, 273, 282, 2874 Geoffrey, a knight, 279, 285*, 287* Gerard [Girardus], 282, 2873, and note Gernet, family of, 280, 282 Gernet, Ralph, 281 Gernet, Roger, 282 Gilbert, 285* Gillemichael [Ghilemichel, Gile- michel], a thegn, 272, 274, PERSONAL NAMES Godeve, 284* Godfrey the sheriff, 279, note 2853 Grelley [Greslet], Albert, 281,282, 287* Gresley, family of, 281. See also Stafford, Nigel de Henry I., King, 280, 282 Hipperholme, family of, 282 John, King, note 289$ Lacy, Henry de, note 282 Lacy, Robert de (lord of Ponte- fract), 282 Lacy, Roger de (constable of Ches- ter), note 282 Lathom, family of, 272, 273 Leving, 284* Machel, a thegn, 274, 290/8 Machern, a thegn, 274, 290^ Malet, Robert, 275 Marsey, de, family of, 282 Marsey, Priory, 282 Marshall, William, note 289* Molyneux, Robert de, 280, 281 Montbegon, or Mountbegon, Roger de, 280, 281, 283, 2853, 2873 , Sezilia, wife of, 281 Morcar, Earl, 275 Mortain, John, count of, 279, note 283 , Stephen, count of, 279, 280 Nigel, a knight, 281, 287*. See also Stafford, Nigel de Northumberland, Tostig, earl of, 271,272, 274, 279,288*, 288*, 289*, 290$, note 2893 Northumbria, earldom of, 272 Nostell, Priory of St. Oswold of, 280 , canons of, 280 Orm, Orme, a thegn, 274, 288* Osmund, 286^ Poitou [Poitevin], Roger, count of, 269, 274-283*, 2853, 286*, 2870, 2873, 290*, 2903, note 277 Priests, unnamed, 284*, 284^. See also Ernuin 377 'Radmans' (' radchenistres '), 275, 276, 284* Ralph, 280, 2863, 287^ Richard, the parson of Winwick, note 286* Ripon, Monastery of, 271 Robert, 2853, 2873. See also Belesme, Robert of Roger, 2863. See also Montbegon, Roger de Roger, count of Poitou. See Poitou, Roger, count of Saint Elfin, 2863 Sees, Abbey of St. Martin of, 279, 281, 282 Shrewsbury Abbey, 279 Stafford, Nigel de, 281. See also Nigel Stainulf, 2833. See also Steinulf Steinulf, 2843. See also Stainulf Stephen. See Mortain, Stephen, count of Teos, 285* Tetbald, 280, 2853, 2863 Todeni, Berenger de, 278 Torfin, Thorfin, a thegn, 272, 274, 289* Tostig, earl of Northumberland. See Northumberland, Tostig, earl of Turulf, a thegn, 274, 2893 Uctred. See Ughtred Ughtred [Uctred], a thegn, 272, 273, 278, 280, 283*, 284*, 2843, 285*, 2853, note 2853 Ulbert, 280, 284* Ulf, a thegn, 274, 288*, 290* Vilers, Pain de, 280 Walter, 2873 Walton, family of, 282 Walton, Robert de, note 286* Warin, 2863. See also Bussel, Warin Wibert, 2843 William fitz Nigel (constable of Chester), 280, 2853, 2863 William, King (The Conqueror), 278, 283*, 288* William, son of Michael de Fur- ness, note 2893 Winestan, 284* A HISTORY OF LANCASHIRE ' Achetun.' See Aughton 'Acrer.' See Altcar ' Actun.' See Aighton Adgarley, 274 ' Agemundrenesse.' See Amoun- derness Aighton [Actun], 282, 2883 Ainsdale [Einulvesdel], 2843 Aintree, note 2843 AldclifFe [Aldeclif], 279, 2883 Aldingham, 274 Allerton [Alretune], 284*7 ' Alretune.' See Allerton Altcar [Acrer], 277, 285^ Amounderness [Agemundrenesse], 271, 272, 273, 274, 275, 278, 279, 282, 2881;, note 272 Ancoats, 281 Appleton, 280 Ardwick, 281 Argarmeols [Erengermeles], 2843, note 285* Arkholme [Ergune], 2883 'Aschebi,' 288*7 Ashton near Lancaster [Estun], 272, 274, 2903 Ashton-under-Lyne, note 2870 , church of St. Michael, 2874 Ashton-on-Ribble [Estun], 2884 Astley, 280 Aughton [Achetun], 272, 2833, 2843, and note Austwick [Oustewic] (Yorks), 272, 274, 289* Bailey, note 2883 Bank Houses, note 290** Barbon [Berebrune] (Westmld.) 2894 Bardsea [Berretseige], 2893 Bare [Bare], 279, 2883 Barlawick [Bernulfeswic] (Yorks.), 2894 Barnoldswick, 278 Barton [Bartun, Bartune], 280, 2854, 2884 Beaumont in Skerton (?) [Neu- huse], 2883 Beetham [Biedun] (Westmld), 274, 278, 2903 , church of, 275 ' Benetain.' See Bentham Bentham [Benetain] (Yorks), 272, 274, 2894 ' Berebrune.' See Barbon ' Berewic.' See Borwick ' Bernulfeswic.' See Barlawick ' Berretseige.' See Bardsea Bickerstaffe, note 2833. See also Aughton ' Biedun.' See Beetham ' Bilewrde.' See Dilworth Birkdale, note 2843 ' Biscopham.' See Bispham Bispham (with Norbreek) [Bisco- pham], 279, 2880 PLACE NAMES Bispham, chapel of, 279 ' Blacheburne.' See Blackburn Blackburn [Blacheburne], 27 1, 275, 286* , church of St. Mary, 2863 Blackburn [Blacheburne] Hundred 273, 278, 281, 282, 286^, 2873, note 286/1 ' Bodele.' See Bootle ' Bodelforde ' (in Helsington, West- mid.), 2893 'Bodeltone.' See Bolton-le-Sands 'Bodeltun.' See Bolton with Adgarley 'Boltelai.' See Bootle cum Lin- acre Bolton with Adgarley [Bodeltun], 274, 2893, note 28911 Bolton-le-Sands [Bodeltone], 2883 , church of, 279 Bolton in Wharfedale, note 288* Bootle [Bodele] (Cumb.), 2893, notes 289*;, 2893 Bootle cum Linacre [Boltelai], 2843, notes 270, 284* ' Borch.' See Broughton in Fur- ness and Burrow ' Borctune.' See Burton in Lonsdale ' Bortun.' See Burton Berwick [Berewic], 2903 Bourne Hall [Brune], 288* Bowland, 272, 282, notes 272,290*7 ' Bretteby,' note 289^ Brindle, 278 Brockholes. See Grimsargh ' Broctun.' See Broughton Broughton [Broctun], 278, 288* Broughton in Furness [Borch], 2893 Brune. See Bourne Hall Bulk. See Hutton and Newton Burrow, note 269. See also Burrow, Over Burrow, Nether (?) [Borch], 2890 Burrow, Over (?) [Borch], 274, 2880 Burscough, 278, note 2843 Burton [Bortun] (Westmld.), 289* Burton in Kendal [Bortun] (West- mid.), 2893 Burton -in -Lonsdale [Borctune], (Yorks.), 2894 Cabus, note 2883 ' Calisei.' See Kelsey, South Cantsfield [Cantesfelt], 2883 ' Carlentun.' See Carleton Carleton [Carlentun], 288* Carnforth [Chreneforde], 2883 Cartmel [Cherchebi], 272, 274, 275, 278, 279, 2893, notes 272, 2890, 2893. See also Newton, Higher and Nether, and Walton Hall Casterton [Castretune] (Westmld.), 289* 378 Castleton, 273 ' Castretune.' See Casterton Caterall [Catrehala], 2885 Caton [Catun], 272, 289*2 ' Catrehala.' See Caterall ' Cestrescire.' See Chester Chaigley, note 2883 ' Chellet.' See Nether and Over Kellet ' Chenulveslei.' See Knowsley ' Chercaloncastre.' See Lancaster, Kirk 'Cherchebi.' See Cartmel and Kirkby ' Cherestanc.' See Garstang Chester [Cestrescire], 269, 283.2 , fee of constable of, note 2853 , see of, 270 ' Chicheham.' See Kirkham Childwall [Cildewelle], 271, 275, 2840 ' Chilvestreuic.' See Killerwick ' Chipinden.' See Chipping and Chippingdale Chipping and Chippingdale [Chi- pinden], 282, 2883 Chippingdale. See Chipping ' Chirchedele.' See Kirkdale Chorley, 278 ' Chreneforde.' See Carnforth ' Cildewelle.' See Childwall ' Clactun,' ' Clactune.' See Claugh- ton Clapham[Clapeham](Yorks.), 289^ Claughton [Clactun, Clactune], 272, 288*;, 2894 Clayton, 281 Clayton le Woods, 278 Cleveley, note 2883 Clifton [Clistun], 288* ' Clistun.' See Clifton ' Clivertun.' See Crivelton. Cockerham [Cocreham], 272, 274, 290*. See also Hillham Cockersand, note 2900 ' Cocreham.' See Cockerham Col ton, 278 Craven (Yorks.), 274, 278, 282, notes 272, 2904. See also Win- terburn Crimbles [Crimeles], 2883 ' Crimeles.' See Crimbles Crivelton in Newton in Yarlside [Clivertun], 2893 Cronton, 280 Crosby, Little [Crosebi], 272, 280, 2833, 2853 Croston, 271, 282 Croxteth, 278 Crumpsall, 281 Cuerdley (in Prescot parish), 280 Cunscough. See Melling Dalton [Daltone, Daltun], 272, 274, 2843, 2893. See also Wart INDEX TO DOMESDAY Dal ton in Furness [Daltune], 289*7, note 2893 Dendron [Dene], 274, 2893 ' Dene.' See Dendron Denton, 281 Derby, West [Derbei, Derberie], 270, 278, 283*7, 2850, 2853, nates 284*7, 2853 Derby, West [Derbei] Hundred, 270, 271, 272, 273, 275, 276, 277, 278, 279, 280, 281, 283*7, 286*7, 287*5, note 286*7 Dilworth [Bilewrde], 2883 Downholland [Holand], 285** Down Litherland. See Litherland, Down Drakelow (Derby), 281 Duddon, river, note 289/5 Dutton, 282, note 2881* Eccleston, 271, 280, 282 Eccleston, Great [Eglestun], 288*7 Eccleston, Little [Eglestun], 288*7 ' Edeleswic.' See Elswick Egergarth, 280 ' Eglestun.' See Eccleston, Great and Little ' Einulvesdel.' See Ainsdale Ellel [Ellhale], 274, 2903 ' Ellhale.' See Ellel Elswick [Edeleswic], 288*7 ' Erengermeles.' See Argarmeols ' Ergune.' See Arkholme Esk, river, note 2893 ' Esmedune.' See Smithdown ' Estun." See Ashton near Lan- caster and Ashton on Kibble ' Eurvicsire.' See Yorkshire ' Evreshaim.' See Heversham Ewcross Wapentake (Yorks.), 272, 274 ' Fareltun.' See Farleton Farleton [Fareltun], 272, 289*? Farleton [Fareltun] (Westmld.), 2903 Fazakerley, 278, note 284*7 Fillingham (Line.), 275 'Fiscuic.' See Fishwick Fishwick [Fiscuic], 288*5 Fordbootle in Yarlside [Fordebo- dele], 289* ' Fordebodele.' See Fordbootle Formby [Fornebei], 284^ ' Fornebei.' See Formby Forton [Fortune], 2883 ' Fortune.' See Forton ' Frecheltun.' See Freckleton Freckleton [Frecheltun], 288*7 Furness, 272, 273, 274, 278, 279, notes 272, 289*7, 2893 Furness Fells, 279 Garstang [Cherestanc], 2883 Garston, 279, note 28 ;3 • Gerleworde.' See Kirkby Ireleth ' Ghersinctune.' See Gressington ' Glassertun.' See Gleaston Gleaston [Glassertun], 289*7, note 289*5 Golborne, 281 Goosnargh [Gusansarghe], 288*7. See also Threlfall Gorton, 281 Great Marton. See Marton, Great and Little Great Pendleton. See Pendleton, Great Great Singleton. See Singleton, Great and Little Greenhalgh (with Thistleton) [Greneholf], 288*7 ' Greneholf.' See Greenhalgh Gressingham [Ghersinctune], 2883 Gretlingtone, note 290*7 ' Grimesarge.' See Grimsargh Grimsargh (with Brockholes) [Grimesarge], 2883 Grindleton, 272 Gunolfsmores, 278 ' Gusansarghe.' See Goosnargh Hackinsall. See Preesall Haighton [Halctun], 288*7 ' Halctun.' See Haighton Hale wood, 278 Halgtone (?) [Heldetune] (Yorks), 289*7 Halsall [Heleshale,Herleshala], 271, 276, 280, 285*7, 285^ Halton (Ches.), 280, notes 2853, 286*5 Halton [Haltune], 274, 2883 Hambleton [Hameltune], 2 8 83 Hardhorn with Newton. See Staining Hart Carrs in Leece [Hert.], 289*7 Haughton, 281 Hawcoat. See Suntun Heaton [Hietune], 2883 Heaton in Dalton [Hietun], 289*7 ' Heldetune.' See Halgtone ' Heleshale,' Herleshale. See Halsall Helsington [Helsingetune] (West- mid.), 2893 ' Hennecastre.' See Hincaster ' Hert.' See Hart Carrs ' Hessam.' See Heysham Hest. See Slyne Heversham [Evreshaim], 2903 Heysham [Hessam], church of, 279, ' Hietun,' ' Hietune.' See Heaton Hillham [Hillun], 2883 ' Hillun.' See Hillham Hincaster [Hennecastre] (West- mid.), 2903 • Hinne.' See Ince Blundell ' Hirletun,' ' Hiretun.' See Hurle- ton ' Hitune.' See Huyton « Holland.' See Upholland ' Holand.' See Downholland Holm [Holme] (Westmld.), 289*7 Hornby [Hornebi], 274, 281, 283, 288*7 379 Horwich, 278 'Hoton.' SeeHutton ' Hotun,' ' Hotune.' See Hutton ' Hougenai.' See Whitbeck ' Hougun.' See Millom Huncoat [Hunnicot], 2863 ' Hunnicot.' See Huncoat Hurleton [Hirletun, Hiretun], 272, 2843, 2853 Hutton in Bulk [Hoton], 2883 Hutton, Old [Hotun] (Westmld.), 2893 Hutton, Priest [Hotune], 289*7 Hutton Roof [Hotun], 2883 Huyton [Hitune], 271, 272, 273, 280, 2833, notes 277, 2853 Ince Blundell [Hinne], 280, 284*7 Ingham (Line.), 275 Ingleton [Inglestune], (Yorks.), 289*7 Inskip [Inscip], 288*7 Ireby [Irebi], 289** 'Jalant.' See Yealand Kellet, Nether and Over [Chellet], 2883 Kelsey, South [Calisei], 281 Kendal, 272, 273, 274, 278, 279 Killerwick in Monsell [Chilves- treuic], 289*7 Kirk Poulton, 271 Kirkby [Cherchebi], 272, 278, 280, 283*7, notes 2853, 289*7 Kirkby Cartmel. See Cartmel. Kirkby Ireleth [Gerleworde],z89