Luu^ TELDIANA Anthropology SERIES, NO. 35 Villages Before Aggregation: The Merrigan Site (LA 110971), a Developmental Period Hamlet, El Rancho, New Mexico Winifred Creamer Jonathan Haas June 30, 2003 PiibliiJifion 1523 PUBLISHED BY FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY Information for Contributors to Fieldiana Fieldiana is a pccr-rcvicwed monographic series published by the Field Museum. The series publishes the research of staff members and our research associates. The page charge currently is $65 per page. This figure is subject to change. All authors are encouraged to provide funding to support the production of their works. Submission procedures: A submission procedures document is available from the scientific ditor of the journal and on the Museum's web site (by 2004). Manuscripts submitted for review hould be prepared using standard electronic software and submitted to the scientific editor in liree photocopies. 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The publication of long works should be arranged well in advance with the scientific editor. Please bear in mind: Changes on page proofs are very expensive. Author-generated changes on page proofs can only be made if the author agrees in advance to pay for them. UNIVERSITY OF WaJa LIBRARY AT URBANA-CHAMP/- ^nOKSTACK? FIELDIANA Anthropology NEW SERIES, NO. 35 Villages Before Aggregation: The Merrigan Site (LA 110971), a Developmental Period Hamlet, El Rancho, New Mexico Winifred Creamer Jonathan Haas Department of Anthropology Department of Anthropology Northern Illinois University Field Museum of Natural History DeKalh, Illinois 60115 1400 South Lake Shore Drive U.S.A. Chicago, Illinois 60605-2496 U.S.A. Department of Anthropology Field Museum of Natural History 1400 South Lake Shore Drive Chicago, Illinois 60605-2496 U.S.A. Accepted February 5, 2003 Published June 30, 2003 Publication 1523 PUBLISHED BY FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY © 2003 Field Museum of Natural History ISSN 0071-4739 PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA Table of Contents I. The Merrigan Site 1 Physical Environment 3 Research Objectives 3 Prehistory of the Region 4 Research Approach and Methodology .... 6 II. Excavations 6 Field Methods 7 Architecture 8 Room 1 8 Room 2 10 Room 3 11 Room 4 11 Room 5 12 Room 6 12 Room 7 13 External Features 13 Construction Sequence at LA 1 1 097 1 ... 16 III. Artifacts 18 Lithic Materials 18 Chipped Stone 19 Ground Stone 22 Other Stone Materials 23 Ceramics 24 Unpainted Ceramics 24 Painted Ceramics 26 Other Ceramics 30 Faunal and Macrobotanical Remains 31 IV. Chronology, Seasonality, and Aggregation 32 Site Chronology 32 Chronometric Dating 32 Relative Dating 33 Seasonality 34 LA 1 1 097 1 and the Aggregation Process 35 V. Literature Cited 36 Appendix 1 . Participants in the Field School 38 List of Figures 1. Topographic map of LA 110971, the Merrigan site 2 2. Plan map of excavated structures at LA 110971 7 3. Section view of Room 1 9 4. Plan and section views of collared hearth in Room 1 10 5. Plan and section views of exterior hearth, feature 7 14 6. Plan and profile views of small exteri- or hearth, feature 20 14 7. Trench profile for LA 110971 15 8. Scenarios for occupation of LA 110971 17 9. Chert distribution 20 10. Basalt distribution 21 1 1 . Obsidian distribution 22 12. Obsidian and chert points 23 13. Grooved maul of vesicular basalt 24 14. Ground stone distribution 25 15. Turquoise bead fragment from Room 1 ... 25 16. Culinary ceramic distribution 27 17. Miniature vessel of culinary ware 27 18. Corrugated ceramic distribution 28 19. Corrugated ceramics 28 20. Sherds of Black-on-white types 29 21. Other decorated ceramics 30 22. Corrugated sherds 31 23. Clay pipes 31 24. Archaeomagnetic date 32 List of Tables 1. Features in Room 1 9 2. Features in Room 4 12 3. Features in Room 6 13 4. Exterior features around Rooms 1-7 13 5. Summary by raw material of chipped stone 19 6. Chipped stone by room 20 7. Ground stone 24 8. Hammerstones 25 9. Concretions 26 10. Ceramics 26 11. Sherds identified as "other" 30 12. Fauna 31 13. Macrobotanical remains 32 111 Villages Before Aggregation: The Merrigan Site (LA 110971), a Developmental Period Hamlet, El Rancho, New Mexico Winifred Creamer and Jonathan Haas I. The Merrigan Site The Merrigan site is one of many thousands of small sites scattered across northern New Mexico. These hamlets, occupied by one or a very few families, were the building block of ancient so- ciety in this region. The earliest houses found in northern New Mexico, around a.d. 500, were cir- cular pit houses about 1 meter deep. Around a.d. 1000 rectangular, aboveground rooms were added to these, first as storage rooms and then as living rooms. The Merrigan site includes both circular and rectangular rooms, which suggests that the transition from one type of room to the other was still under way when the site was occupied. The site was first identified during an archae- ological survey of property, which was about to be subdivided (Legare 1995, 1996). The buyer of the property, Mr. Tom Merrigan, planned to build a house in a location that would disturb the ar- chaeological materials. Construction could not be- gin until the site was excavated, and Mn Merrigan invited the Northern Illinois University archaeo- logical field school to conduct the excavations, as a cost-effective way to carry out the work. It was the surface ceramics on the Merrigan site that made it of interest as a research project, part of a series of studies carried out by the Northern Rio Grande Research Project (NRGRP). (This project, a collaboration between the Field Muse- um and Northern Illinois University, has focused on the development of large protohistoric pueblo villages and the impact of European exploration on Pueblo life.) Ceramic types recorded by the first survey included St. Johns Black-on-red, Wiyo Black-on-white, Galisteo Black-on-white, glaze-on-red (type uncertain), and Biscuit A. These materials suggested the site's occupation was transitional between the Late Coalition and Early Classic periods of the regional chronology, approximately a.d. 1300-1360. During this period of time, the first very large pueblo villages were being built, and examination of a small site was expected to yield information about the change from family-sized hamlets to villages with hun- dreds of residents. Although the ceramics on the surface suggested a fourteenth century date, our excavations determined that the ceramics record- ed on the surface were not typical of the site as a whole, which appears to have been in use during the late eleventh century and early twelfth cen- tury. The earlier date is supported by the size of the site and the types of rooms. Rather than focus on the aggregation of small groups into larger ones, we excavated the site to look at the transi- tion from pit houses to mostly aboveground rect- angular rooms, the traditional "pueblo" of the American Southwest. Hamlets like the Merrigan site have been excavated, some as early as the 1950s (Vytlacil and Brody 1958) and some quite recently. Publications focusing on such excava- tions are relatively few in number, however, and the present report adds to what we know of the population of northern New Mexico during this period, when society was developing a distinctive regional character The bulk of the Merrigan site, or LA 1 10971, was excavated in 1997 by students from a North- em Illinois University archaeological field school (Fig. 1 ). Funding for this research came from Mn Merrigan, the landowner at the time, the Field Museum, the Northern Illinois University anthro- pology department, the College of Liberal Arts and Sciences External Programs division of Northern Illinois University, and private dona- tions. Project staff is listed in Appendix 1. Al- though the intent of the research was to lift a non- disturbance easement and allow a house to be FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, N.S., NO. 35, JUNE 30, 2003, PP. 1-38 The Merrigan site. LA 1 10971 1997 excavations Northern Illinois University. Field Museum O -•n=«s H - excavated area — - contour interval 50 cm Fig. 1. Topographic map of LA 110971, the Merrigan site. built on the property by Mr. Merrigan, the parcel was not developed after the easement was re- moved. The land was sold to the state of New Mexico in 2000 and is now managed as undevel- oped state land. Architecturally, the Merrigan site consists of three circular living rooms and four rectangular storage rooms located on a rise overlooking the Pojoaque River. The rooms were aligned from northeast to southwest, with circular rooms locat- ed on the south and the rectangular rooms wrapped in an L-shape around them to the north. There was a hearth in each of the circular rooms as well as outdoor hearths of two sizes. Various pit features and post holes were present both with- in and outside the structures, some of which sup- ported a ramada, or roofed work area (Fig. 2). First identified on September 23, 1995, during a survey by DSS Consulting (Legare 1995), the Merrigan site was tested in 1996 to ascertain the size of the site and the extent of cultural deposits (Legare 1996). During that work, all visible sur- face materials were recorded and limited subsur- face testing was conducted. The site was estimat- ed to be approximately 1,000 square meters in size, with cultural materials that included ceram- ics and lithics, ground stone, burned adobe, and fire-cracked rock. During the initial phase of fieldwork, a con- certed effort was made to establish the age of the site using surface ceramics. It could be the case that the site dated to the later Coalition-Classic transition period as identified by Legare if the sur- face assemblage had been depleted by repeated scavenging of decorated sherds. In that case, we would have expected to find decorated sherds in the subsurface deposits. We might also have found tiny decorated sherds on the surface. Dec- orated sherds are recognizable at a much smaller size than undecorated sherds, yet the smallest pieces are not particularly attractive to collectors. Neither subsurface nor surface deposits yielded glaze-paint-decorated or Biscuit ware sherds in a consistent pattern. A single glaze ware sherd was FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY found by a project participant on the surface, just east of the driveway into the property. This find is consistent with the interpretation of the Biscuit ware sherds recorded by Legare as later additions to the site. A disturbed area of soil that could have been a heavily eroded adobe structure, located east of the driveway, was closely investigated to see if it could be a structure. No artifacts of any kind were found around or on the deposits. The shape was amorphous, and it could not be determined wheth- er this was a small structure, a disturbed area, or an area where loads of earth from another location had been dumped, which might have introduced artifacts to the property. We concluded that this area did not appear to originate as a Pueblo struc- ture and was not the locus of fourteenth century or later occupation of the site. It was decided that excavation would be necessary to establish the age of the site, and that surface collection was not an adequate alternative. Physical Environment The Merrigan site is situated on a knoll overlook- ing the Pojoaque River, the principal tributary of the Rio Grande, in the area today known as El Rancho, New Mexico. Both the ancient and mod- ern hamlets are located south of Espanola and just west of Pojoaque, New Mexico (Espanola Quad- rangle, Township 19 N, Range 8E, Sections 11 and 14). The location of LA 1 1 097 1 takes advantage of intersecting environmental zones and their re- sources, among them the riparian resources along the course of the Pojoaque, the grasslands in the immediate vicinity, and patches of pinon-juniper woodland that are present nearby. The river pro- vided a source of water some 300 meters distant from the site. The area beyond the river and its associated swath of riparian vegetation is domi- nated by grassland with piiion and juniper pines. Other grasses, four-wing saltbush, sagebrush, rab- bitbrush, prickly pear, and choUa cactus are pre- sent in the ara. Although it covers a relatively small area, the riparian habitat includes a greater range of plants, those mentioned along 'with a number of species having economic value. These species include Rocky Mountain beeweed, Indian ricegrass, three-awn grass, side-oats grama, and flax. The Pojoaque is one of the few perennial streams in the region and also supports cotton- wood, willow, tamarisk, rushes, and sedges (Moore 2000:10-11). The choice of this location indicates the resi- dents' interest in taking advantage of resources of the ecotone. The raised knoll location rather than a low-lying site afforded a way to maximize vis- ibility over the surroundings, take advantage of occasional breezes, and build structures in a high- er and therefore dryer place. Building on a dryer site could have been a means to escape overly moist housing sites or to preserve wetter sites for cultivation and farmland. LA 110971 is situated on the western margin of the Espanola Basin, a portion of the Rio Grande Rift, a series of basins formed by faulting. The faulted rocks in this area are Tertiary sedi- mentary deposits (Hudspeth 1997:10). Soils in this area are predominantly loam, including fine, sandy, and gravelly loams with varying potential for dry farming and irrigation (Post 1996:7). Ellis has suggested that occupations like the Merrigan site might have been seasonal habitations by groups that spent the rest of the year living at LA 835, a cluster of habitations farther east, near the modern town of Pojoaque (Ellis 1975), although other alternatives will be discussed. Information on the physical environment reflects people's choices of where to settle, when, and for how long. These choices in turn bear on where and when aggregation might begin, and what a per- manent autonomous extended-family settlement might look like, as opposed to a seasonal en- campment. Research Objectives This work is part of continuing research on change in population in the northern Rio Grande region by the Northern Rio Grande Research Pro- ject, sponsored by Northern Illinois University and the Field Museum. This fieldwork developed out of an interest in the emergence of centraliza- tion following aggregation of population in ever- larger villages in the American Southwest. Field- work at LA 1 10971 investigated the role of small sites in permitting and fostering population aggre- gation, which reached a peak in the large northern Rio Grande villages of the fifteenth century. One of our research interests in exploring the Merrigan site was to document the initial stages in the pro- cess of aggregation, which began in earnest dur- ing the fourteenth century with the construction CREAMER & HAAS: MERRIGAN SITE, EL RANCHO, NEW MEXICO of Arroyo Hondo (LA 12), outside Santa Fe. Ex- cavations elsewhere have been aimed at identi- fying the factors that fostered aggregation (threat, large-scale immigration, competition for hunting and cultivating spaces and for water, cooperation, common religious beliefs) and at recognizing countervailing forces (desire for privacy, family- level production, lack of leadership, and absence of centralized economic or political institutions). These factors are examined at LA 1 10971 as well. Prehistory of the Region Since archaeological work began in the northern Rio Grande region, not long after the turn of the twentieth century, a number of chronological frameworks have been proposed for the region. The first scheme was suggested by H. P. Mera, based on archaeological survey in northern New Mexico (Mera 1934, 1935). The chronology he presented was revised by Stubbs and Stallings (1953). A chronological sequence that relied less on contacts with Chaco and Mesa Verde and fo- cused on cultural developments within the north- em Rio Grande region was developed by Wendorf and Reed (1955), and it is their sequence that has been widely adopted for use across the region. It is ironic that although the Pecos classification was developed for the northern Rio Grande, it works poorly within the region, and the outline suggest- ed by Wendorf and Reed has become the pre- ferred chronology. Divisions include the Precer- amic (pre-A.D. 600), Developmental (a.d. 600- 1200), Coalition (a.d. 1200-1325), and Classic (A.D. 1325-1610) periods. The earliest known occupants of northern New Mexico were Paleoindian bands of big-game hunters who relied on mammoth, bison, and other now extinct animals as an integral part of their subsistence (Judge 1973). Sites of the Paleoindian period (9500-6000 B.C.) are nearly absent from the northern Rio Grande region, however. A few finds of isolated late Paleoindian artifacts have been reported from the Galisteo Basin (Honea 1971; Lang 1977). Elsewhere in the state, how- ever, Paleoindian sites have been recorded, in- cluding the type sites for Clovis and Folsom, along with examples of the Midland and Cody complexes (Stuart and Gauthier 1988). The end of the Paleoindian period saw the emergence of the more generalized hunter-gath- erer subsistence strategies of the Archaic period. from 7500 b.p. to about 1500 b.p. Until recently, Archaic sites were best known from the Albu- querque area, including sites in the Sangre de Cristo range (Wendorf and Miller 1959), in the foothills of the Sandia Mountains, and in the Rio Rancho area (Reinhart 1967). Sites consisted of semipermanent base camps and brief-use, special- purpose sites, like those described by Fawcett (1974). Most sites were located well away from the Rio Grande (Skinner et al. 1980:13). More recent research in the Santa Fe area (Post 1996) has revealed more extensive Archaic occupation in the northern Rio Grande. The transition to hunting smaller game and greater utilization of plant food may have made Archaic sites among the least visible to archaeologists (Post 1996:11). During this lengthy period, sites are generally identified from distinctive projectile point styles. In his study of the Archaic period in the Santa Fe area. Post (1996) notes, "Early and middle Ar- chaic period materials are similar to the Jay (5500 to 4800 B.C.), Bajada (4800 to 3200 B.C.), and San Jose (3200 to 1800 B.C.) phases of the Os- hara tradition (Irwin-Williams 1973)" (1996:11). As identified by Irwin-Williams (1973), the Os- hara tradition demonstrates the first steps toward regionalization, as over time, differences in settle- ment pattern and material culture can be distin- guished as hunting and gathering groups adapted to local conditions such as availability of water, range of plant foods, and movement patterns of hunted animal species. The later phases of the Ar- chaic/Early Basketmaker period are similar to lat- er phases of both the Oshara and Cochise tradi- tions (Post 1996:11). In the area just south of LA 1 10971, Post iden- tified Armijo-phase (1800-800 B.C.) sites which are suggested to indicate increasing use of pied- mont and woodland environments, a shift sup- ported by excavations elsewhere in the Santa Fe region (1996:440). Even more numerous were projectile points characteristic of the subsequent En Medio/Basketmaker II period (800 b.c.-a.d. 400). Sites identified from this period included a range of functions, from habitations to special- purpose localities (1996:441). Sites of this period, ranging from pit houses a meter deep to structures built in shallow pits, can be found in riverine, piedmont, foothill, and montane settings. The in- creased diversity in settlement types and locations suggests an overall population increase (Boyer and Lakatos 2000:70). During the subsequent Developmental period (a.d. 600-1200), there was an increase in the FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY number of permanent settlements, and the pro- duction of ceramic vessels began. In the earliest phase (a.d. 600-900), sites consisted of small groups of one to four pit houses, which sometimes had associated extramural storage pits or activity areas. Sites were located on low river terraces, such as the earliest jacal structures at Pindi (Stubbs and Stallings 1953:24-25) and the pit house in Area B at the Tesuque By-Pass site. The overall trend toward decreased mobility and in- creased storage and the introduction of artifacts such as trough metates suggest an increased reli- ance on cultivation. Ceramics associated with Ear- ly Developmental sites include plain gray and brown wares, and San Marcial Black-on-white (Cordell 1979:43; Boyer and Lakatos 2000:72). The Late Developmental period (a.d. 900- 1 200) was characterized by greater variety in both construction and material culture. Settlements typ- ically consisted of one or more pit houses and sometimes a number of aboveground structures. Unlike earlier pit houses, which tended to be a meter deep, these later structures ranged from 30 cm to over 1 meter in depth (Boyer and Lakatos 2000:73). Aboveground rooms were generally made of adobe and appear to have been first con- structed for storage, as they lacked interior fea- tures. Features such as hearths or ash pits were apparently added when the aboveground rooms began to be used as living quarters. Characteristic ceramics of this period include Red Mesa, Kwa- he'e, Gallup, and Escavada Black-on-white dec- orated types. Types found infrequently at Late De- velopmental sites include Chupadero, Socorro, Chaco, and Chuska Black-on-whites. Neckbanded and plain ceramics continued from the Early De- velopmental period, with the addition of corru- gated and incised types. Some intrusive examples of red wares are also found, part of the high var- iability in ceramics and presumably reflecting ex- ternal contacts among the occupants of the region during this period. Late Developmental period sites include pit structures (LA 9140), sometimes combined with jacal (LA 191) or masonry (LA 10614) above- ground structures (Dickson 1979) . Perhaps the best known Late Developmental period site is LA 835, where ten units of seven to 15 contiguous adobe rooms were identified. These were distin- guished as both living rooms and storage rooms (McNutt 1969). Additional examples of the Late Developmental period include sites in the Las Campanas project area (Post 1996:442-443) and the Santa Fe to Pojoaque Corridor, including ad- ditional work at LA 835 (Boyer and Lakatos 2000; Boyer, Moore, and Lakatos 2001). The shift from pit house to aboveground architecture was first delineated by Dickson (1979). In his survey transect from the Rio Grande to Arroyo Hondo Pueblo (LA 12), he noted a mix of pit house sites and sites with aboveground pueblos (1979:30-31) that illustrated the period of transition. The most intensive occupation during this phase was along the Santa Fe and Tesuque Rivers and their tribu- taries (Wiseman 1989). In Bandelier National Monument, there was great variability among Late Developmental struc- tures, which ranged "from pithouses and small surface structures to 100-room pueblos" (Powers and Van Zandt 1999:23). Late Developmental sites, those bearing Kwahe'e Black-on- white ce- ramics, first appear around a.d. 1 150 (Powers and Orcutt 1999:553). Unlike the pit structures de- scribed for the valley areas north of Santa Fe, the early structures at Bandelier were rectangular, aboveground living and storage rooms, that is, rooms both with and without a hearth. Sites in Bandelier National Monument appear to have consisted largely of rectangular surface rooms, and no pit structures were recorded during the sur- vey. The earliest structures built in the Bandelier survey area are suggested to date to around a.d. 1150, and the ceramics associated with them in- clude corrugated ware and Kwahe'e Black-on- white (Powers and Orcutt 1999:553). The ceram- ics are similar to those found at LA 1 10971, but the architecture is different. The time from about a.d. 1200 to around 1325 is known as the Coalition period. During this time aggregation into large villages began in earnest in the northern Rio Grande region. Maximum site size increased from approximately 100 to 1,000 rooms. Grid gardens and other forms of gravel mulch were introduced during this time as reli- ance on horticulture became more common. The earlier, Pindi phase (a.d. 1200-1300), was char- acterized by small villages and farmsteads. The later Galisteo phase was defined to recognize sites having the Galisteo variant of Santa Fe Black-on- white as part of the ceramic assemblage. Galisteo Black-on-white appears to have been introduced around a.d. 1300, and is associated with large pueblos, which became typical during the Classic period. The Rio Grande Classic period lasted from about A.D. 1325 until 1610. During this period most of the region's population lived in large vil- lages. Late in the Rio Grande Classic period, in CREAMER & HAAS: MERRIGAN SITE, EL RANCHO, NEW MEXICO A.D. 1540, the first European explorers arrived in the region. The results of exploration included eventual population decline and cultural change (Creamer and Haas 1998; Creamer 2000). Research Approach and Methodology Research at LA 1 10971 has examined the process of centralization that occurred in tandem with population increase and aggregation in the north- ern Rio Grande valley. Beginning in the late 1200s with the abandonment of the San Juan Ba- sin and Four Corners region, an increase in the population of the northern Rio Grande region is apparent from an increase in the number and size of sites. A tremendous aggregation of population followed, continuing into the mid- 1400s. There would be no reason to expect a transition from dispersed hamlets to large aggregated villag- es unless common concerns fostered or forced such a change in settlement. Our excavation was aimed at identifying factors that might have fos- tered aggregation, such as threat, large-scale im- migration, and competition for water, hunting ter- ritory, and cultivable land. Cooperative activities may have included pooling labor to intensify pro- duction, the development of common religious beliefs, and the construction and maintenance of alliances. Countervailing forces that would have tended to drive people apart could have included the desire for personal privacy, family-level pro- duction, lack of leadership, the absence of cen- tralized economic or political institutions, and re- ligious secrecy. Although excavations at LA 1 10971 were orig- inally intended to examine the role of small sites during the fourteenth century, the early dates for the site forced a shift in research focus. The re- vised goals were to look at the range of functions present in small sites prior to the onset of aggre- gation and to assess the degree of local self-suf- ficiency of a small, independent site. Such sites have been suggested to have been part of a larger but decentralized socioeconomic and political community. For example, Ellis has suggested that LA 835 was the principal or permanent center uniting the smaller sites in the area of LA 1 10971, the upper Tesuque Valley (1975:41). Thus, we ex- amined the evidence for permanence of LA 1 1097 1 . If the site appears to have been a seasonal farmstead, it will support Ellis's theory. If the site was a year-round settlement, we need to consider what its role may have been during subsequent regional integration. II. Excavations To identify excavation units across the site, a grid of stakes laid out at 2-meter intervals was placed on a N/S axis aligned on magnetic north. An ef- fort was made to place the central datum where it was located during Legare's (1995) work at the site, but the former datum stake could not be iden- tified. The excavation datum was placed at the top of a low rise where the structures are situated. Test units outside the site center were selected to iden- tify the maximum extent of site debris. Units were designated by the distance from the 0,0 point to the corner farthest from 0,0. Excavation of a 162- square-meter area revealed rooms and outdoor work space. Testing began with grid units exca- vated with shovels until room walls were identi- fied. Excavations began in unit Nl El with the goal of relocating and defining the possible work sur- face that had been tentatively identified during the testing operation (Legare 1996). Unit Nl El did not yield clear evidence of a work area but did yield three artifacts, a hammerstone, a large plain ware sherd, and a quartzite grinding stone, all at about the same level below datum in the south- west corner of the unit. Although there were no signs of a surface beneath these objects, at about this same level along the south margin of the unit was a cluster of slabs. Two of the slab fragments fit together, and all the pieces exhibited some ev- idence of grinding. As a result of these finds, ex- cavation was extended to the adjacent unit, Nl Wl. A curving wall segment was recognized in the excavation of the unit, enclosing a room that was numbered Room 1 . The other materials found were associated with Room 4. After Room 1 was identified, excavation ex- panded outward, resulting in the discovery of Rooms 2 through 7 to the north and east of Room 1 . A number of units were excavated to the west and south. While most of these units contained some artifacts, the frequencies were low and the soil was very shallow. We concluded that the con- centration of rooms was the entirety of the site architecture, forming a cluster that trended south- west to northeast across the crest of the knoll at LA 110971. Based on the frequency of artifacts, we also concluded that site midden was concen- FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY The Merrigan site, iJV 110971 1997 excavations Northern Illinois University, Field Museum Post Holes ^ Datum Roclts -- Dark Soil Groundstone O Outdoor Hearth O Indoor Hearth Fig. 2. Plan map of excavated structures at LA 1 10971, the Merrigan site. trated around the structures and to the east. It ap- peared that trash was discarded to the east outside the structures. The subrectangular structures may have opened to the east, which would make dis- posal to the east the path of least resistance. Fur- ther, the hill sloped most steeply in that direction, and it was the side of the site away from the river, which passes to the south and west of the site. The remainder of the fieldwork carried out in 1997 focused on excavating all the structures that we identified, on excavating a test trench along the north side of the site, and on testing the re- mainder of the hilltop for other possible struc- tures. Descriptions of the individual room exca- vations provide greater detail about those exca- vations. Field Methods The entire site surface was covered with loose sand and thick grass. For this reason, the first few centimeters of each unit were designated as a sur- face (S) level. Each surface level is likely to have been disturbed by historic and modern activities, including trampling by horses and cattle as well as human activities associated with nearby struc- tures. There was broken glass in a number of plac- es across the site surface, and several casings of spent ammunition were found in surface levels as well. Stratigraphy was shallow throughout most of the site, with wall fragments and floor surfaces located about 30 cm below the present ground surface. The site was dug in natural layers when visible and in 20-cm arbitrary levels when natural stratigraphy could not be discerned. As structures were identified during excavation, each was num- bered sequentially, with structures numbered 1 through 7 (Fig. 2). Room I, the best preserved structure, was excavated in four units. First, the room was divided in half across its N/S and EAV axes. The eastern and western quadrants were ex- cavated first, and a section was drawn across the room. The remaining quadrants were then exca- CREAMER & HAAS: MERRIGAN SITE, EL RANCHO, NEW MEXICO vated. Each of the other Rooms 2 through 7 were excavated in halves in natural levels. In areas where no rooms were identified, grid squares were excavated down to sterile soil. All features were mapped and excavated sepa- rately. Feature excavation was carried out in two stages. One-half of each feature was excavated, a section drawing was made of the bisecting profile, and the remainder of the feature was then exca- vated. During excavation, a 2-liter soil sample for flotation and a pollen sample were collected from each 20-cm level. Additional samples were col- lected from each feature, hearth, and any unusual concentration of ash or dark-colored materials. Additional pollen samples were taken from the corners and center of each room floor. Extramural features were numbered sequential- ly from 1 to 24. Features within the boundaries of a room were numbered with three digits: first the number of the structure, then two digits iden- tifying the order in which the features were un- covered within the structure. Thus, feature 101 is the first feature recorded in Room 1 , for example. Test units, including the materials over the struc- tures, were numbered with a north or south co- ordinate and an east or west coordinate, e.g., Nl E 1 . Any features revealed during excavation of a test unit were assigned a one- or three-digit num- ber, depending whether or not it was within the boundaries of a structure. Architecture The primary occupation area at LA 1 10971 con- sisted of seven rooms in close proximity to each other. There were three living rooms overlapping or connected to each other, and four storage rooms, also connected to each other. Each living room had a hearth feature located near the center. The walls of the rooms were made of adobe, al- though only the bases of the walls were found during excavations. The walls had mostly eroded away, and there was no evidence of the roof struc- ture in any of the rooms. All of the rooms ap- peared to have been built in the same way, with puddled adobe. The fill of all the rooms included soil deposited by wind and erosion. The adobe from the walls was eroded by rainfall, which re- sulted in the puddling of adobe on room floors and outside room walls. Room 1 Length: 3.6 m Width: 3.9 m Area: 14.04 sq m Room 1 was a square structure with rounded corners (see Fig. 2) located at the south end of the occupation area next to Room 4. Patches of floor were detected in Layer IIL An adobe wall bisected the room on a diagonal NAV to S/E axis. The wall appears to have been made of puddled adobe, although the pattern of erosion made it ap- pear superficially to have been assembled of ado- be blocks. There was some slumped adobe on the floor of the room and outside the wall of Room I, but the quantity was relatively small and sug- gests the room had a jacal, or wattle-and-daub, superstructure over a low adobe wall. However, the preserved portion of the wall did not contain post holes that might have supported such a su- perstructure, so this reconstruction is somewhat speculative. A hard-packed level that included a portion of the room floor may indicate a former use surface, one that was associated with the occupation of Room I . If that is the case, then the room was a shallow pit structure, with a slightly excavated or dish-shaped floor. This is the only excavated room where a large section of floor surface was pre- served, which we interpret as indicating the final occupation of the site. Room I was excavated in quadrants established once the walls were identified. Transects divided the room into quadrants: north, east, south and west. The north and east quadrants were excavat- ed in artificial levels and the south and west quad- rants were dug in natural layers identified in the cross-section profile (Fig. 3). North Quadrant — This quadrant contained a large amount of melted and crumbled adobe which was probably once part of the walls. The first level of the room produced lithics, sherds, adobe, and a carbon sample. A charcoal layer was found in level 3. Below the ash was more melted adobe. There was a post hole feature (feature 101) in this quadrant, along with portions of the wall that bisected the room, the hearth, and the asso- ciated ash pit. East Quadrant — The first level produced charcoal flecks, ash, ceramic material, and lithic material. The ashy deposits were located in the FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY NW-SEProaieofRooal I Charcoal I Dark Layer ! Adobe I Light Ash I Rock Kxcavated Prior to Drawing Fig. 3. Section view of Room 1 at LA 1 10971. south and west corners. Levels 2 and 3 included a number of lumps of amorphous melted adobe. Level 4 produced an ash deposit in the west cor- ner that may have been part of the hearth. The entrance to the structure may have been along the east quadrant of the room. Although the remains of an adobe wall were found around the circum- ference of Room 1, the presence of such a wall was difficult to detect in the eastern quadrant. Fur- ther, the soil along the eastern margin of the struc- ture was more pebbly than elsewhere and more mottled in color. These characteristics are consis- tent with that zone having been an entrance. In addition, feature 102 is a possible sipapu. It was approximately 10 cm in diameter and just under 10 cm deep. No artifacts were found in this fea- ture, although the soil in it was slightly darker than the soil outside the feature. Feature 103 was a pair of post holes, perhaps a post hole that had been reworked at some point. Portions of the cross-wall and the hearth were in this quadrant. South Quadrant — The fill in Layer I consisted of charcoal-flecked soil and adobe chunks. The layer ended at an ashy, charcoal-flecked lens. A hammerstone, ground stone, and small sherds were removed from Layer I. Layer II produced a concentration of artifacts, charcoal, and also burned adobe in the north corner of the quadrant. A small turquoise bead was found in Layer II at 139 cm below datum in the east comer of the quad. Layer III produced a smaller number of sherds and lithics. The floor was difficult to dis- cern, as it was thin and eroded. Bedrock was reached at the bottom of the layer along the south side of this quadrant. The south quadrant also had a pair of post holes (feature 107) that appeared to indicate that a post had been repositioned at some point. As in the other quadrants, feature 106, the hearth, was part of the south quadrant excava- tions. West Quadrant — The top layer excavated produced a large amount of ash in the east comer, along with a hammerstone and a large sherd. Some lithics and sherds were found in Layer II. A patch of floor was found at the bottom of Layer III. A collared hearth was located in the east cor- ner, along with various hearthstones. A burned corncob was recovered from the west portion of the quadrant. In addition to a comer of the hearth and rock-filled pit, a post hole (feature 104) was excavated in this quadrant of Room 1 . Features — Features 101 to 107 were located in Room 1 (Table 1). These features include post holes, a hearth, and an associated rock-filled pit. A collared adobe hearth, feature 106, was found in the southwestern half of the room (Fig. 4). This feature was set into the floor of Room 1, against the adobe wall in the center of the room. The hearth had been remodeled, and an earlier collar was covered by ash and the more recent collar A depression in the floor, filled with smoke-black- ened rocks, was uncovered adjacent to the hearth, and no collar of adobe separated the hearth from Table I. Features in Room 1. LA 1 10971. Feature Dimensions Depth no. (cm) (cm) Function Post hole-roof support Post hole Post hole-roof support Post hole-roof support Rock-filied pit Adobe-collared hearth Post hole-roof support F 101 17 X 14 28 F 102 11X9 10 F 103 36 X 24 28 F 104 10 X 10 10 F 105 61 X 57 11 F 106 52 X 48 15 F 107 46 X 30 27 CREAMER & HAAS: MERRIGAN SITE, EL RANCHO, NEW MEXICO D g [TQ LA 110971 Room 1 Feature 106 Collared Hearth Adobe Adobe Adobe Ash Wall Collar Collar Remodeling Fig. 4. Plan and section views of collared hearth in Room 1 . the pit of rocks. This feature could have been a cooking area, where materials could be heated with rocks from the fire. The cross-wall was a later addition to the room, based on its abutment to the subrectangular walls of the room. A quantity of ash was found on the side of the center wall opposite the hearth. This and the position of the hearth against the center dividing wall may indicate an earlier hearth that predated the cross- wall. If such was the case, the hearth was a later construction, as it is D-shaped to fit against the cross-wall. Such a reuse would indicate that Room 1 was similar to Room 6 in having experienced remodeling of the hearth. Four post holes (features 101, 103, 104, and 107) were found evenly spaced in the four quad- rants of the room. The post holes and the sur- rounding low adobe walls suggest that Room 1 was a structure transitional between a pit structure and an aboveground adobe structure. The four comer posts would have supported connecting roof beams that held up the roof. The adobe base of the structure, uncovered during excavation, is similar to other structures built of puddled adobe. However, very little slumped adobe was removed during the excavation of Room 1, making it un- likely that the walls were solid adobe to roof height. Instead, the structures at LA 110971 ap- pear to have been hybrid constructions with an adobe base, a perishable superstructure of jacal. and a thatched roof supported by a post-and-beam arrangement. Room 2 Length: 2.7 m Width: 1.3 m Area: 3.51 sq m Room 2 is a rectangular storage room adjoining Rooms 7 and 3 in a group extending northeast to southwest across the site. Rooms 4 and 6 adjoin Room 2 to the southeast. Room 2 was divided into two units for excavation. The southwest half was excavated first, followed by the northeast half. 10 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY The room consisted of three adobe walls abutting the northeast wall of Room 3. A use or living surface was difficult to detect in this room. The fill was very hard-packed, and an even surface or floor was not identified. Some rocky fill was ex- cavated down to a sandstone outcrop in the south- west end of the room. No features were identified in this room. The fill of Room 2 consisted of melted adobe, cultural refuse, and postabandonment soils that were probably deposited by the wind. A possible work surface was detected beneath the fill, al- though it was difficult to discern where the hard- packed fill ended and the work surface began. Several sherds and a fragment of ground stone were recovered at the same level as the proposed work surface beneath the fill and above culturally sterile soil. No post holes or roof materials were found in Room 2. Room 2 may have been added on to Room 3, as its northwest wall abuts a wall of Room 3. However, two wall stubs added on to the south comer of Room 2 are difficult to interpret. They may have been later additions to Room 2, or pos- sibly remnants of an earlier room largely de- stroyed during the construction of Room 3. The three complete walls of Room 2 (northwest, northeast, and southeast) appear to have been built at one time, perhaps as a single unit, since no wall abutments were visible. Features — No features were found in Room 2. uncovered during excavation argues against Room 3 having been built over another room. That is, if Room 3 replaced an earlier structure, it was not built over an earlier room as much as an earlier room was removed and then Room 3 was constructed. The sterile surface uncovered during our excavation was near the surface, and there were no layers of trash or adobe under the room walls to suggest a prior structure. We would ex- pect to find such materials had Room 3 been built over an earlier room, because in the Southwest there is no tradition of completely clearing one construction before rebuilding. Rather, it is more common for one structure to be demolished only enough to create a level surface before new con- struction begins. Alternatively, Room 3 may have been con- structed before all of Room 2. The walls identified for Room 3 appeared to have been constructed before those of Room 4, based on the pattern of wall abutments. The short stubs of adobe wall ex- tending from the southeast comer of Room 2 to Room 3 could have been later additions. Features — Feature 301, a single post hole 15 X 14 cm in diameter and 1 1 cm deep, was discov- ered in the northwest corner of Room 2. An ex- tensive patch of gravelly soil was identified in the north half of Room 3. This patch appears to have been below the original use surface of the room, however, and is probably just above bedrock, which is quite near the surface in this part of the site. Room 3 Length: 2 m (est.) Width: 2 m Area: approx. 4 sq m Room 3 is located next to Room 2 and Room 4 on the northwest side of the occupation area. Its walls were highly deteriorated, with adobe out- lines defining the approximate location of three walls. The southwest wall was absent, and a nat- ural bedrock outcropping may have formed the southwest wall of the room. The very few artifacts identified in the fill of Room 3 included two cu- linary sherds, two corrugated sherds, and two fragments of chert debitage. No evidence of a room floor was present. The soil was gravelly. Room 3 may have been built over an earlier room, represented by wall stubs at the southeast comer of Room 2. However, the sterile surface Room 4 Length: 4 m Width: 4.2 m Area: 16.8 sq m Room 4 is one of the large rooms at LA 1 10971. It is centered between Room 1 and Room 6 and located to the southeast of Room 2 and Room 3. A work surface, a hearth, post holes, and pits were found at the base of Layer I of this room. For the purposes of excavation, the room was bisected along a northwest-southeast axis. Two large ground stone slabs were recovered in the first layer of the southwest half. The floor area was difficult to identify, with only patches around the central hearth and some of the other features remaining intact. Artifacts from Room 4 included a few plain and cormgated sherds, one Black-on- CREAMER & HAAS: MERRIGAN SITE, EL RANCHO, NEW MEXICO 11 Table 2. Features in Room 4, LA 1 10971. Feature Dimensions Depth no. (cm) (cm) Function F401 15 X 12 12 Post hole F402 20 X 20 20 Post hole F403 75 X 65 13 Hearth F404 17 X 14 24 Post hole F405 7X7 13 Post hole F406 9X7 5 Group of three pits 19 X 11 9 12 X 12 7 F407 15 X 15 12 Pit F408 56 X 47 14 Pit white body sherd, one fragment of basalt debita- ge, and two hammerstones. Room 4 appears to have been a living room, based on the presence of a hearth in the center, which exhibited remodeling similar to that noted in the other living rooms. The wall abutments along the north/northwest portions of the room make it appear to have been built after Room 3, and possibly after Room 2 as well. It is not clear whether Room 4 was built after Room 6, which might be suggested by the curved north corner of the room jutting into space that could have been part of Room 6. As in Room 1 , the roof was prob- ably held up by posts set in each corner of the room, although only two post holes for roof sup- ports were clearly identified in Room 4. A cluster of artifacts associated with the room was excavated as part of unit Nl El. The outer margin of Room 1 wall runs through the extreme southwest corner of unit Nl El. Thus the three artifacts found, a hammerstone, a sherd, and a grinding stone, initially thought to be associated with Room 1 , were probably inside Room 4. The cluster of slabs also found in Nl El were proba- bly associated with activities in Room 4. Features — Features 401 through 408 were identified in Room 4 (Table 2). These features in- cluded post holes and a series of pits. The collared hearth, feature 403, was remodeled, because the rim of adobe around the edge of the hearth had been reshaped at least once. A sherd was recov- ered during the excavation of the hearth. Room 5 Length: 2.5 m Width: 1.5 m Area: 3.75 sq m Room 5 is a rectangular storage room located at the northeast end of the site, next to Room 6 and perpendicular to Room 7. Artifacts collected from Room 5 included lithics and sherds. The fill was very rocky, and a large amount of adobe wash had eroded from the walls into the room. The walls of Room 5 were very low (10-15 cm), and it seems likely that the wall stubs encountered in the course of excavation were below the level of the original room floor. A variety of artifacts were recovered from the room fill, however, in- cluding basalt, chert, obsidian flakes and debitage, a fragment of petrified wood, a fragment of ground stone, six plainware sherds, five corrugat- ed sherds, and one Black-on-white sherd. Room 5 was constructed after Room 7, as three of the walls (northeast, southeast, and southwest) abutted the northwest wall of Room 7. The south- west wall of Room 5 formed one wall of Room 6. Features — No features were found in Room 5. Room 6 Length: 2.5 m Width: 2.5 m Area: 6.25 sq m Room 6 is large, square room that was probably a living room. It adjoins Room 2 and Room 5. The wall between Room 4 and 6 was badly de- teriorated, creating a broad band of adobe melt. The fill in Room 6 was heavily mottled with ash and flecked with charcoal, making Room 6 look like it might have been a refuse area. When fea- ture 601, a collared hearth, was identified in the center of the room, a search for room walls was undertaken. However, feature 601 was surrounded by walls that were originally part of other struc- tures, and no walls unique to Room 6 were found. Thus, Room 6 is defined largely by the hearth features (features 601 and 602) rather than by walls. Therefore, this room could have been in use before the adjacent Rooms 4, 2, and 5 were built. In this case, the original walls of Room 6 were all replaced by later structures. Alternatively, Room 6 may have been built later than Room 4, with the builders taking advantage of the existing walls to form the room. In this case there may have been a perishable wall across the southeast side of the room, where no wall was uncovered during excavation. 12 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY F601 55 X 60 27 F602 64 X 62 22 F603 58 X 54 54 Table 3. Features in Room 6, LA 1 10971. Feature Dimensions Depth no. (cm) (cm) Function Adobe-collared hearth Pit of former hearth with stones in adobe collar Post hole In addition to being bordered by walls associ- ated with other rooms, two short walls intruded into the area called Room 6. When we completed excavation of the room, it became apparent that the two short walls had originally been joined in a single wall bisecting the interior of Room 6. This is similar to the layout of Room 1, where the later hearth also backs onto an added bisecting wall. It appears that feature 602 would have been the original hearth for this room. When the cross- wall was built, the later hearth (feature 601) was constructed against the cross-wall, as was the case in Room 1. Features — Feature 601, an adobe-lined hearth, was located in the center of the room (Table 3). Another collared hearth (feature 602) was discov- ered near the first. This hearth appeared to have been reused as a storage pit. No ash was found in 602, and a number of stones were found along the collar of the hearth, although several segments of the curved adobe edge were missing. Feature 603 was a large post hole or possibly a wall footing. There was evidence of a hard-packed surface be- neath the hole, and it looked as if the hole had been filled in with rock and adobe around a per- ishable object, possibly a roof support post. Table 4. Exterior features around Rooms 1 through 7, LA 110971. Feature Dimensions Depth no. (cm) (cm) Function F 1 19 X 16 17 Post hole F2 26 X 20 26 Post hole F3 24 X 25 29 Post hole F4 28 X 25 5 Post hole F5 58 X 76 15 Shallow pit F6 (This feature number was not used.) F7 70 X 80 81 Fire pit F8 32 X 35 3 Pit F9 35 X 30 4 Pit F 10 60 X 42 8-18 Overlapping post hole and pit F 11 71 X 51 10 Pit F 12 190 X 140 10 Pit F 13 85 X 816 8 Pit F 14 (This feature was renumbered F 401. See di.scussion of Room 4.) F 15 23 X 23 17.5 Post hole F 16 30 X 27 11 Pit F 17 (This feature was renumbered F 104. See discussion of Room 1.) F 18 (This feature number was not used.) F19 (This feature number was not used.) F20 30 X 34 30 Hearth F21 33 X 33 10 Pit F22 This feature was a row of post holes, span- ning 160 cm: 5 (diam.) 10 Post hole 10 (diam.) 10 Post hole 15 (diam.) 10 Post hole 10 (diam.) 12 Post hole 8 (diam.) 15 Post hole F23 56 X 65 16 Pit F24 330 X 70 40 Possible wall seg- ment Features — No features were identified within the room, and no artifacts were located in situ. Room 7 Length: 2.5 m (est.) Width: 1.3 m Area: 3.25 sq m (est.) Room 7 was located at the northernmost edge of the excavation, abutting Rooms 2 and 5. Only two walls of the room were fully preserved, along with a stub of a third. However, the room appears to have been another in the series of small above- ground rectangular storage rooms constructed at the site. From the abutment of the walls, it is ap- parent that of the three. Room 2 was built first. Room 7 next, and Room 5 last in the series. External Features Twenty-three features were found outside the rooms at LA 1 1 097 1 . Most of them were located to the south of the roomblock. The dimensions of each feature are given in Table 4. Hearths — Feature 7 was a rock-lined hearth located just over 4 m southeast of Room 1. Ground stone, flaked lithics, and ceramic material were all recovered from the feature. The top fill consisted of ashy soil and charcoal. The pit was partially filled with fire-cracked rocks and large pieces of charcoal. Beneath them, large slabs lined the hearth (Fig. 5). Much of the stone was CREAMER & HAAS: MERRIGAN SITE, EL RANCHO, NEW MEXICO 13 LA 110971 External Hearth Feature 7 Pit Hearth D Rocks Adobe Ash and Charcoal Fig. 5. Plan and section views of exterior hearth, feature 7. fire-cracked. The soil beneath the slab lining was reddened and appeared to have been exposed to heat. Feature 20 was an unusually small, rock-lined hearth. Some of the lining stones were discarded ground stone tools, including mano and metate fragments. The fill became darker toward the bot- tom of the feature (Fig. 6). Both of these features were located in a way that suggests they were associated with Room 1. If feature 22 represents the edge of a brush shade. or ramada, that extended outward from the edge of Room 1, then the hearths, features 7 and 20, were positioned to be as close to Room 1 as pos- sible without being under a roof. Post Holes — Features 1 through 4 are a group of post holes aligned on a northwest-southeast axis. These features seem to belong together, based on their close proximity. They are spaced about a meter away from Room 1 and parallel to the room's southwest wall. Feature diameters are LA 110971 External Hearth Feature 20 Pit Hearth D present ground surface use surface Rocks Adobe Ash and Charcoal Flu. 6. Plan and profile views of small exterior hearth, feature 20. 14 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY LA 1 10971 North Side ofTivnch ProBIc {Adobe B Dispersed Charcoal E3 AshCharcoal Flecked Trash Fill ■ Clay Layer'Possible Floor D Sterile Soil Fig. 7. Trench profile for LA 1 10971. similar, ranging from 20 cm to about 30 cm. Fea- tures 1 through 3 extend approximately 25 cm be- low the surface. Feature 4 had suffered rodent tunneling disturbance, which made it impossible to determine the original depth. Together, this row of post holes may have supported a row of posts that held up a ramada. Feature 15, located at the west corner of Room 3, probably outside the room, was a post hole with charcoal flecks in its fill. Feature 22 was an alignment of five post holes, each about 7 cm in diameter. The alignment spanned 160 cm, and the holes reached from 5 to 15 cm in depth. The surface into which the post holes had been dug consisted of adobe, and the fill in the holes was gravelly. Wood samples, rem- nants of the original posts, were recovered from these post holes. The posts in this feature were smaller in diameter than the posts in features 1 through 4. This feature may also have held up a ramada, or it could have been part of a pen en- closure of some kind, such as for turkeys or for outdoor storage. However, no turkey shell, dung, or other evidence of turkeys was recovered from the site. Pits — Features 5 and 1 1 are two similarly sized pits located in the center of feature 22 (aligned post holes). Both pits appear to have been filled by aeolian deposition after abandonment of the site. Feature 5 contained one flake and one sherd; feature 1 1 had two lithics. Features 9 and 10, located about 10 cm east of the east corner of Room 1, were shallow pits. These pits had dark fill, and feature 10 had a blackened rock at the bottom. They could have acted as pot rests, temporary storage spaces, or a number of other functions. Features 12 and 16 are located to the south of features 1 through 4. Feature 12 was a pit with aeolian fill resembling that in features 5 and 1 1 . A small number of lithics and sherds were recov- ered from the fill. Feature 16, located directly to the south of feature 12, contained no artifacts. Feature 21, a small pit, was roughly square in shape, with sides 33 cm long and a depth of 10 cm. A rock with no signs of cultural use was lo- cated in the pit. Feature 8, a shallow, dark basin of similar dimensions to feature 21, was located 30 cm southeast. This feature yielded a piece of fire-cracked sandstone. Feature 23 was a pit located about 40 cm north- east of feature 7. The fill was dark, with charcoal flecks, and the feature yielded a large ground stone, lithics, and ceramic material. This may have been refuse discarded from the hearth, fea- ture 7. A Possible Kiva in an Unexcavated Portion OF LA 110971— A small section of LA 110971 remains unexcavated and may include an addi- tional structure or structures. This is the section located at the northeast edge of the excavated por- tion of the site (see Fig. 1). A test trench was excavated across the northern margin of the ex- cavated part of the site, crossing Room 7 and just north of Room 5. The trench was excavated in I m X 2 m sections, to form a cross-.section of the site area. The depth of soil (including cultural ma- terial— charcoal flecks, chipped stone, and ceram- ics) above sterile subsoil increased as the test trench was extended to the east. In the final sec- tion excavated, a hard layer of clay was encoun- tered that appeared to be melted adobe, or possi- bly a use surface (Fig. 7). This area is significant in being the only portion of the site where we CREAMER & HAAS: MERRIGAN SITE, EL RANCHO, NEW MEXICO 15 found any cultural material that we did not ex- cavate. Time constraints and the depth of over- burden prevented us from fully excavating this area. Also, the area was not endangered by pend- ing construction. The unexcavated portion of the site may con- tain a kiva. Sites of the Late Developmental pe- riod generally include pit structures and/or above- ground structures and shallow midden (Boyer and Lakatos 2000:72). While kivas are not common at sites of this period in the northern Rio Grande, a pit structure having a sipapu may represent oc- casional use for ritual purposes (Boyer 2000:82). Room 1 at LA 1 1 097 1 has a feature that may be a sipapu. Thus, the site's inhabitants may not have found it necessary to build a kiva. Adler suggests that "larger, ritually specialized facilities" will be found at sites with a population of more than 200 individuals (Adler 1993:336; Boyer 2000:83), and a great kiva is present at LA 835. The question remaining is whether a large juniper tree growing in a shallow swale on the northeast corner of LA 1 10971 could mark the location of a kiva, which would be under more than a meter of sandy fill. The test trench along the north margin of the site extended out toward this area and indicated that the cultural deposits were deeper in this area. Each 1 X 2 m section of the test trench was ex- cavated to sterile soil or bedrock. Analysis of the lower levels of the three easternmost test units, N4 E5, N4 E6, and N4 E7 showed that the num- ber of artifacts in the lower levels declined only slightly from what was found in the upper levels. This suggests that the deeper deposits in this por- tion of the site came from later deposition. That the trench did not reveal any structures is not sur- prising if the materials represent postoccupation deposition. There were concentrations of adobe, charcoal, ash, and a few artifacts above the sterile subsoil. What makes it possible that a kiva or oth- er structure is located in this area is the fact that at the interface between material bearing cultural materials and the subsoil or bedrock, there were two areas that may indicate cultural use. A patch of soil flecked with charcoal was identified in unit N4 E7, and a patch of trash flecked with ash and charcoal was uncovered in unit N4 E8, where there was also a hard clay area that could have been a piece of floor. Under it was an area of trash flecked with ash and charcoal. This kind of ma- terial is often used to level the ground surface under room floors. Construction Sequence at LA 110971 LA 110971 consisted of four storage rooms and three living rooms, distinguished by the absence of features and rectangular shape of storage rooms and by the subrectangular shape and the presence of a hearth in the living rooms. By using wall abutments and the condition of rooms at the time they were excavated, it is possible to suggest that the site was occupied by a small group of people, a nuclear or extended family. Two scenarios of construction and occupation can be suggested. One scenario is of sequential construction and use, although this may have included continuous use or seasonal remodeling and reuse. The alter- native scenario is that the site grew in size over time and structures were added as the size of the group increased. Sequential use of the site is suggested by the pattern of architecture repeated from northeast to southwest across the site (Fig. 8a). The basic hab- itation unit included a single subrectangular room later modified by a cross-wall and containing a hearth, accompanied by two aboveground rect- angular rooms. The aboveground rooms had no features or compacted floor surfaces, and we sug- gest these were storage rooms. In a sequence based on how much or how little of the room remains. Room 6 would have been the first to have been constructed. It was the most heavily eroded, the most difficult to distinguish as a room, and contained ash, charcoal, and other refuse. Room 6 included a cross-wall and adobe-lined hearth, both presumably added after the first cir- cular hearth was no longer in use. The cross-wall and rebuilt hearth are similar to features in Room 1. Room 4 would have been the next living room to have been built at the site, perhaps to replace Room 6 when that room fell into disrepair and the decision was made not to remodel. The northeast wall of the room was highly eroded, and the southwest wall was not identified. The shape of the room could only be inferred from the portions of three walls that were uncovered. A number of features were identified in the southwest half of the room. Room 1 was the last living room to be con- structed at LA 110971, based on its being less eroded than the other rooms. All the walls of Room 1 and the cross-wall through the room could be identified during excavation. Four post holes suggest that post supports for the roof were set in each corner of the room. A central adobe- 16 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY a 1 \\C\ /A^ yO ^ F402 JK J ■^-■'K^S^/JT^SiL/ ^r^ A r ^^ F402 rja /f 1 ^-^^x^f;i^'> '"f-:^ F 4 ^-Jn 1?* /V\\/iF 102 W 9 Vx V, 'fi ^^ O" ■■■ .-. Of 16 ;—::::. o F20 o F7 23 1 Post Holes 1 Rocks 3 Groundstonc 1 - Isl Living Room A — Dwt Soil 3 - 3rd Living Room O Outdoor Heanh MN O Indoor Hcanh ^ Room Outline 0 M ■ Post Holes B Rocks I ' Larliest Living 'Storage S Groundslone '*°™" 4 Datum 2 ■ Living/Storage rZiT , Rooms Added after (1) — Dark Soil O Outdoor Hearth 3 ■ Lrving Room Added O Indoor Hearth ''""<^* ^ Room Outline Fig. 8. Scenario for occupation of LA 110971. a, Sequential construction and use. b. Expansion of the group over time. CREAMER «& HAAS: MERRIGAN SITE, EL RANCHO, NEW MEXICO 17 lined hearth, an adjacent rock-filled pit, and a very small pit feature, or sipapu, completed the interior of the room. The first storage room to have been built, based on the remnants of its four walls appears to have been Room 3 or a possible earlier structure. Three of the walls were bonded together, and the south- west wall abutted the others. Perhaps this side held a door, although a doorway could not be identified. It is also possible that the first room constructed was adjacent to Room 2 but was later destroyed by construction of Room 3. In this case, the two remaining wall stubs attached to the southeast corner of room 2 would be the first walls of storage structures. Room 2 would have been the next structure to be built, while Room 7 was added on to Room 2. Both its northwest and southwest walls abutted Room 2. Room 5 was added on to Room 7 in a similar way, with the southeast wall of Room 7 abutting three walls to form a new room. Room 3 may have been built over an earlier room and was built before Room 4, as its walls go around those of Room 3. A southwest wall was not lo- cated for Room 3, and it is possible that a rock outcrop was utilized for at least part of that wall. However, although Room 3 may have been built after Room 2, we cannot determine when it was built in relation to Rooms 7 and 5, which may have been constructed at the same time or later. The orientation of the living rooms in a north- east-southwest row, each positioned the same way, suggests that the earlier structures were still visible when each subsequent room was built. The rooms could have been in ruined condition but still visible. In addition, the lack of ventilators for the habitation rooms suggests seasonal rather than year-round occupation. A ventilator would be es- pecially useful in sites occupied during the winter, to keep the fire burning while sealing the walls of the structure as much as possible to keep out cold drafts. An alternative scenario is that the site expanded with a growing group (Fig. 8b). In this scenario the first room built would have been for storage, perhaps prior to full-time use of the site. This is suggested by the fact that Room 3, or a possible room below it, was the first to be constructed, and that the living room. Room 4, was constructed next. This created a living room-storage room combination that would have provided the basic requirements for housing a small group. Addition- al storage rooms were added next. Room 2 fol- lowed by Room 7 and Room 5. Room 5 may have been intentionally built perpendicular to the other storage rooms to create the outlines of Room 6. To complete the room, only a southeast wall would have been needed. Alhough that wall was not encountered, the interior cross-wall and hearth suggest this was an enclosed living room. Exterior hearths were encircled by cobbles (features 7 and 20), while adobe-collared hearths were built in- side structures. In the expansion scenario, Room 1 would have been constructed last of all, which would explain its better preservation and its po- sition adjacent to the cluster of other rooms. By the time this room was built, in the expansion scenario, the other structures that were still func- tional would have been fully utilized, although not all were necessarily in use. According to Crown's (1991) work at Pot Creek Pueblo, pueblo rooms were in use only for about 19 years. Thus, despite the remodeled hearth in each living room, the time span between the construction of Room 6 and Room 1 is likely to have been about 40 years, and the duration of the entire occupation something less than 60 years, making it possible that the structures at LA 110971 represent site growth. However, it is not clear whether the rooms were built (1) for peri- odic, seasonal use of the site during the growing season, with a new living room constructed as needed, or (2) to maintain continuous occupation of the site by a single group, with the living room rebuilt approximately every 20 years (Crown 1991), or (3) to accommodate a gradually increas- ing site population. III. Artifacts LA 1 10971 yielded a variety of artifacts, includ- ing chipped stone, ground stone, ceramics, animal bone, and plant remains. All artifacts were labeled according to test unit, room, and feature (Appen- dix 2). Lithic Materials Lithic raw material was easily available to people living in and near the Rio Grande basin. Rhyolite, chert, and basalt were available locally along the Pojoaque River. The vesicular volcanic materials used for ground stone tools were also available in the area, while the Jemez Mountains, 10-15 km 18 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY Table 5. Summary by raw material of chipped stone at LA 1 10971. Material/ Provenience Tools (No.) Flakes (No.) Debitage (No.) Chert Rooms Features Test units Total (n = 3,436) Basalt Rooms Features Test units Total (n = 468) Obsidian Rooms Features Test units Total (n = 156) 2 150 131 2 27 23 8 1,530 1.563 12(0.3%) 1,707(50%) 1,717(50%) 0 40 20 0 12 1 0 225 170 0 277 (59%) 191(41%) 1 4 6 0 5 0 7 72 61 8(5%) 81 (52%) 67(43%) Provenience Petrified wood (No.) Quartzite (No.) Rooms Features Test units Total 6 0 12 18 distant, were a source of obsidian. A sandstone outcrop was located on the site of LA 1 1 097 1 , and the outcrop seems to have been used to re- inforce the southwest wall of Room 3 and possi- bly to form part of the southwest wall of Room 4. Thinner fragments of basalt, schist, and other volcanic materials as well as sandstone were trimmed on the ends to form rectangular slabs, which were used to line hearths. Some of the stone was also made into manos and metates. Chert was available in the form of nodules in stream deposits washed off the slopes of the San- gre de Cristo Mountains. Distinctive chert such as that originating from the Pedemal volcanic plug, some 55 km to the north, was also available in the Rio Grande gravels as well as by direct pro- curement, and appears to have been present at the site, although it was not positively identified by chemical analysis. Chipped Stone Chipped stone at LA 110971 was divided into three material types, obsidian, basalt, and chert. Small quantities of petrified wood and quartzite were also noted. Categories of point, tool, flake, and debitage were identified for each material. Tool categories included scrapers, blades, and any other type of shaped tool. Flakes include all used and unused flakes, while debitage includes all oth- er material (Table 5). A detailed list of chipped stone by excavation provenience is available from the authors. Chert, in this case, refers to a group of crypto- crystalline lithic materials that includes a variety of distinguishable types of stone, such as petrified wood and agate. Chert was the most widely used material at the site, appearing in all six rooms. Basalt was found in five rooms and obsidian in four. This pattern probably reflects the relative ef- fort involved in acquiring each material. In Room 1 , three tools were recovered, while no tools were found in the other rooms. There were more lithic materials recorded from the fill of Room 1 than from the fill of the other excavated rooms. How- ever, the density of chipped stone material was lower in this area than in other excavated areas when room contents and the fill over the rooms was considered (Fig. 9, Table 6). The larger quan- tity of chipped stone found in Room 1 suggests CREAMER & HAAS: MERRIGAN SITE, EL RANCHO, NEW MEXICO 19 D D D 0-20 [^ 21-40 § 41-60 d 61-80 R 81-100 H 101-160 ^M Post Holes mH Rocks ^^ Groundstone Datum Dark Soil Outside Hearth Inside Hearth Turquoise MN Fig. 9. Chert distribution at LA 1 10971. Table 6. Chipped stone by room at LA 1 10971. Tur- Chert Basalt Obsidian quoise frag- Provenience Tool Flake Deb. Tool Flake Deb. Tool Flake Deb. ment Room 1 2 121 89 0 39 14 1 2 4 1 Room 2 0 13 11 0 3 0 0 1 0 0 Room 3 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Room 4 0 12 10 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 Room 5 0 7 9 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 Room 6 0 10 16 0 1 4 0 0 1 0 Total, rooms 2 163 137 0 44 20 1 4 8 1 Features 12 135 105 0 72 6 0 45 0 0 Test units 7 893 900 0 143 109 5 42 37 1 Grand total (incl. rooms) 21 1,191 1,142 0 259 135 6 91 45 2 Note: Deb. = debitage. 20 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY D D D mm-i'i-i 777771. D 0 1-10 11-20 21-30 Post Holes Rocks A Datum — Dark Soil O Outdoor Hearth O Indoor Hearth Groundstone X Turquoi* Fig. 10. Basalt distribution at LA 1 10971. that it was the last room occupied at the site. The higher overall density of lithics for the badly erod- ed Rooms 4 and 6 may seem to contradict the premise that these rooms could have been scav- enged both during and after abandonment (Diehl 1998). Relatively few chipped stone materials came from the room fill in Rooms 4 and 6 com- pared with Room 1. The greater density of chipped stone is in the fill above the rooms, sug- gesting that these rooms may have been used for trash disposal for some period of time. In contrast, the storage rooms. Rooms 3, 5, and 7, had a lower density of all lithic materials than the portion of the site where the habitations were located. Room 2, assumed to be a storage room because of its lack of a hearth, did have a number of artifacts in it approximating those in abandoned living rooms. These were present in the lowest levels excavated, where the soil was hard and rocky, forming an- gular lumps to make a highly uneven surface. Al- though this room could have been an anomalous living room — that is, one without a hearth — it could also have been leveled with midden, result- ing in the distribution of artifacts that were found. In addition to chipped stone found within the excavated rooms, a variety of chipped stone was recovered from the site surface. Analysis of the distribution of lithic materials by raw material type was undertaken in an effort to determine whether specific materials were associated with specific rooms. In addition, the distribution of lith- ic material had the potential to reveal concentra- tions of debitage that might be associated with trash disposal and midden formation. The largest quantity of chert was found in the vicinity of Room 4 and the two exterior hearths (see Fig. 9). Variability in the distribution of chipped stone across the site can be observed, with a greater quantity of chert spread eastward from the rooms and little chert to the north or west. Basalt was found in low densities across the entire site (Fig. 10). Fragments of obsidian were recovered in the majority of the units excavated at the site (Fig. 1 1 ). The highest density of obsidian was in the CREAMER & HAAS: MERRIGAN SITE, EL RANCHO, NEW MEXICO 21 D 0 m 1-5 6-10 11-15 Post Holes Rocks Ground stone D ^ Datum -- Dark Soil O Outdoor Hearth O Indoor Hearth X Turquoise Fig. 11. Obsidian distribution at LA 110971. fill above Room 1 where that room meets Room 4. The proportion of finished tools and used flakes to debitage does not clearly indicate whether ob- sidian arrived at the site already worked (see Ta- ble 6). The points recovered were generally small, side-notched or triangular points (Fig. 12). Some additional shaping may have produced tools from those flakes, while sharpening probably produced most of the debitage. However, flakes could have been brought to the site as an item of trade, or could have been produced at the source by resi- dents who traveled to obtain it. The distribution of obsidian across the site is relatively even. There is no evidence that obsidian was worked in any specific room or part of the site. Tools and points recovered during fieldwork were found in the area of the structures for the most part. The choice of chipped stone materials used for tools at LA 1 10971 is as likely to have been pro- portional to the distance traveled to procure raw material as any other interpretation. Chert could have come from cobbles washed into the Poj- oaque River, close to the site. Basalt was available from the Pajarito Plateau, only a few kilometers from the site, while obsidian came from farther away, in the Jemez Mountains. Whether obsidian was obtained through trade or procured directly could not be determined from the sample we re- covered. Ground Stone Most ground stone artifacts at LA 1 1 097 1 were made of volcanic stone (basalt) or sandstone. Ob- jects were divided into groups, including worked stone, hearthstone, small slabs, and burned frag- ments. Worked stone showed evidence of shaping on one or more areas, as well as a surface shaped by grinding. Hearthstones were generally slabs exhibiting extensive burning and/or smoke black- ening, as well as use wear on one or more sur- faces. Small slabs and burned fragments are items that could not be identified by function. Each of these objects had been subjected to some combi- nation of grinding and use wear. 22 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY J k Fig. 12. Obsidian and chert points from LA 1 10971. No whole grinding slabs or metates were re- covered from the site, although a number of pos- sible metate fragments were found, along with a number of hand stone, or mano, fragments (Table 7). The absence of whole, large grinding tools ap- pears to be due to the reworking of broken tools into smaller ones, postoccupation scavenging at the site, and the general dearth of cultural mate- rials at LA 1 10971. Any sizable ground stone tool would have been easily visible on the surface of the site, and perhaps scavenged. One of the few grinding tools recovered from the site was a grooved maul of vesicular basalt from N3 El . The material suggests this tool could have been re- worked from a metate fragment (Fig. 13). Most ground stone recovered from LA 1 10971 was found in the area of the rooms, with little in the test units more distant from the center of the site (Fig. 14). Concentrations of ground stone were noted near the outdoor hearth (feature 7) in Room 4, and in an area overlapping Rooms 2 and 6. This probably demonstrates the close relation- ship between ground stone and household activi- ties. Other Stone Materials Hammerstones found at LA 1 1 097 1 were de- fined by battering on one or more surfaces. Ham- CREAMER & HAAS: MERRIGAN SITE, EL RANCHO, NEW MEXICO 23 Table 7. 110971. Summary of ground stone pieces at LA Fragments with 1 or Mano and more Slab and metate ground Provenience slab frag. and frag. surfaces Features 28 15 3 Test units 113 38 12 Room 1 10 4 5 Room 2 3 1 1 Room 4 5 3 1 Room 5 1 0 0 Room 6 3 0 0 Note: There were no ground stone fragments in Room 3. Frag. = fragment. merstones were made from quartzite, chert, and volcanic materials. The frequency of quartzite hammerstones suggests these were expedient tools, made of whatever materials came to hand, rather than illustrating a preference for particular materials (Table 8). The only evidence of specific selection of stone is the presence of turquoise at the site. In the northern Rio Grande, turquoise is most likely to have come from the Cerrillos Hills source, which is closest to LA 110971. Only two pieces of turquoise were found at LA 1 10971, a bead in the south quadrant of Room 1 and another small fragment of worked turquoise on the edge of Rooms 1 and 4 (Fig. 15). In addition to turquoise, nine iron concretions were found (Table 9). These were probably re- covered in the area surrounding the site, as they are not uncommon at other sites in the region and are a natural deposit within sandstone formations. Ceramics A total of 4,522 ceramic fragments were tabulated by location and type (Table 10). The locations were recorded by room, feature, or test unit. After excavation, the contents of each bag were sepa- rated into plain, corrugated. Black-on-white, or other ceramics. These in turn were divided into rim, body, bowl, or jar fragments. Pieces too small for identification are listed in the "too small" cat- egory. A complete list of all excavated ceramics by provenience is available from the authors. Fig. 13. Grooved maul of vesicular basalt from LA 110971 that may have been reworked from a metate fragment. Unpainted Ceramics Plain Ware — Plain ceramics (n = 2,743) were the most numerous at LA 110971, accounting for 61% of all ceramics. These were undecorated coil-and-scrape vessels with a partially smoothed surface. These included gray ware sherds, which have no surface treatment beyond smoothing of the coils to create a flat surface. No boiling spalls were observed on the interior near the base of plain vessels (Nelson n.d.), although they may have been used in food preparation. Plain culinary ceramics were found across the site, with the highest concentration along the southeast margin of the site area, near the outdoor hearth, feature 7 (Fig. 16). During excavation, a layer of dark soil containing numerous artifacts was noted in this area. It appears that household debris may have been tossed or swept to the fringe of the living area. The dark soil area was not thick or mounded but appears to have been a layer of midden be- ginning at the southeast edge of the habitation area and thickening as one moved away from the structures. A single whole plain ware vessel was recovered from test unit N2 W3. It was a miniature vessel approximately 2 cm tall and 1.3 cm in diameter (Fig. 17). About the size of a thimble, the vessel was located in N2 W3, a unit at the western edge of the site where no structures or features were identified. Corrugated Ceramics — Corrugated ceramics were the second most numerous at the site, ac- counting for 34% of the ceramics recovered (n = 1,522). Corrugated ceramics were found in almost all proveniences at the site. Like the plain ware, the greatest concentration of corrugated ceramics was in units on the east and south sides of the site, outside the immediate living area (Fig. 18). These pieces have been identified as indented cor- 24 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY D D D D n D 1-5 6-10 4 Datum 11-15 - Dark Soil Post Holes O Outdoor Health Rocks o Indoor Hearth Groundstone X Turquoise D D n MN Fig. 14. Ground stone distribution at LA 1 10971. rugated. This is a wide coiled type, with unsme- ared indentations over the entire surface of the vessel (Nelson n.d). At LA 1 10971, corrugated ceramics were made by coiled construction, with successive coils add- ed on the outer edge of the previous one and then smoothed (Fig. 19). This technique results in a cross-section showing a slight overlap in the coils. When coils were not fully smoothed, the resulting surface is called "clapboard." The necks of some vessels display this technique, and the slight over- Table 8. Hammerstones at LA 1 10971. Provenience Quartzite Chert Volcanics Room 1 2 3 1 Room 4 0 1 1 Feature 7 4 1 1 Test units 5 5 1 Total 11 9 4 lap in coiling can be detected in most corrugated sherds. Detailed analysis of corrugated and decorated sherds from 87 proveniences at LA 1 1 097 1 , to- taling 426 sherds (Cervantes n.d.), indicated that 89% of the corrugated sherds were indented cor- rugated. Clapboarding, smeared indented, and in- cised surface treatments together made up the re- mainder of the sherds examined. The indented corrugated sherds were examined for mica con- tent. Fifty-two percent of the sherds examined were micaceous, that is, having mica in the paste. Although most of the corrugated ceramics are Note: Feature 7 is a hearth filled with rock, including hammerstones and mano fragments. Fig. 15. Turquoise bead fragment from Room 1. CREAMER & HAAS: MERRIGAN SITE, EL RANCHO, NEW MEXICO 25 Table 9. Concretions from LA 1 10971. Provenience No. of concretions Test unit Nl El-1 Nl El -wall N3 E4-1 N4 E8-3 2 1 Total of 3 1 J from Nl El 2 1 Rooms Rm l-E-3 Rm 5-2-1 1 1 Surface cleaning 1 believed to have been made in the northern Rio Grande region, the technique of exterior appHed coils is more similar to that used in the Colorado Plateau region than to the interior application of coils used to make ceramics locally (Blinman and Price 1998). The method of construction of these ceramics provides another clue to the dates of oc- cupation at the site, since over time, construction of utility vessels shifted toward the interior-coiled, Rio Grande technique. The assemblage from LA 110971 thus supports a relatively early date of occupation. Painted Ceramics Five percent (n = 233) of the ceramics recov- ered from LA 110971 were decorated with black paint on a smoothed and slipped surface. Most of the sherds that could be clearly identified were found to be Kwahe'e Black-on- white, though a very small number of sherds (n = 3) could rep- resent an earlier type. Red Mesa Black-on-white. A few other decorated types were found, includ- ing seven sherds of White Mountain Redware (Carlson 1970) and six sherds of Biscuit ware. A single sherd from a bowl that was painted in red over white slip on the interior was also recovered from the site. Red Mesa Black-on- white was among the ear- liest painted ceramic types found in the northern Rio Grande region (Wiseman and dinger 1991). The Red Mesa style is a continuation and elabo- ration of the Kana'a Black-on-white style and is named after a similar type found in the Chaco area. Fine lines, commonly with ticks or rick-rack, are combined in panels or bands with filler tri- angles that may or may not be ticked or flagged. Other design elements include interlocking scrolls. Bowls are decorated on the interior and rim rather than on the bottom (Lucius and Bre- ternitz 1992). This type has been dated to the pe- riod from A.D. 850 to 1050 (Breternitz 1966). The presence of Red Mesa Black-on-white would be consistent with the earlier archaeomag- netic date and the presence of pithouses at the site. However, Red Mesa Black-on-white is usually as- sociated with neck-banded and plain gray wares (Skinner et al. 1980:14). At LA 110971, plain gray wares, identified as culinary ware, some with neck banding, were found, but most of the ceram- ics were corrugated. In examining the decorated ceramics, only three sherds appeared to be pos- sible fragments of Red Mesa. Each of these has fine paste fired white, with a gray core. One sherd from test unit N4 E2 is undecorated, while two pieces from S3 W2 are decorated with bands filled with thin parallel lines of hatching (Fig. 20a,b). Kwahe'e Black-on-White — Kwahe'e Black-on- white was first described from LA 1 1 6 and was Table 10. Ceramics from LA 1 10971. Provenience Plain Corrugated Painted Other Room 1 109 68 9 3 Room 2 21 58 2 0 Room 3 2 2 0 0 Room 4 3 4 1 0 Room 5 6 5 1 0 Room 6 22 27 0 0 Total, rooms 163 164 13 3 Room features 1 3 0 0 Non-room features 36 20 2 0 Test units 2,543 1,339 217 21 Site total 2,743(61%) 1,526(34%) 232(5%) 24(0.005%) 26 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY D D Fig. 16. Culinary ceramic distribution at LA 1 10971. named by H. P. Mera (1935:5). This type is made of hard grayish brown clay with sherd temper. Made into vessels with coil and scrape construc- tion, surfaces are self-slipped or unslipped. Sherds indicate a predominance of bowl forms with a straight or "self" rim. The white to grayish col- ored surface was painted with black mineral paint. Design elements include heavily drawn lines and solid elements, such as pendant triangles and hatching (cf. Mera 1935:PL. Ill) (Fig. 20c-w). Of the decorated ceramics at the site (n = 256), 90% were Kwahe'e Black-on-white. In some cas- es coiling was still visible on the surface of Kwa- he'e vessels. Vessel walls were thin and strong, well fired for open-fired vessels. Some fire clouds could be observed, but no sooting was observed on the sherds (Nelson n.d.). Kwahe'e is consid- ered a Pueblo II ceramic type and has been dated to A.D. 1115-1200 (Breternitz 1966:81; Hawley 1950). This correlates poorly with the only ar- chaeomagnetic date from the site, for which date ranges encompass a.d. 945-1040. The presence of Kwahe'e Black-on-white ceramics, identified as a twelfth century type, along with corrugated pot- tery, also thought to be characteristic of the twelfth century or later, could indicate that LA 110971 was in use until after a.d. 1100. Alter- natively, these data suggest that both corrugated and Kwahe'e ceramics were being made in the northern Rio Grande somewhat earlier than has been estimated. White Mountain Redware — Seven sherds of Black-on-red painted pottery were recovered at LA 110971. All appear to be White Mountain Redware, either Puerco or Wingate Black-on- FiG. 17. Miniature vessel of culinary ware. CREAMER & HAAS: MERRIGAN SITE, EL RANCHO, NEW MEXICO 27 w Do § 16-30 m '•-« H 56-85 jjjjjl Post Holes ^ Rocks ^^ Groundstone Datum Dark Soil Outdoor Hearth Indoor Hearth Turquoise D MN M I 1 Fig. 18. Corrugated ceramic distribution at LA 110971. Fig. 19. Corrugated ceramics from LA 1 10971: a-c, indented corrugated, showing overlapping coils. 28 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY Fig. 20. on-white. Sherds of Black-on- white types from LA 1 10971: a-b, Red Mesa Black-on-white; c-w, Kwahe'e Black- red. These are the two earliest types of White Mountain Redware. Puerco Black-on-red was produced from a.d. 1000 to a.d. 1200, and Win- gate Black-on-red from a.d. 1050 to a.d. 1200 (Triadan 1997:14). Both types were made of a relatively fine pale-colored paste (white, buff, or gray), with bowl forms most common (Fig. 21a-c). Bowl interiors were covered with red slip and then black designs, which were some- times outlined in white (Carlson 1970; Triadan 1997). The frequency of White Mountain Redwares and white wares at LA 1 10971 is similar to the frequency of these wares at the nearby site of LA 835. At LA 835, 92% of decorated sherds were white wares and 8% were red wares, while at LA 110971, of the 252 decorated sherds, 91% were white wares and 2% were White Mountain Red- wares. LA 835 may have been established before LA 110971 was in use, and is likely to have stayed in use over a longer period of time. LA835 was a multicomponent site, while LA 1 10971 had relatively limited reuse, including only construc- tion and two rebuildings or additions. CREAMER «& HAAS: MERRIGAN SITE, EL RANCHO, NEW MEXICO 29 Fig. 21. Other decorated ceramics from LA 1 10971. Biscuit Ware — Six sherds of Biscuit ware were recovered from LA 1 1097 L Biscuit ware is a later ceramic type than any of those discussed thus far. Described among the artifacts from Pecos Pueblo, Biscuit ware is characterized by a powdery or chalky surface similar to green ware or biscuit in contemporary ceramic manufacture (Kidder and Amsden 1931:73). Biscuit ware tends to be thick- Table 11. Sherds identified as ' "Other" at LA 110971 White Moun- Bag tain red Reddish paste ^,^l^f' *^ lated Unit No. ware Utility Biscuit utility Nl E8-1 2 1 1 _ _ Nl W3-1 2 — — 2 — N2 E3-1 5 — — — 3 N2 W2-1 2 1 — — N4 E6-2 8 — 1 — SI El-1 2 1 — — — SI E2-1 2 1 S2 E3-2 4 * S3 E3-1 2 1 — SI Wl-1 2 1 SI W2-1 2 1 SI W2-1 5 1 S2 W3-1 2 — 1 — S4 W5-2 5 3 — Rm 1— S-II 11 — 3 — — Total 7 6 6 3 * The collection also includes one sherd from a bowl decorated on the interior with red paint over white slip. er than many other ceramics of the northern Rio Grande. The paste is gray, very fine and even, with a fine pumice temper. Decoration on Biscuit ware consisted of decoration in black carbon paint on a smoothed, slipped or unslipped surface, usu- ally the interior of a bowl. Biscuit A, the earliest type, lacked decoration on the exterior of the ves- sel, and this is the variety present at LA 110971 (Fig. 2 Id). First made around a.d. 1350 to 1360 (Wendorf 1953; Schaafsma 1995), the Biscuit ware sherds found at LA 1 1 097 1 probably postdate the use of the excavated structures by a century or more. The presence of this ceramic type at the site is best attributed to a postabandonment visit. Such a visit may have been to scavenge useable objects from the site, such as metates, or to salvage tim- bers that could be used elsewhere. Alternatively, the site could have been used as a temporary camp or shelter. The Biscuit ware sherds are few in number, however, and do not suggest repeated use. Other Ceramics Table 1 1 indicates the provenience of distinc- tive ceramics recovered in small amounts from LA 110971. White Mountain Redware and Bis- cuit ware have been discussed. Of the others, the most distinctive type is represented by a single sherd of a bowl that was slipped white on the interior and painted with red triangles (Fig. 21e). 30 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY Fig. 22. Corrugated sherds from LA 1 10971, including some unusual varieties. The exterior of the bowl appears to have been unsHpped, though well smoothed. Six fragments of a utility ware with a sandy, reddish paste were also identified (Fig. 22a). This appeared distinctive, though it may include sherds that were fire-reddened after use, rather than sherds that originally were made of a paste that fired red. Another vessel neck fragment was marked with fingernail indentations (Fig. 22b). One sherd from test unit N3 E3 appeared to be from a Kwahe'e Black-on-white bowl. The exte- rior, however, is basketry-impressed (Fig. 22c). Ceramic Pipes — The remains of three straight clay tube pipes were recovered at LA 110971 (Fig. 23). One fragmentary pipe was in test unit N3 El, the surface unit excavated over Room 2; a whole pipe also came from Room 2. Four small fragments of an unusual pipe with a rectangular stem (when seen in cross-section) were found in test unit N2 E3. The pipe would have appeared much like a long rectangular bead, with notches along each long edge. Faunal and Macrobotanical Remains Very few faunal remains were recovered from LA 110971 (Table 12). Room 1 and three test units yielded fragments of pocket gopher, mouse, or other small rodent likely to have burrowed into the site after abandonment and not related to sub- sistence. A vertebra and rib of a medium mammal probably represent a small deer. The two other fragments are of shell, probably freshwater mussel from the nearby Pojoaque River. One fragment of eggshell, probably from a turkey egg, was found as well. A very small number of macrobotanical frag- ments were recovered (Table 13), including two fragments of corncob, two pifion nuts, and a nut or large seed. The corncobs are consistent with use of the site for seasonal cultivation of corn. The pinon and other nut are characteristic of use of the site during the fall, when nuts ripen, al- though it is also possible the piiion nuts fell from trees in the immediate vicinity of the site and are later inclusions. Because of time and budget constraints, it was Table 12. Fauna from LA 1 10971. Fig. 23. Clay pipes at LA 1 10971; one is fragmentary. No. of Excavation frag- unit ments Comment Room 1 1 Rodent skull fragment with upper incisors Nl E2-2 2 1 rib, 1 vertebra, medium mammal N2 Wl 1 Mussel shell fragment N3 Wl-2 1 Eggshell fragment N4 E7 Ni/2-5 1 Rodent scapula N4E8 N 1/2-3 1 Rodent scapula SI Wl-1 2 1 rodent skull fragment, 1 mussel shell fragment CREAMER & HAAS: MERRIGAN SITE, EL RANCHO, NEW MEXICO 31 Table 13. 10971. Macrobotanical remains from LA No. of Excavation frag- unit ments Comments N2 W2-2 Large seed or nut N2 E2-2 Corncob fragment S3 W3-0 Pinon nut S4 E2-1 Pinon nut Room 1, W-III Corncob fragment not possible to analyze all the flotation samples during the excavation, although some samples have been processed and others are scheduled for processing. Flotation samples from the hearth pro- veniences— interior room hearth features 106, 403, 601, and 602, along with exterior hearth fea- tures 7 and 20 — were dry-screened through 1 -mm mesh. This test yielded no additional macrobotan- ical or faunal remains. Although the contents of the features included ash and soil, the hearths may have remained open long after the site was aban- doned. Wind and rain action and disturbances by small animals may explain the lack of contents in these features. Archaeomagnetic Date LA 110971 Room 1 hearth. Feature 106 Sample Plotted with SWCV595 <^ cr ^ f "^^ /^ -. 7^ ^A ^ ^^ ^ . Vfe. 1 "^z \ ^. —1 />^ - \\ 1 lAiK^'?; U-1 ^ y7 Vi 1 Feature 1 DSk \ A^r p f N, J W <^ \^ y^>x^£hL.. 1 \V '^' 1800^ fe^^SC W %^ /^ \d ^ ^C,?!^ yy ^ ^ m ^^^ ^^0>^^ Archaeomagnetic Date: AD 950- 1010 AD 1275- 1475 AD 1625- 1700 Fig. 24. Archaeomagnetic date from LA 1 10971. IV. Chronology, Seasonality, and Aggregation LA 1 1 097 1 proved to be a different from what was initially anticipated. Rather than being a homestead of the late fourteenth century, as the Biscuit ware sherds on the surface suggested, this site was occupied around a.d. 1 100. We were in- terested in the chronological position of LA 1 10971, the activities that were carried out there, and the role the site may have played in changing settlement patterns in the northern Rio Grande re- gion. Site Chronology Chronometric Dating During the excavation of LA 1 10971, a number of samples appropriate for chronometric dating were collected. Samples of wood for tree-ring dat- ing were collected, as were charcoal samples for possible carbon- 14 dating. Three samples were taken for archaeomagnetic dating. These samples came from the hearths inside each of the living rooms. Feature 106 was the hearth within Room 1. Feature 408 was inside Room 4, and feature 601 was the later of two hearths in Room 6. The earlier hearth in Room 6, feature 602, was only partially preserved and did not include sufficient burned material for archaeomagnetic sampling. The tree-ring samples and the carbon samples are stored with the rest of the collections from the site. The archaeomagnetic samples from the three hearth features were processed, although only fea- ture 106 produced a date (Fig. 24). Archaeomag- netic dating records the last heating of a burned clay or adobe feature. Thus the dates derived from archaeomagnetic testing are expected to indicate the final use of the feature that was heated, in this case hearths. When a fire burns down an entire structure, for example, the adobe used to construct the structure can be dated because it has been burned. Rather than indicating when the structure was built, archaeomagnetic dating suggests the date of the final use or abandonment of the feature tested. The oval of confidence for the sample from fea- 32 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY ture 106 can be dated by reference to either of two calibration curves. Date ranges of a.d. 950- 1010, A.D. 1275-1475, and a.d. 1625-1700 are possible using the SWCV595 calibration curve (LaBelle and Eighmy 1997). These were used to plot the date from feature 106. Date ranges of a.d. 945-1040, A.D. 1224-1290, and a.d. 1330-1400 are possible using the Wolfman curve (Cox and Blinman 1999; Blinman, pers. commun., 2001). In evaluating the sample from LA 110971, the range a.d. 1625-1700 is not relevant, because of the ceramics, architecture, and absence of Euro- pean goods at the site. The thirteenth and four- teenth century alternatives are unlikely because of the dominance of Kwahe'e Black-on-white rather than either Santa Fe Black-on-white or Biscuit wares. This leaves the earlier interpretations of ei- ther A.D. 950-1010 or A.D. 945-1040, depending on which curve is used. The pottery assemblage from LA 110971, however, suggests that the oc- cupation falls principally within the twelfth cen- tury and thus does not correlate with any of the archaeomagnetic date ranges. Subsequent adjust- ments in calibration of the master curve used for archaeomagnetic dating (LaBelle and Eighmy 1997) may result in adjustment of the dates in the future. Such an adjustment might conform better to the relative date of the site as derived from ceramics. It is also possible that the archaeomagnetic date from feature 106 does not represent the final use of the site. The initial interpretation of feature 106 was that it was the hearth within the last structure to be used at LA 110971 because the room was in a better state of preservation than the other structures excavated at the site. If this is not cor- rect, it is possible that the hearths that could not be dated were actually later and more in keeping with the date established by the ceramics present at the site. Further, the Developmental period is a lengthy time unit in the northern Rio Grande re- gion that is in need of further subdivision, which will require more chronometric dates and closer study of ceramics (Boyer and Lakatos 2000:61- 72). Relative Dating Ceramics — Though few in number, most of the mineral paint-decorated ceramics recovered from LA 110971 have been identified as Kwahe'e Black-on-white. Kwahe'e is considered an iden- tifier of the Late Developmental period in the northern Rio Grande region, sometimes called the Kwahe'e Phase, and dated to approximately a.d. 1115-1200 (Breternitz 1966; Skinner et al.l980: 14). While some of the Black-on- white decorated ceramics at the site could have been Red Mesa Black-on-white, which is dated to a.d. 850-1050, the design elements at LA 110971 indicate oth- erwise. All of the Black-on-white ceramics at LA 1 10971 were painted with mineral paint; thus they could not be the later Santa Fe Black-on-white ceramics, which were introduced to the region around a.d. 1175. Although the archaeomagnetic date suggests that the final occupation ended be- fore A.D. 1040, during the middle Pueblo II or the Developmental period, the predominance of Kwa- he'e Black-on-white ceramics suggests that oc- cupation of the site continued beyond that date and could even have extended through a.d. 1 1 50. Architecture — Architecture at LA 110971 in- cluded three shallow circular structures and seven rectangular rooms with adobe footings. It is pre- sumed, based on the volume of construction de- bris, that the circular structures had a jacal, or wattle-and-daub, superstructure over an adobe base. The rectangular structures, in contrast, would have been completely constructed of ado- be. Other sites in the region with pit houses are generally of an earlier date, although Cordell (1979:43-44) and Dickson (1979) both note that pit houses were constructed and used through the Developmental period in the northern Rio Grande. Examples of sites having pit houses include the Sedillo site, LA 3122, in Albuquerque, where ten pit houses and six subsurface storage cists were excavated. Although measurements were not giv- en, section drawings of three pit houses suggest that those at the Sedillo site were 1 to 2 feet deep (Skinner 1965). Ceramics on the floors of the Se- dillo site pithouses included Kwahe'e and sherds of Red Mesa Black-on-white, but also a wide va- riety of ceramic types not present at LA 1 1 097 1 . Four pit houses were also excavated at the Deni- son site, approximately 8 miles southwest of Al- buquerque. As at the Sedillo site, seven different decorated ceramic types were present at the site, including Red Mesa, but not Kwahe'e (Vivian and Clendenen 1965). The two latest pit houses at the Denison site were estimated as dating to a.d. 930-1030 (Viv- ian and Clendenen 1965). These pit houses were between 30 cm and 1 m deep. One shallow pit house similar in form to those at LA 1 10971 has been excavated near Zia Pueblo, but it is estimat- CREAMER & HAAS: MERRIGAN SITE, EL RANCHO, NEW MEXICO 33 ed to date to the late Basketmaker Ill-Pueblo I period, or prior to a.d. 900 (Vytlacil and Brody 1958:175-177). Four of the structures at the Se- dillo site (numbers 4, 7, 8, and 10) and two struc- tures at the Denison site (structures 1 and 2) were estimated to date to a.d. 930-1030 (Vivian and Clendenen 1965), comparable to the archaeomag- netic dates from LA 110971 but differing from the site date estimated by ceramics. Further, the pit rooms at LA 110971 were all shallow, less than 30 cm deep in the center. Aboveground rooms like those found at LA 1 10971 begin to be found in association with pit house sites in the Albuquerque area in the period A.D. 875-930 (cf. Peckham 1954:41-51) and con- tinue through the Early Developmental period (a.d. 900-1100), which included pit houses with an aboveground structure, such as LA 6174, and into the Late Developmental period (a.d. 1 100- 1200), such as at LA 10614. The absence of ven- tilators in the structures at LA 110971 suggests these were not pit houses as found during earlier periods. Rather, the similarities between Albu- querque pit structures and those at LA 1 10971 are very general, such as diameter, four-post roof sup- port, ash pits, adobe-rimmed hearths, and an east- erly oriented door Structures with the greatest similarity to those at LA 1 1 097 1 are the shallow subrectangular pit houses at LA835, located nearby in Pojoaque and suggested by Ellis (1975) to have been the winter camp, permanent base, or central place for the oc- cupants of LA 835. Structure 1 at LA 835 is a subrectangular pit house with an adobe-collared central hearth. Structure 2 at LA 835 is different in shape from the structures at LA 1 1 097 1 but had comer posts, as did the structures at LA 1 10971. The greatest difference between LA 1 1 097 1 and the other sites mentioned seems to be in the variability of the ceramic assemblage and the presence of rectangular aboveground rooms. A high level of variability in decorated ceramics such as that recorded at LA 835 has been sug- gested as characteristic of the pre-A.D. 1 100 por- tion of the Developmental period (Lakatos, pers. commun. 1999; Boyer and Lakatos 2000; Wilson 2000:99-100). Further, Kwahe'e Black-on-white ceramics are estimated to date to a.d. 1 1 15-1200. Thus, when dated by ceramic similarities, LA 110971 falls into the post-A.D. 1100 Kwahe'e phase of the Developmental period, based on both the very small range of types found at the site and the predominance of Kwahe'e decorated sherds in association with corrugated utility wares (cf. Mera 1935:P1. III). The occupation probably ended be- fore A.D. 1 175, based on the absence of Santa Fe Black-on-white ceramics at the site. It is also pos- sible that a portion of the occupation dated to be- fore A.D. 1 100, based on the possible presence of a few sherds of Red Mesa Black-on-white at LA 110971. Architecturally, most Late Developmental or Kwahe'e phase settlements consist of above- ground rectangular rooms used for both living and storage, and kivas. At LA 1 1 097 1 , the above- ground rooms show no evidence of having been used as living areas and were apparently used only for storage. These rectangular rooms had no identifiable floors and no recognizable interior features, characteristics consistent with use for storage. The three subrectangular shallow-pit structures were clearly habitations, as they includ- ed interior features such as hearths, ash or baking pits, post holes, and other features. In two of the three living rooms excavated, a wall had been built to bisect the structure, further subdividing the living space. The combination of form, fea- tures, and ceramic assemblage suggests the site dates from the eleventh century to the early twelfth century (a.d. 1050-1 150), during the De- velopmental period. Seasonality The LA 1 1 097 1 site appears to have been an ag- ricultural hamlet, part of a larger system of habi- tation sites and outlying special-purpose sites. LA 110971 was apparently utilized by a group that built and remodeled three shallow pit structures one after the other, creating Rooms 1, 4, and 6. The adjacent rectangular, aboveground structures were apparently used for storage. Aspects of site use that have not yet been determined include whether the occupation of LA 110971 was con- tinuous, with rebuilding of one pit structure ad- jacent to another, as suggested by the lack of over- lap among the structures. The site could have been completely abandoned for a time between the construction of one living room and the next as long as some portion of the structures remained visible. Whether the additional rooms were built to replace living quarters no longer considered habitable or to accommodate a growing group size also remains to be determined. The location of the site, near water and on al- luvial land, is typical of the Developmental period 34 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY (Cordell 1979:44). LA 110971 is situated on a low rise near the Pojoaque River at 1750 m above sea level, overlooking level land that extends to the river bank. The site would have favored oc- cupation during spring and summer, when crops were in the ground. In addition, the inhabitants could have fished in the nearby Pojoaque River if their occupation took place during the growing season. Lacking at the site are facilities such as pottery-making areas or kilns, and a mealing area. There was also a marked absence of animal bone, although the deposits were shallow, which may have contributed to disappearance of bone. In sum, the evidence suggests that the site may have been seasonally used, but it is not conclusive. Seasonal use of LA 1 10971 is supported by El- lis's suggestion that while the people of this pe- riod were spread along the Tesuque River Valley and its tributaries, including the Pojoaque, they were united by what she called a "parent village," LA 835 (Ellis 1975:39-41). LA 835, suggested to have been in use from the 800s through a.d. 1200 (Wiseman and dinger 1991), is located less than 5 km to the north of LA 1 10971. Therefore, LA 1 10971 could have been occupied during the later 1000s and into the 1 100s during the growing sea- son. Construction of adobe-base jacal-walled liv- ing structures was supplemented over time by rectangular adobe structures used for storage. During the winter, the group or family occupying LA 110971 may have lived at LA 835, as sug- gested by Ellis, although we cannot be sure. The rooms at LA 110971 show evidence of substantial construction and repeated use. All liv- ing rooms have collared hearths that were remod- eled at least once, and in two of the three rooms a central cross-wall was added at some point. The renewal of facilities suggests sustained use, as does subdividing a living room. Although Ellis has suggested that the inhabitants of this area may have used LA 835 as a winter home (Ellis 1975), it is possible that the people who lived at LA 110971 stayed there year round, taking advantage of the resources that changed with the seasons. LA 835 is nearby and could easily have been vis- ited for group activities such as hunting, collect- ing, trade, socializing, or ritual activity. The great kiva at LA 835 may have accommodated ritual activities incorporating visitors. Whether LA 1 10971 was a seasonal occupation may eventually be established by analysis of pol- len and flotation samples. The small quantity of faunal and macrobotanical remains recovered dur- ing excavation is not adequate to determine sea- son of use. Further, if a kiva is identified at LA 110971, it will support the possibility of year- round occupation, because construction of a kiva is a project that requires time and cooperation of residents. Further, a kiva would help fill the ritual needs of the people living at the site. Additional testing at LA 110971 will be needed to address this aspect of seasonality. LA 110971 and the Aggregation Process From the start of our fieldwork at LA 1 10971, it was apparent that the site dated to an earlier pe- riod than was expected based on preliminary sur- face survey and testing. The site is not a four- teenth century village but was used by a family or multifamily group during the eleventh century and early twelfth century. Clear evidence of later occupation was absent. Careful inspection of the site surface and of the excavated artifacts yielded no glazed ceramics and only six sherds of Biscuit ware. This supports the conclusion that Biscuit ware at the site is probably from short visits to the site during a later period than the principal occupation. It is difficult to assess how extensive a later occupation of the site might have been, since there is little pottery present, and there was no evidence of the rooms having been reused based on their artifact contents. The shift from the use of pit houses to above- ground rooms was well under way by a.d. 1050, when LA 1 10971 may first have been in use. Fur- ther, the site provides some hints about the pace of settlement aggregation that occurred over time and culminated in the large Pueblo villages of the protohistoric era. Settlement in the northern Rio Grande region at the beginning of the Develop- mental period seems to have alternated between summer pit houses near fields and winter pit hous- es closer to hunting and foraging territory. Over time, extended family groups dispersed among fields in the summer may have converged on a favorable winter location. The layout of LA 835 supports its having de- veloped gradually. Ellis describes the site as made up of 12 to 15 house units, each consisting of "between 10 and 20 contiguous rooms and asso- ciated kivas" (1975:41). Assuming the validity of Ellis's suggestion, LA 835 would be the first step toward aggregation of extended family units into larger sites, seasonal though such villages may have been. The presence of a great kiva at LA CREAMER & HAAS: MERRIGAN SITE, EL RANCHO, NEW MEXICO 35 835 also confirms the importance of large-scale activities to promote solidarity among the inhab- itants of even the earliest aggregated settlements. LA 1 10971 could have been one of the extend- ed family seasonal hamlets or field houses that fed into LA 835 during the winter. In this case, the shift to aggregated villages took place as seasonal hamlets were used as a principal dwelling for few- er and fewer months each year. Between a.d. 1 150, the latest date at which the site is likely to have been occupied, and about a.d. 1400, the practice of establishing hamlets such as LA 110971 would have ended, replaced by storage structures located at sites used year-round, con- struction of ever more ephemeral "field houses," and a shift toward clustered settlement across the region. The alternative scenario, that LA 110971 rep- resents a permanent, year-round settlement occu- pied from around a.d. 1000 to 1150, may show aggregation developing in a different way. It is clear that by the beginning of the fifteenth cen- tury, the people of the northern Rio Grande region lived in aggregated settlements, with ceramic fir- ing areas and shrines, but rarely habitations, sit- uated outside the large pueblos. Among the large sites, some are composed of long blocks of rooms with few ground-floor doors or gaps among struc- tures, such as Poshu (LA 274) or Pecos Pueblo (LA 625), while others consist of groups of room- blocks that are not connected to one another, such as Cieneguilla (LA 16). The eventual form of the village may have more to do with how it was formed than its defensibility. Individual year- round occupations that grew over time, whether from exploitation of local resources, successful trade, or social alliances, may have become the nuclei for later large pueblos. The generations of rebuilding, remodeling, and expansion at later sites show that a favorable site location, especially with a permanent water supply, kept people in one locality. Thus, a site like LA 110971, beginning with a family or small group, could have planted the seed for a later aggregated site. The partially aggregated neighboring site of LA 835 could have been a template for aggregation based on a different model starting from dispersed groups living in proximity to one another. If LA 835 began as a winter occupation by groups who had to leave their summer locality, it could have been a model for aggregation of numerous auton- omous units. The reasons for aggregation would have been the same as those for developing a sin- gle large unit: secure water and resources, oppor- tunities for trade, and social alliance. The differ- ence would have been in the origin of the system overall. The social cohesion in an aggregated site that began as a single group may have been the lineage, while the basis for social cohesion in a site that began from many groups may have been sodality relations. 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Participants in the Field School The following individuals participated in the Northern Illinois University Field school that excavated LA 110971 in the summer of 1997: Directors: Winifred Creamer, Jonathan Haas Crew Chief: Kit Nelson Crew Members M. Cullen Bailey Elizabeth Castenson Ingrid Klune Jeanne Pepalis Sam Poitevent Leah Rein Brad Williams Volunteers Beth Bagwell James H. Duncan, Sr. Mary Futrell 38 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY UNIVERSFTY OF ILUNOM-URBANA 3 0112 058345957 Field Museum of Natural History 1400 South Lake Shore Drive Chicago, Illinois 60605-2496 Telephone: (312) 665-7055