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X

JANUARY

1967 VOL. 18,NEW SERIES, NO.l

OFFICIAL PUBLICATION OF THE
VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

50S .15
v$l

VIRGINIA

JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

Iisted below are
JReynoldsMetals
locations in the State of
Virginia. Some 16 in
all . . . plants, research
labs, sales and admini¬
strative offices . . .
including our general
headquarters for busi¬
ness conducted around
the world. Needless to

say our roots are
planted deep in
Commonwealth soil.
Virginia is our “home
state.” Whatever we
have contributed to its
economy is returned
many times in the close
relationship we have
with its people and its
commerce.

REYNOLDS METALS COMPANY

RICHMOND, VIRGINIA 23218

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Contributors

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for consideration original articles of technical or gen¬
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The form of presentation is illustrated below:

(1) Aivar, A. S., and Olson, R. E., Fedn Proc. Fedn
Am. Socs exp. Biol, 23, 425 (1964).

(2) Chappell, J. B., Cohn, M., and Greville, G. D.,
in B. Chance (Editor), Energy linked functions
of mitochondria, Academic Press, Inc., New York,
1963, p. 219.

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VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

Because of their interest in science and the
economy of Virginia, the following industrial
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Abbott, Proctor & Paine
Albemarle Paper Mfg. Co.

Allied Chemical Corporation
American Machine & Foundry Co.

The American Tobacco Company
The Bank of Virginia
Burlington Industries, Inc.

The Central National Bank
Chesapeake Coiporation of Virginia
Dan River Mills

E. I. duPont de Nemours & Co., Inc.

First and Merchants National Bank
General Electric Company
Lawyers Title Insurance Coiporation
Larus and Brother Co., Inc.

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A. II. Robins Company, Inc.

Shenandoah Life Insurance Company
Southern Bank & Trust Company
Southern Railways System
Southern States Cooperative, Inc.

State-Planters Bank of Commerce and Trusts
Union Camp Coiporation
Virginia Chemicals, Inc.

Virginia Electric and Power Company
J. C. Wheat and Company

(3) Riley, G. A., and Haynes, R. C., Jr., J. biol. Cliem.,
238,' 1563 (1963).

Presented By The

ALDERMAN LIBRARY
UNIVERSITY OF VIRGINIA

ON EXCHANGE ACCOUNT

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54

VIRGINIA

JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

OFFICIAL PUBLICATION OF THE
VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

Vol. 18, New Series January, 1967 No. 1

TABLE OF CONTENTS

William Moselv Brown

S. S. Obenshain

Biological Aspects of Water Supply and Treatment in Virginia
With Particular Reference to Algae

C. Mervin Palmer

Studies on the Separation of Acidic Metabolites of Nicotine

by Gas Chromatography Herbert McKennis, Jr.,

Edward R. Bowman, and Mohammad Saeed Dar

Studies on the Pseudomating Phenomenon in Spirostomum
ambiguum (Heterotrichida, Ciliata)

A Check List of the Butterflies and Skippers of Virginia
Forty-Fifth Annual Meeting of the Virginia Academy of Science
Proceedings of the First Virginia Population Conference
Foreword

Family Planning . The Challenge of Our Time

Workshop on Business and Industry
Workshop on Communications
Workshop on Education and Social Services
Workshop on Health and Science
Workshop on Religion
Panel Discussion

Virginia’s Tomorrow — Progress or Privation
Acknowledgments

Nathaniel Boggs, Jr.,
and Margaretta M. Jackson

Charles V. Covell, Jr.

Alan F. Guttmacher, M.D.
Thomas C. Boushall
Guy Friddell
H. 1. Willett
William C. Andrews, M.D.
William B. Oglesby, Ph.D.
Alan F. Guttmacher, moderator
Albertis S. Harrison, Jr.

THE VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

Official Publication of the Virginia Academy of

Science

EDITOR

HERBERT McKENNIS, JR.

EDITORIAL BOARD

SECTION EDITORS

Dorothy L. Crandall

John E. Duberg

Boyd Harshbarger

Thomas J. Marlowe

Maynard M. Nichols

Ervin R. Van Artsdalen

R. G. Bass

Walter R. Beckett, Jr.

Tom Doggins

Ernest H. Ern

J. A. Friedericy

P. Arne Hansen

Edwin S. Higgins

Clyde Y. Kramer

W. H. Leftwich

Frederik A. Muller

Boyd L. Samuel

John W. Stewart

BUSINESS MANAGER

Blanton M. Bruner

ASSISTANT BUSINESS MANAGER

Thomas H. Vaughan, Jr.

Entered as second-class matter at the Post Office
at Richmond, Virginia, and additional mailing offices
under the Act of March 3, 1897. Published four times
a year in January, April, July and September by The
Virginia Academy of Science, Department of Phar¬
macology, Medical College of Virginia, Richmond, Vir¬
ginia 23219.

Manuscripts for publication (other than section
abstracts) and books for review should be sent to
the Editor, Herbert McKennis, Jr., Department of
Pharmacology, Medical College of Virginia, Richmond,
Virginia 23219. Proof, edited manuscripts, and all
correspondence regarding accepted papers should be
sent to the Editor.

Adverbsing and Business Office: All correspon¬
dence relating to advertising and business affairs should
be directed to Blanton M. Bruner, Business Manager,
or Thomas H. Vaughan, Jr., Assistant Business Man¬
ager, Virginia Journal of Science, P. O. Box 1500,
Richmond, Virginia 23212.

The Virginia Academv of Science and the Editors
of the Virginia Journal of Science assume no respon¬
sibility for statements or opinions advanced by con¬
tributors.

© Copyright, 1967, by the Virginia Academy of
Science.

Business and Subscription Information

All remittances and orders for advertising and sub¬
scriptions should be sent to the Business Manager,
Virginia Journal of Science, P. O. Box 1500, Richmond,
Virginia 23212. Changes of address should be sent
promptly to Rodney C. Berry, Execurive Secretary-
Treasurer, Virginia Academy of Science, P. O. Box
8203, Richmond, Virginia 23226. Changes of address
must include both new and old addresses with zip
code.

Subscription rates for 1967: $8.00 per year, U.S.A.;
Canada and other countries of the Pan-American Union,
$8.50 per year; all other foreign countries, $9.00 per
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Back issues are available for some years at $3.00
per issue plus postage.

The front cover is by Douglas C. Hensley.

WILLIAM MOSELY BROWN

Dr. William Mosely Brown, sixth President of the Virginia Academy of Science, died in St. Peters¬
burg, Florida, on January 8, 1966. At the time he served as president of the Academy (1928-29), he was
professor of psychology and education and director of vocational guidance at Washington and Lee Univer¬
sity. He also served as president of the Association of Virginia Colleges the same year. Dr. Brown led a
very active life and achieved distinction in a number of fields, including education, business, fraternal
work, and politics. He was born in Lynchburg, Virginia, February 27, 1894. He received an A.B. degree
at Washington and Lee in 1914 and an A.M. in 1915. He was a student at Center College in 1917, but
shortly after enrollment left for military service in World War I. He received the A.M. degree from Colum¬
bia University in 1922 and the Ph.D. degree from the same institution one year later. He remained at
Washington and Lee after graduation and served as instructor in German and biology. Following two
years in public school work (assistant principal, principal, and secretary of the Board of Education at
Danville, Virginia), he returned to Washington and Lee in 1920, where he stayed until 1929. He
was president of Atlantic University, Virginia Beach, Virginia, from 1929 to 1932. He spent from 1946
to 1949 in sales work and writing and was professor of social science at Elon College from 1949 to 1960.
From his wide experience in the educational field, he was well qualified to author many pamphlets on
the subject.

He served as executive secretary of Omicron Delta Kappa from 1932 to 1937 and was director of
personnel for Vicks Chemical Company from 1937 to 1942. He served in both the First and Second
World Wars— from private to lieutenant in the former, and major to lieutenant colonel in the latter. He
received decorations from the United States of America, France, Luxembourg, and Belgium. He
achieved distinction in the fraternal field as one of the few to serve in the top state office of all three
of the York Rite bodies of Masonry in Virginia and at the time of his death was the last to achieve such
a distinction. He was in demand as a Masonic speaker and was the author of three books dealing with
York Rite Masonry.

He was a candidate for Governor of Virginia in 1929 and for Congress in 1932. Since retirement he
had made his home in Florida.

S. S. Obenshain

5

William Mosely Browx

C. Mervin Palmer

U. S. Department of the Interior, Federal Water Pol¬
lution Control Administration, Cincinnati, Ohio 45226.
Received November 14, 1966

Biological Aspects of Water Supply and Treatment
in Virginia with Particular Reference to Algae

ABSTRACT

Algae frequently implicated in causing serious prob¬
lems in water treatment in Virginia are the flagellates
Dinohryon, Glenodinhim, and Synura ; the diatoms
Asterionella and Synedra; the desmid Staurastrum; the
blue-green algae Anabaena and Anacystis ; and the
green alga Spirogyra. A total of more than 250 genera
of algae have been reported for the State. Tastes

ORGANISMS IN WATER SUPPLIES

Aquatic organisms, particularly the algae, continue
to be one of tire major causes of interference in tire
treatment for producing a potable water supply. The
problem becomes more acute as additional sources of
water are tapped, as the number of impoundments is
increased, and as enrichment of streams with algal
nutrients is increased from city sewage and from chain-
age of highly fertilized agricultural land. At the same
time, water consumers are demanding a more potable
water and one which maintains a continuous uniform
quality. Conditions in Virginia, including tire climate
and topography, are very favorable for the develop¬
ment of algae and other aquatic organisms in the vari¬
ous reservoirs, rivers, and smaller sterams. Through¬
out the state provisions for coping with these growths
have become an essential part of water treatment plants.
The growths of algae are important also in other en¬
deavors, especially in fisheries work, in self -purifica¬
tion of streams, in the use of sewage stabilization
ponds, in the detection and measurement of water
pollution— and, additionally, in causing toxic condi¬
tions in farm ponds.

Rivers are the main source of water supplies in
Virginia; the major rivers are the James, Potomac,
Shenandoah, Roanoke, and New. The rivers flow
through one or more of four major geological divi¬
sions in the State. These are the Coastal Plain with
its gravel, sand, and clay; the Piedmont Province with
soils overlaving the inert crystalline rocks such as gran¬
ite, with an elevation of 200 to 1,000 ft.; the Appala¬
chian Plateau with its sedimentary rocks of sandstone,
shale, and limestone, with elevations up to 4,000 ft.;
and the small Southwestern Plateau. The Great Val¬
iev of the Appalachian Plateau is drained by several

and odors are caused by algae throughout the State,
and activated carbon and aeration are used extensive¬
ly as treatment. Other algal problems in Virginia in¬
clude filter clogging, attached growths in settling and
aeration basins and open-storage reservoirs, and blooms
in the many impoundments now being used for stor¬
age of raw water. A total of 65 references is cited.

rivers, with the Shenandoah flowing to the north, the
New to the south, and the James to the east(l).

The soil and rocks have them effect on the chemi¬
cal and physical characteristics of the various rivers
and reservoirs and, in turn, on the numbers and kinds
of aquatic organisms that develop. In general, the
waters of the state have a hardness of less than 50
ppm and contain small quantities of dissolved solids.
The waters tend to be chemically uniform through¬
out the year. The waters of tire Shenandoah Valley
contain calcium and bicarbonate in moderate amounts;
lesser amounts are found in other areas of the state(2).

ALGAE OF VIRGINIA

Collectively, a number of reports give some idea as
to the number and kinds of algae in Virginia waters.
Those in mountain streams and lakes are dealt with
by Bovee(3), Coker and Hayes(4), Forest(5,6),
Mever(7), Palmer (8), Shoup(9), Smith (10), and
Whitford(ll) . Algae of rivers are listed by McGau-
hev and Eich(12), the Public Health Service ( 13,14) ,
Williams and Scott(15), Wilson(16), Woodson ( 17,18,
19), and Woodson and Prescott ( 20 ) . Algae of re¬
servoirs, swamps, farm ponds, sewage ponds, and
springs are reported bv Sette ( 21,22) , Cocke et al. (23),
Coolev and Jennings ( 24 ) , Jackson and Shear (25).
Lewis et al. (26), Woodson (27,28), and Farlowe(29).
Strickland (30) has reported on the Oscillatoriaceae of
Virginia, and Forest(31) in his handbook of 1954 has
listed more than 150 species of algae for Virginia
and earlier, as Silva (32), reviewed the phycological
research in Virginia.

6

The Virginia Journal of Science

Common and significant algae in water supplies of Virginia

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Water Supply with Reference to Algae

7

0 Includes some red algae and tubular forms.

+ Includes Microcystis, Polycystis, Clathrocystis.
^Includes Protococcus.

In Table I the names of the more common and
most frequently reported genera of algae of Virginia
are arranged alphabetically under the following six
groups: blue-green algae, diatoms, desmids, unicel¬

lular and colonial green algae, filamentous green algae,
and pigmented flagellate algae. These are selected
from a total of more than 250 genera of freshwater
algae reported for Virginia by the various writers. Sev¬
eral of these algae have been implicated as organ¬
isms causing serious problems in water treatment, parti¬
cularly the flagellates Dinobryon, Glenodinium, and
Synura; the diatoms Asterionella and Synedra ; the des-
mid Straurastrum ; the blue-green algae Anabaena and
Anacystis ; and the green alga Spirogtjra. Reports of
these interference algae come from almost all parts of
the State.

The concentration of algae in Virginia waters can
vary over a wide range, dependent upon several fluc¬
tuating environmental factors such as sunlight, tem¬
perature, nutrients, predators, turbulence, turbidity,
and mineral content of the water (33,34) . The Shenan¬
doah River at Berry ville had an average for one year
of 19,250 algae (clump count) per ml with a range
from 200 to 92,400. The dominant algae were dia¬
toms and pigmented flagellates (13). The most abun¬
dant species of diatoms have been Cyclotella meneghi-
niana, Diatoma vulgare, Navicula cryptocephala, and
Melosira varians. At times, Surirella ovata has domi¬
nated. It appears to be favored by high calcium hard¬
ness (35). The Roanoke River, at the John H. Ken-
Reservoir, had a range from 0 to 3,300, the most
abundant forms being centric diatoms (14). Pulaski
Reservoir has reports of up to 403 areal standard units
of algae, and Charlottesville Reservoir has had up to
615 areal standard units of Dinobryon alone (21). These
represent only a small sampling of Virginia waters,
but they are sufficient to indicate that the total popula¬
tion of algae can be so large that it poses serious
problems in the treatment of water.

TASTES AND ODORS

The algae and their associated organisms are respon¬
sible for a number of problems in water supplies in
Virginia, particularly in production of tastes and odors.
Tastes and odors in water are reported throughout the
state; an inventory in 1963 reported 33 plants that were
specifically treating surface water for these prob¬
lems ( 36 ) .

At Richmond the open season for algae extends
through all months of the year. In the early days,
coagulation and sedimentation reduced the algal mate¬
rial but did not remove unpleasant tastes and odors
caused by algae, which grew abundantly in the set¬
tling basins. A second treatment plant, which was
put into operation in 1950, has also had algal growths
developing along the sides of the settling basins, aera¬
tion basins, and the open-storage reservoir. These
algae, in turn, have caused unpleasant tastes and odors
in the treated water (38).

Alexandria-Fairfax water has had disagreeable odor
and taste caused by an exceptionally heavy growth of
algae at the source of supply (39). Early records
indicate taste and odor difficulties at Norfolk (40) due
to increased stream pollution including trade wastes;
to water high in organic matter; and to prolific sea¬
sonal growth of algae, which contributed musty, earthy,
and fishy tastes (41).

At the Lake Prince plant in Norfolk, trouble experi¬
enced with taste and odor was due to the diatom
Asterionella ( 42). For several summers, Appalachia
reported complaints about color and taste, which were
principally due to algae in the impounding reser¬
voir (43). Newport News had as its supply shallow
impounded lakes, which favored rapid growth of algae
that produced objectionable tastes and odors (44).

At Charlottesville, in the fall, the water in the
reservoir had a very pronounced fishy odor and taste.
The organisms considered to be responsible were Dino¬
bryon, Synura, and Glenodinium, with counts of 615,
48, and 18 areal standard units, respectively ( 22 ) .
The odor of Synura was evident, particularly at the
aerators. The treated water still contained small num¬
bers of the flagellate Trachelomonas (4 3).

Water from the Pulaski Reservoir had been the
cause of many complaints, especially in late summer
and early fall. Dinobryon and Glenodinium were
almost always present and were potentially capable
of developing in such large numbers in August that
they could impart an offensive fishy taste and odor
to the water. Other algae capable of producing tastes
and odors were Pandorina, Eudorina, and Anabaena.
Various diatoms, desmids, and green algae were record¬
ed but always in small amounts. Examples of these
are Cyclotella, Staurastrum, and Spirogyra (21) . Lynch¬
burg, with algae in the upper layers of water in the
reservoir, took care not to break up the delicate algal
cells by aeration to avoid releasing penetrating algal
odors into the water (45).

The important taste and odor producer Synedra has
been one of the most common diatoms in the Potomac
River. Falls Church and Arlington County use this
water after treatment by the Delacarlia Plant of Wash¬
ington, D. C. Lack of odor complaints from users of
the finished water indicate that the treatment has con¬
trolled the odor (46).

FILTER CLOGGING

A second serious problem closely associated with
the presence of algae is the clogging of filters. In
one year, 15-percent reduction in the length of filter
runs at Fredericksburg was caused by the diatom Syne¬
dra for a period of 3 months beginning in April. The
other dominant alga was another diatom, Asterionella.
The source of supply was the Rappahannock River.
With turbidity down to 10 ppm because of dry weath¬
er, conditions were ideal for the abundant growth of
algae (16). Other records from Fredericksburg indicat-

8

The Virginia Journal of Science

ed reduced filter runs and a stringy floe in the coagula¬
tion basin due to algae (47).

Richmond has reported the clogging of meters in
the distribution system by dead algae, which had been
treated with an algicide in the treated-water open-
storage reservoir (48) . It was observed at Richmond,
where the water source is the James River, that filter
runs were often reduced to 6 to 8 hours dining the
summer months (49). When slow sand filters were in
use, objectionable growths developed on the surface
and had to be destroyed ( 50 ) . Norfolk was formerly
troubled with hard spots and mud balls in the filters;
one of the chief causes was algal growths (51).

CONTROL OF ALGAE AND THEIR PRODUCTS

Communities that have river or stream water as
their source of supply are generally forced to limit
control of algae and associated organisms to processes
within the treatment plant, whereas those using water
from impoundments or lakes have an opportunity of
treating for algae in the source of supply ( 52,53 ) .

Newport News had trouble with rapid algal growths
because their impoundments were shallow. They ex¬
perimented with prechlorination at the plant for con¬
trol of algae and used activated carbon for overcom¬
ing pronounced tastes and odors(44,54) . Norfolk,
also using water from impoundments, resorted to pre¬
chlorination for control of Asterionella and the tastes
and odors that it caused(42). This treatment proved
to be more satisfactory than ammonia-chlorine ( 55 ) .
Prechlorination and copper sulfate on the lake com¬
bined with activated carbon at the treatment plant
finally produced a practically tasteless water and
brought about a cessation of consumer complaints ( 41 ) .

A biological study of the Pulaski Reservoir resulted
in probably the most comprehensive report in Virginia
of the algae in an impoundment and their significance
and control ( 21,22 ) . During August Dinobrijon grew
to such proportions that the reservoir had to be treated
to destroy them. The treatment consisted of using
chloride of lime rather than copper sulfate, and this
unusual method was successful. It was recommended,
however, that the reservoir be watched for growth
of these organisms and be treated before trouble de¬
veloped.

Using the experience at Charlottesville as a guide,
an allowable maximum of 400 units of Dinobrijon was
recommended for Pulaski. The reservoir was treated
with an algicide. If some stored water had been avail¬
able to the Pulaski distribution system, enough to allow
the reservoir to be cut off for about a week, this low
limit could have been raised. Because the reservoir
had to be used continuously, the limit had to be set
so that even after treatment the odors developed from
the dead organisms would not be appreciable.

The plankton in the reservoir were found to vary
in their vertical distribution in the water. During the
period of study the maximum amounts of all plankton

in different months varied from the 1-foot depth
through the 10-, 20-, and even 50-foot depths, as
shown in Table II. This was the case also for a
number of the more common genera of algae that
were present. In May Pandorina was most abundant
at 40 feet, in June at 10 feet; Dinobrijon was most
abundant at 1 foot in August and at 10 feet in Sep¬
tember; Staurastrum, at 30 feet in late October and
at 1 foot in early December; Glenodinium, at 50 feet
in June, 20 feet in July, and 1 foot in August; and
Cijclotella, at 20 feet in June, 1 foot in July, and 10
feet in December. By determining the depth at which
the offending organisms are least profuse and by draw¬
ing off from this depth, the water thus obtained would
be satisfactory and unobjectionable. For this to be
done, intakes would have to be spaced at close inter¬
vals, or a movable intake would have to be devised.
A trained operator with a properly equipped labora¬
tory for weekly chemical and biological examinations,
especially during the summer and autumn, was rec¬
ommended for Pulaski(21,22) . One complicating fac¬
tor in drawing water from selected depths is that zoo¬
plankton may be concentrated at the levels where the
phytoplankton are at the minimum (56).

TABLE II

Pulaski Reservoir— Plankton in areal standard units

Depth,

feet

May

June

July

Aug.

Sept.

Oct.

1

9

1

80

147

31

41

10

30

2

44

45

70

27

20

28

69

45

66

26

66

30

26

21

24

1

13

16

40

10

43

20

2

0

0

50

10

84

8

0

0

0

Two cities obtaining their water from rivers have
reported upon the results of using copper sulfate for
the control of algae after the water has been taken
from the stream. Fredericksburg draws its water from
the Rappahannock River. Copper sulfate was fed into
the raw-water presettling basin daily to destroy the
abundant growths of algae, the dominant forms being
Synedra and Asterionella. Chlorine, up to 1.08 ppm
also was tried, but neither the copper sulfate nor the
chlorine gave beneficial results. Breakpoint chlorina¬
tion, which was next tried, completely destroved the
algal growths, increased the length of filter runs bv
40 percent, and kept filter beds and wash water rela¬
tively free of dead organisms (16). In a previous, less
serious algal bloom, copper sulfate had been used with

Water Supply with Reference to Algae

9

success to eliminate an algae-caused stringy floe that
had reduced filter runs (47).

At Richmond, double copper sulfating was required
to control algae in water taken from the James River.
The algicide was added first to raw water in the
settling basins and later to filtered water before aera¬
tion. This not only solved the taste and odor prob¬
lem, but carried algicide throughout the distribution
system and kept the mains and meters clean. The
copper sulfate dosage has been varied with the sea¬
son and regulated with the aid of a program of algal
counting. In general, 100 pounds of copper sulfate
per settling basin per week has been sufficient for
the first treatment during winter, but this was tripled
during the summer. In one year the total amoimt
of copper sulfate for the two treatments was 70,300
pounds, the highest amoimt per month being 10,500
pounds in June. The amoimt of copper sulfate re¬
quired for complete algal control is considered to be
small and the cost low, considering the vast returns
obtained through cleaner waters and distribution sys¬
tem and reduction in bad water complaints ( 38 ) .

Previously it was reported for Richmond that there
appeared to be a greater efficiency of copper sulfate
as an algicide when it was applied with ammonia-
chlorine. The reason for this had not been deter¬
mined (48). Taste and odor troubles in dead-end
mains were overcome through the use of the ammonia-
chlorine (57) . By decreasing the ratio of ammonia
to chlorine, the excess chlorine was effective in con¬
trolling algae in the open shallow aerator basin (50).
Filter runs, which were often reduced to 6 to 8 hours
during the summer months, were restored to normal
with ammonia-chlorine, although the tastes and odors
produced during the cleaning process were “terrible”
(49).

Aeration has been and still is emphasized in Vir¬
ginia as a helpful step in water treatment. More
than 30 years ago aeration was used after filtration
at Richmond, Lynchburg, Roanoke, Appalachia, Char¬
lottesville, and Covington ( 43,58 ) . At Appalachia tire
water was aerated both before and after filtration,
the principal purpose being to remove color and taste
during the summer months. As early as 1925, Shaner
stated that at Lynchburg aeration was, without doubt,
the keynote of success in treating the stored waters
of impounding reservoirs. He contended that it was
much easier to treat bottom stagnant water than to
treat the surface water containing heavy algal growths
(45).

of supply (36). Considerable experience in the use
of carbon was obtained in Virginia after its introduc¬
tion in 1930. Suffolk, Newport News, Norfolk, and
Richmond cooperated with the State Department of
Health in testing application of activated carbon to
water supplies. At Norfolk the application of carbon
particles to wash water allowed the filters to run longer
and apparently removed more taste-producing organ¬
isms (40). One method used at Richmond was to feed
the carbon in a batch directly to the filters at the
beginning of a filter run (59). At Richmond also,
when water was filtered through carbon rather than
carbon being mixed in the water, only about one tenth
as much carbon was required for the same taste and
odor removal (60).

In August 1963, there were thick algal blooms in
the James River for miles upstream from the intake
of the Richmond water treatment plant. Many com¬
plaints were received as the taste and odor of the
city water became progressively worse. The water
was described as musty, foul, rotten, and fishy. Be¬
cause of the severity of the problem, an emergency
system for feeding carbon at the head of the raw-
water flumes was installed. With a raw- water odor
of 20, a dosage of 9.0 ppm reduced the odor to 1.4
The treatment was continued until early December.
In 1964, another occurrence of taste and odor was
controlled in a like manner although the carbon dosage
required was 14 ppm. In both years the dense blooms
of algae occurred during periods of severe
(61).

OTHER PESTS

There are a few reports of pests other than algae
that have caused problems. Alexandria discovered
white midge fly larvae in the distribution system and
in two open-storage reservoirs. Relatively few speci¬
mens were found, and only a few customers complain¬
ed; but considerable work was done to prevent the
pests from becoming an epidemic. Chlorine and cop¬
per sulfate, each at 10 ppm, did not kill the larvae, but
DDT (0.01 ppm) was effective. In less than four
davs after treatment, the larvae had disappeared from
the distribution system ( 62,63 ) .

During a period of drought at Charlottesville, small
red worms developed in aerator basins. Increased
aeration and sedimentation prior to filtration decreased
the problem ( 64 ) .

At the present time Charlottesville, Dillwyn, Jewell
Ridge, Richmond, Lynchburg, Newport News, Ports¬
mouth, Roanoke, and Staunton report the use of aera¬
tion (36). At Richmond all finished water passes
through postfiltration aerator basins (48). Moss growth
developed in these open aerator basins following the
treatment that eliminated the plankton ( 50 ) .

Taste and odor control through the use of activated
carbon is now reported for 31 Virginia water treat¬
ment plants that have surface waters as their source

Danville resorted to the erection of a “frog-fence”
around one reservoir in order to eliminate tadpoles ( 65 ) .

TOXIC BLOOMS

All surface supplies are potentially subject to devel¬
opment of blooms of blue-green algae that occur most
frequently in the late summer. Some strains of these
algae have been found to produce a very potent toxin.

10

The Virginia Journal of Science

The genera most often involved are Anacystis ( Micro¬
cystis ) and Anabaena. Domestic and wild animals
drinking from water containing the toxic strains may
become ill and die within a short time. Humans are
not immune to this danger. The tendency to select
water from levels or areas comparatively free of algal
blooms and the probable destruction of the toxic agent
in the process of water treatment makes it unlikely,
however, that community water supplies, after treat¬
ment, would be potentially dangerous. Blue-green
algae do pose a serious threat to farm animals permit¬
ted to drink from farm ponds that have developed the
algal bloom. This condition should not be confused
with fish kills in ponds where decomposing growths
of algae have exhausted the oxygen supply in the wa¬
ter.

SUMMARY

The reports for Virginia on problems caused by
algae and associated organisms are evidence that these
problems continue to require a great deal of atten¬
tion and treatment in the production of potable water
for communities throughout the State. A number of
the reports are several years old, but the conditions
thev refer to could still prevail at the present time.
Some of the problems are intensified as more and bet¬
ter quality water is demanded and as additional sources
of water more subject to algal growths are tapped.
In most cases, no simple automatic procedure has been
devised to eliminate the difficulties.

REFERENCES

1. Bevan, A., Bull. Va. polytech. Inst., 26(6), 36
(1933).

2. Love, S. K., J. Am. Wat. Wks. Ass., 42, 257
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3. Bovee, E. C., Turtox News, 38, 98 (1960).

4. Coker, R. E., and Hayes, W. J., Ecology, 21(2),
192 (1940).

5. Forest, H. S., Castanea, 19, 88 (1954).

6. Forest, H. S., Phycol. News Bull., 15(2), 23
(1962).

7. Meyer, S. L., Va. J. ScL, 1, 117 (1940).

8. Palmer, C. M., Butler Univ. hot. Stud., 5, 222
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9. Shoup, C. S., J. Elisha Mitchell scient. Soc., 64,
1 (1948).

10. Smith, F. B., Proc. Fla. Acad. Sci., 7, 44 (1944).

11. Whitford, L. A., Advancing Frontiers of Plant
Sciences, 8, 157, Inst, for Advancement of Sci¬
ence and Culture, New Delhi, India (1964).

12. ' McGauhey, P. H., and Eich, H. F., Bull. Va.

polytech. Inst. (Engng. Exp. Stn. Ser. 51), 35,
64 (1942).

13. Public Health Service, National water quality
network. Annual compilation of data, October

I, 1961 - September 30, 1962. Publ. Hlth. Serv.
Publ. 663 (1962 ed.) (1964).

14. Public Health Service, Water pollution surveil¬
lance system. Annual compilation of data, Octo¬
ber 1, 1962, September 30, 1963, Southeast Basin.
Publ. Hlth. Serv., Publ. 663 (1963 ed.), Vol. 3
(1964).

15. Williams, L. G., and Scott, C., Limnol. Oceano-
gr., 7(3), 365 (1962).

16. Wilson, A. E., Jr., Wat. Wks. Sewage, 89(3),
129 (1942).

17. Woodson, B. R., Va. J. Sci., 10 (2), 70 (1959).

18. Woodson, B. R., Va. J. Sci., 11(1), 27 (1960).

19. Woodson, B. R., Va. St. Coll. Gaz., 68(3), 39
(1962).

20. Woodson, B. R., and Prescott, G. W., Trans. Am.
microsc. Soc., 80, 166 (1961).

21. Sette, F. J., Bull. Va. polytech. Inst., 25(5), 1
(1932).

22. Sette, F. J., Engng. News Bee., 106, 885 (1931).

23. Cocke, E. C., Lewis, I. F., and Patrick, R., Am.

J. Bot., 21, 374 (1934).

24. Coolev, C. E., and Jennings, R. R., Proc. Symp.
Waste Stabilization Lagoons, Kansas City, Mis¬
souri. pp. 51-60, U.S. Publ. Hlth. Serv. (I960).

25. Jackson, H. W., and Shear, G. M., Virginia poly¬
tech. Inst., Blacksburg, Va. (tvped report, 27 pp.)
(1952).

26. Lewis, I. F., Zirkle, C., and Patrick R., J. Elisha
Mitchell scient. Soc., 48, 207 (1933).

27. Woodson, B. R., and Holman, V., Vfl. J. Sci.,
16(2), 146 (1965).

28. Woodson, B., and Holman, V., Vfl. J. Sci., 15(2),
51 (1964).

29. Farlowe, V., Biol. Bull, 55, 443 (1928).

30. Strickland, J. C., Am. J. Bot., 27, 628 (1940).

31. Forest, H. S., Handbook of algae, with special
reference to Tennessee and the Southeastern
United States, Univ. Tenn. Press, Knoxville,
Tenn., 1954.

32. Silva, H., Castanea, 13, 133 (1948).

33. Hutchinson, G. E., and Pickford, G. E., Int.
Revue, ges. Hydrobiol. Hydrogr. (Leipzig), 27,
252 (1932).

Water Supply with Reference to Algae

11

34. Roseberry, D. A., and Bowers, R. B., Va. Wild!.,
13, 1 (1959).

35. Williams, L. G., Ecology, 45(4), 809 (1964).

36. Public Health Service, Municipal water facili¬
ties, inventory as of January 1, 1963. Region
III. Dist. of Col., Kentucky, Maryland, North
Carolina, Virginia, West Virginia, Puerto Rico,
Virgin Islands. Publ. Hlth. Serv. Publ. 775
(rev.), Vol. 3 (1964).

37. Sigworth, E. A., /. Am. Wat. Whs. Ass., 49(12),
1507 (1957).

38. Anders, W. W., Wat. Wks. Engng., 114, 700
(1961).

39. (Anon.) Alexandria-Fairfax water. Washing¬
ton (D.C.) Star (Sept. 18, 1956).

40. Stuart, F. E., Wat. Wks. Sewage, 81, 327 (1934).

41. Fitzgerald, R. W., Measures used for removal
of tastes and odors in filtered water at Nor¬
folk, Va. Papers presented at 3rd A. Conf. Vir¬
ginia Wat. Sewage Wks. Ass., Nov. 16-17, 1931.
/. Am. Wat. Wks. Ass., 24, 788 (abstr.) (1932).

42. Watkins, W. W., Proc. Orgn. Conf. Va. Wat.
Sewage Wks. Ass., Richmond, Va., April 25 -
26, 1929. }. Am. Wat. Wks. Ass., 21, 1606
(abstr.) (1929).

43. Messer, R., Va. Hlth. Bull., 16(6), 3 (1924).

44. Dugger, E. F., Measures used for removal of

tastes and odors in filtered water at Newport
News, Va. Papers presented at 3rd A. Conf.
Virginia Wat. Sewage Wks. Ass., Nov. 16-17,
1931. . Am. Wat. Wks. Ass., 24, 788 (abstr.)

(1932).

45. Shaner, H. L., /. Am. Wat. Wks. Ass., 13, 531
(1925).

46. Palmer, C. M., J. Am. Wat. Wks. Ass., 50(7),
938 (1958).

47. Leveque, R. J., Proc. Orgn. Conf. Va. Wat.
Sewage Wks. Ass., Richmond, Va., April 1929.
]. Am. Wat. Wks. Ass., 21, 1604 (abstr.) (1929).

48. Smith, M. C., J. Am. Wat. Wks. Ass., 43, 763
(1951).

49. Smith, M. C., J. Am. Wat. Wks. Ass., 26, 253
(1934).

50. Smith, M. C., Wat. Wks. Engng., 87, 989 (1934).

51. Fitzgerald, R. W., Proc. Orgn. Conf. Va. Wat.
Sewage Wks. Ass., Richmond, Va., April 1929.
/. Am. Wat. Wks. Ass., 21, 1606 (abstr.) (1929).

52. Baker, M. N., J. Am. Wat. Wks. Ass., 26, 902
(1934).

53. Smith, M. C., J. Pa. Wat. Wks. Oper. Ass., 5, 56
(1933).

54. Dugger, E. F., Prechlorination and filtration of
the Newport News water supply. Proc. Orgn.
Conf. Va. Wat. Sewage Wks. Ass., Richmond,
Va., April 1929. J. Am. Wat. Wks. Ass., 21,
1605 (abstr.) (1929).

55. Fitzgerald, R. W., Wat. Wks. Engng., 85(17),
1228 (1930).

56. Grover, W. W., and Coker, R. E., Ecology, 21,
199 (1940).

57. Heckmer, C. A. (Chm.), Superintendent’s round
table discussion: Taste and odor troubles in dead¬
end mains. J. Am. Wat. Wks. Ass., 26, 1828
(1934).

58. Messer, R., Wagner, A., Snidow, H. W., and
Bingham, C. F., Va. Hlth. Bull, 23(4), 3 (1932).

59. Smith, M. C., Engng. News Rec., 112, 688
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60. (Anon.) Publ. Wks., 66(2), 36 (1935).

61. Brown, J. E., Taste and Odor Control J., 31(10),
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Sewage Wks. Ass., Richmond, Va., April 1929.
}. Am. Wat. Wks. Ass., 21, 1603 (abstr.) (1929) .

65. Johnson, H. A., Open services reservoirs. Pa¬
pers presented at the 3rd A. Conf. Va. Wat.
Sewage Wks. Ass., Nov. 16-17, 1931. J. Am.
Wat. Wks. Ass., 24, 787 (abstr.) (1932).

12

The Virginia Journal of Science

Herbert McKennis, Jr., Edward R. Bowman,
and Mohammad Saeed Dar

Department of Pharmacology, Medical College of Vir¬
ginia, Richmond, Virginia 23219. Received Novem¬
ber 23, 1966

Studies on the Separation of Acidic Metabolites
of Nicotine by Gas Chromatography *

ABSTRACT

As part of an investigation of procedures for the
gas chromatographic determination of mammalian
metabolites of nicotine, a synthetic mixture of the
methyl esters of nicotinic acid, 3-pyridylacetic acid,
y- ( 3-pyridyl ) butyric acid, y- ( 3-pyridyl ) -y-oxobutyric
acid, and 5- ( 3-pyridyl ) tetrahydrofuranone-2 was inves¬
tigated and found to give adequate separation on a
Carbowax 20M column (5.6% on Anakrom ABS).
Aqueous solutions of synthetic ( ± ) -y- ( 3-pyridyl ) -y-
methylaminobutyric acid, prepared by an improved

During the past eight or more years an extensive
body of knowledge has appeared on the nature of
the numerous basic, amphoteric, and acidic compounds
that arise as the result of the metabolism of (—) -nico¬
tine in mammals. Much of these data has been
reviewed ( 1 ) . The separation of many nicotine metab¬
olites has been facilitated by solvent extraction pro¬
cedures and by column chromatography (2). Meth¬
ods have been developed (3, 4) for the gas chroma¬
tographic determination of (—) -nicotine and ( — )-coti-
nine, an oxidation product of nicotine that has been
shown (5,6) to arise from the metabolism of (— )-
nicotine in man, the dog, and other species. The
basic general procedures developed in the early studies
(3, 4) on gas chromatography of nicotine and cotinine
have been applied to investigations on the chemical
degradation (7) of nicotine and to the urinary excre¬
tion (8,9,10) of nicotine and cotinine by smokers.

Following removal of nicotine and its basic metab¬
olites, including the amphoteric y-( 3-pyridyl )-y-oxo-
IV-methylbutyramide, by solvent extraction of alkalin-
ized biological fluid, a number of pyridyl carboxylic
acids and other substances that are formed during
the metabolism of nicotine remained in the aqueous
phase. The biological and chemical relationships of
some of these compounds are brieflv indicated in Fig.
1.

procedure, were converted by the apparatus and col¬
umn conditions to continine as determined by compari¬
son with the response of equimolar amounts of cotinine
in a flame ionization detector. Cotinine, in contrast
to methyl y- ( 3-pyridyl ) -y-oxobutyrate and 5- (3-pyri¬
dyl) tetrahydrofuranone-2, provided essentially no signal
to the electron-capture detector. The ease with which
y- ( 3-pyridyl ) -y-methylaminobutyric acid can be con¬
verted to cotinine appears to afford a basis for the
quantitative determination of the methylamino acid.

The nature of the acidic metabolites of nicotine
and several methyl esters of these compounds has
been described in previous publications (2, 11, 12).
Preliminary studies have indicated that the methyl es¬
ters in general and the lactone 5- ( 3-pyridyl ) tetrahydro¬
furanone-2, one of the products formed upon treating
y-( 3-pvridyl ) -y-hydroxybutyric acid with alcohol-sul¬
furic acid, have properties which lend themselves well
to gas chromatographic determinations.

In the present study, compounds V, VI, IX, and the
hypothetical metabolite VII were established by the
usual methanol-sulfuric acid treatment. The lactone
VII was prepared by a similar procedure. y-(3-Pyr-
idyl ) -y-methylaminobutyric acid (II) was prepared
by an improved method and y- ( 3-pyridyl ) -y-hydroxy¬
butyric acid was prepared for the first time in analyti¬
cally pure crystalline form. All of the methyl esters
studied, and 5- ( 3-pyridyl) tetrahydrofuranone-2 (VII)
appeared to provide satisfactory signals under a variety
of temperature and column conditions during gas chro¬
matography. A comparative study (Tables I and II)
of the single substances suggested that the polyethylene
glycol type of liquid phase held considerable promise
for mixtures of the esterified metabolites — although
other liquid phases, including diethylene glycol suc¬
cinates — may be satisfactory. Carbowax 20M was
used in most of the current studies and served well

‘Aided by grants from the American Medical Association Education and Research Foundation, The American Tobacco Company, and the
Council for Tobacco Research— U. S. A.

Gas Chromatography of Nicotine Metabolites

13

VIII IX

Fig. 1. — Abridged schematic representation of the mammalian metabolism of nicotine to some pyridyl
carboxylic acids.

over a period of several months with only gradual
changes in retention times noted from continual use
of the column. Mixtures of the synthetic metabolite
esters (approximately 1-2 molar with respect to each
other) in the presence of methyl nicotinate, added as
an internal standard and to provide reference in view
of the ubiquity of the nicotinic acid moiety in biologi¬
cal material, were satisfactorily separated on the Car-
bowax 20M column (Fig. 2).

Methyl nicotinate, methyl y- ( 3-pyridyl ) -y-oxobutyr-
ate, and the lactone 5- ( 3-pyridyl) tetrahvdrofuranone-2,
in addition to providing good responses in the flame
ionization detector, showed useful electron-capture
tendencies as indicated in Fig. 2. Since equimolar
aqueous solutions of y- ( 3-pyridyl) -y-hydroxybutyric
acid gave similar peaks, it would appear that the lac¬
tone can be readily formed from the hydroxy acid under
rnanv column conditions. The response given by the
presence of 5- (3-pyridyl) tetrahydrofuranone-2 was of
special interest and appears to have some possible
utilization in the assay of biological mixtures.

Mammalian tisues and fluids, following exposure to

nicotine, will in many instances contain y- ( 3-pyridyl ) -
y-methylaminobutyric acid (II) as well as the other
pyridyl carboxylic acids (V, VI, and IX). The methyl-
amino acid lactamizes (13) to cotinine under the
catalytic influence of acid or heat. This latter prop¬
erty re-evinced itself in the present study. Aqueous
solutions of carefully purified ( ± ) -y- ( 3-pyridyl ) -y-
methvlaminobutyric acid displayed upon gas chroma¬
tography a single peak coinciding in all respects— reten¬
tion time, shape, and area— to equimolar quantities
of cotinine. Although the observed cotinine peak
under the experimental conditions was readily distinct
from that obtained from 5- ( 3-pyridyl ) tetrahydrofu¬
ranone-2 with the flame detector, some overlap, which
could lead to difficulty in quantitative determinations,
was noted. Pure cotinine, however, provided no sig¬
nificant signal with the electron-capture detector while
5- ( 3-pyridyl ) tetrahydrofuranone-2 gave an adequate
response. Additional possibilities for the estimation
of y- ( 3-pyridyl) -y-methylaminobutvric acid in the pres¬
ence of 5- (3-pvridyl) tetrahydrofuranone-2 reside in the
fact that, following lactamization of the methylamino
acid, it is readily removable as cotinine bv solvent

14

The Virginia Journal of Science

TABLE I

Representative Gas Chromatographic Data from Fyridyl Carboxylic Acid Esters on Carbowax
4000 (2% on Anakrom ABS 80-90, 6' x 118" O.D. Stainless Steel Column)

Compound

Retention Time in Minutes

Column 17501 Column 189°2 Column 200°3

Methyl nicotinate

0.8

0.6

0.5

Methyl 3-pyridylacetate

1.6

1.0

0.85

Methyl y- ( 3-pyridyl ) butyrate

3.2

1.9

1.5

Methyl y- ( 3-pyridyl ) -y-oxobutyrate

10.6

5.4

3.9

5- ( 3-Pvridyl) tetrahydrofuranone-2

19.7

10.2

7.2

1 Injector at 185°; detector at 210°.

2 Injector at 200°; detector at 210°.

3 Injector at 203°; detector at 212°.

(chloroform) extraction of alkalinized aqueous solu¬
tions that contain y-( 3-pyridyl) -y-hydroxybutyric acid
(the precursor of the furanone) and the other meta¬
bolic pyridyl carboxylic acids.

EXPERIMENTAL

Melting points are corrected and were taken in
open capillary tubes in a Hershberg apparatus or on
the Fisher-] ohns hot stage. Microanalyses were per¬
formed bv Spang Microanalytical Laboratory, Ann Ar¬
bor, Michigan.

Gas chromatography was accomplished with a Wilk-
ens Aerography 200 fitted with a 6-foot stainless steel
column (1/8-inch O.D.), filled with a commercial pack¬
ing of 5.6% polyethylene glycol (Carbowax 20M)
on 80-90 mesh Anakrom ABS (Analabs Inc., Hamden,
Connecticut), unless otherwise noted. The column
effluent passed through a commercial stream splitter
with nominal-equal distribution to a hydrogen-flame
ionization detector and an electron-capture detector,
both of which were standard to the apparatus. Pre¬
purified nitrogen at a gauge pressure of 50 pounds
per sq. inch and inlet flow of 80 ml per min. was em¬
ployed as carrier. Temperature readings were nominal
values from the factory-installed pyrometers and record¬
ings were made on standard 1-mv potentiometer record¬
ers.

All of the esters used in these studies, including
methyl nicotinate, which has been previously investi¬
gated (14), were redistilled immediately prior to use.
These compounds showed a single Koenig-positive
zone when subjected to descending chromatography
on Whatman No. 1 paper in Solvent A (15) and

Solvent B (15) and ascending thin-layer chromato¬
graphy on silica gel (Eastman Chromagram Sheet, Type
K301R) in Solvent K (7) (methanol-chloroform, 15:
85 by vol) .

Methyl y- {3-pyridyl) butyrate — To a solution of
1 g of y- ( 3-pyridyl ) butyric acid (16) in 25 ml of
methanol were added 2 ml of concentrated sulfuric
acid. The mixture was heated under reflux for 24
hours and then, after cooling, 100 ml of chloroform
and 10 g of crushed ice were added. The pH of
the aqueous phase was adjusted to 9 by addition of
concentrated ammonium hydroxide. The mixture was
transferred to a separatory funnel and well shaken.
The organic layer was removed and the aqueous phase
was extracted twice with 100-ml portions of chloro¬
form. The combined chloroform solution of the methyl
ester was dried with magnesium sulfate. Following
filtration, the chloroform was removed under diminish¬
ed pressure to obtain a nearly colorless residual oil
which gave a single Koenig-positive zone at Rf 0.60
(Solvent C). The oil was distilled at 130° and 10
mm Hg to obtain 0.75 g of colorless oil.

C10H13NO0

Calculated: C 67.02, H 7.31

Found: C 66.81, H 7.26.

(±) -y- (3-Pyridyl) -y-hydroxybutyric Acid — A well-
stirred mixture of y-( 3-pyridyl ) -y-oxobutyric acid (20
g; 0.11 mole) and 300 ml of water was treated with
solid potassium hydroxide until the resultant solution
had a pH of 11. With cooling and stirring, an aque¬
ous solution (50 ml) of sodium borohydride (2) (3.3
g; 0.137 mole) was added dropwise, and stirring was
continued for an additional 2 hours. The solution
was placed upon a column of Dowex 21K-OH^ (400
ml). After a water wash the column was treated

Gas Chromatography of Nicotine Metabolites

15

TABLE II

Representative Gas Chromatographic Data from Pyridyl Carboxylic Acid Esters on Carbowax 20M (5.6% on
Anakrom ABS 80-90, 6' x 118 " O.D. Stainless Steel Column)

Compound

Retention

Column 176° 2

Time in Minutes 1

Column 189° 3

Methyl nicotinate

1.6

0.8

Methyl 3-pyridylacetate

3.2

1.6

Methyl y-( 3-pyridyl) butyrate

6.8

2.9

Methyl y- ( 3-pyridyl ) -y-oxobutyrate

23.1

8.3

5- ( 3-Pyridyl) tetrahvdrofuranone-2

43.5

15.2

1 Over a period of several month’s use the columns, despite pre-conditioning, gave separations with grad¬
ually reduced retention times.

2 Injector at 201°; detector at 207°. Retention time of 43.5 min. for y- ( 3-pyridyl) -y-hydroxy butyric acid.
Retention time of 40.0 min. for cotinine.

3 Injector at 201°; detector at 205°. Retention time of 23.9 min. for cotinine and y- (3-pyridyl )-y-
methvlaminobutyric acid.

with 1 M acetic acid until the eluate gave a nega¬
tive Koenig reaction. The acidic solution was concen¬
trated under diminished pressure to obtain crude y-(3-
pvridyl ) -y-hydroxybutyric acid (14 g; yield 75%).
The crude acid was dissolved in 2-propanol (50 ml)
and precipitated by the addition of n-hexane and cool¬
ing. After several recrystallizations the product, m.p.
137-139° (cap.), was dried at 60° and 1 mm Hg
over KOH. Upon paper chromatography the analyti¬
cal sample gave a single Koenig-positive zone at Rf
0.25 (Solvent C) and Rf 0.09 (Solvent B).

C9HnN03 • 2H20

Calculated: C 49.76, H 6.96, N 6.45

Found: C 49.83, H 6.71, N 6.30.

A solution of 90 mg of the dihydrate (by analysis)
in 3 ml of ethanol was treated with 100 mg of picric
acid in 5 ml of ethanol. The monopicrate, m.p. 124-
126° (cap.), formed upon cooling and was then dried
at 60° over KOH at 1 mm Hg for 4 hours.

Ci5H14N4O10

Calculated: C 43.81, H 3.45, N 13.66

Found: C 44.10, H 3.53, N 13.72.

( ± ) -5- (3-Pyridyl ) tetrahydrofuranone-2 — The lac¬
tone was prepared by treating y-( 3-pyridyl )-y-hvdroxy-
butyric acid with methanol-sulfuric acid (2), or alter¬
natively by treatment in the cold with an excess of
pyridine-acetic anhydride (1:1). After standing over¬
night at room temperature, the cooled pyridine reac¬
tion mixture was treated with an excess of methanol.

The lactone was distilled as a colorless oil at 130°
and 0.1 mm Hg; Rf 0.60 (Solvent B).

c9h9no2

Calculated: C 66.25, H 5.56

Found: C 66.10, H 5.63.

The lactone (326 mg) and 72 mg of fumaric acid
in 2 ml of methanol were chilled in an ice bath. The
colorless salt (350 mg) was recrystallized from 2-pro¬
panol and then dried at 50° over KOH at 1 mm Hg;
m.p. 93-94° (micro).

^22^22^2^8

Calculated: H 59.72, H 5.01, N 6.33

Found: C 59.66, H 5.09, N 6.22.

( ± ) -y- ( 3-Pyridyl ) -y-methylaminobutyric Acid — A
solution of 6 g (0.034 mole) of y- ( 3-pyridyl ) -y-
oxobutyric acid (2, 17) in 30 ml of ethanol contain¬
ing 35 g (1.16 moles) of methylamine (18, 19) was
allowed to stand overnight in the refrigerator. After
addition of 3.0 g of 5% Pt-BaS04, the mechanically
stirred reaction mixture was heated to 60° with a
hydrogen pressure of one atmosphere. Once hydrogen
uptake began, the reduction was continued at room
temperature and was virtually complete within 4 hours.
After removal of the catalyst, the solution was con¬
centrated under diminished pressure to an almost color¬
less oil (approximately 6.0 g). A solution of the oil
in 10 ml of alcohol was treated with 50 ml of acetone
and cooled to obtain the colorless mefhylamino acid
(4.0 g), m.p. 123-125° (cap.). Upon paper chro-

16

The Virginia Journal of Science

Fig. 2. — Representative recording of gas chromatographic separation of pyridyl carboxylic acid esters
[(A) methyl nicotinate, (B) methyl 3-pyridylacetate, (C) methyl y- ( 3-pyridyl ) butyrate, (D) methyl y-(3-
pyridyl)-y-oxobutyrate, and (E) 5- ( 3-pyridyl )tetrahydrofuranone-2], Upper tracing indicates flame ioniza¬
tion response with electrometer -attenuation change from 10-1 to 1-1 at X. Lower tracing shows electron-
capture response with electrometer-attenuation setting of 10-8. S=solvent (benzene) peak. Column (5.6%
Carbowax 20M on Anakrom ABS 80-90; 6' x 1/8" O.D. Stainless Steel) at 189°.

Gas Chromatography of Nicotine Metabolites

17

matography the compound gave a single Koenig-posi¬
tive spot at Rf 0.15 (Solvent B) and R( 0.27 (Solvent
C). For analysis the product was recrystallized from
ethanol-acetone and then dried at 60° over KOH at
4 mm Hg, m.p. 123-125°.

C10H14N2O2

Calculated: C 61.80, H 7.26, N 14.42

Found: C 61.69, H 7.38, N 14.30.

A solution of the methylamino acid (200 mg) in
2 ml of ethanol was treated with 260 mg of picric
acid in 5 ml of ethanol. Oily crystals (160 mg)
separated and then solidified when the mixture was
allowed to stand in the ice bath. The analytical sam¬
ple of y-(3-pyridyl)-y-methvlaminobutvric acid dipic-
rate was obtained bv recrystallization from ethanol and
subsequent drying at 60° for 4 hours over KOH at
1 mm Hg, m.p. 144—146° (cap.).

Calculated: C 40.50, H 3.09, N 17.18

Found: C 40.32, H 3.02, N 17.26.

( ±)-Cotiriine — The mother liquors (above) from
the preparation of y-(3-pvridvl)-y-methylaminobutyric
acid were taken to dryness under diminished pressure
and then heated to 130° under nitrogen for 20 min.
A sample of the residual cotinine (200 mg) was dis¬
solved in 1 ml of ethyl acetate. The solution was
cooled in an ice bath and treated with n-hexane until
a turbidity persisted. Upon continued cooling with
scratching, the colorless crystalline product formed.
After an additional crystallization in the same fashion,
the product was collected and dried at 30° for 4 hours
over KOH at 3 mm Hg. m.p. 52-54° (cap.); Rf 0.74
(Solvent B) and Rf 0.62 (Solvent K).

C10H]2NoO

Calculated: C 68.16, H 6.86, N 15.90
Found: C 68.39, H 6.89, N 16.02.

REFERENCES

1. McKennis, H., Jr., in U. S. von Euler (Editor),
Tobacco Alkaloids and Related Compounds,

Pergamon Press, New York, 1965, p. 53.

2. McKennis, H., Jr., Schwartz, S. L., Turnbull,

L. B., Wada, E., and Bowman, E. R., J. biol.
Chem., 239, 3981 (1964).

3. Quin, L. D., J. org. Chem., 24, 911 (1959).

4. Kobashi, Y., J. chem. Soc. Japan, Pure Chemistry
Section, 82, 1262 (1961).

5. McKennis, H., Jr., Turnbull, L. B., and Bowman,
E. R., J. Am. chem. Soc., 79, 6342 (1957).

6. Bowman, E. R., Turnbull, L. B., and McKennis,
H., Jr., /. Pharmac. exp. Ther., 127, 92 (1959).

7. Craig, J. C., Mary, N. Y., Goodman, N. L., and
Wolf, L., J. Am. chem. Soc., 86, 3866 (1964).

8. McNiven, N. L., Raisinghani, I., Patashik, S.,
and Dorfman, R. I., Nature, Lond., 208, 788
(1965).

9. Beckett, A. H., Rowland, M., and Triggs, E. J.,
Nature, Lond., 207, 200 (1965).

10. Beckett, A. H., and Triggs, E. J., Nature, Lond.,
211, 1415 (1966).

11. McKennis, H., Jr., Bowman, E. R., and Turnbull,
L. B., Proc. Soc. exp. Biol. Med., 107, 145 (1961).

12. Schwartz, S. L., and McKennis, H., Jr., J. biol.
Chem., 238, 1807 (1963).

13. McKennis, H., Jr., Turnbull, L. B., and Bowman,
E. R., J. Am. chem. Soc., 80, 6597 (1958).

14. Ratusky, J., and Bestar, L., Colin Czech, chem.
Commun. Engl. Edn, 29, 3066 (1964).

15. McKennis, H., Jr., Turnbull, L. B., and Bowman,
E. R., J. biol. Chem., 239, 1215 (1964).

16. McKennis, H., J., Bowman, E. R., and Turnbull,
L. B., /. Am. chem. Soc., 82, 3974 (1960).

17. Castle, R. N., and Burger, A., J. Am. pharm. Ass.,
Scientific Edition, 43, 163 (1954).

18. McKennis, H., Jr., Turnbull, L. B., Wingfield,
H. N., Jr., and Dewey, L. J., J. Am. chem. Soc.,
80, 1634 (1958).

19. Morselli, P. L., Bowman, E. R., Ong, H. H., and
McKennis, H., Jr., Va. J. Set., 17, 345 (1966).

18

The Virginia Journal of Science

Nathaniel Boggs, Jr.,
and Margaretta M. Jackson

Department of Biology, Virginia State College,
Petersburg, Virginia. Received June 1, 1966

Studies on the Pseudomating Phenomenon in
Spirostomum ambiguum (Heterotrichida, Ciliata)

INTRODUCTION

Much knowledge can be gained about the mechan¬
ism of reproduction as well as the forces that energize
it. Among the phenomena associated with reproduc¬
tion in eiliates is a “pseudomating reaction” (Finley,
1960) in which a number of Spirostoma come together
to form an aggregation. The size of the aggregation
varies from 4 to 1,000 animals. One characteristic
feature of the pseudomating reaction is a pulsation
period, during which the Spirostoma entwine their
bodies as if attempting to conjugate, but they do not
conjugate. Instead, the nuclear phenomena appear
to be typical of binary fission. The aggregation per¬
sists until the end of the fission period; then it is
gradually disbanded bv individual migrations.

The series of experiments reported here were de¬
signed to determine the conditions under which the
“pseudomating reaction” occurs, to elucidate some of
the events which occur during this reaction, and to
determine under what conditions pseudomating can
be induced.

APPARATUS AND EXPERIMENTAL
PROCEDURE

Organisms and Their Preparation — Specimens of
Spirostomum ambiguum used in this study were ob¬
tained from cultures derived from collections in the
Washington, D. C., area. Mass cultures were grown in
80-ml glass jars, each of which contained 400-600 ml
of 1% (w/v) aqueous split pea ( Piston sativum ) and
bacteria. An addition of four green split peas to each
jar every other day, supported good growth and sus¬
tained the cultures.

Temperature and pH — Temperatur e and pH of each
of the six mass cultures were measured daily. Using
a Beckman pH meter, No. 897, the pH values of the
pseudomating organisms were 6.8 and 7.3 (minimum)
and 7.2 and 7.5 (maximum) respectively. These
values were for a 40-dav period during the months
of June, July, and August 1964.

The lowest temperature at which the Spirostoma

pseudomated was 26° C. and the highest temperature
was 28.5° C, with on optimum temperature of 27° .
The average temperature of the free-swimming Spiro¬
stoma (controls) was 27°.

Live Spirostoma were studied under a phase-con¬
trast microscope, in a depression slide. A two-per¬
cent solution of methocel was employed to decrease
their motility.

Fculgen Preparations — Both pseudomating (experi¬
mental) and non-pseudomating animals (controls)
were stained by tire Feulgen technique, according to
Davenport (1964). This technique was employed to
ascertain whether the macronucleus of Spirostomum
ambiguum changed while the animals were pseudo¬
mating. The organisms were prepared for the Feul¬
gen schedule according to the procedure of Finley
and Williams (1955). The macronucleus of the vege¬
tative organisms was typically moniliform; however,
this configuration was lost during the pseudomating
phenomenon and the macronuclear complex appeared
without connections.

Chromatographic Analysis of Pseudomating and Non¬
pseudomating Spirostoma — Acid hvdrolvsis was em¬
ployed in an attempt to expose amino acids bound
in the molecules of tire organisms in quantities suffi¬
cient for satisfactory separation. Tire method used
was essentially the William and Kirbv modification
of the Consden technique as described bv Finlev and
Williams (1955).

Electrophoretic Analysis of Pseudomating and Non-
pseudomating Spirostoma — Paper electrophoresis was
employed in an attempt to studv the location of dif¬
ferent ninhydrin-positive patterns in Spirostoma. The
acid hydrolvsates were prepared according to the
schedule used for chromatographic analysis. The ap¬
paratus used for rapid electrophoresis was described
bv Gelman (1962).

Attempts to Induce Pseudomating — In an attempt
to determine whether proline is one of the substances
responsible for the pseudomating reaction, four con¬
centrations (w/v) of proline were employed (1, 0.5,
0.25, and 0.125%). Ten-nil portions of Spirostoma
culture with 50 non-pseudomating organisms were
placed in each of five 50-ml beakers with micropi-

Studies on Pseudomating Phenomenon

19

pettes. Fifteen drops of 1% L-proline (“hydroxy-free”)
was added to an aliquot of 50 non-pseudomating
organisms. Fifteen drops of 0.5% L-proline (“hydroxy-
free”) was added to another aliquot of non-pseudo¬
mating organisms. A fifth 10-ml portion of Spirostoma
to which no proline was added served as a control.
At intervals ranging from 30 minutes to 2 hours all
5 cultures were studied under a stereoscopic micro¬
scope. Microscopic examinations were also made at
18- and 24-hour intervals.

OBSERVATIONS AND RESULTS

Temperature, pH, and light intensity appeared to
exert little influence on the psoudomating reaction.
The Feulgen preparations revealed that the macronu¬
cleus was typically moniliform, but lost this configura¬
tion in the pseudomating organisms, thus appearing
without connections.

Three identical horizontal bands were distinguished
in the chromatograms of both the controls and the ex-
perimentals. These bands were identified as cystine,
lysine, and glutamic acid. A fourth band appeared
only in the experimentals and was identified as pro¬
line by its Rf value and coloration with ninhydrin.

Proline concentrations of 1% and 0.125% induced
pseudomating at low population densities in 30 min¬
utes to 1 hour. After 18 hours organisms were ob¬
served to be still pseudomating. At the end of 24
hours the organisms died and disintegrated into a
jelly-like mass. The other concentrations of proline
(0.5% and 0.25%) did not induce pseudomating and
proved to be lethal to the organisms after one hour.

Routine bacteriological techniques revealed the pres¬
ence of B. cerens in the experimental cultures and in
the controls. The ciliate populations were consistently
monoxenic.

DISCUSSION

Pseudomating appears to be a sexual phenomenon
of Spirostomum ambiguum analogous to conjugation,
autogamy, endomixis, or hemixis in other ciliates. Se-
shachar (1959) pointed out that conjugation is rare
in Spirostomum ambiguum and in no case was it
noticed as a regular phenomenon. However, the urge
to conjugate could be expressed in the form of pseu¬
domatin g.

The differentiation in the configuration of the mac¬
ronuclei of the experimental organisms indicates that

the pseudomating phenomenon occurs, perhaps, as the
result of efforts to re-establish the nuclear condition
of the non-pseudomating stage or, possibly, as a mech¬
anism for renewing the nucleus of the vegetative
organism, as observed by Diller (1936). The reac¬
tion induced by specific concentrations of proline sug¬
gests that this substance may trigger pseudomating.
As to the fate of the proline in the culture media,
the investigators believe that it is absorbed on the
surfaces of the Spirostoma. Attempts to induce pseu¬
domating in axenic cultures may add support to these
observations.

SUMMARY

This investigation was concerned with certain aspects
of the pseudomating phenomenon of Spirostomum am¬
biguum. The macronucleus is typically moniliform
but loses this configuration in the pseudomating Spiros¬
toma, thus appearing without connections. The amino
acids cystine, lysine, glutamic acid, and proline were
identified on the ninhydrin-positive patterns of the
pseudomating Spirostoma; cystine, lysine and glutamic
acid on the patterns of the non-pseudomating orga¬
nisms. Proline concentrations of 1% and 0.125% in¬
duced pseudomating at low population densities. In
general, factors such as temperature, pH, and light
intensity appear to exert little influence upon die
pseudomating phenomenon.

LITERATURE CITED

1. Corliss, John O., The Ciliated Protozoa, Pergamon
Press, New York, 1961.

2. Davenport, H. A., Histological and Histochemi -
cal Techniques, W. B. Saunders Co., Philadelphia,
1964.

3. Devi, R. V., J. Protozoal, 8, 277 (1961).

4. Diller, W. F., Science, 79, 57 (1934).

5. Diller, W. F., J. Morphol, 59, 11 (1936).

6. Finley, H. E., Anatomical Record, 138, 348 (1960).

7. Finley, H. E., and Williams, H. B., /. Protozool,
2, 13 (1955).

8. Gehman, W. E., Instructions for Rapid Electro¬
phoresis with Sepraphore III, Gelman Instrument
Co., Ann Arbor, 1962.

9. Seshachar, B. R., Nature, 184, 1510 (1959).

20

The Virginia Journal of Science

Charles V. Coveil

Department of Biology, University of Louisville,
Kentucky. Received April 6, 1966

A Check List of The Butterfl

Since the appearance of The Butterflies of Virginia
by Clark and Clark in 1951, certain new information
necessitates the publication of a revised list of Vir¬
ginia butterflies and skippers. Covell (1962) record¬
ed a new species for Virginia, Strymon kingi Klots
and Clench. Another new state record is reported
here — that of Megathymus yuccae (Boisduval and Le
Conte); F. H. Chermock (personal communication)
discovered larval tents of this species associated with
Yucca filamentosa Linn, near Sand Bridge in Princess
Anne County, “July 1-4, 1956 or 1957.”

Besides including these two new species records,
this list reflects the classification and nomenclature of
Virginia butterflies and skippers as presented in Dos
Passos (1964). Since the “Dos Passos List” will prob¬
ably be used by collectors for many years to come
as a basis for naming and arranging species and infra¬
specific categories, a Virginia list corresponding to it
should be a useful tool to those interested in Lepidop-
tera in the Old Dominion.

Before Dos Passos (1964) the authority for North
American nomenclature and classification of diurnal
Lepidoptera was McDunnough (1938); however, Clark
and Clark (1951) did not follow this listing, but used
their own. Although I do not necessarily agree with
the Dos Passos system, it is strictly followed here for
the sake of conformity. As in Dos Passos (1964),
the new generic system for the Theclinae of Clench
(1961) is not utilized, although many authors are now
following it.

Changes in status of names in Dos Passos (1964)
result in a total of 155 species and subspecies now
being referable to the Virginia fauna. Besides the
addition of the two species mentioned above, changes
include: Euphyes alabamae (Lindsey) considered a
subspecies of E. dion (Edwards); Cercyonis pegala
maritime (Edwards) and C. pegala. Carolina (R. Cher¬
mock) reduced to form status; and Celastrina argiolus
lucia (Kirby) raised from form status to that of sub¬
species. Clark and Clark (1951) recorded 154 dif¬
ferent species and subspecies.

The categories included here are superfamily, family,
subfamily, genus, species, subspecies, seasonal gen¬
eration (“gen. vem.” or “gen. aest”), and form. In
the case of subspecies, nominate subspecies names are
omitted unless two subspecies of any given species
are to be found in Virginia, one being the nominate
subspecies. In a few cases species names are applied

ies and Skippers of Virginia

to species known by other names in Clark and Clark
(1951); in these cases parenthetical notations give
the name used in that publication.

I feel that one has a good chance of finding nearly
all the species and subspecies listed here either as
natives of Virginia, at least in a few local habitats,
or casually as summer visitors. Species which prob¬
ably enter the state rarely include Phoebis philea (Jo¬
hansson), Nathalis iole Boisduval, and Melitaea ismeria
Boisduval and Le Conte. Poanes massasoit (Scudder),
Mitoura hesseli Rawson and Ziegler, and Lycaena thoe
Guerin-Meneville may be found some day in Virginia,
since they now appear in bordering areas.

Superfamily HESPERIOIDEA
Family Megathymidae

Megathymus Scudder

yuccae (Boisduval and Le Conte)

Family Hesperiidae
Subfamily Hesperiinae

Panoquina Hemming

panoquin (Scudder)
ocola (Edwards)

Calpodes Hiibner
ethlius (Stoll)

Lerodea Scudder

eufala (Edwards)

Ambliscirtes Scudder

samoset (Scudder) (as hegon Scudder)
aesculapius (Fabricius) (as textor Hiibner)
Carolina (Skinner)

form reversa Jones
vialis (Edwards)
altemata (Grote and Robinson)

Atrytonopsis Godman
hianna (Scudder)

Euphyes Scudder

palatka (Edwards)
dion (Edwards)

dion (Edwards)
alabamae (Lindsey)
dukesi (Lindsey)
conspicua (Edwards)
bimacula (Grote and Robinson)
vestris (Boisduval) (as ruricola of authors)
metacomet (Harris)

Butterflies and Skippies of Virginia

21

Poanes Scudder

hobomok (Harris)

female form pocahontas (Scudder)
zabulon (Boisduval and Le Conte)
aaroni (Skinner)
yehl (Skinner)
viator (Edwards)

Atrytone Scudder

arogos (Boisduval and Le Conte)
delaware (Edwards) (as logan Edwards)
Atalopedes Scudder

campestris (Boisduval)

Pompeius Evans

verna (Edwards)

Wallengrenia Berg
otho (Smith)

otho (Smith)
egeremet (Scudder)

Polites Scudder

coras (Cramer) (as peckius Kirby)
themistocles (Latreille)

origenes (Fabricius) (as manataaqua Scudder)
mystic (Scudder)
i 'ibex (Geyer)

Hesperia Fabricius
metea Scudder
sassacus Harris
attains (Edwards)
leonardus Harris
Hylephila Billberg
phyleus (Drury)

Ancyloxypha Felder

numitor (Fabricius)

Lerema Scudder
accius (Smith)

Nastra Evans

Iherminier (Latreille)

Subfamily Pyrginae

Pholisora Scudder

catullus (Fabricius)

Pyrgus Hiibner

centaurae (Rambur)

wyandot (Edwards)
communis (Grote)

Erynnis Schrank

icelus (Scudder and Burgess)

brizo (Boisduval and Le Conte)

persius (Scudder)

lucilius (Scudder and Burgess)

baptisiae (Forbes)

zarucco (Lucas)

martialis (Scudder)

horatius (Scudder and Burgess)

juvenalis (Fabricius)

Staphylus Godman and Salvin
mazans (Reakirt)

hayhurstii (Edwards)
Thorybes Scudder

bathyllus (Smith)

py lades (Scudder)
confusis Bell
Achalarus Scudder
lyciades (Geyer)

Autochton Hiibner

cellus (Boisduval and Le Conte)
Urbanus Hiibner

proteus (Linnaeus)

Epargyreus Hiibner
claims (Cramer)

Superfamily PAPILIONOIDEA
Family Papilionidae

Subfamily Papilioninae

Battus Scopoli

philenor (Linnaeus)

Papilio Linnaeus

polyxenes Fabricius
asterias Stoll
cresphontes Cramer
glaucus Linnaeus

female form turnus Linnaeus
troilus Linnaeus
palamedes Drury
Graphium Scopoli

marcellus (Cramer)

form telamonides (Felder and Felder)
form floridensis (Holland)

Family Pieridae
Subfamily Pierinae

Pieris Schrank

protodice Boisduval and Le Conte
virginiensis Edwards
rapae (Linnaeus)

Ascia Scopoli

monuste (Linnaeus)
phileta (Fabricius)

Subfamily Coliadinae

Colias Fabricius

eurytheme Boisduval

female form alba Strecker
philodice Godart

female form alba Strecker
interior Scudder
cesonia (Stoll)

Phoebis Hiibner

sennae (Linnaeus)

eubide (Linnaeus)
philea (Johansson)

Eurema Hiibner
daira (Godart)

gen. aest. jucunda Boisduval and Le Conte
lisa Boisduval and Le Conte

22

The Virginia Journal of Science

nicippe (Cramer)

Nathalis Boisduval
iole Boisduval

Subfamily Euchloeinae

Anthocharis Boisduval, Rambur, and Graslin
midea Hiibner (as genutia Fabricius)
Euchloe Hiibner

olympia (Edwards)

Family Riodinidae

Subfamily Riodininae

Lephelisca Barnes and Lindsey

virginiensis (Guerin-Meneville)
borealis (Grote and Robinson)

Family Lycaenidae
Subfamily Theclinae

Atlides Hiibner

halesus (Cramer)

Eupsyche Scudder

m-album (Boisduval and Le Conte)

Mitoura Scudder

gryneus (Hiibner)

gen. aest. smilacis (Boisduval and Le Conte)
Incisalia Scudder

augustinus (Westwood)
croesioides (Scudder)
irus (Godart)

henrici (Grote and Robinson)
polios Cook and Watson
niphon (Hiibner)

Erora Scudder

laeta (Edwards)

Strymon Hiibner

cecrops (Fabricius)
mclinus Hiibner

melinus Hiibner
humuli (Harris)

Ontario (Edwards)
titus (Fabricius)

titus (Fabricius)
mopsus (Hiibner)
edwardsii (Grote and Robinson)
falacer (Godart)
kingi Klots and Clench
liparops (Le Conte)
strigosa (Harris)

Subfamily Gerydinae

Feniseca Grote

tarquinius (Fabricius)

Subfamily Lycaeninae
Lycaena Fabricius

phlaeas (Linnaeus)
americana Harris

Subfamily Plebejinae

Everes Hiibner

comyntas (Godart)

Glaucopsyche Scudder

lyg damns (Doubleday)

nittanyensis F. Chermock
Celastrina Tutt

argiolus (Linnaeus)
lucia (Kirby)

pseudargiolus (Boisduval and Le Conte)
gen. aest. neglecta (Edwards)
gen. aest. neglectamajor Tutt

Family Libytheidae

Subfamily Libytheinae

Libythaena Michener

bachmanni (Kirtland)

Family Nymphalidae

Subfamily Apaturinae

Asterocampa Rober

celtis (Boisduval and Le Conte)
clyton (Boisduval and Le Conte)

Subfamily Limenitidinae

Limenitis Fabricius

astyanax (Fabricius)
archippus (Cramer)

archippus (Cramer)
floridensis Strecker

Subfamily Vanessinae

Vanessa Fabricius

atalanta (Linnaeus)
virginiensis (Drury)
cardui (Linnaeus)

Junonia Hiibner

coenia (Hiibner)

Subfamily Nymphalinae

Nymphalis Kluk

antiopa (Linnaeus)

Polygonia Hiibner

interrogations (Fabricius)

form fabricii (Edwards)
comma (Harris)

form dry as (Edwards)
faunus (Edwards)
smythi Clark
progne (Cramer)

Subfamily Melitaeinae

Phyciodes Hiibner
tharos (Drury)

gen. vern. marcia (Edwards)

Annual Meeting of Virginia Academy of Science

23

gen. vern. morpheus (Fabricius)
batesi (Reakirt)

Melitaea Bates

nycteis (Doubleday)
ismeria Boisduval and Le Conte
Euphydryas Scudder
phaeton (Drury)

Subfamily Argynninae

Boloria Moore

selene (Denis and Schiffermiiller)
marilandica Clark
myrina (Cramer)
toddi (Holland)

ammiralis (Hemming)

Speyeria Scudder
idalia (Drury)
atlantis (Edwards)
diana (Cramer)
cybele (Fabricius)
aphrodite (Fabricius)

Eupteieta Doubleday
claudia (Cramer)

Subfamily Heliconiinae

Agraulis Boisduval and Le Conte

vanillae (Linnaeus)
nigrior Michener

Family Danaidae

Subfamily Danainae

Danaus Kluk

plexippus (Linnaeus)

plexippus (Linnaeus)
megalippe (Hiibner)

Family Satyridae

Subfamily Lethinae

Lethe Hiibner

portlandia (Fabricius)

portlandia (Fabricius)
anthedon (Clark)
creola (Skinner)
eurydice (Johansson)

appalachia R. Chermock

Subfamily Satyrinae

Eiiptychia Hiibner

gemma (Hiibner)
areolata (Smith)

areolata (Smith)
septentrionalis (Davis)
hermes (Fabricius)

sosybius (Fabricius)
cymela (Cramer)

Cercyonis Scudder

pegala (Fabricius)

pegala (Fabricius)
alope (Fabricius)

form maritima (Edwards)

form Carolina (Chermock and Chermock)

LITERATURE CITED

Clark, A. H., and Clark, L. F., The Butterflies of
Virginia , Smithsonian Misc. Collections 116(7), VII +
239 pp., 30 pi., 1951.

Clench, H. K., in Ehrlich, P. R., and Ehrlich, A. H.,
How to Know the Butterflies, pp. 177-220, Wm. C.
Brown Co., Dubuque, Iowa, 1961.

Covell, C. V., Jr., }, Lepid. Soc., 16, 197, (1962).

Dos Passos, C. F., A Synonymic List of the Nearctic
Rhopaloeera. The Lepidopterists’ Soc. Mem., 1, v +
145 pp., 1964.

McDunnough, J. H., Check List of the Lepidoptera
of Canada and the United States of America, Part I,
Maerolepidoptera, Mem. So. Calif. Acad. Sci., 1: 275
pp., 1938.

24

The Virginia Journal of Science

Forty-Fifth Annual Meeting of The
Virginia Academy of Science
Norfolk, May 3-6, 1967

PRELIMINARY INFORMATION

Provisional dates have been set for many functions.
ROOM RESERVATIONS should be requested at an
early date from Dr. D. M. Oglesby, Dept, of Chem¬
istry, Old Dominion College, Norfolk, Va., 23508.
Phone 627-8651, Ext. 264.

Titles with abstracts, in duplicate, from members to

section secretaries sent by . March 25

Abstracts should run from 100 to 200 words. Ab¬
stracts may be revised and handed in at the annual
meeting.

Programs for section meetings (2 copies) sent by sec¬
tion secretaries to Dr. James W. Cole, Jr., School of
General Studies, Box 3697, University Station, Char¬
lottesville, Va. 22903 . March 28

The program will be printed in Richmond or Char¬
lottesville this year and Dr. Cole must have reports
from section secretaries in hand by March 31st in order
to edit, print and mail the program by April 15th.
The President-Elect may ask the section secretaries
to meet with him to review the papers before the
program is printed.

Each section secretary should relay information con¬
cerning equipment needed for the presentation of pa¬
pers to the Chairman of the Local Committee on
Arrangements, Mr. C. S. Sherwood, Dept, of Chem-
istrv, Old Dominion College, Norfolk, Va. 23508 . . .
Apr. 5 (Keep needs for equipment to standard types,
i.e., slides 2 x 2 or 3-1/4 x 4 inches.) Special pro¬
jection equipment must be provided by individual.

SYMPOSIUM IN MAY ON
MYOCARDIAL CONTRACTION

The Medical Science Section of the Academy will
present a symposium on Myocardial Contraction as
part of its scientific program at the annual meeting
in May 1967. Three speakers have already been an¬
nounced:

Dr. Nick Sperelakis, Department of Physiology, Uni¬
versity of Virginia School of Medicine, “Excitation
of Cardiac Cells.”

Dr. Joseph Gilmore, Department of Physiology, Uni¬
versity of Virginia School of Medicine, “Mechanisms
of Myocardial Contraction.”

Dr. Thomas Darby, Senior Pharmacologist, Abbott
Laboratories, North Chicago, Illinois, “Myocardial
Metabolism and Contraction.”

AGRICULTURAL SECTION OF ACADEMY
SOLICITS NEW MEMBERS IN DRIVE

The Agricultural Science Section, currently 181 mem¬
bers who are interested in agriculture and related
fields, is soliciting new members. Approximately 30
papers are presented each year at the annual meeting
of the section. In addition, at least one invitational
paper and an outstanding paper from the Junior Acad¬
emy of Science are presented. Present papers involve

Annual Meeting of Virginia Academy of Science

25

activities of pests attacking crops and animals, chemi¬
cal needs and deficiencies of both crops and animals,
along with methods of producing and handling Vir¬
ginia agricultural commodities.

GIFTS AND BEQUESTS

The Virginia Academy of Science is a non-stock,
non-profit Virginia Corporation. All contributions to
the Virginia Academy of Science are deductible by
donors in computing their taxable income, and all
bequests, legacies, devices or transfers to the Virginia
Academv of Science are deductible in computing the
values of the taxable estate of a decedent.

Contributions may be sent to Virginia Academy of
Science, P.O. Box 8203, Richmond, Virginia 23226.

ZIP-EQUIP YOUR ADDRESS

The post office has set a deadline, January 1, 1967,
for incorporating your ZIPCODE number on all ad¬
dresses.

The Virginia Journal of Science is mailed as second-
class matter and will not be forwarded to a new
address without additional postage, and the post office
will not notify you it has your journal.

Please notifv the executive secretary-treasurer when
you move so we won’t lose you and you won’t lose
your Journal.

THE J. SHELTON HORSLEY RESEARCH AWARD
OF THE VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
FOR 1967

To the member author of a highly meritorious
research paper, the Academy presents the J. Shelton
Horsley Research Award. From papers submitted for
consideration each year, the Research Committee may
select an award winner. This award is the highest
honor the Academy can bestow for original research,
and its presentation is the highlight of the Academy
Assembly at the annual meeting. An engraved certifi¬
cate and an award of $500 are presented to the win¬
ner. Some statements concerning the award:

1. Two copies of each competing paper should be
submitted to the appropriate Section Secretary by
March 1, 1967. Secretaries are requested to forward
submitted papers to Dr. Nelson F. Murphy, Chemical
Engineering Department, Virginia Polytechnic Insti¬
tute, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061, not later than March
15, 1967. Papers received after this date may not be
considered bv the Research Committee.

2. The author must present the paper in the ap¬
propriate section program at the annual meeting.

3. The paper must represent original research
carried out by the author while a member of the
Academy.

4. a. A published paper to be eligible must have
been published after May 1, 1966— reprints of such
papers may be submitted.

b. If the entry has not been published, it is
recommended that the paper submitted be of suit¬
able length and content for publication in a scientific
journal.

5. Outstanding scientists outside the state will be
asked to aid in the evaluation of the papers.

6. No person will be awarded the prize more than
once.

RESEARCH COMMITTEE ANNOUNCES

AVAILABILITY OF SMALL GRANT AWARDS

The Research Committee of the Virginia Academy
of Science has limited funds from which the Com¬
mittee makes grants to individuals in support of their
research. The grants are usually small, seldom ex¬
ceeding $250.00. In the past they have helped in
purchasing materials or items of equipment, in de¬
fraying costs of publication in the Virginia Journal
of Science, in meeting part of the expenses associated
with the presentation of an invited paper at an inter¬
national symposium, and the like.

The applicant for a grant should write a letter to
the Research Committee in which he outlines his
research project, establishes the extent of need for
support, and states the fraction of this support which
is being requested of the Committee. The request
will receive prompt consideration if directed to Nel¬
son F. Murphy, Chairman, Research Committee, Chem¬
ical Engineering Department, Virginia Polytechnic In¬
stitute, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061.

NSF SPONSORS SUMMER INSTITUTE

AT RANDOLPH-MACON WOMAN’S COLLEGE

The National Science Foundation will sponsor a
Summer Science Institute at Randolph-Macon Woman’s
College again this year. The Foundation has awarded
a grant of $65,800 to the college to finance the insti¬
tute for the tenth consecutive summer. It will be
held at R-MWC June 28 to August 9 with Dr. Helen
L. Whidden, professor of chemistrv and department
chairman, directing the program.

Some 70 secondary school teachers of biology, chem¬
istry, physics and mathematics are expected to attend.
The institute’s courses, each carrying six hours of credit
at the graduate level, will be taught by R-MWC fac¬
ulty members.

The institute is designed to increase and modernize

26

The Virginia Journal of Science

subject matter taught in high school science classes,
to broaden the scientific outlook of the teachers and
to offer an opportunity for exchange of ideas.

REGISTRY OF LOWER ANIMAL TUMORS
ESTABLISHED IN WASHINGTON

The Smithsonian Institution has joined with the
National Cancer Institute in establishing a Registry of
Tumors in Lower Animals. The purpose of the Reg¬
istry is to collect specimens the study of which will
be useful in gaining a fundamental understanding of
neoplastic processes. The collection will be housed in
the U.S. National Museum, Washington, D. C.

Activities of the project include collection, gross
and microscopic examination, interpretation, and docu¬
mentation of lesions of poikilothermic vertebrates and
of invertebrates. Athough by definition neoplastic dis¬
eases are generally considered to be limited to meta¬
zoans, it is possible that processes akin to neoplasia
mav occur at the subcellular level in protozoa. Exam¬
ples of protozoans involved in such processes will also
be collected.

An invitation is extended to help in building this
collection by submitting examples of induced or nat¬
urally occurring neoplasms, preneoplastic conditions,
or indeterminate lesions of a presumptive neoplastic
nature that requires confirmation. In view of the
weaknesses in definitions of neoplasia, particularly in
invertebrates, the collection is intended to include a-
nomalies of growth and form of any type. Among the
invertebrate animals there is an indistinct borderline
between neoplastic disease and the processes of in¬
flammation, repair and regeneration. Examples of the
latter processes may be useful as control material, to
establish points of reference.

As collection of specimens progresses, panels of
specialists in pertinent fields will be asked to assist
in interpretation and analysis of problematic material.
Panel members will be selected on the basis of experi¬
ence and interest manifested through previous con¬
tributions to the Registry, as well as on the basis of
outstanding contributions to their particular disciplines.

Specimens accessioned by the Registry will be avail¬
able to visiting investigators for personal studv. Con¬
structive suggestions aimed toward accelerating prog¬
ress of the collection are welcomed by the Registry.

SPRING SIGMA XI LECTURES
AT THE MEDICAL COLLEGE OF VIRGINIA

The Medical College of Virginia Chapter of the
Society of Sigma Xi announces two spring lectures
that are open to the public without charge. Dr.
Chalmers L. Gemmill, Department of Pharmacology,
University of Virginia, will give the first lecture, “Sil-
phium, a Study in the Transmission of Therapeutic

Knowledge,” on March 9, 1967. Dr. Cornelius A.
Tobias, Donner Laboratory, University of California,
will deliver an address, “Radiation and the Origin and
Evolution of Life,” on May 12, 1967.

NEW GRADUATE PROGRAM IN BIOMETRY
ANNOUNCED IN RICHMOND

The Department of Biometry of the School of
Graduate Studies at the Medical College of Virginia
has announced a new graduate training program in
Biometry, leading to M.S. and Ph.D. degrees. Stu¬
dents in this program will major in statistics and math¬
ematics as applied to biology and medicine. Through
this program and graduate course offerings in the other
bioscience departments, minors are available in asso¬
ciated subjects such as anatomy, biochemistry, biology,
biophysics, genetics, microbiology, pharmacology and
physiology. Joint programs can also be arranged be¬
tween biometry and another bioscience department in
many cases. Applicants for admission should have
undergraduate majors in mathematics, statistics or
biology. Deficiencies in undergraduate background
can be made up before or after entry to the program.
Financial support is available to qualified students
from a number of sources. Further information can
be obtained from Dr. S. J. Kilpatrick, Jr., Department
of Biometry, Medical College of Virginia, Richmond,
Virginia 23219.

MEMBERSHIP IN THE VIRGINIA ACADEMY
OF SCIENCE REACHES NEW RECORDS
IN NOVEMBER

The office of the executive secretary-treasurer re¬
ported that on November 1, 1966, the membership
of the Virginia Academy of Science reached new
heights. Of a total membership of 1574, 1439 mem¬
bers were listed as residents of Virginia; 130 mem¬
bers resided elsewhere in the United States, and the
foreign membership totaled 5. The geographical dis¬
tribution within the State follows:

Richmond

357

Hampton

16

Blacksburg

182

F redericksburg

16

Charlottesville

150

Roanoke

15

Norfolk

46

Portsmouth

14

Lexington

44

Virginia Beach

14

Lynchburg

36

Staunton

13

Harrisonburg

34

Ashland

13

Williamsburg

33

Salem

13

Alexandria

20

Farmville

12

Falls Church

19

Hollins

10

Arlington

19

Danville

10

Newport News

17

Bridgewater

10

Petersburg

17

Other locals

309

News and Notes

27

PROCEEDINGS

of

The First

VIRGINA POPULATION CONFERENCE

m

RICHMOND

DECEMBER 6, 1966

Sponsored by

Virginia League for Planned Parenthood
and the

Virginia Academy of Science
in cooperation with

Virginia Congress of Parents and Teachers
Virginia Council on Health and Medical Care
Virginia Council on Social Welfare
Old Dominion Medical Society
The Medical Society of Virginia
Virginia Pharmaceutical Association
Virginia State Chamber of Commerce
Virginia Teachers Association

Mrs. Walter M. Dotts, Jr.
General Conference Co-Chairman

Roscoe D. Hughes, Ph.D.
General Conference Chairman

and

and

President, Virginia League
for Planned Parenthood

Vice-President, Virginia League

for Planned Parenthood

THESE PROCEEDINGS ARE DEDICATED TO THE MEMORY OF THAT GRACIOUS LADY, THE LATE
MISS ELLEN HARVIE SMITH, WHO WAS THE FOUNDER OF THE VIRGINIA LEAGUE FOR PLAN¬
NED PARENTHOOD IN 1937.

28

The Virginia Journal of Science

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Pages

Foreword . 30

Opening Address:

“Family Planning . . . The Challenge of Our Time”,

Alan F. Guttmacher, M.D. . 31

Workshops and Workshop Leaders

Business and Industry. Thomas C. Boushall 34

Communications. Guy Friddell . 35

Education and Social Services. H. I. Willett . 37

Health and Science. William C. Andrews, M.D. 38

Religion. William B. Oglesby, D.D., Ph.D . 41

Panel Discussion: Alan F. Guttmacher, M.D., Moderator, and

Workshop Leaders . 44

Concluding Address:

“Virginia’s Tomorrow — Progress or Privation”,

The Honorable Albertis S. Harrison, Jr. . 51

Acknowledgments . 54

Proceedings of Population Conference

29

Foreword

The Virginia Population Conference was the culmi¬
nation of nearly two years of planning by the Vir¬
ginia League for Planned Parenthood. The purpose
of the Conference was to bring together leaders from
all over the Commonwealth to consider the many facets
of population growth.

The wide range of concern for the need for popula¬
tion control and family planning is indicated by the
following list of organizations cooperating with the
sponsors :

Virginia Congress of Parents and Teachers
Virginia Council on Health and Medical Care
Virginia Council on Social Welfare
Old Dominion Medical Society
The Medical Society of Virginia
Virginia Pharmaceutical Association
Virginia State Chamber of Commerce
Virginia Teachers Association

It is not generally known that the only state-wide
organization disseminating birth-control and family¬
planning information in Virginia until 1945 was the
League. In that year the Virginia State Department
of Health officially recognized that birth-control in¬
formation was a public health measure and permitted
the local health directors to provide birth-control serv¬
ices. A great step forward was made by Governor
Albertis S. Harrison, Jr., who provided specific funds
in the 1966-68 budget for this purpose. A further
indication of official awareness of family planning and
population control is Governor Mills E. Godwin’s state¬
ment made in connection with this Conference:

Our continued economic, cultural and educa¬
tional advancement depends largely upon the char¬
acteristics of our society . . . the kind of people
who live in Virginia. All of us want to make
our state an even better place in which to work
and to enjoy the good things that are so abundant¬

ly available to us. This involves the improvement
of conditions that are subject to correction.

We are reminded that delinquency and crime
are directly related to unwanted, uncared-for chil¬
dren, and that every child who becomes a ward
of the state costs our taxpayers thousands of dol¬
lars. We also are aware that crime costs us mil¬
lions of dollars each year, a substantial part of
which can be attributed to youths without home
or parental guidance.

The Virginia Academy of Science and The Vir¬
ginia League for Planned Parenthood have joined
in an effort to make Virginia a state in which ev¬
ery birth brings a wanted child into a world of
opportunity for healthy growth and constructive
living. This commendable objective merits uni¬
versal support.

It may now be said that the right to birth-control
information by mature Virginians is recognized at all
levels of state and local government, and, perhaps
more importantly, by the great majority of all Vir¬
ginians. But it can also be said that only a start
has been made in reaching the persons who need to
have this information. It is hoped that the Conference
participants will carry on in their localities from where
the Proceedings leave off.

The Conference and Proceedings would not have
been possible without the generous financial support
of Mrs. E. A. Rennolds, Sr., The Sunnen Foundation
and Virginia State Department of Health. To these
we are most grateful.

Mrs. Walter M. Dotts, Jr.

Vice-President, Virginia League
for Planned Parenthood

Roscoe D. Hughes, Ph.D.

President, Virginia League
for Planned Parenthood

30

The Virginia Journal of Science

Family Planning . . . The Challenge of Our Time

Alan F. Guttmacher

Co-chairmen, ladies and gentlemen. I am happy
to be back in Richmond. I have the fondest recol¬
lections of this gracious city and the gracious peo¬
ple who inhabit it. I have some very old friends
here, old in length of time, including a gentleman in
the first row (Dr. H. Hudnall Ware, Jr.).

You have assigned me a lot to talk about in a rela¬
tively short time. I would like to develop as my first
thesis— supported by travels hither, thither, and yon—
that almost everybody in the world is interested in
conception control. I am sure that there are excep¬
tions, but in the main this thesis can be supported. I
would like to call to your attention that die primary
incentive for people to become interested varies mark¬
edly from country to country and from people to peo¬
ple.

I think that there are three primary motivations.
The first is that birth control— the ability to have chil¬
dren by choice rather than chance— is a basic human
right.

The second is that some people are immensely con¬
cerned about the overcrowding of this planet in their
area of rehabitation— and by the fact that they lack
food, that their natural resources are being depleted,
and that contaminants of all sorts are entering their
environment.

The third primary interest stems from a ooncern
for maternal and child health. Let me back up and
try to develop these three thoughts.

If Margaret Sanger were here I am certain the basic
human right of birth oontrol would be the platform
upon which she would address you. The birth-con¬
trol movement in the United States and in the world
would never be as far along as it is were it not for
this tremendously courageous and remarkably talented
woman.

Margaret did not come into birth control because
she was particularly interested in conception control.
She was a rebel who needed a cause. She was one
of the early suffragettes, and a vibrant, vital feminist.
Margaret came into birth control because she thought
that the human female was under sexual servitude
to her lord and master, the male. Margaret wanted
equal opportunities for women and, because of this,
birth control became the most significant and vital
thing in her life. It was on this basis that progress
was made. She fought the battle through the courts
and lived long enough to see her efforts rewarded
with victory.

Today it is so taken for granted that the right to

control family size is such an inalienable basic human
right that there is no single person within the hear¬
ing of my voice that would question it. This was
not true fifty years ago.

Margaret Sanger entered this field when there was
the general feeling that “the rich get richer and the
poor get children” was an immutable law of God; no
one could question it. Margaret was not the first per¬
son to question it, but she was the most articulate.
Therefore the fact that you and I feel that this is
“old hat” and so self-evident that nobody has to
belabor it is a tribute to her.

The fact that birth control has made such progress
in Great Britain and the fact that the French House
of Deputies is very likely to repeal its restrictive birth-
control statute this very month stems from this same
motivation; i.e., birth control is a basic human right.

The second source of major interest in birth con¬
trol is the ever-growing population. Its over-concen¬
tration in certain areas of the world results in many
tragedies from such overcrowding.

This is so evident in India, Pakistan, Egypt, Korea,
Singapore, and Hong Kong that most of us take it
for granted. The United States is now a fortunate na¬
tion; we have the area of India but possess only one
fourth its number of people and, as far as water re¬
sources are concerned, our country is far more fortu¬
nate than poor India. She has to feed four time's
the number of people with the same amount of land,
which is not as good as ours because of lack of suffi¬
cient water.

Many reputable authorities agree that the world is
reaching its limits as far as food production is con¬
cerned. The Food and Agricultural Organization in
Rome, a unit of the United Nations, states that world
population is increasing at the rate of two percent
per annum, while food increases at the rate of one
percent per annum. Authorities like Raymond Ewell
bring to our attention -that we are going to have dev¬
astating famines in India, Pakistan, in the mainland
of China in the seventies, and in Africa and Latin
America in the eighties.

The third primary source of interest in birth con¬
trol is in maternal and child health. This I learned
on a trip to Africa some six or eight months ago when
Mts. Guttmacher and I spent two months in equatorial
Africa. As a physician I was fascinated to walk the
halls of their hospitals. It was so different from walk¬
ing the corridors of, for instance, your Medical Col¬
lege of Virginia. The types of illness and disease are
so different. I learned many things, but I cannot

Proceedings of Population Conference

31

share them all with you. One thing which has appli¬
cation to tli is problem is the fact that in equatorial
Africa having a baby is a very dangerous adventure,
and women die in childbirth.

The reason many die is that their diets are so
grossly deficient. They lack iron in their food intake.
Anemia is more or less endemic and, in addition, every¬
one’s intestinal tract shelters various parasites which
compete for food and iron. This combination causes
profound anemia and, with children coming in rapid
succession, the depletion by the fetus makes the ane¬
mia more grave. It is not an uncommon sight on
the obstetric wards of those hospitals to see women
with hemoglobins of 10 or 12 percent and, when
these poor creatures hemorrhage after delivery with
little blood available for transfusion, their chance of
survival is poor.

A second thing of particular interest in Africa is
that the nutritional diseases of early childhood are
so dramatic and so common. Polygamy had virture
in Africa because it is a splendid method of child
spacing. Under a polvgamous system a man mar¬
ried, impregnated his wife and, when she had pro¬
duced a child, she returned to her family’s home for
two years. Cohabitation between husband and wife
was completelv taboo during this twentv-four month
period. In the meantime, the husband took another
wife, impregnated her, and rotated pregnancies be¬
tween his two or three women. This served both his
sexual needs and spaced the children three years apart.
It also gave the woman ample opportunitv to suckle
her babv; she usuallv nursed for at least twenty-four
months. Therefore, children did not get the earlv
nutritional diseases which we now see in Africa.

With urban living becoming more expensive in
Africa todav, multiple wives are far less easv to mani¬
pulate, and therefore polvgamv is being replaced by
monogamv. The result is that husband and wife
cohabit immecliatelv after delivery, the wife becomes
impregnated as soon as she begins to ovulate, and
there is an unwritten but strong taboo that as soon
as another pregnanev begins she must take the child
off the breast within twentv-four hours. The substi¬
tute for the mother’s milk is a gelatinous kind of
tapioca mixture made from a root which is completely
devoid of protein. The child likes it because it is
sweet and swells up in the stomach, satisfying hunger,
but the child is almost completelv deprived of protein.

The nutritional diseases of kwashiorkor and maras¬
mus are common in all the pediatric hospitals. Kwa¬
shiorkor is called bv its strange name because it means
“red head” in one of the African dialects and the hair
of the child turns red with lack of protein. You walk
around the wards and see little redheaded African
children — kwashiorkor children. Thev are utterly
miserable, apathetic, with swollen bellies and edema¬
tous from head to foot. Thev do not eat and simplv
cry out miserably with each breath they take. The
mortality is verv high. I was told bv Dr. Jellife, the
great authority on this disease, that as soon as he

sees a kwashiorkor child smiling he knows that the
child will not die, it will get well. They are so utterly
miserable; if they once smile it means they are improv¬
ing.

The second condition is marasmus, a form of starva¬
tion; the child becomes simplv a bunch of bones cov¬
ered by closely applied skin— a small body that is
much, much too small for its age.

The contribution that family planning can make to
the health of mothers and children means something
to Africans. I had the very interesting experience of
being able to discuss this with President Tubman of
Liberia. When I was ushered into the presence of
this impressive man, he got up and pumped my hand
vigorously. I said, “I assume, Mr. President, you
know why I am here.” He replied, “Yes, doctor, I am
against birth control.” I then said to him, “Mr. Pres¬
ident, I am not sure you are against birth control.

I think you are against population control,” and I
tried to sketch for him what birth control could do
for the health of Liberia’s women and children. I
think I made my point.

In this part of Africa women have no human rights.
A woman is a chattel, easily exchanged for a new
model. If sterility plagues the family for two years,
the woman is demoted to the position of wife No. 2
or completelv tossed out and a new wife brought in.
Therefore, if you talk about a basic human right for
women in Africa, you hit a blank wall; if you talk
about population pressures, you hit a blank wall, be¬
cause they are under-populated from their point of
view. Thev have the bizarre economic theory that
if thev could simply swell their population rapidly
overnight, thev would swell their economy.

I remember talking to the Minister of Economics
in Sierra Leone and he said to me, “Dr. Guttmacher,
what we need is twice our population. We have two
million people and if we only had four million people
we would see tremendous economic growth. My good¬
ness, we might even get a Coca Cola bottling plant
and a G.E. assembly plant for ice boxes.” I replied,
“Mr. Minister, don’t you think that the purchasing
power of the population has some importance?” He
said, “Oh, it may be of some importance, but the
number of people is more important. This is Africa,
don’t forget. If you have six, ten, twenty million
people, vou are not big, but you are big if you have
a hundred million people.” They want to get big
fast. So if you go to Africa to talk about population
control, vou will be talking to deaf ears.

There is much more to say about the world, but
since I am talking in the sovereign state of Virginia,
I would like to sav a little bit about the problems
here, what vou have done, and what you must do.

I have great admiration for what you have done.
Beginning with mv good friend Dr. Hudnall Ware in
1929, and later with Dr. Shanholtz and Dr. Jessee
in the State Health Department, you have done mag¬
nificently well. You have a vital, vigorous, strong

32

The Virginia Journal of Science

program, and certainly if I had a hat I would take
it off to them and to you. Yet we cannot be com¬
placent and feel that, because you have done so much,
nothing remains to be done.

In preparation for this meeting, I read the docu¬
ments sent me as background material. I recommend
to each of you Dr. Jessee’s magnificent paper which
he read in September in Roanoke. It is the source
on which many of my subsequent remarks will be
based.

I understand that Virginia’s population is about 4.3
million. In that case you have about 700,000 women
of reproductive age; i.e., 15 to 44. To arrive at such
a computation one divides the total population of
the state by 6 and this gives the number of women
of reproductive age.

My research division in the New York office— Dr.
Folgar and his group— state that you have about 161,-
000 women in this reproductive age group who are
what we would call medically dependent— they must
get medical care from public facilities.

I understand from a survey of physicians in Vir¬
ginia that some 250,000 women in your state are
getting birth control from private physicians. Then
too, having talked with Dr. Jessee at lunch, I con¬
clude that probably 50,000 of the medically dependent
women are now getting effective birth control in
health department clinics. Adding the 50,000 to the
250,000 would mean that 300,000 of a total pool of
700,000 women are getting effective contraception.
Some of the 700,000 women of the reproductive age
are unmarried, and some are currently attempting
pregnancy. So I suppose we could reduce the 700,-
000 to 600,000. If mv mathematics is correct, then
only about half the women who require contraception
are getting it in this forward-looking state.

You have 101 Maternal and Child Health Clinics
giving birth-control advice through the State Health
Department’s Division of Local Health Services. I
understand from Dr. Jessee that you are going to
increase this number appreciably: this will certainly
be necessary.

Some of the hospitals of your state, particularly
the teaching hospitals, promote birth control but many
other hospitals will have to pitch in and do more
than they are now doing.

The Virginia League for Planned Parenthood is
requesting a grant from the Office of Economic Op¬
portunity (Poverty Program) for $104,000 to motivate
people who have not yet come to get birth-control
advice to seek it. This then will certainly urge a
good many of this 300,000 or 250,000 who will need
such advice to come and get it.

The grant contains some eleven supervisory person¬
nel to train aides at the local level. After being train¬
ed, these aides will try to stimulate people who need
birth control to come and get it. This is all good.
This is good for your Health Department Clinics,
good for more hospital clinics, and good for a pro¬

gram of education, but you have certain problems
which I think should be aired.

In the first place, you had 11,624 families in your
Aid to Dependent Children (A.D.C.) program in Nov¬
ember 1966. This is a considerable increase over
the number in 1960. You are expending $17,268,840
for this group in 1966. This is also a marked increase
over 1960.

These are significant figures. Many of these chil¬
dren in these families are not wanted, and many are
bom out of wedlock. Such a large A.D.C. popula¬
tion and budget is clear evidence of social pathology
in Virginia.

You also have an increasing illegitimacy rate in your
state; today in Virginia one child in ten is bom an
illegitimate child. Proportionately there are more
colored than white illegitimate births, but the rate
of illegitimacy is increasing more rapidly among the
white than the colored population. The fact that
there is this large A.D.C. problem and that illegitimacy
is increasing may mean that we have to come to grips
with these problems by giving birth control to the
unmarried woman and even to adolescents.

I trust that the workshops will explore these topics
thoroughly, and that in our panel session we shall
have a free and frank discussion.

I also feel that the increasing illegitimacy rate is
an eloquent argument in favor of a vital sex informa¬
tion and education program in your schools. We are
being unduly optimistic if we expect the home to
do this essential task. The job of sex information
and sex education falls heavily on our schools. We
must bring to our youth in a more realistic way than
we are now doing the whole concept of protection
against impregnation. We must teach our youth the
double nature of sex— one, as an emotional release
and, two, as a source of propagation.

I would like to mention an interesting point which
did not occur to me until Dr. Jessee brought it out
in his paper. He feels that we have done a great
disservice by using the euphemisms of “planned par¬
enthood” and “family planning” for birth control. I
would extend this thought by suggesting that family
planning and planned parenthood is not svnonvmous
with birth control when contraception is quite obvi¬
ously not limited to marital responsibilities.

In closing I would like to say the State of Virginia
has a great deal to be proud of. Your birth rate
has dropped in the last five years from 23.2 per
thousand to 18.2 per thousand, but still the state is
growing rapidly. For every person who dies in Vir¬
ginia now 2.2 children are bom, and even with a
birth rate of 18.2 your death rate is so low that it
allows a tremendous expansion of population.

Again I say that even though you have done such
spectacular work, you cannot be complacent. You
have problems in the rapid increase of population,
and you have problems in the great increase of vour
A.D.C. program.

Proceedings of Population Conference

33

I. Workshop on Business and Industry

Thomas Boushall

This businessmen’s workshop is concerned with the
humane and economic aspects of the world popula¬
tion explosion and planned parenthood. Thus, our
discussion here can most helpfully revolve around the
basic fact of happier, healthier, and more enjoyable
family life if the family is limited to the number of
children the breadwinner can supply with proper
housing, food, clothing, education, and recreation.

Here in the United States we are far better off in
this respect than in most of the other nations of tire
world. This is particularly true in Asia, Africa, and
Latin - America.

Nevertheless, those poorly educated persons in the
lower economic groups in Virginia and the rest of
the nation do need better information and assistance
in providing the means to limit the number of children
born within, or without, legal relationships.

That brings us to two basic economic considera¬
tions on the domestic and foreign fronts. First of
all, to the extent that illegitimate children are bom
to mothers in low-income groups, then to that extent
welfare relief is required. Therefore, taxes must be
raised to care for children of parents not properly in¬
formed about birth-control measures and to those lack¬
ing the incentive to use such knowledge.

The second major aspect is this: the growth of
worldwide, uncontrolled population is such that this
growth may outrun man’s ability to produce sufficient
food to sustain the resulting number of people.

The three billion people now populating the earth
will grow to six billion by the year 2,000. There is
a grave question of whether or not America and other
food-producing countries, even when utilizing all arable
land to the fullest, can adequately feed twice the pres¬
ent world population. Two thirds of the present three
billion population are undernourished. What will be
the situation when there are six billion mouths to
feed?

Will it be a series of wars initiated bv the hungry
against the well-fed, or starvation, or self-destruction?
Will nuclear war be needed to contain, restrain, or
eliminate millions of people?

It has been said that the future is a race between
education and chaos; more specifically the education
needed is many-fold— one, to teach people to repro¬
duce on a reasoned basis; two, to teach people how
to develop their lands and feed themselves; three,
to teach and inspire progressive peoples to assist the

backward peoples, and to help them cope with their
rising population and the problems this entails.

The population explosion can hardly be said to have
reached Virginia— or the nation. But what about to¬
morrow? The population in Virginia is steadily on
the rise, and what this portends is clear. What can
responsible businessmen do now to help keep the
population in balance with our natural resources?

DISCUSSION

MR. BOUSHALL: Due to the awareness of public
assistance programs, many parents seem to be shrink¬
ing from their responsibility for educating then off¬
spring. Here in Virginia, as well as elsewhere, the
need is not for more people but rather a greater num¬
ber of educated people. Most of the women in Vir¬
ginia receiving public assistance funds— an uneducated
group— do not have access to birth-control information.

FLOOR: Why would businessmen be interested in
the planned parenthood program?

MR. BOUHALL: First of all, businessmen are inter¬
ested in public affairs; and I assure you that over¬
population, in general, and overpopuation of the unedu¬
cated and unemployable, in particular, certainly falls
under the heading of public affairs. In the second
place, the population density of our state and tire
nation, with the concomitant problem of food supply
and natural resources, most certainly merits the closest
attention of far-sighted businessmen.

FLOOR: Doesn’t an increasing economy depend up¬
on an increasing population?

MR. BOUSHALL: Nothing could be more fallacious.
It is the quality of people that count, not the number.
A healthy growing economy— and a healthy society— are
based on increasing the living standards of a reason¬
able population rather than a continuously growing
population.

FLOOR: Why not raise the wages of the unskilled
aird uneducated as a means of making it possible to
obtain a better education?

FLOOR: It would be far better to spend funds on
finding ways and means to motivate people to take
advantage of presently available educational opportu¬
nities. A minimum wage alone will not solve the
problem.

34

The Virginia Journal of Science

II

Workshop on Communications

Guy Friddell

The Box We’re In

Here is a droll situation. I, the least knowledgeable
among you, have been asked by a friend, whom I
couldn’t refuse, to lead a communications workshop
on planned parenthood. Only to the extent that I
learn about your cause will there be an advance in
communication.

Other than erasing such pitiful pockets of ignorance
as Guy Friddell, you will be wasting your time with
this entire conference. For, your fight for public ac¬
ceptance has been won. Any crusade that can earn
the endorsements of Dwight D. Eisenhower, Hairy S
Truman, plus Albertis S. Harrison, jr., is approaching
beatification.

Almost overnight, or so it seems, the cause of
planned parenthood has carried the day. For years
it was suspect by many, and then, abruptly, it is
acknowledged as the fact of life in our complex times.
You who have been the martyred missionaries must
be even more amazed at the sudden dawn than the
masses you have converted.

When I was a little younger, about 12, a book that
caught my fancy was The Story of Mankind by Hend¬
rik Willem Van Loon. He began by suggesting that
if all the people who had ever lived were of the same
convenient size, something above the average, they
all could be packed in a box one mile square and
balanced delicately on a peak in the Grand Can von.
And then, he said, his pet dog could place his wet,
black nose against the box, tip it into the Canvon,
and that would be that.

It seemed a startling notion then, but Mr. Van Loon’s
mile-square box could no longer hold the population.
The world itself has become that crowded box. We
are in that box.

Another book that engrossed me was by Asa Wil-
gus, a friend of mine and a fine novelist. Mr. Wil-
gus was so alarmed at the population trends that he
financed the publication of his views in 1948 in a
booklet entitled The Size of Our Family. His thesis,
which seemed radical 20 years ago, was that each
time population causes science to quicken the exploita¬
tion of our heritage, that exploitation permits another
leap in population. The circle goes on, round and
round— more people, more goods; more goods, more
people. In time though, Mr. Wilgus warned, man
would exhaust his heritage. He put it all in a little
poem published in still another book, sparks from the
scissor grinder:

l made me an axe
1 lost all my trees
I shaped me a plow
I lost all my soil

Trees mere plumes
Dirt a plodding loom

I hold in my palm
Sand Desert
Skull of a planet
I’m Man

Almost daily The Virginia-Pilot implores its readers
to improve schools, hospitals, and jails, but, even with
the examples of Mr. Van Loon and Mr. Wilgus, I
have not written with equal vigor of what you must
consider the basic cause of overcrowding in our pub¬
lic institutions — the sheer increase in population.
You all were out there working, and I had the com¬
fortable assurance that if your cause were good, you
and it would prevail, as you have.

Something in America rebels at the idea of limita¬
tions. We are quite willing to consider population
controls for India and China, and even among some
economic brackets of our own country; but we shrink
from the idea that there is a limit to our national
resources or what we can do with them, or how
many of us on this good earth they can support.
It is almost un-American — and I hasten to add that
I do not mean subversive — to think in terms of limita¬
tions. Thomas Jefferson said that Americans consider
nothing too desperate to undertake.

But all around us, even the most obtuse of us are
able to see the dangers of an unchecked population
increase: polluted water, poisonous skies, depleted
soils. It used to be, as recently as my grandfather’s
day, that families running into the teens in num¬
ber were the rule, and a glorious one. It is inter¬
esting to note, too, how manv men and women of
great achievement were born in these large families,
and often far down the stairsteps.

Now there is a feeling that it is a privilege to
bring children onto this earth, the most precious of
God-given privileges. The very space we occupy is
precious. There are no more physical frontiers hefe
on earth to explore and exploit. It may be that Amer¬
ica’s questing spirit will find new places to colonize
on other planets, but the most recent picture of the

Proceedings of Population Conference

35

moon is not conducive to luring pioneers (but then
that was always the case, was it not, with frontiers?).

Certainly, we must have time in which to prepare
to find a place in outer space. War, which used to
be a curb on population, is no longer safe. It can
too easily get out of hand. Man’s capacity to destroy
himself has outrun his ability to survive. The next
war might indeed be the war to end all wars, and
the world.

But, as we understand the dimensions of the prob¬
lem, we may begin to see that quite contrary to being
an inhibiting prospect, it is a supreme challenge, the
very sort of desperate undertaking at which Americans
excel. And communicating is, of course, the chief
means of discovering solutions, which is why we are
here today, and where we will begin.

DISCUSSION

FLOOR: What methods should be used to interest
more people in coming to family-planning clinios?

FRIDDELL: I would suggest that you consider all
means of communications open. You might begin,
as you did with me, with your daily newspaper.
Reallv, this whole session is a charade. You already
are among the most skilled and adept practitioners
of public relations. You have taken a distinctly un¬
popular cause, which was out of bounds of commu¬
nication, and broken down the barriers. You will
continue, I know, to invite newspapermen to your
conferences and inform them in advance of your speak¬
ers. Be unremitting in your attentiveness, so, if
nothing else, out of sheer exhaustion, we will capitu¬
late.

FLOOR: What are other methods of reaching peo¬
ple concerning birth control who cannot or will not
read?

FRIDDELL: As a newspaperman, I think first of
newspapers, but many persons who most need the
information might be reached more readily through
radio and television . . . I’m the most uninformed
among you. I’d like to hear some ideas from the
audience.

FLOOR: Radio and television stations devote a cer¬
tain amount of time for public service. It was pro¬
posed that spot announcements be made by broadcast¬
ing media.

FRIDDELL: That’s an admirable suggestion. My
observation of station managers and program directors
has been that they are most enlightened about public
causes.

FLOOR: It was suggested that it would be helpful
to rent a post office box with a low number, which
is easv to remember, so that people will write asking
for more information.

[The suggestion prompted Mr. Friddell into a sudden,
exuberant recollection of a Robert L. (“Believe It or
Not”) Ripley cartoon which depicted thousands of
Chinese marching four abreast across the horizon, a
never-ending parade.]

FRIDDELL: Your spot announcement could ask:
“Do you want to stop the population rise in China.
If so, write box so and so!” ... I don’t feel the sense
of levity I’m exhibiting here; it’s more a sense of
desperation.

FLOOR: Another way is to go to the public hous¬
ing areas and talk to the housing officer. He can
point out the names of the families that need to know
about family planning. Look through the “cradle
roll” of the newspaper and work directly through the
indigent wards to find who has had a baby. Con¬
duct a canvass like a politican going from door to
door. It is better to reach people in person. This
method has had the best results, so far. No one way
is the only or best way. We have found that the
word spreads around as one person simply tells an¬
other about being helped.

[The Eastern Shore Project was brought up. This
consisted of a visit by the public health nurse to
new mothers as soon as the babies came home from
the hospital. Plans for future parenthood started right
there. It was noted that this project was successful.]

FLOOR: How do you reach the people who are
married but have not yet had any children or the ones
that are not married but need to have this informa¬
tion?

FLOOR: One way would be to send letters to the
persons who have applied for marriage licenses tell¬
ing them about family planning and if they wish help
in family planning they can get it at the Planned
Parenthood Office.

FLOOR: A Medioal Committee meeting in Williams¬
burg endorsed sex education in schools. What is your
opinion about teaching sex education in the schools?

FRIDDELL: It depends how good a job the schools
are doing and how poor a job the parents are doing.
In the final analysis, when it comes to education of
any sort, I’ll go along with Thomas Jefferson and
say you can’t hurt people with the facts. I’m old-
fashioned enough to think that teaching should be
done at home but practical enough to know that often
enough it isn’t done at home, so perhaps it’s inevitable
that the schools assume the burden.

FLOOR: It was noted that the Parents and Teach¬
ers Association of Virginia has endorsed the teaching
of sex education in the schools.

FLOOR: Fifteen percent of the mothers in some
areas do not know how conception takes place. If
the parents do not know the facts themselves, the
school should take the resopnsibility of teaching the
children sex education. [It was noted that in some
cases teachers are not prepared to teach sex education

36

The Virginia Journal of Science

either. It was suggested that colleges add to their
curriculum a course on how to teach sex education.]
If the schools are to teach sex education, they should
have trained personnel.

FLOOR: Shouldn’t information about birth control
be directed towards men, as well as women?

FLOOR: Men can be reached through unions or em¬
ployers. Experience has shown that men are not as
motivated as women in seeking birth-control informa¬
tion. Furthermore, they tend to resent what they
interpret as interference in their family’s relations.

FLOOR: Shouldn’t we point out that family plan¬
ning is not directed towards any ethnic group?

FLOOR: Yes, family planning is for all mankind
regardless of race or color, not just one group of
citizens in particular. Among other organizations, the
National Association for the Advancement of Colored
People has endorsed family planning.

FLOOR: Is motivation the key word and should it
be the beginning of family planning?

FLOOR: Motivation is the key word. Underprivileged
Negroes as well as underprivileged whites should be
motivated to use birth control. It is the only way in
which they can raise their standards of living and
thereby assure each child his best chance on earth.

[It was brought out that the Virginia League for
Planned Parenthood has applied for a grant from the
Office of Economic Opportunity for the purpose of
motivating people to use birth-control information.]

The League wishes to reach every family in Virginia
that needs to know. It’s all very well to talk about
motivation, but we should try to realize the differ¬
ences in the lives of people who do not have educa¬
tion or money and just deal with them person to per¬
son.

FRIDDELL: I want to tell you all I have found
your comments vastly more edifying than my own,
and I am grateful to have had the opportunity of
hearing them.

III. Workshop on Education and Social Services

H. I. Willett

The problem of population explosion and its rela¬
tionship to standards of living is of grave concern to
leaders throughout the world. The population is in¬
creasing more rapidly than is food production in a
world where more than a third of the population is
too close to the point of starvation.

Planned parenthood, however, extends beyond the
question of mere survival. It relates to the family’s
responsibility for developing in children the kind of
love, guidance, and security that will provide a good
chance that they can become self-sustained, partici¬
pating members of our society.

Much of the unrest that exists not only in the rest
of the world but in this country is related to the fact
that the people at the bottom of the heap are no longer
willing to accept that role in a society that emphasizes
opportuntiy, respect, and dignity for the individual.
This means, of course, that education must play an
increasingly important role not only in giving knowl¬
edge, but knowledge that is accompanied by under¬
standing.

Our role today is to determine how education and
social service may contribute to the kind of family
life where children are given love, security, and motiva¬
tion that will make it possible for them to develop
to a high degree their own talents to the point that
they can make intelligent decisions for themselves and
for society, of which they are a part.

DISCUSSION

FLOOR: Will family planning reduce the rate of
school dropouts?

MR. WILLETT: Instruction in the home will have
much to do with this.

FLOOR: What is the rate of dropouts in Virginia?

FLOOR: For every 10 girls who get married, three
are pregnant at the time of marriage, according to
one unauthenticated source.

MR. WILLETT : If sex education is taught in schools,
the community should have an understanding of this
problem. Parents should have the instruction first.

MR. WILLETT: In public schools how to teach is
staff responsibility; what to teach is the responsibility
of community and school board.

FLOOR: PTA meetings offer an excellent oppor¬
tunity for discussion among parents and teachers on
questions of sex education in the schools. Parents
should teach attitudes and teachers should teach facts.

FLOOR: Sex education in Fairfax County has been
attempted by means of films. One experiment was a
film showing for girls. Attendance was compulsory
with parent’s consent. Only two percent were not
allowed to attend. At a movie shown for boys, in which
attendance was on a voluntary basis, there was only
a 15-percent attendance.

FLOOR: To what extent should high schools develop
sex education?

Proceedings of Population Conference

37

MR. WILLETT: One suggestion is that biology in¬
struction can play an increasingly important role.

FLOOR: What do we do about the situation in Vir¬
ginia now?

MR. WILLETT: Another suggestion would be to
develop model courses. Very little progress has been
made in this direction as yet.

FLOOR: How do we move from where we are to
where we ought to he? Should there be appropriate
legislation regarding sex education in schools?

FLOOR: It is suggested that we teach school chil¬
dren how pregnancy occurs. Fifth graders should be
taught some biology and physiology. Later on, in
high school, contraceptive measures could be taught
in special courses. Many girls come to my hospital
saying they didn’t know how they got pregnant.

FLOOR: In what grade should sex education begin?

IV. Workshop on

William C. Andrews, M.D.

The problem of population growth is a relatively
new one in the history of man. It has been estimated
that world population only doubled in the 1700 years
between the birth of Christ and the 17th Century.
At present rates, it is doubling in 35 years. Until the
relatively modern portion of history, because of high
infant mortality, it is estimated that despite high birth
rates an average of only slightly over 2 children survi¬
ved to adult life in any given family, and life expect-
ancv was limited bv the uncontrolled raw ges of dis¬
ease to approximately 30 years of age.

In this century the rapid increases in medical knowl¬
edge and public health techniques have been rapidly
decreasing the death rate while in wide areas of the
world there has been essentially no change in the birth
rate. The death rate in developing countries had
been cut bv two thirds in the 20 years from 1940 to
1960, but there has been no decrease in the birth rate.

Thomas Malthus a century and a half ago forecast
that population growth would lead to world poverty
unless halted by war, plague, or famine. The ful¬
fillment of this prediction has been deferred in most
of the world up to now by the opening of new lands
and bv increased industrial and agricultural produc¬
tivity. In Asia and Latin America, however, his pre¬
diction is coming true because there are no new fertile
lands to develop and there is a shortage of invest¬
ment capital to develop and improve the presently
used lands, plus the fact that the peasants are cling¬
ing to old fanning methods. The countries of the most
rapid growth are the poorest and are the trouble spots
of our present-dav international life. This popula¬
tion explosion has been described as a treadmill to
the poorhouse. As an example, in Latin America in

FLOOR: The fifth grade is too early.

FLOOR: The ninth grade is too late.

FLOOR: Mrs. Charles R. Duncan, President, Vir¬
ginia Congress of Parents and Teachers, noted the
following resolutions, recently passed:

Resolved, that the Virginia Congress of Parents and
Teachers urge its local units to take the initiative in
requesting their local School Boards to seek approval
for sex education in their schools; and be it further

Resolved, that the Virginia Congress of Parents and
Teachers request the State Board of Education to set
up a state-required instructional program for sex edu¬
cation in the schools; and that the Virginia Congress
of Parents and Teachers request the State Council on
Higher Education to initiate required courses in the
state teachers training institutions so that teachers will
be prepared to give instruction in sex education to
students.

Health and Science

the past five years the population has risen 14.5%
but their food production is up only 6.5%. This popu¬
lation growth threatens to nullify all our efforts to
raise the living standards in many of these poorer
countries. For 1964 the birth rate per thousand for
Brazil was estimated between 43 and 47, for Ghana
between 48 and 54, while the United States had a
rate of 21.6 per thousand. The population growth
in the United States at present is averaging 1.5% and
in South America 3%, and the world at large 2%.
The United Nations estimates the present world popu¬
lation of 3.4 billion will increase to 4.3 billion in the
next fifteen years, representing each year an increase
of 68 million people, enough to populate West Ger¬
many and the United Kingdom. If this present 2%
increase continued, world population would be 7.4
billion by the vear 2000, and 25 billion by 100 years
from now. We all can remember the justifications
of their territorial acquisitions offered by both Japan
and Germany in the buildup to World War II, the
need for “lebensraum”, or land for their expanding
populations. As population tensions increase, so would
the hazard, of war as it has in the past.

The more tangible problems produced by the ex¬
panding population are those of food supply, provision
of adequate energy for power, and the conservation
of natural resources and land for recreation. Some
who argue against the need for population control
maintain that bv increased use of scientific techniques
of agriculture, food production could keep up with
this rapid expanse.

Lester Brown, staff economist at the Department of
Agriculture, has studied the problem of food supply
in relation to population and has this to say:

“Food output per person in the less developed
regions (Asia, Africa and Latin American) dropped

38

The Virginia Journal of Science

sharply during World War II, but trended steadily
upward during the 1950’s, in most cases reaching or
closely approximating prewar levels. In the 1960’s,
however, output per person in these regions has shown
a disturbing tendency to trend downward.

“Before the war, the less developed regions were
exporting 11 million tons of grain per year to the
developed countries. After the war, this flow was
reversed ... in the 1960’s the reverse flow has
increased further, reaching 21 million tons in 1961
and 25 million tons in 1964.”

Brown further points out that “throughout history,
man has increased the food supply by expanding the
area under cultivation”. Today “nearly half the
world’s people live in less developed countries that
are now essentially fixed-land economies — that is,
almost all cultivatable land is already in use . . .
they must generate a . . . sustained rise in yield per
acre.

“To increase vield per acre, fertilizer is needed.
The magnitude of the task of increasing fertilizer
production is clear from the following figures: it costs
about 1 billion dollars to construct plants to produce
6 million tons of fertilizer per year. The world out¬
put of fertilizer now is 30 million tons. It must reach
100 million tons by 1980 to keep up with population
projections, and in addition there is ‘a big educational
job ahead to get farmers to use the fertilizer.’ Up
to now, foreign aid, without which efforts of this
magnitude would be impossible, has been consumed
in a losing battle to keep up with population growth.”

Turning to present day problems in the United
States, there are at present some 3 million children
receiving aid to dependent children allotments from
our government. Half of these were unwanted child¬
ren, and the cost of the care of this one half comes
to 600 million dollars per year. There are the multi¬
ple problems produced particularly in the ghettos of
our larger cities, wherein thousands of families have
the economic problem of supporting more children
than the father with his limited education can sup¬
port, no matter how well-intentioned he may be. The
limitations of this poverty further decrease tile chance
of the children receiving an education which might
lift them out of it. President Johnson in 1965 stated
that $5.00 invested in population control was worth
$100 invested in economic growth.

It is encouraging to note that there has been a
down-trend in the U. S. birth rate in each of the last
seven years which was most pronounced in 1965.
The number of births in the United States fell below
4 million in 1965 for the first time since 1953. In
our own State, the birth rate has fallen from a high
of 27 in 1947 to a low of 18.4 in the first half of
1966. In spite of this, our population continues to
climb and illegitimate births have doubled in the last
50 years.

Many social and economic factors obviously affect
the fluctuations in birth rate, but it seems highly prob¬

able that increased awareness of the need of popula¬
tion control, attributable in good measure to the cmsad-
ing efforts of Planned Parenthood, as well as the in¬
creasing efforts in expenditures by our Federal, State
and local agencies, and the improved techniques of
birth control, have all played a part in achieving these
recent improvements. As an example of what can
be achieved, a birth-control project in Mecklenburg
County, North Carolina, saved taxpayers an estimated
$250,000 in aid to dependent children in the first
four years of its operation. Two thirds of the women
enrolling in the program have remained in the pro¬
gram and none have become pregnant.

Dr. R. W. Jessee, Director of the Division of Local
Health Services of our State Health Department, in
a recent paper outlined the development of family
planning services in Virginia. I would like to quote
some facts from his paper to summarize this develop¬
ment.

The first organized effort for population control in
our State began in 1929 when Dr. Hudnall Ware
introduced contraceptive services in maternal welfare
clinics in the Medical College of Virginia Hospital.
In 1936 the Virginia Federation of Women’s Clubs
became the first organization in Virginia publicly to
endorse birth control. In 1942 the Medical Society
of Virginia did likewise. In August of 1937 the Vir¬
ginia League for Planned Parenthood was chartered
and has been expanding its efforts ever since. In 1956
the State Department of Health assumed the financial
responsibility for all contraceptives distributed by
Maternal, Child and Health Clinics in local Health
Departments. In 1962 the General Assembly of Vir¬
ginia enacted legislation permitting the performance of
“voluntary sterilization”. And lastly, in 1966 the Vir¬
ginia General Assembly appropriated funds specifically
designated for provision of Family Planning Services
throughout the State Department of Health. There
are now clinics operating in the vast majority of cities
and counties of our Common weal th. In 1960, 250
women were seen in the Health Department Clinics
in Virginia for family planning onlv. In 1966 this num¬
ber exceeded 25,000. For additional comparison, in the
fiscal year 1960-61, total expenditures for contracep¬
tive supplies and equipment by the State Department
of Health was less than $2,500. In 1966 this had
risen to $67,000. In the same period of time the cost
of the patient-month supply of oral contraceptive
drugs was cut in half.

On a local level, Norfolk Planned Parenthood started
a Family Planning Clinic six years ago in the Public
Health Center, staffed by volunteers, providing con¬
traceptive foam and making referrals to hospital clinics
and private physicians. Two and one-half years ago
a pill study for postpartum patients at one hospital
was added to Norfolk Planned Parenthood’s services .
Last year, after receiving a request from Norfolk Plan¬
ned Parenthood, the Citv of Norfolk appropriated funds
to take over the clinic and pill study and offer full
services. The Public Health Family Planning Clinic
opened January 3, 1966, with two afternoon clinics a

Proceedings of Population Conference

39

week, and on December 1st was expanded with
the addition of five evening clinics a week. For these
clinics to be effective, the people who need this aid
must be made aware of their availability and moti¬
vated to attend. Application has been made to the
Office of Economic Opportunity for a greatly expand¬
ed educational program to carry this information into
the deprived areas which are so desperately in need
of contraceptive information and aid.

The problem of illegitimacy in this State remains
a large one. The ratio of illegitimate births to all
births increased from 8.9% in 1964 to 10% in 1965,
or 1 out of every 10 children. I would like to seek
vour ideas on methods of apporaching this problem
in the discussion period to follow.

The basic methodology of birth control presently
available is, I am sure, familiar to most of you. Any
questions on this might also be brought out in dis¬
cussion. One controversial measure not presently avail¬
able in the United States is that of legalized elec¬

tive abortion. Japan brought its rate of population
increase from 3% to 1% in ten years by active govern¬
mental pursuit of birth control combined with legal¬
ized abortion.

A graph (Fig. 1) prepared by Dr. Richard L. Day,
Medical Director of Planned Parenthood, quite well
summarizes the overall numerical problems of uncon¬
trolled population expansion. It can be seen that if
the average number of children in fertile families re¬
mained at 3, the population of the United States would
double in 81 years, but if it were 4, the population
would be increased fourfold in that same length of
time.

Society needs an appropriate number of children
and this goal must be achieved without invading the
right of privacy of individual families or affecting the
sensibilities of any group. The hope is that if no
unwanted children were conceived the goals of indi¬
vidual families will be achieved and that these goals
will coincide with the needs of society sufficiently
to make exhortation or even compulsion unnecessary.

YEARS 27 54 81 108 135

Fig. 1. Projected increase in U.S. population based on number of chil¬
dren per familv. (Personal communication from Dr. Richard L. Day,
Medical Director, Planned Parenthood Federation of America.)

40

The Virginia Journal of Science

DISCUSSION

FLOOR: Is there elective legalized abortions in Vir¬
ginia?

DR. ANDREWS: Only if tbe life of a mother is
threatened. It cannot be done in Virginia if the
mother has German measles or for psychiatric reasons.
In Japan an elective abortion is legal.

FLOOR: We are losing sight of the basic problem.
We must first try to prevent unwanted pregnancies.
It is the duty of the medical profession to provide
contraceptive advice and assistance.

FLOOR: Many times, unless a patient asks for birth-
control advice, physicians do not give it. It is the
physician’s responsibility to volunteer birth-control in¬
formation to his patient.

FLOOR: Most of those who want an abortion can
get it illegally.

FLOOR: Virginia law prohibits abortion except to
save the life of the mother. Abortions are not permit¬

William B. Oglesby, Jr., D.D., Ph.D.

There can be no doubt regarding the seriousness
of the population explosion. A recent advertisement
by the American Cyanamid Companv headlined: “Fri¬
day, November 13, 2026. Remember this Date . . .
It’s Doomsday.” The text went on to show that
by that date there would be 50,000,000,000 persons
living on earth with no possibility for feeding them.
Thus, inevitably, we would be in the Starvation Age
— Doomsday! Whether the dire prediction material¬
izes may depend, in some measure, on what we do
today in concert with similar gatherings elsewhere in
this nation and throughout the world. Today the popu¬
lation is increasing at the rate of 1,300,000 per week,
up from 800,000 just ten years ago. For millions
the spectre of famine will not wait until 2026. It
will be here within the decade.

Anv discussion of population control inevitably must
deal with the religious question. It is a truism to
note that this is a particularly thornv issue. The
headlines in the newspapers of recent date serve to
indicate the tension it creates, and the pressures within
and upon the power structures of the several religious
groups, particularly the Roman Catholic Church. Our
purpose in this workshop is to attempt an understand¬
ing of the issues set in historical context, and to seek

ted to protect the health of the mother. The present
law is included in the criminal statutes of the Code
but, contrary to other criminal statutes, places the
burden of proof on the physician rather than the
State.

FLOOR: If elective legalized abortion becomes ethi¬
cally acceptable, what is the feeling of the audience?

FLOOR: I would not perform an abortion under any
circumstances.

FLOOR: It appears that a majority of the members
of this workshop would favor the liberalization of the
existing law to allow abortions performed to protect
the health of the mother as well as her life. Many
of the group suggest additional modification of the
law to allow abortions in case of rape, incest or instances
in which congenital abnormalities are predictable; i.e.,
German measles, or certain drugs.

FLOOR: Should sex education be provided in Vir¬
ginia at all school levels?

DR. ANDREWS: It appears that time will not permit
us to reach a concensus on this question.

on Religion

the means for a solution within the possibilities open
to us. It is significant that the controversy over birth
control emerges only in the Judeo-Christian heritage
which has placed great emphasis on the dignity and
sacredness of the individual and the sanctity of life.
It is also noteworthy that practically every group
within this tradition has at one time or other opposed
birth control but has changed its position through the
years with the major exception of the Roman Catho¬
lic Church.

Basically, the question turns on the meaning and
purpose of sexual relations in marriage. Vatican II,
in its Pastoral Constitution on the Church in the Mod¬
em World, December 7, 1965, stated: “Marriage and
conjugal love are by their nature ordained toward
the begetting and educating of children . . . Hence,
while not making the other purposes of matrimony
of less account, the tine practice of conjugal love and
the whole meaning of the family life which results
from it have this aim: that the couple be ready
with stout hearts to cooperate with the love of the
Creator and the Savior, who through them will en¬
large and enrich his own family day by day.” (No. 50)
The text continues, noting that “Marriage, to be sure,
is not instituted solely for procreation.” Even so, it
is this emphasis which has traditionally marked the
position of the Roman Catholic Church stemming from
Augustine through Aquinas to the present.

As indicated earlier, practically every religious group

V. Workshop

Proceedings of Population Conference

41

in the Judeo-Christian tradition has at one time or
other opposed birth control on the same grounds.
More recently, however, this position has changed.
On February 23, 1961, the National Council of Church¬
es adopted a statement on birth control which noted
that “genuine marriage, in the Biblical view, is a
union whereby husband and wife became ‘one flesh’.”
In this sense the sexual relationship within marriage
is meaningful not only in the matter of procreation
but also in the establishing and maintaining of this
fundamental unity. Likewise the Lambeth Confer¬
ence of the Anglican Communion in 1958 states: “The
Biblical revelation, however, does not limit the func¬
tion of sexuality and the family to the reproductive
purpose. Equallv deep-rooted in Genesis is . . . the
need of man and woman for each other, to comple¬
ment and fulfill each other and to establish a durable
partnership against the loneliness and rigour of life.”

It is in this tension that the issue is joined. Signif¬
icantly, the Roman Catholic Church is presently en¬
gaged in a restudy of the whole matter. Beginning
in 1932, this group made provision to allow for birth
control bv what has come to be known as the “rhvthm
method,” by which sexual relations were confined to
the infertile periods of the wife. Vatican II noted
the problem facing parents “where at least tempo¬
rarily the size of their families should not be increas¬
ed.” While aware of the tension, no new means for
resolving it was set forth.

The entire issue focuses on the means for the con¬
trol of birth and ordinarily turns on whether the means
is “artificial” or “natural.” The struggle in the United
States has centered in the so-called “Comstock Laws”
enacted in 1873. Most severe in the state of Con¬
necticut, where it was illegal for married couples to
use any sort of birth-control device, these laws were
attacked bv Margaret Sanger and others for manv
years. In recent years most of these laws have been
declared unconstitutional although there is still vigor¬
ous opposition to the use and dissemination of birth-
control information and contraceptive devices.

Discovery of contraceptive “pills” has added a new
dimension to the argument. Certain Roman Catholic
theologians have taken the position that this is not
actuallv “artificial,” and thus does not come under
the ban of the Church. At present no ruling has been
issued. In June of 1964, Pope Paul VI appointed
an international commission to study the question and
report its findings to him. The commission has com¬
pleted its work, but its findings have not been pub¬
lished. Moreover, the Pope has indicated that he,
alone, will decide the matter. While appeals of vary¬
ing sorts, including a letter signed by eighty-five of
the world’s religious and scientific leaders, have been
transmitted to the Pope requesting that he change his
church’s stand on birth control, no indication has been
given as to his intention.

In November of this year the question flared into
the open by the sharply worded statement of the Ro¬
man Catholic Bishops of the United States charging
the United States Government with coercion of citi¬

zens to practice birth control in connection with wel¬
fare programs. This statement has been roundly chal¬
lenged by leading government officials and by high
authorities in the Roman Catholic Church including
William D’ Antonio, Chairman of the Catholic Com¬
mittee on Population and Government Policy and Pro¬
fessor of Sociology at Notre Dame, and the National
Catholic Reporter , a weekly newspaper published in
Kansas City, Missouri. Significantly, the statement
reiterates that the “freedom of spouses to determine
the size of their families” is crucial, noting that cou¬
ples should be allowed to have children when they
desire them. It is noteworthy that the Bishops did
not argue the corollary freedom; i.e., that couples
should be allowed not to have children if they did
not desire them.

It is clear that this is a time of crisis, a time of
foment. Within the Roman Catholic Church, which
is the largest group opposing birth-control information
and measures, there is notable debate. It is likely
that within a very short while there will emerge a
new stance which will be designed to cope creatively
with the impending tragedy of starvation and death.

DISCUSSION

FLOOR: What religious groups other than the Ro¬
man Catholics are against birth control on doctrinal
grounds?

DR. OGLESBY: I do not know of any other major
religious group that has taken a doctrinal stand on
this issue, but there may be others. Since Dr. Gutt-
rnacher is here right now, I would like to ask his word
on this.

DR. GUTTMACHER: The Mormons are opposed to
birth control, as are the Orthodox Jews. Numerically,
however, these are not large groups.

DR. OGLESBY: I believe that this is not true of
the Conservative and Reformed Jewish groups, which
comprise a far larger number.

DR. GUTTMACHER: This is correct.

FLOOR: What of other world religions? What of
India, etc.?

DR. OGLESBY: As I indicated in the opening state¬
ment, this concern has emerged only in the Judeo-
Christian tradition where there has been a high regard
for human life and the sanctity of the individual. Once
again I would like to call on Dr. Guttmaoher, who
has traveled about the world and can provide the
information here.

DR. GUTTMACHER: You mentioned India; and
there is certainlv no negative reaction there.

FLOOR: How best can the information about plan-

42

The Virginia Journal of Science

ned parenthood be gotten into the local church groups?

DR. OGLESBY: There is, at present, a good sup¬
ply of helpful literature that can be used in study
programs, adult discussion groups, special seminars
and the like. Every church has such programs, and
the pastor can make good use of the material avail¬
able through Planned Parenthood to help the mem¬
bers of his congregation understand the problems and
the solutions.

FLOOR: There is a study book prepared for use
in Presbyterian youth groups that deals with the whole
matter of sex and its relationship to growth and
maturity. This begins as far back as nine and ten years
old.

DR. OGLESBY: Yes, youth conferences provide an
excellent opportunity for this tvpe of teaching.

FLOOR: How can the church speak more forcefully?
What is the position of the church with regard to
premarital sex? Some statements from the clergy re¬
cently seem to approve it.

DR. OGLESBY: I am sure that no one can speak
for “the church” since there would be variations in
attitude and position among the several groups and
denominations. My impression is that “the church”
in general would certainly be against premarital sex.
As to how the church can speak more forcefully, I
suppose that this involves what it has to say and how.
Taking one tack here, I believe that the church needs
to recover the historic fact that sex has tended to get
pushed into the “sin column”, which is not the bibli¬
cal position at all. Once the church comes to grips
with this, we will have made enormous strides.

FLOOR: Why does organized religion tend to edu¬
cate against premarital sex rather than educate in the
wavs to prevent impregnation?

DR. OGLESBY: Again, without attempting to speak
for all organized religion, my opinion is that fear of
impregnation is not the basis for being against pre¬
marital sex. The issues go much deeper in the mat¬
ter of personality development, exploitation of others,
and the like.

FLOOR: Where should sex education be given? In
the home? The church? The schools?

DR. OGLESBY: As you certainly know, there are
a lot of emotional factors in this question. It would
be nice if it could be answered on a purely logical
or practical basis, but that just isn’t possible. Most
of us would agree that we certainly need more and
better sex education; but there is wide difference of
opinion as to the proper locale for it. I would imagine
that this is not an either-or matter. If, ideally, sex
education should be done in the home, we would
nevertheless have to recognize that this simply will
not happen in many instances. For this reason, I be¬
lieve that the church and the school need to assume
a responsibility for this. But, of course, the church
and school are made up of people and we are often
faced by the fact that the very people who do not

provide sex education in the home may be the ones
most opposed to its taking place in the church and
the school.

FLOOR: What is behind the illegitimacy rate?
FLOOR: I believe it lies in the fact that teenagers
have cars, access to alcohol, more money than we had
when we were that age, and they just naturally tend
to get into trouble. Also, some young people are very
hesitant to use contraceptives. But it seems unrea¬
sonable to think that they will wait until their mid-
twenties when they get married to engage in sexual
relations. Statistics indicate that most young people
do not wait, and thus I believe they ought to be given
contraceptive information.

FLOOR: When should you begin sex education?
What age group?

DR. OGLESBY: I suppose it depends on the defini¬
tion of sex education. In one sense, sex education
begins literally at the time of birth, in the relation¬
ship of the mother to the child, and the relationship
of the members of the family, in the attitude toward
persons and toward sex. The child absorbs these at¬
titudes and feelings long before he is conscious of
what they mean. Actually, however, what we ordi¬
narily think of as sex education, that is the reproduc¬
tive process, begins about the age of 4 or 5 when
the child begins to ask questions about the birth of
a sibling or something similar. The “law of readiness”
is much more of a consideration than any fixed age.
Later on, this learning takes place in more formal and
systematic fashions through the use of printed texts.
This latter, however, is successful primarily in propor¬
tion to the success of the former.

FLOOR: How can you expect parents to give sex
education when most students in school know more
about sex than their parents?

DR. OGLESBY: Well, I suppose the question answers
itself. Sometimes parents really know more than their
children suspect. The problem is that the parents
have emotional blocks in talking about it. This is
one place the church can help, i.e., in enabling the
parents to work through these emotional taboos which
were passed on to them by their parents. Anything
that can break this vicious cycle is progress. In the
Presbyterian Church, with which I am most familiar,
the new “Home and Family” program is designed to
accomplish this sort of thing. There are special pub¬
lications for parents of children to be used in seminar
discussions designed to enable parents to be more re¬
sponsible in this and other areas in the rearing of
their children.

FLOOR: What kind of information does the minister
give to those who come to him to be married?

DR. OGLESBY: It must be said that there is no
uniformity here; inevitably, some ministers do a bet¬
ter job of premarital counseling than others. In recent
vears, the seminaries have given more emphasis toward
the training of ministers in these matters, and my im¬
pression is that those who have received this kind

Proceedings of Population Conference

43

of instruction tend to be more effective. This does
not mean, of course, that there are not many older
ministers who have been quite helpful here. But I
believe that the proportion is higher now.

FLOOR: Where do ministers get the information to
give about sex? What is their relationship to the
medical profession here?

DR. OGLESBY: The information, of course, comes
from recognized texts as well as from class discussions
and conversations with medical personnel. The point,
as I see it, is that the minister should never move out
of his own field of competency, and in no instance
would he attempt to deal with these things which
properly belong to the work of the physician. The
ideal situation is the minister and doctor working to¬
gether as a team so that the young couple can have
access to all aspects of sex education, both the physical
and the spiritual. It is in this team relationship that
their opportunity to understand this fundamental aspect
of their marriage is most enhanced .

FLOOR: My impression is that most medical schools
do not prepare doctors to give this information, that

Panel Discussion By

DR. GUTTMACHER: We will keep this panel dis¬
cussion very informal. There is a tremendous num¬
ber of questions to digest, but having read over sev¬
eral of them, I think that maybe I want to ask the
reaction of some members of the panel, particularly
Dr. Oglesby and Dr. Andrews, as to whether or not
we are in the midst of a so-called sexual revolution,
and whether or not the sex ways of our youths have
changed as dramatically as some of these questions
seem to indicate. Dr. Oglesby, would you like to stick
your neck out on this?

DR. OGLESBY: Yes, it would be sticking one’s neck
out to attempt a reply. I think we are in the midst
of a sexual revolution. Just exactly what’s its extent,
what’s its nature, what’s its direction, I am not sure.

It seems to me that there is a definite change in
the matter of cutural norms, of folkways regarding
sex. There is a breakdown of the kinds of taboos
which used to be— for want of a better word— inhibiting
factors. These are no longer there.

It may be that this will require a rethinking of
what one really believes about sex, broadly defined
in terms of the whole structure of life.

DR. ANDREWS: I would say that from a medical
point of view, I think most of us who are in private
practice are under the impression that there are more
women becoming pregnant prior to marriage. I think
this is borne out by the statistics of Dr. Jessee’s pa¬
per which was quoted earlier, that the illegitimacy

is, to talk with couples about to be married. Is
there any way to help this situation?

DR. OGLESBY: I suspect that the situation here
varies just about as much as the training of ministers,
that is, some do and some don’t. When I was in the
parish ministry, I had a working relationship with two
or three physicians who were able and willing to
talk with young couples about to be married. I can’t
speak for medical education, but I think it is likely
that more attention is being paid to this type of thing
today than formerly. Personally, I would certainly
hope so.

FLOOR: What churches, if any, would be averse
to their clergy giving brides- and grooms-to-be simple
written advice on family planning?

DR. OGLESBY: I do not know of any, with the pos¬
sible exception of the Roman Catholic Church.

FLOOR: The Roman Catholic Church would not
oppose this in principle. It would be concerned that
the method of family planning conform to the teach¬
ing of the Church, i.e., the “rhythm method”.

Workshop leaders

rate in Virginia has risen from 8.9 percent in 1964
to 10 percent in 1965.

DR. GUTTMACHER: Now, gentlemen, we have two
authorities that seem to be in agreement that our sex
ways have changed dramatically. Now if this is true,
where do we go from here? Are you going to change
them back, or are you going to accommodate to this
new situation?

DR. OGLESBY: Well, I thought I wouldn’t get by
with just that little bit of an answer I gave. Many
people think that in the past non-marital sexual be¬
havior was controlled by fear: fear of pregnancy
and fear of disease. If this was true, both of these
fears are gone today— at least in theory.

What remains now is a means whereby one thinks
through the rightness or wrongness of sex apart from
marriage, rather than simply refraining because of
these fears. And if these fears are gone— and I believe
they are— then our culture is in a position to deal
with the basic meaning of the sexual relationship in
and out of marriage on much more basic terms. For
a time we will be in a period of transition while we
are attempting to work out some new approaches
different from those based on fear. But in the end
it is my judgment that the result will be much more
constructive; that is, we will have a much more posi¬
tive and constructive approach to sexual relationships
than the approach which heretofore has been based
on fear as the primary means of control.

DR. ANDREWS: We discussed a little earlier, I

44

The Virginia Journal of Science

believe at lunch, an aspect of this problem and the
fact that there are two approaches to it, one naive
and the other practical. I think I probably stand
somewhere in the middle.

Possibly naively, I would hope that by effective
use of sex education in our schools we could make
some inroads into this by strengthening the meaning
of the marriage act, that is, giving it more meaning
than a purely physical outlet. It is hoped that the
increase in illegitimacy and premarital intercourse
might be thus altered.

On the practical side, in the meanwhile, the unmar¬
ried female or male who seks birth-control advice
should be able to receive it. It is a question which
many of the organizations dealing with this problem
are meeting today in various ways. I think the other
question which would come up to a group like this
is: if birth-control advice and measures are to be
made available to single persons, should this fact be
publicized?

DR. GUTTMACHER: Mr. Willett, we have gotten
into the area of sex education and there are enumerable
questions here. Would you like to make a statement
about this before we quiz you too sharply?

MR. WILLETT: We have just spent an hour in our
workshop talking about the responsibility of the par¬
ents— and the schools— and where one begins and the
other ends. I think we certainly recognize that if
we believe that education is the search for truth, and
that education must include not only knowledge but
understanding, then we have to assume some respon¬
sibility in the schools not only for the knowledge
iself, but for the attitudes that Dr. Andrews referred
to just a moment ago.

I think the thing that is needed perhaps more than
anything else right now is to define more clearly what
is the responsibility of the schools for sex education.
We said earlier that we have operated rightlv or wrong¬
ly on the assumption that the professional educators
are supposed to have a knowledge of how to teach,
but historically in America the “what” to teach has
been the decision of the community in the final anal¬
ysis.

We might agree as educators that we have not given
enough leadership in seeing that sex education played
its proper role, but certainly most educators I know
would assume that we do have such a role. We do
need clarification of just what that role is.

DR. GUTTMACHER: Then thus far we seem to
have come to an agreement that there is a change
in our sex ways. This involves our youth. We have
had then the statement from Mr. Willett that there
is a responsibility to carry out sex education in the
schools.

Some of the questions here are far more specific
than that, and I think that if we are going to under¬
take sex education we ought to try to be a little
more specific as to what role the home, school, ministry,
and other avenues of education have.

My own feeling is that the home is a magnificent
place to give sex education, but it’s a pipe dream to
think that in America it’s a very common source of
sound sex education. It seems to me from my observa¬
tions that the home has fallen down very badly. Fur¬
thermore, the youths who need sex education most
probably come from homes least able to supply par¬
ental guidance.

Would anybody like to react to this?

MR. WILLETT: Well, I think the No. 1 problem
is accepting responsibility. Certainly many parents
are not equipped to provide sex education. We also
find that many teachers are not equipped to provide
it either.

We have in our group the dean of one of our insti¬
tutions that prepare teachers. Now I would like to
see teachers that have had more preparation for teach¬
ing sex education. I think the institutions might say
to me, “If you send pupils to us that have been taught
sex education with the proper attitude, we could do
a better job.” So many people think of sex educa¬
tion as a special course. It ought to be introduced
in the schools at some point. It seems to me that
we must treat sex as a normal part of life. Sex edu¬
cation might well begin when a child first enters school.
We have plenty of opportunity for sex education in
existing courses whenever the role of the school is
defined. Concerning the school’s responsibility there
are two points: No. 1, the community has never said
too loudly to us that they wanted us to teach sex in
the schools; and, No. 2, it has often not been a part
of the training of teachers and they consequently
often feel quite insecure in this assignment, just as
insecure as the parents do in many cases.

So the first thing is to understand quite clearly
what they want the schools to do. If the teacher
sticks her neck out beyond what the community wants,
and bv so doing gets a negative reaction, she is likely
to avoid this type of instruction in the future. Cer¬
tainly we all recognize that it is a subject that must
be taught well.

DR. GUTTMACHER: I would like now to throw this
open to the audience. You have had two issues pre¬
sented to you: one is what we probably incorrectly
oall a sexual revolution and its results; the other
then is the matter of sex education. Is there any fur¬
ther information or points of view of the audience
that you would like to express before we go on.
FLOOR: Sex education is not taught as a regular
course in Virginia’s schools. Therefore parents should
petition school boards and request our legislators to
do something about this.

MR. WILLETT: I think you are correct in stating
that we need to decide in Virginia what role the
schools are to play. Of course most of us here know
that a resolution passed several years ago by the Gen¬
eral Assembly of Virginia had some impact in decreas¬
ing the amount of sex education that was then being
taught in our schools. I question the need for formal

Proceedings of Population Conference

45

action by the General Assembly in the specific area
of teaching, but because of the fact that we did have
this resolution that had a negative effect on both state
and local leadership, we now need some type of posi¬
tive action on the part of the state to indicate and
approve the guidelines.

I think this is something that could easily be left
in the hands of the State Board of Education and
the local Boards of Education if the people make it
known that they reallv want such a program.

DR. GUTTMACHER: Are there other questions from
the audience?

DR. OGLESBY: I would like to add a word in con¬
nection with Dr. Willett’s remarks. I think all of us,
in thinking about sex education, are really thinking
about a specific course of instruction with various
kinds of curriculum devices in the schools and else¬
where. I think we also are thinking about this whole
matter of sex education as having to do with human
integrity and day-to-day human interrelationships. Sex
education has a much broader meaning than the purely
biological aspects. It relates to the maturity of the
individual and the development of a sense of respon¬
sibility. Hence, sex education cannot be limited to
the school.

DR. GUTTMACHER: To change the focus for a
moment, because Mr. Boushall has been completely
left out of the discussion so far, there are some ques¬
tions here in regard to whether or not our thriving
economy depends upon a rising population. Is it pos¬
sible for U.S. economy to remain in high gear if we
decrease appreciably the rate of growth?

MR. BOUSHALL: The point that was brought up
about the people in India wanting a larger popula¬
tion, believing that made some economic contribution,
is very fallacious. What we in America need is not
200 million more people. We need to take the 200
million people we have, hold to that number or nearly
so if we can, and then come back to improve the
basic family life: to educate Virginia’s children so
that thev will be skilled people who will be contribu¬
tors to the economy, not a drain on it. To the extent
we in American can bring all of our people, at least
all of our working population, on the contributing side,
then to that extent our economy has no limit. But
to bring 200 million more people into being at tire
same level we have today could inundate us just as
is the case in India today with its 500 million people,
who are unskilled and uneducated, who are not able
to support themselves or their families. So the issue
of increasing the population for economic growth is
very stupid. Better education of the population for
economic development is very sound and necessarv.

DR. GUTTMACHER: The problem of birth control
for teenagers as one of the answers to the illegitimacy
problem finds its way in many of these questions, and
I suppose we can’t in any way put this problem under
the table. We have to bring it out in the open, and
the question of course is, should we teach birth con¬

trol as such to high school students. I know in New
York, and I assume the same situation here, we have
a very high dropout rate for girls in some of our
high schools because of pregnancy. Therefore, if we
are going to teach birth control effectively to high
school students, we have to start fairly young, per¬
haps at the freshman or sophomore level because most
of the dropouts, I believe, are in the junior or senior
year. And if we are to teach birth control, is this
then a responsibility of the school? Should we ac¬
tually make a studied effort to introduce contracep¬
tion at the level of high school?

DR. ANDREWS: I think the concern that comes with
this is whether we encourage premarital sex relations
if we actually teach this in the schools. I do not
know that I have a conviction as to whether or not
I would advocate teaching birth control per se in
schools. I do think that the whole physiology of
reproduction should definitely be taught. I also think
and believe that the girl who wants birth-control in¬
formation should be able to obtain it. And I believe
that the girl who would seek birth-control information
at a clinic would not thereby be encouraged to under¬
take an immoral act simply by having this knowledge.
My own thought is that if they are willing to go out
and request birth-control information it should be avail¬
able to them, and I would personally think we should
make known where it is available to them. I am a
little hesitant about introducing birth control per se
as a subject in the schools. I may be a little old-
fashioned on this. Perhaps this is my naive side com¬
ing out.

DR. OGLESBY: Well, I have nothing to add to the
things you have said other than it seems to me that
all of us would certainly be against anything that
would encourage sexual promiscuity in high schools.
While we have no evidence that this procedure would
in fact encourage promiscuity, my point is that it would
be necessaiy to be certain about it. I do not believe
that sexual promiscuity produces healthy, mature adults.
This may be my own naivete, but I have got some
real feeling about it.

DR. GUTTMACHER: I know that a moderator
should moderate and not talk, but I have thought a
lot about this whole matter of sex education and I
have had some experience with it as a physician in
Baltimore and New York.

I have a thoroughly dogmatized point of view. In
the first place, I agree that good basic sex education
is instilled in children by the attitude of parents toward
each other, and their attitude toward sex in general.
But let’s leave that out because it is too self-evident.

My own feeling is that sex education begins about
the age of eleven in the fifth grade when one parti¬
cularly emphasizes the physiology of reproduction and,
if possible, one shows spermatozoa through the micro¬
scope, washes eggs out of the tubes, dissects pregnant
animals as a series of embryos and things of this
graphic nature in order to show the student what we
are reallv talking about.

46

The Virginia Journal of Science

And then I think it has to be repeated at about
the eighth-grade level when we begin to talk about
male-female relationships, the differences between
male and female, the dating relationships and things
of this general nature. And then I think it has to
be repeated again at the high-school level. Also I
think it depends somewhat on the sample we’re deal¬
ing with, whether one does it at the second- or third-
year level. At this time specific contraceptive informa¬
tion should be given.

It seems to me we are deluding ourselves. I talked
about this to a group in New York recently, and two
of the women who were present told me one had a
daughter in the senior year of one of the private finish¬
ing schools of the New York area, and according to
her daughter’s tally 50 percent of her classmates were
not virgins. Another woman had a child in high school
in Washington, and according to her report 50 per¬
cent of the girls in the class were not virgins. Now
I am sure this is not an exact tally, but I think it does
give a pretty specific idea that virginity seems to be
a lost art in many areas.

Now if we do admit this, then I think we are dodg¬
ing our responsibility by not telling these young folks
how to protect themselves. I think Dr. Andrews has
said he feels that contraception knowledge does not
invite promiscuitv. I hope this is correct. I am not
sure of it. At the same time I think it does not invite
it strongly enough to condemn knowledge of this va¬
riety.

FLOOR: Since the specific question was raised as
to the feasibility of teaching the use of contraceptives
at the high-school or secondary-school level, it was
admitted by our panel members that thev were a lit¬
tle bit afraid of this, might I ask the question: “Would
they be afraid of having a test program or some sort
of a pilot program to actually test this question of
whether or not this would increase promiscuity?”

DR. GUTTMACHER: It seems to me underlying
this whole thing that we are like mice who are try¬
ing to build a cat. We are trying to change our
mores, and that takes a lot of courage and time. What
is lacking is the courage. I went through a period of
this in my public health career and it can be rather
traumatic for the person who tries to do it. For ex¬
ample, a PTA audience can make you feel almost
like you are a crminal for trying to bring the subject
up. But back to the question just raised: might
not a pilot study be a beginning?

The question suggests that we do a controlled study,
i.e., give birth-control education to one group, and
not give it to another comparable group, to see if
pregnancy and promiscuity rates have been increased
in those having this knowledge.

DR. ANDREWS: I think if this program could be
set up it would be a very good way of getting the
answer. I think I would also have to plead guilty
to some lack of courage in approaching this. Al¬
though I would like the answer from the study, I am

afraid it would be quite difficult to set up, but hope-
fullv this might be done.

DR. GUTTMACHER: Now the problem of attitude
toward abortion occupied a great deal of the discus¬
sion in Dr. Andrew’s workshop, and since I thought
the discussion was intensely interesting, may I ask
Dr. Andrews to summarize it, and to bring up the
moot points that it created.

DR. ANDREWS: When it was brought up in our
workshop, the point was mentioned that in Japan a
very aggressive program to reduce the growth rate
of the populaton, employing both government support
of birth-control measures and elective legalized abor¬
tion, had cut their growth rate from 3 percent to 1
percent.

There are many ramifications of this. First, the
law at the moment in Virginia specifies that abortion
can only be performed where the life of the mother
is threatened. The two most obvious situations in
which this presents a problem are: the mother who
has German measles in the first three months of preg¬
nancy, and hence there would be a threat of having
an abnormal child; and the mother who has serious
psychiatric illness in which the psychiatrist feels a
pregnancy would be damaging. As the law now stands
it is illegal to perform abortions in these two situa¬
tions. There has been a feeling that possibly the law
should be liberalized to at least encompass these two
situations.

I think probably the concensus of those in my work¬
shop is that, at the moment, we are probably not
ready for elective legalized abortion as it is now
presently available in Japan and to a lesser degree
in Sweden. In fact, probably the majority of our
group would be against it.

In the discussion there was also concern for the
girl or woman who might be a rape victim, or the
girl whose life might be irreparably influenced and
altered by an unplanned pregnancy prior to marriage.
But again I think the concensus of my group would
be that we are not at the point of advocating elec¬
tive legalized abortion at this time.

DR. GUTTMACHER: Maybe I didn’t follow this
closely enough. Your group was in favor of liberal¬
izing the law but not in favor of elective abortion.
Is that the stand you took?

DR. ANDREWS: In a show of hands in my group
five favored liberalization of the law to take care of
situations such as I discussed and seven were opposed,
if mv memory is correct. The great majority did not
take a stand one way or the other.

DR. GUTTMACHER: It seems to me that this is
a very conservative attitude. In New York we seem
to be much further along in this area. Our problem
is whether to allow abortion on demand or simply to
liberalize the law. It is not a question of whether
or not you should do either, but everybody seems to
take it for granted the law is archaic and it has to

Proceedings of Population Conference

47

be changed. The question is: “How far do you
change it?”, not “Whether you change it”. But you
have not yet reached that point of whether you want
to change it, so I guess that comes next.

DR. ANDREWS: The big problem was how the
people felt who were not committed, and I think
there were probably thirty who did not vote one
way or the other.

DR. GUTTMACHER: (To the panel) Do you want
a show of hands here now?

DR. GUTTMACHER: (To the audience, after a
lengthy attempt to clarify the question of liberaliza¬
tion of Virginia’s laws to include abortion in case of
rape, incest, or when there is a probability of an ab¬
normal fetus, and other situations) How many of
you in the audience would like to see the Virginia
laws on abortion continued as they are now?

[Note: There was a sprinkling of hands in the audi¬
ence.]

DR. GUTTMACHER: (To the audience) How many
of you would like to see the law somewhat liberalized?

DR. GUTTMACHER: (After observing a show of
hands in the audience) Well, there seems to be
an overwhelming number in the audience favoring
liberalization of Virginia’s laws on abortion.

DR. GUTTMACHER: (To Dr. Andrews) I think
there was another matter of interest that came before
your workshop: namely, the matter of sterilization
of women after having four children.

DR. ANDREWS: This was discussed in the group.
The law was changed in Virginia a few years ago
to allow elective sterilization.

One question that came up is whether state funds
should be made available for an indigent patient with
a number of children, say a woman with four or more
children, if she elected to have tubal ligation. I be¬
lieve I interpret the concensus of my group as favoring
state funds for this procedure for indigent patients,
since this is an effective way of controlling popula¬
tion growth, and the cost of this operation is much
less than raising a child to maturity.

DR. GUTTMACHER: This has nothing to do with
economics, Mr. Boushall, but I am trying to bring
you into this discussion. Would you say that sex is
one of the principal reasons, if not the prime reason,
men marry? If so, what is your opinion of the fu¬
ture of the institution of marriage if premarital sex
experiences increase due to the use of the pill, and
other contraceptive measures continue?

MR. BOUSHALL: I wish I were a doctor and had
the simpler questions asked of me. My answer to
the first question: at least let’s call it a fringe bene¬
fit!

DR. GUTTMACHER: The answer to the question
may indicate that if sexual fulfillment can be had
without marriage then men will not marry. But from
what I can observe, sex on the campus is kind of a

monogamous affair. It is not promiscuous. I have
been to many of the colleges and I am very much
heartened by the fact that these relationships are
usually between a couple. Neither of the individuals
seem to be promiscuous, and the relationship often
leads to marriage of the couple; if not, both the girl
and boy have plans to marry later on.

Marriage is much more than sexual intercourse. Peo¬
ple recognize the companionship of marriage and I
think they realize the need for having children. I
feel strongly that the sanctity of the family is not
going to be greatly threatened by an increase in pre¬
marital sexual experiences among the youth of our
country.

I would like to have the view of somebody that
knows something about it. Dr. Oglesby?

DR. OGLESBY: Wish I could think of something
sharp to say like Mr. Boushall’s remark. People I
talk to who are about to be married and those who
in fact are married feel that sex life is one of the
real essences of marriage. At the same time, the
whole scope and gamut of marriage, the companion¬
ship, establishment of a home, and that kind of thing
is much stronger than might be supposed by this ques¬
tion. I would have no uncertainty along that line.

DR. GUTTMACHER: There is a question here for
Mr. Friddell about what practical methods other than
the press, radio, and TV do you suggest for bring¬
ing birth-control information to the people in the
lower social and economic groups. In his absence I
would like to suggest the so-called peer approach,
which simply means we open a clinic, and we have
neighborhood people drift in. They become satisfied
customers. Then we have these more intelligent lead¬
ers among this group circulate among their acquaint¬
ances and tell them why they have taken up birth
control and what it means to them. In this way you
establish contact with the local group. They in turn
tell their friends, who then come to the clinic. In
this way we find that we can get the idea of family
limitation across far better than by almost any other
method. Many planned parenthood groups use this
method.

To be sure we have tried many other methods such
as radio, TV, and writing letters to individuals. Each
of them has some value. But nothing seems to meas¬
ure up, according to Dr. Bugg’s (PPFA) studies, quite
so handsomely as does the word of mouth from some
near friend, whom one respects, and who has the
same life experiences that you have. So this I think
has to be the basic approach from the educational
point of view, in addition to all of these other more
or less impersonal media.

One method that I was going to ask our research
people at national headquarters was the possibility
of getting spots in streetcars, billboards, etc. This has
been taken up by the national organization. As you
know, in order to get streetcar advertisements you
have to be approved by the Advertising Council of
America. We have been turned down bv the Coun-

48

The Virginia Journal of Science

cil, perhaps because this was free time. You know
polio, muscular dystrophy, heart, and cancer ads are
all over the place. These are usually free advertise¬
ments. The Advertising Council said if I could get
a Catholic prelate of distinction to say he would back
our program, then we could probably get planned
parenthood put on equal footing with the other health
causes.

I am not going to name the Catholic prelates I
have discussed this with, but I have heard no great
enthusiasm for their giving such public endorsement
to our program. So we still have this hurdle to jump.

MR. WILLETT: I am afraid I can’t add very much
to your suggestions. I think a part of the seeming
timidity of educators to move in this area is the fact
that it does have both religious and legal implica¬
tions as well as just normal opposition to doing some¬
thing new. This much is certain in my opinion: we
will definitely have to get the community more inter¬
ested and more involved with a program of sex edu¬
cation.

We have found that one of the most significant
things we have done has been to work with the PTA
organizations, by showing the parents films before we
use them in the school. If we can get that kind of
involvement in the community it means that when
some school or some teacher moves beyond a point
that people do not agree with, you do have someone
in the community who understands and is willing to
give support to your program. It gets to be prettv
lonely sometimes if you are out there by yourself.

FLOOR: What is the greatest obstacle to widespread
practice of family planning in the United States? I
have the feeling it is not the Roman Catholic Church,
but human indifference. How can this best be at¬
tacked?

DR. ANDREWS: I think that indifference is certainly
a large portion of it. I think this becomes a matter
of human motivation. How do you motivate the per¬
son to control his family size? I think education of
all sorts: education about the matter of responsi¬
bility, and an understanding about how many children
a couple can support and properly raise.

Certainly the medical profession also has the respon¬
sibility of making available birth control to those peo¬
ple who are motivated to seek it. I do not have the
answer to the question of how people can be motivat¬
ed.

MR. BOUSHALL: Let me go back to this point of
education. I am not a statistician, and I am not profi¬
cient in these figures, but my impression is that the
better educated people tend to have fewer children.
They may have three or four, but seldom do they
have six, eight, ten, or twelve. Therefore if people
are educated in general, without reference to whether
it’s sex education, or education on population control
or anything else, they will be able to do two things:
one of them is support the children they bring into
the world, and the other is to have sense enough to

limit the number when they get to the point that
what they can do for the children isn’t going to be
adequate. So one answer is education of the con¬
ventional type. Without that education I think it is
perfectly hopeless to undertake the job of forcing the
pill, or any other method of contraception, on people
who are indifferent or lack an appreciation of the eco¬
nomics involved, or the ethics involved, or the social
consequences involved.

DR .GUTTMACHER: I was amused when Mr. Bou-
shall said not six, seven, or eight, because a distinguish¬
ed member of this audience who is very high in the
ranks of planned parenthood has six, and I am sure
some of you have had more than that.

As you probably know, statistically the largest fami¬
lies are those with incomes less than $3,000 a year
and those with more than $15,000. The smaller
families are those of us who are between these two
ranges. So that apparently one is on the voluntary
basis and one is involuntary. At least we think so.
Probably the two-car-garage family can control their
conceptions, but those with less than $3,000 don’t
have the sophistication and knowledge.

FLOOR: There is one comment that I would like
to make on this question of obstacles to promoting
planned parenthood. To me this is not so much our
failure to educate the lowest economic groups, but
rather that we are not educating the people who are
promoting planned parenthood to understand that the
majority of the people having children have a com¬
pletely different set of moral and cultural standards
than we in this room entertain. Until we realize this
we will make no progress with the culturally deprived.
In short we first need to educate ourselves.

DR. GUTTMACHER: I think this is an important
point.

FLOOR: What textbooks on sex education does the
State provide or approve?

MR. WILLETT: The question of textbooks for sex
education is an important one. They vary greatly,
of course, and depend on the approach you wish to
take.

Certainly the textbooks in biology are becoming
much more sophisticated and more frank in the ap¬
proach to the structure and functions of the human
body than they were at one time. There are certainly
many materials in pamphlet form distributed by the
League that are useful. A number of films, some good
and some not so good, are available. I suppose we
have some controversy and more misunderstanding
over the use of films than any other medium. I be¬
lieve it was a film that initiated the resolution of the
General Assembly a few years ago that tended to
restrict sex education in the schools.

DR. GUTTMACHER: The National Association of
Independent Schools (NAIS) is a private-school organ¬
ization. They are going into sex education quite
heavily. They have a very excellent special commit-

Proceedings of Population Conference

49

tee, and its chairman, Dr. John Chandler, is develop¬
ing curricula at various class levels. The NAIS has a
book coming out very shortly. It is called the “Prince¬
ton Conference,” where this whole topic was batted
around last April. There is a lot of ferment in sex
education, both in the public and in the private schools.
Since the private schools have less restrictions, they
can deal better with their parents. It probably would
be wise for the private schools to take some leader¬
ship in this area because I think they are less vulner¬
able. Don’t you think so?

MR. WILLETT: Yes, I would agree that the private
schools are less restricted by law. People have a
choice in what private schools they want to send their
children to. Thev may have a choice of public schools
also, but public schools have no choice, they must take
all who come. This means, of course, that there is
a danger of offending certain parents because of reli¬
gious beliefs, or because they come from different
cultural backgrounds. You might have a greater eom-
munitv of interest among the private schools. Some
of them have the same religious orientation, so that
vou would not run into quite the same type of biases.
I don’t think this means that we don’t have some
responsibility in public schools, but I would agree that
experimentation in private schools might be less restric¬
tive.

FLOOR: Is inoculation against pregnancy part of
the future?

DR. GUTTMACHER: It certainly is a part of the
future, but it is not part of the present. Immuniza¬
tion against pregnancy has extraordinary possibilities.
There is a great deal of research going on. It started
way back in 1900 with Metchnikoff, who was the
father of immunology. Experiments with animals
have met with considerable success. The male experi¬
mental animal can be immunized against producing his
own sperm cells far better than the female can be
immunized against the sperm cells of the male.

The last word has not been said. Ten or twenty
vears from now birth-control measures mav be ad¬
ministered bv a hypodermic syringe. If one wants
to be immunized against typhoid one gets a certain
dosage which lasts for a certain number of vears and

then if one still wishes to remain immunized, one gets
a booster shot.

We look forward to the same thing in regard to
pregnancy immunization. There is every reason to
believe that a woman can be immunized against sperm
cells or against fetal elements. This will undoubtedly
be one of the methods of the future.

FLOOR: How is it possible that a senior medical
student at the University of Virginia asked me what
planned parenthood is? He has served in the obstetrics
clinic.

DR. ANDREWS: I feel quite sure that he was speak¬
ing specifically of the Planned Parenthood organiza¬
tion, and I think this means those of us in the Vir¬
ginia League need to work harder on our educational
efforts. I think this will be done.

FLOOR: As the population increases, don’t you feel
that we will have to change our idea that people
should have only the number of children they can
support?

MR. BOUSHALL: The matter is not entirely finan¬
cial. The answer is that we haven’t arrived at the
point yet where the government representing the legal¬
ized side of society can dictate to the people whether
or not they have children, or how many they have,
or whether the number of children should be related
to their financial status.

I think we had better approach this from the point
of view that people should have a choice in this matter,
hoping that we won’t have a population explosion
in this country. If people have to be told how many
children to have, that gets us close to dictatorship.
The American people’s spirit will have to die or be¬
come vastly different from the pioneers who settled
this country, before they accept any such dicta from
either the state or the federal government.

DR. GUTTMACHER: Our time has run out. We
have not answered each of your questions, but we
have tried to combine them and solidify the thoughts
involved.

We thank you for your interest, and I am particularly
obligated to my four co-panelists.

50

The Virginia Journal of Science

Virginia's Tomorrow — Progress or Privation

Albertis S. Harrison, Jr.

This is going to be a comparatively short speech,

— as speeches by governors or former governors go

— yet bv the time I finish, nearly two thousand babies
will be born into the world and in the same period
less than one half of that many people will die.

That may be an oversimplification of the problem,
but it is the reason we assemble in this room tonight.

No good purpose would be served by a repetition
of statistics on population growth or the reasons for
the population explosion throughout the world. We
content ourselves with a few dogmatic and irrefutable
statements :

(1) There is in fact a population explosion. The
population equilibrium has been shattered.

(2) Our population growth is outrunning food pro¬
duction.

To reduce this imbalance between world popula¬
tion growth and food production rates, there are only
two approaches:

(1) A marked decrease in the birthrate or

(2) A major increase in food production.

Admittedly, we can in time through advances in
technology and the wise use of capital, fertilizer and
agricultural knowhow, increase the yield of acreage
already under cultivation; we can bring under culti¬
vation and reclaim certain lands now deemed unsuit¬
ed for that purpose; and we can tap the food resources
in the sea.

But even the most optimistic of our scientists and
economists do not believe that there is even the bar¬
est hope that this can be done in time to prevent
mass starvation, privation and social upheaval on a
scale unprecedented in history.

That leaves us with one alternative — birth control

— or, as we say, planned parenthood, or better stated

— responsible parenthood.

During the past twenty years I have made count¬
less speeches and I suspect that in every one I have
used one or more overworked expressions such as “gen¬
erations yet unborn”, “future generations”, “hope for
posterity”, “a legacy for our children”, or some such
similar phrase. They were used in complete good
faith and with the best of intentions. I was usu¬
ally talking about some topic like education, public
and mental health, economic growth, conservation of
natural and human resources, or preservation of nat¬
ural beauty. The object always was to attract sup¬
port for some program or plan designed to insure a
better and fuller life for this and future generations.

We talk a lot about a rich and a full life, the elimi¬

nation of disease and poverty, universal education and
training for all, an opportunity to enjoy the natural
beauties of this world, decent homes, safe transporta¬
tion. These are but pipe dreams on an overcrowded
planet.

Through the centuries, the earth’s human population
has been limited bv famine, disease and war. In our
own country man’s knowledge, resourcefulness and
compassion have all but eliminated famine and pesti¬
lence as two population regulators. A civilized people
now seek to eliminate famine and pestilence from all
parts of the globe. We can even hope — dream —
that some day we might possibly substitute man’s
intelligence and logic for the scourge of war.

But then what?

Without some curb on our population explosion

— unless man himself acts soon to limit his numbers

— it would take only a few generations to reinstate
the trinity of war, famine and pestilence.

We too often forget that man is only one of many
living beings with a right to live. An overcrowded
planet will inevitably result in a plundering of the
earth and elimination of other species upon which
man is dependent.

We know that there are means now available that
are medically effective and morallv acceptable to
achieve fertility control — means that can hold popu¬
lation to limits within which men and women can
be individuals, each with a personality of his own,
and a chance to live a life that has a meaning of its
own.

During the time that I served as Governor of this
Commonwealth, I sponsored numerous statewide con¬
ferences, including those on Industrial Development,
Tourism, Natural Resources, Agriculture, Conservation
and Natural Beauty. Governor Godwin has just had
his Conference on Education. All were important and
all served a useful purpose. But none exceeded in
importance this conference on Planned Parenthood.

And I might add that the right people are in attend¬
ance here. One reason more progress has not been
made in bringing population increase under control is
that the world’s leading classes are seldom faced with
the immediate need to avoid an urgent crisis. A sense
of urgency must be generated in the minds of our
leaders if the rate of progress is to be increased appre¬
ciably.

I am certain that someone has already made the
statement here that food production is increasing only
1% annually today while our world population is in¬
creasing 2% annually. Simple arithmetic bespeaks the
urgency if this differential is to be narrowed. How¬
ever, this whole problem is more than bread and meat

Proceedings of Population Conference

51

and more than numbers versus food. A civilized peo¬
ple will not settle for subsistence alone.

A minute ago I talked about conferences held to
encourage and promote for us a good, useful and full
life — not a mere existence, but a life that can flower
and be culturally and spiritually rewarding. Civilized
people should never be equated with animals, food and
fodder. They have greater desires than just to live
or survive. A human being has mental and emotional
needs that extend beyond creature comforts.

When we speak of planned parenthood we are talk¬
ing about basic human rights — the right of a new¬
born baby to be a welcomed child for its own sake
— its right to love and to be loved, to receive and
to give, to contribute and to share — the right to
lead a life of satisfaction and purpose.

In this hall less than a year ago we devoted a
full day talking about the conservation of open spaces,
of preserving the forests and clear streams. And the
reason is obvious. For even if by some magic wand
we could find space and room for the population
that will ultimately inhabit this world if not controlled,
and even if science through some magic could feed
the new billions, the problem would still be with us
as long as the quality of life has meaning. Who
among us would desire to inhabit such a world, and
what dignity would be left to the individuals who
were its unfortunate inhabitants?

I think that in our approach to this population
problem we had best face up to the fact that it can
only be solved by convincing people that what is ad¬
vocated is in their selfish interest. We must convince
the individual that the family’s own well-being and
happiness, its freedom and its autonomy, is dependent
upon limiting the number of children. This will not
be easy. Exactly how do you approach a country
whose people riot against their government because
they regard a cow as too sacred to kill? And yet
millions and millions of the minds of uneducated,
illiterate and superstitious people, as well as those
at the opposite pole of the educational and cultural
ladder, must be reached. Somehow mass illiteracy, reli¬
gious beliefs, cultural habits, economic needs, family
traditions and age-old customs must be overcome if
the message is to be effective.

We have a simple message to get across, and that
is that the size of any family is a matter for the indi¬
vidual to decide, and that the alternative to planned
and responsible parenthood is ultimately mass priva¬
tion throughout the world. There must be universal
education on ways and means and methods to achieve
family planning. And poorer parents, as well as the
rich, have a basic right to decide for themselves the
number of children they can afford.

Throughout the civilized world it is both a moral
and a legal sin to kill and thereby extinguish a human
life. The message must be gotten across that it is
also a major sin to create a life without being able,
or without wanting, to provide for it.

And it can be done. The sophisticated society
in which we presently live, our high standard of liv¬
ing and economic well-being, are proof positive of
the immense potential that man has for intellectual,
cultural and physical development. If we are to con¬
tinue to grow intellectually, culturally, spiritually and
otherwise, then education must be provided in greater
abundance and variety and we must continue to give
rein for expression and for exploration and for under¬
standing, both of ourselves and of our environment.

Education has been and is one of the principal
themes of our generation. Education on planned
parenthood can be one of the greatest contributions
to raise the health and standard of living of the world
population.

What we really seek is that every child be born
into, and grow up in, a home environment surrounded
by love and security, and knowing that he is wanted.
This cannot occur amid poverty, disease and ignorance.

You may feel that I have overlooked the subject
that was given me, “Virginia’s Tomorrow — Progress
or Privation”. If it seems so, it is because this issue
transcends state and national lines. The problem is
universal. It is not yet acute in Virginia, or in the
United States, or in some of the European countries,
for reasons that are obvious, principally education and
abundant natural resources. But we would be blind
if we closed our eyes to the obvious. The population
of this country, now roughly 190 million, will be 376
million within less than one half of a century. The
world’s population, now 3 billion, is estimated to reach
6 billion in 40 years.

And Virginia has not escaped. We are one of the
fastest growing states in the nation and crowded areas
are now developing around what is known as the
“urban corridor” which will extend from Washington,
D.C., to the North Carolina line and eastward to the
Norfolk-Portsmouth-Hampton Roads area. We have
another pocket of population developing around Roa¬
noke, Danville, Lynchburg, Charlottesville and Way-
nesboro-Staunton areas. The bright side of the coin
for Virginia is that while the growth of familv plan¬
ning in our state has been slow, the tedious ground¬
work has been laid by many dedicated men and
women, and by organizations such as the Virginia
League for Planned Parenthood, the Virginia Academy
of Science and the other organizations that are coop¬
erating in the sponsorship of this conference.

As early as 1929, Dr. H. Hudnall Ware, Jr., head
of the Department of Obstetrics and Gvnecologv at
the Medical College of Virginia, inaugurated contracep¬
tive services in the Maternal Welfare Clinics of the
hospital and began teaching techniques to medical
students. I am told this was the first time that this
subject had been taught in any United States medical
school.

In May 1937, the Virginia Federation of Women’s
Clubs became the first organization in Virginia to
publicly endorse birth control. Six years later the
Medical Society of Virginia and the Virginia Tuber-

52

The Virginia Journal of Science

culosis Association endorsed the concept of planned
parenthood.

In 1945 the then State Health Commissioner, Dr.
I. C. Riggin, gave permission to all local health direc¬
tors to establish planned parenthood services in their
public health clinics. The State Health Department
in 1956 began to purchase supplies for the maternal
and child health clinics which had heretofore been
purchased bv the Virginia League for Planned Parent¬
hood. Other indications of activity by the Virginia
League for Planned Parenthood and the State Health
Department could be documented.

In 1947 family planning activities within the State
Health Department included in-service training for
newly employed nurses, and it was recognized that
the public health nurse was in fact the key to the
program.

Bv 1962 the State Health Department had adopted
a policv of incorporating family planning services in
all public health activities when indicated, thereby
bringing these services to a greater number of peo¬
ple in both the public health clinics and in their
homes. Supervisory nurses were appointed to work
with local health departments to help in establishing
such programs, and to participate in educational pro¬
grams for the general public, sponsored bv the State
Department of Health and the Virginia League of
Planned Parenthood.

Today I am pleased to report that in all of the
counties of Virginia family planning is a part of the
local health program. While the service is offered at
maternity and child health clinics, an individual does
not have to be a maternity patient to obtain this
service. The service is available to the indigent and
medically indigent. On the other hand, a family does
not have to be indigent or medically indigent to receive
contraceptive advice in public health clinics.

It was my responsibility as Governor to prepare Vir¬
ginia’s biennial budget under which the state will
operate until July 1, 1968. The preparation of such
a budget is no easy task. The Governor is forced to
strike a balance between the essential needs and serv¬

ices that must be provided by the state on the one
hand, and the ability of the people to pay and reve¬
nues available from taxes on the other. Seldom is
a Governor able to allocate the full amount requested
by his department heads for all their activities. In
the preparation of the budget for the Department
of Health, I held numerous conferences with State
Health Commissioner, Dr. Mack I. Shanholtz. I am
confident he will attest that when we got down to
the item on family planning, I told him that he would
receive an appropriation in the exact amount that he
felt necessary to give Virginia a good program for
the next two years. He requested $210,000 and I
provided in the budget under the item “Family Plan¬
ning, Department of Health, State Board of Health”
eveiy penny he requested. At least that is proof posi¬
tive that your banquet speaker had been convinced
prior to this conference of the urgency of planned
parenthood.

It can be said that the real object of this confer¬
ence is to convince the general public of that urgency.

It was not called to persuade those in attendance,
for your dedication is a matter of record. It is hoped
that the publicity that will flow from this meeting,
and the knowledge that so many are concerned, will
provide the added stimuli that we need to achieve
the ultimate goal of universal planned parenthood.

I am very conscious that I have said nothing in
this speech that has not been said countless times
before and by others far better qualified to speak
on the subject. That does not concern me. I repeat,
our message is a simple one — “planned parenthood
and survival”. It will have to be given over and
over. A program on planned parenthood can be lik¬
ened to a program on highway safety. The campaign
can never end and there can never be a relaxation
of effort. It must be a daily effort. The leaders
in this cause can never retire from service and new
recruits must be enlisted daily. Our reward will be
the knowledge that if we are successful then we may
continue to enjoy, and the people of the undeveloped
countries may hope to enjoy, the full and rich life
that is so abundantly that of our nation.

53

Proceedings of Population Conference

Acknowledgments

We wish to thank the Honorable Albertis S. Har¬
rison, Jr., and Alan F. Gutfemacher, M.D., whose in¬
spiring addresses brought enchantment and inspiration
to the Virginia Population Conference.

We must also extend our thanks and appreciation
to the workshop leaders:

William C. Andrews, M.D.

Thomas C. Boushall

Guy Friddell

William B. Oglesby, D.D., Ph.D.

H. I. Willett,

who conducted their workshops and answered the
panel questions.

In addition, the unstinting time and effort of the
following Conference hostesses, both before and dur¬
ing the Conference, contributed immeasurably to its
success:

Mrs. Douglas P. Rucker, Chairman
Mrs. E. Winslow Ware, Co-Chairman

Mrs. Carl E. Bain Mrs. Roscoe D. Hughes

Mrs. Lewis H. Bosher Mrs. Thomas N. Jacob
Mrs. John C. Bozorth Mrs. Joseph Jowaisis
Mrs. B. Armistead Burke Mrs. William H. King
Mrs. Custis L. Coleman Mrs. K. K. Knickerbocker
Mrs. Robert C. deRossett Mrs. Ivor Massey
Mrs. Walter M. Dotts, Jr. Mrs. John B. McGaughv
Mrs. Robert Edwards Mrs. H. C. L. Miller
Belle D. Fears, M.D. Mrs. Frank Pickard
Mrs. Carter H. Harrison Mrs. M. R. Powell

Mrs. James Rawles Mrs. J. Conway Smith

Mrs. William T. Reed, Jr. Mrs. S. Strother Smith

Mrs. E. A. Rennokls, Jr. Mrs. T. Preston Turner

Mrs. T. Raysor Salley Mrs. A. M. Wetherill

Miss Page Williams.

We also wish to express our special thanks to the
members of the Program Planning Committee:

Mrs. B. Armistead Burke
Mrs. Leslie Cheek, Jr.

Mrs. Walter M. Dotts, Jr.

R. W. Jessee, M.D.

Mr. William H. King
Mrs. William H. King
Mrs. Ivor Massey
Mrs. Thomas Pinckney
William Ferguson Reid, M.D.

Mrs. T. Preston Turner
Mrs. Erwin H. Will, Jr.,

whose hard work ensured the success of the Confer¬
ence.

It is also a pleasure to recognize the office staff
of the League: E. Earl Dunklee, Executive Director;
Mrs. Sarah E. Thomas, Educational Director; Miss
Louise Fryer, Office Secretary, for their helpful and
cheerful service.

Mrs. Jan Laverge,

Co-Chairman, Planning Committee

F. J. Spencer, B.M., M.P.H.,
Chairman, Planning Committee

54

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VIRGINIA

JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

OFFICIAL PUBLICATION OF THE
VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

Vol. 18, New Series April, 1967 No. 2

TABLE OF CONTENTS

59 Some Effects of Apholate on the German Cockroach,

Blattella germanica (L.) Madeline V ingiello and Mary II . Ross

63 Comparative Effectiveness of Some Commonly Used Insecticides

on Codling Moth Carpocapsa pomonella (L) at Different
Stages of Development

Zbigniew Golik and Clarence H. Hill

67

Mycotoxins in the Food Chain

T. C. Campbell

75

The Air Pollution Problem

M. L. Haider

77

Legal Aspects of Air Pollution

Willis Martin Anderson

80

Air Pollution Detection and Control

Seymour Hochheiser

85

Communications and Reports

86

News and Notes

THE VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

Official Publication of the Virginia Academy of

Science

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Tom Doggins

Ernest H. Ern

J. A. Friedericy

P. Arne Hansen

Edwin S. Higgins

Clyde Y. Kramer

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BUSINESS MANAGER

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© Copyright, 1967, by the Virginia Academy of
Science.

Business and Subscription Information

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scriptions should be sent to the Business Manager,
Virginia Journal of Science, P. O. Box 1500, Richmond,
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The front cover is by Douglas C. Hensley.

Madeline Vingiello and Mary H. Ross

Department of Entomology, Virginia Polytechnic
Institute, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061.
Received September 23, 1966.

Some Effects of Apholate on the German Cockroach,

Blattella germanica (l.)*

ABSTRACT

Nvmphs and adults of the German cockroach were
exposed to a graded series of apholate concentrations.
A slight degree of delayed mortality occurred at the
highest dosage. There also appeared to be some delay
of development during embryonic and post-embryonic
stages. The number of sterile crosses increased with

The possibility of using chemosterilants in insect
control is arousing considerable interest, but much
research is needed in regard to both their immediate
and long-range effects before they can be put to prac¬
tical use. During the last several years, reports de¬
scribing the biologic changes caused by chemosteri¬
lants have appeared with increasing frequency. A
majority of these were based on studies of dipterans
(1-6). In many other groups of insects no experi¬
ments with chemosterilants have been conducted.

The German cockroach has already shown the ability
to develop resistance to the major groups of insecti¬
cides, and future control of this pest mav well depend
upon some new method or combination of methods.
Studies of the effects of chemosterilants on this species
were initiated bv comparing sterility and toxic effects
of 12 such compounds (7). The present study was
designed to investigate in some detail the effects
which might result from exposures to low, medium
and high dosages of a single chemosterilant. Apho¬
late was selected since it is one of the most promis¬
ing chemosterilants currently available.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

German cockroaches from a recently acquired field
strain from Texas were subjected to a range of dos¬
ages of apholate. The testing procedure was a modi-

* Data requisite to this study were obtained during participation
by the senior author in the Secondary Science Training Program
sponsored by the National Science Foundation during the summer
of 1965 at Virgina Polytechnic Institute. A summary of this work,
presented at the 1966 Virginia Junior Academy of Science meet¬
ings in Harrisonburg, won awards as the outstanding Junior paper
and as the outstanding paper of the Zoology Section. Partial

the increase of dosage. In crosses in which the male
parent had been treated, there was a decrease in the
average number of off spring/ootheoa . Sterility in
crosses using treated males was apparently the result
of the induction of dominant lethals; in females, it
was caused by an inhibition of growth and degenera¬
tion of the ovaries.

fication of a dipping technique used for insecticide
work (8). The cockroaches were confined in small
screen wire cages and dipped in water suspensions
of apholate for 30 seconds. A 30% formulation of
apholate from Olin Research Center 1 was diluted
with water to form the desired concentrations.

Two experiments were performed. One was a pre¬
liminary test to explore dosages at which varying
degrees of sterility could be observed. Five concen¬
trations were used: 0.1%, 0.5%, 1.0%, 2.0%, and
4.0%. Approximately 15 large female and 15 large
male nymphs (5th-6th instar) were exposed to each
concentration. The sexes were maintained separately
until 3 davs post emergence, following which each
female was set up in a single-pair mating with a
male treated with a similar dosage. In the second
test, the 4 lower dosages were repeated, but the top
dosage (4%) was omitted. Ten adult males and
ten adult females, ranging in age from 3 to 5 days post
emergence, were treated separately at each of the 4
concentrations. On the second dav after exposure,
each treated individual was set up in a single-pair
mating with a normal, untreated cockroach.

Data from the first experiment (Test 1), using
nvmphs, and from the second experiment (Test 2),
using adults, included the following: mortality counts,
taken at 3-dav intervals following exposure; time which
elapsed between mating and hatch of the first egg
case; formation or absence of egg cases; hatch or

support of this investigation was also provided by Grant No.
ES00102-07 from the U.S. Public Health Service, Bureau of
State Services, Div. of Environmental Health.

1 This formulation has been discontinued. The technical grade
apholate now available is more active and consequently lower
concentrations would be needed to repeat results found in this
study.

Effects of Aphoi.ate on the German Cockroach

59

absence of hatch; numbers and sex of offspring; and
hatch of the second egg cases from females with non-
viable first egg cases. In addition, treated females
were dissected and the ovaries were examined for
the presence of gross morphologic abnormalities. Fem¬
ales were killed for dissection either subsequent to
production of a viable egg case or after tbeir age
clearlv indicated loss of the ability to reproduce. Male
dissections were not performed.

Current usage of the term “sterility”, as indicative
of a lack of offspring, is followed here. It should be
kept in mind, however, that this may result from the
action of dominant lethals in the embryos and in
this case it is not sterility in a strict sense.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

This investigation covered a rather wide variety
of observations. Therefore, these are presented and
discussed under several subheadings, as follows: mor¬
tality, embryonic development, reproductivitv, dissec¬
tions, and recovery.

Mortality — No immediate death occurred in any
of the treated individuals. Some delayed mortality
at the 4% dosage was indicated by the death of 6
out of 34 treated nymphs within a 2-month period.
Only 1 out of a total of 50 nymphs exposed to the
lower dosages in Test 1 died within this interval. In

DAYS BETWEEN MATING AND HATCH OF
THE FIRST EGG CASE

Fig. 1. Embryonic development time estimated as
the time elapsing between mating and hatch of the
first egg case in normal and apholate-treated German
cockroaches.

Test 2, no mortality occurred within this time limit
at the 0.1% dosage level; 2-3 died at each of the
three higher dosages.

Embryonic development — The time required for
embryonic development, as indicated by the time elaps¬
ing between the act of mating and hatch of the first
egg case, was similar to that found in normal cock¬
roaches (Fig. 1) at the 0.1% and 0.5% concentra¬
tions. However, some delay was evident in both
tests at the 1% and 2% levels. Results of both
tests were essentially alike, and the data are sum¬
marized in Fig. 1. The delay appears to indicate a
retardation of embryonic development, and almost cer¬
tainly includes a delay of hatch similar to that found
in other studies using chemosterilants.

TABLE I

Some effects of exposure to apholate in the German
cockroach, Blattella germanica

Dosage

No. of
Crosses

No. of

Sterile Crosses

Female

Lacking

Oothecae

Aver. No. of
Offspring/lst
Ootheca

Test 1

4.0%

17

15«

8

38ztil-0

2.0%

12

8a

1

30±5.0

1.0%

14

6

1

37±5.0

0.5%

10

4

0

30±7.1

0.1%

14

3

0

39±5.5

0

25

3

0

40d=3.3

Test 2

(treated <$ x

normal

2 )

2.0%

10

9»

0

11

1.0%

10

5a

0

18±6.0

0.5%

10

2

0

22±8.4

0.1%

8

2

0

30±5.8

Test 2

(treated 5 x

normal

8 )

2.0%

10

6*

5

37±1.5

1.0%

10

2

2

34±3.2

0.5%

10

2

0

32±6.3

0.1%

10

1

0

32±2.1

a Statistically significant increases at the 5% level over the
control matings (analyzed by the Chi Square Test, courtesy of
C. Y. Kramer. Dept, of Statistics, Virginia Polytechnic Institute).

Reproductivity — The numbers of sterile crosses,
the development of the oothecae and the numbers of
off spring/egg case were affected by the exposure to
apholate. These data are presented in Table I. A

tendency for an increase of sterile crosses with in¬
creased dosage is evident (Table I, col. 3). At 2%

and 4% in Test 1, at 1% and 2% in Test 2 using

treated males, and at 2% in Test 2 using treated fem¬
ales these increases were statistically significant at the
5% level. It is interesting to note that the lowest
concentration at which a significant effect was ob¬
served occurred in Test 2 using treated males. This
suggests that males may be more susceptible when
treated as young adults than when treated as nymphs.
It also appears that sterility was induced in males at
lower dosages than in females.

60

The Virginia Journal of Science

Another difference in the effects on males and
females was evident from observations of the oothecae.
Egg cases were found in all matings of treated males
with normal females (Table I, Test 2, col. 5). How¬
ever, when these crosses were sterile, the egg cases
were usually distorted and, on dissection, were found
to contain dead embryos. The presence of embryos
indicated that mating and fertilization had taken place.
From the work of LaChance (4) and others, there is
little doubt that this type of “sterility” resulted from
the induction of dominant lethals in the male germ
cells. Sterility in the majority of crosses using treated
females, however, was associated with a failure of
oothecal formation (Table I, Test 2, col. 3 and 4).
This was clearly an effect of apholate on females.
Normal virgin females maintained separately from
males and normal females mated with treated males
form egg cases. The absence of oothecae is discussed
further in the section describing dissections. Since
the absence of oothecae was apparently more frequent
at lower levels in Test 2 than in Test 1 (Table I, col.
4), females, as well as males, may be more susceptible
as voung adults than as nvmphs.

TABLE II

Analysis of the numbers of offspring from the first
oothecae for Test 2 a

Dosage:

0

.1%

.5%

1.0%

2.0%

A.

Treated $ x

Normal $

39.9

30.2

22.1

18

11

B.

Treated $ x

Normal $

39.9

33.6

31.8

31.7

(37.0)b

a Values underscored by the same line show significant differ¬
ences at the 5% level by Duncan’s multiple-range test (courtesy
of C. Y. Kramer, Dept, of Statistics, Virginia Polytechnic Insti¬
tute).

b Not significantly different from either the control or the lower
dosage.

The number of offspring/ ootheca in Test 1 (Table
I, col. 5) did not show a significant reduction in
hatch. In Test 2 using treated females a slight but
significant reduction at the 5% level occurred in the
three lowest dosages (Table II, B). At 2% the data
did not differ significantly from either the lower dos¬
ages or the control. This is probably a reflection
of the small numbers in this sample, since there were
only 4 productive females at this level. A very marked
reduction in hatch occurred in Test 2 using treated
males (Table II, A). A slight but significant reduc¬
tion was present at 0.5%, and considerably greater
reductions occurred at the higher dosages. These
data, similarly to the data on sterility, suggest that
males were more severely affected than females. The
observed reduction in hatch corresponded quite close¬
ly to the numbers of dead embrvos remaining in the
oothecae. Thus it appears that dominant lethals were

the major cause of reduction in hatch, as well as ap¬
parent sterilitv, in males. Further work would be need¬
ed to determine whether or not a reduction in the num¬
bers of viable sperm also contributed to the reduction
of hatch.

Aberrant sex ratios in several crosses suggested the
possible induction of sex-linked lethals. However, the
numbers of male and female progeny averaged for
each exposure did not deviate significantly from the
expected 1:1 sex ratio. It was also noted at the 1%
and 2% dosage levels that there was an unusual size
difference between the offspring in many of the cross¬
es. This was probably due to a delay in develop¬
ment of some of the progeny similar to that known
to occur in other insects following treatment with
chemosterilants. Subsequent observation indicated
that this size variation was not inheritable.

Dissections — In normal females the ovaries vary
from slender transparent organs to large masses of
sausage-shaped ovarioles, according to the particular
stage of the reproductive cycle. Treated females
which formed egg cases had ovaries that appeared
similar to those observed in normal cockroaches. The
only noticeable abnormality was the presence of 2-3
discolored degenerate ovarioles from a few of the
females exposed to the higher dosages (2%, 4% in
Test 1; 2%, 1% in Test 2). There was no evidence
of a reduction in ovariole number at any level. This
was quite different from the effect of ionizing radia¬
tion, which resulted in a progressive decrease of ova¬
riole number with increased exposure ( 9 ) .

The ovaries from females lacking egg cases bore
little resemblance to normal ovaries. Although the
dissections were performed at a time when the ova¬
ries should have attained maximum growth, the major¬
ity were very tiny, similar in size to those found in
large nvmphs. The largest was less than half the
size of a fully developed ovarv. In addition, the
ovarioles were generally small, misshapen, and dis¬
colored. Hard, reddish-brown nodules occurred with¬
in the ovarioles, and similar-appearing nodules were
also frequently present in the fat and malpighian
tubules. Exposure of females to apholate apparently
was followed by an inhibition of growth and degen¬
eration of the ovaries. There appeared to be a direct
correlation between the degeneration of ovaries and
the absence of oothecae, but the reason for this is
obscure. Lack of oothecal production has also been
observed following irradiation in both B. germanica
(9) and Periplaneta americana (10). In irradiated
Geiman cockroaches, however, failure of oothecal form¬
ation occurred in females with abnormally small ova¬
ries, whereas those with degenerate ovaries formed
egg cases. The nature of the reddish-brown nodules
is also unclear, although their presence is clearly an
effect of the higher concentrations of apholate.

Degeneration of the ovaries, as indicated by absence
of egg cases (Table I, col. 4), occurred in half the
females exposed to 2% as young adults, but in only
a few of those exposed to this dosage as large nvmphs.
It is hardly surprising to find this evidence of sus-

Effects of Apholate on the German Cockroach

61

ceptibility in young adults. At this age the ovaries
undergo a sudden and very rapid growth. Proliferat¬
ing tissue is well known to be particularly susceptible
to apholate, as well as to other alkylating agents.

Recovery — Information concerning the ability of
insects to recover from exposure to chemosterilants
is, as yet, quite limited. That presented here is con¬
fined to data from females with nonviable first egg
cases. However, it was apparent that little recovery
occurred at the higher concentrations. Many of these
females were permanently sterile, as evidenced by
ovarian degeneration and absence of oothecae. From
a total of 21 females in Test 1 which formed initially
a nonviable egg case, only 1 exposed to 4%, 2 ex¬
posed to 2% and 3 exposed to the 1% dosage level
succeeded in producing offspring from the second egg
case. In each instance a reduction in hatch was
apparent (24-28, as compared to a normal average
of 40). It could not be determined, however, whether
this effect was the result of treatment of the male
parent, female parent, or both. At the lower dosages
of 0.1% and 0.5% hatch was close to normal. Two
females at each dosage dropped a nonviable first egg
case, and in each instance one of the two recovered
and produced close to normal numbers of offspring
from the second egg case. Data from Test 2 using
treated males were essentially similar to those from
Test 1. In crosses using treated females, however,
little information could be obtained, since there were
only 2 or 3 crosses with nonviable first egg cases.
In all other such matings there was either hatch
from the first egg case or an absence of oothecae.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Exposure of large nymphs and adults of the Ger¬
man cockroach to a graded series of apholate con¬
centrations produced a number of varying effects. A
slight degree of delayed mortality occurred at the
highest dosage (4%), but there was no immediate
death following exposure. Embryos of parents treat¬
ed at the higher concentrations apparently suffered
a delay in development. There was also evidence
of delayed development during nymphal stages of
some of the offspring from treated parents.

The most marked effects were on reproductivity.
Males appeared to be more susceptible than females.
Both sexes appeared to be somewhat more susceptible
when treated as young adults than as nymphs. In

males, this was evidenced by both the numbers of
sterile crosses and the reductions of hatch. In fem¬
ales, the reductions in hatch were rather slight. How¬
ever, the lowest concentration at which oothecal devel¬
opment was severely affected was found in the ex¬
periment using females treated as young adults. True
sterility, brought about by inhibition of growth and
by degeneration of the ovaries, accounted for most
of the loss of reproductivity resulting from exposure
of females. In contrast, counts of dead embryos in¬
dicated that the major losses in reproductivity caused
bv treating males could almost certainly be attributed
to the induction of dominant lethals.

The nature of the reddish-brown nodules in the
ovaries of treated females is unknown. Possibly they
are related to the granular material observed in some
apholate-treated Culex pipiens (6).

Once sterility had been induced, the insect showed
little abilitv to recover from the treatment. This in¬
dication, coupled with the induction of sterility with¬
out a great loss of life, offers hope that chemosterilants
such as apholate may one day be utilized in the con¬
trol of this species.

REFERENCES

1. LaBrecque, G. C., J. econ. Ent., 57, 684 (1964).

2. Borkovec, A. B., Science, N.Y., 137, 1034 (1962).

3. Chamberlain, W. F., /. econ. Ent., 55, 240 ( 1962) .

4. LaChance, L. E., and Riemann, J. G., Mutation
Res., 1, 318 (1964).

5. Hair, J. A., and Adkins, T. R., J. econ. Ent., 57,
586 (1964).

6. Murray, W. S., and Bickley, W. E., Univ. Mary¬
land Exp. Sta. Bull., A-134 (1964).

7. Burden, G. S., and Smittle, B. J., Fla Ent., 46,
229 (1963).

8. Clarke, T. H., and Cochran, D. G., Bull. Wld
Hlth Org., 20, 823 (1959).

9. Ross, M. H., and Cochran, D. G., Ann. ent. Soc.
Am., 56, 256 (1963).

10. Wharton, D. R. A., and Wharton, M. L., J.
Insect Physiol., 1, 229 (1957).

62

The Virginia Journal of Science

Zbigniew Golik and Clarence H. Hill

Winchester Fruit Research Laboratory, Virginia
Polytechnic Institute, Division of Research,
Winchester, Virginia.

Received December 23, 1966

Comparative Effectiveness of Some Commonly Used Insecticides
on Codling Moth Carpocapsa pomonella (L), at Different

Stages of Development*

ABSTRACT

In this experiment the effect of some commonly
used insecticides on the codling moth was investigated.
Spray was applied 1-5 days before hatching and 1-5
days after hatching of codling moth eggs. Ovicidal
activity of these insecticides were also tested and
experiments were conducted using adult moths. The
following insecticides were used: Sevin (1 -naphthyl
N-methyloarbamate) ; Guthion (O, O-dimethvl S-(4-oxo
1 ,2,3-benzotriazin-3- ( 4H ) -ylmethvl ) phosphorodithio-
ate); Malathion and parathion.

Best toxicity before hatching was shown by Sevin,
Guthion and parathion. These insecticides gave good

Many factors in apple insect control are not known
or are little known even when commonly used mate¬
rials are considered. Hence, the reason for present¬
ing the experimental results reported in this article.
Users need to know the relative merits of the mate¬
rials available on any given stage of the pest or
combinations of the pest stages. This experiment was
conducted during the summer of 1966 at the Win¬
chester Fruit Research Laboratory of the Virginia
Polytechnic Institute, Division of Research, Winches¬
ter, Virginia.

METHOD AND MATERIALS

Four insecticides were used in all experiments and
compared with a check. The materials to be tested
were mixed per 100 gallons of water as follows: Sevin,
50% WP, 1.5 lb.; Guthion, 25% WP, 1.5 lb.; Mala¬
thion, 57% EC, 1 pt. ; and parathion, 77.3% EC, 4
oz. Unspraved Golden Delicious apples IV2 to 2
inches in diameter were suspended from poles (20
apples per pole). For each insecticide six poles were

* * Dr. George C. Rock kindly supplied the codling moth eggs for
this test and Nancy Johnson helped the senior author with the

control even when spray was applied five days before
hatching. Malathion was effective only when applied
from one day before hatching to six hours after hatch¬
ing. When spray was applied after larvae had en¬
tered fruit, Sevin and parathion gave best control.
They were effective up to 24 hours after hatching.
In experiments concerning ovicidal activity of the in¬
secticides, best results were shown when spray was
applied a short time before eggs hatched; parathion
gave best control of insecticides tested. All insectici¬
des gave 100% kill of the adult codling moth 24
hours after spray was applied.

used. Each pole was considered to be one treat¬
ment. In Experiment 1 a slip of cellophane with
three codling moth eggs 2 to 12 hours old was hung
on each apple. Eggs were put on all the apples in
the experiment at the same time. Twelve hours
after the eggs were put on the apples, spray was
applied to pole number one. Treatments 2-6 were
applied at 24-hour intervals for the next five days.
Check apples were sprayed with water. When the
sixth treatment was being applied the eggs were begin¬
ning to hatch. Apples were dissected 10 days after
the eggs hatched, and larvae were counted.

In Experiment 2 newly hatched larvae were used
instead of eggs. The same materials were used. Three
newly hatched larvae were placed on each unspray¬
ed apple. Again six treatments were applied with
each of the four insecticides plus checks. The first
treatment was applied six hours after the larvae were
placed on the apples. Treatments 2-6 were applied
at 24-hour intervals for the next 5 days. Check
apples were sprayed with water. Apples were dis¬
sected 10 da vs after the eggs hatched and larvae
were counted.

preparation of the manuscript.

Effectiveness of Insecticides on Codling Moth

63

TABLE I

Toxicities are indicated of some insecticides to codling moth larvae when Golden Delicious apples with unhatch¬
ed eggs attached are sprayed. Total number of larvae found in the fruit and the percent alive when dissect¬
ed 10 days after hatching are shown.

Intervals

from time

of spraying to

time '

of hatching

0-12

hr.

1 day

2 days

3 days

4 days

5 days

Total

Total

Total

Total

Total

Total

larvae

larvae

larvae

larvae

larvae

larvae

Insecticide

alive

%

alive

%

alive

%

alive

%

alive

%

alive

%

Sevin

1

1.0

1

0.9

0

0.0

2

2.1

0

0.0

1

1.0

Guthion

0

0.0

1

0.9

1

0.9

0

0.0

3

2.9

2

2.0

Malathion

2

2.0

7

6.3

8

8.0

12

12.5

14

13.3

23

22.5

Parathion

0

0.0

1

0.9

0

0.0

0

0.0

1

1.0

3

2.9

Check

99

100.0

112

100.0

99

100.0

96

100.0

105

100.0

102

100.0

TABLE II

Toxicities are indicated of some insecticides to codling moth larvae when sprayed on Golden Delicious apples
at intervals after the larvae had entered the fruit. Also shown are the total number of larpae entered and
the number and percent alive, when the apples were dissected 10 days later.

Intervals from time of entering fruit to time of spraying

6 hrs.

1 day 2 days 3 days 4 days

5 days

<o

"0

>

3.

3^

CD

a?

• "d
0)

3.

<D

>

*4

i— < T3
CD

3.2

° c

<

<D

° e
H a>

<

CD

O c

H v

<

CD

° s

H <D

<

<D

£ e

Eh a)

<

<D

Oh

O £

H a>

i

«!

<D

Ph

Sevin

100

0

0.0

98

0

0.0

88

2

2.3

102

10

9.8

104

23

22.1

90

43

47.7

Guthion

96

2

2.1

98

4

4.1

98

14

14.3

100

31

31.0

91

42

46.2

93

58

62.4

Malathion

90

3

3.4

80

5

6.3

95

12

12.6

118

40

33.9

79

39

49.4

113

69

61.1

Parathion

87

1

1.1

96

2

2.1

102

5

4.9

99

13

13.1

88

38

43.2

104

37

35.6

Check

98

97

99.0

95

95

100.0

106

103

97.2

98

98

100.0

112

110

98.2

86

85

98.8

Experiments 1 and 2 were repeated after two weeks.
Data from both replicates are combined in Tables I
and II respectively.

Adult codling moths were used in Experiment 3.
Small branches of apple trees with leaves and fruit
intact were placed in flasks of water. Cotton was
placed around the top of the flask to prevent adults
from getting into the water. The flasks with the
branches were placed in lantern globes covered with
cheesecloth. Four insecticides were used, one lantern
globe being used for each insecticide. The branch,
leaves, fruit and inside of the globe were sprayed.
Thirty minutes after the spray was applied 25 adult
moths were put into each globe. After a four-hour
period a count of dead moths was taken. Another
count was made after 24 hours. A check was run

TABLE III

Results are shown of experiments on the effectiveness
of some insecticides in killing adult codling moths con¬
fined in glass cages with apple branches which were
sprayed 30 minutes before moths were introduced.

Number of moths and percent dead

Killed Killed

after after

Insecticide

Released

4 hr.

%

24 hr.

%

Sevin

50

37

74

50

100

Guthion

50

44

88

50

100

Malathion

50

32

64

50

100

Parathion

50

35

70

50

100

Check

50

0

0

1

2

64

The Virginia Journal of Science

TABLE IV

Effects are shown of some insecticides sprayed on codling moth eggs of various ages.

Intervals from time of spraying to time of hatching

1 day

2 days

3 days

4 days

5 days

Insecticide

No. of

eggs

sprayed

%

hat¬

ched

No. of

eggs

sprayed

%

hat¬

ched

No. of

eggs

sprayed

%

hat¬

ched

No. of

eggs

sprayed

%

hat¬

ched

No. of

eggs

sprayed

%

hat¬

ched

Sevin

610

18.0

780

23.1

600

29.7

720

38.0

690

58.8

Guthion

610

17.8

780

32.0

600

39.9

720

64.0

690

76.3

Malathion

610

21.9

780

29.0

600

43.1

720

58.2

690

71.2

Parathion

610

8.2

780

9.8

600

17.9

720

33.0

690

40.9

Check

610

77.1

780

78.2

600

81.0

720

69.8

690

72.8

in which the globe was sprayed with water. This
experiment was repeated after 10 days. The data
from both experiments are combined in Table III.

In Experiment 4 codling moth eggs in various
stages of development (newly laid through hatching)
were used. The eggs, on cellophane, were sprayed
with insecticide and then placed on round glass plates
approximately 5 inches in diameter. Tangle foot was
put around the edge of the plate to trap the larvae.
A check was run using water to spray the eggs. Two
days after the eggs hatched the number of larvae
caught in the tangle foot was counted and the per¬
cent hatch was determined. This experiment was re¬
peated 3 times. The combined results are shown
in Table IV.

RESULTS

As shown in Table 1, Sevin, Guthion and parathion
were very effective when sprayed on the eggs and
apples from 12 hours before hatching up to 5 days
before hatching. Malathion was effective when spray¬
ed on eggs and apples 12 hours before hatching but
toxicity decreased as number of days to hatching
increased. As shown in Table II, each of the four
insecticides was most effective when spray was ap¬
plied from six hours to two days after eggs hatched,
but Sevin and parathion gave the best control. Sevin
gave 100% kill when fruit was sprayed from six hours
to one day after hatching. Malathion exhibited the
lowest toxicity of the four insecticides; three and
four-tenths percent of the larvae remained alive when
sprayed six hours after hatching.

As shown in Table III, all insecticides were very
effective when tested on the adult codling moth.
Twenty-four hours after sprav was applied 100%
kill was obtained.

As shown in Table IV, all insecticides tested on
eggs of the codling moth gave best control when
sprav was applied within one dav of hatching. Toxic¬
ity decreased as days to- hatching increased. Para¬
thion was most effective of the insecticides tested
giving about 60% kill when applied 5 days before
hatching.

DISCUSSION

It was found that Sevin, Guthion, and parathion
showed high toxicity when applied to apples and eggs
before egg hatch. Parathion gave the best kill as
an ovicide providing about 60% mortality even when
used 5 days before eggs hatched.

Sevin and Guthion did not appear to be effective
ovicides as shown in Table IV, but were effective
against newly hatched larvae. Results of experiments
testing insecticides applied after hatching were simi¬
lar to those shown by Driggers (1) and Hough (4).
However, Sevin and Guthion appeared to have higher-
toxicity than that shown in Dr. Hough’s work. Para¬
thion gave excellent control even two days after
larvae had entered fruit. The adult codling moths
showed very low tolerance to all insecticides tested,
and after 24 hours all adults were dead. In preli¬
minary tests, when spray was applied directly to the
adult moths, they died very quickly. For that rea¬
son the jars were sprayed and allowed to dry before
the moths were introduced.

All insecticides showed best results as an ovicide
when applied only a short time before eggs hatched.
Hough (2, 3) obtained similar results when he used
nicotine in ovicidal tests.

CONCLUSIONS

The results of the research conducted show that
of the insecticides tested parathion, Sevin, and Gu-

Effectiveness of Insecticides on Codling Moth

65

REFERENCES

thion give best control of the codling moth. This is
especially true when spray is applied before eggs
hatch. When spray is applied after eggs have hatch¬
ed good control is shown during the first 24 hours
after hatching. Malathion gave good results only
when applied from one day before hatching to 6 hours
after hatching.

1.

Driggers, B

. I

2.

Hough, W.

S.

3.

Hough, W.

S..

4.

Hough, W.

S..

J. econ. Ent., 43, 948 (1950)
J. econ. Ent., 29, 537 (1936).

]. econ. Ent., 31, 216 (1938).

]. econ. Ent., 55, 378 (1962).

66

The Virginia Journal of Science

T. C. Campbell

Department of Biochemistry and Nutrition, Virginia
Polytechnic Institute, Blacksburg, Virginia.
Received January 11, 1967

Mycotoxins in the Food Chain

ABSTRACT

Mycotoxicoses, the diseases produced by the con¬
sumption of fungal toxins, have been receiving greatly
increased attention in recent years. To a consider¬
able extent, this relatively new research is the result
of the recentlv recognized carcinogenic properties of
aflatoxin, the metabolite produced by Aspergillus flav-
us. Link.

In addition to aflatoxin, many new fungal toxins
significant to human and animal health are now being
reported, a few of which are being suggested as re¬
sponsible agents of previously recognized diseases of

Few areas of research in toxicology have received
as much attention in recent years as the reseach deal¬
ing with mycotoxins. Goldblatt ( 1 ) has pointed out
that “. . . today we may be on the threshold of a
vast development with the mycotoxin problem com¬
parable to that with vitamins half a century ago.”
Work in this area is expanding exponentially as is
evidenced by the bibliographic list prepared by Skau
(2) in 1965. This list plus the numerous articles
which have been published since that time, now
numbers close to 600 papers, most of them within
the last 5-6 years.

Although there have been sporadic scientific re¬
ports of mold toxicity as far back as 1882 (3), there
was little alarm until the epidemic of the Turkey
X disease in England about 1960, when approximate¬
ly 100,000 young turkeys died in the course of a
few months from the consumption of a ration con¬
taining Brazilian peanut meal1 (4, 5). The respon¬
sible agent was soon found to be aflatoxin, a collective
term used for the toxic metabolites produced by the
commonly occurring mold, Aspergillus flavus.

Since this recent and important discovery, there has
been renewed interest in the possibility that there
may be many other mvcotoxins which are not yet
recognized. It is the purpose of this paper to out¬
line some of the principal mvcotoxins which have re¬
cently been implicated in either human or livestock
diseases. For the purpose of this discussion, the term
mvcotoxieosis will refer to a disease produced bv the

1 In many countries, peanuts ( Arachis hypogea L.) are called
groundnuts.

unknown etiology. It has been reported by some work¬
ers that perhaps 30-40% of the fungi may be produc¬
ing significant and dangerous levels of toxins.

Recentlv developed research on aflatoxin which is
significant to man’s food supply is reviewed along
with newer reports of other mycotoxins of importance.
As with every newly developed scientific endeavor,
interpretations of data and optimum research ap¬
proaches are beset with problems; therefore, a discus¬
sion of some of these pitfalls in mvcotoxin research is
also presented.

ingestion of mold metabolites which result in toxic
symptoms in either animals or man. This discussion
will not embrace the vast and very important work
which has been done on the toxicity of antibiotics
produced by molds nor the diseases caused by the
direct fungal infection of animal or plant tissue.

AFLATOXIN

Following the reports of the Turkey X disease,
onlv three years lapsed before aflatoxin had been
isolated, characterized, and an assay method develop¬
ed. It was shown to be comprised of four closely
related compounds which are highly substituted cou-
marins (6). The individual components are referred
to as Bj, Bo, Gj, and Go with the letters B and G
referring to the fluorescent blue and green colors,
respectively, when the compounds are exposed to ultra¬
violet light. Analytically, thev are separated and
quantitated on thin-layer chromatographic plates of
silica gel. Aflatoxin Bj is almost always the most
abundant although the relative amounts of each com¬
ponent mav vary widely depending primarily on fun¬
gal strain and substrate. Aflatoxin Gx is also usu¬
ally found in large concentration while the dihydro
derivatives B2 and G2 are most often missing or in
relatively low concentration. Unfortunately, the most
abundant substance Bj is also the most toxic, followed
in toxicity by G1; B2, and G2. Carnaghan et al. (7)
have found that the oral LDr,0 for dav-okl ducklings
(50 g) is 18.2 micrograms for Bj, 39.2 micrograms for

Mycotoxins in the Food Chaip^

67

G1; 84.8 micrograms for Bo, and 172.5 micrograms for
G.,! This means that only 20 to 30 micrograms of
Bt is enough to kill a day-old duckling, or stated in
another way, one ounce could kill a million ducklings.

It might be safe to say, however, that with our
present knowledge put to good practice, we should
not encounter this type of acute toxicity to any ap¬
preciable extent in the future. However, the sub¬
tle effects would appear to be the more alarming.
This is because this same compound has since been
shown to have powerful cancer-producing ability
when incorporated at extremely low levels of the
diet. When aflatoxin is fed for longer periods of
time at dietary levels much lower than the acute LD50
dosage (8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14) primary hepatic
carcinoma is the principal pathology in a number of
species.

While no species appears to enjoy resistance, there
is, nevertheless, considerable species variability. For
example, rats have developed multiple liver tumors
when fed a ration containing 0.7 ppm (15). On the
other hand, hepatic tumors were developed in duck¬
lings when fed a ration containing 0.03 ppm (16)
while rations containing only 0.001 ppm can induce
liver cancer in the rainbow trout (quoted from refer¬
ence 1). This would easily qualify aflatoxin as the
most potent carcinogenic material ever tested. It is
likely that man is not resistant, as it was reported bv
Madhaven et al. (17) that 2 ppm aflatoxin can induce
significant liver injury in primates.

Much remains to be learned about the possible dis¬
tribution of this material in human foodstuffs and the
relative importance of the amounts found in terms of
long-term human consumption. Not only should we
learn as much as we can about the possible contamina¬
tion of this material in food destined for human con¬
sumption but also we must learn more about the
significance of amounts which may be found in ani¬
mal feeds. The question of residues of the parent
aflatoxin as well as possible metabolites which may
be stored in edible animal tissues or milk is extremely
important.

Concerning the milk question, there is good evi¬
dence that the parent aflatoxin B, when consumed
bv a lactating animal is converted to a metabolite
which can then be secreted into the milk. Aflatoxin
B,, when experimentally fed to lactating animals, can¬
not be found in the milk in appreciable quantities,
but its metabolite can, and this metabolite has been
shown to induce liver pathology in ducklings iden¬
tical to that of B, (18). Furthermore, it has recently
been shown that this same metabolite also appears in
the liver and urine as well as the milk (19). Although
the data are still inadequate, there is some evidence
that dangerous levels of aflatoxin cannot be found in
milk and liver, at least in terms of acute poisoning.
English workers surveyed milk samples taken from
several collection centers and were unable to detect
anv toxicitv (18). In addition, Platonow (20) could
not detect aflatoxin in samples of breast meat, leg

meat and liver of chickens experimentally fed a highly
contaminated ration (3.1 ppm total aflatoxin) for as
long as six weeks. However, it must be remembered
that chickens are relatively insensitive to aflatoxicosis,
at least compared to ducklings, and this may partially
explain the absence of aflatoxin in their livers. It
seems imperative that both of these problems of pos¬
sible liver and milk contamination need considerable
clarification, especially regarding low levels of afla¬
toxin consumed over long periods of time.

The extent of aflatoxin contamination in commer¬
cial foods at the present time is of obvious importance.
Although it has been well established that aflatoxin
production on several commercial food substrates is
possible, it is not likely that there are levels which
constitute a significant health hazard. In fact, due
to a very effective working relationship which has
been developed between the United States Depart¬
ment of Agriculture, the Food and Drug Administra¬
tion, and industrial commodity groups, peanut prod¬
ucts, for example, are now routinely assayed for the
presence of aflatoxin. The result of this program
has been to assure that onlv high-quality peanuts are
marketed for food and those not meeting these stan¬
dards are channeled into non-food uses.

In spite of the fact that the public is probably
getting a reasonably good quality product, our alert¬
ness to this problem must not be relaxed as there
are, in the opinion of many, several important ques¬
tions remaining to be answered.

First, the distribution of aflatoxin in contaminated
materials is not at all uniform and the reasons for
this are not completely known. The New Orleans
US DA group has found aflatoxin levels as high as
600 ppm in certain parts of a peanut while 100-ppm
levels were found in the whole peanut. At the same
time adjacent nuts in the same batch may contain
little or none. (Consider these levels relative to the
levels necessary for carcinogenicity.) This means that
we must be very careful in using good sampling tech¬
niques in our screening programs. Although there is
some evidence that partially damaged nuts are more
susceptible to mold infestation, there are still many
other unknown environmental factors controlling such
growth which must be understood. In fact, it has
recently been disclosed that when obviously damaged
nuts are selectively taken from a batch and analyzed,
one does not necessarily find anv more aflatoxin than
in the healthy nuts (21). Therefore, picking out bad
nuts will not completely solve this problem. We must
learn more about which microecological factors permit
such variation in contamination. In our own labora¬
tory, we are attempting to leam something about
what relationship, if any, there may be between min¬
eral composition and aflatoxin production. In vitro
methods have revealed the essentiality of certain min¬
erals for aflatoxin production in spite of their non-
essentialitv for growth (2, 23). Although endogenous
levels of minerals within peanuts do not appear to
appreciably alter aflatoxin production, we have some
preliminary information that a combination of high-

68

The Virginia Journal of Science

copper and low-iron content slightly reduces aflatoxin
levels (24).

The environmental factors which are fairly well
understood are the roles of temperature and moisture.
The best growth of A. flavus and subsequent yield
of aflatoxin is in the temperature range of 20-30° C
and moisture content above 11-15% (80-85% rela¬
tive humidity). However, a large batch showing a
low average moisture content may not always be
resistant. The reason why it is still possible to get
mold growth in a lot showing a low average moisture
is the fact that with even one very small area con¬
taining higher amounts of moisture than the average,
mold growth may be initiated and, since fungi pro¬
duce additional metabolic moisture as they grow, the
chain reaction can quite easily be started. In prac¬
tice this means (1) that moisture and/or relative
humidity throughout a large lot of peanuts must be
reduced to safe levels with no wet spots and (2)
that temperature should be kept as low as possible.

Peanuts are not the only substrate which can sup¬
port growth of A. flavus. In April, 1963, it was first
reported in California that hatchery trout showed a
high incidence of hepatoma (liver cancer) when fed
a ration containing cottonseed meal (25). Cottonseed
meal has since been found to contain aflatoxin under
some conditions (26, 27). Much research which had
been previously done on peanuts is now being redone
on cottonseed. In addition, extensive analyses have
been undertaken in certain laboratories to test for the
presence of aflatoxin in com, sorghum, wheat, soy¬
beans, oats, rice, crambe, soybean grits, enzvme prep¬
arations, foods made by fermentation and mixed ani¬
mal feeds (28). Although we must await the final
results of these surveys, it does seem somewhat fore¬
boding that, experimentally, some of these commodi¬
ties are excellent experimental substrates for the growth
of A. flavus. Wheat, for example, has, up until re¬
cently, routinely been used in many laboratories to
grow the mold in order to get good aflatoxin pro¬
duction. Recently, however, rice has proven to be
an even better substrate.

Some of the most interesting work recently pub¬
lished is that concerned with the biochemical mechan¬
ism of action of aflatoxin (29, 30) which seems to
reflect a mechanism similar to that of the antibiotic
actinomycin D. It was shown that aflatoxin binds
to DNA and reduces RNA and protein synthesis. It
was suggested (29) that the binding of DNA inhibits
the RNA polymerase (DNA-dependent) reaction,
which in turn leads to depressed messenger RNA and
protein synthesis. Whether or not this acute bio¬
chemical lesion is the initiator of the carcinogenic
lesion remains to be proven.

A discussion of important research on aflatoxin
would not be complete without mention of the studies
undertaken to find procedures which might prove use¬
ful in destroying or removing aflatoxin from a food¬
stuff. Many approaches are being tried; however,
it is proving to be a difficult task since many pro¬
cedures themselves may seriouslv alter the nutrient

composition or quality of the decontaminated food.

Coomes et al. (31) found that it was necessary to
autoclave (120° C, 15 psi) groundnut meal (10-60%
moisture) for 4 hours in order to get 95% reduction
of aflatoxin Bj. Trager and Stoloff (32) made a
systematic study of the potential usefulness of chemi¬
cal degradation of aflatoxin. Oxidation with 5% sodi¬
um hypochlorite, alkaline sodium perborate and chlo¬
rine gas were all shown to be effective; in fact, com¬
mercial Chlorox is now routinely used by many labs
to effect aflatoxin decontamination of glassware as
had been suggested earlier (33, 34). Although prob¬
ably of more interest analytically, we have found that
ultraviolet light destroys 96% aflatoxin B, in 2 hours
when adsorbed onto silica gel (35). At present, con¬
siderable work is being done at USDA (New Orleans)
on the possibility of using solvent extraction of peanut
and cottonseed meals to selectively remove aflatoxin
( 1 ) . An azeotropic mixture of acetone-hexane-wa¬
ter can be used to remove aflatoxin, although the
findings on the nutritional and toxicological proper¬
ties of the decontaminated feedstuff must still be evalu¬
ated. Oil extracted from contaminated seed is appar-
entlv no problem as the subsequent bleaching process
destroys aflatoxin. To date, it can still be safely stated
that prevention of mold infestation of the oilseed or
cereal crop in the first place is the best means of
avoiding the problem. A bulletin published by USDA
is currently the accepted standard used for good har¬
vesting, storing, and processing procedures (36).

OTHER MYCOTOXINS

There are several partial reviews on mycotoxins
which have been published in recent years (37, 38,
39, 40, 41, 42). Tins discussion is an attempt to
bring up to date the more important findings on
mycotoxins (for warm-blooded animals) other than
aflatoxin.

In passing it should be noted that there are reports
that aflatoxin can be produced by molds other than
A. flavus (43, 44) as well as the fact that A. flavus
can produce toxic material other than aflatoxin (45).
The most notable examples of the latter are oxalic
acid (45), a rather labile unisolated substance which
causes tremors in mice (46), kojic acid (47), aspergil-
lic acid (48), and /3-nitropropionic acid (49, 50, 51).
By no means are these substances limited to A. flavus,
as pointed out in the review on these substances by
Wilson (45).

One of the more dramatic cases of mycotoxicosis
involving humans is that recently reported from Rus¬
sia. It was stated that . . . more than 10 percent
of the population was affected and many fatalities
occurred in 9 of the 50 counties of the (Orenburg)
District” (52). The disease was given the name
alimentary toxic aleukia (ATA) and was typically
characterized bv severe exhaustion of the bone mar¬
row. The cause was traced to the consumption of
overwintered grains which had become infested with
a great variety of molds. Although several genera

Mycotoxins in the Food Chain

69

and species of molds were implicated, three species
were especially toxic: Fusarium poae, Fusarium sporo-
trichoides, and Cladosporium epiphijllum. The inter¬
esting finding in these studies was the fact that toxin
production was best at cold temperatures (8-18° F)
when sporulation became abundant. Toxic compounds
have since been isolated from these strains, and the
chemical structures determined.

Soviet scientists, in fact, have been actively work¬
ing in the field of mycotoxicoses and, according to a
leading American authority in this field (53), have
made many valuable contributions since as early as
1940. Another mycotoxicosis of considerable eco¬
nomic importance for many years, at least in the Soviet
Union, has been the disease called stachybotryotoxi-
cosis, which afflicts both man and animals, especially
horses. The mold Stachijbotrys atra has been shown
to be the responsible agent. It proliferates in soil,
is considered saprophytic, and will produce toxin over
a wide range of temperatures. As little as 0.5 lb.
of highly toxic, infested straw produced a very acute
response in horses ( 53 ) .

A problem known in this country for many years,
and officially reported in 1957 by Burnside et al. in
Georgia (54), is the malady referred to as moldy
corn toxicosis. It is interesting to note that of the
fungi isolated from this moldy feedstuff, A. flavus
(the aflatoxin producer) was one of the principal
isolates. Furthermore, when an isolate of this mold
was experimentally grown in pure culture on previ¬
ously sterilized grain and fed to swine, it produced
a similar toxicosis. It should be recalled that this
episode occurred before aflatoxin was known and it
is interesting to speculate on the possibility that afla¬
toxin was the responsible toxic factor.

A disease in ruminants which had been known be¬
fore the turn of the century in New Zealand and more
recently in this country (37) is the one called facial
eczema (55). The mold, Pithymyces chartamm, which
is a saprophyte proliferating on dead rye grass during
very wet seasons, has been shown to be responsible.
It produces a toxin called sporidesmin. It has been
an extremely important disease economically and can
be fatal under particularly bad conditions, when a
period of wet weather follows a particularly dry sea¬
son. Although the gross symptoms are the necrotic
areas which develop on the skin exposed to sunlight
and which lead, in turn, to very serious sloughing,
the more fundamental biochemical lesion appears to
be a photosensitization which is developed as the result
of primary liver injury.

Recent investigations by Crump et al. (56) and
Smalley et al. (57) have led to the apparent cause
of the disease called “slobbers” produced in dairy cat¬
tle fed certain legume hay, especially second-cutting
red clover hay showing the disease “black patch.”
The mold Rhizoctonia leguminicola has been isolated
from such forage and when experimentally adminis¬
tered to animals causes profuse salivation. As little
as 1 mg/kg of the partially purified toxin was lethal
to guinea pigs. The typical symptoms are waterv

diarreha, anorexia, excessive salivation, and frequent
urination with a subsequent serious drop in milk pro¬
duction. Again, however, the liver seemed to be a
primary target organ and showed centrolobular nec¬
rosis. The active compound has been isolated and
is reported to be an alkaloid.

Rice, one of the world’s food staples, is subject to
serious fungal invasion. A recent shipment of moldy
rice into Japan, referred to as “yellow rice”, led to
research showing the presence of the molds, Peni-
cillium islandicum and P. citrinum. Two mycotoxins
called islanditoxin and luteoskyrin were isolated (58,
59) and were shown to be primary liver poisons.
Islanditoxin is also reported to be carcinogenic (60).
In addition, there is evidence that species of Fusarium,
Rhizopus, Aspergillus, and Penicillium when growing
on rice have been known to cause toxicity in both
man and animals (61). In fact, of a total of 79 species
of the genera Aspergillus and Penicillium, at least 23
are so far known to produce extremelv toxic and
identifiable metabolites.

Much of the mycotoxin research in recent years
reported by Asian scientists (particularly the Japanese)
has been ably reviewed by Uritani (62). The wide¬
spread use of fungi in food fermentation, especially
bv the Asians, raises obviously important questions,
particularly with reference to aflatoxin production in
sov sauce and miso which are fermentation products
of the Aspergillus flavus-oryzae group. Interestingly,
Uritani (62) reports that neither a Japanese research
team nor an American group have yet found aflatoxin
contamination in these products.

The disease in cattle referred to as “fescue foot”
is now being further investigated for the possibility
of the presence of a mycotoxin which may be the
causal agent ( 63 ) . The mycotoxin ergot does not
appear to be the responsible agent. However, it is
being found that certain strains of Fusarium, Clado-
sporium and Epicoccum have been isolated from field
samples of fescue with known toxicity. Extracts of
these molds have been show to elicit toxic reactions
when applied to the skin of rabbits.

New outbreaks of so-called “moldy corn toxicosis”
have been reported for the 1962 and 1964 crops and
perhaps again with the 1965 crop in Wisconsin (57).
Although Aspergillus flavus is again being found, as
in the Georgia outbreaks, there nevertheless appears
to be a more complex picture developing. In addi¬
tion to A. flavus, other species of Fusarium, T ricothe-
cium, Nigrospora and Alternaria are also being isolated
from these moldy feeds. In particular, F. tricinctum
is reported to be a verv potent toxin producer. Ap¬
plication of extracted residues of cultured filtrates from
this organism to the skin of albino rats resulted in
50% or greater mortality within 36 hours. To fur¬
ther complicate this problem, there have been nu¬
merous complaints by farmers in Indiana of hogs refus¬
ing to eat the 1965 corn crop (64). Quite a large
percentage of such samples are being shown to har¬
bor the organism referred to as Giberella zeae. A
substance apparently produced by this organism has

70

The Virginia Journal of Science

been shown to decrease growth rate in rats. Although
the Giberella complex is the same as the Fusarium
complex, there were no estrogenic effects noted, as
discussed with Nelson and Christensen’s work below
(65).

Christensen and associates at the University of Min¬
nesota, who have been very active in this area of
research in recent years, have isolated a very large
number of fungi from feeds suspected of causing ill¬
ness or death of domestic livestock— and fungi which
can produce a variety of toxic reactions. Of 153
isolates of Fusarium, Penicillium, Alternaria, A. niger
and Chaetomium globosum, 113 or 74% produced
death in rats within 3 to 11 days, when the animals
were fed corn inoculated and incubated with the re¬
spective mold (66).

The best known toxin described by this group is
a Fusarium metabolite which manifests a marked estro¬
genic syndrome, particularly in pigs. In the female
the vulva becomes swollen and edematous, sometimes
in severe cases progressing to vaginal prolapses; the
uterus is enlarged, edematous and tortuous; and the
ovaries are atrophic, shrunken and non-functioning;
pregnant swine may abort (65). In fact, Nelson has
suggested that perhaps the many idiopathic abortion
problems in swine mav possibly be associated with
the consumption of corn harboring this mold (67).

Christensen and coworkers (68) have also recently
reported on a very potent toxin produced by Chae¬
tomium globosum grown on moist sterilized corn.
Weanling rats generally died 4-6 days after consum¬
ing 1-5 g of corn which had been incubated with
the mold for 5-13 weeks. The most marked symp¬
tom was a disturbance of the central nervous system
along with a marked increase in prothrombin time.
Swine, however, consumed such rations with “relish”
and showed no untoward symptoms, demonstrating
species differences.

Although bovine hyperkeratosis has been reported
to be caused by highly chlorinated naphthalene com¬
pounds, there have also been outbreaks reported where
such compounds were not implicated (40). Forgacs
and coworkers reproduced a similar disease bv feed¬
ing a strain each of Aspergillus chevalieri and Asper¬
gillus clavatus. Somewhat similar manifestations were
produced in calves with a toxic strain of Aspergillus
fumigatus.

Aspergillus ochraceus is covered by U. S. Patent
No. 1,313,209 for its ability to induce a desirable
change in flavor during the fermentation of coffee.
Unfortunately, it has recently been shown that it can
be highly toxic, producing a compound named ochra-
toxin A (69). Its toxicity is reported to be of the
same order as that for aflatoxin (69).

Cvcad seed, which is consumed by inhabitants of
the islands of the South Pacific, has been shown to
produce a relatively potent liver toxin called cycasin.
Since the tvpe pathology has been shown to be quite
similar to certain myeotoxicoses, Forgacs and Carll
(70) recently investigated the predominant molds on

cvcads and tested their toxicity. They isolated A.
flavus, A. niger, A. tamarii, Curvularia lunata, and
Macrosporium species and showed that they were
toxic to mice when extracts of the respective cultures
were force-fed. Increased blood clotting time was
typical of all but A. flavus and A. niger.

One of the most interesting recent reports on myco-
toxicoses is the studv of Forgacs and Carll (71).
These workers reported that cigarette, cigar and pipe
tobaccos contain Alternaria spores with cigarette tobac¬
cos being more heavily laden. A smoke aerosol gen¬
erated from timothy hay cultured with Alternaria
caused pulmonary emphysema in mice. A. niger pro¬
duced a similar but less marked response. Two of
four mice exposed to the Alternaria aerosol for 120-
466 davs developed alveolar cell carcinomas although
the authors were quick to note that such neoplasms
can occur spontaneously.

Scott (72) studied the potential toxicity of a num¬
ber of randomly selected isolates of various species
of fungi, most of which are known to be widespread
in nature and which can be found on a variety of
feedstuffs and foodstuffs. Two hundred and twentv-
eight strains representing 59 species were tested. Un¬
der his experimental test conditions, he found that
37% of the species tested would cause death within
only 14 days when fed to ducklings as a ration con¬
taining 25% moldy corn inoculated with the isolate
in question. It is, therefore, somewhat alarming to
speculate that, of the estimated 100,000 species of
molds on earth (73), 30,000 to 40,000 species may
be highly toxic.

GENERAL COMMENTS

There seems to be little question that this area
of research is expanding by leaps and bounds, and
it is worthwhile to discuss in a report of this nature
some of the problems associated with mvcotoxin re¬
search. It is necessarv to have some understanding
of the problems in order for one to be able to make
reasonably intelligent interpretations of the results.

As a prerequisite to this discussion, it will be neces¬
sary to define biological variation because there is
probably no better example of a situation in which
this phenomenon holds as much importance as that
concerned with mycotoxin research. First, let us as¬
sume that biological variation is due to a multitude
of complex interactions which are often observable
in nature. Second, let us divide this phenomenon
into two general areas, the variation in the physiology
of the mold and the variation in the toxin response
of the host.

Concerning the physiological variation of the mold,
it is well known that a given “species” may differ
considerably in its abilitv to produce toxic material,
depending both on the particular isolate which is
incubated as well as the environmental conditions em¬
ployed for a given isolate. For example, in the pro¬
duction of aflatoxin we have seen that different A.
flavus isolates, when cultured on shredded wheat,

Mycotoxins in the Food Chain

71

vary from no aflatoxin production up to the immense
level of 2.6 g total aflatoxin/ kg substrate (2600 ppm).
Nevertheless, approximately 95% of all of our isolates
can produce at least some aflatoxin, when measured
chemically. This latter figure conflicts with some
commonly held views that onlv 25-50% of A. flavtis
isolates are “toxic”. The conflict resides in the meth¬
od used in testing “toxicity”, since the latter figure
was mostly derived from feeding contaminated meal
to ducklings. The important point to remember here
is that each experiment and isolate are unique and
include their own set of interacting factors which
must be considered in the final interpretation. For
example, there is this obvious difference in chemical
versus biological testing; there are differences in abili¬
ties to produce toxin by different isolates; there are
very appreciable differences in the types of food¬
stuffs upon which the mold growth occurs; (and
there are in this case many superimposed interac¬
tions within a given substrate); there are environ¬
mental factors such as temperature, available moisture,
and degree of aeration; for aflatoxin, there are varia¬
tions in Bj/B^/Gj /Go ratios, which in turn result in
different toxicities; and there are fungal mutations.
These are just some of the more obvious interacting
factors in a given foodstuff. Until we know far more
of fungal phvsiologv, we must accept the thesis that
potentially all A. flavus isolates are capable of pro¬
ducing aflatoxin if the conditions are right. It would
also seem reasonable to assume that other mvcotoxins,
as they are discovered, will exhibit this same pheno¬
menon.

The second major type of “variation” which imposes
problems in interpretation is related to the interac¬
tions between mvcotoxin toxicity and host response,
particularly as it is affected by the dietarv composi¬
tion employed during the testing period. Again using
aflatoxin findings as an example, it has been shown
that low dietary protein potentiates the toxicity of
aflatoxin for monkeys (17, 74). We have additional
evidence that dietary protein significantly affects the
hepatic disposition (metabolism, excretion) of afla¬
toxin Bj (24). This particular relationship would ap¬
pear to be of great importance relative to the con¬
sumption of contaminated diets by the many people
in the world (especially the very young) who are
undernourished in protein. We probably should con¬
sider a different tolerance for aflatoxin under such
conditions. It has also recently been shown in ba¬
boons that pvridoxine deficiency precipitates a liver
cirrhosis microscopically similar to that manifested by
aflatoxin (75). The high incidence of primary hepa¬
tocellular carcinoma in indigenous Africans could con¬
ceivably be a complex phenomenon, with pyridoxine
deficiency and aflatoxin contamination potentiating
the effects of each other.

The entire problem of experimentally evaluating
the potential significance of new mycotoxins must be
related to the situation where subjects would show
minimal resistance. This concept has a salient fea¬
ture in terms of the most appropriate biological ap¬
proach the researcher should use for evaluating po¬

tential toxicity. Simple ad libitum feeding of moldy
feedstuffs to healthy rats, while probably focusing
on the substances possessing the highest acute toxicity,
would not appear to be adequate for toxins possess¬
ing a more subtle effect. Refusal of feed complicates
evaluation, especially when the refusal may be traced
to a “non-toxic” substance which may not always
be produced along with the potential toxin. Species
variability and nutritional interactions with the experi¬
mental animal finally chosen clearly make difficult
the inferences which can be drawn for humans or
domestic livestock. Also, carcinogenicity, while prob¬
ably one of the most important maladies, rarelv gets
evaluated with such short-term trials.

New drugs and other “household” chemicals are
evaluated using the philosophy that the experimental
test levels of the test compound must be free of toxicity
at many times the proposed usage. It would appear
to be appropriate to also use these same concepts
in the evaluation of mycotoxins. In a series of cur¬
rent experiments, we are scaling up the mvcotoxin
dosage by administering chemical extracts of mold
cultures at levels higher than would normally be con¬
sumed. It would seem to be a better starting point
of detecting potentially toxic material, especially in
light of the types of biological variation which have
been discussed. We still need, however, a better ap¬
proach in the evaluation of carcinogenesis.

In summary, this review has been an attempt to
bring up to date some of the recently developed
information on mvcotoxins. No attempt was made to
describe the many types of rather non-specific reports
of mold toxicity published in the last 50-75 years.
Lastly, some of the more important problems asso¬
ciated with the research on potential mycotoxins are
discussed. There appears to be no question that
we are on the verge of finding many important asso¬
ciations of the consumption of moldy foodstuffs and
current diseases of unknown etiology.

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Mycotoxins in the Food Chain

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74

The Virginia Journal of Science

M. L. Haider

Standard Oil Company ( New Jersey), 30 Rockefeller
Plaza, New York, N. Y. 10020.

The Air-Pollution Problem *

Concern about the purity of air and water is wide¬
spread today. A realistic consideration of the pollu¬
tion problem is needed — how serious it is, who causes
it, and what should be done to control it. Unfortu¬
nately, confused and emotional responses are hamper¬
ing thoughtful analysis.

Man-made pollution is, of course, as old as man
himself. Countless generations have dumped wastes
into streams and sent smoke swirling into the air.
The Romans complained of airborne soot, and cen¬
turies ago Londoners smarted from clouds of smoke
and sulfurous gases.

Fundamentally, increased contamination has been
caused by the ever wider-ranging activities of more
and more people. In 1900 the 3 million square miles
of the United States accommodated the activities of
less than 80 million people. Today in that same area
—and with the same amount of air and water— nearlv
200 million people live, work, and play, and in count¬
less ways create wastes.

Pollution has also been an offshoot of material
progress. As technology has advanced, there have
been more machines and factories emitting contami¬
nants. At the turn of the eenturv, for example, a
handful of electric power plants generated about 5
million kilowatt-hours a year of electricity— all the
electric power there was in the United States. Today
a highly developed electric power industry, consum¬
ing quantities of coal, oil, and gas, produces more
than a trillion kwh. vearly.

Industry is not the major source of pollution, how¬
ever. The National Academy of Sciences has noted
that less than one-third of the principal atmospheric
pollutants in the United States is released from manu¬
facturing plants or electricity-generating complexes.
The remaining two-thirds come from other sources,
mainly individuals and municipalities. Sheer numbers
of people also account for one of the worst sources
of water pollution— inadequate sewage systems.

The real cause of air and water contamination is
thus the whole of modern society. Pollution is the
result of millions of people doing many current-day
things— manufacturing, burning leaves, using automo¬
biles, incinerating garbage, smoking cigarettes, dispos¬

* Published in The Lamp, Spring 1967, and reprinted by permis¬
sion of the copyright owners.

ing of sewage. How then can we control the prob¬
lem?

Since all segments of societv have helped create
pollution, the restoration and maintenance of satisfac¬
tory air and water conditions entail a coordinated
effort bv all parts of the community, including, im¬
portantly, its business members.

Many industries, of course, have long been alert to
the problems of pollution. In the last ten years, for
example, the electric power industry has spent some
$750 million on air and water conservation. Over
the same period, the chemical and petroleum indus¬
tries have spent a similar amount on pollution-control
equipment and are now committing additional mil¬
lions of dollars to operate, improve, and expand this
equipment. The petroleum industry in 1966 spent
more than $10 million for research alone on air and
water conservation. Its work is aimed not only at
lowering to near zero the contaminants from refine¬
ries but at reducing the sulfur content of fuel oils,
the sulfur in flue gases, and the undesirable emis¬
sions from engines using petroleum products.

The automobile is commonly blamed for much of
urban smog. Suggestions have even been made that
the gasoline engine may have to be replaced bv a
nonpolluting propulsion system. Much progress has
been made, though, in reducing automobile emissions,
and more is in prospect.

Crankcase ventilation valves, which have been in¬
stalled for several years on new cars, have proved
that they can eliminate almost all hvdrocarbon emis¬
sions from the crankcase— provided the valves are
properlv maintained; periodic inspection is a critical
factor in the functioning of these devices, just as it
is with brakes and other parts of a car. Yet local
authorities have not provided for it.

In 1968 all new cars will have equipment which,
if properlv maintained and checked, will substantially
reduce exhaust contaminants. In addition, a new de¬
vice, developed by the Esso Research and Engineer¬
ing Company, has demonstrated that it is feasible to
eliminate essentially all evaporative losses from a new
automobile’s carburetor and gas tank, if installed at
the time of the auto’s assembly.

The Air-Pollution Problem

75

More can and will be done. The automobile and
its current form of propulsion fit well the needs and
desires of the American people. The public should
be able to continue enjoying flexible and economical
transportation and still satisfy its desire for clean air.
This means the auto and petroleum industries cannot
lest until the automobile produces virtually no undesir¬
able emissions. The goal is feasible technically, and
the industries will continue working toward it.

Business really has only two options. Either it
voluntarily implements pollution-abatement programs—
which means controlling the contaminants from its
plants and other operations as well as the products
for which it has a responsibility— or it will be forced
to act bv legislation.

Today a reasoned, efficient solution to contamina¬
tion is still possible. But if business does not act,
government will, and the chance for an effective
solution may give way to hastily prepared or poorly
conceived government prescriptions, which will be
both rigid and costly.

To the question, can business afford to take effec¬
tive antipollution measures, I can only say that it
cannot afford not to.

But the public should recognize a point implied
here. The problem of water and air pollution in the
final analysis is eloselv linked to economics. The
degree of purity of our future air and water supply
will depend almost entirely on how much we are will¬
ing to pay.

A recent article in the Harvard Business Review
estimated that expenditures of $275 billion will be
required over the next thirtv-three years to ensure

the availability of clean air and water. Of this sum,
$110 billion will be needed to control and reverse
water pollution, $105 billion to abate and control air
pollution, and $60 billion to dispose of solid wastes.
Hopefully, technology may be able to reduce these
costs.

The public must realize that continuing outlavs
over the years will be necessary to achieve a relatively
pollution-free environment. It must also understand
that it will have to pay the price for abatement and
control through taxes, higher rents, higher fuel costs,
and higher commodity prices, because no matter who
does the job, the cost of doing it must be paid for.
Mv own view is that we can achieve acceptable levels
of air and water purity at a cost we can afford, and
that while the total cost may be large, the amount
per individual will not be burdensome.

This country— all segments of it— must take action
to clean the air we breathe and the water we drink.
Our municipalities, which are among our worst pollu¬
ters, must install the equipment and controls that
will rid our environment of untreated sewage, smoke
and refuse from incinerators, and the choking fumes
from improperly maintained transit buses. Reason¬
able codes against pollution must be established bv
local governments or regional organizations. The pub¬
lic must comply with new standards and insist they
be enforced through adequate inspection.

Finally, business must raise its own standards of
control and initiate and contribute to community-wide
programs. The opportunity is still ours for a reasoned
and effective response to the challenge of contamina¬
tion. None of us can afford to let that opportunity
go by.

76

The Virginia Journal of Science

Willis Martin Anderson

Roanoke, Virginia.

Legal Aspects of Air Pollution *

It certainly would be presumptuous for any lawyer
at a gathering of scientists to delve into any of the
scientific aspects of today’s subject. It might not
be amiss, however, to say that some understanding of
the physical properties of air is necessary to a proper
consideration of the legal aspects of air pollution.

We know that the average adult requires about 30
pounds of air each day to sustain life, as compared
with a daily intake of about 214 pounds of food
and 414 pounds of water. Unlike his food consump¬
tion, man can select neither the quantity nor the
quality of the air he breathes. Man’s water can be,
and usually is, subjected to elaborate purification be¬
fore it is distributed to him for drinking, but he must
breathe the air as it comes to him.

Like so many other contemporary problems, air-
pollution control is a matter of striking the proper bal¬
ance between conflicting interests. Individuals as¬
sert a wrong and claim legal redress. Industry claims
the need to continue its output of socially useful prod¬
ucts. Society demands the products of industry and
also a smog-free atmosphere. The framework of Con¬
stitutional law draws attention to equal protection and
due process.

How far may we go, and how far do we desire
to go, in requiring a particular offender to cease his
pollution of the air? Is it socially desirable, or con¬
stitutionally feasible to put him out of business? We
may rid ourselves of some pollution only at the ex¬
penses of losing employment for our citizens and less¬
ening production of necessary goods.

We are aware, however, that industry is not the
only offender. Also guilty is everv person who drives
a car or burns rubbish in his backyard. (See 27
Southern California Law Review, 347).

Air pollution is not a new problem, nor are the
efforts of scientists and lawmakers to control it new.
The law has been concerned with air pollution for
centuries. Smoke and fumes were considered a nui¬
sance at common law, and like other nuisances, resort
could be had to the courts, or in certain circumstances,
to self-help methods.

Very early in our history, special statutes were
enacted to give more adequate protection from air con¬
taminants. As earlv as 1306, the use of “Sea Coal”,
as distinguished from charcoal, was forbidden on pen-

* Presented at the Virginia Academy of Science Symposium on
Air Pollution, Harrisonburg, Virginia, May 6, 1966.

altv of death. Queen Elizabeth I forbade the burning
of coal in London during sessions of Parliament. In
1661, one John Evelvn wrote a book on air pollution;
his plan was to move all industries to the leeward
side of the City of London and plant sweet-smelling
and aromatic flowers and trees in the city. This was
an early attempt to control air pollution by zoning,
and we know today that a carefully drawn zoning
ordinance is an essential tool in any community’s air-
pollution-control program.

We learn from our own history that early Spanish
explorers noted that haze from Indian camp fires hung
over the Los Angeles basin— a harbinger of things
to come.

The power to enact anti-pollution legislation is de¬
rived from the reserved or inherent police power of
the state. The validity of any such statute depends
upon its reasonableness to effect a public purpose
and upon it not being arbitrary. Under the common-
law nuisance doctrine, one whose property or person
was damaged by smoke or other pollution could ob¬
tain an injunction or bring an action for money dam¬
ages caused bv the nuisance. It should be apparent,
however, that the nuisance doctrine soon proved inade¬
quate as the country became more populated and
industrialized.

In seeking a legislative solution, the only limita¬
tions upon the full police power of the states to con¬
trol air pollution and, for that purpose, eliminate, if
necessary, established businesses, regulate the manner
of doing business and the use of property, or prohibit
it altogether, or recpiire large expenditures for equip¬
ment if necessary, are the provisions of the United
States Constitution.

It is well settled in law that any provision of a
statute or ordinance regulating a nuisance is valid
insofar as the due process clause of the Constitution
is concerned if it is reasonably necessary for the
accomplishment of its purpose and the public wel¬
fare generally, and if it is not unduly oppressive
and does not arbitrarily interfere with private busi¬
ness nor impose unusual or unnecessary restrictions
upon a lawful occupation. (See 8 Vanderbilt Law
Review, 854).

The leading American case on the Constitutional
limitation on smoke-abatement laws is that of North-

Legal Aspects of Air Pollution

77

western Laundry vs. Des Moines, decided bv the United
States Supreme Court in 1916. (239 U. S. 486)

This case holds that ordinances prohibiting emis¬
sion of dense smoke in cities or populous neighbor¬
hoods, and also ordinances that prescribe a definite
scientific standard for the density of smoke, such as
the Ringelmann Chart, are valid so far as Constitu¬
tional limitations are concerned. The Court said:

So far as the Federal Constitution is concerned,
we have no doubt the state may by itself, or
through authorized municipalities, declare the
emission of dense smoke in cities or populous
neighborhoods a nuisance and subject to restraint
as such; and that the harshness of such legisla¬
tion, or its effect upon business interests, short
of a merely arbitrary enactment, are not valid
Constitutional objections. Nor is there any valid
Federal Constitutional objection in the fact that
the regulations may require the discontinuance
of the use of property, or subject the occupant
to a large expense in complying with the tenns
of the ordinance.

Civen this green light by the Supreme Court in
1916, numerous localities and some states proceeded
to enact air-pollution-control legislation in various
forms. Before turning to Virginia’s new air-pollution-
control act, let us look first at the legislation that
preceded it on the Federal level.

The jurisdictional element of air pollution upon
which tbe exercise of the authority of the United States
Congress depends is its interstate character. The clas¬
sic definition of the nature of Congressional power
to regulate commerce was early stated by Chief Jus¬
tice John Marshall in 1824 in the ease of Gibbons
vs. Ogden. (9 Wheat. 1, 196):

It is the power to regulate; that is, to prescribe
the rules bv which commerce is to be governed.

And while air pollution may be purely local in
origin, the Supreme Court has said that:

If it is interstate commerce that feels the pinch,
it does not matter how local the operation that
applies the squeeze. U. S. vs. Womens Sports-
ivear, 336 U.S. 460, 464 (1949).

In the exercise of its power to regulate interstate
commerce, the 84th Congress in 1955 enacted Public
Law 159, referred to as the “Clean Air Act”, amended
in 1963 by Public Law 88-206 of the 88th Congress,
the purposes of which were to:

( 1 ) Protect the nation’s air as a natural resource;

(2) Initiate and encourage national research and
development programs;

(3) Provide technical and financial assistance to
state and local governments in air-control programs;
and

(4) Encourage and assist the development and
operation of regional air-pollution-eontrol programs.

The Secretary of Health, Education and Welfare
was directed to prepare and recommend research pro¬
grams for devising methods of air-pollution control,
to encourage cooperative activity by state and local
governments, to collect and disseminate information
relating to air pollution, to conduct research to develop
methods of prevention and abatement, to undertake
surveys and investigations of specific problems when
so requested by states or local control agencies, and
to make grants to and enter into contracts with other
governmental and private agencies and individuals for
surveys, studies, research, training and demonstration
projects.

A maximum appropriation of $5,000,000.00 per
year was authorized. The act further provides for
suits for abatement, under certain circumstances of
interstate air pollution and for the control of air pollu¬
tion from Federal facilities.

The Clean Air Act was further amended by Pub¬
lic Law 89-272 of the 89th Congress, approved April
20, 1965. The amendment directs the Secretary of
Health, Education and Welfare as soon as practicable
to prescribe by regulation standards applicable to the
emission of air pollutants from new motor vehicles
which are likely to cause air pollution endangering
health and welfare. Such regulations, when prescrib¬
ed, shall apply to vehicles imported into the United
States as well as those manufactured for sale within
the country, but shall not apply to those intended
solelv for export.

Of the 50 states, 18 have general state air-pollu¬
tion-control laws, and one state has a limited control
statute. Virginia became the 19th state to enter
the field in 1966 when the General Assembly enacted
House Bill 520, known as the “Air Pollution Control
Act”.

This legislation resulted from a study and report
of a special committee of the Virginia Advisory Legis¬
lative Council, which considered the problem for more
than a vear.

J

The 1964 Session of the General Assembly, taking
note of the increasing urbanization and industrializa¬
tion of Virginia, directed the VALC to make such
a study and report to the Governor and the Assem¬
bly prior to the next convening of the Legislature.
Tbe study committee included several members of the
Legislature and others, including scientists and physi¬
cians, recognized as experts in the field. The bill
suggested by the study committee to implement its
recommendations was approved by the VALC and
introduced in the General Assembly where it passed
both Houses without significant opposition.

The act creates in the Executive Department of
tire state an air-pollution-control board to be compos¬
ed of five members appointed by the Governor for
staggered four-year terms and subject to confirmation
by the General Assembly. The act provides that the
members of the board shall be selected on the basis
of merit and ability and that no officer, employee or
representative of anv industry, county, city or town

78

The Virginia Journal of Science

which may become subject to the rules and regula¬
tions of the board shall be appointed to serve on
that body.

The board will elect its own chairman and employ
such technical assistants and other staff as it deems
necessary to carry out its functions and is authorized
to employ a full-time executive secretary. The board
is required to meet at least once every three months,
and more often upon call of the chairman or upon
written request of any two members.

Anv rules, regulations or other requirements adopted
by the board shall be filed with the Secretary of the
Commonwealth at least 30 days before they are to
take effect.

The board is directed to initiate and supervise
research programs for the purpose of determining the
causes, effects and hazards of air pollution; to initiate
and supervise statewide programs of air-pollution-
control education; cooperate with and receive money
from the Federal Government or any county or muni¬
cipal government or any other source; develop a com¬
prehensive program for the study, abatement and
control of all sources of air pollution in the state;
advise, consult and cooperate with agencies of the
United States and all agencies of the state, political
subdivisions, private industries, and any other affected
groups in furtherance of the purposes of the act. The
board shall have power to adopt, amend and repeal
rules and regulations abating, controlling and prohibit¬
ing air pollution throughout the state or in such areas
of the state as shall be affected after public hearings
are held following notice and advertisement of the
same. The board is also authorized to grant local
variances from its rules and regulations if warranted
bv local conditions. After adopting its rules and regu¬
lations, the board is empowered to initiate and re¬
ceive complaints on air pollution, hold hearings and
enter appropriate orders to enforce its rules and regula¬
tions and to institute legal proceedings, if necessary.

The board is given certain enumerated standards
in determining the reasonableness of the activity in¬
volved and the regulations proposed to control it. The
act provides that the board shall exercise a wide dis¬
cretion in weighing the equities involved and attempt¬
ing to achieve a proper balance of conflicting inter¬
ests.

Of additional interest is the fact that the board
may create within any area of the state local air-pollu¬
tion-control districts comprising a city or county, or
parts thereof, or any combination of cities and coun¬
ties, or parts thereof. Such districts may be estab¬
lished by the board on its own motion or upon re¬
quest of the governing body or bodies of the area.

When such a local committee is created, all local
ordinances and other regulations relating to air pol¬
lution in the affected areas shall be superseded by
the rules and regulations of the state board. The
powers and duties of the local district committee shall
be those delegated to it by the state board, which
will receive recommendations from the local commit¬
tee.

The state board will be assisted in its work by an
advisory committee on air pollution composed of tech¬
nically qualified citizens. The act provides a number
of necessary procedural safeguards, including the right
of re-hearing and an appeal from any rule or order
of the board to the Circuit Court of the City of
Richmond, and from that Court to the Supreme Court
of Appeals regardless of the amount involved.

This new act takes effect on June 28 of this year,
and Virginia will then be embarked on its first pro¬
gram of statewide air-pollution control. Several of
the cities of Virginia, including Alexandria, Danville,
Fairfax, Newport News, Richmond, Roanoke and Win¬
chester, have had ordinances in effect for some years.
Most of these ordinances, however, are primarily
smoke-control measures and are based on the Ringel-
mann Chart. The air-pollution ordinance recently
adopted by the Citv of Richmond is of a more com¬
prehensive nature.

There could be no more fitting conclusion to a
discussion of legal aspects of air pollution than the
statement in 8 Vanderbilt Law Revie w 876:

Given strict enforcement, a will to do the job
and the latest scientific ideas, there is ample
legal authority to abate all known sources of air
contaminants. The preservation of the public
health and the protection of the lives and safety
of the inhabitants are the first purposes of gov¬
ernment.

Legal Aspects of Air Pollution

79

Seymour Hochheiser

Division of Air Pollution, Robert A. Taft Sanitary
Engineering Center, Cincinnati, Ohio.

Air-Pollution Detection and Control*

What is air pollution? It is the occurrence in the
outdor atmosphere of gaseous or particulate contami¬
nants that cause undesirable effects. These effects
vary from minor nuisances such as fleeting odors and
soiling of clothing, draperies, or building exteriors to
serious health effects such as emphysema, bronchitis,
and even death. Air pollution is caused by uncon¬
trolled emissions into the atmosphere from various man¬
made processes such as the production of power and
heat, the incineration of wastes, vehicle transport, and
the manufacture of chemicals, steel, paper, and other
products. The ability of the atmosphere to dilute
pollutants discharged into it is limited. Under con¬
ditions of atmospheric temperature inversion (i.e.,
when the temperature increases with altitude instead
of decreases) vertical dispersion of pollutants is limit¬
ed; with low wind speed, horizontal dispersion of
pollutants is limited. Certain terrain features also
limit atmospheric dispersion of pollutants. Meteoro-
logic phenomena affect air pollution, and conversely
pollution affects meteorologic phenomena; atmospheric
particulates may serve as condensation nuclei that in¬
crease fog formation, and atmospheric particulates
and pollutant gases absorb and scatter light energy
resulting in decreases in sunlight, solar radiation, and
visibility.

Air pollution manifests in objectionable effects upon
human perceptions such as on the olfactory sense
and the sense of taste; soiling effects; reduced visi-
bilitv; damaging effects on plants and materials such
as paint, fabrics, metals, and rubber products; and
irritating effects on sensitive tissues of the eye, nose,
and throat. Specific air pollutants can be identified
bv their characteristic effect on plants, materials, or
human olfactory perception. For example, ozone
causes cracking of rubber and damage to tobacco
plants; hvdrogen sulfide causes tarnishing of lead-
based paints and has an odor of rotten eggs; nitro¬
gen dioxide causes fading of certain types of dyed
fabrics; ethylene damages ornamental plants such as
orchids; sulfur dioxide reacts with limestone causing
deterioration of building materials and works of art
made of limestone, damages certain susceptible plants,
and can be tasted when the concentration reaches
0.3 parts per million. The magnitude of rubber crack¬
ing and the onset of eye irritation and plant damage
have been mathematically and empirically related to

the occurrence of definite concentrations of oxidants
in the atmosphere; these indicators (plants, rubber,
and humans) have been used to monitor and assess
air pollution due to oxidants in the air. Similarly,
reductions in visibility have been related to concen¬
trations of particulates in air; the rate of tarnishing
of silverware, to concentrations of hydrogen sulfide;
and corrosion, to concentrations of sulfur dioxide.

PROGRAM DESIGN

The nature and magnitude of air pollution in a
community may vary from place to place and from
minute to minute, hour to hour, day to day, month
to month, and season to season because of variation
in source-emission rates, meteorological parameters,
and proximity to sources of pollution. Selection of
sampling time, frequency of sampling, and number
and location of sampling stations are extremely im¬
portant, therefore, in designing an air-pollution-meas¬
urement program.

For example, to relate the atmospheric pollution
concentration of lead to its effects on humans, col¬
lection of integrated long-term air samples (24 hours
or longer) would be appropriate because lead is a
cumulative poison; if health effects due to carbon
monoxide in air are to be studied, however, then
short-term consecutive samples (20 minutes or less)
should be collected continuously, because carbon mon¬
oxide is an acute poison and atmospheric carbon mon¬
oxide concentrations may varv over short periods of
time. To further illustrate, the objective of a study
is to trace to its source or sources air pollution that
causes objectionable odors or soiling in a given area.
Conversations with complainants will probably give an
estimate of the frequency of occurrence of the undesir¬
able effect; thev may also reveal the suspected source
or sources of the odor. If the effect is sporadic,
which is probable, then a measurement study designed
to relate odor occurrence with wind direction will
indicate the direction of the source of pollution. If
odor sources are located at all major compass points
from the affected area, conceivably the area suffers
from a continuous odor problem.

Since wind directions change from hour to hour
and sometimes more freqeuntly, wind measurement
should be continuous or at least during the time of

* Presented at the Virginia Academy of Science Symposium on
Air Pollution Harrisonburg, Virginia May 6, 1966.

80

The Virginia Journal of Science

odor observations. Odor observations by a human
odor-observer corps in the affected area could be
made at several preselected times of day and night.
When a positive odor observation is obtained, the
persistence of the odor should be determined. To do
this, odor measurements are made about once every
15 minutes until the odor is no longer perceived.
The data are then correlated with wind direction and
perhaps wind speed. Wind speed indicates the extent
of atmospheric stagnation; low wind speeds are con¬
ducive to pollution accumulation, and high wind speeds
increase dilution of pollutants. Wind-speed data can
also be used to calculate the time of transport of pol¬
lutants discharged into the atmosphere at a point A
to an affected area B. Once the direction of the
point or points of origin of odor pollution has been
established, possible odor sources lying in that direc¬
tion are investigated. If only one source of odor
pollution could possibly affect the complaint area,
based on the pollution perception-meteorological meas¬
urement studv, then the problem is simplified. If
more than one source could have caused the odor,
then odorous emissions from each possible source must
be characterized further by chemical properties or by
odor-response characteristics (tvpe of smell), and
related to odor quality in the affected area.

Major pollution problems should be given first
priority or at least the most concerted effort. How

does one identify major pollution problems? Bv con¬
ducting an air-pollution survey. Salient features of
an air-pollution survey involve ( 1 ) an inventory of
pollutant emissions including source categories, loca¬
tions, and emission rates of specific pollutants or class¬
es of pollutants; (2) estimation of concentration of
pollutants in air resulting from these emissions by
use of meteorological dispersion formula; (3) observa¬
tions on the effects of pollution (certain effects can be
attributed to specific pollutants or a class of pollutants);
and (4) quantitative measurement of the concentra¬
tion, effects, and transportation of air pollutants.

The first three features of the survey should be
fully exploited before an extensive measurement pro¬
gram is initiated. Quantitative measurements are desir¬
able during the first phase of the survey, however,
to augment and confirm data obtained by the first
three mentioned techniques. After principal pollutants
have been identified, then more extensive monitoring
of the major pollutants and their effects and trans¬
port is needed to fullv delineate the nature and extent
of the pollution problem. With this information, deci¬
sions can then be made on means to control existing
and potential pollution. • Emission factors have been
compiled for various sources of pollutants in terms of
quantity of pollutant emitted per unit operation (10);
these are useful in conducting the emission inventory.
Information on air-pollution meteorology and on effects

TABLE I

Sources and effects of commonly occurring air pollutants

Contaminant

Major Sources

Principal Effects

SO,,

Fuel combustion (coal, oil, cellnlosic mate¬
rial), industrial processes.

Sensory and respiratory irritation, plant dam¬
age, corrosion, possible adverse effects on
health.

Oxidants

Atmospheric photochemical reactions involv¬
ing nitrogen oxides, organic gases and vapors,
and solar radiation.

Sensory and respiratory irritation, plant dam¬
age. Provides, indirectly, an index of visibili¬
ty reduction due to photochemical aerosols.
Possible adverse effects on health.

CO

Gasoline-powered vehicles, fuel combustion,
industrial processes.

Reduction in oxvgen-carrving capacity of
blood.

NO and NO,,

Fuel combustion, industrial processes.

Visibility reduction, plant damage, and sen¬
sory irritation are produced in photochemical
reactions involving nitrogen oxides; these gases
may also cause adverse health effects, and
nitrogen dioxides can cause decreased visi¬
bility.

Total aliphatic
aldehydes

Fuel combustion, incineration of wastes, at¬
mospheric photochemical reactions.

Sensory irritation, plant damage, and possible
adverse effects on health.

co2

Combustion processes.

Possible adverse effects on climate. Use as
an index of contamination from combustion
operations.

Suspended parti¬
culate matter

Combustion, and industrial processes.

Visibility reduction, soiling.

Air-Pollution Defection and Control

81

of pollution are also available in the technical litera¬
ture.

SOURCES AND EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION

Air-pollution conditions are likely to vary consider¬
ably not only from day to day, but from area to area.
This may be due to the number and types of sources
of pollution in each area, the effectiveness of emis¬
sion controls, and micrometeorological conditions. To
obtain the pollution profile of a large community,
therefore, many air-pollution sampling stations would
be required, each site being representative of pollu¬
tion conditons in that area. The source-emission in-
ventory should also be conducted area bv area, to
ascertain the geographic distribution of pollution sourc¬
es. This information coupled with data on pollution
concentrations and meteorology can be used as a basis
for an air-land use plan.

Sources and effects of commonly occurring air pol¬
lutants are given in Table I. Smog in New York City
is characterized by large concentrations of sulfur di¬
oxide (SOo) and particulates in the atmosphere re¬
sulting in visibility reduction, plant damage, soiling,
sensory and respiratory irritation, and more serious
health effects during episodes of severe atmospheric
stagnation. Major sources of emissions of S02 and
particulates in New York are those processes involv¬
ing combustion of fossil fuels for production of heat
and power and incineration of wastes. Los Angeles
smog is characterized by large concentrations of oxi¬
dants in the atmosphere, which are produced in at¬
mospheric reactions involving solar radiation, nitrogen
oxides, and certain reactive hydrocarbons. Manifesta¬
tions of photochemical smog are eye irritation and
other sensory and respiratory irritations, visibility re¬
duction, plant damage, and adverse effects on health.
The principal sources of nitrogen oxides and reactive
hydrocarbons are motor-vehicle exhaust, emissions from
other combustion sources and certain industrial process¬
es.

SAMPLING OF POLLUTANTS

Volumetric measurement of a specific gaseous pol¬
lutant in air generally involves the use of a selective,
efficient absorbent contained in a suitable absorber
through which an air sample is passed at a known
flow rate for a known sampling time. The absorber
retains the pollutant and passes unreacted the re¬
mainder of the air sample. The quantity of pol¬
lutant collected is then determined bv chemical or
physical methods; data are generally reported in parts
per million (ppm). One milliliter of pollutant per
million milliliters of air, or one microliter of pollu¬
tant per liter of air, is equal to one part per million.

Particulate pollutants suspended in the atmosphere
are commonly sampled bv high-volume filtration
through a high-efficiency filter mounted in a motor-
blower assembly. The quantity of particulates is de¬
termined gravimetricallv and generally is reported in
micrograms per cubic meter. Chemical identification

of the particulates can be performed by subjecting
portions of the sample to a specific test or group
chemical tests. This commonly used method for meas¬
uring atmospheric particulate concentration does not
differentiate particle size. Particulates that penetrate
into the lower respiratory tract may produce more pro¬
nounced health effects than those that penetrate only
the upper respiratory tract. Therefore, in studies of
the health effects of air pollution it is desirable to
determine particulate concentration and composition
especially of particulates of the size range that pene¬
trates to the lower tract, namely, those of less than
5-micron diameter. Research leading to development
of improved sampling instruments capable of separat¬
ing atmospheric particulates into appropriate size
ranges and of collecting samples sufficiently large for
gravimetric analysis is needed.

MEASUREMENTS

Methods for sampling and analyzing the most com¬
monly occurring air pollutants are outlined in Table II.
Applicability of these methods to various sampling
times is indicated. As stated previously, the choice
of method in an air-quality study depends to a large
extent on the objectives of the study and the sam¬
ple-averaging time required to meet them. The meth¬
ods outlined in Table II are designed to measure air
pollutants in the range of concentration normally en¬
countered; they are not perfect, however. Factors
affecting accuracy, specificity, reliability, stability of
reagents and products, and ease of operation and
calibration need further study. Studies also that relate
sample-averaging time to effects of pollution could
make air-pollution measurements more meaningful.
With improvements in air-pollution-measurement tech¬
nology, undoubtedly some of the methods now used
will be modified, and some will be replaced.

Measurements of air pollution both in outside am¬
bient air and in source streams are an essential part
of air-pollution control. Thev are needed to deter¬
mine the tvpe and degree of control required to main¬
tain acceptable levels of air quality, and to evaluate
control efforts. Other basic elements of an air-pollu¬
tion-control program include the following:

( ] ) Establishment of regulations concerning per¬
missible pollution-emission (rates and permissible
levels of contaminants in air;

(2) Enforcement of such regulations;

(3) Public information and education on air pol¬
lution.

The air-resource management concept has been delin¬
eated in recent publications (7, 8, 9).

CONTROL

Pollution emissions can be reduced in several ways;
the choice of technique will vary depending upon the
degree of control required and the nature of the
process and pollutants to be controlled. Wet scrub-
( Coniinucd on page 84)

82

The Virginia Journal of Science

TABLE II

Pollutant

Principal methods for measuring commonly occurring pollutants

Analytical method and reference

Remarks

Sulfur dioxide

Nitric oxide and
nitrogen dioxide

Oxidants

Carbon monoxide

Aldehydes

1. West-Gaeke method — absorption in
impinger containing tetrachloromercurate
reagent. Speetrophotometric determination
of dve produced in reaction with formalde¬
hyde and p-rosaniline hydrochloride. ( 1 )

2. Hydrogen peroxide method — absorp¬
tion in impinger containing dilute hydrogen
peroxide reagent at pH 5. Volumetric tit¬
ration with standard sodium hydroxide. (1)

1. Saltzman method — absorption in frit¬
ted bubbler containing Griess-Saltzman re¬
agent. The quantity of diazo dye produced
in the reaction between N02 and the ab¬
sorbing request is determined speetrophoto-
metricallv. Nitric oxide is determined by
the same method after oxidation to NO.,.
(1)

2. Jacob-Hoehheiser method — absorption
in a fritted bubbler containing sodium hy¬
droxide; subsequent additon of diazotizing
and coupling agents to form diazo dye,
which is determined spectrophotometrical-
ly. (2)

KI method — absorption in neutral or al¬
kaline KI solution contained in midget im¬
pinger. Speetrophotometric determination
of L produced in reaction with oxidants.
Interference of S02 eliminated by use of
upstream absorption column consisting of
chromium trioxide-treated filters. ( 1 )

1. Infrared absorption — direct continuous
analysis in closed-path nondispersive in¬
frared analvzer at a wavelength of 4.67
microns. (3)

2. Chemically treated silica gel detector
tubes — determined by length-of-stain or
color-changing detector tubes. (4, 5)

3. MBTH method — absoqrtion in 3-me¬
thyl 1,2-benzothiazolone hydrazone hydro¬
chloride reagent (MBTH) contained in a
fritted bubbler. The aldehydes absorbed
are oxidized to the blue azine dye which
is measured spectrophotometricallv. ( 1 )

For collection of short-term samples man¬
ually. Variations of this procedure have
been used for collection of 24-hr. samples,
automatic collection qf sequential 2 -hr.
samplers, and for use with continuous auto¬
matic monitoring instruments.

For collection of short-term samples man¬
ually. Samples can be collected over a 24-
hr. period or by means of sequential sam¬
plers over 2-hr. periods or continuously in
automatic monitoring instruments. In the
later case sulfur dioxide is determined con¬
ductometrically.

For collection of short-term manual sam¬
ples. Samples can also be collected and
analyzed continuously in a continuous auto¬
matic monitoring instrument employing a
photometric detector.

For collection of short-term samples man¬
ually. Variations of this procedure can be
used for collection of samples over a 24-hr.
period and bv means of automatic sequen¬
tial samplers over 1-hr. or 2-hr. periods.

Neutral-KI method is suitable for use in col¬
lection of short-term samples manually and
in continuous automatic monitors with ei¬
ther photometric or coulometric detectors.
Alkaline KI method is suitable for use with
automatic sequential samplers or when
there is a delay of more than 1 hr. between
sample collection and speetrophotometric
analysis.

Continuous automatic monitoring method.
May also be used for analysis of grab sam¬
ples collected in plastic bags, evacuated
flasks, or gas sampling bottles.

For use in manual sampling of CO using
short-term atmospheric samples.

For use in analysis of short-term and 24-
hr. samples collected manually; for use with
automatic sequential gas samplers over a
1-hr. or 2-hr. sampling period.

( Continued on next page )

Air-Pollution Defection and Control

83

TABLE II — Continued

Principal methods for measuring commonly occurring pollutants

Pollutant

Analytical method and reference

Remarks

Total suspended
particulate matter

Filtration — gravimetric method — atmos¬
pheric particulate samples are collected bv
filtration through high-efficiency glass-fiber
filters at a flow rate of 40-60 cubic foot
per minute. The sample is weighed and
total atmospheric particulate matter is re¬
ported in terms of micrograms of particu¬
lates per cubic meter of air sampled. (6)

Suitable for use in collection of 24-hr. sam¬
ples. Chemical composition of these sam¬
ples can be determined on separate por¬
tions of the samples. Those commonly de¬
termined are organic fraction, metals, sul¬
fate, and nitrate.

bers, packed absorbent beds, and afterburners are
examples of devices suitable for removing pollutant
gases from stack gas; inertial separators, wet scrub¬
bers, electrostatic precipitators, and fabric filters are
examples of particulate-pollutant-emission-abatement
devices. Changes in industrial or combustion process¬
es and practices can also materially affect pollution
emissions. For example, the substitution of atomic
cnergv for combustion in the production ol electric
power would substantially reduce pollution emissions,
especially of particulates and gases such as sulfur di¬
oxide and nitrogen oxides. Minimization of objection¬
able concentrations of pollutants by atmospheric dilu¬
tion can be accomplished bv tall stacks, creation of
buffer zones between source and receptor (be it man,
plant, or animal), and strategic location of sources
and receptors based on meteorological considerations
governing dilution and transport. In some cases a
combination of these control methods is necessary.

The problem of air-pollution detection and control
is complex and requires an interdisciplinary approach
and a close interrelationship between government, the
public, and industry. Constant surveillance and eval¬
uation are necessary to detect changing pollution con-
ditons and to determine whether the program is meet¬
ing its objectives. Long-range planning is necessary
lest this environmental health problem get out of hand.

REFERENCES

I. Interbranch Chemical Advisory Committee,
Selected methods for the measurement of air
pollutants , Public Health Service Publ. No. 999-
AP-11, Robert A. Taft Sanitary Engineering Cen¬
ter, Cincinnati, Ohio, May 1965.

2. Jacobs, M. B., and Hochheiser, S., Anal. Chem.,
30, 426 (1958).

3. Air sampling instruments, American Conference
of Governmental Industrial Hvgienists, Cincinnati,
Ohio, 1962.

4. Silverman, L., and Gardner, G. R., Amer. Inch
Hyg. Ass. }., 26, 97 (1965).

5. Jacobs, M. B., The chemical analysis of air pol¬
lutants Interscience Publishers, Inc., New York,
1960.

6. Air Pollution Measurements of the National Air-
Sampling Network, U. S. Department of Health,
Education and Welfare, Public Health Service
Publ. No. 978, Analyses of suspended particulates
1957-1961, Robert A. Taft Sanitary Engineering
Center, Cincinnati, Ohio, 1962.

7. Fitzpatrick, J. V., and Heller, A. N., /. Air Pol¬
lution Control Assoc., 15, 297 (1965).

8. Heller, A. N., Schueneman, J. J., and Williams,
J. D., J. Air Pollution Control Assoc., 16, 307
(1966).

9. Williams, J. D., and Edmisten, N. G., An air
resource management plan for the Nashville
metropolitan area, Public Health Service Publ.
No. 999-AP-18, Robert A. Taft Sanitary Engi¬
neering Center, Cincinnati, Ohio, September 1965.

10. Mayer, M. A., Compilation of air pollutant emis¬
sion factors for combustion processes, gasoline
evaporation, and selected industrial processes,
Technical Assistance Branch, Division of Air Pol¬
lution, Robert A. Taft Sanitary Engineering Cen¬
ter, Cincinnati, Ohio, May 1965.

84

The Virginia Journal of Science

Dictionary of Inventions
and Discoveries

Edited by E. F. Carter. Philosophical Library, Inc.,
New York, 1967. 193 pages, $6.00.

There are, according to the book jacket, “2,400 main
headings; over 20,000 references” in the Dictionary of
Inventions and Discoveries, all crammed in between
“ABBE, Ernst” and “ZWORYKIN, Vladimir K.” In¬
cluded are such landmark discoveries and inventions
as Fire, Aircraft (a five-and-one-half-page entry),
Glass, Wheel and Ship. Also included are the less
dramatic inventions and discoveries of mankind—
Whistle, Umbrella, Turkish bath and Chewing gum.
Similarly, Dictionary spans the great and small per¬
sonages of science and technology through the ages.
It can be, generally speaking, a rather useful book and
a good one for browsing through.

Dictionary of Inventions and Discoveries was com¬
piled bv Ernest F. Carter, an Englishman who, since
1932, has written more than 50 works of nonfiction.
The research for these works provided him with the
material for the dictionary, according to a book-jacket
note on the author. The dictionary was compiled,
according to another book-jacket blurb, from the view¬
point of a student wishing to find a reliable source
from which to begin detailed research and evalua¬
tion.

Mr. Carter himself points out one of the main short¬
comings of the dictionary in his introduction: “But
a work of such coverage must, at very best, leave
much to be desired. Any attempt to cover entirely
the vast field of human endeavour down the ages
must necessarily fall short of completeness.”

Beyond such a general shortcoming, however, are
a number of smaller ones. For example, DNA is dis¬
missed with: “(Deoxyribonucleic acid) 1869. Fried¬
rich Muller (Swit) disc, nucleic acid, which was later
renamed D.N.A. 1953. Re-disc, by Dr. Maurice
Wilkins, of King’s College Hospital, London. (See
also R.N.A. )” What happened to Watson and Crick?
Also, it seems there should be at least a hint of the
function of DNA. Incidentally, efforts to find “R.N.A.”
in this dictionary, as per reference, were unsuccess¬
ful.

The entry for “Relativity, Theory of” is equally
lacking. It states, in its entirety: “1905. First prop,
by Swiss Patent Office clerk Albert Einstein (1879-
1955). 1915. Theory established bv R. A. Millikan

(U.S.).”

A confusing aspect of this book is the placing of

periods after the dates of a discovery or invention,
followed by the name of the inventor or discoverer.
In a long list of developments under a single head¬
ing-such as the five-and-one-half-page entry for Air¬
craft-one quickly loses track of which date belongs
to which man. A comma between date and man
would have been better.

Browsing through the dictionary also brought up
several other random thoughts: A pronunciation
guide would have been desirable for a number of
entries; British spellings and terms— e.g., Plough, Car¬
burettor and Windscreen wipers— may be a hindrance
to American students and, why is “Caricature draw¬
ing” listed in a dictionary of scientific and technologi¬
cal developments?

Mr. Carter’s Dictionary of Inventions and Discoveries
represents a noble effort, but it does have some serious
shortcomings. It may be worthwhile in a secondary-
school library, but it will probablv be only of limited
value to the professional scientist.

Beverly Orndorff

Some Additions to the
Flora of Virginia

While working under Dr. Kenneth A. Nicely in the
Herbarium of Virginia Polytechnic Institute during the
summer of 1965, the author did a great deal of col¬
lecting of local flora of several of the southwestern
Virginia counties, especially in the relatively uncol¬
lected areas of southern Giles Countv. A great many
new county records were collected and the follow¬
ing three plants have apparently not been recorded
from Virginia before:

Potentilla argentea L., in a pasture field at Fort
Chiswell in Wythe County, July 13.

S aturefa ( —Calamintha ) glabella var. angustifolia
(Torr. ) Svenson, along Walker’s Creek at Poplar Hill
in Giles County, July 21. (Determined by Marv L.
Smvth)

Grindelia lanceolata Nutt., on a dry roadside bank
along Virginia Route 730 in the Green Valley Com-
munitv of Giles County, September 6.

Specimens of each of these plants have been placed
in the V.P.I. Herbarium.

Gerald B. Straley

Virginia Polytechnic Institute
Blacksburg, Virginia

Communications and Reports

85

PESTICIDE MONITORING JOURNAL
SET FOR EARLY ISSUANCE

SUSTAINING MEMBERS
VIRGINIA ACADEMY
OF SCIENCE

The following Virginia Colleges and Univer¬
sities support the objectives of the Virginia Acad¬
emy of Science through Sustaining Memberships.
Their active and financial support is gratefully
acknowledged.

Bridgewater College
College of William and Mary
Christopher Newport College
Emory and Henry College
George Mason College
Hampden-Sydney College
Hollins College
Madison College
Mary Baldwin College
Mary Washington College
Medical College of Virginia
Old Dominion College
Randolph-Macon College
Randolph-Macon Woman’s College
Richmond Professional Institute
Roanoke College

Southern Seminary, junior College
Stratford College
Sullins College
Sweet Briar College
University of Richmond
University of Virginia
Virginia Military Institute
Virginia Polytechnic Institute
Virginia State College
Washington and Lee University

A new quarterly publication, the Pesticides Moni¬
toring Journal, has been approved by the Bureau of
the Budget, and the first issue will appear in June
1967. Although an earlier announcement anticipated
publication of this Journal in March 1966, a consid¬
erable delay was necessary to resolve new and com¬
plex problems related to this Journal.

The Pesticides Monitoring Journal is to be pub¬
lished under the auspices of the Federal Committee
on Pest Control and its Subcommittee on Pesticide
Monitoring. The principal purpose of the Journal is
to communicate information on pesticide levels rela¬
tive to man and his environment.

The parent committee is composed of representa¬
tives of the United States Departments of Agriculture;
Defense; the Interior; and Health, Education, and
Welfare.

Federal agencies with representation on the Pesti¬
cide Monitoring Subcommittee are the Agricultural
Research Service, Army Corps of Engineers, Fish and
Wildlife Service, Food and Drug Administration, For¬
est Service, Geological Survey, Public Health Service,
Tennessee Valley Authority, and the Federal Water
Pollution Control Administration.

Responsibilitv for publishing the Pesticides Moni¬
toring Journal has been accepted by the Pesticides
Program of the Public Health Service. In August
1966, the Office of Pesticides— which had headquar¬
ters in Washington, D. C.— was transferred to the
National Communicable Disease Center in Atlanta,
Georgia, and consolidated with the toxicology activi¬
ties there. In line with the recent reorganization of the
Public Health Service, the Office of Pesticides has
been redesignated the Pesticides Program.

A major source of data and interpretive articles
for the Journal is expected to be the pesticide-moni¬
toring programs of the various Federal agencies, which
are coordinated by the Federal Committee on Pest
Control. However, pertinent data in summarized
form, together with interpretive discussions, are invited
from both Federal and non-Federal sources, includ¬
ing those associated with State and community moni¬
toring programs, universities, hospitals, and non-govern¬
ment research institutions, both within and without
the United States. Results of studies in which moni¬
toring data play a major or minor role or serve as
support for research investigations will also be wel¬
come; however, the Journal is not intended as a pri¬
mary medium for the publication of basic research.

The Journal is intended for use mainly by scien¬
tists and technicians associated with pesticide moni¬
toring, research, and other programs concerned with
the fate of pesticides following their application—
also by persons with related interests, notably those
in the agricultural, chemical-manufacturing, and food-

86

The Virginia Journal of Science

processing industries; medical and public health work¬
ers; and conservationists.

Manuscripts received for publication will be review¬
ed by an Editorial Advisory Board established bv the
Subcommittee on Pesticide Monitoring of the Federal
Committee on Pest Control. The present Board mem¬
bers are:

Reo E. Duggan, Food and Drug Administration,
Chairman

Anne R. Yobs, Public Health Service

James B. DeWitt, Fish and Wildlife Service

Richard S. Green, Federal Water Pollution Control
Administration

S. Kenneth Love, Geological Survey

Milton S. Schechter, Agricultural Research Service

Paul F. Sand, Agricultural Research Service.

ACADEMY PRESIDENT
ANNOUNCES STELLAR AS
NEGUS LECTURER

Academy President Stanley B. Williams has an¬
nounced that Professor Eliot Stellar, Director of the
Institute of Neurological Science, University of Penn¬
sylvania School of Medicine, will address the Vir¬
ginia Academy of Science on Mav 5, 1967. Stellar
is an outstanding physiological psychologist and will
deliver the Negus Lecture at the annual meeting of
the Academy. His research interests include physiolo¬
gical factors in learning and in motivaiton. He will
speak on his current research on the eating behavior
of humans, a topic of interest to all. Stellar took
his A.B. at Harvard, his Ph.D. at Brown and taught
at Johns Hopkins before joining the faculty at Penn¬
sylvania. He has written numerous articles, has co¬
authored or contributed to several books, is Past-Presi¬
dent of the Eastern Psychological Association.

AMERICAN CHEMICAL SOCIETY
ANNOUNCES SOUTHEASTERN
REGIONAL MEETING DATES
WITH GEORGIA SECTION
AS HOST

The Southeastern Regional Meeting of the American
Chemical Society will be held at the Marriott Motor
Hotel, Atlanta, Georgia, November 1, 2 and 3.

The Georgia Section of the Society extends a cor¬
dial invitation to chemists and chemical engineers to
participate in the meeting.

These subjects will be discussed at the Symposia on
the program: Diterpenes and Diterpene Alkaloids,
Chelation and Analytical Chemistry, Newer Methods

of Organic Synthesis, Industrial Development vs. En¬
vironmental Control, and Free-Radical Processes.

Hotel reservation and pre-meeting registration cards
are scheduled for mailing in October to all members
of the Society residing in the southeastern region, and
forms may be obtained by others upon request to the
General Chairman of the meeting.

A call for papers has been issued. Letters of intent
with title, author, and affiliation must reach the divi¬
sion chairman by June 1, 1967. A 120-word abstract
is due July 1, 1967. The appropriate division chair¬
man will send detailed instructions to each prospec¬
tive author on receipt of a letter of intent.

DIVISION CHAIRMEN include:

Analytical Chemistry— Dr. H. Flaschka, School of
Chemistry, Georgia Tech, Atlanta, Georgia 30332

Biochemistry— Dr. O. F. Binkley, Department of
Biochemistry, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia
30322.

Chemical Education— Dr. T. H. Whitehead, De¬
partment of Chemistry, University of Georgia, Athens,
Georgia 30601.

Environmental Chemistry— Dr. Robert S. Ingols
Engineering Experiment Station, Georgia Tech, Atlan¬
ta, Georgia 30332.

Industrial & Engineering Chemistry— Dr. Fred¬
erick Bellinger, Engineering Experiment Station, Geor¬
gia Tech, Atlanta, Georgia 30332.

Natural Products Chemistry— Dr. David J. Gold¬
smith, Department of Chemistry, Emory University,
Atlanta, Georgia 30322.

Organic Chemistry— Dr. S. Wm. Pelletier, Depart¬
ment of Chemistry, University of Georgia, Athens,
Georgia 30601.

Physical and Inorganic Chemistry— Dr. W. M.
Spicer, School of Chemistry, Georgia Tech, Atlanta,
Georgia 30322.

Radiochemistry— Dr. Henry M. Neumann, School
of Chemistry, Georgia Tech, Atlanta, Georgia 30322.

Undergraduate Research— Dr. R. A. Day, Depart¬
ment of Chemistry, Emory University, Atlanta, Geor¬
gia 30322.

Members of the administrative staff include:

General Chairman— Preston H. Williams, The
Coca-Cola Co., P.O. Drawer 1734, Atlanta, Georgia
30301.

Program Chairman— Dr. William H. Jones, Depart¬
ment of Chemistry, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia
30322.

Exhibits Chairman— Gene M. Roberts, Jarrell-Ash,
P.O. Box 13394, Atlanta, Georgia 30324.

News and Notes

87

Forty-Fifth Annual Meeting of The
Virginia Academy of Science
Norfolk, May 3-6, 1967

OLD DOMINION COLLEGE

OFFICE OF THE PRESIDENT

Norfolk, Virginia 23508

March 9, 1967

TO THE MEMBERS OF THE VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

Old Dominion Co liege --administration, faculty and
students--is delighted that the Virginia Academy of Science
is meeting in Norfolk from May 3 through May 6. We are looking
forward to greeting members at a tea at 5:00 P.M. on May 5 in
our College Center.

We hope that you will visit our campus frequently during
these four days. We also hope that you will let us know if there
is anything we can do to make your visit pleasant, comfortable and
successful.

Greetings to all of you from all of us at Old Dominion

College.

Yours sincerely

ftuT-k

Lewis W. Webb, Jr.
President

PHILIP MORRIS

Philip Morris, a publicly-owned company incorporated in Virginia, proudly
traces its heritage to a London tobacconist of a century ago. Quality and
innovation have earned for the company a valued reputation-. ‘Philip Morris
. . . makers of America’s finest cigarettes.” In addition, the Company markets
a number of fine pipe tobaccos, and in recent years Philip Morris has added
these quality names: Burma-Vita Company, American Safety Razor Company,
and Clark Bros. Chewing Gum Company.

Write to Administrative Assistant, P. O. Box 3-D, Richmond, Virginia

RESEARCH CENTER

Simplest way to get in touch with your friends is through Fisher

American Optical, Ames, Ames Lab-Tek, Boehringer Mannheim,
B & L, B-B-L, B-D, Buchler, Cambridge Chemical, CBDS, Clay-
Adams, Clinton, Coleman, Corning, Eastman (DPI), Falcon Plastics,
Gelman Instruments, Hycel, International Equipment, Jewett, Kimble,
Lab Diagnostics, Labindustries, Oxford, Precision Systems, Scientific Industries,
Sylvana, Turner, VirTis, Warn pole, Warner-Chilcott, Warner-Chilcott Instruments, Zeiss

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M@bil Chemical

MOBIL CHEMICAL COMPANY/ INDUSTRIAL CHEMICALS DIVISION/RICHMOND, VIRGINIA

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How? — Through the pages of SEA FRONTIERS, lavishly
illustrated, authoritative quarterly magazine, bringing the latest
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SEA FRONTIERS

For a free copy of SEA FRONTIERS send a postcard to

THE INTERNATIONAL OCEANOGRAPHIC FOUNDATION
No. 1 Rickenbacker Causeway, Miami, Florida 33149 (Room 95)

The I.O.F. is a nonprofit organization established by those whose
interest and curiosity lie in the sea and the spirit of discovery.
Objectives — the support and development of oceanographic
research, by scholarships, grants and publications. Membership
information on request. Contributions are tax deductible.

MEMBERSHIP IN THE VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

The Academy membership is organized
into sections representing the various scientific
disciplines. Membership is open to all with an
interest in science.

Addressograph plates of all members are
coded by a section number. The First Number
indicates the member’s major interest and
enables Section Officers to more easily contact
their members.

1. Agricultural Sciences

2. Astronomy, Mathematics & Physics

3. Microbiology (Bacteriology)

4. Biology

5.. Chemistry

6. Materials Science
6x. Space Science and Technology

7. Engineering

8. Geology

9. Medical Sciences

10. Psychology

11. Science Teachers

12. Statistics

ANNUAL MEMBERSHIP DUES

Business . $100

Sustaining . 25*

Contributing . 10

Regular . 5

Students . 2

*$25.00 or more

VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

Rodney C. Berry, Exec. Secy.-Treas.

Box 8203, Richmond, Virginia 23226
APPLICATION FOR MEMBERSHIP

Full Official Name .

(With Title and Degrees)

Name as Usually Written .

(With Mr., Mrs., Prof., Col., etc.)

Address .

(Mailing Address Desired, with P. O. Box or Street and Zip Code)

Institution or Business .

Position — Title .

Field of Interest, Section No .

Class of — Sustaining — Contributing

Date . Membership Desired — Student — Regular

Recommended by: .

Make check payable to VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE and send to above address

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OFFICIAL PUBLICATION OF THE
VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

VIRGINIA

JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

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locations in the State of
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General Notice To
Contributors

The Virginia Journal of Science heartily welcomes
for consideration original articles of technical or gen¬
eral interest on all phases of mathematics, the natural,
physical and engineering sciences. Submission of an
article for publication implies that the article has not
been published elsewhere while under consideration
bv the Journal.

All articles should be typewritten (double-spaced)
and submitted on good bond paper (814 x 11 inches)
in triplicate to the Editor. Margins should not be
less than 114 inches on any border. Title, running
title, authors, place of origin, abstract, figures, legends,
tables, footnotes, and references should be on individ¬
ual pages separate from the text. Technical abbre¬
viations should follow consistent standard practices
with careful avoidance of unnecessary neologistic de¬
vices. All pages (including illustrations) should be
consecutively numbered in the upper right comer.
A pencil notation of author names on the back of
each page is helpful in identification.

Illustrations should be supplied in a form suitable
for the printer with attention to the fact that a reduc¬
tion in size may be necessary.

A good technical article generally contains an obliga¬
tory abstract before the text, an introduction, with ref¬
erence to preliminary publications that may exist, an
experimental section, results (which may be included
in the experimental section), a discussion, and conclu¬
sion. References are indicated in the bodv of the
article by consecutively used numbers in parentheses.
Although publication costs are high, attention should
be given to relatively complete references (bibliog¬
raphies) since the puqmse of an article is to illumi¬
nate the significance of present and past findings, and
not merely to obscure the past. The Journal reserves
the right (generally exercised) to make page charges
for articles in excess of 5 pages and to bill authors
at cost for unusually complicated illustrative material.

Abbreviation of journals for references can be found
in the 4th edition of the World List of Scientific Peri¬
odicals, Butterworth, Inc., Washington, D. C., 1963.

The form of presentation is illustrated below:

(1) Aivar, A. S., and Olson, R. E., Fedn Proc. Fedn
Am. Socs exp. Biol., 23, 425 (1964).

(2) Chappell, J. B., Cohn, M., and Greville, G. D.,
in B. Chance (Editor), Energy linked functions
of mitochondria, Academic Press, Inc., New York,
1963, p. 219.

BUSINESS MEMBERS
VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

Because of their interest in science and the
economy of Virginia, the following industrial
concerns have become Business Members of the
Academy and have thus contributed greatly to its
work and progress. Their support is gratefully
acknowledged:

Abbott, Proctor & Paine
Albemarle Paper Mfg. Co.

Allied Chemical Corporation
American Machine & Foundry Co.

The American Tobacco Company
The Bank of Virginia
Burlington Industries, Inc.

The Central National Bank
Celanese Fibers Company
Chesapeake Corporation of Virginia
Continental Can Company, Inc.

Dan River Mills

Dow Badisohe Company

E. I. duPont de Nemours & Co., Inc.

First and Merchants National Bank
General Electric Company
Hercules, Incorporated
Lawvers Title Insurance Corporation
Larus and Brother Co., Inc.

Merck and Company, Inc.

Mobil Chemical Company
National Fruit Product Co.

Newport News Shipbuilding Co. Foundation
Norfolk and Western Railway Co.

Philip Morris and Co., Ltd., Inc.

Phipps & Bird, Inc.

Reynolds Metals Co.

A. H. Robins Companv, Inc.

Shenandoah Life Insurance Company
Southern Bank & Trust Company
Southern Railways Systems
Southern States Cooperative, Inc.

State-Planters Bank of Commerce and Trusts
Union Camp Corporation
Virginia Chemicals, Inc.

Virginia Electric and Power Company
Virginia Trust Company
J. C. Wheat and Company

(3) Riley, G. A., and Havnes, R. C., Jr., J. hiol. Chem.,
238, 1563 (1963).

VIRGINIA

JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

OFFICIAL PUBLICATION OF THE
VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

Vol. 18, New Series July, 1967

No. 3

TABLE OF CONTENTS

95

The Logarithmic Distribution: A Review

W. C. Nelson and II. A. David

103

Water Pollution — We Are They

Harry Busch

105

Plankton in James River Estuary, Virginia

II. Phytoplankton in the Elizabeth River

Harold G. Marshall

110

Porphijridium sordidum Geitler in America, with Comments
of Other North American Freshwater Rhodophytes

on the Distribution

Franklin D. Ott

114

The Role of Agriculture in the War on Hunger

R. W. Engel

117

News and Notes

THE VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

Official Publication of the Virginia Academy of

Science

EDITOR

HERBERT McKENNIS, JR.

EDITORIAL BOARD

SECTION EDITORS

Dorothy L. Crandall

John E. Duberg

Boyd Harshbarger

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The front cover is bij Douglas C. Hensley.

W. C. Nelson and H. A. David

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Received May 10, 1967

The Logarithmic Distribution: A Review"

ABSTRACT

While the logarithmic distribution has received a cer¬
tain amount of attention in statistical and biological
literature, its applications and properties deserve to be
more widely known. A brief summary of the distribu¬
tion’s main properties and uses is presented. Methods
are discussed for estimation of the single parameter.
Also included is an account of various models pro¬
posed in the literature for the generation of the distri¬

1. INTRODUCTION

The logarithmic (sometimes logarithmic series) dis¬
tribution is a discrete single-parameter distribution
over the positive integers. It is usually written

a 0 x

f(x) = - , X = 1, 2, 3, .... (1)

x

where 0 (0 < 0 < 1) is the parameter of the distri¬
bution and « = — 1/log (1 — 6). The name of the
distribution derives from the fact that 9x/x is generated
by the series expansion of — log(l — 6).

The distribution was first discussed in a paper by
Fisher, Corbet, and Williams (1) who used it to de¬
scribe the partitioning into species of random sam¬
ples from various insect populations. Here f(x) is
the expected proportion of species represented by x
individuals. Williams (2) presents an impressive docu¬
mented list of applications not only to individuals
classified into species but also to species classified
into genera (e.g., flowering plants of the world) and
including such miscellaneous situations as species of
insects infesting food dumps and types of bacteria in
colonies. There are also nonbiological applications —
e.g., to a problem in operations research by William¬
son and Bretherton (3) and to the classification of
publications by authors. Thus the logarithmic distri¬
bution was found by us to give an adequate fit to
the classification of the 992 papers listed in the index
for 1965 of the Journal of Abstracts (International Sta¬
tistical Institute), f(x) now referring to the propor¬

* Partially supported by the National Institutes of Health, Re¬
search Grant No. 5T1 GM-2-07 and by the Army Research Office,

bution. These derivations are discussed at some length
partly because of their intrinsic interest in providing
a variety of models leading to the logarithmic distribu¬
tion and partly in an effort to clarify the original
derivations which are rather succinct. Applications of
the distribution are mentioned and a worked example
is included.

tion of authors with x papers in the index. Recently
Chatfield, et al. (4) have used the logarithmic distri¬
bution to describe consumer purchasing data with f(x)
being the proportion of buyers who purchase x units
of some product.

The purpose of the present paper is threefold:

(a) To acquaint die nonstatistical reader, especially
the biologist, with a distribution deserving to be more
widely known. A worked example is given in Section
5. Possible new applications may well suggest them¬
selves.

(b) To provide in Section 3, meant for the statistical
reader, an account of various models proposed in the
literature for the generation of the logarithmic distri¬
bution. The original authors have shown much in¬
genuity but have often expressed themselves very suc¬
cinctly.

(c) To give a very brief summary of the distribu¬
tion’s main properties and uses together with a rea¬
sonably complete bibliography. Many more details
can be found in Nelson and David (5).

2. MAIN PROPERTIES

The mean and variance of the logarithmic distribu¬
tion are from (I)

a6 a6 ( 1 ad)

u. = - , a~ — - . (H)

Durham. This research was largely accomplished while Dr. David
was Professor of Statistics at Virginia Polytechnic Institute.

Logarithmic Distribution: A Review

95

Individual and cumulative terms have been tabulated
(as functions of /x) by Williamson and Bretherton (3).
It is clear from (I) that the distribution becomes
increasingly long-tailed as 0 approaches 1. Table I
shows the probability function for selected values of
0. It is given here only to illustrate the shape of
f(x). Path, Kamat, and Wani (6) have tabulated
both the probability function and the distribution func¬
tion, to six decimals, for 0 = .010(.010).700(.005).900
(.001). 999.

We repeat that the logarithmic distribution is a
distribution of “species”, not of “individuals”. The
probability that a randomly drawn individual belongs
to a species with x representatives is

xf(-j = (i_g) x=l,2,3, ...

Sxf(x)

giving a geometric distribution with the zero class
missing. This means that the proportion of individuals
belonging to a species with more than x representa¬
tives is just 0 x.

The estimation of 0 is easily effected by the method
of maximum likelihood. For a random sample con¬
sisting of S species and I individuals drawn from (I)

TABLE I

Probability function for the logarithmic distribution

\ 0

X N.

.1 .3 .5 .7 .9

1

.949 .841 .721 .581 .391

2

.048 .126 .180 .203 .176

3

.003 .025 .060 .095 .106

4

.006 .023 .050 .071

5

.001 .009 .028 .051

6

.004 .016 .038

7

.002 .010 .030

8

.001 .006 .023

9

.004 .019

10

.002 .015

11

.001 .012

12

.001 .010

13

.001 .008

14

.007

15

.006

16

.005

17

.004

18

.004

19

.003

20

.003

21

.002

22

.002

23

.002

24

.001

25

.001

with nx denoting the number of species represented
by x individuals

oo oc

(5 nx = S , 2 xnx = I),

X— 1 x=l

the logarithm of the likelihood function is

log L = S log a -f- I log 0 — 2nx log x .

Setting d log L/ d 0 = 0 we have the likelihood equa¬
tion

A £

a v

- K

1—6

— or ft = x .

s

(III)

Table II (7) gives ^ as a function of 6 and hence
also ft as a function of 6, thus permitting the immed¬
iate estimation of $ by inverse interpolation. Itera¬
tive procedures, e.g., Birch (8), provide additional
accuracy when needed. The asymptotic variance of
is

[E(-Ai2iL)r'= "2

02

de2

la2

M-

i—0

p)

and is readily estimated on replacing 0 and by f
and ft.

3, MODES OF GENERATION

In this section we review Fisher’s original deriva¬
tion of the logarithmic distribution, Anscombe’s ex¬
tensions, and various models put forward by D. G.
Kendall because, considering the many applications
of the distribution, he found it “hard to believe that
a single mechanism will be found to explain the rele¬
vance of the logarithmic series to all these problems.”

Fisher (1) begins with the familiar result that the
negative binomial distribution

(x+r— 1) ! Px

x!(r — 1 ) ! ( l-j-p)x+r

(IV)

r > 0 , p > 0 ;
x = 0, 1 , 2, . . .

may be obtained by letting the parameter A of a Pois¬
son distribution vary according to the Eulerian or
Type III law

f(A) = - - - p-rAM e-A/<> A > 0 . (V)

(r— 1) !

Now in applying (IV) as a model for the numbers
of individuals from different species occurring in a
collection the zero class is not observable since by
itself the collection gives no information on the num¬
ber of species not found in it. Also, the abundance
in nature of different species of the same group often
varies greatly. If one attempts to fit to such data
a negative binomial distribution, truncated at x = 1,
a value of r results which is so small as to be almost
indistinguishable from zero. This reflects the fact

96

The Virginia Journal of Science

TABLE II

Values of fi with argument 6
[Patil (7)]

6

.00

.01

.02

.03

.04

.05

.06

.07

.08

.09

.00

1.0050

1.0102

1.0154

1.0207

1.0261

1.0316

1.0372

1.0429

1.0487

.10

1.0546

1.0606

1.0667

1.0730

1.0794

1.0858

1.0925

1.0992

1.1061

1.1132

.20

1.1204

1.1277

1.1352

1.1429

1.1507

1.1587

1.1669

1.1752

1.1838

1.1926

.30

1.2016

1.2108

1.2202

1.2299

1.2398

1.2500

1.2604

1.2711

1.2821

1.2934

.40

1.3051

1.3170

1.3294

1.3421

1.3551

1.3687

1.3825

1.3968

1.4116

1.4269

.50

1.4427

1.4591

1.4760

1.4935

1.5117

1.5306

1.5503

1.5706

1.5919

1.6140

.60

1.6370

1.6611

1.6862

1.7126

1.7401

1.7690

1.7994

1.8313

1.8650

1.9005

.70

1.9380

1.9778

2.0200

2.0649

2.1128

2.1640

2.2189

2.2779

2.3416

2.3800

.80

2.4853

2.5670

2.6566

2.7553

2.8648

2.9870

3.1244

3.2802

3.4587

3.6656

.90

3.9087

4.1991

4.6716

4.9960

5.5686

6.3424

7.4560

9.2208

12.5255

21.4976

that A in (V) is highly variable, its coefficient of
variation being r%.

That r is not really zero for collections of species
follows from the fact that the total number of species,
and therefore the total number not included in the
collection, is really finite. The situation, however, in
which a large number of species are so rare that they
have a small chance of being in the sample is well
represented by the limiting form of the negative bino¬
mial when r tends to zero.

Thus Fisher puts r = 0 in (IV), writes 6 for
p/(p + l) so that O<0<1, and replaces the constant
l/(r — 1)! by a new constant ax to obtain

x

an expression for the expected number of species with
x individuals.

The total number of species expected is consequent¬
ly

°° axdx

2 -±— ■= — «r log(l— 6) (VII)

x=l x

and the total number of individuals expected is

are sufficient to determine values for and ^ .

It should, however, be noted that the logarithmic
distribution is not a two-parameter distribution as has
often been thought. The confusion arises naturally
enough because of the presence of both and 6 in

(VI) and is due to the fact that (VI) is an expected
frequency rather than a probability. Since

1 _ — _ ^

1T~X- (l_^)[_log(l_#)]

we again have (III) to solve for ft. With (t known,
follows from either equation in (IX), the first of
which may also be written as S = ax/& . Thus there
is no essential difference between the maximum like¬
lihood methods of Section 2 and the present older
approach. Corresponding to = 0 S one has from

(VII) the parametric relation «i = aE(S). The con¬
stant ax is of considerable interest and is usually
termed the “index of diversity”; it is discussed fur¬
ther in Section 4.

Anscombe’s (9) derivation has a somewhat differ¬
ent emphasis from Fisher’s. Considering the situation
exemplified by trap catches he supposes that there
are N species that might be observed; in the sample
at hand the number of species with x representatives
is nx , where

aid

2 = . (VIII)

x=l 1 — 6

Thus the relations (VII) and (VIII) enable the series
to be fitted to observational data for if S and I are
the number of species and number of individuals ob¬
served, respectively, the two equations

S = — log (1 — ^)

I

1— fr

(IX)

oo oo

nx > 0, 2 nx = S , and 2 xnx = I .

x=l x=l

The probability that x members of a randomly chosen
species will be caught is given as before by the nega¬
tive binomial f(x) of (IV) which may be written as

,, , ,r-fx— 1 r x

f(x) = ( x ) (1— 6) 6 .

On the assumption of independent movement by the

Logarithmic Distribution: A Review

97

individuals of each species the observed outcome then
lias the multinomial probability

N !

(N-S) ! II nx !

x=l

TsJ _ C 00 n

[f(0)] n [f(x)] 1

X=1

N !

(1-0)

Ni

(N-s) ! n nx !

r(r+lj_ n2 r (r+1 ) (r+2) ^ ^1 (X)

2 ! 3 !

Setting Nr — ai and taking the limit as r 0 , N oo ,
with ai constant, we have

N !

(N-S) !

so that (X) becomes

S 2nx
N = N

the equations to be solved for the maximum likeli¬
hood estimates of ai and 0 are as before S = — .

log (1 — 0) and I = <*]$/( 1 — $'). In order to find
the asymptotic variances of these estimates, the matrix
of expected values of the second partial derivatives
of log L is obtained, viz

—log (1—0) 1

<*1 1 — 0

1 _ _

1—0 0(1— 6)2

which upon inversion gives asymtotically

var (^i) ~

_ «i _

— log (1—6)— 6

COV ( + , $0

0(1-0)
log(l— 0) + 6

(1-0)

Ni

n nx

(Nr)

ni

r Nr(r+1) n'2 r Nr (r+1 ) (r+2) n °3 flI

[ - - - J L - — - J • • • 0

2 !

3 !

(1-|))“1 «r (-^)n!(”)ns. . . o1 (xi)

n nx ! 2 3

(1—0) ai aiS 01

nnx inx x

(XII)

Since

A. 0(1 0)^log (1 0)

var (0) -v - .

ai [l°g (1 — 0) + 0]

These formulae would be correct asymptotically, but
we are really concerned with only one sample. Sup¬
pose, however, one puts

0 = — ;

P+1

then

var («i) = -

log(p+l) - —

P+1

ai ax log (1—0)
(1—0) = e

02

— «i (0 H - b • • • )

2

(XI) may be expressed as

, nx -ax 0 , n,n2 -ai 0+2

\ot\ 6) C (a+ 6~/2) €

( °3 _Qfl Q3 ^

(«1 03/3) e

n:x

a product of independent Poisson distributions with
means

ai0 , a\62/2 , ai03/3 , . . . *

The expression (XII) is nothing other than the
likelihood L of the sample. Since

log L =

constant + «x log( 1 — 0) + S log ax + I log 0 ,

Anscombe points out that for the important case
p — > co (0— >1) with ai held constant, the first order
approximation is

var («x) ~ - - —

log p

D. G. Kendall (10) provides several alternative
models leading to the logarithmic distribution. He
begins by pointing out that if the actual number v
of individuals by which a particular species is repre¬
sented in the whole population (supposed finite) is
distributed in the logarithmic form with parameter Z

Y = — log( 1 — Z) , v = 1, 2, 3, . . .

and if p = 1 — e~^ is the chance that an individual
will be caught in exposure time t , then the resulting
distribution in a sample is also logarithmic. To see
this define y and 0 by

e' — 1 = p(e — 1) and 0=1 — e ^ , (XIII)

98

The Virginia Journal of Science

and let Px be the probability that a species will have
x representatives in the sample. Then

vv

oo Z v

P0= 5 - (1— P)

v=l vY

= [-log(l-Ze~yt ) ]/Y . (XIV)
But from (XIII)

V = log [ 1 -f- (eY— 1 ) ( 1 — e yt ) ]

= l°g[eY( 1 — e yt ) + e yt ]

=Y -j- log[l — e ^(l— e~Y)]

so that

Y — y = — log ( 1 — Ze yt ) . (XV)

Thus from (XIV) and (XV)

P0=l— y/Y. (XVI)

Also for x > 1 , Px is given by

00 ZV v V-x

px= S — - ( ) Pxd— p)

v= 1 vY

= (-^)X _J_

1— P x ! Y

“ *(v-l) • • . (v — x— {— 1 ) [Z( 1 — p)] V

v— 1 V

vx jx

p x Z d

= (-^) — - ( — log[l — Z( 1 — p) ] )

1 — p x ! Y x

so that (XVII) may be written

Px = 0x/xY = (1-P o)6*/xy .

This is the logarithmic distribution with a zero term
added. From (XIII), y < Y for all t but y approaches
Y as t increases.

The expected values of S and I (the numbers of
species and individuals in the catch) are E(S) —
N ( 1 — P0) = yN/Y and E(I) = (eY— 1)N/Y. Ken¬
dall notes that N/Y is a constant independent of the
length of exposure t and in fact, N/Y corresponds to
the index of diversity, .

Kendall goes on to investigate several discontinuous
Markov processes.

Consider the growth of a population of organisms
whose numbers fluctuate due to reproduction (by bi¬
nary fission), mortality (or emigration), and immigra¬
tion from outside. Each of these three activities is
assumed to be a Markov process: that is, the prob¬
ability of any particular event in time interval t is
the same for all time intervals of this length and inde¬
pendent of the past history of the system. Let Px(t)
be the probability that there are x individuals in the
system at time t. Then if, during the time interval
8 t , A S t is the probability tbat a member of the popu¬
lation reproduces itself, n 8 t is the probability that a
member of the population dies, and K 8 t is the prob¬
ability that an individual not initially a member of
the population does join the population, the follow¬
ing set of differential-difference equations may be set
up to describe the growth of the population:

dpx(t)

- - - = P.x+1 (t) —

dt

[x ( X— J— /*) -j-/c] P (t) -f-

x

[(x— 1 )A -f k]P (t) for X > 1
x — 1

and

(pZ) _ (1— p)X(x— 1) !

(l-p)Xx ! Y [ 1 — Z ( 1 — p) ] X

— ( - — - )X •

xY 1— Z(l-p)

(XVII)

However, (XVII) may be simplified by noting from
(XIII) that

0 = 1— e-y = (ey — 1 )/ey

( eY — 1 ) p _ [(1— Z)-1— l]p

(eY-l)p+l “ [(l_Z)-i-l]p+l

= PZ/(pZ+l-Z) =PZ/[1— Z(l-p)]

— t (t) -*PQ(t) • (XVIII)

These equations may be solved with the aid of the
generating function

00 x

G(z , t) = 2 P (t)z .

x=0 x

Upon solving the system (XVIII), given the initial
conditions P0(0) = 1 , Px(0) =0, (x^> 1), one ob¬
tains for the distribution of population size, after the
process has been developing for time T, a negative
binomial distribution with index k/X and mean

(A— fj.)T

/c[e — 1]/ (A — /r) .

Thus if A > /x , the expected size of the population
will for large T grow geometrically at an exponential

Logarithmic Distribution: A Review

99

rate (A — /x ) . If, however, A < /i , the population
size has a steady-state distribution with mean K/
(/x — A). Clearlv if K were equal to zero, the popula¬
tion would almost certainly die out in a finite time.
But suppose k is very small compared with A • Then
while the immigration effect is sufficiently large to
begin the process and to generate a new individual
if the population dies out, it is negligible when com¬
pared to the contribution of the reproduction effect
when the population does contain individuals. There¬
fore, by considering the conditional distribution form¬
ed by taking the ratio of the general term to the sum
of all the terms but the first in the negative binomial
series and then letting k/A— >0, one finds that the
size distribution of such a colony, given that x > 0 ,
is the logarithmic distribution

x

where

(A— /r)T /x

e -

A

For the case when reproduction and mortality just
balance (X = /jl) the solution of (XVIII) shows x to
be distributed as a negative binomial with index k/X
but the mean value is now kT. If k/X is small the
limiting conditional distribution of x (given that x > 0)
is once again the logarithmic distribution where now
0 = AT/(1 + AT).

This type of growth process was also studied by
Yule (11) in connection with a mathematical theory
of evolution. Furry (12) investigated a similar prob¬
lem in work with cosmic radiation. This general model
has also been applied to the spread of infectious dis¬
eases in a community.

Still another alternative derivation of the logarithmic
distribution considered as a limiting form of the nega¬
tive binomial distribution has been developed by M.
G. Kendall and Stuart (13).

4. SOME COMMENTS

(a) Williams and others, such as Siromoney (14),
distinguish two types of logarithmic distributions, de¬
pending on whether the sample is taken on groups or
on individual units. An example of the first type is
a sample of flea-ridden rats classified according to the
number of fleas on each. An increase in the sample
of rats will not add any fleas to the rats already con¬
sidered; that is, new units fall into new groups. On the
other hand, when moths are classified into species an
increase in the number of moths may add new indivi¬
duals to species already represented; that is, new units
may fall into old groups.

(b) Index of diversity. Fisher (1) has pointed out
that for all samples taken from the same population
bv the same method a, =E(n1)/0 is constant. This

fact is of great ecological interest. Since is high
(low) in populations which have a large (small) num¬
ber of species relative to the number of individuals,
Williams calls the “index of diversity”. From the
above it follows that when samples from the same
population are combined ai remains unchanged. Wil¬
liams (15) points out that ai is inversely proportional
to the “characteristic” defined by Yule in his Statistical
Study of Literary Vocabulary (1944), Yule’s popula¬
tion being the number of different nouns available for
use in the mind of a writer. Perhaps the most inter¬
esting property of ai is the following:

If two samples, not of veiy small size, are taken
from the same population and the larger is k times
the smaller, then the number of species in the larger
sample is approximately log k more than in the
smaller.

The proof follows from (IX) which on elimination
of may be written

Sj= & log (1+ 1 A)

so that

S — S i = aj log k since I > > ax .

(c) Formally the logarithmic distribution, like the
Poisson and negative binomial distributions, is a special
case of the power series distribution

f(x) =

a (x)0

g(0)

where

x = 0, 1, 2, . . .

CO V

a(x) > 0 and g (Q) — 2 a (x)0

~ x=0

See Noack (16) and Patil (17).

5. AN EXAMPLE

Table III shows a total of 1251 species of British
flowering plants classified into 479 genera. For the
logarithmic distribution, we have "x = 1251/479 =
2.612 and hence from Table II find $ = .8151 and
& =E(n1)/^ = 231.3/.8151 = 283.8.

For comparison the fit of the negative binomial
distribution (IV) to this data is also considered. The
appropriate truncated distribution is obtained by divid¬
ing (IV) by

1— f(o)= 1 - l/(l+p)r ,

so that

f (x)

T

(x+r-1)!
x ! ( r — 1 ) !

w (1 — w)

X = 1, 2, . . .

-w

where w = 1/(1 -j- p) . Estimates for r and w, 0.0085
and 0.141, respectively, are found by a trial-and-error
method from the moment equations using the first

100

The Virginia Journal of Science

two moments of the truncated distribution (18)).

A x2 goodness-of-fit test is carried out for the ex¬
pected frequencies of each distribution, with the group¬
ing of the smaller frequencies as indicated. For the
logarithmic distribution x2 — 15.33, while for the

truncated negative binomial distribution x2 — 28.24.

Since x2 = 16.92 , x2 = 21.67 , only the logarith-
.05 .01

ic distribution gives an adequate fit.

TABLE III

Frequency of genera and species of British flowering
plants [Williams, (19)]

Number of
Species per
Genus

Number

of Genera

Observed

Expected

Logarithmic

Truncated

negative

binomial

1

256

231.3

208.5

2

84

94.3

90.2

3

51

51.3

51.9

4

22

31.3

33.5

5

21

20.4

23.1

6

8

13.9

16.55

7

5

9.69

12.21

8

5

6.91

9.18

9

5

5.01

7.02

10

6'

3.67"

5.43"!

11

4

r13

2.72

>8.42

4.24

> 13.01

12

3j

2.03_

3.34_

13

r

1.53

2.65

14

i

1.16

2.12

15

3

.88

1.70

16

i

.67

1.37

17

i

.52

1.11

>13.81

—

>9

—

6.47

—

21

i

1.71 <

4.86<

—

47

i

REFERENCES

1. Fisher, R. A., Corbet, A. S., and Williams, C. B.,
J. Anim. Ecol., 12, 42 (1943).

2. Williams, C. B., /. Ecol., 34, 253 (1947).

3. Williamson, E., and Bretherton, M. H., Ann. math.
Statist., 35, 284 (1964).

4. Chatfield, C., Ehrenberg, A. S. C., and Good-
hardt. G. J., Jl R. statist. Soc., Ser. A, 129 317
(1966).

5. Nelson, W. C., and David, H. A., Va. polytech.
Inst. tech. Rep. 58, 1964.

6. Patil, G. P., Kamat, A. R., and Wani, J. K.,
W.A.D.C. tech. Rep. 64-197, ARE, 1964.

7. Patil, G. P., Biometrics, 18, 68 (1962).

8. Birch, M. W., Biometrics, 19, 651 (1963).

9. Anscombe, F. J., Biometrika, 37, 358 (1950).

10. Kendall, D. G., Biometrika, 35, 6 (1948).

11. Yule, G. U., Phil. Trails. R. Soc., Ser. B, 213, 21
(1924).

12. Furry, W. H., Phys. Rev., 52, 569 (1939).

13. Kendall, M. G., and Stuart, A., The advanced
theory of statistics, vol. 1, Hafner, New York,
1958, pp. 133-35.

14. Siromoney, G., Sankhya, Ser. A, 24, 419 (1962).

15. Williams, C. B., Proc. Linn. Soc. Lond., Session
158, 1947.

16. Noack, A., Ann. math. Statist., 21, 127 (1950).

17. Patil, G. P., Sankhya, Ser. A., 23, 269 (1961).

18. Sampford, M. R., Biometrika, 42, 58 (1955).

19. Williams, C. B., J. Ecol., 32, 1 (1944).

RELATED REFERENCES

Darwin, J. H., Biometrics, 16, 51 (1960).

Feller, W., An introduction to probability theory and
its applications, Wiley, New York, 2nd ed., 1957.

Fisher, R. A., Contributions to mathematical statistics,
(sec. 43), Wiley, New York, 1950.

Gower, J. C., Biometrika, 48, 212 (1961).

Grundy, P., Biometrika, 38, 427 (1951).

Harrison, J. L., Ann. Eugen., 12, 280 (1945).

Irwin, J. O., Jl R. statist. Soc., Ser. B, 7, 101 (1941).

Jones, P. C. T., and Mollison, J. E., J. gen. Microbiol.,
2, 54 (1948).

Jordan, C., Tohoku math. J., 37, 254 (1933).

Kendall, M. G., and Stuart, A., The advanced theory
of statistics, vol. 2, Hafner, New York, 1961, pp.
46-48.

Khatri, C. G., Biometrika, 46, 486 (1959).

Patil, G. P., Ann. Inst, statist. Math., Tokyo, 14, 179
(1962).

Patil, G. P., Biometrika, 49, 227 (1962).

Patil, G. P., Biometrics, 18, 365 (1962).

Patil, G. P., Ann. math. Statist., 34, 1050 (1963).

Preston, F. W., Ecology, 29, 254 (1948).

Preston, F. W., Ecology, 39, 620 (1958).

Logarithmic Distribution: A Review

101

Rao, C. R., Advanced statistical methods in biometric
research, Wiley, New York, 1952, pp. 165-66.

Riddell, W. J. B., Ann. Eugen., 12, 274 (1944).

Rov, J., and Mitra, S. K., Sankhya, Ser. A, 18, 371
(1957).

Williams, C. B., Ann. Eugen., 12, 143 (1944).

Williams, C. B
Williams, C. B
Williams, C. B
Williams, C. B
Williams, C.

., J. Anim. Ecol, 16, 11 (1947).

J. Ecol, 38, 107 (1950).

I., J. Anim. Ecol, 22, 14 (1953).
,, Am. Nat., 94, 137 (1960).

'., Biometrics, 20, 301 (1964).

102

The Virginia Journal of Science

Harry Busch

Water Pollution — We Are They*

In this era, when it is as popular and fashionable
to be against water pollution as it is to be for mother¬
hood, it is small wonder many of our members are
concerned. During the past decade, The Ensign has
contained many well-documented and erudite articles
on the subject, some of which undoubtedly accel¬
erated the action presently being taken. The loss of the
swimming, boating, and fishing areas we once knew,
the strange taste of drinking water, the inability to
wash the family car and water the lawn, and the
threat that these conditions will get worse have all
added impetus to the stampede of clean-water propo¬
nents.

Rapidly disappearing is the agnostic who said, “If
it gets that bad they will take care of it.” Suddenly
there is an awareness that they is us. They are learn¬
ing that to make water reusable, municipalities must
construct, enlarge, and modernize their waste-treat¬
ment facilities at the cost of almost $900 million per
year. They find water is the number one raw mate¬
ria] of industry: water is used as a power source, a
coolant, a means of transport, an ingredient, and as
a cleansing agent. It requires 1,400 gallons to pro¬
duce a dollar’s worth of steel, and these industries
are suddenly developing a consciousness and a con¬
science. Their survival is as dependent on clean
water as ours. (See Fig. 1.)

Agriculture is using seven times as .much water now
as in 1900, and 60 percent of the water used in irriga¬
tion is nonrecoverable. The other 40 percent returns
to watercourses laden with salts, minerals, and chemi¬
cals which render it unfit for other uses.

Now that there is an awareness that we are they,
and that we are going to have to recompense for the
last 300 years of apathy, what is being done? Even
if you disapprove of creeping federalism, it is irrefut¬
able that the states, counties, municipalities, and indus¬
try have been dragging their feet in solving the prob¬
lem. It has taken the Federal Water Pollution Con¬
trol Act to provide the stimulus and funds to initiate
the construction of sewage-treatment facilities in 6,350
communities. During the first nine years the federal
contribution has been $700 million, about one-fifth
of the $3.4 billion spent. Facilities built bv these
combined funds will, when completed, serve 53 mil¬

* Reprinted from The Ensign (copyrighted 1967 by the United
States Power Squadrons) with permission of the copyright owners.

lion people and improve the water quality in 55,000
miles of streams. (See Fig. 2.)

Now, getting back to our concerned members —
what can they do? Find out what your state and
community is doing. All states have laws to control
pollution, and agencies to administer the laws. One
function of these agencies is to collect and analyze
data on pollution in order to give technical aid to local
governments and industries seeking ways to treat their
wastes. Another agency function is surveillance, to
assure compliance with the laws relating to discharge
of wastes. Ask your state’s agency about the per-
capita expenditure for abatement of water pollution.
What enforcement and regulatory duties are being per¬
formed? Are monitoring systems to test water quality
being operated? Has the staff been increased, and
do they have adequate trained personnel? Are there
long-range plans to effect the best future use of water¬
ways and the state’s limited water resources?

You may wish to check on your own community:
( 1 ) Does your community have a treatment plant?
Primary, secondary, tertiary — are all the homes con¬
nected with the plant? (2) Do wastes sometimes
escape? What percentage and how often? (3) Is
the staff adequate to operate it 24 hours a day, 365
days a year? Are they certified? (See Fig. 3.)

Many civic groups are vitally concerned and are
active in effecting solutions to the problem. The
Jaycees have adopted a Clean Water program. The
League of Women Voters put water resources on its
agenda back in 1956, and clean water is now a con¬
tinuing responsibility for League chapters. Many con¬
servation-minded groups, such as the Isaak Walton
League, National Wildlife Federation, Sport Fishing
Institute, Outboard Boating Club of America, and
others, have become active in the fight.

During a round-table conference of the District 4
Legislative Committee of the United States Power
Squadrons, consisting of all the S/Leg/Os, D/Leg/O
Harrv Mopsick, AP, proposed a Cruise for Clean Wa¬
ters. The D/Leg/Com, in cooperation with the D/
PR/Com, plans to cruise the waters of New York and
New Jersey with members of the press aboard to point
out specifically for them the many outfalls dumping
untreated sewage into these waters. Among the of-

Water Pollution— We Are They

103

fenders is said to be a large federal institution.

For anyone really concerned, there is a course of
action. Many people are taking an interest, but
many more are needed. You must first become ac¬
quainted with the problem as it exists in your com¬
munity and state, and then be prepared to be rebuffed
by indifferent or vote-conscious politicians. Spending
money that doesn’t buy welfare-recipient votes is not
popular these days. The great hue and cry for laws
to curb the pollution from the marine head is greatly
disproportionate to the less-than-one-percent contribu¬

394.2

INDUSTRIAL WATER USE, 1900-1980

□

INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTION
1947-49=100

WATER USE, BILLIONS
OF GALLONS/DAY

Industry uses water for power, cleansing,
transportation and as an ingredient.

Water is industry’s No. 1 raw material.

As industry grows, so does its use of water.
Industry also depends on water to
get rid of certain wastes.

113

’ 218.3

1 59

66

48

34

21

39.4

1 ,5:°

20. S

1

27.2

|

1900

1910

1920

1930

1940

Fig. 1. Industrial use of water in the United States.

tion from this source. The headline-seeking politico
wants to demonstrate he is doing something about it
and all too frequently he is ignoring the major pollu-
tors. No self-respecting boatman wants to add any
pollution, no matter how infinitesimal, but assure your¬
self that the righteous lawmakers are equally as zeal¬
ous in pressuring the major sources.

A number of years ago this department said: “The
threat from annihilation due to lack of usable water
is greater than from atomic bombs.” It still is — very
much so.

CONSTRUCTION COSTS—
MILLIONS OF 1964 DOLLARS

POPl

ILATION GRO

WTH

Fig. 2. Estimated construction costs for sewage-
treatment facilities in the United States.

Over $1 ,000,000

$500, 000-
Si ,000,000

$300,000-

$500,000

$200,000-

$300,000

$100,000-

$200,000

Under $100,000

California, New

York, Pennsyl¬
vania.

Florida, New Jersey,
Ohio, Texas.

Colorado, Illinois,
Indiana, Mary¬
land, Massa¬
chusetts, Michigan,
North Carolina.

Connecticut, Kansas,
Kentucky, Minne¬
sota, Tennessee,
Virginia, Wash¬
ington, West
Virginia, Wis¬
consin.

Alabama, Arizona,
Arkansas, Dela¬
ware, Georgia,
Hawaii, Iowa,
Louisiana, Maine,
Mississippi,

Missouri, New
Hampshire, New
Mexico, Okla¬
homa, Oregon,
Puerto Rico,

Rhode Island,

South Carolina,
Vermont.

Alaska, District of
Columbia, Idaho,
Montana, Ne¬
braska, Nevada,
North Dakota,

South Dakota,

Utah, Virgin Is¬
lands, Wyoming.

Fig. 3. Expenditures for water-pollution control by
various states and territories, including grants under
the Federal Water Pollution Control Act.

104

The Virginia Journal of Science

Harold G. Marshall

Department of Biology, Old Dominion College,
Norfolk, Virginia 23508.

Received February 20, 1967

Plankton in Janies River Estuary, Virginia
II. Phytoplankton in the Elizabeth River*

ABSTRACT

A twenty-month study of the phytoplankton com¬
position in the Elizabeth River indicated maximum
diatom development occurred during the colder months
of the period, with Skeletonema costatum the most

The James and Elizabeth Rivers meet in the waters
of Hampton Roads, Virginia, and flow into the lower
Chesapeake Bay (Fig. 1). The water movements of
the James River estuary have been described by Prit¬
chard ( 1 ) and the phytoplankton investigations of
this area reviewed by Marshall (2). The purpose of
this study is to present the seasonal abundance and
composition of phytoplankton at two stations in the
Elizabeth River, over a 20-month period.

METHODS

Water samples were taken on 22 sampling dates
between January 5, 1964, and August 3, 1965, at two
stations in the Elizabeth River (Fig. 1). Stations E-l
(36° 52' 00" N lat., 76° 19' 40" W long.) and E-2
(36° 50' 51" N lat., 76° 18' 00" W long.) were located
in water approximately 40 feet deep. Water samples
were taken at each station with a 2-liter Frautschy
bottle at the surface and 3 meters. Glass bottles were
used to store 500 ml of each water sample, which
was preserved immediately with a Lugol-Rodhe solu¬
tion ( 3 ) . A settling and siphoning procedure was fol¬
lowed until a 10-ml concentrate remained. Five 0.2-
ml portions of this concentrate were then examined
on a microslide and phytoplankton recorded by species
in numbers of cells per ml of water. During each
sampling, water temperatures were taken with a revers¬
ing thermometer.

RESULTS

A total of 59 phytoplankters were identified in the
water samples and are listed by phyla in Table I.
These included 32 diatoms and 19 pyrrophycean spe-

* The author wishes to express his appreciation for field and
laboratory assistance to Mrs. Amy Austin Hatch and Miss Carolyn
Dennis Thanks are also given to the Old Dominion College Edu-

numerous phytoplankter present. Accompanying the
diatom reduction in numbers during late spring and
summer was a phytoflagellate maximum, that was large¬
ly of cryptomonad species.

oies. There were also 4 xanthophycean, 2 chlorophyte,

1 cyanophyte, 1 euglenophyte, and 2 unidentified pyr¬
rophycean species. The more abundant species dur¬
ing each collection date are given in Table II.

The seasonal pattern of the phytoplankton composi¬
tion is marked by a diatom maxima during the colder
months, followed by phytoflagellate abundance in the
warmer months (Fig. 2). A diatom population rise
from slightly over 3 million cells/1 continued from
January 5 through February 11, 1964. Following a
slight drop in numbers after this date, approximately
7.5 million cells/1 were recorded in the samples of
early March. The numbers subsequently decreased to
minimal counts of approximately 300,000 cells/1 in
August 1964. The plankton samples taken between
August 15 and November 2, 1964, were accidentally
destroyed and were not available for analyses. Figure

2 illustrates a pattern of gradual rise in the numbers
of diatoms that followed the colder temperatures. High¬
est numbers of phytoplankton occurred February 22,
1965, when the counts reached approximately 10.7
million cells/1.

The major diatoms were Skeletonema costatum,
Asterionella faponica, Nitzschia pungens var. atlantica,
N. closterium, Chaetoceros affinis, and C. compressus.
Skeletonema costatum was the most numerous diatom
during each sampling. Mulford (4) and Patten et al.
(5) found S. costatum the most significant diatom in
their lower bay studies, especially during the colder
months of the year. The seasonal appearance of this
species and other phytoplankton in the lower Chesa¬
peake Bay and James River estuary is discussed by
Mulford (4) and Marshall (6).

cational Foundation and the Virginia Academy of Science for
financial assistance.

Plankton in James River Estuary, Virginia

105

The numbers of phytoflagellates exceeded the dia¬
toms between mid-May and August 1964, and during
July and August 1965. The phytoflagellates reached
their largest numbers during the warmer months of
late spring and summer and after tire diatom popula¬
tion had receded. Population minima occurred dur¬
ing the coldest months of 1964 (January to April) and
over a more extended period in 1965 (January to
June). The phytoflagellate populations consisted pre¬
dominantly of the cryptophycean species Cnjptomonas
sp., C. salina, C. stigmatica, and Chroomonas vectensis.
Due to the variability in the morphological character¬

istics of the genus Cnjptomonas, difficulties arose in «
distinct identification between the three species. They
are collectively listed in Table II. The xanthophy-
cean species were most abundant during the summer
months and early fall. Dinophycean and desmophy-
eean forms were generally scarce throughout the year.
Gonyaulax sp. was the only exception, reaching con¬
siderable numbers during the spring months of 1965.
This is in contrast to the abundant appearance of
this form and other dinoflagellates reported in the more
saline waters of the bay (2, 5).

TABLE I

List of phytoplankton observed at stations in the Elizabeth River.

CHRYSOPHYTA
Bacillariophyceae
Asterionella japonica
A. formosa
Chaetoceros affinis
C. compressus
C. decipiens

Coscinodiscus asteromphalus
C. perforatus
Cy clot ell a striata
Diatoma hiemale
Ditylum brightwellii
Eucampia zoodiacus
Guinardia flaccida
Leptocylindrus danicus
Melosira furgensii

M. sulcata
Navicula sp.

Nitzschia closterium

N. longissima

N. pungens var. atlantica

N. seriata

Pleurosigma angulatum
Rhizosolenia alata
R. delicatida
R. fragilissima
R. setigera
R. stolterfothii
Skeletonema costatum
Thalassioneina nitzschioides
Thalassiosira nordenskioldii
T. rotula
T. subtilis

Xanthopiiyceae
N ephrochloris sp.
Olisthodiscus carterae

O. Jutens

O. magnus

PYRROPHYTA

Dinophyceae
Amphidinium sp.

Ceratium furca

C. tripos
Gonyaulax sp.

Gymnodinium sp.

Peridinium sp.

P. triquetrum

Desmophyceae
Dinophysis sp.

Exuviaella sp.

E. marina

Prorocentrum micans

P. minimum

Cryptophyceae

Chroomonas vectensis
Crytomonas sp.

C. salina
C. stigmatica
Chilomonas sp.

Rhodomonas amphioxeia

R. minuta

Unidentified Crvptophycean No. 1
Unidentified Cryptophycean No. 2

CHLOROPHYTA

Scenedesmus sp.

S. quadricauda

CYANOPHYTA
Oscillatoria sp.

EUGLENOPHYTA
Euglena sp.

SUMMARY

Neritic diatoms, characteristic of north temperate
latitudes, were the most abundant phytoplankters in
the Elizabeth River during the colder months of the
20-month period. They were represented by Nitzs¬
chia pungens atlantica, Leptocylindrus danicus, Rhizo¬
solenia delicatida, R. fragilissima, R. setigera, Skeletone¬
ma costatum, and Thalassionema nitzschioides. South

106

The Virginia Journal of Science

TABLE II

Seasonal distribution of the rnajor diatoms and phytoflagellates at stations in the
Elizabeth River. The more abundant species for each sampling date are indicated ,
in order of abundance, by A, B, C, D; x indicates presence.

Diatoms

Asterionella japonica .

Chaetoceros affinis .

Nitzschia pungens atlantica
Skelelonema costatum .

Phytoflagellates

Chroomonas vectensis .

Cryptomonas sp. .

Gonyaulax sp. .

Olisthodiscus carterae .

Rhodomonas minuta .

1964

(Winter)

1/5

1/24

1/31

2/11

C

C

C

C

B

B

B

B

X

D

D

X

A

A

A

A

X

X

X

X

A

A

A

A

X

X

X

X

(Spring)

2/22

3/1

3/24

4/5

C

D

C

X

B

B

X

c

D

C

B

X

A

A

A

A

X

C

B

B

A

A

A

A

X

X

X

X

X

X

B

B

X

(Summer)

5/7

6/8

7/15

8/5

X

X

X

A

A

A

A

X

X

B

A

A

A

A

X

X

X

X

X

C

X

X

X

1965

(Fall)

(Winter)

(Spring)

(Summer)

Diatoms

8/15

11/2

12/5

2/22

3/29

4/4

5/18

6/20

7/8

8/13

Asterionella japonica .

B

B

D

X

X

X

X

Chaetoceros affinis .

X

X

B

B

B

X

X

X

X

Nitzschia pungens atlantica .

X

X

X

X

X

C

B

X

X

X

Skeletoma costatum .

A

A

A

A

A

A

A

A

A

A

Phytoflagellates

Chroomonas vectensis .

X

X

B

A

X

X

X

B

Cryptomonas sp. .

A

A

A

X

X

A

A

A

A

A

Gonyaulax sp. .

0 listhodiscus ca rterae .

X

X

X

A

X

X

Rhodomonas minuta . X

temperate neritic species were also found in high
concentrations. These included: Asterionella japonica,
Chaetoceros affinis, C. compressus, Ditylum brightwelli,
Eucampia zoodiacus, Guinardia flaccida, R. stolterfo-
tliii, and T. rotula. N. seriata and T. nordenskioedii
were sparsely found and are considered neritic arctic
types by Cupp ( 7 ) .

Present in lesser numbers were the more typically
oceanic diatoms: Coscinodiscus asteromphalus, C.
pcrforatus, R. alata, and Tlialassiosira subtilis. Chae¬
toceros decipiens is considered an arctic boreal form
(7). The brackish and littoral species include Ctjclo-
tella striata, Melosira jurgensii, M. sulcata, N. closte-
rium, N. longissima, and Pleurosigma angulatum. As¬

terionella formosa, and possibly Navicula sp., were
freshwater species. The phyla Cyanophyta and Eug-
lenophyta were represented infrequently by Oscillatoria
sp. and Euglena sp., respectively, with Scenedesmus
sp. and S. quadricauda the chlorophytes present.

The most numerous phytoflagellates were the cryp-
tomonads. Representative species were present
throughout the study but reached maximum numbers
during the warmer months. The seasonal expression
of the phytoplankton populations in the Elizabeth
River compares closely to the populations reported in
Hampton Roads (6) and in the lower Chesapeake Bay
(5). The major phytoplankter was S. costatum.

Plankton in James River Estuary, Virginia

107

76°25' 76°20' 76°I5' 76"

Fig. 1. Location of sampling stations (E-l, E-2)
in the Elizabeth River, Virginia, and index to area.

108

The Virginia Journal of Science

THOUSANDS OF CELLS PER ML

1964 1965

O

O

Fig. 2. Seasonal distribution of diatoms and phy-
toflagellates, based on averages from the surface and
3-m depth at Stations E-l, and E-2, in the Elizabeth
River.

REFERENCES

1. Pritchard, D., J. mar. Res., 11, 106 (1952).

2. Marshall, H., Va J. Sci., 17, 105 (1966).

3. Rodhe, W., Vollenweider, R., and Nauwerck, A.,
in A. A. Buzzati-Traverso (Editor), Perspectives
in Marine Biology, University of California Press,
Berkeley, 1958, p. 356.

4. Mulford, R., Spec. Rep. Va Inst. mar. Sci., 30,
33 (1962).

5. Patten, B., Mulford, R., and Warinner, ]., Chesa¬
peake Sci., 4, 1 (1963).

6. Marshall, H., Chesapeake Sci., 8, 90 (1967).

7. Cupp, E., Bull. Scripps Instn Oceanogr. tech. Ser.,
5, 1 (1943).

Plankton in James River Estuary, Virginia

109

TEMPERATURE

Franklin D. Ott

Marine Biological Laboratory, Woods Hole,
Massachusetts.

Received March 15, 1967

Porphyridium sordidum Geitler in America, with Comments on
the Distribution of Other North American Freshwater

Rhodophytes *

ABSTRACT

The author reports the third occurrence of the
olive-green-colored Porphyridium sordidum Geitler.
This was found in the greenhouses of the University
of Connecticut, Storrs, and the find becomes the sec¬
ond record for the United States. It is pointed out
that each time P. sordidum has been found it has
been in close association with the blood-red P. cruen-
tum (S. F. Gray) Nageli. The distribution of the fif¬

In a recent paper (42) I reported the second
world occurrence of the olive-green-colored Porphyri¬
dium sordidum Geitler (28). This organism had ap¬
peared as one of the contaminations realized on plat¬
ing crude material of the blood-red-colored Porphy¬
ridium cruentum (S. F. Gray) Nageli (41) which I
was attempting to isolate into culture. The crude
material from which the isolation was being made had
been collected on April 21, 1966, in the old botani¬
cal greenhouses of the University of Massachusetts,
Amherst. P. sordidum had previously been known
only from Geitler’s 1932 original site in Austria. Re¬
peated attempts to find naturally occurring P. sordidum
in the University of Massachusetts greenhouses have
not been fruitful.

A third occurrence of P. sordidum was recorded on
December 26, 1966 when Dr. Hollv Andrews, of the
University of Kansas, Lawrence, and I collected sam¬
ples of P. cruentum in the Floriculture Greenhouses
of the University of Connecticut, Storrs. Among these
samples, P. sordidum was found in sufficient abun¬
dance to be determined without resort to plating tech¬
niques. Geitler’s original description is again ade¬
quate for the American material. It is of special inter¬
est to note that each time P. sordidum has been found,
it has been in close association with P. cruentum. This

* Systematics-Ecology Program Contribution No. 5.

t Frank R. Lillie Fellow, Marine Biological Laboratory and the
Systematics-Ecology Program, Woods Hole, Massachusetts. Address
after August 31, 1967: The Department of Botany, University of
Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas 66044.

teen genera of rhodophycean algae found in the Unit¬
ed States is . discussed, and it is also noted that the
two genera, Boldia Herndon and Tuomeya Harvey,
have been established from material collected in Vir¬
ginia. All other freshwater rhodophycean genera
currently recognized for the United States were ini¬
tially erected on European or Asiatic material.

indicates (1) that the habitats of these 2 species are
similar, if not identical, (2) that the olive-green P.
sordidum may have been overlooked by previous work¬
ers believing these such colored cells to be dead or
pathological material of P. cruentum and hence per¬
haps bleached of phycoerythrins1, and (3) that P.
sordidum may be a mutant of the more commonly
occurring P. cruentum. This last possibility is being
investigated experimentally at present.

Comments on Rare Freshwater Rhodophytes — On
finding P. sordidum so far from its original site in
Austria, it is of special interest to note the distribu¬
tion of other rhodophycean algae. Skuja (50) was
perhaps the first to point out that certain freshwater
rhodophycean algae are of rare and widespread occur¬
rence, with many years elapsing between the publica¬
tion of the original record and that of the second one.
The alga which prompted his remarks was Kyliniella
latvica Skuja (48), which he had described from Lat¬
vian material and which was not known again until
Israelsson (36) found it in 1935 in Sweden. To these
we can now add the North American records of Flint
(21 ), who found this in New Hampshire, and of Bour-
relly (11), who reported it in collections made near
Quebec; both designations have been verified by Skuja.
Geitler (29) has recorded K. latvica from Austria.

1 It is hoped that in the future workers will keep a sharp lookout
for additional finds of P. sordidum, especially when examining
samples of P. cruentum. In this connection I will be glad to enter
into correspondence with such individuals who may have available
living samples of Porphyridium.

110

The Virginia Journal of Science

Of even more interest is Flint’s 1951 Louisiana record
(22) of N emalionopsis shatvi Skuja (49), a species
originally described from material collected in the
Philippines; again Skuja verified the generic designa¬
tion. Additional papers by Atkinson (3,4), Flint (18,
19,20,23), Palmer (43,44), and Prescott (45) report
other European species of Batrachospermum, Sirodotia,
Lemanea, Sacheria, and Audouinclla for the continen¬
tal United States.

Flint’s discovery (24) of the tropical Hildenbrandia
rivularis (Liebman) J. G. Agardh (2) in a Texas spring
should be of much interest to phycologists in the United
States. This species had not been encountered in the
United States since Wolle’s reports (57, 58) of it in
the Susquehanna River at Harrisburg, Pennsylvania.
H. rivularis has also been found in the temperate areas
of Asia, Europe, and South America. This Texas
spring is also the source of Thorea riekei Bischoff (8)
and I have collected a total of six genera of red algae
there. As this spring is the source of great numbers
of aquatic plants sold commercially to freshwater
aquarium enthusiasts, it is to be expected that these
algal taxa may become widely distributed. In the pre¬
served algal collection of this laboratory, there are
specimens of Thorea sp. collected in 1957 by J. D.
Wein from the Tempe Canal near Mesa, Arizona.
Though the macroscopic habit is almost identical to
T. riekei, Dr. Bischoff 2 advises that there are features
which distinguish it from T. riekei. The type species
for the genus, Thorea ramosissima Bory (10), is also
known from the United States (58, 38, 34). Belcher
and Swale (6) have recently rediscovered it in Eng¬
land.

Compsopogon coendeus (Balbis) Montagne (39)
is another tropical invader of the United States record¬
ed by Flint (20), who also substantiated the reports
of this alga from brackish waters. It has been found
bv Collins (12) as far north as Massachusetts, but
since it was found in “Crane’s water garden” it was
probably introduced on some aquatic vascular plant.
C. coendeus is often found in aquaria as it is a com¬
mon epiphyte of certain aquatic plants secured from
our Southern States. Das (15) cited records of this
plant as well as other species he had found in India.

The New World Tuomeya fluviatilis Plarvey (33)
is widely distributed in the eastern United States from
Alabama to Maine. It is also known from east Africa
(9) and Bourrelly reported it from Canada. This tax¬
on was based on material collected near Fredericks¬
burg, Virginia in 1844 and 1845 by a Prof. Baily;
additional material from Alabama was also used.

Wolle’s report (58) of Bangia atro-purpurea (Roth)
C. A. Agardh ( 1 ) for the United States has not been
substantiated. Since he indicated his record was
from streams subjected to tides, in all probability he
was dealing with the marine Bangia fusco-purpurea
(Dilhvyn) Lyngbye (37). Belcher (5) has confirm¬

ed that these two species are distinct entities; in cul¬
ture experiments he found that the former will not
grow in seawater, and the latter will not grow in fresh¬
water. In my laboratory I have Dr. W. Koch’s isola¬
tion of B. atro-purpurea made from Italian material
and it grows well in a number of freshwater media,
while B. fusco-purpurea will die when placed in iden¬
tical media.

Balbiania investiens (Lenormand) Sirodot (47) has
been recently located in England by Swale (53) after
not having been found for many years. This red-
colored epiphyte of Batrachospermum is known other¬
wise only from France. As many likely habitats exist
in North America, it would not be surprising if it were
to be found here.

Porphyridium cruentum is widely distributed in this
country (52, 18), but only in a few natural sites. Its
favorite habitat is greenhouses, where it is usually
found as a blood-red- to violet-colored crust on packed
earth subjected to periods of dampness and high con¬
centrations of nitrogenous products. There are rec¬
ords for Europe, Japan, South America, and North
Africa. Porphyridium aerugineum Geitler (26) wide¬
spread in Europe, especially in stagnant waters, is
known for the United States only from the single col¬
lection made in Indiana by Dr. R. C. Starr3 from a
similar habitat.

The rare Chroothece monococca (Kutzing) Hans-
girg (32) is known from Ohio and Indiana (13).
Chroothece richteriana Hansgirg in Wittrock and
Nordstedt (56), originally described from Bohemian
saline marshes, has been reported from Bermuda (54),
and Belcher and Swale (6) have reported it from the
supralittoral on the Isle of Man. ,

Asterocytis smaragdina (Reinsch) Forti (25) has
many widespread records in Europe and northern
Africa as cited by Hamel (31), Geitler (27), Elenkin
and Stark (17), Waern (55), and Belcher and Swale
(7). Records for the United States are given by
Moore and Carter (40), Dailv (14), Prescott (45),
and Smith (51). Dr. Holly Andrews of the Univer¬
sity of Kansas, Lawrence, has recently sent me living
material of this alga which was collected in Gull Lake,
Michigan, by Prof. Dr. R. H. Thompson who has also
collected it in western Maryland. Pujals (46) has
reported this alga from Argentina under the synonym,
A. ornata (C. A. Agardh) Hamel (31). Forti (25)
reported Asterocytis from Chile and Ecuador. A.
ornata, as envisioned by flamel, was to include, among
others, both A. smaragdina, essentially freshwater or
slightly brackish, and A. ramosa (Thwait.) Gobi (30),
essentially marine. Elenkin and Stark (17) also pro¬
posed that A. ramosa and A. smaragdina were synony¬
mous. While working with isolations of Asterocytis
from freshwater and marine habitats it has become evi¬
dent that material corresponding to A. ramosa and
material corresponding to A. smaragdina are distinct
entities.

2 Personal Communication.

3 Personal Communication.

Porphyridium sordidum

111

Two of the 15 rhodophycean genera reported for
the continental United States were erected on mate¬
rial collected in Virginia; Boldia erythrosiphon Herndon
(35) described from material collected in Giles Coun¬
ty, Virginia, and Tuomeya fluviatilis Harvey (33) ini¬
tially collected, as previously noted, near Fredericks¬
burg, Virginia. These genera, Boldia and Tuomeya,
are the only ones of the 15 which have been originally
described from North America. The other 13 genera
found in the United States were initially erected on
European or Asiatic material.

There is not space here to review the many inter¬
esting freshwater rhodophycean algae which appear
to be endemic to the continents of Asia, Africa, South
America, and Australia. The reader is referred to the
excellent paper of Skuja (50) which summarizes our
knowledge up until its appearance. It is appropriate
to note that these continents as well as North America,
have vast areas which are still phycologically unexplor¬
ed. It is to be expected that many of these endemic
species, as well as the specific ones discussed in this
paper, will turn up in most unlikely places, as these
unexplored areas become more thoroughly investigated,
and many new taxa will undoubtedly be established.

Acknowledgments

It is with pleasure I acknowledge the use of the
facilities of the Farlow Reference Library of Cryp-
togamic Botany at Harvard University, Cambridge,
Massachusetts, under the direction of Dr. I. MacKenzie
Lamb. Appreciation is expressed to the librarian,
Mrs. F. Lovejoy, for her many kindnesses. The aid of
the staff of the library of the Marine Biological
Laboratory, Woods Hole, Massachusetts, under the
direction of Miss J. Fessenden is greatly appreciated.
I acknowledge the many courtesies which Dr. Holly
Andrews showed me during rnv visit to Storrs, Con¬
necticut, where the samples of Porphyridium sordidum
were collected. Lastly, I acknowledge the use of the
facilities of the Marine Biological Laboratory Svstem-
atics-Ecologv Program and the partial support of the
National Science Foundation through a grant to die
Svstematics-Eeologv Program, Marine Biological Labo¬
ratory.

REFERENCES

1. Agardh, C. A., Systema algarum, Literis Berlin-
gianis, Lundae, 1824, 312 pp.

2. Agardh, J. G., Species genera et ordines algarum,
1852, Vol. 2, Pars 2, pp. 337-720.

3. Atkinson, G. F., Ann. Bot., 4, 177 (1890).

4. Atkinson, G. F, Bot. Gaz., 92, 225 (1931).

5. Belcher, j. H., New Phytol., 59, 367 (1960).

6. Belcher, }. H., and Swale, E. M. F., Phycol.
Bull., 5, 40 (1957).

7. Belcher, J. H., and Swale, E. M. F., Br. phycol.
Bull. 2, 33 (1960).

8. Bisehoff, H. W., J. Phycol. 1, 111 (1965).

9. Borge, O., Hedwigia, 68, 93 (1928).

10. Bory, de St. Vincent J. B., Annls. Mus. Hist. nat.
Paris, 12, 126 (1808).

11. Bourrelly, P., Int. Revue ges. Hydrobiol., Htjdrogr.,
51,45 (1966).

12. Collins, F. S., Rhodora, 18, 90 (1916).

13. Daily, W. A, Am. Midi. Nat., 27, 636 (1942).

14. Daily, W. A. Butler Univ. bot. Stud. 6, 84 (1943).

15. Das, C. R., Proc. natn. Inst. Sci. India, Ser. B, 29,
239 (1963).

16. Drouet, F., and Dailv, W. A., Butler Univ. bot.
Stud., 12, 1 (1956).'

17. Elenkin, A. A., and Stark, N. V., Notul. syst. Inst,
cryptog. Horti bot. petropol, 2, 117 (i923).

18. Flint, L. H., Am. J. Bot., 34, 125 (1947).

19. Flint, L. H., Am. J. Bot., 35, 428 (1948).

20. Flint, L. H., Am. J. Bot., 36, 549 (1949).

21. Flint, L. H., Phytomorphology, 3, 76 (1953).

22. Flint, L. H., Phytomorphology, 4, 76 (1954).

23. Flint, L. H., Proc. La Acad. Sci., 17, 59 (1954).

24. Flint, L. H., Phytomorphology, 5, 185 (1955).

25. Forti, A., in J. B. DeToni (Editor), Sylloge alga¬
rum omnium hucusque cognitarum, Vol. 5, Tvpis
Seminarii, Patavii, 1907, 761 pp.

26. Geitler, L., Oest. bot. Z., 72, 84 (1923).

27. Geitler, L., Oest. bot. Z., 76, 25 (1927).

28. Geitler, L., Arch. Protistenk., 76, 595 (1932).

29. Geitler, L., Oest. bot. Z, 101, 304 (1954).

30. Gobi, C., St Peterb. Ges. Naturf., 10, 93 (1879).

31. Hamel, G., Revue algol., 1, 451 (1924).

32. Hansgirg, A., Arch, naturw. LandDurchforscli.
Boh., 8, 1 (1892).

33. Harvey, W. H., Smithson. Contr. Knowl., 10, 1
(1858).

34. Hedgcock, G. G., and Hunter, A. A., Bot. Gaz.,
28, 425 (1899).

35. Herndon, W. 1L, Am. J. Bot.., 51, 575 (1964).

36. Israelsson, G., Svensk bot. Tidskr., 32, 440 (1938).

37. Lyngbye, H. C., Tentamen hydropliytologiae
danicae, Tvpis Schultzianis, Hafniae, 1819, 248

pp.

38. Magnus, P., Hedwigia, 28, 114 (1889).

39. Montagne, C., Annls Sci. nat., 14, 283

(1850).

112

The Virginia Journal of Science

40. Moore, C. T., and Carter, N., Ann. Mo. hot. Gdn,
10, 393 (1923).

41. Nageli, C., Gattungen einzelliger Algen physio-
logisch und systeniatisch bearheitet, Friedrich
Schuthess, Zurich, 1849, 193 pp.

42. Ott, F. D., /. Phycol., 3, 34 (1967).

43. Palmer, C. M., Butler Univ. hot. Stud., 5, 1
(1941).

44. Palmer, C. M., Butler Univ. hot. Stud., 7, 1
(1945).

45. Prescott, G. W., Bull. Cranbrook Inst. Sci., No.
30 (1951).

46. Pujals, C., Darwiniana, 12, 265 (1962).

47. Sirodot, M. S., Annls Sci. nat., 6, 146 (1876).

48. Skuja, H., Acta Horti bot. Univ. latv., 1, 1 (1926).

49. Skuja, H., Arch. Protistenk, 52, 188 (1934).

50. Skuja, H., Bot. Rev., 4, 665 (1938).

51. Smith, G. M., The fresh-water algae of the United
States, 1st ed., McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., New
York, 1933, 716 pp.

52. Smith, G. M., The fresh-water algae of the United
States, 2nd ed. McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., New
York, 1950, 719 pp.

53. Swale, E. M. F., Phycol. Bull., 6, 49 (1958).

54. Tilden, J. E., Minnesota algae, Vol. 1, University
of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, 1910, 328 pp.

55. Waem, M., Acta phytogeogr. suec., 30, 1 (1952).

56. Wittrock, V., and Nordstedt, O., Bot. Notiser, 121
(1884).

57. Wolle, F., Bull. Torrey bot. Club, 6, 281 (1878).

58. Wolle, F., Freshwater algae of the United States,
The Comenius Press, Bethlehem, Pa., (1887)
1887, 364 pp.

Porphyridium sordidum

113

R. W. Engel

College of Agriculture, Virginia Polytechnic Institute ,
Blacksburg, Virginia 24061.

Received May 23, 1967

The Role of Agriculture in the War on Hunger*

“War on Hunger” is becoming an everyday, com¬
monplace expression. To some, having learned of the
population explosion only in very recent times through
radio, TV, and the press, the phrase has become a
stark reminder of the problems we face. My purpose
today will be to review for you what the United States
has been doing for the past 10 to 12 years and point
up certain recent revisions in our vast worldwide pro¬
grams aimed at alleviating poverty and hunger.

As most of you know, in the mid- 1950’s the United
States was plagued with food surpluses. We had
developed to such an extent, through efficiency in
food production, that our granaries were full. The
Federal Congress at that time foresaw the need for
legislation that would allow us, as a nation with an
abundant food supply, to share this abundance with
the peoples of nations friendly to our political philoso¬
phies and friendly to our way of life. The idea con¬
ceived was that food might be used to further economic
development in countries where we already had sub¬
stantial programs administered through the Interna¬
tional Cooperation Administration, the foreign-aid pro¬
gram which later became the Agency for International
Development. The Agricultural Trade and Develop¬
ment Act of 1954, commonly known as PL480, was
the Federal legislation which set the stage as an instru¬
ment for the development of the emerging nations.
It is well to point out, however, that we were, as a
nation, not entirely humanitarian in our motives with
the passage of this significant legislation. In the mid-
1950’s one of the strong motivations was that of mov¬
ing our burdensome agricultural surpluses into use¬
ful channels. Over the years, however, we became
aware that simply dumping surpluses was not enough
and that more realistic attention would also have to
be paid to the nutritional demands of the population
that we were trying to advance toward a better life.
These were the changes that have led to concepts
of Food for Peace, Food for Freedom, and the War
on Hunger.

Time does not permit a detailed review of this
vital program. However, in view of the significance
of this program I would like to review briefly what
the Food for Peace program consisted of in its first
10 years, namely the decade 1955-1965.

The Agricultural Trade and Development Act, as
it was originally called, contains four major programs
or titles:

Title I is the heart of the original act. It provides
for the sale of U.S. agricultural commodities to friendly
countries with payment in the currency of the recipient
country.

Title II authorizes donations of surplus farm prod¬
ucts held by the Commodity Credit Corporation for
disaster relief, famine, community development, school
feeding and other economic development projects.

Title III provides for the disposition of CCC-owned
surplus commodities to carry out two separate pro¬
grams — (a) domestic donation programs administered
by Federal, State or local government, or by voluntary
nonprofit charitable and relief organizations, and dona¬
tions to needy foreign people by American volunteer
agencies or international agencies; and (b) use of sur¬
plus commodities for barter with foreign nations to
obtain materials strategic to our economy.

Title IV provides for the sale of commodities for
dollars on a long-term-credit basis. This program
was aimed at those nations who, through advance¬
ment under Titles I through III, had emerged suffi¬
ciently to become paying customers for our food com¬
modities.

Our concern here is to evaluate the program’s ac¬
complishments over its first 10 years. How have we
used our food in this program and what have been
the benefits, not only to us but also to the friendly
peoples of the world who have participated? Only
a few examples need be cited. Between 1955 and
1965 we sold nearly 10 billion dollars’ worth of food
to foreign countries and received payment in their
currency. About 30 percent of this foreign currency
was used to pay U. S. embassy operating costs and
other U.S. expenses abroad. In this way we signif¬
icantly reduced the expenditure of dollars overseas
and thus improved the dollar balance and eased the
pressure on our gold reserves.

In the first year of the program 27 nations signed
agreements under Title I of the program to purchase
our commodities in their currencies. Ten years later

* Presented at the Virginia Academy of Science Annual Meet¬
ing. Norfolk, Virginia, May 5-7, 1967.

114

The Virginia Journal of Science

(1965) 14 of these 27 countries were no longer buy¬
ing with their currency, and 12 of the 14 were buy¬
ing our commodities through regular trade channels.
Further, these 14 countries have tripled their combined
dollar purchases of U.S. food and fiber during the
10-year period. Even though 13 of the original 27
countries who signed local currency agreements in
1956 are still using this mechanism to some extent,
they have nevertheless more than doubled their com¬
mercial purchases of U. S. commodities during that
period.

There is thus good evidence that the Food for Peace
program has done much to stimulate markets for our
products, and at the same time it has been a major
factor in improving the economic position of the recip¬
ients.

During the first seven years of the program (1955-
62) our commercial sales of agricultural commodities
abroad averaged a little over three billion dollars a
vear. By 1965 this had risen to 6.2 billion dollars
or had nearly doubled. In the first seven years of
the program, 28% of the market value of all farm
products shipped abroad were exports under the Food
for Peace program. This had dropped to 23% by
1965. In other words, the Food for Peace program
has been paralleled by a very significant increase in
sales of U.S. agricultural commodities and has thus
strengthened our balance of payments.

But of equal importance is whether or not the pro¬
gram has helped the people of developing countries.
The donation program has amounted to about 300
million dollars a year, or 3 billion dollars during the
10-year period. The food donated under this pro¬
gram (Titles II and III) reached 93 million people
in 116 countries. It is of interest that the total an¬
nual cost of this food-donation program is onlv slightly
more than half the amount estimated as spent in the
United States each year on vitamin pills and other food
fads.

Relative to the final major accomplishment of the
Food for Peace program, it is now well recognized
that the large food surpluses, which formerly entailed
considerable annual investment in storage costs, have
now essentially disappeared. The food-commoditv re¬
serves are now down to what are considered mini¬
mum desirable carry-overs as insurance to cover our
own needs in case of major crop failures.

It is then clear that if we are to continue to main¬
tain the Food for Peace program it will be necessary
to increase food production here in the United States.
That we are determined to do this is evident in our
current policy. This past year we increased consider¬
ably the acreages devoted to wheat and soy beans.

For the remainder of this presentation I would like
to focus on the current situation with respect to food
and nutritional demands and to project about 20 years
into the future (1985).

It is extremely difficult to obtain reliable informa¬
tion on the world’s population, the world’s food pro¬
duction, and how well production is meeting the de¬

mands. The data to be presented thus must be ac¬
cepted as approximations, and any projections into
the future must be considered approximations also.

In 1965 the world’s population was estimated to be
3,308,000,000. This is expected to increase to 5,032,-
000,000 by 1985 if present population growth rate
continues. Thus there would be approximately 52%
more people in 1985 than there were in 1965. Since
there is good evidence that a large segment of the
world’s population is not now receiving an adequate
diet, the demand for food by 1985 will be more than
52% greater than the supply available in 1965. Coun¬
tries such as India and Pakistan now have a food sup¬
ply which allows 1900 to 2000 kilocalories of food
energv per person per day, whereas to satisfy the sug¬
gested dailv energy intake of the World Health Or¬
ganization and the Food and Agricultural Organiza¬
tion of the United Nations, these countries would need
2300-2400 kilocalories per person per day. Since at
least half the world’s population is in this kind of
food-energy and nutrient deficit, it is perhaps realistic
to say that by 1985 the world’s food and nutrient
demands will exceed that presently available by as
much as 55-60% even though the population will
increase by only 52%. The above projection, as I
have indicated, assumes that present rate of population
growth will continue. There is increasing concern as
to whether or not firm action programs in family plan¬
ning are not immediately needed if food production is
to keep pace with population growth.

Estimates have been made of the impact that family
planning would have on the world’s population by
1985. If such programs were to be introduced im¬
mediately and if such programs should be effective
to the extent of reducing the number of births annually
bv 10% by 1975 and then 10% more in each of the
2 succeeding 5-year periods, then the estimated world
population in 1985 would be 4,647,000,000. This
would constitute a 40% increase over the population
in 1965. Food and nutrient demands, however, would
be more than 50% higher, perhaps about 55% higher
than those available in 1965 for two reasons. The first
reason I have already mentioned — namely, the fact
that food intakes in 1965 were marginal or submar¬
ginal for many segments of the world’s population.
The second reason for an increase in projected food
and nutrient demands is related to the fact that with
family planning and its concomitant lowering of the
babv population, the total population will have more
older individuals with higher per capita food demands.
Thus, even with birth control or family planning, it is
clear that the total food and nutrient demands 20
years hence will be more than half again as large
as today, although the total population may rise only
40%.

These projections make it verv evident that a more
intensified effort to increase food production will have
to be put forth. All current estimates indicate that
at present world food production is not keeping pace
with world population growth in most of the countries
where populations are increasing rapidly. The current
estimates also reveal that even if we should convert

The Role of Agriculture in the War on Hunger

115

all readily useable production acres into food produc¬
tion here in the United States, which we are now pro¬
ceeding to do, the increase in production achieved in
this way will be entirely absorbed by 1985. Beyond
that date, unless we find new sources of food and unless
we drastically reduce birth rates, the projections are
that the total food available per person will begin to
go downward and starvation will become widespread.

It is for this reason that one of tire major immediate
objectives in the Food for Peace program is that of
utilizing our foods for development purposes in those
countries where there is the best prospect that food
production and economic growth will indeed take place
through self-help. In other words, the future essen¬
tially demands that with our willingness to assist must
come the asurance that the recipient will exert every
effort to improve its own ability to produce food.

Since much of the world’s population is still agrarian
and much of it is operating at a subsistence level,
namely, producing only to satisfy immediate family
needs with little left over for the commercial market,
it is clear that the task ahead is a formidable one.
The colleges of agriculture in the U.S. universities
will no doubt have to play a major role in bringing
about the revolution in world agriculture that will be
needed if hunger is to be conquered.

The Agency for International Development is fully
aware that major famines may occur in the immediate
future if action programs are not developed with due
speed. In future Food for Peace legislation a greater
emphasis on programs of support that will improve
agriculture, both in education and in research, can be
anticipated. What is urgently needed are new ideas,
new innovations, and novel approaches that will hasten
the process of transplanting the technology and science
of the world’s efficient food-producing nations into
action programs in those nations that will face starva¬
tion without major improvements in food-production
practices.

To summarize, we have now had a little over 10
years of experience in putting food, our surplus food,
to work to improve man’s well-being on this earth.
During that period we have come to the realization
that food alone is not enough, that nutrient balance
is also essential for building healthy, productive, future
populations. We have even come to realize that poor
nutrition in early life may hamper both physical and
mental development in children to such an extent that
effective learning and a productive life are permanently
jeopardized. For this reason the Food for Peace pro¬
gram is now geared to the philosophy that we cannot
expect decent, self-governing, productive, and enter¬
prising citizens in the world around us if they are not
properly fed. Since all present evidence points to
infants and preschool children as the age groups most
likely to suffer the most severe damage, we should
use our foods to reach these young age groups in par¬
ticular. Finding effective ways of reaching these
young people with better nutrition is a challenge to
our agriculturalists, home economists, health workers,

educators and others who need to take an active inter¬
est in world affairs for many years to come.

SUGGESTED REFERENCES

1. Food for peace , 1965, A. Rep. on Public Law
480, U. S. Cong. H. Doc. 457-89/2, 1966.

2. The world food budget, 1970, For. agric. econ.
Rep. No. 19, USDA, U. S. Government Printing
Office, Washington, 1966.

3. Sukhatme, P. V., J. R. statist. Soc., 129 (Part 2),
222 (1965).

4. Freedom from Hunger Campaign, 3rd Wld Fd
Surv., Basic Study No. 11, FAO, Rome, 1963.

5. Agric. Policy Rev., Agricultural Policy Institute,
North Carolina State University, Raleigh, 1966,
Vol. 6, No. 4.

6. Universities . . . and development assistance
abroad, American Council on Education, Wash¬
ington, 1967.

7. The war on hunger, a challenge to business,

AID, U. S. Department of State, Washington.

8. Prospects of the world food supply, a Symposium,
National Academy of Sciences, Washington, 1966.

9. World popidation and food supplies, 1980, Spec.
Publ. No. 6, American Society of Agronomy
Madison.

10. Koffsky, Nathan M., Economic -problems of an
adequate world food supply. International Agri¬
culture Series 1, Institute of Agriculture, Univer¬
sity of Minnesota, St. Paul.

11. Indicative world plan for agricidtural develop¬
ment 1965, 1975, 1985, FAO, 15 April 1966.

12. Estimated world fertilizer production capacity as
related to future needs. Report to AID, U.S.
Department of State, February 1966, Tennessee
Valley Authority, National Fertilizer Develop¬
ment Center, Muscle Shoals, Alabama.

13. International Agricidtural Development, Interna¬
tional Agricultural Development Service, USDA,
Washington, May, 1967, No. 31.

Note Added in Proof

Since this paper was presented at the Academy meet¬
ing a report of the President’s Science Advisory Com¬
mittee entitled The World Food Problem has been
published by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S.
Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C. 20402.
This publication is in two volumes and was developed
by a panel on the world food supply. The author
was a participant in the development of these pub¬
lications, serving on the sub-panel on population and
nutritional demands. For a comprehensive review of
the world food problem and the role of U.S. agricul¬
ture this publication is recommended.

116

The Virginia Journal of Science

TWENTY-FIRST

TOBACCO CHEMISTS RESEARCH
CONFERENCE TO BE HELD
IN DURHAM

The Twenty-First Tobacco Chemists Research Con¬
ference will be held at Duke University, Durham, N. C.,
on October 19-21, 1967. Technical sessions will be
started at 9:30 a.m., Thursday, October 19th, and
the meeting will be adjourned not later than 12:00
noon Saturday, October 21st. Arrangements have
been made to accommodate those attending the Con¬
ference in the Jack Tar Hotel, a motor hotel in down¬
town Durham, address P. O. Box 1371, Durham, N. C.
27702. Technical sessions will be held in the hotel.
A subscription dinner is planned for Thursday even¬
ing, October 19th, for conference participants and
wives.

An approximately 200-word abstract of technical
presentations for the meeting should be sent in quin-
tuplicate and should reach Dr. Marcus E. Hobbs, De¬
partment of Chemistry, Duke University, Durham,
N. C., 27706 not later than 15 August 1967. The five
copies will expedite action by the Conference’s Pro¬
gram Editorial Committee, and the early date will allow
adequate time for carefully planning the program and
for printing the title program and final program. The
abstract should show the title, author (s) with the
presenting author underlined, affiliation (s), and ab¬
stract body. Presentation should be planned for 20
minutes including discussion.

Early notification of intention to make a technical
presentation is requested to aid those planning the
program; such notification should include the title,
author (s) with presenting author underlined and af¬
filiation (s) of the author (s). A reminder of the
meeting and room-reservation card for the Jack Tar
Hotel will be mailed to prospective participants.

Several football games are scheduled in the area
on October 21st; for the afternoon Duke-Clemson are
scheduled for Durham and UNC-Maryland at Chapel
Hill; the N. C. State-Wake Forest game is scheduled
at Winston-Salem, N. C. for the evening of the 21st.
If participants wish to attend any of these events, it
is suggested they directly contact the Athletic Associa¬
tion of Duke, UNC, or Wake Forest respectively.

NASA AND UVA RENEW SUMMER
TRAINING IN BIO-SPACE
TECHNOLOGY AT NSA-
WALLOPS STATION

In cooperation with strategically located colleges and
universities, the National Aeronautics and Space Ad¬
ministration has organized a number of summer courses
and seminars for scientists and engineers. As a part
of this program, NASA and the University of Virginia
have announced the third annual Bio-Space Technology
Training Program, which will be held July 31-August

18, 1967 at NASA Wallops Station, Wallops Island,
Virginia. The staff of consultants and instructors for
the program includes engineers and scientists from
universities, government organizations, and private re¬
search laboratories.

Dr. Richard L. Jennings, Thornton Hall, University
of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia, serves as program
director for the cooperative NASA-UVA program.
Participants have been selected on a broad basis of
interest and competence in life sciences rather than
on a basis of specific competence or past performance
in bio-space technology.

HIGHLIGHTS OF COUNCIL AND
CONFERENCE MEETINGS
May 3-6, 1967 — Golden Triangle Hotel

Changes in Constitution and By-Laws : A proposed
change will be published to the membership in the
next issue of the Journal. It will call for the annual
meeting to be held the first and/or second week in
May (presently specific days of the week are mention¬
ed) to permit the advancement of the meetings by
one day. The VJAS will begin on Tuesday evening
and the Seniors will meet on Thursday and Friday.
This has been prompted by greatly increased demand
for meeting rooms because of concurrent Friday ses¬
sions.

It is proposed to delete, from the list of standing
committees in the Bv-Laws, the Place of Meeting Com¬
mittee. Selection of places has become so complex
it can best be handled by the Executive Committee,
which is more familiar with the requirements of the
Academy.

Future Meeting Places : The invitation of VMI and
W & L to meet in Lexington in 1972 was accepted.
Our schedule is:

1969 — Roanoke

1970 — Fredericksburg

1971 — Open

1972 — Lexington

1973 — Williamsburg

Attendance and Membership: VJAS registration was
491. The Senior Academy registration was 735. As
has been the case in years past, a number of people
did not register, either through oversight or deliberate¬
ly. This practice is strongly discouraged by Council.
It is to the detriment of the sections not to have accu¬
rate rolls for future mailings and to the detriment of
the Academy because the modest registration fee helps
defray mounting meeting costs. Each of our mem¬
bers is urged to encourage registration at meetings and
membership of your colleagues and students.

Collegiate Chapters: In the late forties and early
fifties, a handful of colleges became interested in chap¬
ters of the Academy for college students. The move¬
ment flourished briefly and has not been heard from
since. Several months ago students at VPI, many of

News and Notes

117

whom were VJAS members in high school, contacted
cadets at the VMI, which had maintained its organiza¬
tion since the fifties.

In Norfolk, discussions were held by the students
with various Senior Academy members about the
formation of an affiliated Collegiate Academy or of
a new regular section composed of undergraduates who
would present papers to one another on their under¬
graduate projects. One of their chief aims would be
discussions at their own level and promotion of proj¬
ects in all fields from the freshmen through the senior
year.

Anyone wishing additional information should write
Miss Alice Earlene Mitchell, Hillcrest Hall 301, V.P.I.,
Blacksburg 24061.

Visiting Scientists Program: NSF is no longer sup¬
porting such programs and the Academy does not have
funds to continue the program for 1967-68. It is hoped
a coordinator can be found to receive high school re¬
quests and route them to faculty members at those
colleges and universities willing to send their staff at
the expense of the college. Nearly 100 visits were
scheduled in 1966-67 under the federally sponsored
program.

New Program for High School Teachers: Dr. Ertel
Thompson of the University is investigating other pro¬
grams which are being supported by Federal agencies.
It is hoped a proposal now being discussed will be
approved for 1967-68. If so, it will be announced
in the next Journal issue.

Museum of Science: A resolution of the Confer¬
ence supporting such a museum was passed and sent
to Governor Godwin.

Complete texts of many of the documents will be
published at a future date. The highlight and sum¬
mary presentation of the very successful annual meet¬
ing was provided by the Academy secretary, Dr. D.
Rae Carpenter.

ACADEMY RESEARCH COMMITTEE
AWARDS FIVE GRANTS

Chairman Nelson F. Murphy of the Academy’s
Research Committee has announced the funding of
five research grants under Academy auspices through
March 8, 1967. The awardees are: Dr. A. M. Harvill,
Longwood College, “Biology of Off-Shore Islands of
Virginia” ($150); Dr. Lawrence I. Miller, Virginia
Polytechnic Institute, “Morphology of Nematodes”
($200); Dr. Harold G. Marshall, Old Dominion Col¬
lege, “Plankton in Chesapeake Bay” ($200); Dr. Tully
H. Turney, Hampden-Sydney College, “Frog Egg Ac¬
tivation” ($200); and Dr. Gwynn W. Ramsev, Lynch¬
burg College, “Floristic Studies in Virginia” ($200).

At the time of the report, the Committee had fund¬
ed all applicants, except two, making request for
small grants. The Academy efforts in this field pro¬
vide seed funds in many instances to those making
preliminary studies.

MILBANK MEMORIAL FUND
AWARDS FACULTY FELLOWSHIP
TO McCORMACK AT UYA

Dr. Regina C. McCormack, assistant professor of
internal medicine and preventive medicine at the Uni¬
versity of Virginia, has been awarded a five-year Mil-
bank Faculty Fellowship.

The fellowship comes from the Milbank Memorial
Fund of New York City, which will provide $40,000
to support Dr. McCormack’s interests in advanced
training in social aspects of medicine, development of
a community medicine program for medical students,
and travel and study at other institutions.

The faculty fellowship program is a four-year-old
project of the Milbank Fund, which was established
in 1905 to "improve the physical, mental and moral
condition of humanity and generally to advance charit¬
able and benevolent objects.”

The fund is now emphasizing support of training
and educational activities and is dedicated to helping
alleviate some of the critical health-service and man¬
power problems in this country and Latin America.

Up to ten Milbank Faculty Fellows are selected
each year. This year’s group includes educators in
Argentina, Brazil, Canada and the United States. All
have interests in medical programs involving social
medicine and community health.

Dr. McCormack is the first University of Virginia
faculty member to receive this honor. She directs
the University’s community medicine program for
medical students and summer training in preventive
medicine. She is a co-investigator in the epidemio¬
logical study of urinarv-tract infections and hyperten¬
sion among working women.

A member of the University medical faculty since
1964, she received degrees in nursing and medicine
from Cornell University and graduate medical train¬
ing at Cornell, the Boston Veterans Administration
and Hospital, Massachusetts General Hospital.

RESOLUTIONS 1966-67
VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

Whereas, the members of the Virginia Academy of
Science have assembled for their forty-fifth annual
meeting in Norfolk, Virginia, from May third through
May sixth, 1967, and

Whereas, on this occasion of the forty-fifth anniver¬
sary year of its founding there are eight charter mem¬
bers whose unique contribution to the Academy we
wish to recognize:

LLOYD C. BIRD
HARRIET H. FILLINGER
WILLIAM A. KEPNER
J. E. KINDRED
LEONIDAS R. LITTLETON

118

The Virginia Journal of Science

CHARLES P. OLIVIER
IDA SITLER
CARL SPEIDEL

Be it resolved:

1. That the Academy send to these distinguished
members its affectionate greeting, together with its
respect and esteem for their service to the advance¬
ment of scientific endeavors in the Commonwealth of
Virginia, and

Whereas, the members wish to recognize and thank
those whose labors have contributed to the comfort
and convenience of those in attendance at this meet¬
ing-

Be it resolved:

2. That we express our gratitude for the generous
hospitality of the administration, facultv, staff, and
students of Old Dominion College,

3. That we acknowledge our debt to S. C. Sher¬
wood, III, and to the other members of the local
arrangements committee for their meticulous planning
of this meeting; to the management of the Golden
Triangle Motel for our comfort; and to the exhibitors
for their educational contributions,

4. That we express thanks to those responsible for
the symposium on myocardial contraction and espe¬
cially to the symposium speakers for their interesting
lectures, and

Whereas, through the diligent efforts of its leaders,
further progress has been made in increasing the serv¬
ices and prestige of the Academy,

Be it resolved:

5. That thanks be given to the officers of the
Academy, the members of Council, the committee mem¬
bers and their respective chairmen, for their willing
and insufficiently rewarded service,

6. That President Stanley B. Williams be accorded
our deepest appreciation for his leadership in accord¬
ance with the spirit and high ideals of the Academy,

7. That we recognize with gratitude the services
of the executive secretary, Rodney C. Berry, who has
shown his usual selfless devotion to the affairs of the
Academy,

8. That we extend our sincere thanks to those
who presented papers and to the section officers who
organized the preliminary work,

9. That we recognize the work of Herbert McKen-
nis, Jr., who has so ably begun his service as editor
of the Virginia Journal of Science,

10. That we express our praise for the entire opera¬
tion of the Virginia Junior Academy of Science; and
our special congratulations to the young scientists who,
in demonstrating their knowledge and skills, make us
proud and confident of the future growth of the Acad¬
emy; and our sincere thanks for the prodigious efforts
of E. L. Wisman and his lieutenants for their part
in making this activity of the Academy one of its best
reasons for being, and

Whereas, the Academy has lost by death several of
its members during the past year.

Be it resolved:

11. That we express our regret and our sadness at
the loss through death of the following members:

W. PARKER ANSLOW, JR.

GRACE J. BLANK
WARREN WOOD BROWN
W. HORATIO BROWN
JAMES H. CARR
LUCIUS J. DESHA
J. GRAY DINWIDDIE
JEWELL J. GLASS
C. M. GOETHE
J. RAYMOND HODKINSON
L. G. HOXTON
ROBERT F. McCRACKEN
EARL B. NORRIS
JAMES B. PATTON
JOSEPH R. ROBERTS
MORRIS TISCHLER
ADDISON E. WILKINS
LEWIS C. WILLIAMS

After presentation by the resolutions committee
(Mary E. Kapp, Warwick R. West, Jr., and Edward
F. Turner, Jr., chairman), the foregoing resolutions
were unanimously passed at the forty-fifth annual
meeting of the Academy.

News and Notes

119

SWEEP CO-DISTILLER

* X

I- —

- '

‘ —

T.’**** 600

*

—f-

The mere presence of a Kontes Sweep
Co-Distiller in a lab seems to inspire
inventiveness.

The unit was originally designed for
sample clean-up of organophosphate
pesticides*. As a result of recent modifi¬
cations, new applications are appearing
regularly.

The co-distiller can now handle both’
organophosphate and chlorinated pesti¬
cides. Two food chains have used it to
separate caffeine from coffee with 100%
efficiency. A chemical company uses it to
separate monomers from polymers.
New Uses— In addition to separation
techniques, the co-distiller has been
used in conversions, hydrogenations,
dehydrogenations, pyrolysis, and cataly¬
tic reactions. It is an important new tool
for gas chromatography, spectroscopy

(infrared, x-ray and ultraviolet), NMR,
and other methods. The apparatus is
also useful for all types of bench scale
work, especially when small quantities
are called for. And with minor modifica¬
tions, it can operate under vacuum or
moderate pressure, permitting even
greater versatility.

Construction and Operation— The co¬
distiller consists of a control console and
condensing bath, a fully proportional 100
to 400°C oven (±0.5°C) that accommo¬
dates four specially designed tubes, and
a closed glass and Teflonf system. Op¬
eration is simple and fast. Extract sam¬
ples are injected into the tubes. With the
sample tube hooked to a GC unit, sec¬
ondary operations are eliminated. Re¬
covery of 90-99% can be expected, with
residue levels as low as .025 ppm.

Run time — Typical run times average
30-35 minutes, compared to 2-3 hours
with conventional methods. Sample
tubes and adsorption columns are avail¬
able pre-packed to minimize downtime.
Several units in your lab will allow pro¬
cessing of hundreds of samples per day.

The Kontes co-distiller is priced from
$300, depending on model and acces¬
sories. For further details, contact your
Kontes representative or write direct.

♦Reference— J O. A C , Vol. 48, Dec., 1965, "A Sweep Co-Distillation
Clean-up Method for Organophosphate Pesticides”, by R. W. Storherr
& R. R. Watts.

-[Trademark of DuPont

KONTES

Vineland, New Jersey LboI

Regional Distributors: KONTES OF ILLINOIS, Franklin Park, Illinois • KONTES OF CALIFORNIA, Berkeley, California

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Philip Morris, a publicly-owned company incorporated in Virginia, proudly
traces its heritage to a London tobacconist of a century ago. Quality and
innovation have earned for the company a valued reputation: “Philip Morris
. . . makers of America's finest cigarettes.” In addition, the Company markets
a number of fine pipe tobaccos, and in recent years Philip Morris has added
these quality names: Burma-Vita Company, American Safety Razor Company,
and Clark Bros. Chewing Gum Company.

Write to Administrative Assistant, P. O. Box 3-D, Richmond, Virginia

PHILIP MORRIS

RESEARCH CENTER

Simplest way to get in touch with your friends is through Fisher

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B & L, B-B-L, B-D, Buchler, Cambridge Chemical, CBDS, Clay-
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Gelman Instruments, Hycel, International Equipment, Jewett, Kimble,
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FISHER SCIENTIFIC CO.

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Your nearest Fisher Scientific branch
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MOBIL CHEMICAL COMPANY/ INDUSTRIAL CHEMICALS DIVISION/RICHMOND, VIRGINIA

Explore Unknown Seas !

How? — Through the pages of SEA FRONTIERS, lavishly
illustrated, authoritative quarterly magazine, bringing the latest
in scientific discovery in the world’s oceans. Written especially
for yachtsmen, anglers, shipowners and world travellers — all
who are concerned with the sea.

SEA FRONTIERS

For a free copy of SEA FRONTIERS send a postcard to

THE INTERNATIONAL OCEANOGRAPHIC FOUNDATION
No. 1 Rickenbacker Causeway, Miami, Florida 33149 (Room 95)

The I.O.F. is a nonprofit organization established by those whose
interest and curiosity lie in the sea and the spirit of discovery.
Objectives — the support and development of oceanographic
research, by scholarships, grants and publications. Membership
information on request. Contributions are tax deductible.

INFORMATION BLANK

For Exclusive Use of Virginia Journal of Science

Do your responsibilities include the selection . , requisitioning . , or purchase .

of equipment and supplies? What was their approximate value during your last

fiscal year . ? Roughly, into which of the following classification will

these purchases break down?

$ Value $ Value

Equipment . Chemicals .

Scientific Instruments . Teaching Materials .

Furniture . Other .

Books .

Can you suggest the names of two or more companies which should benefit from ad¬
vertising in the Virginia Journal of Science?

BUSINESS REPLY MAIL

No postage stamps necessary if
mailed in the United States

Postage will be paid by

First Class
Permit No. 4021
Richmond, Va.

tmm BBBB— M

VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

'

P. 0. Box 1500
Richmond, Virginia 23212

: -- '"X\u

MEMBERSHIP IN THE VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

The Academy membership is organized
into sections representing the various scientific
disciplines. Membership is open to all with an
interest in science.

Addressograph plates of all members are
coded by a section number. The First Number
indicates the member’s major interest and
enables Section Officers to more easily contact
their members.

1. Agricultural Sciences

2. Astronomy, Mathematics & Physics

3. Microbiology (Bacteriology)

4. Biology

5.. Chemistry

6. Materials Science
6x. Space Science and Technology

7. Engineering

8. Geology

9. Medical Sciences

10. Psychology

11. Science Teachers

12. Statistics

ANNUAL MEMBERSHIP DUES

Business . $100

Sustaining . 25*

Contributing . 10

Regular . 5

Students . 2

*$25.00 or more

VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

Rodney C. Berry, Exec. Secy.-Treas.

Box 8203, Richmond, Virginia 23226
APPLICATION FOR MEMBERSHIP

Full Official Name .

(With Title and Degrees)

Name as Usually Written .

(With Mr., Mrs., Prof., Col., etc.)

Address .

(Mailing Address Desired, with P. O. Box or Street and Zip Code)

Institution or Business .

Position — Title .

Field of Interest, Section No. .

Class of — Sustaining — Contributing

Date . Membership Desired ^ — Student — Regular

Recommended by: .

Make check payable to VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE and send to above address

We can’t boast
about being
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the best in
personal service

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6th & Byrd Streets — Richmond, Virginia

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OFFICIAL PUBLICATION OF THE
VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

SEPTEMBER

1967 Vol. 18, NEW SERIES, No. 4

pTHSO/V^-,

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VIRGINIA

JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

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General Notice To
Contributors

The Virginia Journal of Science heartily welcomes
for consideration original articles of technical or gen¬
eral interest on all phases of mathematics, the natural,
physical and engineering sciences. Submission of an
article for publication implies that the article has not
been published elsewhere while under consideration
bv the Journal.

All articles should be typewritten (double-spaced)
and submitted on good bond paper (8*4 x 11 inches)
in triplicate to the Editor. Margins should not be
less than IV4 inches on any border. Title, running
title, authors, place of origin, abstract, figures, legends,
tables, footnotes, and references should be on individ¬
ual pages separate from the text. Technical abbre¬
viations should follow consistent standard practices
with careful avoidance of unnecessary neologistic de¬
vices. All pages (including illustrations) should be
consecutively numbered in the upper right comer.
A pencil notation of author names on the back of
each page is helpful in identification.

Illustrations should be supplied in a form suitable
for the printer with attention to the fact that a reduc¬
tion in size may be necessary.

A good technical article generally contains an obliga¬
tory abstract before the text, an introduction, with ref¬
erence to preliminary publications that may exist, an
experimental section, results (which may be included
in the experimental section), a discussion, and conclu¬
sion. References are indicated in the body of the
article by consecutively used numbers in parentheses.
Although publication costs are high, attention should
be given to relatively complete references (bibliog¬
raphies) since the purpose of an article is to illumi¬
nate the significance of present and past findings, and
not merely to obscure the past. The Journal reserves
the right (generally exercised) to make page charges
for articles in excess of 5 pages and to bill authors
at cost for unusually complicated illustrative material.

Abbreviation of journals for references can be found
in the 4th edition of the World List of Scientific Peri¬
odicals, Butterworth, Inc., Washington, D. C., 1963.

The form of presentation is illustrated below:

(1) Aiyar, A. S., and Olson, R. E., Fedn Proc. Fedn
Am. Socs exp. Biol., 23, 425 (1964).

(2) Chappell, J. B., Cohn, M., and Greville, G. D.,
in B. Chance (Editor), Energy linked functions
of mitochondria. Academic Press, Inc., New York,
1963, p. 219.

(3) Riley, G. A., and Haynes, R. C., Jr., J. hiol. Chem.,
238,' 1563 (1963).

BUSINESS MEMBERS
VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

Because of their interest in science and the
economy of Virginia, the following industrial
concerns have become Business Members of the
Academy and have thus contributed greatly to its
work and progiess. Their support is gratefully
acknowledged:

Abbott, Proctor & Paine
Albemarle Paper Mfg. Co.

Allied Chemical Corporation
American Machine & Foundry Co.

The American Tobacco Company
The Bank of Virginia
Burlington Industries, Inc.

The Central National Bank
Celanese Fibers Company
Chesapeake Corporation of Virginia
Continental Can Company, Inc.

Dan River Mills

Dow Badische Company

E. I. duPont de Nemours & Co., Inc.

First and Merchants National Bank
General Electric Company
Hercules, Incorporated
Lawyers Title Insurance Corporation
Larus and Brother Co., Inc.

Merck and Company, Inc.

Mobil Chemical Company
National Fruit Product Co.

Newport News Shipbuilding Co. Foundation
Norfolk and Western Railway Co.

Philip Morris and Co., Ltd., Inc.

Phipps & Bird, Inc.

Reynolds Metals Co.

A. II. Robins Company, Inc.

Shenandoah Life Insurance Company
Southern Bank & Trust Company
Southern Railways Systems
Southern States Cooperative, Inc.

State-Planters Bank of Commerce and Trusts
Union Camp Corporation
Virginia Chemicals, Inc.

Virginia Electric and Power Company
Virginia Trust Company
J. C. Wheat and Company

VIRGINIA

JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

OFFICIAL PUBLICATION OF THE
VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

Vol. 18, New Series

September, 1967

No. 4

TABLE OF CONTENTS

127 The Effects of Sodium Pentobarbital on Temperatures and Heart

Rates of Rats Given Methimazole and Subjected to Cold

C. L. Gemmill arul K. M. Browning

130 Determination and Reporting of Total Particulate Matter, Water

in Total Particulate Matter, and Nicotine in Cigarette Smoke

William W. Bates, Robert B. Griffith,
E. S. Harlow, Murray Senkus, and
Helmut Wakeham

136 Communications and Reports

139 Abstracts of Papers, Forty-Fifth Annual Meeting of The Virginia

Academy of Science

Agricultural Science

139

Astronomy, Mathematics, and Physics

145

Eiology

155

Chemistry

168

Engineering

178

Geology

184

Materials Sciences

190

Medical Sciences

194

Microbiology

204

Psychology

206

Statistics

213

216

Author Index to Volume 18, 1967

THE VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

Official Publication of the Virginia Academy of

Science

EDITOR

HERBERT McKENNIS, JR.

EDITORIAL BOARD

SECTION EDITORS

Dorothy L. Crandall

R. G. Bass

Edwin S. Higgins

John E. Duberg

Walter R. Beckett, Jr.

Clyde Y. Kramer

Boyd Harshbarger

Tom Doggins

W. H. Leftwich

Thomas J. Marlowe

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© Copyright, 1967, by the Virginia Academy of
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Business and Subscription Information

All remittances and orders for advertising and sub¬
scriptions should be sent to the Business Manager,
Virginia Journal of Science, P. O. Box 1500, Richmond,
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Subscription rates for 1967: $8.00 per year, U.S.A.;

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The front cover is by Doughs C. Hensley.

C. L. Gemmill and K. M. Browning

Department of Pharmacology, University of Virginia
School of Medicine, Charlottesville, Virginia.
Received May 12, 1967

The Effects of Sodium Pentobarbital on Temperatures and
Heart Rates of Rats Given Methimazole and Subjected

to Cold

ABSTRACT

A series of rats were injected with sodium pento¬
barbital and then placed in an air bath at 5° C.
Heart rates and body temperatures were determined.
These variables fell rapidly at 5° C. If these animals
are given a previous exposure to 5° C, a large per¬

Previous experiments (1, 2) on the effects of cold
on body temperatures and heart rates of rats during
pentobarbital anesthesia have demonstrated that there
is a rapid fall in these two variables in the majority
of experiments. In a few, there is a recovery or an
attempt to recover. If rats are exposed to 5° C for
various periods of time before the standard test, more
animals recover and the number of recoveries depends
on the length of exposure to cold. In contrast, if the
rats are surgically thyroidectomized ( 1 ) , there are
only rapid falls in heart rates and body temperatures
with and without previous exposure to cold. In view
of the findings in the surgical thyroidectomized rats,
it is of interest to carry out similar experiments on
rats given methimazole.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

White male albino rats (Garworth Farms) weigh¬
ing approximately 300 g were used. The animals
were maintained on a diet of Purina Dog Chow
Checkers. The standard test in each experiment was
to inject the rats intraperitoneally with 4.8 mg of
sodium pentobarbital (Nembutal Sodium, Abbott) in
1 ml per 100 g of body weight. The rat was placed
in a divided wire cage attached to the leads of a
portable electrocardiograph (Sanborn) in order to ob¬
tain heart rates. A resistance thermometer (Tele¬
thermometer, Yellow Springs Instrument Co.) was in¬
serted deeply into the rectum in order to obtain body
temperatures. The rat in this cage was placed in a
refrigerator with the air temperature maintained at
5° C. Body temperatures and heart rates were record¬
ed at once after placing the rats in the cold and every
15 minutes for a period of several hours. The experi¬

centage have the ability to recover. This ability to
recover is not observed when the thyroid function is
blocked by methimazole. Hyperactivity of the thyroid
gland was observed following the removal of the methi¬
mazole.

ment was terminated if the body temperature fell to
27° C. This procedure is called “the standard experi¬
ment”. The rats were then subjected to cold previ¬
ous to the standard experiment by placing them at
5° C for a period of 46 hours. These rats were remov¬
ed from the cold, injected with the sodium pentobar¬
bital and replaced into the cold, and the standard
experiment was carried out. A series of rats were
given methimazole (Tapazole®, Eli Lilly and Co.)
in their drinking water. The amount of methimazole
in the drinking water was adjusted so that the rats
received approximately 1 mg of methimazole per 100
g body weight per day. The basal metabolisms (3)
of these rats were determined by a closed-circuit ap¬
paratus. Food was removed from these rats the
night before the experiment. When the metabolic
rate leveled off at approximately 26 Calories per
square meter of body surface per hour, the rats were
used in the experiments.

RESULTS

Results from previous experiments on 77 normal
rats demonstrated that under the standard test 84.4
percent had a marked fall in body temperatures, 5.2
percent had a partial recovery, and 10.4 percent had
a complete recovery. In 19 thyroidectomized rats ( 1 )
all of the animals (Fig. 1, A) had a marked fall in
body temperatures and pulse rates. The rats given
methimazole gave comparable results to the thyroidec¬
tomized animals (Fig. 1, B). In group C, 24 of those
rats given methimazole that were exposed for 46 hours
at 5° C previous to the standard test had a marked
fall in temperature with only one recovery. This is
in contrast to the previous study on normal rats (2)

Effects of Sodium Pentobarbital

127

in which 33 percent had recoveries following exposure
to 5° C for 46 hours. Twenty rats from group C were
kept at room temperature and without methimazole
for three or four weeks. The standard experiment
was repeated on this group with the surprising result
that in 65 percent of these rats there was complete
recovery (Fig. 1, D), 10 percent had partial recovery,
and 25 percent had a marked fall in body tempera¬
tures. This is the same type of response seen in
normal rats made hypermetabolic by adding triiodo¬
thyronine (1) to their drinking water. In Fig. 2, the
results are given on individual rats in order to illus¬
trate the time course of the changes in body tem¬
peratures and pulse rates under the conditions of these
experiments. The results found, after three or four
weeks at room temperature following removal of the
methimazole, suggest that the thyroid gland may be
overactive following removal of methimazole. In order
to test this idea, two groups of white albino rats were
selected. Basal metabolism tests were made in one
group of these rats before, during, and after methi¬
mazole treatment. The second group was used as the
control group. The dosage of methimazole was ad-

Fig.i. Responses of rats to 5° C after sodium pen¬
tobarbital. A, 19 thyroidectomized rats; B, 31 rats
given methimazole; C, 24 rats given methimazole with
46-hour exposure at 5° C before standard experiment;
D, 20 rats from group C removed to room tempera¬
ture for 3 to 4 weeks and then retested with standard
test. In each group, Column 1 represents the percent
of rats whose temperatures fell to 27°, Column 2 rep¬
resents the percent of rats that had partial recoveries,
and Column 3 represents the percent of rats that had
complete recoveries. The results on the thyroidecto¬
mized rats (A) were taken from a previous publica¬
tion ( 1 ) .

justed to the water intake so that the rats received
1 mg per 100 grams of body weight per day in the
drinking water for a seven-week period. The results
are given in Fig. 3. The lower curve represents the
average determinations on fifteen rats given methi¬
mazole. The metabolism fell during this period and
then rose following removal, reaching a level above
the base line at the five-week period following removal
of methimazole.

Fig. 2. Body temperatures and heart rates of indi¬
vidual rats given sodium pentobarbital and subjected
to 5° C. Responses of rats given 4.8 mg of sodium
pentobarbital in 1 ml per 100 g body weight. Rat
after injection placed in an air bath at 5° C. Upper
curves, ordinates, body temperature in degrees centri-
grade; abscissae, time in minutes. Lower curves, ordi¬
nates, heart rate in beats per minute; abscissae, time
in minutes. Curve 1, normal rat with recovery; Curve
2, normal rat with partial recovery; Curve 3, normal
rat with no recovery; Curve 4, rat with methimazole;
Curve 5, rat with thyroid glands removed surgically.

128

The Virginia Journal of Science

Fig. 3. Basal metabolism of rats before, during,
and after treatment with methimazole. Upper curve
(o), average determinations on 14 rats without methi¬
mazole. Lower curve (•), average determinations on
15 rats given methimazole for 7 weeks, and then the
drug was removed for 8 additional weeks of study.

Results given in terms of Calories per square meter
of body surface per hour. The points represent the
average value of the determinations for each week
on each series. The vertical lines represent the stand¬
ard error of the mean. The t test between the two
curves at the five-week period is 2.3 with P less than
0.05.

DISCUSSION OF RESULTS

It is apparent from the previous experiments on
thyroidectomized rats (1) and the present work with
methimazole in rats exposed to 5° C for 46 hours, that
a functional thyroid gland is essential for the observed
changes in body temperature and heart rate following
the injection of pentobarbital and exposure to cold.
That the thyroid gland might be hyperactive follow¬
ing the removal of the methimazole was demonstrated
experimentally by determining the basal metabolism
of rats before, during, and after methimazole treat¬
ment.

CONCLUSIONS

Rats injected with pentobarbital and exposed to 5° C
lose their control of body temperatures and heart rates.
When the animals are given a previous exposure to

cold, a large percentage have the ability to recover
these variables during the standard test. This ability
to recover is not observed in rats with surgical removal
of the thyroid gland or following blocking of thyroid
function with methimazole. Hyperactivity of the thy¬
roid gland was observed following the removal of the
methimazole.

REFERENCES

1. Gemmill, C. L., and Browning, K. M., Am. J.
Physiol., 203, 758 (1962).

2. Gemmill, C. L., Browning, K. M., and Kanto, W.
P., Jr., Proc. Soc. exp. Biol. Med., 118, 290 (1965).

3. Gemmill, C. L., and Browning, K. M., Lab. Anim.
Care, 15, 329 (1965).

Effects of Sodium Pentobarbital

129

William W. Bates, Robert B. Griffith, E. S.
Harlow, Murray Senkus, and Helmut Wake-
ham

Liggett 6- Myers Tobacco Company, Durham, North
Carolina ; Brown 6- Williamson Tobacco Corporation,
Louisville, Kentucky; The American Tobacco Com¬
pany, Richmond, Virginia; R. J. Reynolds Tobacco
Company, Winston-Salem, North Carolina; and Philip
Morris Incorporated, Richmond, Virginia.
Received August 15, 1967

Determination and Reporting of Total Particulate Matter,
Water in Total Particulate Matter, and Nicotine in

Cigarette Smoke

ABSTRACT

This paper describes procedures which represent the
consensus of the major cigarette companies on the sam¬
pling and analysis of cigarettes for smoke particulate
matter and nicotine, with minor exceptions as noted.

A minimum sample of 200 cigarettes, taken from a
large market sample from 50 locations throughout the
country, is necessary to characterize a brand. Ciga¬
rettes are conditioned and smoked according to the
Cambridge Filter Method described by Ogg for the
determination of smoke particulate matter and nicotine.
Certain precautions for carrying out these smoke anal¬

The following data and statement of methods and
procedures for the determination of total particulate
matter (TPM), water in total particulate matter, and
total alkaloids as nicotine (hereinafter referred to as
nicotine) represent the consensus of major laboratories
of the cigarette industry with only minor exceptions
as noted. It should be emphasized that these industry
laboratories have long and extensive experience in
cigarette testing. The procedures which follow are
based on this experience, and reflect the need to ob¬
serve certain precautions if reliable test results are to
be obtained.

In preparing these procedures, the aim has been to
obtain results which are reliable within plus or minus

2.5 percent of the reported value at the 95 percent
confidence level. This statement would be statis¬
tically interpreted to mean that the true value of total
particulate matter for a given sample reported as 20
mg per cigarette would be in the range of 19.5 to

20.5 and that in so concluding the investigator would
be right 95 times out of 100. It can also be shown

yses are pointed out, and it is recommended that
water in particulate matter be measured and the re¬
sults reported on the dry basis. Results should be
reported both as milligrams particulate matter and
nicotine per cigarette and as milligrams per puff.

On a per cigarette basis, the results for particulate
matter should be rounded to the nearest milligram
and the nicotine values to the nearest one-tenth milli¬
gram. On a per puff basis concentrations of particu¬
late matter and nicotine should be reported to the
nearest 0.1 mg and 0.01 mg respectively.

statistically that to achieve this precision for a given
sample approximately 200 cigarettes must be smoked.
Because data and suggestions on methodology are relat¬
ed to the sampling plan, and selection of subsamples,
these will be considered first.

SAMPLING

If the objective of a cigarette-testing program is
to demonstrate differences between brands, a sam¬
pling procedure must be established so that the data
obtained fairly reflect the characteristics of the product
as a whole. Note that individual cigarettes within a
given brand, or groups of cigarettes as represented by
a package or carton, may vary in terms of weight,
uniformity of blend, age, moisture content, filter dimen¬
sions, burning rate, etc. All of these variables can
affect the particulate matter and nicotine delivery of
the cigarette.

Moreover, the period which normally elapses be¬
tween time of manufacture and purchase by consumer.

130

The Virginia Journal of Science

as well as conditions of storage during that period,
will produce in the market samples variations from
factory samples. If the investigator is endeavoring
to test what the consumer is getting, it seems clear
that he must obtain what the consumer buys, i.e.,
cigarettes in the market place. Reliable characteriza¬
tion of a brand as the consumer receives it, therefore,
requires selection of the subsample to be smoked from
a larger market sample population made up of ciga¬
rettes obtained from many locations.

The procedure which follows is predicated on the
pickup of 100 packages of cigarettes for each brand
to be tested, from 50 market locations throughout the
country. These can be selected by conventional sta¬
tistical-survey techniques. With some brands, sup¬
plementary pickup points may be necessary.

We realize, of course, that the 50 points suggested
do not provide an adequate national random-proba¬
bility sample; however, we believe these pickup sug¬
gestions are practicable.

This pickup may be accomplished through an out¬
side contractor such as Western Union. The experi¬
ence of several of the tobacco industry laboratories is
that Western Union can provide samples in good physi¬
cal condition promptly.

Subsamples — The subsamples for smoking should
be selected, as described below, from the 100-package
sample.

In using the procedure reported by Ogg (1), the
participating laboratories were concerned with analyti¬
cal techniques. Accordingly, the cigarettes which were
smoked were not only from a specially prepared uni¬
form sample but were also carefully weight-selected
to minimize variations in cigarette weight. However,
the consumer does not weight-select the individual
cigarette he smokes. He removes each cigarette from
the pack at random and smokes it. In order to dupli¬
cate this important aspect of consumer smoking, ciga¬
rettes for analysis are not weight-selected. This is a
necessary change in the procedure reported by Ogg.

The cigarette packs are carefully opened and three
cigarettes are randomly selected from each package.
These cigarettes are pooled and now represent a 300-
cigarette pooled subsample which after conditioning
will supply the 200 cigarettes needed for smoking.
(Comments on conditioning procedure are given be¬
low. )

As cigarettes are required for smoking, five cigarettes
are randomly selected from the conditioned, pooled
subsample, and are combined to provide a five-ciga¬
rette “port” sample. This procedure is repeated each
time a five-cigarette “port” sample is required until
the necessary number of “port” samples has been
obtained.

In the selection of subsamples, cigarettes to be
smoked should not contain soft spots nor be loosely
packed or frayed at either end. In the final selec¬
tion of cigarettes for smoking, damaged or defective

cigarettes should be discarded and replaced with addi¬
tional cigarettes drawn from the conditioned, pooled
subsample.

In the light of what experience teaches are random
inter-lab variations in the use of the Ogg method,
the sample size to be smoked must be sufficient.
As to the number of cigarettes to be smoked, the
differences among types and brands that are to be
measured, coupled with the technioal difficulties and
rigid controls required in the Ogg method, demand
that the number of samples smoked be adequate.

As a first approximation, the choice of at least 40
as the number of “ports” to be smoked, and hence
200 cigarettes of each brand to be smoked, is required
in order to achieve results reliable within plus or
minus 2.5 percent of the reported value at 95 percent
confidence. This calculation of 200 cigarettes is based
upon our choice of an acceptable standard error as
± 0.5 mg. This selection is based on the assumption
that TPM results will be reported to the nearest whole
integer (1 mg) when reporting on a per cigarette
basis.

The minimum of 200 cigarettes is also based upon
a standard deviation of 1.6 mg per “port” which was
the determined standard deviation among four differ¬
ent brands purchased once a week for three weeks
and tested in the same laboratory under identical
conditions. The choice of a standard deviation of
1.6 would be conservative since standard deviations
among several major brands tested in a different
laboratory over a six-month period have been observed
on occasion as high as 2.8 mg per “port”. The detail
of these observations are:

Brand Standard Deviation

mg/“port”

1 2.7

2 1.7

3 1.9

4 1.9

5 2.8

6 1.2

7 1.8

8 1.8

Using the equation and the definitions given below,
the number of cigarettes required can be calculated
employing the conservative standard deviation of 1.6
mg per “port”.

From the Student’s “t” test:

t“ s2

n =: -

E2

where n = the number of cigarettes smoked

t = the Student “t” value which is dependent upon
the level of confidence desired. For 95 per¬
cent confidence it may be taken as 2.

s = the standard deviation

Determination of Matter in Cigarette Smoke

131

E - the maximum error which one wishes to tolerate
with a given level of confidence.

Since the value for the mean standard deviation is
based on one “port” (five cigarettes), it is necessary
to multiply by y/5 to convert this to a per cigarette
basis.

Thus:

t2 s2

n = -

E2

n = the number of cigarettes smoked
t = 2
s = 1.6 X
E = 0.5

n= (2)2 (1.6XVS)2

(0.5)2

n=(4) (12.8)

0(25

n = 205 cigarettes.

To establish results for TPM to one-tenth of a milli¬
gram per cigarette with the same confidence, the
number of cigarettes needed to be smoked gets very
large indeed.

The calculation made above does not include allow¬
ance for inescapable between-laboratory variation. It
has been suggested that the overall between-labora¬
tory variations shown by Ogg in his Table 3 are
unrealistically large and that the corrected variations
shown in his Table 5 which eliminates data from four
laboratories are more reasonable. We do not have at
hand information which could support the exclusion
of one-third of the laboratories in the Ogg work. We
do know that in all analytical determinations with
which we have had experience the between-labora¬
tory variation is larger than the within-laboratory varia¬
tions. Moreover, it is apparent that the within-labo¬
ratory standard deviations of Ogg on a uniform spe¬
cially prepared sample, namely, 1.08 mg and 0.80
mg, are smaller than industry experience on multiple-
brand testing, 1.6 mg and as high as 2.8 mg on
occasion as indicated above. Thus, the within-labora¬
tory standard deviations do not apply when testing
market samples.

Despite the fact that the above calculations do not
take into account many additional variations which
must be considered in trying to estimate a value which
is representative of a brand as purchased in the mar¬
ketplace, it is suggested that they be used as a basis
for the minimum number of cigarettes to be smoked.
It is believed that proper use of a monitor sample
(described later) will reduce procedural variations.

Whatever may be the statistically appropriate extrap¬
olations from the data in the reported tentative Ogg
method and tables annexed to that report, on the basis
of present knowledge, a minimum of 200 cigarettes
must be smoked in order to yield results to the near¬
est integer.

Sample Conditioning — In the opinion of a ma¬
jority of the tobacco industry laboratories, cigarettes
should be conditioned prior to smoking. However,
one major laboratory dissents from this opinion. This
laboratory believes that when smoke analyses are made
for the purpose of comparing brands sampled from the
market, the cigarettes should, as far as possible, be
smoked at the same moisture content which they had
when purchased. On the other hand, those labora¬
tories recommending conditioning feel that it is neces¬
sary because otherwise the moisture content of the
cigarettes smoked will be a function of both the age
of the cigarettes and the ambient conditions at which
the cigarettes are stored not only in tire wholesale
and retail outlets but also while being held prior to
analysis. This variability in moisture content will,
in turn, affect the burning rate and therefore the nico¬
tine and TPM delivery of the cigarettes.

If cigarettes are to be conditioned, they should be
placed loosely upon wire mesh shelves in a space in
which the temperature and relative humidity are ade¬
quately controlled. It is recommended that cigarettes
be conditioned at 75 ± 2° F and 60 ± 2% relative
humidity for a period of time sufficiently long to allow
the cigarettes to come to moisture equilibrium with
the atmosphere of the conditioning chamber. The
exact time required will depend to a large extent
upon the rate of flow of conditioned air around the
cigarettes. Once the conditioning facilities are operat¬
ing, simple experimentation can establish the time re¬
quired for cigarettes to attain a constant weight. This
time should be adopted as a standard procedure pro¬
vided that conditions such as ah flow, cigarette load¬
ing, chamber geometrv, etc., are not changed.

If the port sample is selected and/or prepared for
smoking in a room which is not maintained at the
same temperature and relative humidity at which they
were conditioned, the cigarettes should be recondi¬
tioned before smoking.

Industry experience indicates that conditioning ciga¬
rettes in desiccators over constant-humidity solutions
is cumbersome, requires a very large number of desic¬
cators and takes an inordinately long time for the
cigarette to reach equilibrium.

Monitor Sample — It is common in analytical work
to include check samples in order to be certain that
the results obtained on unknowns are valid. This con¬
cept is especially important with smoke analytical
procedures because experience, in various tobacco
industry laboratories, has shown that there are unex¬
plainable day-to-day variations in analytical results
obtained on a simple sample. To obtain valid smoke
analytical results on diverse samples over a period of
time, it is essential to make daily checks on a care¬
fully prepared monitor cigarette. These daily checks
will indicate when variations attributable to instru¬
mental failure or other abnormal conditions occur which
would not otherwise be noted. In addition, the daily
results for the monitor mav be related to the aver¬
age for this sample over a period of time and the

132

The Virginia Journal of Science

results obtained on other samples may be corrected
for the day-to-day variation in analytical results.

In the manufacture of a satisfactory monitor sample,
extreme care should be used in blending the tobaccos,
in the selection of uniform cigarette paper and filters,
and in fabrication.

The monitor cigarettes should be conditioned in
accordance with the procedures described above. The
number of monitor samples which should be smoked
daily will depend upon the uniformity of the particu¬
lar sample, the degree of control over smoking vari¬
ables, and the accuracy desired. This number can
only be determined by experience and statistical con¬
siderations.

There are many details associated with the produc¬
tion and use of a monitor sample which are beyond
the scope of this discussion.

OPERATING PROCEDURES

Smoking-Machine Characteristics — Each laboratory
of the industry has done considerable work on develop¬
ment of analvtical procedures for determination of nico¬
tine and TPM in mainstream smoke. In spite of this,
as noted by Ogg, further work is believed to be neces¬
sary to obtain a totally satisfactory method.

Nonetheless, for strictly analytical purposes, the
puff characteristics in the Ogg method are represen¬
tative averages and, although arbitrarily chosen, are
exactly defined. Several different smoking devices
are being used in the industry to achieve these puff
characteristics.

Essential to the testing procedure is a smoking
machine that can do the job, produce accurate and
consistent results, and permit true comparisons. The
smoking machine which is selected should be capable
of achieving with all types of cigarettes the follow¬
ing puff characteristics, which are the basic condi¬
tions specified in the Ogg procedure:

Puff Volume — 35 ± 0.5 ml measured as volume
of smoke that will be drawn from the butt end of the
cigarette under actual machine-smoking conditions.
Puff volume should be checked before and after each
analytical smoking run with smoke-collection trap in
system. Puff volume should be measured using a
soap-bubble manometer.

Puff Duration ~ 2 ± 0.2 sec measured at the ciga¬
rette under actual machine-smoking conditions by a
soap-bubble manometer and a suitable timing device.

Puff Frequency - 1 puff per 60 ± 1 sec.

Experience has shown that smoking machines differ
widely in the ease with which these conditions can
be achieved. It is absolutely essential to be certain
that the machine is capable of achieving these condi¬
tions for a given cigarette.

The smoking machine utilizing a falling-water col¬
umn must be carefully and constantly recalibrated in
order to accommodate successive smoking of ciga¬

rettes with widely different resistances to draw, or
erroneous results will be obtained.

Volume Between Filter Holder and Machine — Vol¬
ume between the filter holder and the puffing device
should be kept to an absolute minimum.

Draft Control — The area in which the cigarettes
are smoked should be free from extraneous drafts.

CAMBRIDGE FILTER ASSEMBLY (2)

(a) Filter holder — A Lucite (or aluminum) fil¬
ter holder consisting of threaded inner and outer parts
and a gasket of Teflon or other suitable materials.

(b) Filter disc — Cut discs 1.74 inches (44 mm)
in diameter from CM 113 A fiber glass sheet made by
the Cambridge Filter Corp., 738 Erie Blvd., East Syra¬
cuse 3, N. Y., or equivalent filter material. Filters
must collect at least 99.9 percent of all particles 0.3
microns in diameter and over at a flow rate of 28 linear
feet per minute, have a maximum pressure drop not
exceeding 93 mm water at 28 feet per minute, and
contain not more than 5 percent acrylic-type binder.
(It is recommended that in ordering filter material
specifications as given above be clearly stated.)

(c) Lucite guide — A Lucite guide is used to assist
in placing the rubber membrane on the filter holder.
(The holder, guide, and filter medium, CM 113A,
both in sheets and as 1.74-inch-diameter discs, are
obtainable from Phipps and Bird, Inc., Richmond,
Va.)

(d) Rubber membrane — Cut a square piece of
medium latex dental dam, approximately 3.5 x 3.5 cm.
Place between two pieces of rubber tile, or other suit¬
able material, and punch a hole 4-6 mm in diameter
in the center of the sheet with a cork borer of appro¬
priate size; the size of the hole depends on the cir¬
cumference of the cigarettes. Latex rubber sleeves,
8 mm in diameter and 20 mm long, may also be used.

(e) Rubber O-ring — An O-ring, 3/8-inch i.d.,
may be made by slicing off a thin section of 3/8-inch
i.d. rubber tubing or may be purchased from Linear,
Inc., State Rd. & Levick St., Philadelphia, Pa.

SMOKING PROCEDURES

Apparatus Assembly — The Lucite guide is used to
place a rubber membrane on the filter holder by insert¬
ing the offset end of the Lucite guide through the
hole in the rubber membrane and then into the en¬
trance tube of the filter holder. Holding the guide and
the membrane firmly against the filter holder, roll the
rubber O-ring over the guide and into position around
the membrane and in the groove on the entrance tube.
It may sometimes be necessary to center the aperture
and adjust its diameter by manipulating the rubber
membrane. Trim the excess rubber membrane with
scissors. Fit a Cambridge filter pad into the filter
holder with the rough side toward the port through
which the cigarette is inserted. Position the gasket
against the filter disc and screw in the Lucite plug
securely against the gasket. Tighten with a special

Determination of Matter in Cigarette Smoke

133

wire wrench with the ends fitted into two sockets on
the back of the plug.

Wipe gently with a soft cloth or tissue and weigh
the filter assembly to the nearest 0.2 mg. Connect
the filter assembly to the smoking machine by a short
piece of rubber or other suitable tubing with heavy
enough wall so that the cigarette and filter assembly
will be held in a horizontal position. Test the smok¬
ing apparatus and filter assembly for leaks. Insert a
cigarette through the hole in the rubber membrane
until the end of the butt is approximately flush with
the inner end of the holder tube, i.e., to a depth of
about 7/16 inch. Take care that the butt end does
not come in contact with the filter discs. Withdraw
the cigarette slightly so that the lip of the orifice in
the rubber membrane projects outward and forms a
snug-fitting collar without crimping or pinching the
cigarette. Occasionally, it may he necessary to shift
the position of the cigarette slightly in or out, to insure
that the collar surrounds the smooth portion of the
cigarette and provides a leak-free seal.

Smoking — Light the cigarette at the beginning of
the first puff (an electric-coil lighter is suggested).
Smoke each cigarette until the burning cone reaches
the mark and record the number of puffs taken on
each cigarette.

If the operator anticipates that the cone will reach
the mark during a puff, he should use judgment wheth¬
er to allow the cigarette to burn beyond the mark or
to stop smoking it short of the mark. In the smok¬
ing of cigarettes, “overs” should be balanced with
“unders” for each pad. After the last puff, let the
cigarette remain in the holder, freebuming, until a
few seconds before the next puff will be drawn by
the machine, then quickly remove the butt from the
holder and allow a clearing puff of air to draw in
the smoke remaining in the entrance port of die assem¬
bly. A total of five cigarettes is smoked through each
filter pad as described. Immediately after five ciga¬
rettes have been smoked, disconnect the filter assem¬
bly from the apparatus, wipe, and weigh to die near¬
est 0.2 mg.

If a smoking machine with an automatic cutoff is
used, it is unnecessary to balance “overs” and “unders”,
and there is no necessity for a clearing puff.

Record gain in weight of die filter assembly and
save smoke samples for water and nicotine analyses.

In smoking care should be taken to smoke a dif¬
ferent brand on each port of each machine, and in
replicate smokings random selection should be made
of ports for brand since some variability between ports
may be expected even on the same smoking machine.

The weight of total particulate matter equals the
gain in weight of the filter assembly. This weight
representing the total particulate matter (wet) from
five cigarettes is recorded in milligrams.

A total of 40 smokings of five cigarettes each is
to he made on each brand and the average yield per
pad determined.

BUTT LENGTH

If all cigarettes are to be smoked to a constant butt
length, it is recommended that this butt length be
30 mm (the lengdi used by Ogg) or that it be 3 mm
beyond the tipping paper (filter overwrap), which¬
ever is the longer, and cigarettes selected for smok¬
ing should he marked at this point. If a fixed length
of cigarette is to be smoked, e.g., 47 mm, the ciga¬
rettes selected for smoking as above described should
be marked at this point before insertion into the holder.

The Ogg procedure specified a butt length of 30
mm. This is a reasonable approximation of what has
been reported to be die average butt length for cigar¬
ettes smoked by Americans in contrast to die shorter
average butt length reported for European smokers.
If a constant butt length is to be used, no logical
reason is seen for altering diis part of the Ogg pro¬
cedure. Since smokers do not normally smoke a cigar¬
ette into a filter overwrap and some cigarettes now
available have a 30-mm overwrap, it is logical that
this butt length be 30 mm (the length used by Ogg)
or that it be 3 mm beyond the dpping paper (filter
overwrap), whichever is the longer.

To ou!' knowledge there is no adequate study, pub¬
lished or unpublished, of the U.S. populadon which
shows an average butt length less than 30 mm. Studies
of butt length do not accurately reflect the amount of
cigarette smoked; they only puqiort to show the length
of the cigarette at time of discard. But in a standard
method, experimental practicality dictates choices of
certain arbitrary average conditions, and this consid¬
eration has also dictated the specification of other
smoking parameters such as average puff duration,
average volume, and average frequency, each of which
significantly influences smoke delivery. Therefore, it
is whollv inconsistent not to choose an average butt
length. Pragmatically it should be recognized that
today 99% of cigarettes produced in the U. S. can be
smoked to a uniform 30-mm butt length, where as
90% of U. S. filter cigarettes cannot be smoked to a
3-mm butt without deviating from this specification.

DETERMINATION OF WATER IN PARTICULATE
MATTER AND CALCULATION OF DRY PARTIC¬
ULATE MATTER

It is recommended that the test results be reported
on a “dry” basis. The particulate matter collected by
the Ogg Cambridge Filter Method contains a very
significant proportion of water. The presence of vari¬
able quantities of this water adversely affects the preci¬
sion of the determination and its inclusion could influ¬
ence differences found between brands.

The water content of the TPM is influenced by a
number of factors including type of cigarette, kind of
filter, tobacco blend, width of cut, etc. Consequently,
it may vary widely in different cigarettes. For most
cigarettes the water content will range from 6 1/2%
to 13% of the particulate matter. Also if a shorter
butt length than the 30 mm prescribed in the Ogg
method were to be used, the proportion of water in
the TPM would become even greater.

134

The Virginia Journal of Science

Because of the variability in water content due to
the above factors, the determination of water and cor¬
rection for it actually improves the precision of the
method.

Water may be determined on each pad using a gas-
chromatographic procedure similar to that described
by Schultz and Spears (3). The extract remaining
from the water determination may be used for nicotine
analysis as described below.

If desired, water may be determined separately, i.e.,
on additional smokings, using the Karl Fisher proced¬
ure essentially as described by Cogbill (4), et al.

The average yield of water per filter pad is then
subtracted from the average yield of total particulate
matter (wet) to obtain the average TPM (dry) per
pad. This value is used in calculating results as milli¬
grams of dry particulate matter per puff by dividing
by the average number of puffs per pad or as milli¬
grams of dry particulate matter per cigarette by divid¬
ing the average yield per pad by five.

NICOTINE

The apparatus and basic procedures described by
Ogg for total alkaloids as nicotine are considered to
be satisfactory. If water in TPM is to be determined
by gas chromatography, all of the resulting solution
and pad, or an aliquot of an extract from the pad,
may be used instead of distilling the alkaloids from
the total pad as in the Ogg procedure. The size of
aliquot required will depend in part on the alkaloid
content of a particular sample and if this value is
low, a determination using the Griffith still is prefer¬
red, since the total distillate volume is one-half that
of the modified Kjeldahl still and the concentration is
therefore twice as large.

In order to keep the distilland volume as low as
possible in the Griffith-still procedure it is considered
desirable to acidify the aliquot portion with a smaller
volume of more concentrated acid. One ml of 1 N
HC1 is satisfactory.

REPORTING OF RESULTS

Cigarette smokers vary greatly in their manner of
smoking — puffing rate, volume, frequency, length of

cigarette smoked, etc. Certainly not all smokers puff
down to a fixed butt length. For many smokers, a
more meaningful expression of smoke quantity than
that of total quantity delivered per cigarette is the
measure of average smoke concentration, that is, the
particulate matter or nicotine per unit volume. In the
above procedure a convenient unit volume measure¬
ment is the standard “puff” so that the smoke con¬
centration would be expressed as “milligrams per puff/’
This number would be derived by dividing the total
delivery of the cigarette smoked by the number of
puffs. Such a number, for example, would be more
meaningful to a person who only partially smokes a
cigarette. It is, therefore, recommended that particulate
matter and nicotine values be reported both on a “per
cigarette” and on a “per puff” basis. We also recom¬
mend that the nicotine values should be subtracted
from the dry particulate matter, so as to avoid the
double reporting of the nicotine.

Finally, in reporting results, only significant digits
should be shown. The sampling and methodological
errors in the recommended procedures only justify
results rounded off to the extent indicated below:

Per Per

Cigarette Puff

Total Particulate Matter (dry) 1 mg 0.1 mg

Nicotine . 0.1 mg 0.01 mg

In other words, on a per cigarette basis the total partic¬
ulate matter should be expressed only to the nearest
milligram. The use of more precise figures in report¬
ing comparative results for market samples of brands
implies a precision not justified by either the limited
sample size or by the test methods described above.

REFERENCES

1. Ogg, C. L., }. Ass. off. analyt. Chem., 47, 356
(1964).

2. Wartman, W. B., Jr., Cogbill, E. C., and Harlow,
E. S., Analyt . Chem., 31, 1705 (1959).

3. Schultz, F. J., and Spears, A. W., Tob. Sci., 10, 75
(1966).

4. Cogbill, E. C., Wartman, W. B., Jr., and Harlow,
E. S., Tob. Sci., 3, 136 (1959).

Determination of Matter in Cigarette Smoke

135

Needed: A Virginia Museum of Science and History

Editor :

It should not be necessary to remind scientists (or
historians, for that matter) of the many benefits a
properly set up and staffed museum can provide.
One has only to look at the myriad benefits and con¬
tributions which have flowed from the various depart¬
ments of the U.S. National Museum to appreciate
the need for such an agency. Although the National
Museum is close to Virginia, it cannot (and should
not) do any more work in Virginia than it does in
other states. It is up to the individual states and to
private institutions and agencies in each state to get
down to die nit-picking details of research and then
to synthesize results. These results should then be
disseminated to the public and to the rest of the
academic world through suitable media and techniques.

We in Virginia have not done, and are not doing,
nearly enough research in history or the various fields
of science. Nor are we doing all we should to edu¬
cate our fellow-citizens in all age brackets. The
fault does not lie with existing agencies and schools,
which generally are working and producing to their
limits of personnel and funds. The fault lies in the
lack of an overall coordinating and catalyzing agency
of the state, such as a modem museum with associated
facilities. Such facilities might include planetaria,
aquaria, zoo, botanical garden, arboretum, local-exhibit
museums, mobile units, in-place geological and archeo¬
logical exhibits, and so on. In such a museum sys¬
tem, the staff would engage in educational activi¬
ties, research (in the field and in the laboratories),
and would also do the curatorial duties required to
maintain the museum collections.

The museum can serve as a focal point for a state¬
wide biological survey, as well as paleontological and
archeological surveys, historical salvage work, and simi¬
lar endeavors. Besides taking part in surveys and
projects itself, the museum can stimulate, coordinate,
and in some cases help finance related work in the
various schools and other research and teaching agen¬
cies in the state. It can serve as the repository for
scientific and historical collections, making them avail¬
able to all schools in the state and to visiting scholars.
Publications and teaching aids based on the collec¬
tions and on fieldwork can be produced in the museum.
These could include movies, film strips, closed-circuit
television tapes, and educational TV shows for public
showing. The museum can also set up and conduct
lecture series both in the museum and around the
state. The prospects are limited only by our imagina¬
tion and willingness to venture into these fields.

The professional staff of the museum (estimated
thirty to fifty people) would be a valuable addition

to the cultural community of the state, and a distin¬
guished museum would attract many visitors, as well
as professional society conventions, symposia, etc. The
dollar value of the museum as a travel-industry attrac¬
tion alone should justify its creation. In addition,
there are undoubted financial returns which will result
from the museum’s research efforts, especially in pub¬
lic health, agriculture, forestry, mining, fisheries and
extraction of raw materials from sources now not even
known. Again, the possibilities are almost unlimited.

I could go on and on enumerating benefits, but, I
reiterate, it should not be necessary.

Why doesn’t Virginia already have such a museum?
The main reason seems to be a misapprehension about
the cost. The idea of an annual outlay of one and
a half million dollars for scientific and historical re¬
search and education seems to frighten some people.
Thev do not weigh the tangible and intangible bene¬
fits bound to result from such an outlay, and they
do not put the cost into perspective against the back¬
ground of our population and area. We have one
and a half million employed persons in Virginia and
a population of four and one-half million. This means
that the annual cost of operating the museum would
come to about one dollar per employed person, or
less than thirty-five cents per capita. Bv contrast, the
city of Milwaukee (population 800,000) supports a
first-class, free-admission public museum to the tune
of $1,200,000 per year (entirely from taxes), at a per
capita cost of $1.50 per year. Surely we in Virginia
can afford thirtv-five cents per person per year!

It seems to me, therefore, that it is not a question
of “How can we afford such a museum?” but “How
can we afford not to have such a museum?” The
immediate question, then, is how to bring the museum
into being, and this is a matter in which every mem¬
ber of the Virginia Academy of Science can help. I
urge you to talk about the museum and the benefits
it would bring in your field of specialization. Men¬
tion it when you talk to civic and other groups. De¬
scribe it in any news releases you issue. Talk with
community and state leaders and solicit their help.
But don’t wait — do it now and during these next
few months.

Scientists may question the need for supporting a
history function in the proposed museum, but I urge
you to look at historical objects as materializations of
scientific principals and techniques. Machinery, tools,
furniture, weapons, scientific instruments, clothing,
and other objects made by man reflect aspects of
human behavior and efforts to control or cope with
our environment and therefore illustrate applied sci¬
ence. The creation of a Museum of Science and His-

136

The Virginia Journal of Science

tory can accordingly be justified on logical as well as
economic grounds.

While a Museum of Science can be created immed¬
iately, without previous action by the General Assem¬
bly, the existing law would need to be modified to
add the History function. Thanks to the efforts of
Senator Lloyd C. Bird and the (then) officers of the
Virginia Academy of Science, the 1946 General Assem¬
bly created a permanent Museum of Science Commis¬
sion. I recommend action to fill this Commission
as a first step to bring the museum into being. If
the present Governor would name five persons to the
Commisison now, that Commission could begin laying

The Handbook of

Richard Burack, M.D.

Pantheon Books, div. of Random House, Inc.,
New York, 1967. 181 pages, $1.95

Seldom has a book by a physician been so widely
and so critically reviewed and probably never has the
physician-author been so vehemently attacked as in
this case. Surely Dr. Burack expected such attacks
as he condemns some of the practices of physicians
and pharmacists and especially some of the policies
of the pharmaceutical industry and its association.

This book is designed for several groups: the lay
public, viz the patient; the drug prescriber, physicians;
those who will shape governmental policies relating
to the pharmaceuticals, legislators and administrators.
The author’s point of view is clearly and concisely
presented and well, if not infallibly, documented.
Simply stated it is, “Most of the prescriptions doctors
write for brand-name drugs cost more than is neces¬
sary.” Dr. Burack’s cure is generic prescribing.

The physician is taught in medical school to use
generic names; many university hospitals reserve the
right to use generic substitutions for brand names.
During his post-graduate training the physician is fur¬
ther exposed to the principles of generic naming of
pharmaceuticals. The medical scientific literature al¬
most universally requires that only generic names be
used. What then transforms the practicing physician?
Several factors are important: (1) Drug Advertise¬
ments — By their very intent, drug ads are aimed at
inducing physicians to use brand names. (2) “Detail
Men” — These are men employed by individual drug
manufacturers to visit physicians and to influence their
prescribing habits. (3) New Drugs — Patent protec¬
tion (not attacked by Dr. Burack) assures that for the
first 17 years, only a single manufacturer will control
each new chemical entity. In such a case, the same
product is dispensed whether the generic or brand
name is prescribed. Furthermore, the generic name
is almost always longer, more difficult to spell and

groundwork for the authorized museum. The 1968
General Assembly could be asked to amend the 1946
law to make the museum one for science and history,
and to appropriate a small sum of money to enable
the Commission to begin its studies and negotiations
(for site, designs, construction money, etc.). The
foregoing initial steps would not be expensive, but
the results during the next few years would go a
long way toward underpinning our research and edu¬
cation activities in Virginia! Won’t you help to bring
this about?

Howard A. MacCord, Sr.

Prescription Drugs

pronounce and, unlike the brand name, does not bear
any resemblance to the condition for which it is pre¬
scribed (a common practice with brand names, Equa-
nil, a tranquilizer; Hydromox, a diuretic, etc.) By
the time the patent rights expire, the physician has
usually become habituated to the brand name. (4)
Quality — The physician has generally accepted the
premise that brand names are more likely to assure
quality, safetv, and efficacy. A 35-page table of drug
recalls by the Federal Food and Drug Administration
is provided to indicate that the large manufacturer as
well as the small has been the subject of FDA action.
(5) Price — Most physicians are woefully uninformed
about the spread of drug prices. (6) Pharmacist —
The physician may have found, as have I, that the
pharmacist will dispense an expensive brand name
even when he prescribes by generic name. This has
been amply demonstrated by recent cost surveys by
the American Medical Association and by The Medical
Tribune. The pharmacist usually defends his action
by telling of his faith in the quality of the brand
name. Often he does not even stock the less expen¬
sive generic. Furthermore, since the pharmacist op¬
erates on a percent markup, it is obvious that his
total profit rises with increasing cost of the prescrip¬
tion. How much this influences pharmacists is un¬
known.

(Only recently has the American Medical Associa¬
tion suggested that physicians concern themselves with
the costs of their prescriptions. Consultations with
nearby pharmacists are recommended. Presumably
the physician might then understand and even influ¬
ence the policy of the local pharmacist or possibly
the choice of pharmacist by his patient.)

What then can be done to further generic prescrib¬
ing? Dr. Burack suggests that patients ask both their
physician and pharmacist for generic drugs wherever
possible. “Should the druggist not like the idea, take
vour business to one who will cooperate.” Presumably
the same advice would apply to the patient’s choice

Communications and Reports

137

of a physician. Further, Dr. Barack appeals to physi¬
cians directly to initiate generic prescribing. Finally,
he provides ammunition for those governmental branch¬
es who are more and more involved in financing drug
costs.

In addition to the list of drug recalls, there is a list
of contractors approved by the Defense Supply Agency
(implying that their manufacturing practices are satis¬
factory), a list of 23 distributors of generic drugs,
and an 85-page section “Prescription Drug List.” The
latter, divided into drug categories, offers some gen¬
eral pharmacologic advice and a list of some of the
drug sources with the price charged by each distrib¬
utor. The extremely wide range of prices (even 20-
fold — p. 144) is well documented.

The stormy reception afforded this book was easily
predictable, yet basically the facts presented are easily

verified, even if ugly. While occasional statements
appear to be too broadly applied, the fact that 90
percent of prescriptions call for brand name is clear
evidence that few indeed are the physicians who even
consider generic prescribing.

The brief pharmacologic sections are too complex
for the untrained and too brief and arbitrary for the
physician. This 85-page section thus serves only to
document the price differentials.

In summary, this book, aimed as it is to both
public and profession, has a clear message — generic
prescribing. While the whole issue is highly controver¬
sial, involving patient’s expense, physician’s habits, and
drug industry sales, Dr. Burack clearly presents his
views. His courage, even if not his views, must be
commended.

Albert J. Wasserman

138

The Virginia Journal of Science

Abstracts of Papers

Forty-Fifth Annual Meeting of The Virginia Academy of Science

May 3-6, 1967, Norfolk, Virginia

Section of Agricultural Science

Influence of Harvest Date on Yield and
Market Grade of Peanuts in Virginia
Morris W. Alexander

Department of Agronomy, Virginia Polytechnic Insti¬
tute, Holland, Virginia.

Recent developments in mechanical harvesting of
Virginia peanuts has extended the time of digging due
in part to limited curing facilities. This has created
a demand for a choice of peanut varieties which will
mature at varying times during the harvest period.

A study was conducted to relate yield and market-
grade factors with date of digging using 7 peanut
varieties and three digging dates. The optimum date
of harvest for Va. 56R was estimated each year, and
the first date of harvest was 10 to 14 days earlier;
the late date was 5 to 14 days later.

The only significant variety-date of digging inter¬
action was obtained for yield and percent extra-large
kernels when the two-year data were combined. The
early date of harvest produced the lowest yield, value
per acre, percent sound mature kernels, and percent
extra-large kernels. No difference between the time
considered as optimum and late digging was obtained
for yield, value per acre, and percent extra-large
kernels. A higher percent immature kernels was ob¬
tained at the earlier digging date.

Electron Microscopy Studies of the
Compound Eye of Manduca sexta

J. S. Vande Berg and S. D. Carlson

Department of Entomology, Virginia Polytechnic Insti¬
tute, Blacksburg, Virginia.

Ultrathin (600-900A) sections were obtained from
the corneal lens and photoreceptor cells of the tobacco
hornworm moth ( Manduca sexta). These were fixed
in 0s04, stained with uranyl acetate and viewed with

an RCA EMU-3H electron microscope. A regular ar¬
ray of “nipples” covered the lens surface. The height
and center-to-center dimensions of these protuberances
were about 250 in/* (less than a wavelength of light).
An impedance-matching function for these nipples has
been postulated. Eight retinular cells comprised a
retinula (diameter 15-20 p) and the interior margins
of each retinular cell exhibited a rank of microvilli
which abutted with microvilli from the adjacent retinu¬
lar cell. Each microvillus was Ip in length and 0-2 p
in diameter. The microvillus membrane was resolved
into 2 layers, whose total thickness was 80-100 A. The
interior of each microvillus appeared to be continuous
with the cytoplasm of the retinular cell. Manv mito¬
chondria seemed to be adhering to the microvilli aper¬
tures. Other mitochondria were noted in the matrix
between tracheoles. Closely packed, fine linear mem¬
brane profiles were observed extending throughout the
length of the inner open-ended margins of the micro¬
villi. Comment was given on the ultrastructure of
additional organelles such as microsomes and trache¬
oles.

The Effectiveness of Insecticides for
Peach Insect Control in 1966
Marvin L. Bobb

Piedmont Research Laboratory, Virginia Polytechnic
Institute, Charlottesville, Virginia.

A number of insecticides were applied to replicated
blocks of peach trees during 1966 for control of four
peach pests. Eight insecticides were tested for con¬
trol of the plum curculio and the oriental fruit moth.
All materials gave 100-percent control of the plum
curculio (11.2-percent injury in check), but dieldrin
and SD 9129 were ineffective against the fruit moth.
Imidan, RP 11974 and SD 8447 were most effective
in reducing twig and fruit injury, although Guthion
and Sevin gave satisfactory control. Of the five insecti¬
cides tested for tarnished plant bug control, dieldrin
was most effective but SD 8447 also gave good con-

Proceedings, 1966-1967

139

trol. The check plots averaged 7.8-percent cat-faced
fruit. All insecticides applied for control of the lesser
peach tree borer gave a relatively high degree of con¬
trol: 3 to 9 living larvae per tree as compared to
29 larvae per tree in the unsprayed trees.

Effects of Size of Iron on Healing and

Legibility of Cattle Brands

K. P. Bovard, A. L. Eller, T. N. Meacham, and
B. M. Priode

Virginia Polytechnic Institute, and U. S. Department
of Agriculture, Beef Cattle Research Station, Front
Royal, Virginia.

In 1964, two sizes of conventional hot-iron brands,
1/4 inch by 4 inches and 1/4 inch by 6 inches, were
compared across two postoperative applications, veteri¬
nary scarlet oil and salad oil, and a control (none),
on 107 yearling heifers of three breeds: Angus, Here¬
ford, and Shorthorn. Subjective quantitative estimates
of healing condition showed no differences between
sizes of irons, but statistically highly significant differ¬
ences (P < .01) due to breeds and postoperative treat¬
ments. Angus were evidently more badly burned;
scores of Herefords and Shorthorns were not different.
Healing was best for brands of control heifers. In
the 1965 study, also with 107 yearling heifers, face-
widths of branding irons were 1/4 inch, 3/8 inch, and
1/2 inch; all 6 inches high. Healing scores of breeds
and sizes were statistically significant (P < ,05j, with
a clear trend of better healing as the width of the
iron increased. A similar pattern, but with smaller
differences, was seen in legibilities of the brands scored
five months after branding.

Genetic and Environmental Influences
on Beef Shorthorn Cows’ Fall Weights

K. P. Bovard and B. M. Priode

Virginia Polytechnic Institute, and U. S. Department
of Agriculture, Beef Cattle Research Station,
Front Royal, Virginia.

A total of 2,153 beef Shorthorn cows’ fall weights
obtained in 1950 through 1963 was submitted to sev¬
eral least-squares analyses. Fixed effects included
years, lines, nursing status, pregnancy status, and cer¬
tain interactions. Regressions were fitted for inbreed¬
ing (%), and for age in years. By far the most im¬
portant source of variation was nursing status, with
dry cows 144 pounds heavier than those nursing calves
during the immediately preceding grazing season. All
main effects and regressions were statistically highly
significant (P<<.01). Cows from the “growth”
selection line were 24 pounds heavier than those from
the “type” selection line ( P < .01 ) . Differences among
inbred lines were larger. Weights were reduced 2.7
pounds for each additional one percent inbreeding.

Both linear and quadratic regressions on age in years
were fitted, with the former positive (b = 163), the
latter negative (b = -10), clearly indicating the curvi¬
linear growth pattern in mature beef cows’ weights.

Poisson’s Ratio for Apple Flesh
under Compressive Loading

Thomas W. Chappell and D. D. Hamann

Department of Horticultural Engineering, Virginia
Polytechnic Institute, Blacksburg, Virginia.

The objective of this investigation was to evaluate
Poisson’s ratio for apple flesh under compressive load¬
ing. Specimens from three varieties (Winesap, Golden
Delicious, and Red Delicious) were tested at each of
four stress levels. The apple flesh responded as a vis¬
coelastic material. Poisson’s ratio was found to be
time dependent, decreasing as time increased. An
empirical mathematical equation was used to represent
Poisson’s ratio as a function of time. The coefficients
of this equation were found to be a linear function of
the applied stress. Poisson’s ratio could then be ex¬
pressed as a function of both time and stress. This
Poisson’s ratio would be more exact for apple flesh
than a so-called elastic constant value. The initial
compressive modulus for each variety was also deter¬
mined.

A mechanical model was used to simulate the creep
behavior of the apple flesh. A four-element model
was used successfully to predict the behavior of the
flesh. For the Winesap variety, the model equation
parameters could also be represented as a linear func¬
tion of stress; however, this was not true for the Golden
Delicious and Red Delicious varieties.

The Occurrence of Aflatoxin in Virginia-
North Carolina Peanuts and Peanut
Products

T, Eadie and C. E, O’Rear

Division of Technical Services, Virginia Department of

Agriculture and Commerce, Richmond, Virginia.

Aflatoxin is a mvcotoxin produced by Aspergillus
flavus mold. Because of its known mutagenic and
carcinogenic effects on test animals, it is considered
to be potentially dangerous to man.

In 1964, the peanut industry in cooperation with
governmental agencies established a quality-control
program to prevent aflatoxin-contaminated peanuts or
peanut products from being marketed as food. The
Virginia Department of Agriculture began a coopera¬
tive testing program of Virginia and North Carolina
peanuts, using the official chemical assay procedure
of the Food and Drug Administration.

Since the aflatoxin-testing program began the labo-

140

The Virginia Journal of Science

ratory has run 4,669 samples. The results show that
the Virginia-North Carolina area is steadily reducing
the percent of aflatoxin-contaminated lots. Percent of
samples found contaminated with aflatoxin was 6.1 in
1964-65, 5.3 in 1965-66, 4.4 in the first nine months
of 1966-67, and only 1.4 in the five months since
the 1966 crop samples were received.

The effectiveness of this program in keeping afla¬
toxin-contaminated peanuts from foods is shown by
two surveys. In 1964-65, 89 samples were tested for
aflatoxin. Of these, 23 of 51 samples of peanut butter
were found contaminated. Other products were nega¬
tive. In 1965-66, no peanut butter samples, of 16
tested, were found to contain aflatoxin.

Protein Content of Developing Xylem as
an Indicator of Cell-Wall Synthesis in
Tsuga canadensis (L.) Carr
George A. Grozdits

Department of Forestry and Wildlife, Virginia Poly¬
technic Institute, Blacksburg, Virginia.

The objective of this research was to study the bio¬
logical mechanism of the transition from meristematic
cells of the cambium into mature xylem elements.

Maturation stages within radial rows of tracheids
extracted from living trees were identified according
to cell-wall developing using polarizing microscopy.
Microsamples containing these zones were prepared
and their density and nitrogen content were determin¬
ed.

Protein content per unit volume was derived from
density and nitrogen content.

When protein content is plotted against the micro¬
scopically defined maturation zones the biosynthetic
capacity of developing tracheids may be determined.
Four distinct zones of cell development may be iden¬
tified on the curve of protein variation: a) cell divi¬
sion, b) cell enlargement, c) cellulose frame deposi¬
tion, and d) lignification. Maximum protein content
is found in the cambial zone, where mitosis takes place.
A second maximum is at the beginning of S2 layer
formation, where cellulose synthesis for the S2 layer
and lignin synthesis for the middle lamella and pri¬
mary wall are under way. The findings of this study
support the theory that cell-wall materials are syn¬
thesized within the maturing cells and are not trans¬
ported from other locations.

Manometric Techniques for Threshold
Determination of Wood Preservatives
Donald D. Halabisky

Department of Forestry and Wildlife, Virginia Poly¬
technic Institute, Blacksburg, Virginia.

The amount of a wood preservative needed to inhibit

fungi attack on wood (threshold value) can be deter¬
mined by a weight-loss method. This method requires
a long period of time, 12 to 15 weeks, and numerous
replications to get an accurate determination of weight
loss due to fungi attack.

With the use of manometric techniques, the oxygen
uptake of the test fungi attacking the sample blocks
is measured. The method is based on the assump¬
tion that inhibiting agents reduce or stop metabolic
activity of fungi. It is promising for use where a quick
evaluation of wood preservatives is needed because it
can produce threshold determinations in a period of
three weeks on a small sample size. Accurate weigh¬
ing and careful conditoning of the samples needed in
the standard weight-loss method are also eliminated.

Ten Years of Continuous Corn on Woods-
town Loamy Fine Sand
D. L. Hallock

Department of Agronomy, Virginia Polytechnic Insti¬
tute, Holland, Virginia.

Average yields of continuous corn and corn in rota¬
tion with peanuts were similar (5 percent level) 1964
to 1966. This experiment was started in 1962 on an
area previously planted to corn each year since 1957.
However, continuous corn apparently required more
fertilizer nitrogen (N) than rotation corn for equiv¬
alent vields. Annual N rate of 200 vs. 100 lb. /acre
increased average corn grain yields 10 bu./acre and
corn silage yields approximately 1 ton/acre.

The earlier planted oat-crimson clover cover crops
yielded significantly more forage following corn har¬
vested for silage than for grain. Cover crop yields
also were significantly higher on plots where corn
received 200 vs. 100 lb./ acre N.

Corn yields were not differentially influenced ap¬
preciably by cover crop absence, forage removal or
incorporation.

Stalk barrenness was significantly greater in corn
harvested for silage in 1965. Also, there were signif¬
icantly more barren stalks in com fertilizer at 100 vs.
200 lb. /acre N rate in 1965. Although over 15 per¬
cent of the stalks were earless in 1966, treatment
variables were not closely related.

Surveillance for the Occurrence of
Salmonella in Feed and Feed
Ingredients in Virginia

K. L. Jackson and C. E. O’Rear

Division of Technical Services, Virginia Department

of Agriculture and Commerce, Richmond, Virginia.

Increased emphasis has been placed in recent months
on the contamination of feed and feed ingredients with

Proceedings, 1966-1967

141

the microorganism Salmonella. Salmonella is an en¬
teric organism associated with food infection in man
and animals.

Contamination of foodstuffs with Salmonella has
been traced back to feed and feed ingredients. Since
all species of the genus Salmonella are pathogenic for
man or animals or both, a surveillance program was
initiated in Virginia to determine the extent of con¬
tamination.

In the initial survey of feed and feed ingredients,
62 samples were taken. Twenty-nine of the samples
were found positive, most of which were animal by¬
product materials. None of 11 final feeds tested were
found to contain Salmonella . Salmonellae cultures were
checked by serological tests as well as biochemical
tests.

Distribution of Peanut Stunt Disease
in Virginia
Donald H. Kludy

Division of Regulatory Services, Virginia Department
of Agriculture and Commerce, Richmond, Virginia.

Stunt, a virus disease of peanuts, Arachis litjpogaca,
was first observed in Virginia in 1964. It was not
described until 1965, and the disease in that year was
most prevalent in the northern area of Isle of Wight
County, and in the southeast area of Dinwiddie Coun¬
ty. In the summer of 1966, a systematic survey for
this disease was begun with four two-men crews cover¬
ing the peanut-growing areas of Virginia. Almost all
roads were traveled, and scouts inspected at least every
fifth peanut field adjacent to the road. The disease
was again found in the areas of Isle of Wight and
Dinwiddie Counties where it was reported in 1965.
The disease was also found in fields in Sussex, South¬
ampton, Nansemond, and Surry Counties. In many of
the fields the number of plants with symptoms ranged
from a trace to two or three percent; however, two
fields did have about 90 percent infection. An esti¬
mated 8 percent of Virginia’s peanut fields were sur¬
veyed.

Response of Face Flies to Sonic Energy

G. A. Kranzler, U. F. Earp, and E. T. Swink

Agricultural Engineering Department, Virginia Poly¬
technic Institute, Blacksburg, Virginia.

Studies were conducted to investigate the behavioral
effect of sound on face flies, Musca autumnalis. Tech¬
niques and apparatus were developed to assess the
attractive or repulsive effect of the sonic energy. Am¬
bient noise, lighting, and temperature were controlled.
Exposure time and sound level were held constant.

An extensive array of frequencies between 100 and
100,000 Hz was explored using steady, pure tones.

Pulsed signals of controlled duration and interval were
evaluated at frequencies between 100 and 75,000 Hz.
No statistically significant behavioral response was ob¬
served at any of the frequencies investigated. The
studies are being continued with other insects of agri¬
cultural importance.

Influence of Litter Weaning Age on
Subsequent Reproductive Behavior
in the Sow

C. J. D. McVeigh, T. N. Meacham, C. C. Brooks,
and H. R. Thomas

Department of Animal Science, Virginia Polytechnic
Institute, Blacksburg, Virginia.

Trial I. V.P.I. Swine Research Center , Blacksburg,
Virginia — Nine gilts were assigned to weaning treat¬
ment of 1, 7, 14, 21, 28, or 35 days. Following wean¬
ing the gilts were bred. Average weaning to estrus
interval was 5.1 days with a range from 4 to 6.5 days.
Pregnancy resulted from breeding at first estrus (post¬
partum breeding excluded) except in the one-day-
weaned gilts, which conceived at the second estrus.
Treatments appeared to favor later weaning.

Trial II. Tidewater Research Station, Holland, Vir¬
ginia — Thirty sows were assigned to treatment as in
Trial I. Five sows comprised each treatment group.
The sows were slaughtered following breeding and
their reproductive tracts examined. Weaning to estrus
ranged from 14 to 61.3 days and averaged 36.2 days.
Five sows failed to display estrus. Return to estrus
was not influenced by previous litter size but did ap¬
pear related to environmental factors. Ova released/
pig previously farrowed averaged 2.2 with a range
from 1.4 to 2.3 and was lowest in the 35-day-weaned
group. Pregnancy occurred in 21 sows but only 8
sows displayed normal embryos. Uterine scores show¬
ed inflammation in all groups and normal involution
in only the 21-, 28-, and 35-day-weaned groups. Uterine
cultures disclosed a variety of pathogens with E. coli,
streptococcus, and staphylococcus predominating.

Fuligo sp., a Slime Mold Epiphytic

on Peanuts

Lawrence I. Miller

Department of Plant Pathology, Virginia Polytechnic
Institute, Holland, Virginia.

An unusual infestation of most of the 3-week-old
peanut seedlings by a slime mold, Fuligo sp., was ob¬
served on June 14, 1966, in a small area of a field
near Holland, Virginia. The myxomycete enveloped
parts of leaves and branches of the peanuts but did
not parasitize or cause any apparent injury to the
plants. Plasmodia! development of the slime mold oc¬
curred during a very wet cool period which followed

142

The Virginia Journal of Science

emergence of the peanut seedlings. Pieces of decay¬
ing cornstalks, invaded by numerous bacteria and fungi,
served as the food base of the slime mold. In the
area of infestation, there was an unusually high con¬
centration of cornstalk pieces a few inches below the
soil surface under the peanut plants. A very heavy
rain of 3.2 inches on June 17 ruptured the tawny non-
cellular peridium covering of the slime mold aethalium
and distributed the dark spores over the entire foliar
arts, which gave the plants the appearance of having
een parasitized by a smut fungus.

Development of Eleven Isolates of the
Soybean Cyst Nematode on Four Species
of the Scrophulariaceae

Lawrence I. Miller and Paul L. Duke

Department of Plant Pathology, Virginia Polytechnic
Institute, Holland, Virginia.

Eleven isolates of Heterodera glycines were tested to
determine their ability to develop egg-bearing females
on 4 Penstemon species. Seventy cysts were introduc¬
ed into cyst-free soil in 4-inch pots. A single plant
of each of the four species was grown in each pot.
Roots were examined 5 weeks after planting, and the
number of fifth-stage females counted. On Lee soy¬
bean (check) each of the isolates developed numerous
females. None of the eleven isolates developed females
on P. harhatus. On P. angustifolius the Ill. 1 isolate
formed a few females and the Va. 1 isolate produced
numerous females. Other isolates did not produce
females on P. angustifolius. On P. ovatus the Va.2,
Va.3, and Va.4 isolates did not develop females, but
a few females were produced bv the Va.l, N.C.l,
Mo.l, Tenn.l, Ill. 1, Miss.l, and Ky.l isolates and a
medium number were produced by the Ark.l isolate.
On P. wilcoxi all the isolates produced numerous fe¬
males, except the Va.2 and N.C.l isolates which devel¬
oped a few females and the Va.4 and Miss.l isolates
which produced a medium number of females. This
is the first time P. angustifolius, P. ovatus, and P. wil¬
coxi have been reported as hosts of H. glycines.

Blood Coagulation Studies in Two Avian
Species

S. C. Mohapatra, P. B. Siegel, and W. L. Beane

Department of Poultry Science, Virginia Polytechnic
Institute, Blacksburg, Virginia.

Blood coagulation time was measured in a high-
weight line of White Rocks [Siegel, P. B., Poult. Sci.,
41, 9341, a game line of chickens, and a line of quail
( Coturnix coturnix) . The mean coagulation time in
minutes was 5.5 for White Rocks, 3.0 for games, and
2.4 for quail. Differences between species and be¬
tween the lines of chickens were highly significant,

suggesting that this trait is genetically controlled in
Aves. Since hatchability of quail-chicken hybrids is
generally less than 0.5 percent, the two lines of chick¬
ens were used for further studies. F} and F2 reci¬
procal crosses were produced between the lines and
coagulation time was measured at 5 weeks and 22
weeks of age. Comparisons made among various
crosses on an intra- and inter-age basis showed that
type of mating and age had a significant influence
on coagulation time.

Attempts to Control Artificially the Sex
Ratio of Offspring in Rabbits by Means
of Flotation

G. J. More O’Ferrall, T. N. Meacham, and
W. E. Foreman

Departments of Animal Science and Mining Engineer¬
ing, Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Blacksburg, Virginia.

Recent experiments using sedimentation and electro¬
phoretic techniques seem to indicate that male- and
female-determining sperm may have differences in
their specific gravity and/or surfaces. Attempts to
separate rabbit sperm, bv means of froth flotation,
into two fractions and the subsequent use of these
fractions in inseminating does are described in this pa¬
per. Semen was collected by means of an artificial
vagina and diluted with Ringers solution. One-third
of the diluted semen was used for control insemina¬
tions, while the remaining two-thirds was separated by
means of flotation into float (F) and sink (S) frac¬
tions prior to insemination of the females. A total of
78 litters, comprised of 26 control, 27 float, and 25
sink litters, were born during this study and these con¬
tained 57.1 percent, 51.1 percent, and 52.6 percent
males, respectively. The differences between the three
groups in percent males born were not significant.
An injection of ovulating hormone (HCG or LH) two
hours prior to insemination significantly increased con¬
ception rate and average litter size bom when com¬
pared to injection at the time of insemination. The
increase in conception rate may be due to seasonal
effects.

Endrin Resistance in Pine Mice

Warren C. Randolph, Frank Horsfall, Jr., and
Ryland E. Webb

Department of Biochemistry and Nutrition and the
Department of Horticulture, Virginia Polytechnic
Institute, Blacksburg, Virginia.

Endrin, a member of the chlorinated hydrocarbon
group of pesticides, has been used as a ground spray
for the effective control of pine-mouse infestations in
Virginia apple orchards. Recent reports of the inef¬
fectiveness of endrin in some instances led to studies
designed to determine if the pine mouse had become

Proceedings, 1966-1967

143

resistant to endrin. Determination of LD50 endrin levels
revealed that pine mice captured from an orchard
previously treated with endrin showed a twelve-fold
greater tolerance to the pesticide than did mice from
an orchard with no previous record of treatment. Fur¬
thermore, administration of the determined LD50 levels
to mice from both populations already treated with
sublethal doses resulted in insignificant mortality. This
would suggest a degree of acquired resistance had been
induced by the sublethal dosage.

A Comparison Between the Germination
Potential of Field-Cured and Artificially
Cured Peanut Seed
Harry L. Smith

Division of Technical Services, Virginia Department of

Agriculture and Commerce, Richmond, Virginia.

A survey in 1964 revealed that field-cured peanut-
seed samples tested in the Virginia Seed Laboratory
had an average germination of 80 percent, whereas
artificially cured samples had an average germination
of 66 percent. In 1965, field-cured seed tested by
the tetrazolium method had an average total potential
germination of 90 percent, whereas aritficially cured
had an average of 78 percent. In 1967, 5 pairs of
samples were obtained from farmers who had both
field-cured and artificially cured their seed. The 5
field-cured samples had an average germination of
82.4 percent, and their artificially cured counterparts
an average of 71.6 percent.

Although the averages for artificially cured seed are
down, certain samples germinated well, which indicates
that if conditions are right and proper precautions
are taken, good germination can be obtained from such
seed.

Reaction of Peanuts to Caged Southern
Corn Rootworms

J. C. Smith and T. W. Culp

U.S. Department of Agriculture, and Virginia Polytech¬
nic Institute, Holland, Virginia.

Caging plants of 12 peanut ( Arachis hypogaea L.)
varieties and breeding lines with 10 unsexed adult
southern com rootworms ( Diahrotica undecimpunctata
howardi Barber) per cage significantly increased (3 to
4 times) fruit injury over plants subjected to natural
infestations. Immature fruit consistently had more
damage than mature fruit, and damage from natural
infestation increased as the season progressed. Vari¬
ability was too great to identify resistant lines, but it
was demonstrated that several lines with limited dam¬
age under natural infestations were highly damaged
when caged with adult rootworms. In addition to

increasing percent fruit injury, the caging procedure
eliminated choice of variety by the insect, and accen¬
tuated differences among varieties. This should be a
useful method in screening peanut varieties for resist¬
ance to damage from the southern com rootworm.

Electrophysiological Studies of the
Hornworm Moth

J. S. Smith, Jr., J. M. Stanley, S. D. Carlson,
and U. F. Earp

U.S. Department of Agriculture, and Virginia Polytech¬
nic Institute, Blacksburg, Virginia.

Electrophysiological methods are being utilized in
determining the phototaxis of the tobacco hornworm
moth, Manduca sexta (Johannson), to electromagnetic
energy primarily in the 300- to 600-nanometer range.
With the insect confined on a wax block in a dark
chamber and positioned so that energy of the desired
wavelength irradiates one of its eyes, an eleetroretino-
gram is obtained from the difference in potential be¬
tween the eyes. By attaching an electrode to the II
N 1 flight-muscle nerve, spike impulses are observed
when the insect’s eye is irradiated. The size of the
electroretinogram and the number of spike impulses
appear to be functions of wavelength.

Iron Deposition in the Digestive System
of Bathynomus giganteus (Crustacea,
Isopoda)

Harrison R. Steeves III

Department of Biology, Virginia Polytechnic Institute,
Blacksburg, Virginia.

Histochemical studies on the digestive system, of
the benthonic isopod Bathynomus giganteus indicate
the presence of large amounts of iron in the epithe¬
lium of the hepatopancreas with a lesser amount in the
epithelium lining the hind-gut. In both organs iron is
stored in the form of hemosiderin (ferritin) and in the
case of the hepatopancreas appears to be absorbed
directly from the lumen of the organ. Hemosiderin
present in the hind-gut is apparently derived from iron
absorbed by the hepatopancreas, since the presence of
a massive chitinous lining would tend to inhibit any
direct absorption by this organ.

The function of iron (hemosiderin) stored in the
digestive system of B. giganteus is uncertain. The
absence of hemoglobin in this organism precludes its
utilization in the synthesis of a respiratory pigment,
and it is doubtful if such large quantities of iron would
be incorporated in a cytochrome system. The most
plausible explanation at present is that it serves no
function, but represents iron derived from metabolism
of ingested hemoglobin, which is absorbed and stored
in an inactive form rather than excreted.

144

The Virginia Journal of Science

Supplemental Value of Soybean Protein
to Rice as Measured by Growth Rate
of Rats

Yu-Yan Yeh, Genevieve P. Ho, and
S. J. Ritchey

Department of Human Nutrition and Foods, Virginia
Polytechnic Institute, Blacksburg, Virginia.

Weanling male Sprague-Dawley rats were randomly
assigned to 9 groups of 8 animals each and were given
diets containing 8 percent protein supplied from rice
flour and/or soybean protein in the following ratios:
8:0; 7.1; 6:2; 4:4; 2:6; 1:7 and 0:8. The supple¬
mentary value of soybean protein to rice flour was

Section of Astronomy,

Magnetic Balance and Densitometer

J. W. Beams and John W. Stewart

Department of Physics,

University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia.

Proposed measurements of the densities of cryogenic
fluids as functions of pressure and temperature are
described. The technique will be to support a fer¬
romagnetic buoy in the fluid using the magnetic sup¬
port circuit of the type which has been found to be
successful for centrifuge rotors and room-tempera¬
ture density measurements. The support current will
be accurately measured by means of a standard resist¬
ance and potentiometer, and changes of density will
be deduced. It is believed that this method will be
at least as accurate as the best gasometry and other
measurements of the PVT relation for such fluids.

Analysis of rr p Experiment at 7.0 Gev/c *

J. Campbell and M. A. Ijaz

Department of Physics,

Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Blacksburg, Virginia.

The eighty-inch liquid-hydrogen bubble chamber
at the Brookhaven National Laboratory was exposed
to a beam of 7 Gev/c pions. Pictures were taken
in three views of the pion-proton interactions which
took place in the bubble chamber. In our set of
data approximately 70,000 pictures were taken on
35 rolls of 70-mm film. This film is scanned for six-
prong and strange-particle production events — the
appropriate parameters for these events being recorded
on scan sheets. These events are digitized on an
ITEK film reader. The space reconstruction and kine-

evaluated during a 28-day growth period and a 7-day
nitrogen-balance study.

Growth rate, protein efficiency ratio, nitrogen bal¬
ance, biological value, and net protein utilization in¬
creased with increasing amounts of soybean protein in
a rice-soybean mixture from 8:0 to 4:4. An all-soy¬
bean protein diet (0:8) supported little or no growth.
Rats fed an all-rice diet equalled the growth of rats
fed the diet containing 7:1 of rice and soybean. It
appears that ratios of 6:2 and 4:4 of rice-soybean
possess the best protein value among the other com¬
binations. From the viewpoints of nutrition, economy,
and acceptability, the diet containing 75 percent rice
flour and 25 percent soybean in a total of 8 percent
protein is preferred over the diet containing 50 per¬
cent each of these two protein sources.

Mathematics, and Physics

matical analysis is then accomplished with a chain of
IBM computer programs. The methods used in the
analysis of the 7r"p experiment will be discussed.

* Supported by the VP I Research Division.

Bubble-Chamber-Film Scanning and
Measuring Facility at V.P.I.*

J. Campbell, M. A. Ijaz, and A. Naeem

Sponsor: T. E. Gilmer, Jr.

Department of Physics,

Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Blacksburg, Virginia.

We have designed and built two scanning machines
to scan 70-mm film that comes from the Brookhaven
National Laboratory 80" liquid-hydrogen bubble cham¬
ber. These scanning machines can project two or
three views of the film onto the screen with a mag¬
nification of approximately 10 X- The film transport
design has several advantages as compared with the
scanning machines available commercially. Recently,
we have designed a machine that will eliminate the
optical distortion caused by the mirrors, and the film
rotation is digitized so that one can operate it with
higher efficiency. The design characteristics of this
machine will be presented. We have a commercially
built film digitizer that can digitize the tracks of
the nuclear particle. Our scanning and measuring
equipment can process data from the bubble-chamber
films at a moderate speed. We are currently investi¬
gating the possibility of operating the scanning equip¬
ment on line with our IBM 7040 computer.

* Supported by the VPI Research Division.

Proceedings, 1966-1967

145

Method of Cluster Expansion in Theory
of Liquid He3

M. K. Chien and F. Y. Wu

Sponsor: T. E. Gilmer, Jr.

Department of Phi/sics,

Virginia Pohjteclmic Institute, Blacksburg, Virginia.

The convergence of the Iwamoto-Yamada cluster-
expansion procedures is tested in the Feenberg-Wu-
Woo theory of liquid helium 3. The previously neg¬
lected fourth-order contribution to the energy is
explicitly computed bv the introduction of a convolu¬
tion (approximate) form for the four-particle distribu¬
tion function. It is found that the energy series does
not converge as well as expected, perhaps reflecting
the inadequacy of the convolution approximation of
the distribution function. Discussions of related clus¬
ter-expansion schemes as well as the convolution (ap¬
proximate) form for the general n-particle distribu¬
tion function are also given.

O

Fast Neutron Scattering from Nuclides
in the Lead Region *

Lawrence Cranberg, Thomas A. Oliphant,
Jules Levin, and C. D. Zafiratos

Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory, Los Alamos , New
Mexico, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado,
and Department of Physics, University of Virginia,
Charlottesville, Virginia.

Experimental results and calculations are presented
of an investigation of elastic and inelastic scattering
of neutrons from bismuth and from separated isotopes
of lead. Data are presented on spectroscopic proper¬
ties of resolvable energy levels, excitation functions,
nuclear temperatures, and angular distributions, with
special emphasis on the application of the Wolfenstein-
Hauser-Feshbach theory with width-fluctuation cor¬
rection.

* Supported in part by the AEC and the NSF.

Neutron-Photoproduction Cross Section
for Nickel

D. S. Fielder, K. Min, and W. I). Whitehead

Department of Physics,

University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia.

The neutron-photoproduction cross section for nat¬
ural nickel was measured using the bremsstrahlung
from the University of Virginia synchrotron. The
vield curve was measured from 10.25 Mev to 25 Mev
in 250-Kev intervals. The cross-section curves were

obtained by using the method of Penfold and Leiss
for 1-Mev intervals from 10.25 Mev to 25 Mev, and
for %-Mev intervals from 10.25 Mev to 20 Mev.
Three resonances, at 12.75, 14.2, and 15.4 Mev, were
observed on the low-energy side of the giant resonance
peak. The giant resonance peak was observed at
16 Mev with a cross section of 44 mb. The cross-
section curve is asymmetric with respect to the peak
and is broader on the high-energy side. The results
are in good agreement with those of Baciu et al.
which show a peak cross section of 46 mb at 16.5
Mev and the same general shape for the cross-section
curve. This result agrees very well with the theoreti¬
cal calculation of Griener et al. which predicts re¬
sonances at 12.6, 13.9, and 15.2 Mev, a large re¬
sonance at 16.3 Mev, and broadening on the high-
energy side of the peak.

A Study of Tropical Storm Structures

and Projected Results of a Hurricane

Modification Experiment by Rainband
Seeding *

Edward B. Fischler

Woodrow Wilson High School, Portsmouth, Virginia.

A hurricane is basically a heat engine, requiring a
heat and a cold source. By reducing the intensity of
either, it is safe to conclude that the intensity of the
storm would diminish.

The purpose of this investigation is to discuss hur¬
ricane modifiaction by rainband seeding, to predict the
results of such an experiment, and to find evidence
that this experiment could prove successful.

The structure of ten tropical storms were studied
during genesis, steady-state, and filling.

In the case of intensifying vortexes, genesis was
preceded by warming of the storm center. In the
case of a weakening storm (Donna, 1960) it was
found that temperatures near the eye decreased signif¬
icantly, but peripheral temperatures increased. This
corresponded to the wind profile changes. Also, the
pressure in the center increased, and the peripheral
pressure declined. Despite all these changes, the total
mass of the storm remained unchanged.

In a hurricane during steady-state (Helene, 1958),
a temperature irregularity of plus 30 percent was re¬
sponsible for a wind increase of 30 percent in the same
area. The maximum winds were only 120 knots, but
could have reached 150 knots or higher due to the
extremely low central pressure. In Daisy (1958) no
irregularities occurred in either temperature or wind,
and the highest wind corresponded with the computed
wind.

Using these results we can conclude (1) that warm¬
ing of a disturbance is a prerequisite of intensifica¬
tion, (2) that by warming the periphery it may be

146

The Virginia Journal of Science

possible to reduce the gradient forces, as occurred in
Donna and Helene, and (3) warming the periphery
may dissipate heat concentrated near the core in the
outflow layer.

An experiment based on conclusions 2 and 3 has
been suggested by the author. The experiment in¬
volves seeding the peripheral rainbands with silver
iodide. Conceivably, this would raise the temperature
of the periphery causing conditions comparable to those
of Helene. If these conditions were present for an
extended period of time, entrainment would replace
parcel ascent, thereby cooling the core recreating con¬
ditions found in Donna.

A method of storm modification employing this
scheme was submitted to the Hurricane Center in
Miami on February 19, 1966. A favorable response
was made and the experiment was slated for trial.
However, lack of hurricance activitv in 1966 delayed
the experiment until 1967 or later.

* Outstanding Virginia Junior Academy of Science Paper. Cate¬
gory: Astronomy, Earth and Space Sciences.

Delayed Photoneutrons from U-235
in D,0

Preston W. Forbes and Ronald J. Onega

Sponsor: T. E. Gilmer, Jr.

Department of Physics,

Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Blacksburg, Virginia.

The delayed photoneutrons in DoO arise from the
fact that energetic gamma rays from fission frag¬
ments of U-235 may disintegrate deuterium by means
of H2(y,n)H1. A new technique, which allows re¬
solution of shorter-lived groups than have been re¬
solved by other methods [Spatz, W. D. B., et al.,
MDDC-887 (1947); Graham, W. W., and Harman,
D. S., Technical Report NE-3, Georgia Institute of
Technology (1965)], is being used to measure these
delayed photoneutrons. There are two conventional
means of determining delayed photoneutrons, neither
of which allows observation of the very short-lived
groups which are expected in D20 assemblies. One
method consists of irradiating a sample of fissionable
material and transferring it to a counting system.
The other method utilizes rod-drop experiments on
D20-moderated reactor facilities for observing the
photoneutrons. These methods are limited by the
time required to transfer the samples and drop the
rod respectively.

The approach in this work consists of chopping a
beam of neutrons in order to burst a U-235 sample
positioned in the counting geometry. The burst is
achieved by a variable-speed mechanical chopper.
During the time between bursts the delayed photo¬
neutrons are counted and stored in a time-base multi¬
channel analyzer. The data from many bursts are

superimposed and are then fitted to a sum of expo¬
nentials giving half-lives and abundances of the
groups.

On the Ground-State Many-Electron
Problem in a Static Lattice

C. L. Foster, Jr. and C. D. Williams

Department of Physics,

Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Blacksburg, Virginia.

A formulation of time-dependent perturbation theory
has been developed for die Green’s functions of the
many-electron system in a static crystal lattice at
T = 0° K, assuming that the electron interaction with
the lattice is already at least partially accounted for
in the unperturbed electron ground state, i.e. that the
single-particle electron states are Bloch waves. Electron
spin is essentially ignored, and no external electro¬
magnetic fields are included. General results of the
theory are presented, including rules for Feynman-
diagram analysis of the perturbation expansions, a
statement of Dyson’s equation, and expressions for
the polarization propagator, “dielectric function”,
ground-state energy, and energies and lifetimes of
elementary excitations (quasi-particles and plasmons).
Approximation schemes and applications are discussed.

A Large Space Telescope

L. W. Frederick

Leander McCormick Observatory,

University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia.

This paper reviews the arguments for and against
a large space telescope. Problems are assigned to
the telescope on the basis that they are unique under
the assumptions of little or no residual atmosphere,
0".02 diffraction circle containing 85% of the inci¬
dent light, 120-inch aperture, reflective coating of
reasonable efficiency from A 1000 A to the millimeter
region. It is shown that the major contribution of
such an instrument will be in solving the cosmologi¬
cal problem. It is also shown on the basis of avail¬
able data that a synchronous orbit is to be preferred
to a low earth orbit or a lunar site.

Effects of Strong Interactions and
Finite Nuclear Size in 77-Mesonic
Atoms *

L. P. Fulcher

Sponsors: J. W. Beams and J. M. Eisenberg
Department of Physics,

University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia.

For studies involving the interaction of bound pions
with the atomic nucleus, it is essential to investigate
details of the pionic wave function at the nucleus.
These are especially important for the 1 S orbitals,

Proceedings, 1966-1967

147

where both the repulsive strong interaction and the
effects of finite nuclear size are important. We pre¬
sent calculations based on the use of a square well
potential to simulate the strong interactions. The
nuclear charge distribution is taken to be that of a
uniformly charged sphere. The corresponding Schro-
dinger equation is solved exactly. The square well
radius is taken to be the same as the nuclear radius,
and its strength is chosen so as to obtain agreement
with the observed [Jenkins, D. A., Kunselman, R.,
Simons, M. K., and Yamazaki, T., Phys. Rev. Lett.,
17, 1 (1966)] 2P-1S energy differences. For light
nuclei, the probability of finding the meson in the
nucleus is found to be approximately half that cal¬
culated with conventional hydrogenic wave functions.
Comparison is made with the results of three approxi¬
mation techniques.

* Supported in part by the NSF.

On an Equation of Condition for the
Leander McCormick 26-Inch Refractor

George Gatewood

Sponsor: L. W. Frederick
Leander McCormick Observatory,

University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia.

For the purpose of obtaining absolute positions of
quasi-stellar objects various possible sources of errors
such as magnitude, coma, tilt, optical distortion, stel¬
lar color, and color distortion were investigated by
the author. The following terms were found signif¬
icant:

1. Linear magnitude equation. This varies from
plate to plate with a maximum value of about 0".10/
mag.

2. Coma. This term causes brighter stars to appear
shifted towards the center of the plate by 0".15/ma°[
/100 mm.

3. Tilt or coordinates of the true tangential point.
This varies from exposure to exposure but for plates
taken before 1966 it is usually about 40 mm east and
20 mm south.

4. Optical distortion. This amounts to 1".0 at a
radial distance of 100 mm.

5. Color equation. This effect is fairly consistent,
in x it is —0". 15/unit color index and in y it is
+ 0". 14/unit color index.

With the above corrections the mean error of one
exposure is approximately 0".05.

A Neutron-Gamma Time-of -Flight
Spectrometer

George W. Hancock, Jr., and Rogers C. Ritter

Sponsor: John W. Stewart
Department of Physics,

University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia.

A neutron-gamma time-of-flight spectrometer has
been developed to analyze neutrons produced when
selected targets are bombarded with positive ions
from the 5.5-Mv Van de Graaff accelerator at the
University of Virginia. The spectrometer uses stand¬
ard fast-slow circuitry in which the neutrons are de¬
tected by a 58AVP photomultiplier with a 5" x IVz"
NE 213 liquid scintillator cell, and an RCA 8575
photomultiplier with a IV2" x IV2" Nal scintillator
as the gamma detector. Two factors which contribute
to the degradation of the energy resolution of a T-O-F
spectrum are timing uncertainty and background.
The effects of walk and scintillator and photomulti¬
plier statistics on the timing resolution of the sys¬
tem are discussed, and experiments designed to pre¬
dict the conditions for optimum timing are described.
The accidental background has been reduced by ex*-
ploiting the pulse-shape-discrimination properties of
NE 213 in the design of a circuit which effectively
discriminates between neutrons and gamma rays de¬
tected in the neutron detector. Results of a typical
angular correlation obtained with the spectrometer and
analyzed by a least-squares-fitting program written
for the Burroughs B5500 computer are given, and
the use of similar results in inferring various nuclear
properties is briefly explained.

The Deformation of Single Crystals of
Cadmium and Zinc*

L. Henry and J. W. Mitchell

Department of Physics,

University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia.

Square-sectioned single-crystal rods of high-purity
cadmium and zinc have been grown with the basal
planes making an angle of approximately 45° with
the axis of tension. The surfaces of the crystals have
been polished by chemical methods without the intro¬
duction of dislocations. The crystals have been sub¬
jected to an elongation of between 1 and 2% and
the zones of deformation have been examined with
the Zeiss two-beam interference microscope. The
characteristic differences between the deformation
processes in these hexagonal crystals in which there
is only one plane of easy glide and in the face-cen¬
tered cubic a-phase copper-aluminum crystals in which

148

The Virginia Journal of Science

there are three equivalent glide planes will be discussed.

* Supported by the AEC.

An Astrometric Study of the Multiple
Star BD +66° 34

John L. Hershey

Sponsor: L. W. Frederick
Leander McCormick Observatory,

University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia

An astrometric study of BD +66° 34 has been made
using 555 plates taken with Sproul and McCormick
refractors over a span of 43 years. The star appears
as a double on the plates, and the primary shows a
perturbation with a period of 15.8 years and semi-major
axis of 0.12". The elements of the perturbation indi¬
cate the presence of an invisible third star of estimated
mass .11 to '.14 Mq. The visible companion is a physi¬
cal member of the system but has not shown sufficient
orbital motion to allow a period to be derived.

Observations on Multipolar Distributions
of Dislocations on the Primary Planes of
Single Crystals of a -Phase Copper-
Aluminum Alloys *

B. J. Hockey and J. W. Mitchell

Department of Physics,

University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia.

A new method has been developed for producing
mounted thin ribbons of metals and alloys for examina¬
tion by transmission electron microscopy. The meth¬
od has been applied to the study of the distributions
of dislocations which are introduced during the earliest
stages in the plastic deformation of single crystals of
copper-aluminum alloys. It has been found that the
majority of the dislocations are present in the form
of elastically interacting groups of positive and of
negative dislocations on adjacent glide planes. The
direct observation of these multipolar distributions con¬
firms the conclusions on the mechanism of deforma¬
tion which have been drawn from studies of surface
topography and from etch-pit distributions. The etch-
pit work showed that the dislocations in the bands
of deformation were present frequently as pile-ups of
several hundred dislocations of the same sign on the
same glide plane. The nature of the barriers against
which these dislocations pile up has now been estab¬
lished by direct observation. They are provided by
the sessile stair-rod dislocations of the Lomer-Cottrell
locks which form groups parallel to the lines of inter¬

section of the critical and of the conjugate planes
with the primary planes.

* Supported by the AEC.

Inelastic Electron-Scattering Cross Sec¬
tions Using a Finite Nuclear Well *

F. D. Holder and J. M. Eisenberg

Sponsor: J. W. Beams
Department of Physics,

University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia.

Theoretical studies of the electro-excitation of light
nuclei were carried out using a Woods-Saxon poten¬
tial with spin-orbit coupling as an approximation to
the nuclear self-consistent field. These calculations
are expected to yield more realistic results at high-
momentum transfer than those given by conventional
harmonic oscillator wave functions. A finite-range
residual interaction was used with the Woods-Saxon
potential in the particle-hole formalism to generate
consistent wave functions for the excited states of
closed-shell or closed-subshell nuclei. These were then
used to calculate inelastic electron-scattering form fac¬
tors based on the Bom approximation. Comparison
was made with the results of calculations performed
[Gillet, V., and Melkanoff, M. A., Phys. Rev., 133,
BH90 (1964); De Forest, T., Jr., Phys. Rev., 139,
B1217 (1965)J using a harmonic oscillator potential.

* Partially supported by the NSF.

A Family of Quadrature Formulas

Richard A. Hord

NASA Langley Research Center, Hampton, Virginia.

For the numerical estimation of the definite integral
1 = J10f(x)dx, given real values f(j/n), j = 0, 1 , . . . ,
n , a family of quadrature formulas is presented which
provides compromises between algebraic precision (ex¬
actness for polynomials to some maximum degree) and
near-uniformity of the quadrature coefficients. The
familv, which is bounded by the (closed-type) New¬
ton-Cotes formulas and by the partial sums of Gre¬
gory’s quadrature formula, is characterized by maxi¬
mizing the algebraic precision subject to the constraint
that the (n-f-1) — 2(k-|-l) central quadrature co¬
efficients be equal. The family contains several for¬
mulas, with different indices k of elaboration of the
end correction, for each number n of intervals. In
the (Gregory) limit n = co (for fixed k), the algebraic
precision jumps, in a sense to be described, from its
constant value for finite n to infinite value. This prop¬
erty suggests that the formulas should be appropriate
when the real function f is analytic and n is large.

Proceedings, 1966-1967

149

Electron Transmission through
a Distorted Crystal

John C. Ingram

Sponsor: Doris Kuhlmann-W ilsdorf
Department of Physics,

University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia.

Theoretical calculations of the intensity of high-
energy electrons transmitted through a crystal con¬
taining a strain field due to a spherical void is cal¬
culated using the dynamical theory of electron diffrac¬
tion bv Wilkens. The effects due to changing void
radii, strain-field parameters, and crystal parameters
are calculated. The results are applicable to strain
contrast imaging in electron microscopy.

Equilibrium Strains in Epitaxial
Overgrowths

W. A. Jesser and D. Kulhmann-Wilsdorf

Departments of Physics and Materials Science,

University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia.

According to the theories by van der Merwe and
Cabrera, thin epitaxial overgrowths should exhibit
elastic strains, partially relieving the misfit between
substrate and overgrowth. These theories have been
expanded to epitaxial hemispherical nuclei of only a
few hundred A radius or less, namely those sizes for
which the effect is large but to which the previous
theories could not be applied because of simplifica¬
tions made in them. In addition, the theory has been
expanded to the case in which a twist is superimposed
on the misfit due to unequal lattice parameters. Some
tests made on the theory were found to be in agree¬
ment with it.

Binaries, Black Dwarfs and Solar

Systems

Shiv S. Kumar

Leander McCormick Observatory, University of Vir¬
ginia, Charlottesville, Virginia.

It has been known for some time that the late-type
dwarfs on the main sequence have low rotational veloci¬
ties. Based on this observation, Struve and Huang
have suggested that these stars possess solar systems
similar to our own. This is certainly possible, but
this is not the only possibility. A late-type dwarf may
possess a black-dwarf companion formed by the con¬
traction of a star of very low mass (M < 0.07 solar
mass). A great deal of angular momentum will reside
in the orbital and rotational motions of the black dwarf.
If the black-dwarf companion is moving in an ellipti¬
cal orbit around a G, K or M dwarf then we cannot

have a solar system. Since the occurrence of double
(or multiple) stars is a universal phenomenon in the
galaxy, it is very likely that the so-called single G,
K and M dwarfs are accompanied by black-dwarf com¬
panions. Already, six such companions have been
detected among the nearby stars. Therefore, the num¬
ber of solar systems in the galaxy may not be as large
as given by Struve, Juang and other workers.

Chladni Figures and the Vibration of
Plates

Elwvn Y. Loh

Student Winner, Physics Section, VJAS, Blacksburg
High School, Blacksburg, Virginia.

A uniform plate vibrates in characteristic modes,
each of which has an individual system of nodal lines
known as a Chladni figure. The membrane approxi¬
mation of the nodal patterns of a square plate is con¬
firmed experimentally. That the possible modes of a
plate depend upon the shape of the plate is shown.
The other factors affecting the plate determine specifi-
callv tire mode of vibration. Empirical equations ex¬
pressing the relationship between the figure and the
frequency of vibration are determined for three series
of figures. These empirical equations imply the exist¬
ence of a general formula for frequency. Several
instances of distortion under nonuniform conditions
are also shown.

The Solar Motion from Radial-Velocity
Observations of Interstellar Hydrogen
Clouds

Joseph W. Mast

Sponsor: L. W. Frederick
Leander McCormick Observatory,

University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia.

The peculiar velocity of the sun with respect to the
local standard of rest is reflected in the apparent mo¬
tions of other objects in the galaxy. Recent observa¬
tions of interstellar hydrogen clouds provided the first
opportunity to find the peculiar velocity of the sun
with respect to these clouds. A recent solution and
a discussion of the solution will be presented.

A D Canis Minoris, an Ultrashort-Period
Variable Star

Mary K. Meacham

Sponsor: L. W. Frederick
Leander McCormick Observatory,

University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia.

Variable stars with periods less than 0.2 day display
characteristics which differ from the typical RR Lyrae

150

The Virginia Journal of Science

variable. Although the shape of the light curve is
similar, the amplitude of the light curve is less and
the luminosity class is believed to be later. U B V
photoelectric observations of A D Canis Minoris (BD
+ 1° 1932) have been made with the 32" reflector
at the Fan Mountain Station of the Leander McCor¬
mick Observatory on eight nights (December 1966
through March 1967). The results confirm a period
of 0.12297 day and a visual magnitude amplitude of
0.3.

Stellar Rotation and the Ages of Early-
Type Stars

David D. Meisel

Sponsor : Shiv S. Kumar
Leander McCormick Observatory,

University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia.

The problems of stellar rotation and evolution of
early-type stars are reviewed. Recent work on the
rotational statistics of early-type stars in visual binaries
is discussed and compared with the statistics of single
stars. Theoretical and observational influences of rota¬
tion on the apparent spectral types, luminosity criteria
and derived ages for individual stars are discussed.

Phonon Contribution to the Thermal
Conductivity of Single Crystals of
Potassium *

Eugenie V. Mielczarek and Ronald F. Stauder

Department of Physics,

George Mason College of the University of Virginia,
Fairfax, Virginia, and

The Johns Hopkins Applied Physics Laboratory,
Baltimore, Maryland.

The thermal conductivity of two single crystals of
potassium has been measured from 2.5° K to 40° K.
Measurements on a third crystal were made between
10° K and 40° K. Additional measurements at 77° K
were made on all three crystals. The maximum in
the thermal conductivity occurred at about 5° K. The
conductivity at the maximum is about 1 watt cm-1 °K_1
greater than could be expected from heat transport
by electrons. The additional conductivity has been
attributed to conduction by transverse phonons. Con¬
duction by transverse phonons is usually limited by
two mechanisms; interaction between transverse phon¬
ons and electrons, and interaction between transverse
phonons and longitudinal phonons. The first mechan¬
ism is not important below 8° Kelvin. The result

is that the thermal-conductivity maximum due to elec¬
tronic conductivity is enhanced by the presence of a
maximum in the phonon conductivity occurring at
about 5.5° K.

* These measurements were made at the Catholic University of
America under an AEC contract.

The Bending Stress-Strain and Recovery
Relationships for Synthetic Fibers as
Functions of Temperature and Moisture
Content

John B. Miles and Burrow W. Baldwin

Department of Physics,

Old Dominion College, Norfolk, Virginia.

It has been shown that for oriented synthetic fibers
the tensile and compressive moduli in the direction
of the fiber axis differ markedly and are affected
differently by temperature changes. As a result the
moment-deflection relationships do not follow simple
elastic theory. The stress-deflection relationships in
bending and recovery of a number of commercial
synthetic carpet fibers have been determined using
an elastic-loop technique which has been developed.
The effect of temperature and moisture content on
these relationships has been investigated. The shape
of the actual loop has been shown to depart from the
shape of the elastica at points where the curvature
is great.

The Generation of Dislocations in Single
Crystals of Metals and Alloys of High
Perfection *

J. W. Mitchell

Department of Physics,

University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia.

The ultimate shear strength of single-crystal rib¬
bons of cadmium of high perfection has recently been
measured by J. C. Crump III and J. W. Mitchell and
found to correspond to the theoretical value of G/14
where G is the shear modulus. The principal mechan¬
ism of failure at these shear stresses was the genera¬
tion of dislocation loops on the active glide planes.
Plastic deformation is initiated at much lower shear
stresses in single crystals of copper and copper-alumi¬
num alloys which have low densities of dislocations,
and the dislocations which remain in the crystals after
long periods of annealing appear to play no role in the
deformation process. The reasons for the difference

Proceedings, 1966-1967

151

in behavior of the two classes of crystals will be dis¬
cussed. It appears that the crystals of cadmium
which are grown by the condensation of the vapor are
free from included particles whereas the crystals of
copper and copper alloys which are grown in graphite
boats contain flakes of graphite and particles of inor¬
ganic compounds of ultramicroscopic dimensions. The
role of these particles in lowering the shear strength
of the crystals will be analyzed, and methods which
are being developed for their elimination will be de¬
scribed.

* Supported by the AEC.

Hardening Mechanisms in the Earliest
Stages in the Deformation of Single
Crystals of a -Phase Copper-Aluminium
Alloys *

J. P. Monaghan, Jr. and J. W. Mitchell

Department of Phi/sics,

University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia.

Square-sectioned single crystals of a-phase copper-
aluminum alloys of high perfection have been elongat¬
ed by 1% under the action of a tensile stress. Their
surfaces were then repolished and die crystals were
elongated by a further 1%. Interferometric studies
of the surface topography after the first and second
elongations established that slip does not occur during
the second elongation in zones which were traversed
by dislocations during the first. The deformation re¬
sults from the generation of avalanches of positive and
negative dislocations on the primary planes at the sur¬
faces of die crystals. A computer program has been
worked out for calculating the stresses developed on
the secondary planes by passing groups of positive and
negative dislocations on parallel primary planes. It
has been found that these stresses are sufficient to
generate dislocations on the secondary planes which
can interact with the dislocations on the primary planes
to give Lomer-Cottrell interactions. During die course
of the present work, it has been demonstrated that the
mechanism which has been assumed to be responsible
for hardening during Stage II of the stress-strain
curve is actually operative in the earliest stages of
plastic deformation. The stress remains constant dur¬
ing Stage I because die same deformation processes
are occurring in previously undeformed zones of the
crystal. The limit of Stage I is reached when no zones
remain which have not been traversed by dislocations
on the primary and secondary glide planes.

* Supported by the AEC.

Investigation of the Decay Scheme
of Kr87

Ronald J. Onega and William B. Carpenter

Department of Physics,

Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Blacksburg, Virginia.

The radioactive decay of Kr87 into Rb87 is of inter¬
est because configuration mixing occurs in the p3/ 2
f5/ o levels. Natural krypton gas, containing 17%
Kr80, was irradiated in the 100-kv VPI reactor to
produce Kr87. The gamma rays observed by means
of a 3" x 3" Na(Tl )I detector, following the decay
of Kr87, are 0.40, 0.67, 0.85, 1.17, 1.75, 2.02, 2.57,
2.82 and 3.30 Mev. The intensities of these gamma
rays relative to the 0.40-Mev gamma ray are 100,
3.4, 17, less dian 3, 6, 6.5, 37, approximately 2.5 and
2.5% respectively. Coincidence measurements indi¬
cate the following gamma rays are in cascade: 0.40—
2.57, 0.67—1.75, 0.85—1.17. The beta spectrum has
been obtained using a 2" x V2." Ca(Eu)F2 scintilla¬
tion detector. A decay scheme is proposed and spin
assignments of various excited levels of Rb87 will be
reported on the basis of log ft value and gamma-
gamma angular correlation measurements.

A Small-Volume, Ultrahigh- Vacuum
System for Ionization-Gauge Studies *

R. A. Outlaw and J. M. Bradford

Department of Physics,

Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Blacksburg, Virginia.

The study of ionization gauges for use on current
ultrahigh-vacuum facilities requires a vacuum system
with a working pressure range below 10-10 torr. Other
investigators have developed systems for such studies
which are of glass construction with the gauges under
study being fused onto the test manifold. While
these systems are suitable for many studies, they have
the disadvantage of requiring glassblowing art in the
initial construction and for each configuration change,
and of presenting the possibility of changing gauge
characteristics during mounting and demounting pro¬
cedures. This paper presents a system which was
developed to overcome these disadvantages. The ap¬
proach was to use a small metal manifold and to
attach the gauges under study using demountable,
commercially available metal, ultrahigh-v a c u u m
flanges. Tbe test gauges can be readily interchanged
simply by bolting or unbolting the mounting flange.
The system utilizes the pumping of the test gauges
in conjunction with the cryogenic pumping of a Pyrex
finger immersed in liquid helium to achieve ultrahigh
vacuum as low as 10~13 torr. The system design along

152

The Virginia Journal of Science

with a description of the techniques used to achieve
ultrahigh vacuum is presented.

* Supported by NASA.

The Recent Outbursts of Gamma
Cassiopeiae
Peter Shelus

Leander McCormick Observatort/,

University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia.

The Be star y Cassiopeiae, believed to have been
constant up to 1930, exhibited two major outbursts
in the period 1932 to 1942. Observations by several
researchers of the variations of spectrum, tempera¬
ture and luminosity were made during the course of
these oscillations in an endeavor to create a model
applicable to this type of object. Agreement had
been reached that two shells had been ejected from
the star. However, the manner in which this had
been accomplished is still a matter of conjecture since
all of the changes observed could not be explained
satisfactorily by a single model. Recently, observa¬
tions of luminosity increases and spectral variations
have raised the suspicion that another outburst might
be imminent. Observations to support or reject this
suspicion are now being made at the Leander Mc¬
Cormick Observatory at the University of Virginia.

A Simple Means of Electronically Moni¬
toring the Swing of an Analytical
Balance

Julius A. Sigler, and Angus MacDonald

Sponsor : Doris Kuhlmann-Wilsdorf
Department of Physics,

University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia.

The principle of the polarimeter is applied to an
analytical balance in order to obtain a recordable elec¬
tronic signal which describes the swing of the balance.
The experimental arrangement, which utilizes some
sheet polaroid, a light source, and some inexpensive
circuitry, is described and typical results are given.
Preliminary investigation indicates an increase in bal¬
ance sensitivity by at least a factor of 2 over that
obtained by visual means.

Specific Heat of Superconducting
Lanthanum

R. F. Smith, Jr., and C. D. Williams

Department of Physics,

Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Blacksburg, Virginia.

The Kuper-Jensen-Hamilton theory [Kuper, C. G.,
Jensen, M. A., and Hamilton, D. C., Phys. Rev., 134,

A15 (1964).] for superconductivity in La and U is
discussed, with emphasis on clarification and some
minor improvement of its approximations. This theory
is used to calculate die specific heat and the results
are compared with the data for La.

Monte Carlo Calculations of the Scatter¬
ing of 600-Mev Protons from a
Deuterium Target

E. Stergakos, K. Gotow, and B. MacDonald

Sponsor: T. E. Gilmer, Jr.

Department of Physics,

Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Blacksburg, Virginia.

A beam of 600-Mev protons impinges upon the
base of a cylinder filled with deuterium. The parti¬
cular questions to be answered are:

a. At what point does a particular proton enter the
target?

b. At what point does the interaction between the
deuterons and protons take place?

c. How many interactions are there per unit path
length?

d. What are the energies and directions of the proton
and neutron after the interaction?

The problem is treated relativistically. The interac¬
tion which is investigated is that of pn scattering,
and the proton in the deuteron is considered as a “spec¬
tator.” Since we have to integrate over many vari¬
ables it is impossible to solve the problem analytically.
The best way, and perhaps the only way, to solve it
is to use the Monte Carlo method. This problem
is a theoretical one but its results will be used, (1)
to design the apparatus for actually performing the
experiment and (2) to analyze the detection efficiency
of the apparatus after the experiment has been per¬
formed.

Compression of Solidified Inert Gases
to 20 Kbar *

John W. Stewart

Department of Physics,

University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia.

We have completed measurements of the compres¬
sion to 20 kbar of solid neon at 18° K, solid argon
at 38° K and 77° K, and solid krypton at 81° K and
115° K. Data have been obtained in sample holders
of three different diameters. Difficulty has been en¬
countered in extrapolating the data from the lowest
observable pressures (determined by the amount of
friction in the sample holders) to zero pressure in a
consistent manner. Recent X-ray diffraction data from

Proceedings, 1966-1967

153

R. O. Simmons and his coworkers at the University of
Illinois have made available both zero-pressure densi¬
ties and initial compressibilities for these substances.
Extrapolation of our data so as to agree with these
values using two different empirical relations based
upon the Mumaghan theory of finite strain has been
used. One of these has been found to be definitely
superior, and is presented.

* Supported by U. S. Army Research Office, Durham, North
Carolina.

Development of a Wire Spark Chamber
with Magnetostrictive Readout *

H. A. Wallio, K. Gotow, and B. MacDonald

Department of Phi/sics,

Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Blacksburg, Virginia.

The design and construction of wire spark cham¬
bers and associated electronics, which use magneto¬
strictive techniques for positioning the sparks is being
carried out at V.P.I. The spark analysis is accumu¬
lated directly in the memory of a pulse-height analyzer.

The spark chambers are to be used for:

1. Defining beam profiles of the 600-Mev accelera¬
tor available at SREL.

2. Obtaining a momentum distribution of these same
beams using a bending magnet.

The advantages of this system are good spatial resolu¬
tion and accuracy, rapid accumulation and display of
data, and a convenience of use. Details of the sys¬
tem will be presented.

* Supported by NASA.

Silver and Copper Quarters : An Exercise
in Activation Analysis

T. G. Williamson and M. E. Mount

Department of Nuclear Engineering,
University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia.

A very simple neutron activation analysis, the deter¬
mination of the copper content of a quarter, can be
performed with a minimum amount of equipment.
All that is necessary is an isotopic neutron source, such
as RaBe, a gamma-ray scintillation detector and a
pulse-height analyzer. Both silver and copper can
be activated to relatively short-lived activities, the 2.3-
minute108Ag and the 5.1-minuteG6Cu. The procedure
used for these isotopes is to activate the coins for five
minutes and then count with a multichannel analyzer
for the same length of time. By repeating this opera¬
tion several times the statistics of the spectrum can

be improved. A similar procedure of irradiation for
five minutes and then counting for several successive
two-minute intervals with an integral analyzer is used
to determine the half-lives. The 12.8-hourC4Cu ac¬
tivity is detected by exposing other coins overnight
and determining the gamma-ray spectrum. These
measurements clearly show the difference between the
newer “sandwich” quarters and the older silver ones.
The activity of the newer ones is almost solely that of
copper, whereas the older ones give the silver spect¬
rum with only small traces of copper present.

Expansive Homeomorphisms

Thomas E. Wood

Department of Mathematics,

Old Dominion College, Norfolk, Virginia.

Let X be a metric space with metric p. Let T:X
— > X be a homeomorphism. We say T is expansive
if and only if there exists a positive number d such
that if x, y e X with x y then there exists an integer
n = n (x, y) such that p(Tn(x), Tn (y))>d. In
this case d is called an expansive constant of T. Let
X be a metric space and T:X— >X a homeomorphism.
Let x, veX with x y. Then the points x and y
are positively (negatively) asymptotic provided that
for any number e > O there exists an integer N > O
( N < O ) such that for n > N ( n < N ) we have
p(Tn(x), Tn ( y ) ) < e. Now let X be a compact
metric space and T : X — » X an expansive homeomorph¬
ism. Then there exists a pair x, y of positively as¬
ymptotic points and a pair w, z of negatively asymp¬
totic points. There exists no expansive homeomorph¬
ism of an arc onto itself or a compact 2-cell in the
plane onto itself. However for n ^ 2 the n-torus
admits such a homeomorphism. Using this we can
show that left almost periodicity does not imply right
almost periodicity in infinite compact groups.

The Energy of a Charged Capacitor

Worth J. Young

Department of Physics,

Emory and Henry College, Emory, Virginia.

This is a lecture designed to stimulate and motivate
the earnest student. The following facts are illumi¬
nated:

1. The integral calculus is just plain common sense
organized in a clear and rigorous manner in which
intuition plays an important role.

2. Electricity is not continuous but is corpuscular in
nature.

Starting with basic principles an unorthodox mathe¬
matical argument is produced by using very elementary
mathematics. The mathematical discussion is initiated
by exhibiting the little bits of work done in displac¬
ing each electron one at a time. The total energy

154

The Virginia Journal of Science

is obtained by summing all the little bits of work
required to displace each individual electron. The
final result is attained by making use of a simple arith¬
metic progression. This down-to-earth, homely illus¬
tration is intended to assist in dispelling the shroud
of mystery which often envelops the integral calculus
in the mind of the neophyte.

The Bouncing Ball Does Come to Rest

Worth J. Young

Department of Physics,

Emory and Henry College, Emory, Virginia.

A ball is dropped from a height h and rebounds

to a height rh. If it continues to fall and rebound
in the same way, how far will it travel in coming to
rest? Find the time required for the ball to come
to rest. A somewhat unconventional, but simple, math¬
ematical argument is developed to find the distance
traveled by the ball. A similar argument is used to
find the time required for the ball to come to rest.
This demonstration sheds new light on limits and sug¬
gests that perhaps we should take another look at
Zeno’s paradoxes. If time permits, a brief discussion
of Cantor’s paradoxes of the infinite and possibly a
quick look at the basic concept of an asymptote will
be presented.

Section of Biology

Sex Ratio in the Land Isopod Armadil-
lidium nasatum Budde-Lund

Laura Adamkewicz

Department of Biology, University of Virginia,
Charlottesville, Virginia.

In collections taken from natural populations of A.
nasatum, the percentage of males varies from 24 to
64. This variation in sex ratio shows a seasonal pat¬
tern with the lowest percentage of males occurring
in June when the females are gravid. The sex ratio
is often inconsistent among the different-size classes
of a collection and among different collections taken
from the same population at the same time. These
observations suggest that the variation is due to a
nonrandom distribution of the two sexes in the habitat,
although differential mortality remains as an alterna¬
tive explanation.

The Location of Two P -Glucosidase Ac¬
tivities in Subcellular Fractions of Cell-
vibrio gilvus *

Lewis B. Barnett

Department of Biochemistry, Virginia Polytechnic
Institute, Blacksburg, Virginia.

The bacterium, Cellvibrio gilvus, contains constitu¬
tive, intracellular enzyme activity for the hydrolysis
of aryl-/3-gIucosides and, when grown in a medium
containing cellulose as the sole source of carbohydrate,
inducible, extracellular enzyme activity for the diges¬
tion of cellulose. Cellvibrio gilvus has been grown
both in a glucose medium and in a cellulose medi¬
um, and various subcellular fractions of the disrupted
cells have been assayed for both aryl-/J-glucosidase

and for cellulase activity. Of particular interest was
the observation that ribosomes, which were isolated
from the membrane fraction by deoxycbolate treat¬
ment, were observed to contain a relatively high speci¬
fic activity of cellulase and a relatively low specific
activity of aryl-/?-glucosidase compared with cytoplas¬
mic ribosomes.

* Supported by USPHS. Grant GM-1 1672.

Contraction of Models of Hydra Cells

Barbara Beitch

Department of Biology, University of Virginia,

C liarlottesville, V irginia.

Ectodermal and entodermal epithelio-muscular cells
of Hydra viridis were treated with saponin or digitonin,
both of which react with the lipid components of the
membrane to form a stable porous complex. This
treatment allows the washing out of soluble proteins,
coenzymes, inorganic ions, etc. and permits a physio¬
logically controlled microenvironment around the struc¬
tural contractile proteins which remain in the cells.

Two types of contraction of these cell models were
observed: (1) complete rounding up of the isolated
epithelio-muscular cell models, and (2) shortening of
only the basal processes of these cells. Diphasic
curves were obtained for the percentage of ectodermal
cells rounded up as a function of ATP and Mg+ +
concentrations, provided the pH was 7.2 and the ionic
strength low (0.02 ^). The peak in the lower range
disappeared when Ca ions were omitted. A smaller
percentage of entodermal cell models was found to
round up under the same conditions. It has been
demonstrated that Salyrgan, which binds sulfhydryl
groups, inhibits contraction in models of higher muscle
but not motility in some protozoan models. This com¬
pound was shown to inhibit the rounding up of H.

Proceedings, 1966-1967

155

viridis cell models but had no effect on the shorten¬
ing of their basal processes. These results will be dis¬
cussed in light of known contractile mechanisms of
other muscle systems.

An Electron-Microscope Study of Kerat-
inization in the Developing Down
Feather of the Chick
Irwin Beitch

Department of Biology, University of Virginia,
Charlottesville, Virginia.

Developing down feathers from the mid-dorsal re¬
gion of chick embryos (stages 36-40) were fixed in
glutaraldehyde, postfixed in osmium tetroxide, and
embedded in araldite. Thin sections were stained
with uranyl acetate and Reynold’s lead.

The apparent sequence of synthesis at the ultra-
structural level supports, in part, the two-component
theory of keratinization; filaments are packed into
fibrils and embedded in an amorphic matrix. The
process in the feather sheath, however, appears to
differ from that of the barb epithelium. In the latter
a material, first appearing similar to densely stain¬
ing keratohyalin, surrounds the filaments at the time
of, or soon after, their orientation into fibrils. The
fullv keratinized cell results from the growth and
coalescence of the fibrils, which take up less stain
at this time, until they fill the cytoplasm. The nu¬
cleus then vacuolates.

In the sheath discrete filaments (approximately
45 A in diameter) remain visible during the early
formation of fibrils. Large elongated bodies (up to
4.0 fx x 0.4 fx) with conspicuously reticulated interiors,
reportedly keratinous, are found in these cells. Their
otherwise distinct but nonmembranous borders are dif¬
fuse near the fibrils, suggesting an interaction between
these structures. Microtubules (diameter 190 A) also
appear to be involved in the formation of fibrils; some
are actually incorporated in the bundles.

Use of X-Ray Pictures in Studies of
Snorter Dwarfism in Cattle

K. P. Bovard

Beef Cattle Research Station,

Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Front Royal, Virginia.

At the Beef Cattle Research Station in Front Royal,
a 36% inbred homozygous recessive Snorter dwarf calf
was born in 1963. The calf was born in an experi¬
mental inbred line of Angus cattle with no previous
history of dwarfism. Subsequent progeny testing iden¬
tified a ten-year-old foundation female more than 50%
related to all breeding females in 1964. Individual
radiographs of the lumbar vertebrae were taken on

all calves in the line, 1964-1966, inclusive. The
lateral aspect of dwarf calves’ vertebrae at birth show¬
ed reduced size, curvature of anterior and posterior
vertebra epiphyses, and irregular ventral exostoses.
Radiographically, phenotypieally normal calves’ verte¬
brae were larger, with variable abnormality on the
ventral surface of the bodies. Expression of this ir¬
regularity was related to sex, breed, and age of calf.
During the period of study, 36 calves, all normal,
from the dwarf-producing line were X-rayed. Another
18 calves, four physically defective or premature,
were X-rayed for comparative purposes.

Seasonal Activity-Inactivity Cycles in
Some Lower Chesapeake Bay Hydrozoa
Dale R. Calder

Virginia Institute of Marine Science, School of Marine
Science, College of William and Mary,
Williamsburg, Virginia.

In southern Chesapeake Bay, hydroid species are
characteristicallv seasonal in occurrence. Field and
laboratory observations were made to determine how
these organisms survive during unfavorable months.
In the species studied, growth was terminated and
dedifferentiation and resorption of the hydranths oc¬
curred with the onset of unfavorable environmental
conditions. The coenosarc withdrew into the perisarc
and remained in a dormant state in the stems or sto¬
lons, or both, until favorable conditions returned, at
which time new growth commenced and hydranths
were regenerated. Water temperature is evidently
the prime factor in the activity-inactivity cycle. In
addition to survival value under periodically critical
environmental conditions at a given location, demon¬
stration of such resistant phases in the life cycle may
have important implications on hydroid zoogeography.

A Comparative Study of the Parasites
of Certain Salientia from Pocahontas
State Park, Virginia
Ronald A. Campbell

Department of Biology, University of Richmond,
Richmond, Virginia.

Four species of Salientia representing three selected
habitats were collected from May through September
1966 and examined for parasites. Of the 116 host
specimens, 30 were Rana catesbeiana Shaw; 29 Rana
clamitans Latr.; 29 Bufo fowleri Hinckley; and 28
Hijla versicolor (Le Conte). A total of 33 species
of parasites was recovered: Protozoa, 10; Trematoda,
8; Cestoda, 2; Nematoda, 11; Acantliocephala, 1; and
Acarina, 1.

Although a relatively small number of hosts was
examined, the results agree with those found in more

156

The Virginia Journal of Science

extensive investigations of similar type. The aquatic
hosts, R. catesbeiana and R. clamitans, were the most
heavily parasitized. The infections of the terrestrial
hosts, B. fowled and H. versicolor, were fewer in num¬
ber of species but significantly higher in number of
specimens. Of the four representative hosts examined,
the arboreal host, II. versicolor, showed fewer incid¬
ences of infection and harbored the least number of
parasitic species.

Speciation among Certain North Ameri¬
can Dolomedes (Pisauridae: Araneae)

James E. Carico

Department of Biology, Lynchburg College,
Lynchburg, Virginia.

Four groups of closely related species are recognized
which are: (1) Qolomedes scriptus Hentz and D.
arizonicus n. sp., (2) D. triton Walckenear and D.
major Banks, (3) D. tenebrosus Hentz and D. oke-
fenokensis Bishop, and (4) D. urinator Hentz and D.
mexicanus n. sp.

Each group is represented by a widely distributed
species and one endemic species with a relatively small
distribution. Both species in each group have appar¬
ently evolved from a widely distributed parent species.
Speciation in the Pleistocene was probably due to the
emergence of ecological barriers within the distribu¬
tion range of the parent species. The resulting geo¬
graphically isolated population fragments evolved sep¬
arately due to reduction or absence of gene flow be¬
tween them.

Larval Development of Donax variabilis,
Say (Pelecypoda) with a Discussion of
Larval Characteristics in the Tellinacea
Paul Chanley

Virginia Institute of Marine Science,
Wachapreague, Virginia.

Adult Donax variabilis were spawned in the labo¬
ratory and the larvae reared to metamorphosis. Larval
length increased from 70 to 340 /x during pelagic
stages. Height is originally 10-15 ^ less than length.
Height increases less rapidly than length and mav be
50 fx less than length at metamorphosis. Depth is
originally 50 ^ less than length. It also increases
more slowly than length and may be 150 to 170 /x
less than length at metamorphosis. Hinge-line length
is 50 to 60 fx. Round umbos form when larvae are
100-120 /x long. Umbos protrude above the shell as
knobby projections at lengths above 170 /x. The ante¬
rior and posterior ends are equally rounded until at
about 250 /x the posterior end becomes more pointed.
Larvae metamorphose at lengths from 275 to 340 /x.

The hinges of D. variabilis and Tellina agilis larvae
consist of numerous small irregular teeth. Descrip¬
tions of taxodont dentition in larvae of other Telli¬
nacea are probably in error and refer to these small
irregular teeth. The large special teeth, frequently
described in larvae of this group, probably do not
develop until after metamorphosis.

An Analysis of Development of Single
Blastomeres of Lymnaea palustris
Anne A. Chisman

Department of Biology, College of William 6- Mary,
Williamsburg, Virginia.

Encapsulated eggs were shaken in a vial on a Mickle
disentegrater during various phases of the two-cell
stage. Embryos with one blastomere damaged, em¬
bryos with neither blastomere damaged and the un¬
shaken controls were cultured in depression slides at
25° C. The maximum number of single blastomeres
was obtained when eggs were shaken in the late two¬
cell stage. Seventv-five percent of these single blas¬
tomeres cleaved either as partial, complete or abnormal
embryos. Cleavage was not delayed more than five
minutes as compared with the controls. The injured
blastomeres did not cleave but remained attached to
the cleaving embryo until after gastrulation.

Most of the embryos developing from single blas¬
tomeres arrested at the gastrula stage becoming vesi¬
cular gastrulae. A few (7.5%) developed into defi¬
nitive but abnormal snails. One of these was normal
except for the presence of a single eye and a single
tentacle both medial to the normal bilateral pattern.
Interestingly, each of the definite snails developed
from single blastomeres which cleaved like whole eggs.

Possibly the first cleavage segregated morphogenetic
substances into one of the first two blastomeres. The
preferential destruction of one of the blastomeres
may result in the low percentage of normal develop¬
ment.

Crowding Effects in Lymnaea palustris

Embryos

Arthur F. Conway

Department of Biology, College of William 6- Mary,
Williamsburg, Virginia.

Because dense populations of Lymnaea palustris
embryos reared for experimental purposes do not de¬
velop normally, the behavior of crowded embryos was
investigated. Five embryos were cultured in differ¬
ent volumes (0.1 to 1.0 ml) of spring water sterilized
by filtration. Results of crowding included (1) de¬
layed time of hatching, (2) retardation of growth (in¬
versely proportional to the volume of media) as meas¬
ured by shell size, and (3) increased mortality. These

Proceedings, 1966-1967

157

effects occurred consistently in embryos which were
5 days old (when the larval snail had differentiated)
or older and which had been cultured under crowded
conditions for 2 or more days.

In order to determine the effects of substances
released into the medium by the embryos, three groups
of embryos (10 to 20 per group) from the same egg
mass were cultured under crowded conditions in 0.25
ml of spring water. Group 1 was not disturbed; in
group 2 the eggs were stirred daily; and in group
3 the water was changed daily. Hatching time and
mortality as compared to uncrowded control embryos
were control = group 3 < group 2 < group 1.

These data indicate an inhibitory factor (s) may be
produced by the developing embryos. Prior to the
fifth day of development the embryos either are in¬
sensitive to the factor or the concentration of the fac¬
tor is subliminal. These possibilities as well as the
nature of the factor are being studied.

The Third Dimension in Electron Micro¬
scopy of Biological Materials

John B. Crist, R. E. Martin, and D. V. Smith

Department of Forestry and Wildlife, Virginia Poly¬
technic Institute, Blacksburg, Virginia.

Electron microscopy has become an important ad¬
junct to studies on the structure of animate and inani¬
mate objects. This studv may be enhanced through
the use of stereo pairs of electron micrographs. Ele¬
mentary principles are used to demonstrate the geo¬
metrical relationships.

Stereo pairs of micrographs may be viewed with
inexpensive equipment, and the third dimension cal¬
culated or plotted using aerial photographic equip¬
ment.

Electron steromicrographs of xylem, rhytidome, and
seed coats will be used to illustrate the vertical dimen¬
sion. Calculations of depth as well as topographic
plots of pitting structures are presented. Significance
of calculations in properties of the material is discuss¬
ed.

Seasonal Distribution of Hake-Like
Fishes in Chesapeake Bight
Jackson Davis

Virginia Institute of Marine Science, School of Marine
Science of the College of William and Mary, and
Department of Marine Science, University of Virginia,
Charlottesville, Virginia.

Approval by the U. S. Food and Drug Administra¬
tion of the use of squirrel hake and other hake-like
fishes for the production of fish protein concentrate
has focused attention on this group of fishes. Three

hakes occur on the Continental Shelf of Chesapeake
Bight in some numbers. The spotted hake ( Urophycis
regius) occurs primarily to the south of Chesapeake
Bay in winter. In spring the population moves north¬
ward. In summer and fall die major concentration
is north of Chesapeake Bay. The squirrel hake ( Uro¬
phycis chuss) and the silver hake ( Merluccius bilin-
earis) occur primarily north of Chesapeake Bay. Both
species move inshore in summer and offshore in win¬
ter.

Thyroid Function in Newts with
Transplanted Pituitary Glands *

James Norman Dent

Department of Biology, University of Virginia,
Charlottesville, Virginia.

After hypophysectomy newts [ Triturus ( Diemicty -
lus, N otoplithalmus) viridescens] showed inhibition of
molting, loss of appetite, and a high mortality rate.
With the hypophysis transplanted to lie subcutaneously
beneath the lower jaw, animals ate heartily and had
a negligible mortality. From one group of eight ani¬
mals that had been maintained in very good condition
for 4 months after transplantation of the hypophysis,
the gland was ablated from its transplanted position
and within 3 weeks the animals gave the typical re¬
sponses to hypophysectomy. Turnover of 131I by the
thyroid was the same in newts with transplanted hypo¬
physes as in control animals, but 131I was lost more
quickly from the thyroids of hypophysectomized ani¬
mals. Apparently in this form production of thyroid-
stimulating hormone is either not acted upon by the
hvpothalamus or the hypothalamus discharges enough
of a thyrotropic releasing factor to act through the
general bloodstream, making the mediation of an hypo-
thalamo-hypophyseal portal system unnecessary.

* Work supported in part by the AEC.

Cytochemical Effects of Indole-3-Acetic
Acid and Kinetin on Megagametophytic
Development in Lilium
Franklin F. Flint

Department of Biology, Randolph-Macon Woman’s
College, Lynchburg, Virginia.

Floral buds of Lilium candidum treated with indole-
acetic acid, Kinetin, and a combination of both show
effects of this treatment during megagametogenesis.
This general effect in each treatment was a retarda¬
tion of the developmental stages. Indoleacetic acid-
treated plants showed the least retardation (25-30%),
and Kinetin-treated plants did not mature, many ova¬
ries aborted, and there was one example of twin

158

The Virginia Journal of Science

sporocytes being initiated in one ovule. Cellular pro¬
tein concentration as measured by the mercuric brom-
phenol blue method showed no consistent variations
between treated and nontreated specimens. Carbo¬
hydrate concentration in the ovary wall, as measured
with the PAS reagent, during megagametogenesis
varied considerably with the Kinetin-treated groups
having a greater quantity and distribution. IAA-
treated material had less than the control groups,
although it persisted for a longer period of time.

There is a good correlation between the retarda¬
tion of megagametogenesis in the treated material
with the quantity and persistence of carbohydrate ac¬
cumulation in the cells of the ovary wall. Kinetin
has the greater effect.

Respiratory Activities of the Vibratory
Muscles of Crotalus horridus, Agkistro-
don contortrix and Thamnophis sirtalis

James E. Forbes and F. B. Leftwich

Department of Biology, University of Richmond,
Richmond, Virginia.

The oxygen consumption of the vibratory muscles
of the timber rattlesnake ( Crotalus horridus ) was
compared with that of the tail muscles of the cop¬
perhead ( Agkistrodon contortrix ) and the garter snake
( Thamnophis sirtalis). The copperhead represented a
species which vibrates its tail but has no vibratory
apparatus comparable to that of the rattlesnake. Tire
garter snake does not vibrate its tail. The resting
Qo2 of teased vibratory muscle fibers of the rattle¬
snake was found to be significantly higher than the
Qo2 of fibers of the tail muscle of the copperhead,
which was in turn significantly higher than the Qo2
of tail-muscle fibers of the garter snake. Muscle suc¬
cinic dehydrogenase and cytochrome oxidase activities
were found to be significantly higher in the rattle¬
snake than in the other two species. The same respira¬
tory enzyme activities in the copperhead were signif¬
icantly higher than in the garter snake.

The Kinetics of the Translation of
Messenger RNA into Protein
Michael D. Garrick

Department of Biology, University of Virginia,
Charlottesville, Virginia.

Descriptions of incorporation of radioactively labeled
amino acid into polyribosomes and polypeptide have
been developed. Each treatment considers a popula¬
tion of cells active in protein synthesis which is sud¬
denly exposed to a labeled amino acid and assumes
that the cells possess concentrations of stable M-RNA,
of ribosomes, and of T-RNA that remain constant

with time. By assuming further that each ribosome
spends a fixed interval at each codon and that the
amount of label available as amino-acyl-T-RNA is a
step function, simple equations are obtained. These
equations will probably prove to be mostly of heuristic
value in evaluating experimental data. An alterna¬
tive treatment which has more promise as a means of
fitting experimental data is developed by assuming
that there is an exponential decline in the number of
ribosomes initially occupying a given codon and that
the amount of label in amino acyl-T-RNA approaches
a constant value exponentially. The theories indicate
how kinetic data for labeling of polyribosomes and
polypeptides can be used to locate local slowdowns
in M-RNA translation.

The Inheritance of Hemoglobin Type
in the Goat

Michael D. Garrick, Kenneth L. Kronberg,
and Norman C. Peeler

Department of Biology, University of Virginia,
Charlottesville, Virginia.

Three phenotypes have been observed when hemol-
vsates prepared from adult domestic goats of various
breeds are examined by discontinuous electrophoresis
on polyacrylamide gels at pH 8.9. One type (A/A)
exhibits a single band of hemoglobin (Hb), while
both of the other two types exhibit two bands, one
Hb with a mobility corresponding to the single band,
the other with a lesser mobility. The double-band
Hb phenotypes differ in that one (B/B) possesses
approximately equal proportions, while in the other
(A/B) the leading band predominates. The ratios
of the three phenotypes in the population examined
suggest that types A/A and B/B are homozygous,
while A/B is heterozygous. This conclusion is sup¬
ported by our failure to detect any goat whose hemol-
ysate exhibits only the Hb of lesser mobility and
by data from selected crosses. These phenotypes will
be considered in terms of both the likelihood of a
recent duplication of the hemoglobin gene in the goat
and the switch in expression from fetal hemoglobin
genes to adult hemoglobin genes.

Virginia Species with Disjunct Popula¬
tions in the Middle West
A. M. Harvill, Jr.

Department of Biology, Longwood College,
Farmville, Virginia.

Fifty-one Virginia species of plants are known to
have disjunct populations in the Middle West. Their
western areas center around the Great Lakes or in
the region of southern Illinois, Indiana, Missouri, and
in Arkansas and Oklahoma. Long-distant dispersal for
these species is ruled out because most plants cannot

Proceedings. 1966-1967

159

become established in closed communities of remote
locales. Distributional patterns of the Great Lakes
disjuncts are post-Pleistocene in age. Thirteen of the
25 disjuncts in the southern Middle West occur in
the Appalachians and 12 are predominantly plants of
the coastal plain in the east. Distributional patterns
of southern Middle West disjuncts with eastern popu¬
lations on the coastal plain are mostly post-Pleistocene,
whereas those of the Appalachians are much older.

Aspects of Biodeposition by Oysters and
Other Invertebrate Filter Feeders

Dexter S. Haven and Reinaldo Morales- Alamo

Virginia Institute of Marine Science, School of Marine
Science, College of William and Mary, Williamsburg,
Virginia, and Department of Marine Science, Univer¬
sity of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia.

Filter feeder's, such as oysters, tunicates, clams and
copepods, remove enormous quantities of suspended
solids from the water mass which they may deposit
on the bottom as feces or pseudofeces. Quantity re¬
moved by oysters ( Crassostrea virginica ) varied sea¬
sonally, reaching a maximum in September. Labora¬
tory experiments show that one acre of oysters may
produce up to 981 kg of feces or pseudofeces weekly.
These deposited solids have definite physical and
chemical characteristics; 95% were smaller than 3 jj. ,
and they contained 77-91% inorganic materials, with
carbon varying from 4 to 12%.

Cocoon Deposition and Cannibalism
in Dugesia dorotocephala *

Marie M. Jenkins

Department of Biology, Madison College,
Harrisonburg, Virginia.

In sexually reproducing planarians cocoons contain¬
ing one to three dozen eggs and several hundred yolk
cells are extruded through the gonopore, receiving
at the same time an adhesive secretion from cement
glands. In Dugesia dorotocephala and related species
this adhesive secretion becomes drawn out into a
slender stalk by means of which the cocoon is attached
to the substrate. When first deposited, the cocoon is
soft and creamy white, but within a few hours the
outer layer hardens to form a dark, brittle protective
covering.

Cannibalism has been observed repeatedly in Du¬
gesia dorotocephala and other planarians. In most
cases intact individuals are not attacked, but injured
planarians and fission tails are frequently used as
sources of food. Recent studies have shown that can¬
nibalistic behavior is also exhibited in the presence

of freshly deposited cocoons. Older cocoons with
hardened coverings are ordinarily immune to attack,
but the soft, outer layer of fresh cocoons is easily
pierced by the planarian pharynx. The entire mass
of eggs and yolks cells may be ingested in less than
five minutes. The outer covering is not eaten, but is
left as a thin, wrinkled, yellowish shell. In some in¬
stances, planarians are attracted to the cocoon even
before deposition is completed, and an attempt may
be made to reach the cocoon by inserting the pharynx
under the worm depositing the cocoon. Whether or
not the attractiveness of the cocoon as an article of
food bears a relationship to the length of time elapsed
since the previous feeding has not been determined.

* Supported in part by grants from Madison College Research
Fund and the National Institutes of Health.

Reproductive Capacity in Fissioning and
Nonfissioning Individuals of a Sexual
Race of Dugesia dorotocephala *
Marie M. Jenkins

Department of Biology, Madison College,
Harrisonburg, Virginia.

An attempt is being made to establish two lines of
descent in a sexual race of Dugesia dorotocephala :
S-S, in which individuals become sexual without prior
fission, and FS-FS, in which fission occurs before the
onset of sexual maturity. During one year, monthly
cocoon deposition per worm averaged 1.2-3. 8 in the
S-S line and 2. 6-6.5 in the FS-FS. Monthly produc¬
tion of living young averaged 0.6-11.3 in the S-S
and 12.5-30.2 in the FS-FS. Gliding lengths at birth
ranged 1-12 mm with the majority being 3-4 mm
long. Mortality of young during one year averaged
62.9% in the S-S compared to 41.5% in the FS-FS.
Fission prior to sexual maturity occurred in both groups,
being 8.1% in the S-S and 12.2% in the FS-FS.
Sexual maturity without prior fission was also found:
27.9% in tire S-S and 45.8% in the FS-FS. Some
individuals (1.1%, S-S; 0.5%, FS-FS) neither fis¬
sioned nor became sexual, but remained less than 10
mm in length throughout their lives.

Results to date indicate: (1) production of viable
cocoons does not alternate with periods of asexual
fission and shows no seasonal trend; (2) fission appears
to be an ineffective means of reproduction since fis¬
sion products either die or become sexual; (3) fission
prior to sexuality possibly may result in a more vigor¬
ous race since mortality is lower and both cocoon
deposition and number of living young produced are
greater in the FS-FS group; and (4) size is no indi¬
cation of age since numerous individuals over one year
old are as small as or smaller than ones recently hatch¬
ed.

* Supported in part by grants from Madison College Research
Fund and the National Institutes of Health.

160

The Virginia Journal of Science

The Insects of Virginia, a Literature
Review, and a Proposal for an Irregular
Series on the Insects of Virginia
Michael Kosztarab

Department of Entomology, Virginia Polytechnic
Institute, Blacksburg, Virginia.

It is estimated that there are over 20,000 species
of insects in Virginia and about 10% of these are of
major economic importance. Unfortunately, the in¬
sects of Virginia are poorly known, although systematic
collections of insects from the state started with the
establishment of the Virginia Agricultural Experiment
Station, as early as 1888. There is a real gap in this
tvpe of study in Virginia compared with the amount
of work done in other states. To make up for this
deficiency, the author intends to initiate an irregular
series of publications recording the insect fauna of
Virginia: a systematic treatment including distribu¬
tional, life history and ecological information, economic
importance, and identification keys where possible.
These publications should help directly and/or in¬
directly the biologists, foresters, fanners, nurserymen,
orchard owners, gardeners, and the public in general.

An invitation is hereby made to all interested biolo¬
gists to contribute papers of this nature in the future.
Nine scientists to date have offered to prepare 11 pub¬
lications for this series.

It is the author’s sincere hope that this humble
beginning on the Virginia insects will lead the way
to an organized natural history survey and especially
to a biological survey work in Virginia in the near
future.

Respiration in the Vibratory Muscle of

Crotalus horridus (Reptilia: Crotalidae)

F. B. Leftwich, G. C. Schaefer, J. E. Turner,
and J. E. Forbes

Department of Biology, University of Richmond,
Richmond, Virginia.

The oxygen consumption of resting muscle fibers
from the vibratory apparatus was compared with that
of epaxial muscle fibers of the same snake. Twelve
adult timber rattlesnakes ( Crotalus horridus ) were
used for this study- The Qo2 of the vibratory muscle
was found to be five to ten times greater than the
Qo2 of epaxial muscle. Vibratory muscle was found
to have a higher concentration of mitochondria than
epaxial muscle. Vibratory muscle succinic dehydro¬
genase and cytochrome oxidase activities were also
found to be significantly higher. These data provide
insight into an understanding of the capacity of the
vibratory apparatus to maintain frequencies up to
100 cycles per second.

Some Computer Applications in Forest
Botany

H. A. I. Madgwick

Department of Forestry and Wildlife, Virginia Poly¬
technic Institute, Blacksburg, Virginia.

Computers are primarily suited to problems which
are characterized by many complicated interrelating
factors and large numbers of data. Computers have
been widely accepted in the physical sciences. Biolo¬
gists have been slower to accept this new tool although
it has been forecast that the greatest use of com¬
puters may be in biomedical applications.

Three uses of computers in forest botany will be
illustrated. A computer is used to reduce data col¬
lected from hemispherical photographs to characterize
the light climate in forests under a variety of skylight
conditions. A theoretical model for explaining the
vertical distribution of foliage in crowns of pine trees
has been developed. A computer is used to calculate
the theoretical distribution under given conditions and
to compare theoretical and observed distributions.

Plankton in James River Estuary, Vir¬
ginia.

I. Phytoplankton in the Elizabeth River,
Hampton Roads, and Willoughby Bay
Harold G. Marshall

Department of Biology, Old Dominion College,
Norfolk, Virginia.

The James and Elizabeth Rivers meet the Chesa¬
peake Bay in the waters of Hampton Roads, Virginia.
A twenty-month study of the phytoplankton was made
in the Elizabeth River, Hampton Roads, and adjoin¬
ing Willoughby Bay from January 1964 to August
1965. The composition and seasonal variations of
total phytoplankton and major species are described
for stations in this area.

The seasonal patterns indicated the greatest num¬
bers of phytoplankton occurred during the colder
months, with lesser numbers but greater diversity of
species, in late spring and summer. The major phy-
toplankters were neritic north temperate diatoms.
Skelctonema costatum, Asterionella japonica, and Nitz-
shia pungens atlantica predominated during the win¬
ter and early spring population maxima. Diatoms and
large numbers of phytoflagellates were the major con¬
stituents in collections during summer and fall. The
major phytoflagellates were cryptophycean species:
Cryptomonas sp., C. salina, and C. stigmatica.

The population variations in the composition and
vertical distribution of phytoplankton is discussed for
a 24-hour period, at one station, in Hampton Roads.
In addition, changes in phytoplankton composition is

Proceedings, 1966-1967

161

outlined for 9 stations located along the length of the
Elizabeth River. There was a gradual reduction in
the concentrations of calcium, magnesium, sodium,
potassium, and strontium at these stations from the
mouth of tire Elizabeth River to the Great Bridge
locks. The phytoplankton changed from a mixed
combination of numerous phytoflagellates and diatoms
to a predominately diatom flora, with S. costatum the
major species.

Seed Scarification by Plausible Effects
of Fire
Robert L. Miller

Department of Forestry and Wildlife, Virginia Poly¬
technic Institute, Blacksburg, Virginia.

Prescribed burning has for many years been an
important land-management tool in the southeastern
United States. The family Leguminosae includes sev¬
eral species of plants which appear in large numbers
following a fire. This is significant to wildlife man¬
agement as these plants are a source of seed important
as bobwhite quail and turkey food. Many of these
seed are “macrobiotic”, that is, seed which are capable
of remaining dormant and viable for long periods of
time. They generally possess a hard seed coat which
is impervious to water and oxygen. Laboratory studies
were conducted to determine the nature of the rela¬
tionship between fire and germination of these seed.
Scarification treatments which enhanced germination
were soaking in hot water, sulfuric acid, or ethyl
alcohol, rubbing with sandpaper, and subjection to
moist heat, the latter treatment possibly being a rea¬
sonable simulation of fire. Detailed work on Cassia
nictitans showed that the hot-water treatment removed
material from the seed, presumably from the seed
coat. This material consisted of a water-soluble and
a water- insoluble fraction. Chemical characterization
of the soluble portion revealed that it contained a
small amount of protein and a relatively large amount
of carbohydrate material, about 30% of which was
a uronic acid.

An Immunoelectrophoretic Analysis of
Soluble Antigens in the Ilyanassa
Embryo *

John B. Morrill

Department of Biology, College of William 6- Mary,
Williamsburg, Virginia.

Antisera to eggs and 10-day veligers of Ilyanassa
obsoleta were prepared for immunoelectrophoretic de¬
tection of antigens in extracts of 0- to 10-day embryos.
A maximum of 11 antigens were observed in egg
extracts with anti-0-day and anti-10-day sera indicat¬
ing both types of antisera had antibodies to similar

antigens. Consistent with this was the observation
that both types of antisera developed four of the 11
antigens with 10-day veliger extracts. Only one anti¬
gen (antigen 12) was limited to extracts of embryos
more than 8 days old and developed only with anti-
10-day veliger sera.

None of the 11 antigens declined until after the
third day of development. Four antigens (antigens
3, 5, 8, and 11) disappeared after the third day, a
fifth (antigen 1) after the sixth day, and two addi¬
tional ones (antigens 7 and 10) after the eighth day.
Antigens 2, 4, 6, and 9 persisted throughout the first
10 days of development. In post-1 0-day veligers in
which there was no yolk, only antigen 12 and occa¬
sionally antigen 6 were detected. This observation
coupled with the decrease in detectable egg antigens
coinciding with the visible decrease in yolk volume
at the 4-day stage suggests that most of the antigens
may be related to deutoplasmic substances.

* Supported by NSF Grant G-10893.

Heritability of Shell Size in Terrestrial
Gastropods

James Murray and Bryan Clarke
Department of Biology, University of Virginia, Char¬
lottesville, Virginia, and Department of Zoology, Uni¬
versity of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, Scotland.

The heritability of shell size has been estimated in
the polymorphic land snails Partula suturalis Pfeiffer
and Partida taeniata Morch. The regression of mean
length and width of offspring on parental midpoints
indicates a high degree of heritability in every case.
In one instance there is evidence that heritability dif¬
fers significantly in the Fx and F2 generations. We
have found no indication of any maternal effects nor
of any consistent differences in size between off¬
spring of different color morphs.

Hydra Lysosomes

Paul J. Osborne and A. T. Miller, Jr.

Department of Biology, Lynchburg College, Lijnch-
burg, Virginia, and Department of Physiology, School
of Medicine, University of North Carolina, Chapel
Hill, North Carolina.

By application of the Barka and Anderson method
to cryostat sections of Hydra oligactis, which utilizes
sites of acid phosphatase activity as an indicator,
lysosomal patterns were revealed. Acid phosphatase
activity was localized in small spherical bodies within
the gastrodermal cells after feeding. At later inter¬
vals the enzyme activity was found in nondigestive
structures such as gland cells, muscle cells, and devel¬
oping cnidoblasts, but not in mesoglea. This pattern
indicates that food is the inductant, whether exogenous

162

The Virginia Journal of Science

or endogenous, and that survival during starvation is
accomplished by the presence and action of lysosomal
contents.

Production of MSX-Resistant Oysters

Edwin H. Powell and Jay D. Andrews

Virginia Institute of Marine Science,
Gloucester Point, Virginia.

Since 1959 the oyster pathogen Minchinia nelsoni,
popularly called MSX, has persistently killed oysters
in Virginia and has kept out of production nearly
half of our private oyster beds. In response to this
crisis, the Virginia Institute of Marine Science initiated
an exhaustive study of the disease, one aspect of
which was production of MSX-resistant or tolerant
strains of oysters. The problem was approached by
culturing in the laboratory progeny from old survivors
of the disease and by selectively exposing resistant
and susceptible oysters to the disease.

The program was planned in four phases: collec¬
tion of brood oysters, rearing of larvae, nursery cul¬
ture of spat, and monitoring of progeny for disease
and mortality. Scattered survivors were collected
from beds now devastated by MSX, and for controls
oysters were obtained from areas free of tire disease.
These oysters were bred in the laboratory under con¬
trolled conditions to insure known parentage. The
progeny groups were raised in a pond nursery pro¬
tected from predators and free from contamination by
wild spatfall. The monitoring phase, by far the long¬
est and most tedious, consists of maintaining counted
groups of oysters in travs located in epizootic and
disease-free areas. Frequent counts and samples give
mortality rates and infection levels. The work has
clearly established time and intensity patterns of the
disease and the areas affected. Further, it has dem¬
onstrated that resistance can be both hereditary and
acquired. Early exposure of spat to the disease has
been found to he important. No reduction in activity
of MSX has been noted after eight years of epizootics
despite scarcity of oysters in endemic areas. However,
a program which would reactivate oystering in MSX-
infested waters is limited only by inability to control
predation of young oysters.

Proposed Mechanisms of Detoxification
of Phenolic Compounds in the Blue Crab,
Callinectes sapidus Rathbun *
Robert L. Puyear

Department of Biology, Old Dominion College,
Norfolk, Virginia.

Observations indicate that the blue crab uses a
different enzyme and substrate for detoxifying phenolic
compounds than that reported for mollusks. The en¬

zyme used by crabs is UDP-glucuronyltransferase and
the substrate is UDP- glucuronic acid, while mollusks
use the enzyme UDP-glucosyltransferase with UDP-
glucose as substrate. Activity of this enzyme in the
blue crab is low but may be markedly enhanced
when UDP- glucuronic acid pyrophosphatase and /?- glu¬
curonidase are inhibited and the glucuronide permitted
to accumulate.

* Supported by NSF Grant GB-3945.

A Comparison of Vegetative Character¬
istics of Several Genera with Those of
the Genus Cimicifuga

Gwynn W. Ramsey

Department of Biology, Lynchburg College,
Lynchburg, Virginia.

Cimicifuga and the genus Actaea (Ranunculaceae) ,
Aruncus (Rosaceae), and Astilbe (Saxifragaceae) ,
among others, are often confused when only vegeta¬
tive parts are available for examination. Comparative
notes concerning the vegetative characteristics of these
genera have been accumulated over a five-year period;
the differences noted are summarized in table form.

Effects of Salivary Nerve Growth-Pro¬
moting Protein on Murine Integument *

Willie M. Reams, Jr., and Craig B. Satterlee

Departments of Biology, Medical College of Virginia
and University of Richmond, Richmond, Virginia.

A protein isolated from mouse sarcoma, snake venom,
and mouse salivary gland (cf., Cohen, and Levi-Mon-
talcini) has been shown to have growth-promoting
effects on sympathetic and spinal ganglia of the chick
and mouse. Since sympathetic and spinal ganglia
and pigment cells all have a common ancestry in the
neural crest, an investigation was initiated to ascertain
the effects of the nerve growth factor (NGF) on the
integumentary melanocytes in PET mice. NGF was
prepared from the submaxillary glands of adult male
mice by the CM- and DEAE-cellulose methods of
Cohen (1960). Young, postnatal PET mice were in¬
jected subcutaneously for 10 consecutive days. Con¬
trols were injected with just the syringe needle,
physiological saline, or the carrier without NGF. Ex¬
amination of the integument over the site of NGF
injection showed a reduction in the melanocyte popu¬
lation in the dermis and the disappearance of pig¬
mentation in a peripheral zone of hair. The center
of the injection site characteristically showed a dense
patch of darkly pigmented, earlv anagen phase hairs.
Integument samples from other areas of the NGF ani¬
mals, as well as from the controls, appeared normal.
Apparently the NGF is specific for promoting the

Proceedings, 1966-1967

163

growth of neural crest-derived neurons, but has a
mixed effect on integumentary melanocytes.

* Assisted by NIH Grant ITI AM 5508-01 at MCV.

A Survey of Marine Ichthyofauna of
Oceanside Waters of Virginia’s Eastern
Shore

C. E. Richards and M. Castagna

Sponsor : W. J. Hargis, Jr.

Virginia Institute of Marine Science, School of Marine
Science, College of William and Man/, Williamsburg,
Virginia, and Department of Marine Science, Univer¬
sity of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia.

An exploratory survey of marine fishes that utilize
waters contained behind the seaside barrier islands of
Virginia’s Eastern Shore was started in June 1965 and
continued through July 1966. Sampling sites in this
high-salinity area were selected so as to sample four
types of habitat: outer inlet areas, mid-lagoon chan¬
nels, inshore beaches, and euryhaline creeks. Salini¬
ties and temperatures were measured at each station.

Eight trawl stations and ten seine stations were
selected for regular sampling. Other random collec¬
tions were made when possible. 279 collections yield¬
ed 70 species from 40 families. There were only 29
species that were caught by both seine and trawl.
Trawl catches included 47 species and seine catches
52 species. The area apparently is not important as
a nursery ground for commercial food fishes, but is
an important feeding area for many species. Nineteen
other species and ten more families are known to
inhabit the area although they were not captured in
this survey.

Some Biochemical Patterns during the
Development of Normal and Actinomy-
cin-D-Treated Embryos of the Pulmonate
Snail, Lymnaea palustris *

Warren L. Rottmann

Department of Biology, College of William l? Mary,
W illiamsburg, Virginia.

Rates of protein, RNA and DNA synthesis were
determined at half-day intervals during development
of Lymnaea palustris. Incorporation of tritium-label¬
led leucine, uridine and thymidine was measured in
the cold perchloric acid residue. In normal embryos
the rates of protein, RNA and DNA syntheses are low

and nearly constant throughout cleavage and gastrula-
tion. As the gastrula develops into a trochophore,
RNA and protein syntheses accelerate markedly. Pro¬
tein synthesis “peaks” at the 2-day trochophore stage.
A second surge of protein synthesis occurs at the 3-
day stage — a period of marked embryogenesis and
growth. Prior to this stage, there is a high rate of
RNA synthesis.

Continuous treatment with actinomycin-D (100 yxg/
ml) inhibits differentiation. The embryos arrest ap¬
proximately between the 2- and 3-day stages. In the
actinomycin-D-treated embryos, uridine incorporation
occurs in the arrested embiyos. Marked protein syn¬
thesis occurs during post-gastrula stages, but decreases
with time. While the magnitude of the protein syn¬
thesis corresponds to the “2-day peak” of normal syn¬
thesis, it is delayed by approximately half a day.

The results suggest that through the 2-day stage,
protein synthesis is under the control of “prescribed”
RNA. Following this stage, genome-dependent RNA
synthesis is required for further differentiation and
growth.

* Supported in part by NSF Grant GB-5540.

Photoperiodic Control of Seasonal Varia¬
tion and Geographic Distribution in the
Genus Porphyra *

Thomas N. Sanderlin

Institute of Oceanography, Old Dominion College,
Norfolk, Virginia.

Photoperiodism as a life-cycle regulator in the genus
Porphyra has been suggested by Kurogi (1959), who
demonstrated a connection between day length and
the liberation of monospores in the conchocelis stage
of Porphyra. Iswaski (1961) cultured Porphyra tenera
through the conchocelis stage using photoperiod alone
as the controlling factor. In the present study separate
life-cvcle pathways were induced in Porphyra leuco-
sticta by photoperiod regulation in culture. Short day
conditions allowed Porphyra thalli to thrive, and no
conchocelis stage emerged. Long day conditions pro¬
duced carpospores which gave rise to the conchocelis
stage if long day conditions were extreme in length,
but remained dormant if they were short (13 hours of
light per day). In both pathways, re-exposure to
short day conditions produced leafy thalli. Life-cycle
stage initiation by photoperiod explains an absence of
the conchocelis stage in the lower Chesapeake Bay,
and accounts for some of the differences in Porphyra
life cycles polar to given latitudes.

* Supported by NSF Grant GE-6394.

164

The Virginia Journal of Science

Provocation by X-Rays of Epidermal

Melanocytes in the PET Mouse *

Barry E. Schaeffer and Willie M. Reams, Jr.
Departments of Biology, Medical College of Virginia
and University of Richmond, Richmond, Virginia.

PET mice are characterized by the occurrence of
melanocytes in the connective tissue of many body
areas. However, melanocytes are lacking in normal
interfollicular skin. Are prospective melanocytes pres¬
ent in the epidermis of PET mice and are they respon¬
sive to radiation as in other strains of mice? New¬
born PET mice were given various amounts of X-rays
to their right hind legs. The left hind legs served
as controls. Although lower ranges of X-irradiation
resulted in increased dermal pigmentation, it required
irradiation levels of 2000 r and above to provoke the
appearance of melanocytes in the basal and supra-
basal layers of the epidermis. Since available evi¬
dence throws doubt on the movement of dermal mela-
nocvtes up into the epidermis, it is tendered that the
provoked melanocytes were resident in the epidermis
prior to irradiation as precursor pigment cells.

* Assisted by NIH Grant ITI AM 5508-01 at MCV.

A Comparative Study of the -SH Groups
in the Gastrocnemius of the Normal
and X-Irradiated PET Mouse *

Robert E. Shervette III & Willie M. Reams, Jr.

Departments of Biology, Medical College of Virginia
and University of Richmond, Richmond, Virginia.

It has been recognized that hyperpigmentation of
the skin is the result of eliminating the — SH inhibi¬
tion when treatment is by X-irradiation. The results
of a study by Reams and Schaeffer indicate a progres¬
sive increase of melanocytes in the skin with an in¬
creasing dosage of X-irradiation. However, it was
also noted that the effect of X-irradiation on the gas¬
trocnemius resulted in a decrease in the number of
intramuscular melanocytes. The present study was
designed to determine whether the changes in the
X-irradiated muscle is related to possible changes in
— SH groups. The technique employed is a quantita¬
tive measurement of — SH groups by azo-aryl mercap-
tide coupling in the normal and the X-irradiated mus¬
cle. Evidence thus far available suggests that in nor¬
mal development the number of melanocytes is inverse¬
ly proportional to the amount of — SH in the muscle.
Determination for possible correlation with X-irradiated
muscle is now in progress.

* Assisted by NIH Grant ITI AM 5508-01 at MCV.

An Electron-Microscope Study of the
Starch-Containing Plastids in the Fern,
Todea barbara

Howard M. Smith and David S. Smith

Department of Biology, University of Virginia,
Charlottesville, Virginia.

Fern gametophytes of Todea barhara grown in vitro
have two types of starch-containing plastids. The
first type are chloroplasts having well-developed grana
regions connected by intervening membranes and lit¬
tle deposition of starch. The other type are amvlo-
plasts usually containing abundant deposits of starch
and stacks of membranes which resemble the grana
of the chloroplast but are not connected. Even when
little starch is present, the latter type has very few
internal membranes.

Membrane spacing and gross organization of the
mature plastid of both types suggest similar mor¬
phological development. However, when and where
in their development known physiological differences
arise is not yet known.

Dissimilar Pathways of Glucose Metabo¬
lism as Related to the Growth Cycle
in Ustilago maydis

Richard W. Sollenberger

Department of Biology, University of Virginia,
Charlottesville, Virginia.

Ustilago maydis was grown in shake culture as a
unicellular organism. Aliquots taken from the cul¬
ture at intervals during the growth cycle demonstrated
by C6/C1 ratios a change in utilization of glucose
from the glycolytic pathway to the hexose monophos¬
phate pathway. Similar studies on the growth cycle
demonstrated increased enzyme titers of glucose-6-
phosphate dehydrogenase and 6-phosphogluconate de¬
hydrogenase with increased age of the culture.

Effects of Aspect on a Shale-Barren
Ridge of Southwestern Virginia

Sara Sue Taylor and Gene M. Silberhorn

Department of Biology, Radford College,
Radford, Virginia.

A Devonian shale ridge was sampled seasonally
from September 1966 through April 1967 to determine
the differentiation and frequency distribution of flora
on the southwest- and northeast-facing slopes. Biotic
and abiotic conditions were investigated to determine
effects on the flora present. The predominant species
on the southwest slope is scrub pine ( Finns virginiana) ,

Proceedings, 1966-1967

165

while the predominant species on the northeast-facing
slope are various deciduous species and white pine
( Pinus strobus) . Differentiation of soil moisture, pH
variances, illumination, and slope inclination were con¬
sidered in the conclusions that the major influences
on the shale-barren flora are aspect and the charac¬
teristic cleavage of the shale.

The Influence of Strange Males, Strange
Room, and 20-Kc Auditory Stimulation
on Pregnancy Success in Nulliparous
Prairie Deermice *

C. Richard Terman and J. M. Fuqua

Department of Biology, College of William 6- Mary,
Williamsburg, Virginia.

Nulliparous Peromyscus maniculatus bairdii females
previously maintained in monosexual groups were pair¬
ed with fertile males at 60 days of age. Vaginal
smears were taken twice daily until insemination was
noted. Twenty-four hours post-insemination the males
were removed from the cages and the females were
exposed for 10 hours to one of the following situa¬
tions: (a) test room alone, (b) test room plus strange

male, (c) test room plus 20-kc sound. Ten days
after insemination all females were killed and their
uteri examined for embryos.

The data indicate significantly greater failure of preg¬
nancy among females exposed to strange males for
10 hours than was true of the other test situations.

* Partially supported by USPHSMH 08289.

A Preliminary Survey of the Flora of
Several Southwestern Virginia Piedmont
Counties

Wayne Thacker, William F. Ruska, and
Gwynn W. Ramsey

Department of Biology, Lynchburg College,
Lynchburg, Virginia.

During the summer of 1966 locations in several
southwestern Virginia Piedmont counties were visited
and plant collections were made. Study of the mate¬
rial collected shows that distributional ranges for sev¬
eral taxa have been extended beyond those previously
published. Many county and Piedmont records and
several state records are established. The results of
the study indicate that concentrated floristic studies
for the Virginia Piedmont, especially for the south¬
western portion, are needed. The summer’s work and
this report initiate that study.

A Metabolic Study of the Isolated
Perfused Snake Liver

James E. Turner and F. B. Leftwich

Department of Biology, University of Richmond,
Richmond, Virginia.

A metabolic study was made on the isolated, per¬
fused liver of Natrix fasciata fasciata. Uric acid pro¬
duction, total blood protein levels, serum protein pat¬
terns, blood glucose levels, and bile production were
evaluated in this study as criteria of liver function.

The perfused liver was found to produce uric acid
up through the fourth hour of perfusion. No signif¬
icant differences (between the perfusions) were found
in uric acid production/gm of liver tissue.

Perfusate protein and glucose levels were found to
be of a fluctuating or cyclic nature. There was
found to be an inverse relationship between these two
levels: that is, a rise in the protein level was accom¬
panied by a characteristic decrease in the glucose
level, the reverse also holding true. Also, both levels
were found to be inversely related to liver weight.

Plasma protein pattern studies showed that definite
changes were produced within certain specific bands
which corresponded to the fluctuations found in the
total protein levels. The chemical nature of these
bands was also determined.

Bile production was recorded in only two of the
five perfusions because of the difficulty encountered
in cannulating the minute bile duct.

Histological studies revealed some necrosis of the
perfused liver tissue.

It was concluded that the isolated liver of Natrix
f. fasciata could be perfused in our system from 4-5
hours without significant decreases in the functional
activities that were examined.

Distribution of Sacculinid-Infected Mud

Crabs in Chesapeake Bay

W. A. Van Engel, R. L, May, J. Whitten, and
D. D. Lundt

Virginia Institute of Marine Science, School of Marine
Sciences, College of William and Mary, Williamsburg,
Virginia, and Department of Marine Science, Univer¬
sity of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia.

Mud crabs (Decapoda: Xanthidae) parasitized with
sacculinids (Cirripedia) were discovered in the York
River, Virginia, in November 1964. Sacculinids were
previously unknown in the Chesapeake Bay area.

Continuing surveys have disclosed the presence of
Eurypanopeus depressus and Rhithropanopcus harrisii
infected with Loxothylacus panopaei in all the major
tributaries of the Virginia portion of the Bay.

166

The Virginia Journal of Science

In 1966, no infected crabs were found on the
ocean side of the Eastern Shore, on the Bay side north
of Occahannock Creek, and on the western shore
north of Windmill Point at the mouth of the Rappa¬
hannock River. The absence of infected crabs may
reflect ( 1 ) the failure of the infection to have spread
to those areas, (2) the unsuitability of the environ¬
ment for sacculinids, or (3) the incompleteness of
sampling.

The Use of Convolvulus sepium in
Morphogenetic Studies on Meristem
Regulation
William A. Wells

Department of Biology, University of Virginia,
Charlottesville, V i rginia .

Adventitious root production occurs in a character¬
istic manner at each node in the rhizome and shoot
system of the hedge bindweed. Convolvulus sepium.
Two root primordia arise simultaneously at specific
sites flanking the vascular connections to the axillary
bud. These primordia are first detected histologically
at node 4. Successively older nodes provide well-de¬
fined stages in the endogenous development of the
adventitious roots with emergence occurring at node
9 or 10.

The close association of the axillary bud and leaf
with the two adventitious root primordia at each node
provide an excellent system for the assay of the con¬
tribution of each organ to the growth of the root
primordia. Results illustrating the roles of the leaf
and bud in the development of the adventitious roots
are discussed.

Methods of utilizing the features of development in
Convolvulus sepium in conjunction with sterile cul¬
ture techniques to study factors influencing the initia¬
tion and growth of adventitious root primordia are
also discussed.

Variations in Larval Siren

Shirley K. Whitt

Department of Biology, Lynchburg College,
Lynchburg, Virginia.

The genus Siren is represented in the United States
by two distinct groups, the S. laceiiina complex and
the S. intermedia complex. These overlap in certain
areas of their geographic ranges and share certain
morphological characters which make the adults dif¬
ficult to distinguish. The larvae are distinctive and
easy to separate on the basis of color pattern alone.
The larvae of the S. laceiiina complex have lateral
stripes, those of the S. intermedia complex have head
markings and no lateral stripes. The lateral line sys¬
tem is conspicuous and distinguishable in each of the
groups, with very little overlapping of characters.

Summer Algae of Ocean City, Maryland

Barry L. Wulff, Harold J. Humm, Ella May
Wulff, B. H. Robison, and J. K. Lowry

Virginia Institute of Marine Science, School of Marine
Science, College of William and Mary, Williamsburg,
Virginia.

Thirty-four species of marine algae were collected
from the north jetty at Ocean City, Maryland, during
July and August 1966: 6 Cyanophyta, 16 Rhodophvta,
4 Phaeophyta and 8 Chlorophyta. Of these, eight
species (about 25%) were at their known southern
limit for either summer or the year around. Of the
former, Petalonia fascia and Porphtjra leucosticta occur
during the winter as far south as Cape Kennedy,
Florida, and Scytosiplion lomentaria and Porphyra
umbilicalis as far south as Beaufort, N. C. The re¬
maining four species ( Nemalion multifidum, Callitham-
nion baileyi, Polysiphonia urcoelata, and P. novae-
angliae ) are not known to occur farther south than
Ocean City during any season. Consequently, Ocean
City, Maryland, is a new southern boundary for some
marine algae having their northern limits north of
Cape Cod.

Proceedings, 1966-1967

167

Section of Chemistry

Hot-Atom Chemistry in Organic
Systems
Hans J. Ache

Department of Chemistry, Virginia Polytechnic Insti¬
tute, Blacksburg, Virginia.

Hot-atom chemistry is the study of the reactions
of atoms of high kinetic energy. Extensive studies
have been done producing these “hot” atoms by means
of nuclear reactions in inorganic or organic systems.
The kinetic energy of the recoil particles following
the nuclear transformations ranges from a few hundred
ev up to a few Mev. By energy transfer in collisions
with the surrounding matter these energetic particles
slow down before they react chemically. It is the
objective of hot-atom chemistry to study reactions
over the entire energy range and to provide an under¬
standing of their mechanism.

Spectrophotometric Behavior of Cobalt

Complexes in Nitrile Solvents

Elizabeth A. Adams and
Bernard L. Mahoney, Jr.

Department of Chemistry, Mary Washington College,
Fredericksburg, Virginia.

Previous work has shown that when cobalt chloride
is dissolved in a solvent, solution is accompanied by
solvent coordination. It is now generally accepted
that complex ions, resulting from the interaction of
the solute and the solvent, are responsible for the
spectral behavior of cobalt chloride solutions. Workers
fail to agree, however, on the nature of the complexes
formed or on the equilibria existing in solution.

This investigation has involved a detailed study of
the spectrophotometric behavior of cobalt chloride in
acetonitrile, butyronitrile, isobutyronitrile and benzo-
nitrile. Evidence strongly suggests that the following
equilibria are operative in solution:

CoClo + 2S CoCloS2 ^ C0CI3S- + CoS5Cl+

jr \\

CoCl4= CoSG++ •

Antimalarials . A Novel Approach to
a-2-Pyridyl and a -2-Piperidyl-2-aryl-
4-quinolinemethanols . Addition of
2-Pyridyllithium to Quinoline Car¬
boxylic Acids

David W. Boykin, Jr., A. R. Patel, Robert E.

Lutz, and Alfred Burger

Department of Chemistry, University of Virginia,
Charlottesville, Virginia.

Particularly interesting antiplasmodials, substituted
quinolines with a 4-a-piperidylmethanol side chain,
formerly made by a cumbersome six-step synthesis from
2-aryl-4-quinoline carboxylic acids, are now obtain¬
able by our new facile two-step synthesis through
treatment of the carboxylic acids with 2-pyridyllithium
and partial hydrogenation of the resulting 2-aryl-4-
quinolyl-2-pyridyl ketones. The structures of two were
confirmed by independent synthesis following the older
procedure. The 2-pyridyl ketones were converted by
NaBH4 into 2-aryl-4-quinolyl-2-pyridylmethanols. In a
better route to substituted 2-aryl-4-quinoline (dialkyl-
aminomethyl) methanols, obviating use of diazometh¬
ane, addition of methyllithium to 4-quinoline carboxylic
acids gave the corresponding 4-acetylquinolines, which
were then monobrominated and aminated.

Novel Solvent Effects. I. Cis-trans
Equilibrium Positions of Mono and
Dibenzoyl Aziridines. II. Determina¬
tion of Configurations of Three-Mem-
bered-Ring Carbonyl Compounds by
NMR Spectroscopy through Benzene-
Induced Chemical Shifts

David W. Boykin, Jr., Andrew B. Turner, and
Robert E. Lutz

Department of Chemistry, University of Virginia,
Charlottesville, Virginia.

I. Alcoholic base-catalyzed cis-trans equilibrium con-

168

The Virginia Journal of Science

stants, Kc/t, of 1-benzyl- and l-cyclohexyl-2,3-diben-
zoylaziridine and l-cyclo-hexyl-2-phenyl-3-benzoylazi-
ridine have been determined. These rapid and bal¬
anced equilibrations, yielding Kc/t = 1.63 in methanol
and 0.32 in f -butanol, follow the solvating abilities
of the alcohol series used. II. cis-trans Configuration¬
al assignments of three-membered-ring ketones were
made using solvent-induced chemical shift (8) differ¬
ences in their NMR spectra. A (8 CDC13 — 8 C0H0) for
protons on tire side of the ring opposite the ketone
is large (> 10 cps) while small or negative for pro¬
tons on the same side as the ketone group. A values
are explained in terms of a 1:1 benzene-substrate com¬
plex.

Treatment of I with dimethylsulfonium methylide in
dimethylsulfoxide resulted in methylene transfer from
the face of the molecule trans to the isopropylidene
group to afford epoxide III. The isomeric epoxide
IV resulted when dimethyloxosulfonium methylide was
used.

An Investigation of 1, 2, 3, 4-Cyclobutane-
tetracarboxylic Acid as an Intermediate
to Squaric Acid

Michael L. Bramley, Arnold S. Grandis, Edmond
P. Lawrence, William P. Ridley, and
James K. Shillington

Department of Chemistry, Washington and Lee
University, Lexington, Virginia.

A study of the preparation and structure of com¬
pounds of the cyclic series (CnOn)= has involved the
salts of rhodizonic, croconic, squaric, and trigonal acids.

Rhodizonic acid has been synthesized by the oxida¬
tion of inositol and by the self-condensation of glyoxal.
Croconic acid has been synthesized by ring reduction
of disodium tetrahvdroxy-p-benzoquinone.

Squaric acid has been synthesized by a high-pressure
reaction from CFo = CC12 . Another route to squaric
acid is through the condensation of diethyl acetvlenedi-
carboxylate with tetraethyl ethanetetracarboxylate to
yield hexaeth vl- 1 , 1 ,2,2,3,4-cvclobutanehexacarboxyl-
which is hydrolzed to 1,2,3,4-cyclobutanetetracarboxyl-
ate(I). The ester is transformed through the tetra-
bromo derivative to tetrahydroxy cyclobutane to squaric
acid.

Stereoselective Carbohydrate Synthesis

Francis A. Carey

Department of Chemistry, University of Virginia,
Charlottesville, Virginia.

A number of branched-chain carbohydrates have
been synthesized by addition of various reagents to
D-g/i/cero-l,2-0-isopr°pylidenetetros-3-ulose (I) and
3-deoxy-3-C-methylene- 1 ,2-O-isopropylidene-D-glycero-
tetrose (II).

Epoxide IV also resulted from treatment of II with
ni-chloroperbenzoic acid in chloroform.

These reactions, as well as osmium tetroxide oxida¬
tion of II, hydroboration of II and reduction of I, are
all stereoselective and provide convenient routes to
unusual sugars of synthetic interest.

Esters of 4-Dimethylamino-3-tetrahydro-
furanol

C. M. Darling and Herndon Jenkins

Research Department, A. H. Robins Company, Inc.,
Richmond, Virginia.

The synthesis and biological activity of five new
derivatives of 4-amino-3-tetrahydrofuranol are report¬
ed. The goal of this investigation was to determine
whether these sterically fixed ethanolamine analogs
would possess greater specificity of biological action
than the parent compounds.

Proceedings, 1966-1967

169

Classroom Ideas in Freshman Chemistry

Hyman I. Feinstein

Department of Chemistry, George Mason College,
University of Virginia, Fairfax, Virginia.

A number of ideas are discussed, including ( 1 ) com¬
putational aids such as mnemonic devices, methods
of approximation, dimensional reasoning, correct use
of symbols, and selected conversions from one scale
of measurement to another; (2) valence concepts to
distinguish between the numerical aspect of valence
(quanti valence) and the structural aspect (chemical
bonding); (3) pitfalls in redox equation writing and
suggestions for avoiding them; (4) quantitative applica¬
tion of Le Chatelier’s principle to differentiate between
the absolute amounts and concentrations of species in
an equilibrium; and (5) summation of two half -reac¬
tion potentials to produce a third half-reaction poten¬
tial. Emphasis is placed upon making the concepts
in freshman chemistry simple and meaningful yet
rigorous.

Carbonyl Compounds Formed by the
Autoxidation of Methyl Eicosapentaeno-
ate, Methyl Docosahexaenoate, and
Cod-Liver Oil

Mary P. Fisher and Lawrence A. Wishner

Department of Chemistry, Mary Washington College,
F redericksb u rg, V i rgin ia.

It has been shown in this laboratory that the aut¬
oxidation of adipose-tissue lipids of the vitamin E-
deficient, cod-liver-oil-fed rat produced butanal as the
major monocarbonvl autoxidation product. Since the
polyunsaturated fattv acids of cod-liver oil, which were
incorporated into these tissues, belong to the linolenate
family with the final double bond on the third carbon
from the methyl end of the molecule, the accepted
mechanism for olefinie autoxidation predicts propanal
as the major product. The present study was carried
out partially in an attempt to clarify this apparent
discrepancy.

Fatty-acid analysis of highly autoxidized cod-liver
oil with a peroxide number of 192 ( milliequivalents
per g lipid) showed significant degradation of only
eicosapentaenoic, docosapentaenoic, and docosahexa-
enoic acids of the linolenate family. Purified, midlv
autoxidized cod-liver oil with a peroxide number of
28, methvl eicosapentaenoate, and methyl docosahexa¬
enoate produced carbonyl patterns in agreement with
the accepted mechanism. In all cases the major prod¬
ucts were propanal and n-pent-2-enal as predicted,
and n-hex-2-enal in agreement with the literature on
linolenate. In addition, cod-liver oil which had been
heated to 188° C under vacuum for 1 hour before
carbonyl analysis to completely decompose hydroper¬

oxides showed the presence of n-hept-2,4-dienal as
predicted.

The in vivo predominance of butanal must be ex¬
plained either by a different mechanism in effect at the
low levels of autoxidation encountered in tissues or
by the selectively rapid metabolism of propanal under
these conditions.

Adsorption of Polar Compounds on
Amorphous Boron

J. S. Gillespie, Jr.

Virginia Institute for Scientific Research,
Richmond, Virginia.

The adsorption of some low-molecular-weight polar
compounds on the surface of boron filaments and
amorphous boron powder has been investigated by
gas-solid chromatography and by determination of the
infrared spectra of adsorbed molecules. Heats of ad¬
sorption of several compounds on boron filaments indi¬
cated that chemisorption and reaction with the adsorb¬
ent took place. Infrared spectra of the boron powder
and compounds adsorbed on its surface, together with
mass spectrometric analysis of gaseous products, show¬
ed that boron surfaces are quite reactive and indicate
that amorphous boron probably has a boric-acid-tvpe
surface.

Crystallization of Massive Amorphous
Boron

J. S. Gillespie, Jr.

Virginia Institute for Scientific Research,
Richmond, Virginia.

Wire-grown, massive amoqihous boron heated in
inert atmospheres at pressures of 10-5 to 1(T6 torr was
converted to the /J-rhombohedral modification at
1000° C or above. The extent of conversion depend¬
ed on the time of treatment and was inhibited by the
presence of 50 torr of argon or 30 torr of nitrogen.
It is concluded that the conversion takes place bv a
surface diffusion mechanism. The stepwise develop¬
ment of a /j-rhoinbohedral X-ray-diffraction pattern
suggests that massive amorphous boron may be a micro¬
crystalline deposit of this particular modification of
the element.

A Study of Chemical Shift Nonequival¬
ence Due to Molecular Dissymmetry

Charles R. Green and Oscar R. Rodig

Department of Chemistry, University of Virginia,
Charlottesville, Virginia.

A systematic study has been made on certain tertiary

170

The Virginia Journal of Science

acids and acetates to find out what steric and electronic
features are necessary for methylene hydrogen non¬
equivalence to appear in their nuclear magnetic reson¬
ance spectra. Normally geminal hydrogens are mag¬
netically equivalent in acyclic carbon compounds; how¬
ever, there are examples in which these hydrogens are
nonequivalent. Theoretically, dissymmetry is the only
criterion which must be met for methylene hydrogen
coupling to occur, but many dissymmetric compounds
do not show this coupling. Our evidence shows that
certain steric and electronic conditions must also exist
for chemical shift nonequivalence to appear in the
tertiary acids and acetates which we have studied.

A Rapid Thin-Layer Chromatographic
Method for the Preparation of
Aflatoxin Bi

L. K. Hanna and T. C. Campbell

Department of Biochemistn/ and Nutrition, Virginia
Polytechnic Institute, Blacksburg, Virginia.

Aflatoxin B, is a very potent liver carcinogen pro¬
duced by the mold Aspergillus flavus. In this study,
aflatoxin Bx was prepared from rice inoculated with
Aspergillus flavus by the method of Shotwell et al.

[ Appl . Microbiol., 14, 425 (1966)]. However, pre¬
parative thin-layer chromatography was employed rather
than column chromatography to separate and purify
the aflatoxin Bx. Approximately 40 mg of Bx was
extracted with chloroform from 50 g of rice substrate
cultured for 5 days. This extract was streaked on a
plate, 20 by 40 cm, with a 2-mm-thick silica-gel layer.
The plate was developed in a solvent system of chloro¬
form: ether: acetic acid (2:2:1). The Bx was resolved
with one development and was then scraped off the
plate with the silica-gel band. It was removed from
the silica gel by eluting with methanol. After addi¬
tion of water, the Bx was extracted with chloroform.
It was found that optimum yields were obtained if
the process was carried out in the absence of light
and if the product was removed from the silica gel as
quickly as possible.

This method offers a much more rapid and economi¬
cal technique of preparing pure aflatoxin Bx. In addi¬
tion, far greater yields can be obtained than is possible
with methods previously reported.

The Lithium-Liquid Ammonia Reduction
and Reductive Methylation of Some
Aliphatic a , /3 -Unsaturated Ketones

Larry Hightower and Homer A. Smith, Jr.

Department of Chemistry, Hampden-Sydney College,
Hampden-Sy dney, Virginia.

Treatment of one mole of 4-methyl-3-penten-2-one

(mesityl oxide) or 3-methyI-3-penten-2-one in liquid
ammonia solution with two gram-atoms of lithium and
one mole of f-butyl alcohol gave a lithium enolate in
solution. Treatment of the enolate with ammonium
chloride gave the saturated ketone. Treatment of the
enolate with methyl iodide gave the saturated ketone
with a new a-methyl group. No evidence of equilibra¬
tion among the structurally isomeric enolates, leading
to an a'-methyl product, was observed. Byproducts
consisted of the saturated alcohol and polymethylated
compounds.

NMR Spectra Simplification by
Deuterium Exchange

Ashby F. Johnson, Jr., and W. J. Welstead, Jr.

Research Department, A. H. Robins Company, Inc.,
Richmond, Virginia.

Many useful techniques have been developed over
the years for the simplification of complex nuclear
magnetic resonance spectra. We wish to report the
extension of one such technique, deuterium exchange,
to certain activated aromatic protons. The convenient
technique, which may be carried out in the NMR
tube, is described and appropriate spectra is discussed.

A Study in Differential Thermal
Analysis: Cerous Nitrate*

James J. Kessinger, Jr.

Washington and Lee High School, Arlington, Virginia.

The purpose of this research project is twofold: (1)
to determine the physical and chemical behavior of
cerous nitrate during thermal decomposition; (2) to
demonstrate the technique of differential thermal ana¬
lysis (DTA) as a research tool. Cerous nitrate was
chosen for study because of its unusual DTA thermo¬
gram and because of a conflict of data between chemi¬
cal handbooks concerning the compound’s decomposi¬
tion.

Based on DTA runs, thermogravimetric analysis,
visual observations, and reference reading, I have de¬
veloped conclusions that, I feel, best explain the thermal
decomposition of cerous nitrate, Ce(N03)3 • 6H..O.
The first activity that occurs during decomposition is
the loss of three of the six moles of water of hydra¬
tion at 57° C. The compound dissolves in this liberat¬
ed water. The presence of the dissolved cerous nitrate
raises the boiling point of the water to approximately
140° C. At this temperature the three remaining moles
of water of hvdration are liberated. By 200° C the
water of hydration is completely vaporized, and the
compound is again in a solid state.

At 215° C cerous nitrate decomposes to cerous oxide,
Ce203 , liberating oxygen and nitrogen dioxide. Al¬
most immediately the cerous oxide being formed is

Proceedings, 1966-1967

171

oxidized to ceric oxide, CeCb . Decomposition is com¬
pleted by 300° C, the end product being ceric oxide.
An investigation into tbe effect of a nitrogen atmos¬
phere on the compound during decomposition showed
that the oxygen produced in the decomposition of the
cerous nitrate to cerous oxide is sufficient to oxidize
the unstable cerous oxide to ceric oxide in an atmos¬
phere not containing oxygen. I thus believe the fol¬
lowing equations describe the chemical decomposition
of cerous nitrate:

Ce ( NOs ) s Ce203+§02 T +3N02 T

^Ce203+i02-^Ce02 .

All research was conducted at Fort Belvoir’s Basic
Research Laboratory using a Du Pont 900 differential
thermal analyzer and its supporting equipment.

* Student Award Paper.

Biocatalytic Depolymerization
of Cellulose
K. W. King

Department of Biochemistry and Nutrition, Virginia
Polytechnic Institute, Blacksburg, Virginia.

Data allowing clarification of the initial and final
phases of the enzymatic depolymerization of cellulose
are presented. Electron photomicrographs demonstrat¬
ed the existence of a fragmenting of crystalline cellulose
into its ultimate crystal micelles. Studies of the induc¬
ing capacitv of celluloses I, II, and IV and of the
activation energy in hydrolysis of these celluloses prov¬
ed that crystal lattice type is a significant determinant
of both induction and catalysis. It was also shown
that components Ct and Cx act in sequence rather
than in concert. Terminal utilization of cellulose oli¬
gosaccharides by Cellvibrio gilvus is shown to involve
a series of transglucosidations coupled to phosphorol-
vsis of cellulose.

A Study of the Surface Tension of
Electrolytic Solutions

Carolyn Larkins and Doris V. Stage

Department of Chemistry, Madison College,
Harrisonburg, Virginia.

A study has been made of the measurement of the
surface tension of various electrolytic solutions, particu¬
larly NaCl and CaCL , with the du Nouy ring ten¬
siometer. With consecutive applications of a clean,
dry ring onto the same surface, surface-tension meas¬
urements show a consistent increase to a maximum
value. This maximum value is in agreement with
values obtained using the capillary-rise method. It
appears that the low values are caused by the presence

of a surface film which is removed by successive appli¬
cations of the ring and which can be removed by
wiping the surface with paraffin wax or parafilm.

Transannular Phenyl Group Migrations
in the Pyrolysis and Photolysis of
1, 2-bis- (Phenylated-dihydro-2-f uranyl) -
hydrazines

Robert E. Lutz and Charles V. Juelke

Department of Chemistry, University of Virginia,
Charlottesville, Virginia.

In the rearrangements to the phenylated fi , y-un-
saturated ketone, 5-to-2 transannular phenyl group
migration was first observed in pyrolysis and photolysis
of 1,2 -bis- ( 2,3, 5,5-tetraphenyldihydro-2-furyl) -hydra¬
zine (I). This migration occurs to lesser extent in
pyrolysis of the 2,3,4,5,5-pentaphenyl analog of I, in
competition with rearrangement without migration, as
shown through tracking with randomly C-14-labelled
5,5-phenyls. The minor products were tetraphenyl-
furan by aromatization with dephenylation and penta-
phenyl 4,5-dihydrofuran by reduction. The results fit
into coherent mechanistic patterns. Pyrolysis and pho¬
tolysis of the 2,4,5,5-pentaphenyl analog of I under¬
went similar rearrangement to a fi , y-unsaturated ket¬
one but, surprisingly, without 5-to-2 phenyl migration.
Syntheses, structural evidence, reactions, and mecha¬
nisms are discussed.

Potentiometric Measurement of Seawater
Hydrogen-Ion Molarity
William G. MacIntyre

Virginia Institute of Marine Science, Gloucester Point,
Virginia.

A method for pH measurement in seawater that is
consistent with the use of apparent equilibrium con¬
stants is described. Strong acids dissolved in synthetic
seawater are used as primary standard buffers. Prac¬
tical secondary standard buffers in seawater are fixed
by comparison with the primary buffers. Theoretical
comparison of this and previous seawater pH techni¬
ques indicates a significant improvement in electrode
stability and emphasizes the inability to determine
single ion activities at high ionic strength.

The Mercury (II) EDTA-SCN Complex
and Its Analytical Application

J. Davison and J. G. Mason

Department of Chemistry, Virginia Polytechnic Insti¬
tute, Blacksburg, Virginia.

Potentiometric measurements have confirmed the

172

The Virginia Journal of Science

existence of the complex HgYSCN3- and determined
the formation constant for the reaction

HgY2- + SCN- HgYSCN3-

Under appropriate conditions, potentiometric titration
of SCN- with HgY2- can serve as a method for the
determination of SCN-. Studies of the NMR patterns
in aqueous solution show that both the CH2-N protons
and the CH2C-02 protons are affected bv SCN- and
that the chemical shift is a function of the concentra¬
tion of thiocyanate.

The Influence of Carbon Tetrachloride
on the Autoxidation of Unsaturated
Methyl Esters as an Approach to the
Understanding of Carbon Tetrachloride
Toxicity

Jean H. Miller and Lawrence A. Wishner

Department of Chemistry, Mary Washington College,
Fredericksburg, V irginia.

Recent studies have indicated that carbon tetrach¬
loride increases the rate of peroxidation of tissue lipids
in vivo. In vitro studies on methyl linoleate and methyl
linolenate were carried out using a Warburg apparatus
in order to elucidate more completely this relationship.

Oxygen absorption of metbyl linoleate and methyl
linolenate was measured. Both the pure methvl esters
and solutions of the esters in phosphate buffer (pH 7.2)
emulsified with 2 percent Tween-40 in the presence
of carbon tetrachloride vapor were used. Results indi¬
cate that carbon tetrachloride exerts a prooxidative ef¬
fect on both linoleate and linolenate, although the
effect is considerably less noticeable with buffered
emulsions than with the pure methyl esters.

A Kinetic Study of the Gas-Phase Photo-
bromination of Trichlorosilane

Linda L. Murray and Bernard L. Mahoney, Jr.

Department of Chemistry, Mary Washington College,
Fredericksburg, Virginia.

The photochemical, gas-phase reaction between bro¬
mine and trichlorosilane was investigated from 20 to
40° C with light at 450 m^. The overall reaction in
a constant-volume system may be written as

Br2 + SiHCl3 BrSiCl3 + HBr

Two rate equations were obtained for the reaction,
one for reactant pressures above 275 mm, and one for
reactant pressures below 250 mm.

The experimental evidence supports the conclusion
that the reaction proceeds by a free-radical chain me¬

chanism. Under high-pressure conditions, the reaction
is predominantly homogeneous in die gas phase, and
under low-pressure conditions, the reaction is hetero¬
geneous involving the cell wall.

Evaporation-Condensation Coefficient
for Small Droplets *

Masataka Okuyama and Joseph T. Zung

Department of Chemistry, College of William ir Mary,
Williamsburg, Virginia.

The evaporation-condensation coefficient for very
small droplets is derived in the form a (a) = 8 • cf (a)
where 8 is the free-angle ratio and <£(a) is the size
coefficient which is expressed in terms of the droplet
radius, a, the absolute temperature, and other char¬
acteristic variables of the liquid phase and the gas-
liquid interface. With the inclusion of a (a) into the
rate equations of Fuchs and of Monchick and Reiss,
the rate of evaporation per unit area increases with
decreasing droplet radius, reaches a maximum at
droplet radii ranging between 1 and 0.01^ then de¬
creases to zero as the radius approaches zero. Nu¬
merical results were obtained for HoO, He, and Hg
at their respective freezing and boiling points.

* This work was supported by the US Army Edgewood Arsenal
under Contract No. DA-1 8-035-AMC-300(A).

The Quantum Chemistry-Inorganic
Chemistry Course Sequence for
Undergraduates
W. W. Porterfield

Department of Chemistry, Ilampden-Sydney College,
H a mpdcn-Sydncy, V irginia .

Formal treatment of quantum chemistry is deferred
until the senior vear in the chemistry curriculum, except
for simple systems such as the harmonic oscillator
which are treated in the statistical mechanics section
of the junior-year physical chemistry course. In the
fall semester the hydrogen atom is treated, the Huckel
MO theory is studied in some detail including group
theory, and LCAO-MO’s are developed for simple inor¬
ganic systems. In the spring semester periodicity and
electronegativity concepts, along with lattice energies
and brief exposure to crystal-field theory, prepare the
student for differential-ionization energies and detailed
Wolfsberg-Helmholz calculations. This provides an
adequate background for discussion of spectroscopy,
coordination chemistry, and reaction mechanisms.

Proceedings, 1966-1967

173

A New Synthesis of Thiphenamil
Hydrochloride
A. Garnett Richardson

Research Department, William P. Poythress 6- Co.,
Richmond, Virginia.

Thiphenamil hydrochloride ( 2-diethylaminoethyldi-
phenvlthioacetate hydrochloride), a direct-acting drug
for the relief of smooth muscle spasm, possessing no
appreciable anticholinergic or muscarinic activity, is
prepared by a unique procedure, in which diphenylace-
tyl chloride is reacted with ethylene sulfide at room
temperature to yield 2-chloroethyldiphenylthioacetate.
This treated with diethylamine, also at room tempera¬
ture, gives the final product. The synthesis is much
shorter than any other known method of preparing
this compound. It represents a considerable saving
of materials and labor and, to a great extent, avoids
the use of high reaction temperatures and flammable
solvents.

Studies on the Synthesis of Enol Acetates
of the A1 -3-Keto-AB-trans-Steroid
System

Oscar R, Rodig and Galal Zanati

Department of Chemistri/, Universitt/ of Virginia,
Cha rlottesville, Virgi n ia .

Contrary to earlier reports, it is shown that the
A^S-keto AB-frans-steroid system can yield the enol
acetate derivative when treated with acetic anhvdride
in the presence of a perchloric acid catalyst. Four
other products are formed as well and the structures
of three of these were elucidated. It was found fur¬
ther that the yields of some of the products are govern¬
ed by equilibria which disfavor enol acetate formation
in the present case.

Biguanides : Accelerators of Thrombin’s
Actions and Inhibitors of the Clotting
of Human Plasma

Phyllis S. Roberts and Rosalind K. Burkat

Department of Medicine, Medical College of Virginia,
Richmond, Virginia.

Biguanides accelerated the hydrolysis of TAME (p-
toluenesulfonyl-L-arginine methyl ester) by bovine and
human thrombins and inhibited the clotting of plasma
(modified one-stage prothrombin tests). Potent ac¬
celerators of thrombin’s action were also potent inhibi¬
tors of clotting. Phenethvf derivatives were the most

potent, followed by benzyls, then aliphatics. N1, N5
dibenzyl biguanides with chlorines on the benzene
ring(s) were potent in very low concentrations. It
was postulated that biguanides inhibit clotting in two
ways: by reacting with fibrinogen or fibrin, and by
inhibiting the conversion of prothrombin to thrombin.

Nylon Dyeing, Its Relation to Physical
and Chemical Properties of Yarn
J. Lee Rush

Fibers Division, Allied Chemical Company,
Hopeivell, Virginia.

The literature covering factors affecting the dyeing
of nylon is reviewed. The specific properties which
affect the dveing of nylon with acid, disperse, and
metal-complex dyes are discussed. This paper examines
how chemical and physical changes in Caprolan yams
alter dyeing characteristics. Some of the variables
studied are amine end-group content, denier per fila¬
ment, cross-section shape, draw ratio, titanium dioxide
content, and heat history (wet and dry).

Preparation and Kinetic Studies
of Peanut Fumarase

D. S. Shih and L. B. Barnett

Department of Biochemistry and Nutrition, Virginia
Polytechnic Institute, Blacksburg, Virginia.

Peanut fumarase was isolated from the acetone pow¬
der of cotyledons from germinated seeds. The enzyme
was extracted from the acetone powder with 0.05 M
phosphate buffer, pH 7.4, containing 0.001 M malate
and 0.0016 M dithiothreitol, and was purified through
ammonium-sulfate fractionation and Sephadex G-200
column chromatograpliy. An eighty-fivefold purifica¬
tion was obtained. The purified enzyme lost activity
verv rapidly in solution but was rather stable in the
solid state. Molecular-sieve chromatography and sedi¬
mentation showed that peanut fumarase has the same
molecular size as fumarase isolated from other sources.
The enzyme activity could be completely inhibited by
p-chloromercuribenzoic acid, and the addition of di¬
thiothreitol partiallv reversed this inhibition. Kinetic
measurements were performed in 0.005 M phosphate
buffer, using L-malate as the substrate. The plot of
Vm (the maximum velocity) vs. pH gave a symmetrical
bell-shaped curve similar to the results with pig heart,
Torula yeast, and bakers’ yeast fumarase catalyzed
reactions. The ionization constants of free enzyme
were calculated to be 6.1 and 7.6, and of the enzyme-
malate complex to be 7.4 and 8.7. The latter are
in good agreement with the values for pig heart fuma¬
rase — 7.3 and 8.5 — determined in the same buffer.

174

The Virginia Journal of Science

Proton Magnetic Resonance of
Dimethyl Phthalites Y'

J. C. Schug and B. P. Smith

Department of Chemistry, Virginia Polytechnic Insti¬
tute, Blacksburg, Virginia.

High-resolution NMR spectra of dimethyl-phthalate,
-iso-phthalate, and -fere-phthalate have been studied.
Ring-proton chemical shifts were determined at infinite
dilution relative to benzene, in a number of solvents,
for the purpose of removing shielding effects of the
solvent. The “isolated-molecule” chemical shifts were
approximately collected for intramolecular electric and
magnetic fields due to the polar, anisotropic substitu¬
ents. The remaining chemical shifts were compared
to pi-orbital charge densities from molecular-orbital
calculations. For the two nearly planar molecules
good correlation was obtained between calculated
charge densities and experimental chemical shifts.

* Financial support from the NSF is gratefully acknowledged.

An Elementary Organic Chemistry
Laboratory Program Based on Individual
Student Research Projects
Homer A. Smith, Jr.

Department of Chemistry, Hampden-Sydney College,
Hampden-Sydnety, Virginia.

The laboratory work in the sophomore organic
course at Hampden-Sydney College introduces the stu¬
dent to organic research by requiring him to design
his own experiments and use modern equipment to
carry them out. Each student receives an individual
project of four to eight weeks’ duration. He uses
Organic Syntheses, Heilbron, Beilstein, and journal
articles to design his experiments and carries them out
using IR, UV, GLC, TLC, and vacuum distillation,
as well as the more usual techniques.

The Lithium-Liquid Ammonia Reduction
and Reductive Methylation of
Some Benzal Ketones

Kearfott M. Stone and Homer A. Smith, Jr.

Department of Chemistry, Hampden-Sydney College,
Hampden-Sydney , Virginia.

Treatment of one mole of 4-phenyl-3-buten-2-one
(benzalacetone) or 4-phenyl-3-methvl-3-buten-2-one
(benzalmethylethyl ketone) in liquid ammonia solution
with two gram-atoms of lithium and one mole of t-

butyl alcohol gave a lithium enolate in solution. Treat¬
ment of the enolate with ammonium chloride gave the
corresponding phenvlbutanone. Treatment of the eno¬
late with methyl iodide gave the saturated ketone with
a new a-m ethyl group. No evidence of equilibration
among structurally isomeric enolates was observed.
Polymethylated byproducts were observed, but the
saturated alcohol was not produced upon reduction
or methylation.

C- and N-Aroylations of Phenylacetamide
by Means of Sodium Hydride

George B. Trimitsis and James F. Wolfe

Department of Chemistry, Virginia Polytechnic Insti¬
tute, Blacksburg, Virginia.

Phenylacetamide(I) underwent aroylation at both
its amide nitrogen and a-carbon with a series of aro¬
matic esters to afford /3-ketoimides (II) in good yields.
These reactions were effected by allowing 1 molecular
equivalent

C6H5CH2CONH2

ArCOOCH3 i? i?

- » C0H5CH-C-NHCAr

NaH i=o

Ar

(I) (ID

of I to react with 2.5 molecular equivalents of the
appropriate ester in the presence of excess sodium
hydride in refluxing 1,2-dimethoxyethane.

Structure elucidations of diaroyl derivatives II were
based on spectral and chemical evidence. A possible
mechanism for the two-fold aroylations is discussed.

Analytical and Structural Studies on a
Bright Greenish-Yellow Fluorescent
Compound (BGY), a Possible Aflatoxin
Marker Produced by Aspergillus flavus

on Cottonseed

A. Vassef and T. C. Campbell

Department of Biochemistry and Nutrition, Virginia
Polytechnic Institute, Blacksburg, Virginia.

In 1953 a yellowish stain which showed a bright
greenish-yellow fluorescence was observed on the fiber
of some cotton plants. In 1955 Marsh et al. [Text.
Res. }., 25, 1007 (1955)] gave the name of BGY to
this substance and established that it was produced
by the growth of Aspergillus flavus on live cotton fiber.
In 1966 Ashworth and McMeans [ Phytopathology , 56,

Proceedings, 1966-1967

175

1104 (1966)] reported a strong correlation between
the presence of BGY and aflatoxin in cottonseed. In
the present work, extraction and purification procedures
for BGY have been developed and its spectral behavior
has been studied. Acid-base titration and paper-elec¬
trophoresis studies showed the presence of two ioniz-
able groups with pK’s of 3.3 and 10.0. A quantitative
thin-layer chromatographic technique for tire assay of
the compound has been developed by trying several
adsorbent layers and solvent systems.

Rearrangements and Syntheses Involving
Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons
F. A. Vingiello, J. Yanez, A. K. Youssef, and
C. S. Menon

Department of Chemistry, Virginia Polytechnic Insti¬
tute, Blacksburg, Virginia.

A series of new fluoranthene and pyrene derivatives
have been prepared and characterized. A series of
isomeric methyl- and fluorodibenzo [a, e] fluoranthenes
have been prepared. An interesting rearrangement of
12-phenvlbenz[a] - anthracene has been observed and
is discussed.

The Activity of Thyroxine and Similar
Compounds as Lipid Antioxidants

Camellia M. Ware and Lawrence A. Wishner

Department of Chemistry, Mary Washington College,
F redericksburg, V irginia.

In spite of the fact that its effects on the mitochon¬
drial membrane have been studied extensively, thyrox¬
ine’s hormonal function is not understood from a chemi¬
cal point of view. The activity of thyroxine as a lipid
antioxidant has been reported and it has been fur¬
ther suggested that this activity is related to changes
in the permeability of tire mitochondrial membrane.
The purpose of this study was to elucidate the mecha¬
nism of thyroxine’s antioxidant properties by measuring
manometrically the oxygen absorption of methvl lino-
lenate (2.5 x 10 2 M) alone and in the presence of
thyroxine and structurally related compounds (5 x
10 “ M) in a pH 7.2 phosphate buffer.

Thyroxine was not as efficient an antioxidant as
has been reported. Ortho- iodination of phenol, 2-
naphthol, hydroquinone, anisole, tyrosine, and 3-iodo-
tyrosine reduced antioxidant activity. Among the thy¬
ronines, the differences were less significant and 3,3,5-
triiodothyronine was slightly inferior to thyroxine. The
best antioxidants studied were alphatocopherol (vita¬
min E) and cyanogen iodide. If the antioxidant ac¬
tivity of ICN results from its formation of 1+ on dis¬

sociation, it is possible that thyroxine’s inferior activity
is due to the less efficient formation of 1+ and that
the chemical function of the thyroid hormones may be
connected with their ability to supply iodinium ions
in a biological situation.

The Titration of Organic Hydrazides
Larry H. White, John W. Martin, and
Lowell V. Heisey

Department of Chemistry, Bridgewater College,
Bridegwater, Virginia.

The reaction of hydrazine and substituted hydra¬
zines with dicarboxylic acid esters or anhydrides may
lead to a variety of products. A number of qualitative
and quantitative methods of analysis were investigated
to aid in the identification of these compounds. A
nitrous acid reaction and the indirect iodate titration
seem applicable for a large variety of the hydrazine
derivatives. This report gives the reactions, proce¬
dures, calculations, and the results for several of the
methods employed.

3-Pyrrolidones

G. S. Whitney

Department of Chemistry, Washington ir Lee Univer¬
sity, Lexington, Virginia.

A study of the synthesis and stability of 4-carb-
ethoxy-3-pyrrolidones. If ethyl-N-methyl-2-amino ace¬
tate is allowed to react with ethyl acrylate, an unsym-
metrical diester is formed which will undergo Dieck-
man condensation. This reaction is part of a standard
procedure to prepare 3-pvrrolidones (which is then
accomplished by hydrolysis and decarboxylation of the
acid). The beta- keto ester product has two forms;
it must be prepared with care since it decomposes
with heat or time. Surprisingly, infrared spectra in
chloroform and in sodium bromide pellets are radically
different. Undoubtedly in the polar salt, the quater¬
nary amine zwitterion predominates.

Bicyclooctenones

G. S. Whitney and J. McGill

Department of Chemistry, Washington 6- Lee Univer¬
sity, Lexington, Virginia.

Cyclohexadiene will react with acrylonitrile in a
Diels- Alder reaction to give a 5-cyanobicyclo ( 2.2.2)-
octene-2, which can in turn be made into an amide.
A rearrangement of the amide produces a bicyclic
amine, which can be transformed into bicycle (2.2.2)-
oct-2-ene-5-one. An attempt to form a tricyclic com¬
pound from the amine can be forseen.

176

The Virginia Journal of Science

Synthesis of a Novel Diazepine System

R. L. Williams, J. Schuller, and D. Lloyd

Department of Chemistry, Old Dominion College ,
Norfolk, Virginia.

The condensation of aryldiamines with acetoacetic
ester is reported to yield a 1,4-benzodiazepine. We
wish to report the isolation and the characterization
of products arising from the condensation of 1,2,4, 5
tetra-aminobenzene and ethyl acetoacetic ester. The
various synthetic sequences and structural elucidations
will be discussed.

Gas Chromatography and Structural
Correlation of Substituted Aziridines

Walter L. Zielinski, Jr., Lawrence Fishbein,
Richard O. Thomas, and Thomas E. Welsko

Bionetics Research Laboratories, Inc., Falls Church ,
Virginia.

Substituted aziridines, derivatives of ethyleneimine,
comprise an important compound class in industrial
and biomedical areas. Gas chromatography was car¬
ried out on four silicone columns of varying polarity
(4% QF-1, 12% SE-30, 15% Versilube F-50 and 15%
XE-60) and one polar polyethylene glycol phase (3%
Carbowax 20M). N-carbamoyl aziridines were syn¬
thesized via reaction of ethyleneimine with a selection
of aryl and alkyl isocyanates. Retention data are
reported alternately as relative to N-propyl carbamoyl
aziridine, N-phenyl carbamoyl aziridine and as Kovats
hydrocarbon indices. N-alkyl aziridines were found
to chromatograph intact; the N-aryl aziridines were
found to degrade on XE-60 with the liberation of the
parent isocyanate and aniline moieties. Aryl substi¬
tuent contributions to chromatography were obtained
from the log differences of the N-aryl carbamoyl aziri¬
dines and N-phenyl carbamoyl aziridine. The sub¬

stituent values were treated as interaction products
in a manner similar to that employed in the Hammett
equation to measure substituent contributions to equili¬
brium or rate constants in organic reactions. The
selectivity scale obtained by this approach showed
Carbowax 20M > QF-1 > Versilube F-50 > SE-30.

The Evaporation Rate and Lifetimes of
Clouds and Sprays in Air: The Cellular
Model *

Joseph T. Zung

Department of Chemistry, College of William i? Mary,
Williamsburg, Virginia.

A simple, yet effective, mathematical model based
on the cellular method is proposed for the study of
the evaporation rate of liquid droplets in assemblages
in air. It has been found that the modified cellular
model is adequate for the determination of the rate of
evaporation, tire saturation point, and tire lifetime of
a monodisperse system of droplets. All characteristic
properties of the droplet system can be expressed in
terms of known parameters in a closed form. Cor¬
rection for submicron droplets is also given. Numeri¬
cal results obtained for various droplet systems of
water and n-dibutylphthalate indicate that both the
droplet radius and the degree of dilution have impor¬
tant effects on the evaporation rate of clouds and
sprays. Several possibilities are suggested for further
refinement of the theory and improvement on the
model in order to account for the influence of disper¬
sion and diffusion of droplets in air and the effect
of polydispersity of the cloud itself.

* Work supported by the US Army Edgewood Arsenal, Field
Evaluation Division, Technical Support Directorate, under Contract
No. DA-18-035, AMC-714(A).

Proceedings, 1966-1967

177

Section of Engineering

The Analysis of a Simply Supported
Rectangular Plate Carrying a Tall
Circular Chimney

Elias G. Abu-Saba and George A. Gray

Civil Engineering Department, Virginia Polytechnic
Institute, Blacksburg, Virginia.

This study was initiated to provide information for
the design of a rectangular concrete slab, 24 feet by
32 feet, and the 200-foot-tall chimney stack it carries.
Structural limitations required that the two-way slab be
built above grade supported by edge beams and corner
columns. The circular masonry stack, 10 feet in diam¬
eter at the center of the slab, transmits gravity and
overturning loads through a rigid base ring. In addi¬
tion to stress and deflection calculations, the slab stiff¬
ness was required for the evaluation of vibration char¬
acteristics of the stack.

Using the generalized plate equations and Maxwell’s
reciprocal theorem, solutions were obtained for plate
deflections along the stack circumference caused by
unit concentrated loads. These solutions were then
combined in a series of simultaneous equations to
account for continuity when the loads were distributed
through a rigid circumferential ring. Calculation of
the resulting stresses and deflections follows. The ana¬
lysis was programmed in Fortran IV for the I.B.M.
7090-1401 V.P.I. electronic computer.

A small steel model approximately 1/20 scale size
was built and tested in the laboratory to provide a
comparison for the analysis.

The Use of a Mercury-Intrusion Porosi-
meter for Evaluating Pore Character¬
istics of Lime-Stabilized Soils

Edward L, Beale

Virginia Western Community College,
Roanoke, Virginia.

A hydraulically operated pressure porosimeter was
used to apply the mercury-intrusion principle to the
determination of porosity and description of pore-size
distribution curves of lime-stabilized soils. Pressures
up to 15,000 pounds per square inch were applied.
Specimens for the study were made from three Vir¬
ginia soils, which were stabilized with the addition of
zero-, four-, or eight-percent lime. These specimens
were subjected to one, three and five cycles of open-
system freezing and thawing and to five, ten, and fif¬
teen cycles of closed-system freezing and thawing.

Lime stabilization usually increased the value of
porosity. For two soils freezing and thawing yielded
higher porosities but for the third it showed decreas¬
ing values of porosity.

The terms “pore modulus” and “pore shape factor”
were developed to better describe pore characteristics.
Pore modulus was the summation of penetrations, cor¬
responding to predetermined diameters, which were
taken from a pore-size distribution plot. Pore shape
factor was found by taking the value of pore modulus
and dividing by porosity. It was found that these
terms along with the value of porosity may be used
to describe the general shape of the pore-size distribu¬
tion curve.

Pivot-Bearing Temperature Studies

J. Taylor Beard and Robert L. Puckett

Mechanical Engineering Department, University of
Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia.

Pivot or jewel bearings appear advantageous for
small-load, long-life, and continuous-operation applica¬
tions. The main disadvantage is that upon overload¬
ing pivot bearings, the frictional energy generation in¬
creases, and failure occurs. Failure is due to a change
in property values with increased temperature, result¬
ing in phenomena much like that of friction welding.

The problem investigated was the study of tempera¬
ture fields in hemispherical cap and seat pivot bear¬
ings when operated under different load conditions.
Numerical analysis of the conduction and convection
heat transfer resulted in 132 linear equations. These
were solved by an iterative technique on a digital
computer. Frictional energy generation and the re¬
sulting temperatures at the cap-seat interface were
then compared with data for friction welding so as
to determine limiting load conditions.

Acoustical Design of Proposed Under¬
water Research Facility at
Virginia Institute
of Marine Science
Warren L. Braun

Consulting Acoustical Engineer, Harrisonburg, Virginia.

The design of the proposed underwater acoustical
research facility for the Virginia Institute of Marine
Science poses several interesting and difficult design
criteria.

178

The Virginia Journal of Science

By example, the apparent acoustic threshold of the
sea life to be studied in this facility is an order of
magnitude more sensitive than human hearing.

The methods utilized for achieving this exceptional
degree of acoustic isolation, while still retaining a prac¬
tical structure, are included.

Nitrogen and Phosphorus Metabolism
in an Estuary

Morris L. Brehmer and Samuel O. Haltiwanger

Virginia Institute of Marine Science, Gloucester Point,
Virginia.

Soluble organic, ammonia, nitrite, nitrate, and parti¬
culate organic nitrogen and soluble reactive, particulate
reactive, soluble unreactive and particulate unreactive
phosphorus data which were collected during a study
of a small estuary are utilized to demonstrate nutrient
turnover in the marine environment. Discharges of
treated and untreated domestic wastes at the head of
the system served as nutrient sources. Water supply
reservoirs on the tributary streams partially controlled
the freshwater input. Flushing studies utilizing Rho-
damine-B dye were conducted on the system.

Aquatic nuisance conditions and environmental de¬
gradation were observed near the sources of enrich¬
ment during the warm summer months. Extractable
chlorophyll levels of nearly 100 jug/l were recorded.
Recovery occurred within a “5-day time of passage”
from the area of the phytoplankton bloom. No regen¬
eration of the available nutrient forms or secondary
phytoplankton response was detected.

Nutrient levels in the sediments were determined
and the data utilized to demonstrate a pathway of
removal from the biocycle. The role of nitrogen as
soluble organic compounds which are unavailable to
phytoplankton is discussed.

A Time-Series Model for Determining
Annual Yield from the Roanoke River

Richard A. Graves III and Paul H. King

Civil Engineering Department, Virginia Polytechnic
Institute, Blacksburg, Virginia.

A time-series mathematical model was developed to
generate synthetically a long-term flow record for the
Roanoke River at Roanoke, Virginia. Existing records
of monthly precipitation at six stations within the basin
and twenty-seven years of streamflow record at the
gaging station were used to formulate the model. The
method of least squares was used to fit the model to
the data with the criterion of acceptance being the
smallest mean squared error.

Random monthly precipitation totals were generated
from the twelve monthly distributions of recorded pre¬
cipitation. The synthetically generated precipitation
record was then used to produce 5,000 years of artifi¬
cial streamflow record. This 5,000 years of record
was then divided into fifty periods of 100 years each
for the purpose of analysis. The average flow, de¬
pendable flow for five selected reservoir sizes, and
flow duration curves were calculated. A confidence
interval was then placed on the calculated dependable
flow. The resulting model has a positive bias of less
than two percent despite the many variables that
affect the flow in the stream over a period of many
vears.

Radial Particle Migration
in Couette Systems

J. S. Halow and G. B. Wills

Department of Chemical Engineering, Virginia Poly¬
technic Institute, Blacksburg, Virginia.

Several studies have been made in Couette systems
of the primary motion (angular translation and rota¬
tion) of spheres suspended in viscous liquids. How¬
ever, radial migration trajectories of single spheres have
been unreported, although Bungay has reported the
apearance of clear zones in Couette sheared microbial
suspensions.

In this study a spherical particle was observed to
undergo a radial migration when the suspending liquid
was subjected to a shear in a Couette system. The
radial migration caused the particle to migrate to an
equilibrium position located between the cylindrical
walls. The equilibrium position was dependent on the
density difference between the sphere and the liquid
and the magnitude of the shear in the Couette sys¬
tem.

A photographic technique utilizing stroboscopic light¬
ing was used to record the angular velocity of a sphere,
its radial position, and its vertical position in the an¬
nular region between the concentric cylinders. Data
were obtained at various times as the sphere migrated
away from either the inner or outer cylinder wall.
Multiple photographs were taken of each sphere used
in the study under each set of conditions: one set
of photographs for the sphere initially near the inner
cylinder wall, and the other with the sphere initially
near the outer cylinder wall. The sphere was found
to migrate to the same radial position in both sets of
photographs.

The time required for a sphere to complete its migra¬
tion was found to increase as the diameter of the
sphere decreased, to decrease as the thickness of the
annular region decreased, and to increase as the angu¬
lar velocity of the rod decreased.

Proceedings, 1966-1967

179

A New Refrigeration Cycle Improves the
Performance and Reliability of Heat
Pumps and Air-Conditioning Systems
James R. Harnish

Westinghouse Electric Corporation, Air Conditioning
Division, Staunton, Virginia.

Both air-conditioning and reversible-refrigeration sys¬
tems called heat pumps have application limitations,
despite their widespread and successful use. Basical¬
ly, these limitations prevent reliable and effective opera¬
tion on cooling below about 60° F outdoor temperature
and about 0° to 15° F for heating.

Previously, auxiliary equipment had to be added to
the basic system to extend the cooling application
range below these minimum outdoor ambient tempera¬
tures. This is a complicated and costly solution and
it introduces additional reliability problems. The solu¬
tion to the heating limitation was to shut off the heat
pump at the lower ambient temperatures and furnish
all the heat with resistance heaters. Now a design
approach called the Hi/Be/Li system removes many
of these limitations, permitting effective and reliable
operation down to much lower outdoor temperatures.
It also increases efficiency.

The system is based on a new concept that consists
essentially of better control of the refrigerant to permit
the heat exchangers to operate efficiently at all times
and to ease stresses on the compressor. It is applicable
to central air-conditioning and heating installations
from the smallest residential package to the largest
commercial systems. The new system is called “Hi/
Re/Li” because it has all the necessary protection and
operating characteristics for high reliability. Equip¬
ment and installation costs are comparable to those
for basic conventional equipment; operating costs over
a wide range of operation are less because of the greater
efficiency.

Analytical Determination and Maximiza¬
tion of the Error Constants in
Feedback Systems
Orville R. Harris

School of Engineering and Applied Science, University
of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia.

Determination of the position, velocity and accelera¬
tion error constants from the closed-loop pole-zero loca¬
tions in the s-plane, similar to the method of Truxal,
has been generalized to include systems of nonunity
feedback. An analytical method, which derives from
the theory of equations, for their calculation, using the
coefficients of the expanded closed-loop transfer func¬
tion, is described. The method is suitable for com¬
puter programming and has been programmed in Algol
language. Further, it is shown how to compensate a

system to achieve unity control ratio at zero frequency
and infinite error constants. This latter approach is
adaptable to multiple-parameter, multi-loop, and linear
multiple-input-output systems for any single input-
output-pair transfer function. Both feedback and feed¬
forward dipole compensation is discussed, and limiting
values for the compensating poles and zeros are deter¬
mined. These limiting relations between the poles
and zeros allow the designer to easily choose locations
for the compensating singularities without resorting to
the computer, except to determine the stability of the
compensated system. An eighth-order characteristic
equation system has been compensated by this method
in a relatively short time.

226-Foot Aluminum Ship

C. H. Holtyn

Richmond, Virginia

The construction of the 226-foot aluminum trailer
ship, M/V Sacal Borincano, heralds the beginning of a
new era in shipbuilding. The vessel, the first of its
kind, will carry 40 fully loaded highway trailers from
Miami to Puerto Rico on a weekly schedule. It was
built by the American Marine Corporation in New
Orleans, Louisiana, for a subsidiary of United Tanker
Corporation in New York. Reynolds Metals Company
supplied all of the aluminum and technical services
throughout the design and construction phases.

Aluminum’s light weight provides for increased
speed, improved stability, shallow draft, and reduced
maintenance. About 760,000 pounds of 5086 alumi¬
num alloy were used, resulting in a 498-light-ton sav¬
ings in weight over a steel duplicate. To maintain the
same sea speed and weekly schedule, the steel ship
would have to run with less than 50 percent of the
trailers.

Except for antifouling paint and some decorative
striping, the ship will be left unpainted.

Controlling the Atmosphere of

Enclosed Areas

W. Paul Jensen

Atlantic Research Corporation, Alexandria, Virginia.

While air pollution represents the most serious of
the current uncontrolled ways in which our atmosphere
is modified, the technical challenges it poses are simi¬
lar to those posed in a surprisingly large number of
industries. The intentional modification of atmos¬
pheres is a growing technology which enables man
to improve and speed the growing of vegetable crops,
to extend the postharvest life of fruits and vegetables,
to make harmless the storage of volatile liquids which
would otherwise create explosive vapor-air mixtures, to
reduce the deterioration of machinery in storage, and,
most importantly, to make enclosed areas, which would

180

The Virginia Journal of Science

otherwise rapidly become toxic, habitable for human
beings for extended periods. A relatively small num¬
ber of unit operations and processes have been found
satisfactory for atmosphere control, and economies in
the design and development of equipment for new ap¬
plications can result from transferral of this know-how
among seemingly unrelated applications. The further
perfection of these technologies into the most economi¬
cal forms is vitally essential to our solution of the
growing air-pollution problem.

Integral-Finned Tubing

D. A. Kaechele

Reynolds Metals Company, Richmond, Virginia.

Reynolds Metals Company, Product Development
Division, has taken an interesting new approach in
the development of an aluminum heat-exchange tube.
The result of this development work has been the
introduction of a new product known as integral-finned
tube. The engineering accomplishments are clearly
demonstrated in the desirable combination of proper¬
ties attributed to the product; that is, simplicity, low
cost, high efficiency, and flexibility of application.

Spherical Pivot-Bearing Theory

James J. Kauzlarich, Richard W. Wavrik, and
J. A. Friedericy

Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of
Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia.

Prior literature on the theory of spherical pivot
bearings has neglected the effect of wear, although
this type of bearing usually operates under boundary
lubrication conditions. This study shows that wear
has a significant influence on bearing characteristics
and must not be neglected in design. Results are
presented for the axially loaded and the radially load¬
ed cases.

Propylene Disproportionation over
Molybdena-Ahimina Catalysts

M. J. Lewis and G. B. Wills

Department of Chemical Engineering, Virginia Poly¬
technic Institute, Rlackshurg, Virginia.

A novel heterogeneously catalyzed reaction in which
two moles of propylene react to form a mole of ethyl¬
ene and a mole of 2-butene was studied. This was
a particular example of a general olefin disproportion¬
ation reaction recently disclosed in the literature.

The purpose of the investigation was to study the
method of catalyst preparation, catalyst deactivation
with time, and the effects of temperature and pressure
upon the reaction.

Catalysts were prepared by impregnating 1/8-inch
alumina pellets with 10 to 30 percent aqueous am¬
monium molybdate solutions. The impregnated pel¬
lets were dried for three hours at 250° to 300° F
and were activated at 1000° F for five hours. Anhy¬
drous nitrogen was passed over the catalysts during
drying and activation.

The reactor was operated at pressures of 15 to 170
psig, and at temperatures of 250° to 550° F. Prod¬
ucts were analyzed by gas chromatography.

Maximum conversion was found to occur in the tem¬
perature range from 300° to 400° F. Conversion up
to 30 percent was obtained. Selectivity was 90 per¬
cent or greater. Catalysts were found to deactivate
more rapidly at the higher temperatures, possibly due
to coke formation.

Foil Coils and Automatic Coil Winder

R. B. Lightner

Reynolds Metals Company, Richmond, Virginia.

Electric coils wound with aluminum-foil conductor
can now replace many copper magnet-wire coils in the
No. 15 to No. 24 AWG wire-size range. High-speed
completely automatic foil-coil-winding machinery has
been developed to wind coils at a production rate
comparable to the most modern copper-winding ma¬
chines.

The excellent supply, availability, and price sta¬
bility of aluminum compared to the fluctuating sup¬
ply and price of copper, along with the new develop¬
ments in coil design and winding technology make
aluminum foil an excellent conductor for the electric-
coil market.

Swage-Bond Process for Joining
Aluminum Pipe
W. J. Nelson

Reynolds Metals Company, Richmond, Virginia.

A new method has been developed for joining
aluminum pipe in pipeline and process pipe installa¬
tions which provides a permanent, reliable joint more
economically than existing methods.

Welding or mechanical coupling have been the
prime methods for joining either aluminum or steel
pipe with mechanical joints used mainly for temporary
pipe lines. These mechanical couplings are relatively
costly and are limited in pressure and end-thrust ca¬
pabilities. Pipeline welding requires expensive skilled
labor, is time consuming, and induces a heat-affected
zone at the joint which reduces the strength of the
aluminum pipe.

The swage-bond method of joining aluminum pipe
does not require highly skilled labor nor does it affect

Proceedings, 1966-196’

181

the actual strength of the pipe. The swage-bond
method uses an aluminum extruded seamless coupler
sleeve about two pipe diameters long with a specific
inside diameter and wall thickness. An epoxy ad¬
hesive is applied inside the mouth of the coupling.
The coupling is then slipped over the pipe being joined.
A groove in the center of the coupling allows correct
insertion of the pipe. A die-swaging operation is then
used to reduce the O.D. of the coupling to an inter¬
ference fit between the pipe and the coupling. The
entrapped epoxy serves as a pressure seal while aug¬
menting the joint’s end-thrust capability.

The “Aluminaut” — A Deep-Submergence
Vehicle

J. Louis Reynolds

Reynolds International, Richmond, Virginia.

The launching of the Aluminaut in September 1964,
and its subsequent sea trials are proving that by
combining the most advanced knowledge of several
engineering disciplines and the skill of a group of
metal fabricators, a “Scientific First” of great impor¬
tance can be created.

While the Aluminaut is not a “scientific break¬
through” in the customary sense, it is a “major break¬
through” in the field of submersibles for oceanographic
use. The result is a well-equipped, scientific labora¬
tory capable of working 15,000 feet under the sea for
extended periods of time and with excellent maneuver¬
ability. The “state of the art” in metal forming, elec¬
tronic engineering, and submarine building has been
advanced.

Influence of Cyclic Freezing and Lime
Stabilization on Soil Permeability

Joseph H. Rogers, Jr.

Danville Community College, Danville, Virginia.

As a portion of a study on the free-thaw durability
of three lime-stabilized Virginia clay soils, the influ¬
ence of lime stabilization on the permeability of the
clays before and after various numbers of cycles of
open- and closed-system laboratory freezing was inves¬
tigated. The study included samples with zero-, four-,
and eight-percent lime, closed-system freezing and
thawing for zero, five, ten, and 15 cycles, and open-
system freezing and thawing for one, three, and five
cycles, representing 21 different treatments for each
of three soils. Unsaturated permeability was deter¬
mined by a constant-head method with high-hydraulic
gradients induced with vacuum.

Due to the preliminary nature of the study and the
large number of experimental variables in relation to
available samples, definite conclusions are not war¬
ranted. Still, the data show that for the three soils

studied, lime stabilization increases permeability both
before and after freeze-thaw treatment. This is most
especially true for the clay soil with the highest plastic¬
ity index. The degree of increase was about the same
before and after closed-system freezing and thawing,
regardless of the number of such treatments. The per-
meability-lime-content relationships for open-system
treatment were more obscure, except for the high-plas¬
ticity soil. With an increase in the number of freeze-
thaw cycles, permeability usually showed an initial
increase and subsequent decrease, especially for the
high-plasticity soil.

The Correlation of River Flow with
Salinity in a Coastal-Plain Estuary

E. P. Ruzecki and W. G. MacIntyre

Virginia Institute of Marine Science,
Gloucester Point, Virginia.

Estimates of the lag time between changes in flow
of the James River as measured at Richmond, Virginia,
and resulting variations in salinity in the estuarine por¬
tion of the James River have been made by a statisti¬
cal correlation procedure.

These lag times are compared with those observed
in operation of the James River hydraulic model under
steady-state conditions simulating high, mean, and low
flows. Dye releases at upriver points are used to
determine time of passage of fresh water, which is
related to lag time. Comparisons are also made with
lag times computed from a Ketchum-type empirical
model of the James.

Possible applications of lag times to salinity-control
projects and prediction of periods of maximum intru¬
sion of salt in the James are discussed.

Improved Nails in Building Construction,
A Result of Years of Research
E. George Stern

Department of Wood Construction, Virginia Polytech¬
nic Institute , Blacksburg, Virginia.

The use of improved nails in building construction
is no longer considered an extravagance. They are
required for many fastening applications because of
needed performance characteristics designed and engi¬
neered into these nails. They may be of low-carbon
steel or hardened steel, of aluminum or stainless steel,
bronze or copper. They may be helically or annularly
threaded. They may have special heads and points.
They are designed to fulfill a specific purpose and
need. They are the result of intensive research efforts
over a period of almost two decades.

By means of photographs, the use of some of the
most important formed (deformed) nails for specific
applications is shown, A graphic presentation of the

182

The Virginia Journal of Science

most common nails and nailing procedures found in
building construction provides a means of quick refer¬
ence as to the most suitable fasteners for a given
purpose and their use under given conditions. A
tabulation of all nails to which reference is made in
the graphic presentation contains a description of
these fasteners which is sufficiently complete to deter¬
mine whether a certain nail meets given job require¬
ments.

The Status of Wood Construction
in the U.S.A.

E. George Stern

Department of Wood Construction, Virginia Polytech-
nic Institute, Blacksburg, Virginia.

The engineered use of wood in American construc¬
tion is shown by means of outstanding examples of
recent research and development. An analysis is made
giving the reasons leading to the development of the
advanced status of the field in the U.S.A. Special
emphasis is given to the role that engineered mate¬
rials, components, and improved fasteners for wood
have played in past, and will play in future, develop¬
ments.

The Testing of Improved Nails

E. George Stern

Department of Wood Construction, Virginia Polytech¬
nic Institute, Blacksburg, Virginia.

As a result of the commercial availability of domestic
and imported nails of many types and sizes, made of
different alloys, the design of wood assemblies and
structures often is based on the use of improved nails.
In the shop and field, it has been difficult, if not
impossible, to determine whether the delivered or used
nails meet requirements of the specifications. Con¬
sequently, the establishment of routine inspection pro¬
cedures for nails was found to be highly desirable.
To provide a common basis for this routine inspection
of nails, four mechanical test procedures were devel¬
oped. They provide information on the ductility,
buckling resistance, stiffness, and flexural strength
of nails of anv type and size. Innumerable test data
have been obtained with these procedures since they
were established in Virginia Polytechnic Institute’s
Wood Research Laboratory. It is hoped that, as a
result of the introduction of the described test proce¬
dures and their use, better nails, hence improved nailed
joints, will be produced. Thus, greater dependability

and some upgrading of nailed wood assemblies and
nailed construction may be anticipated.

Root Locus Program

Charles M. Weant

R.L.E.S., University of Virginia, Charlottesville,
Virginia.

This is a description of a computer program that
finds the roots of a characteristic equation of a servo
system, sorts these roots, and plots them as a func¬
tion of gain. In addition, the program computes the
damping factors, natural frequencies, and error coef¬
ficients as a function of gain. This program imple¬
ments the method devised by Dr. O. R. Harris, Uni-
verstiy of Virginia, for computing velocity, position,
and error coefficients.

The structure of the program will be discussed in
detail, with emphasis on how the various procedures
of which it is comprised can be rearranged for param¬
eter studies. A block diagram and typical output
for high-order systems will be shown.

Using Today’s Technology to Design
Tomorrow’s Products
W. H. Wood

General Electric Company, Salem, Virginia.

Engineers can provide significant contributions for
our space-age society by making full use of today’s
new materials and techniques. As well as the more
familiar requirements of performance and profit, design
enginers must now consider improved appearance, less
maintenace, and reduced size and weight of products.

This paper describes the innovations, inventions, and
techniques that were used to modernize the design
of a high-voltage motor starter and the completely new
design approach and design philosophy that produced
a package of three starters mounted in only 16 percent
more space than one starter previously occupied or
60 percent less space than three starters of the old
design.

The major innovation of this new motor starter is a
draw-out, swing-open contractor. New approaches
to the use of materials, the combining of several func¬
tions into a single part, and techniques that permit
the multiple usage of the same space give full apprecia¬
tion to the humanitarian aspects needed in products
for the future.

Applications have been made for various patents of
design and utility nature.

Proceedings, 1966-1967

183

Section of Geology

Biostratigraphy and Paleoecology of
Yates Cut, Williamsburg, Virginia
L. D. Campbell

Department of Geology, College of William 6- Mary
Williamsburg, Virginia.

Six volumetric samples were taken at one-foot inter¬
vals in a vertical sequence from the Yorktown Forma¬
tion at Yates Cut, Williamsburg, Virginia. The fossils
were identified and counted to determine relative
abundance in each horizon. The shell and bone mate¬
rial contains ten phyla and over two hundred species,
fourteen of which have previously been unreported
from Virginia. In addition, there are numerous species
whose taxonomy remains uncertain.

The biozonation of Yates Cut is quite distinct but
cannot be laterally traced beyond the immediate local¬
ity. The zones in outcrop sequence are:

Biozone

Sediment

Ecology

Glycymeris-

Mercenaria

Macrocallista-

sand

warm water;
salinity, 28-32 ppt

Phacoides

sand

warm water;
salinity, 25-30 ppt

Rangia

sand

warm water;
salinity, 20-25 ppt

Corbicula

sand

warm water;
salinity, 18-22 ppt

Y oldia-Nucula

clay

cooler water;

salinity, 28-32 ppt

The stratigraphic column at Yates Cut consists of
a clay bed overlain conformably by five feet of sandy
marl which in turn is disconformably overlain by
unfossiliferous Pleistocene sediments. Whereas the
clay contains a marine fauna, the sands contain the
freshwater genera Ambloxis, Elliptio, and Corbicula ,
the brackish water Rangia, and many normal marine
species. The fresh and brackish water species are
disarticulated, abraded, and fragmented, indicating
that they were probably not indigenous.

Concentration of Supergene Copper
Mineralization by Altered Plagioclase
Feldspar, Battle Mountain, Nevada
Stephen C. Clement

Department of Geology, College of William ir Mary
Williamsburg, Virginia.

Intense sericitization of plagioclase-feldspar pheno-
crysts provided sites for the deposition of secondary
copper minerals in the oxidized zone of a small quartz-
monzonite poqihyry intrusive in north-central Nevada.
Late magmatic or hvdrothermal potassium-rich solu¬
tions preferentially altered andesine-oligoclase pheno-
crysts, attacking especially the more calcic portions of
zoned crystals. Crysocolla and minor amounts of mala¬
chite and azurite deposited from the permeating super-
gene solutions crystallized in fractures and in altered
zones staining the plagioclase phenocrysts of most of
the oxide zone a bright green.

X-ray spectrochemieal studies of the porphyry indi¬
cate that while the bulk rock typically contains less
than one percent CuO, the plagioclase phenocrysts
commonly contain two to five percent CuO. Motor¬
ized and step scans of represenatative samples with a
Heinrich miniature probe show a distinct correlation
between copper content and altered plagioclase felds¬
par. Within sericitized phenocrysts, the copper con¬
tent is highest in the more altered zones.

Recent Benthonic Foraminiferida in the
Upper Patuxent River Estuary, Mary¬
land, and the Effect of Temperature
Change on Their Distribution

John T. Christensen, Wilson N. Felder, and
Robert L. Ellison

Department of Geology, University of Virginia,
Charlottesville, Virginia.

Foraminifera in the Patuxent Estuary, Maryland, are
abundant but not very diverse, and their distribution

184

The Virginia Journal of Science

corresponds roughly with the hydrography. Although
densities are greater on the shoals than in the chan¬
nel, there are no well-defined facies, owing to the
absence of stratification.

Since 1965, the introduction of warm water into
the estuary from the new Potomac Electric Power
Company installation has had little effect on the
foraminifera, except for a small area around the mouth
of the effluent. Here no living foraminifera have been
collected, but within a quarter of a mile from the
effluent populations appear to be normal in size and
composition.

Detailed Gravity and Magnetic Surveys
of Mole Hill, Rockingham County,
Virginia

D. H. Elvers, W. H. de Rosset, and W. M. Emery

Department of Geology, University of Virginia,
Charlottesville, Virginia.

One hundred and fiftv gravity stations were occu¬
pied, and several ground and airborne magnetic trav¬
erses were conducted over the Mole Hill diabase intru¬
sive. Total magnetic intensity (F) readings taken
with an Elsec nuclear precession magnetometer at a
constant ten-foot-level range from plus 1800 gammas
to minus 2650 gammas.

Gravity data obtained with a Worden gravimeter
yielded, after removal of a 6-milligal regional trend,
a positive 14-milligal free-air anomaly coincident with
the top of the intrusive. The east-west gravity profile
is seen to be symmetrical across the intrusive, whereas
values on the north side are consistently higher than
values on the south side. Gravity and magnetic com¬
putation of the structure were programmed on an IBM
1620 computer in order to determine the cause of the
asymmetrical north-south gravity anomaly.

In reviewing the interpretation by Young and Grubbs
(1961), the authors agree that the magnetic anomaly
is due to remanent magnetization. However, the south¬
ward dip is in contradiction to the present interpreta¬
tion. Surface outcrop and magnetic data show that
the intrusive extends east-west 2300 feet and north-
south 1500 feet. Furthermore, gravity and F and Z
(vertical intensity) magnetic data suggest that the
intrusive is an elliptical cylinder of dipolar nature dip¬
ping to the north-northwest at 60 to 70 degrees.

Geologic Structures and Stratigraphy of
a Portion of the Triassic Basin at Deep
Run, Henrico County, Virginia

Bruce K. Goodwin and Gerald H. Johnson

Department of Geology, College of William 1? Mary,
W illia msb u rg, V i rgin ia .

During construction of Interstate 95, excellent ex¬
posures of a small Triassic basin were produced south¬
east of Short Pump. The basin lies approximately IV2
miles east of the Richmond Triassic basin, trends
NNE, and is less than half a mile wide in the area
investigated. Exposures occurred in die cuts of Inter¬
state 95 between Deep Run and Cox Road, and in a
large borrow pit to the southwest.

Approximately 500 feet of the faulted western con¬
tact between Triassic sediments and the Petersburg
granite were exposed and mapped in the borrow pit.
The border fault, a normal fault, has a steep dip to
the east and is intersected by minor faults that cross
the dominant northeast trend. Granite adjacent to
the contact is chloritized and has a cataclastic texture.
The Triassic sediments in proximity to the fault are
contorted and dip steeplv to the east; gentler dips
prevail in the center of die basin. Cuts along Inter¬
state 95 reveal complex structures within die Triassic
sediments. Steeply dipping normal faults are nu¬
merous and folds occur. Some folds suggest deforma¬
tion prior to lithification.

Two measured stratigraphic secdons, one totaling
157 feet of section, reveal the complex stratigraphy.
Thin coal beds, red-brown micaceous arkose, and silty
shale are dominant.

Occurrence and Transport of Fecal Pel¬
lets in Suspension in the James River,
Virginia

Dexter S. Haven and Reinaldo Morales-Alamo

Virginia Institute of Marine Science, Gloucester Point,
Virginia.

In the James River in the vicinity of White Shoal,
recognizable fecal pellets formed an average of 0.42
percent of the total suspended solids at 1 m above the
bottom and 0.14 percent at 1 m below the surface dur-

Proceedings, 1966-1967

185

ing a 24-hour sampling period. Pellets retained on
soil-analysis sieves (mesh sizes 125 and 44 p.) , how¬
ever, formed an average of 26.6 and 19.26 percent
of the materials retained on the screens at the same
depths, respectively. The pellets were apparently
being transported in suspension. Although their quan¬
tities in suspension were small, it is suggested that sort¬
ing during transportation and deposition could result
in their accumulation in areas of the estuary where
fine sediments would not settle out. It is considered
that such an accumulation on the bottom could alter
significantly the textural and chemical characteristics
of the existing sediments because of the fine size and
chemical properties of the component particles of the
pellets.

Structural Behavior of Differentiated
Hornblende Metagabbro Injections in
the Central Piedmont, Virginia

W. S. Henika and E. H. Ern

Department of Geology, University of Virginia,
Charlottesville, Virginia.

Two hornblende metagabbro bodies intrusive into
the thick sequence of lowgrade metamorphic rocks
east of the James River synclinorium were studied in
detail. These bodies which lie just east of Bucking¬
ham Court House were shown as one elongate body
paralleling the regional strike on earlier regional maps.
Detailed geological mapping shows that the two bodies
comprise a complexly deformed injection complex of
differentiated metagabbro sills, and svnkinematic sills
injected into the Candler formation. Because of well-
defined stratigraphic units within the complex, these
sills delineate the complex structure of the area.

Minor structural features point to two periods of
deformation, an early period of isoclinal flowage fold¬
ing and a later period of open folding and high-angle
reverse faulting.

Megascopic structural features shown on the detail¬
ed geological map indicate steeply plunging isoclinal
folds whose axial surfaces have been deformed by a
later, postmetamorphic tectonic episode. A large
normal fault striking parallel to the axis of the two
bodies forms the eastern contact of the northern body
and bisects the southern bodv.

Elliptical Depressions on Undissected
Highland Gravels in Northern Chester¬
field County, Virginia

Gerald H. Johnson and Bruce K. Goodwin

Department of Geology, College of William ir Mary
Williamsburg, Virginia.

Numerous elliptical to subcircular depressions are

found on undissected gravel uplands near Midlothian,
Virginia. The deeply weathered quartz gravel and
sand, in which the basins are cut, overlie Triassic ark-
oses and shales of the Richmond basin and granitic
rocks of the Piedmont. The undrained depressions
contain organic-rich sediments and support a hygroph-
ilous flora. The elevation of the basin floors is
between 345 and 360 feet above sea level; a low
ridge 10 to 15 feet high surrounds some of the basins
on the south and east sides. Seventeen basins were
delineated which range in size from 0.1 mile to 0.8
mile in length along their major axis. The trend of
the major axis varies from S 80° E to S 60° E. A
reconnaissance survey of surrounding areas revealed
no evidence of similar basins in Piedmont areas with¬
out a gravel veneer, or higher (450 feet) or lower
(250 feet) gravel upland, or on severely dissected
areas.

The age and origin of the basins are unknown.
Because of the similarity between the basins and the
Carolina Bays, the bay hypotheses were applied to
the basins. None were satisfactory. Depressions on
ancient flood plains and resulting from subsidence of
mine workings are inadequate to explain the origin
of the basins.

Sediments in the James Estuary

Richard Moncure and Maynard Nichols

Virginia Institute of Marine Science, Gloucester Point,
Virginia.

More than 130 bottom samples from the James
estuary were analyzed and studied in relation to hydro-
graphic conditions, bottom topography, and potential
sediment sources.

The bulk of the deposits consists of an admixture
of detrital silty clay, sandy clay and sand-silt-clay,
plus mollusk shells. Two principal end members are
recognized, ( 1 ) clay, common near the river entrance,
diminishes with distance downstream away from its
supposed source; (2) sand, abundant about the mouth,
decreases upstream along the channel. These two
components are mixed in the middle estuarv, bv the
two-way density currents, and by alternating tidal
flow that scours and fills the estuary floor. These
processes produce highly variable sediment patterns
typical of the deposits. A small amount of sand is
derived from margins of the estuary by erosion of
older deposits. Natural patterns of sedimentation have
been altered by man in his efforts to deepen naviga¬
tion channels, reclaim land, and harvest oysters.

The estuary deposits, if preserved in ancient rocks,
would mainly consist of mottled mudstone, with rapid
lateral facies changes becoming coarser seaward and
including many crosscutting oyster reefs.

186

The Virginia Journal of Science

Academy Cruise on the James Estuary

Maynard M. Nichols

Virginia Institute of Marine Science, Gloucester Point,
Virginia.

Seven stations were occupied aboard the R/V Lang¬
ley on May 6, 1967, along the channel of the James
estuarv across a range of salinity and sediment types.
Water temperature increased slightly towards the head
(2° C) ; whereas salinity decreased with distance up¬
stream ranging from 24.2 ppt near the mouth to 6.6
ppt near the head; transparency diminished from 1.2
to 1.0 feet. Vertical variations of temperature and of
salinity were relatively small, less than 1° C and 2.5
ppt, indicating that estuarine waters were moderately
well mixed. The weak stratification is associated with
low river inflow and above-average salinity for this
season.

Bottom samples were dominately homogenous or
mottled mud with a thin near-surface oxidation layer.
Grain size ranged -from sand near the mouth to silt
and clay in the upper estuary. Unique structures
consisting of black organic-rich random markings were
found in mud of a 90-foot-deep hole. Deposits of
older sediments exposed locallv on the channel floor,
including reddish Pleistocene (?) sand and Miocene
marl, at depths less than 45 feet suggest that the
modern estuarine fill mav be relatively thin.

Mineralogical Aspects of the
Hollins Slide

D. F. Noble

Virginia Highway Research Council, Charlottesville,
Virginia.

The Hollins Slide, occurring where Interstate Route
81 cuts the toe of the talus and alluvium at the foot
of the southeastern comer of Tinkers Mountain, Bote¬
tourt County, Virginia, has been moving slowlv and
somewhat intermittently since spring 1962.

Samples of alluvium taken during drilling of the
slide and samples of relatively fresh shale and severely
weathered shale taken in proximity to the slide were
X-rayed to ascertain the nature of the clay minerals.
It was determined that kaolinite, illite, and an expan¬
sible clay (severely weathered illite) are present in
the clay fraction. The shale contains kaolinite, illite,
quartz, and depending on the extent of weathering,
calcite and an expansible clay.

It is suggested that the presence of the expansible
clay is a factor which contributes to the sliding, be¬
cause it (a) decreases penneability and makes drain¬
age difficult and (b) decreases the density of the soil
mass.

To date, physical corrective measures have failed to
stop the slide. It is possible that sliding will continue
until an equilibrium slope is again established. Two
potential corrective measures of a chemical nature are
as follows:

1) Injection of a compound such as lime, which
would have a cementing effect and thus form
a stronger skeleton for the soil mass, and

2) Treatment with a potassium compound which
would collapse the expanded layers, stimulate
flocculation, and thus increase permeability
and density.

The difficulties associated with this tvpe of treatment
involve the expense of injecting the chemicals into
such a large and heterogeneous soil mass; the time
required lor beneficial reaction to occur; and the un¬
certainty of the results. Because of these problems a
physical or engineering solution is being considered.

The Circulation of Bottom Shelf Waters
off the Chesapeake Bight
J. J. Norcross

Virginia Institute of Marine Science, Gloucester Point,
Virginia.

Studies of the seasonal distribution of temperature
and salinity of Continental Shelf waters between Cape
Cod and Cape Hatteras (Virginian Sea) led to a theory
that the circulation of these coastal waters consists
of a three-layered flow. It was postulated that the
surface drift is generally southwesterly to southerly
and that the south-trending volume of Virginian coastal
water usually turns eastward at Cape Hatteras and
becomes entrained in the Gulf Stream system. Near
the bottom, particularly where drowned-river valleys
exist, the flow has an onshore component. The cold
stable intermediate layer has drift components which
are probably different at times from the direction of
drift of either the surface or bottom layers.

Long-term studies of the circulation of surface wa¬
ters have shown that the surface drift generally con¬
forms to the pattern of circulation predicted from
theory. More recently, residts of a studv conducted
by personnel of the Virginia Institute of Marine Sci¬
ence have indicated that the bottom flow of shelf
waters between the latitudes of Cape Henlopen, Dela¬
ware, and Cape Hatteras, North Carolina, (defined as
the Chesapeake Bight ) trends toward the coast at all
seasons, irrespective of the direction of the surface
drift. Variations in the direction of the bottom drift
have been noted, and explanations are offered for
these seasonal differences. The rate of drift of bot¬
tom waters has been shown to vary seasonally and
with distance from the coastline. The pattern of flow
for the intermediate layer remains unresolved.

Proceedings, 1966-1967

187

Composition and Profile Development
of Three Virginia Soils

Roger W. Plaster and Ernest H. Ern

Virginia Highway Research Council , and Department
of Geology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville,
Virginia.

Residual soils from three central Virginia localities
were systematically sampled from surface to bedrock.
Gompositon and profile differences were investigated
with special attention focused on clay mineralogy
variation down the soil profile. This variation proved
to be an excellent indicator of soil horizon changes.

The soil from Augusta County overlies an impure
limestone and has a coarse fraction (> No. 200 sieve)
composition of quartz, chert, and limonite. Clay
mineralogy is dominated by quartz, illite, and mixed-
laver clay, with lesser amounts of kaolinite and mont-
morillonite. Traces of goethite are present.

The soil from Louisa Countv overlies a metagabbro
and has a coarse fraction composition of feldspar
quartz, hornblende, mica, limonite, and chlorite. Clay
minerals include: illite and vermiculite dominant in
the B horizon; montmorillonite dominant in the C
horizon; and quartz and chlorite, minor and scattered
throughout the profile.

The soil from Madison County overlies a granite
gneiss and has a coarse fraction composition of quartz,
mica, limonite, and kaolinized feldspar. The dominant
clav mineral is kaolinite; minor amounts of quartz
and montmorillonite are found. Variable amounts of
illite and mixed-layer clay clearly show soil horizon
changes.

Climatic, topographic, chemical, and organic environ¬
ments are related to genesis of the soil profiles.

Bastnaesite after Allanite in the Ruther¬
ford Pegmatite, Amelia County, Virgina

W. Duncan Riesmeyer

Department of Geology, University of Virginia,
Charlottesville, Virginia.

Bastnaesite occurs in the Rutherford pegmatite,
Amelia County, Virginia, as an alteration product of
allanite. The mineral, hexagonal REFCO-., forms
alteration crusts which surround the allanite blades.
An X-ray diffraction study was made of the material
to establish its identity and to determine the unit cell
size of the mineral. Results show that the unit cell
is smaller {a= 7.07, c=9.72A) than that of bastnae¬
site from other localities. Semiquantitative specto-
graphic analysis of the material shows Ce, La, Nd to
be the major rare earths and suggests substitution of
Ca and Th for the rare earths in the crystal lattice.
This may account for the reduced unit cell size. Two
modes of formation are discussed, weathering and late-

stage alteration. The presence of fluoride in the bast¬
naesite discourages attempts to attribute the mode of
formation to weathering. The presence of carbonate
and fluoride minerals in late-stage-replacement bodies
in the pegmatite lends support to tire theory of late-
stage hydrothermal alteration of allanite to bastnaesite.

Comparison of X-Ray Emission and
Rapid Chemical Analysis for Selected
Silicate Rocks

Mary E. Sexton and W. Cullen Sherwood

Virginia Highway Research Council, Charlottesville ,
Virginia.

The purpose of this investigation was to compare
the results of chemical analyses run by 1) X-ray emis¬
sion and 2) by rapid chemical techniques. Six sam¬
ples which had been analyzed by X-ray emission were
supplied through tire courtesy of Dr. A. K. Baird of
Pomona College, Claremont, California. These same
samples were analyzed at the laboratories of the Vir¬
ginia Highway Research Council using rapid chemi¬
cal techniques developed and adapted over a period
of time for a variety of mineral materials such as rocks,
soils, and portland cement.

The Pomona techniques involved the use of sec¬
ondary chemical standards and normal X-ray-emis¬
sion procedures. The rapid chemical analyses utilized
colorimetric determination of silica, aluminum, iron,
and magnesium using a Beckman DU spectrophoto¬
meter. Sodium and potassium were determined by
flame photometry and calcium by titration with EDTA.

It was concluded that the two methods were in
very good agreement in most instances. The only
consistent discrepancies were in aluminum and potas-

sium where the rapid chemical techniques were con¬
sistently higher than the X-ray method. Three tvpical
analyses are shown below:

% I II III

a

13

n

_o

_o

£

g

Q

73

0 J

s

CjS

5.

u

X

u

><

O

SiO..

65.84

66.30

73.64

70.29

58.24

58.20

Al.,6,

16.86

17.55

13.78

15.00

16.83

18.00

Fe.O .

3.92

4.00

1.80

2.25

8.01

7.75

CaO

4.50

4.54

1.94

1.80

7.05

6.89

MgO

1.25

1.02

0.48

0.28

3.44

3.14

Na..O

4.45

3.35

3.06

3.95

3.04

5.15

K.O

2.01

2.46

4.61

5.51

1.59

1.91

A loss

0.22

0.42

0.19

0.24

0.31

0.45

(850°

C)

Total

99.05

99.64

99.50

99.32

98.51

101.49

I— Biotite granodiorite, Mt. Edna, San Jacinto Mts.
II— Granodiorite, Woodson Mt., Jurupa Hills, River¬
side Co., Calif.

HI— Tonalite, Lakeview Mt., Homeland, Calif.

188

The Virginia Journal of Science

Observations on Pickeringite
near Fredericksburg, Virginia

J. P. Terry and R. S. Mitchell

Department of Geology, University of Virginia,
Charlottesville, Virginia.

Masses of fibrous pink cobaltian pickeringite (CoO
up to 3%) occur intimately associated with alunogen
crusts in an exposure of horizontal beds of the Patuxent
formation (Lower Cretaceous), along Hazel Run in
Fredericksburg, Virginia. The exposure, which is over
175 feet long, consists of a thick lower bed of fine¬
grained arkose, a middle bed of montmorillonite clay
(about 20 inches thick), and an upper thick bed of
medium to coarse arkose containing large plant-fossil
imprints and pyrite-rich charcoal-like fragments. The
exposure has been eroded above the clav bed to form
an overhang of the coarse arkose which at places is
about 15 feet above the clav-covered finer arkose.
Decomposition of pyrite, and subsequent reactions with
various clay minerals, have produced several sulfates.
Melanterite is directly associated with weathered
pyrite; alunogen and jarosite are associated with the
kaolinite-rich arkose in the overhang; cobaltian picker¬
ingite and alunogen are associated with the montmoril-
lonite-rich bed. The cobalt apparently comes from the
montmorillonite, which contains traces of the element
as shown by semi-quantitative spectrographic analyses.

Calculations Relating to the Often-Cited
Basalt-Granite Differentiation Series
J. O. Waller

Department of Geology, Virginia Polytechnic Institute,
Blacksburg, Virginia.

Five main types of basalt — oversaturated tholeiite,
saturated tholeiite, undersaturated olivine tholeiite,
olivine basalt, and alkali basalt (as defined by Yoder
and Tilley) — have been calculated according to a
model formulated by Dietrich to have as end products
of differentiation quartz monzonite, monzonite, mon-
zonite, nepheline syenite, and nepheline syenite, re¬
spectively. Variation-trend diagrams for each differ¬
entiation agree with variation-trend diagrams drawn
from “average” analyses (Daly’s).

Summing “average” analyses (Daly’s) of the postu¬
lated products of serial differentiation of a “primeval
parent-basalt” (i.e., olivine gabbro, 50 percent; gab-
bro, 30 percent; diorite, 10 percent; quartz monzonite,
5 percent; and granite, 5 percent) gives a syenogabbro
(Johannsen’s classification).

These constitute additional considerations that ap¬
pear to invalidate the still widely persisting hypothesis
under which several rocks, especially granite, are de¬
rived from “primary basalt”.

Mineralogy of the Old Pyrite Mine
near Proffit, Albemarle County, Virginia

L. B. Wiggins and K. C. Horne, Jr.

Department of Geology, University of Virginia,
Charlottesville, Virginia.

Pvrite was mined for about a year, beginning in

J 7 O O

1917, from the Johnson Mill graphite slate formation
about a mile northwest of Proffit, Virginia. In addi¬
tion to pyrite (crystals and small veins) other minerals
which occur in the unweathered slate are muscovite
(serieite), graphite, quartz, and calcite. Secondary
minerals, formed primarily bv weathering processes,
include aragonite (thin coatings on slate), calcite (crys¬
tals in cavities), clav (kaolinite, dickite, illite), goe-
thite (stains and botryoidal masses), gypsum (nu¬
merous delicate crystals, often twinned), hematite
(stains), jarosite (yellow earthy coatings), rozenite
(probably from the dehydration of melanterite from
pyrite), and tinticite. This latter mineral was identified
through a comparison of its X-ray data with those of
the tvpe material from Utah. It is creamv white in
color and occurs in slate as cavity fillings and seams.
Other minerals found at the mine, which may have
been carried in from elsewhere, include chalcopvrite,
ilmenite, dolomite, and malachite. Most of the min¬
erals in this study were verified bv X-ray diffraction
studies.

Joint Patterns as Indicators of Regional
Tilting in Southern Piedmont
John W. Williams

Department of Geology, College of William and Mary,
W illiamsburg, V irginia.

Although joint-size orientation data are included in
practically every geologic report of an area, in most
cases little use is made of the implications that they
may provide about the area’s history. During the
summers of 1966-67, numerous measurements of the
orientation of joint patterns were made in the Piedmont
of South Carolina. Study areas were aligned along
two traverses: (1) north-south along the eastern

margin of the Piedmont and (2) normal to that trend.

Preliminary results indicate that near the eastern
edge of the Piedmont there is a uniform northeastward
tilting of the joint systems of about ten degrees from
the vertical. This attitude remains constant for the
eastern Piedmont from the Georgia to the North Caro¬
lina border. However, westward across the strike,
the ten-degree tilt to the northeast decreases until the
joint pattern approaches its “normal” vertical attitude
in western North Carolina.

One possible inteqiretation of these field relation¬
ships is that after the formation of the joints, the
Piedmont was tilted to the northeast with the most
intense tilting in the eastern portion of that province.

Proceedings, 1966-1967

189

Reconsideration of the Shenandoah
Valley Sulfide District, Virginia
Robert S. Young

Department of Geology, University of Virginia,

C harlot tesvi lie, V i rgi nia.

Two recently discovered occurrences of sphalerite
in the Beekmantown formation (Lower Ordovician)
extend the mineralized district to an 80-mile length,
including parts of Augusta, Rockingham, Shenandoah,
and Frederick Counties. At the Middletown localitv,
Frederick County, scattered ZnS traces have been
mapped, in upper Beekmantown, over a mile of strike
length; stratigraphically, sphalerite is localized in 50
feet of section. The southwestern district limit is near
Spring Hill, Augusta County; here, zinc sulfide is
found in bedrock over a strike length of 15,000 feet

and in stratigraphic section of more than 100 feet.
The zinc-bearing section begins at the Beekmantown-
New Market unconformity, a situation not known to
exist elsewhere in Shenandoah Valley. At both locali¬
ties, sphalerite occurs with vein dolomite as ( 1 ) isolated
replacement crystals, (2) simple vein fillings, and (3)
cementing material in weak, crackle-type breccias.

Within the former district limits, sphalerite has been
found in close proximity to the Mole Hill basalt plug,
near Harrisonburg.

Geologic data obtained through mining the Bowers-
Campbell breeeia-tvpe orebody near Timberville sup¬
port the original concept of a tectonic breccia, with
sulfides emplaced through hydrothermal processes.
Sphalerite geothermometric data indicate an upward-
decreasing temperature gradient for the initial ZnS
stage.

Mercury analysis has not proved an effective pros¬
pecting method in this district.

Section of Materials Sciences

X-Ray Investigations of Bimetallic
Diffusion Zones, Part II

J. A. Caipenter, Jr. and C. R. Houska

Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Blacksburg, Virginia.

Experimental work dealing with the X-ray diffrac¬
tion study of the diffusion of electroplated Ni into
single crystals of pure Cu is described.

The method whereby single-crystal wafers of pure
Cu are cut close to a given crystallographic orienta¬
tion is described. X-ray studies of the crystals before
and after the cutting and polishing indicate that it is
possible to cut the crystals to within 1° of a given
orientation without the introduction of new disloca¬
tions.

The plating of Ni onto Cu is described. X-ray
intensity data taken from a crystal before and after
plating indicate little if any distortion of the single-
crystal substrate resulting from the plating. A discus¬
sion is given on the relative merits of various experi¬
mental techniques for the determination of the actual
thickness of the plating.

Preliminary X-ray intensity data taken from sam¬
ples after diffusion indicate: (1) a large reduction in
extinction of the single-crystal substrate in the early
stages of diffusion and (2) a large reorientation of
the Ni plating closer to the orientation of the Cu sub¬
strate.

Radiation-Induced Crystallization of
Amorphous Solids
Carl Cox

Department of Materials Science, University of Virginia,
Cha rlottesville, V irgi nia.

Interest in radiation-induced phase transformations
originally arose in an attempt to support the thermal
spike hypotheses. When solid materials are subjected
to fast particle irradiation, localized regions are agitated
in a manner somewhat analogous to local heating. For
materials which exist in several polymorphic forms, it
should be possible to either nucleate a new phase in
these localized hot spots or to change the kinetics of
the transformation by the presence of many small,
highly disordered regions in the material acting as
nucleation sites.

The present paper reports results obtained from the
irradiation of amorphous Ge thin films under con¬
trolled temperature, atmosphere, and radiation condi¬
tions in the University of Virginia reactor. After
irradiation the films are studied by transmission elec¬
tron microscopy and diffraction, and the results are
compared with thermal annealing data. Radiation-
induced crystallization has been observed, and the size
distribution of the radiation-induced nuclei can be
explained on the basis of classical hard-sphere scat¬
tering with energy-dependent radius for the Ge pri¬
mary knockons, taking into account the angular aniso¬
tropy of the neutron-Ge interaction.

190

The Virginia Journal of Science

Nitrogen Solubility in AISI Type-304
Stainless Steel

T. B. Cox and J. F. Eckel

Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Blacksburg, Virginia.

An experimental procedure for determining the solid
solubility of nitrogen in AISI Type-304 stainless steel
is presented. This method is used to investigate the
solid solubility of nitrogen in Type-304 stainless steel
in the temperature range of 538° C to 981° C. Prob¬
lems associated with the massive precipitation of nit¬
rides and carbides in the temperature range of the
carbon sensitization of the alloy are discussed as they
affected the nitrogen-solubility determination. The re¬
sults of the investigation demonstrate that over the
temperature range examined, the solid solubility of
nitrogen in AISI Type-304 stainless steel increases
with increasing temperature. These findings are dis¬
cussed and compared with the results obtained by
other investigators.

A Study of Surface Charge on Polymer
Electrets
Robert A. Draughn

Department of Materials Science, University of Virginia,
Charlottesville , Virginia.

The application of high electrical fields (100-
500 kv/cm) to commercial polystyrene and mvlar in¬
duces the electret state in these materials. The elec-
tret state in dielectrics is characterized by the presence
of two charge distributions — one arising from internal
polarization of the material, and the other from charges
residing on or near the polymer surface. This paper
is concerned with the effect of low pressure on the
surface charge resulting from the two charge distribu¬
tions.

When electrets are exposed to vacuum, the surface
charge, as measured with a dissectible capacitor, first
decreases drastically, then partially recovers. The
charge decrease is explained by desorption of charge
sources from the polymer surface and the recovery is
attributed to a decrease in the internal polarization.

A Study of Factors Affecting Film
Formation on Gold Surfaces in the
Presence of Epoxy Resins

T. H. Forsyth and N. F. Murphy

Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Blacksburg, Virginia.

Electrical contact components are made of noble
metals because of chemical inertness. During storage
or use, an organic film forms on the metal surface,
causing an undesirable increase in electrical resistance.

The purpose of this study of film formation on gold
and gold alloys exposed to epoxy resins was to deter¬
mine storage conditions, resin composition and resin

treatment which would minimize haze formation.

Plastic rods were prepared at various polymerization
pressures, temperatures, and compositions from epoxy
novolacs and p, p'methylenedianiline (MDA).

A layer of 24-karat gold and 18-karat gold-copper
alloy was electroplated on clean copper squares. Gold
rings of solid 21 -karat composition were obtained and
cleaned.

The weighed metal samples were exposed at tem¬
peratures of 30, 60, 90 and 120° C to the plastic
rods. Samples were exposed at pressures of 10 and
760 millimeters of mercury, absolute, in covered glass
dishes.

Measurements of change in weight were made at
about 30-dav intervals for five months. Weight in¬
creases of 0.3 to 1.6 milligrams were observed for
gold exposed to plastic, and less than 0.4 when stored
without plastic.

The study showed that haze formation is reduced
by high hardener content, high polymerization tem¬
perature and low exposure temperatures. Film forms
by transfer of organic material through the vapor to
the metal surface. Haze formation was less on 18-
and 24-karat gold than on 21-karat gold. The forma¬
tion of haze on the 24-karat samples was retarded until
copper could diffuse to the surface.

Precipitation in the Pd-Au-Ag-Cu
System

C. R. Gill and C. R. Houska

Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Blacksburg, Virginia.

A preliminary investigation of the quaternary Pd-
Au-Ag-Cu shows that the hardness is increased with
the addition of Cu to a ternary containing equal
amounts of Pd and Au and 15 weight-percent Ag.
This allov is subject to age hardening due to the precip¬
itation of a second phase. For a composition of about
15 weight-percent Cu only one phase is observed above
550° C. Below this temperature a Cu-Pd precipitate
forms upon aging which displays long range order.

Flow-Stress Recovery of Aluminum at
Intermediate Temperatures

T. J. Headley and J. L. Lytton

Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Blacksburg, Virginia.

The recovery of flow stress of randomly oriented
polycrystalline high-purity aluminum following a 10%
tensile prestrain at room temperature has been studied
for recovery temperatures of 120°, 160° and 200° C.
Values of fractional flow-stress recovery were found
to be significantly less than for a previous study of
textured aluminum. The techniques of transmission
electron microscopy were used to determine the nature
of the dislocation rearrangements which occurred dur¬
ing recovery. These results indicate that dislocation
network formation on {100} and {110} planes con¬
tributes significantly to recovery, becoming more com-

Proceedings, 1966-1967

191

plete with increasing recovery time. The relation be¬
tween flow-stress recovery and the dislocation struc¬
tures developed will be discussed.

A Stress-Corrosion Cell for Use with
Dental Amalgam
Lewis B. Johnson

Department of Materials Science, University of Virginia,
Charlottesville, Virginia.

Stress corrosion may be defined as the acceleration
of the rate of corrosion damage by static stress. Since
no basic differentiation need be made between residual
stresses and stresses produced by externally applied
loads, it is often possible to measure the corrosion of a
specimen under an externally applied load and deter¬
mine the effect of residual stresses.

The measurement of corrosion currents and poten¬
tials on specimens under stress usually poses a con¬
siderable technical problem. In this laboratory a cor¬
rosion cell has been fabricated from Teflon for the
determination of stress corrosion of tensile specimens
of dental amalgam mounted in an Instron machine.

Basically, the cell is cylindrical in shape with a diam¬
eter of about 1 1/2 inches and a 2-inch height. The
amalgam tensile specimen is clamped in the Instron
grips and the corrosion cell fitted around its center.
The hollow center of the cell is filled with artificial
saliva as corrodant and electrical leads pass to a stan¬
dard calomel electrode and an Anatrol potentiostat.

It has been possible, with this cell, to measure cor¬
rosion potentials and currents with the specimen under
any tension below its fracture strength.

Solubility of Sulfur in Iron-Base Alloys *

G. A. Josey, Jr., and T. P. Floridis

Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Blacksburg, Virginia.

The solubility of sulfur in solid iron-base allovs at
1000° C was determined by equilibrating sulfur-con¬
taining atmospheres with thin sheets of various alloys.
Additions of chromium, copper, nickel and vanadium
cause a decrease of the sulfur solubility in iron. These
alloying elements have also a marked effect on the
shape, size, and distribution of the sulfides that axe
formed when the sulfur solubility is exceeded.

* Financial support by the NSF is gratefully acknowledged.

Work Hardening in Face-Centered Cubic
Metals

D. Kuhlmann-Wilsdorf

Department of Materials Science, University of Virginia,
Charlottesville, V irgi n ia .

In ductile crystalline materials the flow stress, i.e.,
the resistance against further plastic deformation, rises
with preceding plastic strain. This phenomenon is

called work hardening and is conveniently studied by
means of flow-stress-strain curves of single crystals.
Such curves commonly are found to consist of three
parts called Stages I, II and III. These are particu¬
larly well developed and have been most thoroughly
studied in face-centered cubic metals. In the past,
quantitative theories of Stages I and II but not of
Stage III have been developed, without any one of
these so far having received universal acceptance. A
unified quantitative theory of Stages II and III is now
proposed which constitutes a further development of
the earlier theory of Stage II by this author [Trans,
metall. Soc. A.I.M.E., 224, 1047 (1962)]. In the
new theory, the most important known relationships
needing explanation are accounted for, either quantit¬
atively or qualitatively.

Corrosion of Dental Amalgam and
Its Component Phases
Kenneth R. Lawless

Department of Materials Science, University of Virginia,
Charlottesville, Virginia.

The corrosion behavior of dental amalgam, and its
component y , yj , and y2 phases, in Ringer’s solu¬
tion and in an artificial saliva, has been studied by
means of electrochemical measurements, optical and
electron-optical surface examinations, and X-ray and
electron-diffraction analysis. Anodic and cathodic
polarization curves were determined for each alloy
using a step potential method and, in general, showed
no strongly passive behavior. The only product posi¬
tively identified on any of the surfaces was silver
chloride, which was always detected on the silver-con¬
taining alloys. Diffraction patterns from the tin alloy
and dental amalgam did not correspond to any known
compounds. Electron micrographs of the corroded
surfaces revealed characteristic behavior of the sepa¬
rate phases which could then be correlated with the
appearance of the corroded dental amalgam. The
dental-amalgam samples also showed deep pitting,
apparently at boundaries between phases or in the
y2 phase.

Crystallography of Adenosine
Triphosphate

Fredrik A, Muller and Alfred B. DeLuke

Department of Materials Science, University of Virginia,
Charlottesville, Virginia.

Adenosine triphosphate (disodium salt) is micro¬
crystalline when precipitated from water and ethanol
solution. Powder X-ray diffraction results have been
published. Because of the biological importance of
the configuration of this molecule, the molecular struc¬
ture is of greatest interest. Our efforts have been
directed toward the preparation of single crystals for
such a study. Some success has been achieved by
precipitation from water and 2-methyl-2,4-pentanediol
solution. Crystals about 1/4 inch long in the form

192

The Virginia Journal of Science

of long thin blades form in one to two weeks. By
the Weissenberg X-ray technique these crystals show
single diffraction spots, although not of the highest
quality. Two levels of Weissenberg data and one
precession photograph show orthorhombic symmetry
with a unit cell containing eight molecules of a = 7.06,
b = 21.05, c = 29.21 A. Extinctions along each of
the three axes indicate the space group P212121 .

On Hardness and Stacking-Fault
Probabilities in the Ag-Au-Pd System

C. Pauley and C. R. Houska

Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Blacksburg, Virginia.

The hardness ridge reported for the Pd-Au-Ag solid
solution has been confirmed along a composition line
for this system. For a pseudobinary system contain¬
ing equal amounts of Pd and An and varying amounts
of Ag, the maximum is at about 15 weight-percent
Ag ( VHN = 84).

Filings were prepared at several compositions about
the hardness maximum. X-ray diffraction patterns
from these specimens indicate that a large amount of
the resultant cold work remains at room temperature
and does not anneal out. The Warren- Averbach pro¬
file analysis was applied to these patterns and root-
mean-square strains were obtained in two crystallo¬
graphic directions, as well as particle-size coefficients.
Deformation-fault probabilities, as well as twinning
probabilities, were obtained from other methods.

X-Ray Investigations of Bimetallic
Diffusion Zones, Part I

D. R. Tenney and C. R. Houska

Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Blacksburg, Virginia.

An X-ray diffraction technique is described which
permits the accurate and nondestructive determina¬
tion of the concentration profile associated with rela¬
tively small diffusion zones between two metals. The
technique, though general, was developed specifically
for the investigation of the diffusion of Ni, Ag or Au
into single crystals of pure Cu.

Theoretical attention is given to mathematical de¬
scription of the diffusion zone. Where applicable, the
Boltzmann-Matano transformation to Fick’s Second
Law is applied. A solution is presented whereby dif¬
fusion profiles can be predicted for the case where
the diffusion coefficient varies with composition.

A method for mapping diffusion profiles from experi¬
mental X-ray diffraction data is presented. It is shown
(by successive approximations to the absorption coef¬
ficient) possible to associate a given depth in the dif¬
fusion zone with a specific composition, thereby map¬
ping the concentration profile. The matter of X-ray
extinction in the perfect Cu crystals is also considered.

The Calorimetric Observation of
Precipitation in Aluminum Alloys
D. S. Thompson

Reynolds Metals, Inc., Richmond, Virginia.

Differential thermal analysis has been used both iso-
thermally and at a constant heating rate to detect the
various stages of decomposition of a supersaturated
solid solution. The results were analyzed using a sim¬
ple rate equation which was found adequately to
describe the kinetics of precipitation processes. In
general, the kinetics were believed to be essentially
those of precipitate growth rather than nueleation and
growth. Particular emphasis has been placed on Al-
Cu and Al-Zn-Mg-Cu alloys where a complex decom¬
position process was found to operate. An attempt
has been made to correlate the kinetics of each stage
of precipitation with alloy composition.

Short-Range-Order Investigations in
the Pd-Au-Ag System

S. F. Yeung and C. R. Houska

Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Blacksburg, Virginia.

Short-range order provides a local friction for the
motion of dislocations. This mechanism is known to
lead to significant hardening in certain solid solutions.
Methods are being developed to obtain the short-range-
order coefficients in the Pd-Au-Ag system from diffuse
X-ray scattering. Since the atomic scattering factors
of Ag and Pd are nearly the same, the system can be
treated as a pseudobinary. These results are to be
compared with hardness measurements.

The analysis of configurational diffuse X-ray data
is complicated by other forms of scattering such as
temperature diffuse scattering, Compton modified, and
static diffuse scattering. Computational techniques
are being investigated to obtain improved short-range-
order and size-effect coefficients.

Effect of Barium Oxide on the Activity
of Phosphorus Oxide in Slags *

J. H. Young, Jr., and T. P. Floridis

Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Blacksburg, Virginia.

The distribution of phosphorus between liquid cop¬
per and liquid synthetic slags was determined at
1550° C. Liquid copper and slag contained in molyb¬
denum crucibles were equilibrated under atmospheres
consisting of argon, hydrogen, and water vapor. Sub¬
stitution of calcium oxide by barium oxide causes
lowering of the thermodynamic activity of phosphorus
oxide in the slag.

* Financial support by the AISI is gratefully acknowledged.

Proceedings. 1966-1967

193

Effect of Prestrain on the Flow-Stress
Recovery Behavior of Aluminum

C. T. Young and J. L. Lytton

Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Blacksburg, Virginia.

The flow-stress recovery of randomly oriented poly-
crvstalline high-purity aluminum after a 5% tensile
prestrain at room temperature has been studied for
recovery temperatures at 120°, 160°, and 200° C.
Values of fractional flow-stress recovery were found

to be about the same at a given temperature as in an
identical study using a 10% prestrain, even though
the flow stress at the start of recovery was substantially
less. The techniques of transmission electron micros¬
copy were used to determine the nature of the dis¬
location rearrangements which occurred during recov¬
ery. These rearrangements include: (1) the disap¬
pearance of dislocation loops and (2) the formation
of highly regular dislocation networks on {100} and
{110} planes. The relation between flow-stress rec¬
overy and the dislocation structures developed will be
discussed.

Section of Medical Sciences

Preliminary Report on a New Surgical
Anesthesia Ventilator for Infants

Leon J. Arp and Jon H. Betts

Department of Industrial Engineering, Virginia Poly¬
technic Institute, Blacksburg, Virginia.

This paper is a report of the use of the Arp-Vamum
infant respirator to deliver a 2.5 percent fluothane-
air mixture to rabbits for a two-hour test period. The
respirator was triggered by the rabbit’s initial inspira¬
tory efforts causing the respirator to deliver a fixed
volume of a 2.5 percent fluothane-air mixture. The
rabbit’s own respiratory monitors determined the bal¬
ance between respiratory rate and tidal volume and
hence his total ventilation. In this manner the rab¬
bit and the respirator were joined to form a highly
sensitive closed-loop servo system containing its own
checks and balances.

Twentv-one two-hour tests were run on seven rab¬
bits with the respirator delivering room air only. This
series was followed by twenty-one two-hour tests with
the respirator delivering a 2.5 percent fluothane-air
mixture. Most of the rabbits breathed at rates in ex¬
cess of 120 breaths per minute with several, on a
warm day, breathing at a rate of 320 breaths per
minute.

Arterial pH, PaC02 , and Pa02 determinations were
made for each rabbit at tbe end of each two-hour
test and compared with the pH, PaC02 , and Pa02

values for the rabbits with spontaneous respiration
in room air.

The Arp-Vamum infant respirator will adequately
ventilate rabbits under deep surgical anesthesia while
receiving a 2.5 percent fluothane-air mixture for two
hours. In additon, the rabbit, even while under deep
surgical anesthesia, is able to assess his ventilatory
requirements and shift his respiratory rate so as to
maintain a normal pH, PaC02 , and Pa02 .

Blood-Ketone Levels During the Develop¬
ment or Post-Irradiation Hyperlipemia

Donald W. Barnes and Wallace R. Wooles

Department of Pharmacology, Medical College of
Virginia, Richmond, Virginia.

Since the etiology of post-irradiation hyperlipemia
has not been elucidated, the possibility of alteration
in the hepatic oxidation of fatty acids as a factor in
the genesis of irradiation-induced hypertriglyceridemia
was evaluated. Also, since 2-aminoethvlisothiouronium
bromide (AET) is able to confer a significant degree
of protection to animals subjected to lethal doses of
X-irradiation, the ability of AET in preventing the
marked hyp e rt ri glycer id cm i a in the first 48-hour post¬
irradiation time periods was evaluated. Male albino
rabbits were exposed to 1000-r whole-body ionizing
radiation as a single exposure. Blood-ketone levels
were measured at various post-irradiation time periods

194

The Virginia Journal of Science

during the 24 hours following exposure. Plasma-tri-
glyeeride and phospholipid levels were measured prior
to and 24 and 48 hours following exposure. Sham-
irradiated and irradiated rabbits manifested a similar
increase in blood-ketone levels throughout the initial
24-hour post-irradiation period. Throughout this time
period irradiated rabbits manifested a 280 percent in¬
crease in plasma-triglyceride concentration compared
to the sham-irradiated control group. These data sug¬
gest that ketogenesis, and thus hepatic oxidation of
fatty acid, is not impaired by exposure to 1000 r.
AET treatment, in the amount of 150 mg/kg immed¬
iately prior to exposure, was associated with an in¬
creased 30-dav survival as compared to saline-treated
irradiated rabbits (i.e., 50 percent vs. 17 percent re¬
spectively). It did not prevent the rise in plasma-
triglyceride or phospholipid levels occurring 24 hours
after exposure although it did reduce the degree of
hypertriglvceridemia approximately 40 percent. The
results of the present study demonstrate that depressed
oxidation of hepatic fatty acids, as indicated bv blood-
ketone levels, is not a factor in the development of
post-irradiation hyperlipidemia. The radio-protective
agent AET prolonged the 30-day survival of animals
exposed to 1000 r and reduced the degree of hyper¬
triglyceridemia occurring 24 hours after exposure.

Protein-Bound Sulfhydryl Groups in
Tissues of a Representative Mammalian
Embryo (Sus scrofa)

John C. Bartone

Department of Anatomy, College of Medicine, Howard
University, Washington, D. C.

The DDD (2,2' dihydroxyl-6, 6'-dinaphthyldisulfide)
reaction for sulfhydryl groups (Barrnett and Seligman,
1952) was performed upon domestic pig embryos 15
millimeters in length.

The histochemieal reaction of protein-bound sulfhv-
dryl groups was widely demonstrated by tissues of all
15-millimeter pig embryos. The localization of sulfhy-
dryl groups was generally intense or moderate. The
ectodermal derivatives were intensely and uniformly
reactive for sulfhydryl groups as in epidermis, brain,
spinal cord, nerves, ganglia, oral, nasal, and otic epi¬
thelium.

Endodermal derivatives were either intensely or mod¬
erately reactive for protein-bound sulfhydryl groups.
The oral and nasal pharynx were intensely stained but
pharyngeal structures were only moderately so. The
branchial derivatives were heavily reactive but laryngo-
tracheo-bronchial related structures were moderately
reactive. The gastro-intestinal tract was heavily laden
with sulfhydryl groups whereas the liver, gall bladder,
and pancreas were moderately laden.

Mesodermal derivatives were variably reactive for
sulfhydryl content. Genito-urinarv structures were

heavily stained for bound sulfhydryl groups. Bone
spicules and osteoid tissue were negative. Osteoblasts
contained heavy amounts of sulfhydryl components.
Perichondrial tissues and cartilage were intensely posi¬
tive. Endothelium, serous epithelium, heart and noto¬
chord cells demonstrated moderate intensities of sulf¬
hydryl groups.

The Effect of Dimethyl Sulphoxide on
Drug Transfer from the Urinary
Bladder *

S. Bernstein and J. F. Borzelleca

Department of Pharmacology, Medical College of
Virginia, Richmond, Virginia.

Jacobs [Curr. Ther., 6, 134 (1964)] proposed that
dimethyl sulphoxide (DMSO) increased the rate of
drug movement across membranes by acting as a “pene¬
trant carrier.” The following study was conducted to
clarify the mechanism (s) by which DMSO influences
the rate of drug passage across membranes. The effect
of DMSO on the movement of sodium salicylate across
the wall of the urinary bladder of the rabbit was
studied using the method previously described by Bor¬
zelleca |7. Pharmac. exp. Ther., 148, 111 (1965)]. Solu¬
tions containing 0, 5, 20, 50, and 100 percent DMSO
were employed. Samples were taken at hourly inter¬
vals for a period of six hours. The method of Trinder
[Biochem. J., 57, 301 (1954)] was used for salicylate
determination. The rate of disappearance of salicylate
from the bladder was most rapid from the solutions
containing 50 and 100 percent DMSO. When the
bladders were pretreated with sodium cyanide, the
rate of movement of salicylate from the control or the
DMSO solutions was not altered. This suggests that
the effect of DMSO probably does not involve active
transport. The increased rate of drug disappearance
at higher concentrations of DMSO could be attributable
to disruption of mucosal integrity. These data do not
appear to support the penetrant carrier hypothesis.

‘Supported in part by a grant from the USPHS,. GM-12684.

A New Technique of Complex Curve
Resolution *

Edward R. Berry

Department of Biophysics, Medical College of Virginia,
Richmond, Virginia.

The presentation of data in spectrophotometry, ultra¬
centrifugation, electrophoresis, chromatography, diffu¬
sion experiments, densitometry, and statistics is gener¬
ally in die form of complex curves. The decomposition
of summations of distributions into the component parts

Proceedings, 1966-1967

195

is possible by the utilization of the Gaussian equation.

The rearrangement of the equation into an expression
of log k as a function of y’s is discussed, and its ap¬
plication to the quantitative evaluation of homogeneity
and heterogeneity in 1) diffusion-type boundaries, 2)
mixed moving boundaries, and 3) stationary complex
systems is presented.

‘This work was supported by Grant No. DA 49 146 XZ 416,
Defense Atomic Support Agency and Grant No. NGR 47 002 005,
National Aeronautics and Space Administration.

The Reversal of Postoligemic Shock by
Massive Fluid and Solute Therapy
in the Cat

E. D. Brand, T. K. Suh, and M. C. Avery

Department of Pharmacology, University of Virginia

School of Medicine, Charlottesville, Virginia.

Cats were bled rapidly to a MABP of 40 mm Hg
by means of an arterial reservoir. After spontaneous
uptake of 40 percent of maximum shed blood (avg
2.6 hours), all remaining shed blood was reinfused.
Seven of eight control cats died (avg 6 hours). Treat¬
ment with fluid and solutes in volumes needed to
maintain central venous pressure between 5 and 10
mm above the initial control value was applied between
0.5 and 4.5 hours after reinfusion. Water containing
normal plasma electrolytes and glucose 1.5 percent
(avg 10.3 percent body weight) reversed shock in
seven of eight cats. Similar treatment with low-molec¬
ular-weight dextran or fresh heparinized cat blood did
not reverse shock. Survival was correlated with more
complete return toward normal of plasma osmolality
and pH and with larger urine volume. It is concluded
that massive fluid therapy containing normal plasma
electrolytes and glucose acted to support cardiovascular
dynamics, urine formation and restoration of metabolic
equilibrium and reversed so-called “irreversible” shock.

Seromucoid Levels in Magnesium
Deficiency in the Young Rat

G. E. Bunce, C. D. Poe, and N. O- Price

Department of Biochemistry and Nutrition, Virginia
Polytechnic Institute, Blacksburg, Virginia.

A rapid accumulation of calcium in the kidney is a
characteristic response to magnesium deficit in the
young rat. The primary lesion appears to be uroli¬
thiasis with nephrocalcinosis as a sequel. The bio¬
chemical steps which cause urolithiasis as a result of
magnesium deficiency are not known. Uroliths of all
kinds are believed to form upon a mucoid matrix, and
administration of excess vitamin D or parathyroid hor¬
mone is followed by a rise in seromucoid and an in¬

crease in kidney calcium. Some have proposed that
magnesium deficiency may also affect mucoid metab¬
olism and thereby encourage formation of stone matrix
precursors. Others have suggested that the effect of
magnesium in prevention of urolithiasis is by the forma¬
tion of soluble complex ions with oxalate or phosphate.

In this study, seromucoid levels were compared in
magnesium-deficient rats and various controls. Sero¬
mucoid was found to be elevated within one week in
magnesium deficiency but not in deficiencies of thia¬
mine or pyridoxine or from restricted intake of a com¬
plete diet. The elevations were in the order previ¬
ously observed in experimental hypervitaminosis D or
hyperparathyroidism. The rate in seromucoid was ac¬
companied by a rapid increase in kidney calcium. The
possible relationship of seromucoid to urolithiasis will
be discussed.

Intrinsic Factors Affecting Metabolic
Rate in Vertebrates
Jack D. Burke

Department of Anatomy, Medical College of Virginia,
Richmond, Virginia.

The uptake and release of oxygen by hemoglobin
in vertebrate blood is affected by temperature, hydro¬
gen-ion concentration, salt ionic strength, carbon-di¬
oxide tension and oxygen tension. However, the amount
of oxygen transported by the blood to and from meta-
bolically active sites depends on the total blood-oxygen
capacity per unit body weight, the total blood volume
per unit body weight, and the affinity of hemoglobin
for oxygen. These intrinsic factors affect metabolic
rate in vertebrates differently in that those of lesser
body weight can have a higher metabolic rate than
those of greater body weight. These factors also have
the same kind of effect on intraspecific variation in
that the metabolic rate is higher in young animals than
in adults.

Electrolytes in Frog-Skin Secretions *

Jean P. Campbell, Rama M. Aiyawar, Edward

R. Berry, and Ernst G. Huf

Departments of Physiology and Biometry, Medical
College of Virginia, Richmond, Virginia.

Normal frogs produce an alkaline (pH 7.5) secre¬
tion containing Na+, CP, HCG3~ and proteins at con¬
centrations considerably below plasma concentrations.
Sulfate and inorganic phosphate are present at plasma-
level concentrations. The K+ concentration is about 7
times the plasma level. Treatment with epinephrine
(1 mg/frog) leads to a more alkaline fluid (pH 7.7)
which flows at twice the control rate. The Na+, CP,
HC03_ concentrations approached the respective plas¬
ma levels. Inorganic phosphate is not elevated. Sul-

196

The Virginia Journal of Science

fate (25 percent in esterified form) is found in con¬
centrations about 7 times, [K+] about 5 times, and
protein 0.5 times as high as in plasma. Electrophoretic
studies indicate presence of plasma proteins and other
vet unidentified protein-like materials. For a 5-hour
collection period total average COL> production in epine¬
phrine-treated frogs is not elevated. It is concluded
that epinephrine increases the permeability of the epi¬
dermis for water, Na+, Cl , HCO:!~ and probablv leads
to an active outward transport of K+ and sulfate in
inorganic and esterified form involving the skin glands.

* Supported by NIH Grant GM 035450.

Correlation of Stress Levels with
Corticosterone Levels in Blood Plasma
Germille Colmano

Department of Veterinary Science, Virginia Polytechnic
Institute, Blacksburg, Virginia.

In studies relating to the healthy state as compared
to the diseased state in experimental animals (chickens
and pigs) under different forms of stress (social stress,
poisons, bacterial and other infections), there has always
appeared to be correlation between an increase in bac¬
terial, poison, and social stresses and an increase in
blood-plasma steroids. In studying tbis we were
able to accumulate in our laboratory information which
led us to believe that stress, physiologically defined
as the determinant of adrenocorticotropic hormone
(ACTH) production, is detectable as blood-plasma
corticosterone (measured fluorometricallv) .

The Growth of Somatic Cell Clones
in Micro Lagoons

Clarence D. Cone, Jr., and Kathryn Peddrew

National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Lang¬
ley Research Center, Hampton, Virginia.

A simple method for physically partitioning a mono-
layer field of cells at the micro level has been devel¬
oped. The partitioning is effected bv use of a small
flat-faced cylinder to pull a viscous polymeric grease
into a network of micro boundaries on the monolayer¬
ing surface. The lagoons so formed have a wide range
of shapes and sizes, varying from 10 to 500 ^ in diam¬
eter, and have depths ranging from 0.2 to 5 /x . In¬
oculation is simply accomplished using dilute sus¬
pensions of cells; many lagoons can be found which
initially contain a single cell from which isolated clones
may be grown. The lagoon technique has found many
valuable applications in cytological and biophysical re¬
search endeavors.

Urinary Bladder Responses in the Cat

Following Electrical Stimulation of

the Cerebellum and Medulla Oblongata *

James A. Crute, Everett H. Ingersoll, Louise
L. Jones, and Erling S. Hegre

Departtnent of Anatomy, Medical College of Virginia,
Richmond, Virginia.

Urinary bladder responses were obtained, following
electrical stimulation of either the cerebellum or med¬
ulla oblongata, in 18 cats out of a total of 34 animals
investigated. Anesthesia was by intravenous injection
of 25 mg/kg body weight of a-chloralose and 6 mg/kg
body weight of sodium pentobarbital. The methods
used in electrical stimulation of the brain and in record¬
ing bladder responses have been described in detail
elsewhere [/. Urol., 72, 178 (1954); Neurology, Min-
neap., 11, 46 (1961)].

The typical bladder response was a sustained relaxa¬
tion of the detrusor muscle during stimulation followed
by contraction on cessation of stimulation. In the ani¬
mals in which a spontaneous rhythm was present, stimu¬
lation often abolished the rhvthm as well as relaxing
the bladder wall. The bladder response was unrelated
to the intravesieular pressure employed or to such
parameters of stimulation as frequency, delay, or dura¬
tion of the square-wave pulse.

Reactive points were confirmed histologically and
were found to be either in the vermis or hemispheres
of the cerebellum or in the reticular formation of the
lower medulla.

* Aided by NIH Grant No. B-704.

Fine Structure of Striated Muscle
in Amputated Newt Limbs *

J. David Deck and Ingrid A. Meier

Department of Anatomy, University of Virginia,
Charlottesville, Virginia.

When a newt limb is amputated, the compact, well-
ordered bundles of myofibrils in muscle fibers soon
begin to be separated by wider-than-usual strands of
sarcoplasm, systems of smooth membranes become dis¬
rupted and separated into vesicles and mitochondria
tend to aggregate in clumps. Later stages in the dis¬
ruption show a loss of myofilaments from the tracts
of myofibrils, disorientation of the fibrillar tracts from
the longitudinal axis, and fragmentation of the affected
fibers into smaller bits of sarcoplasm.

Proceedings, 1966-1967

197

In these muscle fibers, exemplifying stages in the
loss of organized structure, we find numerous helical
strings of polyribosomes. Not infrequently they seem
to be oriented alongside (or perhaps around?) myofila¬
ments as these latter structures feather away from the
fibrillar bundle. On the other hand, they can also
be found in fragments of sarcoplasm where few or no
myofilaments remain. In other material where similar
strands of polyribosomes have been described, they
have been regarded as effectors of protein synthesis
for cellular differentiation. In our material we are
led to wonder whether these complex strands of ribo¬
somes are not involved in the apparent disruption of
organization, presumably leading to a state of cytoplas¬
mic organization from which fiber regeneration can
subsequently take place.

* This work has been aided by funds from Grant Number FRO
5431-05 from the NIH, USPHS.

Effects of NH4+ on Acid-Base Properties
and Ion Movements in Isolated
Frog Skin

Ruth T. Friedman and Ernst G. Huf

Department of Physiology, Medical College of Virginia,
Richmond, Virginia.

The surface of the epidermis is a region of acidity,
the corium a region of alkalinity. Release of acid by
the epidermis is a continuous process and can almost
quantitatively be accounted for by release of respira¬
tory C02 . The alkalinity of the corium tissue results
from its high bicarbonate content. Within narrow
limits the maximal pH difference across the skin is
from pH 6 to pH 8. In individual skins the regula¬
tion of the surface pH at the epidermis is remarkably
precise. Within the limits mentioned there is no direct
linkage of Na+ uptake by, and H+ release from the
epidermis. At pH < 6, Na+ uptake is diminished,
while H+ is absorbed by the epidermis. Skins in solu¬
tions containing NH.Cl (10 mM/1) have a dimin¬
ished rate of net Na+ transport (decreased influx;
increased out-flux), and a lower skin PD. Oxygen
consumption is little, if any, reduced compared to con¬
trol skins. H+ ions are absorbed by the skin (even
at pH 7), which releases tissue K+ in nearly equivalent
amounts. It is suggested that the inhibitory effect
NH(+ ions on active Na+ transport results from the
loss of cellular K+ which (for unknown reasons) is a
key element in maintaining the mechanism of active
Na‘ transport.

* Supported by NIH Grant GM 03545.

Silp Ilium

Chalmers L. Gemmill

Department of Pharmacology, University of Virginia
School of Medicine, Charlottesville, Virginia.

A study was made of a medicinal plant, silphium,
used bv the Greeks and Romans from 550 R.C. to 100
A.D. It was grown in and around Gyrene, Libya, and
exported to all parts of the world known at that time.
A botanical description is given by Theophrastus and
Dioseorides. It was used as a symbol on the ancient
coins of Gyrene. The medical uses are discussed by
Hippocrates, Galen, and the Arabic writers. It became
extinct in Libya about 100 A.D. The export of this
plant brought great wealth into Gyrene. A modern
evaluation of the possible medical use of this plant
is proposed.

Effects of Laser Radiation on the Eye

William T. Ham, Jr.

Department of Biophysics, Medical College of Virginia,
Richmond, Virginia.

This paper presents data concerning the effects of
laser radiation on the eye, demonstrating that reason¬
ably accurate data is at hand to evaluate eye hazards.
Transmission through the ocular media to the retina
excludes wavelengths shorter than 400 nanometers
(nm) or longer than 1400 nm. The structure of
the inner eye (retina) is such that minimal damage
takes place at and immediately adjacent to the pig¬
ment epithelium for laser pulses which last for a few
milliseconds or less. This is because the pigment epi¬
thelium absorbs a major portion of the light incident
on the retina. Q-spoiling, whereby laser pulses of
only a few nanoseconds duration are produced, presents
special hazards for the eye. On the other hand, lasers
operated continuously (CW gas lasers) can also dam¬
age the eye.

The biological effects of laser radiation on the eye
will be discussed in terms of thermal injury and pos¬
sible nonlinear effects accompanying Q-spoiling. Quan¬
titative data involving power density (watts/cm2) at
the retina for various exposure times which are required
to produce minimal damage to retinal tissue is pre¬
sented.

Morphogenesis of the Pancreas in the
Amphibian Ambystoma maculatum *
Thomas M. Harris

Department of Anatomy, Medical College of Virginia,
Richmond, Virginia.

In view of the important role of the urodele amphi-

198

The Virginia Journal of Science

bians in the study of comparative embryology and ana¬
tomy, it is surprising that there are so few accurate
descriptions of the early development of the organs
derived from embryonic endoderm. Harris [ Anat . Rec.,
151, 358 (1965) and J. Morph. (1967), in press] de¬
scribed the early development of the amphibian
stomach and intestine and showed that the classic con¬
cept of the archenteric origin of the intestine was
erroneous.

The object of the present study was to investigate
the early morphogenesis of the pancreas in the light
of the new findings relating to intestinal development.
It was found that, contrary to the accepted earlier
descriptions, there is a continuity between the defini¬
tive pancreatic duct system and the system of original
embryonic tubules. It had also been stated that the
main collecting ducts arise independently of the sec¬
ondary ducts and then fuse with them later in devel¬
opment [Frye, Am. J. Anat., 102, 117 (1958)]. This
is shown to be incorrect. Frye also expressed doubt
about the relation between the main collecting ducts
and the original pancreatic diverticula. These rela¬
tions are elucidated in this study.

* Supported by NIH Grant HD 1789.

The Direct Determination of the Crystal
Structure of the Antiradiation Com¬
pound, 2-Aminoethanethiosulfuric
Acid*

William E. Keefe and James M. Stewart

Department of Biophysics, Medical College of Virginia,
Richmond, Virginia, and Department of Chemistry,
University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland.

The structure of 2-aminoethanethiosulfuric acid has
been determined from single-crystal X-ray-diffraction
film techniques using the symbolic addition^ procedure
of Karle and Karle. The space group is PI with four
molecules in the unit cell, a, b, c, «, /?, and y are
8.57 ±.02 A, 7.39 ±.02 A, 9.85 ±.02 A, 80.5 ± 1.4°,
86.0 ± 1.4°, and 94.4 ± 1.4° respectively with a meas¬
ured density of 1.721 ± .02 g/cm3. The final R fac¬
tor is 0.064. The molecules are formed in zwitterion-
bonded dimers in the crystals. These zwitterions are
capable of capturing and holding a free radical, thus
explaining the radiation protection afforded by the sub¬
stance.

* This work was supported by a NIH traineeship under Grant
No. 5TI GM 689.

The Effect of Q-Switched Ruby Laser on
Retinal Pigment Epithelium in Vitro

Robert G. King and Walter J. Geeraets

Department of Ophthalmology, Medical College of
Virginia, Richmond, Virginia.

Pigment epithelial explants of the ten-day-old White
Leghorn chick embryo were exposed to Q-switched
ruby-laser irradiation using a TRG Biolaser. Cellular
morphology and cytoplasmic activity were observed
directly and recorded by time-lapse cinephoto microg¬
raphy. An energy density of 0.11 j/cm2 correspond¬
ing to a power density of 3.8 mw/cm2 produced a
threshold lesion for cell death. The power density
(mw/cm2) at the cell layer was independent from
the irradiated spot size, ranging from approximately
20 ft to 135 /j. in diameter. Exposure times were 28.5
to 30 nanoseconds. Increases in power densities up to
6 times above threshold produced proportional in¬
creases in destruction. Reversible cellular damage was
recorded at energy levels below that causing cell
death (2.4 mw/cm2). Cellular recovery, as evidenced
by cytoplasmic activity, required about 20 minutes
after exposure to this energy level.

Myocardial Diffusion Coefficient of
Oxygen *

E. A. Lentini and S. E. Ketner

Department of Physiology and Biometry, Medical Col¬
lege of Virginia, Richmond, Virginia.

Previous investigations on the myocardial developed
tension and oxygen supply, in vitro, [Lentini, E. A.,
Am. J. Physiol., 207, 341 (1964)] allowed for the cal¬
culation of the diffusion coefficient (Dr) of 02 through
heart muscle. This was basically obtained from the
inflection point on the curve relating the myocardial
isometric tension to the pressure of oxygen aerating the
solution (pOo). The calculated quantity of D' sug¬
gested a value greater than that for skeletal muscles.
Current analysis of the data incorporating Fick’s dif¬
fusion equations with the appropriate boundary condi¬
tions revealed good agreement with the value derived
by Krogh for skeletal muscle. The developed equa¬
tions allowed for the determination of the volume of
tissue being oxygenated as a function of the experi¬
mental p02 .

It was found that the theoretical curve relating the
volume of tissue oxygenated as a function of the p02
intercepted at the origin, while the functional devel¬
oped tension curve, at corresponding pOo values, inter¬
cepted at 30 mm Hg p02 . The difference in inter¬
cepts is interpreted as being a measurement of the re¬
quired initial oxygen pressure needed to initiate the

Proceedings, 1966-1967

199

necessary biochemical reactions for the production of
isometric tension.

* Aided by PHS Grant HE 09249-01 and HE 04562.

Pentafluoropropionylation in the

Determination of Nicotine

Herbert McKennis, Jr., S. C. Srivastava, and
Edward R. Bowman

Department of Pharmacology, Medical College of
Virginia, Richmond, Virginia.

In all attempts to describe or propose a sequence of
events responsible for the rapid termination of physio¬
logical responses to nicotine, a knowledge of the trans¬
portation and distribution of submicrogram quantities
of nicotine becomes extremely desirable. These needs
have been met previouslv, in part by isotopic proced¬
ures, and in part by gas chromatographic methods. To
increase the effectiveness of the latter, a number of
perfluoro derivatives of nicotine — suitable for deter¬
mination with an electron-capture detector — have been
synthesized. The most promising of these, pentafluo-
ropropionylmetanicotine, was prepared bv reacting nic¬
otine with pentafluoropropionic anhydride in the pres¬
ence of triethvlamine. The product, which was iden¬
tified as a picrate (m.p. 129-131°), gave satisfactory
signals in an electron-capture detector. Comparative
analyses of the urine of a male smoker by the direct
chromatographic methods, modified from procedures of
McNiven and others, and the pentafluoro method indi¬
cated a satisfactory agreement. Urinary excretions of
2.4-3. 3 mg of nicotine per day were noted. Deter¬
minations by the pentafluoro method on a Carbowax
20M column permit the determination of as little as
1 x 10 9 g of nicotine without apparent interference
from other urinary constituents or side products which
form during the course of the chemical manipulations.

* Aided by grants from the American Medical Association Edu¬
cation and Research Foundation, The Council for Tobacco Re¬
search' — U.S.A., and The American Tobacco Company.

Predictive Model for Blood Glucose
Concentration in the Dog *

K. Mullen and Joseph F. Borzelleca

Departments of Biometry and Pharmacology, Medical
College of Virginia, Richmond, Virginia.

The determination of blood-glucose concentrations
in humans involves collection by properly trained per¬
sonnel at times often not convenient to the subjects.
Saliva and urine are easy to collect. If glucose were
present in these fluids, and if a relationship could be

established between the glucose level in blood and
saliva or urine, then important data could be obtained
with a minimum of discomfort and inconvenience. At¬
tempts to establish the presence and validity of these
relationships have resulted in the following study.
Glucose concentrations were determined (using the glu¬
cose-oxidase method) in the blood, saliva and urine
of anesthetized dogs that were infused with glucose.
Salivation was stimulated by pilocarpine administration.
In addition to glucose concentration, the volume and
pH of the saliva and urine were determined. The con¬
centration of glucose in saliva and urine appeared to
be related to the blood concentration but a definite
ratio could not be established. However, using the
method of multiple regression, it appeared that the
saliva was a better indicator of blood glucose than
urine. At blood concentrations below 650 mg percent,
the saliva-glucose concentrations were not sensitive
enough to permit the calculation of a reliable formula.
At blood levels above 650 mg percent, the saliva-glu¬
cose concentration was regarded statistically as a very
good indicator of the blood-glucose concentration.

* Supported in part by USPHS Grant GM 12684.

Dosimetry in Extra-Corporeal
Irradiation of Blood

F. T. O’Foghludha and James S. Wolf

Departments of Radiology and Surgery, Medical Col¬
lege of Virginia, Richmond, Virginia.

A description is given of equipment used at the
Medical College of Virginia for the irradiation of blood
circulating outside the body. The design of devices
(some of them portable) relying on energy-deposition
by both high- and low-energy X-rays, and by beta
radiation, is presented. Theoretical difficulties in cal¬
culating the dose, due (a) to nonuniformity in the
radiation field (especially troublesome with beta radia¬
tion) and (b) to irregular motion of blood cells through
the irradiator, are pointed out and the results of cal¬
culations bearing on these two points are presented.

A description is then given of chemical measurements,
employing a modified Fricke dosimeter. The energy-
deposition in subjects of known blood volumes is re¬
ported for the devices used.

Prevention of Endotoxin-Induced
Hemorrhagic Gastritis
John Clark Osborne

Department of Veterinary Science, Virginia Polytechnic
Institute, Blacksburg, Virginia.

Severe hemorrhagic inflammation of the fundic area
of the stomach is a common lesion at necropsy of young

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The Virginia Journal of Science

pigs following induced endotoxin shock. Endotoxin
was prepared by sonically disrupting cultures of Esche¬
richia coli. Reversible and irreversible shock in the
pig regularly followed the intravenous inoculation of
small quantities of the E. coli. Administration of ethyl
alcohol to pigs prior to the administration of the endo¬
toxin was highly effective in the prevention of this
lesion.

Comparative Histology of Corneas from
the Normal and Buphthalmic Rabbit Eyes

William M. Shanklin and L. Benjamin Sheppard

Departments of Anatomy and Ophthalmology, Medi¬
cal College of Virginia, Richmond, Virginia.

After formalin fixation, paraffin embedding and sec¬
tioning, 8 staining methods were applied to sections
of eyes from 10 normal and 20 buphthalmic rabbits.
In general, the corneal epithelium consisted of four
layers. Laterally the cells of the basal layer were
cuboidal; however, in passing medially they became
tall columnar. Cells in the upper layers, in passing
superficially, become progressively flatter and oriented
more horizontally. A highlv refractile, homogeneous
membrane lies over the superficial layer. This mem¬
brane is well observed by phase-contrast microscopy.
One of us (LBS) in 1961 concluded that the rabbit
cornea did not have a Bowman’s membrane, but a thin
basement membrane was described. The presence of
this membrane is verified by staining with the luxol-
fast blue-PAS method.

Changes in the cornea of the buphthalmic rabbits
were found chiefly in the epithelium. The most strik¬
ing feature of the buphthalmic cornea is the tendency
of the upper three epithelial layers to strip off leav¬
ing the basal layer of tall epithelial cells. The nuclei
of these cells has also shifted from the basal to the
upper pole of the cell. The stripping off is preceded
by the formation of numerous vacuoles in the basal
cell layer.

This study was undertaken to give us a better under¬
standing of the underlying changes in the corneas of
buphthalmic rabbit eyes and the more significant prob¬
lem of glaucoma in man.

Artifactual Interferences in the Quanti¬
tation of Urinary Hydroxyproline
Walter A. Shaw

Clinical Research Center, Medical College of Virginia,
Richmond, Virginia.

Measurement of urinary hydroxyproline is used fre¬
quently to determine the rate of collagen turnover.
Ion-exchange chromatography [Firschein and Shill,
Anal. Riochem., 14 (1966)] removes many of the sub¬
stances in the urine interfering with this determina¬

tion. We found this method to be both sensitive and
reproducible in determining the levels of urinary hy¬
droxyproline in normal individuals and patients, but
two situations were found to alter the assay of hydroxy¬
proline.

Since the intake of some dietary constituents can
influence the excretion of urinary hydroxyproline, the
changes in hydroxyproline excretion were determined
when the meat content in the diet was altered. A sig¬
nificant increase in excretion was noted when 90 g of
meat (containing 100 mg hydroxyproline) was added
to a diet that contained no other collagenous foods.

Hvdroxyproline could not be quantitatively deter¬
mined in patients that received intravenous urography
with maglumine diatrizoate (Renografin) because the
urine after urographv contained a compound that was
eluted from the column in the same fraction as the
hydroxvproline. This compound forms a chromagen
that overlaps the hydroxyproline chromagen, thereby
interfering with the colorimetric determination. The
interference from this and perhaps similar chugs, as
well as the meat content of the diet, are important
considerations when analyzing and inteipreting hydro¬
xvproline excretion.

Effects of Ambient and Internal Tem¬
peratures upon Intracranial Self-
Stimulation *

N. H. Spector and C. L. Hamilton

Division of Psychiatric Research, Medical College of
Virginia, Richmond, Virginia, and Department of Phy¬
siology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia,
Pennsylvania.

Bipolar electrodes were chronically implanted in the
lateral hypothalamus (LH) of male Sprague-Dawley
rats, who were then trained to press a bar for intra¬
cranial electrical stimulation (ICSS), under varying
ambient temperature (AT) conditions. Rate of press¬
ing, total number of presses in fixed periods, core
(rectal) temperature (RT), bodv weight, and food
and water intake were monitored while other behavioral
phenomena were observed. In some subjects, in addi¬
tion to the LH electrodes, specially designed thermode¬
electrodes were placed in preoptic (PO) areas. It was
observed that:

1) At 35° C AT, ICSS in the LH was depressed
uniformly over a wide stimulus range, compared to
control levels at 25° C AT. Feeding was also de¬
pressed.

2) At 16° C AT, ICSS, food intake and water in¬
take were all enhanced.

3) At 7° C AT, ICSS was depressed but food and
water intake increased.

4) In a week’s exposure to 7° C, ICSS showed cyclic

Proceedings, 1966-1967

201

recovery and depression, while food and water intake
remained high.

5) AT, RT, and brain temperatures each affect
ICSS as well as feeding behavior.

One conclusion of these and additonal observations
is that the ICSS phenomenon in the LH does not always
respond to stimuli in tire same way as does feeding
behavior, nor are these parallel physiological pheno¬
mena.

* Supported by grants from NIH.

The Influence of Teratogenic Factors on
Development of the Brain *

G. Welch and J. Langman

Department of Anatomy, University of Virginia,
Charlottesville, Virginia.

When the life cycle of tire neuroepithelial cells of
18- to 24-hour chick embryos was examined by using
tritiated thvnridine, it was found that during the S-
phase (5 hours) the cells are wedge-shaped with a
long, slender process extending toward the lumen and
a broad base containing the nucleus at the periphery.
Prior to mitosis (Go phase, 2 hours) the cells contract
gradually toward the lumen, using their terminal bars
as anchors. After division (30 minutes) the cells again
assume the wedge shape. The spatial and temporal
relationships of the cells are thought to be essential
for closure of the neural tube.

When similar embryos were treated with vincristine
sulfate or Synkavit, large dividing cells accumulate
near the lumen. As a result of the disturbance of the
normal spatial relationship of the cells, the neural
groove fails to close and spina bifida and anencephaly
develop.

Large doses of vitamin A, given to pregnant rats prior
to closure of the neural groove in the embryos, caused
an accumulation of dividing neuroepithelial cells and
the formation of cytoplasmic protrusions into the lumen.
The neural groove failed to close and exencephaly re¬
sulted.

High doses of vitamin A, given to pregnant mice
after closure of the brain vesicles, resulted in length¬
ening of the mitosis and the DNA synthetic phase of
the neuroepithelial cells during the time of treatment.
After birth the cerebral cortex showed distinct areas
of cellular degeneration and decreased cell density,
caused by the effect of vitamin A either on prolifera¬
tion of the neuroepithelial cells or on the differentia¬
tion of the neuroblasts.

* This work was supported by Grant NB-06188 of NIH and
Grant R-200-66 of the United Cerebral Palsy Foundation.

Influence of Beta-Adrenergic Blockers
on Norepinephrine (NE) Storage in the
Perfused Guinea Pig Heart *

T. C. Westfall

Department of Pharmacology, University of Virginia
School of Medicine, Charlottesville, Virginia.

We have previously observed that certain beta-ad¬
renergic-blocking agents inhibit the uptake of NE into
the rat heart following the infusion of the transmitter
in vivo. Under certain conditions these same drugs
produce a moderate decrease in endogenous NE levels.
In the present experiments these agents have been
tested for beta-adrenergic-blocking properties and their
ability to inhibit uptake of NE in the isolated perfused
guinea pig heart. The results indicate that pronethalol
(5 x 1(L0 M) and MJ-1998 (4-(2-methylamino-l-
hydroxypropyl)-methanesulfonanilide) at a concentra¬
tion of 1 x 10 5 M both decreased the amount of NE
recovered in the heart and increased the amount recov¬
ered in the perfusates when these drugs perfused the
heart 30 minutes prior to an NE infusion. Other
experiments in which pronethalol was administered
indicated that there was good beta-adrenergic block¬
age at a time when there was little inhibition of NE
uptake. It does not appear that the beta-receptor-
blocking properties are intimately related to the NE
uptake blocking properties of these drugs.

* Supported by the Council for Tobacco Research — USA and
the AMA.

Modification of the Acute Ethanol-
Induced Fatty Liver by Chlorcyclizine *
W. R. Wooles

Department of Pharmacology, Medical College of Vir¬
ginia, Richmond, Virginia.

The etiology of the acute ethanol-induced fatty liver
has not been clearly established. Recent studies have
demonstrated that various antioxidizing agents are able
to ameliorate or prevent the development of fatty meta¬
morphosis induced by various hepatotoxic agents. We
have investigated the ability of phenergan, an agent
known to confer stability on both cellular and mito¬
chondrial membranes, and chlorcyclizine, an agent
known to stimulate the activity of hepatic microsomal
activity, to modify or prevent the fatty liver produced
by the administration of ethanol in the amount of 6
g/kg or 3 g/kg. The administration of 25 mg/kg of
phenergan shortly before intubation with 6 g/kg of
ethanol decreased the accumulation of liver triglyceride
50 percent in ethanol-treated rats. Administration of
25 mg/kg I.P. of chlorcyclizine prior to ethanol admin¬
istration did not modify the fatty liver produced by
6 g/kg of ethanol. On the other hand, the admin-

202

The Virginia Journal of Science

istration of chlorcyclizine in the amount of 25 mgAg

daily for three days prior to intubation reduced the
liver-triglyceride accumulation produced by intubation
with 6 g/kg of ethanol by 52 percent. The reduc¬
tion in liver-triglyceride accumulation was associated
with a 60 percent reduction in blood-alcohol concen¬
tration occurring 4 hours after ethanol administration.
The decreased liver-triglyceride concentration produced
by pretreatment with chlorcyclizine was not related to
a drug-induced decrease in the mobilization of peri¬
pheral fatty acids. When a lower, but still intoxicat¬
ing, dose of ethanol (3 gAg) was used chlorcyclizine
pretreatment prevented any rise in liver-triglyceride
accumulation. Similarly, blood-alcohol concentration
of chlorcyclizine-treated rats was markedly decreased
below the values observed in the saline-treated group
intubated with ethanol at all time periods following
intubation prior to and during the development of the
fatty liver. It is not yet known if the decrease in
blood-alcohol levels is the main reason for the pre¬
vention of the acute ethanol-induced fatty liver or
whether these events are not casually related.

* Supported by a grant from the Virginia State Division of
Alcohol Studies and Rehabilitation.

Sulfhydryl Groups of Chicken-Lens
Proteins in Embryonic and Adult Stages *
Johan Zwaan

Department of Anatomy, University of Virginia School
of Medicine, Charlottesville, Virginia.

Chicken-lens extracts and isolated fractions were

tested for their sulfhydryl content by the nitroprusside
reaction and by the histochemical 2,2'-dihydroxy-6,6'-
dinaphthyl-disulfide reaction, adapted for the staining
of proteins after agar electrophoresis.

Adult lens showed only weak reactions. Analysis of
electrophoretic patterns as well as the investigations
on isolated fractions indicated that this was caused by
the presence of beta-crystallins, while alpha- and delta-
crystallin reacted negatively. Denaturation of the crys-
tallins with high molar urea did not intensify the stain¬
ing, indicating that masking of -SH groups was not
involved. Oxidation of -SH groups or loss of an -SH-
rich protein with age could also be excluded. Thus
the weak -SH reactions of the chicken crystallins seem
to be the reflection of both a low-cvsteine and a low-
cystine content.

During embryonic development the first sulfhydryl-
positive fraction appeared on the eighth day of incuba¬
tion. As this is shortly after the first beta-crystallin
component became demonstrable by immunoelectro-
phoresis, these results support the finding that beta-
crystallin is the -SH-containing protein.

When the lenses of several vertebrate species were
examined, a low -SH level was found to be unique for
the crystallins of the chicken.

It is suggested that this property of the chicken
lens may be related to the persistence of a soft lens
nucleus throughout life and to the high resistance to
radiation cataract.

* Supported by Grant No. GB-3236 of the NSF.

Proceedings, 1966-1967

203

Section of Microbiology

Mutations Having an Additive Effect on
L-Arabinose Utilization by Escherichia
coli B/r

R. G. Rost and R. M. Cribbs

Department of Biology and Genetics, Medical College
of Virginia, Richmond, Virginia.

A spontaneous reversion of the L-ribulokinase struc¬
tural (B) gene of the L-arabinose system in E. coli
B/r has been isolated and characterized. The growth
rate in L-arabinose minimal medium of this revertant
is intermediate to that of the L-arabinose negative
mutant and the wild-type strain. Transduction studies,
using bacteriophage Plbt, indicate that the revertant
contains two mutations. One of these, a reversion in
the B gene, has two effects on the original L-arabinose
negative mutant. It increases growth in L-arabinose
minimal medium and, in addition, increases the level
of L-arabinose isomerase, the enzyme produced by an
adjacent structural gene. When the second mutation,
which is extragenic, is present with the B-gene rever¬
sion, growth is further increased and the level of iso¬
merase produced is comparable to the wild-type level.
These experiments, along with preliminary studies of
the effects of increased temperature on the growth
rates, indicate that the extragenic mutation influences
the rate at which L-ribulokinase is produced.

Culture Comparison of New and Old
Strains of Parasitic Amebae
E. Clifford Nelson and Muriel M. Jones

Department of Microbiology, Medical College of
Virginia, Richmond, Virginia.

Successful application of a carbon dioxide-bicarbo¬
nate buffer system in the cultivation of Entamoeba
histolytica was reported earlier. The following modif¬
ications have led to more effective application to the
differentiation of strains of amebae. A buffer solu¬
tion prepared from isotonic bicarbonate and acid phos¬
phate solutions was devised to provide a wide pH
range when used with carbon dioxide. Potassium levels
in solutions were increased to comply more closely to
levels reported for large intestinal fluids. In culture
series providing a gradient of pH levels a recently
isolated amebic-dysentery strain was noted to have a
higher pH requirement for growth than a strain isolat¬
ed seven years ago.

* This investigation was supported by a NIH Grant AI-03826.

Ultrastructure of the Oyster Pathogen,
Minchinia nelsoni

Frank O. Perkins

Virginia Institute of Marine Science, Gloucester Point,
Virginia.

Ultrastructural observations of Minchinia nelsoni
(MSX) plasmodia and late stages in spore develop¬
ment are presented. Plasmodia are delimited by one
plasmalemma. The nuclei have centriolar plaques and
intranuclear fibers of 150-180 A in diameter. Cyto¬
plasmic features include microtubular mitochondria and
electron-dense elements with internal detail. The ele¬
ments may occur singly or in elaborate clusters sug¬
gesting areas of differentiation. The possible identity
of the elements is discussed. Each spore protoplast
is cleaved internally within a sporoblast thereby en¬
closing previously formed organelles within two plas-
malemmas. The spore case and lid develop from
nodes of electron-dense material deposited in the cyto¬
plasm of the sporoblast. The nodes fuse upon matur¬
ity into a 190- to 240-mjn thick wall. Mature spores
are uninucleated or binucleated and contain a large
anterior Golgi body.

Alterations of Antibiotic Sensitivity of
Microorganisms with Dimethyl Sulfoxide

J. D. Punch and H. T. Knighton

Department of Microbiology, Medical College of
Virginia, Richmond, Virginia.

The effect of DMSO on the antibiotic and sulfona¬
mide sensitivity of the following organisms was investi¬
gated: Escherichia coli (I), Staphylococcus aureus
(II), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (III), Salmonella typhi-
murium ( I V ) , Klebsiella aerobacter ( V ) , Bacillus meg-
aterium (VI), Candidia albicans (VII), a culture of
alpha streptococci (VIII), a culture of beta streptococci
(IX), and three cultures of Proteus mirabilis (one sensi¬
tive (X) and two resistant (XI, XII) to the tetracy¬
clines). For each culture the highest concentration
of DMSO (ranging from 6-10 percent) that did not
significantly reduce growth was determined and added
to the respective assay medium. Based on the re¬
sponse with various antibiotics (14) and sulfonamides
(8) the effects of DMSO are grouped into three cate¬
gories: (i) produced no effect on the sensitivity or
resistance of any cultures (bacitracin, chloromycetin,
neomycin, penicillin, polymyxin B, and mycostatin;
(ii) increased sensitivity of certain cultures (kanomycin
(I, V, X, XI, XII), streptomycin (I, II, III, IV, IX,
X, XI, XII), tetracycline (I, III, IV, X) and terramycin

204

The Vihginia Journal of Science

(I, III, IV, X); and (iii) rendered certain normally
resistant cultures sensitive (erythromycin (I, III, IV,
X, XI, XII) and kanomycin (III), tetracycline (III),
vancomycin (V), and terramycin (III). Aureomycin,
and to a lesser extent novobiocin, and the sulfonamides
appeared to be biologically inactivated by 8-10 per¬
cent DMSO. With 6 percent DMSO no evident
alteration in microbial sensitivity to these agents was
detected. With the exception of (V), all Gram (— )
cultures became sensitive to erythromycin in the pres¬
ence of DMSO. Studies on the P. mirabilis mutants
(XI, XII) resistant to the tetracyclines (ca.70/ig/ml)
indicated that one culture (XI) became sensitive to
oxytetracycline and tetracycline (ca.4-5/xg/ml) in the
presence of 10 percent DMSO. For the other culture
(XII), DMSO did not alter the resistance. DMSO
had no effect on the activity of any of the agents
tested against C. albicans. Some implications of these
results relative to known mechanisms of antibiotic ac¬
tion and antibiotic resistance will be discussed.

The Initial Destruction of Intracellular
Salmonella typhimurium

Anna S. Radcliffe and H. S. Hsu

Department of Microbiology, Medical College of
Virginia, Richmond, Virginia.

An experimental procedure was designed for the
in vitro cultivation of macrophages infected with Sal¬
monella typhimurium. Peritoneal macrophages from
guinea pigs were permitted to phagocytize S. typhi¬
murium and cultured in suspension. At intervals, sam¬
ples were taken for determination of total cell popula¬
tion and for quantitative recovery of cell-associated
bacteria. The ratio of bacteria to cells was thus com¬
puted at each interval, and a curve was constructed
representing the fate of intracellular parasite over a
period of time after phagocytosis.

Two strains of S. typhimurium with different degrees
of virulence against mice were compared by the above
procedure. Data show that there is an initial destruc¬
tion of intracellular bacteria of both strains. However,
there is a difference in the extent of this intracellular
destruction. With the avirulent strain there is a two-
log decrease in the intracellular population, the mini¬
mum being reached in four hours after phagocytosis,
whereas with the virulent strain there is only a 1.2-log
decline in the intracellular population, its minimum
being reached in three hours. After this period of
decline, the surviving organisms in both strains begin
to multiply.

Continuous Virus Synthesis as an
Acquired Characertistic of Cultured
Human-Cell Populations
Robert W. Tanksersley, Jr.

Department of Microbiology, Medical College of
Virginia, Richmond, Virginia.

Virus infection introduces a second genome into
the host cell. In those instances where the cell sur¬
vives infection, some portion of the foreign nucleic
acid may continue to express itself and alter the cell
characteristics. In the present study, human epithelial
cells (Minn EE) in culture were infected with Parain¬
fluenza 3 virus. The surviving cells have been cul¬
tured for a number of passages and have the follow¬
ing characteristics. Virus is continuously being syn¬
thesized and released by the culture, two to three
infectious units per cell being present at all times.
About 50 percent of the cells are positive for viral
hemadsorption and the same proportion is able to
fuse with other human cells to form infected syncytia.
The rate of growth of infected cells is altered slightly
so that these cells produce a larger population over
a longer period of time than do normal cells. Despite
the fact that these cells are being regulated by parts
of two genomes already, they remain susceptible to
infection by other related or unrelated viruses.

Evidence to support the hypothesis that this type
of virus-induced cell alteration resides primarily in the
cytoplasmic membrane is discussed.

Isolation of L-Form Colonies from
Listeria monocytogenes *

H. J. Welshimer

Department of Microbiology, Medical College of
Virginia, Richmond, Virginia.

A procedure for isolation of L-forms of Listeria
monocytogenes is described. Brain-heart infusion
broth is inoculated with Listeria and, after a short
period of incubation at 37° C, sodium chloride (6
percent final concentration) and penicillin (400-1000
units per ml) are added. After further incubation the
organisms are spread on tryptose agar plates contain¬
ing 6 percent NaCl and penicillin disks are added to
the center of the plates. L-forms are recovered in
the vicinity of the penicillin disks after one week of
incubation at 37° C. Two L-strains are described.
L-forms which have reverted to Listeria after many
passages in the L-state retain the biochemical, mouse-
pathogenicity, and growth characteristics of the parent
strain of Listeria monocytogenes.

* Supported by NIH Grant No. Al 01404-10.

Proceedings, 1966-1967

205

Section of Psychology

Effects of Task- and Ego-Involvement
on Conformity, Anxiety, and Self-Esteem

Ronald W. Botto and Virgil V. McKenna

Department of Psychology, College of William i? Mary,
Williamsburg, Virginia.

The conforming behavior of 40 undergraduate wom¬
en was examined using an apparatus of the Crutchfield
type. S’s were divided into task- and ego-involved
groups on the basis of differential instructions. Mean
conformity scores were slightly, but not significantly,
higher in the ego-involved condition. Increases in
anxiety were greater, and evaluations of the self and
of the experiment became more negative in the ego-
involved condition. It was suggested that the effects
of the instructional manipulation were more apparent
in S’s initially low in anxiety. Discussion centered on
the effects of the conforming experience upon the indi¬
vidual participant.

A Study of the Interference in Selective
Attention on the Stroop Test

Elizabeth Calder and Peter L. Berks

Department of Psychology, College of William ir Mary,
Williamsburg, Virginia.

Naming the colors of inks used to print conflict¬
ing color words is more difficult than naming the
colors of dots or asterisks. The aim of the present
experiment was to determine the conditions necessary
for color word interference by comparing counting
and naming tasks. A secondary aim was to study the
characteristics of the counting task.

Twenty S’s named aloud or silently counted colors
when the colors printed groups of “x’s” or conflicting
color words. The presence of conflicting words inter¬
fered with naming but not with counting. Thus
selective attention was maintained for discrimination
but not categorization. Counting time was a linear
function of number of critical items. However, the
effect of noncritical items was a function of discrimi-
nability rather than number.

Acquisition and Performance of Lever
Pressing in the Opossum (Didelphis
virginiana)

A. L. Cone and Donna M. Cone

Departments of Psychology, Lynchburg College and
Randolph-Macon Womans College,
Lynchburg, Virginia.

The following experiments on operant conditioning
were conducted as part of a program to obtain norma¬
tive behavioral data on the opossum, Didelphis virgin¬
iana. These studies are in no sense complete, but
stand as a progress report on but one phase of our
pilot work with juvenile and young adult opossums.

All four subjects used in these experiments were
bom in the laboratory and gentling procedures were
begun as soon as they emerged from the pouch. Con¬
ditioning began sixty days after the handling proced¬
ure. Water was used as the reinforcing stimulus.

Cumulative records for fixed- and variable-ratio per¬
formance indicate no systematic differences in per¬
formance between the opossum and less exotic labora¬
tory animals. Performance on fixed interval (FI),
however, stabilized at a much lower than usual rate.
After extended training only rarely did the scalloped
performance typical of FI schedules appear. On the
average, opossums trained on FI emitted 2 or 3 re¬
sponses per reinforcement. Observation of the ani¬
mals during the acquisition of this behavior indicated
that a chain of motor responses effectively bridged
the time between availability of reinforcement, and
that these motor movements became progressively
more refined as training progressed.

Free-Operant Avoidance Conditioning of
the Galvanic Skin Response

A. L. Cone and J. S. Slaughter

Department of Psychology, Lynchburg College,
Lynchburg, Virginia.

This experiment was conducted to condition instru-
mentally die Galvanic Skin Response (GSR) with the

206

The Virginia Journal of Science

free-operant avoidance-conditioning technique of Sid-
man. Six college students served as subjects. The
aversive stimulus to be avoided was “white” noise
which was presented binaurally. Emission of a GSR
in the presence of the noise turned it off for 15 sec¬
onds and permitted the subject to listen to recorded
music. Emission of a GSR while the noise was off
delayed its onset by an additional 15 seconds. This
second category of response was the avoidance re¬
sponse.

Avoidance responses emitted during successive ten-
minute intervals of each conditioning session were
transformed for statistical analysis by a treatment-sub¬
jects analysis of variance in which the treatment
variable consisted of eleven blocks of trials. The num¬
ber of avoidance responses emitted were found to in¬
crease significantly as a function of blocks of trials
(P<.001).

The data will be discussed in tenns of other recent
research on the instrumental conditioning of automatic
nervous-system responses.

Effects of Time of Day and Level of
Illumination upon the Cage Activity of
Opossum (Didelphis virginiana)

Donna Cone and A. L. Cone

Departments of Psychology, Lynchburg College and
Randolph-Macon Womans College,
Lynchburg, Virginia.

This study investigates the effect of two independent
variables (level of ambient illumination and time of
day) on cage activity in the opossum, Didelphis vir¬
giniana.

Activity measures were taken on four laboratory-
raised opossums for four hours each day — 10 a.m.
to noon and 10 p.m. to midnight. These two times
of day were combined in random order with six levels
of illumination with each of the animals serving as
his own control for the twelve conditions. Three
replications of the 2x6 factorial experiment were
conducted.

The obtained data indicate that both time of day
and levels of illumination produce significant main ef¬
fects upon cage activity. In general animals were
more active at night and under the lower levels of
illumination. In addition, however, level of illumina¬
tion and time of day were found to interact signif¬
icantly. Under the lower levels of illumination, acti¬
vity was several times greater at night than in the day-
time, while under the higher levels of illumination
activity was slightly higher in the daytime. This

interaction was found to occur between illumination
levels of 2.5 footcandles and 5 footcandles.

Complex Pattern Discrimination in the
Rat Maintained by Aversive Control
Karl C. Corley, Jr.

Division of Psychiatric Research, Medical College of
Virginia, Richmond, Virginia.

Rats were trained to perform a complex pattern
discrimination to avoid shock. This discrimination
required pattern recognition to distinguish between
a right versus a left lever-press. In discrete trials,
either — j — f- 0 or -{-00 was randomly presented from
left to right on three stimulus display units. The cor¬
rect response for +-j-0 was a left lever-press; the
correct response for +00 was a right lever-press. In
fully trained rats, the patterns were manipulated to
ascertain the stimulus conditions necessary for the dis¬
crimination. When the and 0 stimuli were revers¬
ed, i.e., 00+ for a left response and 0++ for a right
response, the correct discrimination deteriorated to a
random level of responding. After new stimuli were
substituted for the -{- and 0, a similar disruption also
occurred. These data indicated that correct perform¬
ance was definitely dependent upon pattern recogni¬
tion. To test further how many stimuli were neces¬
sary for correct performance, the side patterns were
extinguished. Following an initial disruption of the
avoidance behavior, correct performance quickly trans¬
ferred to the single stimuli. These results lead to the
further conclusion that discrimination was not based
on matching a center pattern to the side pattern but
rather recognition of the center pattern and the asso¬
ciated configuration.

Observation in the Acquisition of
Recursive Binary Sequences

Peter L. Berks and Anne V. Larson

Department of Psychology, College of William ir Mary,
Williamsburg, Virginia.

Overt responding interferes with learning (Bruner,
Wallach, and Galanter, 1959). The present study
examined the effect of a stimulus redundant response
(counting) and practice with the task on the acquisi¬
tion of sequential patterns of binary events. The group
that observed until ready to predict learned most rap¬
idly. The counting and predicting groups were slower
and generally similar to each other. All groups learned
in about the same number of trials with practice.
Overt responses apparently do not interfere with pat¬
tern perception but with the encoding process, and
become less effective with task experience.

Proceedings, 1966-1967

207

The Effects of Expectancy vs. Persevera¬
tion in the Tachistoscopic Recognition
of Repeated Words

Lee E. Doerries and E. Rae Harcum

Department of Psychology, College of William 6- Mary,
Williamsburg, Virginia.

Threshold durations were determined by the meth¬
od of limits for eight-letter nonsense words, arranged
in a series in which one critical word was repeated.
Sixty O’ s were assigned equally to five conditions, in
which either zero, one, two, four, or eight filler words
intervened between the two threshold determinations
of the critical word. Instructions introduced a specific
set against seeing the same word twice. Twelve O’s
who did not have a word repeated controlled for
effects of practice. Thresholds tended to be lower
on the second threshold for critical words, with the
amount of decrement generally smaller when zero or
eight words intervened. These results are not con¬
sistent with expectation theory which would predict
an increase for the second thresholds, because the O
is set against seeing the word again. Rather, they
support an argument for memory traces which dissipate
with time and increasing numbers of intervening stim¬
uli. Results of a special control group indicate that
mere passage of time does not account for the sub¬
sequent threshold effects. The perseveration of a
memory trace facilitates reactivation of the initial per¬
ception by the subsequent stimulation. The failure
to find the perseveration effect when no words inter¬
vened was attributed to a cancelling effect of the set.

A Re-evaluation of Subject-Paced and
Experimenter-Paced Learning for a
Simple Verbal Task

S. Miles Dumville and Kenneth A. Blick

Department of Psychology, Randolph-Macon College,
Ashland, Virginia.

Two experiments were designed to compare sub¬
ject-paced (SP) and experimenter-paced (EP) learn¬
ing and to evaluate factors associated with the pac¬
ing process. In the first experiment, two groups of
30 S’s studied a 6-item list of paired, single-letter asso¬
ciates under individual testing conditions, one group
under the SP condition and the other under the EP
condition. The mean study time of the SP group was
used as the constant study time for the EP group, and
both groups were given an immediate recall test.
The second experiment used 31 S’s, who were exposed
to the same conditions as the EP group of Experiment
I with the exception that they were trained and tested
as a group.

Experiment I revealed no difference in recall for
the SP and EP S’s who were tested individually.
Errors for the EP condition were uniformly spread
through the recall list while errors for the SP condi¬
tion tended to occur in the last half of the recall list.
The results of Experiment II show that EP S’s learned
significantly more when tested as a group. It was
concluded that the variable of pacing was overshadow¬
ed by the factor of anonymity.

Absolute Judgment with Several
Unidimensional Visual Tasks

Herbert Friedman

Department of Psychology, College of William 6- Mary,
Williamsburg, Virginia.

The stimulus dimensions used were line length,
bisected length and size of squares. The number of
stimulus categories ranged from 20 to 100. Perform¬
ance measured by an information analysis for the
median O ranged from 13 to 45 categories and was
appreciably better than that previously reported for
similar tasks. This measure closely agreed with the
number of correct responses. In previous studies the
analyses were usually based on data pooled across O’s.
This allowed individual differences to depress the
information measure.

An Experimental Study of Three
Programmed Methods
David R. Grove

Department of Psychology, University of Richmond,
Richmond, Virginia.

Three programmed instructional methods were pre¬
sented to building construction foremen to determine
if subjects who are less formally educated and have
low verbal ability tend to prefer reading (covert re¬
sponding) to writing (overt responding) answers on
typical machine learning. Methods presented: Mj —
read programmed material, write answer, rotate mate¬
rial and read correct answer; M2 — read material,
rotate material and read correct answer; M3 — read
material which has been retyped into magazine form
with the correct answers and inserted in machine.
Significant results on post test indicated (p < .05)
that M2 was more effective in presenting material.
It was concluded that where subjects are somewhat
familiar with topic material and have low verbal ability
with approximately 8th grade formal education, the
most effective programmed material presentation meth¬
od is to have subject read material, mentally formulate
the answer, and rotate material to correct answer;
no writing is involved.

208

The Virginia Journal of Science

The Muller-Lyer Illusion and Piaget’s
Test for the Development of the Con¬
servation of Space in an Older
Institutionalized Sample
Carol A. Kominski

Department of Psychology, College of William ir Mary,
Williamsburg, Virginia.

A test developed by Piaget to measure the develop¬
ment of the concept of space conservation was ad¬
ministered to 100 institutionalized veterans divided
into three age groups (50-59, 60-69, and 70 and over).
Using this test, a previous study had demonstrated
a sharp regression to an earlier stage of development
in a noninstitutionalized sample of subjects 60 and
over. Since the Piaget test asked the subject to
imagine a realistic situation where cows grazed on
farmland in the midst of barns and houses, the hypo¬
thesis that older subjects may have their principal
difficulty in abstracting from experience was tested
by giving half the subjects the same stimulus mate¬
rials but very abstract (not experience-oriented)
instructions. Regression with increasing age was dem¬
onstrated under both conditions but this regression was
not as sharp as in the previous study under either
condition. All 100 subjects were also presented with
the Muller-Lyer illusion in which a number of studies
had discovered an increase with advancing age. The
results of this studv were comparable to previous ones
and, interestingly, a positive correlation between stage
of cognitive development and Muller-Lyer-illusion
score was revealed. Deterioration in the perception
of whole-part relations was postulated to account for
the relationship.

The Effect of Drive, Task Ambiguity,
and Level of Reinforcement on Imitation

Anne V. Larson and Robert A. Johnston

Department of Psychology, College of William 6- Mary,
Williamsburg, Virginia.

The present experiment was an attempt to under¬
stand imitation in the context of Hullian learning
theory. During 40 acquisition trials 80% or 20%
model reinforcement was used to manipulate the asso¬
ciative strength of imitation on highly ambiguous
stimuli. Fifteen high- and 15 low-drive S’s, selected
on the basis of the Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale,
were included under each reinforcement condition.
During the 58 experimental trials stimuli of high, me¬
dium, and low ambiguity were presented on the as¬
sumption that the level of task difficulty would vary
the associative strength of the correct response.

Imitation was measured on the 20 acquisition and
the 30 experimental trials to which the model actually
gave an incorrect answer. Imitation was a highly sig¬
nificant positive function of level of reinforcement.

However, the hypothesized relationship between imi¬
tation and stimulus ambiguity was not found. Also
the relationship between matching behavior and drive
level reported by Mangan, Quartermain, and Vaughan
(1960) was not found. This discrepancy may be due
to the fact that Mangan et al. maximized situational
stress while the present experiment assumed that
chronic differences in drive level would be present.

Contingent vs. Noncontingent Reward in
the Conditioning of Orienting Behavior

Allen Levenberg, Josiah Henneberger and
Richard Patten

Department of Psychology, University of Richmond,
Richmond, Virginia.

Trapold (1966) and others have suggested a two-
factor explanation of learning. These two factors
would include both incentive (cue-reward pairings)
and habit strength (response-contingent reward). The
current study is a test of such a position.

The test of the two-factor position consisted of a
comparison of conditioned orienting behavior between
three groups of rats. One group (classically condi¬
tioned) received only cue-reward pairings while a sec¬
ond ( instrumentallv conditioned) received both cue-
reward pairings and response-contingent reward.

A comparison over 12 training days revealed that
both groups performed better than a nonrewarded con¬
trol group. The instrumen tally conditioned group did
perform significantly better than the classical group
but not in a manner predicted if both factors are nec¬
essary for learning. The data are explainable in terms
of incentive alone and further tests are suggested.

The Effect of Stimulus Characteristics
on Immediate and Delayed Transposition

John I. McClurkin III and Kenneth A. Blick

Department of Psychology, Randolph-Macon College,
Ashland, Virginia.

Sixty-four college students were trained on a visual
discrimination task, and 30 were tested for transposi¬
tion immediately after training and 34 after a 4-week
delay. The stimuli to be discriminated were geo¬
metric figures in the size ratio of 3:5:7. The S’s were
trained on sizes 3:5 to respond to the larger stimulus
and were tested for transposition to sizes 5:7. Dur¬
ing training the correct stimulus was always the color
red, and transposition was tested when the smaller
stimulus (5) was red, the larger stimulus (7) was
red, and when neither stimulus was red.

Overall, the expected increase in transposition re¬
sponses over the delay period failed to appear as the
immediate group produced 73% relational responses

Proceedings, 1966-1967

209

and the 4-week group only 77%. The use of the addi¬
tional stimulus characteristic of color (red) during
training produced signifcantly more relational re¬
sponses during transposition when the larger stimulus
( 7 ) was red ( 94 % ) than when the smaller stimulus
(5) was red (59%). The latter finding indicates
that relational and absolute responding can be con¬
trolled by the use of an additional stimulus charac¬
teristic.

The Holtzman Ink-Blot Test Compared
with the Rorschach as a Clinical
Instrument

Antonia Bell Morgan

Aptitude Associates, Merrifield, Virginia.

The advantages and limitations of the Holtzman in
clinical work are reviewed and compared with those
of the Rorschach. In particular the claim is examined
that the Holtzman is superior because of its more ob¬
jective scoring system. Figures are presented for four
representative groups of children and adolescents seen
in clinical practice over a period of twenty-one months.
These figures are compared with the reference norms
provided in the Holtzman monograph. The conclu¬
sion is tentatively put forward that the Holtzman is
in many ways superior to the Rorschach for clinical
use, but that the value of its objective scoring system
as a basis for diagnosis has not been established.

Strategies in Serial Learning and
Tachistoscopic Perception of Aged
Subjects

Virgil V, McKenna and E. Rae Harcum

Department of Psychology, College of William ir Mary,
Williamsburg, Virginia.

Aged S’s participated in unpaced serial learning of
word lists and the reproduction of tachistoscopically
presented binary patterns. An analysis of individual
differences in frequency of errors of “primacy”, “recen¬
cy”, and “bowedness” revealed some consistency across
tasks. The major contributor to this consistency was
relative primacy, measured by the tendency to err on
the first two items of each task (r=.44, p < .05).
Primacy in tachistoscopic perception predicted total
errors in serial learning (r=. 52, p < .05). The
correlation between total errors on the two tasks was
not significant (r = .36). Further analyses focused
on comparisons of high and low scorers from task to
task, the psychometric properties of the tasks, and
the influence of age and education on performance.

A Study of What Is Learned in
Avoidance
Judith A. Nichols

Department of Psychology, College of William ir Mary,
Williamsburg, Virginia.

Woodworth and Schlosberg (1954) pointed out
that it is not clear what a subject learns in the typical
“avoidance” experiment. This experiment tested the
following possibilities: (a) the animal may learn a
nondiscriminatory crossing the hurdle response; (b) it
may learn to run away from danger cues; and (c) it
may learn to run toward safety cues. Animals were
given avoidance training in distinctive grid and safe
boxes. Nine separate groups of S’s were then placed
in either a grid, safe, or neutral box and allowed to
run to either a grid, safe, or neutral box. Latencies
were recorded over 20 test trials; no shock was ad¬
ministered. Two hypotheses were made, extending
earlier formulations by Mowrer (1960), and Denny
and Adelman (1955): (1) classical conditioning to

external cues is fundamental to avoidance behavior,
resulting in an ability to “translate” active avoidance
into passive avoidance according to situational require¬
ments; and (2) approach and avoidance elements con¬
tribute equally to the total avoidance behavior, with
response elements showing little contribution. The
results provided evidence for active-passive translations
and for pure response tendencies mediated by direc¬
tional cues. Avoidance cues were sufficient for avoid¬
ance behavior, but there was no clear evidence for
an approach component in this situation.

Conditioned Licking and Orienting in
Rats as a Function of Two UCS Values

Jerry Rudy and Richard L. Patten

Department of Psychology, University of Richmond,
Richmond, Virginia.

Classically conditioned licking and acquired orient¬
ing to a conditioning stimulus (CS) in albino rats
was studied as a function of a qualitative uncondi¬
tioned stimulus (UCS) difference, defined as 15%
sucrose concentration and 0% concentration (plain
tap water).

Employing the customary difference licking score
of conditioned licking, significant asymptotic group
differences were found. Analysis of pre-CS and lick¬
ing during CS-on indicate that this difference was due
to a difference between groups in pre-CS licking. The
0% group licked significantly more in the pre-CS
interval than did the 15% group. These results sug¬
gest that classical conditioning may involve two inde¬
pendent processes — strengthening of licking to the CS,

210

The Virginia Journal of Science

and decreasing or increasing pre-CS licking.

An apparent difference in acquired orienting as
positive function of UCS intensity was not found to
be statistically reliable.

An Investigation of the Asch-Ebenholtz
Principle of Associative Symmetry

Robert S. Peddieord

Department of Psychology, University of Richmond,
Richmond, Virginia.

Maximally available items were paired in an attempt
to control for a possible factor of differential item
availability and provide an adequate test of the Asch-
Ebenholtz principle of associative symmetry. In the
pilot study, single-digit numbers were paired with
single letters. Results of the X2 test indicated that
recall was significantly poorer (P < .05) in the back¬
ward direction. In Experiment I, 50 S’s were employ¬
ed in a 2 x 2 factorial design. Letter-number pair¬
ings and number-letter pairings were tested separately
against direction of recall. Results indicated that
forward recall was significantly superior (P < .05) for
letter-number pairs. However, a nonsignificant dif¬
ference was found between forward and backward
recall of number-letter pairs.

In Experiment II, double-digit numbers were paired
with single letters thus equating the size of the cate¬
gories from which items were drawn. Results for
80 S’s indicated that recall of number items was supe¬
rior (P < .05) regardless of whether it occurred in
the forward or backward direction. Thus, a factor
of differential item availability still apparently operat¬
ed. It is suggested that previous experiences of recall¬
ing numbers act as set factors to facilitate the acquisi¬
tion and/or recall of numbers in the experimental
situation.

Temporal Primacy vs. Structural Sali-
ency in Continuous Serial Learning
Martin E. Pschirrer

Department of Psychology, College of William ir Mary,
Williamsburg, Virginia.

This experiment corroborates and extends an earlier
conclusion of Coppage and Harcum (1967) that both
temporal primacy and structural saliency of items facil¬
itate learning of a continuous 10-syllable series, be¬
cause they affect S’s cognition of beginning and end
of the series. However, since in the previous experi¬
ment the same item was structurally isolated in each
of the five temporal positions, there was a confound¬
ing of structural isolation with syllable difficulty. To
eliminate this confounding, a Latin-Square design was
used so that each of 10 CVC trigrams was structurally
isolated once in each of the five temporal positions

(Positions 1, 3, 5, 7, and 9) over a total of 60 S’s.
The hypotheses were: (a) S’s organize their learning
around the first and last temporal items when no
structural cues are given; (b) a structurally isolated
item within a list, regardless of its temporal position,
is selected by S to be learned first; and (c) an assi¬
milation of the two anchoring tendencies occurs when
the temporally and the structurally isolated items are
close together in the series, producing the greatest
primacy effect under this condition. All hypotheses
were supported by the data.

Influence of Handedness and Cerebral
Specialization on Auditory Information
Processing

Lynn Skerrett

Sponsor: E. Rae Harcum

Department of Psychology, College of William i? Mary,
W illiamsburg, V irginia .

This study investigated the effects of handedness on
accuracy and order of report in a dichotic listening
experiment where the stimuli were digits (verbal) and
musical tones (nonverbal).

The Crovitz and Zener Test of Handedness and the
Harris Tests of Lateral Dominance were used to select
two groups of 20 subjects each — one group having
a strong right lateral preference and the other strong
left lateral preference.

Trials of verbal and nonverbal stimuli were present¬
ed through stereophonic headphones. The right ear,
due to its connection with the left cerebral hemisphere
in which speech is usually represented, is more accu¬
rate in the perception of verbal material, and this
“right-ear effect” occurs even in subjects having a
strong left lateral preference.

However, in left-handed subjects, the right-ear ef¬
fect is obscured by a left preference for priority in
order of report. There was a similar tendency for
right-handed subjects to report items heard in the
right ear first, and it was concluded that such “order
effects” influence, but do not determine, perceptual
asymmetry. It was indicated by the present study
that cerebral dominance for speech is related to per¬
ceptual asymmetry, but that handedness is related to
order of report.

Omission Training of Orienting Behavior

Samuel J. Thios and Richard L. Patten

Department of Psychology, University of Richmond,
Richmond, Virginia.

A recent study (Patten & Rudy, 1967) presented
evidence that rats undergoing classical conditioning
acquire overt orienting behavior toward the CS (light-

Proceedings, 1966-1967

211

on). Both incentive (cue-reward) and “reinforce¬
ment” (response-reward) theories can be applied to
the acquired orienting data.

The present experiment was designed so that incen¬
tive and reinforcement theories would make opposing
predictions. The response of not-orienting toward the
CS was reinforced (the UCS was presented); orient¬
ing toward the CS was followed by the nonoccurrence
of reinforcement. A CS-alone control group was in¬
cluded to provide a measure of unconditioned orient¬
ing.

Cue-reward theory predicts an initial phase of in¬
creased orienting despite the opposing response-reward
contingency. A two-factor analysis of variance on the
data yielded results significant at the .01 level. These
results were interpreted as supporting the cue-reward
theory of learning.

The Active Role of Nonreinforcement:
A Test of the Aftereffects Hypothesis

G. M. Tyson, R. S. Johnson, and R. L. Patten

Department of Psychology, University of Richmond,
Richmond, Virginia.

In explaining PREE, Capaldi’s theory asserts that
stimulus traces of a previous nonrewarded trial linger
and are present when the locomotor response is rein¬
forced on a subsequent trial. Thus the aftereffect
stimulus, SN, acquires associative control over the
response that is reinforced in its presence. Using the
straight runway, it would be adequate to regard SN
as a source of incentive that facilitates running rather
than as “being conditioned to” running by reinforce¬
ment. The present study was a choice situation af¬
fording a critical test of the Capaldi theory.

S’s were 68 Long-Evans Hooded rats, 90-100 days
old at the onset of the experiment. Acquisition train¬
ing consisted of a series of forced-choice trials to a
50% partial arm and a continuous arm under a 23-
hour food-deprivation schedule. Group A was con¬
ditioned, in the presence of SN, to respond to the
partial arm; Group B, the continuous arm. Reward
consisted of wet mash. Goal-arm confinement time
was 15 sec. with a 30-sec. I.T.I.

Choice data indicated that SN had not gained asso¬
ciative control over the response. However, several
comparisons suggested the operation of some tempo¬
rary aftereffects factor. Time measures defied inter¬
pretation.

A Study of Reversal and Nonreversal
Shifts in the Human Adult Using the
Oddity Problem

W. Jon Wilkins and Kenneth A. Blick

Department of Psychology, Randolph-Macon College,
Ashland, Virginia.

A computer was employed as an experimental vehi¬
cle to aid in the study of reversal and nonreversal
shifts in adults with the oddity principle as the basis
for the discrimination. S’s were given a choice of
three pairs of characters, each pair containing one
number and one letter (e.g., 3F, 4C, 9E), and in¬
structed to select the pair that differed from the
remaining two pairs in some respect. During the
primary discrimination, the odd number was correct
or the vowel was correct. For the secondary dis¬
crimination the odd number was changed to an even
number (reversal) or a consonant (nonreversal), and
the vowel was changed to a consonant (reversal) or
an even number (nonreversal). The experiment prop¬
er consisted of 4 groups with 16 S’s in each group.

In terms of number of solvers, the data indicated
that learning the primary discrimination on the basis
of the letter characteristic was significantly more dif¬
ficult than when the number characteristic was the
correct choice. Also, the nonreversal shift was found
to be significantly more difficult than the reversal
shift. The latter finding agrees with the results of
other investigators who used adults and the more con¬
ventional two-choice discrimination problem.

Ingestive Conditioning : A Mechanism for
Prey-Preference Acquisition
Langley Wood

Virginia Institute of Marine Science,
Gloucester Point, Virginia.

The predatory marine gastropod, Urosalpinx cinerea
Say, feeds in nature upon a variety of invertebrate
species, but commonly attacks barnacles, oysters, and
mussels. Intertidal populations of this snail have been
observed to attack resident prey species in proportion
to the latter’s relative numerical abundance with respect
to one another. Contrary to expectation, this distribu¬
tion of species-specific attack frequencies seems not
to be a direct consequence of simple availability of
the several prey species. Rather, it is the indirect
result of population densities and is intennediated by
an acquired preference for a given prey, based upon

212

The Virginia Journal of Science

heightened sensitivity to specific prey odors. The
preference is acquired only through actual ingestion
of specific prey tissues and bears a marked similarity
to the concept of imprinting elaborated by etholo¬
gists.

Ingestive conditioning is viewed as a behavioral
adaptation of considerable significance in the success
of this predatory gastropod: it is not rigidly con¬
strained by a genetically transmitted prey preference,
yet by acquiring a distinct preference it is able to
make its attack technic more efficient through repeti¬
tion.

Relationships between Social Structure,
Aggression, Stress, and Mechanisms
Limiting Population Growth in Assem¬
bled Populations of Mice
Robert W. Zemore

Department of Psychology, College of William ir Mary,
Williamsburg, Virginia.

An experiment was designed to investigate the rela¬

Section of

Lattice Paths and Combinations

C. A. Church, Jr.

Department of Biometry, Medical College of Virginia,
Richmond, Virginia.

Combinations with restricted positions are enumerat¬
ed using results from the enumeration of lattice paths,
and vice versa. For example, the number of k-com-
binations of the first n natural numbers such that the
ith element is congruent to i modulo m, m 7s 1, and
no two successive integers appear.

These results have applications to coin-tossing prob¬
lems, urn problems, and one-dimensional random-walk
problems.

Use of Empirical Bayes Estimators in a
Linear Regression Model
Bennie Allen Clemmer

Department of Statistics, Virginia Polytechnic Institute,
Blacksburg, Virginia.

New estimators for the parameters in the linear re¬
gression model are presented. In additon to the in¬
formation provided by a random sample of observa¬

tionships between social structure, aggression, stress,
and mechanisms limiting population growth in con¬
fined populations of mice by assembling populations
which differed in the ratio of aggressive to submis¬
sive males. Three types of populations were assem¬
bled: one in which all the males were selected and
trained for aggressiveness, another in which all the
males were selected and trained for submissiveness,
and another in which there was a single trained ag¬
gressive male with the other males being submissive.

These populations were observed daily for differ¬
ences in amount of aggression, as determined by the
number of fights; type of dominance hierarchy, as
determined by the results of aggressive encounters
between the males; and number of surviving litters
produced by the females in each population within a
period of three months. At the end of this period
all animals were sacrificed and inspected for physio¬
logical signs of stress (weights of heart, spleen, thymus,
preputials, and testes).

Statistics

tions, these estimators make use of past experiences
in the form of past estimates of other parameters in
similar but independent experiments. Since the param¬
eters themselves vary from one experiment to another,
they are considered to be random variables. The Bayes
estimators are given for a squared-error loss function.
Even though the prior densities of the parameters are
unknown, the Bayes estimators can be written to ex¬
press the marginal densities of certain sufficient sta¬
tistics. These densities are estimated empirically to
form the empirical Bayes estimators of the parameters.
Results of Monte Carlo simulation show that empirical
Bayes estimators with only a few past experiences have
smaller mean-squared errors than least-squares estima¬
tors.

An Auto-Correlation and Cross-Spectral
Analysis of U. S. Naval Aviation
Accident Data

Bertram W. Haines

U. S. Naval Aviation Safety Center,

Norfolk, Virginia.

The data used in this paper were derived from a

Proceedings, 1966-1967

213

subdivison of the total U. S. Naval Air Forces at the
major-command level. The five major commands con¬
sidered are: a) Naval Air Forces, Atlantic Fleet
(NAL); b) Naval Air Forces, Pacific (NAP); c)
Marine Air Forces, Atlantic Fleet (FMFL); d) Ma¬
rine Air Forces, Pacific Fleet (FMFP); and e) Naval
Air Training (NATRA). The particular data consid¬
ered from each command were the two series, number
of flight hours per month and number of accidents
per month. In all cases the data covered the period
from January 1962 through December 1965, giving
48 data points in each series. Autocorrelation and
spectral-density functions were computed for each
series. Following this, a cross-spectral analysis of the
“hours” series into the “accident” series for each com¬
mand was computed.

A comparison of the spectral-power functions among
the several commands indicated that in four of the five,
the number of accidents per month varied most consist¬
ently at one frequency. This frequency, however, was
not the same among the commands. The power
spectral function of the “hours” series showed varia¬
tion with a wavelength of 2.5 to 3.75 years among
all the commands. These, plus other findings, indioate
that further applications of this technique to series
with higher resolution and less heterogeneity at the
source may be helpful in detecting and measuring any
rhythms in the occurrence of naval aviation accidents.

A Model for Incompatibility in Kidney
Transplants
S. J. Kilpatrick, Jr.

Department of Biometry, Medical College of Virginia,
Richmond, Virginia.

A general model to account for donor-host incom¬
patibilities in organ transplantation is developed, as¬
suming that the observed antigenic reactions leading
to rejection are due to single gene effects.

From the model, which postulates n ‘strong’ and
m ‘weak’ alleles at a single locus, and which allows
these alleles to take unequal frequencies in the popu¬
lation, expressions are derived for the probability of
a successful transplant in different types of homo¬
graft. Comparison of these theoretical success rates
with observed international data on kidney transplants
indicates that the number of strong antigens must be
greater than two but is probably no more than five.
Support for the concept of a universal donor in homo-
grafts is contradictory.

The extension of the genetic model to multilocus
involvement is sketched.

A New Look at the Calibration Problem

R. G. Krutchkoff

Department of Statistics, Virginia Polytechnic Institute,
Blacksburg, Virginia.

The classical method of statistical calibration first
finds the least-squares estimates of the parameters
in a linear model and then inverts the equation. The
inverse method first inverts the equation and then
estimates the parameters. These methods are exten¬
sively compared by Monte Carlo procedures. The re¬
sults indicate that the inverse method has a uniformly
smaller squared error than the classical method.

Best Linear Unbiased Estimates of the
Parameters of a Pareto Density
Kenneth Mullens

Department of Biometry, Medical College of Virginia,
Richmond, Virginia.

An example of life-test data is considered in which
the Pareto density, rather than the exponential den¬
sity, is regarded as appropriate to represent the data.
Then the method of finding best linear unbiased esti¬
mates of the parameters is discussed, in the case of
censored data.

Some Interesting Aspects of the Sample
Coefficient of Variation

Raymond H. Myers and Boris Iglewicz

Departments of Statistics, Virginia Polytechnic Institute,
Blacksburg, Virginia, and Western Reserve University,
Cleveland, Ohio.

Several methods of approximation are discussed for
finding the percentage points of the sample coefficient
of variation when the parent population is normal.
Several examples are given in which the results using
the approximations are compared with the exact per¬
centage points. The approximations are results of
simplifying assumptions which appear to be some¬
what inaccurate but actually give results which in
many cases are quite good. The only utility of the
approximations is for finding percentage points for
sample sizes that exceed 100. The exact results have
not been developed for this latter range.

214

The Virginia Journal of Science

Specification-Oriented Confidence
Limits

Eugene A. Periman

Hercules, Incorporated, Radford Army Ammunition
Plant, Radford, Virginia.

A specification-oriented confidence limit is a lower
confidence limit on the probability that a random
variable will satisfy a particular specification. Such
confidence limits can be used in industry to calculate
demonstrated reliabihties or lower confidence limits
on probabibties of conformance to manufacturing re¬
quirements.

The set of known confidence regions for the normal
distribution is presented. Techniques for obtaining
the best confidence limits for a particular function of
the parameter space are given.

The Role of the Statistician in the

Pharmaceutical Company

Lester W. Preston, Jr., and Walter E. Bell

A. H. Robins Co., Inc., Richmond, Virginia.

This paper reviews the role of the statistician in
a pharmaceutical firm. The application of statistics
to the departments of chemistry, pharmacology, medi¬
cal research and quality control is discussed in detail.

Special attention is given to the problems he en¬

counters, especially in his position in the “team”
approach to new drug development.

The tabulated results of a log of requests for sta¬
tistical assistance are presented. Several conclusions
are drawn from these results.

The training of biostatisticians is reviewed from the
standpoint of applicability to the drug industry.

Response Surface Designs for Experi¬
ments with Mixtures

William O. Thompson and Raymond H. Myers

Department of Statistics, Virginia Polytechnic Institute,
Blacksburg, Virginia.

In estimating a response surface where the k-varia-
bles represent proportions in a mixture, the experi¬
menter is often interested in a reasonably well-defined
region which may, for example, center about current
operating levels. Since previously developed designs
are essentially for exploring the entire factor space,
these designs, modified to explore smaller regions,
have many of the disadvantages of the parent designs
as well as bias from the orientation of the pseudofac¬
tor space.

For an elliptical region of interest defined by limits
on the k-variables of the mixture, a general method
of constructing designs from familiar ones in k-1 inde¬
pendent variables is given. The appropriate analysis
for first- and second-order polynomials is given.

Proceedings, 1966-1967

215

Author Index to Volume 18, 1967

Abstracts of Papers, Forty-fifth Annual Meeting . 139

Anderson, Willis Martin. Legal Aspects of Air Pollution 77

Andrews, William C. Workshop on Health and Science . 39

Bates, William W., Griffith, Robert B., Harlow, E.S., Senkus, Murray, and Wakeham,

Helmut. Determination and Reporting of Total Particulate Matter, Water in Total
Particulate Matter, and Nicotine in Cigarette Smoke . 130

Boggs, Nathaniel, Jr. and Jackson, Margaretta M. Studies on the Pseudomating

Phenomenon in Spirostomum ambiguum (Heterotrichida, Ciliata) . 19

Boushall, Thomas C. Workshop on Business and Industry . 34

Browning, K. M. See Gemmill, C. L. . 127

Busch, Harry. Water Pollution— We Are They . 103

Bowman, Edward R. See McKennis, Herbert, Jr., . 13

Campbell, T. G. Mvcotoxins in the Food Chain . 67

Coveil, Charles V. Jr. A Check List of the Butterflies and Skippers of Virginia . 21

Dar, Mohammad Saeed. See McKennis, Herbert, Jr . 13

David, H. A. See Nelson, W. C . . 95

Engel, R. W. The Role of Agriculture in the War on Hunger . 114

Friddell, Guy. Workshop on Communications . . . 35

Gemmill, C. L. and Browning, K. M. The Effects of Sodium Pentobarbital on Temperatures

and Heart Rates of Rats Given Methimazole and Subject to Cold . 127

Golik, Zbigniew and Hill, Clarence H. Comparative Effectiveness of Some Commonlv
Used Insecticides on Codling Moth Carpocapsa pomonclla (L) at Different Stages
of Development . __ . 63

Griffith, Robert B. See Bates, William W . 130

Guttmacher, Alan F. Family Planning . . . The Challenge of Our Time . 31

Haider, M. L. The Air-Pollution Problem . . . 75

Harlow, E. S. See Bates, William W . 130

Harrison, Albertis S. Jr. Virginia’s Tomorrow— Progress or Privation . 51

Hill, Clarence H. See Golik, Zbigniew . 63

Hoehheiser, Seymour. Air-Pollution Detection and Control . 80

Jackson, Margaretta M. See Boggs, Nathaniel, Jr . 19

McKennis, Herbert, Jr., Bowman, Edward R. and Dar, Mohammad Saeed. Studies on the

Separation of Acidic Metabolites of Nicotine by Gas Chromatography . 13

Marshall, Harold G. Plankton in James River Estuarv, Virginia. II. Phytoplankton in the

Elizabeth River . . 105

Nelson, W. C. and David, H. A. The Logarithmic Distribution: a Review . 95

Oglesbv, William B. Workshop on Religion . 41

Ott, Franklin D. Porphyridium sordidum Geitler in America, with Comments on the

Distribution of Other North American Freshwater Rhodophvtes . 110

Palmer, C. Mervin. Biological Aspects of Water Supplv and Treatment in Virginia With

Particular Reference to Algae . . ... 6

Ross, Mary H. See Vingiello, Madeline . . 59

Senkus, Murray. See Bates, William W . 130

Vingiello, Madeline and Ross, Mary H. Some Effects of Apholate on the German

Cockroach, Blattella germanica (L) . . . 59

Wakeham, Helmut. See Bates, William W . 130

Willett, H. I. Workshop on Education and Social Services . 37

PHILIP MORRIS

Philip Morris, a publicly-owned company incorporated in Virginia, proudly
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a number of fine pipe tobaccos, and in recent years Philip Morris has added
these quality names: Burma-Vita Company, American Safety Razor Company,
and Clark Bros. Chewing Gum Company.

Write to Administrative Assistant, P. O. Box 3-D, Richmond, Virginia

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VIRGINIA

JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

OFFICIAL PUBLICATION OF THE VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

WINTER

1968

VOL. 19, NO. 1

5:?;; m

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locations in the State of
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General Notice To
Contributors

The Virginia Journal of Science heartily welcomes
for consideration original articles of technical or
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Abbreviation of journals for references can be
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ton, D. C., 1963, and supplements. References
should be checked carefully.

The form of presentation is illustrated below:

(1) Aiyar, A. S., and Olson, R. E., Fedn Proc.
Fedn Am. Socs exp. Biol., 23, 425 (1964).

(2) Chappell, J. B., Cohn, M., and Greville, G. D.,
in B. Chance (Editor), Energy linked func¬
tions of mitochondria, Academic Press, Inc.,
New York, 1963, p. 219.

(3) Riley, G. A., and Haynes, R. C., Jr., J. biol.
Chem., 238. 1563 (1963).

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VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

Because of their interest in science and the
economy of Virginia, the following industrial
concerns have become Business Members of
the Academy and have thus contributed greatly
to its work and progress. Their support is
gratefully acknowledged:

Abbott, Proctor & Paine
Albemarle Paper Mfg. Co.

Allied Chemical Corporation
American Machine & Foundry Co.

The American Tobacco Company
The Bank of Virginia
Burlington Industries, Inc.

The Central National Bank
Celanese Fibers Company
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Dan River Mills

Dow Badische Company

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First and Merchants National Bank
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A. H. Robins Company, Inc.

Shenandoah Life Insurance Company
Southern Bank & Trust Company
Southern Railways Systems
Southern States Cooperative, Inc.
State-Planters Bank of Commerce and Trusts
Union Camp Corporation
Virginia Chemicals, Inc.

Virginia Electric and Power Company
Virginia Trust Company
J. C. Wheat and Company

VIRGINIA

JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

OFFICIAL PUBLICATION OF THE
VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

Vol. 19

Winter, 1968

No. 1

TABLE OF CONTENTS

5

Guy Winston Horsley

E. Toone and D. Chapman

7

A New Cryptococcus Species from North America, with a Key to the
Species of the Genus (Homoptera: Coccoidea)

M. Kosztarab and D. L. Hale

12

Cryptococcidea, a New Family of the Coccoidea (Homoptera)

M. Kosztarab

13

A Comparative Study of the Parasites of Certain Salientia from Pocohontas

State Park, Virginia R. A. Campbell

21 The Potassium Ion: A Modulator of Myocardial Contractility

34 Excitation of Myocardial Cells

37 A History of the Virginia Academy of Science

90 News and Notes

J. P. Gilmore

N. Sperelakis

H. J. Staggers

93

Communications and Reports

THE VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

Official Publication of the Virginia Academy of Science
EDITOR

HERBERT McKENNIS. JR.

EDITORIAL BOARD

Dorothy L. Crandall Thomas J. Marlowe

John E. Duberg Maynard M. Nichols

Boyd Harshbarger Edwin R. Van Artsdalen

BUSINESS MANAGER ASSISTANT BUSINESS MANAGER

Blanton M. Bruner Thomas H. Vaughan. Jr.

Entered as second-class matter at the Post Office
at Richmond, Virginia, under the Act of March 3,
1 897. Published quarterly by The Virginia Academy
of Science, Department of Pharmacology, Medical
College of Virginia, Richmond, Virginia 23219.

Manuscripts for publication (other than section
abstracts) and books for review should be sent to
the Editor, Herbert McKennis, Jr., Department of
Pharmacology, Medical College of Virginia, Rich¬
mond, Virginia 23219. Proof, edited manuscripts,
and all correspondence regarding accepted papers
should be sent to the Editor.

Advertising and Business Office: All correspon¬
dence relating to advertising and business affairs
should be directed to Blanton M. Bruner, Business
Manager, or Thomas H. Vaughan, Jr., Assistant
Business Manager, Virginia Journal of Science,
P. O. Box 799, Hopewell, Virginia 23860.

The Virginia Academy of Science and the Editors
of the Virginia Journal of Science assume no re¬
sponsibility for statements or opinions advanced by
contributors.

© Copyright, 1967, by the Virginia Academv of
Science.

Business and Subscription Information

All remittances and orders for advertising and
subscriptions should be sent to the Business Man¬
ager, Virginia Journal of Science, P. O. Box 799,
Hopewell, Virginia 23860. Changes of address
should be sent promptly to Rodney C. Berry, Execu¬
tive Secretary-Treasurer, Virginia Academy of
Science, P. O. Box 9211, Richmond, Virginia
23227. Changes of address must include both new
and old addresses with zip code.

Subscription rates for 1968: $8.00 per year,
U.S.A.; Canada and other countries of the Pan-
American Union, $8.50 per year; all other foreign
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equivalent. U.S. dollar remittance is suggested to
avoid currency fluctuation problems and possibly
unfavorable exchange rates.

Back issues are available for some years at $3.00
per issue plus postage.

The front cover is by Douglas C. Hensley.

GUY WINSTON HORSLEY

Guy Winston Horsley, son of J. Shelton Horsley and Eliza Braxton Horsley, was born
on February 8, 1905, in Richmond, Virginia, where he died July 17, 1967, after many years
of service to the community at large and the Virginia Academy of Science.

The prestige of Dr. Horsley’s lineage was imposing. His father was one of the leading
surgeons of the south with a national and international reputation, and his elder brother was
the pioneer plastic surgeon in the State of Virginia. There were outstanding physicians, sur¬
geons, and teachers of medicine on both the paternal and maternal sides of his family. His
ancestral roots extended to the very beginning of this country, and he was descended from
families which not only helped mold the patterns of colonial Virginia but contributed greatly
to the birth and early development of this country as an independent nation.

He was educated at the University of Virginia where he received his bachelor of science
degree in 1925 and the degree of doctor of medicine in 1929. As a result of investigative
work carried out as a medical student, he was elected to membership in Sigma Xi.

Following graduation from medical school, he served first as an intern and then as a sur¬
gical resident at the St. Elizabeth’s Hospital in Richmond, Virginia, between 1929 and 1932.
At the completion of this training period, he became associated with his father in the practice
of surgery and gynecology and continued in this association until 1942 when he entered active
military service with the 45th General Hospital. Serving with this organization for 4 years, in
this country, in North Africa, and in Italy, he became Chief of the Surgical Service, rose to the
rank of colonel, and was honored with the Army’s second highest award, the Legion of Merit,
for his outstanding performance. Returning from foreign duties in 1945, he became Chief of
the Surgical Service at the McGuire General Hospital.

With the completion of military service, he again became associated with his father in the
practice of surgery at the St. Elizabeth’s Hospital and following his father's death in 1946 be¬
came Surgeon-in-Chief and active director of the staff.

( over)

Guy Winston Horsley

o

Endowed with personal traits of intelligence, sound judgment, equanimity, and sincerity,
he was constantly called on to counsel and direct. Leadership was Dr. Horsley’s major contribu¬
tion to his profession and the community. In many instances his endeavors were directed to new
achievements, but in many instances to assure the proper and efficient function of organizations
whose relationship might have become strained or disrupted because of conflicting ideas and
personality frictions. Nothing could attest to this quality of leadership more forcefully than to
review the various medical and related organizations to which he was elected president or di¬
rector: Richmond Academy of Medicine; Medical Society of Virginia; Virginia State Board of
Medical Examiners; Virginia Hospital Service; and the Southern Surgical Association.

In addition to a very active surgical practice, his interest in the investigative and educa¬
tional fields of medicine was forceful and productive. Directing his attention principally to the
problems of malignant disease, he observed and wrote extensively on the many problems of
carcinoma of the breast and colon, publishing more than 50 articles in authoritative medical
journals on these and other subjects. This led to a national and international reputation, par¬
ticularly in his work dealing with carcinoma of the breast.

Throughout his medical career, he was a member of the faculty of the Medical College of
Virginia, serving as an associate professor of surgery from 1948 until the time of his death, and
was active in his interest and performance as a teacher of medical students and house officers.

Particularly noteworthy as a contribution to medical education was the medical text “Op¬
erative Surgery” which he co-authored with the late Dr. I. A. Bigger in conjunction with a
number of collaborators of recognized ability. This book became an authoritative text and con¬
tributed much to the education of both developing, as well as established, surgeons.

His father had been a founder and the fourth president of the Virginia Academy of
Science. Through his foresight, the first permanent “Committee for the Encouragement of
Scientific Research in Virginia” was created, and he also established the Research Endowment
Fund, to which he was a generous contributor. Dr. Guy W. Horsley became a member of the
Virginia Academy of Science in 1927 and maintained his membership over the next 40 years.
During the year 1950-51, he was president of the Academy. From 1939 to 1942, he served
capably as secretary of the Section of Medical Sciences; from 1945-50, as a member of the
important Research Committee; and for several terms, he was on the Academy Council.

Perhaps his outstanding contribution was his long and able service in connection with its
Finance and Endowment Committee. For 19 years, from 1948 until the time of his death, Dr.
Horsley was a member of this committee, serving as chairman from 1948 to 1950 and again
from 1956 to 1959. His quiet but able guidance and leadership here were very important fac¬
tors in the financial solvency and progress of the Academy. The Virginia Academy of Science
has had but few members who have served with such dedication and ability for so many years.

He extended his interests and activities to many medical societies and organizations re¬
lated to the medical profession: Richmond Surgical and Gynecological Society; Virginia Surgi¬
cal Society; Virginia Chapter of the American Cancer Society; American College of Surgeons;
American Surgical Association; Diplomate of the American Board of Surgery; Society of
Medical Consultants to the Armed Forces; American Society for the Study of Neoplastic Dis¬
eases; American Society for the Advancement of Science; Excelsior Surgical Association; South¬
ern Surgeons Club; and International Surgical Society.

The home which he and his wife, the former Mary Clare Wright of Petersburg, Virginia,
established was warm, active and interesting. Two daughters and a son were the focus of their
devotion and concern. In addition to an active professional life, he was able to participate with
enthusiasm in a multitude of social and family activities. He was a member of the Common¬
wealth Club, Country Club of Virginia, Society of Virginia Creepers, Signers of the Declaration
of Independence, and Richmond German Club. He and his wife, along with the children,
gave abundantly of their energies to restore and maintain the old family home of “Chericoke”
where they entertained their many friends frequently and joyously.

At the time of his election as president of the Virginia Medical Society in 1960, Dr.
Harr}' J. Warthen wrote: “His life has been a habit of success that has characterized all of his
professional, military, literary, organizational, and personal activities.” So we honor the passing
of a physician, citizen, and friend whose accomplishments have not only fulfilled the expecta¬
tions, but have added to the prestige of a demanding heritage.

ELAM TOONE
DOUGLAS CHAPMAN

6

The Virginia Journal of Science

Michael Kosztarab and Dreamer L. Hale

Department of Entomology, Virginia Polytechnic
Institute, Blacksburg, Va. 24061.
Received October 23, 1967

A New Crypfococcus Species from North America,
with a Key to the Species of the Genus
(Homoptera: Coccoidea)

Abstract — Morphological descriptions and illustrations are
given of the adult female and first-instar nymph of Crypto-
coccus williamsi new species. Numerical analyses of morpho¬
logical characters were conducted as far as material was
available. This scale insect is a pest of sugar maple trees in
the states of Maine, New Hampshire, New York, and Ver¬
mont in the United States, also in some parts of Ontario
and Quebec in Canada. A key to the species of Crypto¬
coccus is given.

The genus Cryptococcus was erected by Douglas
in 1890 (1), with the type species Coccus fagi
Baerensprung (1849). Since that time only two
additional species have been assigned to this genus:
C. nudatus Brittin (1915) (2), and C. aceris
Borchsenius (1937) (3). Cryptococcus fagi infests
only beech trees, was the only species previously
known from North America, and probably was in¬
troduced from Europe. C. nudatus is known from
Hoheria species in New Zealand, while C. aceris
was described from unidentified maple and linden
trees from Abkhazia, Azerbaidzhan, Russia.

Adults and first-instar nymphs of the new species
were studied, and both instars are here described
and illustrated. Immature stages of the other species
of Cryptococcus have not been described. Numerical
analyses of morphological characters have been con¬
ducted in both stages, to show the means and varia¬
tion among the specimens studied. A proposed new
family description follows the new species descrip¬
tion.

Cryptococcus williamsi, new species
Suggested common name: maple bark scale

Adult Female
Plate 1

Female Covering: Fine threaded, white, wooly secre¬
tion.

DESCRIPTION: Somewhat oval in general ap¬
pearance (fig. a). Total length 684 p (606-857);
mean width 564 p (458-679). Ranges of measure¬
ments are given in parentheses. Dry females brown¬
ish orange, live ones salmon-orange in color.

*Partial support of this investigation was provided by the National
Science Foundation (Grant NSF — GB 5622).

DORSAL SURFACE

Tubular ducts (fig. b): Numerous, about 10 p
long and 7 p in diameter, more or less evenly dis¬
tributed throughout the body, some on margin.

Quinquelocular disc pores (fig. c): Few occurring
submarginally.

Trilocular disc pores (fig. d): Usually 1 or 2
present on the head and on the thorax.

Simple disc pores (fig. e): Scattered in the sub¬
marginal area.

Setae (fig. f): Thin, about 10 p long, distributed
on both surfaces of the body in no definite pattern.

VENTRAL SURFACE

Antennae (fig. g) : Reduced to short tubercles,
approximately 17 p long, 12 p in diameter at the
base, and usually bearing 3-4 small setae.

Labium: Triangular in shape, 50 p long (31-86),
and 46 p wide at base (27-55); bearing 2 short
setae on each side.

Clypeolabral shield: 99 p long (78-168); width
86 p (63-125). Stylets usually coiled in a loop,
when extended not reaching beyond the apex of the
abdomen.

Legs: Entirely absent.

Anterior spiracles (fig. h): 37 p long (27-51);
atrium 25 p in diameter (20-31), surrounded by
a sclerotized area bearing 2-4 (mean 3.33) quin¬
quelocular disc pores.

Posterior spiracles: More or less identical with
anterior pair; 30 p long (23-63); atrium 25 p wide
(17-35), surrounded by a sclerotized area bearing
2-5 (mean 3.23) quinquelocular disc pores.

Cluster pore plate (fig. i): Compact cluster of
5-12 (mean 8) sievelike pores present in an oval
plate posterior to each posterior spiracle.

Anal ring (fig. j): Borne on the ventral surface
on the body close to the caudal apex, consisting of
a heavily sclerotized ring, 18 p in diameter (16-
23). The ring bears 4 setae, 9 p long (7-16), the
posterior pair being the shorter.

Anal tube (fig. j): Length, 15 p (12-23); with
one pair of setae about 6 p long at its innermost
margin. Five pairs of setae surrounding the anal
ring, the median pair about 10 /x long, the others
about 5. Vulva distinct.

A New Cryptococcus Species

7

Plate I.— Cryptococcus williamsi sp. n.» female

8

The Virginia Journal of Science

Tubular ducts (fig. b): About 88, most arranged
submarginally.

Quinquelocular disc pores (fig. k) : About 4 /x in
diameter, arranged submarginally and irregularly
around the mouthparts.

Quadrilocular disc pores (fig. 1): Few, scattered
near the spiracles.

Material studied: 101 adult females were avail¬
able for this description, but the means and ranges
were calculated from 42 selected specimens.

First-Instar Nymph
Plate 2

DESCRIPTION: Body (fig. a) elongate ovoid.
Mean length of six specimens 319 ^ (293-344);
mean width of three specimens 182 /x (168-203).
Numbers after the range of morphological characters
refer to the size of the sample.

DORSAL SURFACE

Quinquelocular disc pores (fig. b): Averaged 4 /x
in diameter (2. 9-4. 3; 43); 8 on head, 2 on thorax,
a marginal and a submedian row on each side of
abdomen.

Setae: Body setae hairlike (fig. c), 4.9 /x long
(2. 9-7. 2; 30). Two setae on margin of head be¬
tween antennae, length 12.7 /x (10-18.7; 5). Stout
setae (fig. d), on abdominal segments V-IX, 7.4 /x
long (5.7-10; 24), gradually increasing in size
toward the apex of abdomen. Apical setae 52.2 «
long (44.6-57.6; 4). One seta, 8 /x long (7.2-
8.6; 6), associated with each apical seta.

Anal tube: 16.2 /x long (14.4-20.2; 4); width
5 /x (4. 3-5.7; 4).

Anal ring: Without pores or other recognizable
structures, located on the protruding apex of abdo¬
men, surrounded by 4 sharp spines (fig. e) 10.2 jx
long (8.6-12.9; 17).

VENTRAL SURFACE

Eye bases: 3.4 /x in height (2. 9-4. 3; 9); 8.6 n
in diameter (7.2-10; 9).

Antennae: Five-segmented, separated by 16.3 /x
(11.5-20.2; 3). Total length 64.8 /x (59-69; 8).
Length of segments (in microns) I, 13.9 (11.5-15.8;
9); II, 12.4 (11.5-14; 9); III, 10.5 (8.6-12.9; 10);
IV, 8.8 (7.2-10; 10); V, 18.1 (15.8-20; 10).
Terminal segment with 3 slender setae; their length
30.7 ju, (24.5-36; 26). Fleshy setae on segments IV
and V, 11.2 /x long (8.6-15.8; 27). Hairlike setae
on all segments, except IV, 8 jx long (5.7-12.9; 23).
One sensorium on segment II.

Labium: Triangular in shape, 34.8 ^ long (25.9—
57.6; 6); width 33.6 /x (31.7-36; 6), with 1 long
and 3 short setae on each side. Length of stylet loop
172 fi (151-180; 6). Clypeolabral shield oval,
with two hornlike structures. Length of shield
58.6 /x (57.6-60.5; 6); width 44.4 /x ^(39-47.5; 6).

Legs: Well developed. Length of thoracic legs as
follows (in microns): Prothoracic legs: coxa, 13.9
(11.5-15.8; 6); trochanter, 11.7 (10-15.8; 7);
femur, 31.9 (28.8-33; 7); tibia, 13.7 (12.9-14; 6);
tarsus, 14.6 (12.9-15.8; 6); claw, 9.5 (8.6-11.5;

5). Mesothoracic legs: coxa, 15.7 (12.9-20; 8);
trochanter, 11.8 (10-14; 6); femur, 31.8 (28.8-
34.5; 9) ; tibia, 12.8 ( 10-14; 9) ; tarsus, 14.7 (12.9-
17; 9); claw, 10.7 (8.6-12.9; 7). Metathoracic
legs: coxa, 15.2 (11.5-17.3; 9); trochanter, 11.5
(10-15.8; 6); femur, 32.3 (28.8-36; 11); tibia, 14
(11.5-15.8; 10); tarsus, 15.5 (14-17.3; 9); claw
(fig. f), 11.7 (10-14; 9).

Spiracles: Anterior pair (fig. g), 13 n long (11.5-
14; 7); atrium 4.5 /x wide (4-5.7; 7), with one
tri locular disc pore 2.9 /x in diameter. Posterior pair,
13 tx long (11.5-14; 8); atrium 4.5 /x in diameter
(4_5.7; 7), with one trilocular disc pore 2.6 fx in
diameter ( 1.4-2. 9; 6).

Quadrilocular disc pores (fig. i): 2.9 /x in diam¬
eter, two or more scattered on some abdominal seg¬
ments.

Trilocular disc pores (fig. h): 2.9 /x in diameter,
located in one submarginal row on abdominal seg¬
ments IV- VIII; 1 pore at base of each prothoracic
and mesothoracic coxa.

Setae: Two setae between antennae, 17.4 fx long
(14.4-21.6; 9). Setae on margin of abdominal
segments V-IX (fig. j) 8 /x long (5.8-11.5; 7),
gradually increasing in length toward apex of abdo¬
men. Other setae hairlike, 4.8 /x long (4. 3-7. 2; 11).

Material studied: Nine nymphs mounted on 2
slides were available for this description. The speci¬
mens were received from Dr. W. R. Richards, Ot¬
tawa, Canada. They were collected on bark of sugar
maple, Acer saccharum, at Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario,
Canada, by O. H. Lindquist. No collecting date was
given.

Holotype Female. — From Acer saccharum Marsh.,
North of Perry, Vermont, 1 Nov. 1966, coll. R. L.
Murray, deposited in the U. S. National Museum
(USNM). Paratypes. — All specimens collected from
sugar maple, Acer saccharum Marsh. U.S.A.,
MAINE: Limerick, 1$, 27 June 1967; coll. M.
Kosztarab, (VPI). NEW HAMPSHIRE: Ells¬
worth, 8 2,8 slides, 4 Jan. 1966; coll. A. H. Mason
and R. H. Hutchins, (USNM). NEW YORK: Tioga
County, 62, 1 slide, Oct. 1965; coll. C. Hebdon,
(USNM 65-26555, #2). VERMONT: Near Gran¬
ville, in Green Mt. Nat. Forest, 23 2, 11 slides, Oct.
1965; coll. R. Ford, (VPI; one of the paratype
slides deposited in the British Museum, one in the
Ferris-McKenzie Collection in Davis, California).
— North of Perry, 33 2, 27 slides, 1 Nov. 1966;
coll. R. L. Murray, (18 slides Cal. Dept. Agr.; 10
slides Fla. Dept. Agr.). — Smugglers Notch Forest
Service near Information Office, (Lamoille Co.),
10 2,2 slides, 24 June 1967; coll. Eva and M. Kosz¬
tarab, (VPI). No locality given, 62, 1 slide, Oct.
1965; coll. R. Ford, (USNM 65-26555 #1).
CANADA: Ontario, Sault Ste. Marie, 13 2, and 9
crawlers, 8 slides, (no date); coll. O. H. Lindquist,
(VPI).

Distribution: In addition to the above-listed col¬
lections, this scale insect species was reported from
a few localities in Maine, central and northern New
York, from most of the counties of New Hampshire,
and Vermont, also from some parts of Ontario and
Quebec in Canada.

A New Cryptococcus Species

9

Plate 2.- Cryptococcus williamsi sp. n., first instar nymph

The Virginia Journal of Science

Biological Data: Little information is available on
the biology and ecology of this species. The U. S.
Forest Service, Amherst Zone, Massachusetts, initi¬
ated studies of this nature by its cooperators in
New England States. Information was kindly sup¬
plied through personal correspondence with Mr.
A. R. Hastings, Entomologist at Amherst. Ob¬
servations were also made by Kosztarab in Vermont
and Maine in June 1967. Crawlers were found in
late May and early June in New Hampshire by Mr.
Arthur Mason, Assistant State Entomologist, who
observed that the eggs hatch 10-15 minutes after
being laid. Mr. Theodore Walker observed the
crawlers to be born alive, viviparously. Females col¬
lected at Bartlett, New Hampshire, from red maple
(the only record from this host), and dissected by
the cooperators, had 20 to 30 eggs per female. Mr.
Elwin Leysath observed about the same number of
eggs in females from sugar maple. The contradic¬
tions about the birth of these insects should be
clarified in the future.

Infestation is much more easily detected on young
trees with smooth bark than on old trees with deep
bark crevices. In the latter case, to find the scale
insects it is necessary to remove the thick bark
flakes until the new bark growth is reached. Because
of the shortness of their stylets, the insects can feed
only through thin young bark. Cooperators and the
senior author observed heavier infestations of this
species on the north and northwest sides of tree
trunks, than elsewhere.

According to Mr. Hastings, in the early winter
the coccid is covered with a thick coating of the
filaments of white waxy secretion. In late winter
and early spring this coating is worn thin and the
female is visible in the bark crevices.

Parasites and Predators: Material collected at
Ellsworth, New Hampshire, was infested by a para¬
sitic wasp, Coccophagoides sp. Eulophidae (det.
Dr. J. G. Conklin). Only low-level parasitism was
observed.

Economic Importance: No attempt has been
made to evaluate the impact of this scale on in¬
fested trees. It could be assumed, from closely
related species, that in case of heavy infestation,
especially on young trees, this new scale insect might
cause severe injury or death to trees because of
excessive sap loss due to the feeding of the insects.

This coccid could probably cause indirect damage
to the infested trees by dispersing mechanically or
biologically maple-tree diseases, such as anthracnose,
phyllosticta spot, tar spots, leaf scorch, verticillium
wilt, and others. A closely related species, the
beech scale. Cryptococcus jagi, developed an insect-
disease complex, the beech scale-nectria, therefore
the potential of this new species for developing such
an insect-disease complex is great. Because the
production and processing of sugar-maple lumber
and syrup are multimillion-dollar industries in North
America, more research should be conducted to
clarify the biology, ecology, and possible control
of this insect.

This species is named in honor of Dr. Douglas J.
Williams, coccidologist of the Commonwealth In¬
stitute of Entomology, who also studied the tax¬
onomy of the insect, compared some of our adult
specimens with the adults of C. aceris in the British
Museum, and who kindly accorded us the privilege
of describing this new species.

KEY TO THE ADULT FEMALES OF
CRYPTOCOCCUS

1 Antennae four-or five-

segmented . aceris Borchs.

Antennae one- or two-segmented 2

2(1) Six anal-ring setae present; known

from Hoheria species nudatus Brittin

Four anal-ring setae present; known

from Fagus and Acer 3

3(2) Anal ring surrounded by 6 large setae;
cluster pore plate poorly developed,
without pores; known from beech,

Fagus fagi Baer.

Anal ring surrounded by 10 large setae;
cluster pore plate well developed,
and with pores clearly visible; known
from maple, Acer williamsi Krb. and Hale

REFERENCES

1. Douglas, J. W., Entomologist’s mon. Mag., 26, 153
(1890).

2. Brittin, G., Trans. Proc. N. Z. Inst., 47, 160 (1915).

3. Borchsenius, N. S., Tables for the identification of coccids
( Coccidae ) injurious to cultivated plants and forests in
the U.S.S.R. (In Russian), District Office of Plant Quar¬
antine Inspection, Leningrad, 1937. p. 148.

A New Cryptococcus Species

11

Michael Kosztarab

Department of Entomology , Virginia Polytechnic
Institute, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061.
Received October 23, 1967

Cryptococcidae, a New Family of the Coccoidea

(Homoptera).

The combined morphological studies on the im¬
mature stages and adult females of Cryptococcus
Douglas, 1890 (1) and Kuwanina Cockerell, 1903
(2) proved that these two genera are distinct in their
morphology, and therefore should be removed from
the families in which they previously were included,
and be treated separately as a new family.

Hoy (3) incorporated both genera in the famil>
Eriococcidae. Bodenheimer in 1953 (4), based on
the sedentary condition of the females and reduction
of legs and antennae, included Cryptococcus fagi in
the subfamily Antonininae of the family Pseudo-
coccidae. Our study, conducted at the Virginia
Polytechnic Institute on the Antonina Signoret.
1875, and related genera, proved that Antonina
is not related to either Cryptococcus nor Kuwanina,
and the latter two genera cannot be included in the
family Pseudococcidae. Sphaerococcus obscuratus
Masked, 1895, was tentatively referred to the genus
Kuwanina by Ferris in 1919 (5). This species is
definitely not a member of the genus Kuwanina;
therefore could not be referred to the family Crypto¬
coccidae, nor could K. hilli Laing, which is a syno¬
nym of Antonina australis Green (6).

DEFINITION OF THE FAMILY

Type genus of the family: Cryptococcus Douglas.

ADULT FEMALES. — Body oval, sclerotized at
full maturity, small, about 606 to 1,000 p long, 458
to 768 p wide, on slide. Antennae one- to five-
segmented with 2 or 3 small setae on each seg¬
ment. Stylet loop short, when extended will not
reach the apex of abdomen. Legs entirely absent.
Spiracles surrounded by a sclerotized area. Some
quinquelocular pores associated with each spiracle.
An oval cluster pore plate located just posterior of
each posterior spiracle. Anal ring heavily sclerotized
and usually with 4 to 6 short setae or hairs, ap¬
parently without pores. Anal ring surrounded by
short stout setae. No apical lobes developed.

Tubular ducts arranged submarginally on the
venter, also some scattered irregularly in the sub¬
median area of the dorsum. Derm always with triloc-
ular and quinquelocular pores, occasionally simple
disc pores and quadrilocular disc pores also present.

Adult females are found in bark crevices of

deciduous trees and are covered with fine, white,
waxy secretion.

FIRST INSTAR NYMPHS.— Body elongate
oval, very small, about 234 to 360 p long and 107
to 203 p wide, on slide. Without dorsal ostioles,
ventral circuli, or multilocular pores. Quinqueloc¬
ular disc pores present, while trilocular and quad¬
rilocular disc pores are present only in the species
of the genus Cryptococcus.

Antennae short, 3- to 5-segmented, with 3 long
terminal hairs. Eye bases small. Stylet loop when
extended not reaching beyond the apex of the abdo¬
men. Legs rather thick; tarsal claws without denticle.
Spiracles with or without associated trilocular pores.
Anal ring without well-defined pores, with 3 pairs
of hairs or surrounded by 4 spines. Apical lobes
poorly developed, each with one long apical seta.

SECOND INSTAR NYMPHS.— Known only in
Kuwanina parva (Maskell, 1898). As described by
Yang and Kosztarab (6).

MALES AND THIRD INSTAR NYMPHS —
Not known.

Members of the family are known from the
Palearctic and Nearctic regions, and also from New
Zealand. It is expected that future studies, especially
on immature stages of bark-crevice-infesting coccids,
will result in an increase in the number of genera
in this new family.

Based on Borchsenius’ (7) phylogenetic chart ol
Coccoidea, the family Cryptococcidae should be in¬
corporated as a group between Eriococcidae and
Kermococcidae.

REFERENCES

1. Douglas, J. W., Entomologist's mon. Mag., 26, 153
(1890).

2. Fernald, M. E., Mass, agric. Exp. Stn Spec. Bull., 88, 360
(1903).

3. Hoy, J. M., Bull. N. Z. Dep. scient. ind. Res., 150, 260
(1963).

4. Bodenheimer, F.S.. Instanb. Univ. Fen Fak. Mecm., Seri
B, 18, 91 (1953).

5. Ferris, G. F„ Can. Ent., 51, 249 (1919).

6. Yang, S. P., and Kosztarab. M., Va polytech. Inst. Res.
Div. Bull., 3, 73 (1967).

7. Borchsenius. N. S., Zool. Zh., 37, 765 (1958).

The Virginia Journal of Science

12

Ronald A. Campbell

Department of Biology,
University of Richmond,
Richmond, Virginia.
Received September 5, 1967

A Comparative Study of the Parasites of Certain
Salientia from Pocahontas State Park, Virginia"

Abstract — This is the first comprehensive survey of
salientian parasites in the State of Virginia. The study
includes some new distribution records and correlates
present and previous data.

Four species of Salientia representing three selected habi¬
tats were collected from May 5th through October 4th,
1966, and examined for parasites. Of the 116 host speci¬
mens, 30 were Rana catesbeiana Shaw; 29 Rana clamitans
Latreille; 29 Bufo woodhouseii fowleri Hinckley; 28 Hyla
versicolor versicolor (Le Conte). A total of 35 species of
parasites was recovered: Protozoa, 10; Trematoda, 9;
Cestoda, 2; Nematoda, 11; Acanthocephala, 2; and
Acarina, 1.

All of the parasites reported herein, with the exception
of Megalodiscus temperatus (Stafford) and Physaloptera
ranae Walton, constitute new distributional records for the
state of Virginia. An immature acanthocephalan of the
genus Centrorhyncus, C. wardae Holloway, is reported from
a salientian for the first time. Six other new host-parasite
records are also reported.

Although a relatively small number of hosts was exam¬
ined. the results generally agree with those found in more
extensive investigations of similar type. The aquatic hosts,
R. catesbeiana and R. clamitans, harbored the greatest
number of parasitic species. Infections of the terrestrial
hosts, B. w. fowleri and H. v. versicolor, were fewer in
number of species but significantly higher in number of
specimens. Of the four representative hosts examined, the
arboreal host, H. v. versicolor, showed fewer incidences of
infection and harbored the least number of parasitic species.

INTRODUCTION

The variety of habitats in which salientians live
provides excellent opportunities to study the rela¬
tionship between parasites and environmental condi¬
tions. Although numerous important studies have
dealt with amphibians and their helminth parasites,
few comprehensive studies have been published con¬
cerning the ecology of salientian parasites in North
America.

Comprehensive studies by Holl (7), Brandt (2),
and Rankin (17) have shown that salientians ha-

* Appreciation is expressed to the following faculty members of the
Department of Biology, University of Richmond, to whom I am indebted
for their time and consideration in completion of this thesis: Dr. Nolan
E. Rice, under whose direction the completion of this study was made
possible; Drs. Warwick R. West, William S. Woolcott, and Willie M.
Reams for their suggestions and criticism; and Mr. G. C. Schaefer, for
aid in collection and identification of hosts.

Thanks are also due to Mr. Dennis R. Baker, State Park Naturalist,
who provided the permit for collection of hosts and made park fa¬
cilities available for research.

bitually associated with aquatic habitats were more
often parasitized by a greater variety of species
than terrestrial hosts. Attempts also have been made
to correlate seasonal changes with the numbers of
various parasites of Salientia (4), (7), (2), (17).
Most studies agree that infections generally begin
during the breeding season, increasing during the
warmer summer months to a maximum prior to
hibernation. Holl (7), however, reports that “cricket
frogs apparently become infected during the breed¬
ing season and have no helminth parasites during
the remainder of the year.” Brandt’s (2) study
comparing size, age, and habitats of aquatic Salientia
from North Carolina showed that they were infected
with a variety of parasites. Larger and presumably
older frogs harbored greater numbers of parasites
than smaller individuals. Rankin (17) found more
parasitic species in aquatic than terrestrial Salientia
and concluded that the distribution of helminths de¬
pended upon three factors: habitat; life cycles of
host and parasite; and host specificity.

Knowledge of the parasites of amphibians in
Virginia is very limited. A review of the literature
shows that Jordan and Reynolds (10) made cyto-
logical studies on the trematode Diplodiscus tem¬
peratus (Stafford). Walton (23) reported Phary-
godon armatus as a new species from the intestine
of Rana clamitans Latrielle and Rana pipiens
Schreber collected near Charlottesville, Virginia.
Walton (22) reported another nematode, larval
Physaloptera ranae n. sp., encysted in the stomach
of Rana catesbeiana Shaw. More recently, Miss
C. M. Russell (19) conducted a survey of the para¬
sites of the newt Notophthalmus v. viridescens
(Rafinesque), also in the vicinity of Charlottesville
and Jones, Cheng, and Gillespie (9) reported a new
proteocephalan, Ophiotaenia gracilis, from R. cates¬
beiana.

It is surprising that, although frogs and toads have
long been used as material for the study of parasites,
and although comprehensive surveys of the parasites
of these amphibia have been made in several other
states, there has been no such study made in Vir¬
ginia. The present paper attempts not only to survey
the parasites of certain Salientia in a selected area
but to study the relations of these parasites to the
habits and habitats of hosts.

Parasites of Certain Salientia

13

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The Salientia used in the present study were
collected in Pocahontas State Park, located in
Chesterfield County in the east central part of Vir¬
ginia. The park is a large natural undeveloped area
consisting of 7,604 acres of woodlands situated at
the confluence of the gently rolling Piedmont hills
and the Coastal Plains. The altitude within the
park varies from 120-200 feet above sea level;
drainage is poor and the soil is a sandy loam. The
climate is hot and humid during the summer months
and mild in the winter.

The three types of habitats selected for study were
aquatic, terrestrial, and arboreal. The aquatic
species1 studied were the bullfrog ( Rana cates-
beiana Shaw) and the green frog ( Rana clamitans
Latrielle). Fowler's toad ( Bufo woodhouseii fowl-
eri Hinckley) was selected as a representative of
a terrestrial habitat. This toad is characteristically
terrestrial but visits an aquatic environment during
the breeding season from spring to mid-August.
The gray tree frog, Hyla versicolor versicolor (Le
Conte), was selected as a representative of an ar¬
boreal habitat. It breeds in puddles and temporary
surface water from April to mid-August.

Terrestrial specimens were collected by hand
with the aid of a battery-powered spotlight. A
rowboat, spotlight, and a nylon net equipped with
a long handle were used to capture aquatic speci¬
mens. All the animals were placed in damp cloth
sacks.

The majority of examinations were made within
24 hours after the time of collection. No speci¬
mens were examined after 48 hours. Examina¬
tions were conducted externally and internally
with the aid of a stereoscopic microscope. The
alimentary tract was removed and the esophagus,
stomach, small intestine, and colon were separated
from each other. These organs plus the heart, liver,
pancreas, kidneys, and bladder were placed in indi¬
vidual Syracuse watchglasses containing 0.65%
saline solution.

Helminth parasites were removed, counted, and
either studied alive or prepared for permanent
mounts. Identifiable remains from the stomach
contents were recorded. Blood smears (to detect
protozoa) were fixed in methyl alcohol and stained
with Giemsa blood stain or Delafield’s hematox¬
ylin. Fecal smears for intestinal protozoa were fixed
in Schaudinn’s fixative and stained in Delafield’s
hematoxylin. Trematodes were washed in 0.65%
saline solution, relaxed in tap water, fixed in acetic-
formal-alcohol (A.F.A. : 2-10-50), stained with
alum cochineal or Grenadier’s borax carmine, and
mounted in balsam. Cestodes were treated in the
same manner as trematodes and stained with Harris’
hematoxylin. Serial sections were studied in both
transverse and frontal views. Nematodes were
killed and fixed in hot A.F.A., stored in 70% gly¬
cerine alcohol, and mounted in glycerine jelly or

^Aquatic specimens were collected from Beaver Lake, as this area was
relatively undisturbed and therefore in a more natural state than the
Swift Creek Lake, which is provided with recreational facilities for
public use.

Yetwin's mounting medium. The single spiny-
headed worm recovered was washed in 0.65% sa¬
line solution, and relaxed in tap water until the
proboscis was fully everted. The specimen was
killed and fixed in A.F.A., stained with Harris’s
hematoxylin, cleared in benzene, and mounted in
balsam. Mites were fixed in A.F.A. , stored in 70%
glycerine alcohol, and mounted in glycerine jelly for
examination.

RESULTS

The following section includes lists and data con¬
cerning the parasites found in the four species of
hosts examined during the interim from May 5th
to October 4th, 1966. Five taxonomic groups are
represented from the 35 species of parasites re¬
covered: Protozoa, 10 species; Trematoda, 9 spe¬
cies; Cestoda, 2 species; Nematoda, 11 species;
Acanthocephala, 2 species; and Acarina, 1 species.
Terrestrial species: Bufo woodhouseii fowleri
The 29 Fowler’s toads examined contained the
following parasites:

Protozoa

Hexamita intestinalis Dujardin, 1841; colon
Nyctotherus cordiformis (Ehrenberg, 1838); colon
Opalina triangulata Metcalf, 1923; colon
Tritrichomonas augusta Alexieff, 1911; colon
Trypanosoma rotatorium (Mayer, 1843); blood

Trematoda

Haematoloechus sp.; lungs

Megalodiscus temperatus (Stafford, 1905); colon
Cestoda

Cylindrotaenia americana Jewell, 1916; small in¬
testine

Distoichometra bufonis Dickey, 1921; small in¬
testine

Nematoda

Juvenile nematodes; general
Cosmocercoides dukae (Holl, 1928); colon
Foleyella americana Walton, 1929; abdominal mes¬
enteries

Oswaldocruzia pipiens Walton, 1929; stomach and
small intestine

Oxysomatium variabilis Harwood, 1930; coion
Physaloptera ranae Walton, 1931; stomach
Rhabdias bufonis (Schrank, 1788); lungs

Acarina

Hannemania penetrans Ewing, 1931; skin

Arboreal species: Hyla versicolor versicolor
The 28 gray tree frogs examined contained the
following parasites:

Protozoa

Balantidium sp.; colon

Hexamita intestinalis Dujardin, 1841; colon
Nyctotherus cordiformis (Ehrenberg, 1838); colon
Opalina hylaxena Metcalf. 1923; colon

The Virginia Journal of Science

14

Opalina triangulata Metcalf, 1923; colon
Tritrichomonas augusta Alexieff, 1911; colon
Trypanosoma rotatorium (Mayer, 1843); blood

Trematoda

Polystoma nearcticum Paul, 1938; colon
Nematoda

Juvenile nematodes; general
Cosmoceralla haberi Steiner, 1924; colon
Cosmocercoides dukae (Holl, 1928); colon
Foleyella americana Walton, 1929; abdominal mes¬
enteries

Oxysomatium variabilis Harwood, 1930; colon
Physaloptera ranae Walton, 1931; stomach
Aquatic species: Rana catesbeiana
The 30 bullfrogs examined contained the follow¬
ing parasites:

Protozoa

Entamoeba ranarum Grassi, 1879; colon
Haemogregarina sp.; blood
Hexamita intestinalis Dujardin, 1841; colon
Nyctotherus cordijormis (Ehrenberg, 1838); colon
Opalina virguloidea Metcalf, 1923; colon
Tritrichomonas augusta Alexieff, 1911; colon
Trypanosoma rotatorium (Mayer, 1843); blood

Trematoda

Glypthelmins subtropica Harwood, 1933; small in¬
testine

Gorgodera amplicava Looss, 1901; colon and uri¬
nary bladder

Gorgoderina bilobata Rankin, 1937; urinary bladder
Haematoloechus breviplexus Stafford, 1902; lungs
Haematoloechus varioplexus Stafford, 1902; lungs
Megalodiscus temperatus (Stafford, 1905); colon

Cestoda

Cylindrotaenia americana Jewell, 1916; small in¬
testine

Nematoda

Juvenile nematodes; general
Cosmocercoides dukae (Holl, 1928); colon
Foleyella americana Walton, 1929; abdominal mes¬
enteries and bladder
Microfilaria sp.; blood

Oswaldocruzia pipiens Walton, 1929; stomach and
small intestine

Oxysomatium variabilis Harwood, 1930; colon
Physaloptera ranae Walton, 1931; stomach
Rhabdias ranae Walton, 1929; lungs

Acanthocephala
Centrorhyncus sp.; body cavity

Acarina

Hannemania penetrans Ewing, 1931; skin
Aquatic species: Rana clamitans
The 29 green frogs examined contained the fol¬
lowing parasites:

Protozoa

Entamoeba ranarum Grassi, 1879; colon
Haemogregarina sp.; blood
Hexamita intestinalis Dujardin, 1841; colon
Nyctotherus cordijormis (Ehrenberg, 1838); colon
Tritrichomonas augusta Alexieff, 1911; colon
Trypanosoma rotatorium (Mayer, 1843); blood

Trematoda

Glypthelmins subtropica Harwood, 1933; small in¬
testine

Haematoloechus breviplexus Stafford, 1902; lungs
and body cavity

Haematoloechus varioplexus Stafford, 1902; lungs
Loxogenoides bicolor (Krull, 1933); bile duct and
stomach

Megalodiscus temperatus (Stafford, 1905); colon
Nematoda

Juvenile nematodes; general
Cosmocercoides dukae (Holl, 1928); colon
Foleyella americana Walton, 1929; abdominal mes¬
enteries

Oswaldocruzia waltoni Ingles, 1936; small intestine
Oxysomatium variabilis Harwood, 1930; colon
Physaloptera ranae Walton, 1931; stomach
Rhabdias ranae Walton, 1929; lungs

Acanthocephala

Centrorhyncus wardae Holloway, 1958; small in¬
testine

Centrorhyncus sp.; body cavity
Acarina

Hannemania penetrans Ewing, 1931; skin

Collection data are summarized in Tables I
through V. In all the tables B. w. jowleri and H. v.
versicolor, representing terrestrial and arboreal habi¬
tats respectively, are grouped alongside the aquatic
representatives, R. catesbeiana and R. clamitans, to
facilitate comparison. Tables I through III sum¬
marize the species of protozoan, trematode, cestode,
and nematode parasites recovered and the percent¬
ages of hosts infected with each. These tables indi¬
cate that there is little variation in the percentage
of infection with a particular parasite between
salientian species from the same type of environ¬
ment. However, noticeable differences may be seen
in the variety of parasites in hosts from an aquatic
environment as compared with hosts from a terres¬
trial environment (Table II). Furthermore, marked
differences in the extent of representation of para¬
sites exist between hosts from aquatic and terres¬
trial environments, for example, Nyctotherus cordi¬
jormis and Trypanosoma rotatorium (Table I).

The data in Table I show that the Salientia ex¬
amined were commonly parasitized by a variety of
protozoans, especially those that live in the intestine.
Intestinal ciliates (Opalina spp., Nyctotherus cordi¬
jormis, and Balantidium sp.) were more often as¬
sociated with hosts from a terrestrial environment,
whereas blood protozoa ( Haemogregarina and Try¬
panosoma) and the intestinal amoeba, Entamoeba

Parasites of Certain Salientia

15

TABLE I

Protozoan parasites of Salientia examined. Figures in the heading indicate the number of each species of host examined.
Figures in the table indicate the percentage of hosts infected.

Terrestrial

Arboreal

Aquatic

Aquatic

PROTOZOA

29

B. fowleri

28

H. versicolor

30

R. catesbeiana

29

R. clamitans

Entamoeba ranarum

—

—

10.0

10.3

Hexamita intestinalis

53.6

64.2

90.0

82.7

Haemogregarina sp.

—

—

23.3

24.1

Opalina virguloidea

—

—

3.3

—

O. triangulata

6.9

21 .4

—

—

O. hylaxena

—

53.5

—

—

Nyctotherus cordijormis

24.1

50.0

3.3

3.4

Trypanosoma rotatorium

6.9

7.1

56.6

31.3

Tritrichomonas an gust a

89.6

71.4

96.6

93.1

Balantidium sp.

—

14.2

—

—

% hosts infected by one or

more sp. Protozoa.

89.6

78.5

96.6

93.1

ranarum, were found in aquatic hosts.
Opalina were consistently absent from R.
The intestinal flagellates Hexamita and

Species of
clamitans.
T ritricho-

Data concerning nematode parasites recovered is
presented in Table III. The number of species of
nematodes from B. w. fowleri and H. v. versicolor

monos were common to both terrestrial and aquatic
hosts.

Table II shows that trematode parasites were
largely limited to aquatic hosts as would be ex¬
pected. Cestode infection does not show this limi¬
tation.

represent the extremes of infection with 100% and
25% of the hosts parasitized respectively. Bufo w.
fowleri averaged 52 worms per host while H. v.
versicolor averaged 7.1 worms per host.

Parasites are arranged in subgroups in Table IV
according to the body system infected. This table

TABLE II

Trematode and cestode paras ties of Salientia examined. Figures in the heading indicate the number of each species of host examined.
Figures in the table: upper figures indicate the percentage of infection; lower figures indicate the average number of

parasites per host.

Terrestrial

A boreal

Aquatic

Aquatic

29

28

30

29

TREMATODA

B. fowleri

H. versicolor

R. catesbeiana

R. clamitans

Megalodiscus temperatus

3.4

0.04

—

36.6

1.23

48.2

0.75

Gorgodera amplicava

—

—

13.3

0.16

—

Gorgoderina bUobata

—

—

3.3

0.03

—

Glypthelmins subtropica

—

—

6.6

2.00

13.7

0.13

Ffaematoloechus breviplexus

—

—

13.3

0.43

24.1

2.31

Haematoloechus varioplexus

—

—

13.3

0.63

6.8

0.24

Haematoloechus sp.

3.4

0.04

—

—

—

Loxogenoides bicolor

—

—

—

31.0

1.06

Poly stoma nearcticum

—

3.5

0.04

—

—

% hosts infected by one or

6.9

3.5

56.6

68.9

more sp. Trematoda.

0.68

0.04

2.76

4.51

CESTODA

Distoichometra bufonis

13.8

0.79

—

—

—

Cylindrotaenia americana

10.3

0.18

6.6

0.23

—

% hosts infected by one or

24.1

—

6.6

—

more sp. Cestoda.

0.92

0.23

16

The Virginia Journal of Science

TABLE III

Nematode parasites oj Salientia examined. Figures in the heading indicate the number of each species of host examined.
Figures in the table : upper figures indicate the percentage of hosts infected: lower figures, when present,
indicate the average number of parasites per host.

Terrestrial

Aboreal

Aquatic

Aquatic

29

28

30

29

NEMATODA

B. fowleri

Ft. versicolor

R. catesbeiana

R. clamitans

Juvenile nematodes

38.5

7.1

13.3

10.3

39.20

3.60

27.23

10.3

Cosmoecralla haberi

—

10.7

—

—

40.50

Cosmocercoides dukae

10.7

3.5

3.3

6.9

1.32

0.50

0.04

0.14

Foleyella americana

10.6

7.1

19.9

10.3

0. 14

0.14

0.50

0.14

Microfilaria sp.

—

—

6.6

—

Oswaldocruzia pipiens

32.1

—

10.0

—

0.61

0.10

Oswaldocruzia waltoni

—

—

—

17.2

0.45

Oxysomatium variabilis

78.5

10.7

36.6

27.5

3.00

1.96

0.13

0.83

Physaloptera ranae

28.5

10.7

6.6

17.2

1.39

1.00

0.30

0.21

Rhabdias bufonis

71.4

—

—

—

5.35

Rhabdias ranae

—

—

6.6

24. 1

0. 17

1 .48

% hosts infected by one or

100

25.0

46.6

62.1

more sp. Nematoda.

52.06

7.14

28.21

13.45

summarizes the parasites, according to phylum, har¬
bored by terrestrial and aquatic hosts. It is apparent
that aquatic hosts were infected by a greater va¬
riety of parasites than terrestrial hosts. In general,
Table IV shows that infections of the aquatic Sali¬
entia were heavier than the terrestrial species, with
the exception of the terrestrial B. w. fowleri, which
was predominantly infected by nematodes. Hyla v.
versicolor was parasitized by the smallest number of
species.

Multiple infections (Table V) were common and
some idea of the extent of these is indicated by the
greatest number of parasitic species collected from
a single individual.

DISCUSSION

The present study is the first of its kind in the
State of Virginia, and the occurrence of all the para¬
sites except M. temperatus and Physaloptera ranae
in the Salientia studied constitutes new distribution
records. The four species of Salientia are of special
interest here in that they represent three different
habitats, thus permitting a correlation of the habitat
of the host and its parasites.

Although the data presented in Tables I through
V are based on a relatively small number of speci¬
mens examined, they are in agreement with similar
findings of previous investigators whose data were
based on a larger number of host specimens (2),
(7), (14).

Table I shows that the Salientia studied are com¬
monly parasitized by protozoans, especially those
inhabiting the intestinal tract. Intestinal ciliates,

more prevalent in the terrestrial hosts, were found
unusually abundant in the arboreal H. v. versicolor.
These observations are in agreement with those of
Brandt (2) who made a seasonal study of the para¬
sites of Salientia from different habitats in North
Carolina. The fact that blood protozoans were
found more often in aquatic than in terrestrial hosts
agrees with the findings of Brandt (2) and Hegner
(6), who studied the protozoans in the aquatic and
terrestrial phases of the newt N otophthalmus v.
viridescens. This observation supports the opinion
of these authors that an aquatic blood-sucking vec¬
tor is involved as an intermediate host in the trans¬
fer of the parasites. Hazard (5) has shown that
R. clamitans seems to have an immunity to infec¬
tions of Opalinas. Of the three species of Opalinas
recovered none was found in R. clamitans. The
absence of Entamoeba ranarum from B. w. fowleri
and H. v. versicolor suggests an aquatic adaptation
by this parasite. This observation is in agreement
with those of Brandt (2).

Rana catesbeiana was infected by a greater va¬
riety of metazoan parasites than any other species
studied, although the number of individuals in¬
fected was less than in the case of R. clamitans
(Tables II-III). The metazoan parasites found in
B. w. fowleri and H. v. versicolor were largely
nematodes. All of the specimens of B. w. fowleri
were infected but only 25% of those of H. v. versi¬
color were infected. These data suggest that the
arboreal habitat is less conducive to metazoan para¬
sitism and is in agreement with the work of Brandt
(2) and Rankin (17). Considering all the species

Parasites of Certain Salientia

17

TABLE IV

Comparison, according to system infected, of parasites recovered from hosts representing different habitats. Figures in the heading in¬
dicate the number of each species of host examined. Figures in the table: upper figures indicate the percentage of hosts infected:
lower figures, when present, indicate the average number of parasites per host.

Terrestrial

Arboreal

Aquatic

Aquatic

29

28

30

29

parasite

B. fowleri

H. versicolor

R. catesbeiana

R. clamitans

PROTOZOA

Blood

6.9

7.1

76.6

55.1

Intestine

89.6

64.2

96.6

93.1

TREMATODA

Lungs

3.4

—

26.6

31.0

0.03

1.07

2.55

Intestine

3.4

3.5

46.6

65.5

0.03

0.04

1 .48

1.97

Bladder

—

—

3.3

—

0.03

CESTODA

Intestine

24.1

—

6.6

—

0.92

0.23

NEMATODA

Blood

—

—

6.6

—

Lungs

71.4

—

6.6

24.1

5.35

0.17

1.48

Intestine

89.6

28.5

26.6

55.1

3.89

7.14

0.83

8.55

Encysted

37.9

7.1

26.6

10.3

46.10

0.14

27.72

0.14

ACANTHOCEPHALA

Intestine

—

—

—

3.4

0.03

Encysted

—

—

33 . 3

24.1

5.20

6.41

ACARINA

Skin

3.4

—

10.0

3.4

0.03

1.37

0.31

of metazoan parasites recovered, there is a high cor¬
relation between the aquatic environment and the
variety of metazoan parasites.

Trematode parasites were largely limited to aquatic
hosts (Table II). This observation is in agree¬
ment with those of Brandt (2), Rankin (17), and
Bouchard (1). In the light of the work done by
Krull (11), (12), (13) on the life-histories of
trematodes, these data are understandable as all of

these trematodes. with the exception of Polystoma
nearcticum, require aquatic intermediate hosts in
addition to snails. The infections in the case of
B. w. fowleri and H. v. versicolor were very light
both in numbers of species and specimens. From
the terrestrial nature of B. w. fowleri it is believed
that the two infections observed were obtained ac¬
cidentally during the return of this host to the
aquatic habitat to breed. However, the mono-

TABLE V

Multiple infections of Salientia examined. Figures indicate the greatest number of parasitic species
(by taxonomic groups) in a single host.

Terrestrial

Aboreal

Aquatic

Aquatic

PARASITIC TAXA

B. fowleri

H. versicolor

R. catesbeiana

R. clamitans

Protozoa

5

6

6

5

Trematoda

1

1

3

3

Cestoda

1

0

1

0

Nematoda

5

3

4

4

Acanthocephala

0

0

1

1

Acarina

1

0

1

1

Parasites of all the above
groups.

9

7

9

11

18

The Virginia Journal of Science

genetic trematode P. nearcticum, recovered from
H. v. versicolor, seems to be specific for H. v. versi¬
color and Hyla cinerea (Schneider) having never
been reported from a member of the genus Rana
(15).

Brandt (2) reported that Glypthelmins sub tropica
and Haematoloechus breviplexus were restricted to
a single host and that from May to December he
found 36 to 50% of the specimens of R. cates-
beiana infected with Loxogenoides bicolor. In the
present study G. subtropica and H. breviplexus were
found in both R. clamitans and R. catesbeiana. Al¬
though a relatively small number of specimens of
R. catesbeiana were examined (30 over a period of
five months compared to the 7 1 examined by Brandt
(2) over a period of 12 months), it seems unusual
that L. bicolor was never found in R. catesbeiana,
whereas 31% of the specimens of R. clamitans were
infected. Krull (13) also noted that L. bicolor was
apparently absent from the specimens of R. cates¬
beiana collected in Maryland.

Although a comparison of cestode infections is
presented in Table II, the number of specimens ob¬
tained was not sufficient to show the correlation with
habitat that was so clearly indicated for trematodes.

The data in Table III concerning nematode in¬
fections show little, if any, correlation of the habi¬
tats of hosts and their parasites. A lower percent¬
age of infection (25%) appears in the arboreal host
H. v. versicolor than in the more terrestrial B. w.
fowleri (100%) or the aquatic hosts R. catesbeiana
(46%) and R. clamitans (62%). This is especially
noticeable in the absence of nematodes from the
lungs and the low frequency of intestinal worms
(Table IV). These observations and the lower per¬
centage of infection of the arboreal hosts support
those of Brandt (2), Pearse (16), and Rankin

(17) . The evidence presented in Table III also
supports the findings of Brandt (2) and Reiber

(18) that Rhabdias ranae is not prevalent in ter¬
restrial hosts. However, adaptation by Rhabdias
bufonis to a terrestrial host is clearly indicated by
the high percentage of infection of specimens of
B. w. fowleri (71.4%). This observation suggests
that the free-living stages of R. bufonis may be
adapted to optimum development in the terrestrial
habitat.

A careful search of the literature and Walton’s
lists did not show the following nematodes as para¬
sites of the Salientia that were used in this study:
Oxysomatium variabilis, which was found in all four
hosts studied; Physaloptera ranae and Cosmoceralla
haberi, which were recovered from H. v. versicolor.
Their occurrence, therefore, constitutes new host
records.

The infection of aquatic hosts by the larval acan-
thocephalan, Centrorhyncus sp., supports Brandt’s
observation (2) correlating the residence of this
parasite with intermediate hosts from an aquatic
habitat (Table IV). Larval forms of the genus
Centrorhyncus have been reported by several au¬
thors (2), (3), (14), (20), (21). Adult Acantho-
cephala, however, are rarely mentioned in the liter¬
ature dealing with salientian parasites. Walton

(24) has reported Corynosoma semerme (Forssell,
1904) from Rana esculenta in the United States,
and adults of the genus Acanthocephalus are known
from a variety of amphibians over the world. How¬
ever, adults of the genus Centrorhyncus appear
never to have been reported from any salientian host.
In the present study an immature acanthocephaian
of this genus, whose hook formula and general body
measurements closely agree with those given by
Holloway (8) for Centrorhyncus wardae, was found
attached in the small intestine of an adult R. clami¬
tans. Although ovarian balls, genital ligament, and
uterine elements of the female genital apparatus are
evident, the presence of the partial cystacanth wall
enveloping the posterior portion of the abdomen
indicates this to be a transient and probably tem¬
porary infection. Two differences were noted be¬
tween this specimen and the gravid adults described
by Holloway (8). The posterior portion of the
trunk of Holloway’s specimens is attenuated, where¬
as in the present specimen it is rounded. Further¬
more, the length of the lenmisci is slightly greater
(0.989 — 1.060 mm) compared to the single speci¬
men recovered from R. clamitans (0.81mm). How¬
ever, according to Holloway (8), “C. wardae can
be clearly differentiated from all other species of
this genus upon the basis of the number of longi¬
tudinal rows of hooks, the number of hooks per
row and the size of the hooks.” As the present
specimen so closely agrees with these salient features
this worm is tentatively identified as C. wardae until
further knowledge concerning the members of this
genus is obtained. Therefore, the recovery of the
immature acanthocephaian, Centrorhynchus wardae
(Holloway, 1958), from R. clamitans constitutes a
new host record.

There is little evidence of host-specificity in the
35 species of parasites recovered. The following 12
species of parasites were found to be restricted to
a single host: Opalina hylaxena, Balantidium sp.,
Gorgodera amplicava, Gorgoderina bilobata, Hae¬
matoloechus sp., Loxogenoides bicolor , Polystoma
nearcticum, Distoichometra bufonis, Cosmoceralla
haberi, Microfilaria sp., Oswaldocruzia waltoni,
Rhabdias bufonis, and Centrorhyncus wardae. How¬
ever, all of these parasites with the exception of C.
wardae, Balantidium sp., and the probably unde¬
scribed Haematoloechus sp. have been reported
from other hosts by numerous authors.

Multiple infection was common among all the
hosts studied, the condition appearing to be the rule
rather than the exception (Table V). The aquatic
hosts were heavily parasitized by the greatest num¬
ber of species. Of the four representative hosts
studied, R. clamitans harbored the greatest number
of species in any single individual.

SUMMARY

1. One hundred sixteen Salientia, comprised of
30 specimens of R. catesbeiana, 29 of R. clamitans,
29 of B. w. fowleri, and 28 of 77. v. versicolor, were
examined during the period from May to October,
1966.

2. Thirty-five species of parasites representing

Parasites of Certain Salientia

19

five phyla were recovered. The total numbers of
species of parasites found in each of the hosts stud¬
ied were as follows: R. catesbeiana, 24; R. clami-
tans, 21; B. w. fowleri, 17; and H. v. versicolor, 14.

3. Trematodes, acanthocephalans, and blood Pro¬
tozoa were more often associated with aquatic hosts,
whereas intestinal ciliates were found more often
in terrestrial hosts.

4. The arboreal H. v. versicolor yielded far fewer
metazoan parasites than the terrestrial and aquatic
salientian hosts.

5. Multiple infections were common. As many
as 1 1 species of parasites were recovered from a
single specimen of R. clamitans.

6. All of the parasites reported herein, with the
exception of M. temperatus and P. ranae, constitute
new distributional records for the State of Virginia.

7. An immature acanthocephalan of the genus
Centrorhyncus, C. wardae, is reported from a sali¬
entian for the first time.

8. Six other new host-parasite records are also
reported.

REFERENCES

1. Bouchard, J. L., Trans. Am. microsc. Soc., 70, 245
(1952).

2. Brandt. B. B., Ecol. Monogr., 6, 491 (1937).

3. Das, E. N., Rec. Indian Mus., 50, 147 (1952).

4. Fortner, H. C., Trans. Am. microsc. Soc., 42, 79 ( 1923).

5. Hazard, F. O., J. Parasit., 27, 513 (1941).

6. Hegner, R. W., J. Parasit., 16, 56 (1929).

7. Holl, F. J., Ecol. Monogr., 2, 83 ( 1932).

8. Holloway, H. L., Va J. Sci., 9, 221 (1958).

9. Jones, Arthur W., Cheng, Thomas C., and Gillespie,
R. F., J. Tenn. Acad. Sci., 33, 84 (1958).

10. Jordan, H. E. and B. D. Reynolds, J. Morphol., 55, 119
(1933).

11. Krull, W. H„ /. Parasit., 16, 207 (1930).

12. Krull, W. H., Zool. Anz., 99, 231 (1932).

13. Krull, W. H., Z. Parasit Kde., 6, 192 (1933).

14. Millzner, R., Univ. Calif. Pubis Zool., 26, 225 (1924).

15. Paul, A. A., J. Parasit., 24, 489 (1938).

16. Pearse, A. S., Ecology, 13, 135 (1932).

17. Rankin, J. S., Jr., J. Parasit., 31, 142 (1945).

18. Reiber, R. J., J. Tenn. Acad. Sci., 16, 92 (1941).

19. Russell, C. M., Va J. Sci., 2, 215 (1951).

20. Sandground, J. H., Trans. Am. microsc. Soc., 45. 289
(1926).

21. Subramanian, K. J. Burma Res. Soc., 16, 211 (1928).

22. Walton, A. C„ J. Parasit., 17, 228 (1931).

23. Walton, A. C., J. Parasit.. 20, 1 (1933).

24. Walton, A. C., J. Parasit., 34, Sect. 2. Dec., Suppl., pp.
28-29 (1948).

20

The Virginia Journal of Science

J. P. Gilmore

Department of Physiology,
University of Virginia Medical School,
Charlottesville, V irginia.

The Potassium Ion: A Modulator of
Myocardial Contractility

When the author was invited to speak at this
symposium he was given the option of either pre¬
senting a general review of myocardial contraction
or developing a specific aspect of it. Although the
former approach provides breadth the latter pro¬
vides depth. I elected, therefore, to discuss a rather
specific aspect of cardiac physiology, that is, the
relationship between myocardial performance and
myocardial potassium balance. I also selected this
topic since changes in myocardial potassium balance
appear to be an important mechanism whereby
myocardial performance is modulated with respect
to both acute and chronic adaptation. Much of
what I shall say has been presented previously in
several publications of the speaker and his associ¬
ates. At the same time, however, more recent data
will be presented where appropriate. I shall not
attempt to present an exhaustive review of the sub¬
ject since such is available in those publications
which will be referred to during the course of this
presentation.

Most of the data which I shall present were ob¬
tained employing the metabolically supported iso¬
lated dog heart (16). In this preparation blood is
led from a reservoir (inflow) through a resistance
and flowmeter and into the left atrium. Ventricular
output is led from the cannulated aorta through a
second resistance and thence to a second (outflow)
reservoir. Blood is then transferred from the out¬
flow reservoir to the inflow reservoir by a pump.
The left coronary artery is perfused through a Gregg
coronary cannula at constant pressure from a third
reservoir. Total coronary venous flow is led from
the pulmonary artery through a rotameter to a
reservoir which is connected to the jugular veins
of a second (support) dog. The support dog bleeds
from its cannulated femoral arteries into the out¬
flow reservoir at a rate which approximates the
coronary outflow of the isolated heart. Arterial and
venous blood samples are obtained from the cor¬
onary inflow and coronary outflow lines respectively.

Aortic and ventricular pressures are obtained
using Statham transducers. Heart rate is maintained

^Supported in part by Grant HE 10616-01 from the National In¬
stitutes of Health, U. S. Public Health Service, and Research Develop¬
ment Award 1-K3-HE 36,005-1 from the National Institutes of Health,
U. S. Public Health Service. Presented at the Symposium on Myocardial
Contraction, Forty-fifth Annual Meeting of the Virginia Academy of
Science, Norfolk. May. 1967.

constant or varied through electrodes sewn to the
right atrial appendage. Changes in net potassium
balance of the heart are obtained as the product
of the total coronary plasma flow and the coronary
plasma arterial-venous potassium difference. In
some experiments potassium analysis of plasma was
done with manual flame photometry; however, the
more recent experiments employed automated flame
photometry. It is important to emphasize that this
preparation is an isolated, denervated heart so that
the reflex effects of any given intervention can be
precluded. This preparation also provides a very
fine control of the various hemodynamic variables.

During the course of this presentation I shall use
the word contractility extensively. I would there¬
fore like to define it quite specifically. The perform¬
ance of the working heart can be defined in terms
of the ventricular function curve first described by
Sarnoff (10). Two such curves are shown in Figure
1 (16). In this experiment aortic pressure and heart
rate were maintained constant and the ventricular
function curves obtained by progressively increasing
the filling of the left ventricle. It is important to
emphasize that the ventricular function curve is ob¬
tained by progressively increasing the filling pres¬
sure of the heart and over its full range describes
a given state of contractility. The control curve is
shown by the closed circles; the curve shown by the
open circles was obtained subsequent to the intra¬
coronary injection of 50 micrograms of the cardiac
glycoside acetylstrophanthidin. Subsequent to the
injection of the acetylstrophanthidin the heart pro¬
duced more stroke work at any given filling pres¬
sure. For example, prior to the injection of acetyl¬
strophanthidin, the heart produced 14 g-meters
stroke work at a filling pressure of approximately
20 cm of water. Following the acetylstrophanthidin,
however, from the same filling pressure, the heart
produced approximately 21 g-meters of stroke work.
This experiment also shows that following the in¬
jection of the cardiac glycoside the heart could
produce the same stroke work but does so from
a lower end-diastolic pressure or fiber length. There¬
fore an increase in the amount of stroke work that
the heart can produce from a given filling pressure
or a decrease in filling pressure at a constant stroke
work indicates that the contractility of the heart has
increased. The converse is, of course, also true. It

The Potassium Ion

21

KFISH #11

Fig. 1 — The influence of the acetylstrophanthidin on the
relation between left ventricular stroke work and left ven¬
tricular end-diastolic pressure. Mean aortic pressure (AP)
and heart rate (HR) maintain constant throughout. Acetyl¬
strophanthidin injected into the left coronary artery. [Re¬
printed by permission of the Am. J. Med., 37, 3 (1964).]

is important to note that the ventricular function
curve analyzes cardiac performance only in terms
of a force parameter. To be complete in our analy¬
sis of cardiac performance we also must consider
a velocity parameter.

Figure 2a shows an experiment in which the in¬
fluence of changing heart rate on the relation be¬
tween left ventricular end-diastolic pressure and
stroke work was determined (9). In this experiment
increasing heart rate from 140-200/minute had
no influence on the relation between stroke work
and left ventricular end-diastolic pressure. Thus,
when described in terms of a force parameter, in¬
creasing heart rate had no apparent influence on
ventricular contractility. Figure 2b shows a plot of
data from the same experiment. However, in this
instance stroke power is plotted against left ven¬
tricular end-diastolic pressure. Stroke power reflects
the velocity of ventricular contraction since it is
defined as external stroke work divided by the
duration of ejection, that is, it describes the time
over which the work is done. The closed circles
represent the data obtained at a heart rate of 140
while the open circles represent the data obtained

at a heart rate of 200. It will be noted that when
heart rate was increased, the heart produced more
stroke power from any given left ventricular end-
diastolic pressure. Also, in response to the increase
in heart rate the heart produced the same stroke
power but from a lower left ventricular end-diastolic
pressure. In this instance we say that the con¬
tractility of the heart has increased in terms of a
velocity parameter. This type of experiment dem¬
onstrates, therefore, that to analyze myocardial per¬
formance completely, such analysis must be done in
terms of both a force and velocity parameter.

Some years ago, during the course of experiments
which were designed primarily to investigate the in¬
fluence of various hemodynamic variables on myo¬
cardial oxygen consumption, we observed the type of
response shown in Figure 3 (2, 18). When aortic
pressure was increased there occurred an increase
in left ventricular end-diastolic pressure (LVDP)
and in heart size, the latter indicated by the left
ventricular circumference (LVC) and left ventricu¬
lar length (LVL) recordings. The initial increase
in heart size is due to a decrease in the amount of
blood ejected, secondary to the increase in outflow
resistance. However, after this initial increase in

Fig. 2a — The influence of heart rate on the relation be¬
tween stroke work and left ventricular end-diastolic pres¬
sure.

The Virginia Journal of Science

22

heart size and volume, there occurred, at a constant
aortic pressure and constant cardiac input, a pro¬
gressive decrease in left ventricular end-diastolic
pressure. Since left ventricular end-diastolic pressure
was decreasing at a time when aortic pressure and
cardiac input and thus stroke work were constant,
it indicated that during this period of declining left
ventricular end-diastolic pressure the contractility of
the heart was increasing. We were aware at the
time that a similar phenomenon was described for
the dog heart by Knowlton and Starling (7) as early
as 1912. They believed that this increase in con¬
tractility which occurred subsequent to increasing
aortic pressure was due to the accompanying increase
in coronary blood flow which is also shown in
Figure 3. However, this increase in contractility
cannot be accounted for solely on the basis of the
changes in coronary flow as shown in Figure 4 (2),
an experiment obtained from a preparation in which
coronary blood flow was maintained essentially con¬
stant. Panel A represents the control tracing. Be¬
tween panel A and B aortic pressure was increased
and then maintained at this new level through panel
E. It will be noted that subsequent to the increase in
aortic pressure there occurred an initial increase in
left ventricular end-diastolic pressure and circum¬
ference; subsequently however, while aortic pressure
and cardiac inflow (and presumably cardiac output)
were essentially constant, a progressive decrease in
left ventricular end-diastolic pressure and circum¬
ference occurred (Panel C-E). Since coronary flow
was maintained constant throughout, this type of
experiment demonstrates that the increase in con¬
tractility which occurs subsequent to the elevation
of aortic pressure cannot be attributed solely to an
increase in coronary blood flow. The experiments
shown above, therefore, as well as the work of
others, demonstrate conclusively that when aortic
pressure is increased the contractility of the ventricle
increases. Further, the increase in contractility can¬
not be attributed solely to an improvement in coro¬
nary perfusion. We therefore directed our efforts to
an investigation of factors which might be contrib¬
uting to the changes in myocardial performance
when aortic pressure changes.

We were impressed with the similarity between
the response of the heart to an increase in aortic
pressure and the response of the heart to an in¬
crease in heart rate. An example of this similarity
is shown in Figure 5 (18). The panel on the left
shows the response of left ventricular end-diastolic
pressure to an acute increase in aortic pressure.
Subsequent to the increase in aortic pressure there
occurred an initial increase in end-diastolic pressure
which was then followed by a subsequent decrease
at a time when aortic pressure was constant. The
panel on the right shows the influence of increasing
heart rate on left ventricular diastolic pressure. The
experiment shown in the right-hand panel was ob¬
tained from the same experiment as that shown on
the left. Following the increase in heart rate left
ventricular end-diastolic pressure initially increased
and then decreased. This similarity of response sug¬
gested a similarity of mechanism.

In 1953 Hajdu (5) published experiments in
which he correlated the relation between the tension
developed at any given heart rate and the loss of
myocardial potassium in the frog heart. He ob¬
served that as heart rate was increased the tension
developed by the frog heart increased. With each
increment in tension there occurred an increment
in myocardial potassium loss. A summary of these
data is shown in Figure 6 (5). As a result of these
experiments Hajdu suggested that the increase in
tension developed when heart rate was increased
was related to the loss of myocardial potassium.
The general hypothesis which he presented was that
a decrease in the total monovalent cation content of
the heart increases the contractility of the heart.

Stimulated by these studies of Hajdu we under¬
took experiments to determine if increasing heart
rate in the blood-perfused dog heart was accom¬
panied by a loss of myocardial potassium. An ex¬
ample of our findings is shown in Figure 7, which
shows two experiments from two different hearts
(14). When heart rate was increased in both ex¬
periments there occurred a substantial increase in

Fig. 2b — Influence of heart rate on the relation between
stroke power and left ventricular end-diastolic pressure.
Data for both a and b obtained from the same experiment.
See text for further description of figure. [Reprinted by
permission of the Am. J. Physiol., 205, 41 (1963).]

The Potassium Ion

23

.' : v : iirl

\ ■ ■

- v-/- :

< • ;•

V ;

LVC

mm

160
170
180
55

LVL

mm 57

59 L

300 m

TCF

mi/min

Cl
L/min

3.0 J

1

; . ; .

1

A

_ __

■^7

vliii

J

:vl

ferr

foo. 3 — Myocardial response to elevation of aortic pressure. AP = aortic pressure; LVP = left ventricular pressure;
LVDP = left ventricular diastolic pressure; LVC = left ventricular circumference; LVL = left venticular segment length;
I CF = total coronary venous flow; Cl = cardiac inflow. Heart rate maintained constant throughout experiment. [Reprinted
by permission of the Am. J. Physiol.. 21 L 1219 (1966).]

Fig. 4 — High-speed tracing showing myocardial response to an elevation of aortic pressure. DP/DT = first derivative of
left ventricular pressure. Remaining abbreviations as in Figure 3. Left coronary perfusion pressure and heart rate main¬
tained constant throughout experiment. [Reprinted by permission of the Am. J. Physiol., 211, 1219 (1966).]

24

The Virginia Journal of Science

the potassium concentration of the coronary venous
plasma. This increase occurred at a time when the
potassium concentration of the coronary arterial
plasma was essentially constant, indicating that the
increase in heart rate was associated with a net
loss of myocardial potassium. In Hajdu’s experi¬
ments maximal tension development occurred at a
time when the heart lost only approximately 2-3%
of the total intracellular potassium. In the experi¬
ment shown in Figure 7 approximately the same
percent of intracellular potassium was lost when
heart rate was increased. Thus, although the ex¬
periments of both Hajdu and those shown in Figure
7 demonstrate that when heart rate is increased in
both the frog heart and the dog heart measurable
amounts of potassium are lost, these amounts repre¬
sent only a small percentage of the total intracellular
potassium content. We shall return to this aspect of
the problem subsequently.

The next step in our studies was to determine if
the heart also loses potassium when aortic pressure
is increased. Figure 8 shows an experiment in which
the influence of increasing aortic pressure to three
different levels on myocardial potassium balance
was determined (15). The number in the upper
right-hand corner of each panel represents the
amount of potassium in microequivalents lost from
the heart in response to the intervention. In panel
A systolic pressure was increased from 90 to 120,
in panel B from 92 to 175, and in panel C from
93 to 210. In each experimental run the increase
in aortic pressure was associated with a substantial
net loss of potassium from the heart. Also, it will
be noted that the amount of potassium lost as a re¬
sult of increasing aortic pressure was related to the
extent to which aortic pressure was increased. Thus
two hemodynamic interventions which increase con¬
tractility, i.e., increasing heart rate and increasing
aortic pressure, are both associated with a loss of
myocardial potassium, suggesting a cause and effect
relationship.

It is well known that a beat which follows an
extra systole is potentiated. Further, the closer this
extra beat is to the previous beat, the greater the
potentiation of the subsequent contraction. An ex¬
ample of this is shown in Figure 9, which is redrawn
from data presented by Hoffman and associates
(6). In this experiment the extra systole was moved
progressively closer to the previous contraction,
causing a progressive increase in the potentiation of
the subsequent beat. This phenomenon is referred
to as post-extrasystolic potentiation, which can be
maintained by what has been referred to as coupled
or paired pacing, that is, by producing continuous
post-extrasystolic potentiation. This is accom¬
plished by interposing an extra stimulus at a con¬
stant interval between two constantly spaced stimuli
or contractions. An example of this phenomenon
in the whole heart is shown in Figure 10 (12). At
the time indicated by the arrow, continuous post-
extrasystolic potentiation was initiated and main¬
tained throughout the remainder of the record
shown. This intervention was associated with a sub¬
stantial decrease in left ventricular end-diastolic

250

0

40

0

Fig. 5 — Comparison of the effects on the heart of increas¬
ing aortic pressure (left panel) and increasing heart rate
(right panel). Heart rate was increased from 124 per
minute to 163 and then back to 131. (AP = aortic pres¬
sure, LVD — left ventricular diastolic pressure). Cardiac
output and total coronary flow held constant in both ex¬
periments. There was an interval of 4 minutes between the
left and right panels. [Reprinted by permission of Circula¬
tion Res., 8, 1077 (I960.)]

pressure at a time when aortic pressure and cardiac
output and thus stroke work were essentially un¬
changed. Thus, since the heart was doing the same
stroke work during continuous post-extrasystolic
potentiation as prior to it, and was doing so from
a lower end-diastolic pressure, it follows that the
contractility of the heart was increased during this
intervention. It was of interest, therefore, to deter¬
mine if the increase in contractility which occurs
with paired stimulation was associated with a loss
of myocardial potassium. The result of an experi¬
ment in which this possibility was investigated is
shown in Figure 11 (12). The hemodynamic values
which were obtained during the control state are
shown to the left above the potassium plot, while
those which were obtained during coupled pacing or
continuous post-extrasystolic potentiation are shown
to the right. During coupled pacing a substantial
elevation of the potassium concentration of the
coronary venous plasma occurred at a time when
arterial plasma concentration remained essentially
constant. Therefore coupled pacing was associated

Fig. 6 — The effects of increasing tension by increasing
heart rate on the loss of potassium from the frog heart.
[Reprinted by permission of the Am. J. Physiol., 174, 371
(1953).]

The Potassium Ion

25

Fig. 7 — The influence of increasing heart rate on myocardial potassium balance. Open circles = coronary artery plasma
potassium concentration; closed circles = coronary venous plasma potassium concentration. The numbers at the top be¬
tween the horizontal arrows indicate heart rate. The shaded area equals the increase in coronary venous plasma potas¬
sium which is attributed to the intervention. During the experiment shown in the upper panel the heart lost 41 micro¬
equivalents of potassium, whereas in the lower experiment 44 microequivalents of potassium were lost. [Reprinted by
permission of the Am. J. Med., 34, 440 (1963).]

with a substantial loss of potassium from the heart.
In a recent study Grupp and associates (4) re¬
ported that, although they could observe a loss of
potassium from the heart when heart rate was in¬
creased, they found no such loss during coupled
pacing. Their explanation for the discrepancy be¬
tween their experiments and those of the author and
associates (12, 15) was that the preparations em¬
ployed differed in many ways. However, this ex¬
planation would not appear to be satisfactory. We
have found consistently a loss of potassium from
the isolated working dog heart during coupled pac¬
ing. Employing the isolated perfused cat heart,
Mansfield and McDonald (8) reported a consistent
loss of myocardial potassium during coupled pac¬
ing. More recently, the author has found a con¬
sistent loss of potassium from the Langendorff dog
blood-perfused heart. An example to show this ef¬
fect is given in Figure 12. It appears therefore that
the failure of Grupp and associates to demonstrate a
net loss of myocardial potassium during coupled
pacing cannot be attributed to the experimental

preparation employed. More likely, however, is the
possibility that their analytical method is such that
they cannot discern small changes in plasma potas¬
sium concentration. In this regard it is of interest
that in an earlier paper by Grupp and associates,
they reported that they could not demonstrate a
loss of potassium from the heart when heart rate
was increased if the heart was not in what they
referred to as failure ( 1 ) . In their recent paper,
however, they do demonstrate a loss of potassium
from the heart when heart rate is increased (4). In
summary, therefore, three hemodynamic interven¬
tions which increase the contractility of the heart,
namely, increasing aortic pressure, increasing heart
rate and continuous post-extrasystolic potentiation
are all associated with a significant loss of myocardial
potassium.

We next directed our attention to an investigation
of the relationship between changes in myocardial
performance induced by pharmacological agents and
changes in myocardial potassium balance. One of
the first agents we studied was the cardiac glycoside

26

The Virginia Journal of Science

acetylstrophanthidin. As I have indicated in Figure
1, acetylstrophanthidin can produce a very sub¬
stantial increase in myocardial contractility. Figure
13 (13) shows the influence of a 150-gamma intra¬
coronary injection of acetylstrophanthidin on myo¬
cardial potassium balance of the isolated dog heart.
In this experiment aortic pressure, stroke volume,
and heart rate were maintained constant so that
the changes in left ventricular end-diastolic pressure
indicated above the plot of potassium balance re¬
flect changes in the contractility of the heart. Tn
response to the injection of acetylstrophanthidin,
left ventricular end-diastolic pressure declined 16.5
cm of water; since stroke work and heart rate were
maintained constant, it follows that the contractility
of the heart was substantially increased. This was
associated with a net loss of myocardial potassium.
In our experiments we have found a consistent
relationship between the amount of the drug admin¬
istered and the loss of potassium by the heart; also,

Fig. 8 — The influence of increasing aortic pressure on
myocardial potassium balance. The numbers at the top of
each panel between the vertical lines indicate blood pressure.
The numbers at the top right hand corner of each panel
represent the amount of potassium loss from the heart as
a result of the intervention. Other designations same as in
Figure 7. (Reprinted from Nervous control of the heart,
by permission of Williams and Wilkins, 1965, pp. 54-129.)

Fig. 9 — The influence of an extra systole on the potentia¬
tion of myocardial contraction. Figure redrawn from the
data of Hoffman et al. [Reprinted by permission of the
Am. J. of Physiol., 185, 95 (1956).] See text for description
of this experiment.

the amount of the drug administered is directly re¬
lated to the extent to which the contractility of the
heart is increased (3, 13). Figure 14 (3) shows
a plot of the relation between the amount of acetyl¬
strophanthidin administered and the amount of
potassium lost by the heart following the admin¬
istration of the drug. Small amounts of acetyl¬
strophanthidin produced small losses of potassium,
whereas large amounts of acetylstrophanthidin were
associated with large losses of potassium. It is im¬
portant to emphasize that we have never observed

The Potassium Ion

27

200

AP

mm Hg

LVP
mm Hg

mm Hg/sec^

J .

ECG
Lead H

A -VO, 6.0 r
diff. 2 4.0 -
vo I % 2.0 -"

5000 _
Cl

cc/min

0

a

mm

PHI

=4=4444=!

gjrj r

Fig. 10 — The influence of continuous post-extrasystolic
potentiation on myocardial performance. AP = aortic pres¬
sure; LVP = full left ventricular pressure; LVDP = left
ventricular diastolic pressure; DP/DT = first derivative of
left ventricular pressure; A-VCL = coronary arterio-venous
oxygen difference; Cl rr cardiac inflow. Heart rate main¬
tained constant throughout. Coronary perfusion pressure
constant. [Reprinted by permission of the Am. J. Physiol.,
211. 376 (1966).]

a net gain of potassium by the heart following the
administration of acetylstrophanthidin. Thus these
experiments demonstrate a correlation between the
changes in contractility induced by cardiac glyco¬
sides and myocardial potassium balance.

All the interventions and pharmacologic agents
employed in these studies to this point increased the
contractility of the heart. It was of interest, there¬
fore, to determine if the administration of a drug
which decreases contractility was associated with a
gain rather than a loss of potassium. Two negative
inotropic drugs we studied were pentothal and
quinidine (13). Figure 15 shows the influence of
a constant intracoronary infusion of pentothal on
some aspects of myocardial performance and myo¬
cardial potassium balance (13). The administration

of pentothal was associated with a substantial ele¬
vation of left ventricular end-diastolic pressure at
a time when aortic pressure and cardiac output had
declined slightly, that is, the heart was doing less
work during pentothal infusion and doing so from
a substantially elevated left ventricular end-diastolic
pressure indicating that the contractility of this heart
had decreased. Associated with these hemodynamic
changes was a substantial decrease in the potassium
concentration of the coronary venous plasma at a
time when the potassium concentration of the coro¬
nary arterial plasma was essentially constant, that is,
there occurred a net gain of potassium by the heart.
The influence of quinidine on myocardial potassium
balance is shown in Figure 16 (13). The adminis¬
tration of quinidine was associated with a decrease
in coronary venous potassium concentration. During
the period when the heart was gaining potassium,
left ventricular end-diastolic pressure rose while
stroke work was maintained essentially constant.
Thus the administration of quinidine is associated
with a net gain of potassium by the heart and a
depression of myocardial contractility. With respect
to quinidine and other antiarrhythmic drugs, these
experiments raise the interesting possibility that their
antiarrhythmic effect may be related to the associ¬
ated gain of potassium by the heart.

The experiments thus far demonstrate that when
the contractility of the heart is increased by both
hemodynamic and pharmacologic interventions there
is an associated loss of myocardial potassium. Con¬
versely, when pharmacologic agents are employed
which depress the contractility of the heart, a net
gain of myocardial potassium can be demonstrated.
These changes in myocardial potassium content

HR 100 100

MAP 75 70

C I 900 8 1 0

LVEDP 1 3.0 4.0

Fig. I I — The influence of continuous post-extrasystolic
potentiation (coupled pacing) on myocardial potassium bal¬
ance. The open circles equal coronary arterial plasma potas¬
sium concentration and the closed circles coronary venous
plasma potassium concentration. Coupled pacing was initiated
at the time indicated by the arrow. HR = heart rate; MAP
= mean aortic pressure; Cl = cardiac inflow; LVDP — left
ventricular end-diastolic pressure; MVO- = myocardial
oxygen consumption. The numbers to the left represent the
values obtained in the control state while the numbers to the
right are those which were obtained during coupled pacing.
The number in the upper right-hand corner of the panel
equals the amount of potassium in microequivalents lost
from the heart during coupled pacing. [Reprinted by per¬
mission of the Am. J. Physiol., 211, 376 (1966).]

28

The Virginia Journal of Science

are quite small, amounting to approximately 1-3%
of the total intracellular potassium. If the hypothesis
that these small changes in potassium are causally
related to the changes in contractility is correct, then
one should find that when small amounts of potas¬
sium are directly infused into the heart the con¬
tractility of the heart will be depressed. We there¬
fore undertook experiments which were designed to
determine the minimum amount of potassium which,
when gained by the heart, would be associated with
a depression of contractility (13). To accomplish
this an infusate was prepared which contained both
potassium and cardiogreen. It was assumed that
the cardiogreen would function as an intravascular
indicator. The mixture of potassium and cardio¬
green was infused into the main left coronary artery
and coronary venous samples obtained continuously.
The coronary venous effluent samples were then
analyzed for both potassium and cardiogreen.
These data were then plotted in the manner shown
in Figure 17 (13). The base line of the potassium
and cardiogreen curves was adjusted so that relative
changes in the two could be determined. The data
shown in Figure 17 were obtained from four differ¬
ent hearts. The circles represent the potassium con¬

HEART RATE (min)

144

144

VENT DEVEL, PRESS (mmHg)

55

175

COR. FLOW (mI/min)

64

81

COR, PRESS (mmHg)

95

85

DD/DT (mmHg/sec)

750

2250

centration of the coronary venous plasma and the
triangles the coronary venous plasma cardiogreen
concentration. During each of the four infusions in
the four hearts, myocardial contractility was de¬
pressed. In each of the four experiments the relative
concentration of coronary venous potassium to car¬
diogreen during infusion was always less, indicating
that during the infusion potassium was gained by
the heart. Knowing total coronary flow and the
change in potassium concentration relative to the
cardiogreen, the net amount of potassium gained by
the heart could be determined. These vaiues are
shown to the left of each respective curve. If one
assumes that the dog heart has a total intracellular
potassium content of approximately 10 mEq, it is
apparent that the gains of potassium by these hearts
during the infusion of potassium amounted to only
a few percent of the total intracellular potassium
content. This type of experiment, therefore, demon¬
strates directly that when the heart gains small
amounts of potassium a significant decrease in con¬
tractility will occur. There is no reason to believe
that when the heart loses small amounts of potas¬
sium an increase in contractility should not obtain.

While the data presented thus far support the

AR1ERIAL o-~o
VENOUS - - •

Fig. 12 — The influence of continuous post-extrasystolic potentiation of potassium balance of the Langendorff dog blood-
perfused heart. Cor. flow = total coronary venous flow; Cor. press. = coronary perfusion pressure; DP/DT = the first
derivative of left ventricular pressure. The values to the left above the panel equal those which obtained in the control
state; those to the right were obtained during continuous post-extrasystolic potentiation which was initiated at the time
indicated by the arrow.

The Potassium Ion

29

9.5

LVEDP 26.0

14.0

F

minute:

Fig. 13 — The influence of an intracoronary injection of
acetylstrophanthidin on myocardial potassium balance of the
metabolically supported isolated dog heart. See text for
further description of this figure. [Reprinted by permission
of the Am. J. Physio!., 211, 361 (1966).]

position that there is an important relationship be¬
tween changes in myocardial performance and
changes in myocardial potassium balance, there are
data available which would not appear to support
this position. These are results which we obtained
employing norepinephrine and calcium. It is well
known that administration of either calcium or
norepinephrine into the heart of the dog is asso¬
ciated with a substantial increase in contractility.
The influence of calcium and norepinephrine on
myocardial potassium balance is shown in Figure
18 (13). These experiments were obtained from
two separate hearts. During the infusion of either
norepinephrine or calcium there occurred a signifi¬
cant decrease in the potassium concentration of the
coronary venous plasma at a time when arterial
plasma potassium concentration stayed essentially
constant. Thus the administration of both these
agents was associated with a net gain of potassium

200

150

125

o. 100

</>

o

< 75

50

25

0

0 100 200 300 400

-K* jiEq

Fig. 14 — Relation between the amount of acetylstrophan¬
thidin (ACS) injected into the left coronary artery and the
induced loss of myocardial potassium from several hearts.
The number beside each point represents the number of
experiments done to obtain that point. (Reprinted by per¬
mission from Mechanisms and therapy of cardiac arrhyth¬
mias, New York, Grune and Stratton, 1966, pp. 550-561.)

HR

184

184

184

AP

90/25

78/20

90/25

Cl

1260

1200

1300

LVEDP

24.5

36.0

30.0

TCF

237

235

216

Mv02

1 1.5

11.5

1 1.3

♦133

Fig. 15— -The influence of an intracoronary infusion of
pentothal on myocardial potassium balance. Open circles =
coronary arterial plasma potassium concentration; closed
circles = coronary venous plasma potassium concentration;
HR — heart rate; AP = arterial pressure; Cl = cardiac
input; LVEDP = left ventricular end-diastolic pressure;
TCF = total coronary outflow; MVO- = myocardial oxygen
consumption. The values shown are those which obtained
prior, during, and subsequent to the infusion of the drug.
[Reprinted by permission of the Am. J. Physiol., 211, 361
(1966).]

by the heart at a time when contractility had in¬
creased. As in the case of acetylstrophanthidin, the
response to the administration of both these drugs
is dose dependent, that is, the greater the amount
of norepinephrine or calcium administered the
greater the increase in contractility and the greater
the extent of the net change in myocardial potassium
balance.

With calcium and norepinephrine we have a
situation in which the contractility of the heart is
increased at a time when the heart is gaining po¬
tassium. As indicated above, however, the infusion
of potassium into the heart is associated with de¬
crease in contractility. To resolve this apparent
dilemma the author suggests that if it were not for
the accompanying gain of potassium by the heart
during the infusion of norepinephrine or calcium
the increase in contractility would have been even
greater. Thus potassium may not only directly in¬
fluence the contractility of the heart, but may also
function as a modulator of the extent to which con¬
tractility will change during any given intervention.

MINUTES

Fig. 16 — The influence of an intracoronary infusion of
quinidine on myocardial potassium balance. See text for
further description of this experiment. [Reprinted by per¬
mission of the Am. J. Physiol., 211, 361 (1966).]

30

The Virginia Journal of Science

Fig. 17 — Differential indicator-dilution curves of potassium and indocyanine green. Dash line joining open circles
represents arterial plasma K+ values. Solid line joining circles represents venous plasma K+ values. Solid line joining triangles
represents indocyanine green concentration in the plasma of the same venous samples. The intracoronary infusion con¬
taining the green dye and KC1 in the same solution was begun at the vertical line in each panel. The area K+U rep¬
resents the area that was integrated and, with the known coronary flow at that time, was used to calculate the net
uptake of K+. Calculated net uptakes of K+ are shown in the upper portion of each panel. [Reprinted by permission of
the Am. J. Physiol.. 211, 361 ( 1966).]

We may now ask the question: What is the
mechanism for the production of these changes in
potassium balance? Is there a factor which is com¬
mon to the interventions described above, or must
one assign several mechanisms, that is, one for the
hemodynamic interventions and one for the pharma¬
cologic interventions? The latter would appear to be
the more appropriate. The change in potassium
balance produced by changing aortic pressure and
heart rate as well as that produced during coupled
pacing is associated with a substantial increase in
oxygen consumption. In fact, in those experiments
in which graded changes in aortic pressure were
produced, the greater the change in potassium bal¬
ance of the heart, the greater the change in myocar¬
dial oxygen consumption. This observation led us
to suggest that the decrease in myocardial potassium
balance associated with these hemodynamic inter¬
ventions is secondary to the accompanying increase
in myocardial oxygen consumption (15, 18). This
explanation is not applicable to the changes in po¬
tassium balance associated with pharmacologic
agents, since the changes in performance and po¬
tassium balance produced by these agents can occur
independently of a change in myocardial oxygen
consumption (3, 16, 17). It is possible that the
pharmacologic agents influenced the potassium bal¬
ance of the heart through some effect on the mem¬
brane. It is also possible that these pharmacologic
agents have some direct effect on the potassium

milieu of the contractile element. Thus, at the
present time, we are inclined to suggest two separate
mechanisms to explain changes in potassium balance
during inotropic interventions, one for pharmaco-

*84

*55

Fig. 18 — The influence of norepinephrine (NE) and cal¬
cium chloride on myocardial potassium balance. Open circles
represent coronary artery plasma potassium, whereas the
closed circles represent coronary artery plasma concentra¬
tion. The number at the upper right hand corner of each
panel represents the net amount of potassium gained in
mEq by the heart during infusion of the drug. (Reprinted
by permission from Nervous control of the heart, Williams
and Wilkins, 1965, pp. 54-129.)

The Potassium Ion

31

HEART RATE (min)

132

VEJTT DEVEL. PRESS (mmHg)

70

COR, FLOW (mI/min)

62

COR. PRESS (mmHg)

no

DP/DT (nmHg/sec)

670

ARTERIAL o - o

VENOUS • - •

132

160

62

100

1500

TIME (Mil!)

Fig. 19 — The influence of increasing ventricular developed tension upon potassium balance of the myocardium. The
abbreviations are the same as in Figure 12. The intraventricular balloon was inflated by adding saline to it at the
time indicated by the arrow, and the inflation was maintained for the duration of the experiment.

logic interventions and the other for hemodynamic
interventions.

If the change in potassium balance produced by
the hemodynamic interventions discussed above are
the result of the associated increase in oxygen con¬
sumption of the heart, one would expect that if the
oxygen consumption of the heart was increased by
increasing the tension development of the heart a
loss of potassium would be observed. To test this
hypothesis the author has recently carried out experi¬
ments employing the Langendorff blood-perfused dog
heart in which a balloon is inserted into the left
ventricle. While continuously collecting coronary
artery and coronary venous blood samples the bal¬
loon is inflated, producing a substantial increase in
the pressure and presumably the tension developed
by the myocardial muscle. An example of the results
of one such experiment is shown in Figure 19. Sub¬
sequent to the inflation of the balloon at the time
indicated by the arrow, ventricular developed pres¬
sure rose 90 mm Hg. This was associated with a
substantial elevation of the potassium concentration
of the coronary venous plasma. This type of experi¬
ment demonstrates therefore that when ventricular-
developed tension is increased a substantial loss of
potassium from the heart can occur. We are pres¬
ently addressing ourselves to the question of whether
this loss of potassium is associated with an increase
in contractility in this preparation.

In summary, therefore, myocardial potassium

balance appears to play an important role in the
modulation of myocardial performance. This is not
to say that a change in potassium balance is the
only, or the most important, mechanism. Rather,
we do believe that when a given intervention changes
the potassium balance of the heart, this change must
be considered as making a significant contribution to
the net effect of the given intervention. The correla¬
tions which form the basis of the generalizations
presented above are, of course, not necessarily proof
of a cause-effect relationship between the correlates.
Nevertheless, the available data strongly suggest that
changes in myocardial potassium balance permit the
myocardial fiber to alter its rate and strength of
contraction from any given end-diastolic fiber length
or pressure. Information is not available on the
basis of which similar generalizations can be made
for any other ion.

REFERENCES

1. Brown. T., Grupp. G., and Acheson, G. H.. J. Phannac.
exp. Ther., 129, 42 (1960).

2. Gilmore, J. P., Cingolani, H. E„ Taylor, R. R., and
McDonald, R. FT., Jr., Am. J. Physiol., 211. 1219
(1966).

3. Gilmore, J. P., and Sarnoff, S. J., in L. S. Dreifus and
W. Likoff (Editors), Mechanisms and therapy of cardiac
arrhythmias, Grnne and Stratton, New York, 1966. pp.
550-561.

4. Grupp, G., Acheson, G. H., and Charles, A., Am. J.
Physiol., 212, 607 (1967).

32

The Virginia Journal of Science

5. Hajdu, S., Am. J. Physiol., 174, 371 (1953).

6. Hoffman, B. F., Bindler, E., and Suckling, E. E., Am. J .
Physiol., 185, 95 (1956)

7. Knowlton, F. P., and Starling, E. H., J. Physiol., Lond.,
44, 206 (1912).

8. Mansfield, P. B., and McDonald, R. H., Jr., Bull. N.Y.
Acad. Med., 41, 700 (1965).

9. Mitchell, J. H., Wallace, A. G., and Skinner, N. S., Jr.,
Am. J. Physiol., 205, 41 (1963).

10. Sarnoff, S. J., Physiol. Rev., 35, 107 (1955).

11. Sarnoff, S. J., Gilmore, J. P., Daggett, W. M„ Mans¬
field, P. B., McDonald, R. H., Jr., and Weisfeldt, M. L.,
Bull. N.Y. Acad. Med., 41, 602-605, (1965).

12. Sarnoff, S. J., Gilmore, J. P., Daggett, W. M., Mans¬
field, P. B., Weisfeldt, M. L., and McDonald, R. H.,
Jr., Am. J. Physiol., 211, 376 (1966).

13. Sarnoff, S. J., Gilmore, J. P., McDonald, R. H., Jr.,
Daggett, W. M., Weisfeldt, M. L., and Mansfield, P. B.,
Am. J. Physiol., 211, 361 (1966)

14. Sarnoff, S. J., Gilmore, J. P., Mitchell, J. H., and Remen-
snyder, J. P., Am. J. Med., 34, 440 (1963).

15. Sarnoff, S. J., Gilmore, J. P., and Wallace, A. G.,
Nervous control of the heart, Williams and Wilkins,
Baltimore, 1965, pp. 54-129.

16. Sarnoff, S. J., Gilmore, J. P., Wallace, A. G.. Skinner,
N. S.. Jr., Mitchell, J. H., and Daggett, W. M., Am. J.
Med., 37, 3 (1964).

17. Sarnoff, S. J., Gilmore, J. P., Weisfeldt, M. L., Daggett,
W. M., and Mansfield, P. B., Am. J. Cardiol., 16, 217
(1965).

18. Sarnoff, S. J., Mitchell, J. H., Gilmore, J. P., and
Remensnyder, J. P., Circulation Res., 8. 1077 (1960).

The Potassium Ion

33

Nick Sperelakis

Department of Physiology,
University of Virginia School of Medicine,
Charlottesville, Virginia 22903.

Excitation of Myocardial Cells"

Abstract — Automaticity, excitation, conduction, and
excitation-contraction coupling were examined for verte¬
brate cardiac muscle. The electrogenesis of the resting
potential and action potential is similar to that which occurs
in vertebrate nerve and skeletal muscle twitch fibers. Many
of the electrophysiological properties of monolayer (dener-
vated) cultures of heart cells are similar to those of cells
in intact adult hearts. The individual myocardial cell is the
smallest functional unit giving electrical and mechanical
activity characteristic of cardiac muscle. The plateau com¬
ponent of the cardiac action potential accounts for some
of the peculiar mechanical properties of cardiac muscle. Any
myocardial cell can be converted into pacemaker behavior
by decreasing its K+ conductance. Cardiac muscle is not a
two- or three-dimensional branching electrical syncytium,
and a labile process of junctional transmission occurs for
transmission of excitation from cell to cell.

1. INTRODUCTION

Cardiac muscle is unique among the excitable
tissues. The peculiar electrical properties of heart
muscle determine most of this organ’s peculiar
mechanical properties, enabling the heart to serve as
an efficient pump for circulating the blood. The
heart is a good all-or-none pump mainly because of
the following reasons: a) There is a lack of fiber
summation, i.e., contractile force is not graded by
activation of different numbers of fibers, b) There
is a lack of tetanic contraction, i.e., the heart cannot
be maintained in a sustained contracted state because
of the long functional refractory period, c) The
mechanical active state is maximally developed and
expressed because of the long duration plateau of
the action potential, i.e., the active state is fully
developed and maintained long enough to completely
stretch the series elastic element, d) The entire
ventricle is nearly simultaneously activated by virtue
of the rapidly conducting special pathways, e.g., the
Purkinje fibers. The Purkinje fiber system is present
in mammals and birds, and it is possible that the
lower vertebrates have a more primitive, but analo¬
gous, system. Although cardiac muscle is composed
of short cells relatively small in diameter compared
to skeletal muscle, a junctional transmission process
may occur at the intercalated discs for transfer of the
impulse from one cell to the next; however, a large

* Some of the work reviewed in this paper was supported in part
by a grant from the Public Health Service (HE-11155) and was
done _ while the author _ was an Established Investigator of the
American Heart Association. Presented at the Symposium on Myo¬
cardial Contraction, Forty-fifth Annual Meeting of the Virginia
Academy of Science, Norfolk, May, 1967.

safety factor for this process insures that normally all
cells become activated and that the heart obeys the
all-or-none law.

Excitability of the heart can be considered by its
three major components: electrogenesis, conduction,
and initiation of the action potential. Hence, the
ionic theory for the origin of the resting potential
and electrogenesis of pacemaker potentials and of
the action potential and its various components must
be examined. The plateau component, peculiar to
the cardiac action potential, determines the func¬
tional refractory period and is one governing factor
of the extent of excitation-contraction coupling and
contractility of the heart. The cardiac electrical
impulse is normally initiated in special rhythmically
active nodal cells in myogenic hearts (vertebrates
and some invertebrates such as molluscs), i.e., hearts
in which the pacemaker cells are muscle cells. Most
arthropods (insects and Crustacea) have neurogenic
hearts. If the primary pacemaker area is destroyed
in a myogenic heart, a secondary pacemaker area
takes over.

The autonomic nerves of the heart directly and
indirectly influence and control the duration, shape,
velocity, and frequency of the action potentials. For
example, stimulation of the parasympathetic nerves
or administration of acetylcholine slows the fre¬
quency of firing in myogenic hearts and shortens the
duration. Neuronal control is also exercised over
contractility, either by action of chemical mediators
directly on the myofibrils or by action on the action
potential, excitation-contraction coupling, metabo¬
lism, and energetics.

2. THE CARDIAC ACTION POTENTIAL

Much information on the electrophysiology of the
heart has been gained over the past fifteen years by
the use of glass capillary microelectrodes. These
microelectrodes have tip diameters of about 0.5 g.
and are inserted into single myocardial cells for
intracellular recording of the transmembrane poten¬
tials. As illustrated in Figure 1, if the microelectrode
tip is in Ringer solution distant from an isolated
single cell or above the surface of the ventricular
myocardium, no electrical potentials are recorded.
The reference or indifferent electrode, not shown,
makes contact with the bathing solution and thereby
“sees” the outer surface of the cell membrane. As
the microelectrode, or active electrode, pushes up

34

The Virginia Journal of Science

against the cell membrane where the extracellular
electric field is larger, potentials are recorded which
resemble part of the standard clinical electrocardio¬
gram (ECG). Upon impalement of the cell, at the
arrow in Figure 1, there is a sharp drop in potential
to about —90 mv because of the difference in poten¬
tial across the resting cell membrane. When the cell
is resting, its interior is negative with respect to its
exterior. Transient changes in the membrane poten¬
tial, known as action potentials, are also recorded.
During an action potential, the transmembrane po¬
tential rapidly diminishes, passes through zero, and
actually reverses so that the interior of the cell
becomes positive with respect to the exterior at the
peak of the action potential. The period of reversed
potential is called the “overshoot”, and the initial
rapid depolarizing phase up through the peak over¬
shoot is known as the “rising phase” of the action
potential. The slowly changing phase following the
peak is the plateau phase, and this is followed by
the more rapidly repolarizing phase, known as the
“falling phase”, which terminates the action poten¬
tial. The rising phase of the ventricular action po¬
tential causes the QRS complex of the ECG, and the
falling phase produces the T wave (Fig. 1).

The characteristics of the cardiac action potential
are somewhat different from those of skeletal and
smooth muscles. As illustrated in Figure 2, the
resting potential of myocardial cells is about equal to
that of skeletal muscle twitch fibers and compares to
about 50-60 mv for smooth muscles. The overshoot
is least for smooth-muscle cells. Because of the
plateau component, the duration of 200-500 msec for
the cardiac action potential is much longer than that
for the other muscles. The maximum rate of de¬
polarization of the rising phase (+7max) is about
80-220 v/sec for the ventricular action potential
compared to about 500 v/sec for skeletal twitch fibers
and 1-20 v/sec for smooth muscle. The velocity of
propagation in ventricular muscle is 0.4 m/sec com¬
pared to about 0.05 m/sec for visceral smooth muscle
and 4 m/sec for skeletal twitch fibers.

Fig. 1 — Approach and penetration of a glass capillary
microelectrode into a single cardiac muscle cell.

TWITCH VISCERAL VENTRICULAR

Resting Pot. («v) -90

Action Potential

Magnitude (wv ) 120

Overshoot (*v) 30

IRiratlon (nsec) 2

♦V (v/aec) 500

Progagatlon vel. 3-5

(ta/aec)

Fiber dlaaeter (u) 50-100

Fiber length <p> >2 X 10*

-50-60 -90

60-/0 120

0-15 30

30 300

20 200

.05 0.4

5 15

200 150

Fig. 2 — Comparison of the resting potential and action
potential of cardiac muscle (ventricular cells) with those
of skeletal muscle twitch fibers and visceral smooth muscle
cells. Note the different time scales for each action potential.

The characteristics of the cardiac action potential
vary from one region of the heart to another, as
illustrated in Figure 3 for five regions. The resting
potentials are about 85-95 mv in atrial, Purkinje,
and ventricular cells compared to 55-70 mv in sino¬
atrial (SA) and atrioventricular (AV) nodal cells.
Overshoot, propagation velocity, and maximum rate
of rise are also much less in nodal cells. The Pur¬
kinje fiber has the greatest rate of rise and the fastest
velocity of propagation, comparable to that of skele¬
tal twitch fibers. The diameter of the Purkinje fibers
is much larger than those of the other myocardial
cells, and is about the same as that of skeletal fibers.
The slow velocity of nodal cells is similar to that of
visceral smooth muscle. The velocity varies even
within various subparts of a region, e.g., the velocity
at the atrial-nodal junction (AN junc) is less than
that in the AV node itself. The relatively slow
velocity in atrial and ventricular myocardium can
be accounted for by a junctional delay time of about
0.5 msec at each intercalated disc.

3. THE IONIC BASIS OF THE RESTING

POTENTIAL AND ACTION POTENTIAL

Ion distributions and the Na+:K+ pump — We must
now focus on the ionic basis for the membrane
potentials of cardiac muscle cells. The distributions
of ions across the cell membrane are illustrated in
Figure 4. The extracellular fluid (or interstitial fluid)
has an ionic composition nearly identical to that of
blood serum. It has a high concentration of Na+ ( 145
mM/1) and Cl_( 110-120 mM/1) and a low concen¬
tration of K+ (4 mM/1 ). In contrast, the intracellular
fluid has a low concentration of Na+ (15 mM/1) and
Cl~(5 mM/1) and a high concentration of K+

Excitation of Myocardial Cells

35

-+ 30i

SA node

Atrial cell

AV node

Purkinje fiber

Verrlricular ceil

Resting

potential

(mv)

-60

-85

-70

-90-95

-85-90

Action

potential

Imv)

65

105

80

120

1 10

Overshoot

(mv)

0-5

20

5-10

25-30

20

Duration

(msec)

200-300

200-300

200-300

400* 500

200 - 300

+ Vmax (v/sec)

1

80

10

700

200

Propagation vel.

<.05

0.5 - 1.0

0.1

2-3

03 - 0.5

(<0.05 AN junc.)

Fig. 3 — Comparison of the resting potentials and acton potentials of cells in different regions of the heart.

(about 140 mM/1). The intracellular ion concen¬
trations are maintained different from the extracellu¬
lar concentrations by the intervention of an active
ion-transport mechanism which expends metabolic
energy to push specific ions against their electro¬
chemical gradients. The ion pump is located not only
in the cell membrane surrounding the surface of the
cell, but also in continuations of the cell membrane

Fig. 4 — Intracellular and extracellular ion distributions,
transmembrane potential, and active ion transport in a
vertebrate cardiac muscle fiber. The transverse sarcotubules
(t.s.t.) are effectively a continuation of the cell surface.

into the transverse sarcotubular system (Fig. 4); thus
the fluid in the transverse sarcotubules appears to be
similar in composition to that of the bulk extracellu¬
lar fluid.

The ion “pump” normally is a one-for-one Na':K+
coupled pump which pumps in one K+ ion for every
Na+ ion pumped out of the cell. Thus the pump itself
is normally electrically neutral or “nonelectrogenic”
since it pulls in one positive charge for each positive
charge it pushes out, i.e., it does not directly produce
a potential difference across the membrane. How¬
ever, under special circumstances, the pump can be
“electrogenic”, at least for short periods of time,
pumping out Na+ ions at a faster rate than KT ions
are pumped in. Thus the pump is not coupled one-
for-one, and the membrane potential is greater (more
negative) than the K+ diffusion potential.

In most excitable tissues there is an independence
of active ion transport and short-term excitability,
although the Na+ pump may directly or indirectly
influence the membrane potential over short-time
periods, such as during some afterpotentials. Inhibi¬
tion of active ion transport over long periods (e.g.,
>0.5 hr.) causes gradual dissipation of the ionic
concentration gradients, gradual depolarization, de¬
pression of the rate of rise of the action potential,
and eventual complete loss of excitability. The ion
pump can be inhibited by any procedure which de¬
creases the energy supply, such as low temperature

36

The Virginia Journal of Science

and metabolic poisons, or which decreases energy
utilization, such as inhibition of the membrane
adenosine triphosphatase (pump ATPase) with
cardiac glycosides. The pump ATPase is Mg++ de¬
pendent and is activated by Na+ and K+ ions. Hence,
lowering of the external K+ concentration, [KT]0,
inhibits the Na+ pump, i.e., reduces the active Na+
efflux.

The rate of ion pumping of myocardial cells must
change with the frequency of firing in order to main¬
tain the intracellular concentrations constant. This is
especially true for myocardial cells which are small
in diameter and therefore have a large surface area/
volume ratio. Thus, the intracellular Na+ concentra¬
tion, [Na+];, may increase by a relatively larger per¬
centage during one impulse compared to that in
large-diameter skeletal muscle fibers. Important
factors which control pump activity include [Na+],
and perhaps membrane potential. In various cells the
pumping rate varies as a function of [Na+]* raised
to the first, second, or third power.

In most vertebrate cardiac and skeletal muscle
cells studied. CP is not actively transported and dis¬
tributes itself passively in accordance with the mem¬
brane potential.

The cell membrane — Observations from electron
microscopy indicate that the cell membrane is about
70-100 A thick and support the theory that the
membrane is a lipoprotein sandwich composed of a
bimolecular leaflet of phospholipid molecules sand¬
wiched in between two layers of protein as diagram-
matically illustrated in Figure 5. Chemical analyses
of cell membranes indicate that phospholipid mole¬
cules are present and that they are the right length
to stretch across half of the membrane thickness.
The nonpolar hydrophobic ends of the phospholipid
molecules project towards the middle of the mem¬
brane, and the polar hydrophilic ends project towards
the edges of the membrane bordering on the water
phase. The outer surface of the membrane is coated
with mucopolysaccharides which give the membrane
some of its immunochemical properties.

Studies on artificial membranes composed of var¬
ious lipids and phospholipids, with and without pro¬
teins, support the model for the cell membrane
presented above. The phospholipid membranes are
stable bimolecular leaflets about 100 A thick. Under
proper conditions they have a specific resistance and
capacitance similar to that of the cell membrane. The
phospholipid component of the membrane accounts
for the high resistance and capacitance. Artificial
membranes and cell membranes have similar break¬
down voltages of about 200 mv, equivalent to a
voltage gradient of about 200,000 v/cm; thus they
have very good dielectric properties. The artificial
membranes also exhibit nonlinear voltage/current
characteristics, i.e., rectification, and in some cases
they even exhibit a negative resistance component
similar to that of excitable membranes. Some ions
and drugs, such as Ca++ and local anesthetics, which
alter the resistance of cell membranes also similarly
affect artificial membranes.

Electrical equivalent circuit — The electrical equiv¬
alent circuit of an excitable cell membrane according
to the theory of Hodgkin and Huxley is shown in

INNER

SURFACE

Fig. 5 — Diagrammatic illustration of the substructure of
the cell membrance according to the theory of Davson and
Danielli showing the so-called lipoprotein sandwich ar¬
rangement and the bimolecular leaflet arrangement of the
phospholipid molecules.

Figure 6. The relatively low and parallel resistances
of the extracellular fluid and intracellular fluid (myo-
plasm) are separated by a relatively high transverse
membrane resistance. The membrane conductance
(or resistance) is composed of three separate con¬
ductances, one for each of the major ions found in
biological fluids. K+, Na+, and CF ions are the only
ions which normally are in sufficiently high concen¬
tration to carry significant membrane current and
which have been implicated in the resting or action
potential. However, in some tissues such as barnacle
muscle fibers and in some vertebrate cells under spe¬
cial conditions, other ions, especially Ca +, may par¬
ticipate in the electrogenesis of the action potential.
In series with the resistance for each ion is the diffu¬
sion potential or “battery” for each ion, as deter¬
mined from the magnitude and direction of its con¬
centration gradient. The membrane specific resistance
varies from tissue to tissue and usually ranges be¬
tween 500-5000 ohm-cm2. The membrane capaci¬
tance is in parallel with the resistance, and the spe¬
cific capacitance varies from 1 to 20 /xfarads/cm2.
Each capacitance-resistive unit is repeated down the
length of the nerve axon or skeletal muscle fiber;
only two such units are illustrated in Figure 6.

Cable properties — -The fiber behaves as a cable in
that low-resistance inside and outside fluids behave
as conductors separated by a high-resistance mem¬
brane insulator. Potentials fall off exponentially in a
true cable (doubly infinite), the length or space
constant (A.) being the distance at which the po¬
tential has fallen to \/e or 37% (e = 2.717) of the
initial value at the site of current injection (Fig. 7).
Such an exponential process appears as a straight
line on a semilogarithmic plot in which the relative
change in membrane potential (A Em) is plotted on
a logarithmic scale against distance (x). As shown in
Figure 7, X can be calculated from: rm°-5/(r; + r0)o a.
rm is the membrane resistance for a unit length of
fiber (e.g., 1 cm) in ohm-cm, and rt and r0 are the
inside (or myoplasmic) and outside resistances for a

37

Excitation of Myocardial Cells

EXTRACELLULAR (+) N d+ C! K+-

~VVWVVNAAA/WVVV\A/V/WWVVVVVYV^AAAA/WSr-

^\VWW\AA/v\AWvWVv\AvAvWvVvVvWVWWVvVV

INTRACELLULAR Q N-4 Cl " K *

50-95mv

Fig. 6 — The electrical equivalent circuit of a cell mem¬
brane according to the theory of Hodgkin and Huxley. The
transmembrane capacitance and resistance for each of the
three major ions along with their corresponding diffusion
potentials are indicated. The cable properties are given by
the high transmembrane resistance compared to the rela¬
tively low longitudinal resistances of the intracellular and
extracellular fluids.

unit length in ohm/cm. Using tissues with loosely
packed libers or superficial fibers of a bundle, r0 is
very low and is usually assumed to be zero. Thus the
simplified equation can be converted, for purposes
of comparison to a standard cell of unit cross-
sectional area (1 cm-), to: A = (Rm/Ri)°-5(d/ 4)°-5.
Rm is the membrane specific resistance in ohm-cm2,
Rt is the internal resistivity in ohm-cm, and d is the
diameter or width of a long cell circular or square in
cross section. The input resistance (rin) is the A Em
at the site of current injection (x — 0) divided by
the amount of current injected (70); rin equals 0.5 rx A
and 0.5 rm°-5ri0-5. At x = 0 and t = oo (i.e., during
the steady-state potential change to an applied rec¬
tangular current pulse), A Em equals riX} x I0. At any
distance, x, from the site of current injection, A Em
equals the potential at x — 0 times the exponential
term, e~x/x.

Velocity of propagation varies directly with the
length constant. The larger the cell diameter, the
lower is the absolute resistance of the intracellular
fluid (law of resistors in parallel) and the longer
is the length constant; hence fibers of large diameter
propagate the fastest.

Concentration cell — The origin of diffusion poten¬
tials is illustrated diagrammatically in Figure 8 for
one type of concentration cell. The chamber is com¬
pletely divided into two compartments by a thin
membrane made of celloidin which has negatively
charged pores. A solution of any salt at one concen¬
tration is placed in one compartment (side #1 ) and
a solution of the same salt but at another concentra¬
tion is placed in the other compartment (side #2).
In the example shown, 0.1 M NaCl is in side #1
and 0.01 M NaCl is in side # 2. There will be a
tendency for Na+ and Cl ions to diffuse down their
concentration gradients from side #1 to side #2.
The force for this diffusion process is the random
motion of the particles due to thermal energy; the
probability is that the side of higher concentrations
will have more particles moving across the mem¬
brane from side #1 to side # 2 per unit time than

the side of lower concentration will have moving
across the membrane in the opposite direction. How¬
ever, the negatively charged CF ions cannot pass
across the membrane because of the negatively
charged pores (like charges repel), as shown in the
lower portion of Figure 8. Therefore the net diffusion
of Na+ from side #1 to side #2 brings a surplus of
positive charges to side #2 and leaves a deficiency
of positive charges, or a net negative charge, on
side #1. In this manner, a potential difference (p.d.)
is developed across the membrane, the side of higher
concentration becoming negative when the mem¬
brane is permeable only to positive ions. The p.d.
can be recorded by an appropriate voltage-recording
device and an electrode in each compartment.

The system equilibrates within a few seconds, the
p.d. reaching a maximum of 59 mv (at 25° C). The
magnitude of this Na+ diffusion potential, symbolized
as ENa, can be calculated from the Nernst equation
written in general form: Et = —RT/zF In Ci/C2, in
which Ei is the diffusion potential for any ion, R is
the gas constant (8.3 joules/°K-mole), T is the ab¬
solute temperature (°C -I- 273° K), z is the valence
of the ion, F is the Faraday constant (96,500
coulombs/equivalent), and Cx and C2 are the con¬
centrations of the ion on side #1 and side #2. The
Faraday constant is derived from the number of ions
per mole, Avogadro’s number of 6.03 X 1023, times
the charge per univalent ion of 1.6 X 10~19 cou¬
lombs. The Nernst equation can be derived from
thermodynamics and changes in the Gibbs free
energy. The direction of the battery, but not its
magnitude, is determined by the sign; a negative sign
in front of the log of a ratio merely inverts the ratio.
The direction of the battery can also be easily de¬
termined from the fact that the side of higher con¬
centration will always be negative for positive ions
and positive for negative ions. The Nernst equation
can be simplified by lumping the constants and the
factor of 2.3 to convert from natural logarithms (In)
to logarithms to the base 10 (log): E{ — —.059 v
log Cx/Co. For univalent ions, the factor becomes
.059 v at 25° C and .061 v at 35° C; for divalent
ions, the factor is .030 at 30° C. Thus for a concen¬
tration ratio of 10, ENa is 59 mv.

Na+ does not continue to diffuse from side #1 to
# 2 until the two sides are at equal concentrations
because the p.d. which is rapidly built up tends to
oppose further net diffusion. Since side #2 becomes
positively charged to a large voltage, this charge
opposes further net diffusion of positively charged
Na+ ions (like charges repel). Thus the electrical
gradient built up because of the ionic gradient, in
turn, acts in opposition to the concentration gradient.
The Nernst equation gives the p.d. necessary to be
built up to exactly oppose the concentration gradient;
this accounts for the negative sign in the equation.
The concentration (or chemical) force is expressed
in electrical terms. At equilibrium, the concentration
of Na+ and CF in both compartments is almost
unchanged from their initial values, the change being
too small to determine chemically. In other words,
only a relatively small separation of charge is neces¬
sary to build up a large p.d. (e.g. only about 10 14
equivalents excess Na+ on side #2).

38

The Virginia Journal of Science

CABLE PROPERTIES OF SKELETAL MUSCLE

At

at x

AE

m(x*o)

(t-«)

m(x)

(t— )

A E

m(x)

O.S r X I
i o

0.5 r X I e

1 o

■ A£

■x/ A

-x/A

m (x-o)

Fig. 7 — The cable properties of skeletal muscle fibers showing the exponential falloff of potential with distance and the
corresponding equations.

Excitation of Myocardial Cells

39

Fig. 8 — Diffusion potential of a concentration cell deve¬
loped across an artificial membrane containing negatively
charged pores. The lower part of the figure is an expanded
diagram of two pores in the membrane showing the per¬
meability to Na+ ions but lack of penetration of Cl" ions.

The Nernst equation has been modified in several
ways, as by the Planck equation which takes into
account the mobilities of the anion and cation
through the membrane or by the Goldman-Hodgkin-
Katz constant-field equation which takes into ac¬
count the permeabilities for the major ions ( PK , PNa,
and PCi)- However, for simplicity, we will use the
Nernst equation to calculate the diffusion potential
for any ion which is distributed at unequal concen¬
trations across a membrane regardless of its perme¬
ability.

Membrane currents — As we have seen, in any
electrolytic system, the force tending to drive net
movement of a charged particle must take into ac¬
count both the concentration (or chemical) force
and the electrical force. Since the electrical force is
the p.d. across the cell membrane or Em, the net
driving force for any ionic species then is equal to
Em — Ei. The driving forces for Na+ and K+ are illus¬
trated in Figure 9 for a cardiac muscle cell having a
resting potential of —90 mv. At 37° C, ZsNa is about
+ 60 mv because the ratio of concentrations is about
10; the battery is positive, i.e., the inside plate is
positive with respect to the outside plate (Fig. 6),
because the higher concentration is outside. EK is
about —93 to —100 mv because the ratio of con¬
centrations is about 35-42; the battery direction is
reversed relative to that for Na+ because the con¬
centration gradient is in the opposite direction. The
total force tending to drive Na+ from outside to in¬
side the cell is the algebraic difference of the mem¬
brane potential (Em of —90 mv) minus the concen¬
tration force (Ex a of +60 mv) or —150 mv. The

negative sign is the convention for inwardly directed
positive current (/Na). Similarly, the total force tend¬
ing to drive K7 out of the cell is (E„, — EK) or
[—90 mv — ( — 100 mv)] equal to +10 mv; the
positive sign indicates outwardly directed positive
current (IK).

Since CP does not appear to be actively trans¬
ported in many cardiac muscles, it is passively dis¬
tributed, i.e., CP distributes itself according to the
membrane potential. The negatively charged cell in¬
terior drives CP out until the force of the concentra¬
tion gradient built up (EC1) is equal and opposite to
the electrical gradient. Thus at equilibrium, EC1 = Em
and there is no driving force, therefore no net CP
current (7C i). If so, then CP ion cannot participate
in the electrogenesis of the resting potential.

The current for each ion can be calculated from
Ohm’s law (/ = E/R - g-E ) as a product of the
ionic conductance times the driving force: /Na =
gm(Em, - ENa) and IK = gK(Em - EK). If CP and
minor ions can be neglected, then at rest K+ current
must be equal and opposite to Na+ current, i.e., 1K —
— /Na, in order to maintain a steady resting potential.
Thus, although in the resting membrane gK is much
larger than gNa, the driving force for Na+ is much
larger than that for K+ so that the currents are equal.
Thus there are equally large and continual “leak”
currents of inward Na+ and outward K+ down their
electrochemical gradients in resting muscle. If active

-1-60+ E*.

E

(mv)

O' -

-90

-too

Eci » En

-Ek~-

T

CHEMICAL

FORCE

(Eh.)

electrical

FORCE

(Em)

no "9 no (Em-EJ

- .

I* = gK(Em-EK)

at rest: IK » -I

Ia * 9a (Em" Sq) * 0

Fig. 9 — The driving forces for Na*, K+, and CP membrane
currents in a resting cardiac muscle cell. The electrochemical
driving force for each ion is the difference between the
membrane potential and the diffusion potential for that ion,
e.g., that for Na+ is Em — Exa. Each ionic current is the
product of its membrane conductance times its driving
force.

40

The Virginia Journal of Science

transport were to be blocked, then the system would
run “downhill.”

The membrane potential of the resting membrane
is dominated by EK because gK is larger than gNa,
whereas during the action potential there is a large
increase in gNa so that the membrane potential be¬
comes dominated by E^ a, i.e., Em approaches E^n.
The following equation, known as the chord-con¬
ductance equation, can be simply derived from the
equations for the ionic currents: Em = (gK/^g) E K
+ (gNa/2g) ENa, in which Sg is the total conductance
of the nonpassive ions (e.g., 2g = gNa + gK), gK
and gNa are the partial ion conductances and gK/Zg
and gNa/Sg are the fractional ion conductances. This
equation holds when there is no net membrane cur¬
rent, e.g., in the resting condition, and shows that Em
is dominated by E K when the fractional conductance
for K+ is large (therefore, that for Na+ is small),
whereas Em is dominated by E^ a when the Na+ frac¬
tional conductance is large.

The relationship between conductance and per¬
meability for a given ion is complicated, and is given
by the constant-field equation. At fixed ion con¬
centrations, conductance increases directly with
permeability; however conductance is dependent on
the concentrations of the ion on both sides of the
membrane. For example, if heart muscle is bathed
in Cl"-free Ringer solution to deplete the tissue of
CP, then gCi = o even though Pc i may be large.
That is, for conductance there must be availability
of the ion to carry current as well as a finite perme¬
ability.

The action potential — Before the advent of micro¬
electrodes, the “injury” or “demarcation” potential
was used as an indicator of the resting potential.
Measured as the potential difference between the
crushed end of a nerve or skeletal muscle and the
noninjured end, it usually gives potentials between
30-60% of the true resting potential. The de¬
pendence of the resting potential on the K+ con¬
centration gradient (Fig. 10), but not on the Na+
gradient, was first reported by Overton in 1902. In
acute experiments, [K ], does not increase substanti¬
ally as the external [K']0 is elevated, and the con¬
centration gradient for K+ is diminished. Therefore
the K+ diffusion potential or “equilibrium potential”
is decreased, i.e., there is a smaller force tending
to produce net diffusion of K+. Overton also ob¬
served that cells lost their excitability in the absence
of Na+. Bernstein (2) hypothesized that the action
potential was produced by a nonspecific increase in
membrane conductance to all ions causing the mem¬
brane potential to decrease to zero. In 1939, Cole
and Curtis showed that there actually was nearly a
fiftyfold decrease in membrane resistance during the
nerve impulse. However, Cole and Hodgkin inde¬
pendently found later that the membrane potential
did not just go to zero during the nerve impulse but
actually reversed in polarity (the overshoot) thus
showing that the Bernstein hypothesis had to be
modified. These important findings of Cole and
Hodgkin were enabled by the discovery of the giant
nerve axon of the squid (nearly 1 mm in diameter)
which allowed relatively large intracellular electrodes
to be inserted into the axoplasm.

Fig. 10 — Resting membrane potential ( Vm ) of cultured
chick heart cells plotted as a function of the external K+
concentration ([K ]„) on a logarithmic scale. KC1 was
added to the culture bath to elevate [K+]„ above the control
level of 2.7 mM, and no compensation was made for the
resultant hypertonicity and elevated [Cl“]„ levels. Individual
symbols represent successive measurements on the same
cell. The line labeled E K was drawn with a slope of 60 mv
per tenfold change in [K+]„.

Hodgkin and Huxley in 1952 showed that the
large increase in conductance during the action po¬
tential in squid giant axon was due first to a large
increase in gNa followed slightly later by an increase
in gK. Thus the increase in conductance previously
known was broken down into two separate compo¬
nents. Their experiments were done using the so-
called “voltage-clamp” technique in which the mem¬
brane potential is held (or clamped) electrically at
any predetermined level by use of a negative feed¬
back amplifier. By this means, the membrane con¬
ductance increase is prevented from “exploding” all-
or-none. From the feedback current, equal to the
membrane current, necessary to clamp the membrane
potential at various depolarizing and hyperpolarizing
steps, the membrane conductance was calculated.
By doing the experiments in the presence of Na+
and in the absence of Na+ (substitution by choline*
ion), the fraction of the total conductance due to
Na+ was determined. For this pioneering work,
Hodgkin and Huxley shared the Nobel Prize in 1963
with J. C. Eccles.

One of the most important findings from these
voltage-clamp experiments was that, at constant
temperature and Ca++ concentration. gNa was a func¬
tion only of Em and time. Thus, the membrane po¬
tential itself controlled gXa in such a fashion that a
slight depolarization increased gNa slightly which, in
turn, allowed increased Na+ current to enter the cell
because of its large driving force. The increased

Excitation of Myocardial Cells

41

entry of Na+ brings positive charge into the cell and
thereby produces more depolarization which, in turn,
further increases gNa. Thus a vicious cycle or positive
feedback is produced, as illustrated in the upper
half of Figure 1 1 . Such regenerative increase in
gNa is exponential over a wide range of Em. Up until
the point, known as threshold, where this active
increase in gNa becomes explosive or all-or-none,
this active change in potential by “living” membrane
is known as the local excitatory potential (or re¬
sponse or state). Once the threshold potential is
reached, the active response is the action potential
which is propagated at constant velocity. The local
excitatory potential is not actively propagated and
is graded in magnitude, i.e., not all-or-none, and can
summate with another such local potential.

Hodgkin and Huxley empirically found that equa¬
tions describing the variations in gNa and were:
gNa = gNam3/i and gK = gKn\ in which gNa and gK
are constants equal to the maximal values of gNa
and gK, and m, h, and n are dimensionless variables
varying between 0 and 1. The variables are functions
only of Em and time, t, and are described by com¬
plicated differential equations containing several
voltage-dependent rate constants. They envisioned
that "there are the three states of membrane Na+
channels (or pores or carriers), as illustrated in
the lower half of Figure 1 1 . In the resting state at
the normal resting potential, each Na+ channel is
plugged by some particle such as Ca++ ion. There-

POSITIVE FEEDBACK DURING Na+ ACTIVATION LEADING TO
THE LOCAL EXCITATORY RESPONSE AND ACTION POTENTIAL:

THE THREE STATES OF THE MEMBRANE Na+ CHANNELS:

Activation

RESTING - - ► ACTIVE

*Na ‘ «Na gK ' gK ^

Fig. 11 — (Upper part) Diagram of the positive feedback
between Na+ conductance and membrane potential leading
to the graded local excitatory potential and the all-or-none
action potential. (Lower part) Diagram of the three states
of the membrane Na+ channels, and the probability factors
in the Hodgkin and Huxley equations which determine the
Na+ and K+ conductances.

fore, the resting channel is unavailable for carrying
Na+ current, and gNa is low. With depolarization,
each resting channel is unplugged and brought to
the active state by a reversible process known as Na+
activation. Activation is equivalent to the m factor
of the Hodgkin and Huxley equations. The activated
channel is available for carrying Na~ current and
gs a is high; such activation is responsible for the
rising phase of the action potential. However, each
active channel can not stay in this state for a pro¬
longed period, but after a short period of 1-10
msec, the active channel is spontaneously converted
to the inactive state, even though the membrane is
still depolarized. This irreversible process is known
as Na+ inactivation, and is equivalent to the h factor.
In the inactive state, the Na+ channel again is made
unavailable for carrying Na+, and gNa is low. Inac¬
tivation is responsible for the beginning and much
of the decrease in gNa during the action potential.
Along with the increase in gK, inactivation also
speeds up membrane repolarization. Inactivation ac¬
counts for the accommodation of some excitable
membranes in which slow depolarizations are not
adequate to trigger action potentials even though
the threshold potential for fast depolarizations is
greatly exceeded; i.e., if depolarization is too slow, a
sufficient proportion of Na+ channels are not in the
active state at any one time to sustain a chain re¬
action. Inactive Na+ channels cannot be restored to
the resting state until the membrane has been re¬
polarized to nearly the resting potential.

Figure 12 is redrawn from the work of Hodgkin
and Huxley and shows the time course of the relative
changes in gNa, gK, and Gm (total or 2,g) above
their resting levels during an action potential in the
squid giant axon. The passive exponential foot of
the action potential occurs prior to and initiates the
active increase in gNa; it is produced by the electro¬
tonic spread of action current from a propagating
action potential in an active region just “upstream”
from the region in which the electrode is recording.
The decrease in gNa is responsible for the rising
phase of the action potential, and the return of gNa
to the resting level and the slightly delayed increase
in gK are responsible for the repolarizing phase. The
persistence of the increased gK after repolarization
is complete produces the hyperpolarizing (or “posi¬
tive”) afterpotential; the increased gK tends to pull
the membrane potential closer to EK. This increase
in gK (decrease in Rm) with depolarization is often
called “delayed rectification”; it contrasts with the
phenomenon of “anomalous rectification” observed
in cardiac and skeletal muscles in which gK decreases
with sustained depolarization and increases with
sustained hyperpolarization. Depolarizing (or “nega¬
tive”) afterpotentials found in some cells, including
skeletal muscle, may be explained by a smaller and
shorter increase in gK and by a persisting small
elevation of gNa; alternatively, such afterpotentials
also can be explained by a transient decrease in EK
due to K+ accumulation in the sarcotubules. Atrial
and ventricular myocardial cells normally do not
have afterpotentials.

Figure 13 is a schematic diagram of a ventricular
action potential with the likely possibilities indicated

The Virginia Journal of Science

42

for changes in gNa and gK. Although good voltage-
clamp data are not available, the rising phase seems
to be due to an increase in gNa above the resting
level as in nerve and skeletal muscle. There is a
large drop in R,n during the rising phase to about
1-5% of the resting value. Most of this transient
increase in gNa is terminated within a few millisec¬
onds, and gNa either returns to the resting level or
persists only slightly above it. During the plateau,
either remains at the resting level or actually
decreases below it. Either of, or a combination of,
these two possibilities, i.e., a slightly elevated gNa
or a larger decrease in gK, can account for the sus¬
tained depolarization during the plateau. A decrease
in gK should produce depolarization by decreasing
the outward IK, thus allowing the same amount of
inward depolarizing /Na to become relatively larger
than the hyperpolarizing IK. During the plateau, Rm
is sometimes up to threefold greater than that at
rest, suggesting that a large decrease in gK is re¬
sponsible for the electrogenesis of the plateau (59).
The driving force for Na+ is diminished during the
plateau whereas that for K+ is augmented. The rapid
repolarizing phase which terminates the cardiac ac¬
tion potential seems to result from a rapid increase
in gK either back to the resting level or slightly above
it as indicated in the figure. In summary, the rising
phase and plateau of the cardiac action potential
are produced by a net inward Na+ current and the
rapid repolarizing phase by a net outward K+ current.

Components of the cardiac action potential — The
conductance changes suggest that the cardiac action
potential consists of two major components: an
initial rapid spike component and a later plateau or
slow wave component. That this is true is indicated
by Figure 14 in which redrawings were made of data
taken from Hoshiko and Sperelakis. Under various
experimental conditions, a separation of the spike
and slow wave components to various degrees oc¬
curred as illustrated at slow (A,B) and fast (C)
sweep speeds. The action potential sometimes alter¬
nated such that in one response both spike and
plateau components occurred, whereas in the follow¬
ing response only the spike component occurred
(D, two sweeps superimposed). In some strips, the
action potential of a cell was normal with propaga¬
tion in one direction, whereas spike and plateau

Fig. 12 — The relative conductance changes for Na+ and
K" during an action potential in the squid giant axon.
(Redrawn from Hodgkin and Huxley).

Fig. 13 — Schematic diagram of an intracellularly recorded
action potential from a myocardial cell with postulated con¬
ductance changes for Na+ and K+. The plateau of the action
potential may be produced by a decrease in gK below the
resting level and/or by a persisting slight increase in a.

separation consistently occurred with propagation
in the other direction (E, two sweeps superimposed).
In electrically driven strips with stimulating elec¬
trodes at each end, sometimes the degree of the
plateau response was a function of intensity of the
stimulating current (F, five sweeps superimposed).
A third component of the recorded response, the
junctional prepotential, is a local subthreshold po¬
tential which triggers the action potential and is
similar to an excitatory postsynaptic potential. It
appears as a step, sometimes very prominent and
exaggerated, on the rising phase of the action po¬
tential, as may be seen in Figure 14a. The junctional
potential represents the excitatory interaction be¬
tween contiguous myocardial cells.

Anodal repolarization — The plateau of the action
potential can be abruptly terminated by the applica¬
tion of relatively brief hyperpolarizing (anodal)
current pulses during the plateau, as illustrated in
Figure 15. In this figure, four sweeps are superim¬
posed, one without an applied current pulse (labeled
o), and the other three with progressively larger
hyperpolarizing pulses (labeled 1, 2 and 3) corre¬
sponding to the current calibration indicated. The
first and second pulse did not actively influence
the action potential, because upon their termination,
the membrane potential returned to the same level
and time course which occurred during the control
action potential without a pulse. However, during
the third pulse, the membrane potential suddenly
changed actively such that Em returned to below the

Excitation of Myocardial Cells

43

Fig. 14 — Spike and plateau separation produced experi¬
mentally, illustrating the two major components of the
cardiac action potential. (Redrawn from Hoshiko and
Sperelakis)

resting potential; upon termination of the pulse Em
returned passively to the resting potential. With
larger current pulses, anodal-break excitation occurs
upon cessation of the pulse and a second action po¬
tential is produced. The rapid repolarization during
the third pulse resembles the normal rapid repolariz¬
ing phase of the action potential. Thus anodal re¬
polarization appears to be all-or-none in nature,
somewhat similar to the rising phase of the action
potential, and propagates from cell to cell, termi¬
nating the action potentials of many cells prema¬
turely. Thus, the membrane potential appears to
rapidly switch between two stable states: at the
resting level and at the plateau level (near zero po¬
tential). Additional evidence for sudden transitions
between two stable states comes from experiments
in the presence of Ba++.

Refractory periods — As stated previously, the
electrical refractory periods of cardiac muscle are
very long because they are determined by the long
duration of the action potential. The excitability of
the heart (measured as the reciprocal of the thresh¬
old current intensity necessary to stimulate) is
markedly depressed during the refractory periods.
The excitability is zero during the absolute refractory
period (A.R.P. ), which covers most of the duration
of the action potential from the beginning of the
spike component through the initial part of the rapid
repolarizing phase (Fig. 16). There is an exponential
return of excitability to the resting level (100%)
(lower half of Fig. 16) during the relative refractory
period (R.R.P.) which occurs during the middle
portion of the rapid repolarizing phase of the action
potential. Following the relative refractory period,
there is a supernormal period (S.N.P.) of excita¬
bility during which the myocardial cells are hyper-
excitable; this period corresponds to the very termi¬
nation of the rapid repolarizing phase. A part of this
period is called the vulnerable period because during
this time the heart is more susceptible to fibrillation
by the application of stimulating current. The ef¬
fective or functional refractory period (E.R.P. or
F.R.P.) encompasses all the absolute refractory
period and part of the relative refractory period and
is a measure of the highest frequency of stimulation
at which all-or-none action potentials can be propa¬

gated. The functional refractory period is the one
most important to the tissue since the stimulating
action current available from an action potential is
limited.

4. EXCITATION-CONTRACTION COUPLING

Role of A Em — As stated previously, the transient
depolarization, represented by the action potential,
somehow controls the intensity and duration of
contraction. It is the change in membrane potential,
and not the action currents, which is important for
excitation-contraction coupling. For example, in
isolated skeletal muscle fibers, the contractile tension
attained by elevation of [K+]0 parallels the accom¬
panying depolarization; for some unknown reason,
most cardiac muscles do not exhibit a significant K+
contracture. The time course of contraction relative
to that of the action potential is diagrammed in
Figure 17. There is a lag in the beginning of con¬
traction due to a lag in buildup of the mechanical
active state, and the peak of contraction occurs near
the end of the plateau. The decline in active state
is delayed and slower than that of skeletal muscle
and does not begin until after the peak of contraction
has been reached. Since the contractile tension begins
to decline before the end of the functional refractory
period, the heart cannot be completely tetanized;
therefore, the heart will continue to function as a
stroke pump regardless of the frequency of stimu¬
lation. In addition, each contraction becomes more
brief at the higher frequencies, since the duration of
the plateau increases exponentially up to a maximum
duration as the frequency is decreased. If the plateau
is artificially prolonged in a region of heart muscle
by passage of depolarizing electrotonic current, the
active state and contraction are also correspondingly
prolonged.

Role of Ca++ — It has long been known that Ca++
is necessary for contraction in all muscles. Ca++ is
necessary for the excitation-contraction coupling step

Fig. 15 — Premature repolarization of the cardiac action
potential produced by application of threshold hyperpolariz-
ing current pulses during the plateau.

44

The Virginia Journal of Science

interposed between depolarization of the cell mem¬
brane and contraction of the myofibrils. Lowering
of Ca++ in the bathing medium uncouples excitation
from contraction to a degree determined by the
amount of Ca' depletion. In some muscles, Sr++ and
Ba++ can partially or completely substitute for Ca++
in the excitation-contraction coupling step. In most
muscles, Mg++ antagonizes Ca^ in coupling such that
the ratio of [Ca++]/[Mg++] is more important than the
absolute concentration of Ca +. In a few cases, the
ratio of [Ca++]/[Na+]2 also influences coupling. Some
drugs may increase contraction by releasing or other¬
wise making more Ca++ available for excitation-con¬
traction coupling. Ca++ also is necessary in the
contractile machinery, the myofibrils, which have
a Ca++-dependent ATPase requiring only minute
amounts of Ca++.

Role of the sarcotubular system — The role of the
transverse sarcotubules in excitation-contraction
coupling was shown by application of a stimulating
microelectrode at different regions of the sarcomere
in isolated skeletal muscle fibers (21). Contraction
occurred only when the microelectrode was adjacent
to a Z-line, and not when it was alongside other re¬
gions such as the A-band. The contraction was
graded with the intensity of applied current, and
contraction only spread inward (radially) and not
longitudinally to adjacent sarcomeres, i.e., contrac¬
tion was confined to the two half sarcomeres abutting
on the Z-line. In addition, only certain sites around
the circumference of the fiber at the Z-line were
sensitive to current. Electron microscopy showed that

REFRACTORY PERIODS OF CARDIAC MUSCLE

RECOVERY OF EXCITABILITY BEGINNING WITH
THE RELATIVE REFRACTORY PERIOD

Fig. 16— (Upper part) Diagrammatic illustration of the
cardiac action potential with the various refractory periods
indicated. (Lower part) The exponential recovery of
excitability during the relative refractory period.

Fig. 17 — Diagrammatic representation of the time course
of the contraction of cardiac muscle relative to that of the
action potential.

the sensitive sites correlated with the presence of
transverse sarcotubules. These tubules have recently
been shown to be invaginations of the cell surface
membrane so that the fluid in these tubules is con¬
tinuous with the interstitial fluid surrounding the cell
surface (Figure 18). The transverse sarcotubules in
mammalian myocardial cells have recently been
shown to be arranged in orderly and uniformly
spaced longitudinal and radial rows. In the interior of
the fiber, each transverse sarcotubule comes into
close (synapticlike) contact with the longitudinal
elements of the sarcoplasmic reticulum. In longi¬
tudinal sections, the transverse sarcotubule, or cen¬
tral element, with longitudinal elements, the lateral
cisternae, on either side form the so-called “triad".
In some muscles, there are two triads per sarcomere,
and they appear at the junctions of the A- and I-
bands; in these muscles, the sites sensitive to current
are also located at these positions rather than at the
Z-line. The fast-contracting muscles have a more
highly developed sarcoplasmic reticulum than do
slower muscles.

Thus it appears that excitation of the cell surface
membrane must somehow spread down the trans¬
verse sarcotubules to bring excitation closer to the
myofibrils. Recent work by A. F. Huxley and his
collaborators shows that the myofibrils near the
surface of a skeletal muscle fiber shorten earlier than
those near the center, i.e., excitation spreads inward
at a fast velocity. This inward spread of excitation is
much too rapid to be accounted for by simple dif¬
fusion of an activator substance from the cell surface.
It is presumed that depolarization of the surface
membrane and sarcotubules releases some activator
molecule, perhaps Ca++ ion or a CaT+ complex, from
the transverse sarcotubules and/or the lateral cis¬
ternae. The lateral cisternae are continuous with
the longitudinal sarcoplasmic reticulum which sur¬
rounds each myofibril something like a torn sleeve.
The activator molecule diffuses a very short distance
to react with the myofilaments, probably at the
bridge protrusions of the thick filaments between
thick (myosin) and thin (actin) filaments.

Excitation of Myocardial Cells

45

OUT

f 4 -f’"

Sm

A/WW* AA/WV - —

Fig. 18 — The transverse sarcotubular system of striated
muscle cells represented diagrammatically (upper part of
figure) and by one possible electrical equivalent circuit
(lower part). As illustrated, the transverse sarcotubules
shunt the cell surface membrane.

estimated (resistors in parallel) and Cm overesti¬
mated (capacitors in parallel). If account is taken
of the sarcotubules in various muscles, the variable
Cm values tend to become more uniform as expected
of membranes composed of similar materials. Swell¬
ing of the sarcotubules should increase their shunting
effect, especially because the large series resistance of
the fluid in the tubular lumen (t.f.) would greatly
decrease (variable gtf). There is evidence that the
tubular membrane of frog sartorius muscle is not
permeable to Cl" but only to K+, whereas the surface
membrane is permeable to both K+ and Cl" (although
gci of the surface membrane is much larger than
Sk)-

5. AUTOMATICITY OF
CULTURED HEART CELLS

Effect of \Em on frequency of firing — Some of
the general electrophysiological characteristics of
cultured heart cells are summarized in Table I.
Whereas no morphological distinction between pace¬
maker and nonpacemaker cells is apparent, a dis¬
tinction can be made on the basis of the reaction of
a cell to polarizing current pulses. Nonpacemaker
cells generally fire due to driving by transmission of
excitation from neighboring cells, although some
cells are quiescent. The frequency of firing of these
cells remains unaltered with electrotonic depolariza¬
tion or hyperpolarization; however, the magnitude
of the action potentials decreases or increases in pro¬
portion to the depolarization or hyperpolarization,
respectively (Fig. 19). Excessive hyperpolarization
suddenly abolishes the spike responses as a step
function leaving the small driving junctional poten¬
tials at the same frequency (Fig. 19 F). Such voltage

The transverse sarcotubules also may account for
the depolarizing afterpotential in skeletal muscle (1).
The increased K+ efflux (outward /K) during the
spike action potential may cause accumulation of
K+ in the tubules so that [K+]„ becomes significantly
elevated, thereby transiently decreasing EK across
the tubular membrane and producing the depolariz¬
ing afterpotential. It is presumed that the ion pump
in the tubules cannot keep up when there is such
a “flood” of ions, and the afterpotential gradually
terminates as diffusion out the mouth lowers [K+]0
to the normal value. In some skeletal muscle fibers,
the ratio of transverse sarcotubular membrane area
to surface membrane is greater than 5 to 1. The
transverse sarcotubules swell in hypertonic solutions,
even though the fiber diameter shrinks. In hyper¬
tonic solutions (e.g., twofold) contraction nearly
disappears whereas the electrical events remain
nearly normal.

The transverse sarcotubules also account for some
of the relatively wide range of values obtained for
Rm and Cm in various muscles because they act as
a shunt path for intracellularly applied current (10).
That is, some of the current exits from the cell
through the sarcotubules as well as through the
surface membrane, as diagrammed in Figure 18. The
lower portion of the figure gives the equivalent elec¬
trical circuit showing the shunting by the tubules.
Thus R„, of the surface membrane tends to be under¬

Fig. 19 — The frequency of firing of a nonpacemaker cell
driven by spread of excitation from a neighboring cell was
unaltered by polarizing currents. Upper trace is the current
channel denoting the intensity and direction of the current
applied through the recording microelectrode; upward de¬
flections indicate application of depolarizing current and
downward deflections, hyperpolarizing current. A-C: Pro¬
gressively increasing depolarizing current pulses of 0.2, 0.6,
and 1.0 nanoamperes. D-F : Progressively increasing hyper¬
polarizing current pulses of 0.4, 1.4, and 1.5 namp. In F,
the action potentials were suddenly completely abolished
revealing the driving junctional potentials at the same
frequency.

46

The Virginia Journal of Science

independency of frequency and the presence of junc¬
tional potentials are the major criteria for identifica¬
tion of nonpacemaker cells. Their frequency of firing
also is unaffected by alterations in resting potential
due either to injury caused by microelectrode vibra¬
tion or to better microelectrode sealing.

In pacemaker cells, the frequency of firing increases
progressively with progressive electrotonic depolar¬
ization and decreases with hyperpolarization; the
frequency rapidly returns to the basal level at the
cessation of the pulse (Fig. 20). The magnitude of the
action potentials also changes in proportion to the
polarization, and only small high-frequency oscilla¬
tions occur with excessive depolarization. Excessive
hyperpolarization abolishes firing but without the
presence of junctional potentials (Fig. 20 D, F). Such
voltage dependency of frequency is the major criterion
for identification of pacemaker cells, especially be¬
cause positive afterpotentials may be mistaken for
pacemaker potentials. The relationship between fre¬
quency of discharge of pacemaker cells and polarizing
current is sigmoid, with a linear steep portion (between
0 and 1.2 na of depolarizing current) having a slope of
about 58 impulses/min/na. This indicates that the
input resistance (rin) is very high. The effect of current
appears to be mediated mainly by a change in slope of
the pacemaker potential (Tp) (Table 1). The relation¬
ship between frequency of discharge and Vv has an
initial linear region between 0 and 10 mv/sec with a
slope of about 4 impulses/min per mv/sec, and then
gradually flattens.

Automaticity is abolished by elevated [K+]0 levels
which do not produce a significant change in mem¬
brane potential and remain abolished at greater
[K+]„ levels which depolarize. When a pacemaker
cell becomes partially depolarized due to injury, the
frequency of firing increases concomitantly. Similarly,
frequency diminishes as the resting potential increases

Fig. 20 — The frequency of firing of three pacemaker cells
( A-D , E, and F) was greatly modified by polarizing cur¬
rents. Lower trace in A-D is the current channel; upward
deflections indicate application of depolarizing current and
downward deflections, hyperpolarizing current. A-C: Pro¬
gressively increasing depolarizing current pulses of 0.4, 0.6,
and 1.2 nanoamperes. D : Hyperpolarizing pulse of 0.4
namp. £: Hyperpolarizing pulse of 1.2 namp slowed the
action potential frequency from 88 to 39 impulses per min.
F: Hyperpolarizing pulse of 1.2 namp. abolished firing.

TABLE I

Summary of electrical parameters of cultured chick
heart cells (JSD C)

Resting potential
Action potential
Maximum rate of depolar¬
ization (Fmax)

Duration of action potential

Plateau

Rate of firing

Slope of pacemaker potential
OT)

Driving junctional pre¬
potentials

Positive afterpotential

I in

Rm

C in

Cm

Tm

X (apparent)

Lm (apparent)

[K+], (extrapolated value from
Vm vs log [K+]0 curve)

Ek (calculated)

[Na+] , (from Burrows & Lamb.

59 mv (40-84 mv)

71 mv (40-120 mv)

1-20 v /sec
150-500 msec
< 10% of cells
about 40/min (0-130/min)

about 10 mv/sec (0-20 mv /sec)

steps in rising phase
about 15 mv (0-30 mv)

12MQ
480 fi-cm* 1 2 3

800 pf (840 measured, 760
calculated)

20 uf /cm2

9.6 msec (10.1 calculated, 9.1
measured)

150,u (one cell length)

1.2 H-cm2

90 mM

91 mv (for [K+T of 2.7 mM)

1962)

(16 mM)

due to microelectrode sealing. Thus pacemaker cells
are characterized by the presence of pacemaker
potentials and by the alteration in frequency of firing
with depolarization, whereas the frequency of non¬
pacemaker cells is independent of resting potential.

Control of frequency of firing — The four basic
methods (Fig. 21) whereby frequency of discharge of a
pacemaker cell can be controlled are by a change in:

(1) the slope of the pacemaker potential (AF„), (2) the

level of the threshold potential (AF(P), (3) the level of
the resting potential (AFr), and (4) a combination of

(3) and (1) in which a small change in the resting
potential causes a large change in slope of the pace¬
maker potential. For example, frequency of discharge
would be slowed: (1) if VP were decreased, because V tv
is reached earlier; (2) if Vtp were changed in the
depolarizing direction, because it would take a given
pacemaker potential longer to reach the threshold
point; (3) if V r increased, because it would take a
given pacemaker potential longer to reach threshold;
and (4) if V r increased, because it would decrease Vp.

The frequency of discharge of the heart is normally
controlled by the two antagonistic nerves which
innervate the SA nodal cells. The chemical mediators,
acetylcholine and norepinephrine, released at these
nerve endings influence the frequency by affecting
gK. Acetylcholine increases gK and decreases V„,
whereas norepinephrine increases Vp and may de¬
crease gK. An increase in gK tends to hyperpolarize
by dragging Em closer to EK, which in turn tends to
decrease the slope of the pacemaker potential.

Beginning with rapid repolarization, Rm contin¬
ually increases during the hyperpolarizing afterpo¬
tential and pacemaker potential due to a decrease in
gK, and then Rm suddenly decreases near the thresh¬
old potential due to an increase in gNa leading to

Excitation of Myocardial Cells

47

Fig. 21 — The four basic methods whereby the frequency of
discharge of a pacemaker cell may be influenced by polarizing
currents, neurohumoral mediators, ion concentrations, temper¬
ature, and membrane deformation. There may be changes in
slope of the pacemaker potential (AFP), in level of the threshold
potential (AV,P), in resting potential (AVr), or in Vp due to a
change in V r.

the rising phase of the action potential. Although the
decrease in gK during the time course of the spontan¬
eous diastolic depolarization, the pacemaker poten¬
tial, could be indirectly produced by the depolariza¬
tion (anomalous rectification), it is more likely that
it is directly produced (perhaps by some chemical
or metabolic cycle). This then causes the depolari¬
zation by decreasing IK allowing /Na to predominate.
There is a time-dependent component as well as a
voltage-dependent component to pacemaker oscilla¬
tions.

Effect of K* — All cells depolarize at [K+]0 levels
beyond 20 mM with a slope of about 60 mv/tenfold
change in [K+]0, and by extrapolation from these
data, [K+]i is estimated to be about 90 mM (Fig. 10,
Table 1). However, between 2.7 and 10-20 mM,
the resting potentials of some cells are unaffected
(curve A), whereas those of other cells are slightly
hyperpolarized such that the maximal resting and
action potentials occur at about 15 mM (curve B).
Both curves A and B can be obtained theoretically
by varying the parameters of the constant-field equa¬
tion. Since lowering of [K+]0 to 0.3 mM produces no
detectable effect on the resting potentials or on the
magnitude and frequency of the action potentials
during periods of up to 1 hr., the curve is flat
between 2.7 and 0.3 mM; it is not known whether
the Na+-K+ pump is partially uncoupled at 0.3 mM
[K+]„.

There is a distinct difference in behavior of pace¬
maker and nonpacemaker cells to K+ depolarization.

Spontaneous firing of pacemaker cells is abolished
shortly after elevation of [KT]0 to 20-30 mM; the
subsequent partial depolarization does not initiate
firing even though the cell is capable of firing anodal-
break responses. Thus, pacemaker cells are converted
into nonpacemaker cells by elevated [K+]0 levels. In
contrast, in nonpacemaker cells action potential-like
responses still occur during K+ depolarization. These
responses become progressively smaller, briefer in
duration, and disappear as depolarization progresses.
Tn high [K+]0, rin, and hence Rm, usually diminishes
because of an increase in gK as a result of the con¬
centration effect. K+-depolarized cells are converted
to pacemakers by Ba++, even though depolarization
is maintained; spontaneous oscillations occur, and
spontaneous action potentials develop during re¬
polarizing pulses, their frequency and magnitude
being a function of the degree of repolarization.

Duration of action potential — Electrotonic depol¬
arization causes an increase in action-potential dura¬
tion, whereas electrotonic hyperpolarization causes
a decrease. For example, a 3-na pulse depolarized
a cell 24 mv and lengthened the duration 1.5-fold
(at one-half amplitude), and a 6-na pulse hyper¬
polarized 48 mv and shortened the duration about
2-fold. The changes in duration are a function of the
degree of polarization, and may result from a volt-
age-dependent decrease or increase in gK brought
about by depolarization or hyperpolarization, re¬
spectively.

In contrast, depolarization by elevated [K ]0 causes
the action potentials to shorten. Since Rm decreases,
the shortening may result from an increase in gK
brought about by elevated [K+]0 (constant-field equa¬
tion). This interpretation also can account for the
disappearance of the positive afterpotential which
also occurs (since Em probably equals EK) and for
the Em vs. log [K+]0 relationship.

Trains of action potentials turned on and off —
Pacemaker cells sometimes turn themselves on and
off spontaneously. In addition, action-potential trains
in these cells can be turned on and off by means of
brief hyperpolarizing electrotonic pulses. Normally,
firing is abolished during the pulse, and at the off
of a suprathreshold pulse an anodal-break action-
potential response triggers a continuing train of
impulses. However, if the hyperpolarizing pulse is
made subthreshold for anodal-break excitation, but
is of sufficient intensity to abolish firing during the
pulse, then the spontaneous train of impulses is
“permanently” turned off; the membrane potential
usually changes to its true resting level. A train of
impulses can be turned back on by increasing the
intensity of the pulse so that anodal-break excitation
occurs. The anodal-break action potential usually
has a different degree of overshoot than the succeed¬
ing spontaneous impulses.

Postcat hodal hyperpolarization — Postcathodal (or
cathodal-break) depression of excitability occurs in
pacemaker cells and results in the following action
potential being delayed. The duration and time
course of the cathodal-break hyperpolarizations are
similar to those of hyperpolarizing afterpotentials, al¬
though the phenomenon occurs even when action
potentials are not triggered during the depolarizing

48

The Virginia Journal of Science

pulse. The magnitude of cathodal-break hyperpolari¬
zation (maximum of 25 mv) is a function of in¬
tensity and duration of the depolarizing current pulse.
The likely explanation for the phenomenon is an
increased gK which persists after the pulse.

Interconversion of pacemaker and nonpacemaker
cells — Pacemaker and nonpacemaker cells can be
interconverted (Table II). As stated previously,
elevation of the external K+ concentration from 2.7
to 25 mM rapidly converts pacemaker cells into
nonpacemaker cells; the cells are reconverted into
pacemaker cells upon returning [K+]0 to the normal
level. In contrast, Ba++ or Sr++ (5-10 mM) rapidly
converts driven or quiescent nonpacemaker cells into
spontaneously firing pacemaker cells. Sr++ always
hyperpolarizes, at least initially, preceding the in¬
duction of automaticity. In contrast, Ba++ rapidly
produces partial depolarization concomitant with a
large increase in membrane resistance; with time,
the cells become nearly completely depolarized and
quiescent. However, large action potentials develop
during the application of repolarizing current pulses
which return the membrane potential to levels which
can support action potentials; their frequency is a
function of the degree of repolarization, thus, indi¬
cating pacemaker behavior. Even in frog sartorius
fibers, low concentrations of Ba++ rapidly, reversibly,
and specifically reduce gK, depolarize, and initiate
automaticity. Depolarization results from diminution
of the outward hyperpolarizing K+ current, allowing
the inward depolarizing Na+ current to predominate.
It appears that Ba++ induces automaticity and de¬
polarizes by decreasing gK, and that elevated [K+]0
suppresses automaticity by increasing gK. Ba++ may
act by selectively plugging K+ channels in the mem¬
brane by virtue of both ions having nearly identical
crystal radii of about 1.34 A and singly hydrated
radii of about 4.06 A (Table III).

Ba** and Sr'h reversal of the inhibition induced
by cardiac glycosides and local anesthetics — In con¬
trast to its actions on intact heart muscle, the cardiac
glycoside ouabain does not produce hyperexcitable
effects in cultured heart cells. Since these cells are
denervated, the hyperexcitability actions of cardiac
glycosides may depend on the release of stored cate¬
cholamines from nerve endings and/or the presence

of active adrenergic receptors on the myocardial
cells.

Ouabain (10 u — 10~3 M) and the local anesthet¬
ics, cocaine and tetracaine (10~4 — 10 “:i M), slowly
produce partial depolarization. Concomitantly, the
rate of rise of the action potential becomes depressed
and leads to eventual loss of excitability. The de¬
pression of the rate of rise can be explained by the
well-known inhibition of Na+ activation by local
anesthetics as well as by the depolarization itself.
The depolarization could be due to a change in
membrane conductances (increase in gNa or decrease
in gK) although R,n does not appear to significantly
change. An alternative is that the depolarization is
due to inhibition of active ion transport.

Sr++ and Ba++ (5 — 10 mM) rapidly reverse the
electrical inhibition and quiescence produced by
these drugs. Usually the reversal of inhibition is pre¬
ceded by a marked hyperpolarization which could be
due either to a change in conductances (e.g., de¬
crease in gXa) or to stimulation of the ion pump. If
due to enhanced pumping, it would be difficult to
determine whether the pump is electrogenic or non-
electrogenic since the surface area to volume ratio
for cultured heart cells is very large and the intracell¬
ular concentrations perhaps could be rapidly changed
by enhanced pumping. It is conceivable that Sr++ and
Ba++ compete with and displace ouabain, K+, Mg++, or
Ca++ from binding sites on the membrane ion pump
ATPase; K+ and ouabain are known to compete for
binding sites. Although the rapidly rising and over¬
shooting action potentials which occur soon after the
addition of BaM' or Sr’H may be explained in sev¬
eral ways, the correct explanation is likely to be re¬
lated to stimulation of the pump. Therefore, in addi¬
tion to the action of Ba++ on specifically decreasing
gK, another action of Sr++ and Ba++ may be to stimu¬
late the Na+ pump.

Insensitivity of cultured heart cells to autonomic
agents — Cultured heart cells are remarkably un¬
responsive electrically to those autonomic agents
which produce alterations in the spontaneous fre¬
quency of discharge of intact cardiac muscle. The
agents tested included acetylcholine, norepinephrine,
epinephrine, atropine, curare, and histamine. No ef¬
fects are produced on the membrane potentials even

TABLE II

Summary of effects of Ba++, Sr++, and elevated [ IC ] „ on cultured heart cells

Frog Sartorius
Fibers1

Cultured Heart Cells

Ba++

Ba++

Sr++

High [K+]„

Parameter

(0.5 mM)

(5-10 mM)

(5-10 mM)

(15-25 mM)

Membrane Resistance

Large Increase

Large Increase

Slight Increase (?)

Decreased

Resting potential

Partial Depol.

Partial Depol.

Marked Hyperpol.

No Change, or
Partial Depol.

Spontaneous action pots.

Induced3

Induced2'3

Induced3

Suppressed4

Spontaneous contractions

Induced

Induced2

Induced

Disappear

1 Muscles bathed in CD-free Ringer.

2 The action potentials are abolished with excessive depolarization, but reappear during the application of repolarizing current pulses.

3 Nonpacemaker cells are converted into pacemaker cells.

4 Pacemaker cells are converted into nonpacemaker cells.

Excitation of Myocardial Cells

49

TABLE III

Physicochemical properties of selected ions 1

Ion

Crystal

radius

(A)

Singly

hydrated

radius

(A)

Hydrated

volume

(A3)

Heat of
hydration
(kcal g ion-1)

CF

1.81

3.92

90

- 59

Na+

0.95

3.67

150

-115

K+

1.33

4.05

020)

- 90

Mg++

0.65

3.60

360

-501

Ca++

0.99

3.70

310

-428

Sr++

1.13

3.85

310

-381

Ba++

1.35

4.08

290

-347

1 Values taken from L. J. Mullins, 1961, Robinson & Stokes,
1959, and Bockris & Conway, 1954.

when these agents are used in very high concentra¬
tions and for prolonged periods of time. It is possible
that the culturing procedure and conditions, includ¬
ing trypsin dispersion and denervation of the cells,
inactivates receptor sites originally present on the
myocardial cells.

6. CELL-TO-CELL TRANSMISSION
OF EXCITATION

Some of the possible mechanisms for transmission
of excitation from cell to cell are summarized in
Figure 22. The possibility of a mechanical mecha¬
nism, whereby one cell pulls on its contiguous neigh¬
bor to depolarize it to threshold, is unlikely because
cardiac muscle propagates action potentials in the
complete absence of mechanical activity. The possi¬
bility of a nervous mechanism, i.e., a neuromuscular
junction on each myocardial cell, is unlikely for sev¬
eral reasons including the fact that denervated cul¬
tured heart cells propagate. The old hypothesis of a
branching morphological syncytium, i.e., a fusion of
cells like that occurring in the embryogenesis of
skeletal muscle fibers, has been ruled out by recent
electron microscopy which shows that the inter¬
calated discs mark cell boundaries and that there is
no cytoplasmic or membranous continuity from one
cell to the next. One successor hypothesis is that the
heart is a branching three-dimensional electrical
syncytium with very low-resistance discs. The pro¬
ponents of an electrical syncytium presume, on the
basis of no direct evidence, that the so-called “tight-
junction” regions of the intercalated discs (as well as
in the desmosomes of epithelial cells, etc.), in which
the contiguous membranes are in close apposition
without intervening interstitial fluid, are very low in
resistance and serve to connect the cells electrically.
The experiments described below show that the
heart is not a two- or three-dimensional electrical
syncytium, and some form of junctional transmis¬
sion may occur between cells. There are junctional
potentials which represent the excitatory interaction
of an activated cell upon its contiguous neighbors.
However, the junctional potential could result from
electrical ephaptic transmission across high-resistance
discs rather than from chemical synaptic transmis¬
sion. In ephaptic transmission, the depolarizing cur¬
rent source EMF for depolarization of the post¬
junctional cell comes from the prejunctional cell.

whereas in synaptic transmission, the source of the
depolarizing current is the postjunctional cell itself
when activated by a chemical mediator from the
prejunctional cell.

Table IV summarizes most of the published elec-
trophysiological evidence that the intercalated discs
are special myo-myo junctions, and some of these
data are briefly discussed below.

Electrotonus in intact adult cardiac muscle — Some
cells of the frog ventricle are observed to be elec¬
trically isolated from their neighbors during hyper¬
tonic perfusion. By applying constant-current pulses
directly between two independent microelectrodes
in frog ventricular muscle, the interelectrode resis¬
tance was measured when only one or both micro¬
electrodes were intracellular. The resistance of a
single cell is 12 MO, and that between two cell
interiors is about double and independent of inter¬
electrode distance from 0.5 mm to 10 mm. These
data suggest that cardiac muscle is not a two- or
three-dimensional electrical syncytium and that the
space constant is short.

The most direct method of determining whether
current can easily spread from one cell to another
is to measure the spread of electrotonic current. This
was done in frog and cat ventricular muscles using
double microelectrodes cemented at various dis¬
tances. A bridge circuit enabled the membrane po¬
tentials to be recorded also at the site of current
injection. At interelectrode distances of 60 p or
greater, current flow of 16 X 10~9 amp never pro¬
duces a change in potential at the second electrode,
even though large changes in membrane potential
are produced in the cell injected with current; that is,
the degree of electrotonic interaction is nearly zero.
At distances of 45 p, or less, similar currents often
produce either a large or no change in potential at
the second electrode depending on the impalement;
e.g., at 7 p., the degree of interaction was nearly

POSSIBLE MECHANISMS OF TRANSMISSION OF EXCITATION

I MORPHOLCX3ICAL
SYNCYTIUM

INTERCALATED DISC

I

DENIED BY

i

ELECTRON

i

i

i

MICROSCOPY

1 ELECTRICAL
SYNCYTIUM

SIMPLE

ELECTRICAL

TRANSMISSION

n JUNCTIONAL
TRANSMISSION

A

ELECTRICAL

EPHAPTIC

TRANSMISSION

Fig. 22 — Summary of the possible mechanisms for the
transmission of excitation from cell to cell.

50

The Virginia Journal of Science

100% in one impalement (Fig. 23 A), whereas in
the next impalement the interaction was nearly 0%
(Fig. 23 B). Thus the degree of interaction does not
simply depend on interelectrode distance. The shorter
the distance, the greater is the probability of obtain¬
ing large interactions. Of course, the probability of
impalement of the same cell by both electrodes is
greater at shorter distances.

Several criteria, including simultaneous and con¬
gruous subthreshold oscillations and decline in rest¬
ing potential due to injury, help to indicate when
both electrodes impale the same cell. Another criter¬
ion is illustrated in Figure 24 in which a frog ven¬
tricle was impaled at an interelectrode distance of
1 1 fi. Two sweeps are superimposed in each photo¬
graph: one to show the degree of interaction during
The resting potential, and the other that during the
plateau of the action potential. As shown in A, the
interaction at rest is zero and does not increase
during the plateau. In another penetration shown
in B, the electrodes had impaled the same cell which
had a low resting potential probably due to injury
from the two electrodes; the degree of interaction
is large, but it does not increase during the plateau.
C and D are sequential photographs from one pene¬
tration showing that while the two electrodes were
in the same cell, the percent interaction is large (C).
However, the contraction accompanying the action
potential caused one of the microelectrodes to leave
this cell and to impale an immediately neighboring
cell (right-hand portion of C). Then in D, while the
electrodes were in neighboring cells, the original cell
having a low resting potential and the new cell hav¬
ing a normal resting potential, the percent interaction
became zero.

Therefore, there is a step change in degree of
interaction which appears to depend on whether the
electrodes impale the same cell or neighboring cells,
and current flow through one cell does not have
substantial effect on the membrane potentials of
adjacent cells. Since there is transverse propagation
in cardiac muscle, there must be functional junctions
effectively oriented in this direction; thus there still
should be substantial electrotonic interaction between
neighboring cells not in the same fiber tract if the
mechanism of spread of excitation is purely electri¬
cal. The aoparent space constant is one cell length
(about 150 n), at which a sharp discontinuity in
current spread occurs. These data indicate that car¬
diac muscle is not a two- or three-dimensional elec¬
trical syncytium and suggest that the intercalated
discs are high resistance; if so, very little action cur¬
rent would spread across the disc into the adjoining
cell.

Interelectrode resistance and electrotonus meas¬
urements were made simultaneously with double
microelectrodes at distances of less than 30 n. When
the electrotonic interaction is nearly 100%, the
interelectrode resistance is nearly zero. When the
interaction is nearly 0%, the interelectrode resistance
is large; the percent interaction often increases
simultaneously with spontaneous depolarization due
to injury, and the resistance decreases concomitantly.
Percent interaction correlates well with resting po¬
tential and with interelectrode resistance. Thus the

TABLE IV

Summary oj the electrophysiological evidence consistent with the
intercalated discs being special cardiac myo-myo junctions

a) Presence of driving junctional prepotentials.

b) Not a two- or three-dimensional syncytium; low probability
of significant electrotonic interaction between neighboring
cells.

c) Short apparent space constant of about one cell length
(150/a); sharp discontinuity across high-resistance discs
(Rmd).

d) High input resistance (r x n) of about 10 MIL

e) Cmd (frequency-dependent longitudinal tissue impedance).

f ) Emd (resting potential across each junctional membrane).

g) No electrotonic interaction across artificial ephaptic junction
between two cultured cells.

h) Lack of spread of injury depolarization to contiguous cells.

i) Synchrony of two cultured cells connected only by a long,
narrow process.

j) Partial block of transmission from cell to cell.

k) Nonpacemaker cells not stimulated by intracellular de¬
polarizing current.

l) Quiescent cells adjacent to active ones in hypertonic solution.

m) Induction of unidirectional propagation.

n) Great sensitivity of tissue resistivity to interspace ion
depletion.

o) No low-resistance pathways between neighboring cells.

p) Direct stimulation of cells by longitudinal current.

variable and intermediate degrees of interaction often
found can be accounted for by injury of the inter¬
calated disc produced by impalement with two closely
spaced electrodes and leading to decreased resistance.
This phenomenon may be the opposite of “healing-
over,” in which injury is presumed to lead to in¬
creased resistance of intercalated discs.

Electrotonus in cultured heart cells — Electrotonic
spread of current was studied in monolayer cultures
of heart cells to reduce cardiac muscle to a one- or
two-dimensional system. As is found in intact car¬
diac muscle, the degree of interaction is not depen¬
dent on interelectrode distance per se, but appears to
depend on whether both electrodes impale the same

Fig. 23 — Typical experiments on the measurement of the
spread of electrotonic current between two closely spaced
intracellular microelectrodes in intact adult myocardium at
rest. In the experiment illustrated on one frog ventricular
trabecula, the interelectrode distance was 7 p. In one
impalement (A) the degree of electrotonic interaction dur¬
ing the application of hyperpolarizing pulses (ratio of the
changes in membrane potentials recorded by each electrode)
was high, and in some cases was nearly 100%. In other
impalements ( B ) the degree of interaction was low, ap¬
proaching 0%. Seven step increments of current applied in
A and six steps in B; bridge became unbalanced during last
four steps in A causing the loss of the potential change at
electrode 1, the site of current injection.

Excitation of Myocardial Cells

51

Fig. 24 — Three typical experiments, (A, B, and C-D)
measuring the spread of electrotonic current between two
closely spaced intracellular microelectrodes in intact frog
ventricular trabeculae at rest and during the plateau of the
action potential. The interelectrode distance was 1 1 /*. Two
successive sweeps of the cathode ray oscilloscope super¬
imposed in each photograph. A: Interaction at rest and
during the plateau was nearly 0%. B: In another impale¬
ment in which the cell was injured by the two electrodes,
the resting potential was low and the degree of interaction
was high. C-D: In another impalement in which the cell
was injured, the resting potential was low, and the degree
of interaction was high, the contraction accompanying the
action potential caused one of the electrodes to dislodge
from that cell and penetrate into a neighboring cell which
had a normal resting potential; this caused the degree of
interaction to become nearly zero.

cell. At short distances, the electrotonic interaction
is nearly 100% in some impalements, whereas in
other impalements the interaction is nearly 0%. Gen¬
erally there is only little falloff of electrotonus within
one cell. In addition to those described above, other
criteria which help to determine when both elec¬
trodes impale the same cell include: (a) a sharp
diminution of the resting potential to a common in¬
termediate level following insertion of the second
electrode; (b) graded anodal-break responses of
equal magnitude; and (c) equal changes in magni¬
tude of action potentials in driven cells produced by
polarizing current, and abolition of the spikes at
both electrodes, leaving only driving junctional po¬
tentials, with sufficient hyperpolarization.

Artificial junction experiment — Whenever cultured
cells grow naturally into physical contact with one
another, they usually beat synchronously. However,
when independently beating cells are pushed together
they do not synchronize, but continue to beat inde¬
pendently, even though large areas are in contact for
several minutes. Thus such artificial junctions do not
result in significant electrotonic interaction. Other
investigators have also observed that contiguous cul¬
tured heart cells often pulsate at different rates and

that physical contact does not necessarily result in
synchrony.

Presence of intercalated discs — Typical interca¬
lated disc structures are found in 1- to 3-week-old
monolayer cultures of ventricular cells from 8-day-
old chick embryonic hearts, in cultured rat heart
cells, and in long-term cultures of embryonic chick
hearts. This may explain why permanent physical
contact between adjacent cultured heart cells is
necessary for propagation of action potentials and
synchrony of beating.

Resting potential across each junctional membrane
— The potential profile across the functional junc¬
tion between two cells may be obtained by impaling
cultured cell doublets, joined and beating synchron¬
ously, with large microelectrodes to produce injury
depolarization of each cell. One of the cells possesses
a substantial resting potential and continues to beat
at a time when its adjoining neighbor is entirely de¬
polarized and not beating. Thus there is a sharp
discontinuity of potential between the myoplasm of
two adjoining cells across a functional junction, i.e.,
there must be a resting potential across each junc¬
tional membrane.

Lack of spread of injury depolarization — Injury
depolarization of one cell resulting from impalement,
whether in culture or in intact myocardium, does not
spread to a neighboring cell impaled by the other
electrode (see Fig. 24). This finding is often corrob¬
orated by visual observation of beating in cultured
cells.

High capacitance of intercalated discs — Experi¬
ments measuring longitudinal tissue impedance at
different sinusoidal frequencies, with and without ion
depletion of the interstitial fluid by sucrose, indicate
that the intercalated discs also possess a high ca¬
pacitance.

Synchrony of cells connected only by a long, nar¬
row process — Several times it was observed that
two isolated single cells in sparse cultures contracted
synchronously, although separated by distances up to
several hundred microns and connected only by a
long narrow process 0.5-2 p wide. Since isolated cells
beat independently of each other, the two cells must
functionally interact by means of the long process. It
is unlikely that the interaction is electrical because of
impedance mismatch; that is, action current asso¬
ciated with propagation in a narrow process may not
be sufficient to produce threshold depolarization of
a relatively large cell body.

Driving junctional potentials and partial block of
transmission — When action potentials of a myocar¬
dial cell are triggered by spread of excitation from
a neighboring cell, the driving junctional potential is
observed as a step on the rising phase. As stated
previously, the junctional potential can be further
revealed by hyperpolarizing the membrane of cul¬
tured cells sufficiently to inhibit development of
spikes. Sometimes junctional potentials without spikes
occur naturally, indicating a partial block of cell-to-
cell transmission. In such cases, a second electro-
genic component, the local excitatory potential, is
sometimes superimposed on the junctional potential
as an active response of the membrane; hyperpolariz-

52

The Virginia Journal of Science

ing current abolishes this component. A spike is al¬
ways accompanied by a contraction of the impaled
cell as well as of the neighboring cells, whereas a
junctional potential is not accompanied by contrac¬
tion of the impaled cell but only of the neighboring
cells. Thus transmission of excitation fails spontane¬
ously in many cases, the impaled cell firing in re¬
sponse to every second or third junctional potential.
Failure of transmission is increased with depressed
excitability produced by hyperpolarizing current and
decreased with enhanced excitability produced by de¬
polarizing current. Some drugs impair the transfer
of excitation from cell to cell in cultured heart cells
by causing delay and block of transmission. In some
cases, the junctional potentials become larger with
hyperpolarization and smaller with depolarization,
consistent with the notion that it is a chemical ex¬
citatory postsynaptic potential with a null point.
Junctional potentials and failure of transmission are
also observed in intact cardiac muscle. These obser¬
vations support the hypothesis of a rather labile
junctional transmission process.

Lack of stimulation of nonpacemaker cells by de¬
polarization — True and dormant pacemaker cells al¬
ways respond to very small depolarizing currents.
However, nonpacemaker cells, whether in culture or
in intact myocardium, do not respond to intracel-
lularly applied depolarizing current pulses, although
they readily respond to anodal-break stimulation.
Thus, although these cells fire large action potentials
during propagation, they fail to respond to large
electrotonic depolarizations. Intact ventricular cells
require much more intracellularly applied depolariz¬
ing current than do Purkinje fibers (55), although a
given current should depolarize a ventricular cell
much more than a Purkinje fiber since ventricular
cells are much smaller (higher rta). Excessive cur¬
rent applied intracellularly may behave effectively as
though applied extracellularly. Intracellular stimula¬
tion of smooth muscle by depolarizing pulses is also
very difficult. If the cells are separated by high-
resistance junctional membranes, then the current
probably depolarizes the entire cell membrane uni¬
formly. Hence membrane potential may not be the
sole factor involved in excitation.

Summary of morphological and histochemical
evidence — Most of the nonelectrophysiological evi¬
dence consistent with the hypothesis that the inter¬
calated discs are special myo-myo junctions are
summarized in Table V and Figure 25. Electron
microscopy has shown that the discs are cell bound¬
aries with a standard junctional gap of 200-300 A.
Ferritin particles, used as a marker, readily penetrate
into the junctional gap at the discs as well as into the
transverse sarcotubules (11); therefore fluid in the
junctional gap is continuous with the interstitial fluid.
The transverse sarcotubules, involved in excitation-
contraction coupling, also open into the junctional
gap at the disc as well as onto the cell surface. In
addition, tubules of the sarcoplasmic reticulum (flat¬
tened cisternae), analogous to the lateral elements
of triads involved in excitation-contraction coupling,
are present close to the intercalated discs, forming
“diad” structures ( 30, 37) . Enzymes which split ATP

TABLE V

Summary of the nonelectrophysiological evidence consistent with
the intercalated discs being special cardiac myo-myo junctions

I. Electron Microscopy

a) Discs represent cell boundaries; junctional gap of
~250 A.

b) Ferritin particles readily penetrate into the junctional
gap (11).

c) Sarcotubules open into the junctional gap (11).

d) No evidence that the “tight junctions” are low in re¬
sistance; they are pulled apart in hypertonic solutions.

e) Intercalated discs slowly form in cultured heart cells.

II. Light Microscopy

Fixation during fibrillation shows impulse to contraction
blocked at disc; i.e., cell on one side of disc contracted
whereas its adjoining neighbor did not (22).

III. Histochemistry

a) Alkaline phosphatase (3).

b) Acid phosphatase, 5-nucleotidase (Beckett & Bourne,
1958).

c) Acetylcholinesterase (24).

d) Periodic acid Schiff positive (mucopolysaccharides) (14)'

e) Adenosine triphosphatase (ATPase) (9).

f) Ion pump membrane ATPase (cultured cells) (60).

and ADP are present in these cisternae at the discs as
well as in the lateral elements of the triads, whereas
enzymes which split AMP are present only in the
transverse sarcotubules. Therefore the intercalated
disc appears to function in excitation-contraction
coupling as does the remaining cell surface.

Histochemical studies show that many enzymes
are localized, sometimes specifically, at or near the
intercalated discs. Included are the following: alka¬
line and acid phosphatases, 5-nucleotidase, acetyl¬
cholinesterase, ATPase, and specific ion pump mem¬
brane ATPase. The discs are also positive for
periodic acid Schiff reagent which stains the muco¬
polysaccharides present at cell surfaces.

These ultrastructural and cytochemical studies
emphasize that the intercalated discs must be con¬
sidered as cell surfaces and as cell-to-cell junctions.
Further, a light microscopic study has shown, by
fixation during fibrillation, that the impulse to con¬
traction is blocked at the intercalated disc; often a

DIAGRAMMATIC REPRESENTATION OF AN INTERCALATED DISC

FERRITIN

PARTICLES

Fig. 25 — Diagrammatic representation of an intercalated
disc which summarizes most of the nonelectrophysiological
evidence consistent with the hypothesis that the intercalated
discs are special myo-myo nonelectrical junctions.

Excitation of Myocardial Cells

53

cell on one side of a disc is fixed in a contracted
state whereas its adjoining neighbor is in a relaxed
state (22).

7. SUMMARY

An attempt was made to describe the general
electrophysiology of the myocardial cell, including
the characteristics of the action potentials, the ionic
basis of excitability and automaticity, the nature of
the coupling between contraction and excitation,
and the nature of cell-to-cell interactions. The experi¬
mental work of many investigators and several mono¬
graphs were drawn upon for this review. In several
controversial areas the opinion of the author was ex¬
pressed.

Several very general summarizing statements can
be made: (1) The electrogenesis of the resting po¬
tential and action potential in heart muscle is similar
to that in nerve and skeletal muscle twitch fibers,
and specifically, the Na+ hypothesis of Hodgkin and
Huxley probably also applies to cardiac muscle.
(2) The plateau component accounts for some of
the peculiar properties of cardiac muscle. (3) Many
of the electrophysiological properties of monolayer
cultures of heart cells are similar to those of cells
in intact adult hearts, hence they make a good
preparation with which to answer some fundamental
questions on heart muscle. (4) The individual myo¬
cardial cell is the smallest viable unit for electrical
and mechanical activity characteristic of cardiac
muscle. (5) Any myocardial cell can be converted
into pacemaker behavior, and one condition neces¬
sary for automaticity is a low gK; automaticity may
be controlled physiologically by changes in gK. (6)
Propagation can occur in a single chain of cells.
(7) Cardiac muscle is not a two- or three-dimen¬
sional branching electrical syncytium. (8) A process
of junctional transmission occurs for transmission of
excitation from cell to cell.

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35. Rayns, D. G., Simpson, F. O., and Bertaud. W. S.,
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54

The Virginia Journal of Science

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Excitation of Myocardial Cells

55

'• My

A HISTORY

of the

VIRGINIA ACADEMY
OF SCIENCE

1923-1945

by

HARRY JOSEPH STAGGERS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The writer wishes to express his appreciation to Professors William G. Guy,
Stanley B. Williams, John E. Selby and William W. Abbot for their help in the
preparation of this thesis. The author would also like to thank the Virginia
Academy of Science for their generous grant, which led to the presentation of this
material as a thesis in the Department of History, The College of William and
Mary in Virginia, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Master of Arts.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Acknowledgments 58

Abstract 60

Chapter I. THE BEGINNING 61

Chapter II. THE YEARS OF GROWTH AND AGGRESSIVE WORK 68
Chapter III. THE WAR YEARS 76

Appendices

Charter Members of the Virginia Academy of Science 83

Officers of the Academy 1923-1945 86

Recipients of the J. Shelton Horsley Research Award 89

Bibliography 89

ABSTRACT

The purpose of this study is to survey the history of the Virginia Academy of
Science from its inception in the minds of the scientists connected with the Asso¬
ciation of Virginia Biologists in the early 1920’s on through the Second World War.

This essay deals in the main with political events in the history of the academy.
It concerns itself with the men who guided the academy and the decisions which
they made. And it attempts to present chronologically the important developments
and concerns of the Virginia Academy of Science.

Chapter T

The Beginning

During Thanksgiving week in November of 1920 nine biologists representing
various institutions of higher learning in the state of Virginia met in Richmond
at John Marshall High School to plan and organize an association for Virginia
biologists. Those in attendance were Flora Bryson, East Radford Normal School;
W. L. Dolley, Randolph Macon College at Ashland; P. F. Fackenthall. Medical
College of Virginia; H. E. Hayden, Jr., and Paul Merriman, University of Rich¬
mond; Ivey F. Lewis, University of Virginia; and Donald W. Davis and E. J.
Grimes, College of William and Mary.1 Professor Hayden of the University of
Richmond made the motion that such an association be formed and Professor
Dolley of Randolph Macon seconded it. The assembled scientists unanimously
adopted the motion.2

Dr. Ivey F. Lewis of the University of Virginia was elected president of the
new Association of Virginia Biologists. Dr. Horace E. Hayden vice president,
Dr. Donald W. Davis of William and Mary secretary-treasurer, and W. D. Hoyt
of Washington and Lee University and F. B. Fromme of Virginia Polytechnic
Institute composed a two-man Executive Committee.3 These officers worked
swiftly and in two months, on January 29, 1921, the first full meeting of the
Association was held at the University of Virginia with twenty biologists in
attendance.4 From that meeting of nine biologists at a Richmond high school in
1920 was to come the Virginia Academy of Science which within twenty years
could boast of nearly one thousand members.

In April of 1922 the second annual meeting of the Association of Virginia
Biologists was held on the campus of Randolph Macon Woman’s College at
Lynchburg. At this time the Association authorized its Executive Committee,
composed of the recently elected officers — President W. D. Hoyt, Vice President
Donald W. Davis, Secretary-Treasurer W. L. Dolley — and Horace E. Hayden of
Richmond, J. I. Hamaker of Randolph Macon Woman’s College, and former
President Ivey F. Lewis, to begin working towards the formation of an academy
of science for Virginia.5

Dr. Davis, as vice president of the Association of Virginia Biologists from
April 1922 until April 1923, played an important part in laying the groundwork
for the formation of the Virginia Academy of Science. Davis’s correspondence
makes it clear that Secretary-Treasurer Dolley and President Hoyt found his
counsel both wise and stimulating. As early as the first of November 1922 Davis
noted in letters to both Dolley and Hoyt that work on the academy was progressing
very well; a list of prospective members was rapidly being compiled by Dr. Paul
A. Warren of William and Mary and Dean Wortley F. Rudd of the School
of Pharmacy at the Medical College of Virginia. Davis hoped that invitations
could be sent to the men selected for academy membership to attend a planning
session sometime in November at Richmond.0

The Christmas holiday and the beginning of the spring semester in 1923 slipped
by with little more being accomplished, as the middle of February found the
biologists still concerned with sending out invitations to various scientists in the
state. The problem of composing a suitable letter of invitation seems to have
devolved on Dr. Dolley of Randolph Macon as secretary of the organization.
However, Dolley requested Ivey F. Lewis, the first president of the Association,
to draft an invitation over his own signature for the Association of Virginia
Biologists. The invitation was also to be signed by leading scientists of other
disciplines throughout the state and then circulated among prospective members.7
Dolley. writing to Davis in March of 1923, made his reason for asking Lewis

1 Organisation and Proceed¬
ings 1923-1924, 3; George W.
Jeffers, History of the Virginia
Academy of Science, 6. Jeffers’
manuscript is in the possession
of the Virginia Academy of
Science, Virginia Institute for
Scientific Research, Richmond,
Virginia. The paginations refer
to the sequential pagination I
have pencilled on the manu¬
script.

2 Jeffers, History, 7.

3 Proceedings 1923-1924, 3.

1 Jeffers, History, 8.

r> Proceedings 1923-1924, 5.

8 Donald W. Davis to W. L.
Dolley, Williamsburg, Oct. 31,
1922; and Davis to W. D. Hoyt,
Williamsburg, Oct. 31, 1922,
both in Dr. Donald W. Davis
Papers, Earl Gregg Swem Li¬
brary, College of William and
Mary, Williamsburg, Va.

7 Ivey F. Lewis to Davis,
Charlottesville, Va., Feb. 28,
1923, Davis Papers.

History of Virginia Academy of Science

61

8 W. L. Dolley to Davis,
Ashland, Va., March 8, 1923,
Davis Papers.

9 Davis to Lewis, Williams¬
burg, March 8, 1923, Davis

Papers.

10 Proceedings 1923-1924, 5.

11 Ibid 6-7.

12 Ibid. See Appendix A for
list of charter members.

13 Jeffers, History, 4.

to write the letter quite explicit. “Don’t you think,” he asked, “that the biologists
should have as their representative in this important movement the most prominent
biologist in the state? I feel that Dr. Lewis is the man to attend to this.” 8

Dr. Lewis drafted a letter of invitation and sent it from Charlottesville to Dr.
Davis in Williamsburg early in March 1923. A few days later Davis wrote back
suggesting some minor alterations but on the whole approving what Lewis had
done.0 In addition to Dr. Lewis, who signed for the biologists and their Associa¬
tion, a number of men from other scientific disciplines signed the letter: Graham
Edgar, professor of chemistry, University of Virginia; B. G. Childs, professor of
education, Randolph Macon College; H. D. Campbell, professor of geology,
Washington and Lee University; Joseph E. Rowe, professor of mathematics, College
of William and Mary; Wortley F. Rudd, professor of chemistry, Medical College
of Virginia (for the medical sciences); George O. Ferguson, professor of psy¬
chology and education, University of Virginia; and Frank Bane, commissioner
of public welfare, Commonwealth of Virginia (for sociology).10 The invitational
letter was mimeographed and distributed, and on April 26, 1923, scholars repre¬
senting a full range of scientific interests converged on Williamsburg, both for the
third and last annual convention of the Association of Virginia Biologists and
for the first annual meeting of the Virginia Academy of Science.

The procedure followed at this organizational meeting of the Academy, although
it has been greatly expanded, has remained the standard for all subsequent meet¬
ings. Eighteen papers, almost half of which dealt with biology, were presented
by those in attendance. Five of those reading papers were from William and
Mary and four were from the University of Virginia.

After the papers had been heard and William and Mary’s President J. A. C.
Chandler had welcomed the Academy on behalf of the College, Dr. W. C. Coker,
a former president of the North Carolina Academy of Science, addressed the
delegates on “The Scope and Function of a State Academy of Science.”11

At the conclusion of this first meeting in Williamsburg the charter members of
the Academy numbered 135. According to special interest the distribution was as
follows: biology, 55; chemistry, 27; medical science, 27; physics and mathe¬
matics, 26; psychology and education, 18; geology, 10; and sociology and eco¬
nomics, 9. 12

The new Academy elected officers for the ensuing year and chose for its
president Dr. Ivey F. Lewis whose reputation and hard work had done so much
toward making the Virginia Academy of Science a reality. There has been some
dispute among Academy members as to whether Dr. Lewis should be considered
the founder of the Academy. It appears that several people favored an academy,
indeed several people worked tirelessly toward that end: President Lewis, Doctors
Davis and Warren of William and Mary, Hoyt of Washington and Lee, Dolley
of Randolph Macon and others. However, it was, in the words of Dr. Dolley,
“the most prominent biologist in the state,” Dr. Lewis, who was requested to
assume the leadership of this project. And, although Dr. Lewis certainly could
not have accomplished the task alone, it was unquestionably under his immediate
guidance that the organization was founded and under his leadership as presi¬
dent that it began its successful career.

Dr. George W. Jeffers, president of the Virginia Academy of Science 1941-42
and the man responsible for collecting much of the information dealing with the
Academy’s history, described Lewis as “the adept compromiser whose gracious¬
ness and gentility of manner commanded the respect of scientists and public alike,
and assured that sort of harmony without which no organization can pros¬
per. . . ,”13 Lewis was a man of ability and character; his honored position in the
annals of the Virginia Academy of Science is undoubtedly secure.

Another individual elected to office in the Academy at its first meeting in Wil¬
liamsburg in 1923 was to serve the Academy unselfishly for nearly three decades.
In the course of time he was to eclipse everyone in his knowledge of the organiza¬
tion and was to become known in common parlance as “Mr. Academy.” This
man was the permanent secretary-treasurer of the Academy, Dr. E. C. L. Miller
of the Medical College of Virginia. The accolades Dr. Miller received from all
who knew him are overwhelming; no man could retire from the presidency of
the Academy without recognizing the great debt of gratitude he owed Dr. Miller.
“A man of balanced calm and profundity,” he “became the Academy’s gyroscope

62

The Virginia Journal of Science

as well as its pilot; he mastered every detail of its constitution and of its organi¬
zation; he came to know its members and he made himself constantly available —
to do the chores, to suggest, and to stimulate, and he did everything with becom¬
ing modesty, happy only in the success of the new movement.” 14 As Dr. Lewis
was to say some forty years later when recounting the selection of Miller as
secretary-treasurer: “We hit the jackpot.”15

Also elected at the organizational meeting as members of the Executive Com¬
mittee were G. O. Ferguson, Jr., of the University of Virginia, Henry Louis Smith
of Washington and Lee University, and R. C. Young of William and Mary. Great
challenges, some destined to become disappointing failures and others to become
exhilarating successes, lay before these elected officers and their young Academy.
The organization had been forged, now it was a question of making it function.
These men were in the main strangers to each other; “they could not be certain
who among them would work well in harness or which ones were likely to break
under pressure.”16 However, with Miller as the lead horse, the Academy was
always to find a sufficient number of other “horses” to fill the traces.

The second annual meeting of the Academy was held on the campus of Wash¬
ington and Lee University at Lexington on May 2-3, 1924. About fifty members
attended, which indicates that the Academy was on fairly firm ground at the
end of its first year of operation. A program of 22 papers and field trips by car
from Lexington to Natural Bridge and Goshen Pass were held.1' It was at this
meeting that the University of Virginia began its long, almost uninterrupted,
domination of the scholarly program presented at the annual conventions. Vir¬
ginia accounted for 8 of the 19 papers read, while the Medical College of Vir¬
ginia, the University of Richmond, Virginia Polytechnic Institute, and Washington
and Lee, accounted for two each.

At this stage of the Academy’s development, although scientists from various
disciplines and even some nonscientists were members, the biology group was,
by dint of its earlier organization, far and away the strongest section. In 1924
two more distinct sections were added to the Academy roster. The Virginia Section
of the American Chemical Society voted to hold its spring meeting in conjunction
with the Virginia Academy. A working affiliation was immediately struck up
and the chemists became the Chemical Section of the Academy while retaining
their separate identity as a section of the American Chemical Society.ls Also at
this second meeting of the Academy, the Virginia Society for the Study of Educa¬
tion, under the guidance of Dr. John Preston McConnell of the State Teachers
College at East Radford, became the Education and Psychology Section of the
Academy, thus boosting the number of organized sections in the Academy to
three.16

There was at the 1924 meeting one issue which stole the show, as it were, from
the regular order of Academy business. Dr. George O. Ferguson, a member of
the Executive Committee and professor of psychology and education at the Uni¬
versity of Virginia, wrote to President Lewis in the summer of 1923 and broached
the question of what the Academy might do to thwart the rising tide of anti¬
evolutionary sentiment that was sweeping across the nation and the South in
particular. “If Mr. Bryan comes this way,” Ferguson wrote, “I hope we may issue
a statement.” William Jennings Bryan, it appears, did not make it to the Old
Dominion, but, nevertheless, more suggestions were forthcoming that the Academy
formulate a definite statement on evolution.20

President Lewis came to recognize the issue as one of importance and solicited
the advice of his Executive Committee as to what would be the best tack for
the Academy to take. In a circular letter dated April 21, 1924, Lewis pointed
out that “it has been suggested that the Academy may perform a useful service
at this time by drawing up a statement as to the status of the theory of evolution
among scientists.” Without hesitation Lewis cited what he considered to be the
more common misconceptions about evolution: “that evolution teaches that man
is descended from the monkey; that evolution is necessarily irreligious; that evolu¬
tion is synonymous with Darwinism; that there is no evidence for evolution; and
that there is a wide difference of opinion among scientists as to its truth.” In
closing the president summed up by saying, “it is a nice question. May I have the
benefit of your opinion as to whether it is wise for the Academy to make any
pronouncement on the subject?” 21

14 Jeffers, History, 5.

i * Ibid., 17.

i« Ibid., 16.

17 Proceedings 1923-1924, 13-
15.

18 Jeffers, History, 15-16.

19 Proceedings, 1923-1924 , 14.

20 Jeffers, History, 21.

21 Lewis to the Executive
Committee of the Virginia
Academy of Science, Char¬
lottesville, April 21, 1924, Dr.
Ivey F. Lewis Papers, Virginia
Institute for Scientific Re¬
search.

History of Virginia Academy of Science

63

--Jeffers, History, 21.

Dr. George W. Jeffers in his unpublished History of the Virginia Academy of
Science has maintained that “the response was not clear-cut: nobody came out
with an unequivocal ‘no,’ most gave a qualified ‘yes’.”22 It was abundantly clear
that one member of the Executive Committee, Dr. Ferguson of the University of
Virginia, wanted to issue a statement. However, two other members of the
Executive Committee were somewhat more cautious in their consent. H. L. Smith

23 H. L. Smith to Lewis, Lex¬
ington, Va., April 23, 1924,

Lewis Papers.

of Washington and Lee thought that a carefully worded resolution on the con¬
troversy “might be wise,” but showed evident apprehension as he argued, “on the
other hand, in such an ultra-conservative state as Virginia, it might excite the
extreme fundamentalists, who I fear are quite numerous in the Old Dominion, to
greater alarm and more violent efforts at repression than ever.” 23 The third
member of the committee, R. C. Young of William and Mary, also appeared
cautious when he said “it should be made clear that our purpose in doing this is
to give information and allay misapprehension” concerning the evolution issue.
Dr. Young was also somewhat ill at ease about the power of an aroused funda¬

24 R. C. Young to Lewis,
Williamsburg, April 24, 1924,
Lewis Papers.

mentalist concentration in Virginia; his main concern, it appears, was avoiding a
public confrontation on the evolution issue. 24

Secretary E. C. L. Miller was more positive in his reply to Lewis. “It is hard
for me,” he said, “to see the necessity for a statement concerning evolution be¬

25 E. C. L. Miller to Lewis,
Richmond, Va., April 23, 1924,
Lewis Papers.

cause with me it is as common place and fundamental an assumption as that the
sun will rise tomorrow.” Miller summed up the dilemma best when he noted that
“it is a question whether any statement we could make would have any effect on
them”; however, “it certainly would do no harm to state what evolution is. . .
Lewis held the casting vote: while Young and Smith cautioned against reaction,
Miller and Ferguson counseled for action.

26 Ivey F. Lewis, . “Church
and Science,” Proccedinqs 1923-
1924, 16.

Lewis chose to meet the issue head on. In a speech entitled “Church and
Science” which he delivered as the retiring president of the Academy, Lewis
waded into the evolution melee with both arms swinging. “The alarm that is being
felt by many good men over the apparent conflict between things of the intellect
and things of the spirit is a recurring phenomenon in human history,” he asserted.
“Science must defend itself anew as it has often done in the past.”26 Lewis then
endeavored to show that the Old Testament was no longer the literal guideline
for “morals, religious observance, or even belief.” Indeed, he pointed out that
killing witches, burning bullocks, and stoning blasphemers were unacceptable to
the modern Christian as a means of communion with God; and, if this be the

27 Ibid., 17.

actual circumstance, the president asked, “why do we not trust the spirit of truth
to lead us?”27

Ibid., 20-21.

After scanning the history of scientific achievement and dwelling on particular
men who suffered for the knowledge they gave mankind, Lewis turned again to
the present problem. “There seems, however,” he said, “to be some confusion in
the minds of the ecclesiastical leaders as to which particular windmill is being
tilted at. The words Darwinism and evolution are most frequently used, in evident
ignorance that the two are different. The fact of evolution may be regarded as
proved, just as the fact of gravitation is proved. Darwin’s theory to account for
it, on the other hand, is not only not proved, but is subject to revision like any
other theory. . . . But the fact of evolution stands on quite other grounds.” 28

The president reached the high point of his address when he charged “that the
movement to curb the teaching of evolution is not a trivial thing. . . .” It “has

29 Ibid., 21.

become evident to all who love liberty and believe in truth” that “in the absence
of the rack and the thumbscrew, dozens of college professors and many public
school teachers have been forced to resign or have been summarily dismissed.” 29
In conclusion, Lewis relied on the words of another leader in the struggle

30 Ibid., 23.

against the anti-evolution forces. Dr. William L. Poteat, president of Wake Forest
College and himself a trained biologist. As Dr. Poteat put it: “Christ said Himself,
'I am the Truth.’ Welcome Truth. Lay hold upon her. She is your life. And do
not stop to calculate the adjustment and revision her fresh coming will necessitate.
Welcome her, and the old Truth, after the manner of all life, will organize itself
about the new revelation. For Truth is sovereign. She comes from God and
bears His message, from whatever quarter her great eyes may look down upon
you.” 30

With this admonishment to seek the truth and ever to defend it. President Lewis
rang down the curtain on the first year of the Virginia Academy of Science. The

64

The Virginia Journal of Science

Academy was not to have another year as dramatic as its first one until the out¬
break of World War II.

Sometime after the first meeting had drawn to a close a 27-page booklet en¬
titled Organization and Proceedings 1923—1924 was published by the office of
the secretary. Both the 1923 and 1924 meetings were covered by this publica¬
tion; however, in the future the Proceedings, as the booklet came to be called,
was to be published on an annual basis. The program of the meeting as well as
the minutes, reports, and a list of members were included. In time, abstracts of
the scholarly papers presented to the Academy would be added and the annual
Proceedings began to run well over 100 pages.

At the invitation of its Chemical Section, the Academy held its third annual
meeting in Richmond on May 1-2, 1925. The University of Richmond, Randolph
Macon College, and the Medical College of Virginia all joined forces to sponsor
the meeting. Although various groupings of scientists had become members of
the Academy, the 1 925 meeting was the first at which the various sections or
interest groups met separately and held their own programs. The four sections
which met individually in 1925 to hear learned papers and to elect section officers
were the Astronomy, Mathematics, and Physics Section, the Biology Section, the
Psychology and Education Section, and the Chemical Section (which continued
to be called the Virginia Section of the American Chemical Society).31

Dr. George O. Ferguson of the University of Virginia served as chairman of
the Psychology and Education Section meeting at which about forty persons
heard five papers. The Astronomy, Mathematics, and Physics Section, apparently
operating without a designated chairman, attracted approximately thirty people
to a program of nine papers. Dr. Donald W. Davis of William and Mary pre¬
sided over the Biology Section, which had about 100 persons in attendance to
hear the presentation of 15 papers, and the Chemical Section under President
H. K. McConnell of Richmond also had about 100 interested listeners for its
program of 13 papers,32

At this annual meeting the Virginia Academy of Science voted to become a
member of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, a national
organization made up both of individual members and of autonomous state and
local science clubs and academies.31 The American Association for the Advance¬
ment of Science, commonly referred to as “the Triple-A S,” has published since
1883 a weekly magazine called Science.

Three major events occurred at this first Richmond meeting which were to have
far-reaching effects on the Academy for years to come. The first came in the form
of a motion submitted by Dr. Donald Davis of William and Mary. Dr. Davis’s
resolution was that the incoming president, Dr. Robert E. Loving of the Uni¬
versity of Richmond, be authorized to name a committee to concern itself with the
advancement of scientific research in Virginia.34 Davis was also responsible for a
motion to have the Southern Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools
amend its Standard Seven entitled “Number of Class Room Hours for Teachers,”
which read: “Teaching schedules exceeding 16 hours per week per instructor
shall be interpreted as endangering education efficiency. In general, two laboratory
hours will be counted as equivalent to one recitation hour.” Davis sought the
deletion of the second sentence, the effect being to count a laboratory hour the
same as a recitation hour. ' The first motion was carried, the second was laid on
the table; both, however, would be heard from again.

The event of most consequence at the third meeting of the Academy was the
report of the secretary. It was not the factual data which the secretary provided
but rather the general tenor of the report which was of most significance. In this,
his first such report to the Academy, Secretary E. C. L. Miller summarized the
Academy’s year, inserted several personal policy suggestions, and announced that
he had ordered the identification badges which the delegates were wearing, and,
in addition, had had the books audited — all without any specific authorization
on the part of the Academy.36 Miller was beginning with his first report a tradi¬
tion which was to grow ever stronger during his years as secretary — for the secre¬
tary to act with almost complete independence on behalf of the Academy.

Presidents were elected on a yearly basis and, in time, a president-elect was
designated a year in advance of his term to allow for greater executive con¬
tinuity. However, the real power in the Academy did not rest with the president,

31 Proceedings 1924-1925, 7.

32 Ibid., 7-11.

33 Ibid., 12.

34 Ibid., 12.

35 Ibid., 13.

36 Ibid., 4-5.

History of Virginia Academy of Science

65

37 Proceedings 1924-1925, 7.

38 Ibid., 10.

33 Ibid., 9.

«' Ibid., 7.

41 Walter S. Flory, Research
Committee History, 2, 3, 5,

Manuscript, Virginia Institute
for Scientific Research.

42 Jeffers, History, 5.

43 Proceedings 1925-1926, 5.

the president-elect, or with the Council, as the Executive Committee and officers
acting in concert were known; the single largest repository of both authority and
responsibility was in the office of the secretary-treasurer, and in the person of
E. C. L. Miller, who filled that position from 1923 until he became secretary-
treasurer emeritus in 1950. The Virginia Academy of Science members willingly
deferred to the secretary's sure-handed leadership, to a leadership which in¬
creased in ability year after year as the complexities of the Academy multiplied.

The report of the secretary was commended by the convention for the very
evident efficient manner in which Dr. Miller had gone about his and the Academy’s
business.1' President after president was to pay tribute to, and general meeting
after general meeting was to commend, the way in which Miller guided the
Academy. The third annual meeting ended, as innumerable more were to end,
with E. C. L. Miller receiving the justified applause of the Virginia Academy of
Science.

The fourth annual meeting was held at the University of Virginia in Charlottes¬
ville on May 7-8, 1926. At this convention the Academy concerned itself with
several special projects, all of which were to grow in importance to the scientists
of the state in the years ahead. A motion was made by W. D. Hoyt of Wash¬
ington and Lee and was carried by the members to the effect that the Academy
should investigate and work to halt the spoliation of Virginia’s natural areas.
A committee was appointed for this purpose, and a long history of concern for
the preservation of natural resources, which in time was to bring the Academy
into league with several other state societies interested in the same problem,
began.38

Three other major committees received their first formal recognition at this
1926 conclave. The Committee on the Botanic Division of the Biological Section
on the preparation of a flora of Virginia was given, through a motion sponsored
by Dr. Lewis, a fifty-dollar grant to begin its work.39 Both of Dr. Davis’s mo¬
tions made at the 1925 meeting were to meet with Academy approval. Strictly
speaking the Committee on the Encouragement of Research in Virginia, suggested
by Dr. Davis, had already received approval as it had been given the green light
to organize in October of 1925. Along with Chairman J. Shelton Horsley, John
H. Yoe of the University of Virginia and Frederick W. Shaw of the Medical
College of Virginia constituted the committee when it presented its first formal
report in 1926. 40

In addition to its report the committee had a booklet printed containing a
summary of the results of a questionnaire sent to the institutions of higher learn¬
ing in the state. This pamphlet, which was handed out to the delegates, presented
detailed information on instructors, persons engaged in research, research appara¬
tus, research funds, student loads, encouragement of research, and scientific
libraries. It also made several suggestions, the most important of which called
for establishing “an annual award for a ‘particularly meritorious’ paper read
before the Academy.” Horsley’s report also recommended that a five-member
research committee be set up on a rotating basis and that research be encouraged
“in every way possible.”41

Dr. Horsley, as well as being chairman of the Research Committee, was a
nationally prominent surgeon and was elected the Academy’s fourth president at
Charlottesville in 1926. It was largely through Dr. Horsley’s personal efforts
in the ensuing year that an endowment fund of more than $8,000 was solicited
and raised for the permanent Research Committee. The J. Shelton Horsley Re¬
search Award is presented today by the Academy in honor of Dr. Horsley’s con¬
tribution to the Academy.42

The second of Dr. Davis’s resolutions, tabled at the preceding meeting and
concerned with Standard Seven of the Southern Association of Secondary Schools
and Colleges, was turned over to a committee headed by Dr. W. A. Kepner of
the University of Virginia. Dr. Kepner and his committee attempted to get the
Southern Association to change its ruling that two hours in the laboratory were
equivalent to only one hour spent in the classroom.43

Secretary Miller urged that there be more individual Virginia memberships in
the American Association for the Advancement of Science and reported that the
Virginia Academy had grown from about 150 members in 1923 to some 315
members by the 1926 gathering. Guests and members registered at Charlottes-

66

The Virginia Journal of Science

ville numbered 187 and 73 papers, about half presented by scientists from the
University, were read at the two-day meeting.44 Seven sustaining colleges, institu¬
tions which gave $10 a year to the Academy, were listed on the membership
roster. They were the College of William and Mary, Hollins College, Medical
College of Virginia, Randolph Macon Woman’s College, Sweet Briar College,
University of Virginia, and Virginia Polytechnic Institute. The secretary also noted
that other colleges should assume such a responsibility.45 The evolution contro¬
versy had still not been settled. Dr. Lewis was appointed by President Loving as
a committee of one to report to the AAAS any attempt made in Virginia to re¬
strain the freedom necessary for teaching or the prosecution of scientific re¬
search.45 Thus the first three years of the Academy were brought to a close. The
future concealed a depression and a war, but the foundation was strong, the
Academy would prosper.

44 Proceedings 1925-1926, 12.

45 Ibid., 3-4.

40 Ibid., 4-5.

History of Virginia Academy of Science

67

Chapter II

The Years ot Growth and
Aggressive Work

1 Proceedings, 1926-1927 , 4.

" Ibid., 11.

3 Ibid., 7.

1 Ibid., 9.

-Ibid., 11,

6 Interview with Dr. William
G. Guy, Williamsburg, Va.,
July 1, 1966.

7 Proceedings, 1926-1927 , 3.

A s was to be the case so often, action on the part of Secretary Miller high-
f\ lighted the fifth annual meeting of the Academy held in East Radford and
Blacksburg with Radford College and Virginia Polytechnic Institute serving as
the host institutions on May 6-7, 1927. Miller reported that the Research
Committee, which met in Richmond on October 9, 1926, had established a fifty-
dollar research award.1 Later, Dr. Donald W. Davis of William and Mary,
acting chairman of the Research Committee, announced that the first award of
fifty dollars in gold had been presented to Dr. C. C. Spiedel of the University of
Virginia for his paper on “Regenerative Phenomena Under Conditions of Hyper¬
thyroidism.” 2 However, the University of Virginia, even though it could claim
the first research award winner, for the first time since the 1923 meeting of the
Academy had to share its domination of the program with another institution:
scientists from Virginia Polytechnic Institute read 21 papers while those from the
university read 22.

Miller recommended that the Academy, because of the large sum of money
collected for the research endowment fund, seek incorporation from the Virginia
State Legislature. President Horsley, who was responsible for raising the fund,
appointed Miller chairman of a committee to work for the incorporation of the
Academy. He also chose Dr. Earl Gregg Swem of William and Mary to head a
committee charged with the responsibility of drawing up “suitable certificates,”
i.e., a seal, for the Academy.3

A motion offered by Dr. John H. Yoe of the University of Virginia in behalf
of the Resolutions Committee was adopted by the Academy to the effect that a
fifth section, to be known as the Section on Miscellaneous Topics, be established."
There is no record of the Miscellaneous Topics Section’s ever having met as a
separate section to hear papers, nor was any mention made of its existence in
ensuing copies of the Proceedings.

Dr. Sidney S. Negus of the Medical College of Virginia was nominated on a
motion by Dr. Paul A. Warren of William and Mary to be the “publicity man”
for the Academy.5 According to Dr. William G. Guy, chairman of the Department
of Chemistry at the College of William and Mary since 1946 and president of the
Academy (1957-58), Negus was the “best public relations man an organization
ever had. It was the thoughtfulness of Sid Negus which distinguished him from
other men. He can’t be replaced.”6

Secretary Miller had the final word on the 1927 convention when he noted in
the Proceedings sometime after the annual meeting closed that “the first three
years of the Academy were given up largely to growth. Having attained a mem¬
bership of more than three hundred, and having become established as a needed
and a successful institution, it is entirely appropriate that during this year, our
fourth year, the Academy should have undertaken some lines of aggressive work.”
Specifically what Dr. Miller had in mind was the Academy’s appointing com¬
mittees to compile a flora of Virginia and encourage research in the state.7 Both
were to justify the secretary’s faith in “aggressive work.”

The Academy returned to the site of its founding, Williamsburg, for its sixth
annual meeting on May 4-5, 1928, when the College of William and Mary served
as the host institution. The second Williamsburg meeting was marked by the
successful completion of the work of both E. C. L. Miller’s and Earl Gregg

68

The Virginia Journal of Science

Swem’s committees. Miller reported that, with the minor exception of some slight
extension of the purpose of the Virginia Academy of Science as stated in the con¬
stitution of the organization, the incorporation went through smoothly.8 Dr.
Swem then submitted his report on the seal. The symbols for the seal were drawn
in the main from the history of Virginia. The seal consisted of three concentric
circles, forming two rings around an open area in the center of the seal. In the
outer ring was inscribed “Virginia Academy of Science.” Printed around the
inner ring were the names of four of the Old Dominion's most outstanding scien¬
tists: John Clayton, Thomas Jefferson, Matthew Fontaine Maury, and Walter
Reed. The circular area in the center of the seal was decorated with the state
flower — dogwood in bloom at the top and a dogwood still in bud at the bottom.
In the space remaining between the dogwood emblems the motto of the Academy,
Ignorantia supremus tyrannus, was inscribed. Swem noted that the motto was
suggested to him by the motto on the Virginia State Seal “Death to tyrants,” and
that, although the Virginia Academy motto meant “Ignorance is the greatest
tyrant,” it also implied, “Death to ignorance,”9 The Proceedings, 1927-1928
was the first Academy publication embossed with the new seal.

Two more sections were added to the Academy roster, the Geology Section1"
and the Virginia Section of the Society of American Bacteriologists.11 The bac¬
teriologists joined through affiliation similar to that arranged in 1924 between the
Academy and the Virginia Section of the American Chemical Society. The Bac¬
teriology Section presented a full program at the 1929 meeting in Staunton, but
was not active thereafter until 1942 when it was revived. More than one third
of the papers read were prepared by men from the University of Virginia. Both
William and Mary and Virginia Polytechnic sponsored 7 speakers, and the uni¬
versity 23.

Several resolutions came before the assembly. Miss Ida Sitler of Hollins Col¬
lege proposed that the Academy go on record in support of wildlife sanctuaries.12
Miss Sitler’s motion was carried as were two resolutions proposed by Dr. W. D.
Hoyt of Washington and Lee. Hoyt won Academy support for a proposal which
called for the State of Virginia to recognize scientific endeavor as a worthwhile
state project and to lend its resources to the fostering and encouraging of such
work. Also Hoyt recommended, and the Academy approved, that the Committee
on the Preservation of Natural Resources set up in 1926 make a survey of the
state for suitable areas of preservation; and, after locating such areas, to begin
working immediately for the adoption of a conservation program.13

Obviously the meetings of the Executive Committee had begun to take on more
significance as Secretary Miller recorded the minutes of the Council meeting for
the first time and submitted them to the members in the Proceedings, 1927—1928 ;14
and also for the first time. Miller, as treasurer, was forced to acknowledge a deficit
of $58 for the year. Nevertheless, the Academy still had a $500 balance.15

The president of the Academy was chosen by the delegates as their regular
representative to the annual Christmas meeting of the American Association for
the Advancement of Science, with the secretary-treasurer being designated as the
alternate.16 This procedure, however, was only to be in effect for one year, as it
was destined to be altered to represent more realistically the organizational struc¬
ture of the Academy.

Staunton Military Academy and the city of Staunton served as hosts of the
seventh annual meeting in 1929. Dr. W. D. Hoyt’s work with the Preservation
of Natural Resources Committee came before the convention when Dr. Hoyt
presented his report and then directed the meeting’s attention to the fact that
Goshen Pass, an area for whose conservation the committee had been actively
engaged, was going to be dammed up and would serve as the site for a power
plant. Several comments were made and resolutions adopted which called for
the Virginia Academy to resist the planned project.” The Academy and the
Garden Clubs of Virginia subsequently combined to fight the hydroelectric project.
Although there is no way to measure the effect of these two organizations, the
fact is that there is still no dam at Goshen Pass.18

In the 1929 meeting the scientists revealed not only their regard for Virginia’s
scenic beauty, but also for their own pocketbooks. In meetings of both the
Council and the general convention, the delegates opposed the imposition of a
duty on imported scientific instruments. Dr. Garnett Ryland of the University

8 Proceedings, 1927-1928, 10-
11.

9 Ibid., 11.

10 Ibid., 7.

11 Ibid., 22.

12 Ibid., 12.

18 Ibid., 13.

11 Ibid., 16.
13 Ibid., 18.

la Ibid.. 17.

it Proceedings, 1928-1929, 13.

18 Jeffers, History, 115.

History of Virginia Academy of Science

69

19 Proceedings, 1928-1929, 17.

2« Ibid., 22.

21 Ibid., 15.

22 Ibid., 22.

23 Proceedings, 1929-1930, 9.

27 [bid., 3.

25 Ibid.. 3.

26 Proceedings, 1930-1931, 16-
17.

27 Jeffers, History, 51.

23 Proceedings, 1930-1931, 18-
19.

29 Ibid., 21.

of Richmond gave voice to the discontent when he and the Academy resolved:
“That the Virginia Academy of Science protests against a higher duty on scien¬
tific apparatus and urges the restoration of the former privilege of duty-free
importation of scientific supplies for educational and research institutions.” 19 The
Academy thus went on record in opposition to programs of both the State and
Federal Governments.

Dr. Miller was the central figure in two acts at this convention. Dr. Ryland
moved that the secretary be paid a flat annual salary which would be more in
keeping with the dignity of his office than the forty cents per member which ac¬
crued to him each fiscal year under the system in operation.20 A special session
of the Council took this proposal under advisement and set the honorarium for
the secretary’s services at $150 per annum.21

Former President R. E. Loving of Richmond succeeded in convincing the
Council to rescind the action it took at the 1928 meeting when it had appointed
the president of the Academy as the regular delegate to the annual AAAS
Christmas convention. This accomplished, Ryland again took the floor and
recommended that the secretary be appointed as the regular Academy delegate
to such conventions, and that the Academy pay $75 to help cover the secretary’s
convention expenses.22 This rearrangement was satisfactory to the members of
the Academy. As Miller became ever more clearly the central figure in the
Academy both the deference shown to him and his own myriad responsibilities
increased.

Financial matters were the leading topic of discussion at the eighth annual
meeting of the Academy which was held in Lynchburg on the campuses of Lynch¬
burg College and Randolph Macon Woman’s College, May 9-10, 1930. The
Academy sought both to increase its own revenue and to equalize its dues pay¬
ments since members of the Academy who were also members of the American
Association for the Advancement of Science had their dues to the Academy raised
from $1.00 to $1.50 annually at this meeting. It had been the practice of the
Academy to charge AAAS members only $1.00 dues while non-AAAS members
were required to pay $2.00, in order to encourage its members to join the national
body, and also because the AAAS was in the habit of rebating fifty cents of its
$5.00 per member yearly dues to the local organization of its individual members.
With this rebate in effect, the Academy, by raising the dues of its members of
AAAS fifty cents, would be collecting the same amount of money, $2.00, from
both its single and dual members.23 The usual rebate of fifty cents per member,
however, was not forthcoming from the AAAS in 1930. The depression, it appears,
was making itself felt on the local scene as well. Dr. Miller was forced to report
that an unusually high number of members failed to pay their dues to the Vir¬
ginia Academy.24 One heartening note, however, was struck when it was an¬
nounced that the Virginia State Legislature had made available $1,000 of the
$2,000 requested to assist the Committee on the Flora of Virginia under the
direction of Dr. Lewis.25

Plans concerning junior membership in the Academy were an important con¬
sideration at the ninth convention of the Virginia Academy held in Norfolk April
24-25, 1931. Miss Nan V. Thornton, who had recently been on the faculty of
Randolph Macon Woman’s College and who was, in 1931, associated with the
University of Chicago, presented a report on junior membership. The Academy
responded, on a motion by Dr. Paul A. Warren, by authorizing junior member¬
ships in colleges at $1.00 per year, and by voting to continue Miss Thornton in
the chairmanship.26 As Dr. Jeffers has noted, Miss Harriet H. Fillinger of Hollins
College served as the first functional head of the committee when Miss Thornton
was absent front the state.2’

Junior membership was not the entire story, however. Ivey F. Lewis proudly
reported that the Committee on Flora had seen one of its major goals realized
when in February 1931 it had published Flora of Richmond and Vicinity by
Professor Paul R. Merrintan of Fairport, New York.28 Dr. J. Shelton Horsley
moved, and the Academy accepted the motion, to establish a new section to
cover the fundamental medical sciences.29 This would be the Academy’s eighth
section, except that the Bacteriological and Miscellaneous Sections had never really
materialized. On a motion by Dr. Donald W. Davis of William and Mary the
Committee on Standard Seven of the Southern Association of Colleges and

70

The Virginia Journal of Science

Secondary Schools, which had been allowed to lapse, was reconstituted with Dr.
W. A. Kepner of Virginia again the chairman.30 At the 1931 meeting, for the first
time in Academy history, three colleges sponsored 10 or more papers: University
of Virginia (35), Virginia Polytechnic Institute (12), and William and Mary
(10). In the preceding meeting university scientists read 46 of the 76 papers
presented.

Financial matters were of somewhat more than passing importance at this
1931 meeting. Dr. Miller reported that only the most conservative spending pro¬
gram had allowed the Academy to show a favorable balance.31 It was also noted
that plans once in the offing to get the American Association for the Advance¬
ment of Science to hold one of its annual conventions in Richmond had to be
shelved because the depression had forced that city’s Chamber of Commerce to
abandon hope of raising the necessary $7, 000. 32 And last but certainly not least,
the 1931 program, as Dr. Jeffers pointed out, almost “surreptitiously” announced
for the first time that tickets for the annual dinner would be on sale.33 Indeed, the
depression, if it failed to strike a mortal blow at the Academy as it had at so
many other organizations, was, nevertheless, making life a little more uncom¬
fortable than usual for Academy members.

The 1932 meeting of the Academy, its tenth, was held in Roanoke April 22-23
with Hollins College serving as host. Beginning at the Council meeting of this
session, the secretary’s annual report became a regular order of business on the
Council’s program.31 The great duplication which had existed previously between
the secretary’s report and the president’s annual report — or what the president
often noted would have been his report if Dr. Miller had not said the same thing
first — was somewhat lessened. The president, although he would not always choose
to do so, now had the opportunity to address himself specifically to one particular
issue instead of simply commenting upon the year’s activities. This arrangement
appears quite appropriate when one considers that it was the secretary who was
in the best position to make the most complete report on the year’s progress,
especially since no one could rival Miller’s great knowledge of the Virginia
Academy.

Dr. Miller reported that the Academy was still in good financial shape and was
showing no adverse effects from the general depression. The books were closed
with a favorable balance of over $1,000, which Miller accounted for by a net
gain in membership and an unusually good year for dues paying.35

Dr. W. A. Kepner of Virginia, whose Committee on Standard Seven had been
reactivated a year earlier, submitted his report, which the convention endorsed.
It called again for a recognition on the part of the Southern Association of Col¬
leges and Secondary Schools that an hour spent in laboratory work was equal to
an hour spent in classroom recitation.36

Dr. Garnett Ryland, ever watchful of the Academy's parliamentary procedure,
offered an amendment to the effect that Section VIII of the constitution of the
Academy be revised to allow for a seven-man Council by including the retiring
president and a new officer, the president-elect, for one-year terms. The Academy
accepted this amendment without dissent and also agreed unanimously when
Ryland moved that a president-elect be chosen at the 1933 meeting.37

Secretary-Treasurer Miller seemed again to have outmaneuvered the depression.
He reported at the eleventh annual convention, held on the campus of Fredericks¬
burg State Teachers College, now Mary Washington College, that the Academy
had ended the fiscal year 1932-33 some $60 in the red, but that the deficit ap¬
peared to be more the result of additional printing expenses, charged to fiscal
1931-32 for the abstracts of the sectional papers, which the Academy first in¬
cluded in the Proceedings, 1930— 1931 , than the result of the continuing depres¬
sion.38 Miller was also able to announce that the Academy was over the 700
mark in membership and that, whereas in 1932 there had been only 18 dues-
paying junior members, now in 1933 there were 91. 39

Chairman Kepner submitted his report and supporting letters to the effect that
the Virginia Academy’s Committee on Standard Seven had managed, through
an article in Science, the magazine of the AAAS, to brine the question of Standard
Seven before a large number of vitally concerned individuals and groups. As well
as seeking more information on the subject, most letters which Kepner received
were in strong agreement with the Virginia Academy that equating two hours of

30 Proceedings, 1930-1931, 14.

31 Ibid., 4.

32 Ibid., 15.

33 Jeffers, History, 24-25.

34 Proceedings, 1931-1932, 7.

35 Ibid., 7. For a list of all
research award winners see
Appendix C.

38 Ibid., 21.

& Ibid., 23.

38 Proceedings, 1932-1933, 8.
™ Ibid., 8.

History of Virginia Academy of Science

71

40 Proceedings, 1932-1933,
15.

& Ibid., 15.

42 Proceedings, 1933-1934,

43 Ibid., 8.

44 Ibid., 16.

43 Ibid., 14-15.

46 Proceedings, 1934-1935,

"Ibid., 8.

48 Ibid., 10.

49 Ibid., 11-12.

50 Jeffers, History, 86.

31 Proceedings, 1935-1936,

14-

6.

11.

lab work with one hour of lecture in figuring teachers’ workloads was manifestly
unfair.40 Kepner’s committee “was requested to continue its policy of watchful
waiting,” and Secretary Miller was authorized to bring this pressing matter before
the secretaries’ meeting at the annual Christmas-week convention of the American
Association for the Advancement of Science.11 It was through the constant
agitation by groups like the Virginia Academy of Science that Standard Seven
was eventually changed so as not to penalize laboratory instructors.

Another state teachers college, this one in Harrisonburg, now Madison College,
was the location of the twelfth annual meeting of the Academy on May 4-5, 1934.
Academy President William A. Kepner seems to have summed up the Academy’s
year quite succinctly when he noted at the outset of his report that “little has
been accomplished this year in the way of extending the work of the Academy.”42
E. C. L. Miller reporting again that the Academy found itself in the red, this time
by $134, advised the members that delinquents would be dropped from the
roll.43

Professor Wayne Dennis of the University of Virginia moved that the Psy¬
chology and Education Section of the Academy be allowed to separate into two
distinct sections.44 This motion was carried, and thus in 1935 the Academy
would have seven functional sections. In addition Dr. Cornelius J. Heatwole,
executive secretary of the Virginia Education Association, proposed that the
Virginia Academy of Science affiliate itself with the education association. This
suggestion was referred to a committee.45

The thirteenth convention had as its host the University of Richmond and met
May 3-4, 1935. The Academy had succeeded not only in staying within the
budget during the preceding year but ended its fiscal year with the largest balance
it had ever accumulated, $1,266.95.“ However, all was not financially bright.
The national office of the AAAS notified Secretary Miller that the practice of
rebating fifty cents for each member who was also a dues-paying member of the
Academy would be discontinued. Miller immediately proposed that all dues for
Virginia Academy membership be set at $2.00.47 Later, at the meeting of the
Council, Professor W. H. Keeble of Randolph Macon College made a motion
to this effect and the Council approved it, thus raising the dues of AAAS mem¬
bers in the Academy another fifty cents.48

Dr. George W. Jeffers of the State Teachers College at Farmville, now Long-
wood College, presented the report of his committee, composed of Professors
Negus and Keeble, on the affiliation proposed in 1934 of the Academy with the
Virginia Education Association. Jeffers’s report argued that the growth of the
Academy would be hindered through such an affiliation “with a larger organiza¬
tion whose field is somewhat different.” It was the considered opinion of the
committee that “it would be inadvisable to apply for affiliation with the Virginia
Education Association.” This report met with the approval of the Council.49

Dean Wortley F. Rudd of the Medical College of Virginia announced that
the Virginia Section of the American Chemical Society had invited the American
Association for the Advancement of Science to hold its annual Christmas meeting
in 1938 at Richmond. This would indeed be a feather in the cap of the Old
Dominion if it were to come off but, as Dr. Jeffers noted, there was some specula¬
tion “that maybe- — just maybe — the boys had this time bitten off more than they
could chew.”50 This fear proved to be unjustified.

Virginia Military Institute was the scene of the fourteenth annual meeting of
the Academy on May 1-2, 1936. The secretary called for all members to pay their
two-dollar dues and reviewed the financial arrangement with the American
Association for the Advancement of Science. After discontinuance of the fifty-
cent per member rebate, the AAAS begin the practice of giving member organi¬
zations a $100 research grant each year; but, since this money was specifically
earmarked for research, the Academy could not use it for operating expenses.51 It
became imperative that the increased dues be paid.

Phipps and Bird, Incorporated, a scientific apparatus firm in Richmond, an¬
nounced that it was making available gold medals, to be known as Jefferson
Gold Medals, for presentation to the authors of outstanding papers read before
the scientific academies of Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia.
The gold-medal papers from each of the separate academies were to be entered
in a final competition with each other. A central committee chosen from a

72

The Virginia Journal of Science

different academy each year was to serve as a panel of judges empowered to
chose the best papers from those nominated. The author of the paper selected as
the best was to receive a $100 prize and the authors of the two runner-up papers
were to be awarded $25 each. North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia
had already accepted the proposal, and, on the recommendation of the Research
Committee, Virginia voted to do likewise/2

Dr. Ryland of Richmond took the floor to propose that after 13 consecutive
years of going it alone, Dr. E. C. L. Miller, permanent secretary of the Academy,
should be given a permanent assistant. This motion was approved but no one was
selected at the time to fill the newly created position.53 President Ida Sitler of
Hollins College had noted earlier at the Council meeting the invaluable service
which Secretary Miller had rendered to the Academy. It was a point well taken
and quite often taken by retiring Academy presidents. Said Miss Sitler: . . the

activities of the president of the Virginia Academy of Science are so closely
linked with those of the secretary that it is difficult, indeed, to isolate them for
a separate report.” Miss Sitler further pointed out that “since each year’s new
presiding officer, by the fact of his unacquaintance with Academy administration,
is required, in all his endeavours, to lean heavily upon the experience and judg¬
ment of its very capable and generous permanent secretary, it would seem that
the custom of an earlier day when the secretary presented a joint report of the
activities of both officers might well be revived.”54 The president had reference
to the period from 1924 to 1932 when the secretary’s report on the year’s activities
prefaced the rest of the information in the Proceedings. This form, however, was
not reverted to.

The fifteenth annual meeting was held at the University of Virginia May 6-8,
1937, and was distinguished mainly by decisions made prior to the actual conven¬
tion. President H. E. Jordan of the University of Virginia had seen fit to call
a special session of the Council of the Academy on November 28, 1936, at the
Farmington Country Club, Charlottesville.55 Several matters were discussed at
the dinner meeting, not the least of which was the selection of an individual to
assume the responsibilities of assistant secretary-treasurer which Dr. Ryland had
called for at the convention in May. Dr. I. A. Updike of Randolph Macon College
was appointed for a period of three years and was given a salary of $25 per year.58
The Council also took under consideration the proposal made by Dr. T. McNider
Simpson of Randolph Macon at the May gathering to the effect that the Council
meeting, which usually preceded the actual convention by one day, be made a
part of the regular convention program. It was decided that the name “Academy
Conference” would be used to refer to this Thursday evening meeting and that its
purpose should be for discussion only. A later meeting of the Council was desig¬
nated to handle the Academy business matters.57

A problem of some interest which the Academy decided would be proper for
consideration at the Conference was concerned with the teacher’s loyalty oath
which had been successfully instituted in several states. Accordingly, the heads
of various scientific organizations in the state were invited to the Conference by
President Jordan so that they might fully air their views on this subject.58 This
attempt at consolidated action did not seem to fare too well as no mention was
made of a discussion of the matter or any action which might have resulted from
such a discussion. However, the State of Virginia did not adopt a teacher’s loyalty
oath.

Another question which was raised at this first Academy Conference in 1937
concerned the length of the Friday night dinner meeting. It was generally agreed
that the dinner agenda was far too long; consequently. President Jordan proposed
that since the Academy constitution did not call for an address by the retiring
president, he would willingly forego delivering such a speech. The Council voted
to leave this up to the president's discretion. Jordan did relinquish his opportunity
to speak, but he did not set an Academy precedent by so doing.59

Secretary Miller may have been correct when he termed 1937-1938 a “particu¬
larly successful year for the Academy”; however, it was not overly eventful. By
the time of the sixteenth annual convention in Blacksburg May 5-7, 1938, the
800-member mark had been passed by the Academy.80 And the Academy was still
growing.

At this meeting Virginia Polytechnic Institute successfully challenged the Uni-

53 Proceedings, 1935-1936,
9-10.

53 Ibid., 23.

54 Ibid., 6.

55 Proceedings, 1936-1937, 5.

'"Ibid., 6.

33 Ibid ., 7.

ss Ibid., 7.

33 Ibid., 9.

60 Proceedings, 1937-1938, 13.

History of Virginia Academy of Science

73

01 Proceedings, 1937-1938, 5-8.

82 Jeffers, History, 87-88.

83 Ibid., 87.

84 Ibid., 89.

85 Interview with Dr. William
G. Guy, July, 1966.

06 Proceedings, 1938-1939, 4.

versity of Virginia’s domination of the Academy program. Scientists from Vir¬
ginia Polytechnic Institute presented 47 papers while the men from Virginia
accounted for 40. However, throughout the 1930’s Virginia had overwhelmingly
dominated each of the programs presented at the annual Academy meetings. As
early as 1927 Virginia Polytechnic Institute sponsored 21 papers, but it was not
until the Medical College of Virginia presented 11, Virginia Polytechnic Institute
12, and the University of Virginia 47 in 1933 that the Academy had three insti¬
tutions accounting for more than ten papers each. The same three schools each
presented more than ten or more papers again in 1936. The high point of Vir¬
ginia’s domination came in 1935 when that University sponsored 64 papers — a
figure which was to go unchallenged until the postwar era.

President D. Maurice Allen of Hampden-Sydney College gave a rather detailed
report to the Conference in 1938, but concerned himself primarily with encourag¬
ing the scientists to recruit more new members especially in the western part of
the state and among high school and industrially connected science personnel.61
Allen did not continue Jordan’s practice of holding a fall meeting of the Council;
however, he did follow one Jordan precedent by not giving a presidential address.

Actually the main interest of the Academy was centered on the forthcoming
convention of the American Association for the Advancement of Science scheduled
for Richmond in December. All had not been easy sledding in preparing for the
meeting.

So it was that in the winter of 1938 one of the major events in the history
of science in Virginia occurred in Richmond when the American Association for
the Advancement of Science convened its annual meeting in that city. Plans
had been under way for the convention from the moment it was learned in 1935
that the Virginia Section of the American Chemical Society had invited the AAAS
to Richmond. Previous plans for such a convention, it will be remembered, had
fallen through in 1930 thanks to the precariousness of the financial situation in
Richmond, and at one point a similar end seemed in sight for the 1938 meeting
as Washington, D. C., made a belated effort to win the 1938 convention away
from the Old Dominion and back to the nation’s capital; Washington had lost the
convention a year earlier due to the second inaugural of Franklin D. Roosevelt.
However, the Virginia Academy Committee on Arrangements successfully warded
off this attempt to sabotage the Richmond plans and at the same time gained
invaluable experience in working together under pressure — experience which
would pay off when the meeting was finally staged.62

The general chairman appointed by the Virginia Academy for the affair, as well
as the business manager it approved, were experienced businessmen and well
suited for the task which lay before them. Mr. Lloyd C. Bird, president of the
scientific supply company of Phipps and Bird, was named general chairman, and
Mr. H. K. McConnell, president of Tobacco By-Products Corporation, was selected
as the business manager.63 The job these two men did, along with the hard work
of countless others of the Academy, made the Richmond convention of the AAAS
a great success.

Perhaps the most outstanding job done by one individual was that turned in
by Sidney S. Negus as chairman of the Press Services Committee. Dr. Negus,
who went far beyond previous norms of congeniality and efficiency, housed the
delegation from the press, which was large, at the Hotel John Marshall and
provided not only an ever-ready supply of coffee but also as many outside tele¬
phone circuits as there were typewriters in the huge battery that was constantly
clicking away at the John Marshall. “No previous meeting could boast of such
complete coverage,” was Dr. Jeffers’ summary of Negus’s work.64 Because of
his achievement in 1938, Dr. Negus became the publicity director for the AAAS,
a job which he was to hold until his death.65

In the wake of the winter’s success the seventeenth convention of the Virginia
Academy of Science was called to order in Danville on May 4, 1939. The Council
meeting, which had been driven from its regular Thursday night spot on the
program when the Academy Conference was instituted, was rescheduled for
Thursday afternoon and was followed a few hours later by the Conference.66

By giving his report to the Academy a title, “The New Frontier,” and by
adding other formal embellishments to it. President Earle B. Norris of Virginia
Polytechnic Institute turned his report into the same sort of speech which Presi-

74

The Virginia Journal of Science

dent H. E. Jordan had discontinued two years earlier. President Norris’s address
was a welcome to the newest group affiliated with the Academy, the eighth section,
the engineers.67 Norris noted in his greeting that “in the earlier days our geo¬
graphical frontiers were invaded first by the scouts who were followed in due
course by the pioneers who settled and developed the country. Just so,” continued
the President, “in developing our scientific frontier the scouts leading the advance
are our pure scientists. . . . The pioneers, following these scouts are our research
engineers, taking such discoveries of pure science and developing from them new
and better things for mankind to use and enjoy.” 08

Later, during the business meeting, the constitution of the Academy was
amended to allow for a larger Academy Council by extending the past President’s
term from one to three years.69

07 Proceedings,

68 Ibid., 9.

69 Ibid., 20.

1938-1939, 9.

History of Virginia Academy of Science

75

Chapter III

The War Years

1 Proceedings, 1939-1940, 176.

2 Boyd Harshbarger, The
History of the Virginia Journal
of Science, 10-11, manuscript
in possession of Virginia Acad¬
emy of Science, Virginia Insti¬
tute for Scientific Research,
Richmond, Va.

3 Jeffers, History, 79.

4 Harshbarger, History of
Journal, 2.

5 Ruskin S. Freer, “An An¬
nouncement,” Virginia Journal
of Science, I (January, 1940).

6 Jeffers, History, 79.

7 Proceedings, 1939-1940, 1 73.

s Ibid., 194.

9 Harshbarger, History of
Journal, 5-6.

Mainly because of dynamic action on the part of President-elect Wortley F.

Rudd of the Medical College of Virginia, the eighteenth annual meeting of the
Academy, which convened at the Virginia Military Institute on May 2-4, 1940,
was a momentous one in Academy history.

However, even before Dean Rudd took the floor for his thought-provoking
address to the Academy, Dr. Ivey F. Lewis was singled out and given special
commendation by the Academy for the effort he had exerted in launching the
Virginia Journal of Science.1 Dr. Boyd Harshbarger of Virginia Polytechnic In¬
stitute, a president of the Academy (1948-1949) and editor and founder of the
Virginia Journal of Science (new series), has noted in his manuscript history of
the Journal that Lewis was “the guiding spirit and drive for this project.” ' The
first number of the Journal came out in January 1940 as the successor to Clay-
tonici, the mimeographed publication of the Committee on Virginia Flora which
had already gone through five volumes, its last number appearing in April 1939. 3
Dr. Ruskin S. Freer of Lynchburg College, who became the first editor in chief
of the Virginia Journal of Science, had been, since 1934, the able director of
Claytonia and had had as his assistant on that project Lt. Col. Robert P. Carroll
of Virginia Military Institute. Carroll was to continue as Freer’s assistant in the
position of managing editor of the new publication.1

Editor Freer, who was also serving as Academy president in 1939-40, an¬
nounced in the first number of the Journal that it was mainly “due to the efforts
of Lt. Col. Robert P. Carroll of the Virginia Military Institute” that “the Academy
voted to start an official periodical publication.” Dean Ivey F. Lewis of the Uni¬
versity of Virginia had been appointed chairman of the Publications Committee
chosen by President Freer which authorized the printing of the first Journal.
Freer further explained that the Committee on Virginia Flora “felt that, while its
publication was continuing without a deficit, the purposes of the Committee in
publishing Claytonia could be met as well in the Virginia Journal of Science, and
the new publication would in addition serve much broader needs.” The Journal,
Freer said, would accept papers from all sections of the Academy; and its edi¬
torial board, then being planned, was to include Dr. Miller and representatives
from the various sections. The first number of the Journal dealt entirely with
botanical material as the only manuscripts on hand were those that had been
submitted for publication in Claytonia J In Dr. Jeffers’s words, “the Virginia
Journal of Science was but the expanded and more sophisticated off spring of
Claytonia.” 6

At the Council meeting in May the appointments of Professor Freer as editor
and Lt. Col. Carroll as managing editor were formally announced.7 Each section
of the Academy was requested to elect a section editor who would sit on the board
of the Journal, and, in addition, the Academy voted to give the Journal $500 a
year for the next two years to help the magazine clear the financial obstacles
ahead." Unfortunately the Journal was unable to meet its financial responsibilities
with the $1,000 and was only published until May 1943.

An examination of the papers published in Volume I of the Journal reveals
that not all sections of the Academy responded to the editor’s call for papers. The
Engineering, Medical Sciences, and Psychology Sections did not contribute any
papers. However, the Chemical Section was responsible for 14 papers; Botany,
9; Geology and Zoology, 4 each; Education, 2; and Agriculture (which was not
then a distinct section), as well as Astronomv and Physics (which were usually
combined in the Astronomy, Mathematics, and Physics Section), 1 each.9

76

The Virginia Journal of Science

Following the announcement of the publication of the Virginia Journal of
Science, George W. Jeffers of Longwood College and R. C. Berry, State Chemist,
proposed the resolution “that the Senior Academy of Science sponsor a Junior
Academy of Science, and that the incoming president be empowered to form a
committee to work out details.”10 The Academy adopted the resolution com¬
mitting itself to the formation of a full-fledged junior academy instead of merely
seeking junior memberships, which had not been a very successful program up
to this time.

Competition for the Jefferson Gold Medal, which had begun in 1936, was dis¬
continued in 1939. Beginning in 1940 the Jefferson Prize was given, as well as
the Academy Research Prize — the winning author having his choice of awards."

With all these various events it still appears that President-elect Rudd was the
foremost delegate at this convention. Rudd set a precedent in Academy annals
by coming before the Academy Conference “to set forth his views about Academy
affairs” in the form of a report of the president-elect.12 Dean Rudd's speech
challenged the Academy to find cause for its very existence at this crucial time
of international tension; and he offered for consideration certain projects which
he judged were worthy of the Academy’s attention. In his address, Rudd stressed
the fact that “it will not be sufficient that we meet once a year and have a wide
variety of papers, however strong they may be. . . . An organization like ours
may content itself with that sort of existence for the period of its youth, but will
most certainly atrophy if it does not in its maturer years set itself resolutelv
to definitely constructive tasks that lie naturally within its sphere of influence.” 13

Rudd went on to make several suggestions of consequence. He revived the
idea of finding Secretary E. C. L. Miller a permanent assistant. The president¬
elect was looking for a man upon whose shoulders “will probably fall, ultimately,
the ever-increasing responsibilities of directing the affairs of the Academy in the
second phase of its history as Dr. Miller has done in its formative years.”14 The
Council was authorized to select a permanent assistant; such a person they hoped
to find in Sidney S. Negus.15

Rudd next sought the approval of the Academy for the formation of a new
committee the likes of which the Academy had never before seen. Rudd pro¬
posed to appoint a Long Range Planning Committee to be truly a cartographer
of the future and not simply another committee to deal with specific issues of the
present moment.10 On a motion by Dr. E. Ruffin Jones, Jr., of William and Mary
the Council gave Rudd the go-ahead to form his “long range” committee.17

Next Rudd singled out two problems which he considered to be both statewide
and justifiably demanding of the Academy’s concern. One of these was a lack
of vocational training in the high schools of Virginia. Although boys were
readily trained for careers in agriculture, Rudd complained that in preparation
for careers in industry the State educational program was horribly deficient.18 Also
the new president pointed out that stream pollution should be given greater
consideration. With perception Rudd noted: “indeed we venture to assert that
it always will be a political matter unless and until some properly qualified and
non-partisan group puts it on the proper scientific basis, and working in coopera¬
tion with the industrialists, the committees, and the law makers, sees it through
to a satisfactory conclusion.” 19

President Rudd’s initial comments to the Academy were very well taken. Tn a
month and a half from the time of his remarks France would be tottering on the
verge of defeat and no one would be able to call the war in western Europe a
“phony war” any longer. A redefinition of values was most certainly at hand;
Rudd had voiced the need for the Virginia Academy of Science to do just that.

A special Council meeting, primarily concerned with the not too successful
showing of the Virginia Journal of Science, was held April 5, 1941, a month in
advance of the nineteenth convention. It was generally agreed “that as con¬
ducted at present the Journal, will eventually bankrupt the Academy”; but, as
Secretary Miller noted, “there was less unanimity as to what should be done with
it.”10 No final decision was reached; however, the Council voted to send the
second $500 grant directly to the printer to help pay the large debt which the
Journal had run up there.21

The annual meeting in 1941 was held in Richmond under the auspices of the
Medical College of Virginia on May 1-3. At this meeting the Council adopted

10 Proceedings, 1939-1940, 196-
197.

11 Walter S. Flory, Research
Committee History, 13.

13 Proceedings, 19 39-1940, 180.

13 Ibid., 181.

''Ibid., 181-182.

'■•Ibid., 194.

16 Ibid., 182.
™ Ibid., 194.

16 Ibid., 182.

19 Ibid., 183.

20 Proceedings , 1940-1941, 131.

21 Ibid., 131.

History of Virginia Academy of Science

77

22 Proceedings , 1940-1941,

157-158.

23 Ibid., 137.

24 Proceedings, 194 1-1942 , 168-
169.

25 Proceedings , 1940-194 1 , 162-
163.

26 Jeffers, History, 128.

27 Proceedings , 1940-1941,
159.

28 Proceedings, 1940-1941, 208.

29 Jeffers, History, 29.

80 Proceedings, 1941-1942, 152.

a plan advanced by Dr. Miller which would give the Journal one more trial
year. There were to be no major restrictions imposed on its management; never¬
theless, the magazine was expected to show a marked financial improvement or
face discontinuance.22

A precedent had not been set in 1 940 for the president-elect to address the
Academy Conference, for it was the president, Dean Rudd of the Medical Col¬
lege of Virginia, who again stood before the assembled delegates in the spring of
1941. His special point was the challenge which he said faced men of science
“to have the courage, and the wisdom, and the devotion to our share of the job
in our day and so impress those who are to follow us that there may be no
faltering.” 22 This theme was not to fall upon deaf ears; one leader after another
was to take it up during the trying war years.

Chairman L. C. Bird presented the recommendations of the recently organized
Long Range Planning Committee — the most important of which, at the time, was
assumed to be the publishing of a monograph on the James River. A letter from
Justus H. Cline of Stuarts’ Draft to Ivey F. Lewis was the germ from which the
ambitious project grew. Mr. Cline wrote that “a monograph on the James River
would perhaps appeal to the imagination of Virginians as much as anything the
Academy could do. . . . What civilization has done to this wonderful river, which
should be the pride of Virginia and the nation,” Cline continued in words that
were to win the committee’s approval, “would certainly be a fine thing for the
Academy to find out and tell about. . . .”2< Subcommittee chairman Marcellus
H. Stow of Washington and Lee University picked up the tenor of Cline’s letter
when he gave his report on the James River project. “Only a project of wide
range could elicit the active interest of a body such as the Virginia Academy of
Science”; and “by setting up some natural and resourceful feature of the State,
with which everyone is already familiar, and which has played a profound part
in scientific, economic, romantic, and social life of the State,” pointed out Stow,
“the worthy aims of the Academy could be accomplished.” The Academy “should
study the James River Basin,” continued the chairman, “as a human habitat and
should indicate, wherever possible practical means for improving this human
habitat.”25

The James River Project Committee appointed by the Long Range Planning
Committee in 1941 stayed intact until publication of the monograph nine years
later. Although new members were added. Chairman Stow had five charter mem¬
bers on his committee: Robert P. Carroll of Virginia Military Institute, Justus
H. Cline of Stuarts’ Draft, Ivey F. Lewis of the University of Virginia, Foley F.
Smith of Richmond, and I. D. Wilson of Virginia Polytechnic Institute.26

The Long Range Planning Committee also set up subcommittees concerned
with the junior academy and science club work, research, education and pub¬
licity, science museum, and finance.27 Some of these committees were to be quite
successful in their future endeavors, but none could rival the committee on the
James River project for the spotlight in 1941.

A Forestry Section, presided over at its first meeting by Forest Supervisor John
W. McNair of Jefferson National Forest, was added to the Academy in 1941. The
section heard 20 papers presented almost exclusively by State and Federal
foresters. However, J. B. Grantham of Virginia Polytechnic Institute and Chapin
Jones of the University of Virginia, who served as chairman at the second session
of the Forestry Section’s meeting, were both professors of forestry and presented
discussions of their respective forestry departments. The Forestry Section managed
another program in 1942, but ceased to be active after that convention.28

The war had a great deal to do with the activities of the twentieth annual
meeting, which was hastily planned but admirably staged in the city of Roanoke.
The very fact that the Academy was meeting in Roanoke reflected the intrusion
the war had made on civilian matters. The convention had originally been sched¬
uled for Norfolk; however, “by January even the most enthusiastic of Norfolk
supporters were ready to admit that the ‘Conscripted City’ would not be able to
entertain the Academy in May.” 29

It was indeed a wartime convention as President George W. Jeffers of Long-
wood College noted in his comment to the Academy that “after all this is a war of
science. . . . Science can serve by continuing to press forward vigorously with its
normal affairs, but at an accelerated pace.”30 Secretary Miller continued in the

78

The Virginia Journal of Science

same tone and pointed out that one thing which Academy members “can and
should do” is register in the National Roster of Scientific and Specialized Per¬
sonnel.31

Dr. Leslie A. Sandholzer of the Public Health Department of Norfolk com¬
mented extensively on the wartime activities of the Academy. In part he said,
“it is the duty of the Academy, therefore, to make the community aware of its
scientific needs in the war effort and to promote a program of scientific endeavor
in line with this. Failure to do so can only lead to a lessened efficiency of the
national war program.” Sandholzer was calling for science to fall into line with
its research efforts and noted, to emphasize his point, that “the nutritional value
of T.N.T. to alligators is not a war research in spite of the use of high explosive.”
Then Sandholzer reiterated the theme which Rudd, Jeffers, and Miller had been
driving home, and which would continue to recur in Academy thinking for the
next three years: “It would seem to be,” he said, “in the best interest of society
as well as of science for us to plan a war and post-war program of scientific
endeavor.”32

Later Sandholzer suggested that the Virginia Academy of Science establish
cordial relations with the large number of scientists stationed in Virginia during the
war, and that the Academy make their laboratory facilities available to these
visitors.33 The Academy empowered the incoming president, Marcellus S. Stow of
Washington and Lee, to set up a committee, which became known as the Com¬
mittee on Wartime Activities, to study both present and postwar problems.34

In addition to the discussions relating to the impact of the war. President Jeffers
reported that in October 1941 the Academy had presented a symposium on “The
Value of Scientific Research to Virginia Industry” in a joint meeting with the
Virginia Association of Manufacturers at Roanoke. Dr. Sidney S. Negus of the
Medical College of Virginia had been in charge of the Academy’s presentation.35
Jeffers was also able to announce that the State legislature had appropriated $5,000
for the publication of the monograph on the James River.36

In a complete about-face from what had been decided in 1937, the 1942
Academy convention voted for the Conference to “be given power to dispose
of Academy business.”37 Only five years earlier the Conference had been in¬
stituted specifically as a discussion meeting. Also at this meeting another new
section was added to the Academy — bacteriology.38 Dr. Leslie A. Sandholzer of
Norfolk, a rather conspicuous figure at the 1942 meeting, was chairman of the
section. Fourteen papers were presented by scholars from the University of Vir¬
ginia, Hampton Institute, Virginia Polytechnic Institute, and the United States
Public Health Services.39

Subcommittees of the Long Range Planning Committee had two major reports
to make in 1942. Mr. Hubert J. Davis of Matthew Whaley High School in Wil¬
liamsburg and chairman of the subcommittee on science clubs and a junior
academy reported that the Junior Academy had held its first meeting in May
1941 at George Wythe High School in Richmond at the same time that the Vir¬
ginia Academy was meeting in that city. However, the American Institute which
was to provide $100 for the Virginia science clubs had failed to do so and had
informed the Virginia Academy of Science that Science Service and its national
organization, Science Clubs of America, was the new group with which to affiliate.
The American Institute, it seems, had decided to restrict itself to developing
scientific interest solely within New York City.40 At the meeting of the Council
on January 16, 1942 the Virginia Academy voted not to affiliate with Science
Service. With both Science Service and the American Institute as sources of
financial aid sealed off, it was obvious that the Academy would have to plan
well and work quickly if it hoped to save its Junior Academy. E. C. L. Miller
had already assumed the duties of Junior Academy treasurer and in January Miss
Lena Artz of Arlington was appointed secretary. As Mr. Davis noted, the Junior
Academy was actually “begun in earnest” in January 1942 when the Academy
realized that the success or failure of the Junior Academy rested squarely upon
the shoulders of the Senior Academy.41

Chairman Stow, reporting for the Committee on the James River Project, was
able to announce that the title for the proposed monograph would be The James
River — Past, Present, Future. Stow said that Dr. Sidney Negus had prepared
in-depth outlines of the planned study which were published in both Science and

34 Proceedings , 1941-1942,
154.

33 Ibid., 193-194.

33 Ibid., 193-194.

34 Ibid., 198.

35 Ibid., 150.

36 Ibid., 152.

37 Ibid., 196.

38 Jeffers, History, 34.

39 Proceedings, 1941-1942, 204-
208.

40 Jeffers, History, 82-83.

41 Proceedings. 1941-1942, 169-
171.

History of Virginia Academy of Science

79

42 Proceedings, 1941-1942, ISO-
182.

43 Interview with Dr. William
G. Guy, Williamsburg, July 1,

1966.

44 Proceedings, 1942-1943, 10.

45 Ibid., 14.

46 Ibid., 19.

« Ibid., 9.

43 Ibid., 13.

49 Ibid., 30.

60 Proceedings, 1943-1944, 9;
and Jeffers, History, 31.

the magazine of Virginia, The Commonwealth, and that the outlines had “re¬
ceived exceptionally favorable comment from numerous sources.” With a great
deal of optimism and enthusiasm, authors for the various chapters, as well as
deadline dates for copy, had been announced during the past year; however,
manuscripts, as Dr. Stow observed, were slow to come in. One individual, how¬
ever, was “unique in his interest in the James River Project.” Mr. Justus Cline,
who had first proposed the endeavor, was singled out by Stow as a man without
whom “we would have been unable to do what little has been done on the Long
Range Project.”42

The central location of Richmond, not to the state of Virginia but to the
members of the Virginia Academy of Science, made it the scene of not only the
twenty-first but also the twenty-second, twenty-third, and twenty-fourth annual
meetings of the Academy. Wartime gas rationing was being felt by the Academy.43

By May 12-13, 1943, Dr. Ivey F. Lewis was willing to recognize the hopeless¬
ness of attempting to continue the Virginia Journal of Science; therefore, he moved
that the Journal be allowed to publish two more numbers and that it then be
suspended for the duration of the emergency. Dean Wortley F. Rudd seconded
the motion and the Council adopted the proposal.44 Secretary Miller was also
experiencing some hardships as he reported that wartime conditions had made the
year a particularly lean one financially and had put the Academy some $20 in
the red.45

On the brighter side, Dr. Negus was able to report that he had worked out a
plan for affiliation which had met with the approval of both the Academy Council
and Science Clubs of America, Incorporated. The plan allowed the Virginia
Junior Academy of Science to become an affiliate member of the national
organization under the auspices of Science Service.45 Also Dr. Boyd Harshbarger
of Virginia Polytechnic Institute was given permission by the Academy to or¬
ganize a section concerned with statistical method for the next annual convention.
Harshbarger’s efforts met with success as the Statistics Section was able to
present a program of ten papers in 1943. 47

Retiring President Marcellus H. Stow cited in his report to the Council the
rapid progress made by the Virginia Academy in its first twenty years. But Stow
looked beyond the history of the Academy and addressed himself, in a series of
rhetorical questions, to the harsh realities which had confronted Virginia on the
eve of the war, and which now seemed to loom even more ominously on the hori¬
zon of the postwar era. The President asked: “Will Virginia and the South reap
the benefits of these postwar changes? Will Northern industry continue to ex¬
ploit Virginia resources or even overlook them entirely? Will Virginia students,
who desire the best education in the sciences, go to Northern Universities? Will
Northern industries and Northern Universities continue to use the lures of higher
salaries, more opportunities, or greater encouragement to entice the Virginia scien¬
tist to other regions?” Professor Stow offered a partial answer to the perplexing
questions which he raised by asserting that through the combined efforts of Vir¬
ginia schools and universities and the Virginia Academy of Science these prob¬
lems could be dealt with.48

W. Catesby Jones, who assumed the presidency in 1943, was somewhat more
specific in his comments about postwar Virginia. The new president, who was
Chief of the Division of Chemistry of the Department of Agriculture, first spoke
concerning the current meeting. “I am of the opinion,” Jones said, “the only
reason we could justify holding the Academy meeting this year would be to ascer¬
tain if we, as scientists, can do more than we are doing to promote the winning
of the war, and to set our sails toward postwar planning.” Postwar planning was
obviously Jones’s major concern, “the idea being, when certain defense industries
in the Northern congested industrial areas have served their purpose that they
be moved South where abundant raw materials can be found, and at the same time
give employment to our own boys who have graduated from our Southern Col¬
leges. In other words, move the industries South instead of the boys North.”49

The twenty-second annual meeting was attended fairly well under the circum¬
stances, in Richmond May 9-10, 1944 — a Tuesday and Wednesday — the first
time an Academy convention was not scheduled on a weekend.50 Incoming Presi¬
dent Dr. Robert F. Smart of the University of Richmond gave a speech of ac¬
ceptance in which he called for vigorous Academy action to insure postwar

80

The Virginia Journal of Science

progress for both science and industry in the South.51 The president also noted
that there was ample reason for a meeting in 1944 if the Academy could show
some progress towards making things attractive enough for young people in the
postwar environment to get them to return to the laboratory.52

Secretary Miller reported that although the Academy lost 50 members it still
managed to close out the year in the black.53 Also in 1944 the Academy Prize
became the J. Shelton Horsley Research Award in honor of the fourth president
of the Virginia Academy — the man who was responsible for soliciting the Re¬
search Endowment Fund. It was also announced that the Jefferson Prize, the
successor of the Jefferson Gold Medal, would be discontinued.54

Chairman L. C. Bird prefaced the subcommittee reports of the Long Range
Planning Committee with the summary comment that “the war has seriously
interfered with the plans projected for the Virginia Academy by your Long Range
Planning Committee.” 55 Dr. Stow of Washington and Lee and Mr. Davis of
Williamsburg backed up Bird on this count in their respective reports. Davis
acknowledged that the Academy had been unable to organize a Junior Academy
meeting in either 1943 or 1944 because of the travel difficulties, and that since no
dues had been collected, the Juniors were proceeding to run up a debt.56 Dr.
Stow informed the Academy that all the authors concerned with the James River
monograph appeared to be directly or indirectly engaged in the war effort as no
additional chapters had been turned in to him during the past year.57 A darker
day, however, lay ahead for Chairman Stow.

As the war drew to an end the Virginia Academy of Science was in less than
ideal circumstances. Only a handful of scientists were summoned for a special
meeting in Richmond. As President Robert F. Smart conceded, the Academy
was forced by the exigencies of war to cancel its regular meeting for 1945. 58 It
was merely a specially convened Council which perpetuated the continuity of
annual spring conferences at this meeting on May 11, 1945, at the Medical
College of Virginia.

Secretary Miller reported that Academy membership had fallen from a peak
in 1941 of 912 to roughly two thirds of that number, 629, in 1945. 59 Dr. Jeffers
had announced the past November at the fall Council meeting that his Museum
Committee had toned down its proposals considerably. The committee was now
willing to take over the Finance Building for its museum after a new office
building could be constructed to take the Finance Building's place. “Governor
Darden,” said the chairman, “went so far as to promise to include such a recom¬
mendation in his message to the Legislature which meets in January.”60 However,
Virginia is still without a science museum. The outlook was not nearly so bright
in 1945 for Chairman Stow’s James River project. It was “with the greatest
regret” that Dr. Stow reported “that all progress on the Project was suspended
during the past year. No manuscripts were received from authors assigned to the
various chapters of the proposed Monograph and it should be presumed,” he
added generously, “that they are devoting their time to direct or indirect war
work.” 61

The speeches of the incoming and retiring presidents of the Academy present
an interesting study in continuity — not only for 1945, or even for the wartime
period — but a continuity of philosophy and purpose which can be traced back
to the very founding of the Academy. The war was all but ended in Europe;
there was little doubt that the combined might of the allies in the Pacific would
soon close that theater also. It was a time for starting anew; and what a start it
could be for science as a result of the tremendous acceleration of scientific re¬
search which took place during the war. But the “war of science,” observed Dr.
Smart in his retirement address, was not in all ways a success for science; nor
was it exactly, as Jeffers put it, “the vindication of science.”62 “It can no longer
be accepted,” remarked Smart, “that the results of scientific investigation will
lead to continuous progressive improvements in conditions of life.” Indeed, he
continued, “the war has proved this and even now voices are being raised de¬
manding the cessation of scientific research as the only means of preserving man¬
kind.” However, Smart came prepared to do much more than merely acknowl¬
edge this threat to science- — he offered a plan to stop this antiscientific offensive.
Smart announced, with evident pleasure, that the Academy Council had been
in joint session with the Executive Committee of the Social Science Association

51 Proceedings , 1943-1944, 30.

52 Jeffers, History, 32.

53 Proceedings , 1943-1944, 24.

54 Flory, Research Committee
History, 13.

55 Proceedings, 1943-1944 , 11.

56 Ibid., 12-15.

™ Ibid., 12.

58 Proceedings, 1944-1945, 11.

60 Ibid., 14.

60 Ibid., 30.

61 Ibid., 30.

62 Jeffers, History, 33.

History of Virginia Academy of Science

81

63 Proceedings , 1944-1945, 13.

of Virginia. Nothing definite could be reported at the time, nor was any lasting
arrangement effected; but most Academy members were certainly in agreement
with Dr. Smart in his fervent hope “that the seed of close cooperation planted
today will bring forth a rich harvest tomorrow.” 63

President-elect H. Rupert Hanmer, Director of The American Tobacco Com¬
pany Research Laboratory, delivered his inaugural address on “The Responsi¬
bility of Science in a Postwar World.” Hanmers main point was his plea for “a
wider dissemination, through youth, of scientific knowledge so that the growing

34 Ibid., 10.

generation may have a clearer understanding of the spirit of Science, the real
objectives of scientific effort; to the end that all people may learn to know and
respect the world in which they live.” It is “knowledge,” Hanmer concluded,
“which will banish fear, respect which will prick the bubble of vanity — twin
viruses which have so long blighted the flower of good will among men.”64

On these notes of challenge for the future Hanmer and Smart brought to a
close the war years which Dean Wortley F. Rudd had ushered in at the eighteenth
annual meeting by encouraging the Academy to meet a changing world by being
itself amenable to change. The Academy had indeed been challenged by new and
trying circumstances as Rudd had predicted; but even greater challenges could
be forecast for the future. Although the particulars would differ, what Hanmer
and Smart saw in both the present and the future was nothing more, in essence,
than what Dr. Ivey F. Lewis, founder of the Virginia Academy of Science, had
already seen so vividly in the past. As Lewis pointed out in 1924: “Science must
defend itself anew as it has often done in the past.” The Virginia Academy of
Science had to defend itself in 1945 by resisting the “voices . . . being raised
demanding the cessation of scientific research.” The Academy chose to do this by
attempting to destroy the “two viruses,” fear and vanity, “which have so long
blighted the flower of good will among men.”

82

The Virginia Journal of Science

Appendix A

Charter Members ot the

Virginia

Academy

of Science

Name

A ddress

Interest

Adair, Miss Cornelia

Alden, Harold L.

Ames, Miss Adeline
Anderson. Dice R.

Andrews, Ernest L.

Richmond

Univ. of Va.

Sweet Briar

R.M.W.C.

Bristol

Education

Astronomy

Botany

History, Pol. Sci.
Chemistry, Biology

Bates, Robert L.

Bean. Robert B.

Bell. Leslie D.

Bennett. H. E.

Bird, Lloyd C.

Blackford. Charles M., II
Brown, G. W.

Brown. William M.

Bryce, L. W.

Bryson, Miss Flora

Burrows, W. A.

Burwell. Miss Margaret
Bushnell, D. I., Jr.

V.M.I.

Univ. of Va.

Lynchburg College
William and Mary

Med. Col. of Va.
Staunton

William and Mary
Washington and Lee
Med. Col. of Va.

East Radford

Richmond

Roanoke

Univ. of Va.

Psychology, Education
Anthropology

Biology

Education, Psychology
Bacteriology

Biology, Chemistry
Medical Sciences
Education. Psychology
Biology

Biology, Health
Chemistry

Zoology

Anthropology

Carter, Gardner L.

Chase. H. M.

Christian. W. Asbury

Clift, William

Cocke. M. Estes

Coghill, H. DeJ.

Cole, Glenn G.

Crawford. S. C.

Crockett, W. G.

Univ. of Va.

Danville

Blackstone College

Med. Col. of Va.

Hollins

Med. Col. of Va.
Lynchburg College

Univ. of Va.

Med. Col. of Va.

Chemistry

Chemistry, Mathematics
Psychology

Chemistry

Education

Psychology

Chemistry, Physics
Zoology

Chemistry

Davis, Donald W.

Davis, John Staige

Davis, W. E.

Dickerson, L. M.

Dolley, W. L.

Dolloff, Albert F.

Doub, Roscoe M.

Drinkard, A. W., Jr.

William and Mary

Univ. of Va.

William and Mary
William and Mary
R.M.C.

William and Mary
Roanoke College

Va. Agric. Exp. Sta.

Zoology, Genetics
Medical Sciences

Biology

Biology, Agriculture
Biology

Bacteriology

Physics, Geology
Agriculture

Fackenthall, P. F.

Fattig, P. W.

Ferguson, George 0., Jr.
Fillinger, Miss Harriet
Foster, Spottswood C.
Freeman. Douglas S.
Fromrne, F. D.

Med. Col. of Va.
Farmville Normal

Univ. of Va.

Hollins College
Coleman’s Falls
Richmond

V.P.I.

Botany

Biology, Entomology
Psychology

Chemistry

Eng., Math., Chemistry
Economics, Pol. Sci.
Botany, Phytopathology

Geissler, Ludwig R.

Giles, Albert W.

Goodwin. William H.

Grant, Miss Jean

Graves, Kenneth D.

Gray, E. W.

R.M.W.C.

Univ. of Va.

Univ. of Va.

Sweet Briar

Roanoke

Med. Col. of Va.

Psychology

Geology

Medical Sciences

Biology

Medical Sciences
Chemistry

History of Virginia Academy of Science

83

Halloran, Miss J. H.
Harris, Miss Isabel
Hart, M. D.

Hayden, Horace E.
Hitchcock, Miss C. J.
Hodges, J. Allison
Hoggan, J. A. C.
Holden, R. J.

Horsley, J. Shelton
Howe, James L.
Howison, Miss Mary S.
Hoxton, L. C.

Hoyt, William D.
Hutcheson, T. B.

Johnson, T. C.

Jones, Chapin
Jones, E. Ruffin
Jordan, H. E.

Joyner, Houston C.

Keeble, W. H.

Keister, William S.
Kepner, William A.
Kilby, C. M.

King, D. J.

Lambert, Miss Maud
Lane, Miss Sara
Leap, William L.

Lee, Claudius
Lee, F. A., Jr.

Lee, W. McDonald
Lewis, Ivey F.

Littleton, L. R.

Loeber, Charles
Lonsdale, John T.
Loving, R. E.

Lyle, W. L.

McConnell, C. H.
McConnell, John P.
McCrackan, Robert F.
McGuire, Stuart
Maphis, Charles G.
Miller, E. C. L.
Mitchell, S. A.

Noback. Gustav J.

O'Connell, D. J.
Ogburn, S. C.

Olivier, Charles P.
Osterud, H. L.

Pease, Robert M.
Perrow, Mosby G.

Reddish, George F.
Robb, Robert G.
Rodman, Walter S.
Rudd, Wortley F.
Ryland, Garnett

Seekford, Ben H.
Simpson, T. McN., Jr.
Sitler, Miss Ida
Smith, Francis H.

Smith, Henry L.

Smith, William D.
Smyth, Ellison A.

Richmond

Univ. of Richmond

Richmond

Univ. of Richmond

Proffit

Med. Col. of Va.

Med. Col. of Va.

V.P.I.

Richmond

Washington and Lee
Newport News
Univ. of Va.

Washington and Lee
V.P.I.

Va. Truck Exp. Sta.

Univ. of Va.

Williamsburg
Univ. of Va.

Amherst

R.M.C.

Ivy Depot
Univ. of Va.

R.M.W.C.

Williamsburg

Roanoke

Hampton Institute
Washington and Lee
V.P.I.

Farmville Normal
Richmond
Univ. of Va.

Emory and Henry College

Richmond

Univ. of Va.

Univ. of Richmond
Bedford

Lynchburg College
East Radford Normal
Med. Col. of Va.

Med. Col. of Va.

Univ. of Va.

Med. Col. of Va.

Univ. of Va.

Med. Col. of Va.

Richmond

Washington and Lee
Univ. of Va.

Med. Col. of Va.

Univ. of Va.

Lynchburg

Med. Col. of Va.

William and Mary
Univ. of Va.

Med. Col. of Va.

Univ. of Richmond

Staunton H.S.

R.M.C.

Hollins College
Univ. of Va.

Washington and Lee
Scottsville H.S.

V.P.I.

Mathematics
Wild Life Conservation
Invertebrate Zoology
Botany

Medical Sciences
Genetics

Geology, Mineralogy

Medical Sciences

Chemistry

Biology, Eugenics

Physics

Biology

Agriculture

Horticulture
Botany, Forestry
Sociology
Medical Sciences
Chemistry

Physics

Biology, Public Health
Lower Invertebrate Zoology
Physics, Astronomy
Medical Sciences

Medical Sciences

Biology

Chemistry

Physics

Psychology

Wild Life Conservation

Biology

Chemistry

Sanitary Engineering
Geology, Mineralogy
Physics
Pharmacy

Chemistry
Education
Chemistry
Medical Sciences
Education

Bacteriology, Chemistry
Astronomy

Anatomy, Anthropology

General
Chemistry
Physics, Astronomy
Biology, Biochemistry

Chemistry
Public Health

Bacteriology

Chemistry

Physics, Mathematics

Chemistry

Chemistry

Biology, Chemistry
Mathematics, Astronomy
Biology

Physics, Astronomy,
Electricity
Physics, Astronomy
Biology

Entomology, Ornithology

84

The Virginia Journal of Science

Smyth, Thomas

Ithaca, N. Y.

Biology, Zoology,

Ornithology

Spencer, Herbert

Va. Truck Exp. Sta.

Zoology, Entomology

Stahl, Horatio S.

V.P.I.

Botany, Phytopathology

Straus, Aubrey H.

Med. Col. of Va.

Public Health

Swem, Earl G.

William and Mary

Sociology

Talliaferro, E. C. S.

Norfolk

Medical Sciences

Teas, William H.

Marion

Chemistry

Thomas, Miss Sue W.

R.M.W.C.

Tucker, Beverly R.

Med. Col. of Va.

Medical Sciences

Turman, A. E.

Richmond

Medical Sciences

Tuttle, A. H.

Univ. of Va.

Histology, Cystology

Underhill, J. B.

Fork Union

Botany, Biology, Entomology

Wakefield, R. A.

Va. Union Univ.

Chemistry

Warren, Paul A.

William and Mary

Biology, Genetics

Watson, John W.

V.P.I.

Chemistry

Weiss, Otto H.

Newport News

Physics, Mathematics

Williams. J. E.

V.P.I.

Mathematics

Wilson, Edward C.

Lynchburg College

Education, Psychology

Winne, A. L. I.

Richmond

Pharmacy

Winston, J. H. C.

Hampden-Sydney

Chemistry, Geology

Wright, Charles C.

Bridgewater College

Economics

Wright, Frank J.

Bridgewater College

Geology, Physiography

Young, R. C.

William and Mary

Physics

Zimmerly, H. H.

Norfolk

Horticulture.

History of Virginia Academy of Science

85

Appendix B

Officers of the Academy

1923-24

President

Secretary

Council

Ivey F. Lewis

E. C. L. Miller

George 0. Ferguson
Henry Louis Smith

R. C. Young

Univ. of Va.

Med. Col. of Va.
Univ. of Va.
Washington and Lee
William and Mary

1924-25

President

Secretary

Council

James L. Howe

E. C. L. Miller

H. L. Smith

R. C. Young

Ivey F. Lewis

Washington and Lee
Med. Col. of Va.
Washington and Lee
William and Mary
Univ. of Va.

1925-26

President

Secretary

Council

Robert E. Loving

E. C. L. Miller

R. C. Young

Ivey F. Lewis

W. M. Brown

Univ. of Richmond
Med. Col. of Va.
William and Mary
Univ. of Va.
Washington and Lee

1 926-27

President

Secretary

Council

J. Shelton Horsley

E. C. L. Miller

Ivey F. Lewis

W. M. Brown

Garnett Ryland

Richmond, Va.

Med. Col. of Va.
Univ. of Va.
Washington and Lee
Univ. of Richmond

1927-28

President

Secretary

Council

Donald W. Davis

E. C. L. Miller

W. M. Brown

Garnett Ryland

L. G. Hoxton

William and Mary
Med. Col. of Va/
Washington and Lee
Univ. of Richmond
Univ. of Va.

1928-29

President

Secretary

Council

W. M. Brown

E. C. L. Miller

Garnett Ryland

L. G. Hoxton

I. D. Wilson

Washington and Lee
Med. Col. of Va.
Univ. of Richmond
Univ. of Va.

V.P.I.

1929-30

President

Secretary

Council

Garnett Ryland

E. C. L. Miller

L. G. Hoxton

I. D. Wilson

L. R. Geissler

Univ. of Richmond
Med. Col. of Va.
Univ. of Va.

V.P.I.

R.M.W.C.

1930-31

President

Secretary

Council

L. G. Hoxton

E. C. L. Miller

I. D. Wilson

L. R. Geissler

A. H. Straus

Univ. of Va.

Med. Col. of Va.
V.P.I.

R.M.W.C.

Med. Col. of Va.

1931-32

President

Secretary

Council

I. D. Wilson

E. C. L. Miller

L. R. Geissler

A. H. Straus

H. E. Jordan

V.P.I.

Med. Col. of Va.
R.M.W.C.

Med. Col. of Va.
Univ. of Va.

86

The Virginia Journal of Science

1932-33

President

Secretary

Council

T. McNider Simpson

E. C. L. Miller

A. H. Straus

H. E. Jordan

Miss Ida Sitler

R.M.C.

Med. Col. of Va.
Med. Col. of Va.
Univ. of Va.

Hollins College

1933-34

President

Secretary

Council

William A. Kepner

E. C. L. Miller

H. E. Jordan

Miss Ida Sitler

D. Maurice Allen

Univ. of Va.

Med. Col. of Va.
Univ. of Va.

Hollins College
Hampden-Sydney

1934-35

President

Secretary

Council

William T. Sanger

E. C. L. Miller

Miss Ida Sitler

D. Maurice Allen

F. L. Robeson

Med. Col. of Va.
Med. Col. of Va.
Hollins College
Hampden-Sydney
V.P.I.

1935-36

President

Secretary

Council

Miss Ida Sitler

E. C. L. Miller

D. Maurice Allen

F. L. Robeson

W. H. Keeble

Hollins College

Med. Col. of Va.

Hampden-Svdney

V.P.I.

R.M.C.

1936-37

President

Secretary

Council

H. E. Jordan

E. C. L. Miller

F. L. Robeson

W. H. Keeble

Edward Steidtmann

Univ. of Va.

Med. Col. of Va.
V.P.I.

R.M.C.

V.M.I.

1937-38

President

Secretary

Council

D. Maurice Allen

E. C. L. Miller

W. H. Keeble

Edward Steidtman

Robert F. Smart

Hampden-Sydney
Med. Col. of Va.
R.M.C.

V.M.I.

Univ. of Richmond

1938-39

President

Secretary

Council

Earl B. Norris

E. C. L. Miller

Edward Steidtmann

Robert F. Smart

W. Catesby Jones

V.P.I.

Med. Col. of Va.
V.M.I.

Univ. of Richmond
Va. Dept, of Agr.

1939-40

President

Secretary

Council

Ruskin S. Freer

E. C. L. Miller

Robert F. Smart

W. Catesby Jones

C. E. Meyers

Preston Edwards

Marcellus H. Stow

Lynchburg College
Med. Col. of Va.
Univ. of Richmond
Va. Dept, of Agric.
V.M.I.

Sweet Briar
Washington and Lee

1940-41

President

Secretary

Council

Wortley F. Rudd

E. C. L. Miller

W. Catesby Jones

C. E. Meyers

Preston Edwards

Marcellus H. Stow

H. H. Zimmerly

Med. Col. of Va.
Med. Col. of Va.

Va. Dept, of Agr.
V.M.I.

Sweet Briar
Washington and Lee
Norfolk, Va.

1941-42

President

Secretary

Council

George W. Jeffers

E. C. L. Miller

C. E. Meyers

Preston Edwards

Marcellus H. Stow

H. H. Zimmerly

H. B. Haag

Farmville Normal
Med. Col. of Va.
V.M.I.

Sweet Briar
Washington and Lee
Norfolk, Va.

Med. Col. of Va.

1942-43

President

Secretary

Council

Marcellus H. Stow

E. C. L. Miller

Preston Edwards

John H. Yoe (for Stow)

H. H. Zimmerly

H. B. Haag

Arthur Bevan

Washington and Lee
Med. Col. of Va.
Sweet Briar

Univ. of Va.

Norfolk, Va.

Univ. of Va.

Med. Col. of Va.

History of Virginia Academy of Science

87

1943-44

1944-45

President W. Catesby Jones

Secretary E. C. L. Miller

Council John H. Yoe

H. H. Zimmerly
H. B. Haag
Arthur Bevan
William E. Trout, Jr.

President Robert F. Smart

Secretary E. C. L. Miller

Council H. H. Zimmerly

H. B. Haag
Arthur Bevan
William E. Trout, Jr.
J. L. Blair Buck

Va. Dept, of Agr.

Med. Col. of Va.

Univ. of Va.

Norfolk, Va.

Med. Col. of Va.

Univ. of Va.

Mary Baldwin College

Univ. of Richmond
Med. Col. of Va.

Norfolk. Va.

Med. Col. of Va.

Univ. of Va.

Mary Baldwin College
State Board of Education

88

The Virginia Journal of Science

Appendix C

Recipients of J. Shelton Horsley
Research Award

1927

Carl C. Speidel

Univ. of Va.

1928

John H. Yoe

Univ. of Va.

1929

J. C. Street

Univ. of Va.

1930

H. E. Jordan

Univ. of Va.

Carl C. Speidel

Univ. of Va.

1931

E. C. Stevenson

Univ. of Va.

1932

James H. Smith

Richmond, Va.

1933

S. A. Wingard

Va. Poly. Inst.

1934

E. P. Johnson

Va. Poly. Inst.

1935

Margaret Hess

Judson Coll., Marion, Ala.

1936

Alfred Chanutin

Univ. of Va.

1937

R. G. Henderson

Va. Poly. Inst.

1938

S. G. Bedell

Univ. of Va.

1939

M. J. Murray

F. F. Cleveland

Armour Inst, of Tech., Chicago
Armour Inst, of Tech., Chicago
Tenn. Poly. Inst., Cookeville

1940

Walton C. Gregory

1941

Charles Ray

Univ. of Va.

1942

No Award

1943

J. B. Meyer

Blandy Exp. Farm, U. of Va.

1944

J. H. Taylor

Blandy Exp. Farm, U. of Va.

1945

No Award

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Dr. Donald W. Davis Papers, Earl Gregg Swem Library, College of William and Mary,
Williamsburg, Virginia.

Flory, Walter S.. Research Committee History. Manuscript in the possession of the Virginia
Academy of Science, Virginia Institute for Scientific Research, Richmond, Virginia.

Harshbarger, Boyd, The History of the Virginia Journal of Science. Manuscript, Virginia
Institute for Scientific Research.

leffers, George W., History of the Virginia Academy of Science. Manuscript, Virginia In¬
stitute for Scientific Research.

Dr. Ivey F. Lewis Papers, Virginia Institute for Scientific Research.

Proceedings 1923-1945. Being the minutes of the Meetings, Conferences, and Council Sessions
of the Academy. Published through the office of the Secretary of the Academy in Rich¬
mond, and in conjunction with the Virginia Journal of Science 1940-1943.

Virginia Journal of Science. Vol. I-IV (1940-1943), Lexington, Virginia.

History of Virginia Academy of Science

89

News & Notes

VIRGINIA JUNIOR ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
RESEARCH GRANTS ANNOUNCED

Dr. E. L. Wisman, Director, Virginia Junior
Academy of Science, has released the names of
eighteen Virginia high school students who have
been awarded research grants. The grants, ranging
from eight dollars to eighty dollars, were awarded to
successful applicants to assist the recipients in pur¬
chasing equipment, reference materials and supplies
and rental of time on instruments such as the elec¬
tron microscope.

These grants are made possible by the use of
funds from the National Science Foundation ad¬
ministered by the Virginia Academy of Science.
High school student members of the Virginia Junior
Academy of Science who are involved in a research
project of scientific nature are eligible for the grants.

The eighteen grantees represent sixteen of over
one hundred twenty-five science clubs, in Virginia
high schools, affiliated with the Virginia Junior
Academy of Science. It is expected that the young
researchers will present a paper on their work at the
annual meeting of the Junior Academy in Roanoke,
Virginia, May 8 and 9, 1968. A list of the research
grants with awardees and sponsors follows:

1. Abbott, Jonathan Dean

4010 Wyoming Avenue, N.W. $25.00

Roanoke, Virginia 24017 Purchase Equipment

Mrs. Ruth B. Painter, Sponsor

William Fleming High School Science Club

Roanoke, Virginia

A Comparative Ecological Study of Selected Sections of
Johns and Craig Creek in Botetourt County

2. Burns, David Arthur

20 Barbour Drive $35.00

Newport News, Virginia 23606 Purchase Equipment

Mr. F. W. Daly, Sponsor

Ferguson High School Honorary Science Club

Newport News, Virginia

An Investigation of RF-Generated Plasma

3. Chappelle, Kenneth Thomas $50.00

Route 2 Purchase Equipment

Bedford, Virginia 24523 and Literature

Mrs. Joseph J. Thaxton, Jr., Sponsor
SOS Science Club
Liberty High School
Bedford, Virginia

Peculiarity of Certain Intrinsic Stellar Variability in
Accordance with the Pulsation Theory

4. Clemmer, Gregg Scott

Route 5 $8.00

Staunton, Virginia 24401 Purchase Chemicals

Mrs. Doris Slusser, Sponsor

Ft. Defiance High School Science Club

Ft. Defiance, Virginia

Development of a Method for Extracting Fossil Re¬
mains from Limestone

5. Click, Patricia Catherine $12.00

Box 61 Purchase Supplies

Weyers Cave, Virginia and Reference Books

Mrs. Doris Slusser, Sponsor

Ft. Defiance High School Science Club

Ft. Defiance, Virginia

A Determination of the Possible Relationship Between
Lactobacillus acidophilus in the Saliva and Carbohy¬
drate in the Diet

6. Ford, Paul Mathew

3501 Deep Creek Boulevard $35.00

Portsmouth, Virginia 23702 Purchase Chemicals

Mr. G. A. Perkins, Sponsor

Cradock High School Science and Math Club

Portsmouth. Virginia

Investigation of the Radio Universe

7. Gilbert, Paul Curtis

5525 Eastbourne Drive $80.00

Springfield, Virginia 22151 Purchase Equipment

Mr. Roger Yohe and Mrs. E. Durie, Sponsors
WSHS Science Research Club
Springfield. Virginia

A Study of the Relationship between Variations in
Cosmic-Ray Radiation and Weather Changes

8. Hilldrup, Kerry Cameron

109 Lorraine Avenue $50.00

Fredericksburg, Virginia 22401 Purchase Equipment

Mrs. Bobby B. Crisp, Sponsor
Spotsylvania High School Science Club
Spotsylvania, Virginia 22553

Investigation of the Use of Laser Beam in Visual and
Audio Communication

9. Howell, Nancy Ellen $65.00

Route 1, Box 209 Purchase Animal Food

Vinton, Virginia 24179 and Equipment

Mrs. J. Worrell and Mr. Harlam Cundiff, Sponsors
Staunton River High School Science Club
Moneta, Virginia 24121

Further Investigations into the Effects of Oral Adminis¬
tration of Magnesium on Crystalluria of Manx Cats

10. Iafolla, Rita Femanta

33 Crescent Street $10.00

Front Royal, Virginia Purchase Equipment

Mrs. Mary Hayes, Sponsor
Rho Sigma Chi
Warren County High School
Front Royal, Virginia 22630

A Study of the Effects of Magnetic Fields on Plant
Growth

11. Lober, Clifford Warren $35.00

3008 Crane Drive Purchase Equipment

Falls Church, Virginia 22042 and Resource Literature

90

The Virginia Journal of Science

Mr. Frank Cataldo, Sponsor

J. E. B. Stuart High School Science Club

Falls Church, Virginia 22044

Further Studies in Population Genetics of the Droso¬
phila

12. Pratt, Audrea Carole

Route 3 $25.00

Saltville, Virginia 24370 Purchase Equipment

Mr. George L. Farris, Sponsor
Rich Valley Senior Science Club
Richlands, Virginia 24641

The Pronostication of Varied Alga Species in Relation
To Animal Life Processes under Space-Flight Conditions

13. Riggle, Linda Dianne $15.00

8907 Sylvania Street Purchase Equipment

Lorton. Virginia 22079 Food and Harmones

Hicks, Theresa Ann
10236 Gunston Road
Lorton, Virginia 22079

Mr. Swain, Sponsor
Tri-Beta Science Enrichment Club
Mt. Vernon High School
Fairfax County, Virginia

Use of Hormones to Increase Survival Rate of Offspring
in Experimental Animals

14. Roberts, James Lewis

9006 Cherrytree Drive $35.00

Alexandria, Virginia 22309 Purchase Equipment

Mr. D. Miller, Sponsor
Fort Hunt Academy of Science
Fort Hunt High School
Fairfax County, Virginia

An Investigation of the Survival of Certain Organisms in
a Simulated Martian Environment

15. Wissler, Bonnie Jean $30.00

3107 Richard Avenue, N.E. Purchase Animals

Roanoke, Virginia 24012 and Chemicals

Margaret Dressier, Sponsor
Alpha Omega Science Club
William Byrd High School
Vinton, Virginia

A Study of the Role of Proteins in Memory and Aging

16. Wood, Judith Marie $20.00

224 Augusta Avenue Purchase Climatological

Vinton, Virginia 24179 Sheets

Virginia Saunders, Sponsor
Alpha Omega Science Club
William Byrd High School
Vinton, Virginia 24179

A Study of the Possible Correlation between the Phases
of the Moon and Weather

17. Zunka, Craig Anthony $50.00

Box 1600 Use of Electron Microscope,

Front Royal, Virginia 22630 Picture Development

Mary Hayes, Sponsor
Warren County High School Science Club
Front Royal, Virginia 22630
A Study of the Effects on Increased CO 1 Levels on
Light Absorption by Plants

18. Jones, Claudia Irene $15.00

436 Otterback Store Road Purchase Special

Great Falls, Virginia 22066 Nutrient Medium

Mr. Preston McLendon. Sponsor
Langley High School Science Club
Fairfax County, Virginia

Heart Cells Grown in Vitro: An Investigation into
Chemical Stimulants and Depressants of Heart Rate

RESEARCH COMMITTEE ANNOUNCES
NEW AWARDS FOR BIOLOGICAL
INVESTIGATION

The Research Committee of the Academy, under
the chairmanship of William T. Ham, Jr., Depart¬
ment of Biophysics, Medical College of Virginia,
has announced the award of two new grants to
Virginia investigators working in important bio¬
logical areas:

Professors Nolan E. Rice and W. Allan $250.00
Powell, University of Richmond, “A
Comparative Study of the Nature and
Action of the Poisons of Three Species
of Jellyfishes of Chesapeake Bay and
Tributaries.”

Professor William W. Scott, Madison Col- 300.00
lege, “A Revision of the Fresh-water
and Marine Genera of the Saproleg-
niaceae.”

In addition to awarding research grants and solicit¬
ing research proposals, the committee carefully re¬
views each year submissions for the Horsley Award.
Announcements concerning the Horsley Award have
recently been sent to all sections of the Academy.

NOTICE TO THE MEMBERSHIP OF
PROPOSED CHANGES IN CONSTITUTION
AND BYLAWS

Background for the change in dues: Annual dues
for each of the classes of membership are stated in
the Bylaws. Each member receives a subscription
to the Virginia Journal of Science. At one time the
student dues of $2 was sufficient to defray the cost
of the Journal subscription. This is no longer the
case as a result of inflationary trends. It is therefore
proposed to raise student dues to $3.50 in Section
(1)2 of the Bylaws.

Background for the change in standing commit¬
tees: In recent years the attendance at the annual
meeting has increased and the necessary arrange¬
ments prior to the selection of a place of meeting
have become too complex for a Place of Meeting
Committee. The Executive Committee is more fa¬
miliar with these detailed requirements. It is there¬
fore proposed to drop the Place of Meeting Com¬
mittee from the list of committees enumerated in
Section 6(1) of the Bylaws.

The growth in Academy programs and the need
for financial backing for these has prompted nu¬
merous discussions on the need for a fund-raising
committee to continuously seek ways and means for
securing financial support based on broad participa¬
tion of many segments of the science-oriented com-

News and Notes

91

munity. It is therefore proposed to add the Fund-
Raising Committee to the list of committees enu¬
merated in Section 6(1) of the Bylaws.

Background for the change in the Constitution
regarding the time of the annual meeting: The de¬
cline in popularity of Saturday sessions at the an¬
nual meeting has prompted several sections to
schedule concurrent Friday sessions. This has
reached sufficient proportions that great difficulty
is being experienced in providing meeting rooms at
nearly all of our host facilities. It is therefore pro¬
posed that the dates of the meeting be changed to
begin twenty-four hours earlier for every segment
of the program. Junior Academy included. This
requires a change in the Constitution which presently
provides for specific days of the week.

PROPOSED CHANGES:

1. Amend Section 1(2) of the Bylaws to read:
“The annual dues of student members shall be
three dollars fifty cents ($3.50).

2. Amend Section 6(1) of the Bylaws to read:
“The standing committees of the Academy are:
the Research Committee, the Long Range Plan¬
ning Committee, the Junior Academy of Science
Committee, the Membership Committee, the Fi¬
nance and Endowment Committee, the Board
of Trustees, the Publications Committee, the
Awards Committee, the Fund-Raising Commit¬
tee, the Nominating Committee and the Science
Talent Search Committee. Normally, with the
exception of the Research Committee, about one-
third of the committee members are appointed
annually by the President for a three-year term.”

3. Amend Article 10 of the Constitution to read:
“The annual meeting of this organization shall
be held during the first or second week of May
in each year at a place selected by the member¬
ship. The Council shall decide whether the an¬
nual meeting shall be held during the first or
second week in May and shall arrange for any
special meetings deemed necessary.”

PROCEDURE FOR CHANGES:

For your information Article 11, Section 4 of the
constitution is (Section 7 of the Bylaws is identi¬
cal) :

“This constitution may be changed or amended at
any meeting of the Council by a two-thirds majority
of those present, subject to approval of the annual
Academy Conference, provided due notice of such
proposed change has been published in the Virginia
Journal of Science or furnished in writing to mem¬
bers prior to such annual meeting. The Council
members shall be notified in writing fifteen days
prior to a Council Meeting of all contemplated
changes to be proposed at the meeting.”

SUSTAINING MEMBERS
VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

The following Virginia Colleges and Univer¬
sities support the objectives of the Virginia
Academy of Science through “Sustaining Mem¬
berships.” Their active and financial support is
gratefully acknowledged.

Bridgewater College

College of William and Mary

Christopher Newport College

Emory and Henry College

George Mason College

Hampden-Sydney College

Hollins College

Madison College

Mary Baldwin College

Mary Washington College

Medical College of Virginia

Old Dominion College

Randolph-Macon College

Randolph-Macon Woman’s College

Richmond Professional Institute

Roanoke College

Southern Seminary, Junior College
Stratford College
Sullins College
Sweet Briar College
University of Richmond
University of Virginia
Virginia Military Institute
Virginia Polytechnic Institute
Virginia State College
Washington and Lee University

The Virginia Journal of Science

92

Communications and Reports

Introduction to Radio Astronomy

By R. C. Jennison, Philosophical Library, Inc.,
New York, 1967. 160 pages, $4.75.

Radio astronomy deals with the detection and
analysis of radio waves emitted by celestial bodies.
This branch of astronomy has provided much di¬
verse information that ranges from the surface
temperature of Venus to the distribution of extra-
galactic radio sources. Introduction to Radio As¬
tronomy by Professor R. C. Jennison is a book
which, according to the jacket blurb, was written to
bridge the gap between the too popular account of
radio and the text book in a growing and interest¬
ing branch of astronomy.

Introduction to Radio Astronomy contains 8
chapters and 155 pages of text with 2 chapters and
77 pages being devoted to radio telescopes. In ad¬
dition to the lengthy discussion of instrumentation,
the radio sun, the moon and planets, and other
galactic and extragalactic sources of radio waves
are adequately discussed. Although the mechanisms
that produce radio emission in celestial objects are
well presented, there are many places where the
text is hazy. For instance, on page 71 the author
refers to distance measurement from the study of
absorption line profile without explanation of the
methods used to obtain distance. In addition, the
lack of a good extragalactic distance scale in radio
astronomy is not clearly stated. The book contains
no references for work cited in the text and there
is no hint to interested readers of follow-on books
and papers. A glossary of terms used, particularly
those from radio engineering, would be helpful.

Introduction to Radio Astronomy is heavily
weighted toward the discussion of radio telescopes;
and, when compared with other books designed to
bridge the gap between a too popular account of a
subject and the text book, such as Fact and Theory
in Cosmology by G. C. McVittie, it is barely ade¬
quate.

Windsor L. Sherman

Reagents for Organic Synthesis

By Louis F. Fieser and M. Fieser,

John Wiley and Sons, Inc.,

New York, London and Sidney, 1967.

1457 pages, $19.95.

With the myriad of reagents utilized by the or¬
ganic chemist today, a book of this nature has been
long overdue, and consequently becomes a welcome
addition to the organic chemist’s literary arsenal.
Alphabetically, 1,120 reagents are listed with their
structural formulas, molecular weights, physical
constants, their suppliers, referenced preparative
procedures, which frequently are presented in detail,

and referenced examples of their use. Coverage of
the literature is through August, 1966, and indeed
one can find many new and wondrous reactions.
Numerous uses of the reagents are illustrated by
specific examples with structural formulas and ex¬
perimental procedures. Little attention has been
directed to the purification and properties of the
reagents, which, to be sure, as the authors mention
in the preface, are documented abundantly else¬
where. The reviewer does believe, however, that the
inclusion of more properties and safety precautions
is to be desired if the book is to be utilized by the
less advanced chemist. For example, although the
reader is informed of the highly poisonous nature
of hydrazoic acid, mention of its explosive nature
is neglected. Another case in point is the failure to
describe the precautionary exclusion of ground glass
joints in the generation of diazomethane. The au¬
thors do caution the reader to acquaint himself with
the safety precautions for generating diazomethane;
however, the presentation of experimental proce¬
dures unfortunately does not encourage such in¬
doctrination for the young and inexperienced chemist.
Furthermore, the high toxicity of osmium tetroxide
and the advantageous use of ruthenium tetroxide in
lieu of the former perhaps deserve mention. Again,
mention of the poisonous nature of compounds such
as sodium azide seems painfully neglected.

Nevertheless, considering the scope of the ma¬
terial, the book is, in the Fieser tradition, remark¬
ably thorough. To be sure, one could point to a few
omissions. For instance, although adamantane and
diadamantane (congressane) are both mentioned,
Schleyer’s elegant syntheses of these compounds
from aluminum chloride and various hydrocarbons
are omitted. Sodium tetraphenylboron and the acids,
picrolonic, styphnic, and dinitrobarbituric, all useful
in the characterization and isolation of amines, are
also neglected.

Despite the above-mentioned shortcomings, this
reviewer highly recommends this book and regards
it as an important intellectual companion of the
organic chemist.

Jeffrey S. McKennis

Dictionary of Applied Geology

By A. Nelson and K. D. Nelson,
Philosophical Library, Inc., New York, 1967.

121 pages, $17.50.

This dictionary lists minerals and rock types as¬
sociated with economic deposits. Also included are
terms related to building materials, geology and
engineering, water resources and soil mechanics.
Tables are limited to conventional signs on geological
maps and english-metric equivalents.

Although the dictionary is intended for students
it does replace a standard textbook in mining or

Communications and Reports

93

geology. It should prove of value to varied engineers
or contractors engaged in reporting on soils and ex¬
cavation work. Definitions are brief and pointed;
here and there they are accompanied by a few
illustrations.

M. Nichols

Letters on Wave Mechanics

Edited by K. Przibram for the Austrian
Academy of Sciences,

Translated by Martin J. Klein,
Philosophical Library, Tnc., New York, 1967.

75 pages, $6.00.

This is a modest volume on one of physics’
greatest, most aesthetic ideas — that matter, at its
most basic, atomic level can be interpreted as a
wave phenomenon. More specifically, this book is
a collection of letters centered about the man who
offered this interpretation in a series of papers he
published during the first half of 1926 — Erwin
Schroedinger.

For the most part, this collection of 21 letters
contains the initial reactions to Schroedinger’s pro¬
posals by Albert Einstein, Max Planck and H. A.
Lorentz. In addition, through the letters Schroedinger
wrote to them, his own reactions, doubts and diffi¬
culties concerning the wave interpretation are
revealed.

He shares with Lorentz, for example, a concern
about how and why discrete wave packets would not
tend to disperse, then offers (in Letter No. 20) a
possible way out of this difficulty.

He is delighted that Einstein erred in attributing
a flawed equation to him (Schroedinger), and that
the “correct” equation given by Einstein was ac¬
tually the one Schroedinger had in his paper. This,

Schroedinger believed, constituted an independent
validation of his work. . . One’s confidence in a
formulation always increases if one — and especially
if you — constructs the same thing afresh from a few
fundamental requirements,” Schroedinger replied to
Einstein.

Planck shows a warm, enthusiastic support of
Schroedinger’s ideas; Einstein’s letters suggest a pro¬
found interest in the wave interpretation, but with
certain philosophical reservations. In Letter No. 16,
for example, he begins, “I am as convinced as ever
that the wave interpretation of matter is an incom¬
plete representation of the state of affairs, no matter
how practically useful it has proved itself to be.”
The letters from Lorentz are critically analytical,
but on the whole, it appears he would like to throw
his support behind Schroedinger's ideas. If some of
the difficulties he saw should cause the wave inter¬
pretation to be given up, “something would be lost
that would have been very beautiful,” Lorentz wrote
to Schroedinger. “I should be very pleased if you
could find a way out of this.”

Letters on Wave Mechanics is, in general, a valu¬
able contribution to the history of physics. It evolved
from the wish of Schroedinger’s widow, Mrs. Anne-
marie Schroedinger, that her husband’s correspond¬
ence on wave mechanics might be published among
the works of the Austrian Academy of Sciences.
That wish was realized with deftness under the edi¬
torship of K. Przibram of the Austrian Academy,
and for the English edition, by the translation and
introduction by Martin J. Klein of the Case Institute
of Technology.

For those who appreciate a touch of history with
their studies of science. Letters on Wave Mechanics
is an excellent supplement to other sources on that
exciting era of physics when our current understand¬
ing of atomic processes began emerging.

Beverly Orndorff

94

The Virginia Journal of Science

PHILIP MORRIS

Philip Morris, a publicly-owned company incorporated in Virginia, proudly traces
its heritage to a London tobacconist of a century ago. Quality and innovation have
earned for the company a valued reputation: “Philip Morris . . . makers of Amer¬
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tobaccos, and in recent years Philip Morris has added these quality names:
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ing Gum Company.

Write to Administrative Assistant, P. O. Box 3-D, Richmond, Virginia for infor¬
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TABLE OF CONTENTS

101

Some Statistical Methods in Machine-Intelligence
Research

I. J. Good

111

Preparation and Evaluation of Some Carcinogenic
Azo Dyes

C. C. Clayton, J. D. Smith
and J. G. Young

115

Studies on the Excretion of
5-(3-Pyridyl)tetrahydrofuranone-2 and Its
Intermediary Role in the Metabolism of Nicotine

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122

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Iguanidae)

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126

Communications and Reports

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News and Notes

THE VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

Official Publication of the Virginia Academy of Science

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Published quarterly by The Virginia Academy of
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The front cover is by Douglas C. Hensley.

I. J. Good

Department of Statistics,
Virginia Polytechnic Institute,
Blacksburg, Virginia.
Received November 27, 1967

Some Statistical Methods in Machine-Intelligence Research

Abstract — About a dozen examples are given of the use
of statistical methods in research on machine intelligence,
most, though not all, previously known, but not previously
brought together. The topics include the application of
rationality to the research as a whole; the trading of
immediate gain for information; adaptive control without
the identification of a model, by using smoothing techniques;
phoneme recognition using distinctive features and their
derivatives; the compiling of dictionaries; “botryology” or
concept formation by clump-finding; information retrieval;
medical diagnosis; game-playing and its relationship to
theorem-proving; design of an alphabet or of a vocabulary;
and artificial neural networks. Among the statistical themes
that are emphasized are the estimation of probabilities; the
use of amounts of information and of evidence as sub¬
stitutes for utility when utility is difficult to estimate; deci¬
sion trees; “evolving” probabilities; and maximum, mini¬
mum, and minimax entropy in diagnosis. In this survey of
methods it has been necessary at several points to make do
with references to the literature.

This paper is concerned with examples of statis¬
tical methods in machine-intelligence research and
is not much concerned with nonstatistical methods.
The author believes that some of the ideas are new.

One meaning of “intelligence” is the ability to
adapt to a wide variety of circumstances in the attain¬
ment of some goal such as self-preservation. In prac¬
tice this will aways involve many subgoals. This
definition involves both powers of perception and in¬
tellectual activity. We seem to have gone further in
the mechanization of the intellect than of perception.
Spiders and bees seem to have better powers of
perception than any machines to date, at least in
their powers of pattern recognition. It is not clear
whether perception should be regarded as an at¬
tribute of intelligence but it will be considered so
here.

The work on machine intelligence is an attempt
to extend the use of computers into fields where
humans and many animals are still supreme, espe¬
cially into apparently and actually non-numerical
fields, roughly describable as “information process¬
ing.” Elementary information processing could be
defined as what can be done using punched cards,
sorters, collators and the like. Machine intelligence
might then be roughly equated to advanced informa¬
tion processing. Some people would insist that the
programs or machines must be adaptive. The subject

is still in its infancy: as Oliver Selfridge remarked,
“Artificial intelligence remains tainted with artificial¬
ity.”

One aspect of intelligence is judgment. You say
that a person has used judgment when you don’t
know how he arrived at some opinion (19). This
is especially true when one is talking about one’s
own judgment. This could be called the “Elementary-
my-dear-Watson” effect. One approach to machine
intelligence is to discover how judgments are made
and Then to simulate them. Machine-intelligence
research is therefore closely related to experimental
psychology. That is why there is a society, founded
in the United Kingdom, called “A is B”, meaning
Artificial Intelligence and the Simulation of Be¬
haviour. About a third of the members are experi¬
mental psychologists.

Some examples of work on machine intelligence
are:

Machine translation and, more generally, “com¬
putational linguistics.”

Some aspects of information retrieval.

Game-playing.

Theorem-proving.

Musical composition and the graphic arts. [See
(44), which book will be based on an exhibi¬
tion organized by the Institute for Contem¬
porary Arts.]

Probability estimation.

Classification in general.

Included in classification is “patttern recognition” of
which there are two kinds (a) the recognition that
an already specified pattern is present (properly
called “pattern recognition”), (b) the specification
of new patterns, which is also called the “theory and
practice of clumps” or “botryology,” from the Greek
(loToog, a cluster of grapes. There are already 27
words beginning with “botry” in Funk and Wagnall’s
English dictionary, so one more won’t do any harm.
A good name is important: there would be fewer
professors of history if it were called “what hap¬
pened.”

Examples of classification are the recognition of
printed and handwritten characters, speech recogni¬
tion including the categorization of phonemes, the
classification and recognition of fingerprints, medi-

Machine-Intelligence Research Methods

101

cal diagnosis, and numerical taxonomy. Rutowitz
(50) gives a short survey.

Apart from the simulation of thought processes,
there has also been some work on the simulation of
neural networks (4, 5, 11, 49). This work is also
related to the theory of reliable machines made of
unreliable components (9, 40) and borders on the
assembly and subassembly theories of mind (24, 34,
38).

It is possible to regard all statistical methods as
an attempt to mechanize intelligence, since they are
concerned with the reduction of judgment to calcula¬
tion as far as possible. Perhaps machine intelligence
is mainly concerned with new kinds of applications
of statistical methods.

An excellent introduction to machine-intelligence
research is Minsky’s article (39).

EXAMPLES

(i) — As a first example of the application of
statistical methods, let’s consider the application of
the principle of rationality to the work on machine
intelligence. The principle of rationality is the recom¬
mendation to maximize expected utility. Let p be
the probability that an “ultraintelligent machine” can
be built for cost C, where by definition an ultrain¬
telligent machine is better at every intellectual ac¬
tivity than any man; and let the value of this machine
if it can be built be u. Then it is easily seen that \p u\
> C for almost all C, even if p is small. I have put
the moduli signs in here because, although it is clear
that u is large it is not clear whether it is positive
or negative.

Good's second law is that when getting advice
from consultants on whether to undertake some
project, it is important to get two different con¬
sultants, one to estimate the probability of success
and the other to estimate the value if the project is
successful. If a single consultant is asked to judge
whether to spend an amount C his answer is too
much tied up with his own reputation. If he thinks p
is not large he might advise against the expenditure
in order to protect himself, regardless of the size of u.

I think this elementary point is important and
often overlooked. It shows that a little rationality can
go a long way.

A division of responsibility between judge and jury
is familiar in law courts, but the jury is usually ex¬
pected to return a definite verdict instead of an
estimated probability. Tt can also fail to reach agree¬
ment, of course. The term of imprisonment of a
suspect ought to depend officially on the probability
of guilt. Perhaps some day everyone will have to
pass an examination in the philosophy of probability
before sitting on a jury, just as drivers of cars in the
United States have to take a written test.

(ii) — The two-armed bandit. This problem ap¬
parently originated in connection with the choice
between two medical treatments (53). It is relevant
to adaptive control. Before discussing it one must
first refer to “dynamic programming.”

When electronic computers were fairlv new, “pro¬
gramming” became a vogue word and therefore the

expressions “linear programming,” “mathematical
programming,” and “dynamic programming” were
introduced, although they are more logically called
“linear planning,” “mathematical planning,” and
“dynamic (mathematical) planning” since none of
them has any necessary connection with machine
programming. Richard Bellman, who originated the
expression “dynamic programming,” agrees with this
remark. The improved terminology enables one to
speak, for example, of the programming of dynamic
planning.

Dynamic planning is concerned with decision situ¬
ations in which the current best decision cannot be
conveniently worked out without working back from
the future. One has a decision tree which is often
stochastic, and the payoff depends at least partly on
where one ultimately ends up on the tree. For ex¬
ample, in the game of chess the strategy of the entire
game really depends on analysis of the end game.
This sheds light on the appropriate strategy for the
middle game, and that in its turn sheds light on the
opening strategy. Thus dynamic planning is in some
respects hundreds of years old.

A good example of the use of dynamic planning
is for the two-armed-bandit problem (3, 45, 46, 53-
56). In this problem we have a gambling machine
with two arms or handles; we put in a stake and we
can choose which of the two arms to pull. Asso¬
ciated with each arm there is an unknown fixed
physical probability that we shall receive a certain
fixed reward, the same reward for both arms. (There
was an electronic two-armed bandit at Rand Cor¬
poration some years ago.) The question is, what is
the best strategy? There are various forms of this
problem depending on whether the game is of finite
or infinite duration. If it is of infinite duration, it is
more realistic to discount the future at some rate
although the infinite game has also been considered
without a discounting factor. When the game is in¬
finite and there is no discounting factor, the object
is to win in the largest possible fraction of time in
the long run. For this game the solution is the fol¬
lowing intuitively obvious one: Since there will
ultimately be a very high probability that we know
which is the handle with the higher probability of
a payoff, we should pull this handle in a proportion
of cases tending to one. The other handle must be
pulled in a proportion of cases tending to zero but
nevertheless in a number of cases tending to infinity.
This form of the problem is not of much practical
interest, but, with discounting of the future, it is
a rather good model of a typical situation in which
we have to decide whether to go for short-term gains
or to pay for additional information. It is easy to
express the problem of finding an optimal solution
in terms of some mathematical equations which, how¬
ever, have never been solved explicitly. This problem
has been discussed several times with Dr. Michie
of Edinburgh. About seven years ago he sug¬
gested that the information should be measured in
terms of Fisher’s definition of amount of informa¬
tion with some suitable choice of units, in order
that the information could be interpreted as a cash
value. However, we refuted this and we proposed

102

The Virginia Journal of Science

that expected amount of information in Shannon’s
sense or else expected weight of evidence might be
better.1 This we have not yet refuted, although in
principle it would be quite easy to do so, if the
assumption is wrong, by means of a computer
program. Michie did write a program in 1960 for
solving the dynamic planning equations numerically,
but it is not yet quite flexible enough to deal with
this particular conjecture. To be more specific, the
conjecture is that the long-term financial value of
an act is the sum of its immediate expected financial
value plus an amount proportional to the expected
amount of information or to the expected weight of
evidence (compare (36)). The expectations can be
worked out, provided that we assume some initial
distribution for the physical probabilities p and q.

The two-armed-bandit problem occurs when one
is trying to decide whether to adopt a certain medical
treatment when there are two treatments to choose
between. The problem can of course be generalized
to a Hindu-god bandit having n arms or even a
continuous infinity.

The infinite game with discounting of the future
is a simple model for the strategy of scientific re¬
search, or even of adaptive behaviour generally, and
it is relevant to certain types of adaptive control
strategy, as in the next example.

In the application of the two-armed-bandit prob¬
lem to the choice of a medical drug we are un¬
fortunately involved with the ethics of experimenting
on people. It would be possible, though perhaps
impracticable, to draw lots in order to select the
patients to be given the treatment currently thought
to be the less effective. This might be fair and would
satisfy the statistician’s requirement for randomiza¬
tion.

(iii) — Adaptive control: a nonidentifying ap¬
proach. (The pole-balancer.) A classical model of
a control system is x = f(\, u, t), where x is the state
variable (vector), u the control variable, / a known
function, and t is time. There is also a loss function
or loss functional. In adaptive control, / is not
usually entirely known, and u is chosen either in the
light of previous “runs” or in the light of the current
run or both. Nonadaptive control is rather like “dead
reckoning” in navigation and so too is adaptive con¬
trol when it does not depend on the current run. A
well-known simple example is the pole-balancing
problem in which we have a pole hinged to the top
of a cart which runs along a finite straight track,
with a cliff edge at each end. Our objective is to
balance the pole for as long as possible without
falling over the edge of the cliff, to stay alive as long
as possible, so to speak. A potential application, ac-
according to Elgerd (10), is to the balancing of a
rocket on its launching pad. Suppose we measure
y and 0 at discrete moments of time. At each such
moment we can apply a “bang-bang” control in
which a constant force is applied to the cart either
to the left or the right at our choice. We think

1 The amount of information and the weight of evidence con¬
cerning H provided by E are defined as I(H:E) = log [P(E|H)/
P(E)] and WfTT-Ft — log [P(E|H)/P(E) 1 not H)] (see (14, 16)
and references therein).

of the state of the system as a point in phase
space, with four coordinates say x = (y, y, 6, 6).
(Strictly speaking, phase space uses positions and
momenta.) Our “strategy” can be defined as a func¬
tion from points x in phase space to controls u
which take the values L and R. In this example u is
a scalar. The “cost” of our strategy can be defined
in various ways; for example, as a decreasing func¬
tion of the lifetime of the system.

Even in the theory of adaptive control it is usually
considered necessary to identify the dynamics of the
system (10). But a juggler can balance a stick
without explicitly knowing any dynamics, so it must
be possible to do the same with a machine. It might
be expensive, of course. Dr. Michie proposed di¬
viding the phase space into a small number
(namely, 5 X 5 X 3 X 3) of discrete cells or
“boxes,” and recording only which box the phase
point is in at any moment rather than its exact
coordinates. Time is taken as discrete.

Each run provides information of the form

(xl5 u i), (x2, u2), . . .

where each u{ is L or R (left or right). The idea
is to use each run for learning an improved “strat¬
egy” (see below) for the control u as a function
of x. This learning might take place between runs,
during runs or both. You learn how to live as long
as possible by experience gained in previous incarna¬
tions. A strategy is a function from x to u since we
assume that only the positions and velocities are
relevant; i.e., there is no hysteresis in the system, or
if there is it is allowed for by weighting the past
exponentially. (Barnard (1) made a useful sugges¬
tion about weighting the past. He suggested that if
the current behaviour of a system changes by an
unusually large amount, then the past should tem¬
porarily be discounted at an increased rate.)

We can define a strategy by imagining a little
demon in each box. A record is made by each demon
whose box has been used, corresponding to each
of its uses. This record states whether the bang-bang
control was L or R on each occasion and also states
the weighted average of lifetimes of the runs, cor¬
responding separately to L decisions and R decisions.

If the parameters of the system are unvarying,
then given a large enough sample it would ultimately
become clear to each little demon whether L or R
was probably the better decision for him. Actually

Machine-Intelligence Research Methods

1 03

he could never be quite certain and should occa¬
sionally make the apparently less good choice merely
in order to gather information, as in the two-armed-
bandit problem.

The mean lifetime, or rather a decreasing function
of it, is not a very good cost function. To use it is
too much like trying to teach someone (or a ma¬
chine) to play chess by discouraging any move in a
game that he happened to lose. It is far more
efficient to make use of subgoals for the purpose of
choosing positive and negative reinforcements (com¬
pare (19)). If scores can be associated with the
various cells or boxes, then a score can be associated
with the entire path, this time using a discounting of
the future.

Another point is this: If the dimensionality of
the problem is much more than 4 (which is the
number of dimensions of phase space in the pole¬
balancing problem), the number of cells or boxes
is apt to be extremely large, and it will become
difficult or impracticable to take a large enough
sample. In this case two different modifications of
Michie’s approach are possible.

(a) Suppose we can make use of spatial continuity.
Then each demon can make use of the statistics
acquired by surrounding demons, giving weights
that tail off according to the distance away of the
other demons.

(b) We can ignore continuity but treat the various
cells by some extension of a treatment of multi¬
dimensional contingency table, when estimating
probabilities (23).

If in method (b) we were to categorize the life¬
times also into, say, only two categories (above and
below some threshold varying with the state of the
game but the same for all cells in any one run),
then the data would reduce to a multidimensional
contingency table 2 X 2 x 5 X 5 X 3 X 3, and the
methods of (23) could be directly applied. I shall
therefore refer to this work now in greater detail.

(iv) — Estimation of probabilities in multidimen¬
sional contingency tables. Suppose that a man is
teaching a machine to recognize patterns such as
letters of the alphabet, phonemes, diseases, or finger¬
prints. For diseases the information would be fed to
the machine by punching up cards from long ques¬
tionnaires. Thus for each object the machine has a
list of attributes and also the name of the class to
which the object belongs, as supplied by the instruc¬
tor. It will be assumed that each attribute is dis¬
crete, such as yes-no, and has no natural ordering
or, if it has, the ordering can be ignored. This is true
for the twelve “distinctive features” of phonemes,
due to Roman Jakobson, such as voiced/unvoiced,
strident/mellow, consonantal/nonconsonantal. Ac¬
tually at least some of these features can be ex¬
pressed quantitatively, and there are reasons for
thinking that we should also record the signs of their
derivatives with respect to time. This would increase
the dimensionality of the problem still further (29).
We would be working in a discretized phase space of
at most 24 dimensions.

Each object provides one entry in a multidimen¬
sional contingency table. Owing to the high dimen¬

sionality, the frequency in most of the cells will be
0 or 1. There is then a problem of estimating the
probability of each cell. If we can do this we can
obtain the likelihoods of the various letters, diseases,
or crooks, on any future occasion, corresponding to
any set of attributes. For phonemes we should also
take into account polyphonemic statistics and, simi¬
larly in medical diagnosis, the history of the set of
symptoms of a patient is relevant.

An approach to this problem of estimating prob¬
abilities is to use the principle of maximum entropy,
that is, to maximize — 2 pt log pt subject to various
linear constraints. These linear constraints are ob¬
tained by taking marginal totals in a small enough
number of dimensions to obtain adequately large
frequencies. Even without this, the principle gener¬
ates null hypotheses for consideration. For example,
in two dimensions it generates the null hypothesis
of independence of rows and columns, a null hy¬
pothesis that every statistician would entertain on
grounds of simplicity and conventionality. For a
2 X 2 X ... x 2 = 2m table, for which there is only
one degree of freedom when all the marginal totals
are known, it generates the hypothesis that the pro¬
duct of the probabilities on the black cells is equal
to the product on the white ones, when the table is
regarded as a multidimensional chessboard; that is,
the highest order interaction vanishes. (For m — 3
this hypothesis was proposed as natural by Fisher.
See (2)). The equation is of degree 2"1 — 1, but it
always has exactly one positive solution.

For a dl X d2 X . . . X dm table with all rth order
marginal totals given, the principle of maximum
entropy generates the null hypothesis that all rth
order and higher order interactions vanish. This is
true for more than one definition of interaction. One
definition is the discrete multidimensional Fourier
transform of the logarithms of the probabilities, but
Goodman (33) showed that a real but slightly more
complicated definition could be used without upsetting
the results. When the r/’s are all 2, the discrete Fourier
transform is real and agrees with the definition (59)
of interactions used in factorial experiments, as
previously pointed out (17). The results for any
contingency table can be expressed in terms of all
the “embedded binary cubes.” Note that if we accept
a null hypothesis we are in a position to smooth the
observations, that is, to “improve” them.

To allow for the finiteness of the sample a reasonable
procedure is to maximize some linear combination of
the entropy and the log-likelihood (23). This is equiv¬
alent to selecting the p,' s at the mode of the final
(posterior) distribution if the initial density is propor¬
tional to n p~kvi. I think k = 1 is adequate, but that
better would be a density of the form JV Jlp~kPi 'l'(k)
dk by analogy with the work on Bayesian significance
tests for multinomial distributions (31). (This density
is a function of the entropy.)

(v) — In work on mechanical translation it is
necessary to make special-purpose and general-
purpose dictionaries. Various problems of the follow¬
ing kind should then arise: What is the coverage of
the dictionary, that is, what is the probability that
the next word met will be one that is already in the

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dictionary? And what would be the coverage if the
sample on which the dictionary was based were
doubled? These questions can be answered by means
of the theory of the sampling of species (15, 32).
For example, if nr is the number of distinct words
represented r times in the sample (that is, if nr is the
frequency of the frequency r), then the coverage is
approximately 1 — nx/N if nx is large, where N is
the sample size. In fact nx always is large in practice,
however large the sample. The expected coverage if
the sample size is doubled is approximately 1 — (nx
— 2n2 + 3n3 — . . .)/N. One of the basic ideas in
this theory was due to Turing (private communica¬
tion, 1940): its logic is extremely similar to that
of the empirical Bayes method and some of the
smoothing techniques of the species-sampling prob¬
lem can be carried over into the empirical Bayes
method for other problems.

This statistical problem does not of course go to
the heart of mechanical translation but its solution
should be known to all workers in this field since
the compilation of dictionaries is expensive and
should be organized rationally.

(vi) — Botryology in information retrieval. Given
computers of very great speed and capacity there
are prospects of automatic indexing of documents,
an operation that normally requires rather high-
grade effort and is expensive. The index terms do
not need to be existing words: a clump of related
words can be regarded as an index term. One point
in making use of clumps (or clusters) is to overcome
the difficulty arising from synonyms. Sometimes the
discovery of such a clump will suggest the desirability
of inventing a new word. Given an incidence matrix
of words and documents, a variety of botryological
procedures have been suggested (6, 21, 47, 52, 58),
and some of them have been tried on small collec¬
tions of a few hundred documents. Most procedures
suggested have involved a preliminary calculation of
a relevance or relatedness matrix, at least resembling
a correlation or covariance matrix of words or of
documents. It seems better (24, 26) to work directly
with the document-word incidence matrix, in order to
cut down on the amount of calculation. This will be
especially worthwhile when dealing with a sparse
incidence matrix, which is the usual situation. For
an arbitrary real rectangular matrix there is an
iterative procedure for obtaining the “singular vec¬
tors” which is analogous to a well-known method for
obtaining eigenvectors of a square symmetric matrix.
It can be used for component analysis (57). An
elaboration of it has been suggested for hierarchical
botryology, together with a significance test (26).
The process should give clumps of index terms and
associated or conjugate clumps of documents. Simi¬
larly if we have an incidence matrix of symptoms
and people, we can look for clumps of symptoms
and conjugate clumps of people. If the botryological
calculations are successful we should discover new
diseases or complaints, or at least syndromes, to¬
gether with the people who suffer from them. (A
syndrome is a collection of correlated symptoms
whose causal relationship is often poorly under¬
stood.)

Botryology can be regarded as the science of con¬
cept formation. A concept can often be thought of
as a clump of previously existing concepts.

(vii) — Speech recognition without tuition. Differ¬
ent people use different phonemes and this is a
source of difficulty for any speech-recognition ma¬
chine. But even without tuition a machine might be
able to categorize the phonemes of a given speaker
botryologically. Let us suppose that the distinctive-
feature approach is used, possibly with time deriva¬
tives, so that each speech sound will be represented
by a binary vector in m dimensions, where 12 < m
< 24. A stretch of speech is to be converted by the
machine into a sequence of n such vectors. Many
of these vectors will represent transitions between
phonemes since we cannot assume that the problem
of segmentation of the phonemes can be solved at
the start. The machine now has a binary matrix B
with m rows and n columns. This can be treated by
a method which may be called “crude convergence,”
which is an iterative method of maximizing x'B y
where a and y are binary vectors (25). After con¬
vergence we could extract the two quarter-matrices,
corresponding respectively to the positive and to the
negative components of these vectors, and repeat the
process. In this manner we might be able to obtain
a dichotomous dendroidal categorization of the type
shown in the diagram. A slight generalization would
allow polytomies.

An alternative and more classical approach, which
however would probably involve far more calcula¬
tion, would be to start with the correlation or covar¬
iance matrix of the n original vectors. In any case
the “transition phonemes” would mostly be too rare
to be relevant, and those that were not rare might
deserve to be called phonemes. To finish off the job
would be a problem like the solution of a simple
substitution cipher, but many of the phonemes
would be given only probabilistically.

It would be interesting to try this process both on
human languages and on the sounds made by
dolphins and whales, which are linguistic for all we
know. Of course, with unknown languages the trans¬
formation of the speech into a sequence of phonemes
is only a small step in the solution, but a necessary
one.

Machine-Intelligence Research Methods

105

(viii) — Medical diagnosis. If we can solve the
probability-estimation problems we can of course
apply Bayes’ theorem in order to do automatic
medical diagnosis. If it is too difficult to obtain a
really good Bayesian model we can use a less good
one and then interpret the resulting Bayesian log-
factors or weights of evidence as orthodox non-
Bayesian statistics. This is an example of the Bayes/
non-Bayes compromise (25).

Assuming a Bayesian model how do we choose
between two “facets” for the eliciting of a datum?
This question, raised by Card (8), may be regarded
as a special case of how to design an experiment.
More generally we might wish to decide between a
number of facets and a number of treatments. Theo¬
retically we should use the principle of rationality.
But utilities are often difficult to judge, so we might
instead use measures of information, evidence, or
corroboration as if they were utilities (14, 16, 20,
37).

The various possible diseases or complaints can
be regarded as hypotheses, Hu H2, H 3, . . . , but
these unfortunately are not necessarily mutually
exclusive.1 At any moment let us suppose we have
current probabilities P(//L) — pu ... , P(Hm) —
pm- If we elicit a datum E these probabilities change
to P(H1 | E) = qx, . . . , P(Hm\E ) = qm. A reason¬
able criterion of how well off we are in our diagnostic
work is the entropy — 2 cp log qt. The smaller the
entropy the closer we are to a complete diagnosis.
So a possible procedure for the selection of the facet
is to arrange to minimize the expected entropy,
assuming of course that the expected cost (in time,
effort, and danger to the patient) is the same for the
various alternative selections. (Otherwise we must
allow for this cost.)

It is interesting to note that it makes sense to
maximize entropy when estimating probabilities, but
to minimize its expectation when planning an ex¬
periment to obtain revised estimates of the probabili¬
ties. This seems analogous to the fact that the phy¬
sical entropy of isolated systems tends to a maximum
(the second law of thermodynamics), whereas in the
evolution of living systems entropy tends to decrease.

1 his has been called the fourth law of thermo¬
dynamics (28). Negative entropy, which includes
food and social order, can be regarded as a physical
expression for utility, at least as an approximation.
Life fights a game against death with negentropy
as the prize.

More generally, when planning an experiment
for which we intend to estimate probabilities by
maximizing entropy, we could try to minimize the
expected maximum entropy: that is to minimax the
entropy. It is as if we were playing a game against
nature, where we try to maximize utility interpreted
as negentropy, and nature tries to minimize it.
Minimaxing of expected loss, i.e., maximinning of
expected utility, was proposed as a statistical prin¬
ciple by Abraham Wald and has been defended,
not as rational but as prudent, by R. B. Braithwaite.
As far as I know, the suggestion of minimaxing
entropy is new and, since it implies that death rather

1 The same complication arises in chemical analysis.

than nature is an opponent, I think it makes better
sense than minimaxing expected loss.

The principle of minimizing (or minimaxing)
expected entropy can be derived from another prin¬
ciple, that of maximizing (or maximinning) the
expected amount of information. Suppose that we
have several hypotheses Hu H2, . . . , Hm (typically
Hi) and we wish to select an experimental setup
for which the possible results are Eu E2, . . . , En
(typically Ej). The expected amount of information
from the experiment is

pi H I E )

2 : Ef) = S , , ,• log p/ '

= Si,/ log P(H{ | Ej) - 8, log P(H{),

where the colon denotes “provided by.” The second
term does not depend on the experimental setup. So
maximizing S,-.,- I(H{ : Ej) is equivalent to maximiz¬
ing— 8,- [entropy of {Hu ••• , Hm) conditional on
Ej], that is, it is equivalent to minimizing the expected
final entropy of (Hu • • • , //,„) by appropriate selection
of the experimental setup (Eu • • • , En).

Information is not an absolute measure of utility
and should not be used if we have a better measure.
Alternatives are degrees of corroboration and espe¬
cially weight of evidence (14, 20). We might then
try to maximize the expected weight of evidence
(the vinculum denotes negation):

: Ej) = S,„ log HEi ! Ri)

= 2,

log

Q(H, 1 Ej)
O(Hj)

= &i.j log OfHj | Ej) - Sj log 0{H,).

The second term is again independent of the experi¬
mental setup. So the maximization of 8 : Ej)
is equivalent to minimizing 8,[“odds entropy” of the
hypotheses conditional on the experimental setup]

= 2/ {-£ P( H, | Ej) log 0(H, | Ej) | .

Another possibility is the expected logarithm of the
“repeat rate”,

2, log £ [P(H, | is,)]2.

Information has the formal advantage over (weight
of) evidence in that, owing to an additional additive
property, the principle of maximizing expected in¬
formation is consistent when applied to a pair of
completely independent problems. (The logarithm of
the repeat rate is also additive.) But since neither
information nor evidence is exactly a utility, this
formal advantage of information over evidence is
not decisive, and my view is that maximizing ex¬
pected weight of evidence is better, at least when
there are only two hypotheses, and especially when
the initial odds are difficult to estimate. It breaks
down when the weight of evidence is infinite, posi¬
tive or negative, but this is rare. Even when bacilli

106

The Virginia Journal of Science

taken from a patient’s blood have satisfied twenty
criteria the weight of evidence is apt to be only of
the order of 6 bans (a Bayes factor of 10°), and
anyway, as Dr. Card remarked in conversation, the
patient might really be only a carrier of the sus¬
pected disease. Nevertheless, in the acquisition of
evidence, there is sooner or later a law of diminish¬
ing returns. An advantage in using expected weight
of evidence as a pseudoutility is that it is independent
of the initial odds of the “null” hypothesis, which
can often be judged only within a fairly wide interval.
It is therefore a relevant measure until we are con¬
fident that enough evidence has already been ac¬
quired, e.g., until one of the diseases is at least 100
to 1 on. Similarly, when we use the principle of
minimum entropy in the design of an experiment
and have difficulty in ascribing sharp probabilities
to the hypotheses, it is prudent to ascribe those values
of the probabilities, within the intervals in which they
are judged to lie, in such a manner as to maximize
our estimate of the entropy. This proposal is another
form of the principle of minimaxing expected entropy,
closely related to but not identical with the principle
mentioned before. Another two candidates for maxi¬
mization in the design of an experiment are (writing
v for “or”, ~ for “not”, : for “provided by”, j for
“given”, and / for “as against”):

^ P(Ht v H^)

• [P(H, I H, V Hi.) Sf{ W{H if Hr : E,)\H,\

+ P(Hr | HiVHifai WiHi./Hi : E,) | H,. }]

= Z SuWiHi/Hi. : E,)

and

Z P{Hi V //,-)[£,! W{HjHr : E,) | H, •}

i,i

+ 8, { W(Hi. / Hi : E,) | //,-)]

= 2 Z /(//,-) [P(£;- | Hi) - P(Ej | Hi.)]

i , i * » i

P(Ej | Hi)

log

P(Ei | H^

We could here give additional weight to the (i, i')
term if it is especially important to distinguish be¬
tween hypotheses (diseases) i and Y. By trial and
error we might be able to decide what measure is
best to use.

In the above discussion the hierarchical nature of
many pattern-detection or diagnostic processes has
been ignored. Statistical problems arise here partly
because it is not essential to make a sharp (non-
probabilistic) decision at every node of the hierarchy,
In the context of communications the process is that
of probabilistic decoding or regeneration (24).

Let us think of medical diagnosis as analogous to
chemical analysis. What we have is a stochastic de¬
cision tree as in the diagram. Each round node de¬
notes a set of data and each square node denotes a
facet and a cost. Associated with each set of data

is a probability vector of all possible diagnoses.
If one of these probabilities exceeds, say 0.99 we
have won; that is, we have completed the diagnosis.
Or we could measure the value of an endpoint by
the negentropy of the probability vector, or by one
of the other measures mentioned above. If we can
estimate all the probabilities sharply, then our opti¬
mal method of diagnosis would be performed by
iterative “expectimaxing” (see the next section), but
if not, then we could instead use iterative maximin¬
ning as in a game with an opponent.

Medical and chemical diagnosis are but two
examples of the problem of recognition in general.
We could clearly set up a model of the general recog¬
nition process as a stochastic recognition tree, with
iterative expectimaxing or minimaxing of the entropy
as the basis of the optimal strategy, while holding
in mind that expectimaxing the utilities would in
principle be better if the utilities could be estimated.
In some military applications, in which the objects we
wish to recognize are camouflaged, we might wish to
maximin the expected utilities when fighting a clever
opponent.

(ix) — Game-playing and theorem-proving (Refer¬
ences are cited in (30) and (41 )). In the Borel-von
Neumann theory of games a “game of perfect infor¬
mation” is described as “trivial.” But in normal Eng¬
lish usage, chess is far from being a trivial game, and
this might seem to show that, as far as chess is
concerned, the von Neumann theory of games is of
rather trivial application. But properly interpreted
it does have an application, because in practice chess
is a game involving an element of luck (12). Per¬
sonally I should define a nontrivial game as one that
is so complicated that its optimal strategy cannot be

Machine-Intelligence Research Methods

107

definitely established and whose analysis therefore
must depend on “evolving probabilities” (see below).
This definition could be used whether or not the
game is in principle one of perfect information. In
this sense a nontrivial game has some analogy with
classical statistical mechanics.

Consider an analysis tree starting with a position
tt0. We must have some rule for terminating the
analysis at various positions tt which are endpoints
of the tree. This is because the tree would usually
be too large if every variation were analyzed, al¬
though the number of possible games of chess is
admittedly not more than 1030’0U0, if the game is
drawn when fifty consecutive moves are played on
each side without a capture or pawn move (13).
If we decide where to prune the tree and can evaluate
the “evolving” expected utility (see below) of each
endpoint, then we can work backwards by iterative
maximinning to all other points on the tree, and thus
decide what move to make in position 7 r0.

In order to save space, theorem-proving will be
discussed at the same time as game-playing. In
theorem-proving, at any moment we have a collec¬
tion of mathematical propositions. The collection of
propositions at any moment is analogous to a chess
position, and the transformation rules are analogous
to the moves of the game. If there is a particular
theorem that we are trying to prove, then if we reach
a “position” which includes that theorem as one of
its propositions we have “won the game.” If there
is no particular theorem we are trying to prove, then
the payoff can be measured by whether we get inter¬
esting or useful propositions. The quantification of
these aspects is of course far from being formalized.

In theorem-proving we do not have an opponent,
so instead of (iterative) maximinning we use “ex-
pectimaxing,” as Michie calls it.

Neither in chess nor in theorem-proving do we
necessarily have a tree: there can be closures so
that we are dealing with a linear-oriented graph. But
even for a graph we can number the “generations”
according to their distance from 7 r0, the position
currently under discussion.

Suppose we have some measure for the turbulence
of a position, which is inversely related to its quies¬
cence. A quiescent position is one in which there
are no obvious lines that urgently require analysis.
We must also be able to measure the superficial,
shifting, or evolving probabilities of a win, draw or
loss at each position, for a game. These are the kind
of probabilities that change in the light of further
thought without new empirical information. For
example, the evolving probability that the millionth
digit of tt is a 7 is 0.1 until we have completed the
calculations (14). Evolving probabilities are not
strictly consistent. In practical affairs most prob¬
abilities are of this kind (compare (22)). For
theorem-proving we must have a measure of how
close we are to the required theorem, or else an
evolving expected utility of each move.

The decision of whether to regard tt as an endpoint
depends on —

(a) The depth of it from tt0, more precisely on the
probabilistic depth — log P( 7T 1 7To ), where P(tt\tto)
is the probability that we shall reach 7 r from tt0. The
effective depth of the whole tree could be defined
as — P(7rj7ro) log P( 7T | 7T'0 ) summed over all end-
points of the tree. This is an incomplete entropy
since P(tt\tt0) < 1. The value of storing an analy¬
sis of 7T0 perhaps depends largely on P(tt0 ) times the
effective depth of this analysis.

(b) The turbulence of tt.

(c) The obviousness of the outcome at -tt.

(d) The size of the analysis tree as a whole. (The
thresholds which help to determine the tree size
need adjustment in the light of a pilot analysis.)

(e) The time left on our clock and on the op¬
ponent's clock.

More precisely, (a), (b), and (c) could be al¬
lowed for by guessing

P(tt I 7r0) • 8 | U(jr | $) — U(tt) \ ,

where U(tt ) is the superficial utility of tt and U
(tt | $) is the utility of -k in the light of, say, a dol¬
lar’s worth of analysis.

Generation 0
Generation 1
Generation 2
Generation 3
Generation 4
Generation 5

TT

Fig. 4 — Game analysis tree

Evaluation of quiescent positions. Every chess
player is taught the approximate values of the pieces
at an early stage, P=l, B = N = 3, R = 5, Q =
9 Vi. These are not the only features of a position but
they will serve as an example. I believe these values
are proportional to the weights of evidence in favor
of winning rather than losing, a pawn being worth
about 7 decibans in master chess (19). A machine
can make use of a linear evaluation function aP nP +
tin nB + . . ., where nP, nB, . . . are the numbers of
pawns, bishops, etc., and the coefficients aP, aB, . . .
are to be determined. These coefficients can vary in
the light of the machine’s experience. In other words,
the machine can learn optimal values of the coeffi¬
cients (19). The machine can optimize the coefficients
even without an instructor by analyzing positions and
minimaxing, and then choosing the coefficients so as
to maximize the correlation of the direct evaluation
of positions and the “analyzed evaluation” (51).

If the various pawns, etc., are given separate iden-

108

The Virginia Journal of Science

tities, the machine could discover, for example, that
center pawns are more valuable than the side pawns.
If quadratic terms are included the machine can
discover that two bishops are worth more than bishop
and knight. In other words, with quadratic terms the
machine can form new concepts. Any such new con¬
cept can be added to a basic list of concepts as a
single item. In this manner there is the possibility of
higher level concepts being formed in later experi¬
ence. It is likely to be too expensive to use cubic
terms from the start. A minimal concept could be
defined as a quadratic term in an evaluation function
or as an interaction between known causative agents.

Before leaving the discussion of game-playing and
theorem-proving I have one further comment. As
mentioned, theorem-proving involves getting from
one point of an oriented linear graph to another. But
many of the steps are reversible and it can pay to
work both forwards and backwards. In fact, it can
be proved under certain assumptions that for very
difficult problems the number of steps required, if
two-ended working is used, is apt to be about the
square root of the number required when working
forward only (27).

(x) — Design of an alphabet of letters or phonemes
for a known language, and the choice of a vocabulary
for teaching, or for the design of an artificial language
for machines or men. Usually such designs are ar¬
rived at purely intuitively and historically, but they
could be given a statistical basis, at least in part.

These designs should allow for the following things,
for all of which statistical data would be relevant
(29):

(a) the rate of transmission of information;

(b) the cost of learning the alphabet or vocab¬
ulary;

(c) the cost of errors arising out of confusion of
symbols that are not adequately distinct (60);

(d) historical facts which influence (a), (b), and

(c);

(e) generality of communication, useful if the
alphabets used for various languages are the
same or similar;

(f) the relationship of the alphabet to phonemes
(for ordinary alphabets) ;

(g) the cost of compiling dictionaries, and of
making reference to them when the vocab¬
ulary is too large to be completely learned;

(h) the cost of asking for explanations of terms;

(i) the cost of errors arising from guessing mean¬
ings when dictionaries are not available or
when one is unwilling to use a reference book
or to ask for an explanation.

(xi) — Artificial neural networks (See (5, 24, 35,
42, 43). Many further references will be found in
these.) An unlimited supply of statistical problems can
be generated by considering artificial neural networks
containing some random or pseudorandom features,
but there is not space to discuss all these. One ex¬
ample is the construction of reliable circuits using
unreliable components. This is relevant to an under¬
standing of the brain since real neurons are un¬
reliable, at least in the sense that we lose many thou¬

sands of them every day (7). Another example of
artificial neural networks is the class of machines
called “perceptions” (49).

Then there is the assembly theory of the brain
due to Hebb (34) and Milner (38) and the modifica¬
tion known as the subassembly theory about which
the author (24) has speculated. One of the functions
of the subassembly modification is to aid the under¬
standing of the unconscious mind as well as the
conscious mind. These theories are all intended to be
speculative and suggestive, and it is a challenging
problem to formulate them with enough precision
to be able to make predictions and physical models.
Many of the problems here will perhaps be too dif¬
ficult to solve other than by very expensive simula¬
tion. In order to raise enough funds for such work
it might therefore be necessary to rely on incon¬
clusive arguments.

CONCLUSIONS

Machine-intelligence research in a wide variety
of fields should make use of statistical methods and
especially methods of probability estimation; the
principle of rationality (maximization of expected
utility); the use of amounts of information and
“weights of evidence” as substitutes for utility when
utility is difficult to estimate; decision trees such as
those occurring in game-playing; “evolving probabili¬
ties”; and maximum, minimum, and minimax en¬
tropy.

REFERENCES

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110

The Virginia Journal of Science

C. C. Clayton, J. D. Smith, and J. G. Young

Department of Biochemistry and Department of
Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Chemistry,
Medical College of Virginia,
Richmond, Virginia 23219.

Received March 21, 1968

Preparation and Evaluation of Some Carcinogenic Azo Dyes

Abstract — The methods of synthesis of several aminoazo
dyes are described and those dyes that had not previously
been used as carcinogens were fed to rats to determine their
activity as liver neoplastic agents. Two of these dyes, 3'-
cyano- and 3'-acetylamino-4-dimethylaminoazobenzene, were
as effective in producing liver tumors as the active car¬
cinogen 3'-methyl-4-dimethylaminoazobenzene. In studying
the effect of a number of aminoazo dyes, both carcinogenic
and ncncarcinogenic, upon liver riboflavin and total liver
azo-dye concentration, no definite correlation between car¬
cinogenicity and these factors was found. The rate at which
various azo dyes were destroyed by liver homogenates had
no correlation with carcinogenicity.

Numerous azo dyes have been tested as car¬
cinogens with the desire to find more active agents
and to attempt to correlate chemical structure with
carcinogenic activity (1-9). The present study was
designed to test certain new dyes for carcinogenic
activity and also to compare a number of dyes as to
their effect upon liver riboflavin, total liver azo-dye
concentration, development of liver cirrhosis, and
their effectiveness as substrate for dye destruction
by liver homogenates.

EXPERIMENTAL

Preparation of Dyes — The majority of the dyes
were prepared by diazotization of the appropriate
amine and coupling with /V,A-dimethylaniline as
described for the synthesis of 3'-methyl-4-dimethyl-
aminoazobenzene (4). 4-Aminoazobenzene (AAB)
and 2'-carboxy-4-dimethylaminoazobenzene (2'-
COOH-DAB) (methyl red) were obtained com¬
mercially. Intermediates for syntheses were obtained
commerically (Eastman Kodak Co. or Aldrich
Chemical Co.) and were recrystallized or redistilled
prior to use.

2'-Methoxy~, 3' -Methoxy- , and 4' -Methoxy-4-di-
methylaminoazobenzene (2'-OCH3-DAB, 3'-bCH:!-
DAB, and 4/-OCH:.-DAB ) — These were prepared
as described previously (9) with the exception of
3'-OCHs-DAB which was prepared from commer¬
cially available w-anisidine.

3'-Cyano-4-dimethylaminoazobenzene (3'-CN-
DAB) — Benzonitrile was nitrated according to the
method of Shirley (10) and the resulting m-nitro-

* Supported in part by a grant from the National Cancer Institute of
the National Institutes of Health (C-1541) and in part from an
Institutional Grant of the American Cancer Society (IN-59).

benzonitrile was reduced to the amine. Reduction
was carried out at an initial pressure of 40 psi in a
Paar hydrogenation apparatus with 14.8 g of the
nitro compound dissolved in 200 ml of absolute
alcohol and 3 g of palladium-charcoal catalyst (25
mg PdClo per g of charcoal). The recrystallized
amine was diazotized. coupled with Ah/V-dimethyl-
aniline, and the resulting dye recrystallized from
95% ethanol. The yield of the recrystallized product
was 68%, and the melting point was 143-144°. The
dye was homogeneous as determined by paper chro¬
matography.1

c15h14n4

Calculated: C 71.98, H 5.64, N 22.38

Found: C 72.15, H 5.53, N 22.2.

3' -A cetylamino-4-dimethylaminoazobenzene ( 3'-
NHAc-DAB ) — m-Aminoacetanilide hydrochloride
was diazotized and coupled with A,/V-dimethylani-
line, resulting in the compound which after recrys¬
tallization melted at 192-193°. Previous workers
(11) recorded a melting point of 184°.

CioH]8N40

Calculated: C 68.06, H 6.43, N 19.84

Found: C 68.25, H 6.33, N 20.6.

3' ,4' -Dichloro-4-dimethylaminoazobenzene ( 3',4'-
diCl-DAB) — This compound was synthesized by
diazotizing 3,4-dichloraniline, using IV2 times as
much HCl-water to dissolve the amine as was used
in (4)) and coupling with dimethylaniline. The
dye was recrystallized from 70% ethanol (sparingly
soluble). The yield of recrystallized product was
53%. The melting point was 159-160.5° and it
appeared homogeneous by chromatography.

C14H13N3C12

Calculated: C 57.16, H 4.54, N 14.28, Cl 24.10

Found: C 57.35, H 4.40, N 14.31. Cl 24.47.

3' ,5' -Dichloro-4-dimethylaminoazobenzene ( 3', 5'-
diCl-DAB) — 2,6-Dichloro-4-nitroaniline (46.4 g)

1 For all analyses, melting points, and chromatographic separations:
Analyses by Weiler and Strauss, Oxford, England; melting points
determined with calibrated Fisher-.Tohns apparatus; descending chro¬
matography done with Whatman No. 4 paper using 0.06n HC1 as
the developing solvent and visualizing the colored spot(s).

Carcinogenic Azo Dyes

111

was diazotized at 8° in 165 ml of 95% ethanol
containing 44 g sulfuric acid, allowed to warm to
room temperature, and then slowly heated, with
stirring, to 50° until the nitrogen evolution ceased.
The resulting 3,5-dichloronitrobenzene was steam
distilled with recovery of 73%. The nitro compound
was reduced to the amine in a Paar hydrogenator
with 25 g of the amine dissolved in 200 ml of abso¬
lute methyl alcohol using 2 g of Raney nickel catalyst
(starting pressure of 50 lb. of hydrogen). The amine
was taken up in ether, concentrated HC1 added,
and the hydrochloride of the amine precipitated.
(The acetyl derivative made from the hydrochloride
melted in agreement with literature values ( 1 86—
187°)). The 3,5-dichloroaniline hydrochloride was
diazotized and coupled with dimethylaniline to form
the dye (yield 83%). The dye was recrystallized
from ethanol and appeared chromatographically pure.
The melting point was 117-119°.

C14H13N3C12

Calculated: C 57.16, H 4.54, N 14.28, Cl 24.10

Found: C 57.26, H 4.43, N 14.38, Cl 24.40.

3'- and 4'-Carboxy-dimethylaminoazobenzene (3'-
COOH-DAB and 4'-COOH-DAB)— These dyes
were made by dissolving 0.2 mole of the corre¬
sponding aminobenzoic acid in 400 ml of 2.5%
Na2CO;i, adding sodium nitrite, and pouring the
mixture into a beaker of ice containing an adequate
amount of concentrated HC1 to diazotize the amine.
To the slurry of diazotized amine were added, with
stirring, the dimethylaniline and glacial acetic acid.
Crystals of the dye formed at once.

The 3'-COOH derivative was dissolved in a mini¬
mum amount of hot 70% alcohol, filtered, cooled
in ice, and the product obtained by filtration. The
yield of the recrystallized product was 65%. For
further purification the crystals were Soxhlet-ex-
tracted with ether. The resulting ether solution was
evaporated to dryness, the residue taken up in
acetone, and added slowly with stirring to water at
60° to remove the acetone. Sufficient alcohol was
added to keep the compound in solution when hot.
The hot solution was treated with charcoal, filtered,
allowed to cool, and the product obtained by filtra¬
tion. The resulting crystals had a melting point of
210-212°. Earlier work has recorded (12) a melting
point of 206°.

Ci5Hi5N3Oo

Calculated: C 66.90, H 5.61, N 15.60

Found: C 66.80, H 5.82, N 15.64.

Five grams of the crude 4'-carboxy derivative,
after air drying, were recrystallized by dissolving in
hot 2% NaoCO.t, filtering, cooling, and refiltering.
The sodium salt thus obtained was then dissolved in
a minimum amount of hot water with addition of
decolorizing carbon. Two drops of glacial acetic acid
were added to the hot filtrate and the solution allowed
to cool. The crystals were filtered off with an over¬
all yield of 64%. This derivative was then extracted

in the Soxhlet apparatus, and the extract treated as
the 3'-carboxy derivative (above). The melting point
was 275-277°, Previous work showed a melting
point of 232° after recrystallizing from glacial acetic
acid (12).

c15h15n3o2

Calculated: C 66.90, H 5.61, N 15.60

Found: C 66.97, H 6.05, N 15.3.

4-N-Acetyl-N-methylaminoazobenzene (Ac-MAB)
— The 4-mono-methylaminoazobenzene was pre¬
pared as described previously (13). It was acetylated
by refluxing for 4 hours with acetic anhydride and
the acetylated dye was precipitated by pouring into
cold water. The product was recrystallized from 25%
ethanol and had a melting point of 91-92.5°. Earlier
workers recorded (13, 14) melting points of 90-91°
and 92-94.5°.

Liver Tumor Studies — Rats were fed the dyes
in molar levels equivalent to 0.06% of 4-dimethyl-
aminoazobenzene (DAB). The diet was similar to
that employed in other studies concerned with azo¬
dye carcinogenesis (15, 16) and had the following
composition: vitamin-free casein — 12%, Wesson’s
salts — 4%, corn oil — 5%, and glucose monohydrate
(cerelose) — 79%. To each kg of diet were added 2
mg riboflavin, 3 mg thiamine HC1, 2.5 mg pyri-
doxine, 7.5 mg calcium pantothenate and 1 g choline
chloride. Flalibut-liver oil was administered every
two weeks. Water and food were given ad libitum
with food consumption measured at intervals. Male
rats (Holtzman) weighed about 200 g at the start
of the experiment, and there were 12 to 15 animals
per group.

In the original screening experiments, the animals
were fed the dye until a number of the animals with¬
in a group developed palpable tumors, at which time
they were sacrificed. Animals fed the dyes with less
carcinogenic activity were unavoidably sacrificed at
6 months because of a breakdown in the control
system of the animal facilities. Liver changes were
noted at the time of sacrifice. In a second study (with
the more active carcinogens) the dyes were fed for
5 1 days, after which time the animals were con¬
tinued on the dye-free diet for an additional 8 weeks.
They were then sacrificed for gross and microscopic
examination of the livers.

Liver Riboflavin and Total Azo-dye Concentration
— The rats were fed the diets as above for 5 weeks
with 5 animals per group. At the end of this period
the animals were killed and the livers were removed
and weighed. Three grams from each liver were
homogenized in water and made to a volume of 25
ml. Aliquots were used for riboflavin (17, 18) and
total azo-dye analysis (19).

Action of Liver Enzymes upon Dye Destruction
in Vitro — Livers of young adult rats fed commercial
chow were homogenized and used to determine the
rate at which such homogenates would destroy the
various dyes as indicated by loss of color of the dye.
All dyes were compared to DAB, and the amount of
dye present as substrate was always equimolar to
this reference. The dyes were added to the homoge-

112

The Virginia Journal of Science

nate as an alcoholic solution in a volume of 0.1 ml.
Dye destruction was determined by a method de¬
scribed previously (20).

RESULTS

Tumor Studies — In the preliminary screening ex¬
periments (Table I), it was found that the only ac¬
tive carcinogens were 3,-OCH;{-DAB, 3'-NHAc-
DAB and 3'-CN-DAB. The 2'- and the 4'-methoxy
derivatives and the 3', 5'- and the 3',4'-dichloro com¬
pounds did produce liver cirrhosis, but no gross
visible tumors resulted after the 6 months’ feeding
except for one large liver tumor with the 3', 5'-
diCl-DAB. The other dyes had no effect upon the
gross appearance of the livers. Food consumption
was less when the dye was a more active carcinogen.

The above three active carcinogens were com¬
pared with 3'-Me-DAB in another series and all
were found to be at least as active in producing
neoplasia as this known potent carcinogen (Table
II). Food consumption was comparable between
these four groups. The methoxy derivatives have
been reported previously (9) as carcinogenic, with
the 3'-methoxy being the more active.

Liver Riboflavin and Total Liver Azo-dye Con¬
centration — The average concentration of liver ribo¬
flavin in control animals on the basal (dye-free) diet
was 23.2 /JLg/g. This value was used as the base and
considered 100%, and the effect of the dyes is ex¬
pressed as the percentage of riboflavin present in the
liver of the dye -fed animals compared to these con¬
trols. The values presented are the average of five
individual animals in each group (Table III). Those
dyes which were carcinogenic tended to lower liver
riboflavin more than the noncarcinogenic dyes. Thus
3'-Me-DAB had a more pronounced effect than
DAB. while AAB had no effect. These dyes are effec¬
tive in this order with respect to carcinogenicity
(16). It is also apparent that other noncarcinogenic
dyes had little effect upon liver riboflavin concentra¬
tion, while those dyes that produced liver cirrhosis

TABLE I

Liver damage by various azo dyes

Dye" & % dye in diet

Period

Fed,

weeks

Cirrhosis

Tumors

.073% 4'-COOH-DAB

26

none

none

.073% 3'-COOH-DAB

26

none

none

.073% 2'-COOH-DAB

26

none

none

.068% 4'-OCHs-DAB

26

moderate

none

.068% 3'-OCH3-DAB

9

severe

100%

.068% 2'-OCH3-DAB

26

moderate

none

.079% 3', 5'-DiCl-DAB

26

moderate

8%

.079% 3', 4'-DiCl-DAB

26

mild

none

.075% 3'-NHAc-DAB

22

severe

100%

.067% 3'-CN-DAB

22

severe

100%

.06% DAB

166

mod. -severe

33%

.067% Ac-MAB

\6b

none

none

a DAB-4-dimethylaminoazobenzene, COOH-carboxy, OCH:r
methoxy, DiCl-dichloro, CN-cyano, Ac-MAB-4-Ar-acetyl-Ar-
methylaminoazobenzene, NHAc-acetylamino.

b Animals fed dye for 16 weeks and continued on basal diet
8 additional weeks.

TABLE 11

Comparison of certain 3'-substituted dimethylaminoazobenzenes
as carcinogens.

Dyea

Dye in Diet

%

T umors /survivors

% Tumors

3'-Me-DAB

.064

7/10

70%

3'-CN-DAB

.067

10/13

77%

3'-OCH3-DAB

.068

11/13

85%

3'-NHAc-DAB

.075

9/10

90%

a Me-methyl,

CN-cyano,

OCH3-methoxy,

NHAc-acetyl-

amino, DAB-4-dimethylaminoazobenzene.

or liver tumors depressed the concentration. How¬
ever, the more active carcinogens did not lower the
vitamin concentration to the same degree. The 3'-
OCH3, 3'-CN and the 3'-NHAc derivatives were
equally as effective in the development of neoplasia
as the 3'-Me-DAB, yet the riboflavin concentrations
were 57%, 61%, and 76% of the controls, while
the 3'-Me-DAB was 44% of the control value. The
above active dyes thus depress riboflavin to an ex¬
tent somewhere between DAB (75%) and the 3'-
Me-DAB even though they are much more active
carcinogens than the DAB.

Total azo-dye concentration of the liver was de¬
termined as micrograms of dye per gram of fresh
weight of liver on the assumption that the dye in
the liver has the same absorption maxima and molar
extinction as the dye fed. Again, each value is the
average of five rats for each dye. (Table III). There
was some correlation between the total azo dye in
the liver and the carcinogenicity of the dye. Thus,
aminoazobenzene-fed rats had a lower concentration
of dye in the liver (2.8 /xg) than did those fed
dimethylaminoazobenzene (9.7 /xg), which was less

TABLE III

Effect of various dyes upon liver riboflavin and total liver azo- dye
concentration and effectiveness of the dyes as substrate for
dye destruction by liver homogenates.

Dye0

Riboflavin11
% of control

Total azo dye
Ug/g

Substrate

Activity0

Control (no dye)

100

nil

—

AAB

104

2.8

58

DAB

75

9.7

100

3'-Me-DAB

44

16.2

43

4'-COOH-DAB

97

0.6

nil

3'-COOH-DAB

79

5.0

nil

2'-COOH-DAB

91

nil

53

4'-OCH3-DAB

79

41.4

70

3'-OCH3-DAB

57

13.9

37

2'-OCH ,-DAB

67

9.2

33

3', 5'-DiCl-DAB

78

7.8

7

3', 4'-DiCl-DAB

86

9.9

27

3'-NHAc-DAB

61

13.2

17

3'-CN-DAB

76

4.4

17

° AAB-4-aminoazobenzene, DAB-4-dimethylaminoazoben-
zene, NHAc-acetylamino, COOH-carboxy, 6cH3-methoxy,
DiCl-dichloro, CN-cyano

6 Control animals (no dye) served as basis of comparison and
considered 100% (concentration = 23.2 pg/g).

c DAB served as basis of comparison of other dyes and was
considered to be 100% under the conditions of the experiment.

Carcinogenic Azo Dyes

113

than that of the animals fed the 3'-methyl azo dye
(16.2 /xg). Furthermore, the 3'-acetylamino deriva¬
tive and the 3'-methoxy derivative resulted in levels
of dye quite comparable to that of the 3'-methyl de¬
rivative. However, there are marked exceptions to
the relationship. Thus the 3'-cyano derivative gave
only 4.4 jug of dye per g of liver and it is a very
active carcinogen. At the other extreme, the 4'-
methoxy derivative resulted in 41 jug of dye per g
of liver and was not carcinogenic in this particular
study.

Destruction of Dyes by Liver Homogenates —
During the period of incubation the enzymes de¬
stroyed the dye, DAB, at a rate arbitrarily called
100, while other dyes were destroyed at rates from
70 down to practically zero (Table III). There
seemed to be no correlation between carcinogenicity
and destruction of dyes by the liver homogenates.
Thus S'-OCH^DAB, an active carcinogen, was de¬
stroyed at a relative rate of 37, while the much less
active liver-damaging agents, 2'-OCH3- and 4'-OCH3-
DAB, had rates of 33 and 70 respectively.

DISCUSSION

The results obtained with the 3',4'-dichloro- and
the 3',5'-dichloro-4-dimethylaminoazobenzenes are
similar (i.e., little or no activity as carcinogens) to
those obtained with comparable substitution of the
methyl group in the prime ring. In both cases the
S'-mono-substituted compound was the most active
and multiple substitution decreased the activity. The
2',5'-substitution in both cases resulted in loss of
activity, as did further substitution in forming the
2',4',6/-trichloro derivative (tabulated in (9)). It
would appear that the activating effect of 3'-substitu-
tion can be partially or completely nullified by fur¬
ther substitution in the prime ring except for the
fluoro derivatives (9).

The activity of the 4-A-acetylmonomethylamino-
azobenzene was comparable to the finding with the
4-A-formylmonomethylamino compound (21), where
it appears that the removal of the formyl or acetyl
group is not readily accomplished to leave the N-
monomethyl compound, which is active (4). The
possibility that AMiydroxy derivatives of A-methyl
azo dyes are important metabolites inducing the
carcinogenicity (22) would lead one to speculate
that the 4-A-acetylmonomethylamino compound
might be noncarcinogenic. The A-acetyl and the N-
hydroxy-A-acetyl aminoazobenzenes have been found
to be inactive as neoplastic agents (22).

With a few selected azo dyes it has been found
that there is a correlation of incidence of liver tumors
and the property of the dyes to decrease liver ribo¬
flavin concentration or to affect the protein binding
of the dye in the liver. However, with a larger group
of dyes, including some active new carcinogens, this

correlation of carcinogenicity with liver riboflavin
concentration or with total liver azo dye is not com¬
pletely satisfactory. The ability of liver homogenates
to destroy the azo dyes has even less correlation. It
would appear to be invalid to try to accurately pre¬
dict carcinogenicity on the basis of these short-term
tests. The effect of dyes and diet on cirrhosis de¬
velopment (7) and the ability of liver enzymes to
A-demethylate various dyes (23) have also been
found to lack a relationship with carcinogenic ac¬
tivity.

Acknowledgments

We wish to thank Dr. G. R. Hennigar for micro¬
scopic examinations of the livers and W. H. Friend,
R. S. Droppleman, and W. E. Hale for technical
assistance.

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8. Miller, J. A., and Miller, E. C., J. exp. Med., 87, 139
(1948).

9. Miller, J. A., Miller, E. C., and Finger, G. C., Cancer
Res., 17, 387 (1957).

10. Shirley, D. A., Preparation of organic intermediates,
John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, 1951, p. 251.

11. Sawicki, E., and Gerber, D., J. org. Client., 21, 410
(1956).

12. Crabtree, H. G., Br. J. Cancer, 9, 310 (1955).

13. Miller, J. A., and Baumann, C. A., Cancer Res., 5, 157
(1945).

14. Fones, W. S. J. org. Chem., 14, 1099 (1949).

15. King, H. J., Spain, J. D., and Clayton, C. C., J. Nutr.,
63, 301 (1957).

16. Rusch, H. P., Baumann, C. A., Miller, J. A., and Kline,
B. E., A.A.A.S. Res. Conf. on Cancer, Gibson Island,
Washington, D. C., 1945. p. 267.

17. Andrews J. S., Cereal Client., 20, 3 (1943).

18. Conner, R. T.. and Straub, G. J., Ind. Engng Client.,
Anal. Ed., 13, 385 (1941).

19. Spain, J. D., and Clayton, C. C., Va J. Sci., 6, 88
(1955).

20. Clayton, C. C., Proc. Soc. e.xper. Biol. Med., 97, 510
(1958).

21. Miller, J. A., Sapp, R. W., and Miller, E. C., Cancer Res.,
9, 652 (1949).

22. Sato, K., Poirier, L. A., Miller, J. A., and Miller, E. C.,
Cancer Res., 26, 1678 ( 1966).

23. Ishidate, M., and Hanaki, A., Nature, Lond., 191, 1198
(1961).

114

The Virginia Journal of Science

Edward R. Bowman

Department of Pharmacology,
Medical College of Virginia,
Richmond, Virginia 23219.
Received March 25, 1968

Studies on the Excretion of 5-(3-Pyridyl)-
tetmhydrofuranone-2 and Its Intermediary Role
in the Metabolism of Nicotine"

Abstract — After the administration of 5-(3-pyridyl)tet-
rahydrofuranone-2 to the rat, the urine contains five or
more Koenig-positive compounds. Two of these, metabolites
of the administered compound, were isolated by means of
gas chromatography and identified (in derivative form) as
7-(3-pyridyl)-7-hydroxybutyric acid and 3-pyridylacetic
acid. The pattern of excretion of the Koenig-positive com¬
pounds resembles in part that obtained from administration
of nicotine or cotinine and provides additional evidence for
the intermediary role of 7-(3-pyridyl)-7-hydroxybutyric
acid, or the corresponding lactone, 5-(3-pyridyl)tetrahydro-
furanone-2, in the formation of 3-pyridylacetic acid from
nicotine. In the rat 5-(3-pyridyl)tetrahydrofuranone-2 was
virtually devoid of the depressant properties of y-butyrolac-
tone. In common with cotinine and other metabolites of
nicotine, the acute toxicity of 5-(3-pyridyl )tetrahydro-
furanone-2 was considerably less than that of the parent
nicotine.

Within the last decade, extensive investigations
have led to a partial elucidation of the pathways for
the mammalian metabolism of nicotine and have
contributed to the knowledge of the metabolic events
leading to the termination of its well-known physio¬
logical effects.

One pathway for the metabolism of nicotine in¬
volves oxidation of the pyrrolidine ring at position 2
with subsequent cleavage and loss of the methyl amine
group resulting in the formation, by various alternate
pathways, of pyridyl carboxylic acids. These acids
undergo further metabolism (1) leading ultimately
to 3-pyridylacetic acid and other compounds.

Following the formation of y-(3-pyridyl)-y-oxo-
butyric acid (I) in several species (2, 3), a further
metabolism proceeds by the route indicated in Fig. 1.

Upon examination of the structure of y-(3-pyr-
idyl)-y-hydroxybutyric acid (II), one of the iden¬
tified compounds (1, 4) in the metabolic sequence,
it becomes apparent that the acid has many interest¬
ing structural characteristics, including the ability to
form a lactone. Possible metabolic and pharmaco-

* This investigation was supported by grants from The Council for
Tobacco Research— U. S. A., The American Tobacco Company, and
the American Medical Association Education and Research Foundation.

Presented in part at the Fifty-first Annual Meeting of the Federa¬
tion of American Societies for Experimental Biology, Chicago, April
16-21, 1967, and the IX Congreso Latinamericano de Quimica, San
Juan, Puerto Rico, August 1-8, 1965.

logical properties that provoke a continuing interest
in the lactone of the hydroxy acid, 5-(3-pyridyl)-
tetrahydrofuranone-2 (IV), form the basis for the
present report.

y-(3-Pyridyl)-y-hydroxybutyric acid and its lac¬
tone are analogues of y-hydroxybutyric acid and
y-butyrolactone, respectively. It has been reported
(for example, (5-10)) that the latter two com¬
pounds induce central-nervous-system depression,
or a general anesthetic effect, in a variety of species,
including the rat. As a result of numerous studies
(11, 12), it has been concluded that the pharmaco¬
logic effects of y-butyrolactone are mediated through
the formation of the open-chain y-hydroxybutyric
acid.

In the present study it was of interest to compare
some of the pharmacologic effects of the substituted
y-butyrolactone, 5-(3-pyridyl)tetrahydrofuranone-2,
with those of y-butyrolactone and to determine
whether the pyridyl compound undergoes structural
changes under physiological conditions.

In a recent study by McKennis et al. (13), it was
shown that a mixture of methyl esters of some
pyridyl carboxylic acids, in the presence of 5-(3-
pyridyl)tetrahydrofuranone-2, could be satisfactorily
separated through gas chromatography. The present
experiments on 5-(3-pyridyl)tetrahydrofuranone-2
demonstrate the ready applicability of this chromato¬
graphic method for isolation of 3-pyridylacetate,
which had been implicated previously in the mam¬
malian metabolism of nicotine.

EXPERIMENTAL

Materials — Elemental analyses were performed by
Spang Microanalytical Laboratory, Ann Arbor, Mich¬
igan. Melting points were determined in a Hersh-
berg apparatus or on the Fisher-Johns hot stage.
Paper chromatography was conducted by the de¬
scending method on Whatman No. 1 at ambient
temperature. Solvents used were A, B. and C as
previously described (14). Thin-layer chromatog¬
raphy was performed on silica gel (Brinkmann In¬
struments, Inc., and Mann Research, Tnc.) using
Solvent K (13). The y-butyrolactone (General Ani-

5- ( 3-Pyridyl ) tetrahydrofuranone-2

115

OH

0

ii

C-CH2CH2COOH

c-chqch~cooh

I 2 2

H

X -• (3 - PYRIDYL) -X-OXOBUTYRIC ACID
I

X- (3 - PYRIDYL) - X- HYDROXYBUTYRIC ACID

II

4 - (3 - PYRIDYL) - 3 - BUTENOIC ACID

III

5- (3 - PYRIDYL) TETRAHYDROFURANONE - 2

IV

H

I

C-COOH

I

H

X- (3 - PYRIDYL) BUTYRIC ACID

V

3 - PYRIDYLACETIC ACID
VI

Fig. 1 — Abridged metabolic scheme for some intermediary pyridyl carboxylic acids formed in mammalian metabolism
of nicotine (hypothetical intermediates are shown in brackets).

line and Film Corp.) employed in these studies was
used without further purification. Gas-chromato¬
graphic analyses were performed on the Aerograph
200 instrument equipped with a polyethylene glycol
column as previously described (13), at a tempera¬
ture of 203°, and a hydrogen-flame-ionization de¬
tector. Nitrogen carrier was delivered at 85 ml/min.
Gas-chromatographic fractionation and collection of
the methyl esters of the pyridyl carboxylic acids for
chemical identification were achieved with the Aero¬
graph Autoprep (Wilkens Instrument and Research,
Inc.) fitted with a column (30% SE 30 on fire brick
60/80, 10' X 3/s" O.D.) at 240°, injector at 245°;
detector at 225° and collector at 190°. Helium
carrier was delivered at 200 ml/min., and the frac¬
tions were collected into glass bottles immersed in
dry ice-acetone.

( ±)-5-(3 -Pyridyl ) tetrahydrofuranone-2 — 5 - ( 3 -
Pyridyl)tetrahydrofuranone-2 (pyridyl lactone) was
prepared by a modification of a procedure described
previously (13). Barium hydroxide was added to a
well-stirred mixture of -y-(3-pyridyl)-y-oxobutyric
acid (50 g) in 750 ml of water until the pH was

approximately 11. Sodium borohydride (8.5 g) in
125 ml of water was added to the clear, stirred solu¬
tion during a period of 30 minutes. After an addi¬
tional 2-hour stirring, the solution was cooled and
treated with carbon dioxide. After removal of barium
carbonate with the aid of Celite, the pale-yellow solu¬
tion was concentrated to dryness. The residue was
treated with 100 ml of 2-propanol, and the insoluble
material was removed by filtration. The filtrate was
diluted with 200 ml of pyridine and then cooled in
an ice bath while acetic anhydride (200 ml) was
added slowly. The stoppered mixture, after standing
in the dark at room temperature for 24 hours, was
cooled and 20 ml of methanol were added. After
removal of the solvents under reduced pressure, the
residual oil was treated with 300 ml of chloroform.
Following filtration, the chloroform solution was
concentrated to obtain the crude (± ) -5- ( 3-pyridyl ) -
tetrahydrofuranone-2 (38.2 g), which showed Koe¬
nig-positive zones at Rf 0.55 (Solvent C) and Rf
0.80 (major) and 0.87 (minor) in Solvent B. The
zones at Rf 0.55 (Solvent C) and Rf 0.80 (Solvent
B) corresponded in Rf value to authentic samples

116

The Virginia Journal of Science

of the pyridyl lactone (1). The crude material (30 g)
was distilled at 155° and 0.8 mm Hg to obtain 19.7
g of product; Rf 0.55 (Solvent C); R, 9.3 minutes
(polyethylene glycol column).

Upon treatment with a saturated solution of picric
acid in ethanol, 50 mg of the distilled product readily
afforded a crystalline picrate, m.p. 133—125° (cap.).
Admixture with an authentic sample (13) caused no
depression of melting point.

( ± )-5-( 3 -Pyridyl )tetrahydrojuranone-2 Hydrochlo¬
ride — Two hundred milligrams of the pyridyl lactone
were treated with 0.4 ml of concentrated HC1. The
solution was evaporated on a boiling-water bath, and
the crystalline residue was dissolved in 5 ml of hot
2-propanol. The solution was cooled in an ice-water
bath. The crystalline product was dried at 60° and
1 mm Hg over KOH for 4 hours, m.p. 143-145°
(micro).

c10h10no2ci

Calculated: C 54. 19, H 5.05, N 7.02
Found: C 54. 1 1, H 4.96, N 6.98.

y-( 3 -Pyridyl )-y-hydroxybutyrylhydrazine Dihydro¬
chloride — Five grams of the pyridyl lactone in 5 ml
of hydrazine hydrate and 10 ml of methanol were
heated under reflux for 24 hours. The solvents were
removed under diminished pressure to obtain an oily
residue. The residue in 200 ml of ethanol at 0° was
treated with HC1 and the product (80%) was ob¬
tained. The compound was dried at 60° and 1 mm
Hg over KOH for 4 hours, m.p. 161-163° (cap.).

c9h15n3o2ci2

Calculated: C 40.31, H 5.64, N 15.67
Found: C 40.48, H 5.70, N 15.75.

(±)-5-(3- Pyridyl ) tetrahydrofuranone- 2 Me tho¬
rium Iodide — Four hundred milligrams of the pyridyl
lactone in 10 ml of methanol and 0.4 ml of methyl
iodide were heated under reflux for 4 hours. The
oily crystalline residue (94%) from evaporation of
the solvent was dissolved in 8 ml of hot 2-propanol
with the aid of a few drops of ethanol. The cooled
solution provided the product which was dried at
60° and 1 mm Hg over KOH for 4 hours, m.p. 116-
118° (micro, dec.).

C10H12NO2I

Calculated : C 39 . 27, H 3 . 96, N 4 . 59
Found: C 39.54, H 3.98, N 4.57.

(±)-Ethyl y-( 3 -pyridyl )-y-hydroxy butyrate — y-(3-
Pyridyl)-y-oxobutyric acid (50 g, 0.28 mole) was
reduced with sodium borohydride essentially accord¬
ing to the previously described procedures. The mix¬
ture from the reduction was placed on a column of
Dowex 21K-OH- (660 ml). After a water wash the
column was treated with In acetic acid to obtain
a Koenig-positive eluate, which was concentrated to
dryness under diminished pressure. The residue
was treated with 1000 ml of boiling absolute ethanol.

To the cooled filtrate were added concentrated sul¬
furic acid (30 ml) and benzene (150 ml). The
mixture was heated under reflux for 24 hours in a
Soxhlet apparatus containing anhydrous magnesium
sulfate in the thimble. The reaction mixture was
concentrated to one-half volume and then cooled
in an ice-water bath. The mixture was adjusted to
pH 8 with concentrated ammonium hydroxide and
then extracted with two 500-ml portions of chloro¬
form. The combined chloroform solution, which
contained Koenig-positive material with Rf 0.65
(major) and Rf 0.48 (minor) in Solvent C and Rf
0.82 (major) and Rf 0.69 (minor) in Solvent B,
was concentrated to obtain 42 g (72.5%) of crude
ethyl y-(3-pyridyl)-y-hydroxybutyrate as an oil. For
further characterization, the crude ester (220 mg)
was treated with 5-nitrobarbituric acid (230 mg).
The crystalline product was dissolved in ethanol
with the aid of a few drops of water. The colorless
crystalline product which deposited upon cooling
became yellow upon heating to 100° and melted
with decomposition at 153-154° (micro, dec.).
After recrystallization from methanol-water (90:10
by vol) and drying at 60° and 1 mm Hg over KOH,
the melting point was unchanged.

C15H16N406H20

Calculated : C 45 . 00, H 5 . 04, N 1 3 . 97

Found: C 45.47, H 5.00, N 13.81.

Ethyl 4-(3-pyridyl)-4-(N-phenylcarbamoxy ) butyr¬
ate — One gram of the crude ethyl y-(3-pyridyl)-y-
hydroxybutyrate was dissolved in 15 ml of dry ben¬
zene. The solution was heated under reflux for 2
hours in a Soxhlet apparatus containing anhydrous
magnesium sulfate in the thimble. Eight hundred
milligrams of phenyl isocyanate were added to the
hot solution and refluxing was continued in the same
apparatus for 18 hours. On cooling the crystalline
product (90%) was obtained, Rf 0.90 (Solvent B)
and Rf 0.85 (Solvent C). Recrystallization from
benzene-n-hexane (50:50 by vol) and then from
acetone-77-hexane (50:50 by vol) gave the com¬
pound, m.p. 100°. The sample was dried at 60° and
1 mm Hg over KOH for 2 hours, m.p. 100° (micro).

cI8h2oN2o4

Calculated: C 65.84, H 6. 14, N 8.35

Found: C 65.92, H 6.09, N 8.50.

( ± ) -y- ( 3 -Pyridyl ) - y- hydroxybutyramide — Thirty
grams (0.14 mole) of (±)-ethyl y- (3 -pyridyl )-y-
hydroxybutyrate in 600 ml of absolute ethanol at
0° were treated with 30 g (1.7 moles) of ammonia.
The stoppered solution was kept at room tempera¬
ture for 60 hours. After removal of solvent under
diminished pressure, the residue was dissolved in hot
acetone. Upon cooling in an ice-water bath, the
crystalline product (25.5 g, 100% ) was obtained, Rr
0.45 (Solvent A) and Rf 0.43 (Solvent B). The
compound was recrystallized from acetone, m.p. 87-
89° (micro). Upon drying at 60° and 1 mm Hg

5-( 3-Pyridyl ) tetrahydrofuranone-2

117

over KOH for 4 hours the melting point was 92-93°
(micro).

C9H12N202

Calculated: C 59.99, H 6. 71, N 15.55
Found: C 60.03, H 6.78, N 15.59.

Alternatively the amide was prepared from the
pyridyl lactone in absolute ethanol using the fore¬
going procedure.

Fifty milligrams of the foregoing amide were
treated with 8 ml of a saturated solution of picric
acid in absolute ethanol. The resultant yellow mono-
picrate, m.p. 92-93° (micro), was recrystallized from
methanol and finally from 2-propanol-water (95:5
by vol) to obtain the analytical sample (m.p. 92-
93°, micro), which was dried at 60° and 1 mm Hg
over KOH for 4 hours.

C 1 5H 1 sbf 5O9

Calculated: C 44.01, H 3.69, N 17.11
Found: C 44. 17, H 3.60, N 17.00.

Standard Curve for Gas-Chromatographic Deter¬
mination of 5-(3-Pyridyl)tetrahydrofuranone-2 in
Urine — For the standard calibration curve (Fig. 2)
with the polyethylene glycol column, known amounts
of the pyridyl lactone and y-( 3 -pyridyl )-y-hydroxy-
butyric acid were added to control urine, which was
collected from rats prior to experimental treatment.

Examination of Rat Urine for 5-(3-Pyridyl)tetra-
hydrofuranone-2 and Its Metabolites - — Urine (pH
5. 3-5. 7) from 6 male albino rats (184-200 g;
Wistar Strain, Albino Farms) which received in-
traperitoneally 1800 mg/kg of the pyridyl lactone

14 r

12

0 _ 1 _ ! _ 1 _ I _ I _ I _ !

24 6 8 !0 !2 14 16

CONCENTRATION (/jg)

Fig. 2 — Calibration curve for gas-chromatographic de¬
termination of 5-(3-pyridyl)tetrahydrofuranone-2 added to
control rat urine.

was collected for 24 hours as cage runoff into flasks
containing sodium fluoride as a preservative. Upon
paper chromatography, a major Koenig-positive zone
was noted at Rf 0.15 (Solvent C), corresponding in
Rf value to authentic y-(3-pyridyl)-y-hydroxybutyric
acid, and a minor zone at Rf 0.55, corresponding in
Rf value to the pyridyl lactone, was also noted. A
sample of control urine (pH 5.5) to which pyridyl
lactone (50 mg/ml) had been added showed a single
zone at Rf 0.55 (corresponding to the pyridyl lac¬
tone) upon immediate examination. After an addi¬
tional 24 hours only a single zone, Rf 0.55, was
noted.

The urine from the experimental animals was then
subjected to gas-chromatographic and chemical stud¬
ies on the polyethylene glycol column.

Separation and Esterification of Pyridino Acids
from Urine — The pooled urine and cage wash (98
ml) from rats 1, 4, and 6 was passed through a
column (1 x 15 cm) of Dowex 50-H+. After a
thorough washing of the column with water, the
pyridine compounds were removed by means of
triethylamine-water (20:80 by vol) at -10°. The
column, which would be expected to retain A-methyl
pyridinium ions after treatment with triethylamine,
was discarded. The eluate1 was then passed through
a column (1 X 15 cm) of Dowex 21K-OH~. The
effluent contained a small amount of material which
corresponded in Rf value (Solvent K) and reten¬
tion time (polyethylene glycol column) to known
5-(3-pyridyl)tetrahydrofuranone-2. The acidic pyri¬
dine compounds were removed from the column with
2m acetic acid. The eluate was concentrated to an
oily residue (1 g). To the residual oil in 50 ml of
methanol was added 1 ml of sulfuric acid, and the
resultant solution was heated at reflux overnight.
After cooling in an ice-water bath, 100 ml of chloro¬
form and 50 g of crushed ice were added to the reac¬
tion solution. Concentrated ammonium hydroxide
was added. The ice-cold mixture was shaken vigor¬
ously and the organic layer was removed. The
aqueous phase was extracted with two additional por¬
tions of chloroform (100 ml each). Thin-layer chro¬
matography (Solvent K) of the combined chloroform
showed Koenig-positive zones at Rf 0.67 and 0.77
(which represented the major ones), corresponding
to 5-(3-pyridyl)tetrahydrofuranone-2 and methyl 3-
pyridylacetate, respectively. Upon chromatography
of the aqueous phase (Solvent K), Koenig-positive
zones at Rf 0.00 and 0.17 were noted. The chloro¬
form extract was concentrated to an oily residue (494
mg). Four hundred and thirty milligrams of the resi¬
due were dissolved in 31 ml of acetone. The solution
was then subjected to gas chromatography on the
SE 30 column in 9.0 /A portions and the fractions

1The eluates from a number of treated animals contained at this
point Koenig-positive material; Rf 0.12, 0.42, 0.50, 0.58 and 0.63. The
material at Rf 0.12 corresponds in Rf value to authentic 7-(3-pyridyl)-
7-hydroxybutyramide. It is possible that this amide was formed in
vivo by reaction of the administered pyridyl lactone with ammonia. In
an acidic environment (1), such as that occurring when the 7- (3-
pyridyl) -7-hydroxybutyric acid is allowed to remain on a column of
Dowex 50-H+, the hydroxy acid is_ converted to 5- (3-pyridylltetra-
hydrofuranone-2. Under these conditions an elution of In ammonium
hydroxide leads to the production of 7-(3-pyridyl)-7-hydroxybutyr-
amide. The elution with triethylamine as described in the present paper
avoids this introduction of the amide as an artifact in metabolic
investigations.

118

The Virginia Journal of Science

emerging at 2.0 minutes were combined (Fraction
A). The fractions emerging at 6.0 minutes were also
combined (Fraction B). Known aliquots of Fractions
A and B were placed separately on the polyethylene
glycol column for analysis.

Identification of 5-(3-Pyridyl)tetrahydrofuranone-
2 — Fraction B (above) was dissolved in 10 ml of
methanol. The solution was treated with a saturated
methanolic solution of picric acid, and the crystalline
picrate of 5-(3-pyridyl)tetrahydrofuranone-2, m.p.
135-137° (micro), was obtained. Admixture with
known material did not depress the melting point.
Thin-layer chromatography in Solvent K gave a
single Koenig-positive zone corresponding in Rf
value to the known pyridyl lactone.

Identification of Methyl 3-Pyridylacetate — Frac¬
tion A obtained from the SE 30 column (above) was
dissolved in 0.5 ml of methanol. Following treatment
with an approximate equivalent of picric acid in
methanol, a crystalline product, m.p. 110-114°
(micro), was obtained. Thin-layer chromatography
of the crystalline material in Solvent K gave a major
Koenig-positive zone at Rf 0.77, corresponding to
known methyl 3-pyridylacetate, and a minor zone at
Rf 0.63. Following several recrystallizations from
methanol, the methyl 3-pyridylacetate picrate melted
at 127—129° (micro) and showed a single zone at
Rf 0.77 in Solvent K. Admixture of the picric acid
salt with known methyl 3-pyridylacetate did not
depress the melting point.

Toxicity Studies — In a group of male albino rats
(150-180 g) the acute LD50 was 2.36-2.71 g/kg
at 95-percent confidence limits determined accord¬
ing to Litchfield and Wilcoxon (15).

RESULTS

Chromatographic examination of the urine of rats
which had received 5-(3-pyridyl)tetrahydrofuranone-
2 revealed (Table I) the possible presence of the
unchanged pyridyl lactone, y-(3-pyridyl)-y-hydroxy-
butyric acid, y-(3-pyridyl)butyric acid, and 3-

pyridylacetic acid. In addition, Koenig-positive ma¬
terial, with Rf values corresponding to some of the
metabolites of (-)-cotinine, (-)-demethylcotinine,
y-(3-pyridyl)-y-oxobutyric acid, and y- (3 -pyridyl )-
y-oxo-A-methylbutyramide (3, 4, 16) were noted.

The crude pyridyl carboxylic acids from the resin-
processed urine of treated animals were reacted with
methanol-sulfuric acid to obtain a crude ester mix¬
ture. The crude ester mixture was separated on the
SE 30 column and the pyridyl lactone content was
determined by comparison of peak height and reten¬
tion time of the isolated material with known ma¬
terial on the polyethylene glycol column. A single
peak (retention time 9.3 minutes) emerged (Fig. 3)
after the typical early peak which was characteristic
of control urine. When equimolar amounts of y-(3-
pyridyl) -y-hydroxybutyric acid (13) were added to
urine instead of the pyridyl lactone the response
(peak height and retention time) was equivalent to
that obtained with the lactone. Similarly, equimolar
amounts of either hydroxy acid or the pyridyl lactone
in aqueous solution gave identical peak heights and
retention times. These data were sufficient to suggest
that the acid readily lactonized under the conditions
employed in the gas chromatography.

The pyridyl lactone fraction which was isolated
from the urine of rats 1, 4, and 6 and purified on
the SE 30 column indicated an excretion of 60 per¬
cent of the unchanged pyridyl lactone or y-(3-
pyridyl) -y-hydroxybutyric acid compared to an av¬
erage of 61.7-percent excretion (Table II) for
these 3 animals determined by analysis of whole
urine. As shown in Table II, the excretion of un¬
changed 5-(3-pyridyl)tetrahydrofuranone-2, or its
open-chain form, y-( 3-pyridyl) -y-hydroxybutyric
acid, from 6 rats accounted for an average of 62.3
percent of the administered compound. These data
agree well within the accuracy of the method which
was calculated to be ±7 percent from the standard
calibration curve (Fig. 2) at a concentration of 12.8
mg/ml. When compared with peak height and re-

TABLE I

Thin-layer and paper-chromatographic data a on processed urine of male rats after administration of

5-(3-pyridyl) tetrahydrofuranone-2.

Solution Chromatographed

Rf Value (.Paper)
Solvent B

Rf Value ( Thin-layer )

Solvent K

Mixture of Urinary Metabolites

0.036, 0.08, 0.12

0.00. 0.15, 0.67

before Esterification

0.20, 0.68

3-Pyridylacetic Acid

0.12

0.00

7-(3-Pyridyl)butyric Acid

0.20

0.00

7-(3-Pyridyl)-7-hydroxybutyric Acid

0.08, 0.68(minor)

0.15, 0.67(minor)

5-(3-Pyridyl)tetrahydrofuranone-2

0.68

0.67

Mixture of Urinary Metabolites

0.70, 0.80

0.42, 0.50, 0.58

after Esterification

0.63, 0.67, 0.77

Methyl 3-Pyridylacetate

0.70

0.77

0.70

0.63

0.70

0.58, 0.67(major)

a Paper and thin-layer strips were processed by the Koenig reaction as previously described
(28).

5 Corresponds to unidentified Koenig-positive components in the urine of the dog and man
after administration of cotinine or nicotine.

5-( 3-Pyridyl) tetrahydrofuranone-2

119

0 3 6 9 12

TIME (Minutes)

Fig. 3 — Upper panel: Gas-chromatographic recording of
two representative urines from a group of 6 male albino
rats that received 5-(3-pyridyl)tetrahydrofuranone-2 (1800
mg/kg, i.p. ) .

Lower panel: Gas-chromatographic recording of control
rat urine and control urine containing added pyridyl lac¬
tone ( 12.8 pg/p\).

tention time of known methyl 3-pyridylacetate, the
metabolite 3-pyridylacetic acid amounted to 1.8 per¬
cent of the administered compound.

Toxicity Studies — When male rats were treated

intraperitoneally with 300 mg/kg of the pyridyl
lactone, no signs of sedation developed. In contrast,
300 mg/kg of y-butyrolactone produced definite signs
of sedation which lasted for approximately 2 hours.
These latter control data generally confirm that ob¬
tained by Benda and Perles (5) and many other
workers, who found the effective sedative dose of
y-butyrolactone to be 0.35 g/kg. When the dose of
the pyridyl lactone was increased to 1200 mg/kg,
there was still no definite sign of sedation. A further
increase in dose of the pyridyl lactone to 2000 mg/
kg produced the first sign of toxicity, manifested by
respiratory difficulty. This deficit usually occurred in
2-3 minutes after administration of the compound
and was generally followed by loss of coordination
and convulsions, which may have arisen from the
respiratory problem. When lethal doses (2. 4-3.1
g/kg) were injected, respiratory difficulties and con¬
vulsions preceded death, which occurred between 4
and 14 minutes after injection.

DISCUSSION

The present series of experiments provide the first
direct chemical evidence for the participation of 5-
(3-pyridyl)tetrahydrofuranone-2, in open-chain or
lactone form, as an intermediate in the mammalian
metabolism of nicotine to 3-pyridylacetic acid. 3-
Pyridylacetic acid has been isolated previously fol¬
lowing the administration of cotinine, one of the
primary mammalian metabolites of nicotine, to both
dogs (16) and man (4), and chromatographic evi¬
dence for its presence was achieved with 14C-labeled
nicotine (16) and y-(3-pyridyl)-y-oxobutyric acid
( 1 ). Additionally, 3-pyridylacetic acid has been iso¬
lated from the urine of mice which had received
cotinine-3H (17). These experiments, together with
the analogous experiments with y-phenyl-y-oxobu-
tyric and y-phenylbutyric acid (18-22), led to the
hypothesis which is briefly summarized in the intro¬
duction by reactions I-VI.

Morselli et al. (23) administered cotinine-14C to
rats and were unable to demonstrate any detectable
amounts of nicotine in the urine of the animals. In

TABLE II

Gas-chromatographic determination a of the percent excretion

of 5-(3-pyridyf)tetrahydrofuranone-2b by male albino rats.

Animal

No.

Body Wt.
(g)

Total Dose
(mg)

Percent
Excreted0
(24 hr.)

1

184

332

62.5

2

198

356

62.2

3

193

347

63.2

4

193

347

65.8

5

200

360

63.2

6

192

346

57.0

Average

62.3

° Gas chromatography was achieved by the use of a column
described by McKennis et al. (13).

b The compound in 0.9% sodium chloride was administered
by intraperitoneal injection.

c These values represent an average from 5 or more injections
onto the column.

120

The Virginia Journal of Science

the current experiments with 5-(3-pyridyl)tetrahy-
drofuranone-2, evidence was sought for the presence
of nicotine, cotinine, hydroxycotinine and demethyl-
cotinine in the animals that received 5-( 3-pyridyl ) -
tetrahydrofuranone-2. In the absence of evidence for
these compounds, it may be tentatively concluded, as
in the case in the cited experiments with cotinine-14C,
that during the metabolic degradation of the pyrrol¬
idine ring of nicotine no reversal of degradation
occurs, once oxidation of the pyrrolidine ring has
progressed to the stage of cotinine. Thus the meta¬
bolic conversion of nicotine to 3-pyridylacetic acid
proceeds over the cotinine-pyridylhydroxybutyrate
route, as distinct from other possible metabolic path¬
ways which still call for experimental consideration.

Truhaut and De Clercq (24) have reported that
nicotine is metabolised to A-methyl-4-( 3-pyridyl )-
butylamine in the rat. An oxidative removal of the
terminal A-methyl group of this compound — possibly
catalyzed by an amine oxidase — would appear to
provide, via y- ( 3 -pyridyl)butyr aldehyde and y-(3-
pyridyl ) butyric acid, an additional hypothetical
source of 3-pyridylacetic acid.

Although little is known about the detailed phar¬
macology of 5- (3-pyridyl) tetrahydrofuranone-2, the
data obtained in the present study and the studies of
Bowman and Hrdina (25) in the dog point again to
the lack of potent biological activity associated with
compounds derived from progressive degradation of
the pyrrolidine of nicotine. (-) -Cotinine, 500 mg/kg
per day orally for 6 days, has been administered (3)
to rats which suffered no ill effects. Similarly, Gin-
oulhiac and Tenconi (26) have administered orally
3-pyridylacetic acid (200 mg/kg) to rats and ob¬
served no gross toxic effects. Since Chicancone (27)
has reported a depressor response to 3-pyridylacetic
acid, via direct action on vascular smooth muscula¬
ture, it is conceivable that the 3-pyridylacetic acid
which arises metabolically from 5- ( 3-pyridyl ) -
tetrahydrofuranone-2 contributes to the toxicity of
the parent pyridyl lactone at high dose levels. The
lack of anesthetic or soporific properties of the
pyridyl lactone, as opposed to the characteristic
anesthetic properties of the unsubstituted y-butyro-
lactone, represents an additional instance in which
y-substitution on the y-butyrolactone ring produces a
decrease in sedative activity. Benda and Perles (5)
have already noted that methylation of y-butyrolac¬
tone (formation of y-valerolactone) produced virtu¬
ally complete loss of the activity associated with the
parent compound.

Acknowledgment

The author wishes to thank Professor Herbert
McKennis, Jr., for his interest in this investigation.

REFERENCES

1. McKennis, H., Jr., Schwartz, S. L., Turnbull, L. B.,
Tamaki, E., and Bowman, E. R., 7. biol. Chem., 239,
3981 (1964).

2. McKennis, H., Jr., Turnbull, L. B., Schwartz, S. L.,
Tamaki, E., and Bowman, E. R., 7. biol. Chem., 237,
541 (1962).

3. Schwartz, S. L., and McKennis, H., Jr., 7. biol. Chem.,
238, 1807, (1963).

4. McKennis, H., Jr., Bowman, E. R., and Schwartz, S.
L., 7. biol. Chem., 239, 3990 (1964).

5. Benda, P., and Perles, R., C. r. hebd. Seanc. Acad.
Sci., Paris, 251, 1312 (1960).

6. Laborit, H., Jouany, J. M., Gerard, J., and Fabiani, F.,
Presse med., 68, 1867 (1960).

7. Jouvet, M., Cier, A., Mounier, D., and Valatx, J. L.,
C. r. Seanc. Soc. Biol.. 155, 1313 (1961 ).

8. Blumenfield, M., Suntay, R. G., and Harmel, M. H.,
Anesth. Analg. curr. Res., 41, 721 (1962).

9. Drakontides, A. B., Schneider, J. A., and Funderburk,
W. H., 7. Pharmac. exp. Tlier., 135, 275 (1962).

10. Cier, A., Jouvet, M., Dubrocard, S., and Michel, F.,
C. r. Seanc. Soc. Biol., 157, 1600 (1963).

11. Giarman, N. J., and Roth, R. H., Science, N.Y., 145,
583 (1964).

12. Roth, R. H., and Giarman, N. J., Biochem. Pharmac.,
15, 1333 (1966).

13. McKennis, H., Jr., Bowman, E. R., and Dar, M. S.,
Va 7. Sci., 18, 13 (1967).

14. McKennis, H., Jr., Turnbull, L. B., and Bowman, E.
R.,7. biol. Chem., 239, 1215 (1964).

15. Litchfield, J. T., and Wilcoxon, F., 7. Pharmac. exp.
Ther., 96, 99 (1949).

16. McKennis, H., Jr., Bowman, E. R., and Turnbull, I..
B., Proc. Soc. exp. Biol. Med., 107, 145 (1961).

17. Bowman, E. R., Hansson, E., Turnbull, L. B., Mc¬
Kennis, H., Jr., and Schmiterlow, C. G., 7. Pharmac.
exp. Ther., 143, 301 (1964).

18. Knoop, F., Beitr. chem. Physiol. Path., 6, 150 (1905).

19. Thierfelder, H., and Schemmp, E., Z. physiol. Chem.,
114, 94 (1921).

20. Dakin, H. D., 7. biol. Chem., 5, 173 (1908).

21. Quick, A. J., 7. biol. Chem., 77, 581 (1928).

22. Raper, H. S., and Wayne, E. J., Biochem. J ., 22, 188
(1928).

23. Morselli, P. L., Bowman, E. R., Ong, H. H., and Mc¬
Kennis, H., Jr., 7. med. Chem., 10, 1033 (1967).

24. Truhaut, R., and De Clercq, M., Bull. soc. chim. biol.,
41, 1693 (1959).

25. Bowman, E. R„ and Hrdina, P., Fedn Proc. Fedn Am.
Socs. exp. Biol., 26, 616 (1967).

26. Ginoulhiac, E., and Tenconi, L. T., Minerva med.,
Roma, 51, 1166 (1960).

27. Chicancone, F. M., Rif. med., 74, 270 (1960).

28. Bowman, E. R., and McKennis, H., Jr., 7. Pharmac.
exp. Ther., 135, 306 (1962).

5-( 3-Pyridyl ) tetrahydrofuranone-2

121

Judith Meyer and Garnett R. Brooks

Department of Biology, College of William and Mary,
Williamsburg, Virginia 23185.

Received September 6, 1967

Effect of

Blinding and Parietalectomy on Color Change in
Anolis carolinensis (Rept ilia: Iguanidae)*

Abstract — The effect of blinding and/or parietalectomy
on color change in Anolis carolinensis was studied under
conditions of constant temperature, white background, and
a 12-hour photoperiod. Parietalectomy appeared to have
no effect on control of color change. Blinded anoles, al¬
though variable in response, were similar to controls. No
evidence for a diurnal periodicity of metachrosis was ob¬
served.

Metachrosis of Anolis carolinensis has received
attention as one of the simplest color-change mecha¬
nisms to be found among lizards. The melanophores
in the skin of anoles possess numerous processes
which project upward through layers of leucophores
and xanthophores. The skin color is green when
melanin pigment is concentrated in the inelanophore
cell body and brown when the pigment is dispersed
within the cell processes. The melanophores are not
innervated. Dispersion of the melanin pigment is
controlled by a hormone (melanin-dispersing hor¬
mone or MDH) produced by the intermediate lobe
of the pituitary (1 ).

Though the actual mechanism is relatively simple,
there are several factors which interact in producing
the animal’s color (2-4). A factor which has re¬
ceived much attention with variable results is that
of time of day (4,5). One report gave evidence in¬
dicating a definite diurnal periodicity perhaps medi¬
ated by a diurnal secretory cycle of MDH (5), while
another study found no evidence for such a phenom¬
enon (4).

Another problem is that of the importance or
degree of interaction between the different photo¬
receptors (1,3,4, 6). In addition to the lateral eyes
and dermal receptors, the parietal eye has been found
to be a functional photoreceptor (7,8).

Thus the present study was an attempt to solve
the problem of diurnal periodicity and to investigate
the role of the parietal eye in conjunction with that
of the lateral eyes in the metachrosis of Anolis caro¬
linensis.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

Adult A. carolinensis, obtained from Louisiana,
were maintained individually in clear plastic cages
equipped with food dish, red ceiling, and brown and

* Supported by an undergraduate research participation grant GU
1971 from the National Science Foundation.

green perches. The anoles were fed twice a week with
mealworm larvae. Water was offered two days out
of three by spraying the walls of the cage. Light was
provided by overhead fluorescent lights and more
directly for 2-4 hours per day by heat lamps mounted
7-8 feet from the cages.

Six experimental groups were devised: 1) intact,
2) sham-parietalectomized, 3) parietalectomized, 4)
blinded, 5 ) blinded and sham-parietalectomized, and
6) blinded and parietalectomized. Each group con¬
tained six lizards except for Group 6, which had five.

Parietalectomy consisted of lifting the parietal
scale, destroying the parietal eye with appropriate
dissecting tools, replacing the scale, and sealing with
celloidin. Sham-parietalectomy consisted of lifting and
replacing the parietal scale and sealing with celloidin,
without injuring the eye. Blinding was accomplished
by cauterizing the eye tissue with a heated needle
and was considered complete when the normally
arboreal anoles would not jump a chasm of a few
inches. Several days were allowed for recovery from
the operations.

Experimental anoles were removed from their
maintenance cages between 4 and 6 p.m. and placed
in experimental cages. The experimental cages had
the perches, food dish, and inside floor, ceiling, and
three walls painted white, the fourth wall being left
clear for the entrance of light. The experimental
cages were then placed in an incubator provided with
fluorescent lamps. The cages were positioned so that
the amount of light received was similar for each
animal. The temperature was a constant 25,° and
the photoperiod of 12 hours centered at 12 noon was
controlled by an automatic time switch. A 48-hour
acclimation period was allowed before testing was
begun; water but no food was offered on the second
day.

Color readings were taken every two hours during
the third 24-hour period, from 6 p.m. immediately
after the lights were turned off until 4 p.m. the next
day. Observations were made by the light of a small
fluorescent lamp on an observation table within the
same light-tight experimental enclosure that con¬
tained the incubator. Color readings were taken by
comparison of the color of the anole’s trunk with a
numbered scale (4) (see Table I) constructed with
colors from “The Color Key” (Grumbacher, Inc.).

122

The Virginia Journal of Science

The numbers from 1 to 9 indicate a range of colors
from light green to dark brown, with 5 the approxi¬
mate borderline between the light and dark phases.
Records were kept as two-digit numbers, the first
being the major color of the trunk, the second
indicating any marks or patches of another color.
The two digits would be the same for a lizard of
uniform color. Records were also kept of the handling
time, the room temperature in the enclosure, and
the presence of any dark mottling indicative of stress.

The procedure followed was essentially that of
Emerson (4), with two major differences: 1) the
three-day feeding schedule was not followed; and
2) observations were taken every two instead of
every three hours, in order to better assess a diurnal
periodicity factor.

RESULTS

The results from the six experimental conditions
are given in Fig. 1, 2, and 3. The mean color-scale
value has been rounded to the nearest whole num¬
ber. Only the trunk color is recorded. There were
several cases in which the dorsal crest region was
of a different color from that of the trunk but these
cases were not included in the figures. No mottling
of the body color was observed. The temperature
of the anole during the reading and the handling
time appeared to have no effect on trunk color.

The results must be interpreted with the under¬
standing that the numbered color scale does not
indicate a quantitative change in melanin dispersion.
The results are adequate, however, to indicate whether
the tendency was toward the light or dark phase.

The trunk color of intact lizards was amazingly
constant (Fig. 1), being green throughout the 24-
hour period. Although the blinded anoles showed
wide variation, the mean and one S.D. (except for
the 6 p.m. reading) all fall between 2 and 5, which
indicates a light or green color (Fig. 1). The wide
range in the blinded group was due to one individual
who was consistently brown except between 2 a.m.
and 10 a.m. There is no evidence from either condi¬
tion to indicate a diurnal periodicity of trunk color.

The results of the sham-parietalectomized group
were identical, except for the first reading (6 p.m.),
to those of the intact group (Fig. 2). The blinded
and sham-parietalectomized group showed the varia¬
bility seemingly characteristic of blinded anoles (Fig.

TABLE I

Emerson's (4) color scale matched with approximate colors as
found in Ridgway (9)

Emerson’s color scale

Ridgway color that approximates
Emerson’s color scale

1

Light bice green

2

Apple green

3

Forest green

4

Prussian green

5

Olive green

6

Antique brown

7

Saccardo’s umber

8

Mummy brown

9

Olivaceous black 1

HOUR OF OBSERVATION

Fig. 1 — The mean color-scale number plotted against the
hour of observation. The lower line represents intact lizards;
the upper, blinded. At each hour of observation the vertical
line indicates the range of observed variation; the rectangle,
one standard deviation; the circle, the mean.

2) . In this group, the wide range of values was due
mainly to one individual who showed extreme varia¬
tion in trunk color (from 6 to 1 to 8).

The results given in Fig. 3 indicate that parietalec-
tomy has no effect on color change. The mean for
this group is 3, and there is very little variation. The
blinded and parietalectomized group had much greater
variability, although 1 1 of the 12 means are either 2,
3, or 4, which indicates a consistent light phase (Fig.

3) . In this group, two of the five anoles varied in
their trunk color, whereas the other three were
consistently ranked as 3.

All three figures show a rather drastic change in
readings from 6 p.m. to 8 p.m. The first reading in
four of the six groups showed great variation with
many of the lizards being dark. Within two hours
all but one became green and the majority remained
green for the duration of the test period. A possible
explanation is excitement resulting from the sudden
extinguishing of the lights just prior to 6 p.m. This
seems unlikely since excitement usually causes pallor
(F4).

To further investigate this 6 p.m. variation, a
supplementary test of eight hours’ duration was con¬
ducted under the same conditions except that it was
centered at 6 p.m. Three lizards, picked from those
already tested, were used in each of the six groups.

Color Change in Anolis

123

HOUR OF OBSERVATION

Fig. 2 — The mean color-scale number plotted against the
hour of observation. The lower line represents sham-
parietalectomized lizards; the upper, blinded and sham-
parietalectomized. Method of presentation is the same as in
Fig. 1.

HOUR OF OBSERVATION

Fig. 3 — The mean color-scale number plotted against the
hour of observation. The lower line represents parietalec-
tomized lizards; the upper, blinded and parietalectomized.
Method of presentation is the same as in Fig. 1.

The results of this test are given in Table II. Varia¬
tion is apparent at both 2 p.m. and 6 p.m. We can
offer no explanation for these results.

CONCLUSIONS

The diurnal periodicity suggested by Rahn and
Rosendale (5) was not observed. If time of day
affects metachrosis in Anolis carolinensis, it does
not override any of the factors studied. We believe
that Rahn and Rosendale (5) were in error, for in
no case did a group of anoles at 25° on a white back¬
ground with a 12-hour photoperiod, whether blinded,
parietalectomized, or intact, tend to be brown dur¬
ing daylight hours.

There is, however, a consensus among investiga¬
tors (1,3,6) that Anolis tends to darken in daylight
and pale in darkness, in the absence of other con¬
trolling factors. If this is accepted, data from this
study indicate that neither the parietal eye nor the
lateral eyes are responsible for perception of the
background color for metachrosis. Parietalectomy
does not affect the tendency to remain green when
illuminated on a white background. Blinding tends
to cause irregularity in metachrosis, but the tendency
toward brownness in the light and greenness in the
dark (which would be evident if the eyes were re¬
sponsible for the background response in metachro¬
sis) was not observed. The operative mechanism
might possibly be dermal photoreception or direct
melanophore response.

Clausen and Mofshin (7) and Stebbins and Eakin
(8) suggest that the parietal eye functions as a
photoreceptor. Our results indicate that the parietal
eye is not a functional photoreceptor for metachrosis.
This agrees with the findings of Wilson (6). It would

be of interest to determine whether the parietal eye in
its metabolic functions perceives visible light or in¬
frared; the two were not distinguished in the studies
of Clausen and Mofshin (7) and Stebbins and Eakin
(8).

TABLE II

Results of supplementary tests of 8 hours'
duration centered at 6 p.m.

Condition

Lizard

Number

Time

2

4

6

8

10

Intact

1

33

33

33

33

33

2

33

33

33

32

33

3

33

33

33

33

33

Blinded

1

88

99

33

37

33

2

55

33

77

33

12

3

53

73

33

37

33

Sham-parietalectomized

1

33

11

13

13

11

2

44

33

77

33

33

3

33

33

63

33

33

Blinded and

1

33

35

33

37

36

sham-parietalectomized

2

44

33

35

37

36

3

47

36

77

37

33

Parietalectomized

1

33

33

44

22

22

2

33

33

33

33

22

3

33

33

47

33

13

Blinded and

1

73

37

63

31

13

parietalectomized

2

33

33

37

33

33

3

47

36

77

37

33

124

The Virginia Journal of Science

The irregular metachrosis of blinded anoles is
difficult to explain. It might be attributed to the
actual inability to see or the aftereffects of the opera¬
tion. All of the experimental animals were apparently
in good health as compared with controls. Perhaps
a homeostatic mechanism between optic stimulation
and pituitary function was upset by blinding and
resulted in variable response. Further study is ob¬
viously needed.

REFERENCES

1. Kleinholz, L. H., J. exp. Biol., 15, 474 (1938).

2. Smith, H. M., Handbook of lizards, Comstock Publish¬
ing Co., Inc., Ithaca, 1946, p. 41.

3. Waring, H. H., Color change mechanisms of cold¬
blooded vertebrates, Academic Press, Inc., New York,
1963, pp. 106-113.

4. Emerson, J., Influence of environmental factors on
color change in the lizard, Anolis carolinensis (unpub¬
lished master’s thesis). College of William and Mary
1966).

5. Rahn, H., and Rosendale, F., Proc. Soc. exp. Biol. Med.,
48, 100 (1941).

6. Wilson, F. H„ Am. Nat., 73, 190 (1939).

7. Clausen, FI. J., and Mofshin, B., J. cell. comp. Physiol.,
14, 29 (1939).

8. Stebbins, R. C., and Eakin, R. M., Am. Mas. Novit., No.
1870 (1958).

9. Ridgway, R., Color standards and color nomenclature,
published by author, Washington, 1912, p. 43.

Color Change in Anolis

125

Communications and Reports

A Note on the Collections of Two Fleas
(Siphonaptera) Previously Unreported from Virginia

The collections of two species of fleas which rep¬
resent new State distribution records are worthy of
mention.

Oropsylla arctomys (Baker) is a rather common
parasite of the groundhog, Marmota monax L. This
species of flea has been reported from the nearby
states of Ohio (8) and Pennsylvania (3). This paper
presents the first Virginia record. The Virginia speci¬
mens are 2 5 and 1 J1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 from M. monax taken in Giles
County, 9 May 1966, C. W. Berisford, collector.

Atyphloceras bishopi Jordan is described by Hol¬
land (6) as a comparatively rare flea. Since collec¬
tion of the type specimen by Jordan from Blarinae
brevicauda talpoides (Gapper) in New York, there
have been relatively few collections of this flea in
the United States. Fuller (4) reported it from neigh¬
boring West Virginia on Microtus sp. and Clethri-
onomys carolinensis (Merriam). Jameson (9), Geary
(5), and Hopkins and Rothschild (7) listed A.
bishopi from New York. The species also has been
reported from New Jersey (1), Massachusetts (2),
Rhode Island (2,10), and Indiana (11). The Vir¬
ginia specimens were collected in Hanover County
by J. Stout. A single male was taken from Peromys-
cus leucopus noveboracensis (Fischer) on 21 Decem¬
ber 1965, and a single male from Microtus penn-
sylvanicus pennsylvanicus (Ord) on 30 November
1965. This is apparently the first time that this spe¬
cies has been collected from Peromyscus, and these
records represent the southermost occurrence of this
flea in the United States.

J. G. Humphreys

Department of Entomology,
Virginia Polytechnic Institute,
Blacksburg, Virginia 24061

REFERENCES

1. Burbutis, P. P., Bull. New Jers. agric. Exp. Sin, 782, 36
(1956).

2. Cressey, R. F., Jl N.Y. ent. Soc., 64, 1 (1961).

3. Fuller, H. S., Ent. News, 53, 136 (1942).

4. Fuller, H. S„ Jl N.Y. ent. Soc., 51, 1, (1943).

5. Geary, J. M., Mem. Cornell agric. Exp. Stn, 355, 104
(1959).

6. Holland, G. P., Pubis Dep. Agric. Can., 817, Tech. Bull.
70, 306 (1949).

7. Hopkins, G. H. E., and Rothschild, M., Catalogue of
the Rothschild collection of fleas (Siphonaptera) in the
British museum, Vol. 3, London, 1962, 560 pp.

8. Humphreys, J. G., Ohio J. Sci.. 67, 186 (1967).

9. Jameson, E. W„ Can. Ent., 75, 177 (1943).

10. Mathewson, J. A., and Hyland, K. E., J. Kans. ent. Soc.,
37, 157 (1964).

11. Wilson, N. A., The ectoparasites (Ixoxides, Anoplura,
and Siphonaptera) of Indiana mammals, Ph.D. disserta¬
tion, Purdue University, 1961.

Introduction to Geometry

By G. A. Dickinson
Philosophical Library Inc.

New York, 1967.

1 74 pages, $6.00.

This book is an abbreviated version of lectures
given by the author to his own geometry classes. The
attempt has been made to teach methods of problem
solving as well as plane geometry. His method,
heralded as a “somewhat different approach to the
teaching of geometry,” is exemplified by the first
proof in chapter one concerning vertically opposite
angles of intersecting straight lines. Using a series
of questions (some marked with an asterisk), the
reader is led through the thoughts behind each step
of the proof. For example, “Q.* What is given? What
do we know? A. Two cutting straight lines.” And a
later question in the same sequence: “Q. Now what
do we know for certain? A. ???”

When the question series has been completed the
reader is instructed to re-examine those questions
marked with an asterisk. This series constitutes a
more direct proof. Then the same proof is repeated
twice using two different sets of notation. This
method of questions and answers is utilized through¬
out the text. Fortunately for the reader, the questions
become more direct than those indicated above.

The subject matter is more than adequately covered
for a text of this level. In most cases illustrations are
accurately drawn and clearly labeled. There are an
abundance of helpful hints and comments; however,
exercises and worked problems are minimal. Answers
to all problems are supplied at the back of the book.
The lack of an index is in part compensated for by
a comprehensive table of contents, but this feature
limits its usefulness as a quick reference for the stu¬
dent and teacher.

Phraseology and meaning of some parts are “typi¬
cally British” and may appear strange to the Virginia
student; however, this should pose no handicap in
understanding the material presented. For example,
the use of “trapezium,” which is conventionally re¬
ferred to as “trapezoid” in texts used locally.

The reviewer does not recommend this book for
classroom use. There are more comprehensive texts
on the subject of geometry currently available. It is
suitable for use by the inquisitive layman who is
interested in a short course in geometry. In addition,
this book may have a place in the library of a
geometry teacher since it appears to offer a unique
approach to the teaching of a time-honored subject.

— Aubrey C. Hudgins, Jr.

126

The Virginia Journal of Science

News and Notes

From the President’s Office

At a recent meeting of the Council of the Virginia
Academy of Science, it was suggested that the Presi¬
dent prepare a short “State of the Union Message”
to members and friends of the Academy to be carried
in each issue of the Journal. In this first attempt I
wish to express heartfelt thanks to members of the
Academy who have spent many useful hours in
serving on the Council, working as committee chair¬
men, committee members, section officers and in
other worthy capacities. The new editor of the
Journal and the Publication Committee deserve the
appreciation of all of the Academy membership for
surviving a major transition in policies and changes
in procedures. Those who have exhibited skill in
piloting the Journal in the past have done magnificent
work in keeping the membership informed of Aca¬
demy activities, publishing research papers, prepar¬
ing the annual programs, and attending to the myriad
details concerning financing and the general opera¬
tions. I am confident the new officers of the Journal
will likewise meet the challenge in a manner satisfy¬
ing to the membership. My plea is that more members
consider the Journal as a place for publication of
worthwhile research papers and send the editor items
of general interest to all scientists.

The Virginia Academy of Science is the only
organization in the Commonwealth which is in¬
terdisciplinary in representing the sciences. It is
managed and controlled almost entirely by the volun¬
teer leadership of a relatively few members. The
Academy deserves the support of all scientists in the
State and of its many interested friends from other
states. Please help where you feel most appropriate.
The membership is approaching an all-time high, but
there are many nonmembers and friends practicing
in Virginia who can personally benefit from becoming
members and participating in the activities of the
Virginia Academy of Science, especially the annual
meeting where research papers are presented and
opportunities are provided to assist and encourage
the juniors in becoming scientists, or otherwise con¬
tributing to high-quality educational endeavors.

There are many facets of the Academy’s activities
which can be seen by a perusal of the program of
the annual meeting and by attendance at as many as
possible of the sectional and general programs. I
strongly recommend such a journey through this
program.

Lastly, but by no means of least importance, is
the matter of financing a State Academy of Science.
The activities supported by membership, dues, ad¬
vertising, contributions, grants, and a few other
minor sources are by no means adequate to carry
out the quality of support of science in Virginia
that might be desired. Money is needed for more
research support especially by teachers and students
in the smaller and independent schools and colleges.

Much more can be done for the young people in¬
terested in science but having no individual financial
resources for securing even relatively simple equip¬
ment and supplies for experimentation. Moreover,
the publication of research and news reports is con¬
stantly increasing in cost, along with other aspects
of conducting the Academy’s activities.

We need help from members and friends in sup¬
porting a major fund-raising program which will
shortly get under way. Please give us suggestions on
how to do this along with any other thoughts you
have to improve the work of the Academy.

— James W. Cole, Jr.

The 1968 Assembly Creates a State Museum of
Science Commission

Members of the Academy who have been pro¬
moting a State museum of science will be pleased
to note that their efforts, and the efforts of many
others not connected with the Academy, have cul¬
minated in favorable action on the anticipated House
bill creating a study commission. The Academy’s
interest in a science museum dates back to 1946.
Other more recent Academy actions are: a resolu¬
tion by the Academy Conference at the 1967 meet¬
ing in Norfolk requesting Governor Godwin to re¬
activate a museum of science commission created
first in 1946; and the appointment of a museum of
science committee by President Cole consisting of
James W. Midyette, Foley F. Smith, and Roscoe D.
Hughes, chairman.

The Academy is especially indebted to the follow¬
ing Assembly members who actively participated in
guiding the necessary legislation through the 1968
Assembly: Delegates Lewis A. McMurran, Jr., Ed¬
ward E. Lane, John D. Gray, Carrington Williams,
Mrs. Dorothy McDiarmid, Mrs. Eleanor Sheppard,
Charles W. Gunn, Jr., W. Roy Smith, Walther B.
Fidler; and Senators Lloyd C. Bird and Edward E.
Willey.

Summary of CoubicH Meeting of 22 October 1967

Council met in Newcomb Hall of the University
of Virginia. President Cole reported on actions of
the Executive Committee on 31 August. These in¬
cluded the appointment of a museum of science com¬
mittee composed of Roscoe D. Hughes, Foley F.
Smith, and James W. Midyette, Jr., and the naming
of Rodney C. Berry as the registered agent of the
Academy with the State Corporation Commission.

President-elect Siegel announced the appointment
of Dr. Zoe Black of MWC as chairman of local
arrangements for the 1969 meeting.

News and Notes

127

FINANCE COMMITTEE: The budget was dis¬
cussed and a motion was passed requiring a change
in the bylaws. This motion raises the student dues
to $3.50, which is about sufficient to cover the cost
of the Journal. This change will be advertised in the
Journal in addition to other changes to be voted on
in May 1968.

The exhibitor's fee was raised from $75 to $125,
and the Science Talent Search was voted $900 to
cover certain above-average travel costs for the 1967
meeting.

PUBLICATIONS COMMITTEE: The editor re¬
ported extreme difficulty in securing abstracts accord¬
ing to the requested format. A new method will be
tried in 1968. Publication of the Dismal Swamp
manuscripts now in the hands of J. T. Baldwin was
discussed. The Publications Committee has approved
publication of the first part of the History in the
Journal and a motion was passed to transfer up to
$ 1000 from trust funds to cover page costs.

LONG RANGE PLANNING COMMITTEE: W.
M. Hinton’s report included suggestions for studies
of a new class of membership and of the need for
a permanent executive officer.

PLACE OF MEETING COMMITTEE: Council
reaffirmed its support of the constitutional change to
move the meeting dates ahead by one day starting in
1969. I he annual meeting would begin on Tuesday
evening and conclude Friday. This change has also
been advertised in the Journal to be voted on in May.

Council accepted the invitation of VP1 to hold
the 1971 meeting in Blacksburg.

VIRGINIA JUNIOR ACADEMY OF SCIENCE:
E. L. Wisman announced a change in nomenclature
of the sections. NSF support will be gradually re¬
duced, necessitating the increased support of the
Academy.

SCIENCE I ALENT SEARCH: E. V. Russell
commented on the outstanding record of Virginia
students in national competition.

SECTION REPORTS: T. C. Westfall reported
that the Medical Science Section will have a sym¬
posium on psychedelic drugs at the Friday session
in 1968.

MUSEUM OF SCIENCE: It was suggested that
a 1968 General Assembly resolution to create a
study commission might be a possible means of
promoting this idea. A motion continuing the ad
hoc committee was passed. In addition, the com¬
mittee was asked to look into the matter of a science
advisory committee to the Governor. This request
was initially made several years ago.

LIORSLEY FUND: Eight hundred and ten dollars
has now been contributed in honor of Guy W. Hors¬
ley. The Finance Committee was asked to make a
recommendation as to the use of these funds.

FUND RAISING: The need of the Academy for
increased revenue and endowment prompted passage
of a motion to establish a standing committee. This

also requires a change of the bylaws to be acted on
in May 1968. It was moved and passed that the
President appoint a special committee until the change
is effected so that this urgent matter could be studied
immediately.

AAAS: President Cole will attend the December
1967 meeting as the alternate for R. C. Berry, the
regular delegate to the AAAS Council. P. B. Siegel
and Cole will represent the VAS at the AAAS Con¬
ference.

— D. Rae Carpenter, Jr.

Secretary

Summary of Council Meeting on 24 March 1968

Council met at Hotel Roanoke with President Cole
presiding. No Executive Committee meeting had been
held since August.

The ad hoc committee on the museum of science
was thanked for its successful effort in securing
General Assembly passage of a bill to establish a
study commission. The President announced he had
not appointed the Fund-Raising Committee since he
felt it was a capital-gifts group and should be selected
with much forethought.

Executive Secretary-Treasurer Berry reported
1 626 members as of 20 March with 28 schools and
29 business members. Something over $100 in Fed¬
eral taxes on advertising has been paid. Council was
disposed to question the Academy’s liability for this,
and a determination was requested.

PUBLIC A TIONS COMMITTEE: Revisions were
felt necessary in the latter portion of the History
recently submitted by Mr. Joseph Staggers. Target
date for publication is the January 1969 Journal
issue, and revisions are under way.

A motion was passed to authorize the committee
“to proceed at once to take whatever action that may
be necessary to assemble, edit, and publish all ap¬
propriate manuscripts on the Dismal Swamp.”

Arrangements for Journal printing have been made
with the William Byrd Press, and the previous printer
will be sent a letter of appreciation for his services.

A motion was passed to publish more extensive
information on Council actions and abstracts of com¬
mittee reports from the Academy Conference. Publi¬
cation will be in the Journal as a permanent record
of Academy business. A “president’s page” may be
added to the Journal.

The editor expressed dissatisfaction with the
method of abstract submission for the Proceedings
and announced new forms for this purpose. It was
the sense of Council that with this exception, indivi¬
dual sections should retain their historical autonomy
in setting requirements for submission dates.

FINANCE COMMITTEE: B. Harshbarger’s mo¬
tion on behalf of the committee was passed. It
established the Guy Horsley Fund with money do¬
nated previously as a memorial. It further urged
Council to build the fund to a $10,000 minimum
by encouraging additional contributions.

128

The Virginia Journal of Science

MEMBERSHIP COMMITTEE: One hundred
and fifteen nonmembers who attended last May have
been invited to join. Nearly 100 dropped for non¬
payment of dues have also been written.

LOCAL ARRANGEMENTS: Such dissatisfaction
with meeting space and commitments of the various
hotels has been expressed in the past that the Presi¬
dent appointed an ad hoc committee to outline re¬
quirements for meeting places and to recommend
specific dates for the meetings of 1971, 1972, and
1973.

RESEARCH COMMITTEE: Seven awards total¬
ling $1919 were given by the committee since last
May. Nine applications were received and awards
ranged up to $500.

VJAS: E. L. Wisman, VJAS chairman, has been
named chairman of the annual meeting of the Ameri¬
can Junior Academy of Science for the third con¬
secutive year. He announced an increase in support
for the Junior Academy Bulletin from The American
Tobacco Company and a gift of $500 from Rey¬
nolds Metals Company which will be used for the
VJAS Proceedings. He also reported the discon¬
tinuance of the Virginia Institute of Scientific Re¬
search Award. This award, already announced for
1968, will be supported this final year from Academy
funds.

TRUSTEES: E. S. Harlow stated the recent market
value of trust funds was $45,946 as compared to
$48,259 last September. The bank recently recom¬

mended no changes in investments, but the trustees
expect to confer on this before May. As to fund
raising, he recommended a brochure and personal
visitation effort to outline what the Academy does
for the State, students, and professional scientists
in addition to its program for expanding these efforts.

VISITING SCIENTISTS PROGRAM: I. D. Wil¬
son outlined his letters to initiate the program which
began somewhat later than in previous years. Sev¬
enty-seven high schools requested visitors and were
frequently most complimentary about last year’s
program. One hundred and seventeen scientists re¬
plied and were listed as prospective visitors along
with titles of their talks. Another listing of 24 names
was added as a supplement. Schools and visitors
were encouraged to correspond among themselves,
and consequently only about a half-dozen visits are
positively known as having taken place.

Wilson also stated that the Governor had ex¬
pressed interest in the program. A list of visiting
scientists will be sent to the Governor for his in¬
formation.

SALES TAX AND FEDERAL TAX: The secre¬
tary, treasurer, and executive secretary-treasurer
were directed to investigate what alterations in the
charter might obtain tax-exempt status for the Aca¬
demy. The tax on the printing bill alone is con¬
siderable.

— D. Rae Carpenter, Jr.

Secretary

News and Notes

129

News Bulb. Holder. Nod.

We Just made NMR analysis easier.

We designed this unique new analyti¬
cal tool to complement our extensive
line of high quality NMR Tubes.

It's called a Microcell Assembly* and
it’s perfect for people who have only
30 /id or less for NMR Spectroscopic
Analysis.

Use a standard length syringe. Put your
sample in the Microcell bulb. Fit the
bulb stem into the Teflon® holder.
Screw on the nylon rod. Insert the
whole assembly into the tube. Unscrew
the rod and withdraw it.

Analyze.

Our new Microcell Assembly gives you
maximum resolution, fast and easily —
without long, awkward syringe needles.
Allowable camber: over 7.25" of 0.002"
maximum.

And when you want your sample back
just reverse the process. Reclean the

bulb and store it — or throw it away.
Replacement is only 65 1.

That’s not all, of course. For analysis
with ample samples, we’ve got a full
line of tubes. They're all 7.25" long.
They all provide an allowable camber
of 0.005" over the full length.

They're available polished or ground —
with plastic caps and in protective
plastic storage cases. And most im¬
portant, they all provide the consistent
high quality you need and we always
insist on offering.

See your local Kontes man or write
direct for a detailed folder.

^Applied Spectroscopy, May-June, 1967, Vol. 21 #2, "Microcell for
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Analysis," R. A. Flath, N. Henderson
R. E. Lundin, and R. Teranishi.

KONTES

Vineland, New Jersey

PHILIP MORRIS

Philip Morris, a publicly-owned company incorporated in Virginia, proudly traces
its heritage to a London tobacconist of a century ago. Quality and innovation have
earned for the company a valued reputation: “Philip Morris . . . makers of Amer¬
ica’s finest cigarettes.” In addition, the Company markets a number of fine pipe
tobaccos, and in recent vears Philip Morris has added these quality names:
Burma-Vita Company, American Safetv Razor Company, and Clark Bros. Chew¬
ing Gum Company.

Write to Administrative Assistant, P. O. Box 3-D, Richmond, Virginia for infor¬
mation regarding facilities and employment.

RESEARCH CENTER

IHtebii Chemical

MOBIL CHEMICAL COMPANY/ INDUSTRIAL CHEMICALS DIVISION/RICHMOND, VIRGINIA

THE JAMES RIVER BASIN — Past, Present and Future

PUBLISHED IN 1950 - ESPECIALLY TIMELY TODAY!

843 PAGES

Send check for $7.50 to

EXECUTIVE SECRETARY-TREASURER
P. O. Box 9211
Richmond, Virginia 23227

Explore Unknown Seas!

How? — Through the pages of SEA FRONTIERS, lavishly
illustrated, authoritative quarterly magazine, bringing the latest
in scientific discovery in the world’s oceans. Written especially
for yachtsmen, anglers, shipowners and world travellers — all
who are concerned with the sea.

SEA FRONTIERS

For a free copy of SEA FRONTIERS send a postcard to

THE INTERNATIONAL OCEANOGRAPHIC FOUNDATION
No. 1 Rickenbacker Causeway, Miami, Florida 33149 (Room 95)

The I.O.F. is a nonprofit organization established by those whose
interest and curiosity lie in the sea and the spirit of discovery.
Objectives — the support and development of oceanographic
research, by scholarships, grants and publications. Membership
information on request. Contributions are tax deductible.

MEMBERSHIP IN THE VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

The Academy membership is organized into sec¬
tions representing the various scientific disciplines.
Membership is open to all with an interest in
science.

Addressograph plates of all members are coded
by a section number. The First Number indicates
the member’s major interest and enables Section
Officers to more easily contact their members.

1. Agricultural Sciences

2. Astronomy, Mathematics & Physics

3. Microbiology (Bacteriology)

4. Biology

5. Chemistry

6. Materials Science

6x. Space Science and Technology

7. Engineering

8. Geology

9. Medical Sciences

10. Psychology

11. Science Teachers

12. Statistics

ANNUAL MEMBERSHIP DUES

Business . $100

Sustaining . 25*

Contributing 10

Regular . 5

Students . 2

*$25.00 or more

VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

Rodney C. Berry, Exec. Secy.-Treas.

Box 9211, Richmond, Virginia 23227
APPLICATION FOR MEMBERSHIP

Full Official Name
(With Title and Degrees)

Name as Usually Written
(With Mr., Mrs., Prof., Col., etc.)

Address .

(Mailing Address Desired, with P. O. Box or Street and Zip Code)

Institution or Business .

Position — Title

Field of Interest, Section No. .

Class of

Date Membership Desired

— Sustaining
— Student

— Contributing
— Regular

Recommended by: .

Make check payable to VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE and send to above address.

iss*

ill

line of laboratory
supplies, instruments,
apparatus, glass
and plasticware,
chemicals and
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IUENCY-C P S

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I A B HIT Y A MH1TUOE SfNCIf

VIRGINIA

JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

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OFFICIAL PUBLICATION OF THE VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

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noiai;i}x3 • )/>sl<5 Roitci'neissft

SUMMER

1968

VOL. 19, NO.

3

Iisted below are
JReynoldsMetals
locations in the State of
Virginia. Some 16 in
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including our general
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the world. Needless to

say our roots are
planted deep in
Commonwealth soil.
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state.” Whatever we
have contributed to its
economy is returned
many times in the close
relationship we have
with its people and its
commerce.

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RICHMOND, VIRGINIA 23218

RICHMOND • Executive Office • Styling and Design • Advertising Distribution • Downtown Office Building • Product Development •
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Reclamation Plant • Extrusion Plant • Printing Plant • Pilot Particle Sheet Plant • GROTTOES • Plastics Plant • Plastics Research Department

X'-'/.

If you could put Tarey ton’s charcoal
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“That’s why
us Tareyton smokers
would rather fight ,
than switch!

BUSINESS MEMBERS
VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

SUSTAINING MEMBERS
VIRGINIA ACADEMY
OF SCIENCE

The following Virginia Colleges and Univer¬
sities support the objectives of the Virginia Acad¬
emy of Science through Sustaining Memberships.
Their active and financial support is gratefully
acknowledged.

Bridgewater College
Christopher Newport College
College of William and Mary
Emory and Henry College
George Mason College
Hampden-Sydney College
Hollins College
Madison College
Mary Baldwin College
Mary Washington College
Medical College of Virginia
Old Dominion College
Radford College
Randolph-Macon College
Randolph-Macon Woman’s College
Richmond Professional Institute
Roanoke College

Southern Seminary, Junior College
Stratford College
Sullins College
Sweet Briar College
University of Richmond
University of Virginia
Virginia Military Institute
Virginia Polytechnic Institute
Virginia State College
Washington and Lee University

Because of their interest in science and the
economy of Virginia, the following industrial
concerns have become Business Members of
the Academy and have thus contributed greatly
to its work and progress. Their support is
gratefully acknowledged:

Abbott, Proctor & Paine
Albemarle Paper Mfg. Co.

Allied Chemical Corporation
American Filtrone Corporation
American Machine & Foundry Co.

The American Tobacco Company
The Bank of Virginia
Burlington Industries, Inc.

Carolina Biological Supply Co.

Celanese Fibers Company
The Central National Bank
Chesapeake Corporation of Virginia
Continental Can Company, Inc.

Dan River Mills

Dow Badische Company

E. I. duPont de Nemours & Co., Inc.

First and Merchants National Bank
General Electric Company
Hercules, Incorporated
Lawyers Title Insurance Corporation
Larus and Brother Co., Inc.

Merck and Company, Inc.

Mobil Chemical Company
National Fruit Product Co.

Newport News Shipbuilding Co. Foundation
Norfolk and Western Railway Co.

Philip Morris and Co., Ltd., Inc.

Phipps & Bird, Inc.

Reynolds Metals Co.

A. H. Robins Company, Inc.

Shenandoah Life Insurance Company
Southern Bank & Trust Company
Southern Railways Systems
Southern States Cooperative, Inc.
State-Planters Bank of Commerce and Trusts
Union Camp Corporation
Virginia Chemicals, Inc.

Virginia Electric and Power Company
Virginia Trust Company
Wheat and Company

VIRGINIA

JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

OFFICIAL PUBLICATION OF THE
VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

Vol. 19

Summer 1968

No. 3

TABLE OF CONTENTS

137 Computer Pathways to Scientific Information

R. J. Rowlett, Jr.

143 Studies of the Coelomic Fluid and Isotonic Homogenates of the Freshwater

Bryozoan Lophopodella carteri (Hyatt) on Fish Tissues

R. H. Meacham, Jr., and W. S. Woolcott

147 Communications and Reports

148 News and Notes

159 Proceedings of Forty-sixth Annual Meeting of The

Virginia Academy of Science

THE VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

Official Publication of the Virginia Academy of Science

EDITOR

HERBERT McKENNIS, JR.

EDITORIAL BOARD

Dorothy L. Crandall

Thomas J. Marlowe

John E. Duberg

Maynard M. Nichols

Boyd Harshbarger

Edwin R. Van Artsdalen

BUSINESS MANAGER

Blanton M. Bruner

ASSISTANT BUSINESS MANAGER

Thomas H. Vaughan, Jr.

Published quarterly by The Virginia Academy of
Science, Department of Pharmacology, Medical Col¬
lege of Virginia, Richmond, Virginia 23219. Second-
class postage paid at Richmond, Virginia.

Manuscripts for publication (other than section
abstracts) and books for review should be sent to
the Editor, Herbert McKennis, Jr., Department of
Pharmacology, Medical College of Virginia, Rich¬
mond, Virginia 23219. Proof, edited manuscripts,
and all correspondence regarding accepted papers
should be sent to the Editor.

Advertising and Business Office: All correspon¬
dence relating to advertising and business affairs
should be directed to Blanton M. Bruner, Business
Manager, or Thomas H. Vaughan, Jr., Assistant
Business Manager, Virginia Journal of Science,
P. O. Box 799, Hopewell, Virginia 23860.

The Virginia Academy of Science and the Editors
of the Virginia Journal of Science assume no re¬
sponsibility for statements or opinions advanced by
contributors.

© Copyright, 1968, by the Virginia Academy of
Science.

Business and Subscription Information

All remittances and orders for advertising and
subscriptions should be sent to the Business Man¬
ager, Virginia Journal of Science, P. O. Box 799,
Hopewell, Virginia 23860. Changes of address
should be sent promptly to Rodney C. Berry, Execu¬
tive Secretary-Treasurer, Virginia Academy of
Science, P. O. Box 9211, Richmond, Virginia
23227. Changes of address must include both new
and old addresses with zip code.

Subscription rates for 1968: $8.00 per year,
U.S.A.; Canada and other countries of the Pan-
American Union, $8.50 per year; all other foreign
countries, $9.00 per year. All foreign remittances
must be made at par U.S. dollars or the foreign
equivalent. U.S. dollar remittance is suggested to
avoid currency fluctuation problems and possibly
unfavorable exchange rates.

Back issues are available for some years at $3.00
per issue plus postage.

The front cover is by Douglas C. Hensley.

Russell J. Rowlett, Jr.

Chemical Abstracts Service,
The Ohio State University,
Columbus, Ohio 43210.

Computer Pathways to Scientific Information*

Today, when an editor of a scientific publication
is asked to make a talk, most often the subject re¬
quested will contain something about the “infor¬
mation explosion.” Not only editors are given this
subject; prominent men in many professions are
victims of this assignment. None other than The
Earl Mountbatten of Burma, Admiral of the Fleet,
and one of Her Majesty’s outstanding subjects
spoke to the Friday Evening Meeting of the Royal
Institution of Great Britain, January 28, 1966, on
“Controlling the Information Explosion.”1 The so-
called “Explosion” has been referenced in the halls
of the United States Congress by the current Vice
President in his younger days as a Senator.

Actually, our present situation in handling sci¬
entific information should be a surprise to no one.
I agree with Nutting2 3 who declared in 1964 that the
“Information Explosion Is a Myth.” The direction,
the size of the growth of scientific information has
been indicated very clearly for many years. I do
not deny that the growth has been great, and it
has been steady. I will illustrate shortly that it is
exponential and that it was predicted clearly by
several editors and authors.

The information problem has been with us since
almost the beginning of recorded history. Before
the Birth of Christ, 200 B.C., the Preacher in the
Book of Ecclesiastes2 wrote: “Of making many
books there is no end, and much study is a weariness
of the flesh.” At the beginnings of modern science,
in the 17th century, a scientist first announced his
new discovery in a letter, perhaps in Latin, to his
friends. Often a series of related discoveries was
published later in a book. As early as 1613, Barnaby
Rich4 complained of “the multiplicity of books; they
doth so overcharge the world that it is not able
to digest the abundance of idle matter in every
day hatched and brought forth into the world.”

After the formation of scientific societies, the
letter report was addressed to a society and a
verbal summary given at a meeting. Finally, such
reports were published in one of the scientific or
philosophical “newspapers.” The first journal of
original research generally is considered to have

*Presented to the Virginia Academy of Science, Roanoke, Virginia,
May 10, 1968.

’Mountbatten, The Earl, Proc. R. Inst. Gt Br., 41, 16 (1966).

2 Nutting, Howard S., Twelfth Anachem Conf., Detroit, Michigan,
Oct. 22, 1964.

3 The Bible, Revised Standard Version, Ecclesiastes 12:12.

1 Rich, Barnaby, quoted by Price, Little science, big science, Colum¬

bia University Press, New York, 1963.

been the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society founded in 1665. Scientists were said to
have been overwhelmed by the number of letters
from their colleagues and needed some better
method of publishing and disseminating the results
of their research.

In the 17th century, our scientific forefathers
were deluged with letters, so they turned to the
publication of research journals. Here, in the 20th
century, there are those among us who would have
us return to letters and private communications.
Science commented editorially in 1963 as follows5:
“Consider the procedures of scientists who are
leaders in a field such as molecular biology. These
men quickly become aware of each other’s work
and come to form an invisible college. ... By
common consent they publish in a limited number
of journals. While they participate to a degree in
the large national meetings, their favorite meet¬
ing is the small closed symposium.” It seems as
though we have come full cycle in the 200 years
since 1665.

At the beginning of the 19th century, the num¬
ber of scientific journals and periodicals was about
100. In 1850 there were about 1,000 scientific jour¬
nals; and by 1900 the number approached 10,000.
It was estimated in 1961 that the total scientific
journals then being published was 35,000. In addi¬
tion to this large body of what we call primary
journals, there was also a growing number of sec¬
ondary, or abstracting, journals being published all
over the world.

The quantitative aspect of the development of
scientific literature has been described ably by
Price0, who showed mathematically that the num¬
ber of scientific journals founded since 1750 and
the number of scientists have doubled in geometrical
proportions every 15 years. These growths follow a
simple exponential logarithmic curve. There has
been no real explosion, no “big bang”; nothing
similar to the population explosion where the in¬
creased length of life, coupled with a decreased
infant mortality, have caused a real, unpredictable,
and uncontrolled explosion.

Price’s mathematical interpretations were pre¬
ceded some 19 years by Fremont Rider, who illus¬
trated the growth in the total books held by Amer-

5 Editorial, Science, N. Y 141, 319 (1963).

0 Price, D. J. de Solla, Little science, big science, Columbia Uni¬
versity Press, New York, 1963.

Computer Pathways to Scientific Information

137

ican university libraries. Rider pointed out that the
average holdings of these libraries had been doubling
in size every 16 years since 1832. Rider’s curve
and Price’s can almost be superimposed one upon
the other.

Since its founding in 1907, Chemical Abstracts’
primary mission has been to build pathways for its
users to the growing literature of chemistry and
chemical engineering. This chemical literature also
has been growing at almost these same exponential
rates; in fact, at just a little faster rate. The chem¬
ical storehouse of knowledge is doubling every 1 1
to 12 years. The size of the annual Subject Indexes
to Chemical Abstracts (CA ) also has been grow¬
ing, so that it is doubling every 8 to 9 years. Shortly
after the 1950 Index was published, the data exis¬
tent at that time on index growth was plotted. The
exponential curve drawn for library growth by
Rider and the 1950 CA curve were very similar.
The actual sizes of the indexes were added to the
original plot, and it was shown that the predictions
were too large; for 1963, about 40 percent too
large. If we were truly experiencing an information
explosion, the size of the past 1950 indexes should
have been several times greater than they are. The
actual size is below the predicted size. So, I con¬
clude emphatically with Nutting — the information
explosion is only a myth.

Now that we have dispensed with the hysteria
of the “explosion myth,” let’s look at our problem
of scientific information in its true perspective, as
a normal exponential growth from increased world¬
wide research and the universal availability of good
publishing facilities.

Today there are more than 35,000 scientific
journals, and they publish something over 2 mil¬
lion articles each year.7 When we add to this
figure all of the world’s books stored in all of the
libraries, we arrive at an item total8 of about

7.7 x 10s. At 105 words per volume, five letters
per word, the number of letters reaches about

3.8 X 1014. Since we wish to think about computer
storage, we have to resort to machine language
and consider bits per character; this yields the
astronomical figure of 4.6 x 1015 bits. The current
addition rate is about 6.2 X 1013 bits per year, and
this latter figure reduces to about 2 X 10(i bits per
second. As Senders has pointed out, this is indeed
a sobering thought!

This is the 61st year for Chemical Abstracts
Service (CAS). During these years, CAS has be¬
come the world’s largest information center serving
a single scientific discipline. I am the seventh Edi¬
tor. The Columbus staff totals just under 1,000
with about one-half professionals. There are 3,204
volunteer abstractors, some 1,600 of whom reside
in 70 nations outside of the United States, plus
97 section editors.

This truly dedicated staff currently monitors
about one-third, or 12,000, of the world’s popula¬
tion of technical journals. Clearly, not all of these

7 Bourne, C. P., The world’s technical journal literature: an estimate
of volume, origin, language, field, indexing, and abstracting, Stan¬
ford Research Institute, Menlo Park, Calif., 1961.

8 Senders, J. W., Science, N. Y ., 141, 1067 (1963).

journals are equally productive of chemical and
chemical-engineering information. At one end of
the spectrum are journals in which the entire con¬
tents pertain to chemistry. About 300 such journals
were published last year. At the other end of the
spectrum are journals which rarely publish chem¬
ical data. Of the 12,000 journals routinely mon¬
itored by CAS, an average of only 5,000 contribute
papers in a 6-month period, and only 7,000 will
contribute over a 12-month period. The time span
for all 12,000 to produce useful chemical infor¬
mation appears to be between 4 and 5 years.

Authors of chemical papers live in some 106
countries but speak only half as many languages,
56. The United States and the Soviet Union ac¬
count for over half of the reported chemical re¬
search. Germany, once the world leader, has slipped
to fourth place. The English language accounts for
55 percent of the articles published although the
United States and the British Commonwealth to¬
gether contribute only 41 percent of the published
items. It is clear that approximately 14 percent
of the world’s primary chemical articles are pub¬
lished in the English language, but in non-English-
speaking nations.

Chemical Abstracts took just over 31 years —
until 1938 — to publish its first million abstracts.

Abstracts Published in Chemical Abstracts

Year

Papers

Patents

Total

Total

To Date

1907-16

133,115

45,783

178,898

178,898

1917-26

162,145

47,741

209,886

388,784

1927-36

343,714

186,455

530,169

918,953

1937-46

355,784

142,693

498,477

1,417,430

1947-56

543,064

104,247

647,311

2,064,741

1957-66

1,291,600

262,811

1,554,411

3,619,152

The two-million mark was passed just 18 years
later in 1956. The third million required 7 years
and was reached in 1963. CA will publish its
four-millionth abstract in July of this year with
only 5 years being needed for this last million. The
fifth million will be reached in just 3.5 years in
1971.

Estimates of Bibliographic Items Covered in
Chemical Abstracts

Papers and

Governmental

Patents

Reports

Patents

Cited in

Total

Year

Abstracted

Abstracted Concordance

Citations

1967

196,000

37,000

35,000

268,000

1968

213,000

41,000

41,000

295,000

1969

233,000

44,000

49,000

326,000

1970

254,000

48,000

57,000

359,000

In the face of this growth

in the chemical litera-

ture,

CAS has been

able to

improve its

currency.

By currency, we mean the elapsed time between pri¬
mary journal publication date and the appearance
of the printed abstract in CA. For the first quarter
of the 1968, the median currency was 113 days,

138

The Virginia Journal of Science

and one quarter of all abstracts appeared within
something just under 75 days. Five years ago, the
median currency was 205 days.

Throughout most of its history, CAS has per¬
formed its mission through publication of a single
abstract journal. As the literature grew, the size
of CA increased to the point where an individual
could no longer scan the 52 weekly issues and
keep up with his particular field of science. New
methods of packaging information were required
to meet the specialized needs of individual scien¬
tists. In addition, the CA staff had to turn to faster
and more efficient methods of handling the in¬
creased flood of literature.

In 1959, CAS, with assistance from the National
Science Foundation, embarked on an intensive pro¬
gram of research on the application of modern
data-processing technology to the handling of sci¬
entific information. In recent years this work has
been supported also by the National Institutes of
Health and the Department of Defense. The re¬
search is enabling CAS to convert its entire opera¬
tions to a computer base. By 1965 some powerful
techniques had been developed, and CAS began
a 5-year program to implement the complete com¬
puter system. What is emerging is an integrated
man-machine system that can produce a variety of
information tools, both traditional printed pub¬
lications and machine-searchable tapes, from a
single human processing of the input data. The
actual change in the publication cycle which can
result from the shift to computer operations is
illustrated.

Publication Cycles

Chemical Abstracts 1968 (Median Times in Weeks)
Acquisition 2

Processing 8

Printing 4

14

Computer-Based Publications 1968 (Time in Weeks)
Acquisition 1

Processing 2

Printing 1

4

Let’s now examine some of these computer path¬
ways along which we are currently going.

In 1961 Chemical Abstracts Service introduced
the world’s first completely computer-produced
journal. Chemical Titles (CT). CT is a direct and
unsophisticated use of a computer. The machine’s
ability to perform relatively simple operations at
blinding speed makes possible the preparation of
a headline-scanning service for the world’s scientific
journals in chemistry and chemical engineering. CT
includes selection of a key word from the journal —
article title and permutation of the title around the
key word. CT is available in a magnetic-tape edi¬
tion for computer searching as a regular subscrip¬
tion service. Such a service was economically un¬

thinkable without the computer. Thus, the first use
of the computer in dispensing chemical information
was an alerting service. It does not represent a
storage capability nor is it a completely satisfactory
tool for retrospective searches. It does contain a
simple version of the so-called KWIC Index, an
index which has been criticized often.

Polymer Science & Technology (POST) issued
in two versions, POST-J (Journal) and POST-P
(Patent), the new abstracting service started by
CAS in late 1967, is more sophisticated than CT
by several orders of magnitude. The POST input
data fed to the computer represents a higher level
of intellectual analysis by competent scientists. The
index is a planned keyword index rather than a
machine-produced KWIC and is prepared by flag¬
ging of key words within the digest and then prep¬
aration of the index by the computer. POST em¬
bodies many improvements learned by the CAS
organization in the six years since the introduction
of CT. To lump these two services together, as
some have done, under the blanket indictment that
“computer indexing is simply no good” is to be
blind to the increasingly powerful help that com¬
puters are giving in the handling of scientific in¬
formation.

Why is a computer system an advantage in
handling scientific literature? There are many ob¬
vious answers: speed and ease of handling; tre¬
mendous storage capacities; and the ability to merge,
to collate, and to alphabetize thousands of entries
without human effort. All of these are important;
however, there are other equally important advan¬
tages which have never been practical before for
the scientific community. These include the oppor¬
tunity to eliminate the duplication of intellectual
effort now expended in primary and secondary
information services.

Today, the usual scientific paper is reviewed,
refereed, edited, and indexed at the level of the
primary journal office. When the secondary service
receives the primary publication, the same article
is reviewed by a professional editor, abstracted, the
abstract edited, and later the abstract indexed. In
Chemical Abstracts Service, this includes at least
three separate and distinct intellectual reviews for
the average paper. With the continued growth of
the literature, the scientific community can no longer
afford this duplication of professional effort. We
must strive to combine the primary journal editing,
the secondary journal abstract preparation, and all
of the necessary indexing. On a manual system,
such a combination is not practical. The computer
provides the capability of storing records such as the
title, bibliographic citation, abstract, and index en¬
tries. Each item, or any combination, can be re¬
trieved and published when needed. The machine
storage also provides a means and, therefore, the
possibility of on-line supply of the stored data.

At present, CAS has a number of experimental
programs under way, studying techniques by which
a secondary service can indeed obtain its abstracts,
and maybe its index entries, from the primary jour¬
nal at the time of the initial editing of the original

Computer Pathways to Scientific Information

139

document. The experiments of longest standing are
with the American Chemical Society’s primary jour¬
nals. CA, after working with the journal editors, is
now able to use author abstracts, as they are sub¬
mitted for initial publication, from all but one
ACS journal. CAS prepares its own index entries
and then retrieves, formats, and prints the actual
volume indexes used in the Industrial and Engineer¬
ing Chemistry Quarterlies. In another experiment,
manuscripts accepted and edited for the Journal
of Organic Chemistry are sent to CAS where the
new chemical structures are recorded in the CAS
Chemical Compound Registry and the names in¬
put to the CAS computer files. The Registry Num¬
bers are returned to JOC in time for printing in
the initial journal publication.

In order to study similar programs internationally,
CAS staff members are being exchanged on an
intern basis with representatives of the British
Chemical Society. The immediate purpose is to
standardize titles, bibliographic citations, and ab¬
stracts for the British primary journals and CAS
publications. In addition, exchange of systems de¬
velopment personnel between the two societies is
leading to a uniform machine language. Ultimately,
titles, citations, and abstracts will be exchanged in
the form of machine-readable records.

To date, few bridges have been built between
individual secondary services. Uniform definitions
are needed for index vocabulary, abstract content,
and bibliographic citations so that such data can
be recorded in machine language once and ex¬
changed among the interested services. CAS is
working toward such goals with the major Amer¬
ican abstract services. Abstracts are being ex¬
changed with Biological Abstracts and the Engi¬
neering Index. Differences in abstract standards have
been defined in El. An indexing study with the
American Institute of Physics has led to uniform
use of certain physics index terms. These are small
first steps, but they are the beginning for greater
progress in the years to come.

This problem of duplication among abstract serv¬
ices also has important international aspects. There
are systems for abstracting and indexing the chem¬
ical literature in at least Germany, Japan, Russia,
and France. They are not equivalent in capability
nor do they cover the same range of chemistry and
chemical engineering, but there are many areas of
overlap and duplication.

Until recently there had been a few uncoordi¬
nated, unilateral attacks on this problem between
CAS and some of these international systems. To¬
day, under the auspices of the Organization for
Economic Cooperation and Development and the
NSF, concrete steps are being taken to study the
exchange of input and output between these groups.
There is a definite possibility, for example, that
German and Swiss chemists may prepare abstracts
and index entries from their national publications in
the proper computer-language format for direct in¬
put to the CAS system. Obviously, this is one
method to help with the continually growing chem¬
ical literature and with the equally continuing rise

in costs of publication of secondary services. There
are many things to be negotiated in such coopera¬
tive arrangements, but at least the framework now
exists within the OECD.

One of the most rewarding international experi¬
ments is under way between CAS and the British
Chemical Society Research Unit at the University
of Nottingham. The objectives of the British sci¬
entists have been to investigate the value and the
people-problems encountered in searching by com¬
puter the magnetic-tape versions of the CAS pub¬
lications Chemical Titles and Chemical-Biological
Activities. In addition, the British have trained
liaison officers in the preparation of search profiles,
and these officers, in turn, are working with some
500 chemistry graduate students. The feedback from
the British scientists has been of great assistance to
the continued development of the CAS computer
programs. But the most important result may very
well be the hundreds of young British graduates
trained in the use of the computer for storage and
retrieval of scientific information.

Information services such as CAS obtain a much
better view of its overall problems and needs from
an experimental program with an academic insti¬
tution, such as the University of Nottingham, than
they do from similar programs with an industrial
organization. A university works with a community
of users. The industrial corporation is a close-knit
group with unit of purpose, and the resulting ex¬
periment is almost like working with an individual
with limited objectives.

Chemistry is unique among the sciences in that
it has a unifying pathway which an information
system can use to lead its users. This unifying path¬
way is the two-dimensional structural formula — with
the third dimension often inferred. Information on
the nature and properties of chemical compounds
comprises as much as 85 percent of man’s total
store of chemical knowledge. There are now up¬
wards of 4 million known chemical compounds, and
some 100,000 new compounds are reported each
year. Many potentially valuable correlations between
structural features and chemical and physical prop¬
erties require manipulation of vast amounts of data
— more than can be handled effectively by human
analysis. Machine processing offers the only answer.

CAS provides such a capability through its Chem¬
ical Compound Registry, a computer-based file
which ties together information on the structures,
names, and bibliographic references for all chem¬
ical compounds indexed. The Registry provides
both a means for uniquely identifying these com¬
pounds and a computer-based mechanism for
rapidly retrieving available information on specific
compounds or families of compounds.

The process of registering a compound involves
the assignment of a unique “address,” the Registry
Number. The basis for this assignment is an un¬
ambiguous machine-language representation of the
compound’s two-dimensional structural diagram plus
a full stereochemical description. The Registry Num¬
ber is then used as the basis for organizing files
of related data.

140

The Virginia Journal of Science

Because the registration is based on a machine-
language description of the chemical structure, the
Registry provides a data base that can be machine-
searched for any particular structural feature or
structural fragment of interest. To accomplish such
searches, CAS has developed the Substructure
Search System for efficiently searching the Registry
files at various levels of specificity.

The Registry has been under development at CAS
since 1961 with substantial financial support from
the National Science Foundation, the National In¬
stitutes of Health, the Department of Defense, the
Food and Drug Administration, and the National
Library of Medicine. As of March 18, 1968, the
Registry contained the following data:

Compound Registry Status

File Size:

841,650 distinct compounds

6,100 mixtures
1,598,000 references

Weekly Rate of Growth for Current Material:

4,000 compounds that are new to the file

9,000 references.

I believe you can envision the wide applicability
of such a Registry System. But, let me hasten to
emphasize, the System has great time-savings use
for internal CAS operations — even if it were never
employed for external uses. Here are the steps nec¬
essary in current CAS traditional indexing:

Indexing Using Traditional System

Identification and Selection of Compounds to be
Indexed

Preparation of Structural Diagrams for All but
the Common Compounds

Derivation of All Index Names

Arrange All Names in Alphabetic Order, Man¬
ually

Edit All Names.

Now, let’s look at the streamlined indexing opera¬
tions obtained through use of the Registry:

Indexing Using Registry System

Identification and Selection of Compounds to be
Indexed

Compounds Identified by Name: Automatically
Name and Match Name Against File

Compounds Identified by Structure: Type Struc¬
ture and Automatically Match Against File

No Match; Derive Index Name for Only Those
Few Compounds

Arrange Names in Alphabetic Order, Automat¬
ically

Edit, Only Those New Names Derived.

The Registry is an integral part of, and a very
necessary tool in, the CAS computer-based infor¬
mation system.

We have examined the three inputs to the evolv¬
ing CAS unified data base: the abstracts and digests
which result today in the printed publications, the
index entries, both man- and computer-produced,
and finally the Registry which provides the chem¬
ical structures. Let’s finally look at some of the
machines on which we rely today. Nonstructural
index entries are keyboarded directly onto magnetic
tape by way of the Mohawk 1101 data recorder.
There is no hard copy with which to check the
keyboarder's work; she must be thoroughly trained
not only in machine operation but also in the type
data which she is required to handle. The latest
version of the INVAC chemical typewriter de¬
veloped by IBM is used to directly input structural
diagrams into a Mohawk 1181 data recorder. This
will soon be the main input for all CAS formulas.
CAS has two computer configurations, an IBM
360/40 and a 360/50. The 360/40 will be replaced
this summer with another 50. A 360/50 will be
installed early in 1969.

CAS is working hard on procedures for com¬
puter composition of printed publications. We have
a very difficult requirement— almost 1.500 different
characters are needed to compose CA. CAS and
IBM have together modified the IBM 2280 film
recorder to make it an efficient device for selecting,
formatting, and providing finished developed film
all ready for the printer’s engraving camera. Any
character which can be drawn in x and y coordi¬
nates can be input, and this includes the whole
Registry of structural formulas. The structures, dia¬
grams, or whatever you wish, can be intermixed
with the regular type. The combined 2280 system
will compose an entire two-column page of the
regular CA issues in a little more than 6 seconds.
The Formula Index for Volume 66, now being pre¬
pared, will be produced through this 2280 device.
Later in 1968 we will add the Author Index; the
Subject Index in 1969; and, we expect, the whole
of it in 1970.

Composition Schedule

1968 CA Formula Indexes
CA Issue Indexes

1969 CA Author and Patent Indexes
CA Subject and Ring Indexes
CT, CBAC, and POST

1970 CA Issues

It has been impossible in this short time to walk
all of the computer pathways on which CA finds
itself in this year 1968. Here is something of the
challenge between now and 1970:

Computer Pathways to Scientific Information

141

Chemical Abstracts Service

20 different information services
12,000 periodicals in 54 languages

In 1967

131,000 pages

570 million characters

In 1970

174,000 pages

760 million characters

We are trying to employ the best demonstrated
procedures for handling scientific information in
the quickest and most reliable machine programs,

but our basic objectives remain as they have for
61 years:

Chemical Abstracts Service
Basic Objective

A. To Make Chemical and Chemical Engineering
Information More Widely Available and Put
To More Productive Use.

B. To Make Available to the Scientific Com¬
munity in an Economic, Timely, Useable
Form, all or Any Part of the Information
Processed by CAS.

142

The Virginia Journal of Science

Roger H. Meacham, Jr., and William S. Woolcott

Department of Biology, University of Richmond,
Richmond, Virginia.

Received May 13, 1968

Studies of the Coelomic Fluid and Isotonic Homogenates of
the Freshwater Bryozoan Lophopodella carteri
(Hyatt) on Fish Tissues

Abstract — A study was made to determine the toxicity
of coelomic-fluid extract of the freshwater bryozoan,
Lophopodella carteri (Hyatt), on fish tissue. Additionally,
both in vivo and in vitro studies were made of fish tissues
exposed to crushed-colony homogenates of L. carteri in
isotonic medium.

No respiratory distress was noted when small Gambusia
affinis (mosquito fish) were exposed to the coelomic-fluid
extract, an indication that the toxin was located elsewhere in
the bryozoan. When fish were exposed to a medium con¬
taining 3.0% homogenate, they died within one hour. Ex¬
cised gills and monolayer cell cultures of caudal-fin tissue
of Carassius auratus (goldfish) exposed to a 3.0% homog¬
enate medium showed no detectable structural changes.
These data purport that the mortality of fishes exposed to
L. carteri poison is not attributable to gill-tissue damage.

In 1957 Rogick (1) reported that the fresh¬
water bryozoan, Lophopodella carteri (Hyatt), con¬
tains a substance toxic to fishes. These studies were
confirmed by Tenney and Woolcott (2) with homo¬
genates of the bryozoan. Collins et al. (3) reported
that the gill epithelium of goldfish swells when the
fish are subjected to the poison and indicated that
death was caused by asphyxiation. Oda (4) sug¬
gested that the toxic principle in L. carteri is in the
coelomic fluid and is expelled through a vestibular
pore when the individual polypides invaginate. Col¬
lins et al. (3) support this hypothesis in a state¬
ment to the effect that fishes have been seen swim¬
ming in the immediate vicinity of abundant growths
of L. carteri but have never been observed to feed
on the bryozoan. We have observed that when
Lepomis macrochirus (bluegill) were offered in¬
dividual colonies of this species, they would mouth
the organism, then quickly reject it. There are
several reports in the literature that other species
of freshwater bryozoans are utilized as food by
fishes (5, 6).

The purposes of the present study were to de¬
termine the localization in L. carteri of the poison¬
ous principle toxic to fishes and to investigate the
effects of homogenates of L. carteri in isotonic me¬
dium on isolated fish tissues.

MATERIALS

Specimens of L. carteri used in this study were
collected in August and November 1966 and June

1967 at the Virginia Fish Cultural Station in
Stevensville, Va. The August sample was sorted,
and six or seven colonies of 10 to 18 zooecia each
were placed in finger bowls containing spring water.
In eighteen bowls the water temperature was main¬
tained at 27° and in fifteen at 22°. The water was
changed about twice a week or when it became
turbid.

Colonies of L. carteri collected in November and
June were stored in plastic bags and kept at —8°
until used. The fishes used in the experiments were
Gambusia affinis (mosquito fish), collected locally,
and Carassius auratus (goldfish), which were pur¬
chased.

COELOMIC-FLUID EXPERIMENTS

Experiments were conducted with L. carteri col¬
lected in August to determine if the coelomic fluid
contains the poisonous principle toxic to fishes as
proposed by Oda (4). Microscopic examination of
the fluid revealed coelomic corpuscles as described
by Mano (7), thus confirming the reliability of the
experimental technique. The colonies were attached
to microscope slides by binding them loosely to the
slide with small-gauge copper wire, which allowed
the colonies to offer resistance when a glass micro¬
pipette was inserted into the common coelom to
remove the fluid. Small mosquito fish (total length
1. 5-2.0 cm) were placed in 5 8 -mm Syracuse
watch glasses that contained the test solution. In
each experiment two control fish were maintained
in 10.0 ml of spring water. Death time for the fish
was recorded when respiratory movements ceased.

Experiment 1. Two watch glasses were used as
experimental vessels. The first contained 0.2 ml
of coelomic fluid in 9.0 ml of spring water and the
second, four crushed colonies in 10.0 ml of spring
water. Two fish were introduced into each watch
glass.

The fish in the second watch glass began to
exhibit characteristic respiratory distress patterns (2)
3 to 5 minutes after the beginning of the experi¬
ment and died within 8 minutes. The animals in
the coelomic fluid and the controls showed no signs
of distress.

Experiment 2. Nine crushed colonies of bryo-

Coelomic Fluid and Homogenates of L. carteri

143

zoans from which the coelomic fluid had been re¬
moved were introduced into 10.0 ml of spring
water on a watch glass. A second watch glass
contained 0.3 ml of coelomic fluid that had been
taken from the nine colonies and diluted with
9.0 ml of spring water. Two fish were placed in
each solution and a control maintained.

In the solution that contained the crushed bryo-
zoans, one fish died within 7 minutes and the second
4 minutes later. One fish in the coelomic fluid
medium died 50 minutes after introduction, but
the second was normally active 2 hours later.

Because the first test solution contained large
amounts of gelatinous material from the crushed
colonies, it was filtered through Whatman No. 1
filter paper. The filtrate was diluted with 3.0 ml
of spring water to bring the volume of the solution
to 10.0 ml. Two fish were introduced into the solu¬
tion and within 12 minutes both were dead.

Experiment 3. Two fish were introduced into a
watch glass that contained 1.0 ml of coelomic fluid
in 9.0 ml of spring water and showed no signs of
distress after 35 minutes. Two crushed colonies
of bryozoans were introduced into the solution: one
fish died within 15 minutes; the other, 10 minutes
later.

Experiment 4. Two fish were introduced into
each of two watch glasses that contained 10.0 ml
of spring water. The first glass contained four
colonies of bryozoans whose body walls were pierced
with a microneedle. The second contained four in¬
tact colonies of L. carteri. The fish with the intact
colonies did not show any signs of distress; how¬
ever, those with the pierced bryozoans died within
54 minutes.

When this experiment was repeated using five
colonies of bryozoans, the fish with the pierced
organisms died within 30 minutes.

Experiment 5. Four colonies, attached to a micro¬
scope slide with copper wire, were placed in 10.0 ml
of spring water and their body walls pierced. Four
colonies, attached to a second microscope slide,
were placed in 10.0 ml of spring water but were
not injured. Two fish were introduced into each
container.

The fish with the pierced colonies died within
13 minutes. The animals in the second solution
exhibited characteristic respiratory distress patterns,
the first fish died in 24 minutes and the second
in 35 minutes.

TISSUE-CULTURE EXPERIMENTS
WITH FIN TISSUE

Attempts to obtain cellular outgrowths from pri¬
mary explants of gill tissue from goldfish proved
unsuccessful; all cultures were contaminated by bac¬
teria two to three days after explantation. Wolf et al.
(8), attempting to establish monolayer cell cultures
from Salmo gairdneri (rainbow trout) liver, heart,
intestine and gills, found that these tissues generally
gave poor results. Clem et al. (9) reported that
swim bladder, skin, liver, spleen and gill explants
of Haemulon fiavolineatum (yellow-striped grunt)
failed to yield significant outgrowths of either epi¬

thelial or fibroblastlike cells. In view of the diffi¬
culties in culturing gill tissue, experiments were
designed to evaluate the cytopathic effects of homog¬
enates of L. carteri on monolayer cell cultures from
goldfish fin tissue.

Cell cultures of caudal-fin tissue were prepared
following the procedure of Mr. Dean P. Owens
of the Virginia Institute of Marine Science, Glou¬
cester Point, Va. (personal communication). The
fin was disinfected with 70% ethanol. The distal
part of a lobe was removed with sterile scissors
and placed in a 50-mm petri dish that contained
Earle’s balanced salt solution with 500 units of
penicillin per ml. The tissue was washed with gentle
agitation, then transferred to a similar solution in
a second petri dish. After a second washing, it was
transferred to a third dish that contained growth
medium. Mincing and all subsequent operations
were performed on trays of ice in a sterile hood.
The tissue was prepared by cutting 1 -mm strips
parallel to the fin rays and then cutting these strips
into 1-mm2 fragments. Cultures were made in sta¬
tionary 16 X 125 mm tubes, either with or without
coverslips. Four explants were used in each tube
with 1 ml of fluid medium. The medium contained
(by volume): 20% fetal calf serum, 30% Earle’s
balanced salt solution, and 50% Medium 199. To
prevent contamination in the cultures, 2.0 ml
of penicillin (5000 units /ml) and streptomycin
(5000 units/ml) solution were used in 100 ml of
medium. The pH was adjusted to 7. 2-7. 4 with
1.4% sodium bicabonate solution, and the medium
was tested for sterility using fluid thioglycolate
medium (Difco) as recommended by Merchant et al.
(10). Incubation temperature was 19°.

Extracts of bryozoan, collected in November,
were prepared by grinding the frozen material in
a mortar and then filtering with vacuum through
Whatman No. 1 filter paper. To determine the
toxic effects of the extracts on fish tissue in vitro,
the filtrate was diluted with growth medium to
prepare homogenates of 0.8, 1.0, 3.0, 8.0, and
10.0% (v/v ) .

Cultures of fin tissue were maintained over a
period of 11 to 18 days before testing. The types
of cells found in the cultures and their growth rates
were compatible with those noted by Wolf and
Dunbar (11) and Clem et al. (9). A sheet of epi¬
thelial cells appeared around the explants 2 to 3
days after explantation and began to deteriorate
after 3 to 4 days. Fibroblastlike cells appeared in 2
to 4 days and formed an extensive monolayer 11
to 13 days after explantation. Active proliferation
of these cells was evidenced by the presence of
numerous mitotic figures.

The experiments were conducted by removing
the tissue-culture medium from the tubes and re¬
placing it with medium that contained the extract.
Tissues from the experimental tubes were fixed
with 10% Formalin in Holtfreter’s solution (12,
13) at intervals of 15, 30, 45, and 60 minutes. The
cells were stained with Delafield’s hematoxylin and
eosin Y (14). Control tissues were treated as the
experimental ones except that L. carteri extract

144

The Virginia Journal of Science

was not added to the medium. No significant cytolog-
ical differences were observed between the experi¬
mental and control cultures as the experimental cells
were apparently unaffected by the homogenates.

For comparative purposes experiments were con¬
ducted using excised caudal-fin tissue from a gold¬
fish (total length 6.1 cm) in a 3.0% homogenate
prepared in Holtfreter’s solution. The fin was cut
into 16 small fragments; eight pieces were placed
in 10.0 ml of 3.0% homogenate, and eight control
pieces in 10.0 ml of Holtfreter’s solution. Two frag¬
ments were removed from the experimental and
control solutions at intervals of 15, 30, 45, and
60 minutes and placed in Zenker’s fixative. One
piece of tissue for each time period was embedded
in paraffin, sectioned at 10 microns and stained
with Delafield’s hematoxylin and eosin Y; the other
fragments were used in making whole mounts. Ex¬
amination of the whole mounts and serial sections
of fin tissue did not reveal any significant tissue
damage.

EXPERIMENTS WITH
EXCISED GILL TISSUE

Experiments using the the bryozoans collected in
June were conducted during the latter part of the
month. A fresh 20% (w/v) stock homogenate was
prepared following the procedure of Collins et al.
(3) except that isotonic Holtfreter’s solution was
used in place of spring water. The gelatinous
homogenate was filtered under vacuum through
Whatman No. 1 filter paper and the filtrate diluted
with Holtfreter’s solution to prepare working dilu¬
tions of 0.8, 1.5, and 3.0%. Before each experi¬
ment, two goldfish (total length 5. 0-5. 5 cm)
were used to test the toxicity of the 3.0% homoge¬
nates. One fish was placed in 60.0 ml of 3.0%
test solution and a control fish in 60.0 ml of Holt¬
freter’s solution. Death of the experimental fish
indicated that the toxic principle was active.

Excised gill tissue, obtained from goldfish, was
washed in Holtfreter’s solution, and then transferred
to a 50-rnm petri dish that contained 10.0 ml of
test solution. Control tissue was treated similarly,
but was placed in 10.0 ml of Holtfreter’s solution.
Experimental and control tissues were removed
from the dishes at intervals of 15, 30, 45 and 60
minutes; fixed in Zenker’s fluid; embedded in paraf¬
fin; sectioned at 10 microns; and stained with Dela¬
field’s hematoxylin and eosin Y. In all experiments
excised gills from the left side were used as ex¬
perimental tissue, and those from the right side as
the control. On examination of serial sections, the
gill tissue appeared normal except for some dilation
of fimbrial capillaries.

IN VIVO EXPERIMENT WITH GILL TISSUE

An in vivo study was conducted to substantiate
the results of the in vitro experiments. A fresh 20%
(w/v) stock homogenate was made in Holtfreter’s
solution from frozen bryozoans collected in June.
To prepare a 3.0% working homogenate, 10.6 ml
of the stock solution were diluted with 60.0 ml of

Holtfreter’s solution. A goldfish (total length 5.7
cm) was placed in 60.0 ml of the 3.0% homog¬
enate and a control fish (total length 5.5 cm) in
60.0 ml of Holtfreter’s solution. When the test fish
in the 3.0% homogenate died, the opercles were
removed and the whole fish placed in Zenker’s
fixative. The control fish was killed by severing the
vertebral column back of the head and then the
fish placed in Zenker’s fixative. After 23 hours in
the fixative the gills were removed from the left
side of the experimental and control specimens and
run through an alcohol series for dehydration. The
tissues were embedded in paraffin, sectioned at 10
microns, and stained with Delafield’s hematoxylin
and eosin Y. No differences, except those noted
for excised gill tissue, were seen between the gill
epithelium of the control and the experimental fish.

DISCUSSION

Experiments with concentrations of coelomic
fluid as high as 10% (v/v) failed to kill small
mosquito fish; however, when fish were exposed
to crushed colonies of bryozoans they quickly suc¬
cumbed. If the coelomic fluid had contained the
toxin, then, according to previous work (2), this
concentration of the fluid should have been extremely
toxic to the fish. The results indicate that the toxin
is located in the cells of the body tissues and is re¬
leased when the bryozoan is injured. This could ex¬
plain the survival value of the poison to L. carteri
rather than that proposed by Collins et al. (3), who
suggested that the toxin was released into the water
by the bryozoan. If fish in feeding were to be irri¬
tated by the toxin from the injured bryozoan tissue,
they might make no further attempts to feed on the
bryozoan as was indicated when bluegills were
offered colonies of L. carteri.

In experiments where colonies were pierced with
a microneedle, the fish died although the character¬
istic distress pattern did not develop as quickly.
The slower response by the fish may be attributed
to the less drastic treatment of the colonies when
compared to that of the crushed colonies. In an
experiment where pierced colonies were attached to
microscope slides, the fish died about twice as fast
as those that were exposed to nonpierced colonies
attached to a slide. The death of fish exposed to
nonpierced bryozoan can only be attributed to inju¬
ries to the colonies by the copper wire. The results of
these experiments do not support Oda’s (4) hy¬
pothesis that expelled coelomic fluid is toxic to
fishes; rather it is proposed that it is only through
injury to the tissues that the poison of L. carteri is
released.

The results of the in vitro study with excised gill
tissue and the in vivo study were contrary to the
findings of Collins et al. (3), who reported that the
gill epithelium was ruptured and swollen after ex¬
posure to bryozoan homogenates diluted with
spring water. It is possible that their results reflected
changes in cell permeability, due to cell death, and
was not the actual cause of asphyxiation. The bleed¬
ing at the gills of poisoned fishes as reported by
Tenney and Woolcott (2) might have been caused

Coelomic Fluid and Homogenates of L. carteri

145

by extreme dilation and subsequent rupture of
fimbrial capillaries.

The only organisms that have displayed a sus¬
ceptibility to the homogenates of L. carteri are
gilled aquatic vertebrates. In addition to the differ¬
ent types of fishes poisoned by Tenney and Wool-
cott (2), Collins et al. (3) have shown that the
bryozoan homogenates are toxic to the larvae of
Ambystoma opacum (marbled salamander). Mice
and frogs injected with extracts of L. carteri have
exhibited no ill effects, nor have Daphnia and cray¬
fish when placed in solutions of the homogenate
(2). This indicates a close relationship between
susceptibility to the toxin and a functional vertebrate
gill-breathing apparatus. According to Lagler et
al. (15), acidophilic secretory cells associated with
the gills of fishes are thought to produce carbonic
anhydrase, the enzyme that catalyzes the reaction
carbon dioxide + water ±=; carbonic acid. In the
gills, carbon dioxide is released. If the toxin from
L. carteri affects the secretory activity of the acido¬
philic cells, then, there might be an accumulation
of carbon dioxide in the tissues, resulting in respira¬
tory acidosis.

A second possible hypothesis is that the toxin
from the bryozoan could have a direct inhibitory
effect on metabolism, as the gills constitute a tissue
with large surface area and many cells exposed to
the toxin-containing medium. Lindahl and Oberg
(16) studied the effects of rotenone, a respiratory
inhibitor, on the oxygen consumption of excised
gill filaments and found that it blocks the electron
transport in the respiratory chain. They concluded
that death in fishes was due to this and not to
histolysis of the gill epithelium as was once pro¬
posed.

Future studies should be designed to determine
if cell death precedes or follows the respiratory dis¬
tress patterns of the test animal. Manometric tech¬
niques, using excised gill filaments, might provide
basic data leading to this information.

Acknowledgments

Sincere appreciation is expressed to the following
persons. Drs. Wilton R. Tenney, University of
Richmond, and Edward R. Bowman, Medical Col¬
lege of Virginia, critically read the manuscript. Drs.
Thomas M. Harris, Medical College of Virginia,
Willie M. Reams, Jr., University of Richmond, Ken¬
neth Wolf, Eastern Disease Fish Laboratory, and
Mr. Dean P. Owens, Virginia Institute of Marine
Science, offered many helpful suggestions in tissue-
culture procedures.

REFERENCES

1. Rogick, M. D., Trans. Ky Acad. Sci., 18, 85 (1957).

2. Tenney, W. R., and Woolcott, W. S., Va J. Sci., 15, 16
(1964).

3. Collins, E. J., Tenney, W. R., and Woolcott, W. S.,
Va J. Sci., 17, 155 (1966).

4. Oda, S., Kagaku, 28, 1 (1958).

5. Bushnell, J. H., Ecol. Monogr., 36, 95 (1966).

6. Applegate, R. L., Limnol. Oceanogr., 11, 129 (1966).

7. Mano, R., Sci. Rep. Tokyo Kyoiku Daig., Sect. B,
11, 211 (1964).

8. Wolf, K., Quimby, M. C., Pyle, E. A., and Dexter,
R. P„ Science, N. Y ., 132, 1890 (1960).

9. Clem, L. W., Moewus, L., and Sigel, M. M., Proc.
Soc. exp. Biol. Med., 108, 762 (1961).

10. Merchant, D. J., Kahn, R. H., and Murphy, W. H.,
Handbook of cell and organ culture, 2nd ed., Bur¬
gess Publishing Co., Minneapolis, 1964, p. 7.

11. Wolf, K., and Dunbar, C. E., Proc. Soc. exp. Biol.
Med., 95, 455 (1957).

12. Cameron, G., Tissue culture technique, 2nd ed., Aca¬
demic Press, Inc., New York, 1950, p. 40.

13. Paul, J., Cell and tissue culture, 2nd ed., The Wil¬
liams and Wilkins Co., Baltimore, 1960, p. 252.

14. Conn, H. J., Darrow, M. A., and Emmel, V. M.,
Staining procedures, The Williams and Wilkins Co.,
Baltimore, 1960, p. 39.

15. Lagler, K. F., Bardach, J. E„ and Miller, R. R.
Ichthyology: the study of fishes, John Wiley & Sons,
Inc., New York, 1962, p. 242.

16. Lindahl, P. E., and Oberg, K. E., Exptl Cell Res., 23,
288 (1961).

146

The Virginia Journal of Science

Communications and Reports

The Use of an Antibiotic in Azo-Dye Liver-Tumor Studies* *

At infrequent intervals we have a fairly high inci¬
dence of pulmonary infection in our experimental
rats which can result in loss of weight and death.
This is a more serious problem when experiments
are of long term, the diet is not optimal, or if the
diet contains a toxic agent, such as a carcinogenic
azo dye. This communication presents evidence that
the addition to the diet of an antibiotic (tetracycline
HC1) does retard pulmonary infection and death
without influencing the neoplasia induced by an azo
dye.

Young adult male rats (Holtzman) were fed the
12% casein diet previously used in the azo-dye
liver-tumor studies.1 To this diet was added 0.064%
of the carcinogen 3'-methyl-dimethylamino-azoben-
zene (3'-Me-DAB). Tetracycline HC1 (Tetracyn
Hydrochloride — Pfizer brand tetracycline HC1 with
glucosamine) was added to the diet for some rats,
such that each kg of diet contained 100 mg of the
antibiotic. Rats were fed the diet containing the
dye for 8 weeks and maintained on the diet without
the dye for an additional 8 weeks, after which time
they were sacrificed and the incidence of liver
tumors determined. When the antibiotic was used
it was fed continuously for the full 16 weeks.

In three different experiments it was found that
addition of tetracycline had little or no effect on
the incidence of tumors but it did increase the sur¬
vival (Table I). In all three experiments the sur¬
vival without tetracycline was 60%, whereas with
the addition if tetracycline the survival was 87, 80,
and 74%. The incidence of tumors in the two
groups, on a percentage basis, was comparable with
or without tetracycline.

TABLE I

Effect of tetracycline upon tumor incidence and survival
of rats fed 3'-Me-DAB

Survival at 16
weeks

Tumors at 16
weeks3

Control

+ Tetra¬
cycline6

Control

+ Tetra¬
cycline6

No.

%

No.

%

No.

%

No.

%

Experiment 1

9/15

60

13/15

87

8/9

89

11/13

85

Experiment 2

9/15

60

12/15

80

9/9

100

12/12

100

Experiment 3

9/15

60

11/15

74

9/9

100

10/11

91

3 Percentage tumors calculated on basis of survivors.
6 100 mg tetracycline /kg diet.

It would appear, therefore, that the addition of
this antibiotic was a practical precaution to use to
increase survival and did not interfere with induc¬
tion and development of liver tumors by the azo
dye.

C. C. Clayton

Department of Biochemistry,
Medical College of Virginia,
Richmond, Virginia 23219

1 King, H. J., Spain, J. D., and Clayton, C. C., J. Nutr., 63, 301
(1957).

* Supported in part by a grant from the National Institutes of
Health ( C- 1541). Acknowledgement is made to W. Friend for tech¬
nical assistance.

Manuscripts for the
Virginia Journal of Science

Dr. Lynn D. Abbott, Jr., has accepted editorship of the Virginia Journal of Sci¬
ence. The current editor, Dr. Herbert McKennis, Jr., who has resigned because of
priority commitments, has transferred all records of the editorial office to Dr.
Abbott.

New manuscripts and correspondence pertaining to manuscripts should be ad¬
dressed to:

Lynn D. Abbott, Jr., Editor
Department of Biochemistry
Medical College of Virginia
Richmond, Virginia 23219

Communications and Reports

147

News and Notes

TESTIMONY ON THE MILLER BILL
(H.R. 875) BY EDGAR F. SHANNON, JR.

Mr. Chairman and Members of the Subcom¬
mittee on Science, Research, and Development:

My name is Edgar F. Shannon, Jr., of Charlot¬
tesville, Virginia. I am president of the University
of Virginia, a former president and chairman of
the Executive Committee of the Association of State
Universities and Land-Grant Colleges, a member of
the Association of American Universities, and a
member of the Board of the American Council on
Education. In all of these bodies I have had an
opportunity to study and discuss the subject cov¬
ered by H.R. 875, introduced by Representative
George P. Miller of California, and companion
bills.

I am grateful for the opportunity to appear be¬
fore this committee and to express my support of
the purposes and provisions of H.R. 875, which
will aid in the advancement of higher education
and the general capability of our nation in an ex¬
tremely practical and effective way.

The special virtue of this bill is that its carefully
developed formula for distribution of Federal sup¬
port for scientific education would assure considera¬
tion of all the major needs thus identified as be¬
ing in the national interest. The formula would add
geographical considerations, undergraduate teach¬
ing loads, and aid to developing institutions to those
factors already recognized as qualifications for Fed¬
eral funds, which qualifications basically are de¬
gree production and past excellence in individual
programs. The bill has that quality of balance
which is the genius of the best legislation that our
system produces. It is also based on successful ex¬
perience.

In general this bill appears to me to provide ( 1 )
an imaginative, efficient, and effective vehicle by
which the nation can invest most wisely a part of
its financial resources in assuring the future strength
and capacity of science in the United States; and
(2) a sound means of improving the teaching as
well as the research capabilities of all kinds of col¬
leges and universities in the country. The bill truly
embodies a program, as its preamble indicates, that
will promote the advancement of science and the
education of scientists.

I wish to emphasize also, as my next point, that
the bill establishes a legislative program for insti¬
tutional support; that is, direct grants to colleges
and universities for education in the sciences, social
sciences, engineering, and mathematics.

With the costs of higher education continuously
rising and predicted to do so for the foreseeable
future and with the costs of education in the sci¬
ences and engineering the highest among the areas
of knowledge that must be covered in institutions
of higher learning, this program projected in H.R.

875 — to make institutional grants to all types of
colleges and universities offering instruction in the
sciences, social sciences, engineering, and mathe¬
matics — is imperative for the future of higher edu¬
cation in the United States, both private and public.

Let me stress that the institutional grants pro¬
vided for in this bill are not a substitute for or in¬
tended to replace direct project grants and contracts
for research and services now being awarded by the
National Science Foundation, the National Insti¬
tutes of Health, the Office of Education, the Depart¬
ment of Defense and other departments and agen¬
cies of the Federal government.

Mr. Chairman, you and other members of the
subcommittee will recall that after the Second
World War, when the establishment of the National
Science Foundation was being discussed in the
Congress, the desirability was advanced of allotting
some part of the funds for NSF — the figure of 25
percent was cited — among the states on a formula
basis and of allotting the remaining percentage en¬
tirely on the basis of the scientific merit of projects
and the capabilities of the investigators. As you are
well aware, the project grant part was adopted, but
the formula approach was not. After approximately
twenty years the need for institutional grant funds
is more urgent than ever before.

The proposed $150,000,000 authorization of this
bill is not, therefore, an arbitrary figure. It is ap¬
proximately 25 percent of the appropriation to the
National Science Foundation at the time the bill was
first introduced. Let me underline the fact that the
bill does not take from the rich institutions in order
to give to those that are poor financially. The pro¬
posed authorization of $150,000,000 a year for
five years is in addition to the present programs of
mission-oriented and direct-grant support to scien¬
tists in colleges and universities. These programs are
essential to the welfare of the nation and of ad¬
vanced higher education and must not only be con¬
tinued but expanded. The current freezes and lack
of funding for such programs are already having a
serious impact upon the future of science and of
advanced higher education in the sciences. The in¬
stitutions of higher learning with large amounts of
Federal financial support under these existing pro¬
grams as a result of superior competence in science
and engineering will continue to benefit from them
and to assist the nation in attaining its scientific
goals through them; but these institutions will be
aided further by the bill toward attaining their in¬
stitutional goals. At the same time, institutions which
have not had Federal financial aid in the past or
have participated only to a limited extent in Fed¬
eral funds for science will be reached and helped
by the provisions of H.R. 875.

As the language of the bill itself points out, the
institutional grants based on a formula allotment
are desirable to provide stable, long-range funding

148

The Virginia Journal of Science

for research and instruction in the sciences in insti¬
tutions of higher education. This will complement
the mission-oriented and shorter-term grants and
contracts for project support. Institutional grants
will give flexibility to the institutions to apply the
funds in the way most effective to strengthen the
scientific program in a given college or a university.
This can be most beneficial to developing a strong,
continuing faculty and to increasing the number of
able students in the sciences and engineering, both
undergraduate and graduate.

The formula approach also has the advantage of
maintaining a clear, objective, and defensible rela¬
tionship between the Federal government and the
institutions. There is no possibility of personal in¬
fluence, fallible judgments, or favoritism affecting
the allocation of monies to the institutions; and the
independence and freedom of inquiry of the teach¬
ing and research that is carried out in colleges and
universities with these funds is guaranteed by the
use of the formula. The Federal government and
many of the universities in the nation have had a
long and satisfactory experience with such a form¬
ula in the assignment of funds to land-grant insti¬
tutions in the field of agricultural research.

The formula in this bill for allotments to the
individual institutions has great merit. It is a form¬
ula which can command the support of the entire
community of higher education.

There are three parts to the formula.

The first third of the formula gives credit to those
institutions already carrying the responsibility for
research under project grants. This gives recogni¬
tion to the scientific quality that they have demon¬
strated through being awarded grants on merit
alone as decided by juries of leading scientists. By
making an allocation to these institutions, the
formula of the bill provides for the further strength¬
ening of the quality of scientific research and in¬
struction at the current leading institutions. Under
this part of the formula any institution doing a sig¬
nificant amount of research will receive 100 per¬
cent of the first $30,000 in applicable grants, but
no single institution will be allotted more than
$300,000. This way those institutions now most
heavily serving the public welfare in science through
project grants will be given assistance, but they will
not preempt all the money available. According to
some calculations that have been made, some 483
institutions would participate under this part of the
formula.

The second third of the formula takes into ac¬
count geographical considerations and is helpful to
the institutions in all the states. By recognizing the
number of high school graduates in each state, it
takes into account the load of the college-age popu¬
lation that each state must accommodate. While
the formula recognizes geography and an equitable
geographical distribution of funds, it is not simply
a geographical one. The institutions are fully pro¬
tected, in that the assignment of money then goes
to the institutions within a state in proportion to the
number of student credit hours in the sciences and
engineering that each teaches.

This part of the formula is very important in
broadening the base of scientific capability in many
institutions and in encouraging scientific talent at
the undergraduate level, which will later be re¬
flected in increased numbers of graduate students
and more persons achieving valuable careers in sci¬
ence. By making assignments by credit hours taught,
the formula includes the two-year as well as four-
year colleges. Obviously a four-year college with
majors in the third and fourth year will produce a
larger number of student credit hours than a two-
year college of the same enrollment, and this will
give weight to the colleges offering the baccalaureate
degree; but many two-year colleges will have large
enrollments in the sciences, and will not be disad¬
vantaged by comparison, as they might feel they
would be by a special allotment for baccalaureate
degrees granted. The opportunity for two-year
junior and community colleges to participate under
this part of the formula is most significant in terms
of encouraging scientific talent, particularly among
disadvantaged students.

The final third of the formula makes allocations
in proportion to the advanced degrees — master’s
and doctoral degrees — in the sciences and engineer¬
ing that the institutions are granting. Thus, support
is given to those institutions who actually are pro¬
ducing scientists with advanced training and teach¬
ers of science. This is, of course, the most expensive
part of higher education. The cost of instruction for
master’s work is usually calculated as two or more
times higher than that for undergraduates; and for
doctoral work, cost multipliers of five to eight times
on an average are reasonable. This part of the
formula will also provide an incentive to institu¬
tions to produce more qualified scientists and
teachers of science.

These, then, Mr. Chairman, are to my mind some
of the outstanding benefits to higher education and
the public welfare of the nation that would be ac¬
complished by the enactment of this bill. The bill
is especially helpful in that it speaks to the goals of
both quality and quantity to which higher education
in America is committed. In other words, this bill
will not only help expand the opportunities for an
increasing number of students, but it will also ad¬
vance the standards and effectiveness of teaching
and research in the sciences.

I should like to commend the provision in the
bill for an advisory committee to be known as the
National Institutional Science Council. This Coun¬
cil will be most beneficial in maintaining communi¬
cations between the National Science Foundation
and the educational community. It will be helpful
in establishing the guidelines and procedures for
administering the program. The review required of
the Council and the recommendations to the Presi¬
dent and the Congress will insure the ongoing value
of the program and such necessary modifications as
experience shows advisable for improvement.

One point of detail in the definitions of fields
under the term “sciences”: I would suggest that
“geography” be included.

News and Notes

149

SCENIC RIVERS STUDY AUTHORIZED
BY THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY

Charlottesville — The first step in an extensive
study aimed at the preservation of Virginia’s scenic
rivers and streams is under way at the University of
Virginia School of Architecture.

The Scenic Rivers Study, authorized by the Gen¬
eral Assembly, will include all of Virginia’s rivers
and streams, ranging from such large rivers as the
Potomac and James to the Clinch River and Pound
River of the scenic southwest. The purpose of the
study is to identify which streams and waterways in
the State should be preserved for public enjoyment,
and to recommend ways of protecting them.

The School of Architecture, under contractual
agreement with the Commission of Outdoor Recrea¬
tion, is working on the first phase of the five-part
study under the faculty supervision of A. Kent
Clement, Arthur Foster, and Paul Dulaney, who
teach city planning.

“To my knowledge, this is an unusual project,”
said Foster. “Related studies have been conducted
by the Department of the Interior in connection with
the Federal Wild Rivers Program, and by only a
few states. Our study is consistent with the cur¬
rent State efforts to improve the quality of water in
rivers throughout Virginia.”

The opening phase of the study is a selection sys¬
tem to develop an appropriate method for classify¬
ing and selecting Virginia’s rivers and streams.
“This will be a preliminary examination of various
streams to identify kinds of ranges of situations to
be anticipated,” said Foster. “Some streams in ur¬
ban areas are in danger of being spoiled, while oth¬
ers in relatively secluded surroundings are being
polluted by industrial and extraction activities.
Many things can ruin the scenic qualities of a river.”

Working with graduate planning students, the

faculty will prepare a preliminary draft of a pro¬
posed selection system and test it in several con¬
trasting situations in consultation with the Com¬
mission of Outdoor Recreation staff and advisers.
The University team then will prepare working
procedures for the full-scale survey.

In later phases of the study, other schools and
departments of the University such as marine sci¬
ence, law, and engineering will participate in the
project. As outlined by the faculty and the Com¬
mission, whose director is Elbert Cox of Richmond,
the complete study will entail these further steps:

1. Survey and evaluation, examining all the
streams in the State to evaluate their scenic, rec¬
reational, and other qualifications and identifying
those streams that should be recommended for pro¬
tection.

2. Preservation techniques, ascertaining the kinds
of protective measures that could be applied in
various situations by State, regional, local, or pri¬
vate action. This will include those presently avail¬
able under Virginia law and those that might be
recommended because of successful experience else¬
where.

3. An action program recommending the general
or specific measures that would be most feasible and
effective in preserving the natural beauty of each
selected stream and its continuing enjoyment by
the public.

4. A final illustrated report stating the major
findings and recommendations of the entire study.
The schedule calls for a tentative draft of the final
report to be submitted to the Commission director
by August 1, 1969.

Planning students at the University recently com¬
pleted a separate study of the development of the
James River from Richmond to Hampton Roads.
Their findings were presented to local, State and
Federal officials last month.

CONSTITUTION OF THE VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

ARTICLE 1: NAME

The name of the organization

shall be the Virginia Academy of

Science.

ARTICLE 2: PURPOSES

The purpose of this organization
shall be to encourage scientific research in Virginia
and to arouse interest in and appreciation of sci¬
ence among the people of the State:

(a) To discover, encourage and
develop scientific interest and
ability among the youth of
the State by a Junior Acad¬
emy of Science, by science
clubs, by science talent
searches and by other means.

(b) To facilitate prompt publica¬
tion of acceptable scientific
papers and abstracts.

(c) To cooperate insofar as prac¬
ticable with industries in
their scientific problems and
with other scientific organi¬
zations having aims similar
to this organization.

(d) To cooperate with those in
charge of the science mu¬
seums within the state and
the Virginia Institute for Sci¬
entific Research.

(e) To render public service in
scientific matters.

(f) To hold meetings of the
Junior and Senior Academies
for the better acquaintance
of those interested in all
branches of science in Vir¬
ginia.

150

The Virginia Journal of Science

ARTICLE 3:
Section 1 .

Section 2.

Section 3.

MEMBERS

There shall be eight classes of
members: regular, student, con¬
tributing, sustaining, life, patron,
honorary life and business.

The dues of the first four classes
of members are payable annually
in the amounts specified in the
Bylaws.

Life members shall consist of
members who, by paying the sum
of one hundred dollars ($100.00),
are exempt from payment of fur¬
ther dues.

Section 4. Patrons shall consist of those per¬
sons who have given to this or¬
ganization the sum of one thous¬
and dollars ($1,000.00) or its
equivalent in property. They shall
have all the rights and privileges
of regular members and shall be
exempt from dues. An institution
may also become a patron by
meeting the above requirements.
Its representative shall have all
the rights and privileges of regu¬
lar members.

Section 5. Honorary life members shall con¬
sist of persons elected by the
Council for long and distinguished
service to science in this organi¬
zation and others no matter where
located. They shall have all the
rights and privileges of regular
members and shall be exempt
from dues.

Section 6. Business or industrial organiza¬
tions, which pay dues of $100.00
annually, shall be Business Mem¬
bers of the Academy.

ARTICLE 4: ACCREDITATION OF MEM¬
BERS

Members of all classes except
honorary life must be accredited by the secretary,
or the treasurer, or the Council of the Academy.
See Article 3, Section 5, concerning honorary life
membership.

ARTICLE 5: OFFICERS

The officers of this organization
shall consist of a president, a president-elect, a sec¬
retary, and a treasurer. The officers and the im¬
mediate past president shall comprise the Execu¬
tive Committee of the Academy.

ARTICLE 6: COUNCIL

The executive body of this organi¬
zation shall be known as the Council. It shall be
composed of the president, the president-elect, the

secretary, the treasurer, the three most recent past
presidents, and one member elected by each section
of the Academy. The members from the several sec¬
tions shall be elected for three-year terms, on a ro¬
tational basis among sections. In addition to the
above listed members, the following shall be ex-
officio members of the Council: (1) the editor of
the Journal, (2) the chairman of the Long-Range
Planning Committee, (3) the chairman of the Re¬
search Committee, (4) the chairman of the Com¬
mittee for the Junior Academy of Science, (5) the
chairman of the Board of Trustees, (6) the chair¬
man of the Membership Committe, (7) the chair¬
man of the Finance and Endowment Committee,
and (8) the chairman of the Publications Com¬
mittee. In case of death or other unforseen inter¬
ruption of this routine, the president shall make
interim appointments until the next election is held.

ARTICLE 7: DUTIES OF THE COUNCIL

1. The Council shall have charge
of the policy of this organization and its funds. The
Executive Committee shall conduct essential
Academy business between meetings of the Council.

2. The Council, through the Edi¬
torial Board of the Virginia Journal of Science, shall
supervise the publication of the Journal.

3. The Council may establish the
office of executive secretary-treasurer, and employ
such personnel as may be required. The term of
office, the duties of the office, and the remuneration
shall be prescribed by the Council.

ARTICLE 8: ELECTION OF OFFICERS
AND COUNCIL MEMBERS

A Nominating Committee, ap¬
pointed by the president, usually consisting of the
three immediate past presidents, shall submit to
the annual meeting, nominations for president-elect,
secretary and treasurer. Nominations from the floor
shall be in order. These officers shall be elected an¬
nually by the membership. The president may not
succeed himself.

ARTICLE 9: SECTIONS AND AFFILIATED
CHAPTERS

Section 1. Any group of members may, with
the approval of the Council, or¬
ganize as a separate section. Such
a section shall become established
after it has conducted one success¬
ful program at an annual meet¬
ing. Any established section which
fails to conduct a program for two
successive annual meetings may be
dropped as a section by action of
the Council. Such a section may
be reestablished by the Council
after it has conducted one success¬
ful program at an annual meeting.
If any section shall plan to adopt
a constitution and bylaws, they

News and Notes

151

must be approved by the Council
prior to adoption by the section.

Section 2. Any group of members may, with
the approval of the Council, or¬
ganize affiliated chapters wherever
deemed necessary. Each new
chapter’s constitution and bylaws
must be approved by the Council
prior to its official affiliation with
this organization. Any amend¬
ments subsequent to affiliation
must also be approved.

ARTICLE 10: MEETINGS

The annual meeting of this organi¬
zation shall be held during the first or second week
of May in each year at a place selected by the
membership. The Council shall decide whether the
annual meeting shall be held the first, or second,
week in May and shall arrange for any special meet¬
ings deemed necessary.

ARTICLE 11: BUSINESS

Section 1. Forty members of this organiza¬
tion shall constitute a quorum for
the transaction of business at reg¬
ular and special meetings. Seven

BYLAWS OF THE VIRGINIA

SECTION 1: ANNUAL DUES

( 1 ) The annual dues of regular
members shall be five dollars
($5.00).

(2) The annual dues of student
members shall be three dollars
and fifty cents ($3.50).

(3) Members who pay annual dues
of ten dollars ($10.00) shall
be designated Contributing
Members.

(4) Members and institutions
which pay annual dues of
twenty-five dollars ($25.00)
or more shall be designated
Sustaining Members.

(5) A regular, student, contribut¬
ing or sustaining member in
good standing must not be in
arrears in dues for more than
one year. Any such member
not in good standing because
of nonpayment of dues may
be reinstated upon payment
of dues for the preceding year.

SECTION 2: DUTIES OF OFFICERS

( 1 ) The president shall be the di¬
recting head of the Academy,
shall preside at business meet-

members shall constitute a quo¬
rum for the transaction of busi¬
ness by the Council. No votes by
proxy shall be cast at any meeting.

Section 2. The fiscal year of this organiza¬
tion shall be from January 1 to
December 31.

Section 3. The parliamentary procedure of
this organization shall be gov¬
erned by Robert’s Rules of Order,
Revised.

Section 4. This constitution may be changed
or amended at any meeting of the
Council by a two-thirds majority
of those present, subject to ap¬
proval of the annual Academy
Conference, provided due notice
of such proposed change has been
published in the Virginia Journal
of Science or furnished in writing
to the members prior to such an¬
nual meeting. The Council mem¬
bers shall be notified in writing
fifteen days prior to a Council
Meeting of all contemplated
changes to be proposed at the
meeting.

ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

ings and general sessions of
the organization, and shall ap¬
point the members of the
standing committees and of
new committees authorized by
the Council.

(2) The president-elect shall assist
the president as mutually
agreed between them, shall
serve as president in the latter’s
absence, and shall be respon¬
sible for the scientific program
of the annual meeting. He shall
furnish the Academy at its an¬
nual business meeting with a
list of committee memberships
which he has set up to assist
him during his year as presi¬
dent.

(3) The secretary shall be respon¬
sible for keeping a complete
record of each annual meeting
and of other meetings held
during the year by the Council
and the Executive Committee.

(4) The treasurer shall be respon¬
sible for the following:

(a) Keeping the membership
lists of the Academy in
up-to-date fashion.

152

The Virginia Journal of Science

(b) Upon request, supplying
the Secretary and the
Journal with the names of
all members in good stand¬
ing.

(c) Receiving and disbursing
all funds as directed by the
Council and approved by
the president or chairman
of the Finance Committee.

(d) Submitting at the annual
meeting a written report
of all receipts and dis¬
bursements. His annual re¬
port shall be accompanied
by an audit by a recog¬
nized public accountant.

(e) Furnishing quarterly fi¬
nancial summaries to the
officers, to members of the
Council, and to members
of the Finance Committee.

(f) Preparing annually a pro¬
posed budget for Academy
operation to be presented
to the Finance Committee
for review.

The treasurer shall be ade¬
quately bonded.

(5) Officers shall serve ex-officio
on all committees of the
Academy.

SECTION 3: REMUNERATION OF
ELECTED OFFICERS

The elected officers shall serve
without remuneration.

SECTION 4: OFFICIAL REPRESENTATION
OF THE ACADEMY

Where official representation of the
Academy is desirable the president or his designates
shall represent the Academy. No officer or other
Academy member shall receive reimbursement from
Academy funds for such purposes, except that act¬
ual expenses of the Academy representatives in at¬
tending the annual meeting of the American Associ¬
ation for the Advancement of Science may be paid,
subject to the funds provided in the budget by the
Finance Committee.

SECTION 5: THE VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF
SCIENCE

( 1 ) The Virginia Journal of Sci¬
ence shall be the official pub¬
lication of the Virginia Acad¬
emy of Science, and as such
shall carry approved articles

summarizing scientific re¬
search work, appropriate news
items, most announcements to
the membership concerning
Academy activities, and the
proceedings of the annual
meeting of the Academy.

(2) The Virginia Journal of Sci¬
ence staff shall be composed
of:

(a) An editor appointed for
a five-year term by Coun¬
cil after consideration of
recommendations by the
Publications Committee.
The editor shall serve as
chairman of the Editorial
Board.

(b) An Editorial Board ap¬
pointed for a three-year
term by the president
after consideration of rec¬
ommendations of the
Journal Editor and the
Publications Committee.

(c) Section editors, elected
for a five-year term by
and from each of the
Academy’s sections.

Other appointments to the Journal
staff may be made by Council after
consideration of recommendations
of the editor, the Editorial Board,
and the Publications Committee.

(3) All members shall receive the
Virginia Journal of Science.

SECTION 6: COMMITTEES

(1) The standing committees of
the Academy are: the Re¬
search Committee, the Long-
Range Planning Committee,
the Juniof Academy of Science
Committee, the Membership
Committee, the Finance and
Endowment Committee, the
Board of Trustees, the Publi¬
cations Committee, the Awards
Committee, the Fund-Raising
Committee, the Nominating
Committee and the Science
Talent Search Committee. Nor¬
mally, with the exception of the
Research Committee, about
one-third of the committee
members are appointed annu¬
ally by the president for a
three-year term.

News and Notes

153

(2) The Research Committee shall
be composed of five members,
each appointed for a term of
five years. One new member
shall be appointed each year
by the president to replace the
member whose term will ex¬
pire. The senior member of
the Committee shall serve as
chairman.

(3) The Council may establish
other committees as, and when,
needed.

SECTION 7: CHANGES IN THESE BYLAWS

These Bylaws may be changed or
amended at any meeting of the Council by two-
thirds majority of those present, subject to ap¬
proval of the annual Academy Conference pro¬
vided due notice of such proposed change has been
published in the Virginia Journal of Science or fur¬
nished in writing to the members prior to such
annual meeting. The Council members shall be noti¬
fied in writing fifteen days prior to a Council meet¬
ing of all contemplated changes to be proposed at
that meeting.

VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
OFFICERS, MEMBERS OF COUNCIL, COMMITTEES— 1968-69

ACADEMY OFFICERS
Executive Committee

P. B. Siegel ( President ). Poultry Dept., Virginia
Polytechnic Institute, Blacksburg, Virginia
24061

D. R. Carpenter (President-Elect), Physics Dept.,
Virginia Military Institute, Lexington, Virginia
24450

E. F. Turner (Secretary), Physics Dept., Washing¬
ton & Lee University, Lexington, Virginia
24450

M. B. Rowe (Treasurer), Dept. Agriculture & Im¬
migration, 203 N. Governor Street, Richmond,
Virginia 23219

R. C. Berry, Sr. (Executive Secretary-Treasurer),
P.O. Box 9211, Richmond, Virginia 23227

Council

Executive Committee — see above

Past Presidents

R. D. Hughes, Biology & Genetics Dept., Medi¬
cal College of Virginia, Richmond, Virginia
23219

S. B. Williams, Psychology Dept., College of
William & Mary, Williamsburg, Virginia
23185

J. W. Cole, Jr., Box 3697, University Station,
Charlottesville, Virginia

Ex-Officio (for addresses see particular com¬
mittee)

Chairmen of the following committees: Junior
Academy of Science, Long-Range Planning,
Membership, Nominating, Publications, Re¬
search, trustees, and editor of the Virginia
Journal of Science

Elected (for addresses see particular committee)

J. W. Midyette, Jr. (Agricultural Sciences),
A. D. Campbell (Astronomy, Mathematics &

Physics), M. A. Byrd (Biology), R. N. Gladd¬
ing (Chemistry), A. Jackson (Engineering)
W. T. Harnsberger (Geology), A. Catlin (Ma¬
terials Science), J. Borzelleca (Medical Sci¬
ences), P. A. Hansen (Microbiology), P. L.
Derks (Psychology), Vera Rernsburg (Sci¬
ence Teachers), J. P. Wightman (Space Sci¬
ence & Technology), B. Harshbarger (Statis¬
tics).

COMMITTEES
Awards Committee

J. W. Beams (Chairman), 1969, Box 1882, Uni¬
versity Station, University of Virginia, Charlottes¬
ville, Virginia 22903

L. D. Abbott, 1970, Biochemistry Dept., Medical
College of Virginia, Richmond, Virginia 23219
B. Harshbarger, 1971, Statistics Dept., Virginia
Polytechnic Institute, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061

Business Advisory Committee

R. M. Irby (Chairman), The American Tobacco
Co., P.O. Box 799, Hopewell, Virginia 23860
L. C. Bird, Phipps and Bird, Inc., 303 S. 6th St.,
Richmond, Virginia 23219

T. C. Boushall, Bank of Virginia, 8th & Main St.,
Richmond, Virginia 23219
W. P. Boyer, Mobil Chemical Co., 4th & Main St.,
Richmond, Virginia 23219
J. S. Reynolds, Reynolds Metals Co., 6601 W. Broad
St., Richmond, Virginia 23230

Finance and Endowment Committee

B. Harshbarger (Chairman), 1971, Statistics Dept.,
Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Blacksburg, Vir¬
ginia 24061

W. B. Bell, 1969, College of Agriculture, Virginia
Polytechnic Institute, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061
L. C. Bird, 1969, Phipps and Bird, Inc., 303 S. 6th
St., Richmond, Virginia 23219

F. F. Smith, 1970, Box 1395, Richmond, Virginia
23219

154

The Virginia Journal of Science

W. T. Thompson, III, 1970, P.O. Box 1575, Rich¬
mond, Virginia 23213

E. S. Harlow, 1971, Dept, of Research & Develop¬
ment, The American Tobacco Co., P.O. Box 799,
Hopewell, Virginia 23860

H. McKennis, 1971, Pharmacology Dept., Medical
College of Virginia, Richmond, Virginia 23219
E. Cox, 1972, Holly Hill, Aylett, Virginia 23009
W. S. Woolcott, 1972, Biology Dept., University of
Richmond, Richmond, Virginia 23173

Junior Academy of Science Committee

E. L. Wisman {Chairman), 1969, Virginia Poly¬
technic Institute, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061
T. Doggins, 1969, Harrisonburg High School, Har¬
risonburg, Virginia 22802

Margaret Dressier, 1969, William Byrd High School,
Vinton, Virginia 24179

Virginia Ellett, 1969, Richmond Public Schools,
Mathematics-Science Center, 4225 Old Brook
Rd., Richmond, Virginia 23227
Vera Remsburg, 1969, Herndon High School,
Herndon, Virginia 22070

W. Young, Jr., 1969, State Board of Education,
District Office, 1101 Court St., Lynchburg, Vir¬
ginia 24504

L. S. Anthony, 1970. Physics Dept., Roanoke Col¬
lege, Salem, Virginia 24153
C. Y. Kramer, 1970, Statistics Dept., Virginia Poly¬
technic Institute, Blacksburg, Virginia 24601

A. B. Niemeyer, Jr., 1970, 253 Constitution Ave.,
Portsmouth, Virginia 23704
Linda Phillips, 1970, Denbigh High School, Den¬
bigh, Virginia 23602

H. C. Terry, Jr., 1970, Armstrong High School,
1611 N. 31st. St., Richmopd, Virginia 23223
Martha Walsh, 1970, McLean High School, Mc¬
Lean, Virginia 22101

Mary Hayes, 1971, Warren County High School,
Front Royal, Virginia 22630
W. H. Leftwich, 1971, Psychology Dept., Univer¬
sity of Richmond, Richmond, Virginia 23173
A. Mandell, 1971, Biology Dept., Frederick Col¬
lege, Portsmouth, Virginia 23703
Rebecca Mohney, 1971, Lane High School, Char¬
lottesville, Virginia 22901

Katherine Turner, 1971, Liberty High School, Bed¬
ford, Virginia 24523

Local Arrangements Committee

Zoe Black ( Chairman ) 1969, 1316 Payne St., Fred¬
ericksburg, Virginia 22402

Long-Range Planning Committee

A. M. Clarke (Chairman), 1971, Biophysics Dept.,
Medical College of Virginia, Richmond, Virginia
23229

E. F. Turner, Jr., 1969, 23 Sellers Ave., Lexington,
Virginia 24450

A. E. Grigg, 1969, University of Richmond, Rich¬
mond, Virginia 23173

H. H. Hobbs, Jr., 1969, Rm. 301 U. S. National
Museum, Washington, D.C. 20560

E. C. Stevenson, 1969, Electrical Engineering Dept.,
University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia
22903

W. B. Wartman, 1969, 1020 Horsepen Rd., Rich¬
mond, Virginia 23229

C. S. Chadwick, 1970, Biology Dept., Emory and
Henry College, Emory, Virginia 24327
E. H. Hendricks, 1970, Box 3697, University Sta¬
tion, Charlottesville, Virginia 22903
G. W. Jeffers, 1970, Natural Sciences Dept., Long-
wood College, Farmville, Virginia 23901

O. R. Rodig, 1970, Chemistry Dept., University of
Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia 22903

W. W. Scott, 1970, Madison College, Harrisonburg,
Virginia 22801

M. A. Byrd, 1971, Biology Dept., College of Wil¬
liam & Mary, Williamsburg, Virginia 23185
L. C. Goldstein, 1971, Biology Dept., Virginia Com¬
monwealth University, Richmond, Virginia 23220
R. M. Irby, 1971, The American Tobacco Co.,
P.O. Box 799, Hopewell, Virginia 23860
J. J. Taylor, 1971, Physics Dept., University of
Richmond, Richmond, Virginia 23229

Membership Committee

R. D. Hughes (Chairman), 1959, Biology & Genet¬
ics Dept., Medical College of Virginia, Rich¬
mond, Virginia 23219

B. F. D. Runk, 1969, Box 3727, University Station,
University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia
22903

E. Thompson, 1969, Box 3697, University Station,
University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia
22903

Virginia Ellett, 1970, Richmond Public Schools,
Mathematics-Science Center, 4225 Old Brook
Rd., Richmond, Virginia 23227
R. L. Ellison, 1970, Geology Dept., University of
Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia 22903

R. C. Krug, 1970, George Mason College, 4400
University Drive, Fairfax, Virginia 22030

P. H. Leake, 1970, Dept, of Research & Develop¬
ment, The American Tobacco Co., P.O. Box 799,
Hopewell, Virginia 23860

S. S. Obenshain, 1970, Agronomy Dept., Virginia
Polytechnic Institute, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061

C. S. Sherwood, III, 1970, Chemistry Dept., Old
Dominion College, Norfolk, Virginia 23508

F. F. Smith, 1970, P.O. Box 1395, Richmond, Vir¬
ginia 2321 1

J. E. Duberg, 1971, NASA-LRC, Langley Station,
Hampton, Virginia MS 1 16 23365

D. W. Marvin, 1971, School of Natural Sciences,
Radford College. Radford, Virginia 24142

Jean E. Pugh, 1971, Christopher Newport College,
Newport News, Virginia 23606
B. R. Woodson, Jr., 1971, Biology Dept., Virginia
State College, Petersburg, Virginia 23806

Nominating Committee

R. D. Hughes (Chairman), 1969, Biology & Ge¬
netics Dept., Medical College of Virginia, Rich¬
mond, Virginia 23219

News and Notes

155

S. B. Williams, 1970, Psychology Dept., College of
William & Mary, Williamsburg, Virginia 23185

J. W. Cole, Jr., 1971, Box 3697, University Station,
University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia
22903

Place of Meeting Committee

The Executive Committee

Publications Committee

W. S. Flory (Chairman), 1971, Biology Dept., Box
7325, Wake Forest College, Reynolds Station,
Winston-Salem, North Carolina 27160

E. S. Harlow, 1969, Dept, of Research & Develop¬
ment, The American Tobacco Co., P.O. Box 799,
Hopewell, Virginia 23860

L. S. Reid, 1969, Psychology Dept., University of
Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia 22903

W. Weaver, 1969, 5910 Upham Drive, Richmond,
Virginia 23227

D. R. Carpenter, Jr., 1970, Physics Dept., Virginia
Military Institute, Lexington, Virginia 24450

R. D. Hughes, 1970, Biology & Genetics Dept.,
Medical College of Virginia, Richmond, Virginia
23219

E. V. Russell, 1970, Chemistry Dept., Virginia
Polytechnic Institute, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061

J. E. Davis, Jr., 1971, Biology Dept., Madison
College, Harrisonburg, Virginia 22801

S. B. Williams, 1971, Psychology Dept., College
of William & Mary, Williamsburg, Virginia 23185

Research Committee

H. H. Hobbs (Chairman), 1969, Rm. 301, U. S.
National Museum, Washington, D. C. 20560

W. M. Hinton, 1970, Psychology Dept., Washing¬
ton & Lee University, Lexington, Virginia 24450

W. D. Whitehead, 1971, Center for Advanced
Studies, University of Virginia, Charlottesville,
Virginia 22903

N. F. Murphy, 1972, Chemical Engineering Dept.,
Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Blacksburg, Vir¬
ginia 24061

F. F. Flint, 1973, Biology Dept., Randolph-Macon
Woman’s College, Lynchburg, Virginia 24505

Resolutions Committee

C. S. Sherwood III (Chairman), 1969, Chemistry
Dept., Old Dominion College, Norfolk, Virginia
23508

Mary E. Kapp, 1969, Virginia Commonwealth Uni¬
versity, Richmond, Virginia 23220

G. W. Jeffers, 1969, Natural Sciences Dept., Long-
wood College, Farmville, Virginia 23901

Science Talent Search Committee

E. V. Russell (Chairman), 1969, Chemistry Dept.,
Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Blacksburg, Vir¬
ginia 24061

J. C. Holmes, 1969, 215 Campbell St., Harrison¬
burg, Virginia 22802

Leslie Watkins, 1970, Glenvar High School, Salem,
Virginia 24153

E. C. Stevenson, 1970, Electrical Engineering Dept.,
University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia
22903

C. W. Bondurant, 1971, Chemistry Dept., Roanoke
College, Salem, Virginia 24153

H. Y. Loh, 1972, Physics Dept., Virginia Poly¬
technic Institute, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061

R. H. Dunn, 1972, Biology Dept., Virginia State
College, Petersburg, Virginia 23806

Trustees

E. S. Harlow (Chairman), 1969, Dept, of Research
& Development, The American Tobacco Co.,
P. O. Box 799, Hopewell, Virginia 23860

L. C. Bird, 1969, Phipps & Bird, Inc., 303 S. 6th
St., Richmond, Virginia 23219

W. P. Boyer, 1969, Mobil Chemical Co., 4th &
Main St., Richmond, Virginia 23219

Virginia Flora Committee

A. M. Harville, Jr. (Chairman), 1971, Biology
Dept., Longwood College, Farmville, Virginia
23901

Gwynn Ramsey, 1969, Biology Dept., Lynchburg
College, Lynchburg, Virginia 24503

L. Morrow, 1969, R.F.D. #1, Box 482, Sandston,
Virginia 23150

Vera Remsburg, 1970, Herndon High School, Hern¬
don, Virginia 22070

N. L. Bodkin, 1971, Biology Dept., Madison Col¬
lege, Harrisonburg, Virginia 22802

G. Hall, 1971, Biology Dept., College of William
& Mary, Williamsburg, Virginia 23185

R. Mitchell, 1971, Biology Dept., Virginia Poly¬
technic Institute, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061

Virginia Journal of Science

H. McKennis, Jr. (Editor), Pharmacology Dept.,
Medical College of Virginia, Richmond, Virginia
23219

SECTION OFFICERS

Agricultural Sciences

A. T. Hart, Jr. (Chairman), 1112 State Office
Bldg., Richmond, Virginia 23219

R. N. Hofmaster (Vice-Chairman), Eastern Shore
Branch, Truck Station, Route 1, Painter, Vir¬
ginia 23420

M. L. Bobb (Secretary), Piedmont Research Lab.,
Charlottesville, Virginia 22901

B. L. Samuel (Editor), 1 101 State Office Bldg.,
Richmond, Virginia 23219

J. W. Midyette, Jr. (Councilor), Department of
Agriculture and Immigration, 203 N. Governor
St., Richmond, Virginia 23219

Astronomy, Mathematics & Physics

E. F. Turner, Jr. (Chairman), Physics Dept., Wash¬
ington & Lee University, Lexington, Virginia
24450

E. P. Clay, Jr. (Secretary), Old Dominion College,
Norfolk, Virginia 23508

156

The Virginia Journal of Science

J. W. Stewart (Editor), Physics Dept., McCormick
Rd., Charlottesville, Virginia 22903

A. D. Campbell (Councilor), 8520 Julian Rd., Rich¬
mond, Virginia 23229

Biology

G. R. Brooks, Jr. (Chairman), Biology Dept., Col¬
lege of William & Mary, Williamsburg, Virginia
23185

J. C. Townsel (Vice-Chairman), Biology Dept., Vir¬
ginia State College. Petersburg, Virginia 23806

F. B. Leftwich (Secretary), 7509 Donder Rd., Rich¬
mond, Virginia 23229

Dorothy L. Crandall (Editor), Biology Dept., Ran-
dolph-Macon Woman’s College, Lynchburg, Vir¬
ginia 24505

M. A. Byrd (Councilor), Biology Dept., College of
William & Mary, Williamsburg, Virginia 23185

Chemistry

J. H. Wise (Chairman), Chemistry Dept., Washing¬
ton & Lee University, Lexington, Virginia 24450

R. T. Kemp (Secretary), 2339 Stafford Ct., Rich¬
mond, Virginia 23225

R. G. Bass (Editor), Chemistry Dept., Virginia Com¬
monwealth University, Richmond, Virginia 23220

R. N. Gladding (Councilor), The American Tobacco
Co., P.O. Box 799, Hopewell, Virginia 23860

Materials Science

J. L. Lytton (Chairman), Metals and Ceramic En¬
gineering Dept., Virginia Polytechnic Institute,
Blacksburg, Virginia 24061

F. A. Muller (Vice-Chairman), Materials Science
Department, University of Virginia, Charlottes¬
ville, Virginia 22903

L. H. Slack (Secretary), Virginia Polytechnic Insti¬
tute, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061

L. B. Johnson (Editor), Route 3, Charlottesville,
Virginia 22901

A. Catlin (Councilor), Materials Science Dept., Uni¬
versity of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia 22903

Space Sciences & Technology

J. P. Wightman (Chairman and Councilor), Chem¬
istry Dept., Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Blacks¬
burg, Virginia 24061

J. K. Haviland ( Secretary ), Virginia Associated Re¬
search Center, Box 2086, Newport News, Vir¬
ginia 23602

R. N. Zapata (Editor), Aerospace Engineering Dept.,
University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia
22903

Engineering

R. D. Walker (Chairman), Civil Engineering Dept.,
Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Blacksburg, Vir¬
ginia 24061

G. L. Goglia (Vice-Chairman), School of Engineer¬
ing, Old Dominion College, Norfolk, Virginia
23508

R. D. Krebs (Secretary), Civil Engineering Dept.,
Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Blacksburg, Vir¬
ginia 24061

F. C. McCormick (Editor), Thornton Hall, Uni¬
versity Station, Charlottesville, Virginia 22903

A. Jackson (Councilor), Robertshaw-Fulton Con¬
trols Co., 1701 Byrd Ave., Richmond, Virginia
23226

Geology

B. Hobbs (Chairman), 111 Cargill Lane, Charlottes¬
ville, Virginia 22901

G. Johnson (Vice-Chairman), 3510 Marshall St.,
Apt. K, Richmond, Virginia 23223

S. O. Bird (Secretary), Box 2241, Mary Washing¬
ton College, Fredericksburg, Virginia 22402

E. H. Ern (Editor), Geology Dept., University of
Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia 22903

W. T. Harnsberger (Councilor), Madison College,
Harrisonburg, Virginia 22801

Medical Sciences

E. S. Kline (Chairman), Biochemistry Dept. Med¬
ical College of Virginia, MCV Station, Richmond,
Virginia 23219

C. E. Hamner (Secretary), P. O. Box 261, Univer¬
sity of Virginia School of Medicine, Charlottes¬
ville, Virginia 22901

E. S. Higgins (Editor), Biochemistry Dept., Medical
College of Virginia, MCV Station, Richmond,
Virginia 23219

J. Borzelleca (Councilor), Pharmacology Dept.,
Medical College of Virginia, MCV Station, Rich¬
mond, Virginia 23219

Psychology

G. W. Kent (Chairman), Bridgewater College,
Bridgewater, Virginia 22812

C. L. Fry (Secretary), Psychology Dept., University
of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia 22903

W. H. Leftwich (Editor), Box 38, University of
Richmond, Richmond, Virginia 23173

P. L. Derks (Councilor), Psychology Dept., College
of William & Mary, Williamsburg, Virginia 23185

Science Teachers

J. H. Kepchar (Chairman), 205 N. Shore Rd., Nor¬
folk, Virginia 23505

Mae Jennings (Vice-Chairman), Rt. 3, Hillsville,
Virginia 24343

Ruth O. Opp (Secretary), 8000 N. Park St., Dunn
Loring, Virginia 22027

T. W. Doggins (Editor), Harrisonburg High School,
Harrisonburg, Virginia 22801

Vera Remsburg (Councilor), Box 445, Herndon,
Virginia 22070

Statistics

I. J. Good (Chairman), Statistics Dept., Virginia
Polytechnic Institute, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061

R. Flora (Vice-Chairman), Box 923, MCV Station,
Richmond, Virginia 23219

R. H. Myers (Secretary), Statistics Dept., Virginia
Polytechnic Institute, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061

S. J. Kilpatrick (Editor), Box 923, MCV Station,
Richmond, Virginia 23219

News and Notes

157

B. Harshbarger (Councilor), Statistics Dept., Vir¬
ginia Polytechnic Institute, Blacksburg, Virginia
24061

Microbiology

N. G. McCormick (Chairman), Microbiology Dept.,
University of Virginia Medical School, Charlottes¬
ville, Virginia 22903

R. M. Gribbs (Vice-Chairman), Biology and Genet¬
ics Dept., MCV Station, Richmond, Virginia
23219

Ruth Snyder (Secretary), Microbiology Dept., Uni¬
versity of Virginia Medical School, Charlottes¬
ville, Virginia 22903

P. Arne Hansen (Councilor & Editor), Microbiology
Dept., University of Maryland, College Park,
Maryland 20742

158

The Virginia Journal of Science

VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL MEETING, ROANOKE

MAY 9-11, 1968

SUMMARY OF COUNCIL MEETINGS

Certificate of Incorporation

The certificate of incorporation dated 9 September
1927 limits the number of Councilors to 15. Steps
will be taken to update this to conform to the pres¬
ent Constitution.

Papers by Title Only

It was reaffirmed that individual sections may
have papers in the program to be read by title
only if the section so desires.

Section Officers Meeting

Included in the Friday afternoon program at the
annual meeting was a meeting of section chair¬
men and secretaries including the newly elected
ones. The question of restructuring (or renaming)
the four biological-science-related sections (Biology,
Microbiology, Medical Science, and Agricultural
Science) was discussed and will be pursued further.

Meeting Places and Dates

Future meeting places for 1970-73, are respec¬
tively: Richmond, Blacksburg, Lexington, and Wil¬
liamsburg. Serious and increasing difficulties with
adequate meeting rooms have prompted a study of
the scheduled times of the events during the an¬
nual meeting. It has also been concluded that campus
meetings may be a necessity after the early seven¬
ties.

Federal and State Taxes

After consultation with State officials it has been
determined that a change in the charter could not
exempt the Academy from State sales tax. Cor¬
respondence has been held with Federal officials
regarding Federal taxes on advertising income from
the Journal.

Dismal Swamp and History Manuscripts

Concerted efforts are being made to publish the
long-delayed Dismal Swamp manuscripts. The re¬
maining section of the Academy history is now
being reviewed and edited for Journal publication.

More Information to Membership

Several recent suggestions from Council have
prompted an effort to publish more general infor¬
mation to the membership. This includes such items
as the constitution, membership list and annual
committee reports.

Committees Disbanded

The ad hoc Committee on the Museum of Sci¬
ence was active in securing approval of the Legis¬

lature for a feasibility study. The Committee, at
its request, was disbanded with the thanks of the
Council for its work. The Science Education in
Virginia Committee was disbanded also.

Visiting Scientists Program

The administrative responsibilities of the pres¬
ident-elect will henceforth include the operation of
the Visiting Scientists Program. He will either per¬
sonally conduct it or secure a director. The 1967-68
program, conducted by Dr. I. D. Wilson, met with
excellent response from high schools and colleges.
The colleges furnished all travel expenses for their
faculty who participated.

Science Advisory Committee

The question of a Science Advisory Committee,
which originated in one of the sections about five
years ago, has been reopened. Council requested
a report at its next meeting from the president and
the president-elect.

Duties of Officers and Committees

Duties of Academy officers have been outlined
by a committee of past officers. Now under way
is a compilation of duties of the various committees.

D. Rae Carpenter, Jr., Secretary

REPORT OF MEMBERSHIP COMMITTEE

During the year, all members of the Member¬
ship Committee were contacted and Academy leaf¬
lets and material were sent to all members of the
committee. Letters of invitation were written to
all of the registrants at the 1967 annual meeting,
who had indicated they were nonmembers.

As of 7 May 1968, there were 1674 members
of all classes in good standing. This is the net figure,
as there were approximately 5 1 members dropped
1 January for nonpayment of dues, and 225 who
have not paid dues for 1968.

Fifty new members were processed at the 1968
annual meeting at Roanoke. There were 87 non¬
members of the Academy who registered at the
Roanoke meeting, both students and seniors, and
it is recommended that the incoming Membership
Committee invite these registrants to join the
Academy.

Foley F. Smith, Chairman

Proceedings, 1967-1968

159

REPORT OF THE

LONG-RANGE PLANNING COMMITTEE

Since no substantive report was made at the 1967
Academy Conference, this report covers the 1966-67
and 1967-68 period.

Early discussions revealed that the committee
felt it should be concerned with broad policy ques¬
tions which will affect the Academy over the next
several decades. This discussion of policy matters
indicated that the committee’s concern might be
represented by the following four categories:

1. How can the Academy best assist in the re¬
cruitment of students and teachers to the sci¬
entific profession?

2. In what way can the Academy assist with
the education of teachers, students and the public?

3. How can the Academy develop the moral
and economic support for carrying out the activities
listed above?

4. How should the Academy best organize to
accomplish the above tasks and to work harmon¬
iously and productively with the State and Federal
governments.

The following specific discussions and recom¬
mendations (some of which have already been
implemented) comprised the remainder of the com¬
mittee action for the period.

1. Discussed the relationship of the VAS to the
new junior college systems in Virginia.

2. Endorsed and strongly urged the Common¬
wealth to establish a science museum.

3. Supported the appointment of a committee
to study all aspects of the Academy’s financial needs
and possible sources of financial support.

4. Suggested the possible need for a permanent
executive officer and urged Council to appoint a
subcommittee to study the matter.

5. Established its own subcommittee with Dr.
Chadwick as chairman to study the National Acad¬
emy of Science for any suggestions which might
prove helpful to VAS.

6. Supported the efforts to continue the high
school Visiting Scientist Program.

7. Discussed the efforts being made to organize
high school science teachers.

8. Expressed the conviction that paper presenta¬
tion is a fundamental part of the annual meeting
and that severe restrictions to limit the number of
papers and allotted time for each paper should be
avoided. Urged that the senior and junior meetings
be kept in close proximity.

9. Recommended a more flexible basis for the
determination of the dates for the annual meetings.

10. Suggested that consideration be given to the
initiation of a new category of memberships, the
fellow, for distinguished members.

11. Discussed and made a matter for subsequent
exploration ways of liaison with the social sciences
and philosophy.

The retiring chairman would like to urge all
segments of the Academy to bring their suggestions
for the betterment of science in Virginia to the
Long-Range Planning Committee and to thank the

members of the Long-Range Planning Committee,
members of Council and the members of the
Academy for their invaluable assistance over the
last two years.

William M. Hinton, Chairman

REPORT OF THE TRUSTEES

The Trustees have received the investments of
the trust-fund account at First and Merchants Na¬
tional Bank and, as of March 14, 1968, the market
value of the investments held was $45,946. An¬
nual income is estimated at approximately $2,250.

A transfer of $1,000 to the treasurer, Virginia
Academy of Science, was effected as of April 15,
1968. This money was originally in the General
Fund and a portion has been allocated for the
purpose of the publication and the history of the
Academy in the Virginia Journal of Science. It was
made a part of the Trust Fund only because it was
felt that a considerable time might pass before it
was needed. The sale of 7.5 shares of Pennzoil
United (equivalent to about 15 shares of United
Gas) 4% Convertible Preferred was recommended
by the bank and approved by the Trustees for this
purpose.

The investments are reviewed by the Trustees
after each quarterly report.

Edward S. Harlow, Chairman

REPORT OF THE
VISITING SCIENTISTS PROGRAM

The Visiting Scientists Program got off to a late
start (November), which undoubtedly was a handi¬
cap. The presidents of 28 colleges and universities
were written a letter explaining that the financial
aid given by the National Science Foundation had
been phased out but that the Virginia Academy
of Science had budgeted $500 in an attempt to
continue the program. The presidents were asked,
if they approved, to submit a list of names of sci¬
entists who would be willing to give their services
free of charge to lecture in high schools within a
radius of 100 miles of the institution with which
they were connected. The presidents were also asked
if they could provide the necessary travel expenses
for the visiting scientists who would represent their
institution. Twenty-seven of the 28 presidents re¬
sponded affirmatively. One institution did not reply.
A list of 143 scientists volunteered their services,
and the presidents offered to pay their travel ex¬
penses.

At the same time a letter was written to the
Superintendent of Public Instruction asking his aid
in notifying the high schools of the offer of the
Virginia Academy of Science. The response was
prompt, and the division superintendents were noti-

160

The Virginia Journal of Science

fied. They, in turn, notified the high schools of
the plan offered by the Academy. Eighty high
schools requested one or more speakers. To date
letters have been received from 23 high schools;
all letters express great appreciation. It is known

that many high schools had speakers but neglected
to report to the Director. Probably most, if not all,
of the eighty high schools on the list had at least
one speaker.

I. D. Wilson, Director

REPORT OF THE FINANCE COMMITTEE

Actual

Estimated

Income 1967

Income for 1968

DEES:

Student

$ 2.00

64

$ 128

65

$ 130

Regular

5.00

1276

6380

1350

6750

Contributing

10.00

151

1510

155

1550

Sustaining

25.00

33

825

33

825

Sustaining

50.00

1

50

1

50

Sustaining

100.00

5

500

5

500

Sustaining

100.00

35

3450

40

4000

Business

1565

12843

1649

13805

Delinquent

21

110

20

100

1586

$12953

1669

13905

EXHIBITORS:

$ 75 (1967)

21

1575

21

EXHIBITORS:

125 (1968)

22

2625

REGISTRATION FEES:

Students

$1.00

87

87

90

90

Members

2.00

473

946

500

1000

Non-Members

3.00

78

234

75

225

VJAS, Students

1.00

485

727.50

490

735

1123

$ 1994.50

2050

GIFTS & GRANTS:

Jr. Academy
(1000-300-50-6000)

(a)

7350

(a)

7350

Dividends-Stock

105

105

Interest, Savings Acct. & Certif.

820.22

600

Vis. Science Program

(b)

5866.06

—

Va. Journal of Science

3210.99

4330

Va. Journal of Science Transfer

2175.13

—

Misc. Books Sold

20.30

—

Dr. Guy W. Horsley Fund

810

—

$36880.20

$30965

NOTES (a) Includes overhead $270. (b) Includes overhead $185.

1968 Budget

Estimated Income General Fund

Dues

$

13905

Exhibits

2625

Registration Fees

2050

Dividends and Interest

705

Overhead

270

$

19555

Proceedings, 1967-1968

161

EXPENSE BUDGET— 1968
VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
16 OCTOBER 1967

FROM NSF, GIFTS,

REG, FEES, VJS,

ADVS.

FROM

GEN.

FUND

APPROVED
BY FINANCE
COMMITTEE

AAAS Meetings

$ 325

$ 325

(dues, reg., fee, travel)

VAS Annual Meetings

950

950

(Honorarium Speaker (not exceeding)

300

300

Va. Journal of Science

(Including Proceedings and

Memb. list)

4330

6290

10620

Programs Ann. Meetings

600

600

Leaflet

575

575

Honorarium Exec. Sec’y*

1800

1800

Rent

600

600

Clerical and Office Exp.

750

750

Printing, Address Service

875

875

Stationery and Supplies

375

375

Postage

475

475

Telephone

225

225

Audit and Tax Service

625

625

Misc. Expenses

200

200

History of the Academy

150

150

Science Talent Search

900

900

VJAS (inch Jr. Proceedings and

Jr. Bulletin)

7630

2120

(b) 9800

ECL. Miller Award

50

50

Contingency Fund (President)

100

100

S. S. Taxes and Corp. Fees

90

90

Visiting Scientists Program

500

500

Science Teachers Award

100

100

Va. Jr. Acad, of Science

VJAS 5730

Overhead 270

$12010

$18975

12010

$30985

$30985

Reg. Fees 600

Gifts 1350

Recommended by Finance and Endowment Committee
16 October 1967

Gen. Fund 1850

$9800

Boyd Harshbarger, Chairman

Approved by Council

October 22, 1967

REPORT OF THE FLORA COMMITTEE

More than 6,000 collections of Virginia plants,
most of them in duplicate or triplicate, were made
by members of the committee this year and placed
in Virginia herbaria. Most of this material is from
critical areas and we are now close to achieving
the representation needed to start concrete work on
a Flora of Virginia, and we have started planning
toward this end.

Field Work. Dr. O. W. Gupton collected 1,900
specimens in Rockbridge County; Dr. G. W. Ram¬
sey and his students added more than 2,000 num¬
bers from the southern Piedmont; and the chairman
collected from than 2,000 sheets from various parts
of the State.

Publications. Four papers were published during
the year: two by Dr. G. W. Ramsey and his stu¬
dents, and two by the chairman.

Grants. Grants for field work include $200.00 from
the Research Committee of the Virginia Academy

of Science to Dr. G. W. Ramsey, and $250.00
from the Research Committee of Longwood Col¬
lege to the chairman.

Other Activities. Several papers were presented to
scientific meetings by Professor William Hooks,
Dr. G. W. Ramsey, and the chairman. Mrs. Vera
Remsburg worked with high school groups. Dr.
L. O. Morrow used most of his professional and
personal time performing the secretarial functions
for the Biology Section of the Academy.

All members of the committee participated in
the fall symposium held at Lynchburg College on
November 4.

The chairman and Dr. R. S. Freer, a former
member, represented the Flora Committefc at cere¬
monies honoring Professor A. B. Massey at the
Virginia Polytechnic Institute on February 2. Pro¬
fessor Massey was a founder of the Flora Commit¬
tee and was its chairman for many years.

A. M. Harvill, Jr., Chairman

162

The Virginia Journal of Science

REPORT OF THE

PLACE OF MEETING COMMITTEE

A proposed change in Bylaws, if approved as
expected today, will turn the functions over to the
Executive Committee, thus abolishing the commit¬
tee. As a result of Academy growth in numbers
and especially in sections and their need for meet¬
ing rooms, the Academy will in future have to meet
on campuses rather than in hotels.

Stanley B. Williams, Chairman

REPORT OF THE
PUBLICATIONS COMMITTEE

In addition to routine activities, the committee
has worked principally on three items during the
1967-68 year:

( 1 ) Working cooperatively with the editor of the
Journal an abstract form to be reproduced by
offset process has been devised which should
considerably simplify the editorial work, and
at the same time somewhat lessen printing
costs, in connection with the Proceedings issue
of the Journal;

(2) The first three chapters of the History of the
Virginia Academy of Science have been printed
in the January, 1968, Journal. The remaining
three chapters of the History have been pre¬
pared, but it is felt that these require quite
a bit in the way of reorganization, addition,
change and revision. The Journal editor has
indicated these last three chapters can appear
in the January, 1969, issue of the Journal,
if received by him by November 15 this year.
We are aiming at this objective;

(3) Renewed efforts have been directed toward
publication of the Dismal Swamp Study initi¬
ated by the Academy in 1952, but with no
success to report to date.

The Publications Committee feels that the mem¬
bership is well pleased with the format and style
changes found in the 1967 volume of the Journal.

Walter S. Flory, Chairman

REPORT OF THE RESEARCH COMMITTEE

As previously reported, the Research Committee
made seven grant awards in the amount of $1,918.65.
A detailed list of the awards and amounts was pre¬
sented in the report of the Research Committee
dated March 20, 1968.

Twenty-five papers were submitted in competi¬
tion for the J. Shelton Horsley Award. These papers
were submitted to the Board of Managers of the
Washington Academy of Science on April 1, 1968.
Dr. Alphonse Forziati, secretary to the Board of
Managers, is to be congratulated for the efficient

way in which the evaluation was conducted. He
submitted the papers to a panel of reviewers com¬
posed of representatives of the Washington Acad¬
emy of Science, the University of Michigan, the
M. D. Anderson Hospital in Houston, the Univer¬
sity of Texas and Harvard University, among others.
The papers were graded on the basis of 1-5, 1
being outstanding, 3 mediocre, and 5 low-level con¬
tribution. Two papers received the designation ‘out¬
standing’. The Research Committee met at the
Medical College of Virginia on Sunday morning,
May 5, to select the recipient of the award from
these two outstanding papers. The award was made
to Horton H. Hobbs, Jr., Perry C. Holt, and Mar¬
garet Walton for their paper, “The Crayfishes and
Their Epizootic Ostracod and Branchiobdellid As¬
sociates of the Mountain Lake, Virginia, Region”.
The committee recommended that three certificates
be prepared in order that each of the three authors
might receive an individual certificate. The com¬
mittee also recommended that the cash award be
divided equally among the three authors.

The outgoing chairman of the Research Com¬
mittee has recommended to Dr. Paul Siegel, pres¬
ident-elect, that in the future Horsley Award papers
be submitted by February 15 to the respective sec¬
tion secretaries. It was recommended that three
copies be submitted. These recommendations, if
followed, will allow more time for evaluation of
the papers by out-of-state groups such as the Wash¬
ington Academy of Science and the Sigma Xi
Chapter of Chapel Hill. This year the time was
so short that it was necessary to drive to Washing¬
ton to pick up the papers so that the winning paper
could be selected by the Research Committee on
Sunday, May 5. Furthermore, the short time al¬
lowed created an undue hardship on the Washington
Academy of Science. The Horsley Award certifi¬
cates cannot be presented at the annual meeting this
year because there was not enough time for their
preparation.

Although 25 papers were entered in the contest
this year, there is still room for improvement. The
retiring chairman recommends that the incoming
chairman seek ways and means of publicizing the
J. Shelton Horsley Award during the summer and
autumn months so that more Virginia scientists
will enter the contest.

William T. Ham, Chairman

REPORT OF THE VIRGINIA JUNIOR
ACADEMY OF SCIENCE COMMITTEE

With its twenty-seventh annual meeting now in
session the Virginia Junior Academy of Science is
completing another fine year. Its success is the re¬
sult of the efforts and support of many: the science
teachers, the VAS officers and membership, VJAS
student officers, various supporting industrial firms
but foremost, the VJAS Committee. Without a
strong, dedicated and cooperative committee, the

Proceedings, 1967-1968

163

now nationally recognized Virginia Junior Academy
program would not be possible.

The Junior Academy operated on a budget of
$10,000. Of this amount $6,000 came from an
NSF grant, $600 from registrations, $2,000 from
commercial gifts, and the remainder from Senior
Academy support.

A total of 117 Virginia high schools were affili¬
ated with VJAS this year. Approximately 50 per¬
cent of this number were represented by papers at
the annual meeting today. Of the 241 papers sub¬
mitted to the committee, 150 were selected to be
presented in concurrent sessions and to compete for
a total of $1,000 in cash prizes made possible by
the Philip Morris Company.

Indications thus far are that the quality of the
papers is better than of those last year. The ten
categories are chemistry, engineering, mathematics,
physics, space and earth sciences, behavioral sci¬
ence and the four biology categories, molecular,
developmental, organismic and population. The
latter five represent new revisions being used this
year for life-science papers. The first-place winning
paper in each category again will be presented to¬
morrow before the appropriate senior sections.

Among the many awards given at the annual
meeting in recognition of excellence, two new ones
will be initiated this year. One will be the VJAS
Distinguished Service Award and the other the
Rodney C. Berry Chemistry Award.

The Annual VJAS Lecture this year was pre¬
sented by Dr. Jeanette Piccard, a pioneer in early
space explorations and now a consultant to NASA.
This was perhaps the most outstanding lecturer
ever to appear before the Junior Academy, and
appreciation is extended to Mr. Franklin Kizer,
State Supervisor of Science, for making her visit
possible.

It is worthy of note that this year marks the
first time the junior program was printed jointly
with the senior program. Our thanks go to President¬
elect Siegel and Executive Secretary Berry of the
Senior Academy for their assistance in making this
possible.

The VJAS publications again consisted of the
Junior Proceedings, which contained papers and
abstracts of winning students at the 1967 meeting,
and of two issues of the Junior Science Bulletin.
Our appreciation for these fine publications go to
Proceedings Editor Martha Walsh and VJAS Pres¬
ident Bill Levy who edited the Bulletin.

The VJAS was again represented by its two top
students at the American Junior Academy of Sci¬
ence annual meeting held each year in conjunc¬
tion with the AAAS meeting. Fred Armentrout of
Waynesboro and Elwyn Loh of Blacksburg both
presented outstanding papers. Only in that recogni¬
tion is brought to the Virginia Academy does your
Chairman announce that he will be serving this
year, for the third consecutive time, as chairman
of the American Junior Academy.

The Committee wishes to express its appreciation
to the Local Arrangements Committee, working

under rather adverse conditions, for providing the
many accommodations that are necessary for a
successful meeting.

E. L. Wisman, Chairman

REPORT OF THE

HISTORY OF SCIENCE COMMITTEE

As originally constituted the History of Science
Committee was entrusted with two tasks: first, the
compilation of a history of the academy movement
in Virginia and, second, the recording of significant
contributions made by Virginians to scientific prog¬
ress through the centuries.

With the near-completion of the first of these
assignments there was set up what might be called
a standby committee whose function would be to
see to it that the second phase of the twin-pronged
original attack would not be overlooked.

The present report, therefore, is merely a re¬
minder that the ‘vastly larger task’ is still to be
done, and to request the Council and/or the Long-
Range Planning Committee to give some thought
to the matter: whether the project should be under¬
taken, and, if so, when; and to give more than cur¬
sory attention to the persons who might be induced
to carry the project to a successful conclusion.

G. W. Jeffers, Chairman

REPORT OF THE SCIENCE
TALENT SEARCH COMMITTEE

The 1967-68 Annual Science Talent Search was
possibly the most successful to date. This year
marks the 27th year of the Virginia Science Talent
Search. Nationwide there were 2,323 entries from
a total of 983 participating high schools. From this
list 300 were selected as honor awardees and then
40 were chosen as winners and invited to Wash¬
ington, D. C.

The State of Virginia had 87 entries in the na¬
tional competition, 15 made the National Honors
Group, and 2 were selected as National Winners.
Only four states, California, Illinois, New York,
and Pennsylvania, had a larger number of students
in the Honors Group than did Virginia.

The 87 Virginia entries were automatically en¬
tered in the Virginia Science Talent Search as spon¬
sored by the Virginia Academy of Science. Forty-one
of these were invited to the annual meeting of the
Academy. Sixty percent of these 87 students have
expressed their intention of attending Virginia col¬
leges or universities. Thirty-nine of the 41 students
accepted the invitation to the annual Academy of
Science meeting. By personal interviews the 15
top students were selected and designated as winners
in the 1967-68 Virginia Science Talent Search.

Edgar V. Russell, Jr., Director

164

The Virginia Journal of Science

Abstracts of Papers

Section of Agricultural Science

Forty-sixth Annual Meeting of The Virginia Academy of Science
May 8-10, 1968, Roanoke, Virginia

SOME EFFECTS OF pH ON THE GROWTH OF PHYSAL0SP0RA OBTUSA IN
VITRO. J. J. Albert* and C. R. Drake. Department of Plant
Pathology and Physiology, Virginia Polytechnic Institute,
Blacksburg, Virginia.

The effect of pH on the growth of Physalospora ob tusa was
compared at 0.5 pH intervals from 2.5 to 9.5 in a synthetic
liquid medium containing sucrose as the carbon source and
ammonium nitrate as the nitrogen source. Three temperatures
of 22, 25, and 28 C were utilized. Relative growth was de¬
termined from the dry weights of mycelium produced in the
media adjusted to the different pH values. The cultures
were harvested after incubation periods of 8, 16, and 24
days, respectively. Eight days after the test began, all pH
values were lower than their initial values and remained
lower. Autolysis was evident after 16 days of incubation.
Peak growth within an individual pH value was obtained when
the pH of the medium dropped to its lowest point, usually
after 16 days of incubation. The optimum pH for dry weight
production was obtained at an initial pH value of 9.0, ex¬
cellent to good growth at 7.0 to 8.5 and at 9.5, fair growth
at 3.5 to 6.5, the least growth at 3.0 and no growth at 2.5.
Differences in growth at different pH values were signifi¬
cant .

IMPROVED PROCEDURES FOR MEAT SANITATION. R. J. Bothast*.

H. W. Ockerman*, and V. R. Cahill*. The Ohio State Univ.,
Columbus, Ohio 43210 and Ohio Agr. Res. and Development
Ctr., Wooster, Ohio 44691.

A procedure is described for securing and maintaining
rabbit carcasses at a low bacterial level during storage.
The procedure consists of conventional slaughtering and
dressing, a 90-second dip in 90°C. water, packaging in a
sterile container in a sterile environment followed by
storage at 3°C. The dip procedure reduced the surface
psychrophilic bacterial load and combined with refrigerated
storage it almost eliminated total growth. Oxidation was
increased by this procedure primarily due to lingering per¬
acetic acid used in equipment sterilization. Only slight
visual and odor deteriorations were observed in the rabbit
carcass after 35 days of storage.

OBSERVATIONS ON THE GRAPE ROOT BORER, VITACEA
POLISTIFORMIS (HARRIS), IN VIRGINIA. Marvin L. Bobb.

Va. Polytechnic Inst. Res. Div., Piedmont Res. Lab.,
Charlottesville, Va.

The grape root borer has been a pest of grapes in the
Eastern U. S. for more than a hundred years, but until recently
has seldom been recorded as an economic pest. During the past
several years, however, it has become a serious pest of vine¬
yards in Ark . and Mo . , and entire vineyards have been aban¬
doned because of injury to vines caused by the root borer.

In May 1957 the species was reported injuring the roots of
grape vines in Carroll Co., Va.; and in 1966 a serious infesta¬
tion of the borer was reported in vineyards in Botetourt Co.

The roots of vines dug during the winter of 1966-67 were
heavily infested with larvae, varying in size from very small to
approximately l| inches in length. This variation in size
indicated that the insect had a two-year life cycle. During 1967,
emergence of adults began in early July and continued into early
August, peak emergence occurring in mid-July. The summer
was extremely dry and this undoubtedly affected the period of
emergence and the total numbers emerging. The infestation
potential is relatively high since female moths usually contained
from 400 to 600 eggs.

EFFECT OF PHENYLKETONURIA 'ND LEVEL OF PROTEIN INTAKE ON
THE RATIO OF HYDR0XYPR0LINE TO CREATININE IN THE URINE OF
CHILDREN. Nenita B. Cabacungan, R. P. Abernathy and S. J.
Ritchey, Dept, of Human Nutrition & Foods, V.P.I.,
Blacksburg, Va. 24061

The ratio of hydroxyproline (Hp) to creatinine (Cr)
is reduced in slow-growing malnourished children. In order
to gain information on the value of this ratio as an index
of nutritional status we measured molar Hp:Cr ratios in
urines of 7-to- 9-year-old children, two boys with phenyl¬
ketonuria and 15 healthy girls who participated in a
metabolic study. The diets of the PKU patients were
restricted in phenylalanine content. The healthy children
were fed 36.5 g of protein daily for six days then 25 or
45 g of protein daily for 30 days.

The Hp:Cr ratios in the urine from the PKU patients
averaged less than the ratios from the healthy girls but
the range of values overlapping slightly (0.09 to 0.10 vs.
0.10 to 0.20). Hp:Cr ratios in the urine excreted by the
healthy children decreased significantly during the six-
day adjustment period. Although there was no other signi¬
ficant change in Hp:Cr ratio, there was a tendency for the
girls retaining the most nitrogen and gaining the most
weight to have the highest Hp:Cr ratios. At the end of
the study Hp:Cr ratios from subjects fed 25 and 45 g of
protein per day were 0.11 and 0.13, respectively.

Proceedings, 1967-1968

165

RESPONSE OF HOUSE FLIES TO RECORDED SELF-SOUND. D. H. Crab-
tree*, and G. A. Kranzler*. Agric. Engr . Dept., Va. Poly¬
technic Inst., Blacksburg, Va.

The flight-sound of the house fly (Musca domestica) was
tape recorded and employed as an acoustical stimulus to
study possible mating attraction and gregarious effects
based on self-generated sound. Techniques were developed
for recording the sound produced by individual specimens in
flight and for evaluating behavioral response of test in¬
sects. Spectrographic analysis of the recorded flight-
sounds showed wingbeat frequencies of 150 to 200 Hz with no
discernible variation between sexes. Results of the
investigation produced no evidence of acoustically-
influenced mating or gregarious behavior.

INCREASED SP0R0GENESIS OF GLCMERELLA CINGUIATA BY LEGUME

SEEDS AND SEEDLINGS. W. F. Crosier and F. B. film Div
of Tech. Services, Dept, of Agr. and Commerce, Richmond, Va.

More and larger asexual spores were produced on a medium
containing seedlings, their water soluble extracts or seeds
of legumes than on Bell, Czapek, PDA or Sabouraud medium.

The legumes, garden beans, lima beans, peanuts and soybeans,
excelled the cucurbits, squash and watermelon, in promoting
sporogenesis. The magnitude of increase over PDA medium
alone was 5- to 20-fold for extracts, 10- to 50-fold for
seedlings but 100-fold for the seeds of garden and lima
beans. Increases in spore production were 38-fold for un¬
filtered bean seedlings, 31-fold for the solid residues of
filtered autoclaved seedlings and 12-fold for the filtrates.

Isolates of G. cinmulata which snorul ated sparsely nn pnA
or Czapek medium sporulated profusely when transferred to
legume seedlings. The increased sporulative activity con¬
tinued when the isolates were transferred to the original
as well as to Bell and Sabouraud media.

The 7.8 to 9.0 pH reactions of the legume-supplemented
media as contrasted to the 5.6 to 6.0 pH reactions of the
standard media did not influence the production of conidia
(asexual spores). Conidia were produced on every medium
in the pH range of 3.5 through 9.5.

The addition of micronutrient elements to PDA medium did
not increase sporogenesis. Neither diffused daylight, white
fluorescent light nor far UV light affected sporulation
significantly regardless of the culture medium.

HETEROSIS FROM CROSSING THREE BRITISH BREEDS OF BEEF CATTLE.

J. A. Gaines, W. H. McClure, R. C. Carter, Div. of Res., Va.
Polytechnic Inst., Blacksburg, Va.

In the first phase five years' records (572 matings) were
analyzed to test for heterosis in the calf resulting from
all two-breed, three-breed, and backcrosses of the Angus,
Hereford, and Shorthorn breeds. Most important was a 10%
advantage in calves weaned from crossbred matings, indicat¬
ing heterosis for fertility and livability. There was evi¬
dence of heterosis for all measurements of growth from
birth to carcass. Efficiency and quality differences were
small. Maternal environment differed in some breed combina¬
tions for several measurements. Phase two, now in progress,
is to test for heterosis in the cow by comparing purebred
and crossbred cows. Five calf crops have been weaned (587
matings); the fifth crop is now on full feed. Tentative
phase two conclusions are: (1) no difference between pure¬
bred and crossbred dams in percent calves weaned (when
calves are crossbred), (2) weaning weights of steer calves
were 13 lbs. and those of heifer calves were 23 lbs. in
favor of crossbred dams, (3) steers from crossbred dams
weighed 37 lbs. more at slaughter and had 21 lbs. heavier
carcasses than steers from purebred dams, (4) heifers from
crossbred dams weighed 20 lbs. more at slaughter and aver¬
aged 13 lbs. more carcass than heifers from purebred dams.

THE EFFECTS OF NITROGEN AND CALORIC INTAKES ON NITROGEN
UTILIZATION BY ADULT RATS. Percilla C. Koons and S. J.

Ritchey. Dept, of Human Nutrition and Foods, V.P.I.,
Blacksburg, Va.

Nitrogen utilization was studied in adult rats given
variable amounts of dietary nitrogen and energy. Three
levels of energy, ad libitum, 75 percent of the ad libitum
groups, and 50 percent of the ad libitum groups, and
three levels of nitrogen at each energy level were utili¬
zed. Both nitrogen and caloric intakes affected weight
changes, nitrogen retention and the amounts of fat and
moisture in the carcass. As intakes of energy and nitrogen
were reduced, losses in weight and the amount of nitrogen
excreted increased. The relationships between energy and
protein were demonstrated as animals given similar amounts
of nitrogen were able to utilize nitrogen more efficiently
as the caloric intakes increased. The amounts of fat and
moisture in the carcasses varied with the amount of
dietary energy. Nitrogen utilization did not improve as
the study progressed and indicated that adaptation to the
altered intakes of nitrogen and energy had not occurred.

THE REPLACEMENT VALUE OF PEANUT MEAL IN CORN-SOYBEAN MEAL
RATIONS FOR GROWING PIGS. E. T. Kornegay. T. N. Meacham.
and H. R. Thomas. Dept, of Animal Science, Va. Poly. Inst..
Blacksburg, Va.

One hundred and eight crossbred pigs with an average wt.
of 65 lb. were used in a six week trial to determine the
amount of soybean meal protein that may be replaced with
peanut meal protein in a corn-soybean meal diet. Six
treatments, zero, 15, 30, 45, 60 and 1007o of crude protein
from soybean meal replaced by peanut meal, were self-fed
in pens of six animals each. Gain, feed intake and feed
efficiency were unchanged when 15 and 30% of the soybean
meal protein was replaced by peanut meal protein. The
substitution of 45, 60 and 100% of the soybean meal protein
by peanut meal protein resulted in depressed gain, feed
intake and feed efficiency. The greatest depression
occurred with the 100% replacement. When the price of
peanut meal is competitive, as much as 30% of the soybean
meal protein in a corn-soybean meal diet may be replaced
with peanut meal protein without reducing feed intake and
rate and efficiency of gain of growing pigs.

MECHANORECEPTION IN THE ANTENNA OF THE TOBACCO HORNWORM

MOTH. G. A. Kranzler*, J. S. Vande Berg*, J. M. Stanley*.

U. F. Earp. Agric. Engr. and Ent. Depts., Va. Polytechnic
Inst., Blacksburg, Va.

Mechanoreceptor properties of the antenna of the tobacco
hornworm moth (Manduca sexta) were studied by electro-
physiological means. Apparatus and procedures were devel¬
oped for administering the following mechanical stimuli:
pulsed pure tones, audio clicks, angular deflection, axial
elongation, and displacement of hair sensilla. Recordings
were made primarily from the antennal nerve, with probes
also being made in the Johnston's organ and the cervical
connectives. Stimulus-related action potentials were
obtained in response to each method of antennal stimulation,
with the exception of the acoustical tones and clicks.

The Virginia Journal of Science

166

ANDROGEN STUDIES IN LINES OF CHICKENS SELECTED FOR MATING
BEHAVIOR. R. E. McCollom, P. B. Siegel, and H. P. Van Krey .
Dept, of Poultry Science, Va. Polytechnic Inst., Blacksburg,

Va.

There have been nine generations of bidirectional selec¬
tion for mating ability from a base population of Athens-
Canadian Randombred Controls. The mean cumulative number
of completed matings (CNCM) for the base population was

7.14. Differences between selected lines have reached 9.86
CNCM in the Fg generation. The effects of testosterone
propionate (TP) on the mating behavior of capons and intact
males were measured in the F7 generation. Sexual activity
was greater in the high line than the low line with the
unselected controls being intermediate. No sexual behavior
was observed in the non-injected capons whereas TP caused
capons to exhibit such behavior, demonstrating a need for
testicular hormones rather than testicular tissue per se .

TP injections did not increase the mating behavior of in¬
tact males and the relationship among the lines remained the
same suggesting that the endogeneous levels of androgens
were above the threshold level for eliciting sexual be¬
havior in all lines .

IRRADIATION OF AVIAN OVARIES WITH 137 CESIUM AND SUBSEQUENT
TRANSPLANTATION OF DONOR OVARIAN TISSUE. C. A. Owens.

H. P. Van Krey, and P. B. Siegel. Poultry Sci. Dept.,

Va. Polytechnic Inst., Blacksburg, Va.

Due to the diffuse nature of the avian ovary, complete
removal surgically is difficult, and regeneration of
residual gonadal tissue is a problem. Ovarian sac-
infundibular relationships are also prone to disturbances
during surgical manipulations which could affect adversely
engulfment of subsequent ova from ovarian grafts. To
alleviate these difficulties it was proposed that avian
ovaries might more successfully be destroyed by irradiation.,

Accordingly, chickens 4-12 days of age were exposed
to 137 Cesium irradiation. The gamma rays were directed
to the gonadal region with doses ranging from 700 to

1900 roentgens (r) . Partial ovarian destruction was
detected at the higher dose levels (1000-1900r) but not at
the lower dose levels. Orthotopic ovarian transplants
received by the irradiated birds did not become
functional .

A SURVEY OF THE USE OF AUDIO-TUTORIAL METHODS IN TEACHING

SOIL AND CROP SCIENCE. John D. Pendleton, Dept, of Agronomy
and Robert H. Giles, Dept, of Forestry and Wildlife,

Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Blacksburg, Va.

The Audio-Tutorial teaching technique is being adapted
to the Laboratory of the Introductory Soils Course at

V.P.I. It is being considered by many other departments for
various courses. To do a more effective job in developing
the presentation of these courses a survey was made of
similar work at Iowa State, Michigan State, Purdue, and
Tennessee Universities. A summary of pertinent points of
the survey and a preliminary evaluation of the technique
is given. The Audio-Tutorial system of teaching and learn¬
ing is both illustrated and partially explained by names
of courses such as "Structured Learning and Training
Environments in Soil Science" (Michigan State University)
and "Independent Study in Plant Science" (University of
Tennessee) .

INCUBATION ENVIRONMENT AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF MALLARD

EMBRYOS. H. H. Prince, P. B. Siegel, and G. W. Cornwell,

Va. Polytechnic Inst., Blacksburg, Va.

At 6, 12, and 18 days of incubation an evaluation was
made of embryonic development as influenced by temperature
and humidity. There was a linear increase in wet weight
between 35 .6 and 39 .4°C . The increase was curvilinear for
length of beak, wing, and 3rd digit. A humidity range from

35 to 85% had less effect on development than temperature.

The relationship between humidity and weight was linear at

6 days incubation with largest embryos at the lower
humidities. Embryos at 35% humidity were also largest at

12 days of incubation but there was no difference between
groups maintained at 60 and 85%. At 18 days there were no
differences in weight among humidities. The beak, wing,
and 3rd digit were longest in the 35% humidity group at 12
and 18 days with two exceptions . At 18 days the wing was
shortest in the 60% group and there were no difference
between beak lengths . Although the nonlethal temperature
range is narrow the linear relation of weight to tempera¬
ture suggests that development may also be expressed in
terms of calories. The greatest effects of humidity on
growth were in the early part of the incubation period .
(Experiments were conducted at the Delta Waterfowl Res .

Sta., Delta, Manitoba, Canada and supported in part by the
North Amer. Wildlife Found, and Wildlife Mgt. Inst.)

MAIZE DWARF MOSAIC IN VIRGINIA. C. W. Roane. Sue A. Tolin.
and C. F. Genter. Dept, of Plant Pathology and Physiology
and Dept, of Agronomy, Va. Polytechnic Inst., Blacksburg,

Va.

Maize dwarf mosaic (MDM) was first observed in Fluvanna
County in 1963; it is now known to occur in 45 Virginia
counties. The disease is caused by a virus and is charac¬
terized by mottling, stunting, late season reddening, pre¬
mature death, lodging, and production of sterile ears. Corn
and cultivated Sorghum spp. are the primary economic hosts.
Association of these crops with Johnsongrass (S. halepense)
is prerequisite to local epiphytotics of MDM. The virus is
transmitted by aphids and infects grasses in the genera

Bromus, Digitaria, Echinochloa, Eleusine, Eragrostis,
Miscanthus, Muhlenbergia , Panicum, Paspalum, Pennisetum,
Phragmites, Setaria, Sorghum, Spartina, Sporobolus, Trip-
sacum, Triodia, and Zea all of which occur in Virginia. Of
the wild species, only Sorghum halepense is important in the
epidemiology of MDM.

The virus overwinters in the rhizomes of Johnsongrass.
Emerging, infected sprouts are mottled and soon colonized
by Rhopalosiphum maidis, the corn leaf aphid. Alatae trans-
mit the virus to corn and other grasses nearby.

MDM can be controlled by growing resistant corn hybrids
and by preventing infestation of corn producing areas with
Johnsongrass .

SYSTEMIC INSECTICIDES IN REDUCTION OF PEANUT STUNT VIRUS
THROUGH VECTOR CONTROL. J. C. Smith and T. W. Culp.

Asst. Prof, of Entomology, Va . Polytechnic Inst. Res. Div .
Tidewater Res. Station, Holland, Va., and Research

Agronomist, Crops Res. Div. Agricultural Res. Service,

USDA, formerly Tidewater Res. Station, Holland, now Pee

Dee Experiment Station, Florence, S. C.

Granular insecticides, TemikR (2-methyl-2 (methylthio)
proprionaldehyde 0-methylcarbamoyl) oxime), Furadan^ (2,3-
dihydro-2 ,2-dimethyl-7-benzofurany 1 me thy lcarbama te) ,
phorate, and disulfoton, placed in the furrow at planting
reduced the incidence of the cowpea aphid. Aphis cracci-
vora Koch, on peanuts. Reproduction of aphids on plants
in untreated plots was approximately 3 to 4 times that on
plants in treated plots. The disulfoton treatment was
slightly superior to the other systemic insecticides in
preventing reproduction. Development of peanut stunt
virus (PSV) infection was less in all treated than in
untreated plots, and peanut yields were slightly higher
on most treated plots.

Proceedings, 1967-1968

167

SWINE FEEDING METHODS - WEANING TO MARKET. H. R. Thomas,

E. T. Kornegay and T. N. Meacham, Department of Animal
Science, Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Holland and
Blacksburg, Virginia.

Animal performance was observed as a result of 4
methods of feeding. Pigs fed by a commercially designed
automatic floor-fed system were significantly less
efficient and gained at a significantly slower rate than
the other feeding methods. Performance of pigs was simi¬
lar on the free-choice and the hand-fed supplement feeding
methods, both from the standpoint of rate of gain and feed
conversion. Self-feeding a mixed feed resulted in signi¬
ficantly faster gains, but insignificant feed efficiency
when compared with the free-choice and the hand-fed method.
Pigs fed by the self-fed or free-choice method required
an average of 83 days from weaning to 200 lbs . The hand-
fed supplement method required 90 days, while the floor¬
feeding method required 93 days.

AN INFORMATION SYSTEM FOR RESEARCH IN AGRICULTURE AND LIFE
SCIENCES. N. R. Thompson. P. H. Massey, Jr., and C. T.
Wilson, V.P.I. Research Division, Blacksburg, Va .

The major objectives of this system are to improve com¬
munication among scientists and to provide management infor¬
mation to administrators of research programs. The Virginia
system is intended to be compatible with the Current Research
Information System (CRIS) which is being developed by USDA
and to include such additional features as may be needed in
Virginia. Information on projects, funds, and inventories
is to be included initially, with personnel information pro¬
bably to come later. Some parts of the Virginia system, for
example project information, will operate within the Research
Division. Others such as funds and personnel information
will involve campus-wide administrative areas. Information
is to be stored on magnetic tape or other suitable media,
and processed by electronic computer. Reports and summaries
will be prepared and made available to administrators and
research workers. The Virginia system should be operational
by the fall of 1969.

ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES ON GROWTH RATE AND GRADE OF
YEARLING BEEF CATTLE. G. A. Waugh and T. J. Marlowe.

Dept, of Animal Science, Va . Poly. Inst., Blacksburg, Va.

The objective of this study was to estimate the magni-
gude of the major environmental factors that affect growth
rate and grade of yearling beef cattle and to obtain
correction factors for their effects. Four breed-sex groups
consisting of 1,402 Angus bulls, 2,217 Angus heifers, 1,289
Hereford bulls and 1,402 Hereford heifers were analyzed
separately by least squares methods. The environmental
factors of herd, year, age of dam, month of birth, age of
animal, pre- and postweaning management practice, and
selected interactions were treated as independent variables,
whereas ADG and grade were the dependent variables. All of
the independent variables except month of birth and pre¬
weaning management practice significantly affected the
growth rate of Angus cattle and all except month of birth
significantly affected the growth rate of Hereford cattle.
Growth rate increased with age of dam and level of nutrition
and decreased with age of animals on test. Creep feeding as
calves significantly affected the lifetime gains of yearling
Hereford cattle but not of Angus cattle nor the yearling
grades in any of the breed-sex groups. In general, the
environmental factors studied had a much smaller effect on
grade than on growth of yearling cattle. One exception was
the significant effect of month of birth on yearling grade.
Only the effect of management was of practical importance
on grade.

168

The Virginia Journal of Science

Section of Astronomy,
Mathematics, and Physics

Forty-sixth Annual Meeting of The Virginia Academy of Science
May 8-10, 1968, Roanoke, Virginia

FREQUENCY DEPENDENCE ON THE TEMPERATURE IN NUCLEAR QUADRUPOLE
RESONANCE OF SODIUM BROMATE. J. T. Allendef « and R. F.
Tipsword, Dept, of Physics, Va. Polytechnic Inst., Blacksburg,
Va.

The pure quadrupole resonant frequency dependence on temper¬
ature of the Br^9 isotope was examined from 4.2°K to 346°K.
These data were fitted with the Bayer theory^ as extended by
Kushida . The equation for more than one mode is.

v(T)

1 - 3h '

r i

8tt 2 l

^ Vin*1 - “nT>

+ —
exp

h^n<l - °nT>

KT

where is the resonant frequency for a rigid lattice, is the
vibrational frequency of the bromate group, In is the moment of
inertia of the bromate group for the nth mode of vibration, and
an is the coefficient of temperature dependence of the bromate-
group vibrational frequency for the nth mode of vibration. The
inequality of the two assumed modes of bromate-group vibration
as well as the possibility of temperature dependence associated
with these bromate-group vibrations were considered. Results
indicate that a temperature dependence of the bromate-group
vibrations must be included for temperature regions larger than
4.2°K to 100°K. A greater temperature range is necessary in
order to determine whether the two assumed modes of bromate-
group vibration are equal.

DENSITY MEASUREMENTS OF XENON NEAR THE CRITICAL POINT.

W. M. Barkey*, D. L. Deardorff*, S. H. C. Ip*, M. H. W.

Chan *+ , and D. V. Ulrich. Dept, of Physics, Bridgewater
College, Bridgewater, Va.

Measurements of the localized density of xenon as a
function of depth and temperature near the critical point
are described. The measurements were made in a sealed cell
using a ferromagnetic buoy and a Beams' suspension densi¬
tometer. In the present application the buoy was held
fixed in space and the cell containing xenon was moved up
and down. Equilibrium was obtained by holding the temper¬
ature constant to ±0.001°C for a minimum of ten hours;
subsequent measurements at various depths were made at a
minimum of ten minute intervals. Changes in density
(Ap/p-) as a function of depth were found to be about
thirty percent in 5 mm.

(Supported by the National Science Foundation)
tPresent address: Dept, of Physics, Cornell University

^Baver. H. . Z. Phvslk 130. 227~ (1951) .

^Kushida. T., J. Sci. Hiroshima Univ. A19 . 327 (1955).

SINUSOIDAL MODULATION AND DETECTION TECHNIQUES FOR VACUUM
ION GAUGES. Roger C. Bucholz * and Forrest P. Clay, Jr.

Dept, of Physics, Old Dominion College, Norfolk, Va.

Sinusoidal modulation of negative ion current with
filtered ac detection of the positive ion current is used
in a Bayard-Alpert gauge to minimize the effects of the
photoelectrically induced components of the residual current.
This technique provides a continuous reading of the positive
ion current and should allow utilization of Bayard-Alpert
gauges at pressures below the limit set by photon excited
residual current components.

INELASTIC SURFACE SCATTERING OF LOW ENERGY ATOMS.
N. Cabrera, V. Celli* and R. Manson*. Dept, of
Physics, Univ. of Va . , Charlottesville, Va.

We suggest that the inelastic scattering of low
energy He atoms can be used to study the surface
phonon spectrum of a solid, in particular silicon
or germanium. Kinematic considerations show that
the reflected intensity at a given energy as a
function of angle exhibits a continuous distri¬
bution due to bulk phonons up to a maximum angle
0m and has a sharp peak due to surface phonons
for an angle 0S > 0m . Using continuum elastic
theory for determining the phonon spectrum of the
solid and a step function for the surface poten¬
tial, it is found that at a typical energy the
surface phonon reflected peak has a strength
several times greater than the integrated bulk
phonon reflected intensity. At normal incidence
the angles 0m and 0S range from 0 to 8° and 10°
respectively for silicon. With oblique incidence
wide angular separations between elastically and
inelas t ically scattered beams can be obtained.

Thus experimental observation appears feasible.
[Sponsored by AFOSR and NSF]

Proceedings, 1967-1968

169

MEASUREMENT OF HELL’S TEMPERATURE, James Campbell and M. A.
Ijaz, Physics Dept., Va. Polytechnic Inst., Blacksburg, Va.

Recently it was pointed out by Hagedom^l) that in high
energy nucleon-nucleon collisions a part of the kinetic
energy of the collision is converted into heat which raises
the temperature of the nuclear interaction volume (the
interaction volume = 4tt/3 ( 1/m^) ^ where m^ is the mass of a
pion) for a very short time of the order of 10~23 seconds.
One way to measure the temperature of the interaction vol¬
ume is to analyze the transverse momentum (pt) spectra of
the particles that are produced in high energy collisions.
We have measured pt distribution of the six prong events in
u-p collisions at 7.0 GeV/c in a bubble chamber experiment
done at Brookhaven National Laboratory. The pt distribu¬
tion of the pions is fitted to an expression pt3/2 e""Pt/T0
by least square method. We find the average value of
TQ = 120 ± 5 MeV which corresponds to 1.4 x 10^ K. Since
we do not know of any place where temperatures so high
could exist for measurable times, we believe it must be the
Hell that is so hot.

INFRARED ABSORPTION STUDIES OF ELECTRON INDUCED RADIATION
DEFECTS IN SEMICONDUCTORS AT LIQUID HELIUM TEMPERATURES.

R. J. Dexter and T. E. Gilmer, Jr., Va. Polytechnic Inst.,
Blacksburg, Va.

Effects of irradiation at liquid helium temperatures
and the temperature dependence of defect recombination in
silicon and germanium are being studied by infrared
absorption techniques in the region from 1 to 30 microns.
Using electron energies below the threshold for divacancy
production one can expect to observe the vacancy-inter¬
stitial defect and the migration of single vacancies to
form divacancies. An examination of the results reported
by Fan and Ramdas1 for silicon and by Callcott and Mackay
for germanium is given and results obtained thus far are
reported.

^H. Y. Fan and A. K. Ramdas, Infrared Absorption and
Photoconductivity in Irradiated Silicon, Journal of
Applied Physics, Volume ^0, 1127, (1959).

(1)R. Hagedom, Statistical Thermodynamics of Strong
Interactions at High Energies, CERN TH/851 (1967).
*Work supported by V.P.I. Research Division.

THEORY OF OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF AN EXCESS ELECTRON
IN LIQUID HELIUM. B. DuVall* and V. Cell!*; Spon-
sor, N. Cabrera. Dept, of Physics, Univ. of Va.,
Charlottesville, Va.

An excess electron in liquid He^ becomes trapped
in a self-made bubble, which can be described as a
potential well of depth 1 eV. The shape and size
of the bubble are determined by the electron wave
function itself. We have determined bubble param¬
eters, as well as electronic and total energies,
as a function of external pressure, for several
low-lying electronic states; we have computed the
optical transition probabilities between these
states and calculated the Raman scattering cross
section for the transitions ls-2s and Is-ld. This
can be done both exactly for the square potential
well and more generally with an approximation
especially suited for the problem under consid¬
eration.

[Sponsored by AFOSR and NSF]

2

T. A. Callcott and J. W. Mackay, Irradiation Damage
in n-Type Germanium at 4 . 2°K, Physical Review, Volume 161
Number 3, 698, (1967).

RADIATIVE PION ABSORPTION AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE. L. P.
Fulcher* and J. M. Eisenberg. Dept, of Physics, UnivT of
Va., Charlottesville, Va.

Radiative pion absorption is one means of studying spin-
isospin excitations in nuclei, which are important in muon
capture. The hypotheses of partially conserved axial-vector
currents and of current algebras [H. Pietschmann, L. P.
Fulcher and J. M. Eisenberg, Phys . Rev. Letters jg, (1967)
1259*1 are used to express the scattering matrix for radia¬
tive absorption of soft pions in terms of the axial-vector
current. In calculating the absorption rate for pions bound
in atomic orbitals with the excitation of a specific nuclear
level, the nucleus is treated as an elementary particle.

The relevant form factors are obtained from beta-decay rates
and electron scattering data. Total radiative absorption
rates are calculated from muon capture after subtraction of
the vector part of the latter process. The exact expression
is evaluated in the Fermi gas model, and leading correction
terms to the axial-vector contribution are put in evidence.
[Supported in part by the National Science Foundation.]

PHYSICS AND THE PHYSICS TEACHER IN THE JUNIOR COLLEGES IN
FLORIDA. Richard E. Garrett. Univ. of Fla. , Gainesville
Fla. 32601.

THE DESIGN AND USE OF SINGLE CONCEPT FILMS IN TEACHING
PHYSICS. Richard E. Garrett. Univ. of Fla., Gainesville,
Fla. 32601.

The University of Florida, assisted by a grant from the
National Science Foundation, held a series of six Saturday
conferences during the 1966-67 academic year for junior
college physics and physical science teachers in the state
of Florida. The purpose of the conferences was to study the
problems of teaching physics in the junior college and thus
to help the participants become better physics teachers.

The conferences were held at five selected geographical lo¬
cations throughout the state. Some participants attended
several conferences while others attended only one. At their
first session, all participants were requested to provide
personal and institutional information; at the close of the
series they completed a conference critique form. An
analysis of the participants' undergraduate and graduate
preparation will be presented, and their critique remarks
will be discussed. Significant features which highlighted
the six meetings will be mentioned. General recommendations
for improving physics instruction in the junior college will
also be made.

The single concept film is one of the most important
teaching aids that has been developed recently and each
teacher should consider using them. With the development
of the new 8 mm and Super 8 mm cameras, projectors, and the
wide variety of films available, the amateur production of
films for educational uses is nearly unlimited. The paper
will present some guidelines for the amateur "director-
producer" in the design and production of the single concept
films. The film that won first place in the recent natio¬
nal film competition sponsored by the AAPT, "Heat Transfer -
The Dewar Flask" will be shown.

[Sponsored in part by a grant from the National Science
Foundation. ]

170

The Virginia Journal of Science

SEARCH FOR SYSTEMATICS IN NUCLEAR y-RAY TRANSITIONS.

G. Grammer, Jr.* and W. P. Trower, Physics Dept., Va. Poly¬
technic Inst., Blacksburg, Va. ; E. K. Hege, Physics Dept.,
Hollins Col., Hollins Col., Va.

The emission of gamma rays from a nucleus is described
theoretically by a transition probability which depends on
the initial and final nuclear state functions and an inter¬
action operator which connects them. The nuclear state
functions are not known but are postulated in the extreme ^
single particle shell model and have been used by Weisskopf
and Moszkowski2 to calculate transition probabilities. We
have compared over the full range of nuclides and multipole
types the transition probabilities predicted by this simple
model with their measured values. Here we report the
systematic dependence of the discrepancy which resulted
from this comparison on neutron—, proton-, and mass-number;
on the energy and angular momentum of the y-ray; and on the
nuclear deformation.

DOUBLE-NUCLEON EMISSION FOLLOWING THE ABSORPTION OF BOUND
PIONS . Reed Guy* and J. M. Eisenberg. Dept, of Physics,
Univ. of Va., Charlottesville, Va.

The problem is considered in which a pion bound in an
atomic orbit is absorbed on a correlated pair of nucleons.
The final state mutual scattering of the nucleons is in¬
cluded and proves to be of greater importance than corre¬
lations in the initial state nuclear wave function. As one
manifestation of the ascendancy of final state scattering,
the theory predicts for particular cases a local minimum in
the emission rate for back-to-back nucleon pairs with even
energy sharing. Such behavior is opposite to that predicted
if the correlations dominate. The present work extends the
earlier theory [j. M. Eisenberg and J. LeTourneux, Nucl.
Phys. §3 (1967) 1+7] to small relative pair momentum by
including energy-dependent phase shifts and contributions
from previously omitted terms. Extensive numerical results
are presented for 1°0 for absorption from the IS and 2P
atomic orbit.

[Partially supported by the National Science Foundation.]

*Nat. Science Fndn. Undergraduate Res. Participant.
IV. Weisskopf, Phys. Rev. 8J3, 1073 (1951).

2S. A. Moszkowski, Phys. Rev. 83 , 1071 (1951).

+

DISTORTED WAVE EFFECTS IN (ir , p) REACTIONS. W. B. Jones
and J. M. Eisenberg. Dept, of Physics, Univ. of Va.,
Charlottesville, Va.

Theoretical studies of the absorption of a free pion by
an uncorrelated nucleon in a complex nucleus have been under
taken. This reaction has two interesting features. First,
as for the (p, 2p) reaction, it can be used to study single¬
hole states in nuclei. It has the advantage of requiring
the detection of only one particle in the final state and
it is applicable to neutron-hole states. Second, its rela¬
tively straightforward nature qualifies it as a good test
of the frequently employed perturbation-theory approach to
pion-nucleus interactions . The perturbation-theory treat¬
ment presented here employs distorted waves for the incident
pion and the ejected nucleon. The pion wave functions were
generated using a velocity-dependent optical potential with
parameters obtained from elastic scattering data. To
generate the bound-state nuclear wave-functions a Woods-
Saxon potential with spin-orbit coupling was used. These
refinements sharpen the focus of the calculation as a test
for the use of perturbation theory in absorption processes.
Differential cross sections for 12C and 1°0 are presented
and compared with plane-wave results .

DETECTION OF PION-NUCLEON CHARGE EXCHANGE REACTIONS7.

M. E . Kirby* and W. P. Trower, Physics Dept., Va. Polytech¬
nic Inst., Blacksburg, Va. and H. Plendl, A. Richter, and
J. Umbarger, Physics Dept. Fla. State Univ., Tallahassee,
Fla.

Pi mesons are responsible in the Yukawa model for the
strong interaction forces in the nucleus. Therefore pion-
nuclei reactions may prove to be a powerful tool in the
investigation of these forces and thus the determination of
nuclear structure. We have attempted to detect the single
charge exchange reaction by examining the product nuclei
for B+ decay. We bombarded an Al27 target with a 100 MeV tt
beam from the NASA cyclotron. The target was mounted on a
movable trolly so that it could be held in the beam and then
dropped between two Nal detectors. A preliminary analysis
of the data taken in this test run suggests the presence of
the 4.2 sec. $+ decay of Si27. Here we report the details
of the experimental apparatus, discuss the results of the
test, and speculate on the feasibility of using this method
of observing charge exchange reactions.

[Work supported in part by the National Science Foundation.]

tThis work supported by NASA.

RECENT WORK ON LOW LUMINOSITY STARS. Shiv S. Kumar,
Leander McCormick Obs., Univ. of Va., Charlottesville, Va.

This paper gives a summary of the International Sym¬
posium on Low Luminosity Stars held at the University of
Virginia on March 28-30, 1968. Several different kinds
of low-luminosity stars exist; some of them are very
young while the others are very old. But all of them have
luminosities much less than the luminosity of the Sun
(Lq = 4 x 1022 erg/sec.) The recently discovered rapidly
pulsating sources ("pulsars") and their possible identifi¬
cation with white dwarfs or neutron stars were discussed.
It was suggested that the rotation rather than pulsation
may be the cause of the periodicity of the sharp radio
pulses received from these objects. Early stages of
stellar evolution were also discussed and it was shown
by hydrodynamic calculations that stars can go through
some very low luminosity phases before the onset of quasi¬
hydrostatic contraction along the Hayashi track in the H-R
diagram. Some very interesting calculation concerning
the equation of state of degenerate matter were also pre¬
sented. The effects of crystallization in white dwarfs
were discussed and it was suggested that these effects in¬
crease the cooling time-scales by a factor of two. The
Proceedings of the Symposium will include papers on these
and other topics and they will be published in the form
of a book in early 1969.

FREQUENCY STABILITY OF HELIUM-NEON LASER SYSTEM WITH
EXTERNAL CAVITY CONTROL. Robert L. Kurtz and H. Y.

Loh, Dept, of Physics, Va. Polytechnic Inst., Blacksburg,
Va.

Many applications of continuous gas lasers depend upon
the extremely high spectral purity of their output sig¬
nals. Rigid frequency stabilization and its evaluation
are critical. An experimental method using low beat
frequency has been applied to a system of two lasers.

Each is controlled separately by a Lipsett-Lee off-axis
passive cavity of slightly different frequency. The
results of short-term and long-term stability of the
system are presented.

'^Presently on leave from NASA's Astrionics Lab, Huntsville
Ala.

Proceedings, 1967-1968

171

DESIGN OF. A VARIABLE HIGH-MOMENTUM tt* BEAM+. J. A.

* - - -

Macdonald and W. P. Trower, Physics Dept., Va. Polytechnic
Inst. , Blacksburg, Va.

Ederaic to every particle physics experiment is the
problem of transporting the particles produced by the
accelerator to the target under study. If a beam of
unstable particles is needed, the process of producing
the wanted particles and then sorting them from all the
other particles produced must also be accomplished between
the accelerator and the target. We desire to use the
Alternating Gradient Synchrocyclotron at Brookhaven National
Laboratory, which has a circulating internal proton beam of
momentum 30 GeV/c, to produce and focus a variable momentum
pion (t, - 10-8 sec.) beam on a hydrogen target. The
principle of focusing a beam of charged particles is not
unlike that of focusing a light beam with the optical
elements replaced by various types of magnets. We designed
a transport system for beams of momenta 8, 14, and 20 GeV/c
that focuses pions with maximum intensity in a spot less
than two inches square, some four hundred feet from the
A.G.S. Here we explain the experimental motivation, sum¬
marize the analytical techniques employed, and report the
characteristics of the resulting beam.

tThis work in part supported by the Res. Corp.

*Nat. Science Fndn. Undergraduate Res. Participant.

DEVELOPMENT OF A MATHEMATICAL MODEL OF THE DETACHED LEVER
ESCAPEMENT. Richard. B. Minnix. Dept, of Physics, VMI,
Lexington, Va.

A mathematical model of the detached lever escapement,
in a form suitable for computer solution, has been
developed in an attempt to determine sources of rate error
and to facilitate design of more accurate timers. This
analytical model is an attempt to bypass the slow, costly,
emipirical method of designing escapements. Design
equations that can be used with a computer to optimize the
kinematics and dynamics of any detached lever escapement
are the objective. General escapement action and operation
will be described and agreement between the mathematical
model and an actual escapement will be discussed.

STUDY OF TWO PRONG INTERACTIONS IN iTp EXPERIMENT AT 7.0
GeV/c, A. Naeem and M. A. Ijaz, Physics Dept. Va. Poly¬
technic Inst., Blacksburg, Va.

We have measured 1500 two prong events from a film
exposed to a 7.0 GeV/c negative pion beam in the BNL 80"
liquid hydrogen bubble chamber. The measurement is done
using Itek-Datex digital projector. Data processing is
done at the V.P.I. IBM 7044 Computer with a series of
computer programs TVGP, SQUAW, and PLOTS, etc. From the
transverse momentum distribution of the pions we have
determined the temperature of the interaction volume as
1.92 x 10-*-2 K. The effective mass spectra shows the
presence of boson and N resonances. We will present re¬
sults on center of mass angular and momentum distributions
of the pions and nucleons.

‘Work supported by VPI Research Division.

ASTRONOMY AND GEODESY AS APPLIED BY MASON AND DIXON. A. H.
Mason, Dept, of Astronomy, Univ. of Va., Charlottesville, Va
The delineation of the common boundaries of Virginia,
Maryland, Delaware, and Pennsylvania was accomplished by
Charles Mason and Jeremiah Dixon, two English geodetic as¬
tronomers who used methods outlined by the Astronomer Royal.
Their procedure in running a parallel of latitude, known as
the secant method, was employed about a century later by the
International Boundary Survey in establishing the border
with the Dominion of Canada from Lake of the Woods to Puget
Sound. A further complex problem of geodesy involved the
running of the so called "Tangent Line" from the southwest
corner of Delaware to a point tangent to a circle of twelve
miles radius centered at the belfry of New Castle C.H.
Numerous observations were made for latitude. Star posi¬
tions were taken from a then recent catalog by Dr. James
Bradley. Corrections were made for nutation, precession,
aberration and refraction, but were not made for proper
motion, and annual parallax, usually small, had not been
evaluated. Realizing that the terrain of the Delmarva Pe¬
ninsula was well adapted to a determination of the mile
measure of a degree of latitude, Mason and Dixon success¬
fully petitioned the Royal Society for funds with which to
make this study. This was the first such measure in North
America. Cavendish considered that the results, now known
to be slightly in error (0.307 percent, average) could have
been vitiated by distortions in the geoid.

THE POSSIBLE CONTRIBUTION TO THE GEOMAGNETIC FIELD OF CHARGE
SEPARATION DUE TO HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE. J. T. Moore and D.
Kuhlmann-Wilsdorf . Dept, of Physics & Dept, of Materials
Science, Univ. of Va., Charlottesville, Va.

In view of the recent interest in charge separation due
to non-uniform deformations in metals, an investigation of
the possibility of a contribution to the geomagnetic field
from this effect is made applying the theory by Hunter, Cot¬
trell and Nabarro ' . A magnetic field of the proper form
and direction is found, but is shown to be an insignificant
part of the total field.

1) A. H. Cottrell, S. C. Hunter, and F. R. N. Nabarro,

Phil. Mag. 44, (1953) 1064.

THE RELATIVE INTENSITIES OF GAMMA RAYS BY AN ABSORPTION METHOD.
Ronald J ■ Onega and Robert Shotvell*, Va. Polytechnic Inst.

A method has been developed for determining the relative
Intensities of gasisa rays emanating from a radioactive source.

It consists of placing various lead absorbers between the source
and the detector and obtaining the total number of counts on a
scalar for various thicknesses of lead. The total counting
rate that will be obtained for a thickness of lead x^ is given
by

N. - uN0 E c,I,c'u)xl 1 • 1, 2 .... n

j-1 3 J j - 1, 2 .... m

where

w - the solid angle subtended by the detector at the source
Nq ■ disintegration rate of the source
ej ■ efficiency of the detector for the JC X-ray
Ij • intensity of the gamma ray
Pj - attenuation coefficient for the J gamma ray
» the i* lead absorber thickness
m - total number of X-rays in the source and
n - total number of absorbers, n > m.

The method has been applied to Mn^, Ni^ and Sn> . If
the ratio of attenuation coefficients p^ and p. are not too
close to 1, then the method yields reliable results. In
order to measure the relative Intensities by this method
the gamma ray energies must be known. The method is simple
enough so that it can be used as an experiment in even an
undergraduate nuclear physics laboratory.

^National Science Foundation Undergraduate Research
Participant.

172

The Virginia Journal of Science

DESIGN OF SPARK CHAMBER PLANES FOR MANY PARTICLE DETECTION^.
D. W. Oxley* and W. P. Trower, Physics Dept., Va. Polytech¬
nic Inst., Blacksburg, Va.

We desire to study multi-particle production in high
energy proton-proton interactions in the hopes of speci¬
fying the mechanism responsible for the process and thereby
understanding the hadronic structure of the central region
of the nucleon. To accomplish this it is necessary to
rapidly acquire large amounts of data on the many-tracked
final states. The core read-out wire spark chamber is the
ideal device for this purpose. These chambers however have
two problems which must be solved before they can be effec¬
tively used for multiple spark detection. The first pro¬
blem, charge robbing, is caused by many wires discharging
simultaneously in the plane with the result that not all
sparks are recorded. The second problem deals with the
elimination of ambiguities encountered in associating
co-ordinate pairs from two unordered lists of flipped cores.
In this paper we describe our solution to these problems
optimized to allow continual on-line monitoring of the
chamber array by a high-speed digital computer.

tThis work in part supported by the Res. Corp.

*Nat. Science Fndn. Undergraduate Res. Participant.

RECOVERY OF RESISTIVITY OF PURE AND ALLOYED ALUMINUM IN
STAGES II AND III AFTER 2 MEV ELECTRON IRRADIATION.* P, B.
Peters. Dept, of Physics, VMI, Lexington, Va.

Samples of pure aluminum and. aluminum alloyed with 0.3
at. % Zn , Cu and Ge were irradiated by 2 Mev electrons to
several widely differing doses and at a variety of tempera¬
tures. Isochronal annealing studies were performed with 30
min anneals spaced 5° apart from 60°K to the conclusion of
Stage III. In one experiment a pure aluminum and a zinc
alloy sample were exposed to air when at a temperature of
300°C prior to irradiation. The presence of the additional
air impurities was found to impede the motion of the defect
migrating in Stage III. Impurity effects dominate the
recovery through the Stage II region and extend into Stage
III, although the possibility of an intrinsic process near
73°K exists. From the results of this work the Stage III
recovery in pure aluminum can be explained in terms of a
model where single vacancies migrate to clusters of inter¬
stitials that were formed during the preceding stages of
annealing .

* This work was supported in part by the Atomic Energy
Commission and in part by the Advanced Research Projects
Agency and was performed as partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the Ph.D. degree at the Univ. of North
Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, N. C., under the
direction of Dr. P. E. Shearin.

A DYNAMIC M00EL OF AN ATOMIC SYSTEM WITH ATTRACTIVE FORCES.
J. W. Rice, J, I. Bennetch, and G. H. Gilmer. Washington and
Lee Univ., Lexington, Va.

Turnbull and Cor mi a* designed a model of a large number
of interacting atoms in which the atoms are represented by
small spheres on a horizontal plate. A vertical vibration
imparted to the plate causes the spheres to move with near¬
ly random velocities in the horizontal directions, and the
amplitude of this vibration determines the r.m.s. velocity
of the spheres or the temperature. We have designed a
rather inexpensive modification of Turnbull's vibration
system which gives a more nearly uniform and reproducible
vibration to the plate. We also have achieved an attractive
interaction between the spheres similar to dipole-dipole
interaction by forcing air through the system in a vertical
direction. This produces a low pressure region around each
sphere which attracts neighboring spheres, but it does not
disturb the operation of the model appreciably. We will
describe our vibration and air flow system and show photo¬
graphs of the model in operation. (This work was supported
in part by Research Corporation.)

*0. Turnbull and R. L. Cormia, A Dynamic Hard Sphere
Mode 1 , Journal of Applied Physics, Volume 31, 674 (i960).

THE DETERMINATION OF THE (n,p) CROSS SECTION OF TiA5 FOR
14 Mev NEUTRONS. Philip M. Pazich. Dept, of Physics, VMI,
Lexington, Va.

The uncertainty in the best value of the (n,p) cross
section of Ti*° for 14 Mev neutrons amounts to 30$. In this
experiment the direct comparison of the Ti cross section to
that of Cl? ' should lead to a more precise determination. A
tritium target bombarded by the deuterium beam from a 150
Kev Cockroft-Walton accelerator is employed as the neutron
source. The irradiated sample, carefully shielded by cad¬
mium to prevent activation by back-scattered thermal-
neutrons, is carried from the accelerator room to the lead
counting cave in a polyethylene "rabbit" through a pneu¬
matic transfer system.

The use of as a standard eliminates many of the
possible sources of error that would occur in a direct
determination of cross section from neutron flux and sample
density. Cl3? was chosen because its (n,p) cross section
is of the same order of magnitude as that for Ti.46. The
sample for the irradiation is TiCl3, so that the ratio of
Ti46 to Cl37 is well-known. The gamma spectrum from the
product nuclei is recorded on a 400 channel pulse height
analyzer and the data are reduced with the aid of an IBM
1620 computer system.

The NMR line was observed using a conventional C.W.
spectrometer at a frequency of 6.053 MHz and 4.2°K; this
gives 6.003 MHz/lOKoe. At this temperature, the signal to
noise ratio was almost 5/1.

"^Supported by the Nat. Science Fndn., Grant // GP7165.
■^Ziegler, W. T. , Young, R. A., and Floyd, A. D. , J. Am.
Chem. Soc. 75., 1215 (1953).

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF COPPER AND OXIDIZED
COPPER FILMS. Billy W, Sloope. Virginia Institute for
Scientific Research, Richmond, Va.

The mechanical properties of copper films, 700 to
5000 A thick, have been investigated by the bulge technique.
Stress -strain curves indicate considerable plastic flow
even at low stresses. Stress was applied to rupture.
Analysis of breaking strength as a function of thickness
shows that a significant increase in breaking strength
occurs only below 1000 A and that the equivalent bulk
breaking strength is 61 x 102 lb/in2. Young's Modulus,
however, is independent of thickness and is 18. 3 x 10^ lb/
in2.

Copper films were oxidized in air at 150°C for times
up to 72 hrs and stres s- strain curves obtained also by the
bulge technique. Results are compared with unoxidized
films.

NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE OF LA139 IN THE DHCP PHASE AT
4.2°K.^ Wade M. Poteet* and R. F. Tipsword, Dept, of Physics
Va. Polytechnic Inst., Blacksburg, Va.

Powder X-ray diffraction has been used in the preparation
of samples in the dhcp phase for NMR studies in La139, and
the effect of annealing at 220 C on the sharpness of the
X-ray peaks was confirmed. The dhcp phase was shown to
convert to the fee form at a slow rate between 220 C and
270°C. Sudden temperature variations in the range 20°C
to 220 C caused broadening of the X-ray maxima and would
be detrimental to the NMR due to the resulting strain
broadening. The lattice parameters found from the X-ray
work were as follows:

Phase a(R) c (j?)

dhcp 3.770 12.159

fee 5.303

Proceedings, 1967-1968

173

CONSTRUCTION OF TRACKS FROM MULTISPARK DATA+ . D. M.

Stevens and W. P. Trower, Physics Dept., Va. Polytechnic
Inst. , Blacksburg, Va.

In the preceding paper a technique was described for
obtaining for each plane a list of associated spark
co-ordinates, some representing real sparks and some still
specious, from the raw core data. There then exists the
problem of combining these sparks, one from each plane, so
that the possible trajectory of the particle responsible
for them can be reconstructed in space. Only at this point
can the nature of the produced particles and thus the
physics of the reaction be ascertained. In this paper we
describe analytical procedures developed for use on a high
speed on-line digital computer to find the authentic and
eliminate the spurious tracks and to reconstruct the
authentic tracks in three dimensional space.

THE gURFACE STRESS OF GOLD BETWEEN 50°C and 985°C. J.S. Ver-
maak and D. Kuhlmann-Wilsdorf . Dept, of Physics and Dept,
of Materials Science, Univ. of Va., Charlottesville, Va.

Sensitive determinations of the lattice constants of
small gold nuclei, obtained by electron diffraction in a Sie¬
mens Elmiskop IA electron microscope, reveal that these de¬
crease with decreasing size of the nuclei. This result is in¬
terpreted in terms of the compressive effect of the surface
stress, and the magnitude of the surface stress is deter¬
mined therefrom. It is found to decrease linearly from
f = 1145 Q+ 70 dyn/cm at 50 + 20°C to f = 4l0 + 4o dyn/cm at
985 + 20 C. This is to be compared with a value of the sur¬
face tension of S = 1400 + 65 erg/cin at 1030 + 13°C accord¬
ing to Buttner, Udin and Wulff (Trans. AIME, 191, 1209
(1952)) which together with EBtvBs' rule yields
6= 1400 + 0.46 (1030-T) where T is the temperature in de¬
grees Centigrade. Since surface stress and surface tension
are relatecj^as f = 6 + ^ with e the elastic strain, it fol¬
lows that is negative and appears to rise linearly with
temperature from about 700 ergs/cni at ~ 50°C to
~ 1000 ergs/cm near 1000°C.

tThis work in part supported by the Res. Corp.

*Nat. Science Fndn. Undergraduate Res. Participant.

* Now at the Dept, of Physics, Univ. of Port Elizabeth,
Port Elizabeth, Republic of South Africa.

AN INFRARED ^BSORPTION STUDY OF LITHIUM IN SILICON.

John H. Wood and T. E. Gilmer, Jr., Va. Polytechnic
Inst., Blacksburg, Va.

Lithium, lithium oxide and the group V elements,
phosphorus, arsenic, antimony and bismuth, when present
in silicon as impurities, act as "shallow" donors. These
donors have electrons which are bound so loosely that
they may be thermally excited into the conduction band
at less than room temperature. The excited bound states
and, less precisely, the ground states of these electrons
are understood within the framework of the shallow
donor theory. A transition from the IS state of lithium
oxide, which lies 7.7 ± .1 mev above its ground state,
to the 2P± state was observed. An upper limit of 1014/cc
was observed for the oxygen content of zone refined
silicon using 10^ as the value for the dissociation
constant, C.

174

The Virginia Journal of Science

Section of Biology

Forty-sixth Annual Meeting of The Virginia Academy of Science
May 8-10, 1968, Roanoke, Virginia

COLONIAL INDEFENDENCE OF FEEDING AMONG Z00IDS OF THE

BRY0Z0AN LOPHOPODELLA CARTERI. Leonard M. Bahr. Jr. and

John W. Bishop. Dept, of Biology, Univ. of Richmond,

Richmond, Va.

Possible feeding interactions between zooids of the fresh
water bryozoan Lophooodella carter! were investigated.

The rate of ingestion of Euglena gracilis was four*} to be
independent of colony size.

Suspensions of algae in the range of 175x103 to 700x103
cells per ml were cleared at rates of from 0.0001 to 0.009ml
per min per zooid (mean 0.0027) for 15 minute periods.

Feeding was found to decrease with time, dropping to
approximately l/3 the original rate in 60 minutes.

RADIOACTIVE LIQUID WASTE CONTROL SYSTEM AT THE UNIV. OF VA.
REACTOR. L. H. Bettenhausen , M. G. Bickel, and W. R. John¬
son, Reactor Facility, Univ. of Va., Charlottesville, Va.

This report describes the radioassay, liquid handling,
and administrative procedures used to control liquid waste
from the Univ. of Va. Reactor (UVAR) in order to assure an
unpolluted hydrological environment. The radioassay pro¬
cedures include gamma-ray spectroscopy of bulk radionuclides,
particularly iodine isotopes, and alpha- and beta-particle
counting methods for solid residues from evaporation of
large liquid samples. All of these tests are used to deter¬
mine maximum detectable levels for each radioisotope under
consideration and thus the radioelement content associated
with the sampled liquid. The object of the waste control
program is to assure a safe and preferably minimal radio¬
active level in liquids leaving the area of the UVAR facil¬
ity at all times.

ELECTROPHORESIS OF ADSORBED ESCHERICHIA C0LI RIBONUCLEIC

ACIDS. M. V. Blanton* and L. B. Barnett. Dept, of
Biochemistry and Nutrition, Va. Polytechnic Inst.,

Blacksburg, Va.

The electrophoretic mobilities of Escherichia coli
ribonucleic acids (RNA's) (ribosomal-RNA (r-RNA) and
transfer RNA (t-RNA)) adsorbed on to charged particles and
histone coated particles were measured by means of micro¬
electrophoresis. Data were obtained as functions of RNA
concentration and pH at an ionic strength of.l M and at

25° C.

The mobility versus RNA concentration curves showed
that both r-RNA and t-RNA were adsorbed to both positively
and negatively charged particles to about the same extent.

The pH profiles of the adsorbed RNA's showed that adsorp¬
tion took place over a wide range of pH values on
particles alone but that on histone coated particles the

RNA's became deadsorbed as the pH was increased from 6 to

11; however, this deadsorption could be prevented by the
presence of .015 M Mg (Ac)2«

Some differences in electrophoretic mobilities of the
two types of RNA's were observed.

(This work was supported by NIH Grant GM- 11672 J

STUDIES OF BLOOD PARASITES IN THE CHANNEL CATFISH, Nathaniel
Boggs, Jr. and Joseph E. Mvers, Dept, of Biology, Virginia

State Col., Petersburg, Va.

Blood smears were made from the heart or caudal artery of

100 fish (Ictalurus punctatus) of the Lower James River

Basin of Hopewell, Virginia. Seventeen fish were found to
be parasitized by a haemogregar ine . This haemogregar ine is
described and illustrated. It is crescent-shaped, and
usually lies close to the nucleus of the erythrocyte. There
are no paired gametocytes present, and the single gametocyte
measures 6.5p by 1.9 p. The nucleus is centrally located.

Tissue samples taken from the liver and spleen of both the
infected and non-infected species did not reveal the pres¬
ence of haemogregar ines ; however, haemogregar ines were found
in intestinal smears of the infected fish.

Serum from the infected specimen transmitted an average of
55.4% less light than did the serum from the uninfected
specimen; however, the infected serum absorbed 13.07% more
light than the uninfected serum. Densitometer readings were
lower for infected samples as compared with those of non-in¬
fected samples. Four fractions - albumin and alpha, beta
and gamma globulins, comparable to the fractions in human
serum, were evident as well as a fifth fraction named phi.

Infected specimen had an average red blood cell count of
5,673,333 per nun^ whereas the non-infected species had an
average red blood cell count of 3,588,000 per mm^.

(This study was supported by the Nat. Science Fndn. , grant

GW 518, which is gratefully acknowledged J

Proceedings, 1967-1968

175

THE EFFECTS OF ESTRADIOL BENZOATE ON THE

SYNTHESIS OF PLASMA PROTEINS BY THE ISOLATED
PERFUSED LIVER OF THE VATERSNAKE NATRIX

FASCIATA FASCIaTA. ‘William R. Boone, and

Francis B. Leftwich. Dept, of Biology, Univ.

of Richmond, Va.

The effects of Estradiol Benzoate on the
synthesis of plasma proteins by the isolated
perfused liver of Natrix fasciata fasciata
were evaluated in a study utilizing carbon-14
labeled leucine as an isotopic tracer.

Protein synthesis was enhanced in all ex¬
perimental animals. However, male and female
experimental were found to exhibit qualitative
differences among the various plasma protein
fractions in response to the hormone.

FISH POPULATION INVESTIGATIONS OF LAKE DRUMMOND, VIRGINIA.

Paul M. Brady and Cleo Duke Wilder. Jr.. DeDt. of For. and
Wildl. , Va. Polytechnic Inst., Blacksburg, Va.

This paper concerns the fish population information col¬
lected at Lake Drummond during July, August, September and
November, 1967 and February 1968. Lake Drummond is a very
shallow, bog lake, in the southeastern part of Virginia,
approximately six and one-fourth square miles in area. The
lake water is very dark, low is dissolved oxygen, and quite
acidic, with a pH as low as 4.0 to 5.0.

Gill nets, trammel nets, hoop nets, seines, rotenone, and
shocking equipment were utilized for the collection of fish.

The most abundant species collected were yellow bullheads,
fliers, yellow perch, and golden shiners. Approximately
one-half of the fish collected were yellow bullheads, nearly
all of which were stunted to a size of about six to eight
inches .

Three tables are included which (1) list all the species
collected and the total number of each species, (2) show the
number of each species collected at various locations on the
lake and in canals draining into the lake, and (3) compare
the most abundant species captured at Lake Drummond with
those captured in two similar, coastal waters. A graph is
also included which plots the length frequency distribution
of the yellow bullheads and fliers collected at Lake

Drummond.

(Supported by the Water Resources Research Center) .

NATURAL HISTORY OF A WEST INDIAN FROG, LEPTODACTYLUS FALLAX.

G. R. Brooks. Dept, of Biology, Col. of William & Mary,
Williamsburg, Va.

L. fallax is an endemic, terrestrial frog occurring on the
island of Dominica, B.W.I., from sea level to approximately
1200’. Breeding appears to be initiated by increasing rain¬
fall and temperature and occurs mainly during April, May, and
June. Eggs are laid in a foam nest located in a sheltered
hole or tunnel under logs, rocks, or stumps. The female re¬
mains with the nest until the transformed frogs disperse.

Insects, millipedes, and phalangids are the major food
items. There is no major difference between sexes in the
type or number of food items eaten. There is a significant
difference in number of food items per frog between dry (4.8)
and wet (4.0) months. Adult frogs prey mainly on snails,
amphiacostid crickets and millipedes whereas juveniles,
although taking crickets and millipedes, also prey upon ver¬
tebrates and phalangids to a greater extent than adults.

THE MYXOPHYCEAE OF NORTH CAROLINA. Elton C. Cocke, Dept.

Biol., Wake Forest Univ., Winston-Salem, N. C.

Practically no work had been done on the Myxophyceae of

North Carolina prior to 1939. In 1940, the author began
collecting and studying the blue-green algae in the vicinity
of Wake Forest, N.C. Later , intensive collecting was extended
to every county of the state. This work resulted in the
publication of THE MYXOPHYCEAE OF NORTH CAROLINA in Dec. 1967.

In the treatment of the coccoid forms, the author follows
the system of classification proposed by Drouet and Daily
(1956), with synonyms and illustrations based on earlier
systems of classification. The treatment of the other groups
follows, in a general way, Smith (1955).

More than three hundred species are described in the book,
each species being illustrated with an original line drawing.
Identification keys are included for families, genera, and
species .

This study and publication was made possible by research
funds from the following:

Carnegie Research Fund for the Improvement of Teaching.

AAAS Research Grant through the North Carolina Academy
of Science.

Fellowship from the University of North Carolina.

Margaret Cannon Howell Fellowship from the Highlands
Biological Laboratory.

Research Grant from the Piedmont University Center.

Research and Publications Fund of Wake Forest University.

OBSERVATIONS ON THE MORPHOLOGY, REPRODUCTION AND CYST FORMA¬
TION OF VACUOLARIA SP. Elton C. Cocke and Lorraine B. Spencer*
Dept. Biol. Wake Forest Univ., Winston-Salem, N. C.

Vacuolaria belongs to the Chloromonadineae . The scarcity
of these along with the difficulty of handling them probably
accounts for the limited number of references to this group.
Material on which the present study was made was collected
in abundance from a small farm pond during Feb. and March,

1968. The first and most luxuriant collection was made when
the pond was covered with ice. At the time of this collec¬
tion, 2:30 p.m., the organisms were in the palmelloid stage.
Each cell was surrounded by a copious mass of soft jelly.

The individual masses adhered together weakly, forming a
soft green macroscopic mass. The individual cells were
spherical, 30-5C[i in diameter. These cells were actively
moving within the cysts, and flagella were sometimes visible.

The palmelloid stage alternates with a free swimming stage,
in which condition the cells measure 20-30 x 40-50 p Two

flagella emerge from a small notch near the anterior end, a
very active one directed anteriorly and a less active one
trailing beside the body. Numerous small ovoid chromato-
phores are located in the peripheral cytoplasm. No gullet
has been observed; one or two contractile vacuoles are
present. The nucleus is located anteriorly. Cell division,
which follows regular mitosis, takes place in the palmelloid
condition. From two to eight daughter cells are formed.

The chromosome number is + or -20.

EFFECT OF THIOUREA ON THE THYROIDS OF THE NEWT (TRITURUS
VIRIDESCENS) WITH PITUITARY AUTOGRAFTS. Keen Compiler, Dept,
of Biology, Univ. of Va., Charlottesville, Va.

Thiourea inhibits the production of thyroid hormone and
thus, indirectly, causes increased release of TSH by the pi¬
tuitary. Prolonged treatment results in goitrogenesis . In
mammals and some lower vertebrates separation of the pitui¬
tary from the hypothalamus reduces thyroid activity, presum¬
ably because less thyrotropic releasing factor from the hy¬
pothalamus reaches the pituitary and less TSH is produced.
Thiourea administered to rats with transplanted pituitaries
fails to elicit goitrogenesis. In the newt Triturus viri-
descens, autotransplantation of the pituitary does not re-
suit in decreased thyroid activity as measured by l-lli re¬
lease (Dent, 1966). To test further the independence of
thyrotropic function from hypothalamic control, newts with
pituitaries autotransplanted into the chin region were kept
in aqueous solutions of thiourea (0. 25% ,0 . 15% ,0. 50%) or in
dechlorinated water for 5 months. Their thyroids were fixed
and compared with those of intact animals kept in identical
solutions. Most animals kept in thiourea developed goiters,
while those kept in dechlorinated water did not. The degree
of goitrogenesis was inversely proportional to the concen¬
tration of thiourea used. Goitrogenesis was only slightly
greater in intact newts than in animals bearing grafts.

These findings support Dent's hypothesis that the pituitary-
thyroid axis is largely autonomous in adult newts or that an
effective cone, of TRF reaches the transplanted gland.

176

The Virginia Journal of Science

INTERCELLULAR COMMUNICATION AND SELF-ST1MUIATED MITOSIS
IN SARCOMA CELL NETWORKS. Clarence D. Cone, Jr. Molec.
Biophysics Lab., Langley Res. Ctr., Hampton, Va.

Observations of groups of mouse sarcoma cells (Clone
L-929) in vitro by means of time-lapse cinephotography have
revealed that the cells become connected into large syncy¬
tial networks by means of intercellular bridges. In such
networks the division of any one cell was seen to initiate
a mitotic stimulus which traveled outward via the bridge
connections to neighboring cells and induced them to divide.
A chain reaction of mitoses spreading sequentially outward
from the initiating cell was thus established. Multinu-
cleate giant cells were observed to form in the cultures
studied by coalescence of bridge-connected cells through
the bridge channel, especially during the mitotic rounding
up of connected cell pairs. Although no substantial data
regarding its actual involvement in malignant tumors are
presently available, the observed process of mitotic
induction through cell bridges clearly constitutes in
principle a potential mechanism for cancerous proliferation
in vivo. The observed formation of giant cells by
coalescence of connected cells in malignant cultures also
offers a possible explanation of the source of giant cells
characteristically found in malignant tissues.

SYNTHESIS OF URIC ACID BY EMBRYOS OF THE PULMONATE POND
SNAIL. LYMNAEA PALUSTRIS. A. F. Conway, R. E. Black, and
J. B. Morrill*. Dept, of Biol., Col. of Wm. and Mary.

In all organisms which have been investigated, the purine
excretory product, uric acid, is produced by the following
reaction sequence: HYPOXANTHINS xanthine oxidase ^ XANTHINE
xanthine oxidase . URIC ACID. Although the uric acid of 6
day L. palustris embryos increases rapidly, we did not spec-
trophotometrically detect any xanthine oxidase activity.

Six day embryos were therefore incubated in various C
labeled compounds suspected to be uric acid precursors.

When embryos were incubated in 8-Cl4 hypoxanthine , labeled
xanthine and uric acid were detected chromatographically in
embryo homogenates, suggesting that the normal purine cata¬
bolism is operative. It was also found that xanthine and
uric acid became labeled when embryos were incubated in
2_cl4 uridine. If the normal pyrimidine catabolism pathway
were operative in L. palustris', C-2 of uridine would be de¬
graded to C02. This C02 would in tarn be incorporated as
C_f of uric acid Chemical degradation of uric acid ex¬
tracted from 2.0^ uridine-treated embryos revealed that the
uric acid is labeled exclusively in the C-2 psoition. These
results indicate that in L. palustris the uracil ring from
uridine is incorporated intact into uric acid.

(This work was partially supported by NSF GY 3^52 and NSF
GB 5961 to R. e‘. B. )

SOME EFFECTS OF MANGANESE STRIP-MINING IN SMYTH COUNTY ON
STREAM ECOLOGY. Russell H. England . Dept, of For. and
Wildl. , Va. Polytechnic Inst., Blacksburg, Va.

Abandoned manganese strip mines in Smyth County, Virginia
have for many years contributed pollution to the streams
draining them. Streams in the Cripple Creek drainage area
were sampled during the summer of 1967 to determine the na¬
ture and extent of pollution in them, and to evaluate the
reclamation work being done by the U.S. Forest Service.
Affected streams were compared with control streams on the
basis of physical, chemical and biological properties.

Manganese levels in all streams sampled were found to be
below one part per million. A controlled experiment with
Mn(N03)2 showed that the median tolerance limit for rainbow
trout fingerlings is about 16 ppm Mn which indicates that
manganese is not present in toxic concentrations in the
study streams.

Killinger Creek, which drains a partially reclaimed area,
was found to support fewer species of fish and benthic fauna
than Crigger Creek, a comparable control stream. Siltation
is probably the main contributing factor. Blue Spring
Creek, draining a reclaimed area, supports an abundant popu¬
lation of aquatic insects and fish fauna, indicating that
reclamation has been effective on this watershed. It was
also found that rainbow trout are spawning successfully in
this stream. Figures are presented showing species distri¬
bution and manganese concentrations in the study streams.
(Supported by the Va. Cooperative Fishery Unit).

CONTROL OF MAMMALIAN CELL DIVISION BY OSMOTIC MECHANISMS.
Clarence D. Cone, Jr., Thomas E. Murphy, and Max Tongier, Jr.
Molec. Biophysics Lab., Langley Res. Ctr., Hampton, Va.

Results of two experiments demonstrating pronounced
effects of osmotic factors on initiation of mammalian cell
division in vitro are outlined, and a proposed explanation
of the results In terms of the role of osmotic pressure in
cell division is presented. Experimental studies show that
mitosis in synchronized populations of L-929 cells can be
suppressed by increasing tonicity of the external culture
medium through addition of such agents as sucrose. Osmotic
swelling of synchronized L-929 cells by applications of a
rapid pulse of hypotonic NaCl solution at various times
prior to round-up results both in shortening of the normal
Gg period and in a significant increase in degree of syn¬
chrony.

POTENTIAL FOR AN INDUSTRIAL TRAWL FISHERY IN CHESA¬
PEAKE BIGHT. Jackson Davis ■ Virginia Institute of
Marine Science, University of Va., and College of
William and Mary.

The benthic fish population of Chesapeake Bight
was examined by trawling at 50 to 100 stations in
each season for two years. Two migratory patterns
were detected . One group of species moves north in
summer and south in winter. Another group moves in¬
shore in summer and offshore in winter. An estimate
of the standing crop, a population index, was derived.
The accuracy of the estimate is unknown. The popu¬
lation index for each season in 1967 was as follows:
winter 803 million pounds, spring 129 million pounds,
summer 157 million pounds, fall 724 million pounds.

In winter species of potential industrial
importance are in heaviest concentration between the
30 fathom contour and the 100 fathom contour. By
summer migrations have changed the distribution of
fish so that the greatest concentrations are in water
of 12 fathoms or shoaler between 36° 30' N latitude
and 38° 30' N latitude.

FREE ALPHA CHAINS ARE AN INTERMEDIATE IN THE BIOSYNTHESIS OF
HUMAN HEMOGLOBINS. M.D . Garrick, J.P. Charlton, and S.
Rutledge. Dept, of Biol., Univ. of Va. , Charlottesville, Va.

Although the basic events in the assembly of amino acids
into the linear sequence of a polypeptide chain have now beer
outlined, little is known about the processes by which poly¬
peptide chains assume a three dimensional morphology. Since
the molecular unit of human hemoglobin consists of two heme¬
bearing alpha chains and two heme-bearing beta chains arrang¬
ed in a well characterized structure, the biosynthesis of
this molecule presents an excellent opportunity to study the
assembly of macromolecular structure. Reticulocytes have
been incubated in vitro with labeled amino acids and hemolys-
ed, then the pattern of incorporation in various fractions
has been determined. A fraction which elutes from DEAE-
Sephadex A-50 prior to hemoglobin A2 was selected for further
characterization. Studies with inhibitors of protein synthe¬
sis and pulse/chase experiments indicate that this fraction
is an intermediate in hemoglobin biosynthesis. When labeled
intermediate is mixed with unlabeled carrier materials and
analyzed by various electrophoretic and chromatographic tech¬
niques, the labeled material behaves like free alpha chains.
The identification of the intermediate as free alpha chains
is supported by several lines of indirect evidence. These
results are interpreted in a model for hemoglobin biosynthe¬
sis in which free alpha chains combine with beta chains which
are still bound to the polyribosome.

(Supported by grant AM 10391 of the NIH) .

Proceedings, 1967-1968

177

BLOOD PHYSIOLOGY OF A WEST INDIAN FROG. LEPTODACTYLUS FALLAX.
Robert E. Gatten, Jr. and G. R. Brooks. Dept, of Biology,

Col. of William & Mary, Williamsburg, Va .

Leptodactylus fallax, a terrestrial frog endemic to the
island of Dominica, B.W.I., has a mean blood oxygen capacity
of 10.5 - 0.4 vol. % as determined by the microgasometric
syringe method. Males have a significantly (p<0.01) higher

BOC than females. The mean erythrocyte count (RBC) is

672,000 - 42,000 / mm3. Females have a significantly (p<0.05)
higher count than males. The mean hemoglobin content (Hb)
is 10.9 - 1.1 gm. %. There is no significant (p>0.05) sex¬
ual difference. These values correspond to those found in
other terrestrial anurans.

There is a significant (p<0.05) increase in BOC with an
increase in body weight, and a highly significant (p<0.01)
decrease in BOC / gm. body weight with an increase in body
weight. RBC and Hb show little change with increasing body
weight .

Disc electrophoresis on polyacrylamide gels indicates
that male and female blood contains identical hemoglobin
components. Absorbtion bands for male and female blood were
identical when hemoglobin was combined with oxygen or carbon
monoxide.

INSEMINATION PATTERNS IN DROSOPHILA EQUINOXI-
ALIS. Ragnit Geeraets* and J. Ives Townsend. Dept,
of Biology and Genetics, Med. Col. of Va. , Richmond,

Va.

With confinement of males and females for 24 hours
at different ages strains from Trinidad, Venezuela, and
Honduras show a bimodal distribution of insemination
frequency with one maximum of sexual activity occurring
about three to six days and the other, about ten to twelve
days after hatching. Those strains, as well as others
from Puerto Rico and Tefe, Brazil, differ in ages at
sexual maturity and at time of maximum sexual activity,
in rate of insemination at the maxima, and in total
percentage of females inseminated during the experiments..

At least in the Puerto Rican strain insemination
frequency increases if the confinement period increases
to 48 hours and also if males are older than females.

(Supported in part by NIH Grant GM 12682.)

VARIATION PATTERNS AND HYBRIDIZATION IN THE NORTH
AMERICAN COMPLEX OF THE GENUS BIDENS (C0MP0SITAE) .

THE SOUTHERN ELEMENT IN THE FLORA OF VIRGINIA.

A. M. Harvill, Jr., Longwood Col., Farmville, Va.

iam and Mary, Williamsburg, Va. 23185.

Section Meduseae of Bidens consists of dioloid
species with n:12, showy rays, abundant pollen
presentation, complete self-incompatibility and
nearly promiscuous insect visitation. Three spec¬
ies, B. aristpsa, B. polylepis and B. coronata are
highly interfertile when experimentally cross-
pollinated, with the hybrids produced likewise
highly fertile. The distinctive awn varieties
recognized in these species do not breed true.

Section Platycarpaea contains three showy,
insect-pollinated, diploid species. Two. B. cernua
and B. hyper borea are somewhat self-compatible,but
the showiest, B. laevis, is self-incompatihl r.

The remaining species of Platycarpaea and of
section Heterodonta are all polyploids as far as
known, with rays very reduced or absent, highly
efficient self-pollination with very little pollen
shed, and infrequent insect visitation. Many
different interspecific hybrids can be obtained by
emasculating the pistillate parent.

In Bjdens , showy, insect-pollinated diploids
have apparently given rise repeatedly to allopoly¬
ploid complexes of non-showy, self-pollinated,
often weedy species of specialized habitats.

Plants with southern affinities form the
largest phytogeographic element of the Virginia
flora. Species whose northern limits occur in
Virginia comprise about fourteen percent of the
native plants of the state. Distribution of
species belonging to this element has been
controlled mainly by temperature, competition,
and edaphic factors.

EFFICIENCY OF PARTICLE FILTRATION BY THE AMERICAN

OYSTER Crassostrea virginica. Dexter S. Haven and
Reinaldo Morales-Alamo. Sch. of Marine Science. Col.
of William and Mary, Dept, of Marine Science, Univ. of

Va., Va. Inst, of Marine Science, Gloucester Point, Va.

Particulate matter occurring naturally in suspen¬
sion in York River water and supplementary particulate
matter added to filtered river water were exposed to
the filtration activity of disease -free oysters in the
laboratory. Experiments with both living and inert
particles showed that the percent by number of parti¬
cles removed increased sharply between 1 and 3 p and
then leveled off with no further increase at sizes
larger than 4 p. Most experiments were conducted in
running river water and on the average they showed
relatively low efficiency of removal of particles
between 1 and 2 p (20 to 50%). The data showed that in
spite of the lower efficiency with which they were
removed, the total volume of these particles consti¬
tuted significant quantities. In experiments con¬
ducted in standing suspensions of the clay mineral
kaolinite, however, oysters removed an average of 62%
of the particles between 0.8 and lp, 75% of those
between 1 and 2 p and 90% of those between 2 and 4 p .

These results suggest that oysters are able to retain
particles as small as 1 p in their gills and that
significant quantities are removed. (Supported by
grant from U. S. Atomic Energy Commission)

THE CRAYFISHES AND THEIR EPIZOOTIC OSTRACOD AND BRANCHIOB-
DELLID ASSOCIATES OF THE MOUNTAIN LAKE, VIRGINIA, REGION.
Horton H. Hobbs, Jr., Smithsonian Inst., Perry C. Holt, Va,
Polytechnic Inst., and Margaret Walton, Mountain Lake Bio¬
logical Station.

The Mountain Lake Region comprises approximately 1,290
square kilometers in Craig, Giles and Montgomery counties,
Virginia. Six species and subspecies of crayfishes harbor

13 species of entocytherid ostracods and 12 species of
branchiobdellid worms. Discussions of the habitats, popu¬
lation fluctuations, and food habits introduce sections
devoted to each group. Keys and generic diagnoses are
presented, and for each species, a diagnosis, the range,
the distribution in the area, and associates are included.

A discussion of associations and probable migratory paths
form the conclusions of the study. Most of the ostracods
and all of the branchiobdellids utilize more than one
crayfish species as hosts. Multiple faunal interchanges
between three river systems (James, Roanoke, and New

Rivers) have occurred, but those stocks reaching the area
along the New River basin from the southwest constitute
the principal component.

178

The Virginia Journal of Science

INFLUENCE OF INCANDESCENT LIGHT ON THE RATE OF DEVELOPMENT

OF THE CHICK EMBRYO. Betty J. Huffman* and Sheila T. Isaksai
Dept, of Biology, Radford Col., Radford, Va.

The rate of development of the chick embryo may be accel¬
erated when incubation is conducted in the presence of
incandescent light. Fertile eggs from the same genetic line
were incubated under the same conditions of temperature and
humidity with the omly variable being the presence of
incandescent light. Embryos from those eggs incubated in
light showed evidence of developmental acceleration during
the first twenty-four hours of incubation.

A REFINED SERIES OF DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES OF THE CHICK EMBRYO
FROM 0VIP0S ITI0N THROUGH THE FORMATION OF THE FIRST PAIR OF
SOMITES. Sheila T. Isakson, Dept, of Biology, Radford Col.,
Radford, Va . ; Paul B. Siegel, Dept, of Poult. Sci., Va.
Polytechnic Inst., Blacksburg, Va.

Knowledge of the early developmental processes of the
chick embryo is limited due to the lack of a complete series
of easily recognizable developmental morphological stages
for the developmental period from oviposition through the
formation of the first pair of somites . Morphological char¬
acteristics are far more reliable for establishing develop¬
mental norms than chronological age. Several additional
stages have been described by various investigators since
the publication of the Hamburger and Hamilton (1951) series.

A series of sixteen morphological stages is presented, with
literature equivalents, for this developmental period.

PRELIMINARY INVESTIGATIONS ON THE WOODY FLORA OF VIRGINIA.

Fred C. James, The University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill,

N. C.

This study concerns the enumeration of woody taxa present
in the state of Virginia according to county distributions.

Field work was begun in September 1965 and will continue
through the summer of 1968. Thus far, approximately 13,000
specimens have been collected, mostly from the Coastal Plain
and Piedmont provinces of Virginia. The summer of 1968 will
be spent completing the collections in the Mountain province
and filling in distribution gaps throughout the state.

Herbarium work will be used to supplement field studies so
that a more accurate account of distribution patterns can be
obtained. The final phase of this problem will be the
construction of keys to families, genera, and species,
including pertinent synonomy for manuals or floras with

Virginia in their range.

PH0SPH0HEXOSE ISCMERASE ACTIVITY IN THE PLANARIAN, DHGESIA
DCR0T0CEPHALA. Marie M. Jenkins and David Voegtlin. Dept,
of Biology, Madison Col., Harrisonburg, Va.

Respiratory enzyme activity as a function of age is at
present being investigated in a race of the planarian, Du-
gesia dorotocephala, in which, after the onset, of smn,ar
maturity, cocoons are produced during all months of the year.
This report presents data obtained in the study of phospho-
hexose isomerase activity, following the Bodansky colorimet¬
ric procedure. Planarian homogenates were used, with wet
weight as the reference basis. Ages of planarians ranged
from eight months to thirty-six months; wet weight of indi¬
vidual worms ranged from 2lj. 7 mg to i;3. 7 mg. Although en¬
zyme activity has been found to be less in older worms than
in younger ones, activity of the phosphohexose isomerase,
per unit of wet weight, appears to be greater in smaller
animals than in larger ones, regardless of age, and correla¬
tion between enzyme activity and age has not been found,
thus far, to be significant. In further studies the Kjel-
dahl method of nitrogen determination will be used and total
nitrogen content, instead of wet weight, will be accepted as
the reference basis in the hope that a definite answer can
be obtained as to whether or not aging does, in fact, occur
in sexual planarians as established by changes in respira¬
tory enzyme activity.

(Supported in part by Grant #HD-02217 from NIH. )

OVARIAN STEROID ENZYME HISTOCHEMISTRY IN THE 0V0-VIVIPAR0US
ELASMOBRANCH. SOUALUS ACANTHIAS . Valentine Lance*and Ian P.
Callard, Dept, of Biology, Col. Wm & Mary, Williamsburg, Va.

The distribution of NAD-dependant ovarian steroid dehydro¬
genases was studied using a his tochemical technique. Tissues
were obtained fresh and maintained on dry ice until used.

Animals from which tissues were obtained were classified as
either pregnant or non-pregnant; if pregnant, the stage of
pregnancy was noted according to embryonic length. Ovarian
corpora atretica, "corpora lutea" and follicles in various
stages of development were identifiable histologically and
histochemically . Sections were made on a cryostat and sec¬
tions were taken for hematoxylin and eosin staining, demon¬
stration of lipid by Fat Red 7 B, and steroid histochemistry.

For steroid histochemistry, substrates used were estradiol-17
beta, testosterone, pregnenolone, dehydroepiandrosterone and

20 beta hydroxy progesterone. Positive reactions were ob¬
tained only with dehydroepiandrosterone and pregnenolone,
indicating the presence of ^5-3 beta hydroxy steroid dehydro¬
genase in both "corpora lutea" and ovarian follicles. In
ovarian follicles slight reactivity was noted in the theca,
and formazan deposits in the granulosa increased from 1.0 mm
follicles up through large pre-ovulatory follicles of 45 mm
diameter. The reaction in the post-ovulatory follicle or
"corpus luteum" was weaker than that in the 45 mm follicles .
Supported by NSF Grant # GB 6917 and the College of Wm & Mary*

THE EFFECT OF GONADECTOMY AND HORMONAL REPLACEMENT THERAPY

ON REPRODUCTION AND THE REPRODUCTIVE TRACT OF THE OVO-VIVI-
PAROUS LIZARD, SCEL0P0RUS CYANOGENYS . J. P. Lien*and Ian P.
Callard, Dept, of Biology, Col. of Wm & Mary, Williamsburg,

Va. 23185

Female S. cvanogenvs were obtained durinz late December
and early January from Texas. Animals were divided into two
groups, pregnant and non-pregnant. Each of these two groups
was further subdivided into controls, gonadectomized and
gonadectomized with estrogen and progesterone injections.

After gonadectomy a period of 30 days elapsed before steroid
injection was begun so as to allow oviduct regression to
occur. Normal pregnant animals kept in the laboratory under¬
went parturition and normal young were bom between early

March and mid-April. Gonadectomy did not interfere with
gestation, but did interrupt normal parturition. Injection
of steroids did not aid in parturition. Non-pregnant gonad¬
ectomized animals had smaller oviducts than their normal
controls. Further, hormone injection in gonadectomized ani¬
mals significantly enhanced oviduct weight compared to unin¬
jected controls. These data suggest a role of the ovary and
steroids in the normal development of the oviduct, but sug¬
gest that the ovary is not essential for gestation.

Supported by NSF GB 6917 and Col. of Wm & Mary.

Proceedings, 1967-1968

179

AGE AND GROWTH OF THE STRIPED SEAROBIN . John D.

McEachran and Jackson Davis. Va. Inst, of Marine

Science and School of Marine Science, College of

William and Mary.

Age, growth, and relative condition of the striped
searobin were studied. The fish were collected from
Chesapeake Bight and Chesapeake Bay during a two
year period. The age of 803 fish was determined from
otoliths. The otoliths were cross-sectioned and the
exposed surface was then polished and heated. Age
groups 0 to VII were represented in the sample.

Growth in length was rapid until the fish reached age

II. Age group II averaged 221 mm fork length. The
fish accomplished most annual growth between May and
September. Relative condition was plotted against
fork length. The high values of relative condition
corresponded to the mean lengths of age groups II,

III, IV, and VI prior to the spawning period. Rela¬
tive condition was thus an indicator of the length at
sexual maturity and length at each succeeding year.

ANALYSIS OF THE FEEDING RESPONSE IN THE 0NUPHID POLYCHAETE
DI0PATRA CUPREA. C. P. Maneum. C. D. Cnx and W. riiiPai.l

Col. Wm. & Mary and Va, Inst. Mar. Sci .

The onuphid polychaete Diopatra cuprea continually tests
the medium for the presence of food stimuli by drawing large
volumes of water into its tube. When threshold stimuli are
encountered, the worm gives a feeding response which culmin¬
ates in ingestion.

The response can be induced in the laboratory by direct¬
ing a diffuse jet of clam juice towards the anterior opening
of the worm’s tube. It is separable into three distinctcom-
ponents, each of which is elicited by a different set of
stimuli: 1) tentacle rotation, a rheotactic component,

2) creation of a feeding current, a chemotactic component,
and 3) parapodial clasping, mouth opening and jaw flexing,
chemo-or mechano tactic (or both) .

An investigation of the nature of the substances involved
in the chemoresponse is currently in progress. There are at
least two sets of active substances in clam juice: 1) the
amino acids serine, tyrosine, valine and phenylalanine, and

2) an unidentified molecule of considerably larger size
which is probably a polypeptide.

Supported by NSF GB-5563 and GB-6884.

THE OCCURRENCE OF C0CC0LITH0PH0RES OFF THE SOUTHEASTERN

COAST OF THE UNITED STATES. Harold G. Marshall, Dept, of

Biology, Old Dominion College, Norfolk, Virginia.

The spatial distribution of coccolithophores was studied
along transects extended from the North Carolina coast
seaward.

Water samples were taken over the continental shelf, in
the Gulf Stream, and the Sargasso Sea to 300 meters. A pre¬
dominantly diatomaceous flora existed at coastal stations
and over the shelf. The phytoplankton changed in the Gulf

Stream and Sargasso Sea to flagellate forms composed of
dinophyceans and coccolithophores.

The greatest diversity and numbers of coccolithophores
occurred at stations in the Gulf Stream and those bordering
the stream and the Sargasso Sea. Twenty- four coccolitho¬
phores were identified, with Coccolithus huxleyi ubiquitous.

In addition to C. huxleyi, the more abundant coccolitho-
phores were Rhabdosphaera stylifer, Syraccosphaera mediter-
raneae. and S. pulchra. These were widely scattered over
the 300 m, but were most numerous about 100 m. The lowest
concentrations occurred in the Sargasso Sea. Skeletonema
costatum was the most common diatom along the coastal re-
gions and in the Gulf Stream, with Hemiaulus hauckii and
Rhizosolenia alata the major diatoms in the Sargasso Sea.
Prorocentrum minimum, P. rostatum, Ceratium furca, C. penta-
gonium, and Peridinium sp. were the common dinophyceans.
(Supported in part by NSF Grant GB3h06 and the Duke Univ.

Marine Lab. Oceanographic Program thru NSF Grant G 17669)

STUDIES OF THE COELOMIC FLUID AND ISOTONIC HOMOGENATES OF

THE FRESHWATER BRY0Z0AN L0PH0P0DELLA CARTERI (HYATT) ON FISH
TISSUES. Ro^er H. Meacham, Jr.* and William S. Woolcott.

Dept, of Biology, Univ. of Richmond, Richmond, Va.

A study was made to determine if fish tissue was poisoned
by the coelomio fluid extracted from the common coelomic
cavity of colonies of the freshwater bryozoan, Lophopodella
carteri (Hyatt). Additional studies were made of fish
tissues, in vivo and in vitro, when exposed to homogenates
of crushed colonies of L. carteri in isotonic medium.

Gambusia affinis (mosauitofish) subjected to the coelomic
fluid did not show any signs of respiratory distress and
therefore th. poisonous quality must be located elsewhere in
the bryozoan. The homogenates were determined to be poison¬
ous as fishes exposed to a 3.0 % solution were killed within
an hour. However, excised gills and monolayer cell cultures
of caudal- fin tissue from Carasslus auratus (goldfish)
showed no noticeable structural changes after treatment with

3.0 $ homogenates. The results purport that fishes exposed
to L. carteri poison do not die from apparent gill tissue
damage.

•Present address: Dept, of Pharmacology, Med. Col. of

Va., Richmond, Va.

A COMPARISON OF RIB0S0MAL RIBONUCLEIC ACID (rRNA) USING

DISC ELECTROPHORESIS. Carolyn Gene Mohler. Dept, of

Biology, Col. of Vfa. ani Mary.

The electrophoretic patterns of rRNA isolated from a num¬
ber of different organisms (E. coli A19. Anacystls nidulans,
Nostoc muscorum, bean seedlings, rat and mouse liver) were
investigated. Disc electrophoresis in 10j£ polyacrylamide
gels using Tris. boric acid buffer (pH 8.3), followed by
visualization of the bands with methylene blue stain, demon¬
strated that the rRNA of all the organisms investigated was
a heterogeneous mixture of components. This heterogeneity
appeared in all rRNA preparations, regardless of the puri¬
fication procedure, i.e., gel filtration or sedimentation
analysis of total RNA or isolation of RNA direetly from the
ribosomes followed by precipitation of the rPNA with 1.5 K
KaCl. Control experiments for the presence of endogenous

RNase in the RNA preparations indicated that the hetero¬
geneous components were not the result of RNase degradation
of RNA. Preincubation of rRNA with DNase, pronase, or alpha
amylase for 30 minutes at 37°C produced no significant
changes in the electrophoretic banding pattern whereas pre¬
incubation of rRNA with RNase under identical conditions
abolished all bands. The results of this Investigation tend
to suggest that the multiple genes for rRNA, as calculated
from DNA-rRNA hybridisation studies, are not identical.
Supported in part by NSF GZ 620.

RAGT MAT.T EXTRACT. A GROWTH FACTOR FOR VIGNA SINENSIS

ENDL. CALLUS TISSUE. R. Narayana* and K. B. S. Murthy

Reddy, Dept, of Botany, Univ. of Mysore, Mysore, India.

Viena sinensis tissues, isolated from hypocotyl segments,
have been used as assay material with a view to isolate
growth factors from ragi malt extract that was prepared
from a two-dav germinated ragi (Eleusine coracftna) var.

Aruna.

A serial concentration of the extract showed that a
maximum amount of growth (19 to 20% more than controls),
as determined by fresh and dry weights, at 20%. The
stimulation of growth by casein hydrolysate, coconut milk
and urea did not equal ragi malt extract.

The ash content of 20% of extract contributed only to
a 3-fold increase of the yield of tissues. It was there¬
fore inferred that a major part of the growth activity was
in the organic fraction of the extract. Paper chromato¬
graphic analysis of amino acids showed that L-proline, a
major constituent of barley malt, is absent in ragi.

*Dept . of Biology, Va. State Col., Petersburg, Va.

180

The Virginia Journal of Science

ASCOSPORE GERMINATION IN PODOSPORA ANSERINA
NIESSL: THE KINETICS OF METABOLITE INCORPORATION.
James E. Perham and Dorothy J. Geason, Department
of Biology, Randolph-Macon Woman’s Col., Lynch¬
burg, Va.

The kinetics of uracil, thymine, and amino acid
incorporation were studied during the period pre¬
ceding visible germination of spores at 150 min.
Ammonium acetate activation of spores is essen¬
tial for active incorporation of the above metab¬
olites. Evidence is presented which suggests that
ammonium acetate is not catabolized during the
process of germination but is essential for the
activation process.

Uracil uptake begins within 105 min. after
addition of ascospores to the germination medium.
Valine incorporation begins between 105-120 min.,
while thymine uptake occurs after 135 min. The
sequence of uptake agrees with the metabolite
incorporation studies previously reported for
germinating endospores of Bacillus subtilis .

THE FACT AND FOLKLORE OF LANGERHANS CELLS, mill ie HI. Reams.
Department of Biology, University of Richmond, and the
Virginia Institute for Scientific Research, Richmond, Va.

For over a century, the Langerhans cells of the
mammalian epidermis have been the source of considerable
speculation. They have been associated Uiith various
pigmentary disorders, and have been related to pigment
cells of neural crest origin. Langerhans cells are
identified by histochemical and Ely) methods.

By grafting limb buds from young mouse embryos into host
chick embryos, skin was obtained free of neural crest cells
and consequently, free of pigment cells. The grafts
showed Langerhans cells still to be present - thus
indicating that the neural crest is not the site of their
origin. Although the Langerhans cells of the grafts gave
proper histochemical reactions, with E IY1 the granules
specific for Langerhans cells were not seen.

Some workers have tendered the idea that Langerhans
cells are related to the white blood-cell line of the
mammal. However, as our grafts into the chicks were made
prior to the establishment of the donor's white blood-cell
system, and as the chick cells can be easily distinguished,
it appears that the Langerhans cells are not of blood-cell
lineage, either. Probably they are of epidermal origin.
(Aided by NIH Grant 1— R01— AID— 1 1 864-01 )

SEASONAL REPRODUCTION IN THE FEMALE GRAY SQUIRREL, SCIURUS
CAROLINENSIS. J. 0. Newell* and R. L. Kirkpatrick? Dept, of
Forestry and Wildlife, Va. Polytechnic Inst., Blacksburg,

Va.

One hundred and ten female gray squirrels were collected
by shooting at monthly intervals (approximately 10 per month
for 12 months) in the vicinity of Blacksburg, Va. Repro¬
ductive and other endocrine organs were weighed and the
weights were recorded. The winter- spring breeding season
began the latter part of January with the peak of pregnancy
being reached in February. Thirty-three percent of the fe¬
males collected that month were pregnant. Lactation reached
a peak in May. The summer breeding season began in June
with a peak of pregnancy being reached in July. All animals
collected that month were pregnant. Peak of lactation oc¬
curred in October. Placental scar counts and fetal counts
of 20 females gave a winter-spring litter size of 2.50,
whereas the summer litter size for 39 females was 2.90. The
ovarian weights showed a successive increase from anestrual
periods to the pregnancy peaks. Ovarian weights showed a
progressive decrease during the periods of lactation. The
mean anterior pituitary weights of females showed a succes¬
sive increase fron anestrual periods to the lactation peaks.
Following lactation, the pituitary weights decreased and
reached their lowest level in November.

TELEMETRY OF TURKEY MOVEMENTS. Jack W. Raybourne. Dept,
of Forestry and Wildlife, Va. Poly. Inst., Blacksburg, Va.

The basic objective of this study was to determine if
radio- telemetry could be employed to monitor wild turkey
movements in mountainous terrain on the Broad Run Manage¬
ment Area, Craig County, Virginia.

With the aid of the cannon-projected net trap, 4 imma¬
ture wild turkeys (3 hens and 1 gobbler) were captured,
leg-banded, and equipped with 8-ounce radio transmitters.
The movements of these birds were monitored over a period
of 62 days during the fall of 1967.

The minimum home range for the 4-week tracking period
prior to the hunting season was 424.8 acres; whereas, the
turkeys moved over an area of 552.0 acres during the 4
weeks of the hunting season. The average distance travel¬
ed per day was 1.47 miles prior to hunting and 1.69 miles
during the hunting season. Movements during the day were
greatest between 10:00 and 11:00 a.m. and between 4:00 and
5:00 p.m. The marked turkeys did not utilize the interior
of a 60-acre clear-cut area adjacent to their home range
even though the periphery was used.

[Conducted under a fellowship grant to the investigator
from the National Defense Education Act (Title IV) made
through the Department of Forestry and Wildlife.]

VARIATIONS IN EMBRY0L0GICAL DEVELOPMENT OF PYXIDANTHERA
MICHX. (DIAPENSIACEAE) . John D. Reynolds, Richmond Pro¬
fessional Inst., Richmond, Va.

Variations in embryological development were observed in
two species of the genus Pyxidanthera Michx. Noted in P .
brevifolia Wells were the following: (1) proliferation of
megagametophyte nuclei, (2) formation of megagametophyte
haustoria, (3) formation of nucellar megagametophytes , (4)
formation of integumentary megagametophytes, and in P.
barbulata Michx. (1) formation of nucellar megagametophytes
and (2) formation of integumetary megagametophytes. The
formation of multinucleate megagametophytes suggests evolu¬
tion of the extant angiosperm megagametophytes by reduction
in nuclear divisions from the multinucleate type; embryo
sac haustoria may be considered a modification of an ances¬
tral absorptive organ: formation of megagametophytes from
nucellar epidermal cells supports the hypothesis that the
nucellus was once a naked sporangium in which all cells
were of sporogenous nature, and integumentary embryo sac
formation indicates that the integument is a structure
derived from the fusion of two or more lateral sporangia.

distribution and feeding in THE 0NUPH1D POLYCBAETE DIOPATKa

CUPREA. W.R. Rhodes* C. P. Mangum and S. L. Santos*, Col.

Wm. & Mary and Mar. Biol, Lab. Woods Hole, Mass.

Observations of populations of Diopatra cuprea in the
Cape Cod region and in the Chesapeake Bay indicate that
population density is poorly correlated with sediment parti¬
cle size. Our investigations indicate that there may be
good correlation of current velocity with population density
We have attempted to determine the significance of relatively
high current velocity for the animal.

The rate of oxygen consumption of Diopatra and the irri¬
gation activity of the worm do not justify correlation of
current velocity with oxygen demands. The shape and irregu¬
lar topography of the distal end of the tube, which projects
out of the substrate, suggests that it may serve as a food
catching device.

Tube caps of Chesapeake Bay worms were examined in detail
and found to harbor a diverse and populous community of
plants and animals, either permanently attached, seeking
temporary shelter, or merely left on the tube by the passing
currents. Examinations of fecal pellet contents have shown
a good correlation between the diet of Diopatra and loosely
held animals and plants on the tube caps.

We suggest that the tube cap functions as a food catching
device and that its efficiency depends upon the volume of
water flowing past. We further suggest that this may be a
significant factor relating high density populations to
relatively high current velocity.

Proceedings, 1967-1968

181

SEX INDEPENDENT GROUND COLOR IN THE TIMBER RATTLESNAKE,
CROTALUS HORRIDUS HORRIDUS. G. C. Schaefer, Dept, of
Biology, Univ. of Richmond, Va.

It has been suggested that sexual dichromatism occurs in
the light and dark color phases of the timber rattlesnake,
Crotalus horr idus horridus. Ninety-six adult and 61
juvenile horridus from Susquehanna and Wyoming counties,
Pennsylvania were examined to determine if ground color
polymorphism is sex related in these populations. No
significant difference was found in the frequency of
occurrence of the color phases between the sexes.

The ground color of newborn C. horridus was discernible
in most individuals. In laboratory raised juveniles the
color phase was in no way transitory. Thus, color phase is
genetically determined and not a response to environmental
stimuli. It is suggested that melanism is a thermo¬
regulatory adaptation in this species.

AUTECOLOGY OP SUMMER GRADE AMD SILVERLEAF GRAPE
IN THE VIRGINIA HIGHLANDS. Lynn M. Shutta. Dept,
of Forestry and Wildlife, Va. Polytechnic Inst.,
■Blacksburg, Va.

Because of widespread occurrence of wild grapes
in upland areas of Virginia and fruiting and
growth characteristics important to wildlife, an
ecological survey was carried out in the Ridge and
Valley Province, on the Jefferson and George Wash¬
ington National Forests. Ten grane "stands" were
located and studied, eight in Craig County and two
in Allegheny County. The belt transect method of
sampling was used. The number of olots per stand
varied with the size of the stand. The total num¬
ber of nlots for ten stands was sixty-one. The
investigator measured thirty site variables on
each plot which might be associated with grape
occurrence, abunuance, and vigor. Within stand
and between stand variation was studied in an
effort to correlate number of vines per plot and
basal area of vines per plot with individual site
factors.

[Aided by stinend from the U.S. Forest Service]

OSMOTIC COALESCENCE OF SARCOMA CELI£ THROUGH CYTOPLASMIC
BRIDGES. Max Tongier, Jr. and Clarence D. Cone, Jr. Molec.
Biophysics IAb., Langley Res. Ctr., Hampton, Va.

Recent observations of mouse sarcoma cells in vitro have
revealed a mitotic stimulus propagation through intercellu¬
lar bridges. This stimulus results in rapid proliferation
and, in principle, can constitute a potential mechanism of
cancerous growth in vivo. Of basic importance in the
interpretation of such observations is the demonstration
that the bridge connections are truly diffusionally-open
channels. The present paper outlines a direct procedure
for conclusively demonstrating such continuity. By careful
hypotonic swelling of cells and bridges, connected cell
groups can be fully coalesced into single multinucleate
syncytium through the bridge connections. The technique
provides a direct validation of bridge continuity, the
demonstration of which would otherwise require extensive
and tedious electron microscopic investigations. The
hypotonic swelling technique described is quite general and
has been highly useful for many other cytological applica¬
tions.

THE GIZZARD SHAD, DORSOMA CEPEDIANUM, OF SMITH MOUNTAIN
LAKE, VIRGINIA. Robert W. Schneider. Dept, of For. and
Wildl., Va. Polytechnic Inst., Blacksburg, Va.

The purpose of this study was to investigate some of the
life history aspects of the gizzard shad, Dorsoma cepedianum
in Smith Mountain Lake and to' obtain biological data that
would provide information for stocking and management poli¬
cies. Previous studies on the age composition and growth
rates of the gizzard shad are few and contradictory. Also,
the value of this species as a forage fish is not well docu¬
mented. However, most southeastern states have proceded to
stock this fish in large numbers.

Six stations were established throughout the lake where
the shad population was sampled once a month with experimen¬
tal and uniform mesh gill nets. The shad that were caught
were individually numbered, weighed, measured and sexed.
Scale and otolith samples were used for age determination.
Tables and figues are presented which show age, growth,
scale length-body length relationship, length-weight rela¬
tionship and coefficient of condition. The distribution of
this species throughout the lake as it is related to
plankton abundance is also discussed.

(Supported by the Va. Cooperative Fishery Unit).

INHIBITION OF REPRODUCTIVE MATURATION AND FUNCTION IN LABORA¬
TORY POPULATIONS OF PRAIRIE DEERMICE: A TEST OF PHEROMONE
INFLUENCE. C. Richard Terman, Col. Wm. & Mary.

Ninety percent of the females born into and retained in
freely growing laboratory populations of Prairie Deermice
(Peromyscus maniculatus bairdii) fail to produce young. Fur¬
ther, the reproductive organs of males and females from these
asymptotic populations are significantly lighter in weight
than controls. As a means of testing the influence on repro¬
ductive maturation of possible pheromones produced in the
populations, 20 bisexual pairs of mice were raised from wean¬
ing until 100 days of age on bedding (a) soiled by asymptotic
populations, (b) soiled by bisexual pairs from a breeding
colony and (c) unsoiled by mice.

Analysis of the reproductive performances of the mice and
the weights of their ovaries, uteri and testes gave no indi¬
cation of inhibition of reproductive development or function
of animals maintained on bedding soiled by asymptotic popu¬
lations. Rather, the data indicated that both reproductive
function and maturation were stimulated in these animals
compared to the other two treatments.

[This study was partially supported by Public Health Service
Grant NIH-MH-08289 . ]

THE PHENOMENON OF CARDIAC ESCAPE IN LIMULUS POLYPHEMUS .

James G. Townsel* and Richard C. Sanborn. Dept, of
Biological Sciences, Purdue University.

Stimulation of the cardioinhibitory nerve in Limulus
polyphemus causes a decrease in heart rate and strength of
contraction. Typically a stimulus of 3 volts intensity,

5 m sec duration, and 20 cps frequency was observed to pro¬
duce a decrease in heart rate to approximately 25% of the
prestiraulatory rate. However, during periods of prolonged
continuous stimulation (i.e. 15 to 30 min) the heart rate
was observed to return toward the prestimulatory rate. At
15 minutes after the onset of threshold stimulation the
heart rate had returned to 75% of the prestimulatory rate.
This escape phenomenon was not observed in perfusion studies
involving 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT), the suspected trans¬
mitter substance.

Tissues of the cardioregulatory system were assayed for
the decarboxylase which forms 5-HT from 5-hydroxytryptophan
(5-HTP). No 5-HTP decarboxylase could be detected.

These experiments suggest that cardiac escape may result
from presynaptic transmitter depletion.

(Supported by Predoctoral Fellowship 5-F1-GM-29, 202-02)

*Dept. of Biology, Va. State Col., Petersburg, Va.

182

The Virginia Journal of Science

SOME OBSERVATIONS ON TYROSINASE ACTIVITY IN OVIDUCTS

OF RANA pipiens. Tulip H. Turney. Dept, of Biology,
Hampden-Sydney Col., Hampden-Sydney, Va.

The presence of a tyrosinase in eggs of Rang
pipiens has already been documented. Howeuer, recent
work has shown the presence of a tyrosinase in the
ouiduct tissue itself which appears to be a different
form of the enzyme than that found in the egg.

For example, denaturing agents which activate the egg
tyrosinase are ineffective against the oviduct
tyrosinase. Indeed, the most effective means for
activating and maintaining tyrosinase activity in
oviduct tissue is the desiccation of the tissue
itself. (Aided by a grant from the Virginia

Academy of Science .)

LABORATORY BREEDING OF THE PINE VOLE, PITYMYS PINETORUM.

G. L. Valentine*and R. L. Kirkpatrick.* Dept, of Forestry
and Wildlife, Va. Polytechnic Inst., Blacksburg, Va.

Pine vole damage in orchards and timber plantations war¬
rants the search for improved control measures. Research
in this area has been hampered by a lack of biological in¬
formation on the species due largely to a failure of normal
reproduction by these voles in captivity. The objectives of
this experiment were (1) to determine vaginal smear patterns
in captive voles, (2) to determine if copulation occurs
without ensuing reproduction and (3) to obtain other basic
information on reproduction where possible. Vaginal smears
were taken daily for a period of two months from ten females
selected for body weight and general health. These females
were paired with males and kept in standard laboratory wire
mouse cages. Nine females exhibited estrual smears (corni-
fied cells) at some time during the study. No regular estr-
ous cycle was apparent; rather, periods of cornified smears
in the absence of pregnancy were irregular in length and
occurrence. During the study sperm and/or vaginal plugs
were found in seven females. Eight of the ten females con¬
ceived and eventually produced litters. Data from these
females indicated a gestation period of approximately 24
days. Blood was found in the vaginal smears of six preg¬
nant females at the 14th and 15th day of pregnancy. It is
assumed that this is analagous to the "placental sign" of
domestic rats and mice. (Aided by a grant frctn the Virginia
Agricultural Foundation)

HYPOTHALAMIC STEROID IMPLANTS AND ADRENAL SIZE IN MALE
SCELOPORDS CYANOGENYS. Edgar Willard, III*and Ian P.Callard.
Dept, of Biology, Col. of Wm & Mary, Williamsburg, Va.

Male S. cyanogenys were appropriately treated with Meto-
piron, an 11 beta hydroxylase enzyme inhibitor, thus blocking
the synthesis of adrenal steroids. This treatment caused a
highly significant increase in adrenal weight (controls

6.61 i .49 mg/ 100 gm vs 10.58 ± 1.04 mg/ 100 gm, p<.001).
Prior (30 days) stereotaxic implantation of a synthetic cor-
ticoid, betamethasone, in the hypothalamus, not only prevent¬
ed this compensatory adrenal hypertrophy but reduced adrenal
size below that of controls to 4.60 ± .19 mg/ 100 gm, (p D01)
Blank hypothalamic implants and subcutaneous implants of be¬
tamethasone were without effect, indicating that the opera¬
tive procedure itself did not cause hypertrophy nor was the
steroid implanted in the hypothalamus acting systemically .

The data suggest that the hypothalamus of S. cyanogenys
contains steroid sensitive receptor cells which control ad¬
renal size via the anterior pituitary gland.

Supported by NSF GB 6917 and College of Wm & Mary.

THE HISTOLOGY OF THE PARATHYROID GLANDS AND THE EFFECTS

OF PARATHYROIDECTOMY IN THE NEWT (TRITURUS VIRIDESCENS)

Lawrence ft'ittle Dept, of Biology. University of Virginia
Charlottesville, Va.

Attention has been given to parathyroid gland struoture
and function in lower vertebrates. Investigations on
amphibians, however, have dealt mostly with anurans
whereas the urodeles have been ignored. In this investiga¬
tion study of the histology of the parathyroid glands
and of the influences of parathyroidectomy was under¬
taken in the urodele, Triturus viridescens.

The parathyroid glands of the spotted newt, Triturus
viridescens are composed of cords of cells surrounded
with a thin connective tissue capsule. Immediately under
the oapsule is a capillary network which penetrates into
the gland and passes among the cords of cells. The
structure of the glands varies neither seasonally nor
with cold-acclimation or warm-acclimation in the newt.

After parathyroidectomy, plasma calcium was found to
drop 25-30/. within 48 hours but returned to normal within

16 days. Neither death nor tetany were observed. During
the same period plasma phosphorus tended to increase
after removal of the parath\roid glands but was significant
ly higher only on days 4 and days 6-9. Hypocalcuria
ocoured within 24 hours after parathyroidectomy, calcium
dropping to 45% of that measured in sham-operated
animals. Meanwhile urine phosphorus levels were not
significantly changed.

DISTRIBUTION OF PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES IN THE GULF

OF CALIFORNIA. Catharine E. Woody. First Colonial High

Seh., Virginia Beach, Va.

Stanford Oceanographic Expedition 15 was made into the

Gulf of California during June-September, 1967. During the
expedition two sections of eleven hydrographic stations wore
worked across the mouth of the Gulf. Physical and chemical
data from these eleven stations were evaluated and are dis¬
cussed. A temperature-salinity diagram shows the major por¬
tion of Gulf water to be characteristic of Pacific Equatorial
wator which is altered by heating and evaporation inside the
Gulf. There appears to be a strong inflow of Pacific Equat¬
orial water along the eastern coast of the Gulf. This is
concentrated at approximately JOOM. An outflow of modified
Pacific equatorial water or "Gulf wator" is also present al¬
ong the western coast at about 75 M. Gulf water could not be
distinguished from Pacific Equatorial water in the tempera¬
ture-salinity diagram. A silicate-salinity diagram was used
for this purpose. The concentrations of silicate and inor¬
ganic phosphate indicate that the Gulf may act as a nutrient
trap for these substances. There is 0.11-0. Jh^ga/L more
phosphate flowing out of the Gulf than entering; for sili¬
cate, the values range from 5“20><ga/L higher in the area of
the outflowing Gulf water. A relationship between oxygen
and density was found, with the statistical relationship
changing as Pacific Equatorial water was modified and became

Gulf water. The extent of geostrophic currents is discussed.
(Aided by Stanford Univ. Oceanographic Expedition 15 aboard
thus R/v TE VEGA. NSF Grant jjtoB6fl71. )

THE BENTHIC MARINE ALGAE OF THE ROSS SEA, ANTARCTICA.

Jacques S. Zaneveld, Inst. of Oceanography, Old Dominion Coll.

Sub-ice and sub-marine field studies carried out in the

Ross Sea during the austral summers of 1963-64 and 1964-65,
and the austral winter of 1967 revealed a well-marked zona-
tion of benthic marine algae. Collections were made by means
of scuba diving and by conventional gear from icebreakers
under sonar controlled conditions, so that the depth records
can not be disputed. These data show the following:

a. benthic algae grow under ice covers up to 6 m thick;

b. certain species are present throughout the year; c. algae
with a stenobathic and eurybathic sublittoral and elittoral
distribution can be distinguished; d. the depth limit for
algal growth appears to be 719 m; e. littoral algae are lack¬
ing due to the abrasive effects of scouring ice.

The main ecological factors affecting the algal distribu¬
tion under these extreme conditions are, apart from limita¬
tions imposed by the various substrates, the high hydrostatic
pressure, low light intensity, and low temperature. The last
three factors are known to reduce the rate of metabolism
either indirectly or directly. The metabolites, accumulated
by uninterrupted photosynthesis during the eight months pe¬
riod of continuous sunlight make survival for certain algal
species possible. Heterotrophic feeding however, might also
occur. Continuous 48-hour light measurements indicated an
intensity of 53 microamperes in algal beds at a depth of 20
m under a six m thick layer of ice. That is about 1.39% of
the incident sunlight. (Sponsored by N.S.F. grant GA-870.)

Proceedings, 1967-1968

183

Section of Chemistry

Forty-sixth Annual Meeting of The Virginia Academy of Science
May 8-10, 1968, Roanoke, Virginia

INFRARED SPECTRAL STUDY OF REACTIVE AND UNSTABLE
SPECIES ISOLATED IN SOLID ARGON: THE REACTION OF
ALKALI METAL ATOMS WITH TETRAHALOMETHANES . Lester
Andrews and T. Granville Carver , Dept, of Chemistry
and Ctr. for Advanced Studies, Univ. of Va., Char¬
lottesville, Va. 22901

The products of the reaction of lithium or so¬
dium with tetrahalomethanes are trapped in frozen
argon on a salt window at 15°K. Lithium halide
and the trihalomethy 1 radical are the products of
the primary reactions, while further reaction of
the radicals with the lithium yields the dihalo-
carbene and the trihalomethyl lithium compound.

The products are characterized by their infrared
spectra.

Bond-stretching force constants calculated for
the trihalomethyl radicals exceed those for the
corresponding carbon tetrahalide which is a conse¬
quence of resonance stabilization in the trihalo¬
methyl radical. Principal force constants for the
dihalocarbenes are slightly less than the CX4
values which suggests that carbon-halogen single
bonds are present in the dihalocarbenes.

ESTER INTERCHANGE REACTIONS. Harold M. Bell. Dept,
of Chemistry, Va. Polytechnic Inst., Blacksburg, Va.

Treatment of alkyl esters of phosphonic and
sulfonic acids with alkyl halides results in
interchange of the alkyl groups. The interchange
is reasonably rapid and clean at 130-150°, but
temperatures as low as 70° can effect a slow
interconversion. Carboxylic acid esters do not
react with alkyl halides under the same conditions.
Performing the reaction in a sealed tube results
in establishment of equilibrium; equilibrium
constants which agree closely over a wide range
of initial conditions can be determined. In
addition to synthetic utility, the reaction may
have some value in determining thermodynamic
properties of alkyl halides and related
derivatives.

TAUT0MERISM OF THE 1 ,4-DIPHENYLBUTANE- 1 , 2 ,4-TRIKET0NE
EN0L- 2 -HYDROXY - 3- FURAN0NE SYSTEM. R. G. Bass and J. R.
Toler, Dept, of Chemistry, Richmond Professional Inst, and
Med. Col. of Va., Richmond, Va.

Dibenzoylethenol has been obtained by the action of
anhydrous HC1 on dibenzoylethylene oxide in benzene as well
as by the previous reported reaction of sodium hydroxide on
dibenzoyl ethylene dibromide. This substance is known to
exist in two solid forms. By use of modern instrumental
techniques it has been shown that the lower melting form of
dibenzoylethenol is the chelated form of 1 ,4-diphenyl- 1 , 2,-
4-trione enol. The higher melting form is its ring-chain
tautomer , 2 , 5 -diphenyl - 2-hydroxy- 3- furanone .

Spectral studies indicate that in dimethyl sulfoxide and
ethanol, the furanone form predominates. Whereas in chlo¬
roform the enol form predominates. Studies in mixed sol¬
vent systems indicate that a solvent dependent equilibrium
exists between the hydroxyfuranone and the open chain che¬
lated enol. Alkoxy derivatives of dibenzoylethenol and its
cyclic form, 2,5-diphenyl-2-hydroxy-3-furanone were pre¬
pared in order to compare their various spectra with the
corresponding spectra of the tautomeric pair.

THE EFPECTS OP IMPURITIES, SOLUTES, AND MONOLAYERS UPON
THE CHARGE AND MASS TRANSFER OF DROPLETS. Robert Belshe,
Claybourne C. Snead, and Joseph T. Zung, Department of
Chemistry, College of William and Mary, Williamsburg, Va.

The effect of the monolayers upon the mass transfer
was to retard drastically the evaporation rates of the
droplets. The droplets containing immiscible substances
tend to loose charge and the droplets containing soluble
salts tend to gain charge as they evaporate.

[Work supported in part by the U. S. Army, Edgewood
Arsenal, Edgewood, Maryland and by the National Science
Foundation Undergraduate Research Participation Grant]

184

The Virginia Journal of Science

THE USE OF a , f} -UNSATURATED SEMICARBAZONES IN THE HUANG-
MINLON REDUCTION. Bruce B. Bernard, Michael L. Bramle.y,

Joseph B. Philips, III, Robert T. Schooley, and James K.
Shillington. Dept, of Chemistry, Washington and Lee Univ. ,
Lexington, Va.

In the course of an investigation of the transformation
of a keto carbonyl to a methylene group in the presence of
an ethylenic linkage and an ester group, we have become in¬
terested in a modified Huang-Minlon Reduction of a,/3-unsat-
urated semicarbazones. Toward this end a variety of semi-
carbazones have been prepared from such representative
compounds as acrylophenone , benzalacetone, a- and /3-Ionone,
isophorone, a complex ester, methyl y-(l-cyclohexenyl)-y-
oxobutyrate as well as cinnamaldehyde . These semicarba¬
zones have been reacted under a variety of high boiling
cellosolves and conditions.

CARB0NIUM ION-SILANE HYDRIDE TRANSFER REACTIONS.

SCOPE AND STEREOCHEMISTRY. Francis A. Carey and

Henry S. Tremper, Dept, of Chemistry, Univ. of Va.
Charlottesville, Va. 22901

Hydride transfer from organosilanes was found
to be an efficient way of converting carbonium
ions to the corresponding alkane. Under mildly
acidic conditions carbonium ions varying in
stability over a range of 24 pK units were reduced
in high yield.

With 4-t-butyl-l-phenyl cyclohexyl cation
hydride transfer gave predominantly the more sta¬
ble epimer.

The order of reactivity with respect to the
silanes was found to be Et3SiH>Et2SiH2>Ph3SiH>

PhSiH3.

PREPARATION AND INFRARED SPECTRA OF METHYL GERMYL ACETYLENE

AND METHYL GERMYL-d3 ACETYLENE. R. W. Dwyer and Donald R.
Baker, Dept, of Chemistry, Richmond Professional Inst.,
Richmond, Va.

The first known synthesis of methyl germyl acetylene and
methyl germyl-d3 acetylene has been carried out, and the
infrared vibrational-rotational spectrum of both molecules
has been investigated. Methyl germyl acetylene was pre¬
pared by allowing a bis (2-Methyxyethyl)ether, diglyme,
solution of methyl trichlorogermyl acetylene to react with
an aqueous solution of sodium borohydride. Methyl germyl-
d3 acetylene was prepared by an analogous reaction using
sodium borodeuteride germanium tetrachloride to react with
proynyl lithium in diglyme.

Infrared grating spectra of both molecules over the 4000
to 350 cm 1 region were assigned using a prolate symmetric
top, having the symmetry elements of the C3 point group,
as a model. The correctness of the vibrational assignment
was verified by comparison with similar molecules and by
Teller-Redlich product rule calculations. The vibrational-
rotational fine structure was resolved for two of the
doubly degenerate perpendicular vibrations, allowing the
calculation of the Coriolis coupling coefficients. The
rotational constants, A and B, were estimated.

GAS SOLUBILITIES IN MOLTEN SODIUM NITRATE. Paul E. Field
and William J. Greenf Dept, of Chemistry, Va. Polytechnic

Inst., Blacksburg, Va.

The determination of the solubilities of nitrogen, argon
and helium in molten sodium nitrate by a new and simplified
method is described. Values of the Henry's law constants
over the temperature range 310 to 400°C are reported. The
enthalpy and entropy of solution was evaluated by least
squares analysis of the solubility data of each gas based
on the equation: log Kp = m/T + b, where Kp has the units
(moles of gas/cc melt-atm) . For nitrogen, argon and
helium the values of m were -2180, -774 and -706 and of b
were -2.847, -5.736 and -5.675 respectively. The results
are compared to the predictions of an elementary solubility
model previously proposed by Blander.

PRODUCTION AND REACTIVITY OF CARBON-11 IN SOLID
COMPOUNDS*. Ronald Finn and Hans J. Ache, Dept,
of Chemistry, Virginia Polytechnic Institute,
Blacksburg, Va., 24061, and Chem. Department,
Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, New York

The reactivity of recoil carbon atoms, pro¬
duced by a number of nuclear processes, such as

A1 (p,X)cll, Na (p,X) cH , C12(p,pn)cD etc. using
the 3 GeV proton beam of the BNL Cosmotron was
studied in a variety of solid targets, among
others: Al-metal, NaCl crystals, CaC2- By
dissolving the samples in a suitable solvent the
yields of the carbon-11 labeled compounds were
determined. The conditions under which the
different reaction products appear are discussed.

♦Research performed under the auspices of the

U. S. Atomic Energy Commission.

REACTIONS OF UNSYMMETRICAL DIALKYLMAGNESIUM REAGENTS WITH
CARBONYL COMPOUNDS. Paul D. Henson, Dept, of Chem., Roanoke
College, Salem, Va. 24153 and J.F. Eastham*, Dept, of Chem.,
Univ. of Tenn. , Knoxville, Tenn. 37916.

The reactions of several mixed dialkyl and alkylarylmag-
nesium reagents with carbon dioxide, acetone and benzalde-
hyde were investigated. It was observed that both of the
substituents of a mixed reagent were not equally reactive.

A competitive order of reactivity was as follows: methyl >
iso-butyl or sec-butyl ; ii-butyl > iso-butyl > sec-butyl ; and
phenyl > n-butyl.

Comparison of a mixed dialky lmagnes ium reagent with a 1:1
mixture of the corresponding Grignard reagents showed the
two systems to be non-equivalent. Addition of magnesium
chloride to the unsymmet rical dialky lmagnesium reagent con¬
verted it to a mixture of Grignard reagents.

Proceedings, 1967-1968

185

BENZODIAZEPINES: THE CHEMISTRY OP 7-SUBSTITUTED

(1,5) -BENZODIAZEPINES. Cynthia Johnson and R. L.
Williams. Dept, of Chemistry, Old Dominion Col.,
Norfolk, Va.

The synthesis and characterization of several
7-substituted ( 1 , 5 ) -benzodiazepines has been ini¬
tiated as part of the current research program re¬
lated to the search for new antimalarial agents.

Of particular interest has been the development
of the chemistry of the 7-nitro and 7-amino (1,5)-
benzodiazepines (I) and (II).

Studies are continuing in the further charac¬
terization of these systems with regard to their
stability and subsequent reactivity.

The authors wish to thank the U.S. Army Medi¬
cal Research Institute for their continued sup¬
port .

THE ISOLATION AND CHARACTERIZATION OP THE ORGANIC
CONSTITUENTS OF GRACILARIA VERRUCOSA. R. Kelly,

H. G. Marshall, rT! E7 Williams and D. Brenahan.
Depts. of Chemistry and Biology, Old Dominion Col.
Norfolk, Va.

As part of the ever growing movement toward
the exploration and development of our ocean re¬
sources, the search continues for new, physiolo¬
gically active agents from marine organisms. A
preliminary investigation has been initiated at
Old Dominion College to examine a red alga com¬
mon to the lower Chesapeake Bay area.

The species Gracilaria verrucosa was collected
by SCUBA methods at rocky inf ra-tidal locations
from islands in the Bay Bridge Tunnel complex.

The species was isolated from other biota, dried
and subjected to chemical analysis to identify the
major organic constituents. The preliminary data
obtained from both classical and spectral analysis
has suggested the presence of a number of inter¬
esting carotenoid-like materials.

Research is continuing in this area and will be
expanded to include several marine invertebrates
and other rhodophyceans .

NEW 1,4-DIKETONE, FURAN AND FURANONIUM ION CHEMISTRY.

Robert E. Lutz. Elizabeth L. Anderson, David W. Boykin, Jr.,
Warren M. Hankins , Linwood P. Tenney, and Andrew B. Turner.
Dept, of Chemistry, Univ. of Va., Charlottesville, Va. 22901
Part I. (a) FURANONIUM SALTS FROM OXIDATIVE FURANIZA-
TIONS OF PHENYLATED UNSATURATED KETONES; NaBH4 REDUCTIONS TO
DIHYDROFURANS . An unstable furanonium ion of the type pos¬
tulated in furan reactions is demonstrated in bromine oxida¬
tive furanization of 1 ,2,4,4-tetraphenyl-3-butenone-l in¬
volving phenyl group migration. With a 3"Phenyl blocking
rearrangement and furanization, 1 ,3,4,4-tetra and 1, 2, 3,4,4-
pentaphenyl-3-butenones gave stable crystalline furanonium
perbromides and perchlorates. Structures Ph or
were shown by spectra, preparation directly
from the 2-hydroxydihydrof urans , alcoholysis,
and NaBH4 reductions to 2,5-dihydrofurans .

(b) 2,5-DIHYDROFURANOL BY NaBH4 REDUCTION OF CIS-DI-
BENZOYLD ICHLOROETHYLENE . cis -Dibenzoyldichloroethylene i
reduced by NaBH4 to the 2-hydroxy-2 , 5-dihydrofuran .
which undergoes slow spontaneous dehydration Cl Cl

to the furan. Two forms in solution are in- ) - (

dicated by two nmr peaks for the 5“Proton*

The relative stability of the hydroxydihydro-
furan is attributed to destabilization by the H OH
chlorine atoms of the intermediate furanonium ion. PCI3
reduced this cis-diketone directly to the furan but does not
reduce the trans-diketone.

PhfM^Ph

H OH

NEW 1,4-DIKETONE, FURAN AND FURANONIUM ION CHEMISTRY.

Robert E. Lutz , Elizabeth L. Anderson, David W. Boykin, Jr.,
Warren M. Hankins , Linwood P. Tenney, and Andrew B. Turner.
Dept, of Chemistry, Univ. of Va., Charlottesville, Va. 22901

Part II. (a) SOLVENT EFFECTS ON CIS -TRANS EQUILIBRIUM.
Cis-trans base catalyzed equilibria were determined for 1-
benzyl-2,3"dibenzoyl and 1-cyclohexyl -2-phenyl-3“benzoyl
aziridines, PhC0\jq^C0Ph, in seven alcohols and in dimethyl
sulfoxide. R These ranged from K=5«25 in DMSO

to 0.32 in t-butyl alcohol, and they approximately paral¬
leled dielectric constants. Marked effects of added base
and salts were demonstrated.

(b) NOVEL HETERO-TRICYCLIC RING SYSTEM BY BICYCLIZATIVE
CONDENSATION WITH ACETONE. N-Benzyl -2 ,3-dibenzoylaziridine
was reduced by 2-propoxide to the equilibrium mixture of
cis and trans ketols. Concomitantly it underwent rapid
bicyclizative condensation with the generated acetone to
give the heterotricyclic ketone, the skeletal analog of
scopine with the ring oxygen and nitrogen atoms
transposed. Successive cis group participations
rationalize the mechanism. NaBH4 reduction gave
the equatorial alcohol and an isomer, the analog
of scopoline, which was produced by transannular
attack of the oxy anion of the axial alcohol on
the aziridine ring with cleavage to a secondary
amine .

[Aided by a National Science Foundation Grant]

KINETIC ANOMALIES IN THE OXIDATION OF ARSENIC (III)
BY CHROMIUM (VI) . John G. Mason and P. T. Chang,
Dept, of Chemistry, Va. Polytechnic Inst.,
Blacksburg, Virginia

Under normal conditions, the oxidation of
As (III) by Cr(VI) proceeds with simple pseudo
first order kinetics when As (III) is present
in excess according to

-dfcr (VI)1_ = k [cr (VI )]

dt m

, , 1 .68 x 10~2 Las (III)] . However,

where km - x + 22.4 [As(III)J

relatively slow addition of Cr(VI) to As (III)
produces a new reaction path and more complicated
kinetics. Rate data obtained under varying con¬
centration and mixing conditions have been
analyzed and the behavior rationalized in terms
of the production via slow mixing of non-equili¬
brium concentrations of intermediates. The
anomalous rate term is shown to be a pseudo first
order reaction involving variable concentrations
of an intermediate.

THE PREPARATION OF 2 , 3-DI (BROMOMETHYL) -1 ,3-BUTADIENE AND
SOME OF ITS DERIVATIVES. Raphael M. Ottenbrite and
George B. Butler*. Med. Col. of Va. and R. P. I.,

Richmond , Va .

The synthesis of the title compound involved the
preparation of the 3 ,4-dimethyl -2 , 5-dihydrothiophene
1,1-dioxide by heating equivalent amounts of 2,3-dimethyl-
1 ,3-butadiene and sulfur dioxide. This sulfone was
dibrominated with N-bromosuccinimide . The brominated
sulfone was decomposed on heating to yield 2,3-di-
(bromomethyl)-l, 3-butadiene. The dibrominated sulfone
proved to be a useful intermediate in preparing 2,3-di-
(acetoxymethy 1) -and 2 ,3-di- (hydroxymethyl) -1 , 3-butadiene
as well as other interesting compounds.

*University of Florida where this work was initiated.

186

The Virginia Journal of Science

SYNTHESIS OF SOME OF THE HIGHER ALKYL t-BUTYL SULFIDES.

Matilda Perkins* and John B. Daffin. Dept, of Chemistry.

Stuart Hall, Staunton, V a.

This paper is an extension of the work of the senior
author and his students in the preparation of the lower
members of the alkyl t-butyl sulfides. It reports the
progress achieved in the synthesis and characterization of
members of the series higher than nonyl t-butyl sulfide,
making use of a modified procedure previously used, and
continuing the use of p-toluene sulfonic acid as the
catalyst in condensation reactions.

RADIATION-INDUCED LUMINESCENCE OF XYLENE POLYMERS AND

RELATED MONOMERS AND DIMERS. Donald H. Phillips and John C
Schug. NASA Langley Res. Ctr., Hampton, Va. and Va. Poly¬
technic Inst., Blacksburg, Va.

The luminescence induced by high-energy electron ir¬
radiation of poly (p-xylene) , poly (monochloro-p-xylene) , and
of frozen dibenzyl, benzene, toluene, p-xylene, and durene
is reported and interpreted. In the emission spectra of the
polymers and the dimer, dibenzyl, singlet emission is con¬
spicuously absent. The predominant emission is by triplet
and triplet excimer states, though some long wavelength
emission (400-500 mu) is also observed. The absence of
singlet emission in these cases is explained on the basis of
a molecular resonance (excimer) model, which predicts sing¬
let quenching and enhanced triplet emission. The results
obtained from the frozen irradiated monomers present an
interesting series: p-xylene and chloro-p-xylene emit
primarily in the long wavelength (400-500 mu) region;
toluene and durene exhibit both singlet emission and long
wavelength emission; benzene shows only singlet, triplet,
and triplet excimer emission. To help with the interpret¬
ations, theoretical pi-electronic spectra were calculated
for various molecules, radicals, and radical ions by the
self-consistent-field molecular-orbital theory with
configuration-interactions .

C0PP3B ARCHAEOLOGY: DETECTION OF METALS IN COPPER BY ATC. IC
ABSORPTION SPECTROSCOPY. Susan S. Fotterton (sponsored by

Helen L. Whidden, member, Virginia Academy of Science)

Box 215, Handolph-Maeon Roman's College, Lynchburg, Va.

A study of copper archaeology, undertaken at Argonne

National Laboratory under the auspices of the Atonic Energy
Commission, sought to relate copper artifacts to the geo¬
graphical location of the mining areas used by ancient
civilizations. Assuming that metallic impurities present in
various amounts in the ores were carried in measurable
quantities to the artifacts, quantitative techniques to de¬
termine the concentration of trace metallic impurities in
copper were devised. Future statistical analysis of the
resulting data should establish a correlation between arti¬
fact and ore source. In this part of the project, atomic
absorption spectroscopy was investigated as a possible
analytical tool. Special problems using this technique
including spectral interference using a multielement lamp
and viscosity interference were investigated in relation
to the problem of detecting trace impurities in the pre¬
sence of high copper concentrations. . ethods to avoid these
problems were adapted and the results of ore analyses
summarized .

ELECTRONIC TRANSMISSION EFFECTS ACROSS HETEROCYCLIC RING
SYSTEMS. Oscar R. Rodig and Alan F. Dickason, Dept, of
Chemistry, Univ. of Va., Charlottesville, Va.

A series of substituted picolinic and nicotinic esters
have been prepared and their rates of hydrolyses have been
measured in a basic medium. By comparing the values
obtained with those for the corresponding benzoic esters,
it is possible to determine the effect of a nuclear nitro¬
gen atom on the transmission of electronic effects across
an aromatic ring. The relationship of the results with the
Hammett parameters will also be discussed.

INHIBITION OF THE ESTERASE ACTIVITY OF THROMBIN BY

Na . Phyllis S. Roberts and Rosalind K. Burkat*,

Dept, of Med., Med. Col. of Va., Richmond, Va.

The hydrolysis of TAME(p-toluenesulfonyl-L-
arginine methyl ester) by bovine and human throm¬
bin was inhibited ab^ut 40% by 0.1M NaCl but not
by KC1. Probably Na and not an impurity in the

NaCl produced the inhibition since NaCl from a
second source gave the same results and rates in
a buffer made from the mono- and di-potassium
phosphates were double those in a buffer made from
th^ sodium phosphates. No evidence was found that

Na inhibited a contaminant in the thrombin prepa¬
rations. Increasing concentrations of glycerol
produced increasing inhibition but the per cent
inhibition due to Na remained constant. Incubat¬
ing thrombin at 37° and pH 3.4 gradually destroyed
it but at all times the per cent inhibition due to

Na remained constant. Soybean trypsin inhibitor
did not inhibit and the per cent inhibition by Na+
vas the same in its presence and absence. It was
concluded that thrombin itself is inhibited by Na+.
(Supported by Research Grant HE-04016, National

Heart Institute, USPHS.)

SYNTHETIC APPLICATIONS OF THE GLUTARIMIDE DIANION.

T. G. Rogers and James F. Wolfe, Dept, of Chemistry, Va.
Polytechnic Inst., Blacksburg, Va. 24061

Treatment of glutarimide with sodium amide in liquid
ammonia produces the glutarimide dianion. This reactive
intermediate undergoes condensations with a variety of
electrophilic reagents exclusively at its carbanion site.

These condensations, which include alkylations with primary
alkyl halides, carbonyl addition reactions with aromatic
aldehydes and ketones, and aroylations with aromatic esters,
afford a number of interesting new 2-subs tituted glutarimide
derivatives. The present method for the preparation of
2-substituted glutarimides will be compared to earlier, less
convenient methods.

Proceedings, 1967-1968

187

SOLVENT EFFECTS ON THE HALOGEN-METAL INTERCONVERSION BETWEEN
ETHYL IODIDE AND n-BUTYLLITHIUM. F. A. Settle, Jr., R. H.
Kerr*, L. P. Beaulieu*, and L. A. Yeouze*, Va. Military

Inst., Dept, of Chemistry, Lexington, Va.

Despite the synthetic utility of organolithium compounds,
relatively little is known about the structure of the reac¬
tive lithium species. It is known that organolithium rea¬
gents exist as dimeric or polymeric aggregates and that the
extent of association is dependent on the solvent medium.
Certain Lewis bases are known to complex organolithium rea¬
gents, yielding species which have different properties from
the original reagent.

The reaction between ethyl iodide and n-butyl lithium to
yield n-butyl iodide and ethyllithium was studied at -78°C
in various hydrocarbon-Lewis base solvent mixtures. The
effect of the solvent medium on the stability (position of
equilibrium) and reactivity (kinetics) was observed. The
rate of the reaction increased with increasing Lewis base:
hydrocarbon ratio for all bases studied; tetrahydrofuran
(THF) , diethyl ether and triethyl amine.

SELF-INDUCED TRITIUM LABELING IN CYCLOHEXANE -
BENZENE MIXTURES*, Carmine T. Somma and Hans J.

Ache, Dept, of Chemistry, Virginia Polytechnic
Institute, Blacksburg, Va., 24061, and Chemistry
Dept., Brookhaven National Lab., Upton, New York

The self-induced T-labeling of the parent
molecules in gaseous or liquid benzene-cyclo-
hexane mixtures of various compositions occurs
strictly proportional to the elapsed exposure time.
The experimental conditions (500 mCi T2) assure
that more than 50% of the tritiated parent mole¬
cules were formed by a radiation induced mechanism.
The number of T atoms incorporated in cyclohexane
or benzene under these conditions is a linear
function of the electron fraction of cyclohexane
of a possible charge transfer from radiolytically
formed ionic cyclohexane species to benzene has
been observed. An attempt is made to explain the
tritiation of the cyclohexane in terms of radic-
alic mechanisms.

♦Research performed under the auspices of the U.S.
Atomic Energy Commission and Petroleum Research

Fund .

THE STEREOCHEMICAL COURSE OF THE PERACID OXIDATION OF OXIMES

TO NITRO COMPOUNDS. Richard J. Sundberg and Peter A.

Bukowick. Dept, of Chemistry, Univ. of Va., Charlottesville,
Va.

A series of 2-subs tituted cyclohexane oximes has been
shown to yield predominantly cis 2-subs tituted nitrocyclo-
hexanes upon trif luoroperacetic acid oxidation. The isomerid
mixture of 2-nitrocyclohexanepropionic acid ethyl esters ob¬
tained from the oxime of the ethyl ester of cyclohexanone-2-
propionic acid was 85$ cis as indicated by converting the
mixture of nitroesters into a mixture of cis and trans deca-
hydroquinolines, which were separated by gas chromatography.
Analysis, by NMR, of 2-ni trocyclohexane acetic acid ethyl
ester and 2-phenylni trocyclohexane , obtained from the appro¬
priate oximes, showed that the former was 77 °jo cis and the
latter at least 9 1$ cis . Gas Chromatography and NMR indi¬
cates that the oxidation product of 2-methyl -cyclohexanone
oxime was about 80$ cis 2-methylnitrocyclohexane . Besides
demonstrating the stereoselectivity of this synthetically
useful reaction, these results indicate that the step which
determines the stereochemistry of the oxidation is protona¬
tion of the aci-nitro form or its anion.

PHOTOCHEMICAL DEOXYGENATION OF AROMATIC NITRO COMPOUNDS IN
TRIETHYL PHOSPHITE. Richard J. Sundberg, Biian P. Das and

W. Gary Adams. Dept, of Chemistry, Univ. of Va., Charlottes¬
ville, Va. 22901

The irradiation of aromatic nitro compounds in triethyl
phosphite (TEP) with ultraviolet light (\>300 mp.) results in
oxygen transfer reactions at room temperature. The products
are triethyl phosphate (1_) , triethyl N-Arylphosphorimidates
(2j and, from o-methylnitroaromatics , rearranged N-aryl-2-
acetimidylpyridines (3). Structure determination of the

AR-N02 + P(0C2H5)3 AR-N=P(0C2Hs)3 + P0(0C2H5)3 +

•§- AR-N=C-^

J- CH3

acetylpyridines obtained by hydrolysis of the acetimidyl-

pyridines shows that the overall structural change in the
rearrangement is as shown below. Evidence pointing to the
involvement of aromatic nitrenes in these deoxygenations
will be discussed.

PREPARATION AND INFRARED SPECTRUM OF TITATIUM TETRAHYDRIDE .

S. B. Thomas and Donald R. Baker, Dept, of Chemistry, Rich¬
mond Professional Inst., Richmond, Va.

Titatium tetrahydride, Tilli,, was prepared by the reac¬
tion of Till, with NaBHi, in a toluene-water system. The
purity of the product was verified by its infrared spec¬
trum. Investigation of the infrared vibrational-rotational
spectrum over the 4000 to 400 cm'1, under grating resolu¬
tion, has shown the molecule to be a spherical top having

Tj symmetry. The rotational fine structure of the infrared
active bands has been resolved and analyzed to determine
the Coriolis coupling constants. The zeta sum rule was
used to enable the calculation of the rotational constant,

B, and thus the Ti-H bond distance.

COMPLEXES OF COPPER(II) FLU0R0B0RATE :

S-C00RDINATI ON OF COPPER(II). J. L. Tompkins and

W. W. Porterfield, Hampden-Sydney Col.,
Hampden-Sydney , Va.

Several complexes of Copper(II) fluoroborate
with typical donor-ligands such as dimethyl
sulfoxide, pyridine-N-oxide, and triphenylphos-
phine oxide have been prepared, including one
formally five-coordinate Copper(II) complex. The
effects of BF4 on Copper coordination and the
possibility of five-coordination are discussed.

Lower- than-maximum coordination numbers with

C10J may indicate coordinated CIO4, at least in
the solid phase. Spectroscopic and magnetic data
for the five-coordinated complex are compared
with previously reported data for trigonal
bipyramidal complexes of the Copper(II) ion.

(Aided by a grant from the National Science
Foundation. )

188

The Virginia Journal of Science

REDUCTION OF ALKYL HALIDES AND RELATED DERIVATIVES
WITH SODIUM BOROHYDRIDE. C. Warren Vanderslice
and Harold K. Bell, Dept, of Chemistry, Va.

Polytechnic Inst., Blacksburg, Va.

Treatment of primary and secondary alkyl halides
and related derivatives with sodium borohydride in
dimethylsulfoxide results in reduction of the
carbon-halogen bond. The following equation is
representative :

CH„I + NaBH. - > Nal + CH. + BH,

3 4 4 3

The order of reactivity is primary > secondary ,
and iodide >tosylate >bromide > chloride. Similar
results are observed in the case of lithium
aluminum hydride, but its greater reactivity is
sometimes a detriment. In addition to the
synthetic utility with respect to organic substrate,
the reaction may prove to be a convenient method
for the production of solutions of borane.

SOME RECENT OBSERVATIONS OF THE VIOLATION OF THE
PRINCIPLE OF MINIMUM STRUCTURAL CHANGE IN ORGANIC
CHEMISTRY, Frank A. Vingiello, C. S. Menon and

A. K. Youssef, Dept, of Chemistry, Va. Polytechnic
Inst., Blacksburg, Va. , 24061.

Although the principle of minimum change is
often involved in organic chemistry, especially
in proof of structure work, it must be kept in
mind that many chemical reactions are accompanied
by more or less drastic molecular rearrangements.

Two recently discovered rearrangements in the
field of polycyclic aromatic chemistry will be
discussed. One of these seems to be of theoret¬
ical interest only, but the other also has
valuable synthetic utility.

POSXTRONIUM CHEMISTRY IN AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS*,

Thomas L. Williams and Hans J. Ache, Dept, of
Chemistry, Virginia Polytechnic Institute,

Blacksburg, Va., 24061

Average lifetimes of positrons have been
measured in a variety of aqueous solutions.
Experimental techniques and results will be
discussed in light of currently accepted views
on positronium interactions with matter.

♦Research performed under the auspices of the

U. S. Atomic Energy Commission.

ANALYSIS FOR MONOCARBONYL AUT0XIDATI0N PRODUCTS IN LIVER

LIPIDS FROM CARBON TETRACHLORIDE-POISONED RATS.

Lawrence A. Wishner and Jean H. Miller. Dept, of

Chemistry, Mary Washington Col., Fredericksburg, Va.

The liver lipids of rats fed different doses of CCI4
(lOpl or 0.25ml per lOOg body weight) were extracted after
varying periods of time (6, 18, and 20 hrs) and subjected
to the isolation of monocarbonyl compounds as 2,4-dinitro-
phenylhydrazones in a nitrogen atmosphere. Chromatographic
separation and spectrophotometric estimation of the mono¬
carbonyl derivatives revealed no significant differences
between control and experimental animals in spite of
pronounced triglyceride accumulation and necrosis in the
livers of the poisoned animals.

The autoxidation of accumulated triglyceride has been a
popular theory of the hepatotoxicity associated with many
substances (e.g., CCI4, ethanol, ethionine, organic hydro¬
peroxides, etc.), however, the results of this experiment
suggest that autoxidation may not be the principal degen¬
erative event in CCI4 poisoning.

THE REACTION OF TITANIUM( III) CHLORIDE WITH SOME
OXYGEN DONORS. W. F. Wright and W. W. Porterfield
Hampden-Sydney Col. , Hampden-Sydney , Va.

The reactions of the donor molecules triphenyl-
arsine oxide, triphenylphosphine oxide, dimethyl
sulfoxide, and pyridine-N-oxide with titanium( III)
chloride have been investigated. Triphenylphos¬
phine oxide and triphenylarsine oxide form simple
addition complexes with titanium( III) chloride
but dimethylsulfoxide and pyridine-N-oxide undergo
redox reactions yielding a titanium oxychloride
complex. The new compounds TiCl3*( C6HS) 3P0,

TiCl3 • 4( C6H5) 3AsO, TiOCl2 • 5(CH3)2S0, and

TiOCl2 • 3 C5H5NO have been prepared. The

TiCl3 • 4(C6H5)3P0 complex has been shown to be
a 1:1 electrolyte with octahedral symmetry.

(Aided by a grant from the National Science
Foundation. )

RELATIONSHIP OF STRUCTURE TO SENSITIVITY IN ELEC¬
TRON CAPTURE ANALYSIS. Walter L. Zielinski and
Lawrence Fishbein, Melpar, Inc., Falls Church, Va .
and Dept, of H.E.W., Div. of Environmental Health
Sciences, Res. Triangle Pk., N. C.

Much investigation concerning the evaluation of
electron capture detectors as well as the collec¬
tion of absolute and relative sensitivity values
for chromatographed solutes has been reported in
the literature. Owing to the structural diversity
of pesticides and other halogen -containing deriva¬
tives, however, discrete sensitivity correlations
have proven difficult.

A technique is suggested which, properly quali¬
fied, might aid in the delineation of relative
quantitative contributions of molecular components
to the electron capturing capacity of the molecule,
and thereby assist in structure-sensitivity
interpretations.

Use is made of a multilinear regression com¬
puter program to estimate the relative contribu¬
tion of molecular segments to response. Applica¬
tion is discussed, not only to pesticides, but to
model substituted aromatic systems as well. The
usefulness and limitations of this approach
toward interpretation of compound sensitivity via
structural considerations and component electron
affinities are included.

Proceedings, 1967-1968

189

Section of Engineering

Forty-sixth Annual Meeting of The Virginia Academy of Science
May 8-10, 1968, Roanoke, Virginia

THE EFFECT OF DENSITY VARIATIONS ON THE HYDRODYNAMIC STA¬
BILITY OF THE BENARD PROBLEM. Robert L. Ash. School of
Engineering, Old Dominion College, Norfolk, Va„

Previous investigations of the stability of horizontal
fluid layers heated from below have employed the Boussinesq
approximation. That is, the variation in density in the
hydrodynamic equations was neglected everywhere except in
the body force term of the conservation of momentum
equation. The present investigation assumed that the densi¬
ty varied linearly with depth and new stability equations
were developed using a perturbation analysis. The problems
investigated were fluid layers bounded by two rigid sur¬
faces, two free surfaces, and one rigid and one free sur¬
face. In all cases, the bounding surfaces were assumed iso¬
thermal with the temperature at the lower surface greater
than the upper surface. It was found that as the percent
variation in fluid-density across the layer was increased,
the Rayleigh number predicting the onset of motion
decreased.

An improved shear stress boundary condition was employed
in the problems involving free surfaces which included
effects due to the density variation. Additionally, the
influence of the boundary condition alone on the Boussinesq
stability equations was investigated and was found to have
no significant effect on the Rayleigh number predicting the

RADIAL FORCES ON A STATIC SPHERE IN POISEUILLE FLOW. George A. Beasley, II
and James M. Wiggert, Dept, of Civil Engineering, Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Blacks¬
burg. Va. 24061 .

The behavior of non-rotating, rigid, spherical particles entrained in the laminar flow in
a nearly vertical cylindrical tube was studied experimentally by suspending the particles so
that they remained motionless with respect to an external frame of reference. Each of the
particles was only slightly more dense than the entraining liquid, so that a state of static
equilibrium was achieved by adjusting the flow rate to balance the buoyant weight of the
sphere with the forces generated by the fluid flow. It was observed that a two-way radial
force field acted on a single particle such that the particle was maintained in an equilib¬
rium radial position between the tube axis and the wall. The attainment of such equilib¬
rium positions has been termed the tubular pinch effect. It was also observed that the out¬
ward directed forces were of such strength that the particles would not cross the tube axis
even though repeated attempts were made to accomplish a crossing.

Values of a net lift force were obtained by inclining the tube so that a radial compon¬
ent of the particle weight was numerically equal to the radial fluid force in the static
equilibrium state. Correlations of the net lift force with measured equilibrium flow rates
and radial positions, indicate that inertial effects are important near the center of the
tube, while near the tube wall other effects, such as a repulsive force of the wall for the
particle, are important.

Limited observations of single particles which moved along with the flow indicated
that the equilibrium radial position assumed by a particle decreases with increasing Rey¬
nolds number. The observations indicate that a particle may seek an equilibrium position
which is dependent upon the magnitude of the approach Poiseuille velocity field.

onset of free convection.

MEASUREMENT OF HIGHWAY SLIPPERINESS USING THE VIRGINIA HIGH¬
WAY RESEARCH COUNCIL SKID TRAILER. Larry M. Cook,* VHRC, and
W. H. Dancy, Jr., RLES, Univ. of Va . , Charlottesville, Va .

The VHRC skid trailer uses a towing vehicle and a two
wheel trailer to measure the coefficient of friction between
pneumatic tires and highway surfaces. The towing vehicle
carries water for wetting the road in front of the test tire
and can operate at speeds up to 70 MPH . The coefficient of
friction is measured by means of strain gages mounted on the
trailer brake anchor pins. Both friction force and vehicle
speed are permanently recorded. The unit is capable of in¬
vestigating many of the parameters that effect highway slip¬
periness. These include water film thickness; tire, road,
and air temperatures; tire pressure; physical and geometric
properties of tires; and, to a limited extent, tire loading.
Measurements may be made with either wheel of the trailer or
with both wheels operating simultaneously at normal highway
speeds and without interrupting normal traffic flow. Water
film thickness is automatically controlled regardless of ve¬
hicle speed. The vehicle may be operated by the truck
driver alone for routine studies or by both the truck driver
and an instrument operator when special applications impose
additional requirements.

This effort has been^ supported by the Virginia Highway
Research Council which is jointly sponsored by the Virginia
Department of Highways and the University of Virginia in
conjunction with the U.S. Department of Transportation,
Bureau of Public Roads.

NEUTRON ATTENUATION IN WATER AND ALUMINUM -WATER LAMINATIONS.
G. I. Coulbourn, T. G. Williamson and W. R. Johnson. Dept,
of Nuclear Engineering, Univ. of Va., Charlottesville, Va.

The fast neutron spectrum, fast neutron dose rate and
thermal neutron flux have been measured at various distances
from a "point" fission source in water and aluminum-water
laminations. The neutron detectors were threshold activa¬
tion foils, p-i-n junction diode dosimeters and thermal ac¬
tivation foils. The source of fission neutrons was a small
4 x 4 x 0.044 inch converter plate containing 206 g of 93%
enriched uranium exposed to neutron leakage through the
large graphite thermal column of the Univ. of Va. pool-type
reactor. The converter plate was recessed well into the
medium being investigated, thus simulating a point source in
an infinite medium and minimizing the degradation of the
source spectrum due to backscatter from the thermal column.

Absolute saturation activities were obtained for the
threshold reactions using experimentally determined counting
system efficiencies. Fast neutron spectra were unfolded
from the absolute activities using an iterative technique
similar to the method employed by Bresesti, in which the
neutron spectrum is represented by a series of successive
exponentials. Calculation of each experimental measurement
was made by Computing Technology Ctr. of the Oak Ridge Nat.
Lab., using the ANISN computer code. Experimental and cal¬
culated results generally agreed well within the experimen¬
tal error.

[Support: U.S. Army Nuclear Def. Lab., Edgewood Arsenal, Md . ]

190

The Virginia Journal of Science

TUNABLE PARAMETRIC AMPLIFIERS. Jochen Edrich* National Radio
Astronomy Observatory, Green Bank, W. Va. (Operated by
Allied Universities, Inc., under contract with NSF. )

In recent years there has been an increasing demand for
low noise receivers with wider bandwidths. Generally one
has the choice between two methods: One is to achieve large
instantaneous bandwidths. This method has been investigated
theoretically and practically in the past. The second is to
make amplifiers tunable over a wide frequency range. Various
methods which accomplish the desired tuning exist. Few at¬
tempts have been made to analyze these methods and choose
the best one. The paper gives a brief survey of the various
methods with more detail about the simplest and best method,
the bias voltage tuning method. Influence of tuning on in¬
stantaneous bandwidth and noise temperature of cooled and
uncooled parametric amplifiers is analyzed. The theory is
compared with experimental results on tunable paramps de¬
signed and built for applications in radio astronomy. Tuning
of the signal frequency of these amplifiers goes up to 300
MHz in the frequency range between 1 to 2 GHz-. The noise
temperature lies around 80°K, and instantaneous bandwidth is
in the order of 25 MHz for 15, dB gain. Increase in noise
temperature, which, is due to tuning, does not matter for
cooled amplifiers, as the noise of the amplifier itself is
only about 10% of the noise temperature of the whole re¬
ceiver. Several times wider frequency ranges can be covered
with these tunable amplifiers than with the best amplifiers
with large i ns t an t aneous bandwidths.

A VACUUM PERMEABILITY TEST FOR COMPACTED CLAY. E. F. Hart
and R. D. Krebs, Dept, of Civil Engineering, Va. Polytechnic
Inst., Blacksburg, Va.

A vacuum permeability test utilizing high hydraulic gradi¬
ents has been devised for compacted clay of low permeability.
This test induces easily measureable flow rates in virtually
impervious soils by placing a vacuum at the drainage end of
the sample and a pressure at the inflow end. The anticipat¬
ed difficulties, capillary effects, and permeability reduc¬
tion by entrapped air, do not introduce appreciable error as
shown by the linearity of velocity-hydraulic gradient curves
and the agreement of test results with those obtained not
using a vacuum. It is conduced that this rapid, inexpen¬
sive method gives adequate values of coefficient of perme¬
ability for most experimental work on compacted clay.

DESIGN FOR A LIQUID-METAL-COOLED FAST BREEDER REACTOR FOR THE
1970' s. Bernard J. Goulding. Atomic Energy Division, The
Babcock & Wilcox Company, Lynchburg, Va.

This paper describes the general philosophy and the re¬
quirements that led to the selection of the current reference
design for a 1000-MWe Liquid Metal Fast Breeder Reactor
(LMFBR) commercial power plant of the late 1970's. This con¬
cept was evolved during B&W's participation in the national
program co-sponsored with the AEC and under contract to
Argonne National Laboratory, in which four significantly dif¬
ferent preliminary concepts were derived before work on the
reference concept was begun.

The overall design and the plant layout of the system are
described. The description includes the criteria and philos¬
ophy for a typical reactor concept as well as the incentives
and advantages of the concept.

The primary system components that are contained within
the reactor vessel, located in the reactor containment build¬
ing, are discussed in more detail than are the general plant
items. Conclusions are also given, citing the need for a
300- to 500-MWe-capacity demonstrator plant.

FLOW STUDIES WITH A BLOOD-SIMULANT SYSTEM. Richard J. Jen-
drucko* , L. U. Lilleleht*, and 0. L. Updike, Dept., of Chemi¬
cal Engineering, Univ. of Va., Charlottesville, Va.

In the development of a clinically usable thermal probe
for measurement of blood flow velocity, a model system is
being employed to yield information for the design and use
of such probes. The approach involves an analysis of the
signal from a hot-film anemometer probe in a flow system
employing a recently developed "pseudo-blood" suspension.
Both the high-frequency and the d-c output of the instru¬
ment contain information and vary with pseudo-cell concen¬
tration and flow rate. Some experiments employ pulsatile
flow, and high-speed photography is being used in an attempt
to study the effects of particle collisions with the flow
sensing element, which roughly simulates the intravascular
probe .

Operation on the same size scale as in the mammalian
cardiovascular system has not yet been possible, but the
ratio is thought to be such that the conclusions will be
applicable to biomedical systems.

{Aided by a Biomedical Science Support Subgrant from the
National Institutes of Health, U.S.P.H.Sj

ECONOMICAL SOLVENT RECOVERY, Paul Jensen and Paul
Feldman. Atlantic Research Corporation, A Div.
of The Susquehanna Corporation, Alexandria, Va.

Air pollution by organic industrial solvents
can be prevented by direct incineration, catalytic
oxidation, or adsorption and recovery for reuse.

The first 2 require least expensive equipment, but
the recovery alternative sometimes allows good
return on control equipment investment. Most sol¬
vents can be adsorbed on carbon and removed by
steam stripping. But those which form azeotropes
with water condensed from the stripping cannot be
separated without complex, costly processes.

A new process which permits economical re¬
covery of az eo t r op e- f orming solvents is described.
Adsorption on activated charcoal is used to cap¬
ture the solvent from air streams in which its
concentration is low. Desorption is accomplished
by recirculated hot inert gas, which is economi¬
cally produced by catalytic oxidation of the
solvent vapors. The desorbate is recovered from
the inert gas by cooling and condensation. A
sample system for recovering one million pounds
per year of me thy le thy Ike t one has been designed.
The net value of solvent recovered, after oper¬
ating costs, would pay back plant investment in 3
to 4 years. The pollution problem solution can
thus become a money earner.

HEAT TRANSFER TO VISCOUS MATERIALS IN JACKETED VESSELS WITH
CLOSE CLEARANCE AGITATION. Mervyn K. Leeds* and Vincent W.
Uhl, Dept, of Chemical Engineering, Univ. of Va.,
Charlottesville, Va.

For mechanically aided heat transfer to viscous mater¬
ials a modification of the penetration theory model proposed
by Kool and others has been devised. The physical arrange¬
ment consists of flat blade with close clearance sweeping
two cylindrical vessels with jacketed walls. The proposed
model postulates mixing only in the region swept by the
blade instead of complete mixing as postulated for the Kool
model and others. The model was checked using a medium
viscosity (8000 Cp) corn syrup, for heating and cooling, a
range of speeds and two blade clearances. The proposed
model provided better correspondence with test dates than
other models including Kool's, but proved unsatisfactory
for medium viscosity fluids. Indications are that the pro¬
posed model would more closely predict performance for very
viscous and pseudo plastic materials.

[Aided by a grant from the Christopher Memminger Fund .7

Proceedings, 1967-1968

191

FLOW IN PIPES WITH RING-AND-GROOVE ROUGHNESS PATTERNS. Fred L.

McConnell and Dr. H. M. Morris, Dept, of Civil Engineering, Virginia Polytechnic Institute,
Blacksburg, Va. 24061.

The mechanics of flow in closed conduits with rough boundaries is a basic problem in
hydraulic engineering which, despite its frequent occurrence in practice, has never been
adequately solved. Present practice tends to favor the ''equivalent-sand-roughness'' method
of Colebrook and White, based mainly on Nikuradse's experiments on sand-coated pipes.

A different approach is to attempt to correlate the turbulence-generating mechanisms
with the actual boundary roughness geometry. This approach leads to the recognition of
five basic turbulence regimes: (1) smooth turbulence; (2) semi-smooth turbulence; (3)
hyper-turbulence; (4) quasi-smooth turbulence; and (5) normal turbulence.

In this investigation, only the quasi-smooth flow regime was studied. This regime exists
whenever the roughness elements are close enough together to cause the formation of a
stable vortex in the space between the elements. Seven ring-and-groove test patterns were
investigated, all with h/j (h = depression depth, j = depression width) ratios equal to or
greater than one. Resistance measurements for the flow of water through the test patterns
were taken over a range of Reynolds numbersextending from 104 to 7 x 10^. Finally,
analytical relations that govern this flow regime were developed.

Unfortunately, it was impossible to determine if a system of "geared” vortices did
exist or did not exist in the depression whenever the h/j ratio was greater than one. How¬
ever, it was found that the depth of the depression does not affect the friction loss as long
as all other factors remain constant.

STUDIES OF THE MICROVOID STRUCTURE AND THE VOLUMETRIC

CHANGES OF PLASTIC CELLULAR CONCRETE. Fred C. McCormick.

Dept, of Civil Engineering, Univ. of Va., Charlottesville,

Va.

Volumetric changes of plastic cellular concrete prepared
with preformed foam were measured with special apparatus
for a period of 1 hr. Effects of mix parameters upon the
volumetric constancy were studied. Results indicated that
the characteristics of the foam and the water content of
the mix were the most influential factors. The microvoid
structures of selected hardened concrete specimens were
examined. Results indicated a direct relationship be¬
tween volumetric changes of the plastic concrete and the
size and number of microvoids in the hardened concrete .

[Aided by Grant -in-Aid from American Society for Testing
and Materials.]

REMOVAL OF PHOSPHATE FROM SOLUTION UTILIZING A COAL CONTACT

PROCESS . Francis R. McNeice, Irwin W. Stanton, and Paul H. King, Dept, of Civil. Engin¬
eering, Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Blacksburg, Virginia.

In recent years considerable interest has been stimulated in determining the effect of a
coal contact process on the removal of various contaminants including fertilizing nutrients
during wastewater treatment. The object of this investigation was to determine the extent
to which coal could be used as an agent to enhance removal of phosphates from solution.

Laboratory scale batch studies were employed to determine the kinetic and equilibrium
characteristics of phosphate removal by coal. A relatively rapid uptake of various
forms of phosphorus was noted. A coal dosage of 1.0 grams per 100 milliliters of solution
was found capable of removing about fifty percent of the orthophosphate from a solution
initially containing 20 milligrams per liter orthophosphate. Equilibrium data was shown
to fit a Freundlich isotherm at low phosphate concentrations and a Langmuir isotherm
at higher concentrations.

There was evidence that inorganic phosphate removal was due to a mechanism of
reaction other than physical adsorption. In the lower pH range the precipitation of phos¬
phate by soluble iron released to solution from the coal was noted. In addition, adsorption
of phosphate on ferric hydroxide contained in the coal matrix was also postulated as
important in achieving the phosphate removals observed.

LIME MIGRATION IN SOIL STABILIZATION. R. E. Martin and R. D. Krebs. Dept, of

Civil Engineering, Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Blacksburg, Va. 24061

Lime migration in partially saturated compacted soil from lime-stabilized clay to un¬
limed acid clay was studied with pH measurements to help evaluate the role of ion and
water movements during soil stabilization. Ions and water moved only slowly and over
short distances. Water acted as a medium for lime diffusion, but its movement neither
aided nor retarded lime migration. Alternate closed-system freezing and thawing had no
effect on lime migration, but slightly enhanced water movement. The pH of the clay
receiving migrating lime exceeded 10.0, but never reached levels sufficient for significant
soil stabilization by pozzolanic reaction.

MOLECULAR WEIGHT AND C0NCENTRAT ION DEPENDENCE OF THE THERMAL
CONDUCTWm OF P0LTSTTRENE IN BENZENE. Roland A. Miscbke,
Lionel B. Epps* Dept, of Chem. Eng., Va. Polytechnic Inst.,
Blacksburg, Va.

The thermal conductivities (K) of polystyrene in benzene
solutions at concentrations (C) 0.001 to 0.15 weight fractict
polymer were measured at 25° C and atmospheric pressure . Os^
motic pressure measurements and information supplied by the
manufacturer indicated number average molecular weights (Hn)
of 21,000, 261^,000 and 660,000 for the three polystyrene
polymers studied. The following equation was obtained by re¬
gression analysis of the results and predicts the measured K
values in Btu/(hr-f t-°F ) within t 2 per cent in the range of
variables studied.

K = 0.1088 - 0.1311 C + 0.5763 C2 - 6.U0 X 10-5 (Kn X 10-5)2
- h.2 X 10-3 cCHjj X 10-5)

The conductivities were measured in a steady-state con¬
centric cylinder apparatus developed for measuring the K of
viscous liquids. The annular gap was 0.052 inches and guard
heaters were employed to minimize end losses and distortion
of the temperature distribution at the ends. The apparatus
was calibrated with three liquids of known K, water, cyclo-
hexanol and ethylene glycol. The calibration factor was
found to be constant to within experimental error (± 3 per
cent) over the range of measurements.

A PSEUDO-BLOOD SUSPENSION FOR FLOW STUDIES. Rudolph M.

Navari*, 0. L. Updike, and L. U. Lilleleht*, Dept of Chemi-
cal Engineering, Univ. of Va., Charlottesville, Va.

Motivated by the difficulties of directly observing
detailed blood flow patterns inside vessels, the develop¬
ment of a "pseudo-blood" was attempted. It was to be a
suspension of micro-capsules which would simulate blood not
only in viscosity, density, and suspension stability but
also in "cell" size and wall flexibility.

Hydrocarbons (paraffins and toluene) and vegetable oils
(olive and castor) were successfully encapsulated in gela¬
tin or gum arabic by coacervation. In this process, the
encapsulant is gelled and then crosslinked as a surface
coating on oil droplets suspended in an aqueous solution.
Gelatin-castor oil capsules, of diameter 30-150 microns
(average 50 y ) , in aqueous carboxymethylcellulose solution
could be adjusted to differ at room temperature from blood
at 37°C by 7% in density and 12% in viscosity at 45% "hema-
tocrit"(v/o cells). Like blood, the suspension was Newton¬
ian from shear rates of 100 to 1200 recriprocal seconds, and
the CMC-H^O matched the viscosity and density of plasma.

This pseudo-blood, with a tracer concentration of dyed
capsules, proved useful in flow visualization, though the
consequences of the four- to twenty-fold size discrepancy
and the difference in shape of the "cells" from discoidal
erythrocytes are not yet certain.

[Aided by a Biomedical Science Support Subgrant from the
National Institutes of Healt, U.S.P.H.sJ

The Virginia Journal of Science

192

HARMONIC ANALYSIS AND THE INSTANTANEOUS UNIT HYDROGRAPH. Jonathan
T. Phillippe and J. M. Wiggert, Dept, of Civil Engineering, Virginia Polytechnic Institute,
Blacksburg, Va.

The method of harmonic analysis for the derivation of instantaneous unit hydrographs
was studied with reference to its applicability to surface runoff prediction. The work of
O'Donnell was duplicated and extended with new data from drainage basins near Detroit,
Michigan. Instantaneous unit hydrographs were derived for storms with durations ranging
from short to long and with simple to complex rainfall patterns.

It was noted that stability of harmonic coefficients was approached as a minimum of
twenty data points were available, more being desirable. The importance of including the
peak value as a data point was also observed.

Weaknesses of the method were particularly apparent in the areas of rainfall and run¬
off separations. The more critical of the two appeared to be rainfall separation. A realistic
method of separating infiltration losses from total rainfall and of accounting for the effects
of antecedent precipitation was found to be needed. The need for careful and realistic
separation of runoff into surface runoff and base flow was indicated.

Most success at obtaining realistic instantaneous unit hydrographs was had when rain¬
fall excess was confined to one or two measurement intervals. Very good correlations of
predicted surface runoff were obtained with the observed surface runoff hydrographs
when these instantaneous unit hydrographs were combined with more complex patterns
of rainfall excess from storms of equal, overall duration. When they were combined with
storms of greater or lesser duration the correlation became poorer the greater the deviation
from the duration of the storm of derivation.

LAMINAR-TURBULENT TRANSITION IN TWO-PHASE STRATIFIED FLOW.
Harold D. Spriggs* and Lembit U. Lilleleht* , Dept, of Chemi¬
cal Engineering, Univ. of Va., Charlottesville, Va.

Laminar-turbulent transition in two phase stratified
flow has been investigated both experimentally and theoret¬
ically. A semiempirical model used by others for predicting
transition to turbulence in single phase flow was applied to
the two phase system.

Experimental work was conducted in a rectangular channel
of approximately 10:1 aspect ratio. Velocity fluctuations
indicating the onset of turbulence were measured with a hot
film anemometer, filtered through a band pass filter, and
recorded by a suitable recorder. Water and kerosene were
the two fluids used.

Equations were developed from which one can estimate the
transition Reynolds numbers for both phases of two phase
flow for any values of densities, viscosities, and interface
position. The estimated values of the Reynolds numbers com¬
pared very favorably with the experimental values over a
wide range of interface positions. For certain other inter¬
face positions, however, the two phase system was much more
stable than the model predicted.

fAided by a grant from HEW; Mr. Spriggs is an NDEA Title IV
Fellow.J

Section of Geology

Forty-sixth Annual Meeting of The Virginia Academy of Science
May 8-10, 1968, Roanoke, Virginia

LYELL AND THE BINOMIAL DISTRIBUTION. Samuel 0. Bird. Dept,
of Geology, Mar y Washington College, Fredericksburg, Va.

Lyell’s percentage method of stratigraphic correlation
has been used at times to support correlation on a more de¬
tailed level than data warrant. By treating the number of
extant species as successes and the number of extinct spe¬
cies as failures, samples may be treated as following the
binomial distribution. The percentage of Recent species in
the sample thus becomes the sample mean. The mean and var¬
iance of the sample may then be used to calculate a confi¬
dence interval and thereby to determine the limits of corre¬
lation at the desired confidence level. In this way samples
can be referred to the proper epoch and the reliability of
the reference can be stated. Treating samples as repre¬
sentatives of binomial populations also permits direct com¬
parisons between two or more samples; the technique holds
whether the sample mean is computed on the basis of percent¬
age of extant species or on tie basis of percentage in com¬
mon with some standard interval from the geologic column,

Simpson (1953) and Umbgrove (1946) have shown the impor¬
tance of epoch by epoch comparisons of percentages of ex¬
tant species in widely different systematic groups. In
addition, it should prove fruitful to compare evolution
rates of similar lineages from different geographic locali¬
ties of faunal realms. A method of testing for significant
differences of mean numbers of extant species for these two
cases is made possible by applying the binomial distribution
to oercentage data.

THE FREQUENCY AND MAGNITUDE OF EXTRATROPICAL STORMS ALONG
THE OUTER BANKS OF NORTH CAROLINA. Kenton C. Bosserman*.
Dept, of Geography, Univ. of Va., Charlottesville, Va.

Waves generated by extratropical storms are the primary
cause of coastal erosion along the Outer Banks of North
Carolina. Between 1942 and 1967, 857 storms producing wave
heights of at least 5.1 feet were investigated to determine
frequency, magnitude, and patterns of occurrence. Results
indicate that winds generating wave heights over 5.1 feet
occur on average every 10 days; a height of 11.1 feet every
three months; one of at least 17.1 feet every three years;
and a wave height greater than 23.1 feet every twenty-five
years. March is the period of maximum frequency, with an
average of five storms. Cyclonic occurrence during the
period investigated indicates twelve-year cyclic trends,
with six years of severe storm climate alternating with six
years of light storm activity. The last two years of the
investigation were the mildest in the twenty-five year
interval .

(Sponsered by Dr. Robt. Ellison, Dept, of Geology, Univ. of
Va.)

Proceedings, 1967-1968

193

THE ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF A COQUINA FACIES OF THE YORK-
TOWN FORMATION NEAR CHUCKATUCK, VA. John R. Bowman, Barry W.
Holliday. Gerald H» Johnson. David M. Rohr. Denarfment- of
Geology, College of William and Mary, Williamsburg, Virginia.

A study of the Yorktown Formation indicates the presence
of a complex bar-shaped facies. The coquina deposit is about

1.5 miles wide and is over 65 feet thick at its maximum. The
bar trends N 15°-20° W and extends from the Nansemond River,
southeast of Chuckatuck, to Smithf ield,Va0 The coquina over-
lies, and to the west, intertongues with bluish-gray clay.

Large scaled, steeply dipping foreset beds dominate the
western part of the bar; smaller scaled north-eastward dip¬
ping cross-beds dominate the central and eastern topset se¬
quence. The coquina is a medium to coarse grained biof rag-
mental sand that decreases in grain size, roundness, and
degree of sorting toward the west. The coquina contains 75-
95% calcium carbonate and traces of quartz sand. Many ele¬
ments of the diverse marine fauna are abraded or sorted;
however, indigenous decapod burrows, burrowing clams, and
oyster and Crepiaula colonies are locally abundant. Fossil
assemblages recovered from the major lithofacies of the bar
are: topset-gas tropod -decapod burrow-bryozoan; foreset-Spi-
sula-Crepidula; and bottomset -Crepidula -diminutive oyster.

Analysis of the stratigraphic* sedimentologic, and pal-
eontologic data indicate that the complex bar system de¬
veloped in a shallow, warm, marine environment and was built
progressively northward by a longshore current and moderate
wave action during late Tertiary time.

THE GEOLOGY OF THE MEARS CORNER PIT, VIRGINIA BEACH, VIRGINIA.
William C. Luebke and Gerald H. Johnson. Department of Geol -
ogy, College of William and Mary, Williamsburg, Virginia.

The Mears Corner pit of the E. C. Womack Company is lo¬
cated on the Mount Pleasant Flat near Acredale in Virginia
Beach, Va. The pit exceeding fifty acres in area, exposes
a late Pleistocene section consisting of nine units and
comprises an aggregate thickness of 27.7 feet.

Marked lateral changes in lithology and fauna occur in
units 5-8. The fauna, comprised of over 80 species, is
indicative of infralittoral and littoral marine conditions.

The faunal assemblages, in ascending order, are character¬
ized by Dosinia, Busycon, Vermetus and encrusting brvozoans.
Mercenaria, and Spisula.

Previous investigators in this area have suggested
that disconformities , formed during relatively long periods
of emergence, exist between units 6 and 7 and between 8 and

9. Radiometric dates on wood and corals, and stratigraphic
and paleontologic data indicate nearly continuous deposition
during the oscillatory fall of sea level in late Sangamon
and early Wisconsin time. Deposition, except for localized
paludal deposits, ceased in this area before 40,000 years

B.P.

PERFORMANCE OF FOLIATED ROCKS IN CONCRETE. Michael A. Ozol,
Virginia Highway Research Council, Charlottesville, Va.

The investigation of flecking of two different portland
cement concrete pavements led to the conclusion that the
rocks which were used for coarse aggregate in both cases (a
phyllite and a calc schist) indirectly caused the flecking
by localizing stresses acting in the pavement surface along
the contact of appropriately oriented particles with their
mortar covers.

The mechanism of the flecking, depends on the arrange¬
ment of the mica in the rock with respect to the other
minerals and the likelihood that the mica-to-mica bond in
the rock is weaker than the mica-to-mortar bond in the pave¬
ment. Subsequent mechanical and freeze-thaw action along an
initially separated aggregate-mortar interface leads to
eventual loss of the mortar over the particle.

A slate similar in gross mineralogy and fabric to the
first two rocks has been recommended for trial use as coarse
aggregate in concrete. The anticipated resistance of the
slate to the mechanism that produced the flecking in the
first two cases is based on petrographic work showing that
the fabric of the slate is significantly different. The
arrangement of the minerals in the slate is such that the
micas occur in thin stringers interwoven among lenticular
quartz grains rather than in broad bands parellel to the
foliation. Therefore tensional stress in the slate perpen¬
dicular to the foliation must act against an overlapping
fabric of mica stringers and oblate quartz grains.

GEOCHEMISTRY OF THREE CENTRAL VIRGINIA SOILS. Rodger W.

Plaster and W. Cullen Sherwood, Virginia Highway Research
Council, Charlottesville, Virginia.

Three soils from Augusta, Louisa, and Madison Counties,
were continuously sampled by channeling down their profiles.

The soils were respectively of the Frederick, Iredell, and

Lloyd series and were underlain respectively by impure lime¬
stone, hornblende meta-gabbro, and granite gneiss.

Determinations of pH indicated that in all three soils
the B horizons were more acidic than the C horizons. This
acidity in the B horizon was considered due to one or all
of the following: (1) the presence of organic acids, (2) the
absorption of hydroxal ions by clay minerals, and (3) the
absence of abundant bases.

Analyses of chemical data indicated: (1) silica is being
concentrated up the profile in the Frederick and Iredell
soils; (2) silica is being removed from the Lloyd profile;

(3) the leached horizon of the Lloyd soil has been eroded;

(4) all three soils have concentrated alumina in their clay
rich B horizons; (5) all three soils have fixed iron in
their profiles; (6) calcium is being rapidly leached from
the Frederick soil and potassium moderately leached from all
three soils; (7) calcium is being less rapidly leached from
the Iredell soil than the Frederick because the lower soil
is protected by an impermeable clay pan, and because the
calcium is tied up in silicate structures; and (8) potassium
is not being so rapidly leached from all three soils because
it is being fixed by clay minerals.

APPLICATION OF SYSTEMS TO THE STUDY OF LANDFORMS. Evans
Waddell? Dept, of Geog., Univ. of Va., Charlottesville,
Virginia.

Beaches can be studied as subsystems of the general
mechanical and thermal system of landforms. The systems
approach, although consistant with the traditional ap¬
proach, offers a more meaningful framework through which
beaches can be examined. The objective, therefore, is to
explore several possibilities of applying a systems ap¬
proach in the investigation of beaches.

Beaches differ from most geomorphic systems. They
are time independent in that knowledge of a previous form
of the deposit is not essential in the explaination of a
current form. The system's energy is not dependent on the
configuration of the deposit, but rather on waves and cur¬
rents. Therefore, in order to explain form, it is nec¬
essary to determine the energy input and output, and the
nature of the energy- sediment interaction.

(Sponsered by Dr. Robt. Ellison. Dept, of Geology)

194

The Virginia Journal of Science

Section of Materials Sciences

Forty-sixth Annual Meeting of The Virginia Academy of Science
May 8-10, 1968, Roanoke, Virginia

USE OF INFRARED AND X-RAY DATA TO DETERMINE GRUNEISEN
NUMBERS FOR POLYMERS. R. E. Barker. Jr.*. Dept, of
Materials Science, Sch . of Eng. and Appl . Sci . , Univ. of
Va . , Charlottesville , Va .

The most direct definition of the Gruneisen constant
follows from statistical mechanical considerations and,
for the j'*'*1 vibrational mode, is Y j = 9 UiV; / where \1
is the frequency and p , the density. Some recently re¬
ported data for polyethylene for the infrared frequencies
vs. density, determined by x-ray techniques, will be
discussed. (Sponsored by F. A. Muller)

SOME EFFECTS OF NITROGEN ON THE STRESS CORROSION OF
AUSTENITIC STAINLESS STEELS, PART II. G. S. Clevinger.*

T . B . Cox and J . F . Eckel . Dept . of Metals and Ceramic
Eng . , Va . Polytechnic Inst . , Blacksburg , Va .

Transmission electron microscopy has been used to study
the dislocation configurations and precipitation character¬
istics of a high purity 20 Cr - 20 Ni austenitic stainless
steel containing nitrogen. Special attention has been
given to the dependence of the precipitation characteristics
on the nitrogen content and strain level . Strained speci¬
mens containing nitrogen were thermally aged at 154°C for
various times . Short time aging resulted in fine precipi¬
tates , presumably nitrides, which were associated with dis¬
location lines and loops . Aging times of up to 1500 hours
produced larger and more numerous precipitates, exhibiting
interfacial dislocations. Discussion of the significance of
the presence of precipitates in the austenitic matrix to the
stress corrosion susceptibility of the stainless steel is
presented . The changes in the susceptibility of Type 304
with nitrogen content and aging are discussed with reference
to the results of the present microscopy investigation.

SOME EFFECTS OF NITROGEN ON THE STRESS CORROSION OF
AUSTENITIC STAINLESS STEELS, PART I. T. B. Cox. G. S.
Clevinger* and J. F. Eckel. Dept, of Metals and Ceramic
Eng . , Va . Polytechnic Inst . , Blacksburg , Va .

The effects of nitrogen content on the stress corrosion
susceptibility of AISI Type 304 stainless steel have been
studied using U-bend specimens in boiling magnesium chlo¬
ride solutions . The investigation has revealed that in¬
creasing amounts of nitrogen in solid solution increase the
susceptibility of Type 304 to stress corrosion cracking by
decreasing the times to crack initiation and the times to
complete failure and by increasing the rates of crack prop¬
agation. Furthermore, it has been demonstrated that low
temperature aging of stressed specimens of Type 304 stain¬
less steel containing nitrogen also reduces the resistance
of the alloy to stress corrosion cracking. Stress aging
the alloy causes reduction of crack initiation and failure
times and increases cracking rates at any given nitrogen
content . The effects of the stress aging were found to be
most pronounced at low nitrogen levels .

THE SOLID SOLUBILITY OF NITROGEN IN VARIOUS AUSTENITIC
STAINLESS STEELS. T. B. Cox and J. F. Eckel. Dept, of
Metals and Ceramic Eng . , Va . Polytechnic Inst . , Blacksburg ,
Va.

The temperature dependence of the solid solubility of
nitrogen in several austenitic stainless steel alloys has
been studied. Solubility determinations were made by
equilibrating specimens of each alloy with various nitrogen
bearing gaseous atmospheres at selected temperatures within
the range of 530°C to 1010°C . For each austenitic alloy
investigated, it was found that within the temperature
range studied , the solid solubility of nitrogen increases
with increasing temperature with the exception of the range
of temperatures associated with the carbon sensitization of
each alloy. In the sensitization temperature range, it
was found that nitrogen behaves similarly to carbon by
precipitating at the austenitic grain boundaries . The
differences in nitrogen solubilities among the various
stainless steels investigated are discussed and related
to the differences in alloy contents.

Proceedings, 1967-1968

195

CHEMISTRY AND CRYSTALLOGRAPHY OF ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATE,

A.B. DeLuke and F.A. Muller, Dept, of Materials Science,
School of Engineering and Applied Science, University of
Virginia, Charlottesville, Va.

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is distributed in plants,
microorganisms, animals and humans. It is the final store¬
house of energy generated in oxidative reactions in vivo,
and thereby probably drives all of the energy requiring
processes of life. The chemical structure is well known but
the geometrical configuration has not been reported defini¬
tively. Much speculation exists about the type of complex-
ing of ATP with heavy atoms which are important complexes
in the hydrolysis of the molecule.

Because of the complexity of the ATP molecule it is not
surprising that it is difficult to obtain crystallographic
data since crystals are hard to obtain. Crystallization
techniques to prepare the sodium, rubidium and cesium salts
of ATP will be given. Crystal quality, x-ray diffraction
data and space group determination are presented for these
crystals. This data will be used in the future for an
imaging of the molecule.

PLASTIC DEFORMATION, FLOW STRESS RECOVERY, AND RELATED SUB¬
STRUCTURE OF POLYCRYSTALLINE ALPHA-TITANIUM. Janies C.
Ferebee, Jr.* Department of Metals and Ceramic Engineering,
Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061.

The flow stress behavior of randomly oriented commercial
purity polycrystalline alpha-titanium, prestrained 10% in
tension at room temperature, was studied by determining the
fractional decrease in flow stress following recovery treat¬
ments at temperatures of 400° and 450°C for times from 0.375
hours to 100 hours .

A cell structure of dislocation tangles was found to form
during deformation with the cell walls being tentatively
identified as planes of the {1012) type.

The initial recovery that takes place before 0.375 hours
at 400°C was attributed to straightening of dislocations
within tangles and the annihilation of dislocation dipoles.
Network formation is a recovery mechanism in alpha-titanium
especially at 450°C. Networks appeared to form on the same
planes as the original cell walls, accompanied by flow
stress recovery of about 45%.

(Sponsored by J. L. Lytton) [Research supported by the
National Science Foundation]

EARLY STAGES OF THE INTERACTION OF TANTALUM WITH OXYGEN.

R. H. Geiss* and K . R . Lawless . Dept, of Materials Science,
Sch . of Eng . and Appl . Sci . , Univ . of Va . , Charlottesville ,
Va.

Transmission electron microscopy and diffraction have
been used to study the early stages of the interaction of
tantalum with oxygen . Thinned high purity tantalum sheet
was oxidized in high purity oxygen at 500°C in an ultra-
high vacuum reactor vessel at various pressures and times.
Transmission microscopy revealed changes in the micro¬
structure as the oxidation progressed and electron diffrac¬
tion showed three different oxide or sub-oxide phases and
marked ordering effects. For the lowest pressure oxygen,
a microstructure showing both large and small domains was
found . Diffraction showed a superlattice four times that
of the tantalum metal . Samples oxidized at higher pres¬
sures showed initially the formation of a platelet-like
structure found to be another superlattice with half the
spacing of the original. At a later stage in the oxidation,
fine striations thought to be microtwins appeared within
these platelets , giving rise to still another superlattice
structure .

STRESSES DUE TO DISLOCATION CELLS. T. R. Duncan, *+ and
D. Kuhlmann-Wilsdorf . Dept, of Materials Science, Sch. of
Eng . and Appl . Sci . , Univ . of Va . , Charlottesville , Va .

The shear stresses surrounding a simple rectangular dis¬
location cell are calculated for the case of isotropy . The
cell is composed of tilt type boundaries such that the
interior of the cell is rotated rigidly with respect to the
surrounding matrix . The long-range stresses of this cell
are such that they will repel to infinity dislocations out¬
side of the cell which are of a kind to enhance the mis-
orientation of the cell, and will move dislocations within
the cell so as to diminish the misorientation. However,
the magnitude of the extrema of the short-range stresses
are larger than those of the long-range stresses. Thus a
glide dislocation may be held up at some distance from the
cell or close to a cell boundary, but not in the cell
interior. Similarly, in a crystal containing stray dis¬
locations and cells of gradually increasing misorientation,
the cell interiors are expected to become cleared of dis¬
locations before the regions adjoining the cell walls, in
agreement with relevant experimental evidence.

+Now at the Department of Physics , University of the
Witwatersrand , Johannesburg, South Africa.

DISLOCATION DISTRIBUTION IN PLASTICALLY DEFORMED NICKEL
SINGLE CRYSTALS. R, H, Geiss*. Dept, of Materials Science,
Sch. of Eng. and Appl. Sci., Univ. of Va . , Charlottesville,
Va.

An electron microscope investigation was made on single
crystals of nickel deformed in tension into the three
stages of the work hardening curve . Both the morphology
and density of the dislocations were studied on sections
cut parallel and perpendicular to the primary glide plane
and direction. In stage I the structure was very non-
uniform with bundles of primary edge dipole dislocations
separated by large areas completely free of dislocations .

At the beginning of stage II the number of dislocations in
the bundles increased and the spacing decreased forming a
large scale cell structure in two dimensions . Multipole
walls formed perpendicular to the primary glide plane and
high density regions of Lomer-Cottrell dislocations were
occasionally found . As the deformation proceeded into
stage II, a third dimension in the cell structure was
formed by secondary dislocations with a continued dimin¬
ishing of the cell size. Stage III was simply an extension
of late stage II deformation. (Sponsored by K. R. Lawless)

GROWTH OF PSEUD0M0RPHIC IRON ON COPPER. W. A. Jesser and
J. W. Matthews*+. Dept, of Materials Science, Sch. of Eng.
and Appl . Sci . , Univ . of Va . , Charlottesville , Va .

Iron was deposited at room temperature and at 400°C in
ultra high vacuum onto single-crystal films of copper
oriented with (001) parallel to their plane. A shutter was
moved between the source and substrate so that iron deposits
in which there were thickness gradients were obtained .
Transmission electron micrographs and diffraction patterns
from their parts of the iron deposits showed that they were
face-centered cubic and were strained to exactly match the
copper substrates . The thicker parts of the deposits con¬
tained dislocations to accommodate part of the misfit
between face-centered cubic iron and copper . They also
contained small nuclei of body-centered cubic iron.

+Now at the Department of Physics , University of the
Witwatersrand , Johannesburg , South Africa .

196

The Virginia Journal of Science

(Ae-Hsl IN DENTAL AMALGAM, PART I. Lewis B. Johnson. Jr.

CAe-Hg') IN DENTAL AMALGAM. PART II. Lewis B. Johnson. Jr.

Dept, of Materials Science, Sch . of Eng. and Appl . Sci . ,

Univ. of Va . , Charlottesville, Va .

The presence of the j transformation in dental

amalgam has been suggested as a result of x-ray diffraction
patterns for amalgam samples stored at body temperature for
long periods of time. The identification of the product
phase was quite simple in the two-component system of
(Ag-Hg) but much more difficult in the presence of the
dental alloy phase AggSn. The need for further., confirma¬
tion by other methods of study was strongly indicated .

Dept, of Materials Science, Sch. of Eng. and Appl. Sci.,

Univ. of Va . , Charlottesville, Va .

The presence of the (Z ^ phase in dental amalgam after

37.5°C and 60 C storage for long periods of time has been
confirmed by metallography, microhardness tests and
electron beam analysis. It appeared that the
transformation began at preferred sites , believed to be
possibly areas deficient in Hg, and grew outward from these
sites . It is believed that the process may be nucleation
controlled .

EXPERIMENTAL VERIFICATION OF A THEORETICAL MODEL FOR

EXTRUSION OF ALUMINUM. A. I. Kemnninen* . Reynolds Metals

Co . , Richmond , Va .

Avitzur’s theoretical model for the extrusion pressure
in the beginning portion of the extrusion cycle for direct
hot extrusion has been compared with experimental data when
extruding 5083 aluminum alloy.

Quite good agreement was obtained for the extrusion
pressure-ram displacement curves .

The predicted values for the dead metal semicone angles
agreed very closely with those measured from extrusion
discards .

Vertical displacement of the curves is the result of
inadequate experimental flow stress data for 5083 alloy.
Refinement in testing the model with experimental values
should be obtained by the use of hot torsion testing for
measurement of flow stress. (Sponsored by J. H. Dedrick)

THE EFFECT OF PRIOR TENSILE DEFORMATION ON THE AGING CHAR¬
ACTERISTICS OF POLYCRYSTALLINE ALUMINUM - 2% OOPPER ALLOY.
George Ying-Dean Lai*, Dept, of Metals and Ceramic Engi¬
neering, Va. Polytechnic Inst., Blacksburg, Va.

The aging behavior of polycrystalline Aluminum-2 wt . %

Copper was studied at room temperature and 160°C with and
without 10% prior true strain. Room temperature tensile
flow stress and transmission electron microscopy were
employed to investigate the microstructural changes which
occurred.

The time required for the 0' age-hardening peak to be
attained was found to be decreased ten-fold by introducing

10% prestrain before aging at 160°C. A greater density of

9' precipitates was observed in deformed specimens than in
undeformed, and heterogeneous precipitation of 0' on dis¬
locations was observed. Glide dislocations tend to encir¬
cle the periphery of the 0' platelets. Interfacial dis¬
locations were observed at longer aging times on some 0'
platelets of material prestrained 10%.

(Sponsored by J. L. Lytton) [Research performed under

National Science Foundation Grant GK-1160]

VOIDS IN OUENCHED NICKEL. J. J. Laidler.* Dent, of

Materials Science, Sch. of Eng. and Appl. Sci., Univ. of

Va . , Charlottesville , Va .

Polycrystalline nickel foils, 99.997% pure, were quenched
in vacuum from 1675°K into a silicone oil bath and the re¬
sultant structure was studied by means of transmission
electron microscopy . The only defects produced by this
quenching technique were very large voids of octahedral
configuration, bounded by {ill] planes. The edge lengths
of the octahedra varied from 250 to 1200 Angstroms; such
a large size accounts for the low density of voids observed ,
less than 10°/cc . The voids were observed to become trun¬
cated by {l00} planes upon annealing and were stable at
temperatures below 750°C. Above this temperature, the voids
dissociated , and there was no evidence that they had shrunk
into spherical configurations before their disappearance.
(Sponsored by D. Kuhlmann-Wilsdorf )

THE DUCTILITY OF COMPOSITES REINFORCED WITH TUNGSTEN FIBERS,
Richard Patterson, Dent, of Materials Science, School of En-
gineering and Applied Science, University of Virginia, Char¬
lottesville, Va.

An investigation of the tensile properties of fiber-
reinforced composites consisting of unidirectionally-aligned
tungsten filaments in a soft metal matrix, either copper or
a silver brazing alloy, has revealed the existence, at fiber
volume fractions less than «=* 0.20, of anomalously large
ductility in tension parallel to the direction of fiber
alignment. This enhanced composite ductility is achieved
by an increase in the ductility of the embedded fibers.

It has been shown that this effect is due to a restraint
upon the necking phenomenon in the reinforcing fibers.

Such a restraint has its origin in the fiber-matrix bond.

Proceedings, 1967-1968

197

THE EFFECT OF A THIN EPITAXIAL SURFACE FILM OF METAL ON THE
PLASTIC BEHAVIOR OF COPPER. G. E, Ruddle* and H. G. F.
Wilsdorf. Dept, of Materials Science, Sch . of Eng. and
Appl . Sci . , Univ. of Va . , Charlottesville, Va .

The presence of a thin epitaxial surface film of metal
has been found to reduce the mechanical strength of copper.
Composite crystals formed by the electrodeposition of a
thin oriented overgrowth of nickel or gold on single
crystalline substrates of copper were deformed in tension.
The effect of the metal plating is a decrease in the
critical yield stress to approximately one-half of the
magnitude for an unplated crystal. Evidence from replica-
electron-microscopic examination of the surface slip
structures indicates that the interaction of the plating-
substrate interface with the glide of dislocations through
the surface region of the composite crystal is responsible
for the decrease in critical yield stress . Specifically
the nickel-plated copper composite provides evidence that
surface dislocation sources are responsible for the onset
of plastic flow, the activation of the sources being en¬
hanced by the presence of the elastic strain associated
with the low-misfit interface . The interaction of glide
dislocations with the interface will be discussed for
specific surface orientations and plating thicknesses.

EPITAXIAL GROWTH OF TITANIUM SINGLE CRYSTAL THIN FI IMS,
Franklin E. Wawner, Jr. and Kenneth R. Lawless, Dept, of
Materials Science, School of Engineering and Applied Science
University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Va.

Single crystal thin films of titanium have been grown of
three different orientations (i.e., (100), (110), (111)) on
polished NaCl substrates. The titanium films have been
studied in thickness ranges of approximately 50 A to above
2000 A with the lower ranges being discontinuous. Deposi¬
tion parameters for their growth are relatively broad. Sub¬
strate temperatures from 200-500°C and deposition rates up
to 200-300 A/min. yielded good monocrystalline films.

The crystallographic orientations of the films have been
determined and will be described. During this study it was
noted that the very thin films of Ti (100 A) grew pseudo-
morphically in a previously unreported face centered cubic
structure. This new structure transformed to the normal
HCP lattice when the films became continuous.

ANODIC TANTALUM OXIDE FILMS IN MICROELECTRONICS. Lyle H.
Slack* . Dept . of Metals and Ceramic Eng . , Va . Polytechnic
Inst . , Blacksburg , Va .

Tantalum oxide thin films in tantalum microcircuits
serve as capacitor dielectrics and as protective films for
resistors . This paper presents the changes found in both
the ac and dc properties of anodic tantalum oxide films
when they are heat treated and reanodized . It was dis¬
covered that the heating and reanodization treatment im¬
proved the dielectrics' ability to sustain a dc voltage.

The changes in the ac properties (i.e., the capacitance
and dissipation factor) will be accounted for by a position
dependent resistivity through the oxide film. Such a
gradient is formed by heating and is due to thermal
diffusion of oxygen out of the oxide into the underlying
tantalum. (Sponsored by J. F. Eckel)

OBSERVATIONS ON THE TENSILE STRENGTH OF "AMORPHOUS" BORON.
Franklin E. Wawner, Jr.+ and Dana B. Satterfield*. Texaco
Experiment Co . Inc . , Richmond , Va .

"Amorphous" boron filament prepared by chemical-vapor
deposition of boron on tungsten has typical tensile
strengths of 400-600 kpsi and flexural strengths of the
order of 2 Mpsi, contrary to the Weibull relationship which
requires that the ratio of these quantities be about 1.4.
Tensile strength measurements on sections of these filaments
with the tungsten boride core material removed have given
numerous values in the range 1 to 1.6 Mpsi, thus demon¬
strating that the intrinsic strength of the boron in the
filament does satisfy the Weibull criterion and that
"amorphous" boron is one of the strongest materials known .

+Present address: Materials Science Department, University
of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia.

198

The Virginia Journal of Science

Section of Space Science
and Technology

Forty-sixth Annual Meeting of The Virginia Academy of Science
May 8-10, 1968, Roanoke, Virginia

ELECTRON DETACHMENT CROSS SECTIONS OF
NEGATIVE IONS. John Baldripe^ Jr. , M. S. Miller*

J.W. Boring, G. D. Magnuson. Dept. Aerospace Engr. &
Engr. Phys. , Univ. of Va. , Charlottesville, Va.

In the course of experiments to generate beams of fast,
neutral oxygen atoms for use in atom-surface recombin¬
ation experiments designed to aid in the interpretation of
mass spectrometric studies of the upper atmosphere, we
have measured the electron detachment cross sections of
0 ions in single collisions with various gaseous species.
Negative ions are extracted from an electron bombardment
source, momentum analyzed and directed into a
cylindrically symmetric charge transfer cell containing
the target gas. The detached, slow electrons are collected
on the charge transfer cell walls. From a measurement
of the detached electron current, the pressure of the
target gas in the charge transfer cell, and the ion path
length in the scattering gas one can determine the electron
detachment cross section. For the low ion energies of
concern here (10-100 eV) electron stripping and ionization
processes are unlikely. The inelastic processes may be
represented by the equations: X” + Y-*X + Y + e" and
X + Y-*X + Y . Measurements of the electron detachment
cross sections for 0 in noble gases and molecular gases
will be presented.

THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF SHOCK-HEATED ARGON. J. 0. BUNTING
DIVISION OF SPACE SCIENCES. Virginia Associated Research
Center, Newport News, Virginia.

The end-wall thermal boundary layer behind a reflected
shock has been analyzed to determine the thermal conductivi¬
ty of argon over the temperature range from 3150 to 9225°K.
Pressures behind the reflected shock, assumed constant
through the thermal layer, were chosen sufficiently high to
suppress non-equilibrium and side-wall effects. Temperature
profiles, computed from interferometric measurements of den¬
sity, were compared with a numerical solution of the full
non-linear thermal boundary layer equations assuming a tem¬
perature dependence for thermal conductivity of the form
KaTu. Typically, 10 to 12 points were obtained in a ther¬
mal layer which was approximately 1.5 mm thick, with the
nearest points approaching 0.2 mm from the wall. Refraction
effects and related optical distortion precluded measuring
closer to the surface. Values for the exponent u in the
power law were obtained by minimizing the root-mean-square
deviation between the theoretical and experimental profiles.
From 18 temperature profiles the average value obtained for
v was 0.668 ± .02. This value was compared with existing
theoretical predictions and with other measurements. The
results offer encouragement for similar studies at even
higher temperatures where free electrons will affect the
thermal transport.

[This research was supported by the National Aeronautics and
Space Administration under Grant NGR-05-02Q-091 . 1

SCATTERING OF ARGON AND NITROGEN FROM POLY¬
CRYSTALLINE METAL SURFACES. * M. N. Bishara, and
S. S. Fisher. Dept, of Aerospace Eng. &Engr. Phys.,
University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia.

Nearly monoenergetic (ca. lCTeV) molecular beams of
argon and nitrogen have been scattered from polycrystall¬
ine copper and aluminum surfaces. The spatial variation
of scattered particle flux and speed distribution have been
measured (using time -of -flight methods) in the plane of the
surface normal and the incident beam. Incidence angle,
beam energy, surface temperature, texture and heat
treatment have been varied. Surfaces at room temperature
showed almost full thermal accommodation with cosine
reemission. Deviations from diffuse scattering have been
observed on increasing surface temperature and degree of
smoothness. Subsequent heat treatment of copper targets
yielded crystal enlargements of nearly 100 times. Such
surfaces, when heated, tended to "focus" the reflected
atoms at a subspecular angle and to cause them to retain
memory of pre -collision properties. Accommodation of
particles to surface conditions has been seen to depend on
the scattering angle, more fully -accommodated particles
appearing in the vicinity of the surface normal. Kinetic
properties have been observed to be strongly energy-
dependent, even with room-temperature surfaces.

* Work supported by NASA Grant NGR 47-005-046

CHANGES IN THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF A POROUS HEAT SHIELD
MATERIAL DUE TO VACUUM EXPOSURE. Robert A. Comparin, Dept,
of Mechanical Engineering, Va. Polytechnic Inst., Blacksburg
Va. 24061

The thermal conductivity of NASA-E4A1 elastomeric heat
shield material was measured in the atmosphere and in a
vacuum at a pressure of 10” ^ torr. (The material tested
was a silicone elastomer filled with silicon eccospheres,
microquartz fibers, and phenolic microballoons. A decrease
of approximately fifteen per cent in the thermal conduc¬
tivity was measured when the material was exposed to the
vacuum. )

A line source technique was used to make the measure¬
ments because it allowed maximum exposure to the vacuum to
facilitate outgassing. Also this technique simplifies the
measurement of thermal conductivity when it is desired to
have the sample exposed to different environments.

In situ measurements are necessary because the properties
of the material are different in different environments.

This work was done under contract NAS1-7776 with the
NASA Langley Research Center.

Proceedings, 1967-1968

199

A SIMPLIFIED METHOD FOR CALCULATING HEAT TRANSFER OVER

BODIES AT AN ANGLE OF ATTACK. Fred R. DeJarnette,

Aerospace Engineering Dept., Va. Polytechnic Institute,
Blacksburg, Va.

A simplified method is developed for calculating the
ratio of the local heat transfer to the stagnation point
heat transfer for bodies at an angle of attack with only
the free stream Mach number and ratio of specific heats
required as inputs. The viscous problem is simplified
by using the axisymmetric analogue for three dimensional
boundary layers in conjunction with Lees' laminar heating
rate for axisymmetric bodies. For the inviscid surface
properties, the modified Newtonian pressure distribution
is utilized along with isentropic flow along the surface.

A new, approximate technique for determining the geometry
of the inviscid surface streamline is presented.

The heat transfer over a spherically blunted cone at
angles of attack of 0, 15° and 30° for M^ = 8 was computed
by the present method and compared favorably with exper¬
imental data.

USE OF AN INERTIAL REFERENCE SYSTEM FOR

DYNAMIC STABILITY EVALUATION IN THE QUASI-SIX -
DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM MOTION PROBLEM. Frederic

J. Drake. Dept, of Aerospace Engr., Univ. of Va. ,
Charlottesville, Va.

For a magnetically supported quasi- six-degree -of-
freedom model in the cold balance tunnel, dynamic stability
calculations would normally consist of the transformation
of model motion data to a body-fixed system where
conventional dynamic stability criteria could be applied.
Another possible method of stability evaluation is one in
which the reference frame is an inertial one and in which
data from the motion sensing device of the tunnel would be
applied to transformed stability requirements. In the
space-fixed frame the axially symmetric properties of
the model involved can be used to advantage in reducing
the complexity of the problem. On the other hand
difficulties arise in relating aerodynamics and the inertia
tensor to an inertial system (the time variation of inertia
terms must be taken into account). A method making use
of an inertial reference frame with the origin fixed in
the test section of the tunnel is discussed.

(Supported by the National Aeronautics and Space
Administration under Grant No. NGR-47-005-029)

APPARATUS FOR THE STUDY OF PROTON SPUTTERING. C. R. Finf-
geld and A. Keith Furr, Physics Dept., Roanoke Col, Roanoke,

Va. and Physics Dept., Va. Polytechnic Inst., Blacksburg, Va.

A specialized ion source system has been designed and
built for the study of proton sputtering, providing results
of relevance to the evaluation of the erosive effects of the
solar wind.

The apparatus consists of a two- chambered, differentially
pumped vacuum of approximately 2000 1/sec net pumping speed.

It is of welded stainless steel construction, copper gasket¬
ed, and is entirely bakeable. The proton beam, provided by
an R-F source, is injected into the first chamber, where
most of the hydrogen gas emanating from the source is re¬
moved, and the beam is focused by an Einzel lens on an aper¬
ture between the first chamber and a 90° double focusing
magnetic spectrometer. After analysis by the spectrometer,
the beam emerges into the second chamber, where it is accel¬
erated and focused by a three element lens upon the target.

The system is capable of delivering a proton beam cur¬
rent of 75 to 125uamp, and 1.0 ma/cm2 beam current density,
at energies between 500 ev and 8 keV, to a target to a pres¬
sure of 5xl0"8 torr.

[Work supported in part by U.S. Atomic Energy Commission]

PROPERTIES OF LOW -DENSITY FREE JETS. Sam S.
Fisher. Dept, of Aerospace Enpr. & Enpr. Phvsics.

Univ. of Va. Charlottesville, Va.

The transition from continuum to free -molecular flow
on the centerline of a free -jet expansion of a monatomic
gas through a circular orifice into a vacuum has been
observed by free -molecular sampling of the jet using
molecular beam techniques and time -of -flight methods to
measure atomic speeds. Results are given in terms of
the jet density, flow speed, and Mach numbers based on
"temperatures" parallel and perpendicular to the jet
axis. Argon and helium have been used as test gases and
reservoir pressure employed as a parameter.

Comparisons are made between these findings and those
given in the literature and several correlations of the
transition are obtained.

(Supported by NSF Grant GK-580 and by NASA Grant

NGR 47-005-046. )

INTERACTION BETWEEN GASES AND HEAT SHIELD MATERIAL.

W. H. Griest and J. P. Wightman, Dept, of Chemistry, Va.
Polytechnic Inst., Blacksburg, Va.

The absorption of C02» N2, He, air, by a representative
heat shield material (HSM) was measured at 27°C and 50°C
as a function of pressure by a manometric technique in a
constant volume system. The results at 27°C ranged from a
maximum value for C02 of 14.6 x 10- 8 moles g.-1 torr -1,
to a minimum value for N2 of 0.723 x 10-8 moles g.-1 torr-1.
The absorption of N2 and He increased at the higher temper¬
ature in contrast to C02. Gravimetric studies of water up¬
take suggested rapid physisorp tion of water by the HSM. The
surface area of the HSM was estimated to be 1.1 m^g.-1 on
the basis of water adsorption. Photomicroscopy was used to
establish the distribution and the size of the particulate
matter in the elastomer matrix. [This research was sup¬
ported by NASA - Langley Research Center under Contract

NASI- 7645. ]

A SUMMARY OF THE EXTERNAL PROTON BEAM CHARACTERIZATION

STUDY MADE AT NASA'S SPACE RADIATION EFFECTS LABORATORY.

Gerald F. Hill*. William C. Honaker*, NASA Langley Res.

Ctr. Fred F. Hubble*, Dept, of Physics, Fla. State Univ.,
Tallahassee, Fla.

An extensive study of the external proton beams avail¬
able at NASA's Space Radiation Effects Laboratory (SREL)
has been completed recently. Energy and intensity measure¬
ments were made on ten different small area beams ranging
in energy from 40 MeV to 595 MeV. Approximately 15 beams
are also available for irradiating large area targets such
as electronic instrument payloads and animals. These large
area beams have energies ranging from 31 MeV to 225 MeV.

200

The Virginia Journal of Science

A FEASIBILITY STUDY OF STERILE ACCESS TO SPACECRAFT.

Richard M. Hueschen* NASA, Langley Res. Ctr. , Hampton, Va.

Sterilization of all unmanned interplanetary spacecraft
is necessary so that the international interplanetary
quarantine program can be maintained for a sufficiently
long time to permit adequate opportunity for definitive
exobiological experiments to be conducted. Research is
being conducted to develop sterile access techniques and
procedures for the handling of a sterilized spacecraft.

These procedures and techniques allow for the sterile
repair, replacement, or adjustment of a sterile spacecraft
without violation of the basic sterility. They will also
allow for the possible sterile assembly of a lander or its
repair even after it has been placed on the launch pad.

This research has been accomplished by utilizing two
specially designed glove box systems. One of the systems
utilized dry heat as the principle means of sterilization
while the other used ethylene oxide gas. The experimental
approach was to simulate part repair and replacement
procedures under sterile conditions, and then ascertain
biologically if sterility was maintained during these
simulations. The results indicated that certain precau¬
tions are necessary to reliably conduct research under
sterile conditions. They also indicated that sterile
access techniques appear to be feasible and that further
studies and development will be necessary to use the
techniques on a full-scale basis.

AERODYNAMIC CONSIDERATIONS FOR A QUASI-SIX-
DEGREE -OF-FREEDOM WIND TUNNEL. Ira D.

Jacobson. Aerospace Engr. and Engr. Phvs. , Univ.
of Va. , Charlottesville, Va.

The ability to suspend a model in a wind tunnel of the
present (and proposed) University of Virginia type suggests
several interesting questions: 1) How can six-degrees of
freedom be obtained, 2) What is the expected behavior of
an aerodynamic model in a wind tunnel of this type, 3)

How can the motion be controlled, and 4) What are the
advantages and/or disadvantages of the model motion.

This paper summarizes the considerations which
enable one to operate in a quasi- six-degree -of-freedom
mode and the ability to control the motion in this mode.

With the proposed system, it will be possible to observe--
under laboratory constraints - -the free -flight motion of a
model for prolonged periods (several minutes). We will
discuss the advantages to be derived from a system of
this type.

(Supported by the National Aeronautics and Space
Administration under Grant No. NGR-47-005-029)

RESONANCE LOCKS FOR SATELLITES IN NEAR CIRCULAR ORBITS.
Frederick H. Lutze, Jr., Dept, of Aerospace Engr. , Va.
Polytechnic Inst., Blacksburg, Va.

The equations of motion are developed for a satellite
without axial symmetry moving about a spherical primary.

The satellite is considered to be rotating about an axis
perpendicular to its plane of motion. The assumption that
the rotating satellite has no effect on Kepler ellipse orbit
allows the angular equation of motion of the satellite to be
developed in terms of the mean anomaly of the orbit motion
for orbits with small eccentricity. Terms including the
second order in eccentricity are retained. An approximate
solution is obtained which indicates the existence of pre¬
ferred angular spin rates or resonance locks. These rates
are shown to be dependent on the satellite orientation at
periapse. For circular orbits a resonance lock of one
satellite rotation per orbit revolution, (1/1) , is the only
one possible. For orbits with small eccentricity resonance
locks of 2/1, 3/2, 1/1, 1/2 and 0/1, can occur.

RESEARCH IN ATOMIC AND MOLECULAR COLLISIONS.

J. A. Phipps/'C. Siappas/‘'G. D. Magnusonl' Dept, of Aerospace
Engr. &Engr. Phys.,Univ. of Va., Charlottesville, Va.

All processes involving mass and momentum transfer and
the transfer and release of energy depend ultimately on the
detailed nature of atomic and molecular collisions. Since
equilibrium does not obtain in many practical situations,
aerodynamic drag, heat transfer, chemical reaction rates,
and the detailed nature of flow fields depend on the nature
of individual collisions and not on some smeared out aver¬
age required for the interpretation of macroscopic obser¬
vations. Consequently, it becomes increasingly important
to obtain a quantitative understanding of the behavior of in¬
dividual atoms and molecules as they collide with each other
and with solid surfaces. We have therefore started to in¬
vestigate gas phase collisions with the intent of elucidating
the interactions occurring in elastic, inelastic, and
reactive collisions involving various species of reactants.
Initial efforts have been devoted to the measurement of
total elastic scattering cross sections for noble gas atoms.

By measuring the reduction in intensity of the molecular
beam as a function of the density of a scattering gas, one
can obtain the total elastic scattering cross section, from
which information concerning the interatomic potentials
can be derived. A description of the system and prelim¬
inary measurements of the total elastic scattering of
thermal Ar beams from Ar atoms will be presented.

SOME ASPECTS OF STATIC AND DYNAMIC FATIGUE OF HOLLOW HYDRO¬
GEN EMBRITTLED NOTCHED TENSILE SPECIMENS. D. H. Pletta,

R. P. McNitt*, and Ivan Chow*, Engineering Mechanics Dept.,

Va. Polytechnic Inst., Blacksburg, Va.

An experimental program was carried out to examine some
effects of specimen geometry in hydrogen embrittled test
specimens. The specimens were 1/2 in. A.S.T.M. tensile
specimens, notched to a 0.354 in. cross section with notch
root diameters of 0.001, 0.002, and 0.02 in. Solid speci¬
mens as well as ones with interior holes size of 2/16, 3/16,
4/16 and 5/16 in. were tested. Reference failure stresses
of uncharged specimens were determined, hydrogenated
(charged) specimens were loaded to various percentages of
the reference values and timed to failure (static fatigue).

The percentage of the failed surface that was of a shear
type was determined. Both charged and uncharged specimens
were then subjected to various mean and alternating stress
combinations till failure. Some experimental data is pre¬
sented here.

[Aided by a NASA multidisciplinary grant 31774]

THE USE OF DIFFERENTIAL FLOW RATES FOR THE
DETECTION OF MICROORGANISMS IN HIGH QUALITY
WATER. J. Miles Sharpley, President, Sharpley Labora¬
tories, Inc. Fredericksburg, Va. and Asso. Prof. Rich¬
mond Prof. Inst. , Richmond, Va.

When high quality water is passed through a membrane
of known pore size, there is little decline in flow rate
provided the pressure and temperature remain constant.

The introduction of inert particles of talc, aluminum oxide,
or glass microbeads into such a system causes only minor
decreases in the flow rate provided the particle size is
larger than the pore size.

The introduction of microorganisms into such a system
will cause pronounced decreases in the flow rate. The flow
rates are furthur decreased when inert particles are
mixed with microorganisms. The observed effect is
apparently a function of the adhesive nature of micro¬
organisms and is increased by the presence of free
microbial polysaccharides. The use of this general method
for the detection of microbial contamination of high purity
water will be discussed as it applies to industry and
potable water supplies in space vehicles. ( Supported by
research funds from the Aerospace Medical Research
Laboratories, United States Air Force)

Proceedings, 1967-1968

201

COMSATS - THE COMMUNICATIONS MEDIUM OF THE FUTURE. H. F-
VanLandingham*. Dept, of Elec. Engrg., Va. Polytechnic

Inst .

This paper presents a comparison of various communica¬
tions media with special emphasis on their future potential.

The demand for worldwide communications and data processing
is extrapolated and is related to estimates of future capa¬
bilities in the communications field. The results (economic
and otherwise) indicate a very strong impetus toward satel¬
lite communications as a solution to the requirements of the
future. A proposed solution is given in terms of a "net¬
work" of active satellites in synchronous orbits together
with some of the detailed calculations on spacing of the
satellites and (electrical) requirements on their transmit¬
ters. The technical effectiveness of this system is dis¬
cussed as well as some brief commentary on its politico-
sociological impact, e.g. on education, national boundaries,
and such.

AN ELECTRON MICROPROBE STUDY OF THE EFFECT OF VOIDS ON

DIFFUSION IN THE COPPER-NICKEL SYSTEM. Sponsor: George D.
Sands. Gilbert H. Walker and Beverley W. Lewis. NASA.

Langley Res. Ctr., Hampton, Va.

In the course of developing a technique for the measure¬
ment of diffusion penetration in the adhesion of copper with
nickel, it was observed that voids appeared in the copper-
nickel diffusion zone. It was then decided to determine
what effect these voids have on the isoconcentration diffu¬
sion profile in the copper-nickel system. In order to
determine the effect of voids in this system, diffusion
couples containing discontinuities were prepared in a
vacuum furnace. An electron microprobe study was then con¬
ducted to determine diffusion effects in the vicinity of the
discontinuities. Concentration profiles near these voids
were measured. This study shows that in order to measure
consistent diffusion penetration distances across a diffu¬
sion zone containing voids, one should measure concentration
gradients at a distance from the void along the interface at
least four times the diameter of the void. The experimental
procedure is included.

THE TIME OPTIMAL CONTROL OF A SIMPLE HARMONIC OSCILLATOR

WITH DELAY. William R. WellsT NASA — T^n^loy Roo f,.+-p

Hampton, Virginia

This paper presents the essential features of the time
optimal control function and optimal trajectories for an
undamped harmonic oscillator which contains a constant time
delay in the position coordinate. Delays of this type exist
in some mechanical systems due to the finite propagation
speed of disturbances and the slow response of the system to
changes in its state. Often when the delay is sufficiently
long to produce extraneous oscillations in the force free
motion, the control of the system is noticeably affected.

The results, which were obtained from the maximum
principle of Pontryagin for differential-difference
equations, are used to illustrate fundamental changes that
occur in the optimal control of linear systems when a time
delay is present. Concluding comments are made on an
approximation commonly used to reduce control problems of
the hereditary type to control problems for ordinary linear
systems.

KINETIC THEORY OF MOLECULAR RADIOMETER. Yau Wu
and S. N. Chaudhuri, Dept. Aerospace Engr. , Va.
Polytechnic Inst., Blacksburg, Va.

According to the equation for the molecular
radiometric force and moment on a body with con¬
vex surface enclosed by an arbitrary closed sys¬
tem in the Knudsen regime based on the revised
theory of thermal transpiration established
recently by Wu, two exact solutions of the mole¬
cular vane-radiometers in a cylindrical tube and
rectangular duct have been obtained in closed
forms. These solutions reduce to the classical
theory developed by Knudsen in the limit of
infinitely large containers.

THE LUNAR ORBITER PROJECT. A. Thomas Younq, NASA
Langley Res. Ctr. , Hampton, Va.

The primary purpose of the Lunar Orbiter Pro¬
ject was to obtain photography of the moon to be
used in the selection of Apollo and Surveyor land¬
ing sites and to improve the scientific knowledge
of the moon. There were five Lunar Orbiter mis¬
sions to the moon and all five were successful.

The more significant accomplishments of the
Project were to obtain photography that has been
used to select Apollo and Surveyor landing sites,
to obtain photography of the Surveyor I sitting
on the lunar surface, to obtain photography of
almost the entire moon at much better resolutions
than are obtainable from earth, to obtain photo¬
graphy of numerous scientifically interesting
areas, to obtain photography of the earth from
orbit about the moon, to obtain tracking data
which has been used to improve the definition of
the lunar gravitational field, and to provide
target vehicles to be used to check out the
manned Space Flight Network tracking stations to
be used by Project Apollo.

The massive amount of data provided by the

Lunar Orbiter Project will be used for years by
scientists in their endeavors to understand the
structure, origin, and history of the moon.

A SUPERCONDUCTING 3-D BALANCE FOR AERO¬
DYNAMICS RESEARCH. R.N. Zapata. Dept. Aerospace

Engr. & Engr. Phys., Univ. of Va., Charlottesville, Va.

For many interesting aerodynamic problems amenable to
experimental analysis in wind tunnels, the presence of the
supporting sting results in severe interference with the
intended measurements. To eliminate this problem,
electromagnetic suspension systems have been developed
in several laboratories in the last 12 years. These systems
utilize automatic control of the current in the supporting
coils to achieve stable operation and, depending on the
particular design configuration, can yield quantitative
information on the aerodynamic forces acting on the model.

As demands for larger wind tunnel facilities arise, coil
size and power become major limitations if conventional
coil design is used. The University of Virginia group
has proposed the use of cryogenically cooled magnets to
alleviate this problem. The balance being constructed at
present consists of 9 superconducting coils in a 3-degree
of -freedom configuration, operating in conjunction with a

Mach 3 wind tunnel. The overall design and character¬
istics of the facility will be discussed.

(Supported by the National Aeronautics and Space
Administration under Grant No.NGR-47-005-029) .

202

The Virginia Journal of Science

Section of Medical Sciences

Forty-sixth Annual Meeting of The Virginia Academy of Science
May 8-10, 1968, Roanoke, Virginia

RESULTS OF CLINICAL APPLICATIONS OF THE ARP INFANT RESPIR¬
ATOR FOR TREATING RESPIRATORY DISTRESS IN THE NEWBORN.

Leon J. Arp, Va. Polytechnic Inst., Blacksburg, Va.

This paper outlines the medical and engineering problems
encountered in developing a respirator capable of mechanic¬
ally aiding the inspiratory efforts of the newborn infant
by assisted respiration and describes the clinical testing
of a new infant respirator and patient-machine interface
at the Roanoke Memorial Hospitals, Roanoke, Virginia.

Respiratory distress is the largest single cause of
death during the first week of life. This death rate for
newborn infants has, up to this time, not changed signifi¬
cantly during the last 15 years. Half of all the infants
with respiratory distress normally do not survive.

Of the 91 infants observed with respiratory distress, 44
were provided ventilatory assistance using the ARP Infant
Respirator. Only those infants with severe respiratory
distress were provided ventilatory assistance. The surviv¬
al rate in this study was 84.7%.

It now appears possible, by using a respirator and tech¬
niques designed specifically for the newborn, to obtain a
dramatic reduction in infant morbidity and mortality.

REPETITIVE SCANNING OF LDH ISOZYMES FOLLOW¬
ING AGAR GEL ELECTROPHORESIS. Edward R. Berry
and Edward S. Kline, Depts. of Biophysics and Bio¬
chemistry, Med. Col. of Va. , Richmond, Va.

The conventional method for the determination of the
content of lactic dehydrogenase isozymes in tissue is
compared with a continuous scanning technique using the
change of O.D. at 340 nm to detect the conversion of

NAD to NADH at each boundary. Electrophoresis of the
rat kidney homogenate is performed on quartz slides
using agarose as the gel in veronal buffer (pH8. 5, fiO. 05,

4°C). After electrophoresis the substrate is diffused
into the gel at 4°C. The slide is then scanned repeatedly
(at 23°C) and the change in O.D. is recorded for the
isozyme pattern in respect to time. After the last scan
the pattern is developed by the tetrazolium dye method.

The time sequence patterns allow a kinetic study of the
isozymes as well as an assay of activity. The kinetics
are linear for all 5 boundaries provided the homogenate
is diluted at least 1:4, and the isozyme activities signi¬
ficantly different by the two methods, i. e. , 340/tetra

24 vs 51, 23 vs 20, 17 vs 5, 17 vs 17, and 17 vs 7
for boundaries 1-5.

STUDIES ON THE METABOLISM OF 5- (3-PYRIDYL)TETRAHYDR0FURA-
N0NE-2 TO 3-PYRIDYLACETIC ACID. Edward R. Bowman, Dept, of
Pharmacology, Med. Col. of Va., Richmond, Va.

The administration of (-) -nicotine to mammals leads to
the urinary excretion of many pyridylcarhoxylic acids,
including y- (3-pyridyl) -y-hydroxyhutyric acid or its lactone

5- (3-pyridyl)tetrahydrofuranone-2, and 3-pyridylacetic acid.

In the present studies, after intraperitoneal administration
of the pyridyl lactone (1.8g/kg), 24-hr urine from male
albino rats was examined gas chromatographical ly. The lac¬
tone or corresponding hydroxy acid excretion was 61% of the
administered dose. For determination of other pyridyl com¬
pounds, the urine was processed as previously described to
obtain the methyl esters (Schwartz and McKennis, 1963). Gas
chromatographic separation of the esters gave three frac¬
tions corresponding in R to methyl 3-pyridylacetate (I) .
methyl y- (3-pyridyl) butyrate (II) and 5- (3-pyridvl)tetra-
hydrofuranone-2 (III). I and III were identified as pic-
rates .

(Aided by grants from The Council for Tobacco Research -
U. S. A., the American Tobacco Company and the American

Medical Association Education and Research Foundation.

THE RELATIVE VALUE OF CARDIOVASCULAR VERSUS META¬
BOLIC SUPPORTIVE THERAPY IN HEMORRHAGIC SHOCK.

Euqene D. Brand, Deot. of Pharmacoloqv. Univ. of
Virginia School of Med., Charlottesville, Va.

Massive water and solute therapy will reverse
posthemorrhagic shock which is irreversible to
blood transfusion therapy. Two major components of
this therapy have been evaluated by applying them
separately. Shock was produced hy bleeding cats
to 40 mm Hg , allowing spontaneous reinfusion of

40% of the maximum bleeding volume, and reinfusing
the remaining shed blood. Therapies, given for 4
hours after reinfusion were: A. None B. Massive
water and solutes (10% b. wt of balanced salt plus
1.5% glucose) C. Cardiovascular support: same as

B but with urine returned i. v. , and D. Metabolic
support: 25% mannitol i.v. plus water and solutes
to maintain water balance. Survival was as fol¬
lows: A. 0 of 11, B. 9 of 11, C. 1 of 11, D. 0 of

9. Urine volumes (% b. wt ) were: A. 1, B. 6,

C. 4, D. 5. Venous pressure never rose during
therapy. Treatments C or D did not increase mor¬
tality in 11 cats in 50% lethal shock. These data
suggest that both mechanisms tested are important
in the reversal of shock. Support from USPHS.

Proceedings, 1967-1968

203

INVESTIGATION ON THE CAUSE OF CONGENITAL CATARACT IN RATS

FED A VEGETABLE BASED DIET. Priscilla I. Caasi. G. E. Bunce
and N. Chavez. Dept, of Biochemistry and Nutrition, Va.
Polytechnic Inst., Blacksburg, Va., and Instituto de

Nutricao, Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, Recife, Pe.,
Brasil .

In the process of looking for good quality protein foods
from vegetable sources indigenous to Northeast Brasil, one
of us (N . Chavez) found that combination of macacar bean
(Vigna sinensis) and cashew nut (Anacardium occidentale L.)
flours to provide 10% protein gave biological value and
protein efficiency ratio on rats comparable with casein.
However, cataract appeared in about 40% of the offspring.
Substitution of the blend with casein to give 10% protein,
or elevation of the protein from the blend to 19% prevented
the congenital cataract formation.

To find the cause for the eye lesion, the initial phase
was to reproduce the phenomenon at Va. Polytechnic Inst.

From short term studies it was found that there was no toxic
factor, and that the nutritional quality of the blend was
indeed comparable with casein. Cataract was observed in

35% of the offspring. Supplementation with either
methionine, the first limiting amino acid, or niacin, at
first believed to be deficient possibly as a result of poor
availability, failed to prevent the eye malformation.

Current efforts to determine the cause of the congenital
cataract formation will be discussed.

MEASUREMENT OF PHYSIOLOGIC NYSTAGMUS.

A. M. Clarke and Keith W. McNeer, Depts. of Bio¬
physics and Ophthalmology, Med. Col. of Va. ,

Richmond, Va.

Corneoscleral reflectance, contact lens reflectance,
and electronystagmographic methods have been used
to measure the amplitude of physiologic nystagmus in
human and animal subjects in an attempt to characterize
and relate the nystagmus to physiologic conditions.

Careful maintenance of controls, while improving the
signal to noise ratio in the instrumentation used,
yields results that raise doubts that this physiologic
tremor can be distinguished from artefacts associated
with other physical tremors. This contradicts much
of the presently accepted data.

LASER-INDUCED TEMPERATURE TRANSIENTS.

Stephen F. Cleary, Dept, of Biophysics, Med. Col. of

Va. , Richmond, Va.

The absorption of energy from Q- switched lasers has
been shown to produce thermal damage in biological
systems. In the case of the retina of the eye this type
of energy appears to be relatively more damaging than
equivalent amounts of energy delivered over a longer
period (i. e. at lower power densities).

A theoretical thermal model has been developed in an
attempt to determine the effects of variations in laser
intensity on the temperature rise in absorbing media
as a function of the optical attenuation coefficient (a).

In the case of exponential energy absorption of

Q- switched pulses it is shown that significant variations
in the surface temperature may result from variations
in the optical attenuation coefficient of the absorber.

This suggests that when high powered laser pulses are
absorbed in optically dense media, surface effects will
play a significant role in damage production.

EFFECTS OF VISUAL AND PHYSICAL ISOLATION OF COCKERELS ON

THEIR BLOOD STEROID LEVEL AND RESISTANCE TO INFECTION.

Germille Colmano and Walter B. Gross, Dept, of Veterinary

Sci., Va. Polytechnic Inst., Blacksburg, Va. 24061

The effects of E. coli challenge on the incidence of peri¬
carditis was compared between two control groups of six
birds per cage and eight experimental groups. The experi-
mentals were stressed by isolation in one of three compart¬
ment separations within each cage, and by moving the birds
of the central compartments. Two cockerels were placed in
each central compartment which was separated by a wooden
board (visual isolation: VI) or by a wire screen (physical
isolation: PI). While the single birds in the side compart¬
ments were left as unmoved visually or physically isolated
residents (VIR or PIR) , the two central birds were stressed
by exchange with birds from central compartments of other
cages (VIM or PIM) . Results have repeatedly given a separa¬
tion of degrees of stress with an increase in stress always
associated with an increase of f luorometr ical ly detectable
plasma corticosterone. This effect confirmed previous
experiments. Furthermore the physically (screened) isolated
birds (PI) had a higher, while the visually (boarded)
isolated birds (VI) had a lower corticosterone plasma level
than the controls. Also all the moved birds (M) placed
themselves just above the PI, and the residents (R) just
below the VI averages, with the higher steroid levels always
being in the pericarditis negative birds of each group.

(Aided by NIH Grant No. AI-05418-BM)

CEREBRAL REPRESENTATION OF THE AUTONOMIC NERVOUS

SYSTEM REGULATING RENAL CIRCULATION. K. C. Corley, Jr.,

W. D. DeHart*, and E. C. Hoff. Dept, of Physiology, Med. Col.
of Va., Richmond, Va.

Changes in renal blood flow (RBF) and accompanying variations in
systemic blood pressure (BP) produced by CNS stimulation were
studied. In acute experiments with cats under ether and gallamine
anesthesia, electrical stimuli (50 - 70 cps; 1 msec pulse width; 0 to

0.1 mA biphasic pulses) were applied to electrodes stereotaxically
implanted in telencephalic, diencephalic, or midbrain sites. RBF
was monitored by an electromagnetic probe around the renal artery
and BP recorded via a pressure transducer attached to the femoral
artery. Renal vasoconstriction that reduced RBF 50% was produced
by stimulation of the medial and midline nuclei of the thalamus,
most of the hypothalamus, and periventricular regions of the midbrain.
While these RBF responses were usually accompanied by marked press¬
or changes, renal vasoconstriction did occur with only slight pressor
or depressor responses. These responses were unaffected by adrenal¬
ectomy or vagotomy. While H -adrenergic blocking agents had no
effect on the vasoconstriction produced by CNS stimulation, d -
adrenergic blocking agents reduced the response. Therefore, the
vasomotor effect elicited by stimulation is controlled by sympathetic
nerves to the kidney rather than circulating hormones and mediated
via -adrenergic receptors. (Aided by NIH grant NB 05100)

CENTRAL NEURAL COMPENSATION: THRESHOLD CHANGES IN

THE VESTIBULAR NUCLEI DURING THE COURSE OF POST-
LABYRINTHECTOMY NYSTAGMUS. W. D. DeHart*, Dept, of

Physiol., Med. Col. of Va., Richmond, Va.

During the course of post-labyrinthectomy nystagmus in cats, a
subsidence in frequency of eye movements occurs over a period of
three days. Such nystagmus may be suppressed briefly by electrical
stimulation applied to the appropriate vestibular nuclei. Initially
(2 hrs. post-labyrinthectomy), the threshold stimulation to the ves¬
tibular nucleus ipsilateral to the destroyed labyrinth required to
suppress nystagmus is high (0.9 - 1 .0 mA). As the nystagmus subsides
threshold stimuli required for suppression undergo a progressive lower¬
ing and become minimal (0.1 - 0.2 mA) when the compulsive nystag¬
mus has been compensated for. Threshold changes do not occur in
cerebellar cortex sites, but do occur in the vestibular nuclei of
cerebellectomized cats, thus indicating that the site of compensation
occurs within the nuclei themselves.

(Supported in part by NIH grant NB 07839-01)

204

The Virginia Journal of Science

FURTHER STUDIES ON THE MECHANISM OF RELEASE OF PYROGEN BY
RABBIT LEUCOCYTES. G. W. Gander* and Fairfield Goodale,
Med. Col. of Va., Richmond, Va .

There are several possible mechanisms for the production
of leutocytic pyrogen (L.P.) by the leucocyte. Earlier
work from our laboratory has suggested that L.P. is present
in the cell as an inactive precursor. The present experi¬
ments were designed to provide further information concern¬
ing the mechanism of activation of the precursor substance.
Rabbit buffy coat cells were isolated by pipetting and
washed twice in phosphate buffered isotonic saline. These
cells were incubated overnight with one of the following
preparations: 0.003 yg endotoxin, carbon particles, leuco¬
cyte granules and lysed leucocyte granules. Control prep¬
arations of cells were incubated in phosphate buffered sa¬
line. All of the above preparations induced release of
significant amounts of L.P. as compared to the control
cells. These data support the hypothesis that the leuco¬
cyte lysosome is involved in the activation of the precur¬
sor substance.

[Aided by a grant from the John A. Hartford Fndn.]

OCULAR HAZARDS FROM LASER RADIATION.

William T. Ham, Jr., Dept, of Biophysics, Med. Col.
of Va.

The intense beams of monochromatic and coherent
light available from lasers have stimulated renewed
interest in the biological effects of electromagnetic
radiation in the visible and infrared spectral regions.
Lasers are being used clinically to treat retinal detach¬
ment and, in some cases, other types of ocular pathology
Unfortunately, the eye is also the most vulnerable organ
of the body to laser radiation. For continuous wave
(CW) and for multiple spike operation, it is believed
that biological effects of lasers can be explained in
terms of thermal injury to the retina. However, for
"Q" switched operation, power densities on the retina
may exceed many megawatts /cm^ and it is doubtful
at these power densities and exposure times whether
thermal effects can account entirely for biological
effects observed in the eye.

TOBACCO MOSAIC VIRUS BREAKAGE BY LASER-IN
DUCED ACOUSTIC TRANSIENTS. Philip E, Hamrick,*
Dept, of Biophysics, Med. Col. of Va. , Richmond, Va.

A solution of tobacco mosaic virus particles has been
used as a model system to investigate the biological
effects of laser-induced acoustic transients. The acoustic
transients were produced by transient heating of a
Prussian blue dye solution when a pulse of ruby laser
light was incident on the dye surface.

The electron microscope was used to compare particle
length distributions of control TMV solutions and
solutions exposed to the acoustic transients. The ampli¬
tude and form of the acoustic pulse were determined
with quartz piezoelectric transducers, and calculations
were made of the magnitude of the hydrodynamical
forces exerted on the TMV particles. A laser pulse
with an intensity of 6. 3 x 10® watts per cm^ incident on
the absorbing dye solution was found to be sufficient
to cause significant breakage of the TMV particles. The
corresponding tension on the TMV particle was calculat¬
ed to be 5. 1 x 10-5 dynes.

A HAEMODIALYSIS UNIT IN A RELATIVELY SMALL GENERAL HOSPITAL.
E. M. Hanbury, Jr.* and E. E. Sayegh*, Dialysis Unit, Ports¬
mouth General Hospital, Portsmouth, Va.

The reasons impelling Portsmouth General Hospital (about
250 beds) to establish a haemodialysis unit are discussed,
along with the means employed to gain full staff and board
approval .

The unit is briefly described vis-^-vis equipment, costs,
necessary renovations of existing hospital space, and staff.
Emphasis is placed upon the absolute necessity of having
immediately available expert consultation not only for
training personnel but for the occasional case who may need
dialysis requiring more experience and judgement than the
"in-place" personnel will have been able to develop. (This
is most generously and patiently being rendered us by the
Dialysis Department, Renal Division of the Medical College
of Virginia. Without it, we should never have been able to
begin. )

Further commentary is offered on the economic and moral
obligations inherent in instituting a dialysis facility --
along with enumeration of several ways it cannot be done.

Finally, the role of this dialysis unit in the medical
community it serves is discussed, as the authors see it.

MAGNESIUM AND RESPIRATORY CONTROL IN BRAIN MITOCHONDRIA.
Edwin S. Higgins, Dept, of Biochemistry, Med. Col. of Va.,
Richmond, Va.

A simplified technique was developed for isolation of the
mitochondrial fraction from central nervous tissue of the
rat. The fraction so prepared satisfied structural and
functional criteria of intactness and homogeneity. These
included: control of respiration by acceptor, volume
changes characterized by cyclic swelling and recontraction
by ATP, predicted responses to uncoupling agents and inhib¬
itors of phosphorylating oxidation, evidence against loss
of the most readily depleted redox couples, and normal fine
structure.

Oxidation of various substrates and the influences of
inhibitors and experimental conditions were examined. The
refractoriness of brain mitochondria to thyroxine was con¬
firmed. Oxidation of glutamate was characterized by respir¬
atory control ratios (state 3/state U) greater than 10.

There was a pronounced Mg requirement by mitochondria in the
aerobic active state, but not in the controlled state. Re¬
verse acceptor control (inhibition of respiration by ADP)
was manifest during succinate oxidation by Mg deficient
mitochondria.

(Supported by Bureau of Alcohol Studies and Rehabilitation)

THE PREPARATION AND PURIFICATION OF "TAILOR-MADE" PHOSPHO¬
LIPIDS. Peter F. Jezyk. Dept, of Biochemistry, Med. Col. of
Va., Richmond, Va.

Chemical syntheses of phospholipids with known composi¬
tion are difficult, expensive, and usually of low yield. A
combination of simple chemical and enzymatic alterations of
naturally-occurring phospholipids has been developed which
produces such "tailor-made" lipids of reasonable purity at
a considerably lower cost. Diacyl glycerophosphorylcholine
(diacyl GPC) , isolated from egg lipids by alumina chromato¬
graphy (Singleton et al, JAOCS 42, 53, 1965), and alkenyl
acyl GPC, prepared from beef heart lipids by phospholipase
D treatment (Lands and Hart, BBA £8, 532, 1965) and alumina
chromatography, serve as the starting materials for such
syntheses. Diacyl GPC having essentially a single fatty
acid at the 1- or 2-position, or both, may be produced
utilizing liver microsomal acyl CoA : acyl GPC acyltransf er¬
ases and 2-acyl GPC prepared from alkenyl acyl GPC by cleav¬
age of the vinyl ether with I2 or 1-acyl GPC prepared by
snake venom hydrolysis of diacyl GPC (Robertson and Lands,
Biochemistry J., 804, 1962). Diacyl GPC may also be converted
to other lipids, such as diacyl glycerophosphoryl-ethanola-
mine, by transphosphatidylation with cabbage phospholipase
D (Yang et al, JBC 242, 477, 1967). Silicic acid chromato¬
graphy is usually sufficient to purify the lipids at this
stage .

(Aided by a grant from the A. D. Williams Research Fund of
the Med. Col. of Va.)

Proceedings, 1967-1968

205

EFFECTS OF Q-SWITCHED RUBY LASER IN RELATION TO CELL
PIGMENT DENSITY. Robert G. King, Jr.*, and Walter J. Geeraets.
Dept, of Ophthal., Med. Col. of Va., Richmond, Va.

Isolated cells from retinal pigment epithelium explants were exposeq
toQ-switched ruby laser irradiation (30 nsec) from a TRG biolaser.

The explants obtained from ten day old White Leghorn chick embryos
were placed in Rose chambers. Cel Is of different ages, morphologies
and melanin granule densities were observed. Each laser pulse was
monitored and its energy density controlled by an attenuation filter
system.

The threshold for cell death of a heavily pigmented cell was 3.8
MW/cm^ and characterized by shrinkage of the entire cell,
cytoplasmic granulation especially in the area of melanin granules
and an increase in nucleo-cytoplasmic contrast, accenuated by a
perinuclear halo. Heavily pigmented cells, granules too dense to
count, required one-half the power density for cell destruction as
those of moderately pigmented cells, approx. 200 granules. Cells
with no melanin granules required at least 50 times the threshold
power density of the heavily pigmented cell for cell death. The
presence of cytoplasmic melanin greatly enhances the cell's vulner¬
ability to Q-switched ruby laser irradiation. The granule density of
a cell also appears to be an important factor in required power
density for threshold destruction. (Supported by NIH grant ^ 2B 5176
and Old Dominion Eye Bank and Research, Inc., Richmond, Va.)

PROTEIN SYNTHESIS IN ISOLATED LIVER CELLS. J. P. Liberti
and P. F. Jezyk. Dept, of Biochemistry, Med. Col. of Va.,
Richmond, Va.

Dispersed, intact rat liver cells which will incorporate
C^-isoleucine (U) into protein have been prepared. The
rate of protein synthesis is linear for 1 hour at 37° and
for 2 hours at 30 and does not require the addition of oxi-
dizable substrates, cofactors, etc. Increasing the concen¬
tration of cells from 1 to 6 mg/ml results in a proportional
increase in protein synthesis. Measurement of the extent of
protein synthesis in the presence of chloramphenicol and pur*
omycin indicate that protein synthesis is not due to micro¬
bial contamination. Potassium ion is necessary for maximal
incorporation of isoleucine into protein. Evidence that
energy production and protein synthesis are intimately rela¬
ted has been obtained with the use of agents which stimulate
or inhibit oxidation and oxidative phosphorylation, e.g. com¬
pared to the controls, protein synthesis is increased with
succinate and decreased with malonate and Dicumarol. Addi¬
tion of fumarate to cells blocked with malonate restores pro¬
tein synthesis to control values. These data suggest that
protein synthesis is dependent upon energy production and
that these processes are in some way "coupled" under physio¬
logic conditions. (Aided by grants from the A.D. Williams

Fund of the Med. Col. of Va.)

THE INFLUENCE OF MONOAMINE OXIDASE INHIBITORS (MAOI) ON THE
ACCUMULATION OF NOREPINEPHRINE (NE) IN RESERPINE (R)

TREATED RATS. W. C. Moore* and T. C. Westfall, Dept, of
Pharmacology, Univ. of Va Sch. of Med., Charlottesville, Va.

The ability of the adrenergic neuron to retain NE
depends upon the integrity of the storage vesicles which
bind and protect the amine from enzymatic destruction by

MAO. The purpose of the present experiments was to deter¬
mine how much accumulation of NE could be produced by the

2 MAOI, nialamide (N) and iproniazid (I) if the storage
vesicles were previously impaired as a result of R. Rats
were treated with R in doses which produced complete
depletion of endogenous stores as well as inhibition of NE
uptake into the vesicles (lmg/kg, lx2days) . D-NE (3mg/kg)
was administered alone or in the presence of N or I. Al¬
though there was little difference in the initial uptake
of NE, both MAOI produced a much slower decline in myo¬
cardial and splenic NE. Contrary to other reports, it is
concluded that both N and I can produce accumulation of NE
in R-treated rats. Cocaine and amitriptyline were used to
help differentiate between extra and intra-neuronal uptake.
[Supported by NIH grant TI GM 357 and The Council for

Tobacco Research-U.S. A. ]

THE INTRINSIC INNERVATION IN THE MAMMALIAN KIDNEY. John E.
Norvel 1 . Dept, of Anatomy, Med. Col. of Va., Richmond, Va.

The distribution of adrenergic and cholinergic nerves in
the kidney was studied in the hamster, rat, cat and dog
using specific histochemical techniques for norepinephrine
and acetylcholinesterase.

Adrenergic nerve fibers were found in the adventitia of
interlobar, arcuate, and interlobular arteries and afferent
arterioles to the glomeruli. No adrenergic fibers associ¬
ated with the efferent arterioles, glomeruli or tubules of
the kidney were observed.

Cholinesterase positive nerve fibers were also found
associated with the renal blood vessels. It is suggested
that the majority of these fibers are afferent components
of spinal nerves.

No nerve endings were found in or on the cells of the
renal tubules, nor were any intrarenal ganglia or nerve
cells observed in the specimens studied.

Supported in part by Med. Col. of Va. A.D. Williams Res.

Fund Grant No. 3558 (562).

SEDIMENTATION STUDIES ON HIGH MOLECULAR WEIGHT DNAC

Alfred J. Richard*and Marlin Troiancft DeDt. of

Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Med. Col. of Va., Richmond, Va.

A procedure has been devised that permits the
isolation of DNA from normal leukocytes and from several
types of tumor cells in humans and in animals. The
extracts were analyzed for RNA and protein contaminants
by colorimetric methods. The base composition of each

DNA sample was calculated from its ultraviolet spectrum.

Sedimentation studies were performed using the

Beckman Model E ultracentrifuge equipped with ultraviolet
absorption optics. DNA from four different extracts was
found to sediment at the same rate, and from the value
of the sedimentation constant, an approximate value of
the molecular weight could be obtained.

ETHANOL VERSUS CHLORDIAZEPOXIDE: DIFFERENCES IN SENSI¬
TIVITIES OF VARIOUS DIENCEPHALIC AND TELENCEPHALIC LOCI

N. H. Spector and E. C. Hoff. Depts. of Psychiatry and Physiology,
Med. Col. of Va., Richmond, Va.

Hybrid cats (Felis catus) maintained under gallamine triethiodide
plus local anesthesia, were stimulated electrically at a series of tel —
encephalic and diencephalic loci, while eleven different autonomic
responses were monitored. Thresholds, amplitude, rate, latencies to
onset and to maximum response, duration of response, and the same
measurements for ensuing rebound phenomena were recorded. After
control responses were observed, ethanol or chlordiazepoxide (Libri¬
um) was introduced i.v. in varying doses and the stimuli repeated.

It was observed that (1) various forebrain nuclei are not uniformly
affected by EtOH or Librium, (2) these two drugs have, in some re¬
spects, different sites of action which cannot be divided simply be¬
tween cerebral cortex and sub-cortex, (3) different sensitivities to

EtOH cannot be accounted for only by local differences in concen¬
tration arising from diffusion gradients from the blood stream or from
the ventricles, (4) low doses (ca. 0.2 gAg) of EtOH (but not Librium
or saline) had an invariant transitory stimulating effect upon blood
pressure, followed by a long lasting depression. The same dose level
produced enhanced responses to CNS stimulation from several sites,
even in the latter period. (Aided by NIH grants)

206

The Virginia Journal of Science

PENETRATION, QUANTITY AND QUALITY OF PARTICULATE RADIATION.
E. E. Stickley, Divisions of Radiation Biology and Physics,
Medical College of Virginia, Richmond, Va., 23219.

For careful radiobiology experiments, essential data in¬
clude accurate physical determinations of the distribution
patterns of radiation dose as delivered in target organs.
Heavy particle radiations (protons, deuterons, helium ions)
have advantages of precisely controllable depth of penetra¬
tion and highly concentrated density of ionization. For ex¬
ample, with particles it is possible to irradiate the skin
without exposing the supporting structures beneath. To take
full advantage of these characteristics, a simple penetro¬
meter has been devised to demonstrate the exact depth which
the radiation reaches; it is suitable for use under the
intended exposure conditions, and for immediate interpreta¬
tion. It comprises a polaroid film pack and a mylar step
wedge. For accurate dosimetric information which the film
cannot provide, recourse is had to standard procedure utili¬
zing a monitor ion chamber calibrated by Faraday cup. Small
ionization chambers of fractional skin thickness have also
been devised to measure relative dose at depth. For detailed
data as to the specific ionization density, linear energy
transfer, or local energy deposition in microscopic dimen¬
sions it is still necessary to employ calculations from the
meager experimental evidence of this kind that is presently
available, although further experimentation is planned to
give this by direct measurement. (Supported by USAEC)

CALIBRATION TECHNIQUES FOR HIGH INTENSITY
LIGHT SOURCES USED IN BIOLOGICAL STUDIES.

R. C9 Williams*, H. A. Mueller*, R. S. Ruffin*, and
R. K. Hale*, Dept, of Biophysics, Med. Col. of Va.,
Richmond, Va.

Methods are discussed for measuring radiant energy
in the wavelength range of 300 nm to 2500 nm for pulsed
or CW modes in times ranging from nanoseconds to
hundreds of seconds, power levels of microwatts to
gigawatts and energies ranging from microjoules to
joules. Basic units are watts (power) and joules
(energy). Technical apparatus will be described where¬
by these measurements may be put on an absolute
basis by the use of National Bureau of Standards
calibrated sources.

ADVANCES IN RENAL TRANSPLANTATION. G.M, Williams, H.M.

Lee, & D.M. Hume. Dept, of Surgery, Med. Col. of Va. ,
Richmond, Va.

A kidney transplantation program has been in operation
at the Medical College of Virginia for 5 years. On the
basis of this experience certain conclusions can be made
regarding the value of transplantation as an investigative
and therapeutic procedure for patients with renal failure.

1) Matching only for the major red blood cell antigens,
a recipient of kidney donated by a near relative has a 55%
chance of successful renal function 3 years following
transplantation;- a recipient of a kidney from an unrelated
individual has a 34% chance of successful function at 2
years .

2) Second, third or fourth transplants can be carried
out if the first fails with results that are comparable
to those of the first transplant.

3) Sophisticated methods for determining an individuals
tissue type are currently available that allow better
matching of a donor and recipient. Transplants matched on
this basis have yet to fail in our experience.

4) Additional means of suppressing the immunological
factors responsible for rejection are being developed.

These include heterologous anti-lymphocytic serum, and the
induction of specific tolerance by administering small
doses of antigen coupled with an immunosuppressive drug.

HOLLOW FILAMENT FABRIC BLOOD OXYGENATOR. T, Leigh Williams,
Ph.D., Lewis H. Bosher, M.D., Teruhisa Nakamura, M.D. and
Carl C. Goosen. Med. Col. of Va., Richmond, Va.

A new type of membrane blood oxygenator is proposed, in
which the membranes are the walls of small hollow filaments,
having an inside diameter of about 40 p and a wall thickness
of 11 p. Such filaments are woven into a fabric. Squares
of this fabric are thoroughly impregnated around their
borders with a silicone rubber to seal the edges and trimmed
to expose the open ends of the hollow filaments. A stack of
such fabric squares (50 to 150 layers of fabric) forms the
element of the oxygenator. Oxygen is passed edgewise througl
the hollow filaments comprising the fabric. Blood flows
through the central area perpendicular to the fabric and
around and between the hollow filaments.

A small model oxygenator (active element 2" x 2" x 1")
has been constructed and evaluated. All fabrication steps
have proven practical. Membrane area is 0.35 M^ per cu. in.
(maximum to date 1.6 M^)e Blood pressure drop across the
model is less than 10 mm Hg. The casing is simple and no
internal spacers or supports are required.

Fresh heparinized canine blood has been circulated for
six hours with modest changes in plasma hemoglobin and red
cell fragility and no change in pressure drop. Oxygen
saturation increases from 70% to 95%, in a single pass. A
larger model is now being made.

Supported. by NHI Contract No. PH-43-67-1426.

Proceedings, 1967-1968

207

Section of Microbiology

Forty-sixth

Annual Meeting of The Virginia Academy of Science
May 8-10, 1968, Roanoke, Virginia

ANTIBODY ACTIVITY ASSOCIATED WITH THE FLUORESCENT POLY- A
PEPTIDE CHAINS 0£ HUMAN IMMUNOGLOBULIN g. Charles H. Evans
Sharon B. Herron , and Gerald Goldstein . Dept, of
Microbiology, Univ. of Va. , Charlottesville, Va.

Direct immunof luorescent staining has been performed with
the fluorescent gamma and light polypeptide chains isolated
from a human anti-streptolysin 0 immunoglobulin G (IgG)
conjugated with fluorescein isothiocyanate . Group A beta
hemolytic streptococci and Staphylococcus aureus were stained
with the fluorescent gamma and light chains and IgG in
sodium phosphate, pH 7.5, containing 0.02% sodium dodecyl
sulfate to maintain the polypeptide chains in solution.

Both the gamma and light chains exhibited immunof luorescent
activity. The specificity of the staining was demonstrated
by one step inhibition tests with the unlabeled autologous
anti-streptolysin 0 IgG. The specificity of the inhibition
itself was shown by one step inhibitions employing unlabeled
anti-Staphylcoccus aureus IgG or serum. Comparison of the
immunofluorescence of the polypeptide chains with the intact
IgG revealed that the gamma chains retained 8% and the light
chains retained 0.1% of the antibody activity associated
with the intact IgG. (Supported by USPHS grants 3 ROI CA
03726 and 5T0I AI 102 and by the Life Insurance Medical
Research Fund).

DESIGN AND MANAGEMENT OF ENTAMOEBA HISTOLYTICA CULTURES.

E. Clifford Nelson and Muriel M. Jones, Med. Coll, of Va. ,
Richmond, Va.

In its natural environment, the large intestine of man,
Entamoeba histolytica is subjected to a wide range of
nutrients, salts and other constitutions. The tonicity is
held within rather strict limits but pH may vary widely.

The adaptability of the organism is reflected by its response
to the composition of culture medium. In an extended
testing program on ten strains of _E. histolytica the
response to modifications of salt solution, nutrients and
temperature has been studied. Study of the role of buffers
and other salt solution constituents, carbon dioxide,
nutrients, and temperature on growth and encystment has
revealed some basic essential requirements.

(Supported by NIH Grant AI 03826)

STUDIES ON STREPTOMYCIN RESISTANCE AND DEPENDENCE IN E.

COLI . Patricia C. Holden* and J. D. Punch, Med. Col. of
Va., Richmond, Va.

From 15. coli CSH-2, sensitive to 7 pg/ml SM, the follow¬
ing cultures were obtained: CSH-2 (222), an episomally
resistant culture resistant to 150 pg/ml; CSH-2Smp, a
chromosomally resistant mutant resistant to 5000 pg/ml;
and CSH-2Smp, a dependent mutant requiring at least 2 pg/ml
Sm. c'^Sm accumulation data showed: CSH-2 accumulated
large quantities, Sm^ was relatively impermeable, 222 accu¬
mulated larger quantities than CSH-2, and Sm^ accumulated
only small amounts. DMSO, a known penetrant carrier, low¬
ered the MIC of Sm from 5000 pg/ml to 5 pg/ml. The MIC
of 222 remained at 150 pg/ml. DMSO did not render Sm^
sensitive. An unexpected finding was that 3-8% DMSO
negated the culture's dependence on Sm. When 26-Sal (222)
was mated with CSH-2 Sm^, CSH-2 Sm (222) could only be
obtained when the mixture contained at least SO pg/ml Sm,
implying that the episome inactivated sufficient Sm to
prevent Sm^ growth. In summary, chromosomal resistance in
Snip appears to be due to impermeability to Sm while episom-
al resistance may be due to enzymatic inactivation of Sm.
Furthermore, 3-8% DMSO can replace the requirement of Sm^
for Sm. Possible mechanisms will be discussed.

ULTRASTRUCTURE OF ZOOSPORULATION IN LABYRINTHULA SP., A
MARINE PROTIST. Frank 0. Perkins and James P. Amon, Va.
Inst, of Marine Science, Gloucester Point, Va.

Zoosporulation was induced in monoxenic cultures of a
species of Labyrinthula similar to Labyrinthula algerien-
sis. A yeast, Rhodotorula sp. was used as a food organism
for the vegetative spindle cells of Labyrinthula . Spindle
cells enlarged and rounded to form presporangia then div¬
ided by successive bipartition to form eight biflagellated
zoospores. Sporangial differentiation occurred within a
50A thick amorphous wall which was, in turn, contained
within a membrane- limited vesicle. Each sorus was enclosed
by a unit membrane. The planonts possessed an anterior
flagellum with two rows of mastigonemes along opposite
sides and a dense cluster of filamentous extensions, 110A
in diameter, which arose from the cell body around the base
of the flagellum. The posterior flagella lacked mastig¬
onemes and basal extensions. A stigma consisting of a
line of 3 or 4 membrane-delimited granules was found under
the plasmalemma next to the posterior flagellum. A single
row of microtubules was found arranged parallel to the row
of stigma granules. Both kinetosomes contained electron
dense cores which appeared rectangular in sectioned mater¬
ial and which averaged 0.18 x 0.12 p. Numerous microtubu¬
lar mitochondria and free ribosomes were found in the
cytoplasm.

208

The Virginia Journal of Science

LINCOMYCIN : EFFECT OF INOCULUM SIZE ON IN VITRO SENSITIVITY
DETERMINATIONS., ;,‘£. Shadomy , *M. Kannan, *Judith M. Bruce,
and *J. P, Utz, Div. 6f Allergy and Infectious Diseases,

Dept, of Medicine, Med. Coll, of Va. , Richmond, Va.

The literature is in conflict as to whether lincomycin is
primarily bacteriostatic or bactericidal in its action
against sensitive gram-positive cocci. In an attempt to both
clarify this question and to determine optimal conditions
for in_ vitro testing, the effect of inoculum size on the
results of tube-dilution sensitivity determinations was
examined. Forty strains of Staphylococcus aureus and 25
clinical isolates of streptococci and pneumococci were tested
Experimental design permitted determinations of both minimum
inhibitory and minimum bactericidal concentrations (MIC and
MBC) using inocula containing from less than 10 to more than
10' organisms per ml.

When tested against S. aureus using inocula containing
less than 101* organisms per ml, lincomycin was found to be
both highly active and bactericidal (MIC=0,78 M/ml, MBC=1.56
-M/ml). When inocula containing more than 10® organisms per
ml were used, lincomycin was found to be primarily bacterio¬
static in its action (MIC=1. 56yu/ml, MBC> 100^/ml ) . Dis¬
similar results were obtained with streptococci and pneumo¬
cocci; MBC values for alpha hemolytic streptococci changed
from a mean of 0.20^/ml to 1.56y«/ml with an increase in
inoculum size from 104 to 10® organisms per ml without a
significant increase in MIC values. Beta hemolytic strep¬
tococci and pneumococci showed even a lesser change.

THE RESPONSE OF ANAEROBIC BACTERIA TO PHENETHYL ALCOHOL.

T. Smith* and J. D. Punch, Med. Col. of Va., Richmond, Va.

The use of phenethyl alcohol (PEA) to selectively cul¬
ture anaerobic bacteria from a mixed flora as proposed by
Dowel, et^ al_. (J. Bacteriol. 88: 1811, 1964) was investi¬
gated. For known anaerobic cultures, the highest non-inhi-
bitory concentration of PEA (%) in blood agar base (BAB)
was: Bact . incommunis , 0.3; Bact . fragilis, 0.35; Bact .
tumidus, 0.4; Veillonella, 0.1; Treponema, 0.2; and peptos-
treptococci (3 cultures) 0 to 0.1. Under the same condi¬
tions, Gram-negative faculative organisms were sensitive to
0.2% PEA, and Gram-positive faculative cultures to 0.35%
PEA. Studies on the response to PEA of the anaerobic and
faculative flora in clinical samples curetted from gingival
sulci gave the following results. Fewer anaerobic isolants
were obtained on BAB + 0.25% PEA than on plain BAB. Of the
isolants selected from plain BAB, 89% of the faculative
cultures grew with 0.25% PEA in the medium, while 73% grew
with 0.3% PEA. Only 62% of the anaerobic isolants grew in
BAB containing 0.25% PEA and only 38% with 0.3% PEA. Thus,
with the possible exception of the Bacteriodes group, these
studies indicate that PEA media cannot be used to select¬
ively culture anaerobic bacteria from a mixed flora.

CRYPTOCOCCUS NE0F0RMANS: IN VITRO SENSITIVITY TO AMPHOTERICIN
B AND TO TWO EXPERIMENTAL AGENTS, HAMYCIN AND 5-FLU0ROCYT0SINE
S. Shadomy, H. Jean Shadomy, Ann McCav, and J. P, Utz, Div,
of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, Dept, of Medicine, Med.
Coll, of Va., Richmond, Va.

Sensitivities of 77 strains of Cryptococcus neoformans to
amphotericin B and to two experimental antifungal agents,
hamycin and 5-fluorocytosine, were compared. All tests were
made at 30 and 37°C in order to determine the effect of
different temperatures of incubation on: stability of the test
drugs. A tube dilution procedure which permitted determina¬
tion of both minimum inhibitory (MIC) and minimum fungicidal
(MFC) concentrations was used.

When tested at 30°C, 97.4 per cent of the strains of C.
neoformans were inhibited by 0.39 mcg/ml or less of amph?-
tericin B; at 37°C, 98.7 per cent were inhibited by the same
amount of drug. Fungicidal levels of amphotericin B for C.
neoformans were somewhat higher with 98.7 and 100 per cent
being killed by 1,56 mcg/ml or less when measured at 30 and
37°C respectively.

C, neoformans was more sensitive to hamycin than to ampho-
thericin B with MIC and MFC values in the range of 0.03 and
0.13 mcg/ml respectively. In contrast, however, results with
5-fluorocytosine indicated far lesser levels of activity with
the mean MIC and MFC values being in the range of 500 and
750 mcg/ml when measured at 37°C, When measured at 30°C,
these values were found to be in the range of 1300 and 1500
mcg/ml. This low level, of activity is attributed to inacti-
vatlon of the drug by peptones.

Proceedings, 1967-1968

209

Section of Psychology

Forty-sixth Annual Meeting of The Virginia Academy of Science
May 8-10, 1968, Roanoke, Virginia

TIME AS A RELEVANT VARIABLE WHEN PERSONALITY SCORES ARE
USED TO PREDICT ACHIEVEMENT. Alfred E. Acev. Dept, of
Psychology, Randolph-Macon Col., Ashland, V a.

Two groups of 240 freshmen college students, equilivalent
in achievement and aptitude, mere administered the
California Psychological Inventory (CPI) by a regular
booklet form where there was no control over the time of
response to each item and by a tape recorded form where a
time increment of two seconds was allowed for response to
each item. Control and Experimental CPI scores were then
compared in respect to their efficiency in predicting first
semester grade point average. (CPA)

The timed administration yielded four scores which
showed a significant mean difference at the .05 level of
confidence. A comparison of the zero order coefficients of
correlation between CPA and CPI scores found to be different
under Control and Experimental administrations showed that
two scores, Py and Ex, predicted the criterion better under
the Experimental administration, further support for the
initial findings came from the multiple coefficient of
correlation (R) obtained from regression equations
utilizing the scores found to be different. The Control
R was .20 and the Experimental R was .43. Cognitive
predictors increased the Control R by .03 points and the
Experimental R by .11 points. Cross validation upheld all
of the initial findings.

LENGTHENED CIRCADIAN ACTIVITY PERIOD IN THE RAT.
Frederick M. Brown.* Dept, of Psychology, Univ.
of Va ., Charlottesville , Va .

Spontaneous near 24-hour rhythms, denoted circa¬
dian, are ubiquitous In living systems. In noctur¬
nal animals such as rats, the activity period aver¬
ages slightly less than 24 hours' duration when
measured under constant dark (DD) conditions. A
primary characteristic of circadian rhythms Is re¬
sistivity to change in period length. Although
prior reported attempts have failed, the present
study has successfully lengthened the DD activity
period using wheel running as the activity measure.

Fourteen rats, born to four females whose activ¬
ity had been entrained to a 13-hr:13-hr light-dark
schedule (LD 13:13). were maintained In LD 13:13
until age 90 days when measurement of their DD ac¬
tivity periods began. Sixteen rats maintained
under prolonged LD 12:12 were used as controls.

For Group LD 13:13 the activity period Grand
Mean for the first week of DD was 24.84 hours
(range of Individual means, 24.39 to 25.90 hours).
For Group LD 12:12 the comparable DD activity
period Grand Mean was 23.91 hours ( range, 23.39 to
24.07 hours). The Grand Means for Group LD 13:13
for the second and third week under DD, 24.48 and
24.27 hours, respectively, continued to demonstrate
the lengthened circadian activity period.

EXTRA- EXPERIMENTAL INTERFERENCE FROM VERBAL HABITS: A
REPLICATION REPORT. Kenneth A. Blick and Carol Friedenberg,
Univ. of Richmond, Va.

Two groups of high school freshmen were given 20 sec. to
learn 10 pairs of words, and retention of the response words
was assessed after 2 min. (n = 33) and 48 hr. (n = 30).
According to word association norms, each response word had
a .01 probability of being associated to its corresponding
stimulus word. The 630 recall responses were analyzed into
one of six sources of recall and misrecall.

A significant decrease in the percentage of correct
responses from 2 min. (537.) to 48 hr. (297.) was accompanied
by a significant rise in two extra-experimental sources of
misrecall. The incidence of primary response associates
(R^s) increased from 277. to 427. while the R3_n category
(sum of R3 to R ) changed from 107. to 207.. The results
agree with previous research using college freshmen in
showing that proactive interference due to extra-
experimental verbal habits increases over the retention
interval. In addition, no major differences were detected
between the verbal habits of high school freshmen and
college freshmen.

EFFECTS OF LEVEL OF ILLUMINATION AND d- AMPHETAMINE SULFATE
ON ROUGHNESS DISCRIMINATION PERFORMANCE OF RHESUS MACAQUES.

A. L. Cone. Dept, of Psychology, Lynchburg College,
Lynchburg, Va. 24504

Thurmond (1965) reported that absolute visual sensitivity
decreased as a function of increasing d-amphetamine dosage in
the Rhesus Macaque . He hypothesized that amphetamine acts to
reduce the effects of illumination and that this effect is
directly upon the visual system rather than on the non-speci¬
fic Reticular Activating System (RAS).

In order to evaluate this hypothesis the present study was
conducted using a roughness discrimination task. Three lev¬
els of ambient illumination (dark, 25 ft.c. and 50 ft.c.) and
five levels of d-amphetamine sulfate (placebo, .0125, .025,
.05, and .10 mg/kg of body weight) were used. The drug was
administered orally in Hawaiian Punch 30 minutes prior to the
test session.

Analysis of variance was used to analyze both errors and
response latency. The very low dose of amphetamine produced
an improvement in performance. The highest dose produced a
decrement in reaction time and an increase in errors. There
was no evidence of an interaction between ambient illumina¬
tion level and amphetamine dose. This lack of interaction
tends to support Thurmond's interpretation while the finding
that higher amphetamine doses produce decrements in rough¬
ness discrimination performance tends to argue against a
visual system effect separate from the RAS.

210

The Virginia Journal of Science

CAGE ACTIVITY IN THE CALIFORNIA ANTELOPE GROUND SQUIRREL.
Donna M. Cone and A. L. Cone. Dept, of Psychology,

Lynchburg College, Lynchburg, Va. 24504

Cone and Cone (1968) have reported that the effects of
levels of ambient illumination on the cage activity of the
Virginia opossum, a nocturnal marsupial, vary significantly
with time of day. The present report describes research
using the same independent variables and a diurnal rodent,
the California Antelope Ground Squirrel .

Cage activity was sampled from 10 a.m. until noon and from
10 p.m. until midnight for 4 males and 2 females maintained
in circular wire mesh cages mounted on jiggle platforms.
Continuous graphic records were kept. Six experimental lev¬
els of illumination (dark,<l, 2.5, 5, 25, and 50 ft.c.) were
introduced automatically at the test times. For the remain¬
ing 20 hours the Ss were on a 12-12 Light-Dark cycle with 15
ft.c. illumination as the standard from 6 a.m. until 6 p.m.

Three replications of the basic 2X6 factorial experiment
were conducted using each S as his own control. Analysis of
variance indicated that Time of Day, Level of Illumination
and Subjects were significant sources of variation. In addi¬
tion to these main effects, a significant Time of Day X Lev¬
el of Illumination interaction was found. This interaction
is of primary interest and will be discussed in terms of the
similarities and differences between it and the interaction
found for nocturnal opossum. The relation between circadian
arousal and ambient illumination arousal will also be dis¬
cussed.

DOJkXffl DIDCtLL XiATIOU OF COMPLEX FOAMS. Paul it.
D'Agostino. Dept, of Psychology, Uhiv. of Va.',""5hsrlottcs-
ville, Va.

The present study investigated delayed discrimination
of complex visual forma (random shapes). Hie principal
variables were similarity of prior items and length of
retention interval. On each trial the Ss were presented a
prototype random shape followed by a retention interval of
.75, 5 or 10 sec. The 5 and 10-seo. retention intervals
were filled with a counting task. At the end of the
retention interval a comparison shape was presented and
the Ss were required to make a "same" or "different"
judgement with respect to the shape of the two fons. The
Ss received 10 such trials under both similar and dis¬
similar stimulus conditions.

Discrimination performance under both the similar -nci
dissimilar conditions wa3 found to decrease as the
retention interval was increased from .75 to 5 sec. but
remained relatively constant as the interval was extended
from 5 to 10 sec. Superior performance was obtained unuer
the similar condition. This was attributed to the
opportunity to learn the critical features of the proto¬
types.

THR QUALITY OF MOTIVATION! STOPPING SELF -PUNITIVE BEWVIOR
BY REDUCING EMOTIONALITY. Douglas Ervey and R. Chris
Martin. Rollins College.

In a number of studies of self-punitive behavior it has
been shown that the Mowrer-Brown theoretical explanation has
been overwhelmingly supported. This theoretical explanation
hinges upon the maintenance of an emotional level during
extinction-punishment sessions. Conditioned fear, drive
due to punishment, and the residual emotionality from having
been shocked are considered to be the three primary contrib¬
utors to the motivation level. In this study the contribu¬
tion of residual emotionality to the motivational complex
was assesed by insertion of an 18-minute delay interval
after (0, 5, 20, 80, or 100) punished trials. The corres¬
ponding non-ounished groups were also run. Rats were train¬
ed to perform instrumental shock-escape runway responses
then were given up io 100 extinction-punishment trials.

The results showed thpt the nunish“d groups were more resis¬
tant to extinction than non-ounished groups , thus demon¬
strating the self-ounitive ohenomenon. The reduction of
motivation by reducing residual emotionality tended to
stoo subjects from further self-Dunishment if they had
had large numbers of punishment trials before the delay.
These results are interoreted within the Mowrer-Brown
theoretical framework arid they emphasize the importance of
residual emotionality for maintenance of self-ounitive
behavior.

EFFECTS OF WHITE NOISE ON SPEECH VOLUME OF
CHILDREN. Joan A . Cramer , Charles L. Fry,

Robert E. Foster, and Arthur R. Greenwald .

Dept, of Psychology, U. of Virginia,
Charlottesville, Va.

Raising white noise level has been shown
to increase speech volume in adults. The
present study investigated the effects of
white noise on the speech of 40 children as
a function of age. An experimental group of
preschoolers ages A to 6 years, and a control
of fourth graders ages 9 to 10 years were used.
It was found that older children increased
their speech volume to a greater extent than
did younger ones. These differential effects
of white noise are discussed in relation to
the delayed auditory feedback phenomenon, and
are interpreted as a learning process.

MECHANISMS INVOLVED IN THE TACHISTOSCOPIC RECOGNITION OF
REPEATED WORDS. Lee E. Doerries. Peter L. Derks, Dept, of
Psychology, Col. of William and Mary, Williamsburg, Va.

When a stimulus word is repeated in a recognition thres¬
hold experiment the exposure time necessary for recognition
is reduced. The present experiment attempts to define the
variables operating to produce this improved recognition.
Threshold durations for a series of 8-letter nonsense words
were determined by the Method of Limits. Four filler words
intervened between the first and second threshold determina¬
tion. Control 0s were shown either the same word (LERADAB0) ,
or an entirely different stimulus word (ELACATER) . Experi¬
mental Os were presented a slightly modified form (LERABABO) ,
of the critical stimulus. Instructions induced an expectancy
against seeing a stimulus word more than once. For 0s who
saw the same or slightly modified stimulus, results supported
a long-term perseveration of facilitative effects on subse¬
quent threshold performance due to the earlier experience.

The data showed the slightly modified stimulus to be recog¬
nized at a lower threshold than the original word despite the
inhibitory effects of the negative expectancy and the inter¬
vening four words. Analysis of the 0's verbal responses
indicated that thresholds were partly a function of his
ability to form hypotheses and to use verbal encoding strate¬
gies. Three related perceptual processes, sensitization,
categorization, and discrimination, were offered as explana¬
tions for the phenomenon.

VISUAL REVERSAL LEARNING IN TWO VARIETIES OF CENTRAL AMER¬
ICAN OPOSSUMS. Herbert Friedman, Dept, of Psychology, Col.
of William and Mary, Williamsburg, Va.

The masked opossum is a small tropical animal similar to
the phylogenetical ly primitive Virginia opossum. The wooly
opossum is a primate-like species with a comparatively
advanced brain. On a series of brightness discrimination
reversal problems, the wooly opossums (N = 2) and masked
opossum (N = 1) learned as readily as rats (N = 10). The
masked opossum performed better than would be expected on
the basis of its similarity to the Virginia opossum. Pro¬
cedural problems in running the wooly opossums may have led
to an underestimation of their ability. There is no cor¬
relation between brain size and performance.

All Ss showed appreciable improvement over the series of
reversal problems. Terminal performance was in the range
of 5 to 15 errors. None of the groups showed evidence of
forming a reversal learning set in terms of improvement
relative to the first problem (R0).

[Supported by NIH Research Grant GM 13031.]

Proceedings, 1967-1968

211

THE SENSORY-PERCEPTUAL EXAMINATION (SPE) , AN AID IN THE
DIAGNOSIS OF BRAIN DAMAGE: PRELIMINARY RESULTS.

John L. Grundvig*, Dean Foster, Dept, of Psychology, Va.
Military Inst., Lexington, Va.

The accurate and early diagnosis of organic brain impair¬
ment is a goal toward which those in the field of clinical
neurology are still striving. A still more difficult prob¬
lem is experienced in localizing the brain area affected.

The careful and quantitative measurement of a variety of
behavorial changes may contribute to the early detection of
organic brain impairment and its accurate diagnosis.

A battery of sensory and perceptual tests has been con¬
structed in order to investigate this possibility and to
provide further information concerning brain function. The
battery is being developed to sample CNS functioning via
input from all major sensory systems. Currently it is
heavily weighted on visual input but also includes auditory,
tactile, vestibular and kinesthetic systems as well. Tests
of olfactory and gustatory function are in progress.

Results to date indicate: (1) All tests show high test-
retest reliabilities using mixed hospital populations as
subjects, (2) Comparisons of performance of neurological
patients with general medical patients demonstrate that on
the group level the battery discriminates between the two,
(3) When tests are combined their discriminative power is
increased, (4) Variations in scoring and administration of
the Memory- for-Designs test have some effect on the dis¬
criminating power of this test.

BEHAVIOR OF GROUND SQUIRRELS ON CRF AND FI SCHEDULES.
Molly Haas and Douglas H. Ervey of Hollins College, Hollins
College, Virginia. (Sponsor, R. Chris Martin)

Recent reports (Bremner, 1967) of performance of rodents
other than rats on lever-pressing schedules of continuous
reinforcement and fixed interval (3 minutes) indicate that
opposite patterns of responding might exist in some species.
One explanation offered for this difference between the
performance of kangaroo rats and the common rat was the
cheek pouches of the kangaroo rat. We trained another
pouched rodent (Ground Squirrel - Citellus tridecemlin-
eatus) to determine the generality of the phenomenon of
reversed performance on these two schedules of reinforce¬
ment. The results were consistent with those of Bremner
in that the CRF showed scallops whereas the FIj record
was almost linear. Since these results contradict those
obtained with the laboratory rats and pigeons, they em¬
phasize the need for comparative experiments.

THE QUALITY OF MOTIVATION: DIFFERENCES IN SPONTANEOUS
RECOVERY. M. L. Harrison, M. E. Haas, B. L. Deemer, E. R.
Malcolm. (Sponsor: R. Chris Martin) Hollins Col.,
Roanoke, Va.

To attempt to discover the reasons for lack of sponta¬
neous recovery (SR) of aversively motivated instrumental
responses, two groups of rats were tested for SR of a
shock-escape runway response under massed and distributed
trials; neither condition showed SR. It was hypothesized
that the lack of SR was due to the definition of "extinc¬
tion." In the usual instrumental aversive stimulus situa¬
tion extinction is defined as removal of the aversive stim¬
ulus, whereas extinction is defined as lack of reinforce¬
ment when Ss are appetitively motivated. Thus, two groups
of Ss^ motivated for food were run in a straight runway
situation. The group tested under the "no reinforcement"
condition demonstrated SR, while the other group, satiated
with wet mash prior to extinction, showed no SIl. These
results show the necessity for analogous definitions of
concepts when comparing aversive and appetitive motivation¬
al conditions.

USE OF A NONPARAMETRIC TREND ANALYSIS TO ASSESS DICHOTOMOUS
DATA ON AFTEREFFECTS. Ronald S. Johnson and William H.
Leftwich, Dept, of Psychology, Univ. of Richmond, Va.

A nonparametric trend analysis on choice data was used
to assess Capaldi's stimulus aftereffects hypothesis (S^) .
In order to determine whether or not a direct association
between S^ and Rj is tenable using a selective learning
situation, it seems necessary to test for possible inter¬
action between groups on free-choice trials.

Four groups of albino rats were given 16 days of acquisi
tion training in a Y-maze. Two groups, NRP (nonrandom
partial) and RP (random partial) were conditioned by forced
choice sequences to choose a partially rewarded arm after
a nonrewarded trial. Groups NRC (non-random continuous)
and RC (random continuous) were conditioned to select a
continuously rewarded arm after a nonrewarded trial. Free-
choice trials were given to the four groups after non¬
rewarded trials on Day 2 and Day 9 of acquisition as well
as six free-choice trials comprising extinction on Day 16.

The Kruskal-Wallis test yielded a significant difference
among groups with respect to linear trend. A priori Mann-
Whitney U comparisons with respect to linear trend yielded
differences between Groups NRP and NRC as well as
differences between Groups RP and RC.

SOME EFFECTS OF FORM ON JUDGMENTS OF NUMEROSITY. Wayne K.
Johnson, Jr.*, and Virgil V. McKenna. Dept, of Psychology,
Col. of William and Mary, Williamsburg, Va.

Subjects estimated the number of dots contained in
patterns which were briefly exposed. The number of dots
making up a pattern ranged from four to seventy-five. For
each level of numerosity, a figural and a scrambled pattern
was presented. Figural and scrambled patterns were randomly
arranged in two series. Judgments of numerosity for
scrambled stimuli showed the usual pattern of increasing
underestimation as stimulus numerosity increased. Figural
stimuli were overestimated except as the highest levels of
stimulus numerosity. For the entire range of stimuli, there
was no difference in accuracy between judgments of figural
and scrambled stimuli. When the patterns were sorted into
four groups on the basis of stimulus numerosity, different
regions of greatest accuracy were found for figural and
scrambled patterns. Trial to trial correlations indicated
that judgments of numerosity were highly reliable for both
types of patterns. Discussion dealt with possible expla¬
nations for the differential judgments of numerosity in
scrambled and figural patterns.

(Supported by a PHS research grant (HD 00207-08) from
the Institute of Child Welfare and Human Development,

Public Health Service, E. Rae Harcum, Principal Investigate

NEW EXPERIMENTS IN COLOR SHADOWS, AND THEIR RESULTS.

Donald A. MacCuish*,Dean Foster, Dept, of Psychology,

Va. Military Inst., Lexington, Va.

In describing the phenomenon of colored (induced)
shadows. Professor Frank A. Geldard, in his book
Fundamentals of Psychology, wrote, "It is difficult to
believe that the visual system is supplying the induced
color and that it has no objective counterpart." Colored
shadows were studied as long ago as 1794 when Count
Rumford, commenting on this phenomenon, wrote that they
were an optical deception. Helmholtz concluded that these
shadows were an "illusion of judgment." Today such
authorities as Dorothea Jameson and Leo Hurvich have said
that this phenomenon of colored shadows is a "result of
interactions of the neural visual system."

The present paper takes a highly skeptical view of
these interpretations. We contend that the shadows are
not a neural visual system phenomenon, but that they do
exist in the real world. The ultimate test would be
either spectrophotometric or more simply photographic.

If the colored shadows were an illusion or a neural
visual system phenomenon, then it follows that they can
not be photographed. Under several different conditions,
however, we have photographed these shadows on both color
transparencies and have reproduced these in color prints.
The results of these photographic experiments are
definitely contrary to the accepted belief.

212

The Virginia Journal of Science

THE ROLE OF DISCRIMINATORY CUES IN HABIT REVERSAL LEARNING

IN THE FISH. Gerald T. Masaie, Univ. of Richmond, Va.

Several recent studies have Investigated the problem of
habit reversal learning in the fish; (Setterington and

Bishop, 1967; Behrend and Bitterman, 1967; Behrend, Domesick
and Bishop, 1965). In only one of these studies (Settering¬
ton and Bishop, 1967) was any evidence of habit reversal
improvement obtained. In a later replication, however,
these results proved inconsistent (Behrend and Bitterman,

1967). The present experiment is an attempt to show that
habit reversal learning in fish can be demonstrated using a
method commonly and successfully used with higher order
animals. Ss used were 8 2% to 3% inch Goldfish (Carassius
auratus). After an initial phase of bar-press training Ss
received one daily trial of discrimination training,
using a 7 watt red light as the cue paired with reward.

Upon reaching asymptotic performance in this second phase,

Ss received additional training in which the discriminative
cues were reversed. Acquisition rates and times were
compared with initial discrimination performance in order to
determine if any habit reversal had taken place. Results
indicate that although there is necessarily a difference in
rates of learning for higher order and lower order animals,
the same s»Sts of learning principles apply to both.

AN ADDITIONAL PARAMETER IN ELUTRIATING REASONS FOR ALTER¬
NATION BEHAVIOR. Regula D. Naef and Ronald S. Johnson.

Univ. of Richmond, Richmond, Va.

Various explanations of alternation behavior after a
series of rewarded forced-choice trials have depended on
free-choice responses in the Y and T-maze. Possibly an
additional dependent variable, running latency, would help
elucidate the response alternation versus stimulus alter¬
nation problem.

S's were 24 female albino rats 85-90 days old at the
start of experimental training. S's were on a 22\ hour
food-deprivation schedule throughout the experiment.

Acquisition training consisted of a series (three trials
for each of 15 days) of rewarded forced-choice trials in
a Y-maze with a goal-arm confinement time of 15 sec. and a

30 sec. I.T.I. Group RRR and Group ELL were not allowed
to alternate on trial three while Groups RRL and RLR were
allowed to alternate on trial three; (R = right arm, L =
left arm). Free-choice trials were given on Days two and
nine of acquisition as well as six free choice trials
comprising extinction.

Group RRR ran significantly faster (stem speed) than

Groups RRL, RLL and RLR. Arm speed measures failed to
differentiate among groups. Choice data indicated a
strong tendency for j>'s to return to the same arm in which
they had just been rewarded.

AUDITORY ASYMMETRY AND IMMEDIATE MONAURAL RECALL. R. Forrest
Powell, Jr. and L. James Tromater, Dept, of Psychology,
University of Richmond, Va.

A test was made to question the validity of the "filter
mechanism" hypothesis proposed by Broadbent which maintains
that a JS can selectively attend to two simultaneous stimuli
in such a manner that the sounds presented to one ear are
"filtered" and stored while others are being recalled. It
was assumed that stimuli presented to one ear would be
recalled better than the other because of a greater temporal
memory capacity for that ear. 24 Ss listened to two record¬
ed lists of three-lettered familiar words through a set of
two-channeled earphones. Different words were presented to
each ear on successive occasions to test for differences of
memory capacity during immediate recall as a function of
each ear.

12 Ss in Group One heard all the words in a counter¬
balanced (RLLR) pattern between ears for the first list and
a LRRL pattern for the second list. 12 j>s in Group Two heanJ
the same words but presented to the opposite ear for Group

One. A significantly greater number of words presented to
the left ear were recalled by Group One, while Group Two
recalled more from the right ear. Interpretations in
support of a dominant monaural memory capacity were
complicated by a serial position effect.

RECALL PROBABILITY AS A FUNCTION OF THE NUMBER OF LEARNING
TRIALS. Duncan C. Robb and L. James Tromater. Univ. of
Richmond, Richmond, Va.

As a test of the instrumental vs. one-trial learning
theories, Ss were given 4 learning trials in which they
were shown a series of 10 letter-number pairs. Each
learning trial was followed by a test trial in which Ss were
shown the "letter" half of each pair and asked to recall the
number with which it had been paired. Pairs correctly
recalled on test trials were removed and replaced by new
pairs on subsequent learning trials.

Results calculated were in the form of 4 ratios: the
ratio of the number of pairs learned on the first exposure
to the total number of pairs presented for one exposure;
the ratio of the number of pairs learned on the second
exposure to the total number of pairs presented for a
second exposure; etc.

Results showed a significantly greater probability of
recall of an S-R pair on the 2nd, 3rd, or 4th exposure than
on the 1st exposure, supporting an incremental position
that the probability of recall increases with the number of
learning exposures.

THE EFFECTS OF DELAYED PRESENTATION OF THE OBJECT OF

AGGRESSION ON PAIN-INDUCED FIGHTING. Henry L. Roedicjer* and
Michael C. Stevens.* Dept, of Psychology, Washington and Lee
Univ., Lexington, Va.

Pain-induced fighting behavior between pairs of rats is
a well-known, highly reliable phenomenon. Ulrich and Azrin
have hypothesized that the pain stimulus (typically a foot-
shock) produces a drive state in the shocked organisms. Pre¬
sumably, this drive state can be reduced through aggression
(i.e., fighting behavior). This notion was tested in the
present study by presenting the object of aggression
(another rat) 0,2,4, or 6 seconds after the cessation of the
noxious stimulus. Fighting behavior was observed regardless
of when the object of aggression was presented. However,
the intensity of the fighting behavior decreased as delay of
presentation increased from 0-6 seconds. In terms of the

Ulrich and Azrin hypothesis, the present results suggest
that the drive state to aggress can persist after cessation
of the pain stimulus.

INTERPOLATED ACTIVITY AND THE LEARNING OF A COMPLEX MOTOR
SKILL. Alvin U. Segal.* and Alfred E. Acev. Dept, of
Psychology, Randolph-Macon Col., Ashland, Va.

Sixty-three college students were tested to compare
the effects of Interpolated activity (Rb) on the acquisi¬
tion of a complex motor skill, the card sorting task (Ra).

The sequence of events was Ra, Rb, rest, Ra, Rb, etc.

For Experimental Group I the Rb was geometrically opposite
to the Ra numerical configuration. Experimental Group II
was designed so that the Interpolated activity (Rbl) was
geometrically similar to Ra. The Control Group Ra re¬
mained constant, but the Interpolated activity (Rb2) was
sorting blank cards Into a numerically undifferentiated
card sorting apparatus for a regulated period of time,
thereby, controlling for the Independent variable of
number configuration.

This experiment revealed significant differences be¬
tween groups, with a significantly slower performance
time by the opposite Interpolated activity group (Rb)
when compared to the performance time of the similar (Rbj)
and the Control Groups. Also the Rb; group performance
was significantly poorer than that of the Control situa¬
tion, and at no point reached the level of the Control

Group. The findings were related to the Osgood Transfer
Surface and were found in agreement.

Proceedings, 1967-1968

213

THE EFFECTS OF A SAFETY SIGNAL ON THE GALVANIC SKIN RESPONSE.
Glenn D. Shean*, Dept, of Psychology, Col. of William & Mary,
Williamsburg, Va., and Randall B. Martin*, Dept, of

Psychology, Univ. of Northern Illinois, DeKalb, Ill.

Sponsored by Virgil V. McKenna, Col. of William & Mary,
Williamsburg, Va.

Mowrer(1960) and Wolpe (1958) have postulated that a
decrease in fear may be a conditionable response, just as an
increase in fear is conditionable. Wolpe has utilized a
technique, based on this assumption, to condition "anxiety-
relief" responses which are thought to facilitate voluntary
control of anxiety reduction. This investigation represents
an attempt to experimentally test the above hypotheses. Two
lights were selected to serve as stimuli. A red light
served as a "danger signal" occurring 5 seconds before the
onset of a steadily increasing shock of varying duration. A
yellow light served as a "safety signal" occurring 5 seconds
before the shock terminated. Subjects were given 10 trials
with the safety signal and 10 trials in which the shock
terminated without a safety signal; one group received the

10 trials with the signal first, while one group received
the 10 trials without the safety signal first.

The magnitude of the GSR to the shock in the presence of
the safety signal was less than in the comparable period
when there was no safety signal, regardless of the order in
which the trials were administered. There were no
significant differences between safety signal and control
trials .

FIELD-DEPENDENCY AND PROCESS REACH VE -SCHIZOPHRENIA. Walter

W. Stelle, Dept, of Psychology, Col. of William and Mary,
Williamsburg, Va.

Past research has suggested that the process-reactive
classification of schizophrenia represents a continuum of
psychological differentiation.

The Witkin field-dependency tests were used to examine
the perception of schizophrenics. Twenty process patients
and 19 reactive patients were tested on the Rod-and-Frame-
Test and the Embedded-Figures-Test . In addition, each
subject was given three WAIS sub-tests and three Karp dis¬
traction tests.

The results upheld the hypothesis that process schizo¬
phrenics have a more field-dependent cognitive style than
reactive schizophrenics. With intelligence held constant,
process subjects were still significantly more field-depend¬
ent than reactives (p < . 01 ) . No evidence was found for the
possible confounding variable of differential distractibili-

ty.

This experiment indicates the efficacy of investigating
schizophrenic perceptual development.

[Sponsored by Virgil V. McKenna, Ph.D., Dept, of Psychology,

Col. of William and Mary]

PARTIAL REINFORCEMENT WITH A SMALL NUMBER OF ACQUISITION

TRIALS: THE EFFECTS OF REWARD TECHNIQUE. Samuel J. Thios
and Richard L. Patten. Univ. of Richmond, Va.

McCain (1965a,b; 1966) reported a series of investigations
concerned with the partial reinforcement extinction effect
(PREE) following a small number of acquisition trials. The
typical reward technique employed by McCain has been to al¬
low the animal to eat for 30 sec. before being removed from
the goal box (GB). Brown (1961) indicated that interference
with consummatory responding (thwarting) may be an antecedent
to frustration. In the present context thwarting is defined
as removal of S from GB after a fixed amount of time and
before S has completed the consummatory response. In a re¬
cent study involving extensive acquisition training (Patten,
1967), it was shown that the fixed-time reward technique led
to an early-trial decrement in extinction responding.

In McCain's typical situation partial reinforcement (PRF)

Ss receive only half as many thwarts as continuous reinforce¬
ment (CRF) Ss. The present study, involving 4 acquisition
trials and 9 extinction trials, was designed to investigate
the influence of reward technique in an experimental context
which systematically examined the effects of thwarting and
nonthwarting reward techniques. The results indicated that

PRF Ss showed greater resistance to extinction than CRF Ss
(p .01), i.e.,PREE. The results also indicated chat thwarting
led to an early- trial extinction decrement (p .05). These
results are discussed in relation to the theoretical view¬
points of Amsel (1958), Spence (1960), and Capaldi (1967).

EFFECTS OF CATEGORY-RELEVANCE, MEASUREMENT MODE AND CATE¬
GORIZATION ON RETENTION OF THE AGING. Gary M. Tyson, Univ.
of Richmond, Va.

Investigators in the area of learning and memory typical¬
ly report marked performance deficits with advancing age.
However, evidence exists to suggest that due to changing
patterns of interests and experience accompanying chrono¬
logical aging, certain types of verbal material vary with
respect to their appropriateness for use with aging popula¬
tions. Based upon theoretical underpinnings from the
"disuse" and "spew’1 hypotheses, the present study was
designed to explore several parameters of short-term memory
as a function of appropriateness of verbal material.

Associative norms for six categories, derived from research
on interests of the aging, were gathered from 88 Frederick
College students. From these, six 40-word lists were
constructed so as to be equated for difficulty. The reten¬
tion design was a 2 x 6 x 2 factorial, the first factor
being Retention Mode (free recall, recognition), the second

Word Categories, and the third a Categorization factor
(category-organized, randomly-selected). 120 males, aged

55 and over, from Kecoughtan V.A. Center participated in
the retention study. The data indicate greater retention
with recognition as compared to recall, significant encod¬
ing in recall, and retention differences attributable to
varying degrees of category relevance or appropriateness.

VISUAL RECOGNITION THRESHOLDS AS A FUNCTION OF FREQUENCY

AND COMPETITION. Walter Jon Wilkins*. Alfred E. Acev. Dept,
of Psychology. Randolph-Macon Col., Ashland, Va.

A 2 x 2 factorial design was employed to study the
effects of stimulus frequency and response competition on
visual duration thresholds. Stimulus materials consisted
of line drawings which were organized into four sate, each
set containing four figures. The figures within any given
set were structurally similar, but not identical. The
structural similarity between figures of different sets was
nil. One figure in each set was selected at random to be a
test figure. Subjects were shown a series of 68 slides
each of which they were required to copy on paper.

Following this Exposure Session (ES) subjects were serially
presented with 4 figures, one from each of the four sets,
to determine threshold. There ware two variables in the
study* frequency and competition. Frequency was defined
as the number of times a given test figure appeared in the

ES with respect to the average number of times all figures
appeared. Competition was defined as the number of times
the non-test firgures of any given set appeared in the ES
with respect to the mean number of timss all figures
appeared.

The results indicated a significant frequency effect.

This finding is inconsistent with a recent and widely
quoted study, but appears to be harmonious with earlier
experiments.

214

The Virginia Journal of Science

Section of Statistics

Forty-sixth

Annual Meeting of The Virginia Academy
May 8-10, 1968, Roanoke, Virginia

of Science

THE DISTRIBUTIONS OF Zy AND Z* WHEN THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE
COMPLEX VARIABLE Z IS A MEMBER OF A PARTICULAR FAMILY OF
DISTRIBUTIONS. Archie D. Brock and Richard G. Krutchkoff,

Dept, of Statistics, Va. Polytechnic Inst., Blacksburg, Va.

Let Z be a complex random variable such that its dis¬
tribution is given by a particular eight parameter family
f(r,0). It is shown that the distributions of Zy Cy a non¬
zero real number) and Z* (the complex conjugate of Z) are
members of the family f(r,S). This is established by
making use of the generalized Mellin transform. Interest¬
ing special cases of the family are the bivariate normal
with zero means, in the x-y plane and in the r-0 plane the
following products of independent distributions: Weibull-
uniform, exponential-uniform, chi-uniform, Rayleigh-uniform
Maxwell -uni form, gamma-uniform and chi-square-uniform.

Maximum likelihood estimates and their properties are
obtained for some of the parameters.

PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION FOR ITEM DEMAND PROBLEMS.

Walter H. Carter, Jr.,* Dept, of Biometry. Med. Col. of Va..
Richmond, Va., and Raymond H. Myers, Dept, of Statistics,

Va. Polytechnic Inst., Blacksburg, Va.

The distribution of item demands is presented as a com¬
bination of distributions diff kb. The difference between
such combinations and the classical mixtures of distribu¬
tions is that a new component distribution must be consid¬
ered whenever the random variable in question increases by
an integer multiple of a known integer constant, b. Maximum
likelihood estimators are obtained for the parameters of
this distribution. When all the data are present, the es¬
timation problem is no more difficult than when estimating
the individual parameters from the component distributions.

It is pointed out that very frequently, in practical situa¬
tions, the observed samples are defective in the fact that
none of the component frequencies are observed. Hence,
horizontal grouping of the sample values occurs as opposed
to the usual vertical grouping of observations. An exten¬
sion of Hartley's iterative procedures for obtaining maxi¬
mum likelihood estimators from vertically grouped samples
is given which permits the calculation of the maximum like¬
lihood estimators of the parameters from a horizontally
grouped sample. The results of a Monte Carlo study of the
properties of these estimators is also presented.

[This research was aided by Grants EES 33-04 and EES 33-05
from the Dept, of H.E.W.]

ON THE REDUCTION OF CONGESTION. B. W. Conolly and N.

Hadidi, Dept, of Statistics, Va. Polytechnic Inst., Blacks¬
burg , Va.

A fundamental practical difficulty in conventional
queueing systems is the fact that the independence of
arrival and service mechanisms makes it impossible to
reduce customers' waiting time without inflicting increased
periods of idleness on the service facility. This paper
reviews recent research on a single server queueing model
in which the service time allocated to each customer is
directly proportional to the interarrival interval between
that customer and his predecessor, thus matching service to
demand. It is shown in comparison with conventional sys¬
tems under a given traffic load, that the practical effects
of this mechanism include reduction of waiting time without
increased server idleness, shorter queues, greater stabil¬
ity and a more rapid approach to the "steady state" condi¬
tion. The economic effects of the application of such a
mechanism could therefore be considerable.

THE NATURE AND FUNCTION OF HUMAN AND MACHINE REASONING.

I. J. Good. Dept, of Statistics, Va. Polytechnic Inst.,
Blacksburg, Va. 24061.

There is great variety in human reasoning but there are
a few unifying principles such as the need for utility and
probability judgments, the principle of rationality, the
use of "weight of evidence", analogy, and a compromise bet¬
ween intuition and rigour. We praise rigour because it
distinguishes us from other animals and intuition because
it distinguishes us from machines. If we could build mach¬
ines with intuition we could achieve the intelligence ex¬
plosion before we obliterate ourselves by the population or
the hydrogen explosion. In this effort it is useful to ex¬
amine our own thought processes carefully. In this paper
the author examines his own thought processes by consider¬
ing about twenty examples from the fields of logic, philos¬
ophy of science, statistical inference, mathematics, phon¬
eme recognition, mathematical art, information theory, ast¬
ronomy, chess, machine intelligence, medical diagnosis, and
speculation. The ultimate purpose of human life and of
work on machine intelligence will be conjectured.

The main body of the paper will consist of a survey of
Appendices A to Z none of which were published before May

1967 and some of which might never be published.

Proceedings, 1967-1968

215

A SUPPLEMENTARY SAMPLE NON-PARAMETRIC EMPIRICAL

BAYES APPROACH TO SOME STATISTICAL DECISION PRO¬
BLEMS. Richard G. Krutchkoff, Dept, of Statistics,
Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Blacksburg, Va.

When an estimation problem is routine, it is
often possible to consider the parameter being
estimated as a random variable. The data obtained
to estimate previous values of the parameter then
contain information which can be used to advantage
in estimating the present parameter. Besides
these data it is assumed that there are supple¬
mentary estimates of the previous parameters, per¬
haps in the form of customer feedback. All the
probability distributions are assumed to be un¬
known. The estimating procedure given here is
shown to be asymptotically optimal, and by a Monte
Carlo example to have good small sample pro¬
perties .

CLASSICAL AND INVERSE REGRESSION METHODS OF CALI¬
BRATION. Richard G. Krutchkoff, Dept, of Stati-
sties, Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Blacksburg,
Virginia.

The Classical and Inverse least squares met¬
hods of linear calibration are compared by Monte
Carlo methods. In spite of the fact that the
Classical Method was asserted to be superior by

C. Eisenhart in 1939 and used exclusively since,
the Inverse approach is found to be uniformly
superior from a mean squared error point of view.

The Monte Carlo results indicate that the Inverse
Method has a uniformly smaller squared error than
does the Classical Method.

THE SEPARATION-LEVEL OF GRADES ON A MULTIPLE-
CHOICE EXAMINATION. Richard G. Krutchkoff, Dept,
of Statistics, Virginia Polytechnic Institute,
Blacksburg, Virginia.

Do multiple-choice examinations correctly
classify students? This paper defines the sepa¬
ration level of grades on such examinations in
terms of the probability of misclassif ication .

An examination is then considered poor if the pro¬
bability of misclassif ication is significant. A
multiple-choice examination given to 343 students
is then analyzed obtaining the separation levels
of the grades A,B,C,D, and F.

EMPIRICAL BAYES ANALYSIS OF SEQUENTIAL EXPERIMENTS
Glen Lemon and Richard G. Krutchkoff, Department
of Statistics, Virginia Polytechnic Institute,
Blacksburg, Virginia.

The problem considered is a recurring de¬
cision problem. At each stage we wish to esti¬
mate an unobserved state of nature 9 which comes
from an unknown distribution G(0). We are al¬
lowed to sample sequentially from the distribution,

F (X | 6 ) at a cost (loss) of c(k) for observing
k observations. We define 1(0,0) to be the loss
function which represents the loss incurred by
deciding to estimate 0 by §. The total loss
function L(k,@, 0A) is defined as

L (k , 0,0)= 1(6,0) + c (k) .

We wish to choose a decision procedure so as to
minimise our expected losses, i.e., min

E [L (k , 0 , 0 ) ] .

A quick derivation of the Bayes solution is
given for the above problem. We^then show the
Empirical Bayes approach when 1(0,0) represents
the squared error loss function. Finally we give
some results of Monte Carlo investigations of
the small sample properties for the Empirical

Bayes decision procedure when dF(x|0) is N(0,a).

EMPIRICAL BAYES ESTIMATION IN MULTIPLE LINEAR RE¬
GRESSION. Harry F. Martz and Richard G. Krutch-

PROBABILITY FORECASTS OF 30-DAY PRECIPITATION.

John W. Philpot and Richard G. Krutchkoff, Dept.

koff, Dept, of Statistics, Virginia Polytechnic
Institute, Blacksburg, Virginia.

Empirical Bayes estimators for the para¬
meters § in the general linear regression model
are presented. These estimators are functions of
a random sample of observations as well as past
experience from similar but independent experi¬
ments. This past experience is in the form of
least squares estimates of other parameters in
situations similar to that in the present experi¬
ment.

The empirical Bayes estimators are compared
with Classical estimators and Bayes estimators
by Monte Carlo simulation procedures. The em¬
pirical Bayes estimators are found to be the
superior estimators.

of Statistics, Virginia Polytechnic institute,
Blacksburg, Virginia.

The U. S. Weather Bureau publishes a map of
the North American Continent divided into areas of
light, moderate and heavy rainfall prediction.

This map is published bi-monthly and is used to
predict the precipitation for the following 30
days. These forecast are regional in extent and
categorical in nature. The purpose of this re¬
search is to provide a 30-day precipitation fore¬
cast that is local rather than regional and pro¬
babilistic rather than categorical.

A conditional frequency function given the
weather bureau's forecast is used for probability
predictions at a given location. The mode of
these probability predictions is demonstrated to
be superior to the weather bureaus categorical
predictions. A chi-squared goodness of fit pro¬
cedure is used to demonstrate that the predicted
frequency of the amount of precipitation at a
particular location is adequately predicted by
this procedure.

216

The Virginia Journal of Science

EMPIRICAL BAYES ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE. Alvin C.
Rencher and Richard G. Krutchkoff, Virginia Poly-
technic Institute, Blacksburg, Virginia.

If an experiment using the random-effects
model y. . = p + a. + e. . with a. distributed
^ 1 ,

N(o,a ) and e. distributed N(o,a ) is performed
repeatedly where y,a2, and a2 vary randomly from
experiment to experiment according to some dis¬
tribution function G(p,a2,a2) then Empirical Bayes
estimators can be obtained which generally have
smaller mean squared errors than the usual maxi¬
mum likelihood estimators. Also under the above
conditions a test of the hypothesis a^=0 can be
constructed that is in general more powerful than
the classical F-test.

Similarly, for the fixed-effects model

y. . = u + a. + e. . with e. . distributed N(o,a2)

2i] 1 lj lj

"better" estimates of p,a, , ...a , and are obtained
as well as a more powerful testof the hypothesis

a, = a. = . . . a .
i 2 r

STOCHASTIC MODEL FOR BOD AND DO IN STREAMS.

Richard P. Thayer and Richard G. Krutchkoff, Dept,
of Statistics, Virginia Polytechnic Institute,
Blacksburg, Virginia.

A stochastic model for pollution and dis¬
solved oxygen in streams is obtained. Given the
stream parameters and the initial conditions, the
model predicts not only the mean amounts of pol¬
lution and dissolved oxygen at any point down¬
stream, but also their variability in time. One
can determine the proportion of the time that pol¬
lution is above any given concentration. The
theoretical results are tested by comparing them
with controlled laboratory experiments and with
data from the Sacramento River. It is observed
that the means of both pollution and dissolved
oxygen follow the equations already obtained by
Dobbins ("BOD and Oxygen Relationships in Streams”
Journal of the Sanitary Engineering Division,

ASCE, Vol. 90, No. SA3 , Proc. Paper 394y , June,

1964, p. 53). A new and unexpected observation
is that the greatest variability in dissolved
oxygen occurs at the sag, where it is most criti¬
cal .

AN APPLICATION OF SIMULATION IN QUALITY CONTROL. James R.
White,* Applied Mathematics Group, Tennessee Eastman Co.,
Kingsport , Term .

The basic quality control concepts employed in contin¬
uous and hatch processes are reviewed. A hatch type process
where the traditional statistical techniques are not ade¬
quate for evaluating the quality control plan is described.

A computer simulation of such a process is discussed with
an illustration of how it was used to seek means for
improving the quality control plan.

Proceedings, 1967-1968

217

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JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

OFFICIAL PUBLICATION OF THE
VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

Vol. 19 Fall 1968 No. 4

TABLE OF CONTENTS

225 A Test of the Letter-Sequence Hypothesis in Verbal Learning

Kenneth A. Blick and A. James Anderson

228 The Generation of Elastic Plane Waves by Linear Thermal Transients

S. F. Cleary and P. E. Hamrick

233

Probability Content of the Bivariate Chi-Square Distribution Over
Rectangular Regions

D. R. Jensen and R. B. Howe

240

Occurrence of the Parasitic Dinoflagellate Oodinium cyprinodontum
Lawler, 1967 in North Carolina

Adrian R. Lawler

241 Communications and Reports

243

News and Notes

THE VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

Official Publication of the Virginia Academy of Science

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The front cover is by Douglas C. Hensley.

KENNETH A. BLICK and
A. JAMES ANDERSON

Department of Psychology
Randolph-Macon College
Ashland, Virginia
Received June 6, 1968

A Test of the Letter-Sequence Hypothesis
in Verbal Learning

Abstract — Two groups of 30 Ss were allowed to in¬
dividually pace their learning of 6-item lists of paired
single-letter associates of either high (.14) or low (.00)
associative probability and were tested for immediate recall
of the response terms. In comparison to the low associative
list, a significantly higher level of absolute recall was ob¬
tained with the high associative list which also required
a significantly shorter period of time to learn. These data
provide support for the previously unverified letter-sequence
hypothesis originally advanced by Underwood and Postman
in 1960.

INTRODUCTION

In order to facilitate experimental isolation and
quantification of extra-experimental influences on
learning and retention, Underwood and Postman ( 1 )
formulated the related hypotheses of letter-sequence
and unit-sequence interference as corollaries to the
interference theory of forgetting. Both hypotheses
deal with disruption of verbal learning and retention
by conflicting verbal habits developed through nor¬
mal use of the language. While letter-sequence habits
are associations between single letters, unit-sequence
habits are connections between units consisting of
two or more letters in combination.

Underwood and Postman reported the first test
of both hypotheses. Four 12-item lists were utilized
in a serial learning situation. All items were three-
letter combinations forming either high frequency
words, low frequency words, high frequency tri¬
grams, or low frequency trigrams. Retention was
measured by relearning after 30 sec. and 7 days,
and an analysis of overt errors supported the pre¬
diction of the letter-sequence hypothesis because
interference was found to be greater for low fre¬
quency units than for high frequency units; how¬
ever, in the words of the authors: “The present
study has given some evidence that extraexperimental
sources of interference can be treated analytically.
The critical requirement is to know what associations
the subject brings to the laboratory and then present
him with a task where these associations will have
to be broken, inhibited, or extinguished. The lists
used in the present study were believed to meet this
requirement, although, as pointed out earlier, it

* The senior author is now on the faculty at the University of
Richmond, Richmond, Virginia, and the junior author is pursuing
graduate work at Vanderbilt University.

would be quite possible to show this more clearly
than we have” (1, p. 94).

Underwood and Schulz (2) obtained normative
data of single-letter responses elicited by single-letter
stimuli from 273 college students using an experi¬
mental procedure patterned after the classic word
association experiments. Using these letter-letter
associative norms, Underwood and Keppel (3) per¬
formed a test of the letter-sequence hypothesis. Pairs
of single letters were presented in paired-associate
form with high and low probability associates. Re¬
sponse probability refers to the probability that a
particular letter will be given as a response to a
stimulus letter in a free association test. The obtained
response probabilities are used as estimates of the
associative strength between individual letters. The
high associative strength list (response probability
equalled 3%) and the low associative strength list
(response probability equalled 0%) each consisted
of nine pairs, and both lists were studied for 2, 4, 6,
10, 15, and 25 anticipation trials. Speed of relearn¬
ing, measured after 1 and 7 day intervals, gave no
support to the letter-sequence hypothesis since for¬
getting was equivalent for the two lists.

The failure of Underwood and Keppel (3) to find
a significant difference between lists might be at¬
tributed to the relatively small difference (3%) in
the associative probability between the two lists.
Underwood and Keppel recognized the problem and
stated: “The HA (high associative) list was not
‘high’ in an absolute sense. . . . Nevertheless, sup¬
port for the hypothesis might be obtained if wider
differences in initial associative strength were used
. . .” (3, p. 14).

The purpose of the present experiment was to
attempt a test of the letter-sequence hypothesis using
the work of Underwood and Keppel (3) as a guide¬
line, but with modifications in procedure that would
allow for an increase in differential associative prob¬
abilities between lists. It was predicted that the S s
exposed to the high associative list would be su¬
perior to the Ss exposed to the low associative list
in speed of acquisition and absolute level of reten¬
tion.

METHOD

Subjects. Sixty-four male undergraduates at Ran¬
dolph-Macon College were randomly divided into

Letter-Sequence Hypothesis

225

two groups. Failure to follow instructions disqualified
four 5s, leaving a total of 30 5s in each group. One
group was required to learn pairs of letters having
high S-R associative values (HA list), and the other
group had to learn pairs with low S-R associative
strength (LA list).

Apparatus. The 5s were tested using a four-page
booklet with the pages arranged as follows: cover
page, page of directions, training page, and recall
page. The cover page was opaque and had a line
for 5's name. The page of directions contained a set
of instructions for paired-associate learning. The
training page displayed the six pairs of letters which
the 5s were to learn. The recall page consisted of six
stimulus letters and corresponding blanks, and, in
addition, all pages were headed with a brief set of
instructions.

Materials and Procedure. The two lists consisted
of six pairs of letters which were obtained from the
norms of single-letter responses to single-letter stim¬
uli derived by Underwood and Schulz (2). The
stimulus letters were identical for the HA and LA
lists, but the response letters were changed. No letter
occurred twice in either list, and no alphabetic se¬
quences were allowed (e.g., A-B, X-Y). The re¬
sulting high and low associative value lists had mean
associative probabilities of .14 and .00, respectively.
The associative probabilities for the six pairs of
letters of both lists are presented in Table I.

TABLE I

Underwood and Schulz Associative Probabilities
for the HA and LA Lists

HA List LA List

5 R

Probability

5 R

Probability

A - S

.14

A - G

.00

E - N

. 10

E - Y

.00

H - O

.15

H - F

.00

K - T

.08

K - C

.01

Q - U

. 18

Q - J

.00

X - I

. 18

X - V

.00

Mean Prob.

= .14

Mean Prob.

= .00

When it was decided to use the booklet as the
experimental vehicle and time-to-learn as a major
dependent variable, a self-paced learning procedure
was employed. After writing his name on the cover
page, 5 was instructed to turn to the next page and
read the directions concerning paired-associate
learning while E read them aloud. On the page of
directions the 5 also read: “Actually, we are trying
to find out how much time you need to learn the
series of pairs. You will have as much time as you
need to study the pairs, but since the emphasis is on
speed, we urge you to master the pairs as quickly
as possible.” At this point the 5 was permitted to
ask questions, and any confusion regarding his task
was corrected. The 5 was then allowed to turn to the
training page where he encountered the following
instructions: “Study the pairs shown below. When
you think you have mastered the list, turn to the next
page and follow the directions at the top.” The 5

paced his study of the six pairs during the training
period, and E recorded the amount of time which
elapsed between turning to the page of pairs and
turning to the recall page. When 5 turned to the re¬
call page, he was given 60 sec. to complete the
immediate recall test for which the instructions read:
“Now beside the appropriate stimulus letter write in
as many of the response letters as you can remember.
Print your responses as capital letters. If you cannot
remember, write in the first letter that the stimulus
letter makes you think of. To do this, say the
letter to yourself and then fill in the blank with the
letter that comes quickly and naturally. Do not turn
the page until you are told to do so, and do not look
back to the preceding pages.” To prevent the 5
from learning the response letters in a serial order,
different sequences of stimulus letters were utilized
in such a way that order of stimulus letters was not
identical for any 5 in the training and recall phases.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

According to Underwood and Keppel (3, p. 3),
there are three possible sources of interference in
the learning of these lists shown in Table I: (1)

. . other response letters within the list may have
stronger associations to the stimulus letter than does
the letter which is correct for learning.”, (2)

. . other stimulus letters . . . may have stronger
associations to a given stimulus letter than does the
response letter.” and (3) “. . . letters not in the list
may interfere with learning and recall.” These three
sources of interference will hereafter be referred to
as R errors, S errors, and imports, respectively. An
analysis of the lists into the three sources of inter¬
ference indicated a consistently higher mean number
of interfering responses of all three types for the LA
list than the HA list. The LA list values for R
errors, S errors, and imports were 4.00, 4.83, and
13.33, respectively; while the HA list values were of
the order, .83, .17, and .67, respectively. The pre¬
ceding information is evidence that greater inter¬
ference should result with the learning of the LA list
than with the HA list.

The 5s required a mean time of 50.33 sec. to study
the HA list and 77.17 sec. to study the LA list. An
analysis of variance between time-to-learn scores
was significant (F = 14.83, df = 1/58, P < .01)
which indicated that the interfering habits associated
with the LA list actively intruded during the learn¬
ing period causing the learner to take more time.

The 5s with the HA list produced more correct
responses than the 5s with the LA list who gave
more responses in the categories of R errors, S er¬
rors, Imports, and Blanks. All 180 responses (30 x
6) obtained during the recall phase are classified
according to five sources, and a between-list sum¬
mary is presented in Table II. An item analysis of
the responses to both lists showed that no single pair
was responsible for the differential effect; instead, all
six pairs showed a uniform profile in terms of the
distribution of various types of responses. There was
a significant difference (z = 4.11, P < .01) be¬
tween the percentage of correct responses for the

226

The Virginia Journal of Science

TABLE II

Summary oj 180 Recall Responses for the HA and LA Lists
Classified According to Five Sources

List

No. Correct
Responses

Response

Errors

Stimulus

Errors

Imports

Blanks

HA

163

7

4

2

4

LA

134

20

8

8

10

HA list (90.56%) and the LA list (74.44%). As
previously mentioned, Underwood and Keppel (3)
suggested that the small 3% difference in associative
probability of their HA and LA lists was not large
enough to produce significant results. By reduction
of list length from 9 pairs to 6 pairs, a difference of
14% in pre-experimental associative strength was
achieved in the present experiment. Six paired-
associates with a mean probability of 14% were
arbitrarily selected by E as the optimum combina¬
tion of list length and strength allowed under the
stated rules for list construction. Since the lists were
to be administered by whole exposure and item order
was systematically varied, it was concluded that ex¬
cessive list length would not be advantageous.

However, another interpretation of the recall data
is possible. Since the HA list was selected with an
initial associative probability of .14, and the LA
list had a response probability of .00, the two groups

would be expected to recall 14% and 0%, respec¬
tively, even if they had not been exposed to the
learning experience. The immediate recall scores can
be adjusted by subtracting 14% from the HA list
absolute recall score of 90.56% thus establishing a
pre-test base score of 0% for the HA group. The
adjusted recall score for the HA group becomes
76.73% compared with the 74.44% for the LA
group. After the adjustment the difference between
lists is not significant (z = .51, P > .01), which
supports the interpretation that once the initial re¬
sponse probability levels are taken into account, the
effect of the learning experience is to add a constant
amount to both groups.

At any rate, the difference in time-to-learn scores
remains to be explained. Although the HA and LA
groups learned equivalent amounts, the LA group
required a significantly longer period of time to
achieve the effect. Either interpretation, then, sup¬
ports the letter-sequence hypothesis.

REFERENCES

1. Underwood, B. J., and Postman, L., Psychol. Rev., 67,
73 (1960).

2. Underwood, B. J„ and Schulz, R. W., Meaningfulness
and Verbal Learning, Lippincott, Chicago, 1960.

3. Underwood, B. J., and Keppel, G., Psvchol. Monogr., 77,
No. 4 (Whole No. 567), (1963).

Letter-Sequence Hypothesis

227

S. F. CLEARY and P. E. HAMRICK

Department of Biophysics
Medical College of Virginia
Richmond, Virginia, 23219
Received June 10, 1968

The Generation of Elastic Plane
Waves by Linear Thermal Transients

Abstract — Solutions are given for the particle displace¬
ment and stress for dilational plane waves produced by
transient heating. The body force is represented by an
exponentially decreasing linear temperature function of the
type resulting from the absorption of radiant energy in a
semi-infinite plane. Examples are given of the particle dis¬
placement and stress for two types of thermal transient, one
with a finite linear rate of decay with time, and one with
a zero rate of time decay.

INTRODUCTION

The generation of elastic waves in an infinite elas¬
tic solid by the application of variable time depen¬
dent body forces has been the object of a number
of theoretical and experimental investigations in
recent years (see e.g. (1, 2)). One type of body
force that has been considered extensively is that
due to transient heating. White (3) in considering
the generation of elastic waves by transient heating
indicates that experimentally detectable elastic
waves may be generated by various means including
the absorption of radiation from high powered light
sources such as the Q-switched laser, from pulsed
microwave sources, and from electron beams inci¬
dent on solid surfaces. Carome, et al. (4) have
demonstrated the production of acoustic waves in a
liquid resulting from the absorption of pulsed laser
radiation in an absorbing dye solution.

The theoretical determination of the particle dis¬
placement and the stress resulting from arbitrary
body forces, such as transient heating, requires the
formal solution of the equation of motion with a
time dependent forcing function ( 1 ) . It is the pur¬
pose of this paper to describe a one dimensional
solution of the equation of motion in the case of a
linear thermal transient with an exponential spatial
term corresponding to Lambert’s law attenuation in
the absorbing medium. A body force of this type
would be produced by the absorption of radiant
energy in a semi-infinite medium. The solution is
obtained in closed form for two boundary conditions
corresponding to a stress free surface and a fixed or
rigid surface. These boundary conditions represent
the two extreme cases that may be approximated
by a physical system (5). In addition to the solu¬
tion for the general case of a time dependent forcing
function with arbitrary initial and final slopes, two

special cases are considered: namely a triangular
time temperature function with equal rate of rise
and fall and a function with an initial finite positive
rise followed by a constant zero slope displacement.
These solutions may be utilized as a first order ap¬
proximation for cases of arbitrary non-linear thermal
forcing functions. The solutions are amenable to
straightforward evaluation without recourse to nu¬
merical methods.

THE EQUATION OF MOTION

The equation of motion for a semi-infinite body
subjected to uniform heating at the surface x = 0
may be derived from the stress-strain relation with a
thermal stress term as given by Love (6).

(jIX = (X + 2fi)(du/dx) — kad(x, t ) [1]

where

a IX = dilatational stress in x direction
X = Lame constant
n = modulus of rigidity
»(x, /) = component of particle displacement
in the x direction
k = bulk modulus of elasticity
a = linear coefficient of thermal expansions
0(x, t) — temperature rise above ambient.

The equation of motion, the wave equation, in this
one dimensional case is

p(d2u(x,t)/dt 2)

= (X + 2p)(d~ u/dx2) — ka(dd/dx) [2]

The solutions of this equation, subject to given
initial and boundary conditions will represent plane
dilatational waves which will be propagated from
the heated surface at acoustic velocities.

SOLUTIONS

The inhomogeneous wave equation [2] is solved by
means of a Laplace transformation which reduces the
equation to an ordinary second order inhomogeneous
differential equation.

Taking the Laplace transform of [2] subject to the
initial conditions u(x, 0) = u'(x, 0) = 0, and setting

228

The Virginia Journal of Science

the compressional wave velocity v = [(X + 2 g)/p]112
we obtain the equation

d2u{x, p) / dx2 — (p/v)2u(x, p)

= A{dO{x, p) dx) [3]

where A = ka/pv 2 and u(x, p) is the transformed
particle displacement. Before solving this equation the
form of the forcing function must be specified. The
linear thermal transient may be represented as

0(x, t ) = mte~ax 0 < t < t

= m( 1 — v)\t — nr)e nx r < t < in [4]

produced by the thermal transient is propagated with
a finite velocity v and therefore u(x, t)-K) as x-»oo
and thus C2 = 0.

I. Stress free boundary

If it is assumed that the boundary at x=0 re¬
mains in a stress free state i.e. o-x(0, t)=0 then
equation [1] provides the boundary condition

du(0, t)/dx = kad(0, t)/(\ + 2p) [8]

The particular solution of [7] for the stress free
boundary condition is

u(x, p) = kamg(p)[pe~px/v — ave~ax]

= 0 otherwise

where a is an attenuation coeificient determined by
the nature of the energy source and the absorbing
medium (e.g. in the case of the absorption of electro¬
magnetic radiation in the visible region a is the op¬
tical attenuation coefficient). The form of the forcing
function at the surface x = 0 as shown in Fig. 1 has

Fig. 1 — Generalized Linear Thermal Forcing Function.

an initial slope of m until time r when its slope
becomes m/(l— n). This function thus represents a
linear thermal pulse of total duration nr. Before sub¬
stitution in equation [3] the temperature function
must be differentiated and transformed subject to
the initial conditions: d(x, 0)=0, (?'(x, 0)=0, to
yield the equation

dd/dx = —amp 2[1 — ( n — 1) 1(ne Tp — e"Tp)\e~ ax

= ame~az g(p) [5]

where g(p) = p~2[{n — 1 Y\ne~" — e~nTp) — 1]

and 9(x, p) is the transformed temperature.

Substituting [5] into [3] we obtain the transformed
wave equation

du/dx 2 — (p/v)2ii = Aamg(p)e~ax [6]

The general solution as obtained by the method of
variation of parameters is

u{x, p) = —v2 Aamg{p){p~ — a2v2)~1e~ax

+ + C2epiA [7]

The particular solutions are obtained by specifying
boundary conditions appropriate for the stress free
and fixed surface cases. Irrespective of the surface
conditions it may be assumed that the plane wave

■[(p- - aV)(pv)T' [9]

The Laplace inverse transform of this expression
yields the particle displacement for the stress free
boundary. The solution, obtained under the assump¬
tion that the travel time to the detector is greater
than the signal duration (i.e. x/v>nr), may be
arranged according to the time delay of the com¬
ponent terms:

Ui(x, t)/un = [sinh act — avt\e~ax 0 < t < t
u2/un = Ui/un — n{n — 1)_1

• [sinh av(t — r) — av{t — r)]e~ax t < in
u3/u0 = u2/un + (h — 1)_1
• [sinh av(t — nr) — av(t — rn)]e~ax t < x/v [10]
uj Mo = Ms/ Mo — cosh av(t — x/v ) + I / < x/v + r
«s/m0 = m4/m0 + n{n — l)-1

■(cosh av(t — x/v — r) — I] 1 < x/v + in
M6M„ = m5/m0 — (n — l)^1

•[cosh av(t — x/v — in) — 1] t > x/v + m
where m0 = ham/ pv a1 .

The stress-strain relation given in [1] may be used
to determine the plane dilatational stress axx cor¬
responding to the particle displacements of [10]:

<Ti(x, t) / c o = — [sinh avt]fax 0 < t < r

cr2/<j0 = o-j/o-,, + n{n — I ) 1 [sinh a v{t — T)]e~ax

t < in

v3/ <Tq = cr2/ cr0 — (a — l)_1[sinh av{t — nT)]e~ax

t < x/v

cr4/ cr o = cr3/cro + sinh av(t — x/v) t < x/v + r

cts/cto = Vi/vo ~ n{n ~ l) ”1 sinh av(t — x/v — r)

t < x/v + in

vs/vo — °’s/0’o + (n — l)”1 sinh av(t — x/v — nr)

t > x/v + nr [11]

Thermally-Generated Plane Waves

229

where a„ = kamjav.

II. Fixed or rigid surface

In the fixed or rigid surface case it is assumed
that the boundary plane, x = 0, is constrained such
that there is no particle displacement i.e., u(0, t) =
0. Under this condition the solution of [7] is

ii(x, p) = kamag(p) p — av 2)^'

■(e~px/v - e~ax) [12]

Inversion of this expression yields the particle
displacement for the fixed surface boundary con¬
dition which is identical to that for the stress-free
case for times less than x/v. For times greater than
x/v the solution is

uj u0 = u3/u0 + sinh av(t — x/v ) — ai :(t — x/v)

0 < t < x/v + r

m5/m„ = m4/m0 — n(n — 1) 1

•[sinha£;(t — x/v — t) — av(t — x/v — r)]

1 < x/v + ht

«6/«o = «s/ w0 + (n — 1)_‘

•[sinhau(r — x/v — nr) — av(t — x/v — iit)]

t > x/v + nr [13]

The stress for the fixed surface condition is again
determined from the particle displacements u(x, t)
by the use of [1], For times less than x/v the stress
is again the same as in the case of a stress-free
boundary. For times greater than x/v the plane
dilatational stress is given by

cr4/ cr0 = <r3/ <r0 + cosh av(t — x/v ) — 1

0 < t < x/v + T

c r5/<r0 = cr4/crn — /;(// — 1) 1

■ [cosh av{t — x/v — r) — 1]

t < x/v + nr

(76/(To = O-s/o" 0 + (« — 1) '

•[coshau(? — x/v — nr) — 1]

t > x/v + ut [14]

EXAMPLES

By varying the value of n in equation [4] it is
possible to determine the particle displacement
u(x, t) and the dilatational stress <rxx(x, t) corres¬
ponding to a class of linear thermal forcing functions
with exponential attenuation in the absorbing media.
For the purpose of illustration, the form of the solu¬
tions have been determined for values of n of 2 and
oo. These functions, shown in Fig. 2, represent two

extremes; in the first case there is a linear rise to a
maximum temperature and then a decrease of the
same rate to zero, the second has a slope of zero
once the maximum value has been attained.

The solutions, for the two boundary conditions
obtained by substituting these values of n in equa-

Fig. 3 — Relative particle displacement u(x, t)/u« and rela¬
tive stress cr(x, t)/a0 for stress free surface (cr(o, t) — 0) for
the case n — 2.

tions [10] through [14], under the simplifying as¬
sumption that ax2>l are shown in Figs. 3 and 4. In
these examples a=1000 cm'1, v=1500m/sec and r
is taken to be 50 nanoseconds, conditions which
correspond to the absorption of Q-switched laser
light in an aqueous dye solution.

230

The Virginia Journal of Science

Fig. 4 — Relative particle displacement u(x, t ) / u„ ( tt„ =
6.5 kant/pv a) and relative stress <r(x, t)/a0 for fixed surface
condition i.e. u(0. t) = 0; for the case n = 2.

CONCLUSIONS

The linear temperature functions used in the
forcing function in these solutions are obviously not
solutions of Fourier’s law of heat conduction and

Fig. 5 — Relative particle displacement u(x, t)/u0 and
relative stress a(x, t)/a„ for stress free surface i.e.,
o(0, t) = 0; for the case n — cc.

consequently the particle displacements and stresses
are only approximations of the solutions based on

exact temperature distributions. It appears, how¬
ever, that in consideration of inherent limitations on
the instruments used to determine the stresses in¬
duced by rapid transient heating (e.g. finite band¬
width of detectors), the approximations yield reas¬
onable agreement with experimentally determined
values. This fact was noted in this laboratory as well
as by Carome, et al., (4) who obtained good agree¬
ment between theory and experiment by the use of
the approximation n=cc for the prediction of acous¬
tic signals in liquids by the absorption of light from
a ruby laser. Absorption of energy from a Q-switched
laser occurs in less than 50 nanoseconds, an insuf¬
ficient period of time for thermal conduction to
significantly affect the rate of temperature rise. Thus,
for the rising portion of the thermal transient the
linear approximation is valid and the amplitudes of
the particle displacements and stresses which are
dependent on the rising portion of the thermal pulse

Fig. 6 — Relative particle displacement u(x, t)/u0 ( tto =
7.5 kam/pvsa) and relative stress o(x, t)/ a „ for fixed surface
condition n(0. t) = 0, for the case n = co.

should accordingly be close approximations of the
values obtained using an exact temperature function.
The subsequent temperature decrease, subject to the
laws of heat diffusion, will occur over a much longer
period of time thus suggesting the application of an
approximation using a large value of n. As the
energy pulse duration is increased the rate of tem¬
perature rise and fall will begin to approach each

Thermally-Generated Plane Waves

231

REFERENCES

other and an approximate solution for the stress
wave can be obtained by choosing a value of n
intermediate between 2 and oo, depending upon the
thermal constants of the irradiated media. These
results also suggest the possibility of determining, to
a first approximation, the form of unknown tem¬
perature transients by the interpretation of experi¬
mentally determined stresses in cases where analyti¬
cal solutions are not available and where direct
experimental temperature measurements are not
feasible.

1. Eason, G., Fulton, Jr. and Sneddon. I. N„ Phil. Trans. R.
Soc., 248 A. 955 (1965).

2. Kolsky, H., Stress Waves in Solids, Dover, New York,
1963.

3. White, R. M„ J. appl. Phys., 34, 3559 ( 1963).

4. Carome, E. F.. Clark, N. A. and Moeller, C. E., Appl.
Phys. Lett. 4, 95 ( 1964).

5. Redwood, M., J. acoust. Soc. Ant. 33, 527 ( 1961).

6. Love, A. E. FI., The Mathematical Theory of Elasticity,
Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge, 1927.

232

The Virginia Journal of Science

D. R. JENSEN

and

R. B. HOWE

Department of Statistics,
Virginia Polytechnic Institute,
Blacksburg, Virginia 24061

Department of Mathematics,
Louisiana Polytechnic Institute,
Ruston, Louisiana 71270.
Received July 2, 1968

Probability Content of the Bivariate Chi-Square Distribution

Over Rectangular Regions

Abstract — A variety of questions in statistical inference
may be resolved in terms of probabilities associated with a
bivariate Chi-square distribution. In this report a known
series representation for the corresponding density function
in the central case is used to derive series for the probability
over an arbitrary rectangular region. The first term of one
such series further is considered as an approximation to its
sum, and numerical evidence supports the view that this
approximation is satisfactory for many purposes over a
fairly wide range of the parameters. The relevance of these
results to various questions in simultaneous statistical in¬
ference is noted.

INTRODUCTION

Let U be a random symmetric matrix whose prob¬
ability density function (p.d.f.) is

*(U) = c |U|

1/2 ( »* — 3) -l/2(rU£i-i -X

e e

\r u;Viy/2)
f^r!2rT[(v + 2r)/2\

X

[i.i]

for U positive definite, g(U) = 0 otherwise, where c
is constant.

r*

u3l

a =

i p

L u3

U2 J

_p i

and trA denotes trace of the matrix A. Then the
distribution of U is referred to as the two-dimen¬
sional noncentral Wishart distribution with v degrees
of freedom and single noncentrality parameter A. The
expression [1.1], due to Anderson (1), is in a form
essentially given by Kshirsagar (2). We shall be con¬
cerned with the joint distribution of Ui and U2,
which is known as a (singly) noncentral bivariate
Chi-square (x2) distribution with parameters, v, p
and A.

By using an argument entirely analogous to that
of Kibble (3) for the central case, we immediately
deduce the joint p.d.f. of Ui and U2 in the non¬
central case to be

where f(Ul5 U2) is the central bivariate x'-distribu-
tion derived by Kibble (3) and given (apart from
changes in scale) in the section following. Extensions
to higher dimensions in the central case have been
discussed by Krishnaiah and Rao (4) and Krishna-
moorthy and Parthasarathy (5).

Frequently it is required to evaluate the probability

Pr fen ^ Ux ^ c12, c21 ^ U,_ ^ c22\ [1.3]

associated with arbitrary rectangular regions whose
vertices are determined by the constants cn, c12, c21,
and c22. Such probabilities in statistical inference
refer to the commission of errors of the first and
second kinds when the distributions are central and
noncentral, respectively. Attention now will be given
to some problems in statistical inference which re¬
quire the evaluation of probabilities of the type
[ 1 .3] in the bivariate case.

a. Simultaneous Inference for Variances In a ran¬
dom sample of vector observations from a bivariate
normal population, let Sj- and s22 be estimators for
the variances 0-j2 and f722, respectively, each based on
v degrees of freedom. It is desired to construct con¬
fidence intervals for the parameters <ji2 and <r22
which hold simultaneously with confidence coeffi¬
cient equal to l-a.

The required intervals follow upon letting U, =
vSi2/cti2 and U2 = ys22/cr22 in [1.3], inverting the
inequalities, and choosing the constants in such a way
that the indicated probability is equal to l-« when
evaluated from the central distribution. The result¬
ing simultaneous confidence intervals assume the
form

[1.4]

g(Ult U2; A) = /([/,, U2) X <TX

\rU;T{v/2)

'hr\2rY[{v + 2r)/2] L J

* This investigation was supported in part by a Public Health
Service Research Career Development Award, No. 1-K3-GM37209-01,
from the National Institute of General Medical Sciences.

and one- or two-sided intervals may be obtained
upon making appropriate choice of the constants.
Equivalently, the expression [1.3] may be used to
determine the acceptance region for simultaneously
testing hypotheses about o-i2 and <r22 at «-level of
significance. Several other aspects of this problem

Bivariate Chi-Square Distributions

233

have been discussed in unpublished work by one
of the authors.1

As an example, consider the following problem
from industrial quality control. A particular milling
process produces machined parts for which diameter
and length measurements are crucial. The process is
considered to be in control if the standard deviations
of the diameters and lengths of the finished parts
do not exceed .005 inch and .010 inch, respectively;
otherwise, the process is not in control. Diameter
and length measurements are made on a number n
of parts sampled randomly from the production line,
and it is desired to determine whether or not the
process is in control. Let Sj and s2 be sample stand¬
ard deviations for the diameter and length measure¬
ments, respectively. The hypotheses to be formulated
are Hpo-i = .005 and H2:<r2 = .010, each with a
one-sided alternative. Then Hi is rejected if Uj =
(n — 1 )si2/(.005)~ exceeds some critical value c,2
and is accepted otherwise, and similarly for H2 in
terms of (n — l)s22/(.010)2 and c22; here cn = c21
= 0 as required for one-sided upper-tail tests.

b. Simultaneous Tests in Analysis of Variance
Let M, and M2 denote correlated mean squares in
the analysis of variance, each with v degrees of free¬
dom, which are relevant to some hypotheses Hi and
H2, respectively. If the residual variance a- either is
known or is estimated with sufficient number of de¬
grees of freedom, then in some cases the hypotheses
H, and H2 may be tested simultaneously at «-level
of significance upon reference to [1.3]. Here Uj =
i'Mi/<r and U2 = vM2/o-2, and the acceptance region
may be determined from the expression [1.3] upon
letting Cn = c21 = 0. The constants c12 and c22 are
chosen such that the indicated probability is equal
to 1 — « when computed from the central distribu¬
tion.

When Hi is false and H2 is true, the power of the
simultaneous procedure against specified alternatives
may be found upon integrating the function [1.2]
over the appropriate rejection region of the noncen¬
tral distribution for given A. A similar procedure can
be used when Hi is true and H2 is false upon inter¬
changing the roles of Hi and H2 in the preceding
sentence. However, when neither H, nor H2 is true,
the power function would require a noncentral dis¬
tribution having two noncentrality parameters. Such
noncentral bivariate ^’-distributions are unknown at
present.

As an example of such simultaneous tests, Krish-
naiah and Armitage2 have cited simultaneous non-
orthogonal linear contrasts involving single degrees
of freedom. In addition, they have provided tables
of critical constants to facilitate up to ten equicor-
related tests when v = 1. It is apparent that [1.3]
yields simultaneous procedures less general than
those of Krishnaiah and Armitage in that only two

1 Jensen, D. R. and Jones, M. Q. “Simultaneous confidence inter¬
vals for variances.” Technical Report No. 4, October 1967, NIH
Grant 1-K3-GM37209-01. Department of Statistics, Virginia Poly¬
technic Institute, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061.

2 Krishnaiah, P. R. and Armitage, J. V. “Tables for the distribu¬

tion of the maximum of correlated Chi-square variates with one de¬
gree of freedom.” ARL 65-136, July 1965, Aerospace Research Lab¬
oratories. Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio.

tests may be accommodated. However, [1.3] is more
general for two such tests as v may be an arbitrary
integer.

c. Simultaneous Tests for Goodness-of-fit Rela¬
tive to the hypotheses Hi and H2 regarding distribu¬
tions of categorical data, let X,2 and X22 be corre¬
lated test statistics, each with v degrees of freedom.
The asymptotic joint distribution of Xf and X22
in some cases may be shown to be given by [1.2]
with A = 0 when both Hi and H2 are true. The hypo¬
theses H! and H2 may be tested simultaneously at
a-level of significance in large samples if one adopts
as the region of acceptance one which may be deter¬
mined from [1.3 ], where cn = c22 = 0 and the cen¬
tral distribution is taken.

As an example from the social studies, suppose
that each of a number of respondents randomly
polled in a particular community is classified accord¬
ing to political candidate preference (A, B, C, or D)
and again according to occupation (I, II, III, or IV).
It is desired to perform tests for goodness-of-fit sepa¬
rately for each type of classification in order to de¬
termine whether the community matches a hypothe¬
tical profile which specifies both sets of hypothetical
relative frequencies. The appropriate test satisfies
the conditions outlined for simultaneous procedures,
and the appropriate test statistics generally are cor¬
related because of the common respondents involved.

d. Distribution of the Larger of Correlated x2- vari¬

ates Let the joint distribution of IT and U2 be
given by [1.2], It is desired to find probabilities in
the upper tail of the distribution of the maximum
(larger) of the two correlated variates. These proba¬
bilities may be obtained from [1.3] upon setting
Cn = c21 = 0 and c]2 - c22 = c2, say. For the

special case v = 1, Krishnaiah and Armitage3 have
given tables of the distribution of the maximum of
up to 10 equicorrelated central x'’-variates.

Each of the problems listed in the preceding para¬
graphs relates, either directly or indirectly, to simul¬
taneous statistical inference, a general discussion of
which has been provided by Miller (6). Although
these illustrations have been restricted to the bivariate
case only, their variety as well as their common
involvement with bivariate ^'distributions would
appear to warrant a further investigation of the lat¬
ter. In particular, the exact or approximate evalua¬
tion of probabilities of the type [1.3] are required
for simultaneous procedures, and in what follows
this will be undertaken for the class of central bi¬
variate ^’-distributions discussed by Kibble (3). Un¬
der suitable conditions the null distributions encoun¬
tered in each of the problems listed are members
of this class.

The purposes here are threefold:

(a) To derive series useful for evaluating proba¬
bility integrals of the central bivariate ^-’-distribution
over rectangular regions;

( b ) To consider approximate procedures for de¬
termining these probabilities; and

(c) To evaluate numerically the adequacy of the
approximations. Toward these ends the following sec-

2 Loc. cit.

234

The Virginia Journal of Science

tion contains some derivations which facilitate the
evaluation of the required integrals. The first term
of the resulting series is considered as an approxima¬
tion, and this term is observed not to depend on the
value of the correlation parameter p. Approximations
of this kind are particularly important in practice,
where the value of p seldom is known and thus it
enters as a nuisance parameter. Numerical evidence
is given in the final section regarding adequacy of
the approximation for a fairly wide range of values
of the parameters.

DERIVATIONS

Let Ut and U2 have the central bivariate x2dis-
tribution with parameters v and p. It is convenient
to make a change of scale and consider instead the
joint distribution of X! = Ui/2 and X2 = U2/2. The
marginal p.d.f. of each X is given by

Xm~le~x
T (m)

0 ^ A,

m < oa

[2.1]

= 0, otherwise

where m = v/2 and r(m) is the gamma function. A
series expansion for the joint p.d.f. of Xx and X2,
as given by Kibble (3) in terms of <£,„(X, ) and
<MX2), is

/(A,, X2) = ct>m(X1)<t>m(X2)

V P'r/'!r(/”) i
' h l\m + r) r

~l) (Xx)Lr(m~l) (X2)

[2.2]

which is known (cf. (3) and (5)) to be absolutely
convergent. Here Lr(m_1) (X) is the generalized La-
guerre polynomial of degree r defined (cf. (7)) by
Rodrigues’ formula

Lr

(m— 1)

(A) =

-~r [XT<t>m{X)}
X)

[2.3]

for r = 0, 1 , 2, . . .

We first consider the cumulative distribution func¬
tion (c.d.f.)

F(xu x2) = Pr { A, ^ jcl A2 :g *2} [2.4]

which may be obtained from [2.2] upon perform¬
ing term-by-term integration by virtue of its absolute
convergence. Observe that a typical term of the
resulting series involves the integral

f 4>„,( X) Lr(m_1) ( A) d A, r = 0,1,2, • • • [2.5]

J 0

where x and X are replaced in succession by the
corresponding symbols with subscripts. Now Rodri¬
gues’ formula may be used to deduce from [2.5] the
result

(A) dX = 4>m

+1(X)Lr_l(m\X)/r,
r = 1, 2, • • • [2.6]

while the term corresponding to r = 0 yields simply
the incomplete gamma function

[ </>,„( A) dX = $„(*). [2.7]

^ 0

It follows that [2.4] may be written

F( Xt,X2) = ^(xJ^iXi) + <t>m + i(Xi)<f>m + 1(x2)

■ Y-ir-

f~i r2T

*Tr\T(m)

v , , Lr^m\Xl)Lr^m\x2). [2.8]

(m + r)

Corresponding to [1.3], consider now the statement

Pr {a, ^ Xx S a2 ^ A2 ^ 62| [2.9]

which is given by the integral

/(a, b)

Ao) d Ao d A,.

[2.10]

where a = (al5 a2) and b = ( b, , b2). When ai =
a2 = 0, [2.10] coincides with [2.8] and the latter may
be used directly for computations. However, when
neither ax nor a2 is zero the computation [2.9] from
[2.8] would require the evaluation of the c.d.f. [2.8]
four times. We seek instead an expression for the
integral [2.10] which may be evaluated somewhat
more directly.

An expression for the generalized Laguerre poly¬
nomial of degree r is (cf. (7) )

Lr<m-1>( A) = £ (— l)*(r + , 1 ) Xk / k ! [2.11]

k = 0 ' 1 K /

so that

<£m( A)Lr<m-1)( A)

k = 0

F (m + r) ^

Xm+k~ex/k\T(m)

m , E(-i )V)<f>m+k(X).

r'.T(m) k=n \k/

The series [2.2] thus becomes

p2rr(m + r)

/(Ai, A,) = E

r\ r( m)

E (-o^j^wuo

From [2.7] define

Hm(u, v ) = 4>,„(e) — T,„(m)

[2.11a]

[2.12]

= J </>„,( X) d A. [2.13]

It follows then that the integral [2.10] admits the
series representation

/(a, b)

p2rF(m + r)
h rlT(m)

Bivariate Chi-Square Distributions

235

x{E(-ot)«»*^'i’j} I214

the first term of which, for r = 0, is simply

b2)

= Pr {ci\ ^ A, g 6,} Pr | a, ^ X, ^ b2\ . [2.1 5 ]

This may be taken as a first-order approximation to
the probability indicated by [2.9J, and, if p — 0, it is
exact. The latter conclusion follows from the fact
that Xi and X2 are distributed independently if and
only if p — 0. The use of [2.15] as a bound to [2.9]
will receive further comment in the following section.

Now it will be demonstrated that the integral
[2.14] may be expressed solely in terms of the func¬
tions Hm(u, v) and simple functions of the coordi¬
nates of the rectangular region. A recursive relation¬
ship involving the incomplete gamma function, in
terms of its parameter m (cf. (7) ), is

Tm+i(w) = $,»(«)

m — u

u e

T(m + 1)

[2.16]

Repeated application of [2.16] yields

4>m + a(«) = $m(«)

z

8 = 1

T(m + s)

2.17]

which in turn permits an obvious recursive expres¬
sion for the function Hm+q(u,v).

Finally it follows that the integral [2.10] may be
written

/(a. b)

Hm(a{, bx)Hm(a2, b2) + Z

r = 1

p~T(m ~t~ r)
r\ T( m)

x{Z(

Z g,(a i, bi)

where gs(u, v), a function only of the limits of inte¬
gration, is defined by

It should be noted that the apparent advantage of
[2.18] lies in the fact that only the integrals Hm(ai,
bt) and Hm(a2, b2) need be evaluated. Contrast this,
for example, with the form [2.14] which would re¬
quire evaluation of two such integrals in each term
of the series used for numerical purposes. It may be
anticipated that, for small values of |,p|, a few terms
of the series will provide sufficient numerical accu¬
racy for most purposes. A numerical investigation of
this particular point now will be undertaken.

SOME NUMERICAL COMPARISONS

It was noted earlier that the first term on the
right-hand side of [2.14], for r = 0, applies exactly

when X-) and X2 are distributed independently. The
purpose here is to investigate the adequacy of this
term when used as an approximation to the prob¬
ability [2.9] in the correlated case. Our procedure
will be to choose the marginal probabilities Hm(ai,
bi) and Hm(a2, b2), to extract the constants al5 bi,
a2, and b2 from available tables of the ^-distribution
for given v, and then to determine the corresponding
values of the integral I (a, b) for various values of p.
Because p always appears to an even power in the
series, it is sufficient to consider only the distinct
values of \p\. In the course of this investigation we
found it convenient to use the series [2.14] owing to
the availability of an efficient computer subroutine
for evaluating the integrals Hin+k(a, b).

Only two types of rectangular regions will be con¬
sidered, and these in turn determine choices of the
vertices ai, b:, a2, and b2. Of the applications dis¬
cussed in the introductory section, procedures in¬
volving analysis of variance, categorical data, and
the larger of correlated x2-variates clearly require
points in the upper tail only of each marginal distri¬
bution, and hence aj = a2 = 0. Such regions will be
referred to as one-sided. By contrast, if upper and
lower confidence limits are given for both variances
as in example ( a ), the regions will be referred to as
two-sided. In connection with the latter, the optimal
choice of the critical points a1? bls a2, and b2 is not
known in the correlated case. However, for purposes
of comparison we adopt for each marginal distribu¬
tion the usual choice of critical points and take the
upper and lower tail area probabilities to be equal.

Observe that the rectangular region of [2.9] be¬
comes square when ai = a2 and bj = b2, so that the
marginal probabilities Hm(a,, bO and Hm(a2, b2)
are equal. A consequence of this choice is that the
first term of [2.14] then serves as a lower bound to
the probability [2.9], which may be verified upon

TABLE I

Probability content oj the bivariate Chi-square distribution over
square regions for which each marginal probability is . 99.

Ip!

V

0

. 1

.2

.4

.6

.8

1

.9801

Two-Sided Regions"
.9801 .9801 .9803

.9807

.9816

2

.9801

.9801

.9801

.9802

.9805

.9815

4

.9801

.9801

.9801

.9802

.9805

.9815

10

.9801

.9801

.9801

.9802

.9805

.9816

20

.9801

.9801

.9801

.9802

.9305

.9817

50

.9801

.9801

.9801

.9802

.9805

.9317

100

.9801

.9801

.9801

.9802

.9805

.9818

1

.9801

One-Sided Regions6
.9801 .9802 .9806

.9815

.9834

2

.9801

.9801

.9802

.9805

.9813

.9831

4

.9801

.9801

.9802

.9805

.9812

.9829

10

.9801

.9801

.9802

.9804

.9811

.9827

20

.9801

.9801

.9801

.9804

.9810

.9826

50

.9801

.9801

.9801

.9803

.9809

.9825

100

.9801

.9801

.9801

.9803

.9S08

.9824

a Upper and lower tail areas are equal in each marginal distri¬
bution.

b Upper tail area is excluded in each marginal distribution.

236

The Virginia Journal of Science

noting that each term of the series [2.14] now is non¬
negative. A further consequence is that the probabil¬
ity of inclusion in an arbitrary square region is an
increasing function of |pj.

The entries appearing in each of the accompanying
tables are probabilities computed to four places by
means of [2.14], Values of the parameter |p|, as re¬
ported here, are .1, .2, .4, .6, and .8; for larger
values the series demonstrates sometimes erratic
numerical behavior, particularly for large v. Critical
values a,, bl5 a2, and b2 were obtained from six-place
tables (8) subject, however, to the change of scale
introduced early in the second section. The first term
of the series appears appropriately in the column p
= 0, where Xx and X2 are independent, and ade¬
quacy of the first term only as an approximation to
the probability integral I (a, b) may be determined

TABLE II

Probability content oj the bivariate Chi-square distribution over
square regions for which each marginal probability is . 95.

V

1

p|

0

.1 .2 .4

Two-Sided Region?

.6

.8

1

.9025

.9026

.9028

.9038

.9061

.9108

2

.9025

.9025

.9027

.9035

.9057

.9109

4

.9025

.9025

.9026

.9033

.9056

.9117

10

.9025

.9025

.9026

.9032

.9057

.9129

20

.9025

.9025

.9026

.9032

.9058

.9135

50

.9025

.9025

.9025

.9032

.9059

.9138

100

.9025

.9025

. 9025

.9032

.9059

.9139

One-Sided Regions

1

.9025

.9028

.9036

.9068

.9125

.9219

2

.9025

.9027

.9034

.9063

.9116

.9209

4

.9025

.9027

.9033

.9058

.9108

.9201

10

.9025

.9027

.9032

.9054

.9101

.9192

20

.9025

.9026

.9031

.9052

.9097

.9187

50

.9025

.9026

.9030

.9050

.9093

.9181

103

.9025

.9026

.9030

.9049

.9090

.9178

by inspection upon comparing entries in the remain¬
ing columns with those of the column \p\ =0.

Tables I, II, and III contain probabilities associ¬
ated with the bivariate ^-distribution when both
marginal probabilities are set equal to .99, .95, and
.90, respectively, for the three tables. Each region
thus is square, and both one-sided and two-sided
regions are represented in the tables. For purposes
of statistical inference, the tabulated probabilities
may be interpreted in terms of actual level of signif¬
icance or actual confidence coefficient associated with
a procedure for which the nominal value appears in
the column \p\ = 0. In this connection note that the
marginal probabilities selected for discussion here
are typical of those which commonly are used in
practice.

Some evidence regarding approximation of prob¬
abilities over rectangular regions is given in Tables
IV and V. The marginal probabilities in Table IV
are .95 and .90; in Table V their values are .99 and
.95.

The following observations may be noted regard¬
ing the data tabulated for the cases studied.

(a) The probability of inclusion in an arbitrary
rectangular region is an increasing function of \p\ for
each value of v.

TABLE III

Probabilities of the bivariate Chi-square distribution over square
regions for which each marginal probability is .90.

\p\

V

0

. 1

.2

.4

.6

.8

1

.8100

Two-Sided Regions
.8102 .8107 .8127

.8170

.8262

2

.8100

.8101

.8104

.8121

.8164

.8273

4

.8100

.8101

.8103

.8117

.8164

.8299

10

.8100

.8100

.8102

.8115

.8169

.8324

20

.8100

.8100

.8101

.8115

.8172

.8333

50

.8100

.8100

.8101

.8115

.8173

.8338

100

.8100

.8100

.8101

.8115

.8174

. 8340

1

.8100

One-Sided Regions
.8106 .8123 .8192

.8311

.8495

2

.8100

.8105

.8121

.8186

.8298

.8480

4

.8100

.8105

.8119

.8179

.8286

.8466

10

.8100

.8104

.8117

.8171

.8273

.8452

20

.8100

.8104

.8116

.8167

.8266

.8444

50

.8100

.8104

.8115

.8163

.8259

.8436

100

.8100

.8103

.8114

.8161

.8255

.8432

( b ) For each value of v and P, the probability of
inclusion in a two-sided region is less than or equal
to that of the corresponding one-sided region having
the same marginal probabilities.

TABLE IV

Probability content of the bivariate Chi-square distribution over
rectangular regions for which the margined probabilities are
.95 and .90.

V

0

. 1

.2

.4

.6

.8

Two-Sided Regions

1

.8550

.8551

.8554

.8569

.8599

.8662

2

.8550

.8551

.8553

.8564

.8594

.8666

4

.8550

.8550

.8552

.8562

.8594

.8681

10

.8550

.8550

.8551

.8560

.8596

.8699

20

.8550

.8550

.8551

.8560

.8598

.8706

50

.8550

.8550

.8551

.8560

.8599

.8710

100

.8550

.8550

.8551

.8560

.8600

.8711

One-Sided Regions

1

.8550

.8554

.8566

.8612

.8692

.8815

2

.8550

.8553

.8564

.8606

.8681

.8803

4

.8550

.8553

.8562

.8601

.8672

.8794

10

.8550

.8553

.8561

.8595

.8663

.8783

20

.8550

.8552

.8560

.8592

.8657

.8777

50

.8550

.8552

.8559

.8589

.8652

.8771

100

.8550

.8552

.8559

.8588

.8649

.8767

(c) The probability of inclusion is a non-increas¬
ing function of v for all P in the case of one-sided re¬
gions, and for \p\ < .4 in the case of two-sided
regions.

(d) The range of probabilities in a particular table
decreases as the marginal probabilities are allowed
to increase from one table to another.

Bivariate Chi-Square Distributions

237

The foregoing observations now will be assessed
with regard to approximating probabilities in the cor¬
related case by those obtained from the independent
case. From (a) it follows that the approximation
serves as a lower bound and thus represents a con¬
servative statistical procedure; see Miller (6). This

TABLE V

Probabilities oj the bivariate Chi-square distribution over rectan¬
gular regions jor which the marginal probabilities are .99 and . 95.

IpI

V

0

. 1

.2

.4

.6

.8

1

.9405

Two-Sided

.9405 .9406

Regions

.9410

.9418

.9434

2

.9405

.9405

.9406

.9409

.9417

.9434

4

.9405

.9405

.9405

.9408

.9416

.9436

10

.9405

.9405

.9405

.9407

.9416

.9440

20

.9405

.9405

.9405

.9407

.9416

.9442

50

.9405

.9405

.9405

.9407

.9416

.9443

100

.9405

.9405

.9405

.9407

.9416

.9444

1

.9405

One-Sided Regions
.9406 .9408 .9419

.9439

.9471

2

.9405

.9406

.9408

.9417

.9436

.9467

4

.9405

.9406

.9407

.9416

.9433

.9465

10

.9405

.9405

.9407

.9414

.9430

.9461

20

.9405

.9405

.9407

.9413

.9428

.9459

50

.9405

.9405

.9407

.9412

.9427

.9457

100

.9405

.9405

.9406

.9412

.9426

.9456

was anticipated in the case of square regions, but
it appears to hold somewhat more generally. From
(a) and ( b ) it follows that the lower bound better
approximates probabilities for two-sided than for
one-sided regions. The approximation is better for
small values of P\ than for large, and, for some
values of P, the converse applies to v from conclusion
(c). From (d) it follows that the approximation is
better for regions having larger probabilities of inclu¬
sion, that is, for which the confidence coefficients are
larger or levels of significance are smaller.

The marginal probabilities were selected to include
the range frequently used in practice, namely, .90
to .99. Within this range it is seen from the tables
that the error of approximation does not exceed
.0240 for two-sided and .0395 for one-sided regions
(Table III). These maximum errors correspond to
a nominal joint probability of .81. If one restricts at¬
tention to simultaneous procedures with nominal
probability no smaller than .90, approximately, then
it may be seen from the tables that the maximum
error of approximation is .0114 for two-sided and
.0194 for one-sided regions.

The conclusions of the preceding paragraph as¬
sume that |p| = .8. If one considers only correlations
within the range |,P| i .4, the maximum error of
approximation in the cases studied is .0027 for two-
sided and .0092 for one-sided regions. Clearly all of
the errors of approximation reported in this study are
well within those which may be tolerated in most
applications.

In summary, the probability for the independent
case provides a lower bound for correlated cases.

The approximation appears to be quite good over a
fairly wide range of the parameters involved. Statisti¬
cal procedures utilizing such approximations are con¬
servative; simultaneous confidence intervals cover
the unknown parameters with confidence coefficient
at least as large as the nominal value, and in simul¬
taneous tests of hypotheses the error of the first kind
is committed with probability no larger than the
nominal level of significance. Both inequalities are
valid whatever may be the value of P, which seldom
may be known in practice. Furthermore, critical
points which yield these bounds are widely available
in tables of the central ^-distribution, and these ap¬
ply whether or not the value of P is known, provided,
of course, that |P| is not too large.

EXAMPLE

The purpose of this section is to illustrate numer¬
ically the relevance of earlier sections to a problem
in statistical inference. Suppose n = 21 vector ob¬
servations are randomly sampled from a bivariate
normal population having unknown means and vari¬
ances and known correlation parameter p = .4. The
computed sample variances are sr = 2.1 and s22 -
40.3, and it is desired to construct simultaneous two-
sided confidence intervals for the corresponding vari¬
ances o-i 2 and an2.

In the notation developed previously, observe that
v = n — 1 and hence v = 20. We find from reference
(8) the critical constants cn - c2i = 9.59083 and
c12 = c22 = 34.1696; these yield two-sided confi¬
dence intervals for which both marginal confidence
cofficients are equal to .95. From [1.4] we obtain the
intervals

/ 20(2.1) < 2 < 20(2. 1)\

(34.1696 = *l = 9 .59083 J

/20(40.3) < 2 < 20(40 .3) \

( 34.1696 = 0-2 = 9.59083 J

which reduce to

{1.23 ^ <r,2 ^ 4.38}

{23.59 ^ <r22 ^ 84.04} .

By the results of the preceding section, it is known
that these hold simultaneously with joint confidence
coefficient at least as large as (.95) 2 — .9025 what¬
ever may be the value of P. In particular, when P —
.4 we find upon evaluating either the series 1 2. 1 4 | or
[2.18] that the exact value for the simultaneous con¬
fidence coefficient is .9032; this value appears also
in the upper half of Table II.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors acknowledge with thanks comments
made by Professor I. J. Good regarding an earlier
draft. Thanks also are extended to the referees for
their thorough reviews. The several comments col-

238

The Virginia Journal of Science

lectively led to substantial improvement both of form
and content.

REFERENCES

1. Anderson, T. W., Ann. math. Statist., 17, 409 (1946).

2. Kshirsagar, A. M., Ann. math. Statist., 32, 104 (1961).

3. Kibble, W. F., Sankhya, 5, 137 (1941).

4. Krishnaiah, P. R., and Rao, M. M., Am. math. Mon., 68,
342 (1961).

5. Krishnamoorthy, A. S., and Parthasarathy, M., Ann.
math. Statist., 22, 549 (1951); 31, 229 (1960).

6. Miller, R. G., Simultaneous statistical inference, Mc¬
Graw-Hill, Inc., New York, 1966.

7. Abramowitz, M„ and Stegun, I. A., Handbook of mathe¬
matical functions, National Bureau of Standards, Wash¬
ington, D. C., 1964.

8. Pearson, E. S., and Hartley, H. O., Biometrika tables for
statisticians, Vol. 1, Cambridge University Press, Cam¬
bridge, 1956.

Bivariate Chi-Square Distributions

239

ADRIAN R. LAWLER

Parasitology Section
Virginia Institute of Marine Science
Gloucester Point, Virginia 23062
Received August 5, 1968

Occurrence of the Parasitic Dinoflagellate
Oodinium cyprinodontum Lawler, 1967 in North Carolina"

Abstract — The parasitic dinoflagellate Oodinium cyprino¬
dontum Lawler, 1967 is reported for the first time from
Cyprinodontidae from the Outer Banks of North Carolina.
Incidence and intensity of infestation data are given.
Fund ulus majalis (Walbaum) appears to be the primary
host.

Oodinium cyprinodontum was described from four
species of Cyprinodontidae from the estuarine waters
of Virginia (1). Hosts were Fundulus majalis (Wal¬
baum), F. heteroclitus (Linnaeus), Cyprinodon va-
riegatus Lacepede, and Lucania parva (Baird and
Girard).

On April 6 and 7, 1968, collections of cyprino-
donts were made with a haul seine in the shallows
at three different localities on the Outer Banks of
North Carolina. Station locations were: (1) Pamlico
Sound, Dare County, 35° 23' N, 75° 30' W, salinity
23.527 parts per thousand (o/oo), water tempera¬
ture 16° C; (2) Hatteras Inlet (tidepool), Hyde
County, 35° 1 1' N, 75° 46' W, salinity 23.639 o/oo,
water temperature 21.5° C; (3) Bosue Sound, More-
head City, 34° 42' N, 76° 46' W, salinity 33.301
o/oo, water temperature 17° C. Specimens were pre-

The results are summarized in Table I. Up to six
parasites per gill filament were recovered from F.
majalis at stations 1 and 2.

All of the 3623 trophonts of the dinoflagellate re¬
covered appear to be similar in all respects to the
specimens of the original Virginia collections. Hence,
they are undoubtedly conspecific. All three stations
represent extensions of the known range of Oodin¬
ium cyprinodontum and constitute new locality rec¬
ords. Since the parasite fauna of the hosts has been
fairly well studied, e.g., as documented by Dillon
(2), the finding of O. cyprinodontum in North Caro¬
lina is considered significant, as it shows that the
occurrence of O. cyprinodontum is not a localized
phenomenon in the Chesapeake Bay.

As in Virginia,* 1 F. majalis appears to be the pri¬
mary host, showing a higher incidence of infection
and having a larger number of parasites per host
than either of the other species. This might be ex¬
plained by their being either more susceptible or
more available to the parasite.

Appreciation is expressed to Messrs. Kenneth W.

TABLE I

Oodinium cyprinodontum on Cyprinodontidae of North Carolina.

Station

number

Species

Range of
total
lengths
(mm)

Number
of fish
infected

Number
of parasites
recovered

Range of
number of
parasites
per host

Average
number of
parasites
per host

1

F. majalis

64-74

9

1331

11-633

148

F. heteroclitus

56-77

0

—

—

—

C. variegatus

36-50

9

52

2-11

6

2

F. majalis

72-92

10

1664

2-696

166

F. heteroclitus

53-69

1

1

—

1

C. variegatus

34-44

8

145

1-76

18

3

F. majalis

38-60

4

388

6-219

97

C. variegatus

36-43

7

42

1-12

6

served in 10 per cent formalin in the field. Ten
specimens of each species of Cyprinodontidae rep¬
resented at each station were randomly selected and
examined for the parasitic dinoflagellate with the aid
of a stereomicroscope.

* Contribution No. 286 from the Virginia Institute of Marine Sci¬
ence.

1 Lawler, A. R., unpublished data.

Able and Michael D. Richardson of the Virginia In¬
stitute of Marine Science, who graciously made their
fish collections available to me, and Dr. W. J. Hargis,
Jr., under whose direction this work was done.

REFERENCES

1. Lawler, A. R., Chesapeake Sci., 8, 67 ( 1967).

2. Dillon, W. A., Va J. Sci., 17, 21 (1966).

240

The Virginia Journal of Science

Communications and Reports

Bupleurum Fontanessii (Umbelliferae) from Virginia

Mathias and Constance ( 1 ) record the European
Umbel, Bupleurum Fontanesii Caruel, as found in
the United States only in Massachusetts and Oregon.
On June 1 1, 1967, the author found this plant grow¬
ing in Giles County in the mountains of southwest¬
ern Virginia. It was found on a dry hillside along
Virginia Route 730 about one mile west of the small
town of Eggleston. It was apparently well established
on the east-facing hillside among limestone outcrop¬
pings. However, the colony could easily be over¬
looked owing to the small size of the individuals and
the larger growth of several species of grasses and
seedlings of Juniperus virginiana L. The plants were
in flower at that time but could not be identified. A
specimen was later taken to the Herbarium of Vir¬
ginia Polytechnic Institute, Blacksburg, Virginia,
where its identity was determined by Mary L. Smyth.

The area was revisited on September 7, 1967 and
fruiting plants were collected. Both flowering and
fruiting specimens have been placed in the V.P.I.
Herbarium.

Gerald B. Straley

Longwood Gardens

Kennett Square, Pennsylvania 19348

REFERENCES

I. Mathias, M. E., and Constance, L., N. Am. Flora. 28B,
Part 1, Umbellales: Umbelliferae, The New York Botani¬
cal Garden, 1944.

Principles of Biochemistry

(Fourth Edition)

By Abraham White, Philip Handler
and Emil L. Smith

McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York 1968.

1187 pages, $17.50.

This latest revision of a justifiably preeminent text¬
book fulfills adequately the standards set by its pred¬
ecessors. One may lay aside the misgivings born of
experience toward multiple authorship. The scholar¬
ship doesn’t vary from chapter to chapter, mainte¬
nance of continuity is achieved, and gross omissions
or duplications have been avoided. The authors
wrought these wonders by meeting frequently for
joint reviews and critiques of each chapter draft.
After tripartite appraisals, deletions, additions and
rewriting, the result was a book which, in actuality,
arose from the fused skills and personalities of a bio¬
chemical triumvirate. Mirabile dictu that under con¬
ditions of present day facts of scientific life, three
distinguished investigator-scholars from the geograph¬
ically dispersed Albert Einstein, Duke, and UCLA
Schools of Medicine could meet with regularity for
extended periods in order to carry to fruition this

monumental task. (Professor Handler, for example,
chairs the National Science Board, the policy-making
body of NSF).

At a time when it has become fashionable to decry
the exponential onslaught of accumulating biochem¬
ical knowledge upon our textbooks, it is refreshing
that this Fourth Edition runs but 81 pages (i.e. 7% )
longer than its predecessor published four years ago.
Obviously judicious editorial deletion and consolida¬
tion are hallmarks of the current Principles of Bio¬
chemistry. The authors’ guide seems to have been
that digestion was in order for those areas which
now enjoy relatively complete and generally accepted
description and characterization. On the other hand,
more extended coverage is devoted to those areas
which continue to develop at a rapid rate; e.g. lipid
chemistry and metabolism, the fine structure and
conformational properties of proteins and nucleic
acids, more precise description of enzymic reaction
mechanisms, control and regulatory mechanisms, ge¬
netic phenomena at the genome level, and the prac¬
tically complete explication of the “genetic code”.
New chapters of more restricted interest include
those on blood (with expanded treatment of the
growing information on structure, function, and con¬
trol mechanisms of the immunoglobulins), photosyn¬
thesis, and the biochemistry of cell walls, each of
which are experiencing spectacular advances. The
sections on cellular energy transduction and oxida¬
tive phosphorylation have been up-dated to the ex¬
tent of inclusion of the proposed mitochondrial
chemiosmotic mechanism for ATP formation. (In
general, chapter references run through 1967).

The first 30 chapters compose a relatively com¬
plete and current exposition of the physicochemical
structure, function, and metabolic activities of living
cells — the traditional core of biochemistry. There fol¬
low 1 1 chapters on the biochemistry of specialized
tissues and body fluids, 6 chapters on biochemical
endocrinology, and 3 chapters on nutrition. These
final 20 chapters (about one-third of the text) com¬
mend this book especially to medical students and
to physicians and life scientists who desire familiarity
with recent biochemical developments. Also, this fea¬
ture adds to the eminence of Principles of Biochem¬
istry as the ideal compendium of biochemical infor¬
mation for students in those medical schools which
are experimenting with the integration of basic med¬
ical sciences into body system-oriented curricula. Re¬
gardless of type of curriculum, however, there is no
better textbook for the medical student at the present
time.

Although initial graduate courses in biochemistry
vary considerably in content, this book may also be
recommended as a text for such courses. It should
not be denigrated as too “medically-oriented.” Chap¬
ters on blood or body fluids, for example, may be
readily passed over in favor of those on photosyn¬
thesis, cell walls of plants and microorganisms, etc.

Communications and Reports

241

Moreover, the student soon learns that the great bulk
of present day knowledge in enzymology, intermedi¬
ary metabolism, and biochemical genetics was derived
not from animal cells but rather from microorga¬
nisms. Only later were these phenomena confirmed
in animal and human tissues. Finally, biochemistry
has become the very language and methodology of
the biological sciences, and no graduate student has
yet justified the claim of learning “too much” bio¬
chemistry.

One may fault the authors only on their suggestion
that this book will be a useful volume for undergrad¬
uate students. Its utility to instructors of undergrad¬
uate courses cannot be denied, but relatively few
college students possess the antecedent fundamental
background prerequisite to profitable immersion in a
text of this level. Moreover, the time available in
college courses would permit minimal exploration of
only a fraction of this volume and could hardly jus¬
tify its rather respectable cost. One suspects typical
undergraduate reaction would be that of the little girl
reporting on The Natural History of the Penguin —
“This book tells much more than 1 really want to
know about penguins.”

By way of minor criticism, one wonders about the
suitability of retaining the older nomenclature for
the nicotinamide adenine dinucleotides. The newer
nomenclature, proposed by the I.U.B. International
Commission seven years ago, is more appropriate
and has come into general use. The authors’ note
that their use of DPN and TPN will be continued
until it can be determined which terminology will
achieve general acceptance, causes one to speculate
that literary usage of laboratory jargon may one day
be acceptable, provided an appropriate referendum
take place. Anyone for coenzyme I or cozymase?

Users of Principles of Biochemistry will find its
extensive and detailed index (123 pages) of inesti¬
mable value for complete and ready reference. This
Fourth Edition is recommended unreservedly for
those purposes set forth above.

Edwin S. Higgins

Introduction to Trigonometry

By C. C. T. Baker
Philosophical Library, Inc.

New York, 1967
166 pages, $6.00

A knowledge of trigonometry is an essential pre¬
requisite for further study in science and engineering.
The author states that this book has been written

for the layman, scientist, engineer and student in¬
terested in covering the syllabi of most of the ele¬
mentary courses in the subject of trigonometry.

The book itself is well written. Figures and illus¬
trations are excellent. The book also contains an
adequate number of worked examples and problem
exercises with all answers supplied at the end of
each chapter. However, it does lack an index, and
tables of trigonometric functions would be helpful if
the book is to serve as the sole text of an interested
layman. Thus the book is not recommended as a
basic text for classroom use. The book is recom¬
mended as a supplement to the teacher’s library or
aid to the interested student. The teacher may find
the worked examples and problem solutions espe¬
cially useful as teaching and testing material.

Aubrey C. Hudgins, Jr.

Textbook of Pharmacology

By W. Bowman, M. J. Rand and G. B. West
Blackwell Scientific Publications
Oxford and Edinburgh, 1968
1025 pages, <£5.

These authors present a very interesting approach
by dividing the subject into physiology and pharma¬
cology sections. Thus, this text could be considered
to be both a physiology and pharmacology text. Both
disciplines are given equal attention, but neither
could stand alone for the advanced undergraduate
student. The text was written essentially for phar¬
macy students who generally have an insufficient
background in physiology before being presented
pharmacology. However, for the more sophisticated,
biologically-oriented student, the text is inadequate
as a thorough treatise on pharmacology. On the
other hand, there are several good chapters. In the
pharmacology section, the presentation of basic prin¬
ciples and material on drug evaluation are excellent.
Drugs affecting the autonomic nervous system are
also presented well, especially for the experimental
aspects of these drugs. The physiology section has
two excellent chapters which are not found classically
per se in physiology texts. These concern humoral
transmission and the concept of local hormones.

This text appears limited to students who have a
poor biological background and who also need a
knowledge of pharmacology. This text may also serve
as an excellent tool for the chemically-oriented stu¬
dent who desires exposure to pharmacology.

John A. Rqsecrans

242

The Virginia Journal of Science

News and Notes

VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
Future Meetings

1969

Mary Washington College
Fredericksburg, Va.

May 7-10, 1969

1970

Virginia Commonwealth University
University of Richmond
May 5-8, 1970

1971

Virginia Polytechnic Institute
Blacksburg, Va.

May 11-14, 1971

1972

Virginia Military Institute and
Washington and Lee University
Lexington, Va.

May 2-5, 1972

1 973

50th Anniversary
College of William and Mary
Williamsburg, Va.

May 1-4, 1973

FROM THE PRESIDENT’S OFFICE

The Academy, as you know, is a statewide inter¬
disciplinary association of over 1700 scientists with
the primary objective of advancing scientific en¬
deavor in Virginia. We are affiliated with the AAAS
and are represented on the Council of that group.

Actually the Academy is composed of the 13 disci¬
pline sections. It provides a forum where research
experiences can be shared and where weakness in
facilities and opportunities for science and education
in Virginia can be aired. The Academy in addition to
publishing the Virginia Journal of Science sponsors
symposia on current problems, and publications of
state and regional importance.

The youth program is, in my opinion, one of the
outstanding activities of the Academy. The Visiting
Scientist Program enables scientists to visit secondary
schools and contribute to the education of our youth.
The Science Talent Search has enabled outstanding
youngsters to qualify for thousands of dollars of Col¬
lege scholarships. The Virginia Junior Academy of
Science is recognized as one of the outstanding
Junior Academies in the nation. During the past aca¬

demic year approximately 4500 high school students
participated in this growing program.

The youth programs have been partially supported
by grants from the National Science Foundation.
Recently such support has been curtailed because of
cutbacks in the federal budget. The maintaining and
further development of these activities requires addi¬
tional revenues. I urgently ask you to consider be¬
coming either a contributing or sustaining member of
the Academy.

Paul B. Siegel

VIRGINIA JUNIOR ACADEMY
OF SCIENCE HANDBOOK

The VJAS Handbook, revised August 1968, is
now available. It was prepared by Jack Woodside,
President, VJAS, 1968-1969, and is a comprehen¬
sive, up-to-date, compilation of the Junior Acad¬
emy’s activities and history. Dr. E. L. Wisman, De¬
partment of Poultry Science, V. P. I., Blacksburg,
Virginia, is Chairman of the Virginia Academy of
Science’s Junior Academy Committee.

500 KV ELECTRON MICROSCOPE
DEDICATED AT UNIVERSITY OF VIRGINIA

The only high voltage electron microscope of its
kind in operation at an American university was of¬
ficially unveiled at the University of Virginia on
October 3, 1968. The new 500,000 volt electron
microscope, operated by the Department of Ma¬
terials Science in the School of Engineering and Ap¬
plied Science, was custom built for the University by
the Radio Corporation of America. It was financed
by a science development grant from the National
Science Foundation through the University’s Center
for Advanced Studies.

The 12 1/2 foot tall, 40 ton microscope uses
500,000 volts to accelerate an electron beam toward
the specimen. This insures far less scattering of
electrons and, consequently, less damage to speci¬
mens than conventional electron microscopes. The
electron beam reaches speeds of about 90% the
speed of light as the beam emerges from the electron
gun at the summit of the microscope’s column.
Whereas high quality light microscopes have useful
magnifying power of about 1000 times, the new
scope can magnify an object 200,000 times, and its
guaranteed resolving power is to within about
1/30,000,000 of an'inch. The high voltage system
will permit the study of materials with a thickness of
1/25,000 of an inch, whereas the standard electron
microscope has a beam capable of penetrating for
accurate study specimens no thicker than 1 /250,000
of an inch.

At the dedication ceremonies Dr. H. G. F. Wils-

News and Notes

243

dorf, Chairman of the Department of Materials Sci¬
ence, was highly complimentary to the RCA for the
design and research capabilities of the microscope.
Dr. James Hillier, Vice-President of Research and
Engineering for RCA, who helped to build the West¬
ern Hemisphere’s first high resolution electron micro¬
scope 30 years ago in Toronto, spoke on the topic
“Electron Microscopy, an Interdisciplinary Science."
Dr. Norman G. Anderson, Scientific Director of the
Molecular Anatomy Program at the Oak Ridge Na¬
tion Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee, delivered
the dedication address, “The Wider Implications of
the Vision of Small Things." The ceremonies were
attended by visiting scientists and experts in electron
microscopy.

The research capabilities of the microscope will be
important in various research programs at the Uni¬
versity and in research work of graduate students. It
is expected to lead to advances in many fields, in¬
cluding crystalline structure of alloys, virus forma¬
tions, cellular components, and improved materials
for space applications. It will be used not only in
materials science projects, but also in chemistry and
physics, and with health-related projects in medicine
and anatomy.

The high voltage electron microscopy laboratory is
located in A-Wing of Thornton Hall, School of Engi¬
neering and Applied Science. Dr. Kenneth R. Law¬
less, professor of material science, will be the fac¬
ulty member primarily responsible for it.

244

The Virginia Journal of Science

General Notice To Contributors

The Virginia Journal of Science heartily welcomes
for consideration original articles of technical or
general interest on all phases of mathematics, the
natural, physical and engineering sciences. Sub¬
mission of an article for publication implies that the
article has not been published elsewhere while under
consideration by the Journal.

All articles should be typewritten (double-spaced)
and submitted on good bond paper (8V2 x 11
inches) in triplicate to the Editor. Margins should
not be less than 114 inches on any border. Title,
running title, authors, place of origin, abstract,
figures, legends, tables, footnotes, and references
should be on individual pages separate from the
text. Technical abbreviations should follow consis¬
tent standard practices with careful avoidance of
unnecessary neologistic devices. All pages (includ¬
ing illustrations) should be consecutively numbered
in the upper right corner. A pencil notation of
author names on the back of each page is helpful in
identification.

Illustrations should be supplied in a form suitable
for the printer with attention to the fact that a reduc¬
tion in size may be necessary.

A good technical article generally contains an ob¬
ligatory abstract before the text, an introduction,
with reference to preliminary publications that may
exist, an experimental section, results (which may

be included in the experimental section), a dis¬
cussion, and conclusion. References are indicated
in the body of the article by consecutively used
numbers in parentheses. Although publication costs
are high, attention should be given to relatively
complete references (bibliographies) since the pur¬
pose of an article is to illuminate the significance of
present and past findings, and not merely to ob¬
scure the past. The Journal reserves the right (gen¬
erally exercised) to make page charges for articles
in excess of 5 pages and to bill authors at cost for
unusually complicated illustrative material.

Abbreviation of journals for references can be
found in the 4th edition of the World List of
Scientific Periodicals, Butterworth, Inc., Washing¬
ton, D. C., 1963, and supplements. References
should be checked carefully.

The form of presentation is illustrated below:

(1) Aiyar, A. S., and Olson, R. E., Fedn Proc.
Fedn Am. Socs exp. Biol., 23, 425 (1964).

(2) Chappell, J. B., Cohn, M., and Greville, G. D..
in B. Chance (Editor), Energy linked func¬
tions of mitochondria, Academic Press, Inc..
New York, 1963, p. 219.

(3) Riley, G. A., and Haynes, R. C., Jr., J. hiol.
Chem., 238, 1563 (1963).

VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

Rodney C. Berry, Exec. Secy.-Treas.

Box 9211, Richmond, Virginia 23227
APPLICATION FOR MEMBERSHIP

Full Official Name
(With Title and Degrees)

Name as Usually Written
(With Mr., Mrs., Prof., Col., etc.)

Address _

(Mailing Address Desired, with P. O. Box or Street and Zip Code)

Institution or Business _ _

Position — Title - - -

Field of Interest, Section No _

Class of — Sustaining —Contributing

Date_ _ Membership Desired — Student — Regular

Recommended by: _ — - - -

Make check payable to VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE and send to above address.

Simplest way to get in touch with your friends is through Fisher

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7722 Fenton Street, Silver Spring, Md. 20910 • Phone: 587-7000
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Your nearest FisherScientific branch
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Mobil Chemical

MOBIL CHEMICAL COMPANY/ INDUSTRIAL CHEMICALS DIVISION/RICHMOND, VIRGINIA

Explore Unknown Sens!

How? — Through the pages of SEA FRONTIERS, lavishly
illustrated, authoritative quarterly magazine, bringing the latest
in scientific discovery in the world’s oceans. Written especially
for yachtsmen, anglers, shipowners and world travellers — all
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SEA FRONTIERS

For a free copy of SEA FRONTIERS send a postcard to

THE INTERNATIONAL OCEANOGRAPHIC FOUNDATION
No. 1 Rickenbacker Causeway, Miami, Florida 33149 (Room 95)

The I.O. F. is a nonprofit organization established by those whose
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If you forget, our new tube heater’s
capacity to forgive is bottomless.

Our new tube heater* is very forgiving.

For example, if you put a 10-ml tube
sample into it to obtain a concentrate
for pesticide residue analysis — you can
go away and forget it. The heater won’t
dry up your sample, not for hours and
hours.

The reason is our new bottomless fea¬
ture. It permits the base of your sample
tubes to protrude below the reach of the
heater block. Your 10-ml becomes 1-ml
of concentrate and remains there safely
for hours even with the heater block
still operating.

The new unit is a good functional size-
just 6" in diameter and 8" high. It's
designed with two interchangeable heat¬
ing blocks, one for use with standard re¬
ceivers, the other for concentrator tubes.

These, in turn, are insulated with phe¬
nolic and are mounted on a control hous¬
ing containing a solid-state, fully propor¬
tional block temperature controller. The
whole unit is highly efficient — with re¬
coveries up to 99% reported.

Here are a few of the unit's useful
features:

• tube protrusion can be varied to permit

concentration to different solution
levels

• unit can perform as a conventional
heater by blocking bottom

• temperature range of 30°C to 150°C

• handles 25 nanograms of pesticide and
less

• fast heat-up and equilibration

• a glance at tube bottom tells when
concentrate is ready

• full line of accessories including con¬
centrator tubes, distillation receivers,
concentrator columns, ebullators, ther¬
mometers

This new addition to our growing line of
laboratory instruments should help min¬
imize the need to "baby sit" through the
sample concentration process.

For detailed information, talk to your
local Kontes man or contact us direct.

*Based on concepts presented in the following paper:

Beroza, Morton and Bowman, Malcolm C., Concentrating Solutions to
a Small Volume with Minimum Attention, ANALYTICAL CHEM¬
ISTRY, Volume 39, Number 10, August 1967.

KONTES^

Vineland, New Jersey

PHILIP MORRIS

Philip Morris, a publicly-owned company incorporated in Virginia, proudly traces
its heritage to a London tobacconist of a century ago. Quality and innovation have
earned for the company a valued reputation: “Philip Morris . . . makers of Amer¬
ica’s finest cigarettes.” In addition, the Company markets a number of fine pipe
tobaccos, and in recent years Philip Morris has added these quality names:
Burma-Vita Company, American Safety Razor Company, and Clark Bros. Chew¬
ing Gum Company.

Write to Administrative Assistant, P. O. Box 3-D, Richmond, Virginia for infor¬
mation regarding facilities and employment.

RESEARCH CENTER

As the Tri-City Area’s largest employer, Allied Chemical Corporation has
maintained a vested interest in the economy and progress of Virginia.

We at Allied realize that a prosperous future depends on both mutual
participation and cooperation in community, state, and economic affairs . . .
progress in Virginia means progress at Allied Chemical.

AGRICULTURAL DIVISION

Hopewell

and Progress at Allied Chemical
means progress in Virginia

FIBERS DIVISION

Chesterfield County

INDUSTRIAL CHEMICALS DIVISION

Covington, Front Royal,

Hopewell, Pulaski

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Manufacturers & Distributors of Scientific Equipment
6th & Byrd Streets — Richmond, Virginia

phone: 644-5401

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