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VIRGINIA

JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

OFFICIAL PUBLICATION OF THE VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

V0L.22,N0.1 1971

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VIRGINIA

JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

OFFICIAL PUBLICATION OF THE
VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

No. I 1971

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Fish for Beauty in Dismal Swamp

(One Man’s View of the Swamp)

Jay D. Andrews

Two Procedures of Presenting Concepts to Children

Frank S. Murray and Robert E. Gregg

Science Teachers Section

Folding and Tearing Paper as an Aid to Visualizing
Geologic Structures in Three Dimensions

Bruce K. Goodwin

Communications and Reports

Summary of Council Meeting, November 1, 1970
Bylaws of Virginia Academy of Science, November 1, 1970
Constitution of Virginia Academy of Science, May, 1970

News and Notes

Author Index to Volume 21, 1970

THE VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

Official Publication of the Virginia Academy of Science

EDITOR

LYNN D. ABBOTT, JR.

SECTION EDITORS

Boyd L. Samuel

Edward G. Keshock

Agricultural Sciences

Engineering

Lee S. Anthony

Kenneth A. Blick

Astronomy, Mathematics and Physics Psychology

James D. Punch

Virginia C. Ellett

Microbiology

Science Teachers

Robert G. Bass

John R. Howell

Chemistry

Statistics

William A. Jesser

Ricardo N. Zapata

Materials Science

Space Science and Technology

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Published quarterly by The Virginia Academy of
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lege of Virginia, Richmond, Virginia 23219. Second-
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(g) Copyright, 1971, by the Virginia Academy of
Science.

Business and Subscription Information

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The front cover is by Douglas C. Hensley.

Jay D. Andrews

Virginia Institute of Marine Science
Gloucester Point, Virginia 23062
Received January 18, 1971

Fish for Beauty in Dismal Swamp!*

(One Man's View of the Swamp)

Origin and Climate

The life-blood of lakes is carried in feeder streams.
Whether rushing or percolating, water takes nutri¬
ents from soils to lakes. Where the soil is rich, lakes
are productive; where the soil has been laboriously
weathered from stubborn metamorphic rocks or sand
deposits, lakes are infertile. But what are the life-
giving resources of a lake that pours its waters in
exodus? For such is Lake Drummond, the heart of
the Great Dismal Swamp. The Swamp lies 15 to 27
feet above sea level on a terrace sloping gently east¬
ward. To understand the energetics and ecology of
this dying swamp, one must consider the origin of
the basin and the climate of the area.

That lakes begin to fill as soon as they are created
and that they have usually short geologic lives is
axiomatic to limnologists. A map ( 1 ) reveals that
Lake Drummond now comprises only a small frac¬
tion of the original Dismal Swamp basin. In short.
Lake Drummond is the remnant of a much larger
lake that once filled the basin of the Swamp. A shal¬
low basin with restricted outflow soon becomes stag¬
nant. Acid conditions arise that result in slow and
incomplete decomposition of organic matter, hence,
peat accumulates. The basin of Dismal Swamp is
mostly filled with thick beds of sponge-like peat from
which waters escaped slowly in colonial days.

Barrier islands and beaches with lagoons behind
them at the junction of ocean and land are familiar
features of maps of the North Atlantic coast from
New Jersey to Texas. At Cape Henry, large moving
sand dunes were active until recent years. In 1799,
Latrobe (2) reported that dunes near the Old Cape
Henry Lighthouse in Ft. Story had moved 350 feet
in 15 years. The Great Dune in Ft. Story, referred
to by Egler (3) in 1942 is gone — a victim of mili¬
tary development and civilization. In 1963, I visited
another active dune moving southwest into the
swamps or “desert” of Seashore State Park. One
block landward of the Virginia Beach Boulevard,
one emerged abruptly at the base of a nearly bare
dune rising in one-quarter mile some 90 feet, then
dropping precipitiously to a freshwater lagoon. Large

Editor’s Note: This is the fifth of a series of articles on the Dis¬
mal Swamp appearing in The Virginia Journal of Science (see refer¬
ences 1, 6, 13).

VIMS Educational Series No. 16.

trees were being buried by sand on the steep lee
slope. Now this last great dune near Cape Henry is
“dead” and houses and weeds dot its bulldozed
crown. The steep leeward slope remains, stabilized
by weeds and vines.

The origin of the Dismal Swamp basin is illus¬
trated, I believe, in these wind-blown dunes and in
miniature profiles at Cape Henry today. In Seashore
State Park are forested alternating crescentric ridges
and lagoons representing former barrier beaches and
their lagoons. These are now covered with a climax
association of cypress and gum trees in the wet
swales, and scrub oaks with members of the heath
family predominating in the understory of the dry
burned-over sand ridges. The Seashore State Park
runs quickly from foredunes on the shore of Chesa¬
peake Bay to these striking freshwater swamps and
ridges. The appearance of the plants in these always-
wet swales gives one the illusion of being a thousand
miles south of Virginia. The live oaks, a profusion
of Spanish moss, and evergreen broad-leafed plants
with southern affinities seem to deny Virginia’s cli¬
mate. Dismal Swamp nearby is also a northern out¬
post for many southern species of plants and animals.

This spectacular change from salt-spray adapted
communities to semi-tropical freshwater swamps is
made possible by temperature moderation from prox¬
imity to the ocean and aggradation of continental
shelf sands during a period of relative stability of
sea level. Could not the basin of Dismal Swamp
have been created by similar large, moving sand
dunes when the ocean was slowly rising on the Dis¬
mal Swamp Terrace (+15 to +27 feet now) in the
past 6,000 to 9,000 years? The origin is being stud¬
ied by geologists from borings, underlying sediments,
and stratigraphy of the surrounding region. Irregular
depths of peat might suggest a basin invaded by
moving dunes, although allowance must be made
for burned-out peat layers, for almost none of the
Swamp seems to have escaped fires. Reports of fine
white sand suggest wind rather than wave origin of
the sediments beneath the peat.

The southern affinities of plants and animals sug¬
gest that climate has not changed greatly in the
coastal area in the last 10,000 years. Coastal zones
may have been sanctuaries even in the ice ages for
Dismal Swamp is close to the ocean with its protec-

Fish in Dismal Swamp

5

tive humidities and temperatures. Climate is strongly
moderated by proximity to the oceans, and the Gulf
Streanr which carries 1,000 times as much water as
the mighty Amazon River helps provide a local mari¬
time climate.

Images, Dreams and Drainage

The clearest images of the primeval Dismal Swamp
come from the pens of William Byrd (4) and Ed¬
mund Ruffin ( 5 ) who, over a century apart, de¬
scribed the Swamp before man had removed much
of its water. We are fortunate that Byrd, a gentle¬
man of highest rank in his time, was a literary man
— if a bit fastidious about habitats suitable for man
or beast and a rather poor naturalist outside his li¬
brary. Ruffin was far ahead of his contemporaries
scientifically. He gave a penetrating account of the
Swamp and recognized the value of humus in soil
and its ephemeral tendency with drainage. If one
skips the “poetic” embellishments, Byrd, without en¬
tering the Swamp, paints a picture of a flooded tan¬
gled mass of vegetation, fallen junipers, with rare
dry spots where men could bed down without lying
in water. Water stood knee-deep for miles along the
survey route.

The boundary survey was conducted in wet, cold,
March — apparently to avoid snakes and insect pests
— ^because the remainder of the boundary was run in
the fall when temperatures had dropped again. Curi¬
ously, a foray for snakes in the summer of 1950,
with a party of four and two experienced herpetol¬
ogists, yielded many snakes but only one water
moccasin and that caught by the author, an amateur.
Perhaps a fear of snakes loomed large in Colonel
Byrd’s mind in organizing the survey. Byrd surveyed
in late winter which is about the wettest season in
Virginia but it was a “dry” year!

The key to the past and future of Dismal Swamp
is water! Since fish require water around the year, it
is essential that each reader paint a picture in his
mind of the undisturbed swamp as a fish habitat.
Probably Lake Drummond played a minor role as
habitat for the original fish populations of the Swamp
— a conclusion drawn from the size and present hab¬
itats of these fishes.

In the past. Lake Drummond and its surrounding
sphagnum-forest community clung tenaciously to the
water from a 50-inch annual rainfall and remained
wet without benefit of inflowing streams. One can
imagine that in the wet season water flooded most
of the swamp with its forest of moisture-loving cy¬
press, juniper, and black gum trees and a host of
wet-land associates. Many large shallow lakes were
created in the forest by the damming effect of vege¬
tation and these were colonized to advantage by
aquatic insects and small fishes. Near the end of the
wet spring season, multiple canopies of leaves formed
by deciduous trees and shrubs protected and con¬
served water from evaporation by sun and wind and
moderated temperatures. During the warm season,
stagnant conditions resulted in acid waters and slow
decomposition of leaf litter and buried wood. Sphag¬
num moss covered the forest floor and blocked rivu¬
lets by which water sought to escape. Thus swamp

and lake in a few thousand years had arrayed Na¬
ture’s forces in a subtle but effective water balance
which assured the well-being of all inhabitants.

Poor drainage is as natural in swamps and marshes
as sand in deserts but to have a living swamp close
to the ocean on a plain or terrace some 20 feet
above sea level is astonishing and tempting to man.
Proposals for draining the Swamp began early but
actual plans were made by a young surveyor named
George Washington, who first realized the lake was
elevated above the surrounding Coastal Plain. His¬
tory often turns on the foibles and mistakes of pow¬
erful men. The dream of rich farm lands that Wash¬
ington and his friends saw in a drained Swamp
slowly proved to be a mirage not yet fully dispelled
in the minds of men. The story of old and new
ditches, dug to navigate, drain and unwittingly bleed
the Swamp, and the reasons why, are told elsewhere
in this series of articles. One need only compare the
older map by Henry (6) with the recent one by
Ramsey, et al. ( 1 ) to see how effectively man has
thwarted Nature’s plan to conseiwe the water supply
of the Swamp. After virgin timbers were ravished,
“benign neglect” by man permitted the Swamp to
begin repairing damage by gradually chocking the
ditches with vegetation. It was in this state that I
first saw the Swamp with an ichthyology class from
William and Mary College in the late 1940’s. The
closed end of Jericho Ditch, for example, was clogged
with aquatic plants, leaves and branches — and teem¬
ing with glorious-colored fishes.

The Swamp That Was

Removal of water has already tamed the Swamp.
No longer are its mysteries shrouded by an impen¬
etrable morass. Fishing and hunting parties go in by
boat, but the forest floor is only damp and seldom
flooded. During much of the year one can walk over
it in street shoes. The deep layers of peat have dried
and burned many times. Shallow Lake Drummond,
once pushing into a forest studded with cypress and
gum trees, now has a bare treacherous rim and a
snag-filled border in summer (Fig. 1 and 2). When I
first visited the Swamp (1948), the old ditches that
man dug to drain it were cut off from the lake and
had formed a series of brush-filled pools. What chance
has the lake to draw nutrients from the forest or the
forest to gain its protective cloak of water from the
lake? They no longer embrace each other insepa¬
rably. Nature discommoded usually lacks beauty and
harmony. To those who have imagination to perceive
its primeval glory. Dismal Swamp is sadly ravaged.

Two centuries ago the colonists of Eastern Vir¬
ginia were actively interested in Dismal Swamp; it
offered pure drinking water, rich timber and a
reservoir of water for canal transportation. After
most of the timber had been cut or burned out, the
Swamp had many decades of relative freedom from
the obtrusions of men. Recently a renewed interest
has been shown in cultivating the land and growing
timber. An extensive series of ditches and water gates
has been established to control water level. Today
those who most frequently dip oars in the coffee-
colored waters of Lake Drummond are pleasure-

6

The Virginia Journal of Science

Fig. 1 — Shoreline of Lake Drummond at relatively low water.
(Virginia State Chamber of Commerce photo)

seeking fishermen, hunters, camping boys, and
forestry personnel. Few people have an interest in
or knowledge of the Swamp. The water is no longer
sought for its supposed curative powers; the native
forests are badly depleted and only a few fishes of
the original populations are still there. They are
little fishes of a variety and beauty to satisfy boy
scouts and naturalists but provide poor material for
fishermen’s creels or fireside tales. The beauty that
swims in the waters of Lake Drummond could yet
help draw many generations of imaginative boys for
a faint glimpse of the wild morass which Thomas
Moore made famous with his mystic poem about
a lost Indian and his maid. Although forestry is
still the most promising commercial venture in the
Swamp, it may have been improvident to clean and
dig bigger ditches which will further drain the
“heart” of the Dismal Swamp. Habitats for the
“little fishes” have rapidly disappeared.

Unique Biota Poorly Known
It is ironical that Virginia with its rich plantations

which provided so many pre-Civil War leaders
should be so impoverished in knowledge of fauna
and flora. This ignorance is especially surprising in
view of the fascinating variety of organisms to be
found. Virginia is a transitional zone for many groups
of organisms. Here southern and northern species
are intermingled. Field guides often do not cover
Virginia’s biota adequately. Resident taxonomists
are lacking for many groups. Most early information
about biota has been gleaned in hurried forays by
northern professors on vacation. John Clayton, an
early resident of Gloucester County, collected plants
to be named by Europeans. He was honored by
having named for him the pretty little common wet¬
land flower called spring beauty, Claytonia virginica.
The usual pattern of learning about a specific group is
well exhibited by Fernald, a botanist from Harvard.
Fernald, two centuries after Clayton, made several
spring and summer collecting trips to Tidewater
Virginia and left some fascinating accounts of his
delightful experiences locating rare and transitional
plants — particularly around Dismal Swamp. Some

Fish in Dismal Swamp

7

groups such as birds and reptiles are better known
than most because hobbyists form clubs and compete
for the longest lists of species. Also reptiles are con¬
sidered good pets by many boys and men although
we still have “Colonel Byrds” among us. Fish hobby¬
ists seem to be of a different breed that depend upon
pet stores and home aquaria — or they are fishermen
seeking large size and fight in a fish.

Fish Refugees

Eastern North America, with its large and varied
river systems and many lakes, has one of the richest
fresh-water fish faunas on earth. North-south run¬
ning mountains and river systems permitted faunal
groups to move with glaciers and survive. All major
groups are represented from archaic to advanced
spiny-rayed fishes. Six fresh-water fish families are
peculiar to North America and three others are
nearly so, except for relic species in Asia. All but
two of these nine families are represented in Dismal
Swamp although the primitive gar pikes and bowfins
are large fishes confined to Lake Drummond. The
European ichthyologist would find most of the fishes

of Dismal Swamp quite strange. Europe has only
one-fifth as many species as North America and
most of these are in the aggressive minnow family
and its relatives — a group conspicuously lacking in
the swamp despite man’s importations as rough or
bait fish.

The distribution of fresh-water fishes occupies a
dominant role in studies of the history of continents
on earth. Without man’s help these fishes could
move from one continent to another only by way
of fresh-water connections. The approximate time
and order that once-continuous continental land
masses were separated can be deduced by studying
the “family tree” of fishes. How fortunate we are as
naturalists or fishermen to be able to enjoy the
richness of our fish fauna, and how unfortunate that
our government with professional advice introduced
alien species such as the carp — unneeded “weeds” in
our streams. And, as usual, these introductions were
made before we fully knew the kinds and distribu¬
tions of our native fishes and their ecology much
less the effect of immigrants on them. Fortunately,
Dismal Swamp like most natural communities has

Fig. 2 — Lake Drummond with Cypress butts near shoreline.
(Virginia State Chamber of Commerce photo)

8

The Virginia Journal of Science

shown remarkable resistance to such importations.
“Poor” habitats are often refuges for weakly-com¬
petitive species. The “little sunfishes” seem espe¬
cially adapted to niches of shallow waters with
densely interlaced vegetation.

Collecting for Beauty

The earliest ichthyologist to work in Virginia was
the famous David Starr Jordan — later the first presi¬
dent of Stanford University. In 1888 he collected
around the edges of the Swamp and obtained a
rather complete list of the species present except for
the big fishes in Lake Drummond (7). Just about
60 years later I led a class of William and Mary
students into the Swamp. There is no record of visits
by people capable of naming the fishes before Jordan
or for 60 years afterward. Although familiar with the
important and rather dominant centrarchid (sunfish)
family in the Mid-West, I was not prepared for the
splashes of color in our nets provided by the little
sunfishes of Jericho Ditch. After clearing tree limbs
out of the choked dead-end ditch, we pulled five-
foot minnow seines and used dip nets to catch a nice
variety of species not far from where Jordan worked
in 1888. Live and preserved specimens were taken
back to Williamsburg. All the fishes were new to me,
but late that night after studying them with the help
of Smith’s “Fishes of North Carolina,” I felt pre¬
pared to meet my students with some confidence.

Since that first exciting class trip some forty col¬
lections of fishes have been made in Dismal Swamp.

(This account first written in the early 1960’s refers
to Virginia Institute of Marine Science collections
only for no others were available then.) Most of
this collecting has been done by one of those original
students, William H. Massmann, who judiciously
used rotenone to collect all fishes of Dismal Swamp
(Table I). A later class trip is vividly inscribed in
my memory. In our eagerness to recover all speci¬
mens killed after adding rotenone. Bill Massmann
and I got into the waist-deep ditchwater and stirred
it vigorously while collecting floating fishes. Only
a farm boy from the treeless plains of Kansas, as 1
was, could have been so foolish. Have you ever had a
case of poison ivy from head to foot? It still makes
me itchy to recall the scene of my wife daubing me
with worthless “ivy-cure.”

Any boy who has dropped a line in small streams
or ponds of Eastern North America would recognize
the most common spiny-rayed species in Dismal
Swamp as sunfishes. Tliese are short deep-bodied
fishes of the family Centrarchidae found only in
North America. But they are not the Pumpkinseeds
or Bluegills which every country boy knows. The
small dusky fish with rows of black spots on a very
short deep body is called a Flier by fishermen. The
young fish has a black-ringed orange spot near the
base of the fin on the back. The Flier seldom exceeds
six or seven inches in length but even at this size is
a giant to his small relatives, the “Little or Dwarf
Sunfishes” which rival tropical fishes in brilliance of
coloring but are seldom more than three inches

TABLE I

Collections of fishes of Dismal Swamp. Collecting was done by dip nets, gill nets, minnow seines, trawl, and rotenone. Table based on a
compilation by William H. Massmann who made most of 35 collections of which 25 were counted. The gill net collections by the Virginia
Commission of Game and Inland Fisheries refiect relative abundance of species in Lake Drummond. Most collections by Massmann were
in ditches, canals and restricted coves. Species collected by Jordan are marked with a dash.

Common name

Scientific name

Lake

Drummond

Va.

Commission

catches

Ditches

Canals

No. of
Occasions
Caught

No. of
Individuals

Longnose Gar

Lepisosteus osseus

X

5

Bowfin

Amia calva

X

6

X

X

4

14

Mudminnow

Umbra pygmaea

X

X—

X

10

69

Redfin Pickerel

Esox americanus

X

X—

X

14

138

Chain Pickerel

Esox niger

X

1

X—

X

2

1

Golden Shiner

Notemigonus crysoleucas

X

5

X

X—

12

824

Lake Chubsucker

Erimyzon sucetta

1

X

2

51

White Catfish

Ictalurus catus

X

2

25

Yellow Bullhead

Ictalurus natalis

X

412

X—

X

3

29

Brown Bullhead

Ictalurus nebulosus

X

X

X—

13

96

American Eel

Anguilla rostrata

X

X

X—

7

45

Banded Killifish

Fundulus diaphanus

X

3

7

Mosquito Fish

Gambusia ajfinis

X

X—

X—

7

20

Swamp Fish

Chologaster cornuta

X

X—

8

24

Pirate Perch

Aphredoderus say anus

X

X—

X

12

123

Centrarchidae—

-Sunfishes

Mud Sunfish

Acantharcus pomotis

X

X—

X

5

87

Flier or Speckles

Centrarchus macropterus

X

209

X—

X

20

730

Warmouth

Lepomis gulosus

X

4

15

Blue-spotted Sunfish

Enneacanthus gloriosus

X

X

X

4

23

Banded Sunfish

Enneacantlms obesus

X

X—

X

13

87

Pumpkinseed

Lepomis gibbosus

X—

3

21

Black Crappie

Pomoxis nigromaculatus

X

61

X

6

90

Swamp Darter

Etheostoma fusiforme

X

X—

X

8

33

Yellow Perch

Perea fiavescens

X

X

X

10

230

Fish in Dismal Swamp

9

long. The Blue-spotted Sunfish, which scientists call
Enneacanthiis gloriosus, truly reflects the glory of
the rainbow in its scales. The olive-green body,
flecked with numerous blue spots, changes hues
with every movement. The name means nine-spined
glory referring to the nine spines in the large median
fin on the back, and indescribable colors. The other
Little Sunfish, E. obesus, sometimes called the
Sphagnum Sunfish, or Banded Sunfish, has a beauti¬
ful greenish body covered with small purple or
golden spots and obscure dark vertical bars. Live
specimens of these tiny fishes almost defy description
because of their constantly changing colors. They are
hovering fishes, quick-moving but equipped to adjust
their positions, forward or backward, in a maze of
plants and twigs rather than for bursts of speed in
open water. They make most interesting aquarium
specimens. The Banded Sunfish is easily found in
Dismal Swamp but rather rare in Virginia outside the
Swamp. The Blue-spotted Sunfish is rare in the
Swamp but more frequently found in tributaries of
the James River. These little sunfishes may inter¬
breed when living together which could account for
the difficulty scientists have in separating the two
kinds.

A rare member of this spiny sunfish tribe is the
Mud Sunfish which lives in secluded waters of the
Swamp. Wearing conservative garb, this dark-colored
fish is probably unknown to fishermen. In the small
quiet pools and sloughs, which can accommodate
only small fishes, the Mud Sunfish is obviously the
villain of the neighborhood. Compared to lesser
finmates, he has a cavernous mouth extending back
beneath the eye. When caught and preserved, his
gill covers thrust out like pouches on a bulldog’s
jaws, surely an ominous sign to his smaller relatives.
His rarity comports with his habits as a real fish-
eater.

These Dwarf Sunfishes are confined to coastal
plains waters from New Jersey south and most com¬
monly in acid swamps. The Flier is found in the
lower Mississippi River system as well as coastal
fresh waters. It appears to be more competitive with
the advanced sunfishes common in most lakes and
ponds of Eastern North America than are the Dwarf
Sunfishes.

The breeding habits of sunfishes are distinctive
for the family and quite similar in most species. The
name “sunfishes” is aptly chosen. The male, in
brilliant garb, builds and guards a round excavated
nest in shallow water fully exposed to the sun. Small
territories are established which females enter to
deposit eggs. In contrast to many groups of fishes,
males are larger than females. Breeding occurs in
late spring and early summer at temperatures higher
than most fish prefer. Males discourage larger fish
from entering their territory, and are necessary to
protect the eggs from numerous predators. Barren
sandy areas are preferred but aquatic weeds do not
deter nesting although the eggs are only slightly
adhesive.

The Dwarf Sunfishes do not exhibit as strong a
nesting urge as the Lepomids or advanced genera.
It appears that they may deposit eggs at times on

masses of vegetation or build poorer nests. Acanthar-
cus is reputed to be very secretive about its nests
leading to the suggestion that it may nest in holes or
crevices. Nests are not seen when specimens are
fairly common. It may be significant that male Mud
Sunfishes do not dress appreciably for spring mating.
The rather weak nesting habit in the Dwarf Sunfishes,
which live primarily in swamps, may relate to the
relative scarcity of vegetation-free sandy bottoms
for nesting sites. However, in favorable sites, typical
sunfish nests have been seen for all species except
the Mud Sunfish.

Except for the Crappie which has been observed
to tolerate acid waters in other habitats than swamps,
the common sunfishes of Dismal Swamp are all prim¬
itive species. By ichthyologists’ criteria, advanced
genera of sunfishes have fewer spiny rays in dorsal
and anal fins, and rounded rather than forked tails.
Although access to Lake Drummond has been pro¬
vided by feeder ditches and canals, none of the
Lepomids (advanced group) have established them¬
selves except Black Crappies. Most biologists attri¬
bute this to limitation of reproduction by acid waters
but it is possible that nesting sites are not available
along the vegetation-choked shores and peaty bot¬
tom of Lake Drummond. Local residents claim that
Large-mouth Black Bass were present prior to the
big fires of the 1930’s but introductions in the 1950’s
failed to establish either Black Bass or Bluegills.

All sunfishes are adapted to rest quietly in still
shallow waters with their large fins extended for
balance. All are at home among shallow weedy
coves where quick thrusts will yield insects or fish
fry and where their nests are built. But the Dismal
Swamp sunfishes appear to be of a size adapted to
still more restricted spaces among the roots and
sphagnum beds of the tree-covered swamp. Food
chains appear to be short with detrital leaves, isopods
and fishes being a typical one. Yet the full gamut of
food habits is found in both the large advanced and
the small primitive groups of sunfishes. In both
groups, small insect and crustacean eaters are preyed
upon by larger fish-eaters.

One of the prettiest of the dwarf centrarchids,
Mesogonistius chaetodon, which is found in fresh¬
water swamps from New Jersey to North Carolina,
is missing from the Dismal Swamp collections. Smith
describes typical small sunfish habits for this species.
Recent collections in Maryland (8) suggest that
the blackbanded sunfish, now placed in the genus
Enneacanthus, inhabits swamp waters. Its absence
from Dismal Swamp has not been explained.

Centrarchids are limited to North America, hence,
we are sure none are of foreign origin. But I am not
certain which species are native and which are intro¬
duced in Dismal Swamp. Massmann records eight
centrarchid species now present of which Jordan
found only four. The other four species are quite
probably introduced or have invaded the area via
canals and ditches. It is quite significant that three
of the four are quite scarce yet and that the Black
Crappie, the only abundant species, is by far the
largest sunfish in the Swamp and is probably re¬
stricted to the lake itself. This species has not been

10

The Virginia Journal of Science

taken in the ditches. In making collections one must
distinguish between lake, feeder ditches and canal
habitats which exhibit increasing order of access to
waters of other drainage systems.

The most peculiar fish in the Swamp is the tiny
“fish of the Dismal Swamp.” This strange fish, some¬
times called the Rice Fish because of its occurrence
in rice paddies and ditches, belongs to the blind-fish
family. Most of its relatives are blind inhabitants of
caves. The Rice Fish (Swamp Fish) has eyes but
also numerous sensory papillae which make poor
sight a slight handicap in the dark waters of Dismal
Swamp. Back in 1888, Jordan found this fish in
Jericho Ditch. There is no record that this species
had been found in Dismal Swamp since that time
until I captured a few specimens in the same ditch in
1948. Chologaster is rare in the Swamp, although
common in coastal waters farther south, and is ap¬
parently confined mostly to ditches full of brush and
debris which offer plenty of protection. The name of
the Rice Fish, Chologaster cornuta, means “maimed
belly fish with horns,” and refers to the absence of
pelvic or posterior paired fins. Another peculiarity
of this species is ovoviviparity or production of live
young by development of eggs within the body
cavity — a rare accomplishment for fishes. This state¬
ment may not be true since a related species has
been shown to brood its eggs in the gill chamber.

Another peculiar fish, which we have taken in
great numbers in some of the meandering rivulets
leaving Dismal Swamp, is the Pirate Perch. This
three- to four-inch fish, which has the shape and
the rough scales of a perch, is not a perch but belongs
to a group which bridges the change from soft to
spiny-rayed fishes. It is a blackish-brown fish which
has one other distinctive characteristic again alluded
to in the scientific name, Aphredoderus sayanus.
The vent in this fish migrates during development
from the usual position to the region of the throat,
a most incongruous situation.

Jordan did not get to Lake Drummond, yet man¬
aged to find 17 of 25 fish species listed by Massmann
as now present in the Swamp including the canals
connecting with James River tributaries. Jordan did
not find the Longnose Gar and Bowfin which are the
two major predators of Lake Drummond. The Yellow
Perch or Ring Perch, missing in 1888, is now very
common as it is everywhere in Eastern North Amer¬
ica but was probably introduced to Dismal Swamp.

All fishes of Dismal Swamp are dark in color com¬
pared to the same species in clearer waters. Is this
an adaptive response or simply physiological accu¬
mulation of a pigment which is overly abundant
in the habitat? Ever since Darwin’s theory of evolu¬
tion stirred our 19th century ancestors, scientists
have become aware of the many ways in which
animals use mimicry and color patterns to deceive
their enemies. But how could it work in the dark
waters of Dismal Swamp? My own guess is that these
little sunfishes lived in Swamp pools of such shallow
depths and so interlaced with plants and roots that
dark color didn’t have much meaning as a protective
device. Perhaps the proof of this lies in the little
blind fish which inhabits the thickest tangles of the

ditches and is almost white. The absence of pelvic
fins only reinforces the emphasis on hiding in dense
mats of vegetation, rather than racing or maneuver¬
ing for its life. The evolution of pelvic fins on fishes
indicates that they were initially misplaced and
relatively useless. Like the catfishes, Chologaster
probably finds its food by sensory organs other than
sight.

Fishing in Lake Drummond

Fishing in Lake Drummond is another story
which should be told by an avid fisherman. No doubt
he would emphasize the size and quantity of fish
available. Most Americans have an eye for size and
action but not for beauty. If it were otherwise, our
people would not tolerate the enormous quantities
of beer cans and papers strewn along our highways
and streams. I have been describing the little com¬
munities of fishes which probably feel most at home
along the borders of the Lake and in the Swamp itself.
In the Lake too, centrarchids comprise most of the
catch of fishermen. Black Crappies and Fliers pro¬
vide good fishing in the Lake and the former reaches
a suitable size for a good pan fish. Catfish are known
to be very abundant in the Lake but stunted. Local
residents report that Large-mouth Bass fishing was
good in the Lake some thirty years ago. Disappoint¬
ing by the fisherman’s standards of value, Redfin
Pickerel matches the size of the Little Sunfishes all
too closely to grace creel baskets with its greenish
body marked with dark vertical bars. Probably in
response to fishermen’s demands, our Commission of
Game and Inland Fisheries (9) stocked Blucgills and
Large-mouth Bass in Lake Drummond in the 1950’s.
This is one common stocking formula for ponds and
lakes in the Eastern United States. Usually minnows
(cyprinids) are present in lakes as forage fish for
centrarchids, but Dismal Swamp is conspicuously
lacking in this dominant and aggressive family of
fishes. Only one species is established despite the
habit of fishermen of “stocking” ponds and lakes with
the left-overs of their bait pails. If Large-mouth Bass
were common prior to the 1930’s it is difficult to
understand why intensive gill netting revealed no
specimens of either species a few years after stocking.
I hope that Fliers and Dwarf fishes continue to per¬
sist in the Swamp despite its “maimed” condition.
There are plenty of typical lakes for Bluegills and
Bass.

Past and Future; Wet or Dry?

The Clayton-Grimes Club of the College of Wil¬
liam and Mary under the stimulus of Dr. Donald
Davis and Dr. J. T. Baldwin used to conduct annual
field trips to Dismal Swamp. These were memorable
trips — especially when such discerning men as Dr.
William Vogt, conservationist and ornithologist of
international fame, went along. To the students nearly
everything was strange in the Swamp. But did they
really get a picture of the pristine Swamp as they
walked along the “wire trail” in street shoes in
May — the culmination of our wet season? They
were told of the peat fires, and they saw cypress
stumps in the lake but not much was said about

Fish in Dismal Swamp

11

water moccasins nor were they seen. Certainly May
is the time to go to Dismal Swamp to see it at its
best — with water up to the shores, the greenery of
new leaves, and the breeding colors of centrarchid
fishes. We did seine for fishes. The fishes are not
unique in the sense that they can’t be seen elsewhere,
but they do require a habitat that is rapidly disappear¬
ing as swamps are drained or converted to lakes.
Very little of the shallow-water habitat remains in
Dismal Swamp for these small fishes. These cypress
swamps — most of which are much smaller than
the Great Dismal — are fast yielding to man’s manip¬
ulations. With the inexorable pressure of human
populations it would be wise to start saving a few
wild communities along the coastal plain — for future
generations of people who may appreciate the variety
and beauty of “useless” little fishes which must have
some purpose and some “rights” in Nature’s realm.

The future of Dismal Swamp is now in the hands
of large timber companies. Foresters say that the
keys to the future are fire control and sound forestry
methods. Certainly forestry is a usage far more
effective than draining the swamp for farming. In
the past 10 years numerous ditches have been dug
and fitted with gates to drain water in winter and
spring (the wet season) and hold water during the
dry season. But what kind of trees are to be grown?
Loblolly and pond pines, which are fast-growing
but require much drier soils than the original slow-
growing cypresses and junipers, are the foresters’
choices. But will Nature tolerate these manipulations
of water on the Swamp’s peat soils? No provision is
made for relieving summer droughts which was dra¬
matically demonstrated in 1963 with the ditch-control
system in operation. The lake shrunk drastically
from its normal shoreline.

Edmund Ruffin over 100 years ago (1845) rec¬
ognized the importance of humus in soil, but also
noted that it “burned” out in warm climates such
as his beloved Confederate States enjoyed. He also
wisely recognized that the vegetable soils of Dismal
Swamp would not last unless saturated with water to
retard rotting (bacterial and fungal decay — which
he knew nothing about since bacteria were only then
being discovered).

1 repeat that water and water alone is the key to
the preservation of Dismal Swamp as a wild area
with its rich components of southern fauna and
flora. Habitat for the little native fishes is almost
gone and now the ditches where they are making
their last stand are being dug out and kept clean.
The ditch, where my class in 1948 had to clear
branches before a five-foot minnow siene could be
hauled in water three to four feet deep, was a wide
bare-banked ditch with a trickle of water the last
time I visited it. The Swamp, which formerly stored
its 50 inches of annual rainfall in winter and spring
to ease summer droughts, gets annual “bloodletting”
to cure its ills. Poor George Washington, who led
the efforts to drain the swamp, never learned the
lessons about bloodletting and died from it. Good
forestry management and a stand of loblolly pines
will help conserve the peat but the real cure is
Nature’s own remedy — more water.

There is no longer any excuse to permit the feeder
ditch to rob Lake Drummond of water for the Intra-
Coastal Waterway. This is the age of unlimited
power. Hydroelectric plants can afford to pump
water back into reservoirs for re-running throu^
power plants at hours of peak demand. The Intra-
Coastal Waterway which serves mostly pleasure
craft, can be supplied with pumped water or more
efffcient lifting devices. The feeder gate at the Lake
could then be raised and those who care enough
to see the Swamp could hoof it in a short three miles!
Probably the government would put in a monorail
to insure that no one’s privileges are abridged, but
with plenty of water the Swamp could tolerate many
people.

For an impression of how “civilized” Dismal
Swamp is now, one must turn to Alexander Sprunt’s
(10) beautiful description of “preserved” cypress
swamps in the Carolina Low Country. Here water
and cypresses have been retained because rice farm¬
ing in earlier times led to a system of water impound¬
ment. As Sprunt observed, only canoe and paddle
are harmonious with these watery realms. In con¬
trast the entry into Great Dismal Swamp by motor
boat follows a straight dug canal with high banks of
spoil which mercifully block from view the encroach¬
ments of farming on the Swamp’s borders. This is
just another man-made ditch which serves as a
bleeding artery from the heart of the Swamp and
from it one sees mostly the usual “weeds” which
accompany man’s every disturbance of Nature. Yet
Dismal Swamp was big and something of its original
beauty might be restored if its essential ecological
requirement is met — save all water! Save our “dwarf
fishes” for the next “culture” in America. It must
be realized that people are part of Nature’s realm
and that Nature will make us pay for our greed, our
wastefulness, and our sick habitats called cities. Most
important, we must respect the fundamental law on
this earth — ^that all populations, including man, must
be limited and controlled.

Dismal Swamp cannot be restored to its pristine
state. It could become a fascinating refuge for cypress
swamp species. After three centuries of plunder and
manipulations by men, the usage best suited to con¬
serve the Swamp cannot be agreed upon by foresters,
fishermen, and even scientists. I think preservation
depends upon restoration of the ecological conditions
which created the Swamp. A basin with poor drain¬
age will once again favor the original inhabitants
and create a natural area of mystery, wonder, and va¬
riety for future generations of men and little fishes.

Postscript

The present author has indulged in comments and
opinions that impinge on several other fields, and
would expect considerable disagreement about ori¬
gins, fishing management, forestry programs and
water conservation. See Oaks (11 and 12) for ori¬
gins and recent stratigraphy. The forestry program
(13) is not as simple as I have portrayed it for hard¬
woods are grown, too. Lastly, there is need for
scientific treatment of the ecology of fishes of the
Swamp.

12

The Virginia Journal of Science

Acknowledgments

I wish to thank William H. Massmann for per¬
mission to use the list of species and collection data
in Table I. Photographs were supplied through the
courtesy of the Virginia State Chamber of Commerce.

REFERENCES

1. Ramsey, E. W., Hinkle, K. R., and Benander, L. E.,
Waters of the Dismal Swamp, Va J. Sci., 21, 81 (1970).

2. Latrobe, B. H., Memoir on the Sand-hills of Cape
Henry in Virginia, Trans. Am. phil. Soc., 4, 439 (1799).

3. Egler, F. E., Check list of the ferns and flowering plants
of the Seashore State Park, Cape Henry, Virginia,
Mimeo. Publ., New York State College of Forestry,
Syracuse, N. Y., 1942.

4. Byrd, W., History of the Dividing Line betwixt Vir¬
ginia and North Carolina, 1728.

5. Ruffin, E., Description of Flora and Fauna of Dismal
Swamp, Farmer’s Register, 12, (9), 1 Jan 1837.

6. Henry, E. F., Soils of the Dismal Swamp of Virginia,
VaJ. Sci., 21, 41 (1970).

7. Jordan, D. S., Report of explorations made during 1888
in the Allegheny Region of Virginia, North Carolina,
and Tennessee, and in Western Indiana with an ac¬
count of the fishes found in each of the river basins of
these regions. Bull. U. S. Fish. Commn, 8, 97 (1890).

8. Schwartz, F. J., Food, age, growth, and morphology of
the blackbanded sunfish, Enneacanthus C. chaetodon
in Smithville Pond, Maryland, Chesapeake Sci., 2, 82
(1961).

9. Rosebery, D. A., and Bowers, R. R., Under the Cover
of Lake Drummond, Va Wildl., 13, 21 (1952).

10. Sprunt, A., Carolina low country impressions. The
Devin-Adair Co., New York, 1964.

11. Oaks, R. Q., Jr., Post-Miocene stratigraphy and mor¬
phology, outer coastal plain. Southeastern Virginia,
Yale Univ. Dept. Geology, Tech. Rep. 5, (Ph.D. dis¬
sertation, Yale University), 1964.

12. Oaks, R. Q., Jr., and Coch, N. K., Pleistocene Sea
Levels, Southeastern Virginia, Science, N. Y., 140, 979
(1963).

13. Dean, G. W., Forests and Forestry in the Dismal
Swamp, Va J. Sci., 20, 166 (1969).

Fish in Dismal Swamp

13

Frank S. Murray

Randolph-Macon Woman’s College
Lynchburg, Virginia 24504
Received August 25, 1970

and

Robert E. Gregg'

Eastern Kentucky University
Richmond, Kentucky 40475

Two Procedures of Presenting Concepts to Children

Abstract — Performance efficiencies of two methods of
presenting concepts for learning were compared. Fourth-
grade 5s learned simple concepts by dividing wooden blocks
into groups according to shape or color. One method, the
selection procedure consisted of presenting simultaneously
the total array of stimulus patterns and 5s selected in¬
stances of the concept from this array. The order of select¬
ing instances by 5s in the Selection Group was presented
successively and individually to yoked 5s in the Reception
Group. The results showed that concept learning was more
efficient with the reception procedure than with the selec¬
tion procedure. Results were in agreement with previous
studies of Huttenlocher with seventh-grade children and
Murray and Gregg with adults.

One of two different procedures of presenting in¬
stances of concepts is usually used in studies of con¬
cept learning: a reception procedure or a selection
procedure. With the reception procedure instances of
concepts are presented successively and individually
and the S is required to indicate whether the in¬
stance is the concept. With the selection procedure
all instances are presented simultaneously and the S
is allowed to choose the order of selecting instances
of the concept (1). Few studies have attempted to
compare the efficiency of both procedures.

A recent attempt to compare the procedures was
performed by Huttenlocher (2). In this study, Ss —
seventh-grade children — were divided into two yoked
groups. One group, called a “manipulating group,”
was allowed to construct a stimulus pattern on each
trial by placing objects in a form board. The other
group, called “nonmanipulating,” was shown in¬
stances of patterns constructed by their yoked coun¬
terpart. Significantly more correct solutions were ob¬
tained by S's in the nonmanipulating group. The
procedure used by Huttenlocher with the manipulat¬
ing group differed from the usual selection proce¬
dure in that the array of possible stimulus patterns
was not available to the 5s for continuous inspec¬
tion.

The purpose of the present experiment was to

t Present address, Department of Psychology, College of William
and Mary, Williamsburg, Virginia 23185.

compare the performance efficiency of the two pro¬
cedures using fourth-grade 5s and a selection proce¬
dure in which the array of possible stimulus patterns
was available for continuous inspection.

Method

Subjects. Twenty students, ten male and ten fe¬
male, enrolled in the fourth-grade of the Laboratory
School at Eastern Kentucky University were 5s in
this experiment. All 5s were ten years of age, except
one, who was eleven.

Materials. The materials used consisted of six¬
teen wooden blocks, varying in shape and color.
Four of the blocks were circles, four were square,
four were triangles, and four were crosses. There
were four colors of each shape: red, green, blue, and
yellow. The blocks were 3.81 cm in length and
width, and 1.27 cm in depth.

Procedure. A yoked design was employed. Ten
of the 5s were randomly assigned to a Selection
Group, and ten to a Reception Group. Each 5 in the
Reception Group was yoked with an 5 in the Selec¬
tion Group in that he received instances in the same
order as that selected by his yoked counterpart.

Ten problems were presented. The same first
two problems were administered to all 5s; these
problems served as practice problems and enabled E
to insure that 5s understood instructions. The next
eight problems were administered, in random order,
to all 5s in the Selection Group. The Reception
Group 5s received the problems in the same order
as their counterpart. The solution for each problem
was one value of one dimension; for example,
“green” or “circle,” or “cross.” At the beginning of
each problem 5s were shown a positive or negative
instance of the concept. Of the eight problems, four
had negative examples and four had positive ex¬
amples.

All 5s were told what attributes defined a con¬
cept. 5s in the Selection Group were told to sort the
blocks into two columns: one containing all instances
of the concept and the other containing all instances
that were not the concept. They were also instructed
to move only one block at a time. For 5s in the

14

The Virginia Journal of Science

Reception Group, the instances were presented suc¬
cessively in the same order as their yoked counter¬
part had selected them. All 5s were informed if they
made an incorrect classification and were instructed
to correct their error.

Results and Discussion

Using the trial-on-which-last-error-occurred as a
measure of efficiency of concept learning, the results
indicated that the reception procedure was superior
to the selection procedure, a median of 17 trials for
the Reception Group and a median of 26 trials for
the Selection Group. Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test
showed statistical significance between the two groups
(p — .05, two-tailed). Statistical significance was
also obtained between the two groups when negative
examples of concepts were presented {p — .05, two-
tailed); no statistical significance was obtained with
positive examples. Further analysis showed that with
problems in which negative examples were presented,
5s made about twice as many errors than when posi¬
tive examples were presented. The mean number of
errors for 5s in the Selection Group with positive
examples of concepts was 3.9, with negative exam¬
ples, 7.7. A t test for correlated measures between
the positive and negative examples was highly signifi¬
cant (r = 4.09, p < .01). For 5s in the Reception
Group the mean numbers of errors were 2.8 and 6.4
for positive and negative examples {t — 3.56, p <
.01 ). These results are in agreement with a previous
study reported by the Es with college students (3).
In that study, however, three times as many errors
were obtained with negative examples than with posi¬
tive examples. Such results would be expected from
the logical analysis of the informational contents of
this task (4). When presented with a positive ex¬
ample, say a red triangle, 5’s alternatives are either
“red” or “triangle.” Using the same block as a nega¬
tive example, the possible alternatives are “green,”
“blue,” “yellow,” “circle,” “cross,” or “square.” Thus

a ratio of 3 : 1 possible alternatives exists between
negative and positive instances.

The possibility of sex differences in concept learn¬
ing by the two procedures could not be determined
in the present study, since males and females were
not specifically paired by sex, but in the order of 5s
arriving for the experiment.

The results of this experiment imply that learning
of simple concepts by children should be more effi¬
cient when instances of concepts are presented with
a reception procedure rather than with a selection
procedure. The reason for this discrepancy in effi¬
ciency of learning with the two procedures is still
unknown. One possibility might be that the 5s in
the Selection Group are faced with a more distract¬
ing situation (a display board of different colored
blocks and shapes). 5s in the Reception Group are
faced with a less distracting task since they make a
decision on one block at a time. If this is true, one
would expect the discrepancy between the two pro¬
cedures to increase with increasing difficulty in the
concept learning task. Such an investigation is now
being conducted.

Summary

The results of the present experiment indicate that
learning of concepts was more efficient when in¬
stances of concepts were positive and presented suc¬
cessively than when instances were negative and
presented simultaneously. These results are in agree¬
ment with two previous studies of concept learning:
one with seventh-grade children (2) and one with
adults (3).

REFERENCES

1. Bruner, J. S., Goodnow, J. J., and Austin, G. A., A
study of thinking, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1956,

p. 81.

2. Huttenlocher, J., Psychol. Rep., 10, 503 (1962).

3. Murray, F. S., and Gregg, R. E., J. exp. Psychol., 82,
571 (1969).

4. Hovland, C. I., and Weiss, W., /. exp. Psychol., 45, 175
(1953).

Procedures for Presenting Concepts

15

Especially for

Science and Mathematics Teachers

Ideas

Questions

Opinions

Folding and Tearing Paper as an Aid to Visualizing
Geologic Structures in Three Dimensions

To many students of Earth Science a geologic
map may represent a pretty example of abstract art,
but often the student is unable to interpret the map
pattern and visualize the three dimensional aspects
of the structures shown on the map. Since such maps
are the basic means by which a geologist assembles
his data and makes his preliminary interpretations
of an area’s structure and stratigraphy, earth science
students should have some familiarity with them.
However, many students claim that they can not
visualize structures in three dimensions and as a re¬
sult geologic maps and the structures they portray
remain a mystery. In this paper we shall deal only
with the three dimensional visualization of folds since
they are more easily understood by most students
than are faulted structures.

A geologic map of an area underlain by folds with
horizontal axes reveals a series of parallel forma¬
tions which are repeated and the students can easily
learn the rule that the oldest beds are in the center
of an anticline and the youngest beds are in the cen¬
ter of a syncline. They can then mechanically tell
these two folds apart. However, when the fold axes
plunge, the map pattern shows a series of hairpin
bends in the formations, and the students often be¬
come confused. Of course, they can still learn that
anticlines plunge in the direction of the “V” or hair¬
pin, and synclines plunge away from it. If they com¬
bine this generality with the first one, once again
they can tell the synclines from the anticlines. How¬
ever, can they really visualize what the folds look
like in three dimensions, and do they really under¬
stand why a particular fold produced the map pat¬
tern which it did? The answer to this question is
particularly vital to studies of Virginia geology where
the conspicuous Valley and Ridge Province is under¬
lain by large plunging folds and the outcrop pattern
of resistant and non-resistant formations coupled
with subsequent erosion has determined the position
of the prominent mountains and intervening valleys.

Perhaps the standard way of helping the student
to visualize these folds in three dimensions and relate
the geologic map pattern to the folds is to utilize
block diagrams. In these, the top of the block is
equivalent to the geologic map view, and the sides
of the block represent structural cross-sections. Ex¬
amples of such block diagrams illustrating plunging
and non-plunging folds are given in Fig. 1. Unfor-

D

E

F

Fig. 1 — Block diagrams of folds. A — Syncline with a
horizontal fold axis. B, C — Synclines plunging in the direc¬
tions indicated by the arrows. D — Anticline with a hori¬
zontal fold axis. E, F — Anticlines plunging in the directions
indicated by the arrows.

tunately, many students may readily accept these
block diagrams without ever trying to understand
what the folded formations really look like or to
comprehend the stages which led to the fold’s par¬
ticular surficial expression.

One of the simplest and least expensive methods
to illustrate the development of the map pattern of
folded rocks is to utilize several sheets of paper. Not
only is this effective to aid in visualization, but the
effect of watching the teacher fold and rip sheets of
paper seems to act as a stimulus to the students. If
the student can follow and understand this simple
process, he will not have to memorize the generali¬
ties mentioned above but will be able to easily figure
out the nature of the folds for himself.

Start with a sheet of paper and fold it into a syn¬
cline in which the axis is horizontal (Fig. 2A). Ex¬
plain that the top view is the geologic map view, the
cross-section of the fold is the front view of a block
diagram, and the side view is the same as the side
view of the block diagram. Surrounding this single
rock bed or formation are other units, and the top
surface has been worn nearly flat by erosion (Fig.
2B, 2C). The student should be able to see that the
outcrop pattern will consist of parallel units on the
geologic map view. Similarly, he can see that the front
view reveals the true shape of the fold and the
side view shows beds which appear to be horizontal.
This is often the view which is seen in road cuts or

16

The Virginia Journal of Science

Fig. 2 — Stages in illustrating eroded non-plunging syn¬
cline and anticline. A — Paper folded into a syncline with
a horizontal fold axis. B — Same syncline intersected by an
imaginary horizontal plane (stippled) representing the sur¬
face to which erosion will truncate the folded beds. C —
A block diagram of the folded bed after erosion. D, E,
F — The same stages in the development of an eroded anti¬
cline.

on cliff faces. Using the same sheet of paper, fold it
into a simple anticline (Fig. 2D) and ask the stu¬
dents to try and visualize what the map view would
look like after the crest of the fold had been eroded
away (Fig. 2E, 2F). They should also be able to
understand what the two cross-sectional views would
be.

Next, take a sheet of paper, fold it into an anti¬
cline, and then tilt the fold so that it plunges toward
the students (Fig. 3A). This is how the fold would
appear before erosion had truncated its upper sur¬
face. The effects of erosion can be rapidly produced
by tearing off the paper along a horizontal plane
(Fig. 3B, 3C). The students can then immediately
see that the outcrop pattern of this folded bed forms
a “V” or hairpin which points in the same direction
as that in which the fold plunges (Fig. 3D). They
can also easily see that one cross-section shows the
regular anticlinal shape of the fold while the other

Fig. 3 — Stages in illustrating an eroded plunging anti¬
cline. A — Paper folded into an anticline and plunging to¬
ward you. B — Same anticline intersected by an imaginary
horizontal plane (stippled). C — Same anticline after ero¬
sion has removed material above the imaginary horizontal
plane (stippled). D — The folded paper with the imaginary
horizontal plane removed.

reveals a bed which is inclined in the direction in
which the fold plunges. From this folded and torn
sheet of paper the corresponding block diagram can
readily be constructed. At the same time, the rela¬
tive ages of the beds in the structure can be pointed
out very simply. Just to convince the students that
this really works you could do it again but have the
fold plunging toward you instead.

The same basic steps are repeated to produce a
plunging syncline in map pattern and cross-section
(Fig. 4A, 4B, 4C). Here the students can see that
the fold plunges away from the “V” in the map pat¬
tern and that on the side cross-section the trace of
the beds will still be inclined in the direction in
which the fold is plunging (Fig. 4D). Once again,
the appropriate block diagram can easily be con¬
structed.

Fig. 4 — Stages in illustrating an eroded plunging syncline.
A — Paper folded into a syncline and plunging toward you.
B — Same syncline intersected by an imaginary horizontal
plane (stippled). — -Same syncline after erosion has re¬
moved material above the imaginary horizontal plane (stip¬
pled). D — The folded paper with the imaginary horizontal
plane removed.

As a finale, with a little dexterity it is possible to
bend a sheet of paper into an anticline bounded by
two synclines or a syncline bounded by two anti¬
clines. After tilting these structures and simulating
erosion by tearing off the excess paper, the syn¬
thetic map view will show a striking similarity to a
geologic map of portions of the Valley and Ridge
Province in Virginia. A block diagram could also be
constructed from this model.

BRUCE K. GOODWIN
Department of Geology
College of William and Mary
Williamsburg, Virginia 23185

TEACHERS!!

Do you have a question that you’d like answered?

Do you have a favorite demonstration, method
of getting across a concept, or an experiment that
you’d like to share with others?

Do you have a technical article that you’d like to
have published?

Science Teachers Section

17

Are you involved in a program, a course of study,
or an activity which you think would be of interest
to other educators?

Would you like to analyze or give a critical eval¬
uation of a curriculum, talk, article, or book?

Would you like to do a little philosophizing?

GREAT NEWS— NOW IS YOUR CHANCE!!

The editor of the Virginia Journal of Science
plans to devote a page or two in each issue to items
written especially for junior and senior high school

teachers of science and mathematics. We are now
soliciting contributions which will be of interest to
teachers and which will be of value in furthering
scientific and mathematical education in the state.

Send your contributions to Virginia C. Ellett,
Mathematics and Science Center, 2200 Mountain
Road, Glen Allen, Virginia 23060. Do this right
away so that they may appear in the next issue of
the Journal, but don’t stop here. Let this be the
beginning of many articles from you. Remember
this is YOUR section and its success depends upon
your contributions.

VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

1971 Meeting

Virginia Polytechnic Institute
and State University
Blacksburg, Va.

May 11-14, 1971

1972 Meeting

Virginia Military Institute
Washington and Lee University
Lexington, Va.

May 2-5, 1972

1973 Meeting

50th Anniversary
College of William and Mary
Williamsburg, Va.

May 1-4, 1973

1974 Meeting

Old Dominion University
Virginia Wesleyan College
Virginia State College
Norfolk, Virginia
April 30-May 4, 1974

1975 Meeting

Madison College
Harrisonburg, Va.

May 6-9, 1975

18

The Virginia Journal of Science

Communications and Reports

VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

Summary of Council Meeting*

November 1, 1970

Council met on Sunday, November 1, 1970, in
Richmond at the Medical College of Virginia, Vir¬
ginia Commonwealth University, President Rowe
presiding. Minutes of the last Couneil meeting and
minutes of the last Executive Committee were dis¬
tributed and approved. The President-Elect, Dr.
Turner, reported on mailing of a Call for Papers to
all members. Dr. Harshbarger suggested that a letter
be sent to all college Presidents soliciting papers for
the Horsley Award.

Virginia Museum of Science

Dr. Hughes and Mr. Rowe reported on the latest
information concerning the Virginia Museum of Sci¬
ence. President Rowe indicated that the Governor
has made his decision with respect to the Trustees
of the Museum (Editor’s note: see News and Notes
Section). Dr. Hughes mentioned that there is still a
Museum of Science Committee of the Academy.

Acceptance of New Bylaws

Jim Midyette proposed acceptance of the new by¬
laws which have been distributed to all members of
Council. Dr. Harshbarger raised the question of
downgrading of the Section Editors and felt that
these were important. A rather vigorous discussion
followed in which it was mentioned that sections
could do what they wished with respect to Section
Editors and that their role in an active seetion might
be a worthy one. The bylaws were accepted with a
few minor modifications primarily editorial in nature
and the addition of a statement concerning the Vir¬
ginia Flora Committee as a standing committee of
the Academy. They are published with the Constitu¬
tion in this issue of the Journal.

Executive Secretary’s Office Facilities

Mr. Blanton Bruner reported that his new office
at the Virginia Institute of Scientific Research is a
rather small one but that it is adequate for the time
being. He and Rodney Berry will have completed
their transfer of duties by January 1, 1971. There is
an answering service at the VISR so that anyone
needing to call Mr. Bruner can do so at the VISR
number. Mr. Morrow asked about the archives and
Mr. Bruner reported, and Mr. Berry confirmed, that
they do not presently know the whereabouts of any
archives. Dr. Harshbarger commented that Mr.
Bruner should express whatever needs he has to the
Executive Committee. Dr. Carpenter suggested that

* Abbreviated by the Editor from minutes provided by the Secre*
tary, Franklin F. Flint.

the History of the Academy Committee or any per¬
sons interested in the history of the Academy might
find the Past Presidents’ Correspondence quite use¬
ful. Flint reported that he had consulted with Mar¬
jorie Harris concerning any materials Isabel Boggs
may have left with her which were concerned with
the history of the Virginia Academy of Scienee. Miss
Boggs had not left any materials which belonged to
the Academy.

Academy Fellows

Dr. Carpenter read the minutes of September,
1969, eoncerning Academy Fellows. The Chairman
of the Awards Committee will put in the next issue
of the Journal a statement concerning nominations
for Academy Fellows and Dr. Turner will send in¬
formation eoncerning nominations in his Call for
Papers to the entire Academy membership.

Formation of Institute for Ecological
Research and Teaching Purposes

Dr. Hughes gave a brief outline of an idea which
he and others are working with for the development
of an organization which would be effective in em¬
phasizing human ecology within the state of Vir¬
ginia. Dr. Brooks moved and Dr. Carpenter sec¬
onded a motion that the Council express its support
in principle for the concept of a private statewide
institute for ecological research and education. This
motion was passed without dissent.

Governor’s Science Advisor

Dr. Harshbarger moved the proposal by the Exec¬
utive Committee to nominate Dr. Siegel, Dr. Carpen¬
ter, and Dr. Turner to the Governor for his appoint¬
ment as Science Advisor. This motion passed.

Abolishment of Registration Fees

There was discussion concerning raising of dues
and doing away with registration fees. At the present
time approximately $1800 comes from registration.
If we have no registration fee, dues will have to be
increased to raise this money. There are a number
of people who come to the annual meeting who are
not members of the Academy. They pay registration
fees and then are invited to join the Academy after
the meeting. We will retain registration fees. There
was some discussion about allowing only persons
with a badge into the paper sessions. Dr. Morrow
indicated that it might not be feasible to have guards
at the door to keep people out who have not paid
registration fees.

Future Annual Meetings

Dr. Carpenter reported Annual Meetings for 1971,
’72, ’73, ’74, and ’75. He proposed that the invi¬
tation of Madison College be accepted and the dates

Communications and Reports

19

for this meeting be May 6-9, 1975. Concerning the
1971 meeting, Dr. Harshbarger mentioned that VPI
has a policy of charging for certain rooms in the
Student Center. It was suggested that President
Rowe initiate correspondence immediately to see that
these rooms are offered free of charge.

Visiting Scientists Program

President Rowe reported that announcements
have gone to the Presidents of various colleges ask¬
ing for volunteers for the Visiting Scientists Program
to the high schools. Dr. Alex M. Clarke, director, is
considering using some outstanding Virginia scien¬
tists for development of tapes to be placed on Edu¬
cational Television in the Richmond area. Some
members of Council expressed a desire that this be
done but that the quality of the performers be
checked ahead of time and only the best be used.
Dr. Morrow moved that Council support this pro¬
gram. This motion passed.

Finance Committee

Dr. Harshbarger suggested that the budget be cut
to meet established income. There was a vigorous
discussion concerning the development of a reserve
fund and its possible use to balance the current
budget. Mr. Berry mentioned that over the past
seven years reserve funds have built up to a consid¬
erable extent. Mr. Midyette moved and Dr. Camp¬
bell seconded a motion that the Finance Committee
Report be amended so that the budget can be bal¬
anced from reserve funds this year, if need be. This
was necessary so that the Virginia Junior Academy
of Science budget can be maintained at the re¬
quested level. The motion passed.

Long Range Planning Committee

Dr. Ulrich reported on four main items: interest
of the Committee in textbook selection and concern
that the Science Teachers Section do something
about this; the best manner for affiliating junior col¬
lege people into our program; and the lack of in¬
volvement of the mature and most prestigious senior
scientists within the state. Fourthly, they are study¬
ing the effects of section proliferation.

Membership Committee

Mr. William Young reported on plans for per¬
sonal solicitation of new members through corre¬
spondence. A considerable number of letters have
been sent out and the Committee requests members
to suggest persons who should be solicited for mem¬
bership.

Virginia Flora Committee

Dr. Harvill reported the Committee is soon to
take a foray into the Dismal Swamp, and all mem¬
bers of Council were invited to join them. There
was no obvious rush to do so.

Virginia Journal of Science

Lynn Abbott reported that lists of exhibitors, fel¬
lows and new sections have been published in the
Journal. He also reported selection of a new business
manager. Dr. Charles E. O’Rear.

Conservation Committee

Dr. Hughes expressed concern over scenic Vir¬
ginia along the James River. The situation is caus¬
ing local concern over proposed building of bridges
and other construction. The Committee was asked
to examine the facts and report them to the Execu¬
tive Committee.

Nominating Committee

Dr. Carpenter as Chairman of this Committee
asked that members submit names to him of persons
they would like to see nominated as officers of the
Academy.

Decision of Internal Revenue Service

Mr. Berry reported that the Internal Revenue
Service has sent him a letter stating that on October
20, 1970, the Virginia Academy of Science was clas¬
sified as an organization and that it is not a private
foundation as defined in Section 509(A) of the In¬
ternal Revenue Code. This is an organization that
normally receives no more than Va of its support
from gross investment income and more than Vs of
its support from contributions, membership fees and
gross receipts from activities related to its exempt
functions subject to certain exceptions Section
509(A) 2.

20

The Virginia Journal of Science

BYLAWS OF VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

(Approved by Council November 1, 1970)

ARTICLE I: TYPES OF MEMBERSHIP AND DUES

Section 1 There shall be eight types of members; regular, student, contributing, sustaining, life, patron,

honorary life, and business.

Section 2. Dues of the first 4 types of members shall be as follows:

(1) Regular members shall pay annual dues of five dollars ($5.00).

(2) Student members shall pay annual dues of three and one-half dollars ($3.50).

(3) Contributing members shall be members who elect to pay annual dues of ten dollars ($10.00).

(4) Sustaining members shall be individuals and institutions who elect to pay annual dues of
twenty-five ($25.00) or more.

(5) To be in good standing the foregoing types of members must not be in arrears on payment
of dues for more than one year, provided, however, any member not in good standing may
be reinstated upon payment of Regular or Student membership dues, as the case may be, for
the preceding year.

Section 3. Life members shall be individuals who elect to pay to the Academy the sum of one hundred and

fifty ($150.00) and thereby become exempt from further payment of dues.

Section 4. Patrons shall consist of those persons who have given to this organization the sum of one thousand
dollars ($1,000.00) or its equivalent in property. They shall have all the rights and privileges of
regular members and shall be exempt from dues. An institution may also become a patron by
meeting the above requirement. Its representative shall have all the rights and privileges of regular
members.

Section 5. Honorary life members shall consist of persons elected by the Council for long and distinguished
service to science in this organization and others no matter where located. They shall have all the
rights and privileges of regular members and shall be exempt from dues.

Section 6. Business or industrial organizations, which pay dues of $100.00 annually, shall be Business Members
of the Academy.

ARTICLE II: DUTIES OF OFFICERS

Section 1. The President shall be the directing head of the Academy, shall preside at business meetings and
general sessions of the organization, and shall appoint the members of the standing committees
and of new committees authorized by the Council, in accordance with Article XI of the Constitution.

Section 2. The President-Elect shall assist the President as mutually agreed between them, shall serve as
president in the latter’s absence, and shall be responsible for coordinating the scientific programs
of the Annual Meeting. He shall furnish the Academy at its Annual Conference with a list of
committee memberships which he has set up to assist him during his year as President.

Section 3. The Secretary shall be responsible for keeping complete records of the Academy Conference and
all meetings of the Council and Executive Committee.

Section 4. The Treasurer shall:

A. Account for the income and disbursements through one Academy General Fund Account.

B. Keep the membership lists of the Academy up-to-date.

C. Upon request, supply the Secretary and others a list of all members in good standing.

D. Receive and disburse all funds as approved by Council and directed by the President or Chair¬
man of the Finance Committee.

E. Submit to Council annually a written report of all receipts and disbursements, accompanied
by a statement of audit from a certified public accountant.

F. Furnish quarterly financial summaries to the Executive Committee, members of Council, and
to members of the Finance Committee.

G. Prepare annually and present to the Finance and Endowment Committee for review a proposed
budget for Academy operations.

Bylaws

21

Section

Section i

ARTICLE

Section

Section :

Section ;

Section

Section

Section

Section

I. The Treasurer and all administrative employees engaged in the receipt and disbursement of funds
shall be adequately bonded.

All officers shall be ex-officio members of all Academy Committees.

Ill: DUTIES OF STANDING COMMITTEES
Research Committee shall:

(1) Review and award Academy Research Grants.

(2) Arrange for and present the J. Shelton Horsley Research Award.

L Long Range Planning Committee shall:

(1) Develop and advise Council on broad policies which will affect the Academy in the future.

(2) Solicit and study suggestions from the membership for the improvement of Academy activities.

(3) Investigate and evaluate proposed projects, publications and other factors that may relate
to the long-range effectiveness of the Academy.

(4) Advise and consult with other Academy Committees relative to the aforegoing and make
recommendations to such committees concerning the effectiveness of their various activities.

I. The Junior Academy of Science Committee shall:

(1) Provide Director for Junior Academy of Science.

(2) Coordinate activities of Junior Academy of Science including annual meeting.

(3) Prepare V.J.A.S. budget and submit to V.A.S. Finance Committee by September 1.

(4) Prepare National Science Foundation proposal and submit to Executive Committee by
October 1.

(5) Publish and distribute Proceedings of V.J.A.S. by October 1.

(6) Select two student representatives to attend American Junior Academy of Science.

(7) Solicit membership and participation in Junior Academy programs and projects.

(8) Select students for V.A.S. and A.A.A.S. Honorary Membership Awards.

(9) Select recipient of Outstanding Science Teacher Award.

(10) Select recipient of V.J.A.S. Distinguished Service Award.

01) Select students to present papers to Senior Academy Sections.

(12) Support and participate in all other programs and activities related to the work of V.J.A.S.
Membership Committee shall:

(1) Make recommendations to Council, the Executive Committee and officers relative to policies
on general membership.

(2) Promote membership growth and seek adequate representation from all scientific disciplines.

(3) Sponsor a Business Advisory Committee for the purpose of creating understanding between
science and business, and to solicit business memberships to the Academy.

'. Finance and Endowment Committee shall:

(1) Monitor and appraise income and expenditures, and make appropriate recommendations
to the President, Executive Committee and Council.

(2) Estimate annually the anticipated income of the Academy and prepare a proposed budget
for consideration by Council at its Fall meeting.

(3) Seek and encourage the establishment of endowments to the benefit of Academy activities.

The Trust Committee shall:

(1) Hold in trust and manage funds of the Academy designated by Council or otherwise for
investment.

(2) Review all Academy investments annually and make appropriate adjustments subject to
approval of Council.

The Publications Committee shall:

(1) Develop and implement a continuing policy of review and evaluation of Academy publications.

(2) Present to Council annually through the Finance Committee the budgetary needs of the
several Academy periodical publications.

(3) Make recommendations to Council relative to priority, publication, finance and distribution
of non-recurring publications.

(4) Select and recommend to Council, as necessary; an Editor for The Virginia Journal of Science,
and members of the Editorial Board.

(5) Enlist the interest of all groups in worthwhile publications by the Academy.

22

The Virginia Journal of Science

Section 8. The Awards Committee shall:

(1) Select recipients of the Ivey F. Lewis Distinguished Service Award to be presented periodically
to a member who has made significant contributions toward the activities of the Virginia
Academy of Science.

(2) Select recipients of Special Awards periodically as directed by Council.

(3) Accept and submit to Council nominations for fellows in accordance to Article V of the
Constitution and Article V of the Bylaws.

Section|9. The Fund Raising Committee shall from time to time at the direction of Council, plan, organize,
and coordinate appropriate fund raising campaigns in support of Academy activities or projects
contingent to the purposes of the Academy.

Section 10. The Nominating Committee shall:

(1) Solicit suggestions from Council members, Past Presidents and others for the names of
persons to fill the offices of President-Elect, Secretary and Treasurer.

(2) Contact prospective nominees and obtain from each a commitment to serve if elected.

(3) Present to the Annual Academy Conference a slate of nominees and the qualifications of each.

Section 11. The Science Talent Search Committee shall:

(1) Canvass colleges and universities for scholarships available to Science Talent Search Finalists.

(2) Forward list of available scholarships to all high school sponsors that have requested appli¬
cations for the Westinghouse Science Talent Search.

(3) Secure list of Virginia contestants from Science Clubs of America and establish a committee
to select best 45 papers.

(4) Set up procedures for selecting the top 15 students and declare and announce them to be
State Winners in the Virginia Science Talent Search, and all other contenders as runners-up.

(5) Send names of winners and runners-up to colleges and universities in Virginia.

Section 12. The Constitution and Bylaws Committee shall:

(1) Periodically receive and prepare drafts of all proposed changes in constitution as the occasion
arises and present same to Council and membership for consideration as set forth in the
constitution.

(2) Draft all bylaw changes as directed by Council and notify membership of such changes.

(3) Update artieles of Incorporation (Charter) as required.

(4) Provide a Parliamentarian for all Council meetings and Academy Conferences.

Section 13. The Virginia Flora Committee shall:

(1) Promote the study of and publications on the flora and vegetation of Virginia.

(2) Sponsor symposia and conferences on the ecology, conservation, and preservation of the
plant life of Virginia.

(3) Disseminate botanical information to all who are interested in the flora and ecology of
Virginia.

(4) Serve as liaison between the Academy, government bodies, and institutions in matters per¬
taining to the plant life of Virginia.

ARTICLE IV: VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

Section 1. The Academy shall publish the Virginia Journal of Science quarterly.

Section 2. The staff of the Virginia Journal of Science shall be composed of:

(1) An editor recommended by the Publications Committee and appointed by Council for a
three-year term.

(2) Such Associate Editors, Assistant Editors, or Editorial Board members, appointed by the
President, as are recommended by the Editor and the Publications Committee.

(3) Editors designated by individual Sections.

Section 3. All members of the Academy shall receive the Virginia Journal of Science.

Section 4. Subscriptions may be sold to non-members at a rate established by the Publications Committee
and approved by Council.

ARTICLE V: RULES AND PROCEDURES FOR SELECTING FELLOWS

Section 1. A “Fellow” must be nominated by at least three members of the Academy. The Academy Council
must approve each Fellow by a majority vote, and establish a limiting date annually for receipt
of nominations. It will be the usual procedure to announce new Fellows at an Annual Meeting.

Bylaws

23

Section 2. No more than twenty-five fellowships will be approved the first year. After the first year, no more
than one-half of one percent of the total active membership shall be selected in any one year. The
limiting number of Fellows shall not exceed five percent of the total active membership of the
Academy.

Section 3. All Fellows shall be presented with a suitably inscribed scroll.

Section 4. Appropriate announcement of new Fellows shall be made in the Virginia Journal of Science.
ARTICLE VI: THE DULY ORGANIZED SCIENTIFIC SECTIONS OF THE ACADEMY ARE:

(1)

Agricultural Sciences

(8)

Geology

(2)

Astronomy, Mathematics and Physics

(9)

Medical Sciences

(3)

Microbiology

(10)

Psychology

(4)

Biology

(11)

Science Teachers

(5)

Chemistry

(12)

Statistics

(6)

Materials Science

(13)

Space Science and Technology

(7)

Engineering

(14)

Botany

ARTICLE VII: OFFICIAL REPRESENTATION OF THE ACADEMY

Where official representation of the Academy is desirable the President or his designates shall represent the
Academy. No officer or other Academy member shall receive reimbursement from Academy funds for such
purposes, except that actual expenses of the Academy representatives in attending the annual meeting of the
American Association for the Advancement of Science may be paid, subject to the funds provided in the budget
by the Finance Committee.

ARTICLE VIII: MEETINGS AND BUSINESS

The annual meeting of this organization shall be held during the first or second week of May each year
at a place selected by Council, which shall also determine whether the annual meeting shall be held the first
or second week of May, and arrange for all appropriate sessions.

24

The Virginia Journal of Science

CONSTITUTION OF THE VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

(Adopted May, 1970)

ARTICLE I: NAME

The name of this organization shall be the Vir¬
ginia Academy of Science.

ARTICLE II: PURPOSE

The purpose of this organization shall be to es¬
tablish and maintain in Virginia for scientific and
educational purposes an association of persons and
organizations interested in science and scientific re¬
search in all of its branches; to solicit financial and
other support; to cooperate with educational institu¬
tions, industries, and state agencies in fostering an
interest in scientific matters, in promoting scientific
investigations and in spreading knowledge of the
sciences; to provide a forum for the presentation and
discussion of papers on scientific subjects and facili¬
ties for their publication; to provide opportunities
for the cooperation and fellowship among its mem¬
bers; and generally, in doing these things, to benefit
not only its own members, but to promote the civic,
agricultural, academic, industrial and commercial
welfare of the people of Virginia.

ARTICLE III: ORGANIZATION
Section 1. Membership

Membership in this organization shall be open to
professional scientists of all branches of science
and others who are interested in the purpose of
the organization. Types of membership and dues
for each shall be specified in Academy Bylaws.
The membership, through the Academy Confer¬
ence, provided by Section 2 of Article VIII, shall
have ultimate authority over the affairs of this or¬
ganization.

Section 2. Sections

The Academy shall be organized into sections ac¬
cording to the various scientific disciplines. A per¬
son may belong to one or more sections in ac¬
cordance with his interests.

Section 3. Council

The governing body of this organization shall be
the Academy Council. Its composition and re¬
sponsibilities are specified in Article VII.

Section 4. Officers

The elected officers of this organization shall be a
President, a President-elect, a Secretary, and a
Treasurer. Duties of each shall be specified in
Academy Bylaws.

Section 5. Executive Committee

The elected officers and the immediate past presi¬

dent shall comprise the Executive Committee of
the Academy Council.

Section 6. Standing Committees

The primary activities of this organization shall
be implemented by Standing Committees as fol¬
lows: The Research Committee, the Long Range
Planning Committee, the Junior Academy of Sci¬
ence Committee, the Membership Committee, the
Finance and Endowment Committee, the Trust
Committee, the Publications Committee, the
Awards Committee, the Fund Raising Committee,
the Nominating Committee, the Science Talent
Search Committee, the Virginia Flora Committee,
and the Constitution and Bylaws Committee; the
duties of the Standing Committees not specified
hereafter, shall be as specified in the Academy
Bylaws, and as may be further enumerated by
Council from time to time.

ARTICLE IV: THE VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF

SCIENCE

The Virginia Journal of Science shall be the of¬
ficial publication of the Virginia Academy of Sci¬
ence. All Academy members shall receive copies
of this publication.

ARTICLE V: FELLOWS

From active membership, there shall be a body of
scholars known as “Fellows of the Virginia Acad¬
emy of Science” selected because of their contri¬
bution to science in one or more of the following
ways: (a) outstanding scientific research, (b) in¬
spirational teaching of science, (c) significant
leadership in the Academy. Rules and procedures
for selection of Fellows shall be specified in the
Academy Bylaws.

ARTICLE VI: ACCREDITATION OF

MEMBERSHIP

Membership of the Academy shall be accredited
by the Secretary and the Treasurer. The member¬
ship list shall be published periodically according
to types, as directed by Council.

ARTICLE VII: COMPOSITION AND

RESPONSIBILITIES OF COUNCIL

Section 1. Council shall be composed of the Presi¬
dent, the President-elect, the Secretary, the Treas¬
urer, the three most recent Past Presidents and
one member elected by each Section of the Acad¬
emy. Members from the Sections shall be elected
for three year terms on a rotational basis among
the Sections, provided the initial term of a mem¬
ber from a newly established Section shall be

Constitution

25

specified by Council. In addition to the foregoing,
the Chairmen of the Standing Committees and the
Editor of the Virginia Journal of Science shall be
ex-officio members of the Council. In event of
vacancies, the President shall make interim ap¬
pointments until the next election is held, pro¬
vided, however, vacancies of elected officers shall
be filled as hereafter provided.

Section 2. Council shall meet each year preceding
the annual meeting and at least once in the fall at
a time and place designated by the President.

Section 3. Twelve members shall constitute a quo¬
rum for the transaction of business by Council.

Section 4. Council shall establish the policies of
this organization and shall be responsible for the
administration of all Academy funds.

Section 5. Council shall consider and recommend
to the membership from time to time appropriate
changes in the Constitution, and shall promulgate
bylaws appropriate to the implementation of the
Constitution.

Section 6. Council may establish appropriate ad¬
ministrative positions and employ such personnel
as may be required. Terms of office, the duties
and remuneration of such personnel shall be pre¬
scribed by Council.

Section 7. Through appropriate Bylaws, Council
shall provide for the publication of the Virginia
Journal of Science.

Section 8. The Executive Committee of Council
shall be empowered to act for Council on an in¬
terim basis between meetings of Council and shall
report to Council at its regular meetings. A meet¬
ing of Council may be called at any time upon
concurrence of any four members of the Execu¬
tive Committee.

ARTICLE VIII: MEETING AND BUSINESS

Section 1. The annual meeting of this organiza¬
tion shall be arranged in accordance with proced¬
ures to be established by Council in appropriate
Academy Bylaws.

Section 2. All business requiring action by the
membership shall be transacted at an Academy
Conference which shall be scheduled by Council
during the annual meeting. A meeting of the Acad¬
emy Conference may be called between Annual
Meetings by concurrence of a majority of the
members of Council, provided, however, that the
membership shall be notified of such called meet¬
ing no less than 30 days prior to the date that
such meeting is to be held. Forty accredited mem¬
bers shall constitute a quorum for the transaction
of business by an Academy Conference.

Section 3. Each Section shall annually arrange a
program oriented to its area of scientific interest;
provided, however, such programs shall be com¬
patible with the purposes of the Academy and

scheduled within the framework of the general
meeting program of the Academy.

Section 4. The fiscal year of the Academy shall
be from January I through December 31.

Section 5. The parliamentary procedure for all
meetings of this organization shall be governed by
Robert’s Rules of Order Revised, and Council
shall provide for a Parliamentarian.

ARTICLE IX: ESTABLISHMENT OF
SECTIONS

Section 1. Sections as defined in Article III with
the approval of Council, may be organized by an
accredited group of members. Each Section shall
annually arrange a scientific program related to its
area of interest.

Section 2. Such a Section may become accredited
and established after it has conducted one success¬
ful program at an annual meeting of the Academy.

Section 3. Any Constitution and Bylaws proposed
by a Section must conform to the provisions of
the Academy Constitution and Bylaws and shall
be submitted to Council for review and approval
prior to adoption by Section.

Section 4. Any Section which fails to conduct a
program at two successive Academy annual meet¬
ings may be dropped as a Section by action of
Council, but may be reinstated after subsequently
conducting one successful program.

Section 5. When established, all Section names
shall be enumerated in the Academy Bylaws, and
thereby subject to provisions of Article XIII, Sec¬
tion 1.

ARTICLE X: ELECTION OF ACADEMY
AND SECTION OFFICERS

Section 1. A Nominating Committee, consisting
of three recent Past Presidents, appointed by the
President, shall submit to the Annual Academy
Conference, nominations for President-elect, Sec¬
retary and Treasurer. Nominations from the ffoor
shall be in order. Those nominees receiving a ma¬
jority assenting vote at the Academy Conference
shall be elected.

Section 2. Upon election, such officers shall serve
one year terms; however, the President-elect shall
automatically ascend to the presidency at the end
of his scheduled term of office or at any prior time
that the office of president may be vacated; how¬
ever, he shall not succeed himself as president
after serving his scheduled term of office.

Section 3. All vacancies in Academy offices, other
than president, occurring between annual Acad¬
emy Conferences, shall be filled by Council from
names of persons recommended by the Executive
Committee. Persons so selected shall serve until
the next Academy Conference.

26

The Virginia Journal of Science

Section 4. Each Section shall elect from their
members:

a. A Chairman, and a Secretary for one
year terms of office.

b. A representative to Council in ac¬
cordance with the provisions of
Article VII.

c. Other officers desired.

Section 5. Persons to fill vacancies in Section of¬
fices which occur between Annual Meetings shall
be designated by the Council Representative from
the Section.

Section 6. All elected officers shall serve without
remuneration, but, at the discretion of Council,
may be reimbursed for certain expenses incurred
in conducting the business of the Academy.

ARTICLE XI: COMMITTEE STRUCTURE,
APPOINTMENTS, TERMS, ETC.

Section 1 . Except as provided otherwise, all Stand¬
ing Committees shall be composed of 3 or more
members, and the President shall designate Com¬
mittee Chairmen, and appoint approximately one-
third of the members of each Committee for terms
of 3 years, and shall subsequently appoint mem¬
bers to fill unexpired terms that occur periodically.

Section 2. The Research Committee shall be com¬
posed of five (5) members, each appointed for a
term of five (5) years. One new member shall be
appointed each year by the President to replace
the member whose term expires; unexpired terms
shall also be filled by appointment by the Presi¬
dent. The senior member of the Committee shall
be Chairman.

Section 3. A Trust Committee, composed of three
accredited members, shall be elected by Council,
to serve for terms of three years on a rotational
basis. The members of this Committee shall hold
in trust and manage Academy investments subject
to annual approval by Council. The Committee
shall elect its own Chairman; provided, however,
that should it be unable to do so, the President
shall name the Chairman.

Section 4. The President and Council shall assign
operational matters to appropriate Standing Com¬
mittees; however, the President and/or Council
may establish Special Committees as the need
arises.

ARTICLE XII: JUNIOR ACADEMY OF
SCIENCE

The Academy shall provide financial support, lead¬
ership, and supervision to a Junior Academy of
Science. Effective working relationships shall be
maintained with such Junior Academy of Science,
through the Junior Academy of Science Commit¬
tee.

ARTICLE XIII: BYLAWS AND
AMENDMENTS

Section 1. Council shall promulgate appropriate

Bylaws to implement or further clarify the Ar¬
ticles of this Constitution. The establishment or
amendment of such Bylaws shall require an af¬
firmative vote of a majority of the total member¬
ship of Council; provided, that all proposed By¬
laws or amendments shall be distributed to the
membership or published in an issue of the Vir¬
ginia Journal of Science at least 30 days prior to
action by Council.

Section 2. This Constitution may be changed or
amended, after the recommendation of a majority
of the total membership of Council, by a two-
thirds majority of an Academy Conference, pro¬
vided all proposed changes shall be submitted to
members of Council in writing no less than 15
days prior to the Council meeting at which such
proposals are to be considered and further pro¬
vided that subsequent to approval by Council, all
proposed amendments shall be published in the
Virginia Journal of Science or distributed in writ¬
ing to the membership no less than 25 days nor
more than 50 days prior to the presentation to an
Academy Conference for adoption.

Section 3. All provisions of the Constitution and
Bylaws in effect prior to the adoption of this Con¬
stitution, except the provisions of this Article, shall
rule until new Bylaws are duly established in ac¬
cordance with Section 1 of this Article.

ARTICLE XIV: ARTICLES OF

INCORPORATION

The Articles of Incorporation of this Organiza¬
tion (Charter) shall conform to the provisions of
this Constitution and all amendments hereafter
adopted. The Constitution and Bylaws Committee
shall review and coordinate all necessary appro¬
priate revisions of both documents and be respon¬
sible for the submission of all required reports to
the State Corporation Commission and other gov¬
ernmental entities, annually or as otherwise re¬
quired by law.

ARTICLE XV: DISSOLUTION OR

LIOUIDATION

Section 1. In the event of dissolution or liquida¬
tion, all liabilities and obligations of the Academy
shall be paid, satisfied and discharged.

Section 2. All assets remaining, including those
received and held for scientific and educational
purposes, shall be transferred to one or more so¬
cieties or organizations engaged in activities sub¬
stantially similar to those of the Academy; pro¬
vided however, that no assets shall accrue to the
benefit of any officer or member of the Academy.

Prepared by the Constitution and Bylaws Committee
James W. Midyette, Jr., Chairman
Addison D. Campbell
William B. Wartman

Constitution

27

News and Notes

HARRIETT H. FILLINGER

Miss Harriett H. Fillinger, 80, former professor
and chairman of the department of chemistry at Hol¬
lins College, died December 26, 1970, in Oak Ridge,
Tennessee.

Miss Fillinger was a charter member of the Vir¬
ginia Academy of Science and a fellow of the Amer¬
ican Association for the Advancement of Science
and of the American Institute of Chemicals. She was
a member of the American Chemical Society and of
Sigma Xi. She was active in the American Associa¬
tion of University Women.

Miss Fillinger was a native of Bristol, Virginia
and received the B.S. degree from the University of
Chicago where she also earned an M.S. degree. Be¬
fore joining the Hollins faculty, where she was from
1921 to 1956, she taught at Sullins College and Mis¬
sissippi Synodical College. She was lecturer in chem¬
istry at Clinch Valley College of the University of
Virginia from 1956 to 1960.

Miss Fillinger published a number of articles in
her field and the widely used laboratory manual,
“Experiments in General Chemistry for Colleges.”
She was recognized at the 1967 dedication of Hol¬
lins’ new seience building, when the Harriett Huldah
Fillinger General Chemistry Laboratory was dedi¬
cated in her honor. Her former students also had
presented her portrait to Hollins. The family re¬
quested that remembrances be in the form of gifts
in Miss Fillinger’s name to be sent to the Hollins
College Scholarship Fund at Hollins College, Vir¬
ginia, 24020.

Surviving her are her sister, Mrs. Richard I. Rush
and her nephew, Richard M. Rush, his wife and chil¬
dren, all of Oak Ridge, Tennessee.

ALDEN CRATER

A crater on the dark side of the moon has been
named for the late Dr. Harold Lee Alden, former
professor of astronomy and director of the Leander
McCormick Observatory at the University of Vir¬
ginia.

Alden Crater is one of some 500 craters recently
designated by the International Astronomical Union
with names of deceased men and women of science
from all over the world. Included in the list of new
craters are the names of three American astronauts
killed in the Apollo fire, distinguished scientists such
as Nobel, Curie, and Pavlov and writers such as
Jules Verne and H. G. Wells.

Dr. Alden received his Ph.D. from the University
of Virginia in 1917 and taught astronomy there un¬
til 1925. For the next 20 years he directed Yale

University’s Observatory in Johannesburg, South
Africa. He returned to the University in 1945 as
professor of astronomy and director of the McCor¬
mick Observatory and remained until his retirement
in 1960. He died in 1964. Dr. Alden was best known
for his work in proper motions, orbits and mass ra¬
tios of stars and stellar parallaxes, a method for de¬
termining distances of stars from earth.

Not far from the Alden Crater is one named for
Dr. William Chauvenet, a mathematician who was
instrumental in establishing the U. S. Naval Acad¬
emy and who was chancellor of Washington Univer¬
sity in St. Louis, 1862-1869. His grandson, the late
Louis Chauvenet, made his home in Charlottesville.

COMPUTER FACILITY

Three Lynchburg area colleges will share in a
$150,000 National Science Foundation grant for
computer equipment and programs to serve their
academic needs. The new computer facilities will be
added to the Educational Computer Center which is
operated jointly by Lynchburg College, Randolph-
Macon Woman’s College and Sweet Briar College.
The center has been serving administrative and lim¬
ited instructional needs for the three institutions since
early in 1967. The NSF grant will enable the col¬
leges to establish a time sharing capability on the
three campuses. Each campus will have three remote
terminals, each terminal with its own teletype unit
which will permit students and faculty to communi¬
cate directly with a computer at the center. A por¬
tion of the funds will be used for a faculty training
program to expedite further curriculum development
and academic use of the new facilities. A recent sur¬
vey of the faculties of the three colleges produced
an estimate that some 3000 students from 24 de¬
partments would spend about 20,000 hours to meet
planned academic requirements during the first year
of operation.

VCU SIGMA XI

The first meeting of the newly formed Virginia
Commonwealth University chapter of the Society of
Sigma Xi was held at the Richmond Academy of
Medicine in Richmond on November 18, 1970. The
executive board of the society voted last summer to
change the chapter’s name from MCV chapter to
Virginia Commonwealth University to include Sigma
Xi members at MCV, the Health Sciences Division
of VCU, and members of the VCU Academic Center.

Dr. David M. Hume, professor and chairman of
the Department of Surgery at the Medical College of
Virginia, spoke on “Achievements and Potential of
Organ Transplantation.” Dr. Hume is known inter¬
nationally as a pioneer in kidney transplants in man.
He is a member of Sigma Xi and The Virginia Acad¬
emy of Science.

28

The Virginia Journal of Science

ANNUAL BURGER LECTURE

Dr. Dereck Harold Richard Barton, professor of
organic chemistry at Imperial College, London, and
a Nobel laureate in chemistry, presented the annual
Burger Lecture “Some Approaches to the Synthesis
of Tetracyclines” at the University of Virginia on
January 8. Dr. Barton was cowinner of the 1969
Nobel Prize for Chemistry for his work on confor¬
mational analysis, which permits chemists to tell
from the shape of organic compounds how they will
react and what the preferred products of reaction
will be. He received his bachelor’s degree from Im¬
perial College in 1940, his Ph.D. in 1942 and a
D.Sc. in 1949 from the University of London. He
has visited this country frequently and has taught at
Harvard University, Massachusetts Institute of Tech¬
nology and the universities of Illinois and Wisconsin.

The Burger Lecture was established in 1964 un¬
der the sponsorship of the University Alumni Fund
and the Department of Chemistry of the University
of Virginia. It is named in honor of Dr. Alfred Bur¬
ger, professor emeritus of chemistry.

MATERIALS SCIENCE COLLOQUIA

The Materials Science Department of the Univer¬
sity of Virginia has announced the fifth annual Ma¬
terials Science Colloquia Series for 1970—1971.
These Colloquia are supported financially by the
Research Laboratories for the Engineering Sciences
and are devoted to fundamental aspects of research
in materials science. Meetings are held on Wednes¬
days at 3:30 p.m. in room A 120 Thornton Hall and
are open to the scientific public. The schedule for
the remainder of 1971 is as follows.

April 14; “Impurity Atom Effects in Metals”
Professor Joseph R. Beeler, Jr., N. C. State Uni¬
versity

April 28: “Electronic Structure of Solid-Solution
Alloys”

Professor Leonid V. Azaroff, University of Con¬
necticut

May 5; “Crystallography of Martensitic Transforma¬
tions”

Professor C. Marvin Wayman, University of Illi¬
nois

WILLIAM AND MARY VISITING
BIOLOGISTS

Colleges in the Virginia area with students inter¬
ested in pursuing a graduate studies program in biol¬
ogy are invited to request a William and Mary Visit¬
ing Biologist. Seminars will be presented to inform
interested faculty and students of the current research
programs in the Department of Biology in order to
promote communications and to stimulate interest
in graduate study in the biological sciences, partic¬
ularly with regard to the opportunities for graduate
study at the College of William and Mary. Corre¬
spondence concerning specific topics should be di¬
rected to the Program Coordinator, Dr. Martin C.
Mathes, Department of Biology, College of William
and Mary, Williamsburg, Virginia 23185, telephone
229-3000, ext. 240.

SUMMER ECOLOGY INSTITUTE

A summer ecology institute, aimed primarily at
high school biology teachers from the Appalachian
region, will be held June 21 to August 13, 1971, at
Radford College. Weekday classes will include lec¬
tures, discussions, and field trips. A three-day trip
to the Savannah River Ecology Laboratory in South
Carolina also is planned. The course is limited to 35
teachers and offers seven semester hours of graduate
or under-graduate credit.

Applicants should be teaching at least one biology
course currently, and should have at least three years’
secondary level teaching experience. Teachers will
be permitted to bring their families. Those who
choose to live on campus will be housed in Muse
Hall. Stipends will be awarded for the course period
and participants will receive dependency and travel
allowances.

The institute is financed by a $47,795 grant from
the National Science Foundation and will emphasize
teaching methods for basic ecology concepts in high
school classes.

SUMMER SCIENCE INSTITUTE

Randolph-Macon Woman’s College, Lynchburg,
Virginia, has received a grant of $75,828 from the
National Science Foundation to sponsor its thirteenth
Summer Science Institute for high school teachers.
The 1971 institute will be the second session of a
three-year program that may lead to a masters de¬
gree in science teaching. The graduate degree pro¬
gram, initiated last year, was based on the institutes
in science and mathematics which have been held
at R-MWC in 12 of the last 13 years. The courses
were designed at the graduate level, and twenty-four
credits plus a thesis for six credits are the require¬
ment for the masters degree.

Dr. Helen L. Whidden, professor of chemistry and
director of the institute, describes the institute as a
multiple-field program with courses in biology, chem¬
istry, mathematics, and physics. It will run from
June 23 to August 17, 1971, and is open to both
men and women teachers of secondary school sci¬
ence subjects and mathematics. Entrance at any stage
in the sequence is possible.

MOUNTAIN LAKE SUMMER SESSION

The University of Virginia has announced the
program of graduate biology courses to be offered
this summer at the Mountain Lake Biological Sta¬
tion in southwestern Virginia. They are as follows;

First Term — June 16 through July 21

Animal Behavior: Dr. Robert L. Jeanne, Uni¬
versity of Virginia

Experimental Morphogenesis: Dr. James Dent,
University of Virginia

Plant Ecology; Dr. Gary L. Miller, Eisenhower
College

Ornithology: Dr. David W. Johnston, Univer¬
sity of Florida

Second Term — July 23 through August 26

Comparative Endocrinology: Dr. B. E. Frye,
University of Michigan

News and Notes

29

Entomology; Dr. George W. Byers, University
of Kansas

Plant Biosystematics: Dr. C. Ritchie Bell, Uni¬
versity of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

Principles of Parasitism: Dr. G. B. Solomon,
The School of Veterinary Medicine, Univer¬
sity of Pennsylvania

A limited number of National Science Foundation
scholarships are available for research and study:
(1) Pre-doctorate for supervised research, stipend
$500; and (2) Post-graduate for training in field bi¬
ology, stipend $400. Preference is given for studies
concerned with the biota of the region. Application
blanks for these awards may be secured from the
Director, Mountain Lake Biological Station, Depart¬
ment of Biology, University of Virginia, Charlottes¬
ville, Virginia 22903 and must be submitted before
May 1, 1971.

WATT A DEAN

Dr. William J. Watt will become dean of the Col¬
lege at Washington and Lee University July 1, 1971,
succeeding Dr. William Webb Pusey III, who will
return to full-time teaching as head of the depart¬
ment and professor of German after 1 1 years as
head of the university’s arts and sciences division.
Dr. Watt, 45, is currently associate dean of the Col¬
lege and professor of chemistry at Washington and
Lee and serves as chairman of the faculty’s Execu¬
tive Committee. He is a member of the Virginia
Academy of Science.

Dr. Watt, a member of the faculty at Washington
and Lee since 1955, earned his B.S. degree from
the University of Illinois in 1949, his master’s de¬
gree from Cornell University in 1951, and the Ph.D.
degree in inorganic chemistry from Cornell in 1956.

He was named assistant dean of the arts and sci¬
ences division at Washington and Lee in 1966, and
became associate dean two years later.

The dean of the College is considered the second-
ranking academic officer in the university, and in
addition to customary administrative duties he acts
in the president’s behalf during his absence or ill¬
ness. The dean also serves as an ex officio member
of many principal faculty committees.

The College includes 19 academic departments,
which offer a total of 539 courses in 28 separate
fields. This year, 1,060 students are enrolled in the
College, almost 80 per cent of the university’s un¬
dergraduate total. Its full-time faculty numbers 105.

SCIENCE MUSEUM OF VIRGINIA

Governor Linwood A. Holton has named seven
of nine trustees of the planned Science Museum of
Virginia. These include Dr. Roscoe D. Hughes, a
past president of the Virginia Academy of Science,
and a member of the Science Museum Study Com¬
mission and Dr. Avery Catlin of the University of
Virginia, a member of the Virginia Academy of Sci¬
ence Council, representing the Materials Science
Section. Dr. Hughes currently serves the Academy
as Chairman of its Committee on Conservation and
Natural Resources. Others appointed by Governor

Holton are Mrs. J. T. Bird of Salem, Mrs. William
A. Stuart of Rosedale, Harold Soldinger of Ports¬
mouth, William J. Vaughan of Virginia Beach and
Mrs. William T. Reed, Jr., of Manakin-Sabot.

The General Assembly last year appropriated
$66,500 in planning money for the proposed museum
with a portion of the money to be used in hiring an
executive director. A site for the proposed museum
has not yet been selected.

COMMITTEE ON ENVIRONMENT

Commissioner Maurice B. Rowe has announced
the establishment of an environmental planning com¬
mittee under the Virginia Department of Agriculture
and Commerce which will study and make recom¬
mendations on environmental problems within the
state. The committee, organized in November, is
studying such subjects as pesticides and the disposal
of animal and industrial wastes. It will collaborate
with environmental specialists at Virginia Polytech¬
nic Institute and State University in Blacksburg and
the Governor’s Council on Environment.

The five-man committee includes chairman J. W.
Midyette, Jr., director of technical services in the
agriculture department; J. E. Norment, Division of
Administration; Dr. A. L. Stafford, Division of Ani¬
mal Health and Dairies; G. J. Stoneman, Division of
Markets, and C. K. Spruill, Jr., Division of Regula¬
tory Services.

CONSERVATION AND NATURAL
RESOURCES

Dr. Roscoe D. Hughes, Chairman of the Com¬
mittee on Conservation and Natural Resources of
the Virginia Academy of Science, has set up a tem¬
porary office at 6300 River Road, Richmond, Vir¬
ginia 23229, thanks to the generosity of Dr. Sam
Gillespie, Director of the Virginia Institute for Sci¬
entific Research. In trying to find ways and means
of improving our environment, one of the things be¬
ing considered by the Committee is the possible es¬
tablishment of an Institute of Human Ecology which
would be non-partisan and multi-disciplinary. Your
expressions of interest and comments are solicited
by the Committee.

ADVERTISING

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Journal urge members of the Virginia Academy of
Science and other readers to support our advertisers
whenever possible. Mention that you saw their ads
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Additional advertising from industrial and busi¬
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Dr. Charles O’Rear, Business Manager, 1 North
Fourteenth Street, Richmond, Virginia 23219. We
would welcome a member of the Academy to work
with the business manager on advertising. Who will
volunteer?

30

The Virginia Journal of Science

Author Index to Volume 21, 1970

Abstracts of Papers, Forty-eighth Annual Meeting of the Virginia Academy of Science . 101

Atkinson, T. D. See Woodson, B. R . 185

Author Index to Volume 20, 1969 . 33

Battle, F. V., and Turner, E. C., Jr. A Synopsis of the Culicoides (Diptera; Ceratopogonidae) of West Virginia with New State
Records . 57

Benander, Laurence E. See Ramsey, Elmer W . 81

Blick, Kenneth A. See Leonard, Russell L., Jr . 61

Blick, Kenneth A. See Pearson, Ann Marie . 84

Cocke, Elton C., and Wooding, Nathaniel H., Jr. Aplanospore Formation and Germination in Spirogyra sp . 52

Cribbs, Richard M. Suppression of Structural Gene Mutations in Bacteria . 6

Fishbein, Lawrence. See Gaibel, Zalman L. F . 14

Fishbein, Lawrence. See Gaibel, Zalman L. F . 17

Forbes, J. C., and Petterson, O. M. Studies of Serum Lipids in Cardiovascular Disease . 87

Gaibel, Zalman L. F., and Fishbein, Lawrence. Proton Magnetic Resonance Studies on Organophosphorus Pesticides I. Doubling
of Resonances Induced by Asymmetry . 14

Gaibel, Zalman L. F., and Fishbein, Lawrence. The Internally Sensitized Photocyclization of Safrole . 17

Gladding, Randolph N. Foley Foster Smith, 1905-1969 . 5

Harvalik, Z. V. A Biophysical Magnetometer-Gradiometer . ; . 59

Henry, Elvin E. Soils of the Dismal Swamp of Virginia . 41

Higgins, Edwin S. An Obscured Milestone in the History of Bioenergetics and Oxidative Phosphorylation . 63

Hinkle, Kenneth R. See Ramsey, Elmer W . 81

Leonard, Russell L., Jr., and Blick, Kenneth W. A Reevaluation of the Length-Difficulty Relationship . 61

Ludwick, John C. Sand Waves and Tidal Channels in the Entrance to Chesapeake Bay . 178

Mandell, Alan. A Report of a Cooperative College School Science Marine Biology Project . 199

Ottenbrite, Raphael M. Displacement Reactions of 3-Bromomethyl-2, 5-dihydrothiophene-l, 1-dioxide and 3, 4-Bis (bromo-
methyl-2, 5-dihydrothiophene-l, 1-dioxide . 196

Packard, Charles E. Chaetonotus Bisacer Greuter from Mountain Lake Biological Station in Virginia . 20

Pearson, Ann Marie, and Blick, Kenneth A. Extra-Experimental Interference from Letter-Sequence Habits . 84

Petterson, O. M. See Forbes, J. C . 87

Ramsey, Elmer W., Hinkle, Kenneth R., and Benander, Laurence E. Waters of the Dismal Swamp . 81

Seibel, Hugo R. See Weymouth, Richard J . 47

Stepka, William. Poisonous Plants . 21

Turner, E. C., Jr. See Battle, E. V . 57

Virginia Academy of Science; Officers, Members of Council, Committees — 1970-71 . 201

Weymouth, Richard J., Seibel, Hugo R., and Wooles, Wallace R. An Ultrastructural Study of the Prevention of the Acute
Ethanol Induced Fatty Liver by Chlorcyclizine . 47

Wood, Robert M. Giant Discoveries of Future Science (Sidney S. Negus Memorial Lecture) . 169

Wooding, Nathaniel H., Jr. See Cocke, Elton C . 52

Woodson, B. R., and Atkinson, T. D. A Winter Limnological Study of Lake Wilcox: A Ereshwater Impoundment . 185

Wooles, Wallace R. See Weymouth, Richard J

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82

The Virginia Journal of Science

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VIRGINIA

JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

OFFICIAL PUBLICATION OF THE
VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

Vol. 22 No. 2 1971

TABLE OF CONTENTS

37 William Allison Kepner, 1875-1971

38

The Genera Carphephorus, Mikania and Kuhn'.a (Eupatorieae-
Asteraceae) in Virginia

Miles F. Johnson

42

Estimates of Phenotypic, Genetic and Environmental Parameters
In A Herd of Angus Cows

R. R. Schalles and

T. J.

Marlowe

45

47

Some Predators of Polyps of Chrysaora quinqiiecirrha

(Scyphozoa, Semaeostomeae) in the Chesapeake Bay

Martin J . Oakes and Dexter S. Haven

Studies on Azo Dye Stability as Related to Tumor Production
in the Presence of Certain Benzimidazoles

C. C. Clayton

50

52

60

62

Some Comments on (O) : The Non-relativistic Electron
Probability Density at the Origin

Harvey J. Rosenberg

A Feasibility Study Using Conservation Webbing as an
Artificial Substrate in Macrobenthic Studies

George M. Simmons, Jr. and A vis Winfield

Science Teachers Section

Protein Biosynthesis: A Teaching Demonstration

Leonard O. Morrow

Communications and Reports

Summary of Council Meeting, March 28, 1971

64

Ecology News and Notes

THE VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

Official Publication of the Virginia Academy of Science

EDITOR

LYNN D. ABBOTT, JR.

SECTION EDITORS

Boyd L. Samuel

Edv/ard G. Keshock

Agricultural Sciences

Engineering

Lee S. Anthony

Kenneth A. Blick

Astronomy, Mathematics and Physics Psychology

James D. Punch

Virginia C. Ellett

Microbiology

Science Teachers

Robert G. Bass

John R. Howell

Chemistry

Statistics

William A. Jesser

Ricardo N. Zapata

Materials Science

Space Science and Technology

BUSINESS MANAGER

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Published quarterly by The Virginia Aeademy of
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dence relating to advertising and business affairs
should be directed to Charles E. O’Rear, Business
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of the Virginia Journal of Science assume no re¬
sponsibility for statements or opinions advanced by
contributors.

(C) Copyright, 1971, by the Virginia Academy of
Science.

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The front cover is by Douglas C. Hensley.

1875=1971

William Allison Kepner, eleventh president of the Virginia Academy of Science and Professor
Emeritus of Biology, University of Virginia, died on March 24, 1971 at Charlotte, North Carolina.

Professor Kepner was born July 9, 1875 at Mount Alto, Franklin County, Pennsylvania.
His family were early settlers in Lancaster County, Pennsylvania and in the Valley of Virginia.

Following graduation from Gettysburg Academy in 1894 he entered Franklin and Marshall
College where he earned the A.B. degree in 1898 and the A.M. in 1900. In 1926 his alma mater
awarded him the D.Sc. degree. Following a summer of graduate study at the University of Got¬
tingen in 1903, he was named a fellow at Princeton for the session of 1903-1904. His Ph.D., earned
in 1908, was the second given in biology at the University of Virginia.

After two years of teaching in the Philippine Islands he was named an instructor in biology
at the University of Virginia in 1904, adjunct professor in 1908, associate professor in 1912 and
professor of biology in 1917. The last position he held until his retirement from active teaching
in 1946.

His many years of association with the University of Virginia left his mark not only on the
faculty but on the hundreds of students that came in contact with him. No student who took his
course in Biology 1-2 failed to recognize him as a truly dynamic person and an inspiring teacher.
With chalk drawings and clay models he illustrated his lectures so that even the dullest student
in the class could not fail to realize the organization of the bit of protoplasm under study. He held
the attention of the class until the last stroke of the Chapel bell. At the end of the final lecture of
the session he was always awarded a resounding stamping of the feet — a mark of approval, ap¬
preciation and affection.

Over three hundred students were fortunate to have the privilege of taking his advanced course
in Invertebrate Zoology. Here he worked in close and personal contact with them, calling their
attention to unique features of the minute organisms being studied under the microscope. Dr.
Kepner was a superb microscopist and skilled maker of slides. While some of his students may
have surpassed him in scientific acclaim and achievement none have ever equalled him as a teacher.
He himself wrote “I am grateful to the many students who have tolerated me, and who, in some
cases have held me in mind as a friend and teacher.”

Dr. Kepner was a member of many learned and scientific societies and organizations including
the American Association for the Advancement of Science, the American Society of Zoologists,
Phi Beta Kappa, The Society of the Sigma Xi and The Raven Society. In 1958 he was the recipient
of the Algernon Sydney Sullivan Award. He was most active in the formation of the Virginia
Academy of Science, and served as its president in 1933-1934. With his passing we have lost a
truly great teacher, a beloved personality and a distinguished gentleman.

Dr. Kepner leaves three children, Mrs. Edwin C. McClintock, Mrs. Alfred J. Short and William
Berrien Hooper Kepner.

Miles F. Johnson

Department of Biology
General Academic Division
Virginia Commonwealth University
Richmond, Virginia 23220
Received" November 20, 1970

The Genera Carphephorus, Mikania and Kuhnia
(Eupatorieae-Asteraceae) in Virginia

Abstract — The Eupatorieae of the Asteraceae is repre¬
sented by about nine genera in the Virginia flora. Of these,
Liatris has been treated separately by the author; Mikania,
Kuhnia and Carphephorus are included in this paper. The
remaining genera (Eupatorium and closely allied genera)
will be dealt with in separate treatments later.

A key to Liatris, Mikania, Kuhnia and Carphephorus is
presented. Brief genus and species descriptions, ecological
data, flowering and fruiting dates and distribution maps
for each species are given. Known chromosome numbers
are included.

Introduction

This paper is the second in a series dealing with the
floristics of the Virginia Eupatorieae (Asteraceae).
Liatris is treated separately in the first paper of the se¬
ries by Johnson ( 1 ) ; Carphephorus, Mikania and Ku¬
hnia are considered in this paper. The remaining gen¬
era, Eupatorium and closely allied genera, will be
dealt with later.

This study is based upon collections found in her¬
baria of the following institutions: College of William
and Mary, Williamsburg; Longwood College, Farm-
ville; Lynchburg College, Lynchburg; Old Dominion
University, Norfolk; Virginia Commonwealth Univer¬
sity, Richmond; Virginia Polytechnic Institute and
State University, Blacksburg; the United States Na¬
tional Herbarium, Washington, D. C.; the Gray Her¬
barium, Cambridge, Massachusetts, and the New
York Botanical Garden, Bronx, New York. I grate¬
fully acknowledge the help and assistance given by the
curator and/or director of the herbarium at each of
the institutions for allowing me to study the collec¬
tions. Travel funds were provided by the Virginia
Academy of Science and Virginia Commonwealth
University. One hundred thirty-one specimens have
been examined and Mikania scandens and Kuhnia
eupatorioides have been observed in the field in 1969
and 1970.

Dots on maps (Fig. 1, 2A, 2B) indicate exact lo¬
cations; closed triangles indicate a collection from
that county without specific location data. Open cir¬
cles are used to indicate collections cited in literature
though not all specimens have seen personally.

t Revised February 24, 1971.

Nomenclature and descriptions generally follow
those of Radford, Ahles and Bell (2), Fernald (3),
and Gleason and Cronquist (4).

Taxonomic Treatment

The Eupatorieae, as a tribe, is delimited by the fol¬
lowing characteristics: perennials with watery sap;
flowers tubular, perfect, purple, rose, white or whitish,
never yellow; style branches clavate and stigmatic
near the base; anthers blunt at the base; leaves alter¬
nate, opposite or whorled; pappus, in ours, of capil¬
lary bristles.

Key to Genera

a. Plants a twining vine, climbing over other vegeta¬
tion . . 1 . Mikania.

aa. Plants with upright stems, not a twining vine.

Inflorescences spikate or sub-racemose, the up¬
permost head opening first; receptacle naked,
i.e., non-chaffy; caudices bulbous or tuberous-

thickened; leaves alternate . . . 3. Liatris.

Inflorescences not spikate or racemose, but
heads in panicles or corymbs; receptacles naked
or chaffy; caudices not bulbous or tuberous-
thickened ; leaves opposite or alternate.

Receptacle chaffy, flowers rose to white;

leaves opposite; extreme SE Virginia .

. . . 4. Carphephorus.

Receptacle not chaffy ; flowers cream colored ;
leaves alternate; widespread in Virginia. . . .

. . . 2. Kuhnia.

l. Liatris Schreber. Blazing Star; Gay Feathers.

Perennial herbs with erect stems from a globose
naked corm. Leaves alternate, linear to narrowly
lanceolate, oblanceolate to obovate, cauline and ba¬
sal. Heads cylindrical or hemispheric, in spikes or
racemose, the heads blooming from top to bottom
of the rachis. Involucral bracts imbricate in several
series. Flowers in shades of lavender, rarely white.
Achenes tapered from base to apex, dark in color.
Pappus capillary, barbellate.

Five species in Virginia’s flora were treated in a
separate paper ( 1 ) .

:j8

The Virginia Journal of Science

2. Mikania Willd. Climbing Hempweed.

Perennial twining vine, to 3 m or more long (2).
Leaves opposite, cordate. Flowers pinkish to white,
4 per head. Involucral bracts four.

Mikania is a large tropical genus with 152 species
reported from Brazil (5). It is represented in Vir¬
ginia by a single species.

1. Mikania scandens (L.) Willd. Climbing Hemp-
weed.

Leaves opposite, triangular to cordate, (4.0-) 5.0-
9.0 (-10.5) cm long, 3. 0-8.0 cm wide, apex long
acuminate, borne on petioles 2. 0-5.0 (-6.0) cm
long; heads in corymbs; involucres 4. 0-6.0 mm long;
achenes 5-ribbed, 2.0 mm long, resinous-glandular;
pappus 3. 0-4.0 mm long; corollas usually lilac to
purplish, rarely white. 2n = 38 (6);2n = 36 (7);
n = 19 (2);n = 18 (8);n = 19 (9, 10).

Most common in moist thickets, along streams,
in swamps, on lake shores, in both brackish and fresh
water marshes, less common in dryer habitats, gen¬
erally throughout the Piedmont and Coastal Plain,
but rarely west of the Blue Ridge (Fig. 1 ). It is re¬
ported as frequent from the Potomac River to the
Rapidan River by Allard and Leonard (11) and fre¬
quent in Fauquier County (12). Massey (2) reports
M. scandens from Giles, Craig, Pulaski, Montgom¬
ery, Chesterfield and Prince William counties though
the specimens have not been seen by this author. The
species range extends from southern Ontario, New
York and Maine on the north along the coast to Texas
(3) and into Mexico and Central America, inland to
Michigan and Missouri (4) and pantropically.

In Virginia, M. scandens is in flower from (late
July-) August to late September; in fruit from mid-
August to early October.

Mikania scandens is unique as it is the only twin¬
ing member of the Asteraceae in the state.

Pubescent plants with fleshy leaves and milk white
flowers have been segregated as var. pubescens
(Muhl.) T. & G. (3). These characters are not al¬
ways evident in dried material as noted on Fernald
and Long 4229 (VPI). The label states “leaves very
fleshy” but these leaves do not appear appreciably
different from other specimens seen. Continued study
will be required to determine the status of this vari¬
ety in Virginia.

3. ATn/m/fl L. False Boneset.

Resin dotted perennials with alternate leaves.
Flowers cream-colored, borne in paniculate -corym¬
bose heads. Involucral bracts narrow, striate-
nerved. Achenes 10-ribbed or angled. Pappus of
plumose bristles.

The genus, consisting of about 6 species native to
the United States and Mexico, is represented in our
flora by the following single species.

1 . Kuhnia eiipatorioides L. False Boneset.

Perennial herbs to 12 dcm tall, from a large
woody caudex; root a taproot; leaves alternate, el¬
liptic to lanceolate, the basal ones (3.0-) 6. 0-8. 5 cm
long, (1.0-) 1.4-1. 8 (-4.3) cm wide, irregularly
to short petiolate; involucre cylindrical to campanu-
late, 6. 0-8.0 mm long; achenes tapered apically, 4.0-
5.0 mm long, 10-ribbed or angled, pubescent; pappus
plumose, tawny, rarely white, 4. 0-5.0 (-6.0) mm
long. 2n = 18 (13).

Associated with shale in the mountains, less com¬
mon on roadbanks, in dry oak-hickory woods, in dry
fields and on limestone barrens in the Piedmont (Fig.
2A), closely paralleling the Ridge and Valley Prov¬
ince of Hoffman ( 14), and rare on the Coastal Plain.
Thorne and Cooperrider (15) and Cooperrider and
Thorne (16) list K. eiipatorioides on rocky calcare¬
ous bluffs in Giles County, and Freer (17) lists this

Fig. 1 — Distribution of Mikania scandens in Virginia. Closed dots indicate exact locations. Closed triangles indicate a collection
from that county without specific location data. Open circles indicate collections cited in literature though the specimens have not
been seen personally.

Eupatorieae in Virginia

39

Fig. 2 a — Distribution cf Ku/inia eupaiorioides in Virginia. Closed dots indicate exact locations; open circles indicate collections
cited in literature though the specimens have not been seen personally.

species from a dry roadside bank in Bedford
County. Allard and Leonard (12) describe Kuhnia
as infrequent in the Hopewell Gap area of Fauquier
County. Massey (2) reports this species from
Prince George, Frederick, Page, Giles and Pulaski
counties though these specimens have not been ex¬
amined by the author. The species range extends
from New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Ohio and Indiana
on the north to the Gulf on the south and Illinois
and Missouri on the west (3). Variety corymbulosa
T. & G. extends north into Wisconsin (18) and
Minnesota and west to Montana.

This species is generally in flower from (late
July-) to August to late September and in fruit from
(late July-) August to early October. One speci¬
men was seen which was collected on June 24 with
buds and few open inflorescences.

Shinners (19) recognized four geographic varie¬
ties, of which only the typical variety characterized
by minute pubescence in the inflorescences occurs in
our flora.

Kuhnia eupatorioides is distinguished from similar
species by the alternate leaves and by cream-colored
flowers borne in corymbose-paniculate heads.

4. Carphephorus Cass.

Resembling Liatris but differing in possessing
corymbose inflorescences, in having receptacle pa-
leae near the margin and in lacking the bulbous sub¬
terranean stems. Name from the Greek, carphe,
chaff, and phoros, bearing (3).

The genus consists of four species which are found
from southeast Virginia to south Florida and to
eastern Louisiana (20). The Virginia species are
distinguished as follows:

Key to Species

Bracts pubescent, the margins pectinate-ciliate ;
basal leaves generally small, oblanceolate, to 4

mm wide; 3^ heads per plant . . .

. . . 4a. C. tomentosus.

Bracts glabrous or minutely hairy, the margins
erose or suberose-ciliate; basal leaves generally
spatulate, larger, to 3 cm wide; heads more

numerous per plant, to 40 or more .

. . . 4b. C. bellidifolius.

4a. Carphephorus tomentosus (Michx.) T. & G.

Perennial herbs 3. 8-5. 5 dm tall, generally spread¬
ing-hirsute; leaves oblanceolate, 3.5-13.0 cm long
(including the petiole), 0. 4-1.0 (-1.2) cm wide,
crenate-dentate to subentire, the base cuneate, sessile
progressively smaller and sessile toward the inflo¬
rescences; involucre campanulate, (0.7—) 0.9— 1.2 cm
long, the bracts acute and pubescent with pectinate-
ciliate margins; achenes 3. 0-4.0 mm long; pappus
about 7.0 mm long. 2n = 20 (21); n = 10 (22).

This species occurs most commonly in pine and
oak woods, in white sand and peaty pine barrens,
less commonly in sphagnous bogs, in open sand and
clayey soils in four southeast Virginia counties
(Fig. 2B). This distribution is very similar to that
of the following species, C. bellidifolius. The total

Fig. 2B — Distribution of Carpehphoriis in Virginia. Open
circles indicate distribution of Carphephorus tomentosus
in Virginia; closed dots indicate distribution of Carphephorus
bellidifolius in Virginia.

40

The Virginia Journal of Science

distribution extends from Florida to southeast Vir¬
ginia on the Coastal Plain ( 3 ) .

In Virginia, C. tomentosus is in flower from mid-
July to mid-October; in fruit from late August though
October.

Fernald (23) proposed the name Carphephorus
tomentosus (Michx.) T. & G. var. Walter i (Ell.)
Fernald to include those plants which possess gla¬
brous lower leaves but otherwise have the characters
of C. tomentosus. These plants are distinct and thus
are recognized in the flora. However, more study is
required to determine the exact relationship of var.
walteri.

4b. Carphephorus bellidifolius (Michx.) T. & G.

Perennial herbs 3. 0-7. 5 dm tall; generally glabrous
to nearly so on the stem and puberulent on the pedun¬
cles; lower leaves oblanceolate to spatulate, 12.0-
15.0 cm long (including the petioles), 1. 5-3.0 cm
wide, the upper progressively smaller; involucre
campanulate to hemispheric, 1.0-1. 2 cm high, the
bracts apically rounded, glabrous, the margin cil-
iate to erose; achenes 5. 0-6.0 mm long, pappus 7.0-
9.0 mm long. 2n = 20 (21).

Endemic to the southeastern United States, C.
bellidifolius occurs in white sand pine barrens, dry
sandy oak woods and dry sand in four southeast
Virginia counties (Fig. 2B). This distribution and
that of C. tomentosus closely parallel the sand and
clay soil parent material of the Flat Woods of
the Coastal Plain Province as mapped by Wingo
(24). The total range extends from southeastern
Virginia to Georgia on the Coastal Plain (2) and to
Florida (3, 4).

Carephephorus bellidifolius is generally in bloom
in September; in fruit in October. One specimen, in
flower, was collected in mid-July.

The two species in this genus in Virginia, though
somewhat similar in appearance, are readily distin¬
guished by the pubescent bracts of C. tomentosus
vs. glabrous bracts in C. bellidifolius, and by the
wider leaves and more numerous inflorescences in
C. bellidifolius. See also the papers by James (20)
and Hebert (25).

Another member of the tribe, Sclerolepis uniflora
(Walt.) BSP., a smooth perennial with usually single
stems, small linear whorled leaves and a single ter¬
minal inflorescence, is to be expected in Virginia.
The plant has been collected in Maryland (specimen
at US) and from Northampton County, N. C.. (2)

which borders on Virginia from bogs, ditches and
low savannahs. Knowlton (26) describes S. uniflora
as characteristic of pine barrens of the Middle and
South Atlantic States which obviously includes Vir¬
ginia. Nevertheless, manuals for our region (3, 4)
describe the distribution extending on the Coastal
Plain from Florida to New Hampshire, but exclude
Virginia. Why does S. uniflora not occur in Virginia?

REFERENCES

1. Johnson, M. F., Castanea, in press (1971).

2. Radford, A. E., Ahles, H. E., and Bell, C. R., Manual
of the Vascular Flora of the Carolinas, The University
of North Carolina Press, 1968.

3. Eernald, M. L., Gray’s Manual of Botany, Eighth (Cen¬
tennial) Edition, American Book Company, New York,
New York, 1950.

4. Gleason, H. A., and Cronquist, A., Manual of Vascular
Plants of Northeastern United States and Adjacent Can¬
ada, D. Van Nostrand Company, Princeton, New Jer¬
sey, 1963.

5. Barroso, G. M., Archos Jard. hot., Rio de /., 16, 239
(1958).

6. Darlington, C. D., and Wylie, A. P., Chromosome Atlas
of Flowering Plants, MacMillan, New York, New
York, 1956.

7. Mangenot, S., and Mangenot, G., Bull. Jard. hot. Etat
Brux., 28, 315 (1958).

8. Baquar, S. R., Rev. Biol., 6, 440 (1967-1968).

9. Mitra, J., /. Indian hot. Soc., 26, 105 (1947).

10. Mitra, K., and Datta, N., Taxon, 16, 445 (1967).

11. Allard, H. A., and Leonard, E. C., Castanea, 8, 1
( 1943).

12. Allard, H. A., and Leonard, E. C., Castanea, 27, 1
(1962).

13. Smith, E. B., Madrono, 18, 122 (1956).

14. Hoffman. R. L., Research Division Bulletin, 48, Vir¬
ginia Polytechnic Institute, Blacksburg, 1969.

15. Thorne. R. F., and Cooperrider, T. S., Castanea, 25,

1 {I960).

16. Cooperrider, T. S., and Thorne, R. F., Castanea, 29,
46 (1964).

17. Freer, R. S., Castanea, 33, 163 (1968).

18. Johnson, M. F., and litis, H. H., Trans. Wis. Acad.
Sci. Arts Lett., 52, 255 ( 1963).

19. Shinners. L. H., Wrightia, 1, 122 (1947).

20. James, C. W., Rhodora, 60, 1 17 (1958).

21. Gaiser, L. O., J. Arnold Arhor., 35, 87 ( 1954).

22. Jones, S. B., Bull. Torrey hot. Cluh, 95, 393 (1968).

23. Fernald, M. L., Rhodora, 42, 419 (1940).

24. Wingo, A. L., Bull. State Bd. of Educ., 41, Richmond,
1949.

25. Hebert, H. J. C., Rhodora, 70, 474 (1968).

26. Knowlton, C. H., Rhodora, 14, 175 (1912).

Eupatorieae in Virginia

41

R. R. Schalles'^’^ and T. J. Marlowe^

Animal Science Department
Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University
Blacksburg, Virginia 24061
Received February 11, 1971

Estimates of Phenotypic, Genetic and Environmental
Parameters in a Herd of Angus Cows’^

Abstract — Preweaning performance records on 2,604
calves out of 769 cows were used to calculate heritability
and phenotypic, genetic and environmental correlations for
preweaning average daily gain (ADG) and weanling grade
in a herd of Angus cattle. Heritability estimates of calving
interval were also calculated from 3,989 records from the
same 769 cows.

Paternal half sib analyses of variance and covariance
were used to obtain the heritability and correlation esti¬
mates. Heritability estimates of 0.57 rt .09, 0.31 ± .02
and 0.03 ±: .20 were obtained for preweaning ADG,
weanling grade and calving interval, respectively. Estimates
of 0.24 ± .02, 0.16 ± .08 and 0.37 were obtained for
phenotypic, genetic and environmental correlations, re¬
spectively, between preweaning ADG and weanling grade.

Introduction

The productivity of a beef cow is measured by her
ability to wean a heavy calf of desirable conforma¬
tion each year. To be most effective in selecting herd
replacements, the breeder must know how heritable
each trait under selection is and how the several
traits are related to each other. Since all traits are
both hereditary and environmental, it is important
to know the relative influence that each has on a
given economic trait under local environmental con¬
ditions. If the expression of the trait in question is
controlled largely by environmental conditions such
as feed, weather, etc., then little will be gained from
selecting for that trait in the breeding stock. On the
other hand, if the expression of the trait is little af¬
fected by environmental conditions it is said to be
highly hereditary and progress can be made in the
breeding stock by selecting animals that express the
desired trait to a high degree. Most traits of eco¬
nomic importance in cattle are thought to be some¬
where in between these two extremes.

Because of the pleiotropic effect of genes or be¬
cause genes that affect different traits are located on
the same chromosome, there is sometimes a correla¬
tion between two or more traits of economic impor-

^ Published with the approval of the Director, V.P.I. Research
Division and the Chief of the Beef Cattle Research Branch, ARS,
USDA.

- Contributing to Southern Regional Beef Cattle Project, S-10.

^ Part of a dissertation submitted by the senior author in partial
fulfillment of the requirements for the Doctor of Philosophy degree
at Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Blacksburg, Virginia.

‘‘Present Address: Animal Science and Industry, Kansas State
University, Manhattan, Kansas.

® Professor of Animal Science.

tance. Sometimes this correlation is positive and
sometimes it is negative. The breeder needs to know
these relationships in order to plan the most efficient
selection program. For example, there is a high posi¬
tive correlation between growth rate and feed effi¬
ciency in beef cattle. By selecting for growth rate
alone the breeder can make about 80% as much
progress in improving the feed efficiency of his ani¬
mals as if he went to the great expense of obtaining
individual feed records and using them as a basis for
his selection. Therefore, in order to predict effective¬
ness of selection for traits of economic importance
in beef cattle, it is necessary to have estimates of
phenotypic, genetic and environmental parameters
of the traits involved.

The purpose of this study was to obtain estimates
of heritability of preweaning average daily gain
(ADG), weanling grade and calving interval, and
phenotypic, genetic and environmental correlations
between preweaning ADG and weanling grade in a
large herd of Angus cattle in Southwest Virginia.

Materials and Methods

The Data. Data obtained from a purebred herd
of Angus cows, increasing in size from 250 pro¬
ductive cows in 1955 to 350 cows in 1965, were
used for the calf performance portion of this study.
Records were collected by the Virginia Beef Cattle
Improvement Association (BCIA) over the years
1955 through 1965. Usable performance records
were available on 2,604 calves from 769 cows by
43 sires. The number of offspring per sire varied
from 11 to 196, with an average of 60.5 calves.
Sires were used in the herd for an average of 3.4
years with a range from 1 to 7 years. Cows were bred
to calve either in the fall or in the spring, with the
peak months being October and March. Some calves
were born in each month but the number was quite
small during June, July and August. Calves varied
in age at time of weighing and grading from 120 to
299 days with an average age of 192 days and a
standard deviation of 38 days. Cows varied from 2
to 19 years of age at time of calving. For the analy¬
sis they were grouped by age as 2, 3, 4, 5, 6—7, 8-11
and over 1 1 years.

Weights were taken by a BCIA Fieldman and

42

The Virginia Journal of Science

grades were assigned by a member of the Virginia
Livestock Grading Service. The grading system used
was that described by Marlowe, Kincaid and Litton
(1). Weanling grades ranged from 6 to 16 with an
average of 11.6 and a standard deviation of 1.5. The
average weight of the calves was 366 lb., with a
standard deviation of 68 pounds. The preweaning
average daily gain (ADG) and weanling grade data
were adjusted for age, sex and month of birth of calf
and age of dam as described by Marlowe, Mast and
Schalles (2).

Parameter Estimates. Estimates of heritability, and
genetic, environmental and phenotypic correlations
were obtained for these traits from paternal half-sib
analyses of variance and covariance on a within-year
and within-age-of-dam basis. There were 1 1 years and
7 age-of-dam groups. Equations used for heritability
(h^), genetic correlation (rg,^,,), environmental correla¬
tion (r^^gy) and phenotypic correlation (rp^p^) are as
follows:

(T^S + 0-“W

_

^E^Ey /~2 2

V 0" S(x)0' S(j.)

q'W(^.y) — 3(TS(,,y)

V

) — 30- “s.

V o-V,y) — 3(r'S(,,)

<rwuy)

+ O-S(xy)

1 2

) + 0- S(x

) V 0'''W(y) + (r^S(y)

where a^s is the sire component of variance, a-w is the
within component of variance and the subscripts
(x and y) designate the traits involved, and

<7-S(„y, are covariance among traits X and Y on a
within- and among-sire basis, respectively. Standard
errors for the heritability estimates were calculated
according to Dickerson (3).

The heritability estimate for average calving in¬
terval was also obtained from a paternal half-sib
analysis. An approximate standard error for the ge¬
netic correlation was obtained according to the equa¬
tion given by Falconer (4). The standard error for the
phenotypic correlation (rp^py) was obtained by the
equation: s.e. rp^py = [1/N — 3(2ni)], where n; is the
number of age-of-dam groups represented in year i
and N is the total number of observations as described
by Marlowe and Vogt (5).

Results and Discussion

Least squares analyses of variance showed that
both age of dam and year effects on average daily
gain (ADG), weanling grade and calving internal
were highly significant. Therefore, these effects were
included in the statistical model for estimating herita-
bilities and phenotypic, environmental and genetic
correlations. Least squares means and constant esti¬
mates are shown in Table I. The overall regression of
ADG on years was negative (-.07) whereas the re¬
gression of grade on years was positive (0.13).

Month and year of birth of calf and age of dam
all had a significant effect on length of calving inter-

TABLE I

Least Squares Means {LSM) and Deviation from LSM
for Average Daily Gain (ADG) and Weanling Grade

Factor

Observations

ADG

Grade

Least Squares Mean

2604

1.59

11.5

Age of dam

2 yr. olds

290

- .12

0.03

3 yr. olds

335

- .06

0.12

4 yr. olds

350

0.02

0.13

5 yr. olds

311

0.05

0.13

6-7 yr. olds

508

0.06

0.07

8-11 yr. olds

600

0.07

0.00

12 yr. and older

210

- .02

- .48

Years

b = - .07

b = 0.13

1955

150

0.03

- .51

1956

212

0.08

- .35

1957

239

0.03

- .53

1958

204

- .03

- .18

1959

190

- .05

- .61

1960

194

- .03

- .23

1961

232

0.01

0.36

1962

270

0.03

0.27

1963

312

- .03

0.34

1964

299

0.00

0.82

1965

302

- .04

0.62

val. For each year increase in age of cow the calving
interval increased by 1.5 days. Cows calving in May
and August had a calving interval of 419 days and
those calving in June and July had an interval of 445
days. The mean was 398 days. The shortest calving
interval occurred among cows that calved in January
through March which is the most prevalent calving
season in Virginia. These cows would have been bred
while on spring pasture and gaining in weight and
condition. The year to year fluctuations were prob¬
ably the result of good or poor grazing conditions the
previous year.

Heritability Estimates. The heritability estimates
obtained were 0.57 ± .09 for preweaning ADG,
0.31 ± .02 for weanling grade and 0.03 ± .20 for
calving interval. The heritability estimate for pre¬
weaning ADG is somewhat higher than most esti¬
mates reported in the literature. Brinks et al. (6)
reported an estimate of 0.40 ± .06 but most esti¬
mates have been nearer 0.30, especially when a
large number of observations were used. Marlowe
and Vogt (5) obtained estimates of 0.49 ± .10
for Angus bull calves, 0.43 ± .06 for steer calves,
0.31 ± .06 for heifer calves and 0.38 ± .03 for
combined sexes. Their estimates were based on
12,134 offspring of 1,453 sires in 100 herds.

The heritability estimate of 0.3 1 ± .02 for wean¬
ling grade is in line with most estimates reported in
the literature. Petty (7) summarized the heritability
estimates found in the literature, and calculated an
overall weighted average estimate of 0.292 for
weanling grade. Marlowe and Vogt (5) reported
an estimate of 0.36 ± .04 for the combined sexes of
Angus cattle and 0.33 ± .04 for Hereford cattle.

The heritability estimate of 0.03 ± .20 for calv¬
ing interval is in good agreement with that reported
by Legates (8) for dairy cows of 0.026, but slightly

Genetic Parameters in Angus Cattle

43

lower than those reported by Lindley et al. (9) for
beef cattle which ranged from 0.07 to 0.17, de¬
pending on the method of calculation.

Phenotypic, Environmental and Genetic Correla¬
tions. Correlations were obtained between prewean¬
ing ADG and weanling grade from paternal half-sib
analyses of variance and covariance. Estimates ob¬
tained were 0.24 ± .02 for phenotypic, 0.16 ±
.08 for genetic and 0.37 for environmental correla¬
tions. All correlations are slightly lower than most
estimates reported previously. However, the pheno¬
typic and genetic correlations do not deviate far
from those reported by Marlowe and Vogt (5),
whose calves were graded by the same graders.

Conclusions

The parameter estimates obtained in this study
add to the general knowledge of the importance of
genetic and environmental influences on three of the
most important economic traits in beef production,
namely, regularity of reproduction, ability to gain
rapidly from birth to weaning and to produce an
animal of desirable conformation.

The magnitude of the heritability estimates for
preweaning ADG and weanling grade indicates that
selection for these traits would result in genetic im¬
provement at a modest rate. On the other hand, the
low estimate for calving interval suggests that a
breeder would be wasting his time and efforts in
selecting for genetic improvement to shorten the
calving interval. Improvements in this trait must
come about through better management practices,
such as breeding during the best time of the year,
improving feed supply, using bulls of known high
fertility and others.

The positive correlation coefficients between

ADG and grade, although low, indicate that by se¬
lecting for one of these traits some progress will be
made in the other trait also. Even more important
is the fact that there is no antagonism between these
two economically important traits and that genetic
improvement can be made in both traits simultane¬
ously through selection.

REFERENCES

1. Marlowe, T. J., Kincaid, C. M. and Litton, G. W., Vir¬
ginia beef cattle performance testing program, Bull. Va
agric. Exp. Stn, 489, 1958.

2. Marlowe, T. J., Mast, C. C. and Schalles, R. R., Some
non-genetic influences on calf performance, J. Aiiim.
ScL, 24, 494 (1965).

3. Dickerson, E., Techniques for research in quantitative
animal genetics. Techniques and Procedures in Animal
Production Research, Amer. Soc. Anim. Prod., 1960.

4. Falconer, D. S., Introduction to Quantitative Genetics,
The Ronald Press Co., New York, 1960.

5. Marlowe, T. J. and Vogt, D. W., Heritability, pheno¬
typic correlations and genetic correlations involving pre¬
weaning gain and weaning grade of beef calves, J.
Anim. Sci., 24, 502 (1965).

6. Brinks, J. S., Clark, R. T., Kieffer, N. M. and Urick,
J. J., Estimates of genetic, environmental and phenotypic
parameters in range Hereford females, J. Anim. Sci.,
23, 711 (1964).

7. Petty, R., Jr., A summary of genetic and phenotypic
parameters of growth and conformation characteristics
of beef cattle, Mimeo. Texas A&M University, 1964.

8. Legates, J. E., Genetic variation in services per con¬
ception and calving interval in dairy cattle, J. Anim.
Sci., 13, 81 (1954).

9. Lindley, C. E., Easley, G. T., Whatley, J. A., Jr., and
Chambers, D., A study of the reproductive performance
of a purebred Hereford herd, J. Anim. Sci., 17, 336
(1958).

44

The Virginia Journal of Science

Martin J. Oakes and Dexter S. Haven

College of William and Mary
Williamsburg, Virginia

and

Virginia Institute of Marine Science
Gloucester Point, Virginia 23062
Received February 22, 1971

Soma Predators of Polyps of Chrysaora quinquecirrha
(Scyphozoa, Semaeostomeae) in the Chesapeake Bay*

Abstract — Some invertebrate predators of polyps of
Chrysaora quinquecirrha were identified. They included
Caprella equilihra, Callipallene brevirostris, Neopanope tex-
ana sayi, Pagurus longicarpus, Libinia dubia, and Cratena
pilata. Only C. pilata showed a preference over other pos¬
sible prey organisms.

Introduction

The Chesapeake Bay is plagued each year by the
Scyphozoan Chrysaora quinquecirrha. The abun¬
dant medusoid form of this animal is a nuisance to
swimmers and fishermen, and causes economic loss
to businesses which profit from visitors to our sea¬
shores. On occasions it has clogged intake screens
on power plants which use estuarine waters for
cooling. At times it also causes trouble in the cooling
systems of vessels. The ecology of C. quinquecirrha
has been studied by various workers ( 1-4, and
others). Further study is needed to determine pred¬
ators which may control populations in the estuary.

Known predators of the free floating medusa and
ephyra forms include the harvest fish Peprilus ale-
pidotus, the anemone Diadumene leucolena, the
spider crab, Libinia dubia and the barnacle Balanus
eburneus (1, 2, 5, 6). The sessile polyp stage might
be expected to be subject to predation by many
species. One organism which has been extensively
studied is the nudibranch Cratena pilata, an organ¬
ism capable of selectively ingesting polyps at a
rapid rate (1, 7). The present research was directed
toward determining the possible role of other com¬
mon benthic invertebrates as predators on polyps.

Materials and Methods

Epibenthic species from several taxa were tested
as possible predators (Table I). The animals ex¬
amined had habitats similar to those of the polyp
of C. quinquecirrha. Work on this project was
completed during the months of June and July 1969.

In an initial evaluation of a species as a predator,
five or more individuals were placed in a large fin-
gerbowl containing a known number of polyps.

* Contribution No. 363 from the Virginia Institute of Marine
Science. Supported in part by Public Law 89-720-JeIlyfish Act.

After 24 to 72 hours, the remaining polyps were
counted. Animals tested were considered possible
predators if more than 25% of the polyps were
destroyed during the test. Controls consisted of a
known number of polyps in a fingerbowl. The mor¬
tality in the control bowls was compared to the
mortality under experimental conditions.

Animals designated as possible predators were
further tested to determine whether scyphopolyps
were the preferred prey. Specimens were placed in a
12-inch fingerbowl containing polyps, and the behav¬
ior of the organisms was observed through a dis¬
secting microscope. Controls were maintained in
separate bowls. Results were considered positive
when the suspected predator was seen ingesting a
C. quinquecirrha polyp. Tests were repeated to con¬
firm initial observations.

Polyps used in the study were attached to freshly
collected oyster shells bearing other epibenthic or¬
ganisms (hydroids, sponges, bryozoans). The shell

TABLE I

Summary of Animals Screened as Possible Predators of Polyps of
Chrysaora Quinquecirrha Showing Positive (-1-)
and Negative ( — ) Predation

Species

Length range mm

Results

Gammarus sp.

4

_

Caprella equilibra

5-8

+

Corophium sp.

5-10

—

Cyatliura carinata

10-15

—

Palaemonetes sp.

30-40

—

Libinia dubia

30-40

-h

Neopanope texana sayi

25-40

-h

Pagurus longicarpus

15-20

+

Nereis succinea

25-45

—

Hydroides hexagona

15-20

—

Glycera dibranchiata

40-50

—

Nassarius sp.

15-20

—

Urosalpinx cinerea

10-15

—

Cratena pilata

2-5

-b

Callipallene brevirostris

1-2

+

Styloclnis ellipticus

2-4

—

Coronadena mutabilis

2-4

—

Opsanus tan

40-50

—

Gobiesox strumosus

40-50

—

4.S

Predators of Polyps

TABLE II

Details o/ Experiments on Six Predators of Polyps of Chrysaora Qninquecirrha

Test

Control

Species

Experiment Number

Days

Number Polyps

Percent Mortality

Number Polyps

Percent Mortality

Caprella

1

2

8

87

42

5

equilihra

2

3

15

100

26

11

3

2

50

80

26

0

Callipallene

1

3

46

100

26

11

brevirostris

2

1

4

100

26

0

Neopanope

1

1

51

100

26

0

texana

2

4

125

92

40

0

Cratena

1

4

100

26

0

pilata

Pagurus

1

1

16

100

42

5

longicarpus

2

3

100

91

26

11

Libinia

1

2

40

100

26

11

dubia

2

3

18

100

23

44

with its epifauna thus simulated a “natural environ¬
ment,” offering alternative prey to the attached
scyphopolyps. Oyster shells with polyps were ob¬
tained from the York River and tributary creeks.

Results and Discussion

Six of the 19 species tested were regarded as
predators (Table II). They were the caprellid am-
phipod Caprella equilihra, the pycnogonid Callipal-
lene brevirostris, the mud crab N eopanope texana
sayi, the hermit crab Pagurus longicarpus, the spider
crab Lihinia dubia, the nudibranch Cratena pilata.
Mortality among test polyps ranged from 80 to
100% in tests lasting from one to four days. Each
predator is discussed below.

Caprella equilibra. This amphipod moved over
the oyster shell in an erratic manner. Both C. quin-
quecirrlui and hydroid polyps were readily ingested.
In feeding, the amphipod did not always use its
large gnathopods.

Callipallene brevirostris. On contact with a polyp,
C. brevirostris quickly grasped its prey with the
chelifores and mouth appendages. Polyps were in¬
gested by being sucked into the extended proboscis.

Neopanope texana sayi and Pagurus longicarpus.
These decapods fed in a similar manner, crawling
over the oyster shell and ingesting bryozoans, hy-
droids, and scyphopolyps. Polyps or other prey
were grasped with the chelipeds, pushed to the
mouth, and rapidly ingested. Both species were vo¬
racious predators in the laboratory; within 20 sec¬
onds each had devoured about 10 C. quinquecirrha
polyps. Only one species of mud crab, N. texana
sayi was studied, although other species of Xanthi-
dae such as Eurypanopeus depressus or Panopeus
herbsti may also be predators.

Libinia dubia. This species was reported to be a
predator of the medusae of Aurelia aurita (6). The
spider crab was also found to prey on the medusae
of C. quinquecirrha. Such predation was frequently
observed both in the field and in the laboratory.
L. dubia feeds on scyphopolyps in the same manner
as N. texana sayi and P. longicarpus. Feeding is in
a non-selective fashion; other organisms (i.e., hy-
droids, bryozoans) are seized with the chelae and
rapidly ingested.

Cratena pilata. This nudibranch, as indicated by
Cargo and Schultz (1), and Vogel (7), appears to
be the only predator that shows a feeding preference
for scyphopolyps. C. pilata by-passes other food
items and appears to search for C. quinquecirrha
polyps; other materials, however, are ingested as
well. No nematocyst reaction, except for a small
twitch of the sensory rhinophores, was observed
when the nudibranch made contact with polyps. C.
pilata ingested polyps as quickly as it located them.

Five of the polyps predators identified in the
present study are omnivorous in their feeding habits.
These are C. equilihra, C. brivirostris, N. texana
sayi, P. longicarpus, and L. dubia. All of the above
possess a chitinous exoskeleton which provides pro¬
tection from the nematocysts of the C. quinquecir¬
rha polyps. The nudibranch C. pilata, a selective
predator of scyphopolyps, has no exoskeleton, but is
apparently not harmed by the nematocysts. It is
suggested that these six invertebrate species, be¬
cause of their abundance in the Chesapeake Bay,
possess a high potential for destruction of C. quin¬
quecirrha polyps. Further study of these predators
and their feeding habits may suggest a natural
method of controlling the jellyfish population in
Chesapeake Bay.

REFERENCES

1. Cargo, D. G., and Schultz, L. P., Further observations
on the biology of the sea nettles and jellyfishes in Chesa¬
peake Bay, Chesapeake Sci., 8, 209 (1967).

2. Cones, H. N., and Haven, D. S., Distribution of Chrys¬
aora qtdnquecirrha in the York River, Chesapeake Sci.,
10, 75 (1969).

3. Littleford, R. A., The life cycle of Dactylometra quinque¬
cirrha, L. Agassiz in the Chesapeake Bay, Biol. Bull,
mar. biol. Lab., Woods Hole, 77, 368 (1939).

4. Spangenberg, D. B., Recent studies of strobilation in
jellyfish, Oceanogr. mar. Biol. Ann Rev., 6, 231 (1968).

5. Mansueti, R. J., Symbiotic behavior between small fish
and jellyfishes with new data on that between the
stromateid Peprilus alepidotus and the scyphomedusa
Chrysaora quinquecirrha, Copeia, 1, 40 (1963).

6. Jackowski, R., Observations on the moon jelly, Aurelia
aurita, and the spider crab, Libinia dubia, Chesapeake
Sci., 4, 195 (1963).

7. Vogel, R. M., The reproductive behavior and early de¬
velopment of the Eolid Nudibranch Cratena pilata
gould. Abstract. Am. Zoologist, 9, 604 (1969).

46

The Virginia Journal of Science

C. C. Clayton

Department of Biochemistry,
Medical College of Virginia,
Health Sciences Division,
Virginia Commonwealth University,
Richmond, Virginia 23219
Received March 18, 1971

Studies on Azo Dye Stability as Related to Tumor
Production in the Presence of Certain Benzimidazoles*

Abstract — 2-Ethyl-5-methylbenzimidazole hastens the de¬
struction of the azo dye 3'-methyl-4-dimethylaminoazoben-
zene in vitro but at a slow rate. Evidence is presented here
indicating the inhibition of tumor formation by the azo dye
in the presence of certain benzimidazole derivatives is
probably not due to in vitro dye destruction. Diets in which
the dye is more stable in the presence of benzimidazoles
(containing partially hydrogenated vegetable oil or ascorbic
acid) did not alter the effectiveness of the benzimidazoles
in inhibiting azo dye carcinogenesis.

introduction

We have reported previously that liver tumor
induction by 3'-methyl-4-dimethylaminobenzenc
(3'me-DAB) could be inhibited by feeding 2,5-
dimethylbenziniidazole or 2-ethyl-5-methylbenzimi-
dazole (1). It has also been found that high levels
of copper in the diet reduce the incidenee of azo
dye induced liver tumors, apparently, in part at
least, by catalyzing destruction of the dye (2). The
present studies were performed to measure azo dye
destruction in the presence of benzimidazoles in the
diet in vitro and to test some diets with varying
degrees of dye lability on the induction of liver
tumors in rats.

Methods

Procedures have been described in previous stud¬
ies on the effects of benzimidazoles on carcinogene¬
sis (1). Diets were prepared in two halves. The azo
dye and the oil were kept separate from the benzi¬
midazole so that the benzimidazole and the azo dye
were not in contact until the two halves were mixed
just prior to the studies on stability in vitro, or the
beginning of the animal experiments. The complete
diet had the following composition: 79% glucose
monohydrate (cerelose), 4% Wesson salts, 12%
casein, and 5% corn oil or other fat as indicated
below. Vitamins were added so that each kg of
complete diet contained 3 mg of thiamine HCl, 7.5
mg calcium pantothenate, 2.5 mg of pyridoxine,
2 mg of riboflavin, and 1 g of choline chloride. Tet¬

* Supported in part by a grant from the National Cancer Insti¬
tute of the National Institutes of Health (C-1541).

racycline was added to diets at a level of 100 mg
per kg for the studies involving animal experimen¬
tation (3). The benzimidazoles were incorporated
in the diet at 0.25% and the azo dye, 3'me-DAB,
was at a level of 0.064%. For animal experimenta¬
tion water was given ad lihitnm and food consump¬
tion was measured at intervals. Young adult Holtz-
man male rats weighing approximately 200 g at the
start of the experiments were housed in wire-bottom
stainless steel cages in groups of three to five. The
animals were weighed and examined at weekly in¬
tervals.

For tumor experiments the animals (15 per
group at start of experiments) were fed the dye-
containing diet for 8 weeks followed by an addi¬
tional 8 weeks on the dye-free diet. The animals
were then sacrificed and presence of tumors ob¬
served grossly and microscopically. Analytical stud¬
ies were performed after 3 weeks of feeding with
five animals per group. The animals were sacrificed,
livers removed and homogenized in water, and ali¬
quots used for the appropriate analysis. Riboflavin
concentration was determined by the fluorometric
method of Connor and Straub (4) as modified by
Andrews (5). Total azo dye concentration of the
liver was determined by the method of Spain and
Clayton (6) .

Urine and feces from rats fed 3'me-DAB with
and without 2-ethyl-5-methylbenzimidazole were
analyzed for apparent azo dye (6) on days 3, 4,
8-11, and 30-32 to determine the effect of the benz¬
imidazole upon excretion of the dye. The rats were
pretrained to eat in a 2 hour period, and separate
collection of urine and feces was made over a 22
hour period from individual animals placed in me¬
tabolism cages.

The azo dye concentration in food samples was
determined at intervals by extracting a weighed ali¬
quot three times with ether, decanting and filtering
the ether each time, evaporating the combined ether
extracts and making up to appropriate volume with
2 N HCl. The concentration of dye was determined
spectrophotometrically using a known amount of
azo dye in 2 N HCl as a standard.

Azo Dye Induced Tumors

47

Results

TABLE I

Dye stability in the presence of 2 -ethyl-5 -methyl-
benzimidazole. The dye (3'me-DAB) in freshly
prepared diet containing 0.25% of the benzimida¬
zole derivative was found to be stable for three days
at room temperature and for 28 days in the cold
(10 C). A diet prepared and placed in food cups
(as fed to the rats) in the animal cage with animals
showed no loss of azo dye under these conditions
after 24 hours. Certain additions to the diet did
affect the stability. The dye was stable for a month
at room temperature upon the addition of ascorbic
acid (Ig/lOOg); «-tocopherol (500mg/100g) was
somewhat less effective, and menadione (500mg/
lOOg) had no effect upon stability. Studies with
different fats indicated that the dye was more stable
in the presence of 2-ethyl-5-methylbenzimidazole
when the fat was partially hydrogenated vegetable
oil (Primex), or hydrogenated coconut oil, or when
no fat was included in the diet. Under these condi¬
tions the dye was stable for at least 28 days at room
temperature.

The above results indicate that the dye was more
stable in the presence of the benzimidazole than it
was when high levels of copper were present in the
diet (2), and it would appear that the effect of
benzimidazoles in previous tumor studies ( 1 ) was
not due to catalytic destruction of the dye in vitro.

Fecal and urinary excretion of azo dye. In two
different studies with 2 rats fed the corn oil diet
containing the dye, and 3 fed the same diet plus 2-
ethyl-5-methylbenzimidazole, there was no consis¬
tent effect of the benzimidazole upon dye excretion.
Individual variation between animals was quite great
as was the variation from day to day for any individ¬
ual rat. The similarity in excretion patterns between
the two groups, however, would seem to indicate
that the effect of the benzimidazole upon tumor in¬
duction was not to be accounted for by excretion
differences.

Tumor studies. Since the type of fat in the diet
did affect the stability of the azo dye in the presence
of the benzimidazole derivative, experiments were
performed comparing hydrogenated cottonseed oil
versus com oil with various benzimidazoles added
at a level of 0.25% to the diets. Unsubstituted ben¬
zimidazole, 2,5-dimethylbenzimidazole, and 2-ethyl-
5-methylbenzimidazole were used as liver tumor
induction inhibitors. It was found (Table I) that
without the addition of a benzimidazole to either
the corn oil or the hydrogenated cottonseed oil con¬
taining diets, the tumor incidence was 100%. It was
also found that unsubstituted benzimidazole at this
level had little or no effect upon inhibiting tumor
formation in this study; that is, 100% of the animals
receiving this compound in the diet with hydrogen¬
ated cottonseed oil developed liver tumors. With
the 2,5-dimethyl- or the 2-ethyl-5-methylbenzimi-
dazole, no tumors developed with either fat. This
would indicate that dye lability was not the protec¬
tive action of the benzimidazoles as there was com¬
plete protection with the substituted benzimidazoles
irrespective of the type of fat and little or no effect

Effect of Type of Fat in the Diet Upon Incidence of Tumors
Resulting from Feeding .064% 3'me-DAB in the Presence of
Various Benzimidazoles

survivors

tumors/

with

Diet

survivors

tumors

Corn Oil

12/12

%

100

Primex

11/11

100

Corn Oil + .25% benzimidazole

14/14

100

Primex + .25% benzimidazole

10/14

71

Corn Oil + .25% 2,5-dimethylbenz¬
imidazole

0/15

0

Primex + .25% 2.5-dimethylbenz-
imidazole

0/15

0

Corn Oil -t- 2-ethyl-5-methylbenz-
imidazole

0/15

0

Primex + 2-ethyl-5-methylbenzimidazole

0/14

0

with the unsubstituted benzimidazole. This is com¬
parable to previous results obtained with corn oil
diets ( 1 ) .

Since ascorbic acid offered protection against dye
destruction in the presence of the benzimidazole,
the effect of ascorbic acid, with and without .25%
2-ethyl-5-methylbenzimidazole in the diet, on the
induction of liver tumors by 3'me-DAB was stud¬
ied. Ascorbic acid was added at a level of 200 mg
per kg of diet. The addition of ascorbic acid did not
alter the incidence of tumors (100 vs 92% ) and did
not affect the inhibition of induction of tumors by
2-ethyl-5-methylbenzimidazole (7 vs 0%) (Table
II).

Analytical studies. Analysis of livers of rats after
3 weeks on diets to compare corn oil with partially
hydrogenated vegetable oil (Primex) showed that
the liver riboflavin was comparable between the two
fats and that the more protective the benzimidazole,
the higher the riboflavin concentration in the liver.
The azo dye concentration of the liver decreased
with the benzimidazoles in the diet and the more
active the benzimidazole, the lower the concentra¬
tion of the liver dye (Table III). The higher ribo¬
flavin (7) and lower azo dye (8) concentrations
would be expected from the tumor studies.

Discussion

These studies indicate that certain benzimidazoles
are effective in preventing the induction of liver

TABLE II

Effect of Ascorbic Acid and l-Ethyl-S-methylhenzimidazole
Upon Induction of Liver Tumors by 3'me-DAB

Diet

tumors /
survivors

survivors

with

tumors

Control

10/10

%

100

Control -f ascorbic acid

11/12

92

Control -f 2-ethyl- 5-methylbenzimidazole

1/14

7

Control + ascorbic acid -j- 2-ethyl-5-
methylbenzimidazole

0/14

0

48

The Virginia Journal of Science

TABLE III

Effect of Different Benzimidazoles and Type of Dietary Fat
Upon Riboflavin and Azo Dye Concentration in the Liver (pg/gm
Fresh Weight) After 3 Weeks of Feeding a Diet Containing
.064% 3'me-DAB (Ave. 5 rats / group)

Fat

Benzimidazole

Riboflavin

Azo Dye

Mg 'gm

Mg/gm

Corn Oil

NONE

17.8

32.7

Corn Oil

.25% benzimidazole

21.4

27.8

Corn Oil

.25% 2,5-dimethylbenz-
imidazole

23.0

23.3

Corn Oil

.25% 2-ethyl-5-methyibenz-
imidazole

25.9

18.7

Primex

NONE

21.4

35.0

Primex

.25% benzimidarole

19.4

26.2

Primex

.25% 2,5-dimethylbenz-
imidazole

23.9

19.9

Primex

.25% 2-ethyl-5-methylbenz-
imidazole

27.1

20.7

tumors by azo dyes in the rat but probably not be¬
cause of dye destruction in vitro catalyzed by the
benzimidazoles. It appears that the destruction of
the dye that does occur is coupled with the oxidation
of unsaturated fatty acids. This is similar to results
that have been found with increased levels of copper
in the diet (2) and azo dye destruction in the pres¬
ence of linoleic acid ( 9 ) .

Benzimidazoles will form metal chelates (10)
which might possibly be effective catalysts in dye
destruction. Metallo-organic complexes have been
shown to be more effective in catalyzing certain
oxidation-reduction reactions (iron salts vs. heme
in catalase-like action [11]). The protective action
of benzimidazoles toward liver tumor induction by
azo dyes would appear more likely to be at a cellu¬
lar level where such complexes might be involved.
At present we have no indication how certain benzi¬
midazoles function in preventing dye-induced liver
tumors.

Summary

Inhibition of induction of liver tumors by azo
dyes in the presence of certain benzimidazole deriv¬

atives does not seem to be due to in vitro dye de¬
struction. 2-Ethyl-5-methylbenzimidazole promoted
in vitro dye destruction at a slow rate when the
diet contained a fat high in polyunsaturated fatty
acids (corn oil). The dye destruction was not meas¬
urable after 30 days at room temperature when the
diet contained a partially hydrogenated vegetable
oil or added ascorbic acid. Diets with these latter
modifications and containing the liver carcinogen
3'-methyl-4-dimethylaminoazobenzene produced hep¬
atomas in the absence but not in the presence of
two different benzimidazoles, similar to the diet con¬
taining corn oil where the dye was less stable. Ex¬
cretion of apparent azo dye in the urine and feces
was not altered by the addition of 2-ethyl-5-methyl-
benzimidazole indicating that alteration in intestinal
absorotion of the dye was probably not a factor in
the effectiveness of the benzimidazole.

Acknowledgment

The technical assistance of Mr. W. H. Friend is
gratefully acknowledged.

REFERENCES

1. Clayton, C. C., and Abbott, L. D., Jr., Cancer Res.,
18, 94 ( 1958).

2. King, H. J., Spain, J. D., and Clayton, C. C., J. Niitr.,
63, 301 (1957).

3. Clayton, C. C., Va J. Sci., 19, 147 (1968).

4. Connor, R. T., and Straub, G. J., Ind. Engng Chcni.
anaiyt. Edn, 13, 385 ( 1941).

5. Andrews, J. S., Cereal Chein., 20, 3 (1943).

6. Spain. J. D., and Clayton, C. C., Va J. Sci., 6, 88
(1955).

7. Miller, E. C., Miller, J. A., Kline, B. E.. and Rusch.
H. P., J. exp. Med., 88, 89 (1948).

8. Miller, E. C., Miller, J. A., Sapp, R. W.. and Weber,
G. M., Cancer Res., 9, 336 (1949).

9. Gyorgy, P., Tomarelli, R., Ostergard, R. P., and Brown.
J. B., J. exp. Med., 76, 413 ( 1942).

10. Davies, M. T., Mamolis, P., Petrow, V., Sturgeon, B..
Beaven, G. H., Holiday, E. R., and Johnson, E. A.,
J. Pharm. Pharmac., 4, 448 (1952).

11. Calvin, M., Am. Scient., 44, 248 (1956).

Azo Dye Induced Tumors

49

Harvey J. Rosenberg

Department of Mathematics and Statistics
Radford College
Radford, Virginia 24141
Received January 12, 197 D

Some Comments on ^ (O) : The Non-relotivistic
Electron Probability Density at the Origin

Abstract — A reliable knowledge of ^"(O), the square of
the Schrodinger wave function at the origin, is required for
the interpretation of a variety of experimental results. In
spite of its simplicity and inherent weaknesses, the Fermi-
Segre formula for Sk-fO) has proved to be reasonably re¬
liable as well as durable.

A review of the problem as well as a survey of the ef¬
forts made toward improving the accuracy of this quantity
is the subject of the present article.

Introduction

Historically, the first problem to require a reliable
knowledge of the quantity 'I'-fO) — the probability
density of the optical s-electron at the nuclear origin,
was in the determination of nuclear magnetic mo¬
ments from measured values of the interval constant
a, i.e. from magnetic hyperfine structure (hfs) data
(1). (The interval constant a is defined by the equa¬
tion Hiifs = a (I • J) where Hhfs is the hfs interaction
energy, I = nuclear spin, J = total electronic angular
momentum and where ( ), as usual, denotes an ex¬
pectation value (1 ). For an S1/2 electron a is some¬
times referred to as the Fermi contact parameter.

The need for good electron wave functions at the
origin is not limited to the problem of magnetic hfs.
Other experiments in which 'FTO) plays a central
role inelude: isotope shift (2), the Knight shift (3),
and more recently, the isomer shift (4).

The Fermi-Segre Formula

The first derivation of ^'^(O) was presented by
Segre and Fermi (5) in 1933. This result, remark¬
able in its simplicity, is given below, in Eqn. ( 1 ).

^"(O)

Z,Z„^

Trai/n,)^

d(r'\

dn/

(1) Where = Bohr radius

Zi = inner effeetive nuclear charge
Zo = outer effective nuclear charge
Uo = effective quantum number
(J = quantum defect

(1)

The Fermi-Segre (F-S) formula is based on a
JBWK approximation method in whieh the wave
function for the s-electron at large distances

t Revised March 22, 1971.

(r ^ 00 ) is matched to the solution at the nuclear
origin (r ^ 0). In both of these instances, it is
assumed that the eleetron ‘sees’ only a pure cou¬
lomb field. Effects due to electron exchange and
configuration interaction are neglected in the deri¬
vation of the F-S formula. Intuitively, however, one
might expect that these neglected effects are to
some extent included because of the dependence
of 'I'“(0) in Eqn. (1) on empirical values of the
energy levels.

It is of interest to note that the F-S formula is ex¬
pected to be most successful in the case of the al¬
kali atoms. The reason for this prediction is based
on the choice of the term energy as the eigenvalue
of the problem in the F-S derivation and, as is well
known, the energies for the alkalis (6) are accu¬
rately given by

E„^=^'r (2)

no

where R is the Rydberg energy.

Finally, we mention in passing that Foldy (7)
obtained a more rigorous derivation of the F-S for¬
mula by using a modified JBWK approach. Foldy’s
results did not produce any correction to the original
F-S formula nor was he able to make any estimates
of the error involved in the determination of the
wave function.

More Recent Attempts

Although much theoretical work has been done
recently on the evaluation of wave functions (8),
the primary usefulness and success of these esti¬
mates of '1' has been in the interpretation of energy
levels. However, Klapisch (9) has reported errors
of the order of 200% in certain cases in the inter¬
pretation of hfs interaction constants when self-
consistent field (SCF) wave functions are employed.

There is, of course, good reason to be suspect of
any SCF wave function in the interpretation of
properties other than the energy. First of all, the
energy depends quadratically on the wave function
(10) so that a wave function in error by 10%, for
example, will still produce a value for the energy

50

The Virginia Journal of Science

that is good to within 1 % . In other words, if the
trial wave function is written

d'r = d' + €<^ (3)

then

<Et) = E + 0(£^) (4)

(where O (e“) indicates the order of the error)
while, in general, we have for an arbitrary operator
F;

(Ft) = F + 0(£) (5)

Secondly, the contribution to the energy from the
wave function comes from all regions of space and
even a severe oscillation of the wave function in a
specified region of space (for example, the origin)
will not critically affect the overall mean value of
the energy (11).

S. I. Vetchinkin (12) has calculated 4/^0) for
light atoms (Li to Ne) using a modified Ritz varia¬
tional principle. A comparison of values of 'I'-(O)
based on this theory and extrapolated Hartree-Fock
values shows these two sets of values to differ, on
the average, by about 10% .

L. M. Delves (13) discusses a variational prin¬
ciple for arbitrary operators. Its relevance to the
present problem lies in the fact that if the operator
is chosen to be the Dirac delta function: S(x — x„)
we have a variational principle for the wave func¬
tion itself. This problem, however, was not con¬
sidered by Delves.

The work of Percus and Aranoff (14) on varia¬
tional principles for expectation values of physical
quantities other than the energy might provide, in
the future, a possible approach to the problem of
determining 'I'-(O).

Finally, the most recent efforts made toward cal¬
culating hfs parameters have been made using the
many-body techniques developed largely by Brueck-
ner (15). Calculations of this type have been car¬
ried out by R. K. Nesbet (16) on the ground state
of boron and by Kelly and Ron (17) on atomic
iron — both with excellent agreement with experi¬
mental results. The values obtained by Kelly and
Ron represent a considerable improvement over
those obtained bv Watson and Freeman (18) using
the traditional HF calculations. Although Nesbet’s
computed values were within 2% of the experi¬
mental results, the contributions to the coupling
constant from the contact part of the interaction
turned out to be negligible in comparison with
other effects (polarization and orbital interactions).
A table of values presented in Nesbet’s paper com¬

paring the calculations of several different authors
for the contact parameter show severe discrepancies
in this quantity. Thus, in effect, the isolation of
'I'TO) still remains both elusive and difficult to
ascertain.

Conclusion

In spite of the recognized limitations (2) of the
F-S formula for ^'^(O) it continues to receive
widespread use because sufficiently good electron
wave functions are still not available for heavy
atoms. Nonetheless it is encouraging that theoretical
predictions of nuclear magnetic moments utilizing
the F-S formula are within 10%, of the experi¬
mental magnetic moments. To summarize, current
theories as yet do not seem to offer any improve¬
ment over the F-S formula, while continued use of
the latter, on the other hand, must be accompanied
with some reservation.

Acknowledgments

The author wishes to express his appreciation to
Professor H. H. Stroke for much valuable discussion
on the problem and to the National Science Founda¬
tion for a faculty fellowship (1967-1968) during
which the preliminary research was first conducted.

REFERENCES

1. Nierenberg, W. A., A. Rev. nucl. Sci., 7, 349 (1957).

2. Breit, G., Rev. mod. Phy.i., 30, 507 (1958).

3. Knight, W. D., in Solid State Pliy.^ics, Academic Press,
New York, 1956.

4. Shirley, D. A., Rev. mod. Phy.s., 36, 339 (1964).

5. Segre, E., and Fermi, E., Z. Phys., 82, 729 (1933).

6. Slater, J. C., Quantum Theory of Atomic Structure,
McGraw-Hill, Inc., New York, 1960.

7. Foldy, L. L., Phys. Rev., Ill, 1093 (1958).

8. See, for example, Liberman, D., Waber, J. T., and
Cromer, D. T., Phys. Rev., 137, All (1965).

9. Klapisch, M., C. r. hebd. Seanc. Acad. Sci., Paris,
B 265, 914 (1967).

10. Powell, J. I., and Crasemann, B., Quantum Mechanics,
Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc., Reading,
Mass., 1961, p. 397.

11. Clementi, E., /. chem. Phys., 38, 1001 (1963).

12. Vetchinkin, S. I., Soviet Phys. Dokl., 7, 1132 (1963).

13. Delves, L. M., Nucl. Phys., 41, 497 (1963).

14. Aranoff, S., and Percus, J. K., Phys. Rev., 166, 1255
(1968).

15. Bruechner, K. A., The Many-Body Problem, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1959.

16. Nesbet, R. K., Phys. Rev., A 2, 1208 (1970).

17. Kelly, H., and Ron, A., Phys. Rev., A 2, 1261 (1970).

18. Watson, R. E., and Freeman, A. J., Phys. Rev., 123,
2027 ( 1961).

Probability Density at the Origin

51

George M. Simmons, Jr.
and

Avis Winfield

Department of Biology
Virginia Commonwealth University
Richmond, Virginia 23220
Received April 2, 1971

A Feasibility Study Using Conservation Webbingt
as an Artificial Substrate in Macrobenthic Studies* *

Ahstract — A feasibility study was undertaken on a small
woodland stream to test a new artificial substrate. Con¬
servation Webbing. The purpose of the study was to
evaluate how well the community collected on the substrate
material mirrored the natural stream community. Four
orders of aquatic insects were consistently found on the
substrate material. Two of these orders, the Plecoptera and
Diptera, showed a statistically significant increase in num¬
bers with increasing time. The increase in Plecoptera was
due to the development of two winter stonefiy species, Al-
tocapnia rickeri and AUocapnia virghiicina. Certain species
of aquatic insects were collected only from the artificial
substrate. Conservation Webbing collected 63% of the
fauna known to occur in the stream. It appears that the ma¬
terial would be suited for life history studies of certain species
of aquatic insects.

Introduction

The community structure of benthic macroinver¬
tebrates is frequently used to evaluate conditions in
streams that receive agricultural, domestic or in¬
dustrial effluents. Bottom organisms are ideal in¬
dicators of stream conditions because they have
restricted habitat preference, low mobility, suffi¬
ciently long life cycles, and are quickly and directly
affected by any deteriorating effluents which enter
their environment.

The type of sampling equipment which is selected
to collect macrobenthos in a given aquatic habitat
depends upon the depth of the water and type of
substrate. A Surber sampler is usually used to col¬
lect in shallow riffles while in deeper water one of
several types of dredges may be used. Another
technique of sampling which appears to be gaining
wider acceptance is the use of artificial substrates.

Artificial substrates are structures which are
placed in an aquatic habitat and left for a suitable
period of time in order to allow colonization. Later
the substrate is retrieved and the macrobenthic

t Trademark name of material. Available from the 3-M Corpora¬
tion, New Business Ventures Division, St. Paul, Minnesota.

* This project was sujjported in part hy the United States De¬
partment of the Interior, Office of Water Resources Research Grant
.•\-031-Va; Puhiic Health Service Research Grant RR 00016-08 from
the National Institute of Health; and, the 3-M Corporation, New
Business Ventures Division, St. Paul, Minnesota. The authors wish
to acknowledge the assistance of students in Aquatic Ecology at
Virginia Commonwealth University who made the summer collections.

animals are removed and counted. Numerous stud¬
ies have been made using artificial substrates and
several types of material and different techniques
have been tried. Concrete structures were among
those first proposed ( 1 ) and subsequently
used (2-4). While these substrates appear to pro¬
vide a satisfactory surface and are not easily moved
in swift water, they are cumbersome, subject to
coverage with silt, and breakage. Moon (5) used
wire trays covered with stone, sand or weeds from
the natural habitat as an artificial substrate to study
the migration of the invertebrate fauna in Lake
Windermere. Macan (6) found that this technique,
however, did not work well in streams. Hester and
Dendy (7), and Arthur and Horning (8) designed
a multiple plate artificial substrate sampler from
masonite. Arthur and Horning (8) found that this
type of artificial substrate worked quite well in
illustrating the effects of organic pollution from a
municipal area on the Mississippi River and a
sugar beet refinery on the Minnesota River. The
better types of artificial substrates described to date
appear to be the “wire basket or box” type which
can be filled with a variety of materials. Wene and
Wickliff (9) used wire baskets containing coarse
rubble. Henson (10) also described a sampler of
similar design. Mason, Anderson, and Morrison (11)
used cylindrical, welded wire, chromium plated
“Bar-B-0” baskets filled with 9.1 kg of limestone
rocks. Hilsenhoff (12) constructed a cylinder (12.7
cm high and 21.7 cm in diameter) with a top and
bottom of galvanized wire. The cylinder was then
filled with 3.6 kg of limestone rocks and mounted
on a patio block (30.5 X 40.7 X 5.7 cm). Hilsen¬
hoff (12) also advanced the “wire basket” concept
by designing a sampler-catcher in order that the
substrate fauna could not escape as the sampler
was being removed from the water.

The purpose of our feasibility study was to use
the “wire basket” concept to evaluate the degree to
which the macrobenthic species in a small fresh¬
water stream would colonize Conservation Webbing,
the artificial substrate. Witham, et al (13) tested
Conservation Webbing in a marine habitat and

52

The Virginia Journal of Science

found it highly effective in collecting postlarval
forms of the spiny lobster, Panulirus argus.

Study Area

The study site was a tributary of Contrary Creek
in Louisa County, Virginia (Fig. 1 ) . Although Con¬
trary Creek itself has been seriously affected by
acid drainage, previous collecting on the tributary
had shown that it supported a very diverse macro-
faunal community. The small stream was dubbed
Avis’ Trib (after the junior author) by other stu¬
dents at the university and this name will be used
hereafter in the paper for the sake of convenience.

Avis’ Trib is a small woodland stream approxi¬
mately 1200 feet long with a 5.4% grade from its
origin to its junction with Contrary Creek. The
banks are densely populated by birch although there
are no trees growing in the stream bottom itself. The
stream bed varies in width through the study area
(approx. 200 feet) from 1 foot in some of the riffle
areas to 6 feet in some of the larger pools. Flow is
maintained by the natural drainage of water from
the surrounding woodlands and fluctuated consider¬
ably during the study due to several rainy periods.

Methods and Materials
Physical and Chemical:

Temperatures were measured with a calibrated
long-stem thermometer. The thermometer was
placed in the water until equilibration was estab¬
lished. Turbidity values were made on a Bausch
and Lomb Spectronic 20 and expressed in Jackson
Units. Water samples for routine chemical analyses
were collected with a sewage sampler. Oxygen was
determined by the Alsterberg-Azide modification
of the Winkler technique (14). Alkalinity values
were determined by the potentiometric method after
the establishment of a differential titration curve
(14)

Biological:

Sampling the Natural Community

The natural benthic community was sampled with
standard D-frame aquatic dip nets during June 1969
and 1970, and with the Surber sampler in October,
1969, at the initiation of the artificial substrate study.
The 1969 dip net samples were taken near the
entrance of Avis’ Trib into Contrary Creek. In June,

Feasibility Study of Artificial Substrate

53

Fig. 2 — Placing the baskets containing the artificial sub¬
strates.

Fig. 3 — Distribution of the baskets within the study area.

1970, after completion of the artificial substrate ex¬
periment, the samples were collected throughout
the area where the artificial substrates had been pre¬
viously placed. The square foot samples were taken
before the upstream area was disturbed by the place¬
ment of the Conservation Webbing. All field col¬
lections were preserved in formalin, returned to the
laboratory, washed onto a No. 30 mesh screen, and
sorted under a magnified illuminator.

The Artificial Substrate

Conservation Webbing is a black thermoplastic
mesh of nonwoven fibers pressed into sheets Vs
to Vi inch thick. Four layers of the webbing were
wired into the bottoms of 30, 9-inch square, alum¬
inum baskets. The baskets were numbered and
wired to stakes at intervals of four feet along the
stream bed, distributed among riffle and pool areas
(Fig. 2 and 3). The depth of water over the sub¬
strate material varied, but all were initially covered
by an inch or more of water. Every week for ten
weeks from October 21, 1969 to December 23,
1969, three numbers were chosen at random and
the corresponding baskets were retrieved. The sub¬
strate mats and any detritus found in the baskets
were put into isopropyl alcohol and taken back to
the laboratory. Most of the organisms could be
ffushed out of the webbing with running water and
trapped in a No. 30 mesh sieve. The rest were
picked out with forceps using an illuminated mag¬
nifier. The organisms were then grouped according
to order and counted.

Results and Discussion
Physical and Chemical Properties:

During the ten week period of study the water
temperature changed 15 C. The initial temperature
was 16 C (October 21) and the final temperature
was 4 C (December 23). The lowest temperature
recorded was 1 C on December 2 and the greatest
changes occurred between October 21-28 with an
observed drop of 8 C (16 C-8 C) and November
26-December 2 when a drop of 6 C was observed
(7 C-1 C). During the first two weeks of December,
ice formation was present along the margins of the
stream.

PERCENT OF COMMUNITY POPULATION

Fig. 4 — Histogram of community structure on Avis’ Trib,
Summer, 1969.

54

The Virginia Journal of Science

0

ANNELIDA

ARTHROPODA

CRUSTACEA

DECAPODA

ISOPODA

INSECTA

ODONATA

EPHEMEROPTERA

PLECOPTERA

HEMIPTERA

MEGALOPTERA

TRICHOPTERA

-OLEOPTERA

OIPTERA

MOLLUSCA

PELECYPODA

HETEROOONTA

PERCENT OF COMMUNITY POPULATION
20 40 60 80 100

— 1 - j - 1 - 1 - 1 - 1 - 1 - j - 1

COMMUNITY STRUCTURE

Avis' Trib on Contfory Creek
Summer 1970

Fig. 5 — Histogram of community structure on Avis’ Trib,
Summer, 1970.

Oxygen values varied between 7.2-11.7 ppm or
75 per cent to 102 per cent saturation. The water
had a low alkalinity (11.0 ppm CaCOs) and slightly
basic properties (7.5 pH).

The Natural Community:

The community structure of Avis’ Trib as evalu¬
ated by dip-netting was significantly altered between
the two summers as a result of siltation due to basin
clearing (Fig. 4 and 5). Clearing operations began
in early 1970, and by June, 1970, all riffle and
pool areas had completely filled with sand, and the
extensive banks of leaf debris had been covered.

Prior to the basin clearing, one of the most abun¬
dant and diverse segments of the natural commu¬
nity collected with the dip nets was the Trichoptera.
Other than Hydropsyche and Cheumatopsyche, the
more abundant Trichopteran was Anisocentropus
pyraloides. Anisocentropus pyraloides was partic¬
ularly abundant along the edges of small riffle areas
where a mat of birch leaves had accumulated. Wal¬
lace and Sherberger (15), in a life history study of
this species, found that early instar larvae appeared
to be associated with leaf drifts and late instars with
logs and rocks. The representation of this order
changed from 38.5% of the total community in
1969 to 4.5% in 1970 after the siltation.

The Plecoptera and Ephemeroptera were less
well represented. The only Plecoptera collected was
Acroneuria xanthenes, and specimens of Epeorus
humeralis, Stenonema ares, Ephernerella catawba,
and Ephernerella deficiens represented the
Ephemeroptera. The representation of the Ephem¬
eroptera changed little between the two summers.
This order represented 3.0% of the community in
1969 and 2.0% in 1970. Strangely enough, the rep¬
resentation of the Plecoptera increased from less
than 1.0% in 1969 to 4.0% in 1970.

The Odonata were well represented on Avis’
Trib with specimens of Cordulegaster jasciatus,
Lanthus albistylus, Boyeria vinosa, Aeshna verti-
calis and Agrion maculatum being collected. In

1969, the Odonata represented 10.5% of the or¬
ganisms collected, but this dropped to 3.0% in

1970.

The Megaloptera also showed a drastic shift re¬
presenting 10.0% of the community in 1969 but
only 1.5% in 1970. Sialis, collected in 1969, was
not collected in the artificial substrate zone in 1970.
Nigronia serricornis was very abundant in Avis’
Trib. Only one specimen of Nigronia jasciatus was
collected and this specimen was taken from an ar¬
tificial substrate. It was surprising to find that the
dominant species of Nirgonia collected in this hab¬
itat was N. serricornis rather than N. jasciatus since
the latter is restricted to cool woodland streams
(16). However, N. serricornis is less discriminating
in its choice of habitat (16) and more widely dis¬
tributed than N. jasciatus (17). One specimen of
the aquatic lepidopteran, Nymphula was also col¬
lected during the summer of 1970.

The greatest contrast seen in community struc¬
ture between the two summers was in the represen¬
tation of the Diptera. The representation of this
order increased from 2.5% in 1969 to 80.0% in
1970. Several genera which were not collected dur¬
ing the 1969 summer were very common during the
1970 summer. The Chironomidae in the latter
collection represented the major portion of the
community in 1970. The more abundant spe¬
cimens consisted of Pentaneura, Polypedilurn, Pro-
cladius, and Brillia flavijrons. In addition to the
Chironomidae, five different genera of Tipulidae
were collected, but were represented mainly by
Tipida abdominalis. Several specimens of Simulium
were also collected. An increase in the Dipteran
portion of the aquatic community was also noted by
Aggus and Warren (18) who found that the Dip¬
teran element “appeared to increase” after basin
clearing in the Beaver Lake Basin in Arkansas.

The Coleoptera, like the Diptera and Plecoptera,
increased slightly between the two sampling pe¬
riods. Occupying less than 1% in 1969 the repre¬
sentation of the order increased to 4.5% in 1970.
The Heterodonta, represented by Sphaerium stria¬
tum, decreased from 6.5% in 1969 to less than 1%
in 1970.

Collections in October, 1969, with the Surber
sampler in a riffle only, prior to initiating the arti¬
ficial substrate experiment and before siltation from
the basin clearing, showed that the standing crop of
the bottom fauna community approached 14,920
animals/m^. Larvae of Coleoptera (particularly
Elmidae and Psephenidae) were the most abundant
representing 35.5% of the total number of animals
collected. The Diptera were represented mainly by
members of the Tipulidae, principally Hexatoma,
and represented 31.1% of the benthic community.
The Trichoptera were the next most abundant and
consisted mainly of Cheumatopsyche and Hydro¬
psyche. The Trichoptera represented 20.0% of the
population. The remaining components of the ben¬
thic community were represented less abundantly
by the Ephemeroptera (Stenonema ares — 6.6%),
Odonata (Cordulegaster jasciatus and Lanthus al¬
bistylus — 4.4%), Plecoptera (Acroneuria xanthenes
— 5.2%), Megaloptera (Nigronia serricornis —
3.0%), Hemiptera (Merragata — 0.8%), Mollusca
(Sphaerium striatum — 3.0%), and Oligochaeta

Feasibility Study of Artificial Substrate

55

PERCENT OF COMMUNITY POPULATION

ANNELIDA

ARTHROPODA

INSECTA

ODONATA

EPHEMEROPTERA

PLECOPTERA

HEMIPTERA

MEGALOPTERA

TRICHOPTERA

COLEOPTERA

DIPTERA

MOLLUSCA

PELECYPODA

0_ 20 40 60 80

b

COMMUNITY STRUCTURE

Avis' Trib on Controfory CrceV
Foil 1969
Surb«f Sampler
( 14,920 orgonisms/m^ )

HETERODONTA

joo

Fig. 6 — Histogram of community structure on Avis’ Trib,
Fall, 1969.

(0.8%). Genera common to the pool areas were
not represented in the square foot samples. A histo¬
gram of community structure is presented in Fig. 6.

The Community of the Artificial Substrate:

Table I summarizes the extent of colonization of
the substrate by the macrobenthic community. Fig.
7 graphically represents the tabulated data. As Fig.
7 illustrates, only four orders of aquatic insects were
consistently found on the artificial substrates during
the ten week period of study. The degree to which
the artificial substrate material collected represen¬
tatives of the natural macrobenthic community can
be summarized as follows: Group 1, organisms
which showed a statistically significant increase in
numbers with increasing time; Group 2, organisms
present on the substrates throughout the study, but
no increase in numbers in relationship to time;
Group 3, organisms occasionally present on the sub¬
strate material; Group 4, organisms present in the
natural stream community, but never collected on
the substrate.

As Fig. 7 illustrates, the Plecoptera and Diptera
were the only two orders of the macrobenthic com¬
munity which showed a statistically significant in¬
crease in numbers with time. Additional time would
be required to determine the population density
at which these orders would have become stable.
Other investigators (9, 11) have found that approx¬
imately 4-6 weeks are necessary for maximum
colonization to be achieved. The Trichoptera and
Ephemeroptera illustrated the second condition.
Certain species of these orders were collected within
a week and persisted at a very low density through¬
out the experiment. The Amphipoda, Megaloptera,
and Coleoptera illustrated the third condition and
probably entered occasionally to feed but not to
establish residence. Members of the Annelida,
Mollusca, Isopoda, Decapoda, and Odonata were
never found in the baskets and exhibited the fourth
condition. The Annelida, Mollusca, and Isopoda
are not very abundant in this stream, but the Decap¬
oda and Odonata are abundant.

We cannot offer any explanation at this time for
the sudden drop in density on the seventh week.
The only environmental factor which showed a sig¬
nificant change at this time was temperature. Within

a week (November 26-December 2), water tem¬
perature dropped 6 C. There was no marked change
in volume flow or physical disturbances within the
study zone.

Conclusions about the colonization of the sub¬
strate are clouded by the fact that the baskets
trapped leaves and other debris from upstream and
caused enough damming to reduce the current and
turn riffle areas into virtual pools (Fig. 8). If the
water flow had not been affected, some of the taxa
not collected may have eventually moved onto the
substrate. Nearly all of the animals collected on the
substrate were herbivorus. The substrate evidently
offered a haven for the small, weakly swimming
organisms and enough detritus was present on or
within the substrate to satisfy food requirements.
The relative lack of large predators in the baskets,
even though the baskets were so constructed to al¬
low even the larger crayfish to enter, and the im¬
plied extra protection offered by the substrate bas¬
kets, probably led to the marked abundance of some
Plecoptera and Diptera.

We are also uncertain as to the preferential ac¬
ceptance or rejection of the substrate material by
the macrobenthos. Organisms would come into con¬
tact with the Conservation Webbing either through
migration or drift. Whether or not there is a tactic
response to remain on the substrate will require
further investigation.

Fauna of the Substrate:

As Fig. 7 illustrates, the Diptera showed the great¬
est increase in numbers during the study period.
The maximum number of animals (mean value for
3 substrates) collected during the ten week study
was 89.33 animals on the ninth week. This repre¬
sents approximately 1722.2 animals/m-. The aver¬
age density for the ten week period approximated
832.4 animals /m“. The order consisted mainly of

Weeks

Fig. 7 — The relationship between density and time of cer¬
tain insect orders found on the artificial substrate.

56

The Virginia Journal of Science

TABLE I

Macrobent hie Species From Natural Habitat and Artificial Substrate ; “T” Indicates Presence of the Species.

Organisms

D-Frame Aquatic

Dip Nets

Surber Sampler

Conservation Webbing

1969

1970

1969

PHYLUM

Annelida

CLASS

Oligochaeta

X

X

X

X

PHYLUM

Mollusca

CLASS

Pelecypoda

Sphaeritim striatum

X

X

X

PHYLUM

Arthropoda

CLASS

Crustacea

ORDER

Decapoda

Cambartis

X

X

ORDER

Isopoda

Asellus

X

ORDER

Amphipoda

Gammarus

X

CLASS

Insecta

ORDER

Odonata

Cordtilgaster fasciatiis

X

X

Lanthus albistyliis

X

X

X

Aesitna verticalis

X

X

Boveria vinosa

X

ORDER

Agrion macidatum

X

X

ORDER

Ephemeroptera

Epeorus Ittimeralis

X

Stenonema ares

X

X

X

X

Epitemerella deficiens

X

X

Ephemerella catawba

X

Paraleptophlebia mollis

X

Ephemerella aestica

X

ORDER

Plecoptera

Acroneitria xanthenes

X

X

X

X

Hastaperla brevis

X

Allocapnia richer i

X

Allocapnia virginiana

X

ORDER

Hemiptera

Corixidae

X

Gerris

X

Merragata

X

ORDER

Magaloptera

Nigronia fasciata

X

Nirgonia serricornis

X

X

X

X

Sialis

X

ORDER

Lepidoptera

Nymphula {-Parapony.x)

X

ORDER

Trichoptera

Cheiimatopsyche

X

X

X

X

Hydropsyche

X

X

X

X

Dolophilodes

X

X

X

Rhyacophila vibox

X

X

X

Drusinits

X

X

Lepidostoma

X

X

A 1 tisocen t t op us pyral aides

X

X

X

Heteroplectron americanum

X

X

Phylocentropiis

X

Psilotreta

X

ORDER

Coleoptera

Psephentis herricki

X

X

Dry ops

X

X

X

Anchytarsus

X

X

X

Agabiniis

X

ORDER

: Diptera

Tipiila abdominalis

X

X

X

Dicranota

X

X

X

Limnophila

X

He.xatona

X

Pseudolimnophila

X

Simulium

X

X

X

Brillia flavifrons

X

X

Corynoneura taris

X

X

Procladius

X

X

Polypedilum

X

X

Pentaneura

X

X

Fig. 8 — An illustration showing how the presence of the baskets^changed the physical habitat.

representatives of the Tipulidae and Chironomidae
with the latter being the more abundant. Several
genera which were collected on the substrate in
large numbers were completely absent from the
collections made with the Surber sampler or dip
nets. An analysis of the substrates showed no rela¬
tionship between the composition of genera pres¬
ent and location of the substrate and/or time.
Corynoneura taris and Brillia fiavifrons were the
most abundant genera present on the substrate ma¬
terial. The two most abundant Chironomid preda¬
tors on the substrate were Procladius and Poly-
pedilum.

The predominant species of stoneflies collected
on the substrate were AUocapnia virginiana and
Allocapnia rickeri, although a few specimens of
Hastoperla brevis were also collected. These
nymphs are herbivorous and are characteristically
found where leaf detritus and/or diatoms occur
(19, 20). The dominance of the winter stonefly
group during the substrate study and absence dur¬
ing other sampling periods is to be expected since
their period of activity is November through March
(21). The mean standing crop of these species
over the ten week period was 13 nymphs/substrate
or 344.4/m“.

58

The Virginia Journal of Science

In addition to the species of caddisfly larvae
collected in routine sampling, Psilotreta was the ma¬
jor form of caddisfly collected on the substrate and
this genus was never taken by the other methods.
Psilotreta has proven to be very abundant in other
streams studied in the area, and it is presently un¬
clear why its absence would be so conspicuous in
routine collecting. Like Psilotreta, Phylocentropus
was collected only on the artificial substrate, but
occurred less frequently than Psilotreta. Hetero-
plectron americanum, Drusinus and Lepidostoma
were the only genera collected by the other tech¬
niques which were never taken on the substrate
material.

The three species of Ephemeroptera which were
collected on the substrate were Stenonema ares,
Paraleptophlebia mollis, and Ephemerella aestiva.
The mean standing crop for these three species on
the substrate was 471.6 individuals/m^ for the ten
week study period. The latter two species were an¬
other example of being collected only on the arti¬
ficial substrate.

Summary

A feasibility study was undertaken to use a new
artificial substrate material, Conservation Webbing,
in an effort to determine how well the substrate
community would represent the natural stream com¬
munity. Approximately 43 species of macroinver¬
tebrates were collected with D-frame aquatic dip
nets and the Surber sampler in Avis’ Trib on Con¬
trary Creek. Since the artificial substrate collected
approximately 27 species or 63% of the species
living in the stream, it is obvious that one cannot
interpret the data obtained from the substrate (di¬
versity, community composition, or productivity) as
being representative of the natural community. How¬
ever, the substrate is ideally suited for life history
studies of certain segments of the bottom fauna
community since the substrate collects certain spe¬
cies of the macrobenthic community which were
either not as abundant in ordinary routine sampling
or missed completely. Clifford (22) pointed out
that the life history approach of studying streams

has not been applied extensively in North America.
This substrate would facilitate this type of investi¬
gation. Another area of promising investigation is
the fact that the Chironomidae are readily collected
by the substrate material. Therefore, studies dealing
with these organisms would be aided because they
can be collected in large quantities with this ma¬
terial. It seems that Conservation Webbing would
work well in lake studies.

REFERENCES

1. Shelfcrd, V. E., and Eddy, S., Ecology, 10, 382 (1929).

2. Britt, N. W., Ecology, 36, 525 (1955).

3. Miindie, J. H., J. Anini. EcoL, 25, 429 (1956).

4. Trembley, F. J., Progress Kept., 1956-1959, Inst. Res.,
Lehigh Univ., Bethlehem, Pa., 1961.

5. Moon, H. P., J. Anim. EcoL, 9, 76 ( 1940).

6. Macan, T. T., Min. int. Verein. tlieor. arigew. Litunol.,
8, 1 (1958).

7. Hester, F. E., and Dendy, J. S., Trans. Am. Fish. Soc.,
91, 420 (1962).

8. Arthur, J. W., and Horning, W. B., II, Am. Midi.
Nat., 82, 83 ( 1969).

9. Wene, G., and Wickliff, E. L., Can. Ent., 72, 131
( 1940).

10. Henson, E. B., Jr., Turtox News, 43, 298 (1965).

1 1. Mason. W. T., Jr., Anderson, J. B., and Morrison, G. E.,
Prog. Fish. Cult., 29, 74 (1967).

12. Hilsenhoff, W. L., Limnol. Oceanogr., 14, 83 (1969).

13. Witham, R., Ingle, R. M., and Joyce, E. A., Jr., Florida
Board of Conservation Marine Laboratory, Tech. Series,
53, 1 (1968).

14. American Public Health Association, American Water
Works Association, and Water Pollution Control Fed¬
eration, 11th ed., Amer. Pub. Health Assoc., New York,
1960.

15. Wallace, J. B. and Sherberger, /. Georgia Entomol. Soc.,
5, 217 ( 1970).

16. Neunzig, H. H., Proc. ent. Soc. Wash., 68, 11 (1966).

17. Cuyler, R. D., Ent. News, 76, 192 (1965).

18. Aggus, L. R., and Warren, L. O., /. Kans. ent. Soc.,
38, 163 (1965).

19. Prison, T. H., Bull. 111. St. nat. Hist. Surv., 18, 345
(1929).

20. Prison, T. H., ibid., 20, 281 ( 1935).

21. Ross, H. H., and Ricker, W. E., Trans. III. St. Acad.
Sci., 57, 88 (1964).

22. Clifford, H. F., Am. Midi. Nat., 82, 578 (1969).

Feasibility Study of Artificial Substrate

59

Especially for

Science and Mathematics Teachers

Ideas

Questions

Opinions

Protein Biosynthesis: A Teaching Demonstration

Some aspects of molecular biology are difficult to
demonstrate, and blackboard diagrams, text charts
and even models are not very effective. I use a soft-
sell, corny, and very successful method to teach the
elements of protein biosynthesis. The students act
out roles of t-RNA, m-RNA and protein molecules.
The procedure gives the opportunity for repetition
of terms and immediate feedback to the instructor.

I prefer a gradual approach over several lectures,
introducing concepts of polypeptide formation, struc¬
ture of DNA and the essential steps of protein
synthesis. In the demonstration period I spend a
few minutes reviewing the adenine-thymine and
cytosine-guanine pairing, substitution of uracil in
m-RNA, and the complementary matching of triplet
codons of the m-RNA and anticodons of the t-RNA.

In the demonstration “volunteers” are drafted
when I pass out pieces of cardboard about one foot
square and sheets of typing paper. The students re¬
ceiving the sheets of paper are requested to assem¬
ble outside the classroom. Each sheet is numbered
on one side and has a codon on the other. The stu¬
dents are arranged in a line according to a pre¬
arranged sequence and then marched back into the
classroom, each displaying the codon. I explain that
a strand of m-RNA has been punched out by the
sense strand of the DNA and is moving from the
nucleus (hall) to the cytoplasm (classroom). I play
the role of ribosome, announcing each codon and
the class responds with the anticodon. Hesitation
can easily be spotted and remedied. The correct
t-RNA comes forward and stands in front of his
matching codon, displaying the anticodon. The en¬
thusiastic response of the audience in calling out
the anticodons wanes rapidly; a long m-RNA se¬
quence would be boring. When all the codons have
been announced, the m-RNA molecule is in a line,
with successive t-RNA’s in front ranks, and the
audience sees this;

The m-RNA is then asked to move off to the side
and I point out that the strand will be read by the
ribosome again several times before destruction
takes place. The class is reminded that the t-RNA
molecules are two-ended, carrying an amino acid
at one end and the anticodon at the other. The
t-RNA students are asked to flip the cards with this
result:

This usually brings a satisfying groan.

Since those who have participated have been too
close to the action to sec what is happening, the
sequence is repeated in more rapid style. The cards
and sheets are collected and distributed among new
volunteers. The m-RNA molecule is assembled in
a different pre-determined order and brought into
the classroom; the symbolism is again explained,
and the codons are announced in rapid order. The
m-RNA line is again formed with matching t-RNA
in front. The m-RNA is asked to move to the side;
when the t-RNA cards are flipped, the possibility
of getting two short polypeptides from one m-RNA
is shown:

Rather than refining the display I allow the stu¬
dents to point out the defects in the demonstration.
Defects include a lack of a “start” codon in the first
display and both “start” and “stop” in the second.

Since 1 6 participants are required for each demon¬
stration the effectiveness of the demonstration is
limited to classes of 30 or more. Two small classes
can be combined.

The codons I used were arbitrarily selected; a
more sophisticated class may demand a more mean¬
ingful assemblage.

For the second display, the m-RNA sheets are ar¬
ranged in the sequence 7, 3, 4, 8, 2, 6, 1, 5.

Cards for r-RNA Amino acid side

P

R

O

T

E

1

N

1 am a space

anticodon side

uuu

AAG

UUA

AAU

GUA

CCG

UAG

--

Sheets for /;;-RNA codon side

AAA

UUC

AAU

UUA

CAU

GGC

AUC

UGA

number on reverse side

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

60

The Virginia Journal of Science

This demonstration has been used now in three
years of college general biology classes totaling
about 400 students and with three groups of high
school biology students. The ultra-sophisticated stu¬
dent will usually humor the instructor and parti¬
cipate and learn something. Because of the repe¬
tition, personal involvement, and visual impact I
have found this to be the quickest way to cover the
material for maximum retention. In a slow-moving
class this demonstration can summarize some fairly
complex material. For a select class, this demon¬
stration can serve as a starting point for discussion
of genetic implications, frame-shift mutations, etc.

In the latter case, copy of codon assignments for
actual amino acids is helpful.

Grateful acknowledgement is made to Mrs.
Margaret Mays of Virginia Commonwealth Uni¬
versity who verbalized the idea of using “student
molecules.” Mrs. Linda Hays of Henrico High
School and Mrs. Betsy Waring of the Mathematics
and Science Center kindly cooperated in permitting
this demonstration to be tried in their classrooms.

LEONARD O. MORROW
Associate Professor of Biology
Randolph-Macon College
Ashland, Virginia 23005

Science Teachers Section

61

Communications and Reports

VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

Summary of Council Meeting*

Mareh 28, 1971

President Rowe called the meeting to order at
10:40 a.m. in the Larrick Student Center of MCV
in Richmond.

President-Elect Turner reported committee ap¬
pointments were proceeding satisfactorily.

Treasurer Grigg asked Mr. Bruner to comment
on a new form, developed with the help of the new
auditor, to permit current evaluation of the cash-
general fund position. He commented on the loss of
3 business members and 2 sustaining members.
There has been a slight increase in new members, a
seasonal trend. The audit report has been received
and records were in good order.

Ad Hoc Committee on Museum of Science

Dr. Hughes briefed Council on progress of the
newly appointed Board of Trustees for the museum.
A budget must be prepared to submit to the Gover¬
nor by August 1. Planning for the first unit is pro¬
ceeding. Mr. Midyette suggested a status or prog¬
ress report furnished periodically to the Journal for
publication. The Academy’s Ad Hoc Committee will
be continued.

Virginia Institute of Human Ecology

President Rowe stated the Governor’s Council on
the Environment was interested in all aspects of
environment and in qualified persons throughout the
State. A three man committee of Dr. Hughes, Mr.
Rowe, and Mr. Charles Williams (White House
staff member) has been appointed to report on
the feasibility of this institute on ecology. Dr. Hughes
explained it would be non-profit, private, “ecumen¬
ically” financed with a large governing board (per¬
haps 100) of competent persons from all segments
of society. A small committee (perhaps 10) might
be paid for part-time supervision of a paid staff to
operate the institute. A group of associates from
women’s groups, industry, etc., would assist in iden¬
tifying problem areas and in funding. Funding might
approach five million dollars. Dr. Hughes was com¬
mended for his extensive efforts in this endeavor.
Dr. Wightman moved that the Council affirm its
action of November 1970 and reiterate its interest
and support of this institute and that members assist
with the planning and cooperate as appropriate. Mo¬
tion passed.

Governor’s Science Advisor

A decision from the Governor’s office is expected
shortly. The delay has been due to an increasing
need for this person to devote a definite portion of
his time to this activity.

Visiting Scientists Program

The operation of the program was discussed and
suggestions made about its continued operation.

* Abbreviated by the Editor from minutes provided by D. Rae
Carpenter, Jr., Acting Secretary.

Local Arrangements

Chairman Marlowe reported dining and student
center facilities will be available to all members
wearing their registration badge. Senior members
will be housed in the Donaldson Brown Center and
Juniors in motels. Presently 16 commercial exhibit
spaces are reserved.

' The Engineering Section has a symposium on
the Clean "Air Act arranged for Friday morning.
Senator Spong, Dr. Jensen of Ford, and other dis¬
tinguished speakers will be panel members.
President-elect Turner announced that, for various
reasons, no other symposium would be held.

Mr. Midyette moved that the Long Range Plan¬
ning Committee study the scheduling of program
elements of general interest including symposia so
as to minimize confliets with other activities. Mo¬
tion passed.

Council expressed its sentiment for a 7:30 a m.
Friday breakfast meeting so as to have minimum
conflict with the Engineering Section Symposium.

Sidney S. Negus Lecture

Dr. Nyle C. Brady, Associate Dean and Director
of Research of the Experiment Station of the
N. Y. College of Agriculture, Cornell University,
will give the lecture on “The Role of Agriculture
in Improving Environmental Quality.”

Publicity

Mrs. Thelma C. Heatwole will be available to
the VPI publicity office to assist in publicity since
she is very knowledgeable in Academy affairs. Her
expenses will be paid.

Finance and Endowment

Dr. Hughes presented a report from Dr. Harsh-
barger pointing out increased expenses for 1970,
due in part to one journal issue being charged in
1970 rather than 1969. Midyette moved the report
be accepted. Motion passed.

There were 1671 members as of March 1971,
down about 100 from 1970.

Virginia Junior Academy of Science
Chairman Wisman reported on meeting arrange¬
ments and on fund raising activities for juniors as
recently authorized by the President. NSF funding
eeases after this year and two business sponsors
have reduced their donations.

Long Range Planning

Chairman Ulrich reported on a study of involve¬
ment of junior and community colleges with the
VAS. Large fractions considered themselves active
in innovative teaching and were interested in a
science education section of the Academy. A fair
percentage considered themselves active in some
research. A need appears to exist for idea exchange
among these people through the VAS annual meet¬
ing. Considerable discussion ensued on how the
Academy could best meet this expressed need. Dr.

62

The Virginia Journal of Science

Carpenter volunteered to prepare a letter and send
it to persons identified by the Committee and to
make the Section Officers aware of this interest.

Membership

Chairman Young reported on membership infor¬
mation distributed to prospective members. A
limited amount of Academy information is pres¬
ently available. He suggested a new printing of an
informational brochure and requested suggestions
from Council on material to be included. The Com¬
mittee will develop the information and report later.
A reception at each annual meeting for potential
members to meet Council was suggested as a means
of covering each geographical area in a long range
recruiting effort. A discussion was held about sec¬
tion meetings being open to non-members from the
local area.

Publications

Appointment of a new Editor is necessary since
Dr. Abbott’s three year term expires and the Com¬
mittee is presently seeking a successor. Dr. Abbott
was commended for his service and regret was ex¬
pressed that his other commitments precluded his
reappointment. He will conclude the present vol¬
ume.

Awards

Dr. Hughes announced that twenty Fellows had
been nominated but only eight could be elected in
1971 (V2% of present membership). The Com-
rnittee will mail to the Council the entire list with
eight names recommended for 1971. Council will
vote by mail for eight persons.

Research

Everyone requesting support has received some
but not all the money requested. Awards up to
$500 have been made. Chairman Whitehead recom¬
mended establishment of three submission dates and
more extensive publicity.

Twenty papers for the Horsley Award have been
submitted but half of these originally did not qualify
because of the Academy membership provision. Sev¬
eral, but not all, have since qualified. The U. of
N. C. (Raleigh) Chapter of Sigma Xi is reviewing
the 1971 papers. Further clarification of the mem¬
bership requirement is suggested.

Science Talent Search

Chairman Russell announced there was higher
quality but lower quantity (half as many) in'the
1971 applicants. Twenty-two colleges and univer¬
sities are participating with scholarships but most of
these are based on need rather than merit.

Trust Committee

President Rowe requested that Council be pre¬
pared at its next meeting to elect the 1971-72 Com¬
mittee as provided by the new Constitution.

Journal

Phipps and Bird, under new management, has
cancelled its back cover advertising space. The

Constitution and Bylaws will appear in the first
issue ( 1971 ).

Ad Hoc Committee on Conservation and
Natural Resources

Chairman Hughes called attention to the General
Assembly’s change in method of approving altera¬
tions to State parks. This now requires Assembly
action rather than Executive action.

New Business

Mr. Bruner discussed the possibility of annual
publication of the membership list but in a less at¬
tractive and less expensive format.

President Rowe reminded Council of a need for
seeking new members. He also indicated the trans¬
fer of the Executive Secretary-Treasurer duties
to Mr. Bruner with an office at the Virginia Insti¬
tute of Scientific Research was essentially complete.
Council was requested to consider the possibility of
some future separate responsibility or position for
Mr. Berry.

AMERICAN CHEMICAL SOCIETY

Southeastern Regional Meeting

Nashville, Tennessee
November 4-6, 1971

The meeting has several innovations which may
interest you. This will be the shortest of all South¬
eastern Regional Meetings, beginning Thursday
morning and ending at noon on Saturday. In this
way, you will be able to hear papers of interest to
you without losing valuable time. Only one sym¬
posium will be held, with no other meetings sched¬
uled simultaneously, to allow all attendees to hear
the Symposium speakers. Polymer Chemistry was
chosen as the subject matter of the Symposium be¬
cause of the large amount of activity in the South¬
east Region in this field of endeavor. The eminent
speakers addressing the Symposium are expected
to serve as a source of cross-fertilization between
the different fields of chemistry. Each will represent
a major field and include Drs. H. G. Khorana (bio¬
chemistry), J. K. Stille (organic), R. G. Scott (an¬
alytical), C. G. Overberger (chemical education),
and R. S. Stein (physical). This Symposium should
appeal not only to the professional polymer scien¬
tist but also to chemists in general, especially teach¬
ers, since the usual college curriculum in chemistry
does not cover this subject adequately. Another dis¬
tinguished guest will be Prof. Max Tishler, ACS
president-elect, who will preside at the one general
evening meeting, which will be held Thursday,
November 4.

Papers will be scheduled for Thursday and Friday
afternoons and Saturday morning in the following
divisions: (1) analytical, (2) applied science and
industry, (3) bio- and medicinal chemistry, (4)
chemical education, (5) organic, (6) physical, and
(7) undergraduate research contributions.

Mr. John Bishop, Pigments Department, E. I.
DuPont Company, Johnsonville, Tennessee 37174,
is general chairman of the meeting.

Communications and Reports

63

Ecology News and Notes

ECOLOGICAL RESEARCH AT VIMS-

The Virginia Institute of Marine Science is re¬
sponsible for planning and conducting basic and
applied research on the environments and resources
of the Commonwealth’s tidal waters and adjacent
waters of the Atlantic Ocean. It is also obligated to
provide advisory services regarding marine environ¬
ments and resources to governmental and private
planners and managers and to provide education
in the Marine Sciences — in affiliation with the Col¬
lege of William and Mary and the University of
Virginia. With these responsibilities it is obvious
that among the some 200 research projects in prog¬
ress, it is difficult to find one that is not related to
ecology or to resource-use problems.

The various research projects underway at the
main campus at Gloucester Point and the branch
laboratory at Wachapreague or in the James River
hydraulic model at Vicksburg, Mississippi are pres¬
ently divided into four major program areas:

1 . Preservation of the marine environment.

2. Improved management and utilization of the
marine resources.

3. Biological Oceanography — understanding the
biological systems of marine waters and their
relationships to the physical aspects of enviorn-
ment and each other.

4. Physical, Chemical and Geological Oceanog¬
raphy — understanding the geophysical aspects
of the marine environment.

Under these programs the individual projects
can be categorized into about a baker’s dozen sub¬
programs, each involving several or many projects.
These are:

1. Ecological effects of water quality altera¬
tions on the marine environment. ( 1 1 proj¬
ects)

2. Ecological effects of engineering modifica¬
tions on the marine environment. (2 proj¬
ects)

3. Ecology of wetlands (marshes and swamps),
shorelines and shallows, i.e. productivity, nu¬
trient and dynamic flux. (7 projects)

4. Eutrophication and nutrient dynamics in
t'dal waters. (4 projects)

5. Studies of benthic communities. (6 proj¬
ects)

6. Studies of tolerances of selected marine
species to natural environmental features,
i.e. salinity, temperature, amino acids, etc.
and to contamination. (5 projects)

* The Virginia Academy of Science’s Committee on Conservation
and Natural Resources has undertaken the task of assembling items
of ecological interest around the State for publication in the Journal.
In this issue several research projects at Virginia institutions are
reported. It will be most helpful if readers will supply further
information on ecological research, education and threats. Informa¬
tion for the next issue should he sent to the Committee on Con¬
servation and Natural Resources, 6300 River Road, Richmond,
Virginia 23229, before September 1, 1971.

7. Biology and life histories of species impor¬
tant to marine ecology. (31 projects)

8. Biology and life histories of species impor¬
tant to commercial and recreational fisher¬
ies and also of ecological importance, i.e.
striped bass, oysters, hard clams, blue crabs,
etc. (28 projects)

9. Food chain studies in nursery grounds. (3
projects)

10. Research on factors influencing growth,
setting and quality of molluscs. (14 proj¬
ects)

11. Ecology of coelenterates — jellyfishes. (9
projects)

12. Studies of circulation of estuarine and in¬
shore shelf waters. ( 16 projects)

13. Development of mathematical and hydraulic
modeling of estuaries and coastal waters.
(8 projects)

14. Studies of chemistry of estuarine and coas¬
tal waters. (4 projects)

15. Development of remote and in situ sens¬
ing of environmental features. (4 projects)

Research such as that on erosion and deposition
and various other geological questions in estuarine
and shelf waters, as well as other aspects, have not
been included here though they are indirectly rele¬
vant. Oceanography or Marine Science deals with
the marine environments and its entities and pro¬
cesses. As an oceanographic institute, VIMS prin¬
cipal efforts are therefore ecologically or environ¬
mentally relevant. Even those efforts devoted to
development of new harvesting, utilization or preser¬
vation techniques are related.

As the Commonwealth’s principal advisory
agency for marine environments and resource
matters, VIMS works closely with state, federal
and local agencies and with industry to enhance,
develop and preserve marine waters and the en¬
vironments on which these resources and we hu¬
mans depend so closely.

Among the VIMS research efforts cited above
which are especially important and have received
considerable public interest and involvement is the
program of studies of wetland ecology specifically
designed to assess the relative value of these areas
and to suggest actions that may be undertaken by
the Commonwealth to conserve and preserve them.

The tidal wetlands of Virginia encompass ap¬
proximately 400,000 acres, about 1% of the state’s
total land area. Though a very small percentage of
the total, they are extremely important to pro¬
ductivity and quality of estuarine and coastal wa¬
ters. They are also vulnerable to disruption and
destruction. Significant wetlands research began at
VIMS in 1968 and now involves several aspects.
Work leading to production of the 154-page interim

61

The Virginia Journal of Science

report on coastal wetlands mainly consisted of us¬
ing topographic maps and some aerial photography
to compile the types and areas of wetlands. Samples
of vegetation were also taken to estimate the pro¬
ductivity of the most characteristic plants.

Present work is directed toward better charac¬
terization and inventory of wetlands and an inten¬
sive study of Gloucester County marshes and
shorelines is nearing completion. Detritus flow
studies were begun in July 1970 in two marshes
and a swamp and are continuing. Chemical stud¬
ies on marsh vegetation, substrates and creeks are
planned. Food chain studies were done by two re¬
searchers in the summer of 1970 and continuing
studies are contemplated. A doctoral work on the
epifauna of eelgrass was completed in 1970 and a
thesis of infauna of eelgrass beds is being written.

Studies are underway to determine the ecologi¬
cal effects of the present levels of pesticides, poly¬
chlorinated biphenyls, heavy metals (including
lead, mercury and cadmium), thermal effluents,
and other wastes on marine animals and plants.
Laboratory studies are used to augment field stud¬
ies and to provide data which will enable the de¬
velopment of predictor equations for future use by
management and regulatory agencies in making de¬
cisions on issues which might have adverse effects
upon the environment.

Eutrophication (a word badly used in this con¬
text), a relatively new problem in tidal waters, has
resulted from the increased use of fertilizer in
agriculture and by homeowners, increased use of
detergents, and the increase and concentration of
livestock and human populations. The resulting
abnormal algal blooms reduce the aesthetic value
of natural waters, degrade water quality, and may
stimulate the reproduction of species which are
unsuitable as food for primary consumers and in¬
crease sedimentation. Studies are underway to de¬
termine the ecological effects of overenrichment
in tidal waters. These include phases on bio-stimu-
lation, uptake, regeneration, physio-chemical re¬
moval, and transport of nutrient elements from the
head of tidewater to the ocean.

Finally, of considerable interest to water quality
control agencies and environmental scientists is
the current VIMS program in mathematical and
hydraulic modeling of estuaries. An hydraulic
model of the James River, located at Vicksburg,
Mississipoi, is jointly operated by VIMS and the
Corps of Engineers. Studies leading to develop¬
ment of an hydraulic model of the entire Chesa¬
peake Bay are underway now by VIMS and its
Maryland associates, the Chesapeake Biological
Laboratory at Solomons and the Chesapeake Bay
Institute in Baltimore. Several mathematical models
of Virginia estuaries have been or are being com¬
pleted in cooperation with the Division of Water
Resources and the Water Control Board. All are
expected to be especially useful in maintenance of
water quality in specific estuaries or local por¬
tions of them. They may also prove useful to
biologists in achieving a better understanding of

fish migrations, population dynamics of important
species and their life cycles.

VPI’S CENTER FOR ENVIRONMENTAL
STUDIES

The Center for Environmental Studies was au¬
thorized by the Board of Visitors of Virginia Poly¬
technic Institute and State University in May, 1970
for the purpose of providing counsel and guid¬
ance about environmental problems to the govern¬
ment, industry, the University, and other educa¬
tional institutions of the Commonwealth and to
coordinate research activities at Virginia Tech
oriented toward the solution of specific environ¬
mental problems.

From the broad charter outlined by the Board
of Visitors, the specific objectives of the Center for
Environmental Studies are;

1 . Stimulate and encourage research directed
toward solution of problems relating to the quality
of the human environment.

2. Coordinate environmental research on a Uni¬
versity-wide basis and improve communication
among faculty members engaged in research re¬
lated to the quality of the human environment.

3. Facilitate organization of team approaches to
environmental research requiring participation of
faculty members representing several disciplines,
departments, and colleges.

4. Provide logistic support for environmental
studies and experiments where special field oper¬
ations are necessary.

5. Establish and maintain an information center
capable of providing industry, government agen¬
cies, and other institutions in Virginia with the lat¬
est information and data needed to cope with their
specific problems.

6. Recommend to the Dean of the Research Di¬
vision, and through him to the University Admin¬
istration, steps which should be taken to strengthen
disciplinary areas whose weakness may limit capa¬
bilities in problem-focused research on environ¬
mental quality.

7. Maintain contact with agencies providing
funds for environmental quality research and seek
to match the requirements of such agencies with
research interests and capabilities of University
faculty.

8. Stimulate and encourage innovative curricu¬
lum development in the area of environmental
quality.

9. Arrange for strong student participation in all
research programs undertaken by the Center.

10. Work closely with the Dean, Extension Di¬
vision, in planning to bring the results of Environ¬
mental Quality Research to potential users through¬
out the state in a form adapted to their particular
needs.

1 1 . Cooperate with the Directors of the Agri¬
cultural Experiment Station, the Water Resources
Research Center, the Center for Urban and Regional
Studies, and other units having overlapping or
closely related missions to the end that the total

Ecology News and Notes

65

University program in this area may be fully coor¬
dinated and effectively planned and managed.

The Center for Environmental Studies serves as
a nucleus around which environmental activities
develop. The strength and success of the Center
is dependent upon a constant interplay between
the problem-focused work of the Center and the
related disciplinary activities of the College De¬
partments. The principal resource for the Center
for Environmental Studies will be faculty mem¬
bers engaged in disciplinary work whose talents and
interests fit them for participation in the Center
programs.

NEW DIVISION OF AQUATIC BIOLOGY
AT VISR

A Division of Aquatic Biology has been formed
by the Virginia Institute for Scientific Research.
This newest research division of the Institute is
directed by Dr. Michael D. Dahlberg who recently
came to VISR from the Universit^y of Georgia
where he was responsible for a four-year study of
the effect of a new paper mill on the ecology of a
Georgia estuary.

The research group is conducting both labora¬
tory and field investigations in aquatic ecology
with particular emphasis on the determination of
the degree and kind of industrial use to which
bodies of water can be put without degrading
their quality for recreation, food production, and
other uses. Involved in the development are the
Departments of Biology and Chemistry of the Uni¬
versity of Richmond, with which VISR affiliated
in 1969.

VISR’s Division of Aquatic Biology will be the
scientific arm of a proposed Environmental Re¬
search Center which may include faculty members
of the business and law schools of the University
of Richmond.

VISR was founded in 1948 through the efforts
of the Research Committee of the Virginia Acad¬
emy of Science. The inspiration and leadership
for its creation came from the late Dr. Allan T.
Gwathmey, who was its President until 1963. This
latest development will continue to fulfill a major
obiective of the Academy to attract and hold sci¬
entists in Virginia to serve the Commonwealth.

MARY WASHINGTON COLLEGE
RAPPAHANNOCK RIVER PROJECT

Last fall Mary Washington College received a
National Science Foundation grant of which ap¬
proximately $50,000 is being applied to their
Rappahannock River Ecosystems Project. This
project is a cooperative effort among the science
departments. Investigations of such factors as stream
flow, channel shape, substrate composition will be
undertaken by the geology department. Their in¬
vestigations will be correlated with studies on basic
river chemistry, bio-assays, and trace element anal¬
ysis by the chemistry department, and with species
distribution and general population studies by the
biology department.

ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES AT
SWEET BRIAR COLLEGE

In 1970 Sweet Briar College was awarded a
three-year National Science Foundation grant for
improvement of the social and pure sciences. A
major project supported by this grant is an environ¬
mental study using the college’s 3400 acres and
the neighboring county as study areas for students
in the sciences. The field projects will be, where
possible, interdisciplinary and the basis for con¬
tinuing studies when the period of the grant has
terminated.

ENVIRONMENTAL UNIT FORMED

The Union Camp Corporation’s paper-lumber
complex in Franklin, Virginia has formed a special
department for environmental protection. John D.
Munford, general manager of the Bleached Paper
and Board Division, announced that the unit will ex¬
pand environmental activities formerly included in
the processing engineering department. Technical
director W. C. Chapman, who formed the depart¬
ment within his division, named E. V. Benedict, Jr.,
to head the unit, called the Environmental Engineer¬
ing Department.

ECOLOGICAL PARK STUDY

A team of students at Randolph-Macon Woman’s
College, Lynchburg, Va., has been awarded a grant
from the National Science Foundation to conduct an
ecological study on the Blackwater Creek Basin in
Lynchburg.

The students planned the project and will carry
it out this summer over a ten to twelve week pe¬
riod. The data they gather will be submitted to
the Lynchburg Planning Commission to add to the
commission’s study of a proposed 250-acre park
development in the area.

The NSF grant, which totals $16,760, was
awarded under the foundation’s Student-Originated
Studies Program. The stated purpose of the pro¬
gram is “to encourage college students to express
in productive ways their concern for the environ¬
mental well-being of our nation and to provide
support for groups of students who can demonstrate
their readiness to assume increased responsibility
for their own educational development.

The study will be directed by Anne Lindsey, a
junior biology major from Bluefield, Va., assisted
by Barbara Laning, also a junior biology student
from Akron, Ohio. Five other R-MWC students
will participate, and they hope to involve as many
as 15 students, including some from other colleges
and universities. Dr. Franklin F. Flint, professor
of biology and department chairman, is the faculty
advisor for the project.

The student planners have set up study groups
in five areas. These will be concerned with plant
life, animal life, water analysis, and an ecological
study group to correlate information from the oth¬
ers’ findings. A fifth group will conduct a socio¬
logical survey of people in the surrounding urban
developments to determine how they are affected
by the projected park.

66

The Virginia Journal of Science

General Notice To Contributors

The Virginia Journal of Science heartily welcomes
for consideration original articles of technical or
general interest on all phases of mathematics, the
natural, physical and engineering sciences. Submis¬
sion of an article for publication implies that the
article has not been published elsewhere while un¬
der consideration by the Journal.

All articles should be typewritten (double-spaced)
and submitted on good bond paper (8V2 X 11
inches) in triplicate to the Editor. Margins should
not be less than 114 inches on any border. Title,
running title, authors, place of origin, abstract, fig¬
ures, legends, tables, footnotes, and references
should be on individual pages separate from the text.
Technical abbreviations should follow consistent
standard practices with careful avoidance of un¬
necessary neologistic devices. All pages (including
illustrations) should be consecutively numbered in
the upper right corner. A pencil notation of author
names on the back of each page is helpful in identi¬
fication.

Illustrations should be supplied in a form suitable
for the printer with attention to the fact that a reduc¬
tion in size may be necessary.

A good technical article generally contains an
obligatory abstract before the text, an introduction,
with reference to preliminary publications that may
exist, an experimental section, results (which may
be included in the experimental section), a discus¬

sion, and conclusion. References are indicated in the
body of the article by consecutively used numbers
in parentheses. Although publication costs are high,
attention should be given to relatively eomplete ref¬
erences (bibliographies) since the purpose of an
artiele is to illuminate the significanee of present and
past findings, and not merely to obscure the past.
The Journal reserves the right (generally exer¬
cised) to make page charges for articles in excess of
5 pages and to bill authors at cost for unusually
complicated illustrative material.

Abbreviation of journals for references can be
found in the 4th edition of the World List of Scien¬
tific Periodicals, Butterworth, Inc., Washington,
D. C., 1963, and supplements. References should
be checked carefully.

The form of presentation is illustrated below;

1. Aiyar, A. S., and Olson, R. E., Fedn Proc. Fedn
Am. Socs exp. Biol., 23, 425 (1964).

2. Chappell, J. B., Cohn, M., and Greville, G. D.,
in B. Chance (Editor), Energy linked functions
of mitochondria, Academic Press, Inc., New
York, 1963, p. 219.

3. Riley, G. A., and Haynes, R. C., Jr., J. biol.
Chem., 238, 1563 (1963).

MEMBERSHIP

The Academy membership is organized into
sections representing various scientific disciplines.

Addressograph plates of all members are coded
by a section number. The First Number indicates
the member’s major interest and enables Section
Officers to more easily contact their members.

#1. Agricultural Sciences

2. Astronomy, Mathematics & Physics

3. Microbiology (Bacteriology)

4. Biology

5. Chemistry

6. Materials Science

7. Engineering

8. Geology

9. Medical Sciences

10. Psychology

11. Science Teachers

12. Statistics

13. Space Science and Technology

14. Botany

Annual Membership Dues

Approved May 10, 1968

Business . $100

Sustaining . 25*

Contributing . 10

Regular . 5

Students . 3.50

* $25 or more.

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The Virginia Journal of Science

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SUSTAINING MEMBERS
VIRGINIA ACADEMY
OF SCIENCE

The following Virginia Educational Institu¬
tions support the objectives of the Virginia Acad¬
emy of Science through Sustaining Memberships.
Their active and financial support is gratefully
acknowledged.

Alderman Library
Christopher Newport College
College of William and Mary
Emory and Henry College
George Mason College
Hampden-Sydney College
Hollins College
Longwood College
Lynchburg College
Madison College
Mary Baldwin College
Mary Washington College
Mathematics and Science Center
Norfolk State College
Old Dominion University
Radford College
Randolph-Macon College
Randolph-Macon Woman’s College
Roanoke College
Stratford College
Sullins College
Sweet Briar College
University of Richmond
University of Virginia
Virginia Commonwealth University
General Academic Division
Health Sciences Division

Virginia Military Institute
Virginia Polytechnic Institute
Virginia State College
Virginia Wesleyan College
Virginia Western Community College
Washington and Lee University

BUSINESS MEMBERS
VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

Because of their interest in science and the
economy of Virginia, the following industrial
concerns have become Business Members of
the Academy and have thus contributed greatly
to its work and progress. Their support is
gratefully acknowledged;

Allied Chemical Corporation
American Filtrona Corporation
The American Tobacco Company
The Bank of Virginia
Brunswick Corporation
Bunton Instrument Co.

Burlington Industries, Inc.

Carolina Biological Supply Co.

The Central National Bank

Dow-Badische Company

E. I. duPont de Nemours & Co., Inc.

Ethyl Corporation

First and Merchants National Bank

Hercules, Incorporated

House of Edgeworth

Merck and Company, Inc.

Mobil Chemical Company
National Fruit Product Co.

Newport News Shipbuilding Co. Foundation
Philip Morris and Co., Inc.

Phipps & Bird, Inc.

Reynolds Metals Co.

A. H. Robins Company, Inc.

Shenandoah Life Insurance Company
Southern Bank & Trust Company
Southern States Cooperative, Inc.

Texaco, Inc.

United Virginia Bank — State Planters
Virginia Chemicals, Inc.

Virginia Electric and Power Company
Wheat and Company, Inc.

VIRGINIA

JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

OFFICIAL PUBLICATION OF THE
VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

Vol. 22 No. 3 1971

TABLE OF CONTENTS

73 Proceedings of Forty-ninth Annual Meeting of

the Virginia Academy of Science, Blacksburg,
May 12-14, 1971

80 Abstracts of Papers, Forty-ninth Annual Meeting of

the Virginia Academy of Science

154

News and Notes

THE VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

Official Publication of the Virginia Academy of Science

EDITOR

LYNN D. ABBOTT, JR.

SECTION EDITORS

Boyd L. Samuel

Michael N. Bishara

Agricultural Sciences

Engineering

Lee S. Anthony

Kenneth A. Blick

Astronomy, Mathematics and Physics

Psychology

James D. Punch

Alva D. Aukland

Microbiology

Science Teachers

Robert G. Bass

John R. Howell

Chemistry

Statistics

K. L. Reifsnider

Ricardo N. Zapata

Materials Science

Space Science and Technology

Edwin S. Higgins
Medical Sciences

BUSINESS MANAGER

Charles E. O’Rear

Published quarterly by The Virginia Academy of
Science, Department of Biochemistry, Medical Col¬
lege of Virginia, Richmond, Virginia 23219. Second-
class postage paid at Richmond, Virginia.

Manuscripts for publication (other than section
abstracts) and books for review should be sent to
the Editor, Lynn D. Abbott, Jr., Department of
Biochemistry, Medical College of Virginia, Rich¬
mond, Virginia 23219. Proof, edited manuscripts,
and all correspondence regarding accepted papers
should be sent to the Editor.

Advertising and Business Office: All correspon¬
dence relating to advertising and business affairs
should be directed to Charles E. O’Rear, Business
Manager, Virginia Journal of Science, 1 N. Four¬
teenth St., Richmond, Virginia 23219.

The Virginia Academy of Science and the Editors
of the Virginia Journal of Science assume no re¬
sponsibility for statements or opinions advanced by
contributors.

(C) Copyright, 1971, by the Virginia Academy of
Science.

Business and Subscription Information

All remittances and orders for advertising and
subscriptions should be sent to the Business Man¬
ager, Virginia Journal of Science, 1 N. Fourteenth
St., Richmond, Virginia 23219. Changes of address
should be sent promptly to Blanton M. Bruner, Ex¬
ecutive Secretary-Treasurer, Virginia Academy of
Science, P. O. Box 8454, Richmond, Virginia 23226.
Changes of address must include both new and old
addresses with zip code.

Subscription rates for 1971: $8.00 per year,
U.S.A.; Canada and other countries of the Pan-
American Union, $8.50 per year; all other foreign
countries, $9.00 per year. All foreign remittances
must be made at par U.S. dollars or the foreign
equivalent. U.S. dollar remittance is suggested to
avoid currency fluctuation problems and possibly
unfavorable exchange rates.

Back issues are available for some years at $3.00
per issue plus postage.

The front cover is by Douglas C. Hensley.

VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
FORTY-NINTH ANNUAL MEETING, BLACKSBURG

MAY 12-14, 1971

SUMMARY OF COUNCIL MEETING AND
ACADEMY CONFERENCE

Council met on Wednesday, May 12, 1971, in the
Continuing Education Building at VPISU, President
Rowe presiding.

LOCAL ARRANGEMENTS

Dr. Marlowe expressed appreciation to Council
and to members of his Committee for the efficient
way in which the Meeting was proceeding. Council
in turn expressed appreciation for the hard work
Dr. Marlowe and his Committee have put into mak¬
ing arrangements for the Meeting.

VJAS

It was reported that the Junior Academy Meet¬
ings went well and Council expressed appreciation
for the tremendous job which Dr. Wisman is do¬
ing as Director of VJAS.

A WARDS COMMITTEE

Dr. Harshbarger, Chairman of the Committee,
nominated the following for Fellows of the Acad¬
emy: Robert Clifton Carter, Edward S. Harlow,
W. T. Harnsberger, Jr., A. M. Harvill, Col. S. M.
Heflin, George W. Jeffers, Harry G. M. Jopson,
E. L. Wisman. Dr. Harshbarger commented that
upon examination of all of the nominations which
had been submitted to him, these were the ones
which had been selected and that they had met all
criteria for election as a Fellow of the Academy.
Council passed a motion electing the names pre¬
sented.

TRUSTEES

The Executive Committee recommended to
Council that Lloyd C. Bird be elected as a Trustee
of the Academy for a one year term and that Ed¬
ward S. Harlow be elected for a three year term.
Council passed a motion to this effect.

PUBLICATIONS COMMITTEE

Walter S. Flory reported that the tenure of the
Editor of the Journal will expire in August of
1971. Dr. Charles H. O’Neal, biophysicist at Vir¬
ginia Commonwealth University, Health Sciences
Division, has agreed to accept the position as Edi¬
tor beginning in September of 1972. He will be in
England until August of that year and consequently
cannot accept the editorship at an earlier date. Dr.
Abbott has agreed to an interim appointment to
fill the job until Dr. O’Neal returns from England.
Motion was made and passed by Council to ac¬

cept this arrangement as made by the Publications
Committee.

MEMBERSHIP COMMITTEE

Mr. William Young, Membership Committee
Chairman, reported on plans for an information
brochure to be sent to prospective members of the
Academy. Council had no further suggestions for
the Membership Committee but agree that the in¬
formation brochure should be prepared as re¬
ported.

MUSEUM FUND

Dr. Grigg moved that the remainder of the Mu¬
seum Fund be put in a savings certificate and des¬
ignated for future use for museum activities as de¬
termined by the Executive Committee. Council
passed this motion.

FINANCE COMMITTEE

Dr. Boyd Harshbarger reported on the finan¬
cial status of the Academy for the fiscal year 1969-
1970. Dr. Harshbarger is concerned that the deficit
of 1970 might be continued and should be given
careful attention by Council. In the ensuing dis¬
cussion it was pointed out that the main reason for
the deficit in 1970 is that there were bills for five
issues of the Journal in 1970 and only three in
1969. The reason for this is that the bills are paid
when rendered and attributed to that fiscal year.
Consequently, when one balances the expendi¬
tures of 1969 and 1970, there is only a slight deficit
and at the moment does not appear to be of major
concern to Council. A copy of Dr. Harshbarger’s
report is included in the report of the Academy
Conference held on May 13, 1971.

RESOLUTIONS

Mr. Bruner passed on the request of Paul Siegel
of the Resolutions Committee that each Section
Representative give names of all deceased mem¬
bers to Dr. Siegel for inclusion in the report of that
Committee to be given at the Academy Assembly.

FUND RAISING COMMITTEE

President Rowe reported that a Fund Raising
Committee has been appointed with particular em¬
phasis to be given to raising funds for the Junior
Academy. This Committee is as follows: Virginia
Ellett, Chairman; Bill Niemeyer; Mrs. J. J. Thax-
ton.

EXECUTIVE SECRETARY-TREASURER

The transition of activities from Mr. Berry to
Mr. Bruner will be finalized as of June 30, 1971.

Proceedings, 1970-1971

73

Mr. Berry moved that the Executive Committee
be allowed to prepare any papers which the banks
may request for the transfer of funds. This motion
was passed. President Rowe complimented Mr.
Berry for outstanding service to the Academy over
many years. President Rowe passed to the Council
the recommendation of the Executive Committee
that Mr. Rodney Berry be appointed as a Con¬
sultant to Council in which position he would act
as the agent of the Council in such matters as are
delegated to him by the President. This would au¬
thorize the payment of Mr. Berry’s expenses as he
carries out those tasks assigned to him. This motion
was passed by Council. Mr. Berry graciously com¬
mented that he had been well repaid in kindness
and cooperation by the members of the Academy
over the years.

MEMBERSHIP LIST

Mr. Bruner commented that the membership
list was of continuing concern to him, that he hoped
to have a list published this year.

ANNOUNCEMENTS

Dr. Abbott mentioned that the next issue of the
Journal of Science will be coming out next week
and pointed out the specific reasons for the delay
of issue.

Dr. Rowe mentioned that he had written a letter
of sympathy to Mr. Edward S. Harlow, a past presi¬
dent of the Academy, on the recent loss of his wife.

President Rowe expressed appreciation to all
members of Council for their cooperation and serv¬
ice to the Academy during the year.

Dr. Turner announced that the next Executive
Committee meeting would be at 7:30 a.m., Friday
morning. He also asked that all Council represen¬
tatives from the Sections and that Section Chairmen
and Secretaries meet with him at 5:45 p.m., on
Thursday.

SUMMARY OF THE
ACADEMY CONFERENCE

The Academy Conference convened at 11:30
a.m.. May 13, 1971, in the auditorium of the Con¬
tinuing Education Center, VPISU, Blacksburg, Vir¬
ginia, President-elect Ed Turner presiding. Dr. Tur¬
ner informed the Conference that the President,
Maurice Rowe, had been called to Richmond by the
Governor and was unable to preside at the Confer¬
ence but would be at the banquet that evening to pre¬
side at the Academy Assembly. It was moved,
seconded and the motion passed that the minutes of
the last Academy Conference be approved as pub¬
lished in the Virginia Journal of Science.

REPORTS OF OFFICERS

Dr. Turner, President-elect, reported that he was
happy, that he thought the Academy Meeting was
going well, that there had been an unusual number
of excellent papers, and that the facilities provided
by the host institution were excellent. Dr. Flint,
Secretary, reported that the file of the Secretary is
up to date and made one request of all those mem¬
bers who initiated or responded to correspondence

concerning Academy business. The request was that
all such persons provide the Secretary with a copy
of such correspondence so that the records of the
Academy maintained by the Secretary would be
complete. Dr. Grigg, Treasurer, presented his re¬
port.

COMMITTEE REPORTS

The reports of the Virginia Junior Academy of
Science by Dr. Wisman, the Financial Committee
by Dr. Harshbarger, and the Flora Committee by
Dr. Harvill were read by the Secretary. Dr. E. V.
Russell gave an oral report of the Science Talent
Search Committee. No other reports were ready
at this time but will be published in the Journal. Dr.
Turner recognized Dr. Thomas J. Marlowe as Chair¬
man of the Local Arrangements Committee, com¬
plimented the Committee on its outstanding work,
and asked for comments from Dr. Marlowe. In his
comments Dr. Marlowe expressed appreciation to
the members of his Committee who had worked so
arduously and effectively to make the Meeting run
smoothly. He singled out for specific comment Drs.
Harold M. Bell, Donald G. Cochran and Thomas
W. Johnson.

A A AS REPRESENTATIVE

Dr. Turner recognized Dr. Raymond Taylor
who extended greetings from the AAAS. He com¬
mented that Virginia was among the first of the
State Academies to have a delegate to the AAAS.
He stressed the importance of good communica¬
tions between the state academies and the national
organization. He drew attention to the fact that he
had been a member of the Virginia Academy for
many years, having attended his first meeting at
Hollins College in the spring of 1932 and had been
with the AAAS since 1949.

NEW BUSINESS

Dr. Cole presented the slate of nominees for
the Nominating Committee. This Committee con¬
sists of the immediate Past Presidents of the Acad¬
emy, D. Rae Carpenter, Paul B. Siegel, in addition
to Dr. Cole. The slate presented was as follows:

President-elect — Franklin F. Flint, Randolph-
Macon Woman’s College

Secretary — G. R. “Jack” Brooks, William and
Mary

Treasurer — Austin Grigg, University of Rich¬
mond

Dr. Turner asked for nominations from the
floor. There being none, it was moved, seconded
and passed that nominations be closed and that an
unanimous vote be cast for the slate as presented.

REPORT OF THE VIRGINIA JUNIOR
ACADEMY OE SCIENCE

The Virginia Junior Academy of Science cele¬
brates its 30th Anniversary this year. Although the
number of high schools affiliating with the VJAS
decreased 6% over the last year, the number of re¬
search papers submitted for the annual meeting in-

74

The Virginia Journal of Science

creased 15%. A total of 200 papers was pro¬
grammed for presentation at the Annual Meeting,
out of 324 submitted. More important was the ob¬
vious improvement in the quality of the papers pre¬
sented.

The total attendance this year was 714, of which
580 were students, 89 were teacher-sponsors, and
45 were Senior Academy supporters. These figures
are slightly greater than those of last year.

In keeping with the changing times, the program
shows a change in paper categories. The Astron¬
omy and Space Science category has been replaced
by a new one — Environmental Science. Last year,
5 papers were submitted in Astronomy and Space
Science; this year, 35 were submitted in Environmen¬
tal Science. We note that the interest of our junior
scientists is no longer all “up in the stars” but rather,
is turning more towards ecology and problems of
“down to earth” concern.

The Committee shares the concern of the pub¬
lic interest in assuring proper treatment of experi¬
mental animals by our student scientists. Our action
has been to acquaint all VJAS members with the
principles proclaimed by the collective animal re¬
search professional societies for the proper treat¬
ment of vertebrate animals in research, and to re¬
quire a signed certificate to this effect of all students
using animals in their projects.

We reflect the same budget concerns of most or¬
ganizations today, i.e., tight money! Compared to
last year’s budget of $7500, we have increased to
$7800, but the percent of this amount coming
from the VAS, our parent organization, has in¬
creased from 33% to 41%. To change this trend,
we must, with the help of the VAS, seek outside
grant and gift funds. A committee is now function¬
ing to do this.

Our overall program of activities has not changed
materially from last year. We continue to publish our
Proceedings and two issues of the Junior Science
Bulletin, to award $500 on student research grants
sponsored by the A A AS through the VAS, and to
send two participants to the AAAS meeting to pre¬
sent papers before the American Junior Academy
of Science.

Gratitude is expressed to the officers and mem¬
bers of the Senior Academy for their strong con¬
tinued support of our program, and to the many
other individuals and industrial firms, as well, for
their financial assistance and interest in developing
young scientists for the future.

E. L. Wisman, Chairman

REPORT OF THE FLORA COMMITTEE

Revisions with distributional data of several
groups of Virginia plants were completed by Miles
Johnson, Peter Mazzeo, and the chairman. The bib¬
liography of Virginia botany was continued by Re¬
becca Bray and Gerald Levy. Aided by a grant from
the Research Committee, Charles Stevens made ex¬
tensive explorations of Mt. Rogers and vicinity.

Collections of Virginia plants continued to build
up at a rapid pace, with the College of William and

Mary alone adding more than 6000 specimens.

Again, several Virginia studies were published
by members and associates.

A. M. Harvill, Jr., Chairman

REPORT OF THE RESOLUTIONS
COMMITTEE

WHEREAS, the members of the Virginia Academy
of Science have assembled for their 49th annual
meeting on the campus of Virginia Polytechnic
Institute and State University, May 11-14, 1971
THEREFORE, we, the members of the Virginia
Academy of Science present the following resolu¬
tions and ask that they be spread upon the min¬
utes of this Assembly; to wit:

BE IT RESOLVED

1. that we express our gratitude for the hospi¬
tality extended by our host Virginia Polytech¬
nic Institute and State University,

2. that special appreciation go to the officers of
the Academy, under the able direction of
President Maurice B. Rowe, for another year
of successful operation,

3. that we hereby acknowledge our debt to the
local arrangements committee and its chair¬
man, Thomas J. Marlowe, for both their plan¬
ning and implementation,

4. that we express thanks to the commercial ex¬
hibitors for their role in making this meeting
a success,

5. that we take cognizance of the challenge and
stimulation of the Junior scientists during their
30th meeting which was an important part of
this meeting,

6. that the Academy notes with sorrow the death
of several of its members since the last an¬
nual meeting.

Paul B. Siegel, Chairman

REPORT OF THE MEMBERSHIP
COMMITTEE

The Membership Committee has functioned both
as a whole and individually. Invitation to affiliate
with the Virginia Academy of Science was extended
to over 200 persons recommended by members of
the Membership Committee.

Through the joint efforts of Dr. D. Rae Carpenter,
Past President, Dr. Dale V. Ulrich, Chairman,
Long Range Planning Committee, and the Mem¬
bership Committee, invitations were also extended
by letter to each member of the science and mathe¬
matics staff of all Virginia Community Colleges.

The Committee has presented to Council a pro¬
posal for new informational materials on the Acad¬
emy. These materials would be designed to meet
the needs of both current and prospective members.

William F. Young, Jr., Chairman

REPORT OF THE
PUBLICATIONS COMMITTEE

The tenure of Dr. Lynn D. Abbott, Jr., as Editor,
The Virginia Journal of Science, expires in August,

Proceedings, 1970-1971

75

1971. Dr. Abbott has indicated that research and
departmental responsibilities will prevent his accept¬
ing another three-year term as Editor.

Dr. Charles H. O’Neal, Department of Biophysics,
Medical College of Virginia, Virginia Common¬
wealth University, has accepted, with approval
of Council, a three-year term as Editor of the Jour¬
nal. However, Dr. O’Neal expects to be at Cam¬
bridge University, England, from August, 1971, to
August, 1972, which will delay initiation of his
service as Journal Editor.

Dr. Abbott has graciously agreed to extend his
Editorship of the Virginia Journal of Science for an
additional year — until the return of Dr. O’Neal to
this country in August, 1972.

Accordingly, about September 1, 1972, Dr. O’Neal
will begin a three-year term as Journal Editor.

The Virginia Academy is greatly indebted to
Dr. Abbott for the magnificent job he has carried
out with the Journal over the past three years, and
is doubly grateful to him for his willingness to ex¬
tend his Journal Editorship until August, 1972.

Some additional progress has been made with the
Dismal Swamp manuscripts. Another has been
published in The Journal, and still another has been
accepted for publication.

Walter S. Flory, Chairman

REPORT OF THE RESEARCH COMMITTEE

During the year the Research Committee made the
following awards in the following amounts:

Amount Amount
Requested Awarded

Daniel Soneshine 12/16/70
“Computer processing for
data collected on ticks infest¬
ing wild birds in the eastern
United States”

650.00

500.00

N. Rice & W. PoweU 12/16/70
“A comparative study of the
toxins of three species of jelly¬
fishes occurring in Chesapeake
Bay”

500.00

500.00

W. L. Mengebier 12/16/70
“In vivo experimentation with
the rat as test animal”

487.40

487.40

J. F. Matta 1/21/71
“Aquatic insects of the Dismal
Swamp”

250.00

250.00

R. E. Jenkins 1/26/71
“Biosystematics of two Darter
species of the subgenus Catono-
tus (Pisces, Percidae), and the
fishes of Copper Creek,
Southeastern Virginia”

587.00

400.00

G. W. Ramsey AI29ll\

250.00

250.00

“Ecological-Floristic Survey

of the Southern Piedmont of
Virginia”

E. S. Kline 4/29/71 900.00 250.00

“Nicaragua shark project”

TOTAL 3624.40 2637.40

There were 18 papers submitted in competition
for the 1971 J. Shelton Horsley Award. The North
Carolina State University Chapter of Sigma Xi were
the judges and the winning paper was “The Un¬
usual Electrical Effects in Arsenic-Tellurium semi¬
conducting Glasses” submitted in the Materials
Science section and authored by L. R. Durden, L. H.
Slack, and P. R. Eusner.

W. D. Whitehead, Chairman

REPORT OF THE SCIENCE TALENT
SEARCH COMMITTEE

All the students from Virginia who participated
in the 30th Science Talent Search for the Westing-
house Science Scholarships and awards, as conducted
by the Science Clubs of America were automatically
considered in the Virginia Science Talent Search.

Students from 49 states and the District of Colum¬
bia completed entries in the 30th National Science
Talent Search. Forty-two states and the District of
Columbia scheduled State Science Talent Searches
this year.

Virginia had 50 completed entries in the National
competition this year as contrasted with 116 last
year. These 50 entries were from 23 different
high schools. (Last year we had entries from 49
different high schools). From the 50 entries we had
8 students in the National Honors Group (16.0%
as compared with last year’s 17.2%) (300 are se¬
lected from the Nation). From the 8 students in
the National Honors Group we had 3 students in
the National Winners (Forty were selected as Na¬
tional Winners from the Nation).

Virginia ranked 9th out of the Nation (49 +
D.C.) in number of students in the Honors Group
and tied for 4th along with Florida for the number
of students as the National Winners this year. On
the basis of students in the National competition
Virginia ranks well in the top 10 in the nation.

The 50 entries were reviewed by the reading
committee and thirty-five were selected as Virginia
Finalists and invited to the annual meeting of the
Academy. Thirty-two attended and were inter¬
viewed. Fifteen were selected as Virginia Winners.

Each contestant was given $10.00 (coordinates
with the Junior Academy participants to prevent
duplication) to help with food expenses. The 15
winners were given $15.00 each to be applied to
the purchase of a scientific handbook.

Edgar V. Russell, Jr., Chairman

REPORT OF THE AGRICULTURAL
SCIENCES SECTION

The Agricultural Sciences Section held a 2 day
session May 13-14 at the Donaldson Brown Con-

The Virginia Journal of Science

76

tinuing Education Center, VPISU. Forty-five (45)
papers were sponsored or presented by members
along with a VJAS award paper. “Chemical Re¬
tardants for Salt Toxicity” by Miss Linda Cox of
William Byrd High School, Vinton.

The following officers were elected: Chair¬
man Dr. K. P. Bovard; Vice-Chairman, M. W.
Alexander; Secretary, Dr. D. E. Petty; and Coun¬
cilman, T. G. Copeland, Jr.

The agricultural section lost one member by
death, Mr. Carroll Bass.

Morris W. Alexander, Secretary

REPORT OF THE BIOLOGY SECTION

Members of the Biology Section were quite ac¬
tive research-wise during the year. Research ac¬
tivities culminated in the presentation of 59 papers
at the May, 1971 meeting. This number compares
with 41 papers presented at the 1970 meeting and
37 papers presented at the 1969 meeting.

Members served as officers of the Academy, Sec¬
tion Chairmen and judges in the Virginia Junior
Academy and served as members of various Acad¬
emy committees. In addition, many members judged
in local and regional science fairs and have helped
in the efforts to establish a state science museum.

Officers elected for 1971-72 were: Chairman, Dr.
George M. Simmons, Virginia Commonwealth Uni¬
versity; Vice-Chairman, (the section declined to
elect this office); Secretary, Dr. Gerald Llewellyn,
Virginia Commonwealth University; Council, Dr.
Warwick R. West, Jr., University of Richmond (to
fill the one-year unexpired term of Dr. G. S.
Grooks, Jr.)

Philip C. Lee, Jr., Chairman

REPORT OF THE BOTANY SECTION

The 1971 Annual Meeting was the first in which
the Botany Section officially existed, it having met
last year as a trial session. A total of 23 contributed
and 2 invited papers were scheduled, represent¬
ing most major areas of plant science. Attendance
at the paper sessions was consistently high, reach¬
ing a peak of 55 and never dropping below 14.
Average attendance per paper at the Thursday
morning, Thursday afternoon, and Friday morning
sessions was 29, 44, and 20 respectively. A total of
63 people signed the register of attendance. Officers
for the next year are Dr. Rebecca D. Bray, Old
Dominion University, Chairman; Dr. Dorothy C.
Bliss, Randolph-Macon Woman’s College, Vice-
Chairman; Dr. R. Jay Stipes, VPISU, Secretary;
and Dr. Leonard O. Morrow, Randolph-Macon Col¬
lege, continues as Council Representative.

Stewart Ware, Chairman

REPORT OF THE CHEMISTRY SECTION

The program of the Chemistry Section this year
consisted of a total of 44 papers, 43 from aca¬
demic institutions from all areas of the state and
one from the Virginia Institute for Scientific Re¬
search.

The new officers elected at the business meeting
are as follows:

Chairman, Dr. John G. Mason
Secretary, Dr. Homer Smith
Editor, Robert G. Bass

No problems have been presented which require
Council action.

Randolph Gladding, Councilman

REPORT OF THE ENGINEERING SECTION

The annual business meeting of the section was
held May 13, 1971 in Blacksburg, Virginia at which
time new officers were elected. The officers for
1971-72 are as follows: Chairman, F. C. McCor¬
mick, University of Virginia; Vice-Chairman, D. L.
Michelsen, VPISU; Secretary, E. G. Keshock,
Old Dominion University; Editor, M. N. Bishara,
Southwestern Community College.

During the year, Mr. Charles Chandler was
dropped as a continuing member of the executive
committee, because he has relocated, and the com¬
mittee added Mr. Gilbert R. Shockley, Reynolds
Metals Company. The executive committee now
consists of the officers of the section and the fol¬
lowing continuing members: Mr. Stanley Ragone,
Section Councilor; Dr. G. A. McAlpine, Industry
Contact Member; Mr. Auzville Jackson, Jr., In¬
dustry Representative; and Mr. Gilbert R. Shockley,
Industry Representative.

The section presented its annual Industry Achieve¬
ment Award to Mr. Harold H. Macklin, Products
Development Division, Reynolds Metals Company.

The annual meeting of the section was held in
Blacksburg, Va., on May 13-14, and consisted of
two general paper sessions and a symposium deal¬
ing with the Clean Air Act.

Robert D. Krebs, Chairman

REPORT OF THE GEOLOGY SECTION

At the annual meeting of the Virginia Academy of
Science in Blacksburg on May 13-14, thirty-one
papers were presented before the Geology Section.
The paper sessions were attended by approximately
sixty people. The following people were elected as
officers of the Geology Section for 1971-72. Chair¬
man — O. S. McGuire; Vice-Chairman — G. A. Bol¬
linger; Secretary — R. S. Spencer; Field Conference
Chairman — R. S. Ellison.

The Geology Section again sponsored the Vir¬
ginia Geological Field Conference. The second an¬
nual meeting of this Field Conference was hosted
by E. W. Spencer and the staff of the Department
of Geology at Washington and Lee University on
October 3rd. Approximately 100 geologists partici¬
pated in the field trip which dealt with the geology
of the Blue Ridge and the Valley and Ridge in
Virginia.

Several members of the Geology Section parti¬
cipated in the Visiting Scientist program of the
Academy and gave talks at elementary and secon¬
dary schools throughout the Commonwealth of Vir¬
ginia.

Bruce K. Goodwin, Chairman

Proceedings, 1970-1971

77

REPORT OF THE MATERIALS
SCIENCE SECTION

Our session had a record number of papers, 36,
and for the first time our session lasted two days. A
very wide range of topics in materials science was
discussed. Practically all of the papers dealt with
metals, ceramics, semiconductors or polymers.

A short business meeting was held to elect a new
editor and a new councilman. They are K. L. Reif-
snider and J. O. Lytton, respectively, both at VPISU.

Lyle H. Slack, Chairman

REPORT OF THE MEDICAL
SCIENCES SECTION

The activities of this section centered around 2
major goals: a) to recruit more members and b)
to arouse more interest among graduate students.

Last year we awarded three prizes ($50.00,
25.00, and 15.00) to the best graduate student pa¬
pers presented. The location of Richmond was con¬
ducive to very heavy and good participation. The
program at Blacksburg again demonstrated that only
real old time supporters would make the trip to
such a remote location. The program at Blacks¬
burg was good, however, and while attendance was
1 /3 that of Richmond, the meeting has to be con¬
sidered successful. We are planning for this year a
more active membership drive; a financial drive;
and more advertising to get better student participa¬
tion from the colleges.

Hugo R. Seibel, Chairman

REPORT OF THE MICROBIOLOGY SECTION

At the request of the North Carolina branch of
the American Society for Microbiology, a joint
meeting was held with that group by the Microbiol¬
ogy Section. A number of papers were presented
by members of both groups during the scientific
session. Reports of officers and committees were
approved during the business meeting. Plans for
another joint meeting with the North Carolina
group were discussed and tentatively approved.

During the year, officers of the Microbiology
Section helped in the judging of Science Fairs in the
high schools. The secretary took care of the fairs in
the eastern part of the state; the president helped
with those in the west.

The Microbiology Section held a session during
the meeting of the Virginia Academy of Science
at Blacksburg. Thirteen papers were presented dur¬
ing the scientific session. Attendance varied from
10 to 35. An education committee, composed of
Drs. Smith Shadomy, Harry Dalton, Richard Cribbs,
and Aletha Markusen was appointed. The mem¬
bership of other committees was continued. Because
officers of the Microbiology Section serve two-year
terms, election of officers was not held at this meet¬
ing.

Lewis D. S. Smith, Chairman

REPORT OF THE PSYCHOLOGY SECTION

Kenneth A. Blick was appointed to serve as Edi¬
tor for the section, to replace William H. Leftwich,
who has served ably for many years.

The response of the members to the call for pa¬
pers for the 1971 meeting was very good. There
were 30 research papers at the session, requiring
two full days for presentation. These papers were
delivered by participants from 13 different colleges
and universities, some of which to my knowledge
had not sent representatives to the Academy
previously. In addition, the winning VJAS paper
was presented, and an invited address was delivered
to the section.

At the business meeting, new officers were elected.
These were Donald Witters, Bridgewater College,
Chairman; and David Elmes, Washington and Lee
University, Secretaiy. It was decided to discon¬
tinue the election of an Executive Committeeman,
since the office was not functional. It was further
deeided that the retiring chairman should write to
each chairman of a psychology department in the
State to inform them of the suggestion of the bus¬
iness session that the host institution for the Vir¬
ginia Academy of Science meeting be given formal
responsibility for certain aspects of the program.
Although the section secretary would retain respon¬
sibility for the program, the members from the host
institution would be expected to provide “special”
attractions, such as invited addresses or symposiums,
and ehairmen for the paper-reading sessions. Also,
they would be expected to encourage attendance
of local persons to ensure that all paper-reading
sessions were well attended. The new chairman
would follow up these suggestions with his own let¬
ter later in the year before the final program for
next year was completed.

E. Rae Harcum, Chairman

REPORT OF THE AWARDS COMMITTEE

Dr. Horton H. Hobbs, Jr. was presented the Vir¬
ginia Academy of Science Ivey F. Lewis Distin-
guisbed Service Award.

The following members of the Academy were
elected as “Fellows”:

Dr. Robert Clifton Carter, VPISU, Blacksburg,
Virginia 24061

Mr. Edward S. Harlow, The American To¬
bacco Co., Virginia Branch, 26th & Cary
Sts., Richmond, Virginia 23223

Dr. W. T. Harnsberger, Jr., Madison College,
Harrisonburg, Virginia 22801

Dr. A. M. Harvill, Jr., Longwood College,
Farmville, Virginia 23901

Dr. George W. Jeffers, Route 6, Earmville,
Virginia 23901

Col. S. M. Heflin, 508 Highland Road, Lex¬
ington, Virginia 24450

Dr. Harry G. M. Jobson, Bridgewater Col¬
lege, Bridgewater, Virginia

Dr. E. L. Wisman, VPISU, Blacksburg, Vir¬
ginia 24061

Boyd Harshbarger, Chairman

The Virginia Journal of Science

78

FINANCE AND ENDOWMENT COMMITTEE Disbursements — Year ended December 31

FINANCIAL REPORT

1969 1970

Virginia Academy of Science^ — General Fund

Annual Meeting Expenses

1,425 1,934

Income — Year ended December 31

Auditing and Tax Services

946 860

Exec. Sec’y — Treas. Office

Salaries and Expenses

3,818 5,684

Dues — applicable to the year

1969

1970

Awards

150 150

Printing

1,488 2,084

Student members

200

213

Va. Journal of Science*

5,818 14,043

Regular members

6,925

6,767

Va. Jr. Academy of Science

5,430 6,241

Contributing members

1,570

1,520

Taxes

77 209

Sustaining members

1,550

1,325

AAAS Awards — Dues — Meeting

Life members

150

Expenses

173 872

Business members

3,600

3,500

Science Talent Search and

Delinquent members

15

19

Visiting Scientist Program

1,205 866

Miscellaneous

93 84

13,860

13,494

Deduct — Above dues collected

Total Expenses

20,623 33,027

in prior year

9,145

7,731

* Note — Since publication dates and bill payments

have not been consistent, expenses on a

4,715

5,763

year to year basis

are not directly com-

parable.

Prepaid member dues

7,721

5,222

Annual meeting income

4,688

5,366

Summary Statement

Va. Jour, of Sci. income

5,510

5,885

1969 1970

Gifts and Grants

1,607

2,600

Dividends and Interest

1,171

1,609

Total Ordinary Income

26,180 27,188

Miscellaneous

768

743

Total Ordinary Expenses

20,623 33,027

Total Ordinary Income

26,180

27,188

Surplus — (Deficit)

5,557 (5,839)

Legacy-Foley F. Smith

8,000

Add Special Item — Smith

(Added to Academy reserve

Legacy

8,000 —

funds)

Total Income

34,180

27,188

13,557 (5,839)

Boyd Harshbarger, Chairman

Proceedings, 1970-1971

79

Abstracts of Papers

Section of Agricultural Science

Forty-ninth Annual Meeting of The Virginia Academy of Science
May 12—14, 1971, Blacksburg, Virginia

GROWTH HABIT AND RCW PATTERN EFFECTS ON YIELD AND MARKET
GRADE OF THREE VIRGINIA PEANUTS. M. W. Alexander. Tide-
water Res. Sta,, Va. Polytechnic Inst, & State Univ.,

Holland, Va. 23391

A Virginia type peanut line, Va. 67-189, along with a
commercial cultivar ’Va. 61R', was evaluated for performance
in 4 planting row patterns, giving 2 plant populations and
harvested at 2 dates. Row patterns were: high population,

2 rows 36"-2" in drill, 3 rows 18"-3" in drill; low popula¬
tion, 2 rows 36"-6" in drill, and 3 rows 18”-9" in drill.

The Va. 67-189, having sparce vegetative growth and fruit
concentrated around the taproot, yielded higher when har¬
vested early, however, the only significant difference noted
between row patterns was with a lower yield in 3 rows plant¬
ed 18" apart and 9" in the drill. The highest yield at the
2nd harvest was with the high population. Va . 61R showed no
significant difference due to row pattern at both harvest
dates. Percent sound mature seed was reduced when planted
at the high population in 2 rows 36" apart 2" in the drill.

No difference in extra large seed was obtained at 1st har¬
vest, however, at 2nd harvest, lower extra large were obtain¬
ed at high population and 2 rows 36" apart 2" in drill.

When yield and market grade factors are combined to obtain
a value, the highest value for Va. 67-189 was obtained at the
1st harvest, low population and row pattern of 2 rows planted
36" apart 6" in the drill. When harvested late, the highest
yield was obtained with the high population and 3 rows 18"
apart 3" in the drill.

EFFECTIVENESS OF PARROTFEATHER FOR ATRAZINE REMOVAL FROM
WATER. S. W. Bingham, J, P, Valentine and R. W. Schumacher*
Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University,
Blacksburg, Virginia 24061

Parrotfeather shoot cuttings rooted in vermiculite for
10 days were transplanted to pint jars (5 plants/ jar) con¬
taining 1/2-strength Hoagland's solution 8 days before
starting removal studies, Atrazine was introduced

at 0, IX 10"^, 1 X 10"^, and 1 X 10"^ molar concentrations
in 400 ml per jar. At various intervals, samples were re¬
moved to determine the amount of chemical remaining in
solution.

All plants were harvested at 20 days. Up to 28% of the
atrazine initially present was removed from cultures with
plants as compared to only a TL loss in cultures without
plants. This 37o represented loss due to sampling and vol¬
atility.

The plants in cultures of intermediate atrazine con¬
centration were more effecient at removal than those of
higher or lower levels. This research was supported by
the Office of Water Resources Research, Department of the
Interior, Project No. A-033-VA.

THE INFLUENCE OF SEX PHEROMONES ON MATING BEHAVIOR AND
SA’WFLY POPULATIONS. Marvin L» Sobb. Va. Poly. Inst, and
State Univo, Res. Div., Piedmont Res. Lab., Charlottesville,
Va. 22901.

Rise and decline in sawfly poprulations have been attri¬
buted most frequently to the influence of natural control
factors© However, data obtained from 1963 through 1970
indicate that population densities are due to the sex
attractiveness of the female sawfly. It was shown that the
female emits a potent sex pheromone which was apparently
necessary for mating. Unmated females oviposited only 17.0
percent of their egg potential; whereas mated females
oviposited more than 90 percent of their total egg comple¬
ment© Severe tree defoliation occurred when more that 50
percent of the females mated©

During 1959 and I960 a very high percentage of the
females mated and deposited eggs, resulting in extremely
high populations of larvae which caused severe defoliation
of pine forest. From 1962 through 1966 only a small per¬
centage of the females mated and the number of eggs deposit¬
ed decreased to such an extent that only non-injurious
persistent populations remained. Since 1967, however,
larger nirmbers of females have mated in some areas of Va.
and there has been in increase in Neodiprion pratti
populations.

VARIATION IN SEVEN PESTICIDE RESIDUES IN APPLE POMACE. K. P.
Bovard , F, D. Griffith and B, M. Priode. VPI&SU, Va. Dept,
of Agriculture & Commerce and U. S. Dept, of Agriculture,
Front Royal, Richmond and Front Royal.

Duplicate one-pound samples of wet apple pomace were ob¬
tained in October 1968 from 14 truck loads of apple pomace
used in a feeding study with pregnant and lactating beef
cows in confinement at the Beef Cattle Research Station,
Front Royal, Va. , during the winter of 1968-69. From
analyses by the VDAC regulatory laboratory, mean pesticide
content (ppm) and its standard error between samples within
trucks, resp. , were: Acaralate: 0.50, 0.20; DDT: 2.27, 0.78;
DDE: 0.15, 0.05; TDE: 0.12, 0.09; ethion: 0.32, 0.20; BHC:
0.05, 0.04; and, Kelthane: 1.43, 1.28. Statistically,
differences among loads were P <.01 for the first four,

P <.05 for the fifth, and non-significant for the last two
pesticides listed. Observed variability in this study
supports continued restriction or regulation against
feeding of apple pomace known to contain certain pesticides,
especially those with zero tolerance.

80

The Virginia Journal of Science

EFFECTS OF TIMING AND BREEDING ON LEGIBILITY OF FREEZE

BRANDS IN BEEF HEIFERS. K. P. Bovard, N. W. Hooven and B. M.
Priode. VPI&SU and U= S. Depto of Agricultures Front Royal,
Beltsville, Md. , and Front Royal.

Two years’ results are reported. In November 1969, twenty
8-month old Angus heifer calves were freeze-branded using
copper alloy irons 3"xl"x^" cooled with liquid nitrogen. Hide-
contact exposure times were 25, 30, 35 or 40 seconds for each
of 5 digits applied to the hip and upper rib area of each
calf. Average legibilities in April 1970 were 2.8, 6.3, 11.0
and 13.0, respectively; in November 1970, they were 6.5, 7.5,
11.6 and 13.0, respectively, where perfect legibility would
be 15.0. Average legibility scores improved with increasing
exposure times (P <,05) and from April to November (P <.10).

In November 1970, thirty-seven 8-month old Angus heifers were
similarly freeze-branded using 30, 40 or 50 seconds exposure
for each of 6 digits applied. In April 1971, average legi¬
bilities were 4.0, 5,9, and 5.7, respectively, where a per¬
fect score would be 6.0. Heifers in the latter study were
cross-classified by mating system as inbred (n = 10) , line-
cross (n = 15) or growth selection (n = 12), with average
freeze-brand legibility scores of 5.2, 4.8 and 5.5, resp.

Results from 40 and 50 seconds’ hide contact with cold irons
were clearly superior to those from shorter times.

PATTERNS OF GROWTH, FATTENING AND REPRODUCTIVE DEVELOPMENT

IN HEIFER CALVES TO ONE YEAR. K. P. Bovard, T. N. Meacham
and B. M. Priode. VPI&SU and U. S. Dept, of Agriculture,

Front Royal, Blacksburg, and Front Royal,

Beginning at weaning in October 1969 the reproductive
development of 23 inbred, 11 type selection, and 14 growth
selection Angus heifers, group-fed in two lots, was checked
by rectal palpation of the tract at bimonthly intervals. Each
heifer's stage of reproductive development, called puberty
score, was classified as: zero: too small to examine; one:
prepuberal; or, two: puberal, and believed to be cycling.
Beginning in late December, a vasectomized bull was used to
identify heifers in estrus. Concomitant data included weight
(lbs.), subjective condition scores, ultrasonic estimates of
fat thickness, and skeletal measurements of wither height and
body length. Average puberty scores for inbreds and growth-
selected heifers were 0.3 and 0.7 in October (age 212 days),
and 1.0 and 1.5, resp., in March (352 days). Corresponding
weights were 374 and 455 in October; 575 and 694 in March,
resp. Corresponding estimates of ultrasonic fat thickness
(mm.) at a point behind the 12th rib and 4 inches off the
midline were 2.65 and 2,61 in October; 3.91 and 3.50 in

March, resp. Growth-selected heifers showed earlier repro¬
ductive development, more rapid physical growth, and appar¬
ently less fattening than did the inbreds. Results of
heifers selected on type score were generally intermediate.

BREED AND SEX DIFFERENCES IN MEANS AND REPEATABILITIES OF
ULTRASONIC READINGS OF HIDE AND FAT THICKNESS IN BEEF CALVES
6-12 MONTHS OLD. K. P. Bovard, R. L. Wilson and B. M.

Priode. VPI&SU and U. S. Dept, of Agriculture, Front Royal,
Beltsville, Md. , and Front Royal.

Within one month after weaning in October 1970, four inde¬
pendent ultrasonic estimates, each, of thickness of hide and
hide plus fat were made at a point 4 inches off the midline
and behind the 12th rib on 82 bull and 80 heifer calves on a
postweaning feeding test in a breeding experiment at the Beef
Cattle Research Station, Front Royal, The first two readings
were made prior to clipping of the hair coat at the site of
the ultrasonic measurement; the second two, afterwards, L.S.
analyses of the estimates of hide, hide plus fat, and fat
showed nonsignificant differences due to clippings and
readings; highly significant differences (P <,01) due to sex
(S), breed (B) , and calves/SB; the SxB interaction was non¬
significant for all three variables. Heifer calves showed

0,48 mm. thicker hides and 0.20 mm. more fat than did bulls,
with the overall means of both sexes being 4.87, and 1.46,
resp. Repeatabilities of estimates of fat thickness calcu¬
lated as intraclass correlations from ’^:Sb/(^.sb
were 0.78 using data from clipped readings, whereas that for
the undipped data was 0.63. Only in technical studies
would the additional gain in accuracy justify the additional
cost incurred by clipping. Finding highly significant dif¬
ferences (P<.01) among lines in fatness supports use of such
data in beef improvement.

EFFECT OF LEVELS OF UREA AND ENERGY ON ADAPTATION TO UREA

FEEDING IN LAMBS. R. J. Buehler*, K. E. Webb, Jr.*, and

J. P. Fontenot, Dept, of Animal Science, Va, Polytechnic

Inst, and State Univ., Blacksburg, Va. 24061

A metabolism trial consisting of six 10-day collection
periods was conducted to study the effect of high dietaiy
urea and energy levels on nitrogen metabolism in lambs.

Four semi-purified diets were fed containing 9.4% soy, 2.6%
urea, 6.75% urea-low energy or 6.75% urea-high energy.

Crude protein contents of these diets were 9, 9, 21 and 21%,
respectively. The calculated TDN contents of the diets were

69, 69, 69 and 74%, respectively. Nitrogen retention was
higher (P<.01) for the 6.75% urea diets, regardless of en¬
ergy concentration. Adaptation to urea feeding appeared to
be absent in the lambs fed these rations. Apparent diges¬
tibilities of dry matter, ether extract, NFE and crude pro¬
tein were higher in all lambs fed 6.75% urea. Ruminal
butyric acid levels were significantly higher in lambs fed

9.4% soy than in those fed the urea rations. The protein
nitrogen concentration of the ruminal fluid was highest
(P<.01) in the lambs consuming the 6,75% urea diets followed
in order by those fed 2.6% urea and 9.4% soy. Levels of
plasma free lysine, isoleucine and leucine tended to be
lower in all lambs receiving urea. Blood urea was highest
for the 6.75% urea diets, intermediate for 2.6% urea and
lov;est for 9.4% soy.

EFFECT OF PLANT SPACING ON LEE SOYBEANS. H. M. Camcer. Jr.*
and T. J. Smith, Dept, of Agron., Va. Polytechnic Inst, and

State University, Blacksburg, Va . 2406i

Lee soybeans were grown in rows spaced three feet apart
with plants spaced 1^, 3, 6, and 9 inches in the row during

4 production years.

Closer plant spacing was negatively correlated with seeds
per plant, increased branching and pods closer to the ground;
and positively correlated with larger seed, increased height
and increased lodging. Plant spacing in the row had no
effect upon seed yield.

MOLECULAR DENSITY AND ABSORBANCY RED PEAK OF CHLOROPHYLL a

IN SOLUTION FILM AND CRYSTALLINE STATES. G. Colmano, Dept,
of Veterinary Science, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and

State University, Blacksburg, Virginia, 24061.

A model, combining the absorption spectra of chlorophyll
a in solution, film and crystalline states, with the mole¬
cular orientation of these states, was constructed and
coupled with quantum chemistry techniques. It is shown,
that the knowledge of the physical parameters of chlorophyll
a in different spatial orientation may explain the correla¬
tion of peak position of the red absorption for molecules in
solution, film and crystalline states, with the intermole-
cular distance, which is inversely proportional to the
molecular radius.

Proceedings, 1970-1971

81

THE CRYOSTAT, A USEFUL TOOL IN PLANT HISTOPATHOLOGY.

C. R. Drake. Dept, of Plant Patholoev and Phvsiolosv.

Va. Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ. , Blacksburg, Va.

24061

Fresh apple leaves, fruit and fruit pedicels infected
with apple scab (Venturia inaequalis) were sectioned with
a cryostat microtome. The specimens were frozen in Tissue-
Tek embedding medium in the cryostat until ready to cut
at -19 C. The sections 12 to 15 v thick were removed
from the knife with a glass slide that had been coated
previously with gelatin adhesive. The slide was placed
on a slide warmer and the sections covered with distilled
water. After the sections had extended fully, the excess
water was blotted with a moist towel pressing downward.

The slide was allowed to dry 4-12 hr then washed in water
to remove excess embedding medium. The fresh sections were
then stained in the same sequence as paraffin sections.

Good conformation of the tissue and protoplasm were main¬
tained. Fungal structures were well differentiated. There
was good differentiation of host-parasite tissues with
acid or basic fuchsin and fast green as well as with other
dyes. Specimens were collected, sectioned, stained and
photographed within a period of 12-36 hr. Cryostat
sections have remained in good condition for a period
of 3 years.

RESPONSE OF FLIES TO SONIC ENERGY. U. F. Earp and J. M.

Stanley. Agricultural Engineering Dept., VPI&SU, Blacks¬
burg, Va. 24061 and Agricultural Engineering Res. Div,,

ARS-USDA

Houseflies, Musca domestica L., were subiected to a sound
pressure level of 85 db at 19 frequencies in the 100 to

20,000 Hz range and to 11 frequencies in the 25 to 100 kHz
range. Each sample, consisting of approximately 100 flies

3 days old, was injected into the center of a 4-foot long
cage. The sonic energy stimulus was alternated between the
ends of the cage. After a 5-minute test period those in
each section of the cage were counted visually. Flies were
neither attracted to nor repelled by the sonic energy.

STUDIES OF PROCESSING, NUTRITIONAL VALUE AND PALATABILITY OF
BROILER LITTER FOR RUMINANTS. J. P. Fontenot, K. E. Webb,

Jr.* B. W. Harmon*, R. E. Tucker* and W. E. C. Moore*.

Dept, of Animal Science, Va. Polytechnic Inst. & State Univ.,
Blacksburg, Va. 24061

Of the processing methods tested, the use of dry heat at
'150°C for 4 hours or longer was the only method which was
consistently effective in sterilizing broiler litter. The
use of dry heat at 100 or ISO^C resulted in a substantial
decrease in crude protein content. Samples were obtained
from broiler houses in the three main broiler areas in Vir¬
ginia. There was considerable variation in the chemical
composition of the samples obtained from different areas.

There was over a 3-fold difference in crude protein content.

No substantial amounts of pesticide residues were detected
iu broiler litter or in tissue from animals fed processed
litter. The relative acceptability of rations containing
different levels of processed litter was studied using
steers allowed access to rations, "cafeteria style". The
amount consumed decreased as the percentage of litter in the
ration increased. With individually-fed steers, during the
first 50 days cattle fed 25% litter consumed 12% less feed
than those fed the control ration but there was no differ¬
ence during the last 70 days. Feed intake was substan¬
tially lower for cattle fed a ration containing 50% litter.

GENERAL COMBINING ABILITY AND MATERNAL EFFECTS IN CROSSING

THREE BRITISH BREEDS OF BEEF CATTLE. J. A. Gaines. G. V.
Richardson, R. C. Carter, W. H. McClure, Va. Polytechnic

Inst, 6c State Univ. and U. S«, Dept, of Agriculture, Animal
Science Dept., Blacksburg, Virginia 24061

Data from 469 calves were used to study heterosis, general
combining ability (GCA) and maternal effects using least
squares. Breeds were Angus, Hereford and Shorthorn and
traits were birth weight, weaning grade, weaning weight, ADG
on feed, slaughter grade and slaughter weight.

Breed differences in GCA were significant (P<,05) for
birth and weaning weights of all calves, and slaughter grade
and weight of steers, indicating more variability among the
breeds in genes influencing weight than in those for grade.

The GCA interaction with system of mating was generally non¬
significant, indicating the additive effects followed the
same pattern whether in two-breed or backcross combination.

The effect of breed of dam on the two-breed and backcross
calves was highly significant (P<,01) for weaning weight.
Moreover, these maternal effects were significantly different
in the two systems of mating, indicating breed of dam differ¬
ences depending on the kind of calves they were rearing.

RELATION OF THE INHIBITION OF ASPERGILLUS FIAVUS COLONY
DEVELOPMENT ON A SELECTIVE MEDIUM TO RECOVERY FROM ARTIFI¬
CIALLY AND NATURALLY INFESTED SOILS. G. J. Griffin, R. H.

Ford*, and K. H. Garren* , Va. Polytechnic Inst. & State Univ.
and U.S. Dept, of Agriculture, Blacksburg and Holland, Va.

A peptone-glucose mineral salts medium(M) modified from

Martin was supplemented with 3% NaCl (M3S), 37o NaCl plus 1
ppm Botran(M3SB) , 33 ppm rose bengal(MR), 37, NaCl plus 33
ppm rose bengal(M3SR) or 10% NaCl plus 33 ppm rose bengal
(MlOSR) for isolation of A. flavus-A. parasiticus (FP) from
artificially infested soil and naturally infested field soil
by the dilution plate technique. In axenic studies the rate
of colony growth of five clones of FP was stimulated when M
was supplemented with NaCl concentrations up to 3%. Compared
to M3S colony growth rate of all clones was slightly de¬
pressed on M3SB, and greatly depressed on M3SR; however,
conidial germination was complete on all media. Recovery of

FP from artificially infested soil at 10 ^ dilution increas¬
ed in the following order; M3SB>M3SR>'M3S. However, recov¬
ery of FP from naturally infested soil at 10“^ dilution was
approximately the same on M3SB and M3SR; populations in dif¬
ferent samples of field soil ranged from 2.2 to 13.4 propa-
gules/g soil. Colonies of FP on dilution plates were typi¬
cally larger on M3SB than on M3SR. Axenic colony growth rate
of FP was greatly reduced on MlOSR compared to MR, and recov¬
ery from artificially infested soil at 10" dilution on MR
was double that on MlOSR. Recovery of FP from naturally in¬
fested soil at 10"^ dilution was less on MlOSR than on M3SR.

SUGAR EXUDATION FROM DEVELOPING AXENIC PEANUT FRUITS.

M.G. Hale and F.J. Shav. Dept, of Plant Pathology and

Physiology, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State

University, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061.

Axenic peanuts were allowed to grow in special containers
constructed so that the rooting medium and the pegging
medium were in separate containers. Growing conditions were
controlled in isolator chambers in a growth room at 25-30®C
and continuous fluorescent illumination at about 1200 fc.

Pegs and fruits developed in Weblite. At termination of the
experiments, pegs and fruits were carefully removed from the
Weblite in the pegging chamber, counted and stage of develop¬
ment recorded. Weblite was extracted with 3, 300 ml por¬
tions of CO2 free Ba(0H)2, the extracts pooled, neutralized
with H2SO4 and evaporated to dryness. The dried residue was
extracted with 10 ml pyridine, the volume reduced in vacuuo
under reduced pressure and methyl silyl derivatives made.
Qualitative and quantitative measurements were made using
gas-liquid chromatography. Results were expressed as yg
each sugar exuded per plant per week. With one or two
exceptions, sugars found were the same as those in root
exudates previously reported. (Aided by Cooperative

Agreement 12-14-100-9711 with USDA, ARS, Plant Science

Div.).

82

The Virginia Journal of Science

RELATIVE CONTENTS OF P, K, Ca, Mg, B, Mn, Zn, AND Cu IN

15 PEANUT CULTIVARS. D. L. Hallock, D. C. Martens, and

W, Alexander, Tidewater Research Station, Va, Poly¬
technic Inst, and State Univ,, Holland, Va, 23391

The main stem leafy tops of 15 peanut cultivars repre¬
senting four peanut market types were sampled at two stages
of development in 1968 and 1969 and analyzed for contents
of 8 nutrients. Nutrient content ranges in samples taken
at full bloom stage in 1968 and 1969, respectively, were
0.29-0,31 and 0,20-0,26% P; 3,15-3,38 and 2.96-3.60% K;

0,92-1.10 and 1.49-2.10% Ca; 0,43-0,50 and 0.50-0.66% Mg;

23-29 and 69-102 ppm B; 47-82 and 25-41 ppm Mn; 43-53 and

28-37 ppm Zn; and 2, 9-6, 7 ppm Cu in 1969. Similarly, the
ranges for samples taken near mature stage in 1968 and

1969, respectively, were 0,12-0.16 and 0.19-0.23% P; 1,80-
2,33 and 2,34-3,20% K; 1,41-2.13 and 2.00-2,98% Ca; 0.41-
0.60 and 0,41-0.65% Mg; 23-41 and 46-60 ppm B; 34-77 and

28"59 ppm Mn; 23-41 and 36-63 ppm Zn; and 4. 2-9,1 ppm Cu
in 1969,

Contents of P, K and B were highest in the full bloom
stage samples and Ca and Cu in the mature stage samples.

Contents of Mg, Mn and Zn were similar at both stages.

The large and small seeded Virginia types averaged
higher in Ca, Mg, B, Mn and Zn than the Spanish and Valen¬
cia types. Cu contents were lower in the large seeded

Virginia type and P contents were similar in all types.

EFFECTS OF CITRININ ON GROWTH OF GERM-FREE MARIGOLD PLANTS.

K. M. Hameed*. Dept, of Plant Pathology and Physiology,

Va. Poly. Inst. & State Univ., Blacksburg, Va. 24061

Germ-free marigold plants (Tagetes erecta L.) were
grown inside flexible plastic isolators, under 1800 foot
candle light at 25-30®C. Coarse sand and 50% Hoagland-
Arnon nutrient solution (plus Fe-EDTA solution 5 ml/1)
served as rooting medium. Plants were treated with 0.1,

1.0 and 10 ppm citrinin (4 ,6 -Dihydro-8-hydroxy-3 , 4 , 5-
trimethyl-6-oxo-3H-benzopyran-7-carboxylic acid) , a meta¬
bolite of Penicillium citrinum Thom. , dissolved in citrate
buffer (pH 7.5) and added into the rooting medium. Treat¬
ed plants showed higher values for plant heights; 43, 40,

37 cm, fresh weights; 82, 62, 60 g and dry weights; 13,

9.8, 9.5 g than the control measurements of 30 cm, 45 g,
and 6.8 g respectively. Percent protein in plants treated
with 1.0 ppm citrinin (22.3) was significantly higher than
the 10 ppm (19.1). The control plants, 0.1 and 10 ppm
citrinin treated plants revealed comparable percent protein
values, 20.5%, 21.0% and 19.1% respectively. The results
of these studies, then, indicated an initial stimulation
of growth of germ-free marigold plants at 0.1 and 1.0 ppm
citrinin, with no effect at the 10 ppm level.

EFFECT OF PICLORAM ON THE GROWTH OF FIVE SOIL FUNGI.

K. M. Hameed*, and C. L. Foy. Dept, of Plant Pathology
and Physiology, Va. Poly, Inst. & State Univ. , Blacks¬
burg, Va. 24061

Five different soil fungi — Trichoderma viride,

Fusarium oxysporum, Helminthosporium victoriae, Peni-
cillium lanosum and Aspergillus flavus — were grown in
modified soil extract medium containing 1, 10, 100 and

1000 ppm picloram (technical, acid and formulated, Tor-
don 22K) or 10 and 100 ppm glucose (on a carbon equiva¬
lent basis). All fungi grew measurably (mycelium, dry
weight) under all treatments. All five fungi failed to
produce mycelial pads in a synthetic liquid medium lack¬
ing carbon or nitrogen but supplemented with picloram.

APPLE MILDEW CONTROL WITH LOW VOLUME SPRAYS. K. D. Hickey*.
Dept, of P.Path. and Phys . , VPI & SU, Winchester, Va. 22601.

Control of apple powdery mildew, caused by Podosphaera
leucotricha (E. and E.) Salm., was obtained in field tests
where fungicide mixtures were applied with two types of air-
blast sprayers (conventional and mist) at from 11 to 109
gallons per acre (gpa). The level of control was directly
related to the amount of fungicide used per acre. Fungicide
rate had a greater effect on control than the amount of
water per acre or the type of airblast sprayer used. Mildew
control was obtained in the lower part of trees (3-8 ft.)
with Dikar 80W at 6.6 Ib/A. when applied with either sprayer
in varying amounts of water per acre at 2.0 and 3.0 mph. Dis¬
ease severity varied from the bottom to the top of the tree
depending on the sprayer ground speed, type of sprayer and
the amount of fungicide used. Control was significantly re¬
duced on trees sprayed with Dikar SOW 4,4 Ib/A. (33% reduc¬
tion) applied in 11 gpa at 3.0 mph with the mist sprayer.

Control was comparable on the lower part of trees sprayed
with the conventional sprayer at 3.0 mph using standard
(6.6 lb.) and reduced (4.4 lb.) rates of Dikar. Control was
significantly less near the top of the trees (15-20 ft.) with
treatments containing the same amount of fungicide applied
with this sprayer in less than 27 gpa. The data obtained
showed that the level of mildew control appeared to depend
on adequate deposits of effective fungicide mixtures properly
timed to protect the leaves as they develop and not upon the
degree of leaf wetting with the spray mixture.

THE C0L0PJ\D0 POTATO BCmE PROBLEM IN SOUTHE.^STEPIS' VIRGINIA,

P.o Ns Hofmaster, Dept, of Entomology, Va, Truck and Orna-
mentals Res, Station, Painter, Va, 23420.

The Colorado potato beetle has become an increasingly
acute problem on the Eastern Shore of Virginia, Resistance
to DDT was observed in 1953, to dieldrin in 1958 and since
then to most chlorinated hydrocarbons and many phosphates.

At the present time adequate control of this pest is the
limiting factor in Irish potato production in southeastern

Va, Promising results have been obtained with 25-30 lbs,
of 10% phorate (Thimet) granules/A, placed in the fertilizer
bands at planting. Unfortunately, this treatment does not
last the entire season and problems have been encountered
with potato beetle build-up three to four weeks before
harvest. Investigations with over 50 systemic insecticides
have sho\*m two of these, aldicarb (Temik) and carbofuran
(Furadan), to be somewhat more effective than phorate in
that they show greater initial activity and are more per¬
sistent, Phorate and carbofuran have also given excellent
performances when combined with liquid fertilizers.

Foliage sprays of azinphosme thyl (Guthion) or carbaryl
(Sevin) are widely used and, while still effective, simply
fall short in residual action. Extensive screening trials,
in which approximately 50 compounds are field tested annu¬
ally, have conclusively demonstrated that carbofuran at

0,5 lb, actual/A, holds most promise of extended protection.

PROGRESS AND PROBLEMS IN CATFISH CULTURE IN VIRGINIA. D, W.
Holmes* and K, B. Cummins. VPI&SU Div. For. and Wildl. Sci.

Va. Coop. Fish Unit, U.S.D.I., Blacksburg, Va . , 24061

The commercial production of channel catfish, Ictalurus
punctatus, was researched in Virginia in 1970. Four ponds
in various counties were stocked with fingerlings in Novem¬
ber 1969 at 2500 per acre. Later, in June 1970, catfish
were also placed in cages in the three ponds to test the
effectiveness of cage culture; the stocking rate was 500 per
cage. In the two southern Virginia ponds, the fish were fed
for approximately 140 days while the fish in western Virgin¬
ia pond vK re fed for only 83 days. All fish were fed on

Purina floating catfish ration ad lib., 6 days per week.

Dalton's pond and Farmer's pond in southern Virginia had

75.5% and 82.6% survival of fish respectively at the end of
the growing season while Hoge pond in western Virginia had a

75%. survival rate. The harvest success was estimated to be
approximately 95% of all fish present in the three ponds.

The average fish weights attained in Dalton's, Farmer's and
Hoge's ponds were 13.2, 11.8 and 5.6 ounces, respectively.

Feed conversion rates attained were 1.76:1 in Dalton's pond,
1.77:1 in Farmer's pond and 1.41:1 in Hoge's pond. Total
fish production was 2148.5 pounds in Dalton's pond, 2902
pounds in Farmer's pond and 1029 pounds in Hoge's pond. Cat¬
fish farming seems feasible in the piedmont area of Virginia
but was unsuccessful in the montaine region on a single
growing season basis. (Aided by OEO grant 303332-1)

Proceedings, 1970-1971

83

ABSORPTION AND TRANSLOCATION OF 2-(3,4-DICHLOROPHENYL)-4-
METHYL-l,2.4-OXADIAZOLIDINE-3,5-DIONE IN GOSSVPTUM HTR5UTUM
L. D. W. Jones* and C. L. Foy. Dept. Plant Path. & Physiol. >
Va. Poiy. Inst. & State Univ. , Blacksburg, Va. 24061

Absorption and translocation of the ^^C-labeled herbicide
(VCS 438) and its metabolites in cotton were studied using
autoradiography and counting. Absorption into roots of 30-
day plants via nutrient solution was rapid; translocation
into stem and leaves occurred 12 to 24 hr after treatment.
Older (40-day) plants translocated more rapidly. Trans¬
location of l^C-labeled compounds correlated well with trans¬
piration, indicating movement in the xylem. Radioactivity
in leaves of root-treated plants was first located in the
veins, then distributed throughout. Little moved into
young growing points; most accumulated in older leaves.

Foliar penetration of occurred rapidly in primary
leaves treated with a 20 pi droplet of VCS-438-l^C dissolved
in acetone-1% Tween 80 (1:1). Acropetal translocation of
l^C-labeled compound out of the treated area began within
3 hr and increased with time through 6 days. No basipetal
movement was detected after 6 days of treatment. As in the
root absorption studies, movement first occurred in the

leaf veins, then more generally in interveinal tissues dis-
tally from the point of application. The translocation pat¬
tern of VCS-438 or its metabolites was characteristic of
compounds which move only in the apoplast, the non-living
cell wall continuum that surrounds and contains the living
symplast .

FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR INCREASED YIELD OF SOYBEANS GROWN
UNDER IRRIGATION, J. A. Lutz, Jr., and G. D, Jones, Dept,
of Agronomy, Va. Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ,,
Blacksburg, Va. 24061

The irrigation of soybeans in a fertility experiment on
Davidson clay loam soil in 1970 significantly increased the
yield of beans and plant growth. Factors responsible for
the increase were increased stem length, development of
larger seeds, increased number of seeds per plant, and
increased weight of seeds per plant.

Irrigation increased bean yields 75%, total plant yields
61%, seed size 38%, number of seed per plant 54%, and the
weight of seed per plant 110%.

Irrigation water was applied during the podding period
because soil moisture was too low for normal plant growth.
The soil moisture in the 0-12" soil depth dropped to 20% on
August 14 and September 3, thus indicating that 50% of the
available soil water had been depleted. Irrigation was
based on a 50% depletion of available soil moisture in the
0-12" soil depth.

PECTIC SUBSTANCES AND NON-STRUCTURAL CARBOHYDRATES IN
HEALTHY AND BLACK SHANK DISEASED TOBACCO STEMS. L. D. Moore,
Dept, of Plant Pathology and Physiology, Va. Polytech. Inst,
and State Univ. , Blacksburg, Virginia 24061

Stems of Nicotiana tabacum 'Virginia Gold', colonized by
Phy tophthora parasitica var. nicotianae were analyzed for
extractable pectic substances and hot water soluble carbohy¬
drates. All data was expressed as pg/mg dry weight of tis¬
sue. Healthy stems contained 170 to 205 pg pectic substances
as identified by the carbazole test. Diseased stems contain¬
ed 90 to 100 pg pectic substances. When stems were extracted
successively with water, HCl and NaOH there were 50 to 60%
less HCl extractable pectic substances in diseased tissue
than in healthy tissue. Pectic substances extractable with
water or NaOH were present in nearly identical quantities in
diseased and healthy tissues.

The water extracts were analyzed for non-structural
carbohydrates and reducing sugars using the enthrone and
Somogyi-Nelson tests, respectively. Healthy tissue contained
170 to 230 pg total carbohydrates and 75 to 100 pg reducing
sugars. Diseased tissues analyzed 2, 4 and 8 days after
inoculation contained 110, 93 and 54 pg total carbohydrates
and 72, 53 and 31 pg reducing sugars, respectively.

These results suggest that pectic substances and non-
structural carbohydrates are attacked and utilized by
Phy tophthora parasitica var. nicotianae during colonization
of tobacco stems.

AVAILABILITY OF IRON IN DEFLUORINATED PHOSPHATE FOR GROWING
PIGS. E, T. Kornegay. Dept, of Animal Science, Va. Poly¬
technic Inst, and State Univ., Blacksburg, Va. 24061.

Thirty-six pigs (avg. body weight, 6.4 kg) denied an iron
injection and weaned at three weeks of age were used to
evaluate the availability of the iron (Fe) in defluorinated
phosphate (DFP) relative to the Fe in ferrous sulfate (FS) .
The following semi -purified diets were fed: 1) basal - 20
ppm total Fe; 2) plus FS - 71 ppm total Fe; 3) plus FS - 97
ppm total Fe; 4) plus DFP - 78 ppm total Fe; 5) plus DFP -
103 ppm total Fe; 6) plus DFP - 125 ppm total Fe. The trial
lasted for 7 weeks. Pigs were fed each diet as close to full
feed as possible without excessive wastage. Pigs fed diets
containing 71 and 97 ppm Fe from FS and 103 and 125 ppm Fe
from DFP had similar body weights indicating that these
levels of Fe were adequate for maximum growth. The pigs fed
the basal diet (20 ppm Fe) had the lowest body weights, with
pigs fed the lowest level of DFP (78 ppm Fe) having interme¬
diate body weights. The highest values for hemoglobin and
hematocrit were obtained from pigs fed diets containing 97
ppm Fe from FS, followed closely by values from pigs fed
diets containing 71 ppm Fe from FS and 103 and 125 ppm Fe
from DFP. Pigs fed the basal diet (20 ppm Fe) were unable
to maintain their hemoglobin and hematocrit values with a
progressive decrease to below normal values. Hemoglobin and
hematocrit values were intermediate for pigs fed the diet
with 78 ppm Fe from DFP. The relative availability of Fe
in DFP was 85, 73 and 67%, respectively, for body weight,
hemoglobin and hematocrit values.

SURVIVAL OF MELOIDOGYNE ARENARIA IN ROOTS, STEMS, AND FRUIT
OF ARACHIS HYPOGAEA AFTER HARVEST. L. I, Miller. Dept, of
Plant Path. & Phys,, V.P.I. & S.U., Blacksburg, Va. 24061
Peanut plants heavily infested with viable eggs of the
peanut root-knot nematode were harvested the last week of
October. The harvested plants were either dried artifically
or in the field in a shock. The fruit of the artifically
dried plants (not to exceed lOO’^F) had reached a moisture
content of 8% (d.b.) one week after harvest and eggs from
galled root, stem, fruit, and from the soil adhering to
the plant parts were not viable. Eggs from the plant parts
of the drying plants in the shock and from the soil adher¬
ing to them were viable one week after harvest, but were
not viable one month after harvest when the fruit contained
8% moisture. It is concluded that the peanut root-knot
nematode is rarely disseminated in the movement of saleable
peanut fruit and hay.

EFFECT OF LEVEL AND FORM OF NITROGEN ON MAGNESIUM UTILIZA¬
TION. W. F. Moore*, J. P. Fontenot and K. E. Webb, Jr.*
Dept, of Animal Science, Va. Polytechnic Inst, and State
Univ., Blacksburg, Va. 24061

Twelve wether lambs were used in two 20-day metabolism
trials to study the relative effects of two levels of crude
protein (nitrogen) and two levels of non-protein nitrogen
(urea) on magnesium utilization in lambs. Each trial con¬
sisted of four successive 5-day collection periods. The ex¬
perimental design was a 2X2 factorial with two levels of
crude protein and two levels of non-protein nitrogen. The
two crude protein levels were approximately 10 and 32%, and
at each protein level, 0 and 35% of the crude protein was
provided by urea. Rumen ammonia-N levels were higher for
the animals consuming the high-protein rations. There were
no significant differences in apparent magnesium absorptj('n
among the four treatments. Magnesium retention was greater
(P<.01) for the animals consuming the low-protein rations
during all periods and there were no significant differences
due to form of nitrogen. Blood serum magnesium levels were
similar for the animals fed all four rations.

84

The Virginia Journal of Science

DEVELOPMENT OF A DEVICE TO MEASURE CHANGES IN FLIGHT PAT¬
TERNS OF TETHERED MOTHS. J. V. Perumpral*. U. F. Earp.

Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University and

J, Stanley, Ag. Engr, Res, Div,, ARS j USDA, Blacksburg^

Virginia 24061,

A new technique was developed to obtain oscillographic
recording of the wingbeat of a moth in stationary flight.

The operating principle and construction details are dis¬
cussed, The device developed was found to be capable of
detecting any change in wingbeat frequency and wingbeat
amplitude. Response to 80 dB ultrasonic energy of 40 kHz
was studied by conducting a series of tests using moths
grouped according to age and sex. Recordings indicating the
change in flight pattern are shown and discussed.

EVIDENCE OF AN UNIDENTIFIED GROWTH FACTOR FOR TURKEYS IN
COMMERCIAL STREPTOMYCES RESIDUES AND ITS INTERACTION WITH
ANTIBIOTICS. L. M. Potter. Dept, of Poultry Science.

Va, Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ,, Blacksburg, Va. 24061
Streptomyces fermentation residues from the manufacture of
antibiotics were added to diets of turkeys to determine their
effects on body weights, feed consumptions and feed efficien¬
cies, In two experiments, the average body weights of tur¬
keys at eight weeks of age were increased 10.1% by the addi¬
tion of 0,25% Fermacto-500, 8.1% by the addition of 22 ppm
erythromycin thiocyanate, and 8,1% by the addition of both
supplements. In another experiment, the average body weights
of turkeys at eight weeks of age were increased 10.9% by the
addition of 0,625% liquid streptomyces solubles, 8.6% by the
addition of 35 ppm erythromycin thiocyanate, and 8.4% by the
addition of both factors. In two other experiments, the
average eight-week body weights were increased 4.6% from the
addition of 0.25% dry or 0,50% wet streptomyces and bacillus
fermentation residue, 4.9% from the addition of 17.1 ppm
bacitracin, and 4,1% from the addition of both supplements.

From these data, an unidentified growth factor is postulated
to be present in these streptomyces fermentation residues,
and this factor is postulated to be either a metabolite pro¬
duced by microorganisms of the intestinal tract of turkeys
fed antibiotic containing diets or another previously unde¬
tected antibiotic.

CHANGES IN PROTEIN CONTENT OF TOBACCO STEMS AFTER HEAT

TREATMENT AND SUBSEQUENT INOCULATION OF ROOTS WITH

PHYTOPHTHORA PARASITICA VAR, NICOTIANA. G. E. Sanden"
and L, D. Moore. Dept, of Plant Pathology and Physiology,

V.P.I. & S.U, , Blacksburg, Virginia 24061

Roots of intact plants of a resistant cultivar of flue
cured tobacco, Nicotiana tabacum ’Coker 187', were sub-
jected to the following treatments: (i) robots heated by
immersion in a water bath at 50 C for one minute and
inoculated; (ii) roots inoculated only; (iii) untreated
controls. Stunting and limited stem lesion development
were observed for treatment (i), while plants of treatment

(ii) exhibited only stunting. Stem tissue was assayed 10
days after treatment for total protein content by the

Lowry method. Tissue extracts from stems of inoculated
only (ii), and heated and inoculated plants (i) contained

9.2 mg protein and 9.5 mg protein/g dry weight of tissue,
respectively. Tissue extracts from the untreated control

(iii) contained only 7.6 mg protein/g dry weight. Although
colonization of this resistant cultivar was limited, it is
apparent that protein metabolism of the noninfected stem
was influenced by the pathogen.

INFLUENCE OF FOUR AQUATIC SPECIES ON DICHLOBENIL RESIDUE IN
WATER. R. W, Schumacher* and S. W. Bingham. Dept, of

Plant Path. & Physiol., V.P.I. & S.U. , Blacksburg, Va. 24061

Two emersed species, parrotfeather and water hyacinth,
and two submersed species, elodea and Eurasian milfoil were
utilized in this study. Dichlobenil concentrations used
were 0 /ig/ml, 0.17 /ig/ml and 1.7 >ug/ml. Plant and water
samples were taken at various time intervals and extracted
with benzene to determine the amount of chemical remaining.
Dichlobenil was measured with a gas chromatograph equipped
with an electron-capture detector. A 6-foot by 1/4-inch
glass column packed with 1.5% OV-17 and 1.95% QF-1 on

80/100 Gas chromasorb Q and maintained at 150 C was utilized,
Dichlobenil detection limit was 0,01 ng.

The emersed species provided a higher rate of removal
than did the submersed species. Water hyacinth removed over

307o of the herbicide in four days. Removal by parrotfeather
was greatest during the first 24 hr followed by a decline.
Dichlobenil was found to be quite volatile from the water.

The amount of herbicide detected in the plant tissue was
low, indicating that metabolism and/or volatilization from
the foliage was quite rapid.

The reduced rate of removal with time may be due in part
to herbicidal injury. Both plant growth and transpiration
were reduced in the treated plants. At the higher rate,
shoot tips were severely injured. Supported by Department
of the Interior, Project No. A-003-Va.

GAS-LIQUID CHROMATOGRAPHY OF SUGARS IN EXUDATES OF AXENIC

PEANUT ROOTS. F. J. Shay* R- W. Young, and M. G. Hale.

Dept, of Plant Path, and Physiol., Va. Poly. Inst, and State
Univ. , Blacksburg, Va. 24061

Weekly collections of nutrient solutions used in axenic
growth of peanut plants were freeze concentrated and freeze
dried. The residue was dissolved in 10 ml of pyridine and
centrifuged. The supernatent containing dissolved organic
root exudates was evaporated to dryness, and redissolved
in 1.0 ml of pyridine. Methylsilyl derivatives of sugars
in the root exudate were prepared by adding 0.9 ml of
hexamethyldisilazane plus 0.1 ml of trif loroacetic acid and
kept at room temperature 24 hours. Standards were prepared
in the same manner as exudate samples. G-C analysis was
accomplished on a 6 ft x 1/4 in (OD) glass column containing

3% OV-3 on 80 to 100 mesh chromosorb WHP, with a linear
temperature program of 5C/min from 120 to 220C with a four
minute program delay. Detector and injection port tempera¬
tures were 265 and 270C respectively. The flow of carrier
gas, nitrogen was 40 ml/min. Individual sugars as little as

0.1 ug could be Identified and quantitated. A total of
sixteen sugars in peanut root exudates was identified and
quantitated by this technique. (Aided by Cooperative

Agreement 12-14-100-9711 with USDA, ARS, Plant Science

Div.) .

THE EFFECT OF BROMACIL ON PERENNIAL GRASSES, J. W. Shriver*
and S. W. Bingham. Dept, of Plant Pathology and Physiology,

Va. Polytechnic Institute and State Univ. , Blacksburg, Va.

24061.

Bromacil, a substitute uracil herbicide, has exhibited
marginal selectivity in controlling tall fescue and orchard-
grass in Kentucky Bluegrass turf. Postemergence applica¬
tions up to 1 Ib/A (1.12 kg/ha) were made during the summer
and fall of 1970 on established plugs. The growth status
of the plants was monitored during the summer and fall of

1970 and into the spring of 1971 using visual injury ratings,
clipping dry weight, percent carbohydrates, and photosynthe¬
sis rate.

Bromacil, a known photosynthetic inhibitor, decreased
the clipping dry weight and 7, carbohydrates more in tall
fescue and orchardgrass than in Kentucky Bluegrass during
the summer and fall of 1970. CO2 absorption as a measure
of photosynthesis was measured using an infra-red CO2 gas
analyzer. CO2 uptake was reduced more in tall fescue and
orchardgrass than in Kentucky Bluegrass. Visual ratings
during summer and fall indicated that tolerance of the
three species was as follows; Kentucky Bluegrass> Tall
Fescue'>Orchardgrass. Winter survival of plugs in April

1971 indicated that orchardgrass and tall fescue were
susceptible to winter kill with Kentucky Bluegrass appear¬
ing normal with 1 Ib/A bromacil treatment.

Proceedings, 1970-1971

85

MEXICM BEAN BEETLE CONTROL ON SOYBEANS IN TIDEWATER

VIRGINIA. J. C. Smith. Tidewater Res. Sta., Va. Polvtech-
nic Inst,, Holland, Va . 23391.

Adults and larvae of the Mexican bean beetle, Epilachna
varivestis Mulsant, were responsible for foliage loss on
commercial varieties of soybeans that caused economic losses
in 1967, 1968, and 1970. Value increases per acre from con¬
trol averaged $4.25, $26.50, and $20.75 in 1967, 1968 and

1970, respectively. Plots treated with soil-applied systemic
insecticides produced higher yields than plots treated with
single applications of foliar sprays. Layby applications of
systemic insecticides produced higher yields than in-furrow
applications. Only carbofuran was systemically effective
for bean beetle control when applied in-the-furrow. Layby
applications of carbofuran at 2.0 lb Al/acre and disulfoton
at 1.0 Al/acre produced the highest yield on plots in 1968.

These treatments increased value per acre by $39.00. In

1970, Mexican bean beetles were reduced from an average of

33.3 per 10 sweeps on untreated controls to 11.2 by in-fur-
row carbofuran treatments. Yields were significantly in¬
creased by 5.1 bu/acre. As layby treatments, carbofuran and
aldicarb (a 2.0 lb Al/acre and Fisons 6897 @ 3.0 lb Al/acre
effectively controlled bean beetles and produced significant
increases in yield. Only carbofuran significantly increased
seed size. All candidate foliar sprays in 1970 significantly
reduced Mexican bean beetles. Yield increases from the spray
treatments ranged from 4.7 bu/acre for the least effective to
10.1 bu per acre for the most effective spray.

CULTIVATION VS. NO CULTIVATION OF SOYBEANS. T. J. Smith,
and H. M. Camper, Jr.* Agronomy Dept., Va. Poly. Inst, and

State Univ. , Blacksburg, Va. 24061.

The development of chemicals for weed control in culti¬
vated crops may eliminate the need for tilling of the soil
which has been the convential method used in controlling
weeds. This experiment was conducted for four years at two
locations using three soybean varieties to determine effects
of cultivation per se on soybeans when weeds were controlled
with a pre-planting application of a herbicide. Two culti¬
vations at approximately four and six weeks after seeding
significantly increased seed yields for the four-year
average from 1.6 to 2.4 bushels per acre for different
varieties; and reduced plant height for each variety on

Sassafras sandy loam soil at Warsaw. Cultivation decreased
seed size but had no consistent effect upon plant lodging
or maturity. One cultivation, only, on Cecil sandy loam
soil at Charlotte Court House did not affect average seed
yield, time of maturity or plant lodging over the four-year
period. Cultivation produced taller plants and a slight
reduction in seed size.

COMPARISON OF A NEMATICIDE AND RESISTANT TOBACCO VARIETY

FOR THE CONTROL OF THE UNDESCRIBED OSBORNE *S CYST NEMATODE.

L, Spasoff*, J. A, Fox*, and P. B. Cassell*, Department of

Plant Pathology and Physiology, VPI & SU, Blacksburg,

Virginia 24061 ^

The effectiveness of the nematicide Moca^^ arid a re¬
sistant variety of tobacco (BVa523) for control of the

0sborne*s cyst nematode (OCN) was measured by the growth
response of a susceptible tobacco variety (NC95) , planted
in plots treated in 1969 as follows: 1) BVa523 and Mocap,

2) BVa523, 3) NC95 and Mocap, 4) NC95 and Mocap in 1969 and

1970. Mocap (50 Ibs/A) in 10?o granular form was applied 6
inches deep in 24 inch bands to rows spaced four feet apart.
Population densities of OCN in the plots were determined in

1969 and 1970 before Mocap was applied and tobacco trans¬
planted. The average fresh weights of susceptible plants
in each treatment were: 1) 1736, 2) 1247, 3) 1189, 4) 694,
and 5) 1377 grams, respectively. The nematode populations
decreased only on plots planted with the resistant variety,
with and without Mocap treatment. The reduction of OCN
populations by the resistant variety in 1969 gave a level
of control of OCN in 1970, as measured by plant weights of
susceptible variety, equal to that obtained with application
of Moeap.

EXPANDED SHALE-SOIL MIXTURES FOR CULTURING THE UNDESCRIBED
OSBORNE'S CYST NEMATODE ON TOBACCO. L. Spasoff* and L. I.

Miller. Dept, of Plant Path. & Phys . , V.P.I, & S.Uo,

Blacksburg, Virginia 24061

It has been determined empirically that more females and
cysts of the Osborne's cyst nematode (OCN) were produced on

N.C. 95 variety tobacco when an expanded shale (W, horti¬
cultural grade Weblite) was added to Groseclose silt loam
soil (S), The following W:S mixtures (v/v) were evaluated
in order to determine the best potting medium for culturing
large numbers of cysts for inoculum: 0:1, 1:1, 2:1, 3:1,
and 1:0. Twenty thousand eggs and/or larvae of the OCN
were introduced in 15-cm pots, A single 2-months old N.C,

95 tobacco seedling was transplanted to each pot and grown
at air temperatures of 24-29°C, Each treatment was repli¬
cated two times. After eight weeks, the soil in each pot
was screened and the average number of females and cysts/
pot for the various mixtures were: 0:1-189, 1:1-320, 2:1-
839, 3:1-499, 1:0-55 Significantly greater number of

females and cysts were produced in the 1:1 and 3:1 mixtures
than in the 0:1 and 1:0 mixtures, but the maximum number
produced was in the 2:1 W:S mixture. The plants were
fertilized and watered uniformly to obtain good growth and
there was no significant difference in root and foliar
growth of plants in the different mixtures. The balance of
available water and aeration probably was more nearly opti¬
mum for egg hatch and larval penetration of roots in the

2:1 W:S mixture than in the other mixtures tested.

TOBACCO HORNWORM MOTH SENSITIVITY TO UV AND VISIBLE

RADIATION OUTDOORS J. M. Stanley and U. F. Earp. Agricul-
tural Engineering Res. Div., ARS-USDA and Agricultural
Engineering Dept., VPI&SU, Blacksburg, Va. 24061

A study was conducted to determine if electrophysiologi-
cal evaluations of insect sensitivity to radiation could be
made outdoors. If so, the distances that tobacco hornworm
moths, Manduca sexta (Linnaeus), could detect the radiation
from lamps as used in traps would be of interest in deter¬
mining the effectiveness of electric trapping devices.

Individual laboratory reared moths approximately 36-
hours old and unmated were placed on a stereotactic stage.
Stainless steel electrodes were positioned in the eyes to a
depth of 500-750u» by means of micromanipulators. By means
of a shutter mechanism radiation from lamps was permitted
to strike the "irradiated" eye while the "non-irradiated"
eye was covered with a black lacquer and oriented away from
the radiation.

Signals were obtained at all distances when lamps were
placed from 50 to about 600 ft. from the insect. Nerve
potentials of 2.2 and 1.4 mv. at 50 ft. decreasing to 0.3
and 0.1 mv. at 450 ft. were obtained from male and female
moths respectively, when using a 15-watt blacklight fluores¬
cent lamp. At 600 ft. the sensitivity was primarily an "on-
off" signal. Differences in sensitivity were obtained when
using other energy sources, some in the visible spectrum.

A PIN O.AK BLIGHT ASSOCIATED WITH A SPECIES OF ENDOTHIA.

R. J. Stipes, P. M. Phipps* and 0. K. Miller, Jr. Depts. of

Plant Pathology and Physiology and Biology, Va, Polytechnic

Inst. & State Univ., Blacksburg, Va. 24061.

We observed and initiated investigations on a canker
disease of pin oak (Quercus palustris) found at Hampton,

Virginia in September, 1970. The disease, which occurred
on large and small branches, was widespread in one street
planting. Dieback, premature defoliation and a general
decline were observed, while leaves on affected branches
exhibited scorch symptoms. The perennial canker lesions
were discrete, sunken, elongate and bordered by calloused
folds. Bright orange to dark brown fruiting bodies present
were constituted of predominantly solitary, pulvinate
stromata. Within were found labyrinthiform, pycnidial
cavities yielding bacilloid conidia. The conidial stage
appears to be a species of Endothiella Sacc., and resembles
the imperfect stage of Endothia gyrosa. No mature peri-
thecia have been observed to date. We believe that the
associated fungus is a species of Endothia, possibly E,
gyrosa.

86

The Virginia Journal of Science

IN VITRO DIGESTION OF ORCHARDGRASS STRAINS FROM FIVE LOCA-
TIONS IN VIRGINIA. L. H. Taylor. Dept, of Agronomy, Va.
Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ. , Blacksburg, Va. 24061

Orcharderass , Dactvlis elomerata L. , has been reported to
differ in digestibility of forage dry matter when sampled at
different stages of growth. Different strains and varieties
also have been reported to vary in digestibility. This
study investigated digestibility of strains grown at several
locations when sampled at the same stage of growth during
one growing season.

Trials having the same fifteen orchardgrass strains as
entries were sampled at Blacksburg, Charlotte Court House,
Middleburg, Orange and Warsaw, Va. in the spring of 1970.

Samples were complete stems cut two inches from the ground
surface when the panicle had partially emerged from the up¬
per leaf. In vitro digestibility of dry matter was deter-
mined using the two-stage technique of Tilley and Terry.

Location had little effect on the dry matter digestibility
of the orchardgrass forage. The overall digestibility of
strains sampled at the same stage did not differ signifi¬
cantly .

EVALUATION OF BACTERIAL AND YEAST PREPARATIONS FOR GROWING

PIGS. H. R. Thomas and E. T. Kornegay. Va. Polytechnic

Inst, and State Univ., Holland and Blacksburg, Va.

Two replicated trials were conducted using five rations
in each trial with a total of 36 pigs assigned randomly to
each ration. An 18 percent crude protein basal ration con¬
sisting of corn and soybean meal, fortified with vitamins
and mineral was fed ad libitum. Rations fed were: 1) Basal,

2) Basal plus Antibiotic (chlortetracycline-penicillin-
sulfamethazine) , 3) Basal plus Alfa-Zyme, 4) Basal plus
Lacto-Plus, 5) Basal plus Vigortone #3. Alfa-Zyme, Lacto-
Plus and Vigortone #3 are commerically prepared bacterial
and yeast products and are recommended for use in the young
pig diet for preventing post-weaning stress. Rations were
mixed as directed by the manufacturer.

In trial 1 there were no significant differences in the
various performance criteria with the exception of average
daily gain in replication 1. Average daily gain made by
pigs fed ration 2 was significantly faster than that made
by pigs fed ration 3, but was not significantly different
from the gains made by the pigs fed ration 1, 4 and 5. In
trial 2 there were no significant differences in the various
performance criteria. Diarrhea was observed in all pigs
irrespective of ration in trial 1, however diarrhea was not
observed in trial 2.

EFFECT OF FEEDING DIFFERENT LEVELS OF BROILER LITTER ON PER¬
FORMANCE AND HEALTH OF EWES AND THEIR LAMBS. K. E. Webb,

PARASITISM OF 'TIFGREEN' BERMUDAGRASS AND REED CANARY GRASS

BY ROOT-KNOT NEMATODES. A. J. Webber, Jr.*, and J. A. Fox*.

Jr.*, J. P. Fontenot, R. J. Buehler* and K. G. Libke, Dept,
of Animal Science, Va. Polytechnic Inst. & State Univ.,
Blacksburg, Va. 24061

Broiler litter was fed to 32 yearling ewes to determine
its effect on performance and health of ewes and their
lambs. Isocaloric rations containing 0, 25 and 50% wood
shaving broiler litter sterilized by dry heat at 150 C for

4 hr. were fed. The experiment was initiated 6 wk. prior to
lambing with the ewes and lambs kept on wire mesh floors.

Lamb daily gain, carcass grade and backfat thickness were
not significantly affected by litter level. Until 137 days
after the ewes had been on the experimental rations no ab¬
normalities were observed. At that time one ewe in the lot
fed 50% litter died from copper toxicity. At the end of 254
days death from copper toxicity had resulted in 64% of the
ewes fed the ration containing 50% litter and 55% of those
fed 25% litter. Mean liver copper levels, dry basis, at
death or slaughter for the lots fed 0, 25 and 50% litter
were 648, 1993 and 2671 ppm for the ewes (P<.01) and 572,

891 and 961 ppm for the lambs, respectively. Copper content
of the litter averaged 195 ppm resulting from feeding copper
sulfate to the chicks. No treatment-related abnormalities
other than copper toxicity were evident from blood and urine
analyses, gross observations, detailed necropsies and studies
of histological sections.

Dept, of Plant Pathology and Physiology, Va. Polytechnic

Inst, and State Univ., Blacksburg, Va, 24061

Parasitism of Cynodon sp. (c. v. ’Tifgreen’ bermudagrass
= BG) , Phalaris arundinacea (c. v. Reed canary grass = CG) ,
and Lycopersicon esculentum (c. v. Bonny Best tomato = T)
by four root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.) was studied
at 26 and 32°C soil temperature. Initial infection by lar¬
vae and adult development on BG and CG by M. incognita was
numerically comparable to that on T but differentiation of
larvae as males on BG and CG was ten to twenty and four to
five times greater, respectively, than that on T. Infec¬
tion of T by M. javanica was twice as great as that of BG
and CG, but adult development on BG was numerically compar¬
able to that on T while adult development on CG occurred
only at 32®C and at a level one-third that on T. Differen¬
tiation of M. iavanica larvae as males on BG and CG, and on

T at 32®C, was twenty to forty times greater than that on T
at 26®C. Infection and adult development on T by M. are-
naria was twice as great as that on BG and six times grea-
ter than that on CG. Differentiation of M. arenaria larvae
as males on BG, and on T at 32®C, was nine to fourteen
times greater than that on T at 26®C. Meloidogyne graminis
did not infect T, but infection and adult development on BG
was five times greater than that on CG while differentia¬
tion of larvae as males on CG was three to four times grea¬
ter than that on BG at 32°C.

AN INEXPENSIVE CONTROLLED TEMPERATURE TANK FOR PLANT

CULTURE STUDIES, A. J. Webber, Jr.*. J. A. Fox*, and M. G.

Hale, Dept, of Plant Pathology and Physiology, Va. Poly¬
technic Inst, and State Univ., Blacksburg, Va. 24061,

A controlled temperature tank for plant culture studies
was designed and fabricated from materials costing less
than $10,00. The basic tank unit consisted of a rectangular
styrofoam picnic basket without a handle. Sheets of styro¬
foam 2 cm thick were cut to a size slightly smaller than the
inner dimensions at the top of the basket. Holes slightly
larger than the diameter of receptacles used for plant
material were cut through the styrofoam sheets and a 100
watt aquarium heater fitted through a hole of appropriate
size in the center. Aluminum paint was applied to each
basket and styrofoam insert. The styrofoam insert was then
fitted into a basket, the basket filled with water of the
desired temperature, and the heating unit adjusted to main¬
tain the desired temperature. Such tanks were maintained
at constant temperatures as little as 2°C above ambient
with an accuracy of d: 1C° in both the greenhouse and air-
conditioned laboratory. Series of tanks at different
temperatures have been used to provide constant soil tem¬
peratures for seedlings and small plants grown in beakers
and centrifuge tubes during nematode studies. The tanks
have also been used to provide two or three different soil
temperatures above a constant air temperature in the growth
chamber.

Proceedings, 1970-1971

87

Section of Astronomy,
Mathematics, and Physics

Forty-ninth Annual Meeting of The Virginia Academy of Science
May 12-14, 1971, Blacksburg, Virginia

MAGNETIC DENSIMETER USING AN R.F. SENSING COIL. S. P.
Almeida and T. H. Crouch . Dept, of Physics, Va. Poly¬
technic Inst, and State Univ. , Blacksburg, Va. 24061
A description of a magnetic densimeter using an r. f.
sensing coil based on similar designs by Beams^ and Senter^
is presented. The coil is used to sense the position of a
small buoy floating in a liquid whose density is to be
determined. The instrument’s electronics is completely
composed of solid state components. The densimeter was
tested by making a calibration run on a National Bureau of
Standards’ sucrose sample. It was found to be capable of
making density measurements to better than three parts per
million .

^J. W. Beams and A. M. Clarke, Rev. Sci. Instr, 750
(1962).

^J. P. Senter, Rev. Sci. Instr. 334 (1969).

DYNAMIC NUCLEAR POLARIZATION IN A RARE EARTH DOUBLE NITRATE
SALT, C, E. BYVIK^ NASA, Langley Res. Ctr. , Hampton, Va.
23365, and D. S. Wollan^ Dept, of Physics, Va. Polytechnic
Inst, and State Univ., Blacksburg, Va. 24061

The dynamic polarization of hydrogen nuclei by the solid
effect in single crystals of samarium-doped lanthanum mag¬
nesium nitrate (Sm;LaMN) has been studied theoretically and
experimentally. We have re-derived the spin temperature
theory of the solid effect, correcting errors in previously-
published results, and showing that it leads to the same re¬
sults as the rate equation approach in the special case of
well-resolved, satellite transitions. Experimental enhance¬
ments of the proton polarization as high as 180 have been
measured in Sm:LaMN at 9.2 GHz and liquid helium tempera¬
tures.

HOLOGRAPHIC MICROSCOPY WIJH APPLICATIONS TO WATER
POLLUTION. S, P. Almeida and D. Del Balzo. Dept, of
Physics; J. Cairns, K, L, Dickson, and Guy R. Lanza. Dept,
of Biology, Va. Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ.,
Blacksburg, Va. 24061

A prototype system utilizing laser optics techniques has
been developed to make holograms of microscopic algae found
in water samples. The system is used to carry out recog¬
nition studies of the various diatoms. The concentration
of the different types of diatoms present in water helps to
determine the degree of pollution present. Semi-automatic
identification of the diatoms is an important step in
reducing the time required for a pollution analysis. (This
work was supported in part by the Manufacturing Chemists
Association and The Center for Environmental Studies at
Va. Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ.)

ELASTIC CONSTANTS OF a-CuA£ ALLOYS. L.S. Cain* and J.F.
Thomas, Jr.*. Dept, of Physics, Univ, of Va, , Charlottes-
ville^ Virginia 22901.

The three independent second order elastic constants and
their temperature derivatives have been measured for single
crystal a-phase CuAil alloys for compositions to 13 at ,% A2..
The elastic constant C^^ increases linearly upon alloying
over this entire range of Ail content. The elastic constants
^11' ^12' ^ “ i ^^11“^12^ decrease linearly with in¬

creased Ail content ^to 7.5 at .% AH. For higher Ail content,
these constants decrease at a greater rate. The temperature
derivatives of the three elastic constants are only weakly
dependent on AH content.

The changes in the elastic shear constants extrapolated
to 0®K have been analyzed in terms of a generalized Fuchs
theory of homogeneous deformation. We conclude that a con¬
duction electron term must be included in calculating the
shear constants of Cu along with the electrostatic and ion
repulsion terms originally considered, and that changes in
this conduction electron term with increasing AH content
make a significant contribution to the changes in the elas¬
tic shear constants due to alloying. The results indicate
an increase in conduction electron density with increasing
AH content,

(Research supported by the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission
and by the National Science Foundation through its Institu¬
tional Grant Program. )

88

The Virginia Journal of Science

BOUNCING BALLS - A MONTE CARLO CALCULATION OF A HARD DISK
SYSTEM'S PARTITION FUNCTION AT ALL DENSITIES. Robert L.
Coldwell and Coleman Blake, Physics Dept., Washington and
Lee University, Lexington, Va. 24450

The method presented last year has been expanded to
allow an arbitrary number of lattice points per particle,
thus freeing us from the lattice gas limitations. A scheme
has been devised to allow calculations in and through the
phase change region and the free volume limit has been
analytically and numerically shown to follow from this
scheme in the limit of very high densities. The system's
pressure can be calculated from this partition function,
has been, and will be shown to be in good agreement
with that found by earlier investigators who calculated
the pressure directly.

BERYLLIOM-LITHIDH CCMFLIXES DJ S ]B6LE-CR¥STAL SILICON.

R. K. Croueh. J. B. Robertsott, H, F. McMear,* NASA -
Langley Res. Ctr., Hampton, Va. 23365, and T. E. Giliaer, Jr.
Dept, of Physics, Va, Polytechnic Inst., Blacksburg, Va.

When llthliai is theroally diffused at a temperature of
600® C Into a beryllitm doped silicon sample, two new
acceptor levels are created in the band gap located at
106 meV and 82 meV above the valence band. In addition, the
localized impurity vibrational band found at 500 cm”^ in
beryllium doped silicon is shifted to 516 cm"l. The spectra
indicate that the 106 meV center has a split ground state
with the two levels separated by 1.2 maV. Quenching and
annealing studies indicate that the 106 meV center is
lithium closely associated with the Set I beryllium defect
la silicon and the 82 oseV is lithium closely associated
with the Set II beryllium defect.

CHALLENGE OF EXCITING THE 0" GIANT RESONANCE MODE. J.M.
Eisenberq and H.J. Weber". Dept, of Physics, Univ. of Va.,
Charlottesville, Va. 22901

The collective giant resonance vibrations with spin-parity
jP=0",I",2“ and isospin T=1 in light even-even nuclei lie in
the range of 20-25 MeV. Photonuclear reactions are useful
for the study of the pure isospin mode (L= 1 , S=0 , T=1 , J^= 1 ')
and electroexcitation for the spin-isospin modes (L=1,S=1,

T=1 ,2") . The 0" mode, however, has not been observed

as yet for lack of an excitation mechanism and because of
the nearby dominating spin-flip 1" mode. It is essential to
use a predominantly scalar interaction as excitation
mechan i sm wh i ch produces s-wave pions, e.g. the s-wave com¬
ponent of the inelastic process in the (Tr,2Ti) reaction

on nuclei and, alternatively, a virtual photon with a large
scalar component, as produced in electron scattering at
high momentum transfer. Schematically, the transition
matrix element may be written as < (L= 1 ,S= 1 ) 3^=0" |£-^| O'*' ,
ground state>. Cross sectionsare calculated using the shell
model and results for ^He and '°0 are reported. (Supported
by the National Science Foundation)

ELECTROLUMINESCENCE IN GALLIUM PHOSPHIDE. Roger K. Crouch.
NASA, Langley Research Center, Mail Stop 473, Hampton, VA

23365

When a p-n junction in gallium phosphide is fon/ard
biased, visible electroluminescence of relatively high
efficiency has been observed. These gallium phosphide diode
lamps offer the best characteristics for the emission of red
and green incoherent light available at present. Since
gallium phosphide is an indirect gap semiconductor, the in¬
direct radiative transition rates are enhanced by the care¬
fully controlled addition of impurities which interact
strongly with the free carriers . The model for the red
emission is radiative exciton recombination due to an inter¬
action of tVee carriers with oxygen-zinc, donor-acceptor,
pairs located on nearest neighbor lattice sites . This recom¬
bination process has led to diodes with external quantum
efficiencies as high as seven percent at room temperature .
When nitrogen is introduced into GaP, it enters as an iso-
electronic substituent for a phosphorus atom. The difference
in electronegativity between the nitrogen and phosphorus
gives rise to an interaction with the free carriers which
produces radiative exciton recombination with a character¬
istic green emission. This process has led to room temper¬
ature external quantum efficiencies as high as 0.6 percent.

FERMI SURFACE OF a-COPPER-ALUMINUM ALLOYS - COM¬
PARISON OF OPTICAL AND POSITRON ANNIHILATION
RESULTS. A.S. DeReggl* and R.S. Rea*, Univ. of Va.,
Charlottesville, Va, 22903

Recent positron-annihilation (PA) results^ on
a-CuAl alloys have led to the conclusions that the
diameter of the neck of the Fermi surface (FS) is
an oscillatory function of the A1 concentration x>
with the neck going off the hexagonal face of the
Brillouin zone for x ^ at.%. Our optical meas¬

urements show instead a linear increase of the
neck diameter, as long as no short-range order
(SRO) exists in the samples. We find that SRO has
the effect of reducing the neck diameter^. Noting
that several PA data points are in agreement with
our optical results, while all others show devia¬
tions on the low side, we suggest that the anomal¬
ous PA results can be attributed to SRO. We find
that the belly diameter also increases linearly
with x> leading to FS contact with X at the limit
of stability of the a-phase,

1. K. Fujiwara and 0. Sueoka, J. Phys. Soc. Japan
24, 467 (1968),

2. R.S. Rea and A.S. DeReggi, previous paper.

Research supported by the U.S. Atomic Energy Com¬
mission .

MEASUREMENTS OF NEUTRON POLARIZATIONS FROM THE '■^N(d,n)15o
AND 15N(d,n)16o REACTIONS. R. P. Fogel* and S. T. Thornton.
Dept, of Physics, Univ. of Va., Charlottesville, Va. 22901

Neutron polarization angular distribution for the
(d,n)15o and 15N(d,n)16o reactions have been measured with a
liquid helium neutron polariraeter and the Univ. of Va. 5.5
MV Van de Graaff pulsed accelerator. Ground and excited
state neutron polarizations were obtained for a deuteron
bombarding energy near 5.1 MeV.

The data are being analyzed in terms of direct reaction
distorted wave theory. The ^^N(d,d)^'^N elastic differential
cross section is being analyzed using a combination of opti¬
cal and statistical models in order to obtain suitable wave
functions for the distorted wave calculations. This analy¬
sis will be discussed for the ^'^N(d,n) 15o reaction, (Work
supported in part by the National Science Foundation through
the Univ. of Va. Center for Advanced Studies and by the
Research Corporation)

Proceedings, 1970-1971

89

PHOTOELECTRIC ASTROMETRY. L. W. Fredrick, Dept, of

Astronomy, Univ. of Va. , Charlottesville, Va. 22903

Experiments using a Ronchi grating to modulate radiation
at the focal plane of a telescope have shown the feasibility
of a new technique for recording stellar positions, colors,
and magnitudes directly at the telescope bypassing the
traditional photographic plate. Present studies using a
cosinusoidal crossing function as an approximation to the
modulated light intensity lead to an expected accuracy of
±0.1 micron in positions and ±0,01 magnitude in colors and
magnitudes. The faintest star reached is determined solely
by the integration time used. (This work is supported by

NASA.)

FOURIER SPECTROSCOPY MEASUREMENT OF BRILLOUIN

LINE WIDTH OF BENZENE, J.A. Garner *and E.M. Kiess

Dept, of Physics, Hampdert-Sydney Col, Hampden-
Sydney, Virginia 239^3

The Mlchelson Visibility method has been in¬
vestigated for the purpose of measuring Brillouln
line widths and shapes. i In this paper data are
presented for 6328A He-Ne laser light scattered
by Benzene. Visibilities were measured with a
Mlchelson interferometer. The data are consistent
with Lorentzian lines of full width at half inten¬
sity of 190 MHz,

1. E.M. Kiess, J, Opt. Soc. Am. 60, 1197 (19^0)

THE CENTROID METHOD OF NUMERICAL INTEGRATION. I. J. Good,

Dept, of Statistics, Va. Polytechnic Inst. & State Univ.,
Blacksburg, Va. 24061; and R. A. Gaskins, Dept, of Mathe¬
matics, Hampden-Sydney Col., Hampden-Sydney , Va. 23943

If a function f(x), of a p-dimensional vector x, can be
expanded by Taylor's theorem at the centroid x of some region,
the expansion being valid in the region, then the integral of
f over the region can be expressed in terms of the deriva¬
tives of f combined with the moments of inertia of the region.
This simple method of integration has perhaps been overlooked
except for the one-dimensional case, when it reduces to the
midpoint method. Even the midpoint method is not mentioned
in most textbooks, although it is usually more accurate, for
a given amount of calculation, than the trapezoidal method.

Since any non-pathological bounded region can be approxi¬
mated by a collection of simplexes, it is useful to have a
formula for the moments of inertia of a simplex about its
centroid. From a mathematical point of view, the solution of
this problem is the main contribution of this paper. It was
discovered by man-machine synergy.

A numerical example is given for the integration of
the multinormal density, with measures of the proportional
accuracy. FORTRAN programs are included.

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TWO FAST FOURIER TRANSFORMS. 1. J.
Good. Dept, of Statistics, Va. Polytechnic Inst. & State

Univ. , Blacksburg, Va. 24061

Owing to the ubiquity of the Fourier transform in the hard
sciences, the Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) has become one of
the most familiar of computer algorithms. The saving in com¬
puter time is such that the FFT has been described, for exam¬
ple, as "an economic breakthrough in geophysics." Even when
computers become much faster the FFT will remain useful be¬
cause it can be applied to Fourier transforms in more than
one dimension, and because in some applications, such as in

X-ray crystallography, it has to be computed many times. Its
usefulness was not generally recognized until the publication
of a paper by J. W. Cooley and J. W. Tukey (1965) who had
been stimulated by the practical requirements and by a paper
by I. J. Good (1958). The methods used by these writers were
not the same, and it turned out that the Cooley-Tukey method
had been largely anticipated by earlier writers whose work
had been largely overlooked. Good's method depended on no¬
ticing that a simple algorithm of Yates, used in factorial
experiments, could be regarded as a special case of a dis¬
crete Fourier transform. The main purpose of the present pa¬
per is to show as simply as possible the relationship between
the two basic FFT's, and also to generalize one of the meth¬
ods somewhat. The method applies to all those linear trans¬
formations whose matrices are expressible as direct products,
preferably of sparse matrices.

MUONIC X-RAY STUDY OF THE QUADRUPOLE MOMENT OF ^^^Au.

R. C. Hart*, D. A. Jenkins*, and R. J. Powers*, Dept, of

Physics, Va. Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ., Blacksburg,

Va. 24061 and P. Martin*, G. H. Miller*, and R. E. Welsh*,

Col. of William and Mary, Williamsburg, Va. 23185

We have used the hyperfine structure of 2p3/2 l®l/2

and 3p3/2 ^^\/2 transitions in muonic ^^^Au and the

absolute energies of atomic transitions to or from the Is,

2p, and 2s levels to measure the quadrupole moment. Two
models for the quadrupole density have been used to infer
the quadrupole moment.

EULER'S SERIES APPROXIMATIONS OF IT AND COMPUTER ERROR.

Keith A. Hope*, William M. Sanders, and Gerald R. Taylor, Jr.
Depts. of Mathematics and Physics, Madison College, Harri¬
sonburg, Virginia . 22801

Two Euler's series approximations of tt are evaluated on
an IBM 1130 computer. The best numerical approximation of

7T obtained by Euler's series is good to only four
significant digits because of the characteristics of the
series and the Intrinsic error in the IBM 1130 computer. The
number of significant digits from the computer is seen to
have an inverse relationship with the number of arithmetic
operations performed. The absolute error of the IBM 1130
computer is examined through summation and multiplication
processes. This absolute error is observed to change with
different numbers; however, the relative error is primarily
a function of the number of arithmetic operations performed.

Due to the intrinsic error of the computer it is shown that
all series appear to converge numerically.

Also the absolute errors from the IBM 1130 computer and

IBM 360/50 computer are compared, indicating the IBM 1130
computer generally accumulates less absolute error than the

IBM 360/50 computer. All computations are accomplished
through programs written in FORTRAN IV.

90

The Virginia Journal of Science

CAN ONE SEE ISOBARS IN NUCLEI? P.K. Kab i r" , N.R. Nath‘'\ and
H.J. Weber''. Dept, of Physics, Univ. of Va.,

Charlottesville, Va. 22901

Until recently, most analyses of nuclear phenomena Ignored
the internal structure of the nucleon and the possibility of
its excitation. Forward proton production in Tr'd-^-pA"
collisions is particularly useful as a probe of the 33"isobar
(aa) configuration of the deuteron. This reaction is
analyzed in terms of a A''"‘‘-exchange mechanism. The (AAd)
vertex is estimated from the usual deuteron wave function and
the NN-^AA amplitude in the one-pion exchange approximation.
Cross sections for various pion energies are reported.
(Supported by the National Science Foundation through the
Center for Advanced Studies and an Institutional grant)

STUDY OF LIMITING DISTRIBUTIONS IN MULTIPION EVENTS AT HIGH
ENERGIES, T, W, Kephart and M. A. Ijaz, Physics Department,
Va. Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ., Blacksburg, Virginia
24061

The longitudinal momentum distributions (p^) of pions
produced in high multiplicity events at high energies has
been discussed a great deal in recent years. Feynman^ has
suggested a limiting pj^ distribution when center of mass
energy of the interacting particles becomes very high. We
have analyzed p^ spectra of pions produced in TTp, pp and pn
experiments in the energy range of the presently existing
accelerators. The center of mass pj^ distributions have been
fitted with an expression

dcr A

where A and B are parameters of the fit. We find that
parameter B which controls the shape of the p^ distribution
is very nearly the same for all p^ distribution in a limited
range. This suggests evidence for Feynman’s scaling
hypothesis .

^R. P. Feynman, Phys . Rev. Lett. 1415 (1969).

EXCITATION OF H- ATOMS TO np AND nd STATES BY FAST PROTONS.
G.S. Khandelwal, J. E. Shelton*, and W. M. Pritchard*. Dept,
of Physics, Old Dominion Univ,, Norfolk, Va, 23508

The form factor for excitation by incident protons of hy¬
drogen atoms to any state nl as a function of momentum trans¬
fer has been given by Mott and Massey^, Inokuti^ has expres¬
sed this inelastic form factor in terms of a power series in
the momentum transfer. We have used these results to obtain
the cross sections in simple algebraic form to order 1 for

e3

high incident energies E for excitation to any np and nd
states of the H-atoms.

^N.F, Mott and H.S.W. Massey, 1965, Theory of Atomic Colli¬
sions, (Oxford: Clarendon Press).

2

M, Inokuti, Argonne Nat, Lab. Radiol. Phys. Div. A. Rep,,
July 1965-June 1966, No. ANL-7220.

COMMENTS ON THE FORMATION OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM. Shiv S.

Kumar, Univ, of Va. , Dept, of Astronomy, Charlottesville,

Va. 22903

The stability of periodic orbits in the elliptic res¬
tricted problem of three bodies has been studied recently
by Shelus and Kumar (Astron. Journal 2^, 315, 1970). The
relevance of this study to the problem of the formation of
the solar system will be discussed in this paper. The stable
orbits for a body of infinitesimal mass exist only near one
or the other of the two primaries, or very far from both of
them. Therefore, we can have stable orbits for the planets
in a solar system if the ratio of the mass of the most
massiv^ planet to the mass of the central star is small
(< ), and if the most massive planet moves around the

central star in an elliptical orbit with small eccentricity

The mass of Jupiter (in terms of the mass of the Sun) is
0.001, and its orbital eccentricity is 0.05. If we depart
from these properties, our planetary system becomes unstable.
Since our planetary system has survived for a period of
4.5x109 years, the above-mentioned properties of the most
massive planet (Jupiter) are original to the system.

AN OPTICAL SYSTEM FOR HOLOGRAPHY OF MOVING SCENES AT HIGH
VELOCITY. Robert L. Kurtz, MSEC, Huntsville, Ala. and H. Y.
Loh, Dept, of Physics, VPI&SU, Blacksburg, Va. 24061

Any motion of the holographic scene during the exposure
of a hologram, results in a spatial modulation of the recor¬
ded fringe contrast. Upon reconstruction this produces a
spatial amplitude modulation which degrades the image. If
the total scene displacement causes an optical path length
change of h. wavelength, image degradation is generally pro¬
hibitive .

An optical system has been developed which uses an ellip¬
tical configuration having a unique orientation with respect
to the velocity vector of the scene. This system, with prop¬
erly chosen parameters, will allow total scene displacements
greater than 2000 y, while constraining the optical path
length change to approximately 1/8 wavelength. The function¬
al form of system dependence will be given along with experi¬
mental results showing front surface detail recorded holo¬
graphically from a scene with velocity of 175 m/sec. Using
these results a predicted upper limit on scene velocity, suf¬
ficient to allow resolution of front surface detail from a
scene, will be given.

NUCLEART-RAYS FOLLOWING MUON CAPTURE IN EVEN-EVEN, INTER¬
MEDIATE 2 NUCLEI. G.R. Lucas, Jr.*, P. Martin*, G.H.

Miller*, and R.E. Welsh, Dept, of Physics, College of
William and Mary, Williamsburg, Va. 23185: and D.A. Jenkins
and R.J. Powers, Dept, of Physics, Virginia Polytechnic
Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Va, 24061

From observations with Ge(Li) detectors of the delayed
i^-rays obtained in muonic X-ray studies of ^^®Ce,

138Ba, and we have determined the branching ratios to

excited nuclear states formed after the muon capture process.
In agreement with Backenstoss, et. al.} we observe the
dominance of neutron emission following muon capture, with
the probability of single neutron emission being highest.

The probability of forming a particular excited state in an
isotope was in general about inversely proportional to the
energy of the state.

Energy level schemes will be presented for several of the
nuclei formed, and the possible effect of the closed neutron
shell (N*82) on the results from the Cerium and Barium
experiments will be discussed. (Work supported in part by
the National Aeronautics and Space Administration and the
National Science Foundation)

^G. Backenstoss, et. al,, Nuc. Phys. A162 , 541 (1971)

Proceedings, 1970-1971

91

LAStH IMDUUJit) nOlJULATiON CF OPTIUAL ABJiOltFTiON IN ZnSe.

H. W. Ma.lor , Dept, of Physics, Univ. of Richmond, Va.

23173

Changes ilOCin the optical absorption of ZnSe at room
temperature have been detected as a result of generation

Of electron-hole pairs in the sample by a chopped (llA Hz)

6 mw He-Ne laser. Synchronous detection of the modulated
primary beam is used to study the relaxation kinetics for
laser pulse durations of 2.5 ms. Modulation is of the order
of a few parts in 10^,

Spectra of the magnitude of the ot - modulation in the
same samples have been made in the visible range (1.6-
2.8 ev) by the author in the NASA Langley laboratory of

F. J. Conway. Comparison of these with simple absorption
spectra reported recently by Stringfellow & Bube for p -
type ZnSerCu suggests that multivalent copper impurity
may be important in establishing a model for the modu -
lation observed, via Cu* and Cu'*'^ substitutional on the

7n sublattice at several levels in the band gap. The
laser has a photon energy of 1.96 ev so that direct trans -
itions over the 2.7 ev band gap should be excluded.

(Aided by NASA grant NC,PJj.7-023-00l)

ANALOG COMPUTER SOLUTION TO EQUATIONS OF MATHEMATICAL PHYS¬
ICS. C. C. Mercer, C. E. Mercer, and R. J. Onega. Dent, of
Physics, Va. Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ., Blacksburg,

Va. 24061

The application of analog computers to the solutions of
equations In the field of physics has been studied. It Is
concluded that the modern electronic analog computer Is a
very useful tool both as a teaching aid and for research In
some areas. Linear and nonlinear differential equations can
be solved on the analog.

As an example, a graphical solution for the steady state
electrodiffusion equations for a simple membrane has been
obtained. These equations are

, d? - ^k®\" = - z,u!;rt 1 k = 1, . . . n

and „ k k

dx E, k k

k=l

nj^ represents the concentration In moles per volume of the
type k Ion at position x, Is the valence, E Is the elec¬
tric field at position x, Is the current density of the

Ions of type k, 8=F/RT where F Is Faradays constant, R Is
the universal gas constant and T Is the absolute tempera¬
ture.

1. R. A. Arndt, J. D. Bond, and L. D. Roper. Biophysical
Journal, 1971 Vol. 11, No 3, pp 265-280.

AIR POLLUTION MONITOR. Siegfried S. Meyers.

Dept, of Physics, Madison College, Harrisonburg, Va. 22801.

An instrument capable of continuous monitoring of air pollution
from smoke-stacks and automotive exhausts employs the principle
of the Lumen -Hour Integration Meter. Clean air is compared with
polluted air passing between a white light source and a photoconduc-
tive light sensor . The readout meter digitally registers the inte -
grated total in Lumen-Hours for a pre -determined time interval.

High readings indicate clean air; low readings indicate polluted air
and is expressed as a percentage. Attachment of a hose between
an automobile's exhaust pipe and the Smoke Trap of the meter
registers readings of the presence of particulate hydrocarbons
accompanying other invisible pollutants, like: CO2: CO; H2S; NO2;
SO2; etc . Exhaust pollutants intercept a light beam shining upon
a photoconductive sensor. An automatic time-switch first samples
clean air and then samples polluted air for equal time intervals.

In operation, a miniature dc . motor drives a digital readout coun¬
ter in series with a dc. voltage source, a photoconductive light¬
sensor, and a zero-adjusting rheostat. Tbie sensor's electrical
resistance increases when particulate pollutants condense within a
glass Smoke Trap positioned in the light path which causes the
counter's speed to decrease. Counter readings are then expressed
as a ratio between clean and polluted air and converted to a percen¬
tage caused by particulate pollution. For a complete determination
gas analyzers would be required.

DOES A PION^PROBE NUCLEAR SHORT-RANGE CORRELATIONS? J.W.

Morris, Jr.*' and H.J. Weber“. Dept, of Physics, Univ. of

Va., Charlottesville, Va. 22901

The angular, single-nucleon energy distributions and
total 2P-pion absorption rates are calculated for the
reaction '7(;(.„-^2N) and compared with experimental data. A
partial wave analysis is used which describes the final-state
scattering in terms of an optical potential and a two-body
residual nuclear interaction. The effects of the short-
range correlations of the absorbing bound nucleon pair on
the absorption rates are discussed and compared with those of
the competing final-state interaction between the two
emitted nucleons. (Supported by an Institutional NSF Grant
and the National Science Foundation)

MODES OF OSCILLATION OF A SUPERCONDUCTING POINT-CONTACT

COUPLED TO A RESONANT CIRCUIT. John M. Pickier* and Bascom

S. Denver, Jr., Dept, of Physics., Univ. of Va., Charlottes¬
ville, Va. 22901

When a voltage Vq is maintained between a pair of weakly-
linked superconductors there is an oscillating current
between the superconductors at frequency v given by the
Josephson relation hv = 2eVo. We have been studying the
oscillations of an adjustable Nb point-contact coupled to a
tuned circuit resonant at v^. = 60 MHz by observing the out¬
put from the circuit as a function of voltage across the
point-contact . We find output from the tuned circuit at bias
voltages V = n Vo where Vq = hvr/2e and m and n are inte¬
gers. We observe sequences of voltages with n varying from
one to more than 50 indicating that the oscillation is a
series of abrupt current pulses with high harmonic content.

We also observe values of m from one to more than 30
corresponding to phase shifts between the two superconductors
of m(2rt) for each cycle of the oscillation. In addition, we
find that m is an almost continuous function of tenpera-
ture and we will discuss a possible explanation for this
surprising behavior. (Research supported by the Office of

Naval Research.)

SELF DETECTION OF THE JOSEPHSON OSCILLATION IN SUPERCONDUCT¬
ING POINT-CONTACTS. Marcello Puma* and Bascom S. Deaver,Jr.,
Dept, of Physios, Univ. of Va., Charlottesville, Va. 229OI.

We have measured the I-V curve and its second derivative
as a function of temperature for a larger number of Nb point-
contacts . We find step-like features at voltages V = ^
where 2A is the superconducting energy gap and n an
integer. In addition, we find steps at voltages up to lOA.

The voltage at which a particular step occurred varies with
temperature and two general types of temperature dependence
are found. Steps for which V < follow the tem;^rature

dependence of the energy gap A(t) . Steps with Y > — vary
much faster than a(t) . If we assume that whenever there are
oscillating currents in the point-contact at frequency
hv = 2A there will be an enhanced current through the point-
contact, we can account for all the featxires we observe
with a simple model which will be described. (Research
supported by the Office of Naval Research.)

92

The Virginia Journal of Science

EFFECT OF SHORT-RANGE ORDER ON THE OPTICAL PROP¬
ERTIES OF a-COPPER-ALUMINUM. R.S. Rea*, and A.S.
DeReggi*, Unlv. of Va., Charlottesville, Va. 22903

We have discovered that the optical properties
of a-CuAl are strongly affected by short-range
order (SRO) which prevails in crystals with a
reasonably gentle thermal history below 300°C and

A1 concentration in excess of A, 8 at.%. Hence the
imaginary part of the dielectric function (^2^
this alloy provides detailed Information about
the ordering process at the electronic energy-
band level. It is observed that SRO has two main

effects on £2- Interband edge around 2 eV

changes slope upon ordering, and 2) a prominent
absorption structure around 5 eV shifts rigidly to
higher energy by 'v 1/2 eV. Both effects, together

with a lack of displacement of an intermediate-
energy peak, indicate a distortion of the bands.

Within a simple model of the alloying process,
ordering can be understood mainly in terms of a
change in the Fourier component of the poten¬

tial.

CARRIER SCATTERING MECHANISMS AND THICKNESS

EFFECTS IN ELECTRICAL CONDUCTION IN THIN FILMS.

Billy W. Sloops, Physics Dept., Va. Commonwealth

Univ., Richmond, Va. 23220.

While the effect of film thickness on electri¬
cal conduction has been rather satisfactorily ex¬
plored for metals, such is not the case for semi¬
conductors. The only case reported has been for
n-type Ge with acoustical phonon scattering. This
case lead to a thickness correction factor similar
to that derived for metals. However, since semi¬
conductors are influenced to a greater degree than
metals by the various scattering mechanisms, the
thickness dependence for other scattering mech¬
anisms has been analyzed for p-type Ge . The
general results for various combinations of scat¬
tering mechanisms will be presented and several
examples discussed. The thickness for which the
thin film effect is appreciable depends on the
scattering mechanism.

Research supported by the U.S. Atomic Energy Com¬
mission .

SOURCES OF FAST POLARIZED NEUTRONS. J. R. Smith* and S. T.
Thornton. Dept, of Physics, Univ. of Va., Charlottesville,

Va. 22901

The Univ. of Va. 5.5 MV Van de Graaff pulsed accelerator
has been used with the neutron time-of-f light method to
measure the polarization of neutrons from the T(p,n)^He,
D(d,n)^He and T(d,n)^He reactions. A liquid helium neutron
polarimeter was used to determine the neutron polarizations.
Polarization angular distributions were obtained for each
reaction at several energies between 1 and 5 MeV.

The experimental method and results will be presented.

The best sources of polarized neutrons for neutron scatter¬
ing studies will be discussed by considering polarization
magnitudes and reaction intensities. (Work supported in
part by the National Science Foundation through the Univ.
of Va. Center for Advanced Studies and by the Research
Corporation)

THE FOURIER TRANSFORM IN PHYSICAL MEASUREMENT OF DIAGNOSTIC

X RAY PERFORMANCEo E, E. Stiokley, Radiation Physics Divi¬
sion, Medical College of Virginia Commonwealth University,
Richmond, Va., 23219.

The aim of diagnostic roentgenology is to obtain a defin¬
itive radiograph of anatomical structures with the least
necessctry exposxire to the patient. Several components of
the x-ray system exert controlling influences on image
definition (resolution and contrast) although this depends
also on the nature of the part being examined and a number
of less significant parauneters . To provide a guide in the
practical selection and matching of equipment and materials
as well as operating factors, the modulation transfer func¬
tions of the several elements can be used, if they are
determined separately. In many cases the most significant
component is the x-ray source itself, i.e., the size of the
focal spot in the x-ray tube, A new test, employing leaded
grid phantoms of special design, can be used to provide in¬
formation on this parameter. Simple and rapid exposures on
standard film are sufficient to demonstrate focal spot con¬
figuration under the usual range of operating conditions.

Sample radiographs illustrate the correlation of radio-
graphic results with focal spot measurements in both ideal
and other situations; relationships of other physical fac¬
tors are also shown.

FOURIER TRANSFORM SPECTROSCOPY DETERMINATION OF

THE NOR SPECTRUM OF SOLID NITROGEN. Bruce Strachant
P.C. Canepa* and A.S. DeReggi*, Univ. of Va.,
Charlottesville, Va, 22903

The envelope of NQR echoes in ot-N2 has been
measured at 4.2°K as a function of applied field
from 0 to 100 gauss. In the earth's field,

complicated modulations of the echo envelope are
observed which are attributed to the superposition
of Zeeman patterns corresponding to the four di¬
stinct molecular orientations in the unit cell.

At fields above 10 gauss the modulation of the

echo envelope contains only one prominent frequency
which is field-independent for fields in the range

10 gauss < H < 100 gauss. This observation is
discussed in terms of the available information
about the crystal structure.

DISTRIBUTION OF QUANTIZED FJUX STATES IN SUPERCONDUCTING
CYLINDERS . Wayne D . Willis , William L . Goodman and

Bascom S. Deaver, Jr., Dept, of Physics, Univ. of Va.,
Charlottesville, Va., 22901

When a hollow superconducting cylinder is cooled through
its transition ten^ierature in an applied magnetic field Hq,
currents are induced in the walls so that for every closed
path in the superconductor

r 4itX^ -

$ = 6 - 1 -ds + cp = n <5

C 0

where j is the supercurrent density, X the penetration depth,

(p the magnetic flux within the path, n an integer and Oq
flux quantum hc/2e = 2.07 x 10" ' G cm2. have measured

the distribution of magnetic flux cp as a function of Hq and
find that for most values of Hq the entire cylinder is in
the same quantum state. For some values of Hq there is a
mixed state with bands along the cylinder in states differing
by one flux quantum. When Hq is changed the distribution of

Research supported mainly by the National Science
Foundation through an Institutional Grant.

Fourier transform computations aided by a Themis

Grant .

bands changes so that the average flux in the cylinder
appears to vary almost continuously with Hq. We have also
measured the variation of cp with temperature and find a con¬
tinuous, reversible change by just the amount required to
maintain the constancy of the fluxoid $. This variation was
observed in a cylinder with n = 1 and thus corresponds to an
adiabatic variation of a macroscopic quantum state.

(Research supported by the National Science Foundation.)

Proceedings, 1970-1971

93

Section of Biology

Forty-ninth Annual Meeting of The Virginia Academy of Science
May 12-14, 1971, Blacksburg, Virginia

SOJi: E?fECTo C? LOCALIZED . ZrERIiCDE AND ENIIRE-

SHOOT IHR-lDIiiTIOII ON SraVIVAL AND ^-'CRPKOLOGY OF 3UN-
FLO.Ui PLANTS. D. Ba.il.-es. Christopher Nevjport Col.,
Nev;;-nrt Neva, Va. 23606

The LD^qp was 3.3 3'.R .'’olluv/ing segr-ent and 2,5
following '^n' Ire-shoct X-’ rradiation.

Irradiate''’ seg-’.ents •..'-■’e constricted upproxi-nstely
3 0 doys after irradiation. Constriction was i'ae to much
cari'bial activity a’-cve the ssg/ent, little in the segment,
and a , 'moderate a count below the seg’’‘0.ct. Roots forr ed
above the segment and nrev; to t'le outsi'le of ’he ster..

IiTadiate.i segments, 2C - 6^ days after irradiation,

' <-oar.e hypertrophic, due tc pi-uliferatii, n of cells from
he car.hium. Pith became necrotic, and tuiTiur-li!:e
stn','''tures gre'v in the cavity.

In vni above the irra.diated segment, oryler vess'-ls
./ere small, and sore ’.;ere oriented transversely. Few
sieve tu oes and cooipani-n cells differenti- ted in the
secon.^ary phJoer!. Numerous and very large oil ducts
forned in the phltoem and cortex. Cork cainbia differen¬
tiated in si cou'lary phloem after the spider' is, cortex,
end primary pliloen disappeared.

■ iltb, - 'OC ..hoots above ii-radiated seymeats is pro-
■ r. 3„ cn'd.-:ed iy reduced nu'kers and size of xyler vessels,
trans'V'.voe orientation of vessels, and disruption of xylem
continuity -.y roots and tumors in and just above the
irradiated segments.

A STUDY OF THE SOIL pH AND SEED GERMINATION CONDITIONS FOE
Rhus typhina and Rhus glabra IN HENRICO COUNTY, VIRGINIA AND
ALLEGANY COUNTY, MARYLAND. P. C. Bergey and G. C. Llewellyn.
Dept, of Biology, Va. Commonwealth Univ. , Richmond, Va. 23220

Studies of the germination of Rhus typhina and R^. glabra,
indicate that some form of pretreatment appears necessary to
overcome the impermeability of the seed coat. Various
pretreatments tested consisted of prechilling, boiling,
scarification and soaking in concentrated sulfuric acid.

The sulfuric acid soak and scarification methods have
produced the best germination levels . R^. glabra has a

germination level of 35? when treated with sulfuric acid and
1+5? when scarified. Prechilling alone has no favorable
effect on germination and prechilling is not necessary to
obtain germination whether used as a separate pretreatment
or used as a combination pretreatment.

Preliminary germination tests were conducted without seed
pretreatment for R. glabra in pH solutions ranging from l+.Ol
to 10.01. Germination occurred in all solutions except that
of pH 10.01.

Soil samples were collected from stands of R^. typhina
near coal mine tailings in Allegany Co., Md. and from stands
of glabra in Henrico Co., Va. and tested for pH. The soil
pH range for R. typhina (Md. ) was L.l** to 7.85. R^. glabra
(Va.) had a range of A. 36 to 5.lA. (Aided by VDA&C)

SAUNITY TOLERANCE OF THE PRAWNS, PAIAEMOHBTES VULGARIS AND
P. PUGIO, AND ITS RELATIONSHIP TO THE DISTRIBUTION OF THESE
SPECIES IN NATURE . Michael W . Bowler and Arthur J .
Seidenberg. Dept, of Biology, Va. Commonwealth Univ.,
Richmond, Va . 25220

Two prawns, Palaemonetes vulgaris and P. pugio were
found to be extremely abundant in the York River near
Gloucester Point, Virginia. Observations in the literature
suggested that P. pugio is usually found in less saline
habitats than P. vulgaris .

At all low salinity conditions tested (1.0, 2.0, and
3.0 ppt (parts per thousand), P. pugio was more tolerant
than P. vulgaris . At high test salinities (36. 0 and AO.O
pprt), the relationship was reversed; P. vulgaris was more
tolerant than P. pugio ■ The differences in their tolerances
were most pronounced at the extremes tested, i.e., at 1 ppt
and AO ppt .

A field study was performed (2A April I97I) to deter¬
mine the distribution of these species in nature. At
Gloucester Point (salinity lA ppt), hhio of the prawns pre¬
sent were P. pugio . At Clay Bank (salinity 7 ppt)on the
York River, 85^) of the prawns were P. pugl 0 ■ In the
Mattaponi River (O ppt), all the prawns collected were
P. pugio .

The difference in their salinity tolerance probably
acts to help segregate these two species in nature where
their distributions overlap. This may be very important in

reducijig_ coimetitioa, "between these. two species, which other-
wise. Have jiery. sunllar niche requirements .

THE ANAEROBIC RESPONSES OF RAINBOW TROUT (Salmo qairdneri)
DURING GRADUAL HYPOXIA AT T0O ACCLIMATION TEMPERATURES (5°
AND 15° C). Dennis T. Burton. Dept, of Biology, Virginia
Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg,
Virginia 24061

Both lactic acid and free short-chain fatty acids have
been suggested as anaerobic endproducts in trout exposed to
environmental hypoxia. This study was undertaken to deter¬
mine whether or not lactate and/or free short-chain fatty
acids occurs in rainbow trout subjected to gradual hypoxia.
Hypoxia was induced by lowering the oxygen tension of water
approximately 9 mm Hg, at half hour intervals, from 147 mm
Hg down to 65 mm Hg for the warm acclimated trout (15° C),
and from 147 mm Hg down to 19 mm Hg for the cold acclimated
trout (5° C). Skeletal muscle and liver were analyzed for
lactate, pyruvate, and free short-chain fatty acids.

The metabolic response of warm and cold acclimated trout
during hypoxia was a gradual increase in lactate in both
muscle and liver. Pyruvate concentrations decreased sig¬
nificantly in muscle at approximately the same ambient
oxygen tension at which lactate increased. No change
occurred in liver pyruvate concentrations. No free short-
chain fatty acids were found in either tissue of warm or
cold acclimated trout. The shift from aerobic to anaerobic
metabolism (as determined by an increased lactate/pyruvate
ratio) occurred between 80-90 mm Hg in the warm acclimated
trout, and between 40-50 mm Hg in the cold acclimated trout

94

The Virginia Journal of Science

FURTHER STUDIES WHICH SUPPORT THE MUCOUS COAGULATION-
SUFFOCATION HYPOTHESIS IN FISH EXPOSED TO ACUTELY TOXIC CON¬
CENTRATIONS OF ZINC. Dennis T. Burton, Alma H. Jones*, and

John Cairns, Jr. Department of Biology, Virginia Polytechnic
Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Va. 24061

This study was conducted to further test the hypothesis
that coagulation of mucous on the gills and/or cytological
damage to the gills of fish exposed to acute zinc toxicity
kills them by suffocation. Burton (Abstract in this Journal)
has shown that rainbow trout (Salmo aairdneril suffocated bv
exposure to low oxygen tensions have large increases in skel¬
etal muscle lactate concentrations with subsequent reductions
in muscle pyruvate. Large increases also occur in liver
lactate with no change in pyruvate concentrations.

Rainbow trout were exposed to a concentration of 40 mg

Zn++/1 in a well oxygenated, continuous water flow system.
Skeletal muscle and liver lactate and pyruvate were measured
in control fish and fish killed by Zn"'"'". Zinc-killed fish
had a 170% increase in muscle lactate when compared to con¬
trols and a 60% decrease in pyruvate. Liver lactate
increased 460% in zinc-killed fish when compared to controls.

In contrast to hypoxic-stressed fish, a 30% decrease in
liver pyruvate occurred in zinc-killed fish.

A comparison of lactate and pyruvate changes in muscle
and liver of trout subjected to Zn++ and Zn'''^ plus MS-222 (10
mg/1) has shown that muscle and liver lactate concentrations
are lower in the Zn++ plus MS-222 fish than the Zn++ exposed
group. This suggests that part of the lactate accumulation
may be due to exercise rather than suffocation alone.

PATTERN RECOGNITION OF DIATOMS BY LASER HOLOGRAPHY IN

BIOLOGICAL MONITORING OF POLLUTION. John Cairns, Jr.,

Kenneth L. Dickson, Guy R. Lanza, S. P. Almeida, and Donald
Delbaiioo, Dept, of Biology, Virginia Polytechnic Institute
and State University, Blacksburg, Va. 24061

One major disadvantage in assessing the effects of pollu-
tional stress upon aquatic communities lies in the time
required for data feedback. Attempts to characterize and
record the community structure of algae in a short time
period utilizing pattern recognition by laser holography
are underway in our laboratories. Diatoms both grown in
laboratory culture and collected from the field have been
studied. Efforts are being directed towards developing
a technique which would provide a means of the rapid detec¬
tion of alterations in both (1) community diversity, (2)
the types of species present; following pollutional stress.
(Research supported by Manufacturing Chemists Association.)

OXYGEN EQUILIBRIUM PROPERTIES OF COELOMIC HEMOGLOBIN IN THE
POLYCHAETE GLYCERA DIBRANCHIATA. J. A. Carhart* and C. P.

PIGMENTS IN THE AVIAN EGG SHELL: CAMOUFLAGE OR LIGHT

SCREEN? Marilyn A. Coleman*, Anne Dumper*, Carole Luckner*,

Mangum. Dept, of Biology, Col. of William and Mary,
Williamsburg, Va. 23185

The Atlantic bloodworm, Glvcera dibranchiata. lives in
anoxic marine sediment, reaching maximum population density
near the low water mark. It has a degenerate vascular sys¬
tem and contains large quantities of hemoglobin within
nucleated corpuscles in the coelomic fluid. Estimates were
made of the extent to which coelomic fluid participates in
respiratory transport. Whole animals were equilibrated to
various p02*s and the gas content of the coelomic fluid
measured. The resultant "oxygen equilibrium curve" reveals
an extremely high p^Q and indicates that the hemoglobin
apparently functions in oxygen transport at intermediate and
high p02*s. This figure for hemoglobin in coelomic fluid of
intact animals differs significantly from the P5Q of the
hemoglobin in solution.

Roger A. McNabb*, and Cletus M. Sellers, Jr. Dept, of Biol¬
ogy, Va. Polytechnic Institute and State Univ., Blacksburg,

Va. 24061.

Two groups of Japanese quail eggs were matched for size
and pigmentation. One group of eggs had the melanin spots
removed by washing with tepid tap water; naturally pigmented
eggs , washed only on the bottom, served as the controls. The
surfaces of all eggs were sterilized with antiseptic hatch¬
ing solution. Randomly grouped eggs were incubated with
continuous illumination for six days, twelve inches from a

100 watt incadescent bulb.

Embryos of depigmented eggs developed faster but weighed
significantly less than the control embryos. The more rapid
development was evident at the first 24 hour observation.

By the end of the six day study, the experimental embryos
were 24 hours more advanced in their development than the
controls. Despite the more rapid development, internal egg
temperature was about 1°C lower in the depigmented eggs than
in the control eggs, under the same conditions.

SELECTIVE CUTTING PROCESSES IN A COASTAL PLAIN FOREST.

Harold N. Cones, Jr. Dept, of Biology, Christopher

ELECTRICAL POTENTIALS IN THE EPITHELIUM OF THE CTENOPHORE
MNEMIOPSIS LEIDYI. D. W. Corson, Jr.* and J. F. Case*.

Newport Col. Newport News, Va. 23606

Point quartering of a 328 acre forested tract in

Newport News, Va. was used to evaluate selective cutting
by a commercial logger during a "clean-cut" lumbering
operation. Five transects were analyzed before and after
cutting; a sixth through an unlogged area serving as a
control. The transects showed virtually complete removal
of the commercially important Pinus taeda with only
sporadic cutting of large hardwoods such as Ouercus alba.

Uncut trees were found to be damaged, diseased, or
stunted .

It is postulated that under natural conditions a
genetically inferior hardwood forest would arise from
the cut over area.

Col. of William and Mary, Williamsburg, Va. 23185 and

Marine Biological Lab., Woods Hole, Mass. 02638

Electrical activity in ctenophores is associated with
cell-to-cell transmission in the ctenes and apical organ
and possibly in local muscle responses and with the nerve
net control of ctene inhibition, muscle activity and lumin¬
escence. The potentials associated with cell-to-cell trans¬
mission can be isolated by blocking the nerve net with Mg"^.
Periodic concerts of potentials of about 50 V occurred on
both the ctene rows and the surrounding epithelium. These
potentials are not associated with the beating of the ctenes
or with bioluminescence. In some instances they could be
mechanically and electrically induced. In addition, mechan¬
ical stimulation produced an action potential associated
with the ctenes alone. Of various pharmacological agents
tried, only sodium glutamate appeared to intensify activity.
Ephedrine inhibited the response to mechanical stimulation;
and lowering of the Ca**^ level made the concerts more
erratic and reduced the size of the potentials.

Proceedings, 1970-1971

95

EVALUATION OF SOME SPECIES DIVERSITY INDICES

AND CURVES. M. D. Dahiberg. Va. Inst, for Scien. Res. ,
Richmond, Va. , 23229

Species diversity indices and graphs have been widely
used to represent the structure of plant and animal popula¬
tions. Studies of diversity of Georgia estuarine fishes has
resulted in an evaluation of four indices and two graphs and
the parameters that they are based on. Strong dominance
of a species in the autumn reduced the relative abundance
indices (evenness, equitability) but not the richness or

Shannon indices. The Shannon index combines the relative
abundance and richness components.

Substitution of size parameters (weight, length) for indi¬
viduals produced different results for indices, dominance-
diversity curves, and "lognormal" curves. Size parameters
more accurately represent the energy distribution among
the species and must be used to properly weigh the impor¬
tance of the species unless they are all approximately the
same size. Number of individuals produces a truncate
"lognormal" curve while size parameters produce a some¬
what normal distribution, indicating a large number of
species of intermediate importance. Dominance-diversity
curves indicate a high diversity when size parameters are
used.

FISHERIES OF THE MIDDLE ATLANTIC, PROBLEMS IN MANAGING

A MULTISPECIES, MULTINATION FISHERY. Jackson Davis.

Va. Inst. Marine Sci. , Gloucester Point, Va. 23062

Until 1966 the U. S. had fished in the Middle

Atlantic Bight essentially without foreign competition.
First the USSR, then Poland, and more recently. East
Germany, West Germany, Japan, Spain, and Bulgaria sent
fishing fleets to the area. In an attempt to relieve
biologic and economic pressures caused by the addition¬
al fishing effort the U. S. entered into bilateral
fisheries agreements with the Soviet Union in 1967 and
with Poland in 1968.

Unfettered fishing by nations not party to the
agreements threatens the conservation and economic
benefits which otherwise might accrue. Additional
problems stem from the differing fishing strategies of
distant water fleets and near-shore fleets, from the
common property concept of fisheries resources, includ¬
ing anadromous resources , and from differences in
political and economic philosophies.

SPERMATHECAL ULTRASTRUCTURE IN THE NEWT. James Dent. Dept,
of Biology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Va.

22903.

When viewed in thin section under the electron microscope
the spermathecal wall of the newt was found to consist of
two layers of cells, a continuous inner or lining layer of
epithelial cells and an outer myoepithelial layer. The myo¬
epithelial layer is penetrated by occasional openings or
intercellular spaces through which the epithelial cells make
contact with a basal lamella that bounds the whole tubule.

The myoepithelial cells resemble smooth cells having promi¬
nent coated pits, dense bodies and fibers that are probably
constituted of actin. They are sparsely supplied with mito¬
chondria, ribosomes, golgi and, sometimes, particles of gly¬
cogen. Typically the epithelial cells contain secretory
granules, numerous mitochondria and ribosomes. They contain
some fibers similar to those of the myoepithelial cells but
with diameters significantly larger. Occasional gol gi pro¬
files are evident and glycogen particles are distributed
abundantly throughout their cytosomes in spermathecae of nor¬
mal adult animals.

A STUDY OF THE REfRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY OF THE SEAL SALAMANDER,
Desmognathus monticola, IN BEDFORD COUNTY, VIRGINIA.

Margaret L. Duncan*and J. J. Thaxton, Jr. (Mrs.), Liberty

High School, Bedford, Virginia, 29523

Although several specialists have concluded that Desmog¬
nathus monticola have a biennial reproductive cycle, ~a^ re-
evaluation of the reproductive biology of this species is
undertaken in this research,

A re-examination of the reproductive biology of the sala¬
mander D. monticola as located on the eastern slope of the

Blue Ridge Mountains in western Bedford County, Virginia,
suggests that year-round activity occurs in the aquatic
habitats of this species . An examination of feeding habits
indicated that winter feeding did occ’ir. Since winter
activity correlates with winter food uptake, and the ratio
of food intake to egg production did not decline, year-round
breeding is not an unexpected phenomenon.

Evidence collected suggests that the females of Desmogna¬
thus monticola deposited eggs in each month in which collec-
tions were made. Hatching and development were also found to
occur in every month of the year.

It is suggested that Desmognathus monticola has a repro-
ductive cycle during any season of the year.

THE RESPONSE OF THE MONGOLIAN GERBIL, Merlones ungui culatus ,

TO AFLATOXIN B . J. S. Dunkin and G. C. Llewellyn. Dept,
of Biology, Va. Commonwealth Univ. , Richmond, Va. 23220

Adult male gerbils were fed pure Aflatoxin in their

drinking water, 10 mi crograms /ml , for periods up to 30 days.

The animals showed no significant change in body weight, but

HgO consumption dropped 38%. Upon sacrifice none of the
animals had visible gross pathological changes in the liver
or kidneys. Oral concentrations ranged from 0.79 to 3.6l
mg/kg body weight with no lethality.

Adult males and females were injected with

Dimethylformamlde (DMF) to determine sensitivity and use as
a solvent for the toxin. There were no lethalities, gross
pathological changes or weight changes for amounts up to

0.2 cc of DMF/animal.

Aflatoxin Bj^ dissolved in DMF was injected in adult
gerbils in concentrations from 1 mg/kg to 8 mg/kg body
weight . The LD^g for aflatoxin B^ in adult gerbils when
injected in DMF was A to 5 mg/kg body weight.

RELATIONSHIP OF COMMERCIALLY CUT PINUS TAEDA TO MARKET-
ABLE BOARD FOOTAGE IN A COASTAL PLAIN FOREST. Robert J.

Edwards. Dept, of Biology, Christopher Newport Col.

Newport News, Va. 23606.

The mean annual growth rate and its relationship to
marketable volume (International %inch rule) was deter¬
mined using random samples of felled Pinus taeda in

Newport News, Va. The number of years necessary to add

2 inch increments to the radius, the average age of the
sampled trees, and the growth trends for the tract were
also determined.

96

The Virginia Journal of Science

THE ROLE OF NATURAL HISTORY MUSEUMS IN MODERN BIOLOGY.

M.G. Emsley. Dept, of Biology. George Mason College of
the Unlv. of Va., Fairfax, Va. 22030.

In contemporary society the Natural History Museum has
two primary functions; public education and the curatlon
of collections. Research In systematics is draining their
capacity to perform either of these functions satisfactor¬
ily. Museum directors should re-order their priorities
and place qualified personnel in command of educational
programs and hire sub-professional curators to conserve
existing collections and make them available to systemat-
ists working in universities and colleges.

Museums should exchange material on indefinite loan so
taxonomic groups are concentrated in single locations where
they are under the control of a retired taxonomist of
proven competence in that group of organisms. The current
political situation precludes the Inclusion of tropical
countries in the material exchange plan. All material
should be identified by the Taxonomic Center for the group
to which it belongs or by its delegated specialist.

A PRELIMINARY STUDY OF THE EFFECT OF AFLATOXIN B ON

INTESTINAL PERISTALSIS. Sheryl I. Goldberg. T. Daniel

Kimbrough, and Gerald C. Llewellyn. Dept, of Biology, Va.
Commonwealth Univ. , Richmond, Va. 23220

This was an introductory stU(3y to evaluate the effects of
pure aflatoxin concentrations ranging from 0.091?

micrograms /ml to 1.600 micrograms / ml on duodenal strips
taken from juvenile male hamsters. Polygraph recordings
using a transducer to measure the changes in gut motility
(in vitro) provided the data, and each animal also served as
its own control.

Hamsters were chosen over the rat because preliminary
work indicated that the hamster had a more regular
peristaltic pattern, and the gerbil with the most regular
pattern was not used because the hamster appeared to have a
greater potential for carcinogenic response to aflatoxin and
estrogen.

Measurements made utilized contractions/minute, area
under the peaks/minute, and high peak means. Each record
made utilized all of these parameters for measurement.

For hamsters, the mean maximum area under the peaks
(20.70 cm^/minute) occurred at a concentration of 0.i+i+i+i+
micrograms /ml.

Both the areas under the peaks and the high peak means
generally followed the shape of a bell curve. There was no
significant change in the number of contractions /minute but,
the pattern did (Change.

FHE EFFECT OF GA-3 ON THE HIGH ENERGY HHOSPHATE

LEVELS OF THE THREE YOUNGEST INTERNODES OF PROGRESS
NUMBER ( 9 DWARF PEA. D.A. Goodwin* and E. Wilson.
Dept, of Biology, Va. State College, Petersburg,

Va. 23803

High energy phosphate levels In the, upper three
Intemodes of a dwaid* pea plant, variety Progress
number nine, were found to Increase as the result
of Glbberelllc add treatment. Untreated dwarf and
treated and untreated tails (variety Alaska) were
not so effected. High energy phosphate levels were
measured In hot water extracts of Intemodes by re¬
cording the light produced sixty seconds after the-
Bddltlon of an extract of dried firefly tails. The
results Indicate that six hours after tbeatment
with the hormone, the dwarf pea Internodes showed
a significant Increase In high energy phosphate
levels over controls .

EXTERNAL BETA RADIATION AS AN INHIBITOR OF ALLOGENIC SKIN
TRANSPLANT REJECTION IN MICE. Margaret A. Gordon. Dept, of
Biology, Madison Col., Harrisonburg, Va. 22801

Single pinch grafts from F| (CBA X C57BI/6) female donor
mice were applied to C57BI/6 recipients of both sexes. In
the preliminary comparison of graft persistence in four
groups of six animals each, grafts held in place with a 32P
impregnated bandage, emitting an average dose rate of 25
rads/day, persisted twice as long as untreated controls and
significantly longer than donations from mice x-rayed with

400 and 800 R the day before transplant.

In a continued study using only 32P impregnation of round
curad bandages (held in place with plastic surgical tape,

#\525, "Blenderm", Minnesota Mining and Manufacturing Co.),
eighteen allogenic grafts were maintained for over three
weeks. As long as bandages delivering a dose of 25 rads/day
were kept tightly in place, grafts were not rejected. These
animals are being maintained in order to note any long range
effects of such a beta radiation dose.

It is postulated that constant low level beta radiation
destroys recipient lymphocytes as they migrate into the
area of the transplant. It is also possible that low level
beta radiation used locally in conjunction with X-radiation
or other techniques reported in the literature will prove
better than either technique employed alone.

SOME ASPECTS OF POPULATION MANAGEMENT OF PHYTOPHAGOUS MITES

ON APPLE AND RELATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF SOME ACARICIDES.

Clarence H. Hill, and Robert A. Cather*. Dent, of Entomol-
ogy, Va. Poly. Inst. & State Univ., Winchester Fruit Res.

Lab., Winchester, Va. 22601.

Much effort has been exerted to devise suitable programs
for management of phytophagous mite populations on apple.

Several species are involved, but in Virginia the European
red mite, Panonychus ulmi (Koch), Schoene snider mite, Tet-
ranychus schoenei McGregor, and the two-spotted spider mite,
Tetranychus urticae (Koch) are responsible for most of the
damage.

These mites have been able to develop resistance to one
acaricide after another. Many formerly effective materials
have become obsolete due to developed resistance. Pre-bloom
application of petroleum derivatives, superior spray oils,
is one of the most appropriate ways to start the season.
Afterwards allow low level populations to continue undistur¬
bed. Select pesticides for disease and insect control that
are the least offensive to the predators of mites. Alter¬
nate row spraying and reducing pesticide rates to bare min-
imums tends to further reduce the damage to beneficial spe¬
cies. When acaricides become imperative, select one for
least injury to predators and use at minimum effective rate.

The currently registered acaricides, in intended, descend¬
ing order of effectiveness are: chlorphenaraidine, Omite,
Plictran, chloropropylate, dicofol, binapacryl, Morestan,
dinocap, tetradifon and ovex.

OBSERVATIONS ON THE POPULATION ECOLOGY OF THE CAVERNICOLOUS
AMPHIPOD CRUSTACEAN CRANGONYX ANTENNATUS PACKARD. J. R.
Holsinqer* and C. H. Holsinqer*. Dect. of Bioloav, Old

Dominion Univ., Norfolk, Va. 23508.

Observations on a population of the troglobitic amphipod
Cranqonyx antennatus were made in Mollv Waqle Cave, Lee Co.,
Virginia from Aug. 1967 to Oct. 1970. Nine samples were
taken at approximate seasonal intervals and analyzed statis¬
tically. From these data it was concluded that the popu¬
lation structure remains relatively constant and is without
appreciable seasonal changes. On the basis of size and
secondary sex characters, 5 age classes (juveniles, immature
males and females, mature males and females), were established
Juveniles and mature females occurred less frequently; the
other classes occurred more frequently with immature females
being the most frequent. Ovigerous females were seen in the
cave during each season but always in very small numbers in
one restricted part of the pool area.

It is apparent that there is a selective recruitment of
females for breeding, therefore allowing only a few broods
to be produced at a time. Selective recruitment would assure
a restricted population size and would also account for the
low frequency of juveniles. For animals living in a food-
poor environment, like a cave, rigid population control such
as that found in Molly Wagle Cave would be a selective
advantage. (Aided by NSF grant GY-7498 and the Old Dominion
Univ. Education Foundation.)

Proceedings, 1970-1971

97

SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPE STUDIES OF SENSORY ORGANS OF

THE TICK GENUS IXODES. Paul J. Homsher and D.E. Sonenshine.

Dept, of Biology, Old Dominion Univ., Norfolk, Va. 23508,

Scanning electron microscopy has many applications in
biology one of which is the identification of new charac¬
ters for taxonomic use. We have been examining the fourth
article and Haller's Organ of four species of the tick
genus Ixodes (viz,, I. boliviensis , I. luciae, I, cookei and

I. texanus) representing 3 subgenera, all from the Western
Hemisphere. Distinct similarities were noted in certain
features and differences in others for each organ. Those
characters examined were the number, location and shape of
the setae of the fourth article and the location and shape
of the setae of the Haller's Organ and other surface
features associated with it.

HOST-PARASITE INTERRELATIONSHIP OF PLASMODIUM

BERGHEI AND TRYPANOSOMA DUTTONI (IN VIVO) IN THE
pWISS ALBINO MOUSE. Melvin A. Jacob, Lynchburg
College, Lynchburg, Virginia 24504

Plasmodium berghi and Trypansosoma duttoni were
injected into separate Swiss Albino laboratory mice.
The effect of the blood parasite upon the host, the
Swiss Albino mice, was observed for twenty days by
taking blood smears every other day. After twelve
days, the parasite was reinjected intraperitoneally
into new hosts to observe the effect which the
parasite had on a second group of hosts. Two mice
were infected with both Plasmodium berghei and
Trypanosoma duttoni to observe the relationship of
both parasites on one host.

RELATIONSHIPS BBTWEIN REPRODUCTIVE ACTIVITY AND PARENTAL AGE

IN A SEXUAL RACE OF DUGESIA DOROTOCEPHALA, Marie M. Jenkins,
Dept, of Biology, Madison Col, , Harrisonburg, Va, 22801

Cocoon deposition and production of offspring were studied
in sexually reproducing Dugesia dorotocephala during the
lifetime of the individuals. Cocoon production began when
the planarians were 3~6 months of age and was continuous
thereafter, without seasonal interruption, for approximately
three years. Highest fertility occurred during the last
three months of the first year of life. A gradual decline
occurred during the third year and was followed by the com¬
plete cessation of offspring production during the fourth
year. Significantly fewer offspring were produced by second
generation inbred groups than by either first generation in-
bred or by first or second generation crossbred. Mortality,
among both adults and juveniles, was higher in inbred groups
than in crossbred. The combination of high mortality and low
fertility in inbred planarians points to the possible pres¬
ence of lethal genes which may act either before or after the
planarian emerges from the cocoon.

Approximately one-half the animals fissioned before be¬
coming sexually mature. Fertility was significantly higher
in these animals than in those which did not undergo fission
prior to becoming sexual. No sexual animals fissioned. Evi¬
dence indicates that fission is not a reproductive process
in the sexual race but that it is of value in enhancing vigor .
(Aided by a Sigma-Xi RESA grant and NIH Grant # HD-02217. )

OBSERVATIONS ON A CAPTURED ENVIRONMENTALLY ADAPTED MONSTER
AMPHIBIAN (BUFO SP.) Howard G. Johnston,* Eric L. Morgan,

Thomas M. Louis and Robert A. Paterson. Dept, of Biol.,

V.P.I. & S.U., Blacksburg, Va. 24061.

A mature female toad (Bufo woodhouse fowler^) with two
major abnormalities was discovered September 1968, approxi¬
mately 40 miles north of Roanoke in Botetourt County, Va.

Radiography of a fifth appendage extending approximately
one cm. laterally and one cm. anteriorly form the ventral
surface of the pectoral girdle shows two calcified jointed
bones at right angles to each other. This non-articulate
limb has no digits and its function, if any, is obscure.

Eyes are absent and the eyelids are fused. It is also of
interest that the development of the ectodermally derived
eyes occurs at a much earlier stage in the development of
the embryo than does the development in the mesodermally
derived limbs.

This unusual toad was found in the wild, fully grown,
which implies that she was quite able to adjust to her
environment in light of the difficulties resulting from
the lack of eyes and an extra appendage.

A SIMULATED NATURAL HABITAT FOR RACCOONS. COLOR MOVIE II
Cornells Laban. Dept. Biology, Richard Bland College,

Petersburg, Virginia 23803

This research is part of a general plan for the develop¬
ment of a science of comparative sociology, as proposed by

J. P. Scott. The specific oujectives of the study are to
develop a method by which functional units of behavior (be¬
havior patterns) can be systematically recorded and descri¬
bed. It is obvious that this cannot be accomplished by ob¬
servations on behavior as expressed in the natural habitat.

One solution to tliis problem is the development and use of a
"Simulated Natural Habitat", or field laboratory. Under the
conditions of a standard environment it became possible to
describe and quantify behavior patterns in an enclosure which
contained as many features as possible of the area in which
the free-ranging raccoons were caught.

The observations thus recorded are assumed to be a mean¬
ingful record of behavior and are expected to reflect in parll
the spontaneous repertory of behavior. The simulated habitat
contained only a few of the most essential features of a ty¬
pical raccoon environment in the early stages of the study,
hence, only an approximation of the complete repertory of
the behavior of free-ranging raccoons was expected to occur
in this simulated habitat.

A BEHAVIORAL AND HISTOLOGICAL STUDY OF THE EFFECTS OF DOM
(STP) (2.5, DIMETHOXY - 4 - METHYL AMPHETAMINE) ON THE TOB¬
ACCO HORN-WORM MOTH MANDUCA SEXTA. Thomas M. Louis and

Harrision R. Steeves,* III, Biol. Dept., VPI & SU.

The hallucinogen 2, 5,-dimthoxy“4-methylamphetamine, also
known as STP, caused histophathologic lesions in the optic
ganglion of Manduca sexta. The unchanged compound was re-
covered from the optic ganglion approximately 8 hours fol¬
lowing DOM administration. The optic ganglion accumulated
a high percentage of DOM administered. Behavioral effects
lasted for approximately 5 hours. (Res. Approved by Joint
FDA-PHS Psychotomimetic Agents Advisory Committee - Notice
of Claimed Investigational Exemption for a New Drug Dorn,

IND, 6708)

Supported b_y a NIH Postdoctoral Research Fell'p.

98

The Virginia Journal of Science

FURTHER STUDIES OF THE VARIATION IN SERUM CONSTITUENTS OF THE
BLUE CRAB CALUNECTES SAP7VUS. RATHBUN. M.P. Lynch, K.L. Webh
and W.A. Van Engel, Va. Inst, of Marine Science, Gloucester
Point, Va. 23062.

Serum chloride (C£), protein ( P7[. ) , glucose(6), ninhydrin
positive substances (WPS) and total osmotic concentration(0-4m)
were determined in samples of blood from the Blue Crab, CciZ-
■tcnecXe^ ■6apZdiL6, collected at various locations and times
from Va. waters. Monthly samples of crabs were collected
from the York Spit area, lower Chesapeake Bay from Feb. '69 -
Mar. '71* A cyclic seasonal variation in mean C-t was found.

Mean Ct varied from ^+^+6-^171 meq/1 in the winter months to

323-3^3 meq/1 in the summer months. Mean C£ was more highly
correlated with temperatxire (r=0.72) than with salinity (r=
0,10). Mean 0-6m (measured since June' 70 ) followed the same
trend as mean Ct, varying from a low of 779 milliosmols in
the summer to a high of 1032 milliosmols in the winter. Mean

P4,G and WPS did not exhibit obvious seasonal trends. Dis¬
tinct year class (/C) differences were found in mean P-t in
female crabs. Older VC ('67 vs '68 VC in '69, and '68 vs '69

VC in '70) had significantly higher mean P-t in six of the
seven months in which more than one VC crab was taken.

Crabs were also sampled along a salinity gradient (0.9-30.6
°/oo) during summer and early fall months. Crabs exhibited
hyperionic regulation with respect to Ct below about 25°/oo
and hypoionic regulation above this point. Hyperosmotic regu¬
lation was exhibited below 25®Zoo and isosmotic regulation
above this point. Ptl, NFS and G levels did not appear to be

related to salinity.

TOXICITY OF OXYGEN TO MARINE INVERTEBRATES. C. P. Mangum
and Joseph Torres*. Dept, of Biology, Col. of William and

Mary, Williamsburg, Va. 23185

Oxygen levels equaling and exceeding air saturation of
water are believed to be less favorable to the survival of
many invertebrates typically living in low p02 environments.

Due to the scanty volume of work on the subject the possibly
lethal effects of high p02*s have been reinvestigated. Out
of 8 species tested only 2 shared clear cut effects. The
anthezoan Haliplanella luciae showed significant lethal
effects, and the scvphozoan polyp Aurelia auretia exhibited
impaired setting ability.

CORRELATION OF THE MORPHOMETRIC VARIATION IN THE EASTERN

RACE OF CLINOSTOMUS FUNDULOIDES FUNDULOIDES GIRARD (CYPRIN-

DISTRIBUTIONAL ASPECTS OF AQUATIC COLEOPTERA IN THE DISMAL

SWAMP. James F. Matta. Biology Dept., Old Dominion Univ.,

IDAE) WITH TWO SUSPECTED STREAM PIRACIES IN VIRGINIA.

Michael T. Masnik. Dept, of Biology, Va. Polytechnic Inst,
and State Univ,

Collections of Clinostomus funduloides funduloides Girard
from 55 localities in Virginia have been analyzed for 13 mor¬
phometric characters. Collections were grouped by drainages
and portions of drainages. The majority of fishes were col¬
lected near the sites of two suspected stream piracies in

Floyd County, Va. The piracies involve the New and Dan

Rivers near Meadows of Dan, Va. and the New, South Fork of
the Roanoke, and Blackwater Rivers near Adney Gap, Va. Stand¬
ard statistical and taxiometric analyses of the results re¬
veal clinal evidence supporting the suspected piracies. A
product moment correlation coefficient testing raeristic
counts versus altitude has shown no correlation. In addition
the range of variation in morphometric counts for C. f. fund¬
uloides in Va. has been noted.

Norfolk, Va, 23508.

There are 45 species of aquatic coleoptera, representing

4 families, recorded from the Dismal Swamp. The woodland
pools, which may be considered to make up the vast majority
of the aquatic situations in the swamp, exhibit a rather
restricted fauna with only 16 species represented of which
Hydrochara obtusatus, Hydaticus bimarginatus , Agabetes
acuductus, Aqabus punctatus, Thermonectus basillaris, T,
ornaticollis , and Bidessonotus pulicarius are the most
abundant. Lake Drummond is practically barren of aquatic
beetles, having only one species, Hydrophilus triangularis
recorded from it. The extremely acid ditches, such as

Jerico Ditch are also severely limited in coleopteran fauna,
with only 6 species recorded, and only one of these,

Hydroporous lobatus at all abundant, while the non-acid
ditches show a more diverse fauna. The majority of the 45
species recorded from the swamp were collected from limited
or atypical aquatic situations such as roadside puddles,
small ponds or a willow swamp.

The faunal associations of the swamp’s aquatic coleoptera
do not appear to be different from those in other Tidewater
areas, and it would be quite difficult to make a case for a
separate origin of the aquatic coleoptera of the Dismal Swamp

The most striking characteristic of the swamp's aquatic
coleopteran fauna is the severe limitation on the number of
species .

A STUDY OF THE EFFECTS OF SELECTED ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS ON

THE GROWTH RATE OF MYTILUS EDULIS. C. E. Mitchell*,

Dr. G. F. Levy. Dept, of Biology, Old Dominion University,
Norfolk, Va. 23508.

A study was conducted to ascertain the effects of various
naturally occuring environmental parameters on the growth
rate of the blue mussel - Mytilus edulis. This study was
conducted at four sites over a five week period during the
summer of 1970. Parameters found to be most influential
included the content of oxidizable organic matter in sea¬
water samples and light penetration at the sites. These
criteria were used to construct an empirical formula for
predicting growth rate.

EFFECTS OF THIOCAYANATE AND L-THYROXINE ON FEMUR RETENTION

OF 45-CALCIUM IN MATURE MALE COTURNIX QUAIL ACCLIMATED AT

20° AND 35°C. Eric L. Morgan, Thomas M. Louis, and RobertA.
Paterson, Dept, of Biol., V.P.I, & S.U., Blacksburg, Va.

24061

The per cent retention in femur of a single dose of 45-
calcium was determined in nine month old male Coturnix quail
subjected to interacting temperatures and thyroid treatments
Coturnix acclimated at 20® and 35® + 1®C and then exposed to
throcyanate (as 0.1% of diet), L-thyroxine (20ug/100g body
weight injected daily), and control thyroidal treatments
were tested under laboratory conditions during February and
March, 1971. Thyroidal response to experimental treatments
was monitored by 131-iodine turnover rates. Quail main¬
tained at 20®C were found to have a greater turnover rate
than the 35®C group. Effectiveness of thyroidal treatments
was shown by the L-thyroxine groups retaining greater levels
while the thiocyanate groups lower levels of 131-iodine
compared to controls.

A considerably higher retention of 45-calcium was found
in all thyroidal treatment groups maintained at 35®C than at

20°C (P <.025). Thyroidal treatments had no significant
effect on femur retention of administered 45-calcium at
either acclimation temperature.

Proceedings, 1970-1971

99

VARIATION OF OXYGEN CONSUMPTION WITH TEMPERATUIffi AND

OXYGEN LEVEL IN POLYPS OF AUPELIA AUIUTA AND CHRYSAORA
QUINOUECIPJttlA. M. J. Oakes and C. P. Manfrum. Dent, of

Biology, Col. of Winiam and Mary, Williamsburg, Va,

?3185

Oxygen consumotion data on C. quinquecirrha oolvos
exposed to acute temoerature changes show (general
conformity to the Van*t Hoff rule with an exception of
the value for the 1?.0 to 17,0oC interval. A, aurit^

nives Q^q values lancer than pre'^icted by the Van*t Hoff
rule. Evidence for metabolic acclimation to temperature
chanf^e is scanty.

In response to a changing; oxygen environment, both
the .strobtl atinf^ and non-strobilatiner nolvns of A, aurita
and C. quinquecirrha are oxy-con^'ormers or partial oxy-
regulators in that oxygen concentration in^'lnences nxygen
consumption at all Ppp Ibvels.

SALINITY AND TEMPERATURE EFFECTS ON SETTING PLANULAE OF
CHESAPEAKE BAY JELLYFISH. Janet Olmorf and K. L. Webb.

Va. Institute of Marine Science, Gloucester Pt., Va. 23062

Experiments were designed to test the effects of
salinity and temperature on setting of planula larvae and
development of polyps of the jellyfish Cyan&a CAp-Lttata,

AuAeJLLa. auA-iXa. and Chn.yiCLOH.CL qLU.nqatCAnHha., which are
abundant in the Chesapeake Bay. In CycLneA, a winter jelly¬
fish, setting of planulae and formation of larval cysts
occurred at 5-^5 ppt and at temperatures of 5-25°C ; polyps
developed at 10-35 Ppt and at 5-15°C. Larval cyst forma¬
tion, once begun, was largely completed within three days,
and polyps appeared as early as three days after cyst forma¬
tion. Polyps of AuneAia, a summer jellyfish, developed at

10-35 ppt and at 15°, 20° and 25°C, though development was
slower at 15° than at 25°. Another summer jellyfish,

ChnyiaoHa, produced polyps within 5 days at all salinities
tested, 8-28 ppt, and at temperatures of 20° and 25°C.

About three times as many polyps developed at 25 C as com¬
pared to that at 20 °C.

The degree of crowding of planulae affected polyp
development. Optimum concentrations for good polyp devel¬
opment were 2-10 planulae per ml of water for all three
species. (Supported by Public Law 89-720, Jellyfish Act.)

ENTOCYTHERID OSTRACODS OF THE LOWER JAMES-YORK PENINSULA,
VIRGINIA. Daniel J. Peters, Dept, of Biology, Christopher
Newport Col., Newport News, Va. 23606

The four crayfishes known to inhabit the James-York and
the Gloucester-Mathews peninsulas are hosts of six species
of entocytherid ostracods belonging to five genera. The
burrower, Cambarus d. diogenes, harbors three species
(Dactylocythere ieanae, Okriocythere cheia and Ornitho-

BIOLOGY OF THE CEROPIASTES OF VIRGINIA, Dale K. Pellet*,

John A. Weidhaas, Jr.*, and Michael Kosztarab. Department
of Entomology, V.P.I. & S. U., Blacksburg, Virginia 24061.

Since 1948 the distribution of Ceroplastes in Virginia
has gradually increased, and now approximately one-third of
the state is infested. It has become a pest of both home-
owner and nurserymen. Three species, Ceroplastes ceriferus
Anderson (Mexican wax scale) , Ceroplastes sinensis Del

cythere waltonae) while the stream-dweller, C. acuminatus,

Guercio (Chinese wax scale), and Ceroplastes floridensis

hosts two (Dactylocythere suteri and Donnaldsoncythere
ileata) . Fallicambarus uhleri and Procambarus a. acutus,
sluggish stream, ditch and pond dwellers, both serve as
hosts to a single ostracod (Ankylocy there tiphophila) .

Comstock (Florida wax scale) have been collected in the
state with only the first two species having established in¬
festations. All species are parthenogenic and have four
instars. Ceroplastes ceriferus is the predominent species

The ecological relationships and the ranges of the
ostracods and their hosts are discussed.

and has a host range which includes 40 families of plants.

The parasite Coccophagus fraternus How. has been reared from
all species and the predator Laetilia coccidivora (Comstock)
has been reared from the two species with established infes¬
tations .

THE PRODUCTION OF AFLATOXINS BY Aspergillus flavus ON BLACK
SUNFLOWER SEED MEDIA, J. F. ftuensen and G. C. Llewellyn.

Va. Commonwealth Uniy. , Dept, of Biology and C. E. O'Rear,

Va. Dept, of Agriculture and Coramerce , Food and Drug

Section, Richmond, Va. 23220

Aflatoxins haye been reported as fungal metabolities of
Aspergillus flavus in such substrates as peanuts, corn,
cotton seeds, coconuts, and rice.

Aflatoxin content of samples of commercial black sun¬
flower seeds was determined to be42ppb (negatiye). The
seed used contained 1.T6^ inert matter, 0.30% other seeds,
and 9% nonyiable sunflower seeds.

Culture of sunflower seeds and sterile water were made to
determine the natural fungal flora of the seeds . These
resulted in the growth of several Rhizopus spp. when
cultured at 2T+.3°C. Cultures of crushed seeds resulted in
more rapid growth and greater quantities of these dominant
fungi. Neither crxxshed nor whole seed cultures tested were
positive for Aflatoxin (<2ppb).

Individual cultures of crushed and of whole seeds were
inoculated with A. flavus, (ATCC-155^8) , and produced
aflatoxin. Crushed seed cultures produced B]_, B^, Gj^ and G2
with a mean total aflatoxin content of k,065.8 ugm/ culture
after 25 days of growth. Whole seed cultures lacked B^ and
contained a total mean aflatoxin content of 3,057-1 ugm/
culture. The absence of B^ did not account significantly
for the appreciable difference in the total aflatoxin values.
(Assisted by Thomas Eadie Itycotoxin Laboratory, VDA&C)

mPTERA ASSOCIATED WITH GALLS ON ELMS (ULMUS SPP.). Wtn. H
Robinson*. Dept. Entomology, Va. Polytechnic Inst., Blacks¬
burg, Va. 24061

There are numerous insects associated with leaf galls on

Ulmus rubra and Ulmus americana. The Diptera found with
these galls include species in the families: Syrphidae,
Phoridae, and Chamaemyiidae. The immature stages of species
in these families are found within the gall.

100

The Virginia Journal of Science

COCKROACH MUTANTS OF SPECIAL INTEREST, PARTICULARLY IN THE
AREA OF REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY. M. H. Ross. Dept, of Entomol¬
ogy, Va . Polytechnic Inst, and St. Univ, Blacksburg 24061.

Certain mutants of the German cockroach show changes from
wild-type in characteristics affecting reproduction. Hatch
data reveal some such differences. Examples of hatch reduc¬
tion involving lethality are given. In another case, small
progeny nos, produced by shriveled wing females are partially
due to a reduced no. of eggs/ootheca , Apparently, some
oocytes fail to mature fully and are not oviposited in the
initial ootheca. Hatch data for pale-body (Pb) indicate that)
females, mated with Pb males, also fail to deposit the ex¬
pected no. of eggs. The mutant males appear to lack some
capability possessed by wild-type males to stimulate com¬
plete oviposition and/or to prevent resorption of some eggs,
such as seen in virgin wild-type females. In addition, there
is a tendency to include unusual numbers of unfertilized
eggs in the oothecae from Pb male matings. Pb males lack
sexual competitiveness but, once mated, coupling time is
significantly longer than that of wild type. In the curly-
wing mutant, females are sterile and rarely produce oothecae.
The ovaries seldom mature beyond the stage found in large
nymphs. Experiments are discussed which suggest the females
lack a sex attractant, but that mating can be induced. Mated
females show ovarian growth but oothecae are deformed and
sterile. This capability of the male to stimulate ovarian
growth has not been suspected for this species since ovi¬
position occurs in virgin females.

TEMPERATURE SENSITIVITY OF OXYGEN CONSUMPTION OF
LATITUDINALLY SEPARATED POPULATIONS OF UROSALPINX CINEREA
(PROSOBRANCHIA; MURICIDAE) . J. Malcolm Shick* and C. P.
Mangum. Dept, of Biology, Col. of William and Mary,
Williamsburg, Va. 23185

Although the oyster drill Urosalpinx cinerea is often
cited as an example of a species that has formed physiolog¬
ical races among populations experiencing different thermal
conditions, temperature effects on the respiratory metabo¬
lism of these organisms have not been studied. Acclimated
metabolism-temperature curves were constructed for four
latitudinally separated populations that include two sub¬
species. Virginia cinerea follvensis, and Massachusetts
and Maine _U. cinerea cinerea, exhibit the classical pattern
of latitudinal compensation of oxygen consumption, appar¬
ently due to an inverse size-latitude relationship that is
contrary to Bergmann's rule. It is suggested that this
anomaly may have resulted from the selective development of
a smaller maximum size in the northern populations,
although transportation by man along the Atlantic coast has
probably confused the situation. For reasons not immedi¬
ately apparent, the Massachusetts animals show rates con¬
sistently lower than those of the North Carolina, Virginia,
and Maine animals.

INDICES OF STRESS IN CROWDED POPULATIONS OF HOUSE MICE AND
WHITE MICE. J. E. SKEEN*, R. H. Giles Jr.*, and H. S. Mosby.
Division of Forestry and Wildlife Sciences, Va. Polytechnic
Inst, and State Univ., Blacksburg, Va. 24061

White mice and house mice were weighed and caged after 2
weeks of isolation at densities ranging from one to -six for
4 weeks. Half of the groups were fed a restricted diet and
half ^ libitum. Each density group at each level of nutri¬
tion was replicated three times. During the experiment,
activity, aggression, and hierarchy were-studied for the ad
libitum groups. At the end of 4 weeks, an endotoxin chal¬
lenge was administered to each animal (Thompson, J. A. 1971.
Responses of -several mouse populations to endotoxin challe¬
nge. Va. Acad. Sci. , Blacksburg, Va. May 1971). Surviving
mice were -sacrificed with ether; reweighed; their volume
taken; and their adrenals , -spleen , -seminal vesicles and
preputials removed and weighed. Apparent wounds were used
as an index to the physical condition of the animals.

The weights of the -seminal vesicles were found to decrease
with increasing density and appeared to be the mast consis¬
tent index to density -stress of the variables -studied . The
seminal vesicle weight, preputial weight, body weight, and
body volume were -significantly related to density at the 0.01
level and the activity index at the 0.05 level. The adrenal
and -spleen weights were not .significantly related to density
at the 0.05 level. Hierarchial position was -significantly
related to the physical condition of the animal at the 0.01
level, and not to the adrenal or preputial weights (0.05).

REPORT OF STUDIES ON THE ECOLOGY OF TICKS INFESTING WILD
BIRDS AND RABBITS IN THE VA.-N.C. PIEDMONT (Acarina:
Ixodidae) . by D.E. Sonenshine and I. J. Stout, Dept, of
Biology, Old Dominion Univ., Norfolk, Va, 23508,

Host parasite relationships and seasonal dynamics of 3
species of ticks infesting birds or rabbits or both at 2
localities in the Piedmont of Va, and N.C. were studied.
Cottontail rabbits represented the dominant host for the im-
matures of Haemaphysalis leporispalustris (Packard)and
Ixodes dentatus Max in Va., where both rabbits and birds
were examined, Bobwhite quail were almost as important as
rabbits as hosts for the immatures of the former but not of
the latter tick species. Other bird families of importance
as tick hosts included Fringillidae, Mimidae, Troglodytidae ,
Turdidae and Parulidae. I, hrunneus Koch was found primari¬
ly on the slate colored Junco, Cardinal, and White-throated
Sparrow. Tick burdens on birds at the 2 localities were
similar, but were substantially lower than the burdens re¬
ported in other areas of the U.S. Host-seeking activity by
immatures of the 2 bird-rabbit ticks were bimodal, with
peak activity in late summer or fall (dominant period), and
again in winter or early spring. The 1, dentatus activity
peak occurred 1 or 2 months later in the fall than that of
H. leporispalustris. Abstract submitted in competition for
the J. Shelton Horsley Award.

THE USE OF RADIOISOTOPES AS AN AID IN ECOLOGICAL STUDIES ON
TICK VECTORS OF DISEASE. A SUMMARY OF THREE YEARS OF DEFINI¬
TIVE FIELD STUDIES IN VIRGINIA. D, E. Sonenshine. Dept, of
Biology, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, Va, 23508,

Laboratory reared larvae of the American dog tick Derma-
centor variabilis (Say) tagged with ^^C glucose were re¬
leased and recaptured in a study area near Montpelier, Va.
by live capture of their small mammal hosts. These indivi¬
duals were distinguished from native larvae with a gas flow
end window detector. The systematic release and subsequent
recapture of these larvae provided data which revealed
knowledge of the ecology of this tick that could not have
been obtained by other means. Specifically, knowledge was
gained of overwinter survival, population size, dispersal
in the natural habitat, and the proportion of individuals
which find hosts. Utilizing these data and other data on
other life stages, a model of the American dog tick popu¬
lation has been constructed which predicts the numbers of
each life cycle stage that may be expected under the condi¬
tions observed in this study area. Data for a 3 year period
is currently under study to determine the year 'to year
changes in magnitude of these populations and, if possible,
the environmental changes that may have contributed to them.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE THERMOREGULATORY ABILITY IN THE
JAPANESE QUAIL, CQTURNIX COTURNIX JAPQNICA, BEFORE AND
AFTER HATCHING. D. E. Spiers,* R. A. McNabb,* F. M. A.
McNabb,*. Dept, of Biology, Va. Polytechnic Inst, and
State Univ., Blacksburg, Va, 2l+06l.

Unincubated eggs of Japanese Quail were implanted with
thermocouples, below the shell membrane, to measure egg
temperature. Thermocouples also were placed in the rectums
of newly hatched quail chicks to measure body temperature.
Daily resistance to temperature change was determined up to
nine days hatching by placing the quail in a 30°C air-bath.
Little development of thermoregulatory ability was present
before hatching. Not until four days after hatching did
any significant resistance to cooling occur. Complete
control of endothermy was not present by nine days after
hatching. Histological studies of thyroid development in
hatchlings indicate a decrease in follicle cell height
three days after hatching. (Aided by a grant from Frank
M. Chapman Memorial Fund, American Museum of Natural
History) .

Proceedings, 1970-1971

101

IN VITRO CULTURE OF BLUE CRAB HEMOCYTES. Melissa Stanley*

Dept, of Biology, George Mason College, Fairfax, Va. 22030.

Previous attempts to culture crustacean tissues have
met with little success. In establishing a tissue culture
method an abundant supply of cells that are known to be
undamaged is essential so that variations in the effect
of culture conditions may be evaluated with confidence.

Hemocytes alone require no physical or enzymatic disag¬
gregation and yet will attach to the substratum permitting
optical examination. Previous attempts to use hemocytes
of the blue crab, Callinectes sapidus, were thwarted by
the extremely rapid and viscous coagulation and melanlza-
tlon of the hemolymph. Anti-coagulants proved of little
value but a simple technique relying on massive dilution
permits the culture of large numbers of unclotted cells.

The hemocytes survive well in modified vertebrate tissue
culture medium but cell multiplication has not been demon¬
strated. Most of the attached cells resemble vertebrate
fibroblasts and are not easily referred to the various
types of hemocytes. Present efforts are directed toward
improving the medium and determining changes in the cell
population in vitro.

RECOVERY OF REPRODUCTIVE FUNCTION BY PRAIRIE DEERMICE FROM
ASYMPTOTIC POPULATIONS. C. R. Terman. Lab. Endo, & Poo.

Ecol. Dept, of Biol., College of William & Mary.

Prairie deermice greater than 100 days of age and non-
reproductive in laboratory populations were paired with
fertile mates or with other inhibited population animals.
Controls were bom in our production colony and maintained
as mono-sexual groups of ten until paired with fertile mates.

A large percentage of all treatment animals produced
young following pairing. The time required for reproduction
by population animals paired with proven mates was longer
than for controls and shorter than for pairs composed of
both population animals. The rates of reproductive recovery
did not differ between males and females of the same treat¬
ment .

The significantly slower rate of recovery of reproduc¬
tive function for population pairs than for animals from
populations paired with fertile mates suggests that mutual
stimulation is involved in recovery and is initially lack¬
ing or minimal.

The data indicate that a period of physiological and
behavioral adjustment following removal from the populations
is necessary before reproduction. The mechanisms preventing
reproduction within the populations are unknown.

(Supported by NIH grants MH-08289, HD-o4787, and Research

Career Development Award HD-07391.)

A COMPUTER PROGRAM FOR RANDOMIZING MACROBENTHOS WHEN ESTAB¬
LISHING A DIVERSITY INDEX USING THE SEQUENTIAL COMPARISON
TECHNIQUE. Melvin H. Thomas* and George M. Simmons, Jr.,
Virginia State Water Control Board and Virginia Commonwealth
University, respectively.

The program is designed to calculate a diversity index
using the sequential comparison technique when similar groups,
such as genera or species, are identified by a number and a
total count provided for each group. The program generates a
linear series of randomized numbers and compares these num¬
bers based on like and unlike species in a fashion similar
to the hand-operated method. The computer program removes
much of the manual drudgery from this type of analysis of
community structure and preserves the specimen intack for
later identification purposes.

There is no significant difference between the results
obtained by the program and the results obtained by the
hand-operated method.

It is possible to do multi-iterations of the index with
the program at extremely low cost per iteration.

The program is designed to be used by the non-biologist
as well as the biologist for analysing community structure
of the macrobenthos when based upon the sequential compari¬
son technique.

RESPONSES OF SEVERAL MOUSE POPULATIONS TO ENDOTOXIN CHAL¬
LENGE. J. A. THOMPSON*, R. H. Giles, Jr.*, and H. S. Mosby.

Div. of Forestry and Wildlife Sciences, Va. Polytechnic Inst,
and State Univ., Blacksburg, Va. 24061

Accurate knowledge of mechanisms by which animal populat¬
ions are controlled is undoubtedly important to the future
of wildlife management. Most mammalian populations are kept
within limits -set by the environment through density depend¬
ent mechanisms -^such as intraspecific competition for food
and -space, .social behavior, and disease.

House mice and white mice were marked, weighed and caged
after 2 weeks of isolation at densities of 1 to 6 for 4
weeks. Half of the groups were fed ad libitum with the
remainder fed a restricted diet. At the end of 4 weeks, each
mouse was injected intraperitoneally with E. coli endotoxin.

All mice were reweighed, their volume taken, and their adren¬
als, spleens, seminal vesicles, and preputials removed and
weighed. Behavioral observations were made during the study
to determine levels of aggression and activity.

Increasing population density without restricting nutri¬
tional intake resulted in decreasing mortalities associated
with endotoxin challenge. Groups on low nutrition had
increased mortalities at the higher density levels. White
mice were more susceptible to endotoxin than were house
mice, especially in the low-nutrition group. All of the
indices of stress were influenced to some degree by reduced
nutrition levels. The white mice were more noticeably
affected than the house mice.

UPTAKE OF SEVERAL AMINO ACIDS BY ISOLATED RAT
MITOCHONDRIA, Janice O. Tsokos'iS and R. A. Paterson.
Dept, of Biology, Va. Polytechnic Institute and State Univ. ,
Blacksburg, Va, 24061

The ability of isolated rat liver mitochondria to take up
L-ornithine, L-lysine, L-arginine and L-citrulline was in¬
vestigated by a method involving incubation with ^^C-labeled
amino acid, a subsequent centrifugal separation of the mito¬
chondria, and calculation of matrix concentration of sub¬
strate using measured volumes of extra- and intra-mito-
chondrial pellet spaces.

L-ornithine is concentrated severalfold against the grad¬
ient by these mitochondria, in a substrate - saturable pro¬
cess, as expressed in the form of an adsorption isotherm.

The uptake of L-lysine and L-arginine parallels that of L-
ornithine, at lower accumulation levels. L-citrulline is not
accumulated but is taken up to the point of approximate
equilibration with low extramitochondrial concentrations,
also in a substrate saturable process.

Further studies of the behavior of L-ornithine and L-
citrulline in the system, important because of the compart-
mentation of the urea cycle enzyme L-ornithine carbamoyl-
transferase in the mitochondria, are reported.

RESISTANCE OF TOXIN AND VEGETATIVE CELLS OF CLOSTRIDIUM

BOTULINUM TO HEAT AND CHEMICALS. J. Ucadhyav. K. Parvati. and
Sueh-ying Chang. Va. State Col,, Petersburg, Va. 23803

We have found that the spores of Clostridium botulinum
are very resistant to heat and chemicals. However, the heat
resistance of vegetative cells and their toxin has not been
thoroughly investigated.

The cells were grown in 5% trypticase medium, harvested by
centrifugation, washed 3-5 times with distilled water or nor¬
mal saline and heated at different temperatures or treated
with formalin.

About 15-20 gm Swiss Webster mice were injected with 0.2
ml (about 10^) vegetative cells for toxin assay.

The results indicate that the vegetative cells can with¬
stand heating at 100 C for 20 minutes or more in distilled
water. It takes more than 3 hours to kill the cells at 90 C.
Heating even for 3-4 hours at 80 C does not significantly
reduce the number of vegetative cells.

The vegetative cell toxin is destroyed in about 5 minutes
at 65 C. Incubation in formalin also destroys the toxin. In¬
oculation in 2% formalin for about 2 days or in 4% formalin
for 1 day destroys almost all the toxins.

These results indicate that the vegetative cells are more
resistant to heat, and that toxin can more easily be
destroyed, than is generally understood.

102

The Virginia Journal of Science

EXPERIMENTAL INTROGRESSION IN THE GENUS PHASEOLUS.

I. EFFECT OF MATING SYSTEMS ON INTERSPECIFIC GENE FLOW.

J. R. Wall, Dept, of Biology, George Mason College of the
Univ. of Va. , Fairfax, Va. 22030,

An analysis of the effects of three backcross mating
systems upon the introgression of a quantitatively deter¬
mined morphological character, hypogeal germination, from
Ph aseolus cocclneus into £. vulgaris , an epigeal species,
reveals that mating systems have a significant effect upon
introgression, particularly in early generations. The
mating systems evaluated measured gene flow through (1)
male gametes, (2) female gametes, and (3) female gametes
when a random sib mating generation was Inserted between
backcross generations. The Interspecific populations were
in two instances carried to the BC3 and in one instance to
the BC2.

The results demonstrate that mating systems significant¬
ly affect gene flow between partially isolated diploid
species. Of the mating systems tested, sib mating in con¬
junction with backcrossing appears to achieve the best
balance between enhanced heterospecific genome recombina¬
tion, a prerequisite for introgression, and those deleter¬
ious effects of recombination which lead to hybrid break¬
down and a disruption of Interspecific gene flow.

VEGETATION COMPOSITION AND DISTRIBUTION ON A BAR¬
RIER ISLAND OF VIRGINIA'S EASTERN SHORE. William
M. Willis and Jaques S. Zaneveld . Inst, of Ocean¬
ography, Old Dominion Univ., Norfolk, Va. 23508

Four vegetation units may be described for
Smith Island! 1) a beach and dune grass community
dominated by Ammo phi la breviligulata . 2) a marsh
community dominated in its coastal portions by
Spartina alterniflora. and in its inland portions
by S. patens and Distichlis spicata . 3) a forest
community dominated by Prunus pennsvlvatica and
Pinus taeda. and 4) a shrub community dominated by
Mvrica eerifera.

Distribution of these units is primarily con¬
trolled by a) tidal immersion period as a function
of elevation above mean sea level, b) wave ex¬
posure, c) salt spray exposure, and d) catastro¬
phic events such as storms and fires. Overall
distribution is undoubtedly controlled by the dom¬
inant topographic feature of the island - a system

of parallel low ridges transversing the island
obliquely. These ridges are regarded as originat¬
ing as ancestral barrier dunes successively depos¬
ited as the island grew in the southwest direction.
The forest community occupies the tops of the
ridges, while the marsh community occupies the
swales between ridges. The shrub community occu¬
pies an intermediary position. The dune community
IS generally restricted to the ocean front.

RELATION OF ELEVATION AND SALINITY TO DISTRIBUTION OF
CERTAIN SALT MARSH COMMUNITIES. E. Spencer Wise. Dept,
of Biology, Christopher Newport Col., Newport News, Va.
23606.

Distribution of high marsh communities in two finger
marshes along Broad Bay in Seashore State Park, Virginia
Beach, Va. was analyzed in terms of salinity and micro¬
elevation. Tidal range was 30 cm, and composite salinity
of the substrate in the marshes varied between 3000 and
18,000 ppm in the areas occupied by halophytes. In both
marshes of the study Distichlis spicata was found in the
widest range of elevations and salinities. Juncus
roemerianus was found in pannes or area inunadated for
long periods, but over a wide range of salinities,

Spartina patens occurred at low elevations, within a
narrow range, on sites that were not inundated for long
periods. Within each marsh relative salinities and actual
elevation and drainage appeared to be the factors affect¬
ing zonation.

THE EFFECTS OF DIETARY PROTEIN CONTENT ON WATER CONSUMPTION
AND AMMONIA EXCRETION OF THE PIGEON, COLUMBA LIVIA.

J. M. Ward, Jr., F. M. A. McNabb, R. A. McNabb. Dept, of
Biology, Va. Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ., Blacksburg,
Va. 24061

When ad lib. water (AW) consumption and minimum water (MW)
requirements were measured in pigeons on a low (LP) and high
(HP) protein diets (approx. 12% and 44% protein, respective¬
ly) , a significant increase was found in both water consump¬
tion measurements on the high protein diet. On the low
protein diet, ad lib. water consumption and minimum water
requirements were 8.7 + 0.6 and 4.25 + 0.2 percent of body
weight per day, respectively. The same parameters were
33.3 + 2.8 and 14.4 + 1.0 percent of body weight per day on
the high protein diet.

Urine was collected with a cloacal cannula and analyzed
for ammonia-nitrogen (NHj-N). Means of highest urinary
NHj-N concentrations were ranked from lowest to highest (as
UgN/ml); LP-MW, 1457; HP-AW, 1459; LP-AW, 1731; HP-MW, 2088.
Means of lowest urinary ammonia concentrations for each bird
in the three groups, LP-MW, HP-AW, and LP-AW, were 1/3 - 1/2
the means of highest concentrations. In contrast, the mean
of lowest concentrations for the HP-MW group was only 25%
less than the mean of highest concentrations.

In summary, elevated dietary protein levels were found to
have pronounced effects on both water consumption and
ammonia excretion in Columba livia .

T'lAP MANIFESTED BEHAVIOR AND DISTRIBUTION OF RACCOONS IN
TWO NATURAL AREAS OF VIRGINIA AS RELATED TO AVAILABLE FOODS.
Elton L. Winslow’’' and D. E. Sonenshine, Dept, of Biology,

Old Dominion Univ., Norfolk, Va. 23508.

A study was undertaken comparing populations of raccoons
(Procyon lotor (L.)) in two natural areas of Virginia, one
in the Piedmont physiographic province (Montpelier study
area) near Richmond, the other in the Coastal plain at
Newport News. Comparison of capture data indicated that the
capture success per 100 trap nights was higher at Newport
News (1.58) than at Montpelier (0.66). However, a similar
comparison of recapture success per 100 trap nights indica¬
ted a much higher recapture incidence at Montpelier (0.33)
than at Newport News (0.07). Trap reflected animal distri¬
bution at both areas was found to be non-random. At Newport
News the animals were found to be concentrated along the
water's edge. At Montpelier two concentration peaks were
observed, one along the water's edge, the other at about
800 to 1000 feet from the water's edge. The distributional
data suggests that two behaviorally distinct groups are
present within the raccoon population at Montpelier, one
remaining near the water's edge, the other roaming farther
upland, probably in search of food. In contrast, at Newport
News a large majority of the raccoon population remains
near aquatic habitat with few scattered captures upland.

The trapping and distributional data was compared with food
consumption of raccoons in the two areas as determined by
fecal and gut analysis.

FRESHWATER PROTOZOAN SPECIES OVERLAP IN NATURAL AND
ARTIFICIAL SUBSTRATES. William H. Yonque, Jr. and John
Cairns, Jr. Dept, of Biology, Virginia Polytechnic
Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Va. 24061
A series of polyurethane sponges were anchored, during
the summer of 1970, one foot from the bottom of Douglas
Lake, Michigan, in 8 feet of water. Periodically substrates
were harvested for protozoan colonizers and diversity and
numbers of species determined. Benthic collections were
made by scuba diver. Natural substrate-artificial substrate
species overlapswere 76%, 85%, and 82%. These and other
results tend to indicate colonization from the benthos and
that communities established in polyurethane sponges reflect
the native micro-ecosystems.

Proceedings, 1970-1971

103

BENTHIC MARINE ALGAE OF DELAWARE, U.S, A. » = = = = = = = =
Jacques S. Zaneveld , Inst . of Oceanography, Old Dominion Univ.
The instable habitats of sand along the Delaware sea coast
and mixed sand and mud inside the Delaware Bay do not provide
adequate substrates for many of the algae that find a hold¬
fast along the rocky shores of New England. Such species are
developed on artificial structures, such as the breakwaters.
Nevertheless, field studies carried out along the Delaware
sea coast and Bay have revealed the presence of 70 different
taxa of attached benthic marine algae. Of these species 11 be*
long to the Cy.anophyceae , 21 to the Chlorophyceae , 1 to the
Xanthophyceae , 18 to the Phaeophyceae , and 19 to the Rhodo-
phyceae. The majority of these are new records for the state
of Delaware. The reproductive periodicities of the species
are tabulated, showing that the maximum reproductive periods
seem to last from late May through September. The more signi¬
ficant ecological data are discussed and a climograph is ad¬
ded based on observations by the U.S.C.G.S. over a period of
18 years. The species distribution shows that all Delawarean
taxa are also present north of Cape May. The southern limit
for 17.1 % of the recorded species is the Delaware coast and
for 18.6 % it is Cape Hatteras.The remaining 64.3 % are dis¬
tributed all along the east coast of the United States. The
distribution of the algae is seasonal in character; none of
the species was found to occur all year round.

Section of Botany

Forty-ninth Annual Meeting of The Virginia Academy of Science
May 12—14, 1971, Blacksburg, Virginia

PLANTS OF THE WETLANDS OF MASSANUTTEN MOUNTAIN,
Lena Artz. Waterlick, Va, 22661

Compared to the wetlands of coastal plains
and other areas, those of the Massanutten area
are small. But plants of the Massanutten bogs
are interesting from the standpoint of plant
geography. These areas range from almost moun¬
tain tops to the valley floor and occur inter¬
mittently, for a distance of about forty miles
out of the fifty-mile length of the range.

A STUDY OF BETA-CAROTENE-PROTEIN BINDING IN CHLOROPLAST
LAMELLAR MEMBRANES. M. W. Banschbach'^ and J. L. Hess.

Dept, of Biochemistry and Nutrition, Va. Polytechnic Inst,
and State U. , Blacksburg, Va, 24061

Knowledge of lipid-protein interactions is crucial to un¬
derstanding membrane structure and function. Specificity of
hydrophobic interactions between lipid and protein was exam¬
ined in a p-carotene-protein complex from chloroplasts .

A p-carotene-lamellar protein fraction was obtained by
sequentially extracting ruptured chloroplasts with 50, 70,

75, and 80% (v/v) acetone : water solutions. Centrifugation
of the above fraction on a discontinuous sucrose density
gradient yielded a low density p-carotene-protein fraction
which floated on 1 M sucrose and contained over 50% of the
p-carotene and 5% of the protein placed on the gradient.
Pepsin and trypsin proteolysis was used to evaluate the ex¬
tent of p-carotene-protein interaction. As a control, p-
carotene was extracted from both fractions with 100% acetone.
Unreacted protein was removed and hydrolysis measured as
ninhydrin and Folin positive material solubilized. Trypsin
hydrolysis was equally impeded in both fractions, 88% of
control; pepsin showed much less ability to hydrolyze the
low density fraction, 65% of control, compared to the crude
p-carotene protein fraction, 89% of control. Both fractions
differ significantly in their amino acid content. Protein
in the low density fraction appears to have a high capacity
for binding ^-carotene although specificity of binding is
not yet understood.

104

The Virginia Journal of Science

A'l l’N'^Trrit,I3I'"D CKMT7TRY DKSCRI^TION OF

TI'E PIMKS 0^ VIRGINIA. Edmund Berkeley. Dept, of
Biolo-Ty, Central Va . Cmnty, Col., Lynchbxirg , 2l|.502

Vany students of eighteenth century American
botany have found the Bartram Papers of the Kis-
torical Society of Pennsylvania a valuable source
of information. Presumably some of them have been
interested in a lengthy account of the Pines of
Virginia, in John Bertram's distinctive hand. It
is not clear w'-iether this has been assumed to be
an original account by Bartram, or one sent to him
by someone else, ^‘ecent study establishes that the
naper is Bartram' s cony of a naper written by Dr,

John 'litchell, of Urbanna, Virginia. ISvidence is
nresented to establish Mitchell's authorship, and
a summary of the content of the paper is reported.

SHALE BARREN SPECIES AND SPECIATION. Norlyn L. Bodkin,

Biology Dept., Madison College, Harrisonburg, Va. 22y01 and

Dept, of Botany, Univ. of Md . , College Park, Md . 207^2.

An endemic flora exists on Devonian and Ordovician shale
barrens in the eastern Appalachian regions of Pennsylvania,
Maryland, West Virginia, and Virginia. The physiognomy of
the barrens is in marked contrast to the major climax asso¬
ciations in which the barrens are located. The woody vege¬
tation is sparse and dwarfed with no characteristic forest
stratification while the herbaceous forms are dispersed with
many uncolonized sites. Characteristic and endemic species
occurring on the more exposed parts of the barrens number
approximately 100 with endemic and near-endemic species
accounting for about 20 percent. Broad generalizations have
been made regarding the derivation of the endemics. No one
generalization can be made which explains the derivation of
all shale endemic species, either in time or space. The
species are neoendemics, pa I eoendem i cs or disjunct endemics.

It is suggested that several of the endemics (or their
ancestors) moved into the Appalachian barrens by a northern
migratory pathway, being forced southward by the advancing
glaciers. It could equally be said that at least one
endemic, Efu.ogonum cULLdruA. S. Wats., or its ancestoral
types, moved eastward along a southern route from the
southern end of the Rocky Mountains to the Appalachian
barrens .

OBSERVATIONS OF GROWTH AND DIVISION OF LIVING PLANT CELLS.

Robert T. Brumfield, Longwood College, Farmville, Va .

THE DISTRIBUTION OF LYGODIUM PALMATUM (CLIMBING

FERN) IN VIRGINIA. Dorothy F. Chappell. Prince

23901

The development of growing tissues can be recorded by
photographic techniques. A camera has been designed to
record the growth, division, and maturation of cel is in
the living roots of snail seeded grasses. Preliminary
studies indicate that the technique may yield significant
data on the controi of celi growth, cell division, and
celi differentiation.

Edward Academy, Parmyille, Va. 2'3901

lygodlum palmatum, a rare fern, occurs locally
in Virginia. Collections have been made in the
mountains, on the piedmont, and the coastal
plain. The habitat of each population is similar,
on moist soil near streams, in dense shade and
with little undergrowth. Most populations appear,
to be small but thriving. The fronds of Lygodium
palmatum are at their peak in early fall and the
plant is easily recognized throughout the winter.

SUMMER PHYTOPLANKTON IN THE NERITIC WATERS BETWEEN CAPE

HATTERAS AND CAPE COD. S. Craft* and H. G. Marshall, Dept,
of Biology, Old Dominion Univ, , Norfolk, Va, 23508.

Surface phytoplankton were collected at 32 stations over
the continental shelf and slope waters between Cape Cod,

Mass, and Cape Hatteras, N. C. Collections were made in

August 1969 aboard the research vessel ALBATROSS in the
Groundfish Survey Program of the Bureau of Commercial Fish¬
eries of Woods Hole, Mass, This study is part of a long term
seasonal investigation of phytoplankton off the eastern
coast of the U.S. Highest numbers of phytoplankton were
found at the insore stations with the diatoms, in particu¬
lar, Rhizosolenia alata dominating the population. Several
species were ubiquitous including R. alata, Nitzschia clos-
terium, N. pungens atlantica and Leptocylindrus danicus. The
total number of pyrrhophyceans was usually low at both in¬
shore and offshore stations with Ceratium tripos, C. macro-
ceros and Exuviella compressa predominate. No definite
trend could be established for total phytoplankton increase
or decrease in a North-South direction. However, certain
species were limited in their North-South distribution. The
subtropical species, Climacodium frauenfeldianum and Rhizo-
solenia calcar avis were most prevalent from Cape Hatteras
to 38°28'N indicating possible entry from the Gulf Stream.

E. compressa, C, macroceros and C. tripos were not found
north of Long Island. Silicoflagellates were represented in
low numbers by Dictyocha fibula and Distephanus speculum.
Supported in part by NSF grant GB 13906.

THE SIGNIFICANCE OF DISJUNCT DISTRIBUTIONAL

PATTERNS IN VIRGINIA. A. M. Harvill, Jr. Dept,
of Natural Sciences, Longwood College, Farmville,

Va. 23901

Disjunct populations of plants in Virginia
record vast migrations and segregations of
vegetational types during Wisconsin and post¬
glacial times because of the persistence of some
populations in favorable enclaves where edaphic
and other ecologic factors compensate for changing
climates .

Proceedings, 1970-1971

105

AN ORDINATION OF THE UPLAND FORESTS OF THE VIRGINIA EASTERN
SHORE. G. F. Levy. Dept, of BiolocrV/ Old Dominion Univ. ,
Norfolk, Va. 23508.

Eleven upland forest stands located in Northampton and

Accomac counties were studied using a random series of point
centered circular nested quadrats. Importance values were
computed for each tree species in each stand. Stands were
ordinated in two dimentions using the dissimilarity index

D = 1- 2W/a+b. Significant species, soil types, percent
sand, silt and clay and soil were plotted on the ordination
model in an attempt to isolate factor complexes which relate
to stand diversity. In addition, geographical relationships
such as distances north and south, east and west, from the
Chesapeake Bay or the Atlantic Ocean were plotted. An
index of disturbance was derived and also plotted.

Though analysis to date are incomplete, it would appear
that soils, geographic location and stand history are the
most significant factor complexes operating upon the vege-
tational mosaic. Soils relation principally to water
retaining characteristics, geographic location to climate
and past history to secondary successional stage. Proximity
to the Chesapeake Bay or the Atlantic Ocean no doubt pays an
important role in the composition of some lowland community
types, but appears to be insignificant in the case of the
upland forests of this region. (Aided by ODU Educational
Foundation Grant #810.)

A STUDY 0? THE VffiST.ATIOH I.l SO 3 DISlSlL SV.'A iP OPENINGS .

Carole C. Lohnian*,and G. F. Lev:/. Dept, of Biology, Old

Dominion University, Norfolk, Va. 23508.

A qu: ntitstive study of the vegetation occurring in three
selected openings in Disiaal Sigamp was made during the sumraer
of 1970. Herb frequency was determined using twenty .2.u
random quadrats. The forest edge of each area ’.«? sampled
using the quarter-point method. with five points s.-mpled at
each site. Soil samples were analysed for pK, per cent
organic matter, water retaining capacity, and texture. Herb
relative frequencies were used te compute index of similarity
values. For edge vegetation an importance v-’lue computed
from the sum of relative density and frequency values qras
obtained for trees and saplings. The most prominent tree
species and their importance values were Liquidambar
st/'raciflua, 63.7, at site 1; L. styraciflua, ^3.3, and

Acer rubrum, 33, at site 2; “nd Quercus velutina, 29.7, at
site 3- The most prominent saplin ■ snecies a.nd their
importance values were Carpinus caroliniana, 16. 5, at site 1;

L. stryaciflua, 31«3,and A. rubru3i,13.'35, at site 2; and L.
stryaciflua,30.9. and A. rubrum, 2 .33, at site 3*

The data obtained aope'rs to ba indicative of a change
occurring throughout the Dismal Swamp. The hydric nature
expected in a si-.iamp is changing to one of more raesic nature
like that found in a mixed hardwood forest. Probable causes
for this change include drainage, luaiboring activities, and
fire. (Supported by N.3.F. U.P.?. grant no. GY-7^98.)

PHYT0PL4NKT0N IN THE TROPICAL SOUTHEASTERN PACIFIC. H. G.
Marshall, Dept, of Biology, Old Dominion Univ., Norfolk, Va.
23508.

Phytoplankton and hydrography data were obtained during
Stanford Oceanographic Expedition #19 aboard the R/V TE

VEGA (August 1968) in southeastern Pacific waters. A verti¬
cal series of collections were made at 5 open water stations
to 300 meters depth. Additional surface samples were taken
within the (Galapagos Island complex over a 3 week period.

Highest numbers of phytoplankton and greatest species di¬
versity occurred at open water stations that were under
the influence of the Peru Current System. Diatoms and
coccolithophores predominated, with Chaetoceros decipiens,
Coscinodiscus spp. , Rhizosolenia spp. major diatom species,
with the coccolithophore Emiliania huxleyi ubiquitous. The
abundance of the cold water form of E. huxleyi in the Gala-
pagos waters represented a phytoplankton indicator from the

Peru Current System that was still abundant 225 km west of
the islands. Other common coccolithophorids included Cyclo-
coccolithus leptoporus and Gephyrocapsa oceanica. (generally,
at stations distant from land, or to the southeast of the
Galapagos, the diatoms were in lower concentrations and the
phytof lagellates predominated. Diatoms were most numerous
at off shore stations and in the protected bays of the is¬
land complex. The most common pyrrhophyceans included Cera-
tium declinatum, C. paradoxides, C. trichoceros, and Dana-
sphaera indica. The silicof lagellate , Dictyocha fibula was
also common in the island waters.

ABSTRACT. SOME ASPECTS OF BARK ULTRASTRUCTURE. Robert E.

Martin. Division of Forestry and Wildlife Sciences, V.P.I.&

S.U., Blacksburg, Va. 24061.

Both phloem and rhytidome have important functions in the
life of trees. Due to its active physiological role, phloem
has received much more attention than rhytidome. We, however,
have been concerned primarily with the structure and propert¬
ies of the rhytidome, and particularly with the phellem cell
of the pines.

A diagram of pine bark is presented, and various aspects
of bark structure are illustrated, mostly with scanning elec¬
tron micrographs. General rhytidome structure is outlined,
and the types of cells occurring in bark are discussed. Rhy¬
tidome contains old cells from the phloem as well as the cells
of the periderms. Live cells are usually crushed, but par¬
enchyma cells often expand in diameter. Sclereids and fibers
remain intact, and ray dilation may occur. Periderms form
as protective barriers at the outer edge of the old phloem,
as parenchyma cells become meristematic .

The structure and properties of cells in the periderms
are not clearly understood, but we have attempted to develop
techniques for obtaining better data on them.

EARLIER YEARS OF THE FLORA COMMITTEE. A. B. Massey. Div.
of Forestry & Wildlife Sciences, V.P.I. & S. U., Blacksburg,

Va., 24061

The committee was organized by I. F. Lewis and Massey in

1926 and accepted by the Academy as an official standing
committee. It continues as such today. Herbaria were
developed at Lynchburg College, V.M. I., U. Va., and V.P.I.

The latter is now the largest.

The committee published Merriman's Flora of Richmond and
Vicinity and the periodical Claytonia which was discontinued
in favor of the Virginia Journal of Science. Seven of my
bulletins have been published by V.P.I. Several out of
state botanists cooperated with the committee and issued
publ ications .

A. M. Harvill, Jr. of Longwood College, is presently
chairman of the committee of eight members.

BETULA USER — WHAT IS IT AND WHERE IS IT? Peter M. Mazzeo.

U. S, Nat. Arboretum, Agri. Res. Service, U.S.D.A.

Washington, D.C. 20002.

Until this past year little was known about Be tula uber,
a plant that was first described in I918 by W.W. Ashe as a
variety of the black birch, Betula lenta. This was based
on specimens collected by Ashe in the mountains of Smyth

County, Virginia. In 19^5 M.L. Fernald, when making a
study of the birches of North America, elevated it to
specific rank, and placed it in the series Humiles where it
properly belongs.

Since the original collections were made in 191^ » no
other living specimens have been located. The only material
available appears to be the few herbarium voucher specimens
prepared by Ashe in 191^i and deposited in various herbaria.

As a result, attempts are now underway to relocate the
original collection site from field data on the original
herbarium labels to determine if this tree is still extant.

From recent studies of herbarium material it appears as
though Betula uber is a "good" species that belongs to
series Humiles, and is most closely related to Betula
pumila of the far northeastern United States and ad.iacent

Canada.

Hopefully, further field work will uncover living
specimens and more information about this rarest of North
American birches.

106

The Virginia Journal of Science

THE COMPLEX ROLE OF FUNGI ON EARTH. Orson K. Miller, Jr.
Dept, of Biology, Va. Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ. ,
Blacksburg, Va. , 24061

In the last few years our knowledge of the interrelation¬
ships among fungi, algae, and higher green plants in arctic,
subarctic, and boreal forest habitats has measurably in¬
creased. Primitive Basidiolichens are often found in the
same habitats with plants and fungi which are symbionts in
complex mycorrhizal relationships. Severe climatic ex¬
tremes in mountainous areas have led to unusual adaptions
to environmental conditions by fungi which allows them
to adequately fruit and disseminate spores. It appears
that distinct populations of some species of northern
Basidiomycetes have influenced early man by the differ¬
ential production of secondary metabolites or as a stable
food base in specific regions.

SOME HISTOPATHOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS ON FUSARIUM WILT OF
"MIMOSA." P, M. Phipps* and R. J, Stipes, Dept, of Plant
Pathology and Physiology, Va. Polytechnic Inst, and State
Univ., Blacksburg, Va. 24061

The proliferation of the fungal pathogen (Fusarium
oxysporum f. sp. pemiciosum) in host (Albizzia julibrissin)
tissues was studied during disease development. Sections
of xylem vessels in asymptomatic branches of diseased
trees often revealed the presence of conidia, while exten¬
sive mycelial growth and gum deposits were present in
vessels of wilting branches. Hyphae were observed within
pith, ray and vasicentric parenchyma, and among periderm
cells. Our observations indicated that the pathogen en¬
tered branches by movement of spores in vessels, and pro¬
liferated laterally by invading rays. By these lateral
avenues of transit, the pathogen reached more vessels of
the stem and also the periderm tissues where lenticular
sporodochia formed and produced abundant macroconidia. We
suggest that a direct relationship exists between patho¬
genesis and the proliferation of the pathogen in host
tissues .

EFFECTS OF SODIUM ACETATE ON THE GROWTH AND PHOTOSYNTHESIS
OF THE RED ALGA, PORPHYR I D 1 UM . P. T. Nielsen and D.A. Waite*
Biology Department, Madison College, Harrisonburg, Va., 22801

Cells of Porphyri di urn cruentum failed to grow in the dark
on agar slants of artificial sea water fortified with acetate
or glucose (lOmM), suggesting that Porphyri d i urn is an obli¬
gate photoautotroph. Growth on agar in the light was un¬
affected by the presence of glucose but was strongly in¬
hibited by acetate. Manometric studies revealed that neither
glucose nor acetate can serve as a respiratory substrate.

The growth of liquid cultures responded in like manner to the
presence of glucose or acetate; acetate completely inhibited
growth i n the I i ght .

The effects of acetate on growth in the light can be
attributed to its effect on photosynthesis. Sodium acetate
(lOmM) markedly Inhibited photosynthetic oxygen production
as measured manometr i ca I I y . The time-course of the acetate-
effect was strongly dependent on the pH of the medium. At
pH's of 5.0 to 5.5, photosynthesis was completely inhibited
within 5 minutes. At higher pH's the effect of acetate on
photosynthesis became apparent more slowly, and above
approximately pH 7.0 no inhibition was observed. The effect
of pH is probably due to the predominance of the less per¬
meable acetate ions at higher pH's. Possible explanations
for the observed effect of acetate on photosynthesis are
di scussed.

SEASONAL STUDY OF THE PHYTOPLANKTON AT LAKE DRUMMOND, IN
THE DISMAL SWAMP, VA. William H. Poore, Jr.^- and H. G.
Marshall, Dept, of Biology, Old Dominion Univ., Norfolk,

Va. 23508.

Lake Drummond is a shallow, acidic lake, located in the
center of the Dismal Swamp in southeastern Virginia. Phyto¬
plankton, hydrography, and chemical data were obtained over
a 10 month period (June 1970 to March 1971) from two sta¬
tions at Lake Drummond. Surface phytoplankton analysis, pH,
dissolved oxygen, chlorophyll concentrations, and trans-
parancy were recorded at two week intervals. Although numer¬
ous pulses occurred over this period, two major growth per¬
iods appeared in the spring and late fall. Minimal phyto¬
plankton populations were present in late winter and summer
months. There was little species diversity of the phyto¬
plankton which was composed mainly of diatoms, desmids and
phytoflagellates. The dominant species over the entire per¬
iod were Asterionella formosa and Melosira Herzogii. Clos-
terium gracile and Staurastrum paradoxum were common in the
summer flora. The only cyanophyte noted was Spirulina No’rd-
stedtii. The acidity of the open water for this period
ranged from a pH of 3.2 to 4.4. Maximum phytoplankton
counts were recorded in spring when 18.4 million cells per
liter were noted. Supported in part by funds from the
Virginia Academy of Science.

THE INFLUENCE OF WATER STRESS ON PARAMETERS OF GROWTH OF
LIRIODENDRON TULIFFERA SEEDLINGS. P. E. Pope and H. A. I.
Madgwick. Dept, of Forestry & Wildlife Sci. , V.P.I. & S.U.
Blacksburg, Va. 24060

The productivity of yellow poplar seedlings subjected
to five levels of available moisture in two separate experi¬
ments demonstrated that total dry matter production de¬
creased with increasing levels of moisture stress. Unit
leaf rate (ULR) and relative growth rate (RGR) decreased
with increasing moisture stress while leaf area ratio (LAR)
decreased in the soil study but was unaffected in the so¬
lution study. Leaf area (LA), both total and individual,
was increased with increasing available moisture. Total
LA and ULR appeared to be responsible for final plant size.
The percent (%) of distribution of new growth to leaves
decreased with increasing moisture stress while the %
allocated to roots increased until stress became severe.
Cyclic induced water stresses were not effective in reduc¬
ing leaf number, however, continuous stress conditions did
reduce the number of leaves with increasing stress but
only for the most severe stress. Increasing moisture
stress was shown to reduce leaf weight proportionately
more than leaf area hence there was an increase in leaf
area : weight ratio up to stresses where water was 40
percent available.

THE BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF EXTRACTS FROM SPECIES OF
CRATAEGUS, W, Stepka. Dept, of Pharmacy, Med. Col. of Va.,
VCU, Richmond, Va. 23219

Around the turn of the century preparations of
oxyacantha were used by homeopaths in treating various
cardiovascular disorders. There was, however, little
agreement as to which of the specific abnormalities were
alleviated by their preparations. Eventually a single
clinical trial showed that an extract of C. oxycantha
alleviated hypertension. We have confirmed the hypotensive
effect of preparations from this species on laboratory
animals and have shown additionally that several other
species native to the Eastern U. S. also possess similar
properties .

Proceedings, 1970-1971

107

PROPHYLACTIC AND THERAPEUTIC RESPONSES OF FUSARIUM WILT OF
"MIMOSA" TO BENOMYL AND THIABENDAZOLE. R. J. Stipes, P. M.
Phipps* and Donna R. Oderwald*. Dept, of Plant Pathology
and Physiology, Va. Polytechnic Inst. & State Univ. ,
Blacksburg, Va. 24061

The "Mimosa" or silk-tree (Albizzia julibrissin) con¬
tinues to succumb to Fusarium wilt caused by the fungus,
Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. pemiciosum. Resistance in
cultivars 'Charlotte' and 'Tryon' is reported variable or
nil. We report herein our findings on an alternate route
to disease control with benomyl (B) and thiabendazole (T) ,
two new systemic fungicidal benzimidazole derivatives.
"Mimosa" seedlings grown in sand in the greenhouse were
treated once before fungus Inoculation or once, weekly or
daily thereafter with various levels (10, 100, 500 ppm) of
B and T. Disease preventive or curative responses were
metered as percent disease development, growth (fresh
weight) of intact plants and recovery of the pathogen in
culture. At 100 and 500 ppm B caused foliar chlorotic
mottling, while T produced marginal chlorosis and suppress¬
ed growth. At all dosage levels and frequencies, B reduced
symptom expression and fungus recovery rate from diseased
tissues more than T. Ultimately, there was no significant
difference in prophylactic and therapeutic responses.

These findings represent the initial stages of a research
program designed to control a devastating vascular disease
of a beautiful landscape ornamental in Virginia.

SOLIDAGO ROANENSIS PORTER - ORIGIN, RELATIONS, AND CONFUSED
SPECIES. PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS. L. J. Uttal, Dept, of
Biology, Va. Polytechnic Inst. & State Univ., Blacksburg, Va.
24061.

Solidago roanensis is usually found in the presence of
arguta Ait. and curtlssii T. & G. Superficially, it ap¬
pears to be intermediate between the two latter species. The
appearance of intergradation is abetted by frequent aberrant
plants. roanensis has been suspected to be a hybrid deri¬

vative of the other species. A mathematical analysis of sel¬
ected characters reveals that S roanensis is a strong inde¬
pendent species. Its appearance of intermedlancy is coinci¬
dental, though it occasionally crosses as do many goldenrods.

roanensis is frequently confused with other thyrsoid gold¬
enrods. Its most definitive character is elongate tri-nerv-
ed inf lorescense bracts. To appreciate this character, the
bracts should be dried. They are not always apparent in the
field. In the course of this study, characterization of
arguta and curtissii has been refined, in addition to that
of roanensis . New range records for spathulata DC.
have been discovered, based on plants which had been identi¬
fied Incorrectly as roanensis ■

ECO-TAXOHOMIC ANALYSES OF MAJOR FOREST TYPES IN FREDERICK
CCUl’iTY, VIRGINIA. Wi Hi am VJ . k^ynn-*-!- . James Wood High
School, Winchester, Va. 22601

This study was designed to find out what major forest
types are present in Frederi.ck County and to discover the
factors that are responsible for the distribution of the
forests.

The county can be divided into two physiographic re¬
gions: the first, a ridge and valley region underlaid by
sandstone and shale; the second, a valley region underlaid
by limestone and shale. The first region is referred to as
the Ridge area, and the second is called the Valley area.
The Valley area can be divided into a limestone belt and a
shale belt.

Six stands of trees were selected for study. Two were
in the Pddge area, txjo were in the limestone belt of the
Valley area, and two were in the shale belt of the Valley
area. The vegetation of each stand was analyzed, soil
properties were studied, and physical factors were mea¬
sured.

The results of this study indi.cated that there are two
major forest types present in the county which are evident¬
ly produced by topographical conditionso The Ridge area
has an oak type forest dominated by chestnut oak, and the
Valley area has an oak-hickory forest. There are no major
differences between the forest stands of the limestone and
shale belts of the Valley area.

108

The Virginia Journal of Science

Section of Chemistry

Forty-ninth Annual Meeting of The Virginia Academy of Science
May 12-14, 1971, Blacksburg, Virginia

BICYCLIC INTERMEDIATES IN THE SYNTHESIS OF PROEELLANE.

James H. Allender*, Daniel W. Armstrong*, Robert J.Brumback*,
David D. Collins*, Joseph B. Philips III*,

James K. Shlllington, Dept, of Chemistry, Washington and Lee
Univ. Lexington, Va. 2k-h^0

Three approaches to propellane [tricyclo (^,^,^,0^’®)
tetradecane] have been investigated. One synthetic route,
involving a photo-activated Diels-Alder addition of buta¬
diene to octalin has been abandoned because of sound contra¬
indications from orbital symmetry theory. A second route
involving standard Diels-Alder addition of butadiene to
A®’iO-octal-l-one is more promising and in harmony with
orbital symmetry considerations. Ring closure of the
octal-l-one is effected using a Freidel-Crafts reaction on
y-(l-cyclohexenyl)-butyryl chloride to produce the bicyclic
compound. The third route investigated involves a
octalindione-1, 5 intermediate obtained from octalin using
SeOs oxidation of the a-positions followed by Oppenauer
oxidation to the diketone without disturbing the bridge un¬
saturation. A standard Diels-Alder addition of butadiene
is likewise projected for this intermediate. (Aided by
NSF grant GY 7221 and by Robert E. Lee Research Grants.)

ISOLATION AND VPC IDENTIFICATION OF STEROIDS
FROM JELLYFISH. Charles E. Bell, Jr. and E. Jay
Downs* . Dept, of Chemistry, Old Dominion University
Jellyfish, Chrysaora quinquicirrha were air dried,
extracted with lipid solvents, and subjected to column
chromatography using 325 mesh silica gel. The
compositions of selected fractions were identified using
thin-layer chromatography and vapor phase
chromatography. (Aided by NSF Undergraduate Research
Participation Grant (GY- 7424)

THE PREPARATION OF SOME NEW o-TRIFLUOROMETHYLAZOBENZENES.

P. A. Byrne, A. K. Clark, H. H. Clark* and H. C. White, Jr*;
Department of Chemistry, Old Dominion University, Norfolk,
Virginia 23508.

o-Trifluoromethylnitrosobenzene was reacted with several
ortho-substituted anilines in an attempt to evaluate the
reactivity and synthetic utility of this reagent in the
preparation of unsymmetrical ortho-substituted azobenzenes
(I). Several previously unreported compounds have been
prepared and characterized. Synthetic results and
properties of the new compounds will be presented.

I

A STUDY OF INTERFACIAL RESISTANCES CAUSED BY DETERGENTS IN
GAS ABSORPTION PROCESSES. Jerry A. Caskey, Yan Pui To*,
Dept, of Chemical Engineering, Va. Polytechnic Inst, and
State Univ., Blacksburg, Va., and R. H. Herbert*, Enjay
Chemical Co., Baton Rouge, La.

The effect of detergents in gas absorption processes has
received increasing attention in the past several years.

The present investigation was undertaken to determine the
effect of the type and molecular weight of the hydrophilic
functional group of the detergent molecules on the rate of
gas absorption. A quiescent state absorption apparatus was
used with carbon dioxide and water as the absorption system.
Six surfactants were selected for study: n-octanol, 4-
octanol, lauryl diglycol amide, lauryl diethanol amide,
sodium lauryl sulfate, and sodium dodecyl benzene sufonate.
An interfacial resistance for several concentrations of
each surfactant was measured. It was found that increasing
the molecular weight of the hydrophilic group decreased
the interfacial resistance of the surfactant also the
octanol with the hydroxyl group at a branched position was
found to cause a higher interfacial resistance than with
the hydroxyl group at the end of the hydrophobic chain.

Proceedings, 1970-1971

109

A NEW ION SOURCE FOR MASS SPECTROMETRIC SAMPLING OF SHOCK

TUBE FLOWS. Carl Clark*^and George Sanzone. Dept, of Chem-
istry, VPI&SU.

Representative sampling of a jet orifice for mass spec-
trometric studies has been shown to be dependent on the
geometry of the ion source relative to the jet. Sampling
must be carried out as close as possible to the orifice to
minimize dynamic scattering effects and to decrease the rise
time. The physical geometry must be built to limit the
interaction of the ion source with the jet flow. Modified
forms of the Pierce electron gun and novel ion optics con¬
figurations are employed to minimize the distance downstream
of the nozzle where the flow is sampled.

The configuration involved allows this ion source to be
placed closer to this jet orifice than other previously used
right angle samplers , reducing the scattering effects and
transient rise time.

PREPARATION OF a ,a-DIFLUOROISOCYANATES . A. F. Clifford and

J. W. Thompson*. Dept, of Chemistry, Va. Polytechnic Inst.

& State Univ., Blacksburg, Va. 24061.

Carbonyl fluoride will add to alkyl, perf luoroalkyl , and
aryl nitriles in anhydrous acids to form the appropriate a,
a-dif luoroisocyanate or perf luoroisocyanate. With aceto¬
nitrile the reaction proceeded slowly in anhydrous hydrogen
fluoride or hydrogen chloride to yield a clear colorless
liquid which was identified by infrared, mass, proton NMR,
and fluoride-19 NMR spectroscopies to be a ,a-dif luoroethyl
isocyanate. Increasing yields were achieved by having the
ratio of acetonitrile to carbonyl fluoride greater or less
than onp, the optimum amount of anhydrous acid, the presence
of an alkali metal fluoride and/or an increase in reaction
time. The a,ct-difluoroethyl isocyanate reacted with an¬
hydrous ethyl alcohol to form the carbamate which slowly
decomposed by splitting out hydrogen fluoride. The addition
reaction proceeded more rapidly, in comparison to acetoni¬
trile, with propionitrile and less rapidly with trifluoro-
acetonitrile . Benzonitrile , in the absence of alkali metal
fluorides, did not produce an isolable amount of a,a-di-
fluorobenzyl isocyanate, but a,a,ct-trifluorotoluene, 6-hy-
droxy-2 ,4-diphenyl-s-triazine . a,a-Difluorobenzyl isocyan¬
ate was produced in the presence of alkali metal fluorides
along with a trace amount of a,c(,a-trifluorotoluene. Cyana-
mide yielded trif luoromethyl isocyanate and cyanuric acid.
Adiponitrile produced the c(,a,c4c/-tetrafluorohexyl diiso¬
cyanate .

NOVEL ALDEHYDE SYNTHESIS VIA ORGANOBORANE CARBON MONOXIDE
REACTIONS. R. A. Coleman, Dept, of* Chemistry. Col. of

William and Mary, Wlliamsburg, Va. 23185, and Herbert C.

Brown*, Dept, of Chemistry, Purdue Univ. , Lafayette, Ind.

U7907.

Trialkylboranes undergo a remarkably fast reaction with
carbon monoxide in the presence of soluble metal hydrides;
producing an intermediate which is readily oxidized to the
corresponding aldehyde. For example, tricyclohexylborane is
readily converted into cyclohexanecarboxaldehyde in 93^
yield.

The structure of the trialkylborane has little effect on
the reaction rate or yield of aldehyde. Functionally substi¬
tuted organoboranes are accommodated as well. Thus, methyl
10-undecenoate is converted into 11-carbomethoxyundecanal
in 95^ yield. The scope and mechanism of the reaction will
be discussed.

AM INVESTIGATION OF THE DESTABILIZING EFFECTS OF COMMON
ANTI-ACID MEDICINES ON A SYNTHETIC COLLOIDAL SYSTEM. M.E.

Counts* and W.A. Barkley, Dept, of Chemistry, Radford Col.,
Radford, Va., 24l4l

This investigation was concerned with the destabilizat¬
ion of a negatively charged Minusil-5 (air-floated silica)
colloidal system by the anti-acids Maalox, Mylanta (main
ingredients aluminum and magnesium hydroxide) and Turns (main
ingredients calcium and magnesium carbonate).

Anti-acid portions of 0.001, O.OO5. 0.010, 0.050 and

0.100 gm. were digested in equivalent volumes of O.OOIN HCl
to change the main ingredients to soluble salts. These
portions were mixed in liter volumes of 0.500 gm/liter

Minusil-5 colloid solution.

Destabilizing effects were interpreted from turbidity
and transmission changes for each system. Maalox was most
effective in colloidal destabilization. With the concentra¬
tion 0.100 gm/liter Maalox, percent increase in transmittance
was 279.54'^ compared to 26.19^ and 20. 59?^ increases for this
concentration of Mylanta and Turns, respectively. The corre¬
sponding percent turbidity reductions for these systems were
99.52/0, 41.86/0, and 8.89/0.

The destabilization of the colloidal system is accounted
for by the effective surface charge reduction and consequent
zeta potential reduction by the multivalent cations present
in the anti-acids, particularly the aluminum cation.

PHOTOCHEMICAL lODINATION REACTIONS BY WAY OF THE CHARGE

TRANSFER STATE. R. F. Cozzens and T. K. Brown, Dept, of
Chemistry, George Mason College, Fairfax, Va. 22030

The role of the electronically excited state of the
charge-transfer (CT) complex as an intermediate in the
photochemical iodination of several benzene derivatives by
was studied. Reactions were preformed by irradiation
at those isolated wavelengths absorbed by the C-T complex.
Reaction products were determined by TLC, IR, and in one
case (ie. iodination of 1,3,5 trimethylbenzene) by forma¬
tion of a derivative and subsequent analysis. Kinetic
studies indicated a pseudo-first order reaction in neat
solution of I^ in the benzene derivative which proceeded
by way of the excited state of the CT-complex. Rate of
reaction increased with an increase in the number of side
group hydrogens on the benzene ring. Iodination of pure
benzene was slow but occurred. The importance of the CT
complex as an intermediate in many other reactions of
interest was briefly mentioned.

The Oxidation of Vanadium (III) by Molecular

Oxveen. B. A. DeGraff* and M. Z. Choi.* Depart-
ment of Chemistry, Univ. of Va . , Charlottesville,

Va. 22901

The oxidation of V(lll) in perchloric acid
solution by molecular oxygen has been studied at
pH 2.5. At lower pH, the rate law has the sim¬
ple form, d(V0+2) = ki (Oa ) (V+s ) . At pH 1.8

dt (hD

and at high V’^'s concentrations, an additional
term is needed in the rate expression,

d(V0+^) = ki(02) (V+=^) + k2(02) (V^)^

dt nSl (H+)'^

Isotope experiments using HgO* clearly Indicate
that none of the oxygen appearing in the VO"*^
product comes from the water. The kinetic and
isotopic results can be accomodated by a mecha¬
nism involving a hydroxy bridged dimer of (V*"®)
as the principal reactive species. Implications
of the mechanism will be discussed.

110

The Virginia Journal of Science

MASS SPECTROMETRIC STUDY OF POLYDENTATE SCHIFF

BASE COORDINATION COMPOUNDS. J. G. Dillard and

L. T. Taylor, Dept, of Chemistry, Va. Poly. Inst,
and State Univ. , Blacksburg, Va., 24061

The positive and negative ion mass spectra
have been measured for the copper (II), nickel (II) ,
and cobalt (II) molecular complexes of polydentate
ligands derived from salicylaldehyde and various
polyamines. Polymeric positive ionic species
containing two metal atoms and one ligand were
detected in low abundance. Ionization potentials
have been measured and the magnitude of the
potentials suggests that the electron removed
upon ionization was associated with the metal.
Negative ion spectra indicate the presence of
molecular negative ions for all of the compounds
investigated .

APPROXIMATE INTERACTION POTENTIALS FOR ELECTRON DONOR-
ACCEPTOR COMPLEXES. M. C. Dyson and J. C. Schug, Dept, of

Chem. , V.P.I. & S.U., Blacksburg, Virginia 24061

We have calculated approximate interaction potentials
for benzene-halogen and amine-iodine complexes. Coulombic
interactions were calculated for molecules constructed
from atomic monopoles and quadrupoles. Induction and dis¬
persion terms were evaluated from long-range interaction
theory. Charge-transfer and exchange interactions were
based on semi-empirical formulas involving intermolecular
overlap integrals.

Halogen-benzene interactions were evaluated for a
variety of geometries. The axial configuration was consis¬
tently found to be the most stable, though it apparently
is not very highly favored. The predicted equilibrium
distance was found to vary regularly through the halogen
series , but the energies did not yield a regular progres¬
sion.

For amine-iodine interactions, previous experimental
studies of ultraviolet charge-transfer spectra have pro¬
vided empirical values for the charge-transfer resonance
term, as well as the total interaction energy. The calcu¬
lated charge-transfer term was in good agreement with the
empirical value. But considerable adjustment of the
exchange-repulsion term was necessary in order to bring
the total energy into agreement.

(Supported by a grant from the National Science

Foundation. )

A BIOASSAT STUDY OF THE fFFECTS OF COPPHi AND ZINC IN THE
RAPPAHANNOCK RIVER ON THE SURVIVAL OF BLDEEILL SDNFiai
(Lapomls macrochlrus Raf. ). Aneela C. Eckhart* and Bernard L.
Mahoney, Jr, Department of Chemistry, Mary Washington Col.
Fredericksburg, Va. 22401

In connection with a broad evaluation of the water qual¬
ity of the Rappahannock River ecosystem, a bioassay study has
been made to determine the toxic level of Cu and Zn to blue-
gill fish, A static bioassay procedure using river water for
test and control tanks was carried out over 96 hrs. at 20PC,
Hatchery raised bluegills were exposed in separate e:5)erl-
ments to Cu(0, 10-4,1 ppm) as CuCl2 and Zn(0, 60-9.8 ppm) as

ZnCl2. Continual monitoring of Cu'*'2 and Zn'*’2 activities were
made with an Orion divalent cation electrods(DCE) and total
concentrations of Cu and Zn were determined by atomic
absorption(AA) , Water haixlnesa, pH, temperature, and
dissolved oxygen were also recorded during the test period.

The median tolerance limit(TLiii) for Cu.and Zn were as
follows! Cu 0.55, 0,50, and ILg° 0.50 ; Zn

6,60, TLbi 5.65, and TL^® 3®20. A ^rnergistic study involv¬
ing both Cu and Zn(Cu 0,050-0.50 ppm, Zn 0,40-4,20 ppm) gave
a TLn of 0.2? ppm Cu and 2,00 ppm Zn for 24, 48, and 96 hrs.

The use of DCE, pH, and AA measurements for monitoring
activity and total concentration during bioassay experiments
provide information on the chemical forms of heavy metals
fo\md in river environments. Such information is useful in
elucidating the mechanism responsible for the death of
aquatic life on exposure to heavy metals, (aided by NS" grant)

CALCULATION OF PRINCIPAL AXIS ORIENTATION OF
ZERO-FIELD ELECTRON SPIN RESONANCE OF SOME
POLYACENES IN THE TRIPLET STATE. L. Ivan Epstein,
Dept, of B iophysics, Med. Col. of Va. , Va. Commonwealth
University, Richmond, Va. 23219.

The orientation of the principal axes of zero-field split¬
ting of the lowest triplet energy level as it would manifest
itself through electron spin resonance has been calculated
for several homologous series of polyacenes. A simplified
version of the method of M. Gouterman (J. Chem. Phys.

30, 1369 (1959)) was used, that is, Hilckel molecular orbi¬
tals were used without taking configuration interaction into
account. While this approximation yields only the order of
magnitude of the electron energy of the molecule, it is be¬
lieved to be sufficient when used to calculate any geometri¬
cal properties of the molecule. As any straight polyacene
chain in the molecule is lengthened, one of the principal
axes is found to align itself progressively with the long
dimension of this chain, although the angle between this
long dimension and the principal axis sometimes changes
sign. However, when one end of the polyacene chain is
progressively bent, the orientation of the principal axes
varies erratically.

ONE-STEP PREPARATION OFo^,oc,-DIALKYL DERIVATIVES OF PHENYL-
ACETIC ESTER. Charles E. Gant and Homer A. Smith, Jr.,*

Dept, of Chemistry, Hampden-Sydney College, Hampden-Sydney ,

Va. 23943

Treatment of ethyl phenyl acetate with 4 equiv of sodium
amide in liquid ammonia followed by 4 equiv of ethyl bromide
or r^-butyl bromide gave the -dial kyl ester in good yield.
Under similar conditions isopropyl bromide gave only mono¬
alkylation. Benzyl chloride gave no alkylation apparently
because of preferential reaction with sodium amide to give
stilbene. With methyl iodide dialkylation readily took place
but much of the dimethyl ester reacted further with sodium
amide to give the corresponding carboxamide. Formation of
carboxamide was negligible when isopropyl or t - butyl esters
were employed with methyl iodide. Substitution of potassium
amide for sodium amide led to greatly decreased alkylation
with ethyl or ji-butyl bromide, ascribed to preferential
reaction of alkyl halide with potassium amide. Use of only
two equivalents of sodium amide led to mixtures of mono-
and dialkyl esters, ascribed to a moderate side reaction of
alkyl halide with sodium amide.

SYNTHESIS AND PROPERTIES OF SOME ARYE-s-TRI-
AZINES. J. S. Gillespie, Jr., S. P. Acharya* , and

R. E. Davis*, Virginia Institute for Scientific Research,
Richmond. Va. 23229

The synthesis and reactions of several substituted s-
triazines have been studied in attempts to prepare 2,4-bis
(4-chlorophenyl)-_s-triazine-6-carboxylic acid, 2, and 6-
aldehyde, 7_. The 2 , 4 -bis(4 -chlorophenyl) - s -triazine
derivatives proved to be surprisingly inert to a variety of
reagents. 2 , 4 -Bis (4-chlorophenyl) -6-methyl - s -triazine , 1,
could not be oxidized with any of a variety of oxidants. On
b romination gave 2 , 4-bis(4-chlorophenyl)-6-dibromo-
methyl -j^-triazine , 4, which was resistant to hydrolysis.

^ on oxidation with Se02 gave 2. 2 was also prepared by

the oxidation of 2, 4-bis(4-chlorophenyl) -6 -hydroxymethyl -
^-triazine, with KMn04. 6 was also resistant to other

oxidizing agents and could not be oxidized to 7. 2,4-Bis

(4-chloroanilino)-6-methyl-_s-triazine, 3, was also re¬
sistant to oxidizing agents. 2 - Diaz omethyl-4r6 - dichloro -
_s-triazine, 10, on reaction with 4-chloroaniline gave 2,4-
bis(4-chloroanilino) -6 -chloromethyl - s -triazine, 11. All
efforts to prepare 7 were unsuccessful.

Proceedings, 1970-1971

111

SPECTROELECTROCHEMICAL EVALUATION OF HOMOGENEOUS
CHEMICAL REACTIONS. GeorKe C. Grant. Dept, of
Chemistry, Va. Commonwealth Uniw. , Richmond, Va.

23220

Continuous monitoring of the optical absorbance
of product solutions during an electrochemical
experiment is a yersatile technique for increasing
understanding of electrode processes and for
studies of reactire intermediates such as radical
anions and cations. Results from computer aided
numerical solutions to the boundary Talue problems
indicate that rate constants as high as lCr-10**
sec"* can be measured for a first order chemical
reaction following electron transfer— comparing
farorably to stopped-flow techniques.

Selectirity in monitoring one particular
species in the multicomponent product solution is
controlled primarily by the wavelength dependence
of the molar extinction coefficient and the largest
measurable rate constant is limited by the smallest
detectable absorbance change. Chemical systems
with faster rate constants require millisecond
reaction times and the heterogeneous electron
transfer rate is progressively more important in
this inherently consecutive reaction scheme.

These influences have been quantitatively evaluated
for potential step measurements.

THIO-ANAIOGS OF NITROGEN OXYHALIDES. Richard S. Kampf’^ and

John H. Wise, Dept, of Chemistry, Washington and Lee Univ. ,
Lexington, Va. PL-LSO

An attempt has been made to produce the thio-analog of
nitrosyl chloride, CINO, using N4S4 as the starting
material. In a vacuum line, N4S4 is sublimed through
silver-coated glass wool to produce NaSg. A mixture of
the N2S2 and Clg is subjected to an electrical discharge
to promote radical combinations yeilding CINS. Progress
of the reaction is monitored by infrared spectra.

DIELECTRIC STUDIES OF INTRAMOLECULAR FORCES IN LIQUIDS.

David E. Kranbuehl. Dept, of Chemistry, College of William
and Maiy, Williamsburg, Va. 23185

A model calculation of the dielectric behavior of a
liquid whose molecules have conformation-dependent dipole
moment components is presented. The molecules contain two
groups of equal size which interact according to a para¬
bolic and cosine potential of varying symmetry. Experi¬
mental measurements of the dielectric behavior of
bipyridine, 2-2 ' -dibromobiphenyl and U-bromobiphenyl in
carbon tetrachloride are interpreted in light of the model
calculations in order to examine steric hindrance and
resonant effects. The intramolecular rotation barriers
are characterized in terms of molecular friction constants,
barrier height and barrier shape.

PHOTOPRODUCTION YIELDS OF SILVER-I07M AND SILVER-I09M.

J. J. Law, Dept, of Natural Sciences, Longwood College,

Farmvi lie, Va. 23901

Metallic silver was irradiated with bremsstrah 1 ung
from a 3.5 MeV electron beam produced in a linear accel¬
erator. The gamma activity of the metastable isomers,

Ag-I07m and Ag-I09m, was measured with a Gel Li) detector
coupled to a 1024-channel analyzer. The photopeaks of
these isomers, the identification of which was confirmed
by their energies and half-lives, were resolved and
distinct. No photodisintegration was observed.

The ratio of the net Ag-I07m photopeak count to that
of Ag-I09m was found to be (4.2 ± 0.3) : 1. The ratio
of the activation cross section for Ag- I07(y,p' ) Ag- 1 07m
to that tor Ag- 1 09{X,t’' )Ag- 1 09m was calculated as 2.9 : 1.

The apparent cross section for Ag- 1 07 , 109(X,P' )Ag- 1 07m,

109m was estimated to be 1.6 x I0~l fxb . The cross
sections tor Ag- 107 (t',f ' ) Ag- 1 07m and tor Ag- 1 09Ct', 7' )

Ag-I09m were calculated as 1 .2 x 10"* /*b and 4 x \0~^ Ab
respect! ve 1 y .

The findings may be of some practical value for the
determination of the composition of enriched silver
i sotopes.

THE COLOR BLIND TRAFFIC LIGHT - AN UNDERGRADUATE EX¬
PERIMENT USING AN OSCILLATING REACTION. John F.

Lefelhocz, Department of Chemistry , Virginia Commonwealth Uni-
versit/j Richmond^ Virginia 23220

A novel approach to the laboratory study of chemical kinetics
by non-science students has been devised. In this experiment stu¬
dents investigated the influence of temperature^ concentration ^ and
a catalyst on the rate of an oscillating reaction reported by G. T.

Kasperek and T. C. Bruice, Inorganic Chemistry, 10, No. 2, 382
(1971). Students are excited by this type of reaction not only
because of its visual appeal ^ but also because they can appreciate
the relationship between oscillating reactions and biological clock
reactions. In the reported reaction, malonic acid is oxidized by

Ce^^ ion In the presence of Br03" ion which reoxidizes the Ce^^
ion to Ce^^. The periodic decrease and Increase of Ce'*"^ ion is
followed by the color change Induced in the redox indicator ferroin.

The details and major advantages of this experiment will be pre¬
sen ted.

STRUCTURAL STUDIES ON A PURIFIED COMPONENT FROM THE TRICHO-
DERMA VIRIDE CELLUIASE SYSTEM. Betty W. Li*, John A. Lang*,
and Ross D. Brown. Jr., Dept, of Biochemistry and Nutrition,

Va. Polytechnic Inst, and State U. , Blacksburg, Va. 24061

Multiple hydrocellulase (Cl) enzyme proteins, required
for the microbial degradation of crystalline cellulose, have
been obtained through anion exchange chromatography and
preparative disc gel electrophoresis. The Ci enzymes. A, B,
and C, are glycoproteins with molecular weights of 34,500,

51,000 and 55,000, respectively and are very acidic, having
isoelectric points around 3.5.

Preliminary structural studies are in progress on the
purified component C of the enzyme system. Determination of
the nature of its sulfur content revealed the presence of
eight disulfide linkages and the absence of any sulfhydryl
group in the protein. End group studies indicate the possi¬
bility of a blocked N-terminal residue. Peptides prepared
by cyanogen bromide cleavage of the protein have been sepa¬
rated for investigation of the amino acid sequence. (Sup¬
ported by USDA CSRS Grant 916-15-27.)

112

The Virginia Journal of Science

THE HYDROGEN ION DEPENDENCE OF THE OXALATE CATA¬
LYZED REACTION OF CHROMIUM(VI) WITH ARSENIC (III) .

J. G. Mason and S. Lowry*, Dept, of Chemistry,

Va. Polytechnic Inst, and State Uniy., Blacksburg,

Va. 24061

The reaction between chromium (VI) and arsenic
(III) in acetic acid-acetate buffers has been
found to be catalyzed effectively by oxalate ion.
Stoichiometric studies under reaction conditions
have established that no induced oxidation of
oxalate ion occurs. Detailed kinetic studies as
a function of the concentrations of As (III),

C204“, and hydrogen ion have established the rate
law as

-d^r(VIi7 = k/^s(IIl27/H+7^204^ZCr(VIj7
dt 1 + K^s (11127

for the catalyzed reaction. The full form of the
rate law could be observed only in the more alka¬
line buffer compositions. The oxalate catalyzed
reaction exhibits no dependence on the acetic
acid concentration of the buffer in contrast to
the uncatalyzed reaction between chromium (VI) and
arsenic (III) .

ADSORPTION FROM BINARY NONELECTROLYTE SOLUTIONS

ONTO SILICA. D. R. Matavo* and J. P. Nightman ,

Chem. Dept., Va. Poly. Inst, and State Univ.,
Blacksburg, Va., 24061.

The composite and net adsorption isotherms for
the systems benzene-cyclohexane, ethyl alcohol-
cyclohexane, and ethyl alcohol-benzene on two
silicas are reported. The first silica, a flame
hydrolyzed silica, Cab-O-Sil, and the second, a
precipitated silica. Hi Sil 215 are compared for
adsorption capacity in the three binary systems
stated. The heats of wetting (Ahj) of both adsor¬
bents in the three pure liquids were determined
and it was found that Ahj was ethyl alcohol >
benzene > cyclohexane. The heat of wetting values
were correlated with the amount of each adsorbate
that was on the silica surfaces. The heat of
wetting of Cab-O-Sil was also determined as a
function of concentration in the ethyl alcohol-
cyclohexane system. The heats were determined for
bare Cab-O-Sil and Cab-O-Sil with a monolayer of
ethyl alcohol on the surface from which the heat
of monolayer formation of ethyl alcohol was
obtained. /Supported by NSF Grants GP-8448 and

GP-212997.

CHROMIUM TRICARBONYL COMPLEXES OF 1, 3-DIARYL PROPYL-
MEraANESULFONATES. R. A. Mateer* and A. F. Johnson,* Dept,
of Chemistry, Univ. of Richmond, Richmond, VA., 23173.

Routes leading to the synthesis of several monosubstituted

1, 3-<iiphenyl-2-propyl methanesulfonates have been investi¬
gated. Studies on the Tf-complexation of the methanesulfon¬
ates with chromium hexacarbonyl were initiated, and the reac¬
tion conditions established. Techniques for isolation of the
tricarbonyl complexes and for identifying their structures
were developed. The mono- and bis- V-complexed 1, 3-di-
phenyl-2-propyl methanesulfonates were prepared as well as
the /-complexes of several halogenated methanesulfonates.

TRIPLET STATE ENERGY TRANSFER IN RIGID MATRIX. G. W.

Mushrush, Dept, of Chemistry, George Mason College, Fairfax,

Va. 22030

Triplet-energy transfer from 2-acetylf luorene and 2-
acetonaphthone to trivalent europium and terbium ions in
rigid matrix was studied spectroscopically by minitoring
the phosphorescence quantum yield and decay of the donor
as well as the fluorescence quantum efficiency of the
acceptor at different concentrations. It is suggested that
transfer originates in the n,Tr* triplet, which is only
slightly above the lowest 7r,7i* triplet of the sensitizer.

A proposed photokinetic scheme, consistent with the presumed
exchange mechanism, which explains the observed behavior
will be presented. The essential differences in the two
systems with respect to the magnitude of the transfer rate
constant will be discussed. (Aided by NIH grant 2166-1000)

TERBIC ION AS A SENSITIVE PROBE IN ORGANIC PHOTOCHEMISTRY.

G. W. Mushrush and G. Haas*. Dept, of Chemistry, George

Mason College, Fairfax, Va. 22030

Irradiation of bicyclo [2. 2 . l]-2-heptene in degassed 2-
propanol with p-methoxyacetophenone as a sensitizer yields
the trans-exo-trans dimer in 98% yield. In the presence of

TbCl^ the yield of dimer is considerably reduced. The low¬
est n,7r* triplet of the sensitizer is higher than the
emitting resonance level of the Tb**‘^ion. The quantitative
kinetic data derived are consistent with a mechanism in
which energy transfer to the Tb'*"3 ion acceptor competes
with the dimerization process for the n,7r* triplets of the
sensitizer.

Measurements of sensitized fluorescence quantum effi¬
ciency at different Tb+^ ion concentrations permits the
calculation of rate constants for the individual steps in
the transfer process. The data were consistent with an
intermolecular (collisional) transfer.

The rate of photo chemical conversion (dimerization)
under continuous irradiation can be found from quantimi yield
measurements. (Aided by NIH grant 2166-1000)

POSITRON ANNIHILAJION IN LIQUID CRYSTALLINE SYSTEMS.

J. Blair Nicholas and Hans J. Ache, Dept, of Chemistry,

Va. Polytechnic Inst. & State Univ., Blacksburg, Va. 2406]
Positron lifetime measurements were carried out in a
series of liquid crystalline compounds. The resulting
lifetime spectra were decomposed into two components. The
shortlived component (lifetime and intensity I^) was

attributed to free positron and para-positronium annihi¬
lation whereas the longlived component '? 2» ^2 con¬

sidered to be the result of ortho-positronium annihilation.
Changes of '7 ^ and during mesomorphic phase transitions

are generally very small and can be related to the transi¬
tion entropies involved, supporting the contention that the
positron annihilation process is affected by variations in
the structural regularities of the environment. Various
mechanisms which could account for the observed changes of
the positron lifetimes and their intensities at the phase-
transition points are discussed.

Proceedings, 1970-1971

113

CONCERNING THE REACTION OF 1 ,3 , 5-CYCLOOCTATRIEN-7-YNE AT

VARIOUS TEMPERATURES. M. A. Ogliaruso, and A. S. Lankey.

Dept, of Chemistry, Va. Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ. ,
Blacksburg, Va. 24061

1,3 , S-Cyclooctatrien-y-yne (dehydrocyclooctatetraene)
has been reported to be best prepared in ether at room
temperature, to afford the highest yield of adduct with a
trapping agent. We now report on how the yields of product
from the reaction of this species with a trapping agent
vary depending upon: a) when the trapping agent is added,
and, b) the temperature employed. Our results indicate
that contrary to previous indicated reports, dehydrocyclo¬
octatetraene is best prepared and allowed to react at
temperatures other than room temperature.

ISO THIOCYANATE PREPARATIONS BY THERMAL DECOMPOSI¬
TION OF DITHIO CARBAMATE ESTERS. R. M. Ottenbrite,

A. Nelson and S. Chow^ Dept, of Chemistry, Virginia Common¬
wealth University

The pyrolysis of dithiocarbamate methyl esters of primary
amines afford isothiocyanates in good yields. The scope and limita¬
tions of this reaction with regard to substituent effects on aniline

H S

R-N-'C-SCHj - *-R-N-C=S + CH3SH

systems will be presented. The mechanism of the decomposition
will be discussed. It is thought to involve the tautomer intermed¬
iate iminomethylsemidithioketal .

^ , SH

R-N-C-SCH .; . R-N-C-SCH3

The reaction of N-methyl dithiocarbamate methyl esters under

CH3 S

R-N-C-SCH3

pyrolytic conditions will also be presented.

THE PREPARATION AND REACTIONS OF MONOETHYL-
PHOSPHITOPENTAAMMINECOBALT( III) PERCHLORATE.

Richard A. Palmer, W. Leo Johnson, III*, and

Clydette Powell*-. Dept, of Chemistry, Old

Dominion Univ,, Norfolk, Va,, 23508

The monoethylphosphitopentaamminecobalt ( III )
complex ion has been prepared by the reaction
of aquopentaaimmlnecobalt ( III ) perchlorate with
diethyl hydrogen phosphite. The infrared
spectrum shows that the complex contains a

Co-O-P bond. The complex was reacted with
chromous ion in an oxidation-reduction reaction
which is shown to occur via an inner sphere
reaction. The chromium III complex product of
this reaction appears to contain the same
monoethyl phosphite ligand as that found in the
cobalt III complex. The cobalt III complex
was found to be inert to oxidation by acid
permanganate solution. (Aided by the Old

Dominion Univ. Educational Fndn. and NSF grant

GY IkZk)

THE HIGH TEMPERATURE THERMAL AND MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF
SILVER(I) CHROMATE. James 0. Pressley*and Paul E. Field,
Dept, of Chemistry, Va. Polytechnic Inst, and State
University, Blacksburg, Va, 24o6l

The high temperature relative enthalpy of silver(I)
chromate has been measured over the temperature range

370 to 900 K with an isoperibol drop calorimeter.
Measurements of an NBS sample of alumina showed the
accuracy to be +0.5% over this range. A first order
transition at 752 K was found to have a heat of transi¬
tion of 2.2 kcal/mole. A second order transition near

550 K is indicated by a change in the slope of the
enthalpy curve. Measurements of the magnetic suscepti¬
bility on a Faraday balance between J>00 and 700 K
indicate a magnetic anomaly in this region.

The heat content data analyzed by the Shomate method
yields an equation which fits the data within 1.2% up to
the first order transition. The heat capacity function
obtained from this equation does not agree with the low
temperature values given in the literature. An enthalpy
function obtained from the data above the second order
transition temperature gives a derived heat capacity
which extrapolates to the low temperature curve and a
lambda discontinuity between 300 and 550 K, thus con¬
firming the unusual magnetic behavior observed. The
magnetic susceptibility at 300 K is dependent on the
thermal history of the sample and increases tenfold
through five heating cycles up to 550 K.

EFFECT OF OXALACETATE REACTIVITY ON THE DETERMINATION OF
GLUTAMATE OXALACETATE TRANSAMINASE ACTIVITY. R. E. Reed*
and J. L. Hess, Dept, of Biochemistry and Nutrition, Va.
Polytechnic Inst, and State U, , Blacksburg, Va. 24061

The assay of glutamate oxalacetate transaminase (GOT) re¬
quires recognition of any side reactions of oxalacetate.

Crude oat leaf homogenates assayed for GOT by the malate de¬
hydrogenase (MDH) coupled system show an equivalent response
upon substitution of lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) for MDH.

LDH does not react with oxalacetate. The non-enzymatic rate
of oxalacetate decarboxylation measured spectrophotometri-
cally at 250 nm is too slow to account for these results.

Thus, the cross-specificity for the coupling enzyme must re¬
sult from an enzymatic decarboxylation.

Oxalacetate concentrations may be measured directly at

280 or 260 nm. However, the keto form of oxalacetate has
been reported as the enzymatically active species whereas
the enol form is the species absorbing at 260 nm. Other
structural anomalies may also exist. Commercial prepara¬
tions of oxalacetic acid were subjected to melting point de¬
termination, gas-liquid chromatography of the trimethylsilyl
derivative, and high voltage electrophoresis. Ultraviolet
absorbancy studies of oxalacetate in dioxane (€ 260= 5 x lO^)

and dioxane-H20 were carried out to relate keto-enol equi¬
librium to spectral changes.

The relative importance of decarboxylation and keto-enol
equilibration of oxalacetate depends upon the state of en¬
zyme purity and should be considered in analyzing GOT.

PENTADENTATE LIGANDS II. NICKEL (II) COMPLEXES

OF THE LINEAR SCHIFF BASE LIGAND DERIVED FROM
2-PYRIDINECARBOXALDEHYDE AND BIS (3 , 3 ’ -AMINOPROPYL) -
AMINE. C. T. Spencer and L. T. Taylor, Dept, of
Chemistry, Va. Poly. Inst, and State Univ ., Blacks¬
burg, Va., 24061

Nickel (II) complexes employing the linear
potentially pentadentate ligand (PYDPT) derived
from 2-pyridinecarboxaldehyde and bis (3 , 3 ' -amino-
propyl) amine have_been prepared. Complexes
general formula /Ni (PyDPT) }^X and /^i (PyDPT) Y/PFg
where X = Cl”, Br , I”, NO3”, and SCN” and Y = Cl”,
Br”, NO3” and SCN” have been isolated. Where X =
PFg”, a complex of composition ^^i(PyDPT) (H20)_7
(PFg)2 is formed. All complexes have been
characterized by infrared and visible spectral
measurements, magnetic susceptibility and con¬
ductometric measurements. Both in solution and
in the solid state the materials give rise to a
pseudo-octahedral coordination environment about
the nickel (II) ion. The position of the lowest
energy d-d transition in the solid state can be
correlated with the relative location of X and Y
in the spectrochemical series. In methanol solu¬
tion, conductance measurements suggest the replace¬
ment of X or Y by a solvent molecule to complete
the six-coordinate structure. In nitromethane the
complexes behave as 1:1 electrolytes.

The Virginia Journal of Science

114

THE REACTION OF HIGHLY HALOGENATED ORGANIC MOLECULES WITH
SODIUM BOROHYDRIDE. T.L. St. Clair* and H.M. Bell, Dept, of
Chemistry, Va. Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ. , Blacksburg
Va. 24061.

The reduction of some polyhalogenated compounds with sod¬
ium borohydride in water and DMSO has been investigated.

The study was designed to determine what types of halogena-
ted compounds would react with the hydride ion by substitu¬
tion on halogen.

RX + H

DMSO,

H.,0 '

R + HX

The investigation so far reveals that compounds of a gen¬
eral formula R-CCI3 will usually react to give an intermedi¬
ate of anionic character, R-CCI2, when R is electron with¬
drawing. This anionic specie can then react in different
manners, depending on the structure of R. One example of
interest is

CCI3-CCI3 + NaBH^ — CCl2=CCl2

where a Cl"*” has been removed by the loss of a Cl to
generate the double bond.

THE SYNTHESIS AND ALKYLATION BY GRAMINE OF SOME
SUBSTITUTED 3-PIPERIDONES . Richard J. Sundbers.

> Woodfin V. Ligon, Jr., and Long-Su Lin, Dept of
Chemistry, Univ. of Va., Charlottesville, Va.

22903.

An approach to the 2- (3-indolylmethyl)-piper-
idine ring system which constitutes a major por¬
tion of the skeleton of such alkaloids as ajmaline,
sarpagine and dregamine, is described. The syn¬
thesis is consumated by alkylation of 5-pyrroli-
dino-1 ,2 ,3 ,6-tetrahydropyridine derivatives (ena-
mines of 3 -piper idones ) by gramine . The stereo¬
chemistry of the alkylation reaction will be dis¬
cussed. The required 3-piperidones are synthe¬
sized from knowg 4-piperidones by (l) a Wittig re¬
action to a -piperidine-4-acetic acid ester,

(2) base-catalyzed or photochemical isomerization
to the endocyclic 1 , 2 ,5 ,6-tetrahydropy r idine-4-
acetic acid ester, (3) epoxidation, (4) base-
catalyzed opening of the epoxide to a 3-hydroxy-
-piperidineacetic acid ester, (5) hydrogena¬
tion and (e) Jones oxidation.

(PHOTOCHEMICAL DECOMPOSITION OF o-SUBSTITUTED ARYL
AZIDES IN DIETHYLAMINE . Richard J. Sundberg.

Stuart R. Suter* and Martin Brenner*, Dept, of
Chemistry, Univ. of Va., Charlottesville, Va. 22903

Photolysis of ten o-substituted aryl azide
in diethylamine (DEA) has been shown to lead mainly
to oxygen-sensitive metastable intermediates,
rather than directly to the 2-diethylamino-3H-
azepines which are commonly obtained from such
photolyses. The oxidation products of the inter¬
mediates have been identified as 3-alkyl-2-diethyl-
aminopyridines , 5-acyl-3-aklyl-2-diethylaminopyri-
dines and 6-alkyl-7 -diethylamino-2H-azepin-2 -ones .
Spectral data indicate that the oxygen sensitive
intermediates are 3-alkyl-2-diethylamino-lH-aze-
pines and this structural assignment permits me¬
chanistic interpretation of the oxidation process.

Phenyl azide and £-tolyl azide, which lack
ortho substituents, give no evidence that analo¬
gous ]^-azepines have appreciable lifetimes under
the conditions of the photolysis, although they
may exist as short-lived intermediates.

ANIONIC p-DIKETONATE COMPLEXES OF TIN(IV). D. W. Thompson,
and K. S. Wong, Dept, of Chem. , Col. of FRlliam and Mary,
Williamsburg, Va. 2318?

From the addition of 2, U -pentane dione and pyridine to
solutions of the tin tetrahalides in methyl chloride, the
following series of coiiplexes has been isolated:

LC5H5NHJ iJC^Sn(acac)] where acac is the acetylaoetonate anion
and X = Cl, Br, and F. An analogous series containing the
triethylammonium cation have also been isolated. Mossbauer,
nmr, infrared, and conductance data will be discussed with
regard to the structure and properties of these complexes.
Attempts to extend the above reaction with analogous silicon
and germanium Lewis acids have not yielded similar compounds.
Furthermore, attempts to isolate analogous complexes using
other p-diketones as benzoylacetone and dipivaloylmethane
have been unsuccessful.

POTENTIAL FIVE-COORDINATE TITANIUM(IV) COMPLEXES. D. W.
Thompson, R. W. Rosser, C. Hicks, P. B. Barrett, Dept, of
Chem., Col. of '€.lliam and Mary, hilliamsburg, Va. 2318?

Compounds of the type CljTiL (L = anions of dibenzoyl -
methane, benzoylacetone, acetylacetone , 3-cyanoacetylacetone
2-acetylcyclohexanone , and dipivaloylmethane) have been
prepared from the reaction of TiCl^ with a B-diketone in
methylene chloride. No evidence was obtained from the forma¬
tion of simple Lewis acid-base adducts. Molecular weight
and conductivity studies in nitrobenzene are consistent with
the CljTiL being non-ionic and monomeric (i.e., 5 coordi¬
nate). These results are in accord with our previously re¬
ported results for Cl TiL (L = acetylaoetonate, 3-methyl-
acetylacetonate) and tribromo( 3-raethylacetylaoetonato)ti-
tanium(lV). The above complexes react with Lewis bases as
pyridine to yield six- coordinate adducts. Infrared and low
temperature nmr studies will be discussed in terms of pos¬
sible isomeric structures.

FURTHER STUDIES ON THE TAUTOKERISM OF 1 .k-DIARYLBUTAKE-
TRIONES AND RELATED COMPOUNDS. Bryan G. Wells'-' and
R. G. Bass, Department of Chemistry, Virginia Commonwealth
University, Richmond, Virginia 23220.

Previously it has been shown that a solvent dependent
equilibrium exists between the chelated enol form of l.H-
diphenyl-l,2,4-butanetrione, which predominates in CHCI3,
and its ring-chain tautomer, 2 , 5-diphenyl-2-hydroxy-3-
furanone, which predominates in DMSO, Both isomers may be
observed in 80* DCCl -20?DMS0-d, as solvent ana this
equilibriu.m has been^studied using nmr. The enol-furanone
ratio was not effected by concentration changes, but varied
in a linear fashion with variations in the ratio of DCCl
to D.MSO-dg, The enol-furanone ratio vras also found to vary
with para substituents on the benzene ring and in a lla'imett
study correlated well with a+. Preliminary kinetic aata
indicate that the vinyl protons of both tautomers are
exchanged with deuterium at apjjroximately equal rates in a
first-order or a pseudo first-order process.

The nmr spectrum of dibenzoyl (nethylamino ) ethylene

indicates that it exists as the keto-amine in solution. In
OO? DCCl3-20fI D;‘C0-dj- two forms are observed which ajjpear
to be the result of double bond isomerization. On deuter-
ation the vinyl piroton for each isomer disappears at about
the sane rate in a first-ordor or pseudo first-order
process, and the N-CH signal collapses from a doublet to
a singlet.

Proceedings, 1970-1971

115

SYNTHESIS OF THE BENZTHIENO-(2,3-g)PTERIDINE RING SYSTEM.
R. L. Williams, Department of Chemistry, Old Dominion
University, Norfolk, Virginia 23508 and Patricia J. Ward,
Radford College, Radford, Virginia

The synthesis and characterization of several examples
of a new, fused ring pteridine system will be described.
The general reaction involves the condensation of thiana-
pthenequinone (l) with various diamino and polyamino-
pyrimidines to give the basic benzthienopteridine ring
system (2). Evidence for covalent hydration will be
presented for the pteridine (2), R=R^=H.

HETEROCYCLIC STUDIES: BROMINATION OF ALKYL
SUBSTITUTED QUINOXALINES. R. L. Williams,

Glenn Jacobs and Stephen A. Cohen, Department of
Chemistry, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, Virginia
23508.

Very little has been reported in the literature regarding
the bromination of TT -deficient heterocycles particu¬
larly the alkyl substituted species. We have recently
examined the bromination of 2-ethyl-3-methylquinox-
aline (1). Bromination was carried out in various
solvents such as bromination products will be described
together with certain pertinent spectral data.

(Aided by Grant No - U.S. Army MA MD 49-193-
66-69215.)

(2)

Section of Engineering

Forty-ninth Annual Meeting of The Virginia Academy of Science
May 12-14, 1971, Blacksburg, Virginia

A NUMERICAL TECHNIQUE FOR OPTIMIZATION OF STRUCTURAL
RELIABILITY. H. P. Artis, and C. T. Herakovich. Engineer¬
ing Mechanics Dept. , VPI§SU, Blacksburg, Va. 24061

A numerical technique for optimization of safety factors
in two dimensional, pin- connected, determinate structures is
presented. A first derivative optimization search technique
is used in conjunction with a Monte Carlo analysis scheme
for the evaluation of the convolution integral to obtain
structural optimization with regard to safety factor. The
optimization range is defined by the minimum area to prevent
buckling and the maximum area acceptable to the designer.

The members of the structure are grouped according to area.
The user must specify the applied loads, their probability
distribution, the material yield stress and the geometry of
the structure. The algorithm then determines the loading
in each member and optimizes the structure. Solution sta¬
bility is then investigated and if the solution cannot be
shown to be stable, it is rejected.

Results are presented for several truss configurations
with up to 100 members. Each problem was solved for the
minimum area of each group , and then for the minimum number
of groups of different area.

The algorithm is available as a FORTRAN IV program com¬
patible with the IBM system/360.

THE EFFECT OF POLLUTION LOAD ON THE VARIABILITY OF THE OXY¬
GEN SAG CURVE IN A POLLUTED STREAM. J. D. Brammer* and
P. H. King. Dept, of Civil Engineering, Va. Polytechnic
Inst, and State Univ., Blacksburg, Virginia 24061

Many studies have been conducted in an attempt to form¬
ulate equations which can predict the effect of pollution
loading on a stream's waste assimilative capacity. Until
the recent development of a stochastic model by Thayer and
krutchkoff, all these studies were of a deterministic nature
and enabled prediction of only one definite biochemical oxy¬
gen demand or dissolved oxygen concentration at some time or
location in a particular stream. The stochastic model .gave
the probability distribution of BOD or DO concentration at
any particular location along a reach of the stream.

The stochastic model thus enabled the calculation of
mean BOD or DO values and inaddition enabled the analyst to
set confidence limits on these mean values. Bosley, Cubul-
ka, and Krutchkoff demonstrated that variability was related
to temperature and turbulance. The object of this study was
to determine the effect of substrate concentration on the
variability of BOD and DO values. By keeping temperature
and turbulence constant and by varying the substrate concen¬
tration, it was shown that variability increased with in¬
creasing BOD concentration. It was further shown that the
quantitative extent of variability, A, may be determined by
using a Poisson approximation in which a is taken to be the
variance of th_e oxygen deficit, divided by the mean oxy¬
gen deficit, )j. (Aided by EPA training grant WP-166)

116

The Virginia Journal of Science

NORFOLK AS AN URBAN HEAT ISLAND. K.P. Chopra and W.M.
Pritchard, Dept, of Physics, Old Dominion University,
Norfolk, Va. 23508.

The differential heating over urban and rural areas simu¬
lates effects similar to those caused by natural islands due
to differential heating over land and water masses. The ur¬
ban heat island effect results in weak elevated inversions
over cities and results from the physical differences be¬
tween cities and suburbs in four major respects: (1) shapes
of terrain or surfaces, (2) thermal properties of surfaces,
(3) sources or sinks of heat and moisture, and (4) quality
of air. The resulting thermal stratification inhibits ver¬
tical mixing across the inversion layer. The presence of
large water masses, as in coastal areas, produce diurnally
varying breezes with their accompanying ventilation effect
which is made complex by the presence of tall buildings.
These features determine whether the locally produced pol¬
lutants can be quickly removed from urban air. The urban
heat island effect in large cities is too complex to permit
identification of cause and effect. Tidewater area provides
a unique natural laboratory for urban heat island studies'
because here the industrial and urban activity areas are
quite separable from residential and rural areas. Some
micro- and macro-scale features of Norfolk as an urban heat
island including diurnal variation and influence of sea
breeze are described.

ADSORPTION OF PHENOL FROM AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS ONTO SOLIDS OF
VARYING SURFACE ENERGY. L. R. Dole* and J. P. Nightman,
Chem. Dept., Va. Poly. Inst, and State Univ., Blacksburg,
Va., 24061.

The uptake of phenol from aqueous solutions were measured
by gas-liquid chromatography on a graphitized carbon, pyro¬
genic silica, Teflon, nylon and two polyethylene powders.

The surface areas of the graphitized carbon and silica were
measured by nitrogen Brunauer-Einmett-Teller (BET) plots. In
the case of the polymer powders, the areas were obtained
using krypton. When the quantity of adsorbed phenol was
normalized to unit surface area, the order of decreasing
uptake was: nylon, polyethylene(Alathon) , polyethylene
(Microthene) , graphitized carbon. Teflon and pyrogenic
silica. Kinetic studies were attempted on the carbon, nylon
and polyethylene. The phenol/water system is partially
miscible and shows the classic S-shaped isotherm on the
graphitized carbon. However the polyethylenes show a
striking minimum at a relative concentration of five to
six-tenths saturation concentration. Both Teflon and the
silica isotherms appear to go through a maximum. The
nylon isotherm is linear over the range of relative con¬
centrations measured (0.01-0.3). Clearly, there are
several possible processes determining the uptake of phenol,
giving rise to at least three classes of isotherms.
(Supported by OWRR Project No. A-026-VA) .

DEVELOPMENT OF THE ALL ALUMINUM AUTOMOBILE ENGINE
BLOCK, Harold H. Macklin, Jr.t Reynolds Metals
Company'^ Product Develooment Div., Richmond, Va.
23261.

In December, 1958, Reynolds Metals Co. accepted
the automotive industry's challenge to develop an
all-aluminum engine block that would eliminate the
need for the expensive iron cylinder sleeves and
perform under all test conditions equal to or
better than the conventional cast iron engines.

After 12 years of research and development
involving more than 7000 hours of dynamometer,
wear and endurance testing, over 2000 cold start
tests, and nearly a million miles of road test,
the objective has been achieved. This development
reached fruitation on September 10, 1970, when
Chevrolet introduced the new Vega 2300 car powered
by the first all-aluminum engine utilizing the
Reynol ds' devel oped 390 alloy technology.

This paper describes Reynolds Metals Company's
research and development of a new alloy (390),
modified pistons, piston rings, a new cylinder
bore finishing process, and die casting and
machining technology.

DISCREPANCIES IN STANDARD METHODS FOR AIR POLLUTION
MEASUREMENT. Edwin Cox III, Partner, Edwin Cox Associates,
Richmond, Virginia 23223

The Clean Air Act, as amended in 1970, requires that on
a non-conf idential basis operations which are sources of
air pollution must register quantatitive data about their
emission. The present primary standards which have been
established, together with the anticipated 30 to 40
secondary standards yet to be published, require analytical
tools for source sampling which are not available. The
present techniques too often are simply attempts to take
laboratory equipment and convert it to field usage by
strengthening it. New techniques are required - laser
technology, light interference and like techniques offer
hope. Equipment must be reliable, have a long life
expectancy, and be capable of operation by technicians.

AUTOMATIC BRAKING SYSTEM FOR MINE TRACK CARS.

J. P. Kuhn*, D. R. Beavers*, R. E. Wade*, C. D. Riffe*,

D. R. Warner*, and C. E. Mercer*. Dept, of Engineering,
Southwest Va. Cmnty. Col., Richlands, Va. 24641

A major problem in the mining industry is the
design of an automatic braking system for underground
track cars. The system must be feasible when considering
such factors as limited space, strength, and reliability
of the device. To accomplish the desired results a
mechanism using hydraulics and mechanical linkages will
amplify a limited force producing a much greater locking
force on the vehicle's wheels.

The combined effects of high loads in the cars and
inclination of the mine tracks lead to the substantial
amounts of potential energy acquired by the car.

The braking device is automatically activated when
the car reaches a "runaway" condition and serves to
prevent large increases in the kinetic energy of the car.

THE ECONOMICS OF CHEMICAL TREATMENT OF TEXTILE WASTES.

D.L. Michelsen, T.B. Fansler, and J.R. Snead, Chemical Engi¬
neering Dept., Va. Polytechnic Inst. & State Univ., Blacks¬
burg, Va. 24061

Two economic studies have been made on the treatment of
textile wastes: (1) the removal of color by foam fraction¬
ation from a simulated concentrated dispersed dye waste, and
(2) the removal of color and COD from an integrated, un¬
treated actual textile effluent using precipitation with
alum and polyelectrolytes.

Foam fractionation with a 50 ppm cationic surfactant can
remove 80% of color and 45% of the COD from a dye bath
waste containing 400 ppm of COD and a light transmittance of
10% (750my). The chemical cost would be 21C/1000 gal.

Chemical precipitation with alum (40 ppm) , H SO, (440 ppm)
and purifloc C-32 (17.5 ppm) achieved 85% removal of COD,

75% removal of color and 90% removal of turbidity from a
mill waste containing 300 ppm of COD, and a light transmit¬
tance 46% (350my) and turbidity of 23 JTU. The chemical
costs were 16.8c/1000 gal; sulfuric acid costs represent
38% of this cost.

In both studies the cost of chemical treatment is some¬
what higher than biological treatment, but chemical treat¬
ment may be more effective on disperse dye and refraction
organic removal.

Proceedings, 1970-1971

117

TIE SCCIAL AND ECONOMIC IMPACT OF THE CLEAN AIR ACT.

John T. Middleton^ Deputy Asst. Admin, for Air Programs,
Environmental Protection Agency, 5600 Fishers Lane,

Rockville, Md. 20852

Tlie Clean Air Act amendments signed into law on Dec. 31,

1970, are a mandate to prevent and control air pollution to
the fullest extent possible with technology that is or can
be made available. They suggest that technology includes
much more than just add-on emission control devices for
smokestacks and tailpipes. The Act says, in effect, that
the Nation no longer will trim its clean air goals to match
the least common denominator of economic and technological
capability, but rather that progress in devising and apply¬
ing air pollution control techniques will have to be expe¬
dited to meet the goal of clean air in tliis decade. The Act
is intended to require serious consideration not only of
alternatives to the internal combustion engine but also of
alternative transportation systems. The Act is intended to
require States not only to examine the engineering design of
new industrial plants but also to inquire as to whether such
facilities will be located where they will do the least
possible damage to air quality. The Act assigns major
standard-setting and enforcement responsibilities to Federal
and State officials, but it gives citizens the right to
challenge the performance of those officials. These provi¬
sions of the Clean Air Act and others can, and almost cer¬
tainly will, result in significant progress toward clean air,
and they will have a profound economic and social impact.

BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT OF MUNITION WASTES. M. W. Nav* and

C. W. Randall*. Dept, of Civil Engineering, Virginia

Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ., Blacksburg, Va. 24061

A report on the progress made of an investigation of the
treatability of TNT manufacturing wastes with activated
sludge is given. TNT manufacturing began during WW I. Its
manufacturing method has remained virtually unchanged since
that time, until just recently when a new process was intro¬
duced in a full scale plant operation. Early treatability
investigations accomplished on wastes resulting from the old
batch manufacturing process, during WW II, were largely
negative in their findings, reporting that biological treat¬
ment was unsuccessful because of waste toxicity and physio-
chemical treatment marginally successful and prohibitively
expensive. The passage of a series of strong water pollu¬
tion control laws, culminating with the development of water
quality standards, and the creation of Federal agencies res¬
ponsible for the supervision of the environment; has pro¬
vided sufficient justification for the re-evaluation of this
project. The characteristics of the waste resulting from
the new manufacturing process, called the counter-current
continuous flow process, differ from the wastes of the
earlier batch manufacturing process, primarily by removing
the most toxic waste by-products. Additional supporting
work concerning controlled culture degradation of a series of
phenolic compounds, and work involving the identification of
micro-organisms within activated sludge has provided add-
tional encouragement for this project.

EDUCATIONAL NEEDS FOR THE MAINTENANCE OF ATMOSPHERIC QUALITY.
N.T. Stephens*. Dept, of Civil Engineering, Va. Polytechnic
Institute and State Univ. , Blacksburg, Virginia 24061

The attainment and maintenance of acceptable levels of
atmospheric quality in an increasingly complex technological
environment will require reorientation of educational pro¬
grams at all levels. Implications of these changing educa¬
tional needs for the elementary school level through graduate
school and adult continuing education programs are discussed.

For example, at the college level, changes in emphasis and
additional informational input within traditional college
engineering courses are examined in relation to the require¬
ments for emission prevention.

A DIGITAL SIMULATION AND INVESTIGATION OF COMPUT¬
ER JOB SCHEDULING, DISCIPLINES. *R. E. Taylor and

R. C. Heterick, System Development Department,
Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State U.

This paper discusses the application of the

General Purpose Simulation System (GPSS/360) to
the construction of a model for the investigation
of computer scheduling algorithms for the central
facility at the Virginia Tech Computing Center.

The paper discusses the general design philosophy
of the simulation model methodology of the in¬
vestigation. Several potential scheduling disci¬
plines were investigated to determine the most
desirable scheduling algorithm to employ for the
operation of the central facility. The ultimate
selection of a discipline based upon several cri¬
teria. Among these criteria are average turn
around time per job based upon priority class,
average utilization of the central processors,
average utilization of the peripheral devices,
overall average turn around time of a standard
job in the system. The study was based upon sim¬
ulation of several twenty-four hour periods of
operation of the system. The only variance was
the scheduling discipline as the job stream re¬
mained constant.

118

The Virginia Journal of Science

Section of Geology

Forty-ninth Annual Meeting of The Virginia Academy of Science
May 12-14, 1971, Blacksburg, Virginia

PETROLOGY OF THE HILLSDALE LIMESTONE, UPPER HISSISSIPPIAN ,

WEST VIRGINIA. D. W. Blancher, Jr.*, and Nicholas Lampiris.*
Dept, of Geology, Va. Polytechnic Inst., Blacksburg, Va.

24061

The Hillsdale Limestone accumulated in a quiet marine en¬
vironment that was occasionally turbulent. Quiet water de¬
posits are dominantly bryozoan biomicrites that contain
fenestellid bryzoans that have not been transported. Higher
energy beds are marked by the occurrence of echinoderm debris
(echinoderm biomicrite) and introclastic material (intra-
micrite) that were transported into this environment. These
low and high energy beds occur in a repetitive sequence.

Pyrite and abundant organic matter indicate that mild re¬
ducing conditions were present beneath the depositional in¬
terface. Directly overlying the Hillsdale are biosparite
beds of the lower Denmar Formation that contain oolites with
rounded and abraded fragments of echinoderms, brachiopods,
and dolomitic micrite intraclasts. This biosparite was
probably deposited under more persistent high energy condi¬
tions .

Authigenic dolomite, chert, and pyrite occur within the
calcitic Hillsdale Limestone. Dolomite appears as subhedral
to euhedral crystals that are disseminated throughout the
matrix, and it frequently occurs in stylolites. Chert is
secondary, since it cuts across bedding and fossils. Clay
minerals identified by X-ray techniques are predominantly
illite and chlorite with minor amounts of montmorillonite .

SYMMETRY AND CRYSTALS. F. D. Bloss*. Department of

Geological Sciences, Va. Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ.,
Blacksburg, Va. 24061.

The nature of symmetry in crystals will be illustrated
by slides that enable the student to comprehend the
subject quickly and retentively. The pedagogic advantage
of these illustrations relative to those from standard
textbooks stems chiefly from their use of everyday objects
to illustrate symmetry operations. As a result the
student is better able to recall a visual picture of the
illustration and thus of the symmetry concept it summarizes.

PERTURBATION OF A LOCAL MICROSEISMIC REGIME BY UNDERGROUND
COAL-MINING. G. A. Bollinger. Dept, of Geology, Va.

Polytechnic Inst. & State Univ., Blacksburg, Va, 24061

Microearthquake activity was monitored for a three month
period in the coal-mining region of Buchanan County,

Virginia. The first two recording weeks were prior to the
beginning of operation of an underground coal mine directly
beneath the seismograph. A comparison of the "before" and
"after" ambient levels of microearthquake occurrence indi¬
cated a sevenfold increase attendant with the development
of the mine. Furthermore, a total of over 15,000 micro¬
earthquakes were recorded during the monitoring period,
with the workday rate exceeding 30 events/hour. Rock
bursts, roof falls, rock and coal fracturing ahead of the
mine plow are believed to be the cause of the majority of
these microshocks.

THE NEW SEISMOGRAPH STATION AT MADISON COLLEGE. G. A.

Bollinger, Dept, of Geological Sciences, VPI & SU, Blacks¬
burg, Va. 24o6i, and F. H. Campbell, Dept, of Geology,

Madison Col., Harrisonburg, Va. 22601

The department of geology at Madison Col. recently acquir¬
ed a short period, vertical component seismograph system.

The installation includes (l) a single component, rectilinear
writing, visual drum recorder; (2) a control console which
houses recorder and calibration circuitry and a crystal
controlled digital chronometer; and (3) a 1.0 Hz short period
vertical component seismometer. A four band short wave radio
receiver provides the National Bureau of Standards time code

WWV for synchronization with the system chronometer.

The Madison Col. campus is underlain by limestones,
dolomites and shales of Ordovician age. These rocks form a
part of the southeast flank of the Harrisonburg syncline.

The seismometer pit is anchored to bedrock shale of the Edin¬
burg formation.

The installation is ideally located with respect to his¬
torical seismicity of the region. Because of the accuracy of
the digital chronometer, we are well equipped to monitor
earthquake activity on a global scale as well as the low
level activity characteristic of Appalachian seismicity.

The station will be registered with the Seismology Div. of
the National Oceanic Survey in Washington D.C. and thereby
become part of the cooperative network that exists in this
country. We expect the Madison Col. seismograph station to
make worthwhile contributions to regional seismic studies.

Proceedings, 1970-1971

119

CARBONATE PETROLOGY OF SILICIFIED KNOX GROUP DOLOMITES,
CHRISTIANSBURG FENSTER , SOUTHWESTERN VIRGINIA.

Paul L. Broughton." Department of Geological Sciences,

Va. Poly. Inst, and St. Univ., Blacksburg, Virginia 24061

The carbonates of the Knox Group on the overturned
northwest limb of the Christiansburg anticlinorium,
southwestern Virginia, belong to the parautochthonous

Saltville block, and were deposited in shallow marine
waters of the Appalachian miogeosyncline in Cambro-
Ordovician time. Two periods of silicif ication interrupted
the dolomitization process. Introduced silica promoted
authigenic overgrowths on detrital quartz grains, enveloping
previously formed dolomite rhombs. Silicif ication ceased
and dolomitization was resumed. Then silicif ication was
renewed with replacement of calcium carbonate by chert and
microcrystalline silica. Dolomitization later went to
completion. Overall, the silica content in the Knox
increases from the base upward. In this area dolomitization
practically ceased after the deposition of the Knox. The
anticlinorium became a prominent reef in Middle Ordovician
time .

THE CHESAPEAKE BAY - EARLY SCIENTIFIC ACTIVITY

ALONG ITS SHORES. R.L. Buchan. Lihrarv Director
and J.L. Willis, Dept, of Biology, Eastern Shore
Branch Univ. of Va., Wallops Island, Va. 23337

A brief sketch of the pre Civil War history
of science of the Chesapeake Bay region Is
chronologically presented. The main approach is
through brief sketches of specific contributors
to science. Many men Included were not principal¬
ly scientists. Subjects covered include natural
history, medicine, agriculture, mechanical arts,
botany, oceanography and geology. Well known
figures such as Thomas Jefferson as well as
lesser known figures such as John Banister
are treated.

VEIN alteration IN TRIASSIC DIABkSE IN NORTHERN VIRGINIA.

H. M. Davies-!!-. Dept, of Geology, Col. of V.'illiam and Mary,
Williamsburg, Va. 23185

Prehnite filled veins are typical of the highly jointed
diabase of the Triassic basin in northern Virginia. Other
vein minerals include scapolite, apophyiite, and zeolites.

One particular sample from Virginia Trap Rock Ouarry in

Leesburg contains the vein minerals prehnite, calcite, and
quartz. Nearest the vein, fibrous tremolite is the domin¬
ant alteration mineral. Outside this zone, chlorite and
amphibole form pseudomorphs of pyroxene, particularly of
exsolved pigeonite which has inverted to hypersthene.

Primary augite remains unaltered. The intensity of the
argiilic alteration of piagioclase increases to a maximum
near the vein. Piagioclase is a minor constituent in the
fibrous tremolite zone and is absent nearest the contact of
the quartz-prehnite vein.

The introduction of several secondary hydrous minerals
suggests that the solutions which caused the alteration
were hydrothermal. Carbon dioxide and water, leached from
the surrounding sediments, could have provided the major
constituents of the hydrothermal solutions. (Aided by

NSF grant GY-7388)

HEAT PRODUCTION FROM URANIUM, THORIUM AND POTASSIUM IN ROCKS

FROM VIRGINIA AND NORTH CAROLINA, Susie Epps* and John K.
Costain*, Dept, of Geological Sciences, Va. Polytechnic

Inst., Blacksburg, Va. 24061

A new laboratory has been developed to determine the
amount of heat production in rocks due to uranium, thorium
and potassium. Most of the heat leaving the earth can be
attributed to the radioactive decay of the isotopes U^^®,

U , Th and K which are concentrated in the upper few

tens of kilometers of the earth’s crust. Attempts are being
made to correlate observed variations in terrestrial heat
flow and heat production in the southeastern part of the

United States with regional geology.

Heat production in rocks is being determined using gamma-
ray spectroscopy. Two Harshaw 3X3" scintillation detectors
enclosed in a lead shield detect gamma-ray emission from
rock samples. Spectra are compared with standard spectra of
known amounts of uranium, thorium and potassium.

Preliminary results in Virginia and North ^Carolina give
heat production values of 5.2 X 10 cal/cm^-sec for the

Striped Rock granite near Independence, Va. , and 4.2 X 10
cal/cm^-sec for the Mt. Airy granite in Mt. Airy, N. C.

In the northeastern part of the United States other workers
have established an empirical linear relationship between
heat flow, Q, and heat production, A, which is described by
the equation Q = 0.85 + 0.0625 A. Using this linear relation¬
ship, measurements of heat production made thus far predict
heat flow values which are in close agreement with those we
have determined in the sou*‘hem Appalachians.

ATMOSPHERIC CARBON DIOXIDE — A BUFFERED SYSTEM.

Keith Frye, Dept, of Geophysical Sciences, Old
Dominion Univ., Norfolk, Va. 23508.

Climatic change due to an accumulation of in¬
dustrially produced CO2 has been postulated as en¬
vironmental threat. Review of the geochemical
cycle of carbon indicates that the system was in a
steady state prior to the industrial revolution,
and that atmospheric CO2 is transient. The CO2
increase in the atmosphere from an estimated pre¬
industrial value of 290 ppm to the current 324 ppm
accounts for only about one third of that produced
by the combustion of fossil fuels. Extrapolations
into the 21st Century are based on a continued ex¬
ponential fuel combustion rate and on one-third
retention in the atmosphere. This second assump¬
tion is unwarranted. Rates of removal of CO2 from
the atmosphere are functions of the amount of CO2
there, and any increase in the partial pressure
of atmospheric CO2 leads to its faster removal
from the atmosphere. Continued industrial combus¬
tion of fossil fuels may be expected to raise the

CO2 content of the atmosphere above current levels
but the rate should be expected to decrease.

THE STRUCTUitE OF THE NORTHERN HALF OF THE RICHHOND BASIN.

B. K. Goodwin, Dept, of Geology, Col. of William and Mary,
Williamsburg, Va. 23185

North of 37°30' north latitude, Triassic sedimentary
rocks along the easuern edge of the Richmond Basin are non-
conformable upon the Petersburg granite. This contact is
offset locally along normal faults. Pronounced normal
faults mark the western boundary of the basin where sedimen¬
tary rocKs are in fault contact with graniue, gi-anite
gneiss, and metavoicanic rocks.

Much of the major border fault is flanked by a 1000 foot
wide zone of coarse boulder conglomei-ate in which angular
boulders of metamorphic rocKs attain diameters in excess of
four feet and occur in a fine-grained matrix. Local offsets
of this major fault occur along normal faults trending east-
northeast and west-northwest.

Although beds across the basin are dominantly westward
dipping, a structure section along the James River shows an
anomalous, apparently synclinal structure. This is con¬
sidered to be due to the post depositional uplift of a large
fault-bounded block of Petersburg granite wiiich caused a
major offset of the oasin's western boundary and deformation
of the sedimentary beds. The pronounced fault exposed in
the Boscobei quarry on the north bank of the James River is
not flanked by boulder conglomerate and is considered to
mark the eastern margin of the upthrown block of Petersburg
granite rather than being the major western border fault.

120

The Virginia Journal of Science

A CONTROLLED COMPARISON OF TtlE EFFECTS OF ESCP AND

TRADITIONAL EARTH SCIENCE ON STUDENT ACiaEVIMENT. Elrioa S.
Graham*. Pulaski HlKh Sch. , Pulaski, Va. 24301

This study was designed to determine if significant dif¬
ferences in achievement occur between students enrolled in
the Earth Science Curriculum Project (ESCP) course and
students enrolled in a traditional earth science course,
when all the continuous predictor variables are controlled.

Subjects of the study were 116 ninth-grade students at

Pulaski High Sch. , divided into two groups, and all taught
by the investigator during the school year 1969-70.

Null hypotheses were formulated that at the .05 level of
significance there is no difference between students en¬
rolled in the ESCP course and a traditional earth science
course, after adjusting with covariates, in: (1) the ability
to use scientific knowledge to solve problems, as measured by
post-test scores on the STEP Science Test; (2) basic know¬
ledge of the facts of physical and natural sciences, as meas¬
ured by post- test scores on TOSS I; (3) basic knowledge of
principles, methods, and procedures of science, as measured
ly post-test scores on TOSK II; (4) scores on TOSK Total;and
(5) course grade point average. Least squares covariance
analysis with multiple covariates was performed on the data.

Findings were that ESCP students showed significant gains,
at the .025 level, in basic knowledge of principles, methods,
and procedures of science, as measured ly TOSK II. No
significant differences occurred with respect to the other
criteria variables.

COMPUTER DESCRIPTION OF TOPOGRAPHY. G. C. Grender. Dept,
of Geological Sciences, Va. Polytechnic Inst. & State Univ.,
Blacksburg, Va. 24061.

Topographic surfaces can be classified into seven basic
forms: knobs, ridges, valleys, sinks, saddles, complex
saddles, and slopes. Each of these can be further sub¬
divided according to steepness and symmetry. Terrain can
be considered as a set of points (each a part of one or
more forms) rather than as a collection of landforms. The
aggregate of points and their properties characterizes the
topography. Scale is a fundamental factor in assigning
points to forms; smaller areas about the point do not
necessarily have the same shape as larger areas. The
computer can be made to function as a "window" through
which terrain can be viewed at various scales. The
resulting arrays constitute an objective basis for terrain
description.

TURBIDITY IiaXIMA IK TRIBUTARIES OF THE RAPPAHAKKOCK RIVER,
VIRGINIA, G. G. Gunia*, Dept, of Geology, Col. of IVilliam
and Mary, Williamsburg, Va. 23185

Two tributary creeKs of the Rappahannock River, studied
during the summer of 1970 and spring of 1971, were found to
exhibit turbidity maxima similar to that found in the main
estuary. Above the mouth of each stream, suspended sediment
concentrations increased to a maximum, then decreased. The
maxima were usually accompanied by Secchi discminima and
salinities less than one part per thousand. Phase of the
tide and surface runoff influenced the positions of the
maxima. Higher current velocities increased the intensities
of the maxima, indicating that resuspension of bottom
sediments contributed to the maxima. The phenomenon is
most obvious in early summer. During the spring, high
sediment concentrations in the main estuary obscure the
maxima in the creeks, and as the summer progresses,
decreased runoff maKes the maxima less distinct. A net
current movement upstream along the oottom and downstream
on the surface in Piscataway Creek may be the mechanism
which produces the turbidity maximum.

SILICEOUS ERRATICS FROM THE LEADING EDGE OF THE CATAWBA-
PULASKI FAULT, NORTHEAST OF BLACKSBURG, VIRGINIA. Stephen T.
Hall*, and Michael E. Conefry*. Dept, of Geology, Va. Poly¬
technic Inst. £ State Univ., Blacksburg, Va. 24061.

Several types of "erratic" cherts, siliceous oolites, and
breccias were collected from the leading edge of the Catawba-
Pulaski fault and grouped into four categories according to
their composition, texture, or mode of formation. The
stratigraphy of the Elbrook, Copper Ridge, Chepultepec, and
Longview formations of the hanging wall was studied to deter¬
mine if there was any significant correlation between sili¬
ceous rocks of these units and the "erratics". From studies
of hand specimens, thin sections, and topography, the most
probable origins of the "erratics" were determined to be:

1. cavernous chert - locally derived from the Elbrook, 2.
fractured cherts - tectonically transported from the Copper

Ridge by Pulaski thrusting, 3. breccia - Pulaski fault
breccia containing chert and fine-grained sandstones of pre¬
sently indistinguishable origin, and 4. siliceous oolites,
uncertain derivation.

The Catawba-Pulaski fault is a reverse, bedding-plane
fault having the same dip as the Mississippian strata of the
footwall, about 35°. The dip of the fault and the proposed
tectonic transport of many of the "erratics" due to thrusting
support the theory that the Catawba-Pulaski fault is essenti¬
ally the Pulaski thrust.

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS OF THE BOWENS CREEK FAULT

IN BASSETT QUADRANGLE, VIRGINIA. William S. Henika,
Virginia Division of Mineral Resources, Charlottesville

The Bowens Creek fault, located along the Martic line
in the southwestern Piedmont of Virginia, has been traced
for fifteen miles from Philpott Reservoir across the Bassett
quadrangle by detailed geologic mapping at 1:24, 000 scale.

The fault has a linear N. 50 E. trend and is the contact be¬
tween high rank, polymetamorphosed rocks correlated with
inner Piedmont Belt of the Carolinas and low rank metasedi¬
mentary rocks of the Lynchburg Formation.

Attitudes of foliation measured within a 2000 feet wide
phyllonite zone that occurs along the fault have a steep dip
towards the southeast. Axes of minor folds, boudins, cren-
ulations, quartz rods and cleavage intersections indicate
the 'B‘ tectonic axis is oriented nearly horizontal and is par¬
allel to the fault trace. Mineral lineations, striations,
stretched pebbles and streaks indicate the direction of
tectonic transport was oriented at nearly right angles to the
fault trace.

The orientation of the tectonic axes combined with the
metamorphic and stratigraphic discontinuity along the fault
trace indicate the polymetamo rphic rocks were thrust from
the southeast over the lower rank Lynchburg Formation.

MNERALOGIC VARIABILITY IN THE DIABASE OF NOrTHERIM VIRGINIA.

J. M. Keahey*, Dept, of Geology, Col. of William and Mary,
Williamsburg, Va. 23185

Mineralogic variation in the modal composition of diabases
in the northern area of the Virginia Triassic Basin has been
revealed through the statistical treatment of modal analyses
of fifty-one samples. Analysis of variance between and
within nine quarries and the Tukey method of comparison of
quarry means indicate that differences in modal compositions
are significant rather than being deviations from a single
mean. The perceni-ages of pyroxene increases outward from
the center of the area investigated and plagioclase
feldspar varies inversely.

The TuKey method of comparison indicates that diabase
within the same map unit may be similar with respect to the
content of opaque minerals but may differ significantly in
plagioclase and pyroxene content. The diabase in the three
most southern quarries differs in biotite and micropegmatite
content from the more northern quarries.

These factors suggest that the mineralogic variability
in the diabase may be the result of the differentiation
through time of a basic parental magma. (Aided by NSF

Grant GY-7388)

Proceedings, 1970-1971

121

CRANDALLITE FROM FREDERICK COUNTY, VIRGINIA.

S. M. Knowlton* and R. S. Mitchell, Dept, of
Environmental Sciences, Univ. of Va. Charlottes¬
ville, Va. 22903.

Crahdallite, CaAl3H (OH) g (P0,j) 2 » as white chalky
crusts and small white to brownish chalky spherul-
ites (to 4 Iran diameter) , occurs on joint planes of
Oriskany sandstone (Devonian) in a zone in the
Virginia Glass Sand Corporation quarry, about 1
mile south-southwest of Gore, Frederick County,
Virginia. The mineral was studied by X-ray dif¬
fraction analyses, spectrochemical analyses, and
optical means . Spectrochemical data indicate the
mineral is a strontian variety with from 1 to 3.5%
SrO. The mineral is optically positive with e =

1.61g and o = 1.61g. Optical studies also show
that fibers in the spherulites are elongated at
right angles to [0001]. A small number of spher¬
ulites of white to yellowish-green vitreous wavell-
ite occurs with the crandallite.

THE EFFECTS OF A BASIC IHTkUSIOH ON THE ALKALI FELDSPAhS IN

THE PETEHS3URG GriAKIl'E NEAR UIILvIDOIE , VIuGINTA. J. A.

Kohler*, Dent, of Geology, Col, of William and iiarv,
Ivilliamsourg, Va. 23185

The PetersDurg granite exposed in the Vulcan Laterials

Co. quarry near Uinwiddie, Virginia is fine grained and
contains the essential minerals quartz, plagioclase,
potassium feldspar and biotite. It is intruded by a
diabase dike, about three feet thick that is parallel to a
prominent joint set. The color of the granite has ueen
affected by the intrusion. From the dike outward the
granite is first greenish gray, then bright pinK ana then
typical light tan.

Potassium feldspars were separated by heavy liquids from
each of fourteen samples that ranged in distance from one
inch to forty feet from the dike. K-ray diffraction data
indicates that the potassium feldspar from each sample is
identical; a microcline microperthite. The criclinicity is
nearly 100, rndicating near maximum itiicrocline .

The uniformity of thermal state suggests that either the
dike was not hot enough to affect the feldspars; the
cooling was slow enough to permit the feldspars to regain
their former thermal state; or the diKe is older than

Triassic and subsequent regional metamorphism has erased
the effects of intrusion.

clay MINKRAJ-OGY ok some ORDOVICIAN MISSOURI AND VIRGINIA
K-BENTONITES , R.W, Loiinshiiry*, Dept, of Geoloey, Memphis
StHte Univ,, Memphis, Tenn,3Slll, nnO W.N, Me Ihorn* , Dept,
of Geosciences, FurOue Univ,, Lafayette, Ind. 47905.

Samples of altered volcanic ash, K-hentonite, were
collected from Ordovician units in eastern Mi.ssouri and
central and northern Virginia. Some A ,F . I .Ref erence Clay
localities in Virginia also were examined and the clays
analyred, k— bentonites from Missouri are S— 10 in, thick,
occur a.s greenish-yellow, plastic layers in carbonate
rocks, and weather white. X-Ray and DTA indicate the

Missouri clay is composed of mixed-layer 8mectite(mont-
mo ri 1 loni te)-i 1 1 i te. Glycolation expands the smectite
from 12#6 X to 17 X. Heating collapses the structure to

10 X,

Sampled Virginia metabentonites or K— bentonites have
less expansive clay and some do not appear to contain
smectite. Gray, green, or pink K-bentonites as much as

1 ft. thick vary in thickness and induration in outcrops.

This contrasts with 4 ft. thick, less indurated accumula¬
tions in Alabama and central Tennessee. These differences
may relate to a greater intensity of deformation of the
Virginia occurrences. K— bentonite near Stephenson, Va.
averages 1 ft. thick, has more smectite than the meta-
bentonites, but leas smectite than Missouri localities.
Samples from a nearby W, Virginia locality have clay min¬
eralogy similar to the Stephenson occurrence. Clay samp¬
led at Harrisonburg, Va. is illite with secondary gypsum.

THE MEANING OF APPALACHIAN CONGLOMERATES. W. D. Lowry. Dept,
of Geol. Sciences, Va. Polytechnic Inst. 6 State Univ.,
Blacksburg, Va. 24061.

Re-evaluation of Appalachian extraformational conglomerates
is long overdue and must be made if tectonic history is to be
interpreted correctly. The Unicoi clasts in the basal Ridge-
ley Sandstone at Fagg, Virginia were derived from the Blue

Ridge anticlinorium in Devonian time when the Unicoi had al¬
ready been downfolded 10,000 - 15,000 feet in the trough of
the Catawba syncline. Unicoi clasts in the conglomerates in-
terbedded with the Liberty Hall shale at Fincastle indicates
about 3500 feet less structural relief in Middle Ordovician
time. The Rockflsh Conglomerate at the base of the Protero¬
zoic Lynchburg may be nothing more than a Fincastle-type de¬
posit unless it can be demonstrated that the clasts were de¬
rived from a previously metamorphosed Lovlngston Formation.
Quartz pebbles must be interpreted with extreme caution as
they are subject to recycling. They are known to occur in
the Ashe, Mt. Rogers, Unicoi, Bays-Mocassln , Tuscarora,

Ridgeley, Cloyd, Lee and higher stratigraphic units. Quartz
pebbles in the Unicoi may have been derived from quartz veins
in the Little River - Lovlngston Gneiss, from those in the
Lynchburg - Carolina Gneiss, or from pebbles in the Ashe, or
from older Precambrian terranes. Lower Paleozoic carbonate
clasts in the Triassic Potomac basin indicate the Blue Ridge
had already been breached there but their absence in basins
farther south Implies the James and Roanoke rivers were yet
to do so.

THE OCCURRENCE OF OPALINE OUTGROWTHS ON THE LEE
FORMATION OF WISE COUNTY, VIRGINIA. William P.
Porter*. Dept, of Environmental Sciences, Univ.
of Va. Charlottesville, Va. 22903.

Grayish multiform opaline outgrowths were
observed on the middle and upper sandstone mem¬
bers of the Lee formation (Pennsylvanian) in Wise
County, Virginia. The range of forms includes:
glazes, botryoidal coatings, stalactites, stalag¬
mites, and arborescent forms. The growths are
porous in some cases, but very hard and compact
in others. X-ray diffraction analysis initially
produced amorphous structure patterns; after
heating the material at 1000° C for 24 hours, how¬
ever, good alphacristobalite patterns resulted,
proving the opaline nature of the material. The
largest forms are stalactitic and arborescent and
range up to 10 mm long. At one locality an entire
cliff face is glazed with the material.

Petrographic analysis showed a concentric
growth structure similar to that observed in cal-
cite dripstone stalactites. Thin-section studies
of fresh parent sandstone indicated the presence
of small grains of amorphous material, possibly
the source of the opaline silica.

BASEMEMT CONFIGURATION IN GLOUCESTER AND MATHEWS COUNTIES,
VIRGINIA, FROM GRAVITY AND MAGNETIC DATA. M. A. Sabet, G. L.
Shaffer*. C. R. Smith*, and T. A. Woodruff*. Department of
Geophysical Sciences, Old Dominion Univ., Norfolk, Va. 23508

A total magnetic intensity map was made for the area be¬
tween the latitudes and 37°37 N., and the longitudes

76°16 and 76°i|5 W. The map shows two major closed anomalies:
a magnetic high occupying the western half of the map, and
an adjacent magnetic low running almost parallel. Closures
of the high and the low are 500- and 200- gammas, respective¬
ly. The crest is located about 2 miles northeast of the town
of Gloucester, and the trough I4. miles west of Gwyrm Island.

Both anomalies change their trend from NE-SW in the southern
half of the map to NW-SE in the northern half. This is inter¬
preted to be caused by the presence of two distinct magnetic
sources trending NE-SW and NW-SE. A Bouguer gravity map of
the southern two thirds of the same area was made. It dis¬
plays the same features observed in the magnetic map, and
strongly confims the presence of two distinct anomalous
trends which intersect in the area. Both gravity and magnetic
maps suggest the presence of NW-SE trending faults.

Quantitative interpretation of the Bouguer map was made
along a N 80°E trending profile through the well drilled by
EHdns Oil & Gas Company. The interpretation shows that the
basement forms a nearly symmetrical, steep-sided ridge. The
depth to the basement changes from about 3OOO feet near
Chesapeake Bay to about 700 feet south of the town of

Gloucester.

122

The Virginia Journal of Science

IMPLICATIONS OF DOLOMITE FRAGMENTS IN THE GOSSAN LEAD, CAR¬
ROL COUNTY, VIRGINIA. Charles E. Sears, Dept, of Geology,

Va. Polytechnic Inst., Blacksburg, Va. 24061

Watson in his Mineral Resources of Virginia mentions that
the Gossan Lead veins have fragments of varying character
cemented by sulphides, principally pyrrhotite, and that
these rocks are not seen in the country rock nearby.

The Gossan Lead Fault is an en echelon system in the

Fries thrust block which consists of gneisses and schist of
the Lynchburg Formation of Precambrian age. In the vicinity
of the Great Outburst in southwestern Carrol County, Shady-
like dolomite fragments have been observed along with rather
massive mineralized dolomite containing pyrrhotite and re¬
lated sulphides. If the dolomite is Shady, it raises sev¬
eral interesting questions as to time of faulting and min¬
eralization, and suggests that Paleozoic sediments must have
a considerable eastern extension, at least 10 miles beneath
the Blue Ridge Thrust, as the nearest Shady Dolomite occurs
along the Blue Ridge Thrust Fault near Ivanhoe, Virginia to
the northwest. The time of faulting and mineralization
would have to be at least post-Shady and very likely Late
Paleozoic .

X-ray diffraction, thin and polished sections, and X-ray
fluorescence analysis show no distinguishable difference
between the dolomite fragments in the Gossan Lead and the

Shady Dolomite in the Austinville-Ivanhoe area along New

River.

TIDAL EFFECTS IN THE PHREATIC ZONE. S. C. Shine*,
and W. J. Hanna.* Dept, of Geophysical Sciences,

Old Dominion Univ. 23508

Measurements were made of water levels in shal¬
low wells near the Virginia Beach solid waste dis¬
posal area and the head waters of Thalia Creek, a
tidal stream. Surface water levels were obtained
from Thalia Creek at a point nearest the waste
disposal area and the wells. Data were taken at
one hour intervals during a 12 hour period for each
day of observation. Measurements were made on
three days over a seven week period.

Water level data from wells and the creek were
correlated and plotted by the least square method
using the 4th degree polynomial to show tidal var¬
iations. Water level in the shallow wells can be
related to tide level in the nearby stream. The
amplitude variations in water levels due to the ho¬
rizontal distance between the wells and the creek
were calculated. Time lag in the tidal cycles was
also calculated.

TiJCrURAL VAfilATIONS WITHIN THE PS'l'ERSBURG GRANITE IN

HICHl'iOND, VIRGIi'<IA. M. G. Siinoson*. Deot. of GeoloCT.

Col. of William & Mary, Williamsburg, Va. 23185

Within the Richmond area, the Petersburg Granite is
characterized by three textural facies: fine-grained
non-porphyritic, medium-grained non-porphyritic, and por-
phyritic. Field observations show the fine-grained facies
to be the only one in contact with the country rock, a
homblende-biotite gneiss. The contact between the fine¬
grained and the medium grained facies is always sharp.

The porphyritic facies grades into the medium-grained
facies and cuts both the fine-grained and the medium-grained
facies as dikes. These observations indicate that the
order of intrusion was 1) the fine-grained facies, 2) the
medium-grained facies, and 3) the porphyritic facies.

Modal analysis and statistical tests show that the three
facies have basically the same mineralogic compositions,
but that there are a few statistical differences in the
percentages of potassium feldspar, mafic minerals, and
muscovite. In general, the compositions support the
field observations that the fine-grained facies was the
first to form from the melt wiiich produced these three
facies. Relatively higher percentages of muscovite,
biotite, and myrmakite also suggest that the fine-grained
facies crystallized from the most hydrous melt.

RADIOACTIVITY OF WHALE VERTEBRA FOSSILS FOUND IN CHESAPEAKE

BAY AREA. J. J. Sineh. E. Rind* and S. L. Seaton* NASA-
Langley Research Center, Hampton, Va. 23365

Gamma activities of whale vertebra fossils found in the
lower Chesapeake Bay area have been studied using a calib¬
rated Ge(Li) counter and a multichannel pulse height
analyzer. On the basis of the spectral analysis of the
observed gamma spectra, it is concluded that mainly
and, to a lesser extent, Th^^^, contents of the fossils
are the causes of their radioactivity. The measured
levels of activity of some of the fossils are high enough
to require caution against inhalation of fossil dust while
cutting or polishing fossils in enclosed spaces. The
ages of the fossils, as determined by the and

Pb208/Th232 ratios, are of the order of 15 million years.

The lead-uranium and lead-thorium isotopic ratios used in
the age calculations are based on the assumption that all
lead is radiogenic and that no gaseous intermediate
radioactive nuclei have been lost from the fossils.

mOLLUSCAN PALbOECOLOGY OF LAIE PLEISTOCENE SEDIMENTS FROM

THE CONTINENTAL SHELF OFF FALSE CAPE, VIRGINIA. C. L.

Stein*. M. G. Simpson*, and G. H. Johnson. Col. of William
and Mary, Williamsburg, Virginia 23185.

A preliminary study was made of five cores taken from
the continental shelf off False Cape, Virginia by the

School of Oceanography, Old Dominion University. These
cores, which range in length from three to ten meters,
were taken at distances of 2.5 to 1A.5 Kilometers offshore
and at depths between 10 and 20 meters. The cores con¬
tained a basal fine- to medium- grained sand, a middle
greenish gray mud, and an upper fine- to medium-grained
sand. Based upon radiometric dates, the upper sand is

Holocene and the lower units are Vjisconsinan in age .

Ninety-five species of gastropods and pelecypods vjere
identified from the cores, but only a few of the species
are restricted to specific lithologic units. The species
diversity is lower in the muds than in adjacent sands.

The pelecypod fauna is dominated by shallow-water, burrowing
species. The variation in faunal composition indicates
that the fauna changed in response to variations in
substrate conditions, temperature, and salinity during
the fall of sea level in mid-Wisconsin time and later
during the rise of sea level in Holocene time.

A PRELIMINARI STUDY OF BRYOZOA OF THE LINCOLNSHIRE LIMESTONE

IN ROCKINGHAM 00., VA. . D. R. Suter«, Dept, of Geology,

Madison Col., Harrisonburg, Va. 22801

A preliminary study of Bryozoans has been oonduoted in an
attempt to establish a relationship of rock units from
various outcrops mapped as Lincolnshire in Rockingham Co.,

Va. by William Brent, I960. By comparing specimens from six
different collection areas, a definite relationship can be
seen that suggests a correlation of the rock units. Only
one location shows a nearly complete stratigraphic sequence.

The Lincolnshire is Lower Middle Ordovician and lies between
the New Market and the Edinburg limestones (Cooper & Cooper,
1946) . It is gray to black, quite fossiliferous, with zones
containing oblate black chert nodules which roughly parallel
bedding planes. Calcified and silicified bryozoans are
quite common in the Lincolnshire as well as fragments of
brachiopods, gastropods, cephalopods, trilobites, and
echinoderms. Study of the bryozoans was done by thin
section and hydrochloric acid dissolving of the silicified
specimens from the matrix. The following types of bryozoans
have been collected in this study. Trepostomes include
Monticulinoroids: Dekavia - Milne Edwards and Haime. 1851:
Nichelsonella - Ulrich. 1889; Hallopora - Bassler, 1911;
Hemiohraema - Ulrich. 1893; and Lamottopora - Ross, 1963.
Crvptostomes Include Ulrichostvlus (a Heloooroid) Bassler.

1952; Rhomboporoids; Stiotoporoids; and Pachydictyoids.

Proceedings, 1970-1971

123

acid DlFr'iiiffiDTlA'x'ES IN i'aIaSSIC D±A3ASE, BULL HUN yUAiOil,

LCUDOI. COUi'iTY, VluGINIA. C. E. aWner*. Dept, of Geology,

Col. of iVilliam and I'lary, Ivilliamsburg, Va. 23185

Of nine diabase quarries in the Northern Virginia

Triassic basin, only two expose abundant acidic differenti¬
ates. These occur in irregular masses and veins in both
the Arlington Stone ^;uarry and the Bull iiun ..juarry.

Samples of the differentiate from the Bull Hun Ouarry
differ from those of the Arlington Stone yuarry described
by Shannon; their lesser volume, finer grain size, and
lower quartz concent, as indicated by a lower abundance of
micropegmatite, suggest that the diabase in the Bull Hun
yuarry is not as well differentiated as it is in the

Arrington Stone yuarry.

The primary minerals of the unaltered differentiate
are: pyroxene, plagiocrase , rutilated quartz, skeletal
magnetite, and sphene. The differentiate has oeen ex¬
tensively altered by hydrothermal solutions that introduced
clear secondary quartz, amphibole, chlorite, prehnite,
calcite, and argrllic material. (Aided by NSF Grant

GY-7388)

CAUl DEUiLOPiyiENT DURING A CATASTROOHIC FLOOD IN

THE GREAT VALLEY OF VIRGINIA. Richard C. Vier-
buchen, 3r.* and Donald 0. Doehrinqr Washinoton
and Lee Uniu., Lexington, Va.and State Univ. of

N.Y, at Binghamton, Binghamton, N.Y.

Cave Springs cave, located in the New fflarket
and Lincolnshire formations about one mile north-
mest of Lexington, Virginia, contains a stream
which enters and exits through localized frac¬
tures. Normally stream depth is less than 4 feet
and the bedload is mud and gravel sized chert.

During the night of August 19-20, 1969 a high
yield, high intensity rainstorm associated with
hurricane Camille produced catastrophic flooding
of the region. Patina removal in the cave reveals
that water depth exceeded 10 feet, ffluch of the
freshly exposed rook is chipped, fluted and ex¬
hibits sharp, angular corners which elsewhere are
missing. The bedload of the stream now contains
increased amounts of limestone and to date dis¬
charge has remained above normal.

Lie hypothesize that recurring cataclysmic
storms are an important factor in cave develop¬
ment. Abrasion, cavitation and evorsion played
an important role at Cave Springs. Corrasion has
promoted corrosion by exposing fresh rock, in¬
creasing surface area and allowing more water to
enter the cave.

ENGINEERING GEOLOGY OF THE SECOND HAMPTON ROADS
TUNNEL. W. H. Voqelsanq and A. C. Munyan and J.S.
Thornton, Jr., Froehling and Robertson, Inc. Rich¬
mond and Old Dominion University, Norfolk, Va.

23508

Construction of the second bridge-tunnel cross¬
ing of Hampton Roads, from Norfolk to Hampton,
Virginia, involves some new techniques and instru¬
mentation to establish, monitor and stabilize the
westward extention of the south island now used
for the first bridge-tunnel .

None-indurated strata below the bay bottom of
the area of the south island poses substantial
problems of both safety for the first tunnel and
for adequate compaction of these strata in the
area of the south island extention.

STUDY OF THE HARRISONBURG, VA. WATERSHED AT RIVEN

ROCK. T. H. Weese*. Dept, of Geology, Madison
College, Harrisonburg, Virginia 22B01

Obtaining potable water has become a major con¬
cern for many communities in the past decade and
Harrisonburg, Va. is no exception. This study was

conducted from September, 1970, to May, 1971. The
Harrisonburg watershed at Riven Rock is located on
the eastern slope of the Shenandoah Mountains.

The amount of stream discharge was measured by use
of a Gurley Pygmy Water Meter. The water was

found to have an average of only 17 parts per mil¬
lion of inorganic residues and no organic indica¬
tor of pollution. By comparing the monthly pre¬

cipitation of Riven Rock with two other weather
recording stations outside the watershed, the mean
monthly precipitation of the drainage basin could
be extrapolated. The monthly precipitation from

September, 1970, to May, 1971, was correlated to
the discharge during the same period. It was

found that only a fraction of the discharge for
most months was used by the city. A good means to
impound part of the excess runoff would be to con¬
struct dams in the Skidmore Fork and Dry River

Fork which would store approximately 4 billion
gallons of water. The dams would be anchored on

Devonian Hampshire formation which from all avail¬
able data seems to be adequate for the job.

124

The Virginia Journal of Science

Section of Materials Science

Forty-ninth Annual Meeting of The Virginia Academy of Science
May 12-14, 1971, Blacksburg, Virginia

STRESSES OF HEXAGONAL DISLOCATION ARRAYS. N. M. Bassim and
D. Kuhlmann-Wilsdorf . Dept, of Materials Science, Univ. of
Va., Charlottesville, Va., 22901

The stresses in the vicinity of an hexagonal array of
screw dislocations are investigated, using as a model a sec¬
tion thereof that fulfills Kirchhoff's law of Burgers vec¬
tors, which requires the addition of semi-infinite edge
dislocations about the edges. The stress distributions are
calculated with an electronic digital computer. The shear
components of the stress tensor in cylindrical coordinates,
i.e. Tj-q, Tj-y, tQy„ are graphically obtained from the com¬
puter line printer, using symbols of different darkness and
overlaid characters to indicate stresses in various ranges
of intensity. The results show a very complicated pattern
around such a network. The computation is undertaken be¬
cause of its importance in connection with stresses due to
dislocation boundaries such as are frequently observed in
annealed as well as workhardened metals. (Supported by
AEG Contract No. AT- (40-1) -3108)

FRACTURE STUDIES IN STAINLESS STEEL WITH THE 500
kV ELECTRON MICROSCOPE. R, W. Bauer* and H. G. F.
Wilsdorf, Dept, of Materials Science, Univ. of Va.,
Charlottesville, Va . 22901

Thin foil tensile specimens of solution treated
polycrystalline 304 stainless steel were strained
to fracture in the Univ. of Va. 500 kV High Voltage
Electron Microscope by means of a hydraulically
loaded tensile stage, in order to study the role of
grain boundaries on crack propagation. The thick¬
ness of the electron transparent region of the ten¬
sile specimen, produced by a twin jet electro¬
polishing technique, was approximately ly. Video
tape at 30 frames/second and individual micrographs
were used to record the fracture process.

Cracks propagated through individual grains in
or near <110> direction by thinning both ahead of
and adjacent to the crack. Cracks were observed
to be stopped and blunted at grain boundaries until
sufficient stress was built up in the adjacent
grain for a non-crystallographic hole to form. The
crack would then pass through the boundary, join
with the hole, and propagate to the next boundary
before repeating the same process. (Acknowledg¬
ment is made of support by the Office of Naval Re¬
search) .

A STUDY OF THE INITIAL FORMATION OF LUDERS' BANDS IN A
DUCTILE MATERIAL. E. W. Brooks, Jr.*, H. F. Brinson* and
C. T. Herakovich, Dept, of Engineering Mechanics, Va.
Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ., Blacksburg, Va . 2A060

The initiation of macroscop i ca I ly non-uniform yielding
in the form of Luders' Bands is discussed, with emphasis
on the orientation of these bands across the front of flat
specimens in uniaxial tension. The orientation is determin¬
ed analytically in three separate ways: (1) using the
"characteristics" of the partial differential equations
governing plastic flow; (2) applying the Mises Yield Crite¬
ria; and (3) combining elementary strain transformations
with the concept of elastic constraint.

Experimental data is presented in the form of photo¬
plastic photographs of initial localized yielding in Lexan®
Polycarbonate. Comparison of this data with similar data
obtained by others using material of quite different atomic
structure is presented. From this comparison general
conclusions are drawn on the mechanism of localized yield-
i ng .

PHASE EQUILIBRIA AND Eu2+-ACTIVATED LUMINESCENCE IN THE
Sr3(P04)2-Cd3(P04)2 SYSTEM. J. J. Brown, Jr., Dept, of
Metals and Ceramic Engineering, Va. Polytechnic Inst, and
State Univ., Blacksburg, Va. 24061, and J. R. Looney, Chemi¬
cal and Metallurgical Div., Sylvania Electric Products, Inc.
Towanda, Penn. 18848

The phase equilibria relationships in the Sr3(P04)2"
Cd3(P04)2 system were established in air using DTA and
melting point data obtained from compositions previously
equilibrated by solid state reactions. Evidence for the
existence of a third previously unreported Sr3(P04)2 poly¬
morph, stable only above 1410®C, is presented. Cadmium
orthophosphate is soluble in Q'”Sr3(P04)2 to only one or
two mole %. Approximately 12 mole % Cd3(P04)2 is sufficient
to completely stabilize 3'Sr3(P04)2 to room temperature. A
minimum of 20 mole % Cd3(P04)2 dissolved in Y"St3(P04)2
lowers the inversion temperature to approximately 1075°C.

A ternary compound, Cd2Sr(P04)2> is characterized.

The luminescence of Eu^'^'-activated Sr3(P04)2 is very de¬
pendent on the polymorph present at the reaction temperature.
Only 3-Sr3(P04)2 is an efficient host lattice, but the rapid
reversible inversion to cy-Sr3(P04)2 upon cooling is neces¬
sary for maximum luminescence. Substitutions of Cd^"*" for
SJ.2+ three Sr3(P04)2 polymorphs rapidly quench the

luminescence. Structural interrelationships involving all
alkaline earth orthophosphates are discussed in view of the
Sr3(P04)2 polymorphism.

Proceedings, 1970-1971

125

DTA ANALYSIS OF POLYPROPYLENE-DILUENT SYSTEMS. E.K.

Bullock* and A.L. Fricke, Dept, of Chemical Engineerins,

Va. Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ. , Blacksburg, VA.

24061.

The effect of selected diluents on the melting pro¬
perties of polypropylene were investigated by Differential
Thermal Analysis using a Du Pont 900 DTA analyzer. Long
chain normal alkanes were shown to be moderately good
solvents for polypropylene, but energy density functions
for polymer-diluent pairs derived from the data indicate
that there is a maximum in the relation of solubility
to alkane chain length. Results also indicate that
substitution of a polar group on the a-position of the
higher alkanes gives only a moderate decrease in solubility,
but substitution in the a, w-positions gives almost com¬
plete insolubility. Dynamically, the melting point of
the diluent-polymer system is relatively insensitive to
the rate of heating, but the crystallization temperature is
affected markedly by the cooling rate.

STRESS CORROSION CRACKING OF 304 STAINLESS STEEL AS OBSERVED

BY SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPY. G. S. Clevinger and J. L.
Lytton, Dept, of Metals and Ceramic Engineering, Va. Poly¬
technic Inst, and State Univ., Blacksburg, Va. 24061

Scanning electron microscopy techniques have been employed
in a study of the induction period prior to massive trans-
granular stress corrosion cracking of stainless steels.

Standard U-bend configuration specimens having various sur¬
face preparations and heat treatment histories, and with a
range of nitrogen contents, have been exposed for varying
lengths of time in boiling magnesium chloride solution. The
results indicate that microcracks may be present in these
structures even for exposures well within the induction
period. In those samples having electropolished surfaces,
there are indications that cracking begins by a linear for¬
mation of pits, which subsequently develops into a preferen¬
tial site for initiation of a fast growing crack. (Aided
by AEC Contract No. At- (40-1) -4052)

A THERMODYNAMIC TREATMENT OF SURFACES ON SMALL PARTICLES.

P. R. Couchman and W. A. Jesser. Dept, of Materials

Science, Univ. of Va., Charlottesville, Va. 22901

For small particles, where the high area to volume ratio
causes surface effects to be important, care must be taken
in defining thermodynamic intensive parameters. The
intensive variables conjugate to the extensive variable,
area, are defined by analogy to similar definitions in
typical bulk systems with three extensive parameters exclud¬
ing area. Various points are raised concerning surfaces in
general and in particular those surfaces on small particles.
(Supported by AEC Contract No. AT- (40-1) -3108)

A NON-VISCOUS INTERPRETATION OF RATE DEPENDENCE IN THE
QUASI-STATIC TENSILE TESTING OF METALS. T. H. Dawson,

Dept, of Civil Engineering, Univ. of Va., Charlottesville,

Va. 22901.

When a metal wire or rod is plastically strained in
quasi-static tensile loading, the resulting stress is
generally found to depend not only on the strain itself
but also on the rate at which the strain is produced. To
account for this rate dependence it is sometimes assumed
that metal plasticity is governed by both strain hardening
and strain-rate viscous mechanisms. An altogether diffe¬
rent interpretation of this rate dependence follows, how¬
ever, from the hypothesis that metal plasticity is con¬
trolled by a combination of the competing effects of strain
hardening and time-dependent thermal softening.

The applicability of this latter hypothesis in explain¬
ing rate sensitivity is examined experimentally in the
present work for the special case of room-temperature de¬
formation of a common lead-tin alloy. Results show that
the separate responses of this alloy to both constant
stress and constant strain-rate loadings are accurately
described by a single stress-strain-time deformation law
and, consequently, that its rate dependence is, in fact,
directly attributable to the thermal softening hypothesis.

This work was supported by the National Science

Foundation .

GROWTH OF HIGHLY PURE SINGLE CRYSTALS OF COPPER.

H. M. DeJarnette* and W. J. Tropf*, Dept, of Materials

Science and Dept, of Physics, Univ. of Va., Charlottesville,

Va. 22903

Highly pure single crystals of copper are grown at random
orientation from the melt in a vacuum furnace at ambient
temperatures near the melting point. The crystals are then
very slowly cooled to insure a low defect concentration.

The properties of these crystals are investigated and com¬
pared to high purity copper crystals which have been con¬
ventionally grown from the melt, i.e. not at very high
ambient temperatures and air cooled. X-ray, electron mi¬
croscopy, chemical and mechanical tests are used. (Support¬
ed by AEC Contract No. AT- (40-1) -3108)

THE UNUSUAL ELECTRICAL EFFECTS IN ARSENIC-TELLURIUM
SEMICONDUCTING GLASSES. L. R. Durden. L. H. Slack, Dept,
of Metals and Ceramic Engineering, Va. Polytechnic Inst,
and State Univ., Blacksburg, Va. 24061, and P. R. Eusner,

Mullite Corp. of America, Americus, Ga. 31709.

The electrical conductivity of Arsenic-Tellurium glasses
increases exponentially with temperature, whereas, the con¬
ductivity of crystalline material of the same composition
decreases with temperature. In the temperature range 30°C
to 200°C, the conductivity of the glass increases three to
four orders of magnitude and conductivity of the crystalline
material decreases only slightly. Permanent conductance
transitions in the amorphous materials are shown to be due
to crystal formation. Threshold switching phenomena have
been observed in both amorphous and crystalline samples and
are shown to be related to Joule heating.

126

The Virginia Journal of Science

SURFACE APPEARANCE CHARACTERIZATION OF ALUMINUM SHEET. A. C.
Eden*, Va, Polytechnic Inst. & State Univ. , Blacksburg, Va.
24061, and H. Lee Craig, Jr., Met. Res. Div. , Reynolds Metals
Co., Richmond, Va. 23261.

In an effort to eliminate surface defects created in
aluminum sheet by normal production, experiments were per¬
formed with chemical surface conditioning. Various chemical
etches were tested separately to determine which treatments
would eliminate surface defects.

Samples treated of 5657 alloy were submitted to the
authors for scanning electron microscopic examination.

Optical microscopy and reflectance testing were used in
early study. The SEM photos, which were taken with the Uni¬
versity of Virginia's Cambridge Stereoscan II, revealed good
resolution at iO,OOOX. A close correlation between the in¬
terpretations of reflectance data and the SEM photos was
discovered for the chemically treated mill finish surfaces.

A chromic-phosphoric etch merely removed the oxide film
leaving the metal itself untouched. Three minutes of hot
caustic etch left the surface rougher and slightly more
level. The ten-second and one-minute caustic treatments did
not significantly alter the appearance of the control. Both
standard and the hot bright dips left a smooth, level
surface. Mixed acid etch leveled and pitted the surface.

We conclude that to improve the surface appearance, the
removal of both oxide and metal is required. The surface
roughness or levelness is not important since caustic, bright
dips, and mixed acid etch all improved the total reflectance.

PERFORMANCE OF ALUMINUM ALLOYS IN DISTILLATION
DESALINATION. D. A. Fauth*. Product Development
Division, Reynolds Metals Company, Richmond, Va.

2321 8

The performance of aluminum alloys 5052, 6061,

3003 and alclad 3004 is reported after two years
of operation in a distillation desalination pilot
plant at Wrightsville Beach, N. C., for the Office
of Saline Water. The plant operated over a
temperature range from 65°F to 250°F and veloci¬
ties from 5 to 6 fps. Th re e-quarter inch alumi¬
num tubes were installed in steel vessels with
aluminum tube sheets. Galvanic corrosion occurred
when plastic insulating sleeves and washers
failed. A redesign was made to eliminate the
galvanic corrosion. Alloy 5052 performed best
but did suffer some attack at the ends of a few
tubes in the hottest section due to a network of
grain boundary precipitate. Alloy 30C3 tubes sus¬
tained some pitting attack. Alloy 6061 showed
severe pitting attack and has been eliminated as

a candidate alloy. The cladding on the alclad

3004 tubes did protect the core but was expended
too rapidly to give lasting protection above 150°F.

The overall performance of aluminum materials was
very encouraging.

PHASE EQUILIBRIA IN THE SYSTEM BaO-SrO-SiO? . J. M. Fields,

P. S. Dear, and J. J. Brown, Jr., Dept, of Metals and Ceramic
Engineering, Va. Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ., Blacks¬
burg, Va. 24061.

The phase equilibria relationships in the system, BaO-SrO-
Si02, were established in air using conventional solid state
techniques. The Sr0-Si02 boundary system was completed by
determining the liquidus temperatures for the SrO-rich por¬
tion of the diagram. The three compounds SrSi03, Sr2Si04,
and Sr3Si05 melt congruently at 1580o+5oc, 23250+150C, and
2170^+1500, respectively. Simple binary eutectics exist be¬
tween i) Sr2Si04 and Sr3Si05 at 2150*^+1^0 and approximately

27 mole percent Si02; and ii) Sr3Si05 and SrO at 2080°+15°C
and approximately 23 mole percent Si02 - All Xlkemade lines
were established for the ternary system, two of which were
examined in detail because of extensive solid solution re¬
gions. In the Ba2Si04-Sr2Si04 join, a maximum solubility of
approximately 70 mole percent strontium orthosilicate in bar¬
ium orthosilicate exists at 2110^0, the eutectic temperature.
Only 5 mole percent Ba2Si04 is soluble in Sr2Si04 at this
temperature. The BaSi03-SrSi03 join contains limited solid
solution regions which arise from the solid solubility of 40
mole percent SrSi03 in BaSi03 and 20 mole percent BaSi03 at
the eutectic temperature of 1210^+15*^0. Only one ternary
compound was found, BaSrSi30g, which appears to melt con¬
gruently at 1325^+15*^0.

THERMAL CONDUCTIVITIES OF POLYMER MELTS . T.R. Fuller*,

A.L. Fricke, and J. Ramsey*, Dept, of Chemical Engineering,

Va. Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ., Blacksburg, VA.

24061.

A concentric cylinder, thermal conductivity cell with
axial guard heaters was constructed and used to determine
thermal conductivities of some commercially important
polymers. The cell was constructed so that melts could
be loaded easily with a minimum of degradation by
oxidation, and so that good thermal contact with the
cylinder walls could be maintained. Thermal conductivities
of the melts were determined as a function of temperature
from the melting point to approximately 100®C above the
melting point. Thermal conductivity was found either to
increase linearly with increasing temperature or to be
independent of temperature, and to decrease with increasing
chain complexity or polarity for the polymers studied.

For these polymers, the order of thermal conductivity is
linear polyethylene > branched polyethylene > polypropylene
> styrene > nylon 6 > nylon 6/10. The results are precise
to within six per cent and accurate to within thirteen
per cent. Results for polyethylene and polystyrene agree
well with those of P. Lohe, but the results for nylon 6
differ considerably.

AHPLiaATlON OF statistical TSCHNIi^UFS TO CSR^IMIC
PROCESS analysis. Cullen L. Hackler*, Department
of Metals and Ceramic Engineering, Virginia Poly¬
technic Institute and State University, Blacksburg,
Virginia 24061

Two statistical techniques, analysis of variance
and multiple regression, are powerful tools in
process analysis. If one is careful to follow
the experimental schemes of statistics, then the
application of analysis of variance yields quan¬
titative insights into the sources of variation
in a process. Often the object of an experiment
may best be evaluated by fitting the data with a
curve. Multiple regression is a straightforward
method of determining this equation, provided the
data have been properly taken. The role of the
Ceramic Engineer is that of Linking statistics to
ceramic technology.

ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS OF GLASS THIN FILMS. M. R. Hall*,

L. H. Slack, and J. J. Brown. Dept, of Metals and Ceramic
Engineering, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State

University, Blacksburg, Va. 24061

Thin film capacitors were made by electron beam melting
of silicate glasses in a vacuum chamber. The bulk glasses
were luminescent, containing 3 to 6 mole per cent of europ¬
ium oxide, as well as lithium or barium oxide. Films con¬
taining lithium had a similar dielectric dispersion but a
large variation in dielectric constant and dissipation fact¬
or caused by deviation of the lithium content from the bulk
composition. Films containing barium had a much smaller
variation in dielectric properties, but appear to be defi¬
cient in barium as compared to the bulk. The temperature
dependence of the dissipation factor for the lithium con¬
taining films obeys the relation log(tan 6) = log K + aT
with K = 3.02 X 10“^ and cy = 6.9 x 10"3(Oc)-l from room
temperature to 150°C. At higher temperatures the films
deteriorate rapidly.

Proceedings, 1970-1971

127

FRACTURE STUDIES OF BORON FILAMENT-ALUMINUM MATRIX COMPOSITE.

H. W. Herrine. NASA— LaUKlev Research Center, Hampton, Va.

23365

The tensile fracture of thin sheets of uniaxial boron
filament reinforced aluminum was studied using micro¬
radiography and acoustic emission techniques. The resulting
fracture surfaces were observed under the scanning electron
microscope.

A peculiar fracture mechanism was identified which
severely limited the ultimate strength of the composite.

This mechanism was initiated by fracture of one of the
weaker filaments in the composite, with the energy pulse
released locally by the initial break being alternately
damped and reinforced by the rapid sequential fracture of
a multiplicity of adjacent filaments. Fracture of the
aluminum matrix occurred in a ductile manner after the
filaments had broken.

The observed fracture mechanism was related to current
theory on tensile failure of composites in terms of the
statistical distribution of ultimate filament strengths.

It was found that composite tensile strength could be
predicted within reasonable limits from filament strength
data and a knowledge of composite fabrication parameters.

A NEW DENTAL AMALGAM. Lewis B. Johnson, Jr.,

Dept, of Materials Science, Univ. of Va.,
Charlottesville, Va. 22901

Amalgam specimens have been prepared from an
alloy containing 10 weight percent Au, 64 percent

Ag and 26 percent Sn.

Upon setting, the above specimens were found
by x-ray diffraction to form yi (*92^53^ ^2

(SngHg) phases similarly to conventional amalgam.
However, after storage at body temperature for 14
days, the Y2 phase had disappeared. All diffrac¬
tion peaks remaining could be related to the y^
phase .

The resulting amalgam (with single phase matrix)
had a very high corrosion resistance.

(Aided by NIH grant DE 02111) .

RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN INTERATOMIC FORCES AND ELASTIC

CONSTANTS. R. A. Johnson. Dept, of Materials Science,

Univ. of Va. , Charlottesville, Va. 22901

The relationships between interatomic forces and elastic
constants are available for the special cases of two-body
central-forces applied to first and second nearest neighbors
in fee and bcc materials. The general case of non-central
interactions applied to any crystal symmetry has been
studied for a crystal model in which, in addition to ex¬
plicit two-body interactions, there is a volume dependent
contribution to the lattice energy. The relationships re¬
sult from equating the change in energy in such a lattice
model arising from an arbitrary displacement field to the
energy stored in an elastic continuum under the same dis¬
placement field. Terms to second order in the displacement
field are retained, while surface effects are neglected.
(Supported by AEC Contract No. AT- (40-1) -3108)

COLLAPSE OF VOIDS IN STRESS FIELDS. R. A. Johnson and

D. Kuhlmann-Wilsdorf . Dept, of Materials Science, Univ. of

Va., Charlottesville, Va. 22901

Numerical computations were performed for the elastic
energy associated with the stress field of a small ellipti¬
cal hole in an isotropic elastic plate under a constant
applied compression. The total energy of the system can
then be written as a function of the a/b ratio of the
ellipse, the orientation of the applied stress to the el¬
lipse, the area of the ellipse, the thickness of the plate,
the energy density at the surface of the ellipse, the elas¬
tic constants of the material, and the magnitude of the ap¬
plied stress. Under appropriate conditions (large area of
large stress), the elliptical hole, which can be thought of
as a void in the material, will be able to decrease the
free energy of the system by flattening and eventually col¬
lapsing. The collapse occurs by mass transport (surface
diffusion), i.e. it is not a strain effect. (Supported by

AEC Contract No. AT- (40-1) -3108)

COST OPTIMIZATION OF A POLYESTER-FILLER SYSTEM WITH PROPERTY
CONSTRAINTS. W.C. Jones, III*, A.L. Fricke, and V.K.

Natarajan*, Dept, of Chemical Engineering, Va. Polytechnic

Inst, and State Univ., Blacksburg, VA. 24060.

Formulation of a filler-resin system for a particular
application is a problem of minimizing costs of a system
that will meet or exceed specified physical property limits,
i.e. , a problem of optimization with constraints, and the
problem can be solved most efficiently if attacked as an
optimization. As an example of the utility of the opti¬
mization approach, a five component polyester resin/filler
system was studied in this work. A rotatable, central com¬
posite designed experiment, involving twenty-seven test
formulations, was run to give five levels of each component.
Properties were determined for each test formulation and
equations relating properties to composition were developed
by regression analyses. Using these as constraint equations
with an objective cost function, we stated an optimization
problem. Property limits were specified for particular
applications as diverse as synthetic marble and synthetic
wood, and the formulation was optimized to minimum cost
for each application. The cost, composition, and estimated
properties were calculated from the optimum for each
application. The optimization also serves to indicate the
active constraints for each application.

POLLUTION FREE, FLUXLESS PROCESSES FOR JOINING
ALUMINUM, D. A. Kaechele*, H. K. Herr*, Product
Development Division, Reynolds Metals Company,
Richmond, Virginia 23218.

Industrial corporations today have the respon¬
sibility and the technology to develop and use
production processes which are consistent with
our national goals of pollution free air and
water. The dual challenge is keeping these
processes economical so that increases in pro¬
duction costs are nominal.

In traditional processes for brazing and
soldering aluminum, fluxes are used. Their use
generates air pollution in the form of fumes and
water pollution from required post cleaning
operati ons .

Reynolds Metals Company's Research Division has
developed two new fluxless processes for joining
aluminum: fluxless vacuum brazing and fluxless

soldering. Both processes offer advantages from
the standpoint of pollution control as well as
other significant features. Reduced production
costs, increased joint integrity, and elimination
of potential corrosion factors make these
processes extremely attractive. The general
process procedures, materials and equipment are
described in this paper.

128

The Virginia Journal of Science

SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPE STUDIES OF THE OXIDA¬
TION OF TANTALUM. D ■ J ■ Kampe and K.R. Lawless,
Dept, of Materials Science, Univ. of Va . ,
Charlottesville, Va . 22903

Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) in conjunc¬
tion with transmission electron microscopy (TEM)
and optical microscopy was used to study the ini¬
tial stages of the oxidation of high purity {111}
and {110} Ta single crystals and large-grained
5 mil thick sheet of approximately {001} orienta¬
tion. The oxidations, performed at 530°C and
5x10“^ torr oxygen pressure, proceeded by the for¬
mation and growth of microscopic platelets.

TEM and selected area diffraction showed a
cubic tantalum suboxide had formed in the {111} Ta
plane while a twofold superlattice was present on
the {001} Ta grains studied. Using SEM of surface
oxide traces on two known planes, a {531} habit
plane for the oxide platelets was determined.

A series of SEM micrographs of the same area
clearly establish that the platelets formed during
the low oxygen pressure oxidations extend through
the sample and are not solely surface phenomena.
Samples oxidized at one atmosphere pressure showed
a relatively uniform surface oxide, consisting of
fine needles and transformed tantalum, with no in¬
ternal oxide formation. (Aided by the Office of
Naval Research) .

THE COMPRESSIVE CREEP BEHAVIOR OF A Pu-17.Ga DELTA-STABILIZED
ALLOY AT ELEVATED TEMPERATURES. J. L. Lytton, Dept, of
Metals and Ceramic Engineering, Va. Polytechnic Inst, and
State Univ., Blacksburg, Va. 24061, A. D. Wheeler, W. L.
Thayer, and J. L. Robbins, Lawrence Radiation Laboratory,
Livermore, Calif.

Constant stress compression creep tests were performed in
vacuum on a high-purity Pu-1 wt pet Ga g-stabilized alloy
over the temperature range from 252° to 382°C for stresses
from 700 to 2600 psi. Although the primary creep behavior
could not be correlated by established techniques, the creep
rates developed after true creep strains of about 0.15 pro¬
vided good agreement with the temperature and stress depen¬
dence of creep for pure metals and dilute alloys. A power
stress law for steady-state creep of the alloy was found for
ct/E values less than 5 x 10"^, with the stress exponent being
4.0, and it was concluded that the alloy exhibits Class I
solid solution behavior. For higher stress, exponential
stress dependence was observed. The true activation energy
for creep was found to be 38,900 cal/mole which is in good
agreement with the value for self-dif fusion of Pu in the
delta-stabilized alloy.

REDUCTION OF IRON FROM IRON-CONTAINING COMPOUNDS. W. S.
Moser* and T. P. Floridis, Virginia Polytechnic Institute
and State University, Blacksburg, Va. 24061

Additions of metallic iron have caused increases of the
rates of reduction of iron from iron-containing compounds.

The investigated compounds were synthetic iron monticel-
lite (Ca0-Fe0-Si02) , fayalite (2Fe0'Si02), and hercynite
(Fe0'Al202). The investigation was conducted at 900°C. The
reducing agent was a mixture of 57„ hydrogen and 957. nitro¬
gen. The rates of reduction were determined by continuous
weight-loss measurements.

Additions of 107. iron powder to iron monticellite,
fayalite, and hercynite have caused increases in their
initial rates of reduction by 150, 15, and 97 percent,
respectively.

(Financial support by the American Iron and Steel
Institute is gratefully acknowledged.)

FRACTURE STUDIES IN SILVER WITH THE 500 kV ELECTRON
MICROSCOPE. R. L. Lyles, Jr., and H.G.F. Wilsdorf,
Dept, of Materials Science, Univ. of Va.,
Charlottesville, Va. 22901

Thin, chemically grown, single crystals of Ag
have been strained to fracture inside of the High
Voltage Electron Microscope by means of a nydrau-
lically loaded tensile stage. Direct observation
and recording of the fracture process was accom¬
plished by using a high performance image-intensi-
fier video recording system in conjunction with
the conventional photographic system. The charac¬
teristics of the fracture process were indicative
of ductile fracture in bulk materials. Necking,
shear, the formation of coalesence of holes, and
the dislocation structure in the plastic zone pre¬
ceding the crack have been observed and recorded.
The silver ribbons had a (111) growth plane and
the tensile axis was along the lIO direction.
Accordingly, crack propagation took place 60° to
the tensile axis along one of the two equally
stressed glide planes, or the crack followed a
zig-zag path with two glide planes active. (The
sponsorship of the Office of Naval Research is
gratefully acknowledged) .

DISLOCATION CELLS. J. T. Moore and D. Kuhlmann-Wilsdorf ,
Dept, of Physics, Univ. of Va. , Charlottesville, Va. 22901
In crystalline materials deformed under a great variety
of conditions, the most prominent and most often occurring
structural features are dislocation cells. According to the
mesh-length theory of workhardening* , these cells are na¬
ture's means to reduce the long-range stresses of glide dis¬
locations that are generated in the course of straining. In
the same theory it is also assumed that the screening of the
long-range stress fields of the dislocations is very effec¬
tive in cells, while the dislocations' short-range stresses
and line tensions remain largely unchanged. Due to the
great complexity of the stress fields of dislocation cells,
quantitative investigations to check on the above hypotheses
had been lacking until recently when electronic computations
of the stresses associated with various simple types of dis¬
location cells were carried out. The said hypotheses were
indeed confirmed: The long-range stress field of dislocation
cells was shown (i) to fall off as r-N with N the number of
Burgers vectors represented in the cell and (ii) for a given
shape and size of cell to rapidly decrease with increasing
dislocation density. In all cases, the short-range stresses
farther away than about one dislocation spacing from the
nearest corner are very closely alike the short-range
stresses of the corresponding infinitely extended disloca¬
tion walls. (Supported by AEG Contract No. AT- (40-1) -3108)
*D. Kuhlmann-Wilsdorf, "Workhardening", (Eds. J. P. Hirth
and J. Weertman, Gordon S Breach, N.Y.) 1968, pp 97-132

STRAIN ENERGY CONSIDERATIONS FOR THE FCC-BCC TRANSFORMATION
IN THIN IRON FILMS PSEUDOMORPHICALLY GROWN ON (001) COPPER
SUBSTRATES. G. H. Olsen and W. A. Jesser. Dept, of
Materials Science, Univ. of Va., Charlottesville, Va. 22901
The orientations of bcc iron precipitates which formed
from the surrounding fee matrix in thin 001 iron deposits on
copper have been determined to be variants of the Pitsch,
and Kurdjumov-Sachs orientation relationships. These orien¬
tations were observed to favor those of the Pitsch type, as
the iron overgrowth thickness increased. A rationalization
of the above results is made in terms of elastic strain
energy associated with the formation of a precipitate in an
iron matrix subjected to plane stress by the copper sub¬
strate. It is shown that the observed orientations corres¬
pond to low elastic strain energy. Similar energy arguments
are shown to successfully explain similar orientation ob¬
servations reported earlier for bcc precipitates in iron
deposits grown on 001 nickel substrates. An iron matrix is
in tension on its copper substrate but is in compression on
a nickel substrate. The observed orientations of the bcc
precipitates are different in the two systems. However, the
orientations observed in both systems are those having low
elastic strain energy. (Supported by AEC Contract No.

AT- (40-1) -3108)

Proceedings, 1970-1971

129

PHYSICAL ADSORPTION PHENOMENA OCCURRING IN SPACE-LIKE
ENVIRONMENTS. R, A^ Outlaw,* NASA-Langley Research Center,
Hampton, Va« 23365, and J. P. Wightman, Dept, of Chemistry,
VPI&SU, Blacksburg, Va. 24061

Physical adsorption isotherms of nitrogen gas on chemi¬
cally cleaned Pyrex glass have been dynamically determined
in the pressure range of 1 x 10“H to 1 x 10"^ torr (N2)
and at temperatures of 77<»4°K and 87.5°K. A study has been
made of the variation equilibrium time with the pressure
above the adsorbed layer. Data is presented to show the fit
to the Dubinin-Radushkevich equation. Extrapolation of this
data indicates that the surface area of the chemically
cleaned Pyrex is about twice that of Pyrex not chemically
cleaned. Calculated isoteric heats indicate an average heat
of adsorption of 6 kcal/mole over the range of coverage
studied. Finally, data is presented which shows that the
log of the equilibrium time varies linearly with the log of
the pressure above the adsorbed layer.

EFFECT OF SUBBOUNDARY PINNING BY y' PLATELETS ON THE CREEP
BEHAVIOR OF Al-0.5 AT.% Ag . P. G. Pawar and J. L. Lytton,

Dept, of Metals and Ceramic Engineering, Va. Polytechnic

Inst, and State Univ., Blacksburg, Va. 24061

Heterogeneous precipitation of y' platelets on dislocation
networks has been developed as a means of imparting increased
strength and thermal stability of subgrain structures through
effective pinning. Age hardening curves for Al-0.5at.7oAg at
200°C have revealed that peak hardness is obtained in speci¬
mens aged for about 100 hrs. Constant stress tensile creep
tests have been conducted at 200°C and 3000, 4000, 6000, and

8000 psi for specimens with different prior thermal-mechani¬
cal treatments. Specimens, given a solution heat treatment at
400®C for 10 hours followed by 5 pet. prestrain, recovery an¬
nealing at 300*^0 for 15 min., and 100 hrs. aging at 200^0
have been found to develop rather well defined subgrains pin¬
ned by y' precipitation. Specimens which were solution heat
treated and aged for 6 hrs. at 200*^0 prior to creep testing
proved to have a lower steady-state creep rate than those
containing subgrain structures with y' platelets pinning the
subboundaries after 100 hrs. aging at 200®C. Transmission
electron microscopy revealed that this was the result of gen¬
eration of a fine and uniformly distributed array of y’
platelets in the solution treated and aged structure. It ap¬
pears from the study made so far, that the morphology of the
precipitate structure plays a more important role than the
subgrains in governing the creep strength at elevated temper¬
atures. (Aided by NSF Grant Gk-10972)

INCREASE OF TECHNICAL STRENGTH OF MECHANICALLY GRIPPED

FIBERGLAS RODS BY SURFACE TREATMENT. K. Reif snider and

C. Kelley*. Dept, of Eng. Mech., Va. Polytechnic Inst.,
Blacksburg, Va. 24061

Epoxy-matrix fiberglas rods were pulled to fracture in
simple tension using standard conical chuck cable grips with
serrated gripping surfaces. Failure of the rods always
initiated in the grip area. A number of specimens was soak¬
ed in a special solution for a short period of time prior
to testing. The technical strength of the treated specimens
was from 10-15% greater than the untreated ones. The in¬
creased toughness and ductility of the treated surface is
thought to "blunt" the stress distribution by material flow
in the areas of concentration created by the mechanical
grips. In particular, the initiation and propagation of
cracks is inhibited by this solution softening of the grip¬
ped surface area. (Aided by DoD Project THEMIS, Contract

No. DAA F07-69-C-0444.)

SOME FUNDAMENTAL INTERACTIONS BETWEEN PROTEINS

AND SURFACES. G. E. Stoner^ Dept, of Materials
Science, Univ. of Va . , Charlottesville, Va. 22901

The first measurable act of the interaction
between a cardiovascular prosthetic material and
blood is the adsorption of one of the plasma pro¬
teins, fibrinogen. The mechanism of this act of
adsorption, as well as its prevention (or inhibi¬
tion) in some cases, is related to the surface
charge excess of the material and the amino acid
residues (R-groups) of the adsorbing protein mole¬
cule.

A theory of selective protein adsorption, and
its relationship to a material t hr ombo r e s i s t anc e
and general "compatibility with blood" is pre¬
sented. (Aided by NIDR grant USPHS DE 02111-07).

USE OF AN ENERGY DISPERSIVE X-RAY SPECTROMETER ON A SIEMENS

TRANSMISSION ELECTRON MICROSCOPE. R. L. Trent and

W. A. Jesser. Dept, of Materials Science, Univ. of Va.,
Charlottesville, Va. 22901

An ortec energy-dispersive X-ray spectrometer employing
a Si (Li) detector of 163 eV resolution at 5.9 keV and
designed for use on a Cambridge scanning electron microscope
has been interfaced to a Siemens transmission electron
microscope by attaching it through one of the stereo tilt
access ports. Some details associated with viewing a
specimen elevated in the field of the objective lens so as
to have a direct line of sight to the X-ray detector are
discussed. Use of the instrument in quantitative analysis
of bicrystal systems is presented. (Supported by AEC

Contract No. AT- (40-1) -3108)

INFLUENCE OF ORIENTATION ON DIFFUSION IN POLYMERS.

R.C. Tsai and R.E. Barker, Jr., Dept, of Materials
Science, Univ. of Va . , Charlottesville, Va . 22901

Argon transport in the uniaxial ly oriented films
of a random copolymer of methyl methacrylate and
ethyl methacrylate has been studied. The degree of
orientation was characterized macroscopically and
by measurement of optical biref ingence . The effect
of varying degrees of orientation on permeation and
diffusion of argon in polymer films was determined
by the time-lag method using a mass-spectrometer
to obtain gas pressure as a function of time.

The orientation process transforms the polymer
from a random array of coiled molecules toward a
quasi-crystalline arrangement with a consequent
increase in activation energy. Surprisingly, the
diffusion and permeation coefficients were observed
to decrease significantly in highly elongated films.
The observed phenomena have been interpreted in
terms the correlated interchange of configurational
and activation entropy. It is proposed that the
dynamical configuration is virtually the same for
both the oriented and the unoriented material, so
that the entropy difference between the normal
state and the activated state must increase as the
elongation increases. Some new results in support
of this hypothesis will be discussed.

(Aided by NIDR Grant No. DE-02111).

130

The Virginia Journal of Science

A STUDY OF THE PROPERTIES OF SILVER AMALGAMS CON¬
TAINING VARYING AMOUNTS OF TIN. F.E. Wawner , Jr.
and K.R. Lawless. Dept, of Materials Science,

Univ. of Va , , Charlottesville, Va . 22901

A study has been conducted to characterize Ag-
Sn-Hg alloys with respect to various physical and
mechanical properties. Amalgams containing 0,

4.3, 8.3, 12.0, 15.4, 18.5, 21.4, and 24.1 atomic
percent tin were prepared by two different tech¬
niques; normal trituration and condensation, and
by hot pressing. Properties such as structure,
strength, expansion, fracture, and corrosion were
investigated and correlated. The study showed
that maximum expansion in the alloys could be as¬
sociated with internal voids and consequently min¬
imum strength and vice versa. Fracture in the low
tin content alloys was predominately intergranular
whereas for the normal amalgam inter- and intra-
granular fracture were observed.

Under certain preparation conditions (hot press¬
ing), dental amalgam could be prepared without the
Sn ^Hg phase which led to a much less corrosive
ma t er ia 1 .

COMPUTER GENERATED KIKUCHI MAPS FOR FCC, BCC, DIAMOND CUBIC,
AND HCP CRYSTALS. C. T. Young and J. L. Lytton, Dept, of
Metals and Ceramic Engineering, Va. Polytechnic Inst, and
State Univ., Blacksburg, Va. 24061

In order to eliminate the tedious calculations required
to index Kikuchi patterns, computer programs have been de¬
veloped to provide for computer plotting of standard stereo¬
graphic Kikuchi projections, i.e., Kikuchi maps, of any
desired orientation and any desired projection sphere radius
for FCC, BCC, diamond cubic, and HCP crystals. The programs
also provide for identification of Kikuchi poles, either
printed on the map or a separate sheet, as well as identifi¬
cation of individual Kikuchi lines. Indexing of patterns
then becomes a matter of comparison between observed patterns
and the Kikuchi maps. This is particularly helpful in the
study of HCP crystals. Coates patterns obtained from scan¬
ning electron microscopy as well as x-ray Kossel patterns can
also be generated simply by changing the input wave length.
(Aided by NSF Grant GK-10972)

Section of Medical Sciences

Forty-ninth Annual Meeting of The Virginia Academy of Science
May 12-14, 1971, Blacksburg, Virginia

MEASUREMENT OF HYDROGEN PEROXIDE BY FLUORESCENCE.

R. B. Brandt and M. J. Black*. Dept, of Biochem. , Med. Col.
of Va., Va. Commonwealth Univ., Richmond, Va. 23219
Diacetyl-dichlorof luorescin (LDADCF), a stable
nonfluorescent compound, was synthesized from the highly
fluorescent compound 2 ' , 7 ' -dichlorof luorescein (DCF)

[Brandt, R. and Keston, A., Anal. Biochem. , 11, 6 (1965)].
Activation of LDADCF by hydrolysis in O.OIM sodiinn hydroxide
yields a compound that can be oxidized to DCF with hydrogen
peroxide by enzyme catalysis with horse radish peroxidase
(HRP) . Fluorescence measurements were made using an
Aminco-Bowman Spectrophotofluorometer . The activation and
fluorescence maxima of DCF were measured at different pH's
to determine the pH for optimal fluorescence. Incubation at
37°C for 15 minutes with activated LDADCF and HRP in
phosphate buffer, pH 7.0, together with varying amounts of
hydrogen peroxide produced fluorescence that was measured at
525 nm, when excited at 475 nm. From the plot of apparent
fluorescence vs. [H2O2], the reaction appears to yield two
moles of DCF per mole of hydrogen peroxide.

SKELETAL MUSCLE DEGENERATION PRODUCED BY LOCAL ANESTHETICS.

G. W. Burke, Jr.*. J. R. Fedison, and C. R. Jones. Med. Col.
of Va., Va. Commonwealth Univ., Richmond, Va. 23219.

Both masseter muscles of 20 golden hamsters and tongues
of 90 rats were injected with a 0.1 ml. amount of one of
the following agents: 2% Lidocaine, \% Procaine, X% Tetra¬
caine, 0.1^ Tetracaine, and isotonic saline. None contained
epinephrine. Previous work indicated that neither Procaine
nor isotonic saline produced skeletal muscle degeneration
and thus served as control. Following injection animals were
sacrificed at 1/2, 1, 4-5, 8-9, and 30 days. Injected muscles
were removed and fixed in 10^ neutral buffered formalin.
Tissues were processed for sectioning serially at 5-7 micra
and stained with H 8; E. Injections of Lidocaine and Tetra¬
caine produced severe degeneration of skeletal muscle in all
instances. Early response indicated a loss of striation,
pycnosis of nuclei, and acute inflammatory reaction. There
was progressive loss of myofibrils and shrinkage of the
diameter of individual fibers. In some instances completely
empty sarcolemma sheaths were observed. Early stages of re¬
generation were evident in 4-5 days specimens. Numerous and
large pale staining nuclei appeared in the center of shrunk¬
en muscle fibers. The sarcoplasm exhibited an enhanced baso¬
philic staining reaction. Regeneration was completed in most
instances by the end of 30 days. When the concentration of
Tetracaine was reduced to 0.1% muscle lesions were less sev¬
ere and confined to smaller areas. Ho skeletal muscle degen¬
eration occurred in any of the control animals.

Proceedings, 1970-1971

131

EFFECTS OF V/UUOUS LIGHTING REGIMENS ON HAMSTER PINEAL-
GONADAL INTERACTION IN A CONTROLLED ENVIRONMENTAL CHAMBER.

J. W. Claboueh and S. F. Cleary. Depts. of Anatomy and
Biophysics, Med. Col. of Va., Richmond, Virginia 23219

Light deprivation for 4-6 weeks results in pineal-induced
gonadal atrophy in adult golden hamsters, whereas constant
light impedes pineal antigonadal activity. In mammals,
information about environmental lighting is transmitted to
the pineal via a pathway which includes the eyes, optic
nerves, central connections, and cervical sympathetics .

Recently, O'Steen (Anat. Rec. 169:392) reported that albino
rats which were housed in constant light (18 ft-c) for 30
days exhibited nearly complete degeneration of the retinal
photoreceptor cell l.ayer and were, in effect, blind.

The present studies were designed to test the effects of
various lighting intensities (600, 18, 0.1 and 0.01 ft-c) on
the retinas and pineal-gonadal axes in adult white male
hamsters. The following data were obtained from animals
housed for 6 weeks in specially constructed, constant tem¬
perature chambers equipped with cool white fluorescent light
sources: 1) constant darkness resulted in pineal-induced
gonadal atrophy; 2) constant light (600 ft-c) did not appear
to alter testicular function or produce marked retinal
degeneration; however, thickness of the photoreceptor cell
outer segment layer was reduced; 3) very low intensities of
constant light (0.1 and 0.01 ft-c) produced variable testi¬
cular atrophy indicating that there may be a light intensity
threshold^ below_ which constant light does not inhibit pineal

MORPHOLOGY OF THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE TRACTS OF THE
LESSER BUSHBABY (GALAGO) AND THE TREE SHREW
(TUPAIA) . William G. Dail, Jr. Department of

Anatomy, Med. Col. of Va., Richmond, Virginia 23219

A comparative study was made of the male geni¬
talia of Galago and Tupaia. Galago differs from
Tupaia by having an os penis and permanentlv
descended testes. The testes in Galago are located
in a parapenial position whereas the testes of

Tupaia are anterior to the penis.

The vas deferens of Tupaia has a terminal
enlargement, the ampulla. There is no ampulla in
palago. The seminal vesicles of Galago are simple
tubular sacs which open into the urethra. In

Tupaia the seminal vesicles are lobulated and drain
into the vas deferens. The prostate of Galago is a
Large compact mass, absent only on the anterior
surface of the urethra. The prostate of Tupaia is
small delicate with wing- like dorsolateral
projections and a small median dorsal lobe. Both
animals have typical tubuloacinous bulbourethral
glands. The bulbourethral glands in Galago share
a common excretory duct.

The significance of these findings is discussed
on a comparative basis.

PHYSIOLOGICAL TRANSPORT IN RELATIONSHIP TO AGING. J. L.

Gainer and G. M. Chisolm*, Dept, of Chemical Engineering,

Univ. of VA, Charlottesville, VA 22901.

It has been recently demonstrated that the diffusivity of
oxygen, glucose and carbon dioxide through blood plasma de¬
creases markedly with increasing plasma protein concentra¬
tions within the "normal" concentration ranges. For example,
increasing albumin concentration in plasma from 2.0gm/100ml
to 5.0 gm/lOOml decreases oxygen diffusivity by 50%. Since
the concentrations of albumin, the globulins as well as
cholesterol, change with various pathological conditions and
with aging of "normal" subjects, it is possible that the
subsequent changes in diffusion may have physiological con¬
sequences.

In this study, resulting changes in diffusivity with in¬
creasing age were examined analytically. To find the change
in plasma protein with age, data were obtained from previous
studies of healthy human subjects. Scatter diagrams were
then made showing mean concentrations of albumin, gamma¬
globulin, fibrinogen and cholesterol vs. age. Plots were made
of those showing definite trends. These plots were fit with
least-squares polynomii als. These results were then used to
predict changes in diffusivity through plasma with age.

The results indicate a significant decline in diffusivity
with age. It is possible that hypoxia resulting from the
lowered diffusivity of oxygen might be a contributing factor
to physiological changes usually associated with aging such
as memory loss or atherosclerosis.

THE EFFECTS OF PINEALECTOMY AND BLINDING IN THE

ADULT "P E T" MOUSE. Joseph C. Gregorek and

Hugo R. Seibel, Department of Anatomy, Med. Co. of
Virginia 23219.

The pineal gland is believed to produce an anti-
gonadotrophic substance, and to be activated by the
absence of light in the adult hamster and rat.

Blinding in these animals results in a decrease in
the size of the testes, but simultaneous pineal-
ectomy of these animals will inhibit this response.

Seven experimental groups of adult "PET" mice
received the following surgical procedures: hemi-
castration, blinding, pinealectomy , pinealectomy-
hemicastration, pinealectomy-blinding, hemicastra-
tion-blinding and pinealectomy-hemicastration-
blinding .

Preliminary studies indicate that blinding in the
adult "PET" mouse does not marketly affect testi¬
cular size under the conditions of the present
experimental set-up. Hemicastration, pinealectomy,
pinealectomy-hemicastration, and hemicastration-
blinding slightly increase testicular weight.
Pinealectomy-blinding, and pinealectomy-hemicastra¬
tion blinding also cause an increase in testicular
weight. The above results will be discussed.

THE EFFECT OF SOCIAL STRESS ON AVIAN TUMORS AND OTHER INFEC¬
TIOUS DISEASES. W. B. Gross and G. Colmano, Dept, of Veteri-
nary Science, Va. Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ., Blacks¬
burg, Va. 24061

Chickens were kept in a high stress (HS) social environ¬
ment by transferring them at least twice per week to cages
containing unfamiliar chickens of the same sex. Chickens
vere kept in a low stress (LS) social environment by main¬
taining them for at least 2 weeks prior to experimental pro¬
cedures in cages with 1 or 2 birds or in the dark.

HS chickens were more susceptible to viral infections,
(including virus induced tumor) , less susceptible to bacte¬
rial infections and produced less antibodies than LS birds.
Chickens selected for a high plasma corticosterone reaction
to stress were more susceptible to viral infections, less
susceptible to bacterial infections and produced less anti¬
body than chickens selected for a low plasma corticosterone
reaction to stress. The feeding of adrenal blocking chemi¬
cals such as metyrapone or DDD resulted in increased resist¬
ance to viral infections. Doses of DDD which were higher or
lower than the optimal dose were less effective. The injec¬
tion of adrenocorticotrophic hormone or corticosterone
resulted in increased resistance to bacterial infections.

(Aided by NIH grant AI08978)

IN VITRO FERTILIZATION OF CAT {FELIS CATUS L. )

EGGS. C E. Hamner, L. L Jennings* and N. J. Sojka,

Div. of Reproductive Biology, Dept, of Obstetrics and
Gynecology, Univ. of Virginia School of Med. , Charlottes¬
ville, Va 22901.

Recently ovulated cat eggs can be fertilized in vitro by
cat spermatozoa that have been incubated in the uterus of
estrus females for 2 to 24 hours There was no cleavage
of any egg cultured without spermatozoa or with freshly
ejaculated spermatozoa. A total of 80 eggs were cultured
with spermatozoa that had been incubated in utero for

2 to 24 hours. Fifty eggs or, 62 5% of the total, were
fertilized . The fertilized eggs cleaved normally up to the

8-cell stage in heated rabbit blood serum before arrest of
development. (Aided by NICHHD Grant no. HD-03516).

The Virginia Journal of Science

132

REJECTION OF SKIN ALLOGRAFTS IN THE NEWT. NOTOPTHALMUS
VIRIDESCENS. WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE EFFECTS OF PHY-
TOHrMAGGLUTININ. J.A. Hightower*, Dept, of Anatomy, Med.

Col. of Va., Richmond, Va. 23219

Surface morphology and histological sections of skin allo¬
grafts were studied in untreated adult newts and compared
with allografts from newts receiving Phytohemagglutinin (PHjj
either before or after grafting in an effort to determine
whether PHA caused alterations in the events leading to and
including complete allograft rejection. In addition, the
morphology of spleens, thymuses, livers, bone marrows and
intestines from untreated and PHA-treated newts were studied
and compared to determine whether FHA or allografting caused
alterations in the cellular composition of the hemopoietic
tissues of normal adult newts .

The results obtained in this study indicated that the
administration of PHA did not affect the time of complete
allograft rejection or alter the cellular composition of the
thymus, liver, bone marrow and the lamina propria of the
intestine. However, the administration of PHA did cause an
increase in the number of lymphocytes and the destruction of
erythrocytes in the spleen of the newt.

As a result of a detailed study of many grafts in various
stages of rejection, it was determined that hemal stasis
within allografts was a more reliable indicator of complete
graft rejection than death of melanocytes.

A POSSIBLE EXPLANATION CONCERNING THE ACTION

OF HEMOGLOBIN S AT THE MOLECULAR LEVEL.

William Keefe. Department of Biophysics, Med. Col. of

Va., Richmond, Va. 23219.

A program has been written based on the theories of
Ramachrandran and Scheraga which will make it possible
to choose the most probable configuration of a polypeptide
chain. This will be used on the first six amino acids in
the beta chain of normal and S hemoglobin to determine
what structural differences, if any, there are between
these two hemoglobins.

THE ENIGMA OF THE RATTLESNAKE'S RAHLE. James H. Martin*.

Dept, of Physiology, Med. Col. of Va., Richmond, Va. 23219

The "use" or "function" of the rattlesnake's rattle has
been a source of active discussion since the discovery of
the rattlesnake. Although the precise techniques of modern
physiology cannot determine "the use" of the rattle, they
can determine how the rattle mechanism functions. The data
presented indicate that the systems generating the rattle
motion may be unique for vertebrate skeletal muscle.

The maximum ra'ttling frequency is a linear function of
temperature between 16° and 32°C. The rattling motion is a
complex wave form rather than the described sine wave. There
is a maximum frequency which is dependent on temperature,
and a "preferred" rattling frequency which is additionally
dependent on tail and rattle mass.

The muscles producing the rattling motion do not normally
give graded or tetanic responses. All the fibers twitch
with an "all or none" response, much like a heart. The
twitch is extremely fast, and at 18°C, the contraction time
is only 10msec.

The in situ length of the fibers allows for only ^/3 the
possible tension to be generated. A strip of muscle must
be stretched to a length 50% greater than the in situ rest
length before the peak is reached on the length-tension
curve. At that point, the tension developed is only about
0.3kg/cm^, a tension considerably less than that developed
by most skeletal muscles.

Supported by NSF grant GB-8685

ADDITIONAL ROUTES IN THE METABOLISM OF NICOTINE TO 3-PYRIDYL-
ACETATE. R. H. Meacham, Jr., E. R. Bowman, and H. McKennis,

Jr. Dept, of Pharmacology, Med. Col. of Va., Richmond, Va.

23219.

The metabolism of dihydrometanicotine and metanicotine,
two minor alkaloids of tobacco smoke, has been studied in
the dog. Following intravenous administration of dihydro¬
metanicotine difumarate (84.6 mg/kg) to male mongrel dogs,
the urine was processed to obtain 4-(3-pyridyl)butyric acid
and 3-pyridylacetic acid, which were isolated as methyl
esters and identified by melting points, elemental analyses,
and the infrared spectra of their picrate derivatives. After
intravenous administration of metanicotine (35 mg/kg) to
male mongrel dogs, 4-(3-pyridyl)-3-butenoic acid and 3-pyri¬
dylacetic acid were isolated as methyl esters by processing
the collected urine. Methyl 4- (3-pyridyl) -3-butenoate was
identified by NMR and mass spectrometry, and by elemental
analysis of its picrate derivative. Methyl 3-pyridylacetate
picrate was identified by melting point, elemental analysis,
and its infrared spectrum. Previous studies (McKennis,

Schwartz, and Bowman, 1964) have provided evidence for the
metabolic formation of 3-pyridylacetic acid from (-)-nicotine
via either (-)-cotinine or (-)-demethylcotinine . In light
of the report of Truhaut and De Clercq that dihydrometa¬
nicotine is a metabolite of nicotine in the rat, a third
alternate route to 3-pyridylacetate is suggested by the
present investigation. (Aided by grants from the American
Tobacco Co. and the AMA-Education & Research Foundation.)

THE ISOLATION AND CHARACTERIZATION OF RNA

FROM NORMAL AND REGENERATING RAT LIVER.

C.H. O'Neal Dept, of Biophysics, Med. Col. ofVa.,
Richmond, Va. 23219

The regenerating liver system is an example of a
mitotically inactive organ that can be induced to
undergo cellular proliferation within a known time
sequence. It is therefore an ideal system to demonstrate
whether or not t-RNA "modulation" has a role in the
regulation of transcription and translation in a
mammalian system. Techniques for rapidly performing
the partial hepatectomy, isolation of the nucleic acid
fraction, and particularly the isolation, characterization
and assay of t-RNA will be described.

It has been found necessary to include detergent in
all steps of the isolation to inhibit the effect of
nuclease. The usual procedure for separation of t-RNA
from ribosomal RNA with IM NaCl has not been found
to be satisfactory. Conditions for BD cellulose
chromatographic fractionation of t-RNA in one mg
amounts have been developed for examination of material
from single livers. Preliminary studies with
and S35 will be described. (Supported by N.S.F. grant

GB 14046)

SILICONE RUBBER TECHNIC FOR THE STUDY OF RENAL AND HEPATIC
MICROCIRCULATION. J. CloAk OiboAnet and J. H. UeJie.diXh..

Pep-t. SuAg., Bowman G^y Sch, Med., Wofee VoKz^t

Salm, W. C. 27J03

August Krough pioneered direct visualization of small
vessels in vivo by transillumination technics. This technic
was limited when one wished to study capillaries in thick
parenchymatous organs. A silicone product (MICROFIL,

Canton Bio-Medical Prod., Inc., Denver, Colo. 80239) has re¬
cently become available for perfusing the microvasculature
and other tubular structures. The composition, character¬
istics, and mixing instructions are shipped with the product.

Approximate volumes were obtained by measuring the
amount of saline required to empty blood from the arteries
or veins of organs under study. Injections were made
manually after pressure "feel" was established by training
trials using a mercury manometer. The aim was not to exceed

1 1/2X physiological pressures. The liver was perfused with
yellow, orange, white and maroon into the bile ducts, portal
vein, hepatic artery and hepatic vein, respectively. When
cleared, study with a stereoscopic microscope revealed many
lobes perfused in an excellent fashion for detailed study.
Histological sections may be made from the perfused tissue
by regular methods, (Aided by NIH grant 5392)

“^Present Address: Dept. Vet. Sci. , VPI & SU, Blacksburg,

Va. 24061

Proceedings, 1970-1971

133

SOME STUDIES ON THE ENZYME ORNITHINE DECARBOXYLASE. Walter

B. Panko* and Francis T, Kenney*, Dept, of Urology, Univ. of

Va. Sch. Med., Charlottesville, Va. 22901, and Biology Div.,

Oak Ridge Nat. Lab., Oak Ridge, Tenn. 37830

Hepatic ornithine decarboxylase activity in adrenalecto-
mized rats was increased by a variety of hormones, including
hydrocortisone, growth hormone, insulin, glucagon, and thy¬
roxin. Repeated treatment with either hydrocortisone or
growth hormone, the most effective of the hormones tested,
failed to maintain the elevated enzyme levels attained with¬
in a few hours after the initial injection. A partial
purification of the induced hepatic enzyme was accomplished.
(Research jointly supported by the Nat. Cancer Inst., NIH
and the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission under contract with

Union Carbide Corp. and NIH Grant FR05431-10)

DNA SYNTHETIC AND MITOTIC ACTIVITY OF DIFFERENTIA¬
TING LENS CELLS IN THE CHICK EMBRYO. T.L. Pearce.

Dept, of Anatomy, Sch. of Med. , Georgetown Univ. ,
Washington, D.C. 20007

A combined immunofluorescence-autoradiography
technique was applied to the embryonic chick lens
placode to determine whether cells which had begun
biochemical differentiation were still capable of

DNA synthesis or division. Embryos were given 5

VIC tritiated thymidine in ovo at 50 h. of incuba¬
tion and harvested 4 h. later. Sections were
treated first for immunofluorescence then submit¬
ted to autoradiographic procedures. By comparing
the same lens sections treated with both tech¬
niques it was possible to tell which cells had
synthesized both lens crystallins and DNA, and
which had undergone division after crystallin syn¬
thesis. From stage 14, when crystallins first ap¬
pear, through stage 16 no significant change was
seen in the DNA synthetic or mitotic rates from
pre-crystallin levels. Fluorescence spread to

85% of cells during this time. In stage 16, 41%
of cells were labeled with both fluorescence and
autoradiographic grains. These results and the
observation of a number of fluorescent mitoses in¬
dicate that the onset of crystallin synthesis pre¬
cludes neither DNA synthesis nor division in this
tissue. (Supported by NIH grant GM39,219)

THE RESPONSE OF RAT THYMUS NUCLEI TO THYROID HORMONE

Edwin Ruark* and C.J. Ackerman, Dept, of Biochemistry and
Nutrition, Va. Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ., Blacks¬
burg, Virginia 24061

The effects of triiodothyronine (L-T_) on the protein,

RNA and DNA fractions of the thymus nuclei of growth-
arrested sulfaquanidine-fed rats has been studied. A
single injection of 15 yg of L-T^ stimulated the incorpor¬
ation of C-labelled amino acids into total nuclear pro¬

tein, whole histone, and histone fractions. Time course
studies indicated that the protein & RNA moieties of thy¬
mus chromatin of rats were increased after the administra¬
tion of L-T_. This change is accompanied by an increase
in the template efficiency of the chromation. The naked

DNA is not affected by L-T^. The results suggest that

L-T^ has a direct effect on rat thymus chromatin which en¬
hances its potential as a template for RNA synthesis.

TRYPTOPHANYL FLUORESCENCE OF SODIUM DODECYL SULFATE- TREATED

AND 2-MERCAPTOETHANOL- REDUCED PROTEINS; A SIMPLE ASSAY FOR
TRYPTOPHAN. K. R. Shelton and K. S. Rogers. Dept, of Bio-
chemistry, Med, Col. of Va., Health Sciences Div. of Va.
Commonwealth Univ. , Richmond, Va. 23219

Relative tryptophanyl fluorescence intensities of eleven
different proteins (bovine liver glutamate dehydrogenase,
bovine pancreas tr3rpsin and a-chymotrypsinogen, egg white
lysozyme, ovalbumin, bovine serum albumin and -globulin,

bovine heart and rabbit muscle lactate dehydrogenases, rab¬
bit muscle glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase, and
yeast alcohol dehydrogenase) were evaluated as a function of
the physical state of the protein, i.e. native, denatured
with intact disulfide bonds, and denatured with reduced di¬
sulfide bonds.

Tryptophanyl fluorescence of these proteins was directly
proportional to the tryptophan content of the reduced, deter¬
gent-protein complex. Denaturation of proteins by detergent
alone, although causing pronounced changes in fluorescence
intensity, was unable to provide a common microenvironment
for all tr3q)tophan residues. A simple fluorescence assay of
tryptophan content in proteins was developed.

THE CHARACTERIZATION OF PROTEIN FROM NORMAL

AND REGENERATING RAT LIVER BY S.D.S. ACRYL¬
AMIDE GEL ELECTROPHORESIS. M. Thompson and

C . O'Neal Dept, of Biophysics, Med. Col, of Va, ,

23219

Gel electrophoretic techniques offer considerably
greater resolution for the analysis of macromolecules
than standard procedures. The techniques of agarose
slab, standard disc and S.D.S. gel electrophoresis have
been used to examine the plasma and 30, OOOg supernatant
from normal and regenerating rat livers at different
time periods following partial hepatectomy. The patterns
were examined to detect variations between individuals
and for any marked quantitative or qualitative differences
during regeneration. Various techniques for staining
the gels will be described including the fluorescent ANS
procedure. The S.D.S. gel technique offers the further
advantage of molecular weight estimation.

Gel fractionation of nucleic acid samples from
normal and regenerating tissues will also be described.
(Supported by N. S. F. grant GB 14046 and an A. D.

Williams Award)

THE INHERITANCE OF TONGUE ROLLING AND FOLDING. Martha R.

Yancev* and J. I. Townsend. Program in Human Genetics, Med.

Col. of Va. , Va. Commonwealth Univ., Richmond, Va. 23219

The ability of 1040 Caucasian college students to turn up
the tip of the tongue varies from not at all to folding the
organ flat upon itself. The ability to roll the margins of
the tongue upward appears to be inherited independently of
the ability to fold the organ, but only if folding is clas¬
sified as folding the tip flat upon the organ. The results
of this study are consistent with previous reports of deter¬
mination of the ability to roll the tongue by an autosomal
dominant gene and of ability to fold, by an autosomal reces¬
sive gene. The frequencies of these genes in the present
sample are in close agreement with frequencies in other

Caucasian populations, but differ to various extents from
those reported in other races.

134

The Virginia Journal of Science

Section of Microbiology

Forty-ninth Annual Meeting of The Virginia Academy of Science
May 12—14, 1971, Blacksburg, Virginia

DRUG RESISTANCE IN PSEUDOMONAS AERUGINOSA. Ruth B. Finley*
and J. D. Punch, Dept, of Microbiology, Health Sciences
Division, Va. Commonwealth Univ. , Richmond, Va. 23219.

The ability of P^ aeruginosa to serve as an R factor host
has been investigated. Attempts to transfer R factor 222
cfrom Escherichia coli , Proteus mirabilis . and Salmonella
typhimurium to P^ aeruginosa recipients, to transfer drug
resistance from 2h multiply resistant clinical isolates of P.
aeruginosa to ^ coli , and to eliminate drug resistance in P.
aeruginosa cultures by acridine treatment have not been suc¬
cessful. During the analysis and characterization of the
DNA from 12 multiply resistant isolates of P_^ aeruginosa,
extrachromosomal bands were observed in the DNA from 2
strains. Satellite DNA bands from one strain had buoyant
densities of 1.718 and 1.711 g/cm3 in CsCl. Buoyant densi¬
ties after thermal and alkaline denaturation indicated that
both bands were composed of double-stranded DNA; the hea¬
viest band was present as covalently closed circular mole¬
cules , and the other as linear DNA molecules . The extra-
chromosomal bands observed in the DNA from the other strain
had buoyant densities of 1.711 and 1.705 g/cm3; both molec¬
ular species were composed of linear double-stranded DNA.

The inability to transfer R factors to P^ aeruginosa eind to
transfer drug resistance from clinical isolates suggests that
R factors contribute little, if any, to the multiple resist¬
ance so characteristic of this species. This study provides,
however, the first report of satellite DNA bands in P_^ aerug¬
inosa.

ANTIGENIC STUDIES OF RABIES ISOLATES. Martha Hale
and Philip H. Coleman, Dept, of Microbiology, MCV-
HSD, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond,
Virginia.

In the United States rabies occurs primarily
as an enzootic disease of wild animals with dis¬
tinct, host-related, geographic patterns of dis¬
tribution. The present studies were initiated to
determine if viruses isolated from naturally in¬
fected wild animals in one area of the country
could be distinguished antigenically from isolates
obtained in other areas or from vaccine strains.
Serological antigens were prepared from suckling
mouse braims infected with "street" rabies iso-t-
lates obtained from foxes, skunks, bats, and rac¬
coons and from "Low Egg Passage" (LEP) and "Chal¬
lenge Virus Strain" (CVS) vaccine strains. Hyper¬
immune ascitic fluids were prepared in mice and
serologically tested against homologous and heter¬
ologous antigens. In micro-Ouchterlony gel dif¬
fusion and complement fixation tests, differences
were detected between the vaccine viruses and the
field isolates and between some of the field
isolates .

THE PROTECTIVE EFFECT OF IMMUNE SERUM IN MURINE
SALMONELLOSIS. Nelda M. Marecki* and H. S. Hsu
Dept, of Microbiology, Med. Coll, of Va., Richmond,
Va. 23219

There have been conflicting reports concerning
the ability to protect mice against lethal salmo¬
nella infection by pr es ens it i z at ion of the organism
with normal or immune serum. In the present study,j
serum from guinea pigs or mice infected with Sal¬
monella typhimurium was used.. Suspensions of
virulent S^. typhimurium (8xl0"/ml) were mixed in
equal volume ratio with normal or immune serum and
incubated for 15 mins at room temperature. Serial
dilutions were made to yield suspensions containing:
10^, lO'^ and 10 organisms per 0.5 ml for intra- ^
peritoneal injection into mice. This treatment of
bacteria with serum was not bactericidal as deter¬
mined by viable bacterial counts. The following
observations were made: the LD in mice for this
strain of salmonella was approximately 10 bacteria
by ip route; presensitization of bacteria with
normal serum did not alter the percentage of sur¬
vival of infected mice; the presence of immune
serum offered significant protection against fatal
infection when the challenge doses were 10 or 10^
bacteria. It was concluded that humoral factors
played a benefitial, but not a decisive, role in
acquired resistance in salmonellosis.

IMFLUEIICE OF THE FL\ P!;e:!0ITPE OM THE F’ E'UIilMCY OF ?I':iFRI.iTE
■JECC.LLi.'.ETS IF SSCHB.ICFIA COLI K 12. A.S, Karkusen
and Franlc Osborne". Christopher Nevjport College, Newport
Nev/S, Virginia 23606 and the Department of Biology,
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, Mew York 12181

Genes controlling the Fira and Fla phenotypes are
napped widely separated loci on the E. coli linkage map but
certain anomalies appear in the li.nkage data v.'hen fim'*'
is transferred as an unselected .marker in conju,gation
experiments ,

A system is described in which the outcome of crosses
between a fin; donor and a flm recinient was influenced
by the Fla phenotype of the recipient strain. Vihen
variants of a fim~ fla recipient that had reverted to
fla*~ were used as genetic recipients in crosses with a
fim*** do.nor, the freouency of resulting Fimt recombinants
as well as the readiness with ivhich the Fimtphenotype
were expressed was increased, (Aided by grant 20-0297A
fro.m the Research Foundation of the State of New York)

Proceedings, 1970-1971

135

STUDIES ON Naegleria sp. AND EXPERIMENTAL PRIMARY AMOEBIC
MENINGOENCEPHALITIS. E. Clifford Nelson and Muriel M. Jones,
Dept, of Microbiology, Med. Col. of Va., Richmond, Va.

23219

At least 16 cases of fatal amoebic meningoencephalitis
have occurred in Virginia since 1937 (Santos, 1970). From
the last four occurring in the summers of 1967, 1968 and

1969 we isolated strains of an amoeba-flagellate belonging
to the genus Naegleria. These strains have proven highly
pathogenic for mice inoculated by simple nasal instillation.

Present evidence indicates that human infections arise
when amoebae growing in fresh water are introduced during
swimming or splashing in water. In an effort to pin-point
the environmental origin of the pathogenic strains we are
making isolations of Naegleria from all suspected or possible
bodies of water in the Richmond area. Already over a
hundred isolations of Naegleria have been grown out in
culture and tested for pathogenicity in mice. We have not
as yet encountered a strain comparable in pathogenicity to
the strains of Naegleria isolated from fatal cases. As a
result of comparison of culture response, morphology,
electron microscope ultrastructure as well as pathogenicity
we are inclined to agree with Carter (1970) and Singh (1970)
who have given new species names to Naegleria strains iso¬
lated from fatal cases in Australia and Florida. A review of
our progress in determining the environmental origin of
pathogenic Naegleria will be given.

PHOTODYNAMIC ACTION OF PROFLAVINE, METHYLENE BLUE AND CRYSTAL
VIOLET ON DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID. M. C. Noble* and S. G.

Bradley, Med. Col. Va., Health Sciences Div., Va. , Common¬
wealth Univ., Richmond, Virginia 23219

Photodynamic action of proflavine, methylene blue and
crystal violet on two actinophages , Streptomyces venezuelae
phage MSP8 and Nocardia brasiliensis phage MNP6, was found
to be pH dependent. Added deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and
ribonucleic acid effectively protected the actinophages from
photoinactivation by these dyes. For proflavine, polyadeny¬
late and polyinosinate afforded more protection against photo¬
sensitization than the other tested homopolymers. For methy¬
lene blue, the guanine derivatives were effective protecting
agents. None of the added bases, nucleosides, nucleotides
or homopolymers protected phage from photoinactivation by
crystal violet. Proflavine increased the thermal stability
of isolated DNA in either 0.015 M NaCl-0.0015 M citrate or

0.01 M K2HPO4; the increased thermal stability was propor¬
tional to the adenine + thymine (AT) content of the DNA. The
thermal stability of DNA in 0.01 M K2HPO4 containing methylene
blue decreased after exposure to light; the decreased thermal
stability was proportional to the guanine + cytosine (GC) of
the DNA. Crystal violet increased the thermal stability of

DNA samples in 0.01 M KH2PO4 after exposure to light; the
increased thermal stability was proportional to the AT content
of the DNA. Each of the dyes bind to DNA, proflavine to
adenylate residues, methylene blue to guanylate residues and
crystal violet to adenylate, thymidylate or both.

The RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE BACTERIA AND THE PLANT IN

AMINO ACID FORMATION BY SOYBEAN NODULES. L.C. Olson

Dept, of Biology, Christopher Newport Col. Newport News,

Va. 23606

The isolated bacteroids of soybean nodules have pre¬
viously been shown to fix N2 to NHJ, but the nitrogen
translocated from the nodule is in the form of amino acids
and amides. I report on the means present for forming
amino acids from this NH^ in the bacteria and plants
grown separately and in the soybean nodules in which they
are both present.

An active alanine dehydrogenase was present in

Rhizobium japonicum grown either on an amino acid mixture
or on a medium using NHJ as the sole source of nitrogen.

An active glutamate dehydrogenase, primarily linked
to NADH, was present in non-nodulated soybean plants. In
separations of nodule extracts using isopyenic sucrose
density gradient centrifugation, much of the glutamate
dehydrogenase activity was present in the mitochondrial
fraction but neither glutamate nor alanine dehydrogenase
was detectable in the bacteroid material.

CARBOHYDRATE TRANSPORT BY HEAT-INJURED SALMONELLA

TYPHIMURIUM. M. D, Pierson*. Dept, of Food Science and
Technology, Va. Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ.,

Blacksburg, Va, 24061

Salmonella typhimurium was grown in either Trypicase

Soy Broth (TSB) or a citrate salts medium (CSM) and heat-
injured at 48®C for 30 minutes. When injured TSB grown
cells were placed in TSB, they recovered their tolerance
to Levine's Eosin Methylene Blue Agar containing 2% salt
within 3 hours. Injured TSB grown cells did not recover
in CSM. Injured CSM grown cells recovered within 6 hours
in either TSB or CSM. Warburg manometry showed that the
rate of oxygen uptake and the total amount of oxygen con¬
sumed for various substrates was greater for injured cells
than normal cells. The rate of endogenous oxygen uptake
was depressed in injured cells. Radiorespirometry experi¬
ments revealed an 80% Embden-Myerhof f-Parnas and 20% hexo-
semonophosphate pathway participation in glucose metabolism
for both normal and injured cells. However, the rate and
total amount of ^^C02 evolved from labeled glucose was
always greater for injured cells. In the absence of an
energy source, the rate of methyl-a-D-glucopyranoside
(a-MG) accumulation was decreased following heat-injury.

In the presence of an exogenous energy source, the rate
of a-MG transport and level of a-MG accumulation was
greater for injured cells than for normal cells.

SPORULATION PIGMENT FROM STREPTOMYCES VENEZUELAE. H. E.
Scribner, III* and S. G. Bradley, Dept, of Microbiology,

MCV-HSD, Va. Commonwealth Univ., Richmond, Virginia 23219

A pH indicator pigment has been isolated from the spores
and aerial mycelia of Streptomyces venezuelae. The absorp-
tion maxima in the visible range are 430 nm at pH 3, and

520 nm at pH 12. Pigment is produced rapidly when the
streptomycete is grown on tomato paste-oatmeal agar and
glucose-salts agar, but only after a week on nutrient agar
and peptone-yeast extract agar. Pigment production can be
stimulated on peptone-yeast extract agar by the addition of
glucose, citrate, or pyruvate. The production of pigment on
solid media coincides with the development of aerial mycelia,
and does not occur until aerial mycelia are produced. Pre¬
liminary data indicate that the pigment binds to deoxyribo¬
nucleic acid (DNA) and has antibiotic activity against
Staphylococcus aureus. This pigment may be identical to the
one isolated from abberrant DNA extracted from Streptomyces
venezuelae spores.

MANGANESE CONTROLLED MORPHOGENESIS OF
PENICILLIUM CLAVIGERUM AND PENICILLIUM
CLAVIFORME. W.H. Tinnell, R. E. Benoit, and

B. L. Jefferson, Biology Dept. , Va. Polytechnic

Institute, Blacksburg, Va. 24061

A defined medium was developed which contains
maltose -proline -mine ral salts . An organic nitrogen
source is required for maximum cell yield of these fu; ng; .

A variety of aminio acids will satisfy this requirement.
Manganese is required for the production of coremia and
we have demonstrated with that this "morphogenic

trigger" is concjtentrated in the spores and coremia at
a greater degree than the mycelium. Mn causes quant¬
itative and qualitative changes in ceil proteins. There
was twice as much protein in the coremia then in the my¬
celium, and the .re was twice as much protein in the my¬
celium when Mn was present in the medium. The optimum
manganese concentration for the growth of P. clavigerum
is 4. 5 mg/1.

136

The Virginia Journal of Science

NUTRITION OF PHLYCTOCHYTRIUi'i SEIgGLOBOSUi i .

Gilbert S. Trelavmy. Dept, of Biology, iladison
Col. , Harrisonburg, Va. 22801

Inforination concerning the nutrition of
chytrids is slowly becoming available. Knowledge
of this aspect of their physiology may lead to
some insight as to their role in the biotic
conraunity, as well as determine if the current
separation of species is correlated v;ith differ¬
ences in nutrition. Growth studies v/ere carried
out using a chemically defined mineral medium
suppler.iented with individual carbohydrates and
amino acids as sources of carbon and/or nitrogen.
Comparison of growth was made on a dry vjeight
basis. Although both types of substrates sup¬
ported grov/th, the nuraber of different substrates
utilized by this fungus v/as quite limited. These
results are discussed, together v;ith a comparison
of the nutrition of this genus with that of
Rliizophydium.

THE UTILIZATION OF CARBON BY PHLYCTOCHYTRIUM SEMIGLOBOSUM ■
Robert D. Yoder, Dept, of Biology, Eastern Mennonite Coll.,
Harrisonburg, Va. 22801.

The utlll2ation of carbon by Phlyctochytrium semiglo-
bosum has been observed in this study using a medium con-
taining glucose labeled with C^^* as the sole carbon source.

The fate of this Cl** was determined by counting the
activity in the carbon dioxide, lipid and cell residue
fractions .

This audy indicates that of the C^’* utilized, 23.1% was
found in evolved CO2, 7.8% in the lipid fraction and 69.2%
in the remaining cell residue.

Speculative interpretations are offered as to the
various metabolic pathways available to the organism in its
metabolism of glucose. Consideration is also given to the
fixation of Cl^02 and the effects this would have on the
percentage of Cl** found in the three fractions.

Section of Psychology

Forty-ninth Annual Meeting of The Virginia Academy of Science
May 12-14, 1971, Blacksburg, Virginia

A MOTIVATIONAL ANALYSIS OF REM DEPRIVATION. I. B. Albert
and G. A. Cicala*. Dept, of Psychology, Old Dominion Univ. ,
Norfolk, Va. 23508 and Dept, of Psychology, Univ. of Del.,
Newark, Del. 19711

Three experiments were performed in order to assess the
appetitive effects and discriminative stimulus properties
of rapid eye movement (REM) sleep deprivation in rats. The
first experiment measured the latency to both behavioral
non-REM and REM sleep produced by REM deprivation. The
results indicated that REM deprivation specifically affects
the latency to REM sleep while latency to non-REM sleep
was unaffected.

In the second experiment, subjects were punished with
electric shock for going into REM or non-REM sleep; and
behavioral sleep latencies were recorded. The punishment
of behavioral REM or non-REM sleep selectively lengthened
the latency to REM sleep. In that the punishment of REM
sleep did not produce longer latencies to REM than did
punishment during non-REM sleep, it was concluded that the
stimulus properties of REM sleep are not different from
those of non-REM sleep and that the increased latencies
produced by punishment were due to conditioned fear. The
third experiment showed that increasing fear would increase
REM latency.

It was generally concluded that REM deprivation directly
affects appetitive measures of the REM motive; but REM
sleep does not have stimulus characteristics which are
discriminable from the other stages of sleep.

DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONSE LATENCIES IN CLASSICAL AND INSTRU¬
MENTAL AVERSIVE CONDITIONING. Gary J. Bennett^, and Michael
W. Etkin, Va. Commonwealth Univ,, Richmond, Va. 23220

Four pilot studies were conducted to determine the appli¬
cability of response distributions as a dependent variable
for the evaluation of drug effects on aversive conditioning.
Previous research had indicated that response latency distri*
buttons for classical anticipatory and instrumental avoid¬
ance responses differed with anticipatory responses occur ing
just prior to US onset and negatively skewed while avoidance
responses occured in the middle of the CS-US interval and
were symmetrically distributed. Behaviorally moderate dose-
ages of phenobarbital sodium, methamphetamine hydrochloride,
chlordiazepoxide hydrochloride, and nicotinic acid were em¬
ployed in a within subject design. Subjects were given 200
trials daily with alternating trials of classical defensive
and instrumental avoidance contingencies; each of which was
signalled by a discriminative CS which preceeded the US by
5 sec.. Subjects were two female albino rats of inbred Wis-
tar stock. Analyses of variance on the mean response lat¬
encies and % CRs revealed that: a) phenobarbital decreased
mean latencies for avoidance, but not for anticipatory re¬
sponses (p .01), b) methamphetamine decreased mean latencies
for anticipatory responses (p .05), but did not effect avoid
ance responses, c) chlordiazepoxide had no discernible
effects on either type of responding and d) nicotine in¬
creased the mean latencies for avoidance responses (p .05),
and had no effect on anticipatory responses.

Proceedings, 1970-1971

137

A SURVEY OF MNEMONIC TECHNIQUES USED BY COLLEGE STUDENTS
IN FREE-RECALL LEARNING. Kenneth A. Blick and Catole J.
Waite.* Dept, of Psychology, Univ. of Richmond, Va. 23173
In a survey of memory aids that college students would
employ in free-recall learning, £s reported the following
devices ordered by frequency of occurrence: first letter
(347o) , simple repetition (217.) , clustering (167o) , other
(137o) , personal experience (97.), and descriptive story
(67,). No significant differences were found between men
and women by category of memory aids reported. The inci¬
dence of the first-letter technique was not significantly
different from the simple-repetition technique; however,
the first-letter technique was reported significantly more
often than the four other mnemonic systems. It was con¬
cluded that surveys of mnemonic techniques should be con¬
ducted in the othenjise well-researched areas of serial
learning and paired-associate learning.

THE EFFECT OF STRESS, ACTH AND ASCORBIC ACID ON THE BLOOD
PLASMA LEVEL OF CORTICOSTERONE AND CHOLESTEROL. G.Colmano
and W.B. Gross, Dept. Vet. Sci., VPI&SU, Blacksburg, Va. 24061.

Stress expresses and subintends the action on a group (so¬
cial stress) and on an individual, or the combination of di¬
versified stressors represented by the single activity of an
agent, be it physical (traumatic) , chemical (parasitic-micro-
bial-vlral) , or psychological (red light of alarm glowing
without apparent physiological cause) . Stress is qualitative*.
ly defined as a perturbation of homeostasis , and physiologic¬
ally it is quantitatively characterized as a measurable enti¬
ty, represented as the amount of blood plasma corticosterone
which permits to extrapolate the amount of pituitary adreno¬
corticotropic hormone (ACTH) induced by the type and quantity
of stress imposed. We found the level of stress to be propor¬
tional to the level of ACTH and corticosterone (Colraano, G.,
Va . J . Sci . , 18 : 197 , 1967 ;Gross ,W . B. and G.Colmano, Poultry Sci.,
46:41, 1967TTWe determined the level of cholesterol (following
a modified Babson, A.L.,et al, method , Clin. Chim. Acta. _7: 800 ,
1962) and corticosterone (by a modification of Guiilemin,R. ,
et al , f luorometric method ,J .Lab .Clin.Med 830 , 1959) in the
blood plasma of birds treated with ACTH and vitamin C(L-as-
corbic acid) , before and after infection by E. coli (10® vi¬
able cells) injected into the air sacs. The measured level of
corticosterone and cholesterol, before and after achieving an
infection with pathological lesions, shows constant trends
correlating with the level of stress induced by the bacterial
infection and it increases with the number and severity of
pathological lesions. The antiinflammatory activity of ACTH
and ascorbic acid are emphasized and correlated to the in¬
crease in stress and corticosterone and decrease in patholo¬
gical lesions. (Aided by NIH Grant No. AI-05418-BM) .

PROBABILITY LEARNING AS A FUNCTION OF EVENT
DURATION. Pattie Dougherty* and Elizabeth Byrd
Mount* . Randolph-Macon Woman's Col., Lynchburg,
Va. 24504

Twenty-eight female undergraduates participated
in a two-choice learning task in which they
predicted the occurrence of red or blue lights.
There were 100 trials in each of three conditions.
Conditions were: (A)equal proportions of blue
and red lights, the blue light being presented
for 1 second and the red for 1.5 seconds, (B)
unequal proportions of blue and red lights with
blue 40^ of the time for a duration of 1.5 seconds
and red 60% for 1 second, and (C)with blue
occurring 60% of the time for 2 seconds and red
40^ for 3 seconds. The subjects probability
matched on all conditions and no effects of
stimulus duration were observed. It was
concluded that unless the probability learning
experiment is designed so that subjects must
attend to duration of the event, there will be no
apparent duration effects. Suggestions were
offered for modification of the design to account
for the effects of duration.

CRITICAL FLICKER FREQUENCY THRESHOLDS IN THE RAT AS DETER¬
MINED BY THE METHOD OF CONDITIONED SUPPRESSION. P. A. Buck-
ner* and G. W. Kent. Dept, of Psychology, Bridgewater Col,

Bri dgewater, Va. 22812

The ourpose of this research was to develop methods and
instrumentation for determining CFF thresholds with animals.
The dependent variable was the number of licks of a water
tube during a 10-second period. Responses were counted
during a 10-second 'safe' period (S) immediately preceeding
the presentation of a flicker stimulus, and during the 10-
second 'warning' period (W) concurrent with the flicker
stimulus and immediately preceeding an unavoidable foot
shock. The suppression ratio was the ratio of the difference
in response during the S and W periods to the S period. CFF
thresholds were computed by a modified method of constant
stimuli in which a suppression ratio of .50 was used as the
threshold criterion. 15 Long-Evans rats were given lick
training until a steady baseline lick rate was obtained.
Conditioning trials using a 4.4 Hz. flickering stimulus were
given until a suporession ratio of .30 was obtained. Daily
threshold sessions of 30 minutes were run. Three flicker
rates were presented during a session: 100 Hz. on 85% of
the trials as a steady light, 4.4 Hz. on 5% of the trials as
a suppression check, and threshold flicker rates on 10% of
the trials. One luminance level was employed. The thres¬
hold values ranged from 29.9 to 31.3 Hz. compared to 85.4 Hz.
for a human observer under the same stimulus conditions.

ATTITUDES TOWARDS ABORTION: A REGIONAL COMPARISON
STUDY OF PHYSICIANS. N .K .Cumminejs* , J . L. Ware* .
and F.S. Murray. Dept, of Psyohologiy, Randolph-
Macon Woman's Col., Lynchburc, Va, 24504,

An attitude scale using; the Thurstonlan pro¬
cedure was constructed to measure attitudes
towards abortion. Two samples of colleee under¬
graduates, one all female and one coed, were
asked to rate each Item on an 11-polnt scale. The
completed scale was sent to all physicians In
Lynchburg:, Va, and to 5OO randomly selected
physicians In New York City, Of the scales from
Lynchburg, 66:? (76 out of I13) and of the scales
from New York City, 46;? (229 out of 500) were
returned within 30 days. Both groups showed a high
degree of favorableness towards abortion. The
median attitude for Lynchburg was 9,1 and for
New York City, 9.3: no significant difference be¬
tween the groups was observed. Further analysis
were performed for differences between religious
preference and fields of medical specialty.

IGNORING IRRELEVANT’ INFORMATION. David G. Lines. Dept, of
Psychology, Washington and Lee Univ., Lexinoton, Va. 24450.

Six experiments clearly demonstrated that accurate
memorization depended upon ignoring irrelevant information.
In running paired-associate and free recall tasks, irrele¬
vant information is segregated in memory either by Grouping
items into relevant or irrelevant sets or by labelling
individual members of a cateaory as relevant or irrelevant
and storing all items according to conceptual category
membership. In either case, subjects attempt to use the
relevant information and suppress the irrelevant material.
(Supported by funds granted to Washington and Lee by the
Sloan Foundation, a Robert K. Lee Research Grant, and NSF-
Undergraduate Research Participation Grant GY 5798),

138

The Virginia Journal of Science

A BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS OF STUDENT ACTIVISM. J. C. Ficht, Dept,
of Psychology, Norfolk State College, Norfolk, Va, 23504

Sixty-seven college students were administered a test
instrument during a period of campus unrest. This test in¬
strument included the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, a Mani¬
fest Scale of Campus Activism (to distinguish between high
involvement and low involvement in campus unrest) , and a
survey of student responsiveness to the mass media.

Results from test instrument did not indicate any dif¬
ference between high involvement group and low involvement
group on psycho-social variables as measured by the

Rorschach and the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale. The high in¬
volvement group was found to have greater familiarity with
the mass media's presentation of previous campus unrest,
while the low involvement group reported decreased involve¬
ment after current news reports.

Study suggests that behaviors associated with campus
unrest could be learned through modeling.

INTERORGAIHSM TRANSFER OF flATCH- TO- SAMPLE PERFORMANCE VIA

BRAIN HOMOGENATE INJECTIONS. J. A. Flora* and G. W. Kent.

Dept, of Psychology, Bridgev/ater Col. Bridgewater, Va. 22812
Twelve Long-Evans rats were given match- to-sample train¬
ing on three levers and three stimuli with food reinforce¬
ment to a criterion of 85%. Two rats were randomly desig¬
nated donor animals; one given training on a second and new
match-to-sample task to criterion. The other was run the
same number trials on the first task. Both animals were
then sacrificed, the brains immediately removed, ground and
cold centrifuged twice. The resulting homogenate was then
administered to two groups of recipient rats. Six animals
received the homogenate from the donor trained on the second
task, five received the homogenate from the overtrained donor.

5 microliters of homogenate were injected stereotaxi cal ly
into the third ventrical bilaterally under sterile surgical
conditions. Upon recovery all recipient animals were trained
to criterion on the second match-to-sample task. The random¬
ization test for two independent groups was used to evaluate
trials to criterion data for the two groups. No statistical¬
ly significant differences at the 0.01 level of confidence
were observed.

FRth, RECALL OF ITEI-LI PREJEKT'-:D AFTER KAiiSED AND DISTRIBUTED
ITE!i3. William I. Greener*. Dept, of Psvcholoav,

Washington and Lee Univ., Lexington, Va. 24450,

In order to better understand v:hy distibuted practice
(Dh) on an item results in better retention than massed
practice {MP), two experiments examined the free recall of
words presented after words receivina M? (two adjacent
repetitions during study) or after iterr:s receiving DP (two
presentations separated by three or ten items). Each of
the critical items in question was presented twice in the
list: each presentation followed either a MP item or a DP
item.. More DP than items were free recalled, but the

critical items presented after IP items were recalled more
often than were critical items presented after distributed
repetition. These results suggest that the second
presentation of a MP item is markedly different from the
second presentation of a DP item, (supported by a Robert

E. Lee Research Grant).

Z??ZCTS OF SEi'SCLY DEPRIVATION AND SZV.SORY DO: .DADDMEN'T Gi:
O'^D.ATIVITY, DernarA C, ^rirsby '7asbin"fon and Lc^e

”nlv,, Lexington, Va, 24450

/.ssuming the validity of the Guilford, Draw-A-Person,
and Torrance tests as measures of creative ability, an
experiment was designed such that; (I) the nature of the
relationship between intelligence and creativity could be
explored, andj (II) the effects of sensory bombardment (SB)
and sensory deprivation (SD) upon levels of creative
pcrforifiance could be examined. Initially, 30 nale col¬

lege students were tested for IQ (Otis) and creative
ability. Three matched groups were then exposed to

control, SD, or conditions, and subsequent test mea¬
sures vrere obtained. Present data is Incomplete,

f'owever, measures of creative ability have been correlated
with Otis scores, and preliminary evidence suggests

that 3” tends to enhance creative performance, while SD
tends to decrease levels of creativity.

VISUAL MASKING IN MONKEYS. Alastair V. Harris* Dept, of
Psychology. Radford Col. Radford, Va. 24141

Eight highly trained rhesus monkeys were tested in a
backward masking paradigm using simple and complex stimuli,

A forward masking paradigm was used with simple stimuli
only. In all cases there was an increase in the discrim-
inability of the stimuli with longer interstimulus inter¬
vals. Performance became asymptotic at approximately 70
msec. No difference between middle and old age subjects
was observed when simple stimuli were used, but the older
animals made significantly more errors with the complex
stimuli .

The performance curves for backward and forward masking,
using simple stimuli, were symmetrical, a finding which
is in accord with the results of studies using human sub¬
jects using a Type A masking situation.

PUPILLARY RESPONSES DURING SHORT-TERM MEMORY TASKS:

COGNITIVE PROCESSING, AROUSAL, OR BOTH? David A. Johnson,

Dept, of Psychology, Sweet Briar College, Sweet Briar, Va.

24595

To assess the sensitivity of the pupil response to
shifts in processing load, pupillograms of Experimental Ss
were obtained during a short-term memory (STM) task that in¬
cluded a signal to forget part of the material. A highly
significant post-signal cycle of dilation-constriction was
present in the pupillograms of the Experimental Ss and ab¬
sent in those of the Control Ss for whom the signal had no
meaning. The dilation phase of the cycle was interpreted
as reflecting £s' efforts to decode the signal and to dif¬
ferentiate the items in the list into subsets of items to
be remembered or forgotten. The constriction phase seemed
to reflect the reduction in processing load effected by the
signal .

The results were seen to lend some support to cognitive
interpretations of pupil change during tasks of this sort.
However, such interpretations proved inadequate to account
for some of the results, and certain non-processing explan¬
ations are offered.

It was concluded that pupil changes found during infor¬
mation processing tasks are frequently confounded with
various motivational effects. (Aided by NSF grant no.

GY - 6929)

Proceedings, 1970-1971

139

POLARIZED JUDGiviEKTS AS A FUNCTION OF GROUP DIS¬
CUSSION AND CUE COMBINATION. D. L. Johnson*

Dept, of Psychology, Radford Col., Radford, Va. ,

24141

Small groups and individuals rated hypotheti¬
cal teachers on the basis of single attitude
statements and on the basis of various combina¬
tions of these attitude statements.

For both single cue and multiple cue presenta¬
tions, group ratings tended to be more polarized
than individual ratings. Ratings of homogeneous
sets of multiple cues tended to be more polarized
than ratings of single cues for both groups and
individuals .

AGE AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC BACKGROUND AS VARIABLES IN A

MEDIATIONAL HYPOTHESIS OF DISCRIMINATION LEARNING,

Katherine P. Jones*. Dept, of Psychology, Sweet Briar

College, Sweet Briar, Va. 24595

The purpose of this study was to assess the performance
of elementary school and kindergarten age children on
reversal and non-reversal shift problems. The variables
of age, socio-economic status, and reward contingency,
each at two levels, were manipulated.

Forty-eight children served as subjects. The apparatus
employed and the testing procedures used were modeled
after Kendler. The relevant dimensions manipulated in the
discrimination task were size and brightness.

The results were in support of the Kendlers* mediational
theory in the case of the older children. The older
children performed significantly better on reversal than
on non-reversal shifts, but no significant differences were
present between these same two conditions in the case of
the younger children. An hypothesized interaction between
age and social class was not tested due to limitations in
the available subject population.

COMPLEX TONAL PATTERN DISCRIMINATION BY BLIND HUMAN SUBJECTS

OF VISUAL-TO-AUDITORY TRANSFORMED STIMULI: AUDITORY BRAILLE,

J. A. Leppinaton*. J. Layman and G. W. Kent. Dept, of

Psychology. Bridgewater Col. Bridgewater, Va. 22812

The purpose of this study was to examine the acquisition
of auditory discrimination of complex sequences of multi-
tonal patterns representing verbal material. Inch high
capital letters were translated into eight frequency auditory
patterns when scanned by a hand-held optical probe contain¬
ing eight photoconductors. Each photoconductor controlled
a fixed frequency oscillator, turning it on and off as a
segment of a letter was seen. Thus moving the scanner
across a letter yielded a pattern of tones unique to that
letter. Blind human subjects, students at the Va. School
for the Deaf and Blind, Staunton, Va., served as subjects.

The eight most frequent letters in the English language
were used, singly and in simple words. Error data were
recorded by trial for each scan rate and the course of
acquisition of this task described.

CONSUMATORY BEHAVIOR AS A FUNCTION OF DEPRIVATION LEVEL OF

THE RAT. P. M. Monti*. Dept, of Psycholoqv, Col. of Wm. &

Mary, Williamsburg, Va . 23185

The present study is an investigation of the relationship
between strength of hunger drive and eating behavior. The
experiment examines the usefulness of the Hu Ilian concept of
drive as opposed to an alternative position of stimulus gen¬
eralization. The subjects, 36 female albino rats, were
trained at 23 hrs. food deprivation and then tested at dif¬
ferent deprivation intervals.

Significant findings, showing an increase in eating be¬
havior up until training level and a subsequent decrease
thereafter, clearly support an associative interpretation of
stimulus generalization as opposed to a strict Drive posi¬
tion. Results are discussed in terms of the "associative"
theories of Postman (1953b) and Estes (1958). Alternative
mechanisms are suggested in terms of digestive and cyclical
functions in the rat.

TONDITTONFD SUPPRESSION IN MONKEYS PREVIOUSLY EX¬
POSED TO NOXIOUS STIMULI, A. 0. Pratt. Deot. of
Biolortv, VPI Sc SU, Blaoksburrj;, Va.

Suner-imoosing electric shock over oreviously
conaitioned fear v.'as achieved using 110 db's of
sound and a flickering strobe light. The group
of excerimental animals was !i naive male Rhesus
monkeys. The control grouo v;as comuarable.

All 8 animals ivere taught to bar oress for
reinforcement . Controls vrere then olaced in neu¬
tral settings, ie. test chamber v.'ithout bar and
reinforcement. Exnerimental animals were exnosed
to noxious stimuli, also in the absence of the bar

The bar was returned after 8-1 k days, and the
noxious stimuli discontinued. Baseline bar oress
rates were established. A fixed amount of elec¬
trical shook vfas given to each animal. The result
showed greater suooression of bar oress rates in
the exoerimental grouo, presumably because of the
oreviously conditioned fear.

The control grouo also shovred marked suoores¬
sion, but not nearly as much as the exoorimai tal
grouo.

STUDEivX PELRCEPTIONS Or' THE COLLEGE ENVIKONI-IENT Hi A

DECADE OF CHANGE. Frederick B. Rowe, Dept, of Psychology,
Randolph-fiacon Woman's Col. .Lynchburg ,Va . 24504

The College and University Environment Scales (CUES) is
a questionnaire designed to measure the respondents’

(usually students) perceptions of the intellectual-social-
cultural clLmate of their college.

U3ir.g data collected from seniors it was found that,
during the years 1959- 19^9 , there was a high degree of
stability in the students' perceptions of the institutional
environment in spite of such changes as the abolition of
sororities and the end of de facto seeregation.

Data collected in 1969 and 1971, however, indicate that
student perceptions are undergoing marked change. This
changing environment is, presumably, a joint function of
changing motivational patterns in the current student
population and a plethora of changes in institutional
social regulations, curricula, examination procedures
and other institutional practices.

140

The Virginia Journal of Science

THE DETECTABILITY OF VISUAL GAUSSIAN NOISE PATTERNS: MEAN

AND STANDARD DEVIATION EFFECTS. Roberta Sadler* and Ricardo
Dobson. Dept, of Psychology, Mary Washington Col., Freder¬
icksburg, Va. 22401

Five observers (Os) made confidence ratings on a 4-cate¬
gory scale of the presence of a signal pattern next to a
noise pattern. The signal and noise patterns were generated
by the Gaussian random number generator of a computer. The
patterns consisted of Xs and blanks; signal patterns con¬
tained a greater mean number of Xs than noise patterns. Two
mean differences and 3 standard deviation differences were
factorially combined so that each ^ was randomly presented
the 6 combinations. Os were given 4 training sessions, and
then exposed to 6 experimental sessions of 270 trials each
at approximately 4-day intersession intervals.

In general, the individual £’s protocols yielded straight
line z-coordinate ROC functions. Some Os failed to produce

ROC functions when there was less overlap of signal and noise
distributions resulting from low standard deviations for the
signal distribution relative to the noise distribution; in
this case, the £s did not make enough false alarms to deter¬
mine a function. Mean difference manipulations produced a
statistically significant effect for the obtained d^s. While
predicted slope manipulations did not produce systematic
changes in obtained slope, the manipulations did change the
obtained dg in the predicted direction. The trend of the ob¬
tained dgS was very adequately described in terms of slope
and mean difference manipulations from the TSD model.

CONDITIONED SUPPRESSION IN TWO CLOSELY RELATED LINES OF

DOMESTIC CHICKEN. A. H. Schulman, J. W. Cocke*, and A. A.
Spevack*. Dept, of Psychology, Va. Polytechnic Inst, and

State Univ., Blacksburg, Va. 24061.

The decrement in operant key-pecking produced by a
stimulus previously associated with electric shock was
assessed in hens selected for either high or low body weight.
Subjects from the high-weight line exhibited significantly
greater suppression ratios than did subjects from the low-
weight line.

TRANSFER OF IMPRINTED BEHAVIOR VIA BRAIN HOMOGENATE INJEC¬
TIONS. A. H. Schulman, M. D. Spence*, and Christina B.

THE DSViajIPMBNT OF PASSIVE AVOIDANGS AND INHIBITION IN NEO¬
NATAL RATS. SAMUEL J. SH'SaMAN. VIRGINIA GOMIKJNWSAL'm U. .

Ferris*. Dept, of Psychology, Va. Polytechnic Inst, and

State Univ., Blacksburg, Va. 24061.

The tendency to key-peck in order to view an imprinted
stimulus was transferred between turkeys by means of injec¬
tions of forebrain homogenate. The transfer effect cannot
be explained in terms of a general activity increase and is
therefore assumed to be specific to the task.

RICHMOND, VIRGINIA. 23220

Neonatal rats were given repeated trials on a passive
avoidance task from ages 8 days through 20 days. iVhile
there were no observed differences in latencies between
these subjects and matched control subjects which only re¬
ceived one trial on either day 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, or

20, there was a sudden increase in latencies on day 16 in
both groups. The results are interpreted in terms of the
development of a central inhibitory system.

ALCOHOL INTAKE IN LABORATORY ANIMALS. F. G. Slocumb*,

Dept, of Psychology, Col. of Wm. and Mary, Williamsburg,

Va. 23185

This study attempted to increase alcohol intake in rats
by using a method of repeated exposures to increasing con¬
centrations (Veale & Myers, 1969). In addition to the usual
ethanol group, another group of rats was given bourbon, high
in congeners, because recent reports have implicated con¬
geners in alcohol addiction (Greenberg, 1970). In the two-
fluid three-bottle free-choice paradigm, the two experimental
groups and a control group of female Sprague Dawley rats were
tested for two consecutive six-week periods. Alcohol concen¬
trations ranged from 1 to 30% (v/v) . Experimental groups
did not increase alcohol intake; also, post-tests at 1% and

10% concentrations yielded no significant differences in
alcohol consumption between experimental and control animals.
Since Veale and Myers (1969) found increased alcohol intake
using male Long-Evans rats, these results may indicate
important sex and strain effects in alcohol preference. A
new finding was a preference-aversion function for bourbon
which is similar to that for ethanol. This suggests that
high-congener alcohols also should be used in future studies .

ON THE DETERMINATION OF PICTORIAL IMAGE QUALITY. H. L.

Snyder, Dept, of Industrial Engineering and Operations

Research, Va. Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ.,

Blacksburg, Va. 24061

From simple laboratory visual stimulus definition,
through standard photographic imagery, to more sophisticated
line-scanning systems such as television, there has been a
need to define the visual quality of the picture. This
paper will discuss some of the metrics used in image
quality quantification in previous studies, and will
present data from a recent series of experiments which
indicate that pattern perception can be predicted largely
by a unitary measure of image quality which combines
contrast rendition, sharpness, and noise content. This
measure, the Modulation Transfer Function Area, is shown
to correlate highly with both information extraction
performance and subjective scaled image quality.

Proceedings, 1970-1971

14]

PARTIAL DELAY OF REWARD IN THE DOUBLE RUNWAY. B. J. Still,*
B. N. Moore, *and P. G. Michaelson.* Dept, of Psychology,

Va. Polytechnic Inst., Blacksburg, Va. 24061

Following 72 trials of immediate reward in the first
goalbox of a double alleyway, 90 hooded rats were shifted
to partial delay of reward for an additional 48 trials.

The partial delay of reward variable was combined with
temporal delay of reward to form a 2 x 3 factorial design
(two levels of temporal delay-10 sec. and 30 sec.; three
levels of partial delay-25%, 50%, and 75%). Following the
partial delay schedule, all ^s were shifted to 50% partial
reinforcement in goalbox 1 for 36 trials. Results indicated
that the 50% partial delay group ran significantly slower
following delay of goalbox 1 reward than following no-delay
(£^.05). No differences were observed in either the 25%
group or the 75% group. The typical frustration effect
occurred within all groups during the partial reinforcement
phase. The data were discussed within a frustration-
competing response interpretation.

FACTORS RELEVANT TO SELF-DISCLOSURE AMONG WOMEN. M. VanLan-
dingham* and T.L. Pasternack. Psychology Dept., Randolph-
Macon Woman's Col,, Lynchburg, Va, 24504

Twenty female subjects (10 married women and 10 under¬
graduate students) designated as high disclosers and 20 fe¬
male subjects (10 married women and 10 undergraduates) desig¬
nated as low disclosers were selected from samples of 40
married women and 100 undergraduate students on the basis of
scores on a self-disclosure questionnaire. Self-disclosure
involves revealing some aspect of one's life to another per¬
son. Dyads who were to discuss eight topics of varying de¬
grees of intimacy were formed originally with like-disclo¬
sing pairs. Next, dyads were formed with partners who dif¬
fered in the degree of self-disclosure, and finally with like-
disclosing pairs once again. All dyads consisted of a mar¬
ried woman and an undergraduate.

There was no significant difference between the self¬
disclosure behavior of married women and undergraduates.

Lows disclosed significantly less to their partners than did
Highs when dyads were formed with like-disclosing pairs.

When Lows were paired with Highs, the Lows showed a sig¬
nificant increase in self-disclosure. The self-disclosure
of the Lows in like-disclosing dyads was higher, though not
significantly, following experiences with Highs than prior
to such experience.

A STUDY OF SKIN TEMPERATURE CHANGE IN EMOTION: THE THERMAL
DERMAL RESPONSE. W. L. Wampler* and G. W. Kent, Dept, of
Psychology, Bridgewater CoV. Bridgewater, Va. 22812

Initially conceived as a substitute for the GSR as an
indicator of emotional response, the short term change in
skin temperature, or thermal-dermal response, was found to
have its own artifacts. Detection of this response was by
means of a thermistor in a bridge circuit, the output of
which was fed into a low level differential amplifier and
recorded by an ink-writing potentiometer which give 0.0004°
Centigrade change per centimeter pen deflection. The signal
to noise ratio was low at first and elicited emotional
responses were difficult to detect from background tempera¬
ture change. It was discovered that this background noise
was the result of thermal output of the muscles beneath
the transducer. The ear lobe was found to be best for
studying elicited responses. Investigation of latency,
duration, and magnitude of thermal -dermal response was
studied as a function of locus of detection. Adequate
stimuli employed were electric shock, sudden sounds,
photographic material, printed and orally presented mate¬
rial. Both systematic increases and decreases in skin
temperature were observed in elicited responses.

142

The Virginia Journal of Science

Section of Space Science
and Technology

Forty-ninth Annual Meeting of The Virginia Academy of Science
May 12-14, 1971, Blacksburg, Virginia

SOLUTION TECHNIQUES FOR LARGE BANDED MATRICES. F. W.

Barton and R. T. Eppink. Dept, of Civil Engineering,

Univ. of Va., Charlottesville, Va. 22901

A common characteristic of current procedures for the
analysis of complex structures is the need for the solu¬
tion of a large system of linear algebraic equations. Fre¬
quently, the particular algorithm used to achieve the
desired solution determines the efficiency of the entire
structural analysis procedure. The objective of this
paper is to review some of the classical procedures cur¬
rently used to solve such problems and to describe recently
developed procedures, which efficiently treat banded or
partially banded matrices.

Classical procedures, such as Gaussian elimination, are
probably as good as any when the coefficient matrix is
full. When the matrix is banded, certain of the classical
procedures may be modified to take advantage of this band¬
ed character. A recent method, described as a wavefront
process, minimizes computer storage requirements. The
algorithm for this particular method is discussed and the
procedure is compared with one of the techniques which pro¬
cess all elements within a prescribed bandwidth.

Often the sparse nature of a matrix can be significantly
reduced by appropriate numbering of the nodes of the struc¬
ture. A method for renumbering nodes to reduce bandwidth
is described. Solution efficiencies of the various node
numbering schemes are compared for the wavefront and band
processing methods.

CROSSWIND STUDIES ON ELEVATED STOL-PORTS . J.N. Blanton* and
H.M. Parker, Univ. of Va., Charlottesville, Va. 22901

A major problem associated with rooftop STOL-ports is that
of crosswind control. It has been shown that crosswind
velocity profiles can be altered drastically by the addition
of different screen fence configurations to the lateral edges
of the building rooftop. Several such fence configurations
have been investigated on a two-dimensional building model in
the low speed, 4'x5' wind-tunnel at the University of Va. It
has been shown that for a given configuration and screen sol¬
idity, there are negligible variations in velocity profile
due to differences in screen grid and wire size.

Large scale velocity fluctuations have been observed
above the building rooftop for all configurations tested.

The magnitude of these fluctuations were sometimes ± 50% or
more of the mean crosswind velocity. Tests performed on a
three dimensional model at a higher Reynolds number in the
Full Scale Tunnel at Langley Research Center showed no gross
difference in the appearance of these fluctuations. A
qualitative discussion explaining their existence is
presented.

ANALYSIS OF MULTIUNIVERSITY RESEARCH AND TECHNOLO¬
GY CENTERS IN VIRGINIA. R. H. Bigelow, Chairman,
Civil Engineering Group, Old Dominion Univ.,
Norfolk, Va. 23508

Five research centers in the State of Virginia
were studied for the purpose of establishing a
partial basis for recommendations for a university
consortium mechanism to provide an influence on
environmental policy in the state. The analysis
was made to identify factors responsible for
growth and development and obstacles to the growth
and development of the centers studied.

The primary source of information originated
from interviews conducted with people directly
involved in the research center activities and with
people outside the research center having knowledge
of its activities. These latter people were sci¬
entists, engineers or administrators practicing in
the same discipline or a discipline closely related
to that of the center or persons who directly or
indirectly used the research product of the
research center. The secondary source of informa¬
tion was the available documentation describing
the centers.

This study was sponsored jointly by the National
Science Foundation and The Commonwealth of
Virginia .

JET mixing under THE INFLUENCE OF A PRESSURE
GRADIENT. D . F . Brink , School of Engineering, Old
Dominion University , Norfolk, Virginia 23508

An analytical study of jet mixing under the in¬
fluence of a streamwise pressure gradient is made
for compressible, non-isoenergetic flows. A gen¬
eral form of the Illingworth-Stewartson transforma¬
tion is utilized such that the analysis holds for
both laminar and turbulent flows. The conservation
equations are solved for each of the streams above
and below the dividing streamline by using Meksyn's
asymptotic method of integration for solving
boundary layer problems. These two solutions are
necessarily related to each other along the divid¬
ing streamline through the matching conditions.

In order that a comparison could be made with
the results from previous studies, the problems of
constant pressure mixing was also solved using
Meksyn's method for laminar and turbulent flows.
Excellent agreement was found when compared with
the results from a numerical integration of the
differential equation. The problem of laminar mix¬
ing between two parallel streams was investigated
for the case of a constant pressure gradient. It
was found that for nearly all cases investigated,
the velocity and temperature profiles from the
exact solution to the non-similar governing equa¬
tions could be approximated by the locally similar
solution .

Proceedings, 1970-1971

]43

COMMENTS ON A SOLUTION FOR SOIL-TIRE INTERACTION

OF LANDING AIRCRAFT. R. Y. K. Cheng, Associate

INFLUENCE OF VARIABLE PROPERTIES ON A STEP-HEATED
SEMI-INFINITE SOLID. G. R. Crossman,* Assistant

Professor, Civil Engineering Group, Old Dominion
University, Norfolk, Va. 23508

The work is concentrated on developing a nume¬
rical solution for determining stress and velocity
field due to large displacement of a soil material
with particular application to aircraft landing on
soil runways. The specific objective is to simu¬
late on a digital computer the nonlinear behavior
of a cohesive soil in the immediate zone of
landing impact by the wheel. The environmental
variable affecting the soil behavior are confining
pressure, yield strength and strain-rate. Neglec¬
ting the elastic behavior, the governing equations,
including all nonlinear terms are similar to those
associated with time-dependent viscous flow of an
imcompressible fluid. The study uses the Marker
and Cell technique which represents the governing
equations of the velocity field by a finite diffe¬
rence scheme. The pressure field is obtained by
solving a finite difference Poisson's equation.

The method requires a large memory high speed com¬
puter. The resistance forces are calculated by
integration, along the wheel boundary of the
stresses which are defined by the velocity and
pressure fields.

Professor of Engineering Technology, and R. L. Ash,
Associate Professor of Engineering, Old Dominion
University, Norfolk, Virginia 23508

A perturbation solution is developed for the
temperature distribution in a semi-infinite solid
over a finite interval of time. The thermal con¬
ductivity is an arbitrary function of temperature,
but the thermal diffusivity is restricted to a
linear function of Kirchhoff's temperature varia¬
ble. It is found that the perturbation parameter
can take on larger values than expected and still
apparently represent the temperature distribution.
Special cases of constant thermal conductivity and
thermal conductivity a linear function of tempera¬
ture are presented and it is found that under some
conditions thermal diffusivity variations dominate,
whereas under other conditions the thermal diffu¬
sivity variation effects are negligibly small. A
brief discussion is also given as to the possible
usefulness of this solution in experimentally
measuring temperature dependent thermophysical
properties .

RESEARCH AT NASA-LANGLEY RESEARCH CENTER.

Dr. John E. Duberq. NASA-LRC, Hampton, Va. 23365

PROGRAMS OF RESEARCH IN ENGINEERING AT OLD

DOMINION UNIVERSITY. G. L. Goqlia, Thermal

An overview of the research and engineering
programs at Langley is presented. Research
projects illustrative of the effort in aeronautics
and manned and un-manned space flight are discuss¬
ed. The aeronautics portion covers the speed
range from V/STOL through hypersonic aircraft and
the space portion covers the Viking and space
shuttle programs.

Engineering, Old Dominion University, Norfolk,
Virginia 23508

The research projects currently in progress
are presented. Particular emphasis is given the
research efforts pertaining to the Viking Project,
Space Shuttle and Aeronautics in general. An
Aeronautics Graduate Research Participation

Program is discussed.

INTERACTION OF GASES WITH ABLATIVE MATERIALS. II.
WATER. R. H. Honeycutt* and J. P. Wiqhtman, Chem.
Dept., Va. Poly. Inst, and State Univ., Blacks¬
burg, Va., 24061.

The results of adsorption studies of water by
three filled elastomer composites, ESM-1004X,

SLA-561 and SLA-561V are reported. The results
of adsorption of water by the components of SLA-
561 are reported also. Adsorption of water was
measured as a function of pressure by a manometric
technique in a constant volume system at 30°C
for SLA-561; at 25°, 30° and 35°C for SLA-561V;
at 30OC for ESM-1004Xr and, at 30°C for the com¬
ponents of SLA-561. It was shown that water was
predominantly adsorbed on the SLA-561 and SLA-
561V and significantly less on the ESM-1004X sam¬
ples. The order of adsorption of water was found
to be phenolic spheres > ground cork > silica >
fibers > glass spheres. Desorption of water from
SLA-561V at 30° was studied also. There is no
significant hysteresis in the adsorption-desorp¬
tion process. (Supported under NASA Grant

NGR 47-004-016) .

RECENT ADVANCES IN REENTRY HEAT TRANSFER. G. R. Inger*,

Dept, of Aerospace Engineering, Virginia Polytechnic

Institute and State Univ., Blacksburg, Va. 24061.

Remarkably regular cross-hatched striation patterns have
been observed on recovered reentry bodies and ablating
supersonic wind tunnel models. Since the occurrence of
these patterns can significantly influence the flight char¬
acteristics and aerodynamic heating of slender reentry ve¬
hicles, a basic theoretical and experimental study of their
cause was undertaken. An analytical model is developed
based on the theory that small sinusoidal disturbances in a
turbulent supersonic boundary layer triggered by slight sur¬
face irregularities can resonantly interact with the cor¬
responding disturbances within the surface ablation mate¬
rial. A wind tunnel study of boundary layer flow along a
wavy wall was also carried out to verify this theory. These
investigations have shown that a key non-dimensional para¬
meter governs the formation of cross hatching: the ratio of
the heat absorbed by ablation to the streamwise heat con¬
duction within the surface material. This parameter not
only correlates wind tunnel and flight test data but also
suggests practical methods for suppressing the phenomenon.

The Virginia Journal of Science

144

EVALUATION OF THE USE OF STEADY-STATE DATA FOR THE DETERMINA¬
TION OF LINEAR AERODYNAMICS IN THE U.VA. COLD BALANCE
WINDTUNNEL. J.R. Jancaitis and H.M. Parker, Dent, of Aero¬
space Engineering, Univ. of Va., Charlottesville, Va. 22901

The U.Va. Cold Balance Windtunnel has the unique ability
of observing the steady-state motion of aerodynamic models
in a quasi -six degree of freedom state. This capability has
opened the possibility of using the steady-state response of
a model as a new information source in the calculation of
stability derivatives.

An analytic and numerical study was undertaken to evaluate
the efficiency and accuracy of obtaining aerodynamic
coefficients from steady-state response observations.

Computer programs have been developed and tested using gener¬
ated data corrupted with normal random deviates. The results
of these studies show that the steady-state mode of data
reduction is much superior to conventional transient motion
types in extraction of linear aerodynamics.

PROGRAMS OF RESEARCH IN THE DEPARTMENT OF AEROSPACE ENGINEER¬
ING AND ENGINEERING PHYSICS AT THE UNIVERSITY OF VIRGINIA.
A.R. Kuhlthau and J.E. Scott. Jrf. Dept, of Aerospace
Engineering and Engineering Physics, Univ., of Virginia,
Charlottesville, Virginia 22901

The areas of research now receiving particular emphasis
in the department will be summarized and a few of the more
important results from selected areas will be briefly
reviewed. Particular emphasis will be placed on unique uses
of magnetic suspension techniques, on a program involving a
systems approach to problems of STOL air transportation and
on atomic and molecular collision phenomena including
problems in rarefied gas dynamics and gas-surface
interactions .

LIQUID CRYSTALS FOR AIRCRAFT AND SPACECRAFT INSTRUMENT
DISPLAY . J. B. Robertson* and R . K . Crouch . NASA -
Langley Res. Ctr., Hampton, Va. 23363.

Two liquid crystal phenomena are being developed for
possible spacecraft display application by RCA Laboratories
for NASA Langley Res. Ctr. One phenomenon is the field-
induced phase change in which a cholesteric phase liquid,
which is milky or yellow irrldescent, is changed to the
nematic phase, which is clear, by application of an
electric field. The second phenomenon is color switching in
which a mixture of a pleochroic dye and a nematic liquid
can change transsULtted light from colored to white by
application of a field. Advantages of liquid crystal
displays are: low power requirement, flat package, and
ambient front lighting. Problems to be overcome Include
narrow operating temperature ranges, long decay times,
and short shelf life.

INTERACTION OF GASES WITH ABLATIVE MATERIALS. I. ARGON,
CARBON DIOXIDE AND NITROGEN, C. A. King* and J. P. Wightman,
Chem. Dept., Va. Poly. Inst, and State Univ., Blacksburg,
Va., 24061.

The results of sorption studies of argon, carbon dioxide
and nitrogen on two filled elastomer composites SLA-561 and
SLA-561V are reported. Also, the results of sorption of the
same gases on the components of SLA-561 are reported. The
components of SLA-561 were phenolic spheres, silica spheres,
ground cork, and a carbon fiber-glass fiber mixture. The
composition of SLA-561V was similar to that above except
that pure glass fibers were used in place of the carbon
fiber-glass fiber mixture. The matrix in both cases was
a silicone elastomer. Sorption was measured at 30°C as a
function of pressure from 50 to 760 Torr by a manometric
technique in a constant volume system. Studies at lower
pressures (2xl0”3 to 1.5 Torr) were made in a constant
volume system using calibrated thermocouple gauges. It was
shown that the silica spheres did not take up any of the
gases. Phenolic spheres took up only CO2, with the carbon
fiber-glass fiber mixture and cork sorbing all three gases;
in these two cases CO2 was sorbed to the greatest extent
and Ar only slightly greater than N2. The effect of sample
geometry of SLA-561V on CO2 sorption was determined.
(Supported under NASA Grant NGR 47-004-016).

DYNAMIC RESPONSE OF STRUCTURES TO MOVING MASSES

R. P. McNITT, R. RAGHAVAN* Department of Engineering
Mechanics, VPI&SU, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061

Theoretical and numerical values describing the
response of beams to moving masses are presented. The
mass undergoes transverse as well as longitudinal oscilla¬
tions with respect to the beam. The forces necessary to
allow centrifugal accelerations due to mass motion along
the beam's curvature is included and is shown to have
small effects for very stiff beams. The theory is based
on Fourier transforms and it is shown that many combi¬
nations of mass motions will cause resonance of the
system.

PRESENT AND PROJECTED DIRECTIONS FOR RESEARCH IN AEROSPACE
ENGINEERING AT VPI 6 SU. J. A. Schetz*, Aerospace Engineering
Dept., Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University,
Blacksburg, Virginia 24061

Current studies underway concerning Thermal Pollution, the
Wing-Tip Vortex Problem, Air Traffic Control, Turbulent Noise,
Jet Mixing at Supersonic Speeds, Liquid Jet Break-up, Space
Shuttle Heat Transfer and Numerical Computation of Flow
Fields will be described. Planned extensions of this work as
well as new efforts in other fields such as automobile
stability and control, new methods for rapid transit pro¬
pulsion and coal dust settling in mines will be outlined.
Guided tours of the research facilities will be available.

Proceedings, 1970-1971

145

PARAMETER SELECTION FOR THE STABILITY OF NON-LINEAR
STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS. W. D. Smith, Dept, of Aerospace
Engineering, Va. Polytechnic Institute and State University,
Blacksburg, Va. 24061

The positive definite character of functions for use in
determining regions of stability for Liapunov application
is examined. A positive definite function is defined in a
manner analogous to quadratic forms. Two theorems are
obtained which may be useful in determining regions of
positive definiteness for the special case of a function
which is quadratic in at least one of the variables.

THREE-DIMENSIONAL BOUNDARY-LAYER SEPARATION, D. P. Telionis*
Va. Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ., Blacksburg, Va. 24061
The boundary- layer equations behave singularly in the
neighborhood of vanishing skin friction ) • In a me¬

thod probably influenced by the work of Goldstein, Landau has
shown that the assumption of singularity implies ‘’%yltj,Q-0 .
It is presently shown in a similar way that the three-dimen¬
sional equations accept a Goldstein type singularity at a
saddle point of separation. Assuming that ,V,I>“/^xand
(see sketch) blow up, and using the continuity equation we de¬
duce that u and v/ may be expanded in powers of Jx„-X ^ V as
u (x ,y ,£) - u„ (y ,z) + bX''^
while U takes the form

Substitution in the momentum
equation and collection of
terms of order X i
gives a set of differential

equations that may be solved for the functions > P,
under certain conditions. The dominant terms give
a=u, + ^I>'^/OyiX'iO(X) (3)

w= v/o+ JTi 0 ()C) (4)

Equations (3) and (4) evaluated at y = 0 yield

lij.o ij'-o =0 (5)

Relationships (5) express the vanishing of both components
of the skin friction vector which is indeed the property
of a saddle point for the family of skin friction lines.

MONTE CARLO APPLICATIONS TO ACOUSTICAL FIELD SOLUTIONS.

B.D. Thanedar* and J.K. Haviland. Dept, of Aerospace Engin¬
eering, Univ. of Va., Charlottesville, Va. 22901

The Monte Carlo technique is proposed for the determina¬
tion of the pressure-time history at chosen points in a part¬
ial enclosure, the central idea of this technique being the
tracing of rays. The problem is considered one of Random
Walk with finite Markov chain simulation. A statistical
model is formulated and an algorithm for pressure is created,
the confirmity of which is examined critically by different
approaches and is shown to give the known results. Most of
the theoretical work presented in this paper is directly
applicable to the case of a homogeneous medium, but the scope
of future development to make the present method more gener¬
ally applicable is also indicated. The concepts that are
developed are applied to the determination of the transient
field due to a sound source in a homogeneous medium enclosed
by perfect reflecting walls, and the results are compared
with those presented by Mintzer based on the Laplace Trans¬
form approach. In contrast with the latter, the Monte Carlo
approach is in no way restricted to the case of perfect
reflecting walls, in fact, variations of the boundary condit¬
ions at the walls can be taken care of almost trivially. The
Monte Carlo method is felt to be a valuable tool when
boundary conditions are very complex. (Aided by NASA Grant
No. NGR-47-005-0085)

AN ELECTRONICALLY DESPUN CIRCULAR ARRAY FOR THE
SMALL PLANETARY EXPLORER. Roger Yaminy*, Radiation
Systems, Inc., McLean, Va. 22101

The subject of this paper is a circular array capable of
360° azimuth scanning. The array is fed by a matrix, which
is in turn fed by continuously variable varactor phase shifters
and thus the array has in theory infinitely many beam posi¬
tions, and can be rapidly scanned, limited only by the speed
of the solid state driving circuitry. The array is also capable
of providing a low gain omnidirectional azimuth beam as an

TURBULENT BOUNDARY LAYER ANALYSIS. E. R. Van Driest*, Dept,
of Aerospace Engineering, Va. Polytechnic Inst., Blacksburg,
Va. 24061

An attempt is made to clarify the basic notions leading
to the complete velocity profile of a fully developed turbu¬
lent boundary layer in a constant pressure field. It is
first shown that the assumptions that the Prandtl mixing
length is proportional to the distance from the wall requires
that the eddy viscosity be constant along the edge of the
laminar sublayer, which incidentally is also a streamline.
Thus, it is further concluded that the semi-logarithmic law
for velocity profile is at least a tangent condition for
commencement of the turbulent profile. It is next consider¬
ed that Taylor eddies are developed in the flow proportional
to the size of the boundary layer and that these are re¬
presented by a correlation function having a gaussian dis¬
tribution. Integration of this distribution then yields an
error function variation for mixing lengtft which appears to
fit measured data quite well. Resulting velocity profiles
accordingly also agree with experimental data including the
semi-logarithmic and very-near-wall portions. (Supported by
AFOSR Grant 71-2039).

4 = 0 . 09 [ 1-exp {-^- — ) ] er f

0 26

alternate mode of operation.

The array is designed for high gain, lightweight and to be
able to withstand space environments. Array elements are
printed circuit dipoles positioned over corner reflectors. The
design frequency range is from 2. 1 GHz to 2. 3 GHz. The
highest measured gain is 16 db. Gain fluctuation is + 1. 25
db about the mean, when the array is electronically scanned

with the existing driver circuit.

The performance of the array is discussed. In addition,
since this array has a foam dielectric matrix, the matrix'
construction and performance are also discussed. The paper
concludes by presenting some of the advantages and limita¬
tions of such an array, directions for improvement, and also
modifications to realize the full versatility of the array.

146

The Virginia Journal of Science

Section of Statistics

Forty-ninth Annual Meeting of The Virginia Academy of Science
May 12—14, 1971, Blacksburg, Virginia

CONFIDENCE LIMITS FOR A PARAMETER WITH SOME CHARAC¬
TERISTIC RESTRICTIONS. R. L. Andrews and J. C.
Arnold, Dept- of Statistics, Va. Polytechnic Inst,
and State Univ., Blacksburg, Va. 24061

Some parameters have a restricted range due to
the nature of the parameter, such as distance
must be non-negative. Confidence limits for a
parameter of this type are found for an observation
that is distributed normally about the parameter.
Optimum limits of fixed length about a point
estimate are derived for the cases of the condi¬
tional variance known and unknown.

A CONSTRAINED OPTIMIZATION METHODOLOGY FOR PROCESS DEVELOP¬
MENT, W. E. Biles*. Dept, of Industrial Engineering and
Operations Research, Va. Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ.,
Blacksburg, Va., 24061.

The development of manufacturing processes for composite
materials is treated as a stagewise operation which combines
experimentation, response surface model development, and
constrained mathematical optimization. Initially, a design¬
ed experiment is conducted over the widest possible factor
space, considering any independent variables believed to
significantly influence product responses. The most
efficient designs are possible when the set of independent
variables is partitioned into subsets of composition
variables and process variables. Low order response surface
models are fitted to the experimental data and tested for
validity. A constrained optimization problem is formulated
with an aim to optimizing a primary product response, sub¬
ject to constraints arising from processing conditions and
from specifications on secondary product responses. The
optimization problem is solved using a constrained multi-
variable search procedure. This cycle is followed by
another cycle in a reduced factor space about the indicated
optimum. These operations are repeated in each block of a
multiple block development program. The optimum indicated
by the last block permitted by time and budget restrictions
is implemented as a manufacturing process.

A SMOOTH EMPIRICAL BAYES ESTIMATION TECHNIQUE. G. K. Bennett,*
Dept, of Industrial Engrg. and Operations Research, Va.
Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ., Blacksburg, Va. 24061
A continuously smooth empirical Bayes estimator is
presented and used to obtain estimates for the parameters
of a known distribution. The estimator is obtained by
means of a continuous approximation to the prior
density function. Results from Monte Carlo studies are
reported illustrating that these estimators have smaller
mean-squared errors than some commonly used classical
estimators .

THE ESTIMATION OF STABILITY AND CONTROL PARAMETERS FROM
FLIGHT TEST DATA. Roland L. Bowles*, NASA Langley Research
Center, Hampton, Va"] 23365

The structure of a maximum likelihood estimator suitable
for extracting stability and control parameters from flight
test data is presented. Resxilts obtained using this estima¬
tor are compared with manufacturer's data for the Fi+-J
aircraft .

Proceedings, 1970-1971

147

ON THE ASYMPTOTIC INDEPENDENCE OF THE MAXIMA IN A
BIVARIATE NORMAL POPULATION. J. W. Campbell* and

C. P. Tsokos, NASA Langley Res. Ctr., Hampton, Va.
23365, and Dept, of Statistics, Va. Polytechnic

Inst, and State Univ., Blacksburg, Va. 24061

Let i = l,...,n} be a sample of inde¬

pendent observations drawn from a bivariate popu¬
lation. The authors have developed a general
method for obtaining the lim.iting distribution, as
n-*-”, of the maxima C^=max{Xj , . . . ,X^} and nj^=max
{Yi,...,Yj^} drawn from distributions which have a
canonical^ expansion . After a brief description of
these results, the method will be illustrated by
applying it to the standardized bivariate normal
distribution whose canonical expansion is the well-
known Mehler identity. The result is that the
asymptotic joint distribution of from a bi¬

variate normal population with |p|<l is the product
of the univariate asymptotic distributions of
and Pn- This agrees with the previously known fact
that the maxima in bivariate normal samples become
uncorrelated, i.e. independent, as the sample size
increases without bound.

The authors are currently in the process of
applying their method to other bivariate distribu¬
tions whose canonical expansions are known.

THE EFFECT OF GROUPING ON VARIANCE AND BIAS OF THE MAXIMUM
LIKELIHOOD ESTIMATOR OF THE POISSON PARAMETER: SOME MONTE

CARLO RESULTS. W. H. Carter, Jr. and R. H. Myers, Depart-
ment of Biometry, Medical College of Virginia, Richmond,

Virginia 23219

Hartley developed a procedure for solving the likelihood
equations resulting from incomplete samples which employed
the method of successive approximations. When the Poisson
distribution is partitioned into connected groups, it has
been shown that Hartley's method converges to the unique
solution of the likelihood equation regardless of the
choice of starting value. In the present paper, the impact
of this type of grouping on the asymptotic variance and
bias of the estimator is studied. In addition, graphical
illustrations of the results of a Monte Carlo study are
given which indicate how the bias and per cent gain in
variance of the estimator is affected by "group size" and
magnitude of the parameter of the parent distribution.

THE USE OF STEEPEST ASCENT IN RESPONSE SURFACE EXPERIMENTS.

G. U. Cobb*. Dept, of Biometry, Med. Col. of Va., Richmond,

Va. 23219

When a response surface experimenter cakes single obser¬
vations along an estimated path of steepest ascent, he uses
a stopping rule to decide after each observation whether or
not to take another observation. The current stopping rule
(which instructs the experimenter to continue taking single
observations until the difference between successive obser¬
vations is negative) does not make adequate provision for
the random error which attaches to the observations. Re¬
writing the stopping rule as a test of an hypothesis on the
slope of the response leads to alternative stopping rules
which use other test statistics; a squared error loss func¬
tion is used to select the optimum test statistic and opti¬
mum test level for various response surfaces.

A MODEL FOR PREDICTING THE INCIDENCE OF ACUTE HUMORAL RE¬
JECTION IN RECIPIENTS OF MULTIPLE KIDNEY TRANSPLANTS.

G. W. Cobb*, and J. C. Pierce . Depts. of Biometry and

Surgery, Med. Col. of Va. , Richmond, Va. 23219

The incidence of acute humoral (hyperacute) rejection in

153 renal allotransplants was 3.3% while in 31 second, third,
and fourth transplants it was 35%. In order to test whether
or not immunization by previous transplants to HL-A antigens
distributed at two sub-loci could account for this striking
increase, a model was postulated which allowed an expected
frequency of rejection to be computed for donor recipient
combinations of various relatedness, races, and numbers of
transplants. The predicted 12.2 cases of acute humoral
rejection agreed well with the observed 11 cases, with close
agreement for several subgroups.

The model Illustrates the extension and application of
several elementary laws of probability for unions and inter¬
sections of elementary events.

SOME PHIIiOSOEHICAL OVERTONES OP STATISTICAL

INPERENCE. Whitfield Cobb. Dept, of Statistics,

Va. PolyteCbnio Inst, and State Univ.,

Blaoisbttrg, Va. 84061

To contrast with the phrase, 'philosophical
implications,' which connotes the logical, episte¬
mological, or metaphysical presuppositions of an
endeavor, 'philosophical overtones' is chosen to
label principles and practices capable of wider
applioation than the technical implementation in
which they originated. They are philosophical in
the sense that they pertain to the love of wisdom.

A statistical teat combines without confusing
a model, a null hypothesis, and the experimental
value of a test statistic. In other areas also,
we should recognize and distinguish assumptions
not now on trial, assumptions we are prepared to
discard in the face of new facts, and empirical
evidence relevant to these assumptions. That the
same evidence can lead to either rejection or non-
rejection, depending upon which level of signifi¬
cance has been chosen, suggests that the persona
with whom wo disagree are not necessarily blind to
what we see so clearly but may have subconsciously
chosen to use risks of error different from ours.

Ten additional philosophical overtones are
drawn from estimation or testing. 1 final example
applies the regression fallacy to current history.

A STOCHASTIC MODEL FOR AN EVOLUTIONARY PROCESS.

A. I. Dale* and K. Hinkelmann. Dept, of Statistics

Va. Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ., Blacksburg,

Va. 24061

Random selection of gametes and random fluctua¬
tions in systematic evolutionary pressures are
lYell known to be of importance in population
genetics. The process of change in gene frequency
satisfies the Kolmogorov forward equation

3 * = i/2-ii{v <}.} - .^{M (])},

3t 33^2 6^ 3x 6^

M|5^ and V^ representing respectively the mean and

variance of change in gene frequency per generation.
Changes which are due to neither mutation nor mi¬
gration are said to be due to selection. Consider¬
ation of changes due to the random selective
advantage of one allele over another leads to
random versions of the above equation. Here a
simple version is solved by various means, and
certain statistical measures are calculated.

148

The Virginia Journal of Science

NOTES ON THE HISTORY OF THE METHOD OF LEAST

SQUARES. C. Eisenhart*. National Bureau of
Standards, Washington, D.C. 20234

Antecedents and alternatives to Least Squares.

The three distinctly different formulations, of
Legendre (1805) , Gauss (1809) , and Gauss (1821)
that differ not only in their aims and initial
assumptions but also in the meanings that they
attach to the numbers that all three yield as a
common answer to a particular problem. Hazards
of uncritical use of least squares computer
programs .

A NON-PARAMETRIC EMPIRICAL BAYES ESTIMATOR

W. D. Ergle, Roanoke College and Department of Statistics.

V.P.I. and S.U., and R. G. Krutchkoff, Department of Statis¬
tics, V.P.I. and S.U., Salem, Virginia 24153

A non-parametric empirical Bayes estimator which requires
only vectors of independent, identically distributed random
variables of length greater than or equal to two and the
existence of a consistent sequence of estimators for the
parameter to be estimated. Under these conditions, the es¬
timator is asymptotically optimal relative to the Bayes risk
if the loss function is squared error.

Monte Carlo results indicate that the estimator possesses
excellent small sample properties. The performance of the
estimator when used to estimate a mean, median, variance,
standard deviation and percentile indicate the improvement
over other methods of estimation was significant regardless
of the nature of the parameter to be estimated.

SIMPLE LINEAR REGRESSION WITH GROUPING IN THE DEPENDENT

VARIABLE. R. E. Flora, J. V. Bowen, Jr., G. W. Cobb,

W. H. Carter, Jr., Dept, of Biometry, Med. Col. of Va. ,

Richmond, Va. 23219

A sin^ile linear regression model is assumed in which
observations on the dependent variable are grouped into
mutually exclusive intervals. A general expression is
given for the likelihood equation. Under the usual
assumptions of homoscedasticity and normality, an iterative
procedure is given for obtaining maximum likelihood
estimates of the parameters. A numerical example is
presented to illustrate the technique.

FORECASTING MODELS FROM NON-STATIONARY STOCHASTIC
REALIZATIONS. F. C. Fuller. Jr.*, and C. P. Tsokos.
Dept, of Statistics, Va. Polytechnic Inst, and

State Univ. , Blacksburg, Va. 24061

The techniques of time series analysis must be
modified when used to obtain forecasting models
from data which arises from a mechanism which
generate non-stationary stochastic realizations.

In this paper we discuss how to identify the data
as stationary or non-stationary, we present a
technique whereby the non-stationary data can be
filtered allowing it to be treated as stationary,
and once, we have fitted a model, a "backward
filter" to forecast values of the non-stationary
data. These techniques are then applied in the
analysis of the closing values of the New York

Times Stock Index for the year 1967.

LIFE TESTING AND RELIABILITY ESTIMATION FOR THE
ONE-PARAMETER EXTREME VALUE DISTRIBUTION. J. H.
Godbold, Jr.*, and C. P. Tsokos , Deoartment of

Health, Education, and Welfare, and Department of
Statistics, VPI&SU.

The aim of this paper is to consider the modi¬
fied extreme value probability density model of
the form

f(x;9) = i exp{-i [e^-1] +x} , x > 0, 0 > 0

to characterize the times to failure of a given
component and obtain minimxim variance unbiased
estimates of the parameter 6 and the reliability
function R(t), given by

R(t) = Pr [T>t] = exp [-i{exp(t)-l}] .

A computer simulation is employed to illustrate
the usefulness of the estimates. Various areas
where the extreme value probability distribution
is applicable is also discussed.

CANONICAL EXPANSION OF THE BIVARIATE BINOMIAL
DISTRIBUTION WITH UNEQUAL MARGINAL INDICES. M. A.
Hamdan* . Dept, of Statistics, Virginia Polytechnic
Institute and State Univ. , Blacksburg, Va. , 24061.

Aitken and Gonin derived the bivariate binomial
distribution by considering a sample of size n
classified in the form of a 2x2 table. The resul¬
ting bivariate binomial was expressed in the form
of a finite series bilinear in Krawtchouk ' s poly¬
nomials in the marginal variables. The marginal
distributions were binomial with the same index
n{the sample size for the 2x2 table) but with
different probabilities of success pj^ and P2 . The
present paper gives a derivation of the bivariate
binomial distribution with different marginal
indices n^^ and and the same probability of

success p'^for both marginals. The derivation is
based on the additive property of independent
binomial random variables with the same p. The
bivariate factorial moment generating function is
derived, and hence the bivariate probability
density function is expressed in canonical form.

The correlation coefficient is derived and the
regression lines are found to be linear. The
results are applied to the problem of double
sampling in quality control.

Proceedings, 1970-1971

149

STATISTICAL TREATMENT OF NON-NORMALLY DISTRIBUTED
STRESS CORROSION DATA. J. H. Harshbarger * , A. I.
Keipppinen, and B. W. Strum . Reynolds Metals
Company, Richmond, Va. 23218

The maximum- 1 ikel ihood method of estimating the
parameters of a Weibull distribution of failure
times is described.

A procedure for detecting differences betvveen
samples, based on testing differences in the Wei¬
bull distribution parameters, rather than means, is
discussed and an example is given.

The point estimate - the probability of failing
after a specified time - is calculated from the
Weibull distribution.

The lower confidence bound of the estimate of
reliability related to a point in time is shown,
accompanied by an example.

A procedure for writing specifications on stress
corrosion testing, recognizing the underlying dis¬
tribution of failure times, is recommended.

All of the above methods are presented as pro¬
cedures for analyzing data from non-normal distri¬
butions. As some of these procedures require the
use of a computer, a computer program to perform
these analyses is described.

The purpose of this paper is to popularize by
description and example an application of recent
Research to the problem of testing stress corrosion

A BIVARIATE STATISTICAL ECOLOGY MODEL. S. W.
Hinkley* and C. P. Tsokos. Va. Polytechnic Inst,
and State Univ. , Blacksburg, Va. 24061

This paper examines a simple stochastic model
describing a birth-and-death process for two
animal species whose life processes are somehow
related in an ecosystem. The exact nature of the
interrelationships is unspecified and this gener¬
ality in the model allows simultaneous considera¬
tion of both the well known predator-prey system
and the system of mutual competition.

The bivariate frequency function for the popu¬
lation sizes is derived from the differential
equations of the model and the problem of para¬
meter estimation is discussed briefly. Some prob¬
lems are suggested for further work, particularly
with regard to the functional forms of the infini¬
tesimal birth and death rates.

STATISTICAL CONSULTING: A GRADUATE COURSE. K.
Hinkelmann . Dept, of Statistics, Va. PolytecEnic
Inst, and State Univ., Blacksburg, Va. 24061
In the last few years there has been some
discussion about the teaching of statistical
consultancy at universities. Various methods of
achieving this have been proposed and tried.

Among these approaches, Cox (Biometrics , 1968)
has recommended a systematized'^ course-wise
training for consultants. This paper discusses
the content of such a course more specifically,
how it can be implemented, and how it can benefit
the students.

EMPIRICAL TESTS OF THE QUAUTITY THEORY OF MONEY IN THE U.S.
I9OO-I93O. T. M. Htmphrey.* Fed. Res. Bank of Richmond,
Richmond, Va. 23213.

Testing of the quantity theory played an important role
in the early development of some statistical techniques and
their application to economic data. For example, U.S.
economists' initial use of correlation and distributed lag
analyses were in tests of the quantity theory. This paper
reviews quantity theory research with special reference to
new statistical techniques employed (correlation analysis,
trend and cycle analysis, distributed lag analysis, price
index construction) and evaluates the contribution of em¬
pirical work to the advance of the quantity theory.

One important finding is that research in the 1920' s,
allegedly establishing the cyclical invariability of the
velocity-transactions (V/T) ratio, may have contributed to
the propagation of the crude version of the quantity theory
much criticized by Keynesian economists in the 1930 's and
19>*0's.

The paper concludes that testing of the theory contrib¬
uted more to statistical than to monetary analysis during

I9OO-I93O (advances in statistical techniques in that

period were matched by neglect of monetary theory and by
failure to devise more subtle empirical models for
testing purposes) but that it was beneficial to monetary

theory in the long run. The recent revival of the quantity
theory owes much to the empirical tradition of the I9OO-
1930 period.

MINIMUM VARIANCE UNBIASED ESTIMATE OF RELIABILITY
USING THE TRUNCATED WEIBULL FAILURE MODEL. T. W.
Jones* and C. P. Tsokos. Dept, of Statistics,

Va. Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ., Blacksburg,
Va. 24061

The aim of this paper is to obtain the minimum
variance unbiased estimate (MVUE) of the reliabil¬
ity function and of the scale parameter for the
failure model which has been described by the
truncated Weibull probability density function
given by _

xP"^exp[- 7^^ hr (0<c<x,0<e,p)
f(x;e,p) = f ®

I 0 , elsewhere

where 6 is the scale parameter, p is the shape
parameter, and c is the point of truncation. In
achieving our objective, we utilize the Rao-
Blackwell and Lehmann-Schef f e theorems.

The MVUE of the scale parameter 9 is given by

r9

The MVUE of
R*(t) = [1-

= I (xP-c*^) + (n-r) (x^-c*^) .
i=l

the reliability function RCt) where

R(t) = exD[- ] is given by

_ (tP-cP)^ _ ]r-i_

re-{n-r) (x^-c^) + (n-r+1) (v^_j^-c'’)

A COMPARISON OF VARIOUS ESTIMATORS OF THE MEAN
WHEN THE PRIOR P.D.F. IS A LINEAR COMBINATION OF
PDF'S. B. F. Klugh, Jr.* and J. C. Arnold. Dept,
of Statistics, Va. Polytechnic Inst, and State
Univ., Blacksburg, Va. 24061

The problem of estimating the mean 9 for a uni¬
parameter distribution is considered. The Bayes
prior density h(6) is assumed to be a linear com¬
bination of p.d.f.'s; of the form

h(e)=phi (9)+(l-p)h, (9)

where hj(6) and h2(9) are p.d.f.'s for the unknown
mean 9 and p is a probability.

In view of the form of h(9), five different es¬
timators are considered, each dependent upon the
extent of p^ior information. They are: (i) A Bayes
estimator, 9^Cy), whose prior is a linear combina¬
tion of p.d.f.'s, (ii) A preliminary test estimator
B^PT(y), which decides between the Bayes estimators
derived from the p.d.f.'s in (i) , (iii) A psendo-
Bayes estimator, 6*(y), based on an illegitimate
mixed prior density function, (iv) A Bayes estima¬
tor, 9g(y), whose prior density is a linear com¬
bination of a diffuse and a nondiffuse component,
(v) A preliminary test estimator, 6p.-(y), which
decides between a Bayes estimator ana a classical
estimator. An example when the conditional p.d.f.
is normal is discussed.

150

The Virginia Journal of Science

MELLIN TRANSFORMS AND THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE SUM

OF TWO LOGNORMAL VARIATES. G. Lowrimore* and

C. P. Tsokos, Department of Health, Education and
Welfare, and Department of Statistics, VPI&SU.

Naus [Journal of the American Statistical As¬
sociation 64 (1969) , 655-659] derived a series
expansion for the moment generating function of
the logarithm of the sum of two random variables
whose logarithms are independent normal variates
with equal variances and zero means. The aim of
this paper is to generalize the results of Naus
by obtaining the probability density function and
the kth moment of the above sum. The main mathe¬
matical tool used is Mellin Transforms. The dis¬
tribution of the logarithm of the sum of two log¬
normal variates is of importance in communication
engineering .

A STOCHASTIC MODEL FOR VIRAL DEVITALIZATION. J. T.
Massey* and R. G. Krutchkoff. Dept, of Statistics

Va. Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ., Blacksburg,

Va. 24061

Viruses often exhibit unusual behavior when
exposed to destructive chemical or physical agents.

A mathematical model based on the assumption of
aggregation was developed by Clark (1968) to ex¬
plain the aberrations of the survival curves of
these viruses. The virions are assumed to exist
as singles and aggregates up to any size that
seem reasonable for a particular virus.

A stochastic model is now developed which gives
the probability distribution for each aggregate
size after a given exposure time t. The mean and
variance are also presented for each clump size.
(Supported by EPA training grant WP-166.)

Lp-STABILITY OF SOME STOCHASTIC CONTROL SYSTEMS,

D. B. McCallum* and C. P. Tsokos, Dept, of Statis-
tics, VPI&SU, Blacksburg, Va. , 24061.

The aim of this paper is to study the stochastic
control system given by

x(t,io) = A(a))x(t,a)) + b (to) (|) (a (t ,u)) )

O(t,t0) = f(t,to) + /q c'^ (t-T ,0)) X (t ,to) dT ,

where ooef!, the supporting set of the probability
measure space (n,a,P), x(t,to) is an nxl random
vector, A (to) is an nxn random matrix of measurable
functions, b(u)) and c(t,ti)) are nxl random vectors
of measurable functions, and <() (a (t ,to) ) , a(t,to),
and f(t,to) are scalars. Our main concern is ob¬
taining conditions under which the above system is

Lp stable with respect to bounded perturbations.

Tnat is, the trivial solution to the above system
is Lp stable with respect to bounded perturbations
if for any e>0 and toEtO,") , there exists a

6(E,tQ)>0 such that for any Xq (lo) eLp (n,Cl,P)G

L^(n,a,p) with ||^o(“HIl (n p)^'^'
tion x(t,(o) to the above iystem with initial con¬
ditions to and Xo(w) is extendable on [to,“) and
for any extension x(t,io) we have

1 1 lLp(n,a,p)"^ t ^

A STOCHASTIC INTEGRAL EQUATION IN A METABOLIZING
SYSTEM. J. S. Milton* and C. P. Tsokos. Dept, of
Statistics, Va. Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ.,
Blacksburg, Va. 24061

A stochastic formulation is presented for a
problem arising in general biochemical metaboli-'
zing systems which was previously considered in
the deterministic sense. Within this formulation
there arises the following random integral equa¬
tion of the Volterra type:

M(t;u)=M(0;a))e“‘^^+;^R(T;to)e'''^^^”^'dT t ^ 0

where M(t;a)) represents the amount of metabolite
present in the system at time t and R(t;m) is the
rate at which metabolite is entering the system
from the outside at time t. The question of
existence and uniqueness of a random solution to
the above equation is considered using the tech¬
niques of admissibility theory.

SYSTEMS RELIABILITY USING GERTS III. K. R. Morrison* and

K. E. Case*, Dept, of lEOR, Virginia Polytechnic Inst, and

State Univ. , Blacksburg, Virginia 24061

The purpose of this paper is to show how the GERTS
(Graphical Evaluation and Review Technique Simulation)
program can be used to model the reliability of systems
which are composed of non-repairable components. Large
series-parallel networks and moderate non-series-parallel
networks are often difficult to analyze analytically.

GERTS is easily adapted to networks of components and system
reliability may be determined. Examples of series-parallel
and complex systems are presented.

FORMAL SOLUTIONS FOR A CLASS OF STOCHASTIC LINEAR
PURSUIT-EVASION GAMES WITH PERFECT INFORMATION.

W. G. Nichols*, and C. P. Tsokos. Dept, of Sta-
tistics, Va. Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ.,
Blacksburg, Va. 24061

Consider the linear stochastic differential
pursuit-evasion game with transition equation

gf x(t;m) = P ( t ; oj) u ( t : m) -E (t ;iD) v ( t ; m) ( 1)

X (0;tD) = Xj (u)

where (i)ioefi, where is the supporting set of the

complete probability measure space (n,A,y); (ii)

X (t;a)) eL2 (fl,Apu) is the state vector, u(t;w)e

L2(n,A,y) and v ( t; m) eL^ (W , A , y) are respectively
the pursuer's and evader's controls chosen at time
t for each mefl; and (iii) P(t;(ji)) and E(t;uj) are
matrices of measurable functions. The payoff will
be given by „

J=i5E{x ' (T;a))Sf(io)x(T;a))+/|j[u'(t;a))B(t)u(t;m)-

V ' (t; m) C (t) V (t; (jj)] dt} (2)

where (iv) T is some given termination time; (v)

B and C are symmetric, positive definite matrices,
and S£(a)) is a positive semidefinite matrix.

Dividing the time interval [fO,T3 into N small
subintervals of length A and assuming that A is
small enough so that wen does not change signifi¬
cantly during a subinterval, we have a series of N
deterministic games whose solutions can be
obtained .

Proceedings, 1970-1971

151

OPTIMAL CONSUMPTION AND INVESTMENT STRATEGIES FOR A CLASS OF
UTILITY FUNCTIONS. J. F. O'Connor*, Depts. of Econ. & Stat . .

Va. Polytechnic Inst. & State Univ., Blacksburg, Va. 24061

The decision problem faced by an individual who wishes to
plan for the next T periods is analyzed. The utility func¬
tion which is defined on sequences of consumption expendi¬
tures and terminal wealth is the product of single period
constant relative risk aversion functions. The individual
begins with a given amount of capital. He receives a known
wage income at the end of each period. At the start of each
period, capital is allocated between consumption, borrowing
or lending at a known rate of interest, and N risky finan¬
cial opportunities. Borrowing is constrained by the condi¬
tion that individual be solvent at the start of the next pe¬
riod with probability one.

The model is analyzed by the technique of djmamic pro¬
gramming. Optimal consumption expenditure in a given period
is a linear and homogeneous function of capital at the begin¬
ning of the period and the present value of wage income.

Optimal investment strategies depend only on the rates of
return in the period and the relevant single period utility
function. The optimal mix of risky investments is independ¬
ent of wealth. Optimal borrowing and lending strategies are
linear in capital and human wealth.

KUHJAL INFORMATION, WEIGHT OP EVIDENCE, AND SIN¬
GULAR PROBABILITY I-IEASURES WITH APPLICATIONS TO
COMl'IUNICATION THEORY. D. B. OstoTee?. Dept, of Sta-
tlstics, Va. Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ.,
Blacksburg, Va. Bi+OOl; Radford Col., Radford, Va.

24141.

Stationary gaussian stochastic processes de¬
fined over any interval under two competing hy¬
potheses are considered.

The expected woi^t of evidence in favour of
one hypothesis over the other, given the former,
will be Infinite if and only if the probabilities
defined on these processes under the two hypothe¬
sis are mutually singuiarw .

It is then possible to discriminate with arbi¬
trarily small error between the two hypothesis by
using the values of the processes over any arbi¬
trarily small interval.

This paradox arises in certain models in com¬
munication theory when one is testing for signals
in additive noise. In these cases it also follows
that the rate of expected mutual Information from
a received signal about the original signal will
be Infinite.

These paradoxes will not arise for signals with
finite power or variance if one accepts the fact
that in practical situations there is always some
type of white noise present.

STOCHASTIC INTEGRAL EQUATIONS: THEORY AND APPLI¬
CATIONS IN LIFE SCIENCES AND ENGINEERING; STOCHAS¬
TIC CHEMOTHERAPY MODEL, POPULATION GROWTH MODEL,
TELEPHONE TRAFFIC THEORY, TURBULENCE THEORY,
HEREDITARY MECHANICS, AND STOCHASTIC CONTROL THEO
THEORY. W. J. Padqett and C. P. Tsokos , Depart-
ment of Statistics, VPI&SU.

The aim of this paper is to introduce the theory
of stochastic integral equations and to apply this
theory to various open problems in life sciences
and engineering. We study stochastic integral
equations of the forms

x(t;a)) = h(t;a)) + /q k(t,T;a))f(T,x(T;a)))dT,

x(t;u)) = hit.-io) + /q k (t ,t ,x (t ;a)) ) dx ,

where loefi, the supporting set of a complete proba¬
bility measure space (n,A,P) . x(t;a)) is the

unknown random variable, h(t;u)) the stochastic
free term and h(t,T,w) is the stochastic kernel
defined for 0<T<t<'» and toen. The usefulness of
the theory is illustrated by solving specific
problems in Biology, Telephone Traffic, Turbu¬
lence, Hereditary mechanics, control theory,
among others .

VARIATION IN TURKEY NUTRITION EXPERIMENTS AND REQUIRED REPLI¬
CATION FOR DETECTING SMALL DIFFERENCES. L. M. Potter. Deot.
of Poultry Science, Va. Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ.,
Blacksburg, Va. 24061

The results of several nutrition experiments conducted
with turkeys at this university during the past decade have
been evaluated to provide a basis for designing experiments
more efficiently in the future. From 28 experiments each
with 432 turkeys divided by sex into 48 pens and fed 24 diets
for seven or eight weeks, the median square roots of the
error mean square (sex x diets) were 4.6, 5.0 and 2.8% of the
mean body weight, feed consumption and feed efficiency, re-'
spectively. Based upon these results, it would require 170,

200 and 42 pens per treatment with 9 turkeys per pen for a

1.0% difference in body weight, feed consumption or feed
efficiency, respectively, to be significant.

From 8 experiments each with 118 to 272 hen turkeys per
experiment divided into 11 to 17 hens per pen, the coeffi¬
cients of variation among pen averages for eggs per 100 days
per hen, feed consumption per hen, feed consumption per egg
produced, percent fertility of eggs set, percent hatch of
fertile eggs, and percent hatch of eggs set were estimated
to be 10, 5, 7, 11, 4.5 and 9, respectively. Based upon
these estimates, the number of pens required in an experiment
for any difference to be significant in these measurements
can be calculated.

PROBABILITY AND STATISTICS IN HIGH SCHOOLS. Isahelle P.

Rucker, State Dept, of Education, Richmond, Va. 23216

Prior to 1960, little If any probability and statistics
could be found In the textbooks used In the schools. Today,
some Junior high school texts, especially those designed for
the mathematically Interested and talented students, contain
as much as a chapter or two on probability. Generally, the
topic Is presented as "something different", as an interest
attractor, and/or review of previously learned concepts and
skills such as set operations, set language, set notation,
and computation with rational numbers. Equally likely
events are considered. Simple combinatorics and arrange¬
ments are given rather explicit treatment that lead to the
factorial concept and its use. The following comments

Indicate, briefly, what Is taking place In certain senior
high schools with regard to probability and statistics: (1)

A two-semester course, "Computers and Statistics", Is offer¬
ed. Students learn computer programming so that they can
use the computer as a tool In solving statistical problems.

(2) A one-semester course in statistics Is offered as an
adjunct to analytic geometry. (3) Statistics comprised a
considerable portion of a summer Institute for high school
students for four summers. (6) In a course, "Advanced

Algebra", 50% of the content is probability. (5) Some
schools, equipped with terminal computers and desk-top cal¬
culators, offer a two-semester course In probability and
statistics. Students conduct independent research studies
and submit statistical analyses for their findings.

AUGMENTING MULTIDIMENSIONAL DESIGNS. J. Sennetti*
and K. Hinkelmann. Dept, of Statistics, Va. Poly-
technic Inst, and State Univ., Blacksburg, Va.

24061

Multidimensional designs, such as Latin squares
and other incomplete block designs, are usually
constructed under the assumption that no interac¬
tion between the factors is present. In this
paper, the assumption of no interaction is partly
removed and a method is given for adding the mini¬
mum number of points necessary to such incomplete
designs in order to estimate first order interac¬
tion contrasts between certain factors. This
method can be used to construct resolution IV
designs and other irregular fractions. Such
minimal designs permit tests on interactions when
an estimate of error exists or can be found and
experimental units are at a premium.

152

The Virginia Journal of Science

SCME USES OF FACTOR MATCHING TECHNIQUES IN EXPLAINING SOCIAL
CHANGE OVER TIME AND ACROSS COMMUNITIES. B.K. Singh. Dept,
of Sociology, Virginia Commonwealth Univ., Richmond, Va.

23220

Following the factor matching technique suggested by
Ahmavaara (1957) and Fruchter and Jennings (1962), data
from an Appalachian county were analyzed to explain social
change across six communities and over two time periods.

The findings indicated that such a technique did prove
useful in explaining social change when aggregate data
were used. (Contract #693 between University of Kentucky

Research Foundation and the Office of Economic Opportunity).

SYSTEM OPTIMIZATION THROUGH SIMULATION BY SUCCESSIVE

OUADRATIC APPROXIMATIONS. J. R. Smith* and J. W. Schmidt*.

Dept, of Ind. Eng. and Op. Res., Va, Polytechnic Inst.,
Blacksburg, Va. 24061

The optimization procedure, successive quadratic
approximations, is discussed. Cost based termination
criteria are given. The performance of the technique
and termination criteria are evaluated on example problems.
Included in the examples are the minimization of the
expected value of mathematical functions with error and
the minimization of the expected value of total cost of
a simulated inventory system.

GRADIENT METHODS FOR THE SOLUTION OF NON¬
LINEAR PARAMETER ESTIMATION PROBLEMS.

Terry A. Straeter*, NASA Langley Research Center,

Hampton, Va. 23365

Several classes of gradient methods for the solution of
certain nonlinear parameter estimation problems are
outlined. Among the methods discussed are the Gauss-
Marquardt, Davidon-Eletcher-Powell, and rank one
techniques. The results of several researchers including
the author comparing the reliability and efficiency of the
methods are presented.

THE ECONOMIC OUTLOOK. L. E. Traywick*. Bureau of Business

Res., College of William and Mary, Williamsburg, Va. 23185

The recovery of the U. S. economy from the recession of
1969-1970 will be slow. Unemployment will persist between

5.5 and 6.0 percent, inflation will remain near the 5.0 per¬
cent level, and growth in real Gross National Product will
not approach the Nixon Administration's hoped-for 7.5 per¬
cent, but will be closer to the 3 percent level. Thus, 1971
will be a better year than 1970, but not an ebullient one.

Influential factors to watch are fiscal, monetary, and the
psychology of the consumer. Of the three financial influ¬
ences (spending by consumers, by business for investment, and
by the government), by far the most important is consumption.

Of significance will be the increases in incomes of consumers
as well as the employment situation, the rate of inflation,
savings, installment debt changes, and above all consumer
sentiment. The latter remains sluggish if auto sales are
omitted.

Business investment spending for new plant and equipment
remains considerable below the rate of change for the past
three years. Only new private housing starts are buoyant.
Capacity expansion and concomitant new jobs remain slow.

Government spending at the federal level proceeds with
the high employment budget in surplus as fear of re-inflating
the economy persists. State and local spending surges.

Increases in the money supply have done everything thus
far possible to stimulate the economy. Without increases in
business loans, however, little will avail.

SOME MULTI STEP SEARCH PROCEDURES FOR UNCONSTRAINED

OPTIMIZATION. W.C. Turner*, and P. M. Ghare*, Dept, of

Ind. Eng. and Opr. Res., Va. Polytechnic Inst, and State
University. 24061

Single step directional search methods are discussed
from a relaxation point of view leading to the
developement of Incomplete Relaxation. This then is
extended to incorporate multi step concepts borrowing
heavily from residual methods for solutions of
simultaneous linear equations. Next some well known
mathematical functions are solved using complete
relaxation, incomplete relaxation and multi step techniques.
Finally suggestions are made for applications of these
methods .

Proceedings, 1970-1971

153

News and Notes

VIRGINIA JUNIOR ACADEMY OF
SCIENCE AWARDS

At the 30th annual meeting of the Virginia Junior
Academy of Science, held at Virginia Polytechnic
Institute and State University in Blacksburg, May
11-13, 1971, the following awards were presented.
Philip Morris Achievement Awards for Winning
Papers: Recipients are listed in order of awards,
first place ($50.00), second place ($25.00), and
third place ($10.00). Honorable mention awards
also were made.

MOLECULAR BIOLOGY GUNN, JENNIFER:
John Marshall High School, Richmond (Richmond
City School System). Growth and Morphogen¬
esis of Three Physiologically Distinct Isolates of
Candida albicans; NICHOLSON, JOY : Gunston
Junior High School, Arlington (Arlington County
School System). Tooth Decay: Causes and Preven¬
tion; LANG, ROGER B.: Lane High School,
Charlottesville (Charlottesville City School System).
Determining Calories in Different Types of Breads.

DEVELOPMENTAL BIOLOGY KISER, JOY DE-
VONNA: John S. Battle High School, Bristol
(Washington County School System). The Effects
of Heat Shock on Bean Germination; PETERSON,
CHERYL: Gunston Junior High School, Arling¬
ton (Arlington County School System). The Effects
That Acids and Lanolin Have on Bean Seeds; SWAN,
WILLIAM J.: Norfolk Academy, Norfolk (Private
School). Shell Relationships Among Littorina ir-
rorata in Various Stages of Development.

ORGANISMIC BIOLOGY COX, LINDA: William
Byrd High School, Vinton (Roanoke County School
System). Chemical Retardants for Salt Toxicity;
LANIER, LEWIS: J. R. Tucker High School, Rich¬
mond (Henrico County School System). A Study
of the Sulfur Requirements of Chlorella; ROBIN¬
SON, BILLY : Patrick Henry High School, Ashland
(Hanover County School System). The Lethal Effect
of Various Concentrations of Ampicillin Trihydrate
on Selected Microscopic Plants and Animals.

POPULATION BIOLOGY JACKSON, DELLA
L. : Liberty High School, Bedford (Bedford County
School System). The Effects of Ionizing Radiation
on the Growth of Plants; MURPHY, PAULA: Nor¬
folk Academy, Norfolk (Private School). The Effect
of an Electromagnetic Field on Growth and Respira¬
tion of Sugar Beets and Radish Seeds; MAYFIELD,
DAVID W. : William Byrd High School, Vinton
(Roanoke County School System). The Effects of
Lifelite Filtered Light on Plants.

BEHA VIORAL SCIENCE CLARK, JONATHAN:
Fort Hunt High School, Alexandria (Fairfax
County School System). A Comparative Analy¬
sis of Sonic Emissions from the Blind Cave Fish
and Talking Catfish; RASTETTER, EDWARD

and JOHN EVANS: York High School, Yorktown
(York County School System). An Experiment in
Kinesics; WARD, BARBARA: Hampton High
School, Hampton (Hampton City School System).
Biological Clocks in Una pugilator as Evidenced by
Color Change and Running Rhythms.

ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE EASTHAM, WIL¬
LIAM A.: Warren County High School, Front
Royal (Warren-Rappahannock County School Sys¬
tem). Ecology: Environmental Pollution; HOOKEY,
CHARLES: Warren County High School, Front
Royal (Warren-Rappahannock County School Sys¬
tem). Particulate Air Pollution in Warren County,
Virginia; TAYLOR, DAN: Radford High School,
Radford (Radford City School System). The Effects
of DDT on Photosynthesis.

CHEMISTRY BENDER, BARRY: James Madison
High School, Vienna (Fairfax County School Sys¬
tem). General Applications of a Homemade Silver-
Silver Chloride Electrode and a Calomel Electrode;
WESCHKE, FRANK: Radford High School, Rad¬
ford (Radford City School System). The Effects of
Detergents on Crystal Growth; CHESSON, EDWIN
E. and JOSEPH C. FARMER: Floyd County High
School, Floyd (Floyd County School System). Syn-
thesization of Amino Acids.

ENGINEERING GREGORY, LEE: Warwick High
School, Newport News (Newport News City School
System). Design and Construction of an Expanda¬
ble Binary Coded Decimal Computer; PILLS-
BURY, JOHN F.: West Springfield High School,
Springfield (Fairfax County School System). Color
Photography and an Electronic Photometric Device:
A “Negative-Inverter”; SCHWEBS, MONICA:
Stratford Junior High School, Arlington (Arlington
County School System). 1 + 1 = 10 Digital Com¬
puter Basics.

MATHEMATICS NAKATSUKA, ROY: Gunston
Junior High School, Arlington (Arlington County
School System). An Investigation of Modular Math¬
ematical Systems; KROUT, JOHN: Washington-
Lee High School, Arlington (Arlington County
School System). Extension of Fortran IV Digital
Precision; JONES, EDWIN A: Liberty High School,
Bedford (Bedford County School System). Charged
Particles: A Model for Teaching Directed Numbers.

PHYSICS MARTIN, THOMAS MILLER,. JR.:
Liberty High School, Bedford (Bedford County
School System). Vortex Separation of Kinetic En¬
ergy for Thermodynamics; LEIGHTON, TOM:
Stratford Junior High School, Arlington (Arlington
County School System). Building a Galvanometer
and Using It to Measure Current, Potential, Resis¬
tance and Temperature, and to Detect the Thermo¬
electric Effect, Electromagnetic Induction, and
Electromagnetic Radiation; STEMPLE, JOHN:

154

The Virginia Journal of Science

Falls Church High School, Falls Church (Fairfax
County School System). Optical Rotation by a Mag¬
netic Field.

EARTH SCIENCE BROWNE, DANA: McLean
High School, McLean (Fairfax County School Sys¬
tem). A Photoelectric Study of Delta Cephei; DBAS,
LYNN : Homer L. Ferguson High School, Newport
News (Newport News City School System). The
Effects of the James River Water Currents on Its
Sediment; BARLEY, STEPHEN: John Handley
High School, Winchester (Winchester City School
System). Geographical Location as a Factor in
Determining Specific Heat of Rocks.

The following special awards were presented:
Best Research Paper-197 1 ($50.00) PILLSBURY
JOHN R. : West Springfield High School, Spring-
field. Color Photography and an Electronic Photo¬
metric Device: A “Negative-Inverter.”

Rodney C. Berry Chemistry Award ($50.00) BEN¬
DER, BARRY: James Madison High School, Vi¬
enna. General Applications of a Home-made
Silver-Silver Chloride Electrode and a Calomel Elec¬
trode.

Virginia Veterinary Auxiliary Award ($50.00)
GUNN, JENNIFER: John Marshall High School,
Richmond. Growth and Morphogenesis of Three
Physiologically Distinct Isolates of Candida albicans.

A A AS Honorary Membership Award DEBBIE
MELOY: W. T. Woodson High School, Fairfax.

VAS Honorary Membership Award TOM MUR¬
RAY: Norfolk Academy, Norfolk; and JOHN
KROUT: Washington-Lee High School, Arlington.

E. C. L. Miller Award to Most Outstanding Science
Club ($50.00 and trophy) LIBERTY HIGH
SCHOOL SCIENCE AND MATHEMATICS
CLUBS: Liberty High School, Bedford.

VAS Outstanding Teacher Award DONALD O.
BUTTERMORE; Gunston Junior High School, Ar¬
lington.

Trip to American Junior Academy of Science
Meeting LEE GREGORY: Warwick High School,
Newport News; and DANA BROWNE: McLean
High School, McLean.

VJAS Distinguished Service Award. MRS. MAR¬
THA LIPSCOMB WALSH (retired) : McLean High
School, McLean.

A total of 342 papers were submitted, of which
200 were selected for oral presentation. A total of
61 schools submitted papers; 53 had papers se¬
lected. The top 33 winning papers (first, second,
and third) came from 24 different schools. Liberty
had two firsts and a third, and Gunston Junior had
one first and two seconds to lead the list. Ten first
place papers were presented before the Senior Acad¬
emy sections. Molecular Biology did not show.

The 1971-72 student officers elected were: Presi¬
dent, George E. Rector, Jr., Brentsville District High
School; President-elect, Frank Key, Liberty High

School; and Secretary, Brenda Bowers, Floyd County
High School.

AWARD PROGRAM FOR SECONDARY
SCHOOL PHYSICS TEACHERS

The American Association of Physics Teachers
will continue the Award Program for teachers of
physics on the high school level for the year 1971.

The emphasis of the program — innovation in
teaching style, course content, or student recruiting
techniques — reflects the conviction among educators
that the conventional approaches must be modified
to accommodate the growing demand for an educa¬
tion that is relevant to a changing society. With this
in mind, the officers of AAPT feel it is most appro¬
priate to reward, in a substantial way, individual high
school teachers who have instituted needed changes
in their physics programs resulting in significant im¬
provements in their physics courses, demonstrable
increases in physics enrollment, or enhanced stu¬
dent activity. Emphasis will be placed on the novelty
and effectiveness of the change.

If you are a high school physics teacher, submit
your entry postmarked not later than October 15,
1971, to Wilber Johnson, Executive Officer, AAPT,
1785 Massachusetts Avenue, N.W., Washington,
D.C. 20036. Your entry should not exceed 1200
words in length (exclusive of supporting graphs,
tables, and photographs). It should describe a change
in some aspect of the physics program at your school
which you helped to implement. The article must in¬
clude evidence for either improved student academic
performance or increases in physics enrollment
which are attributable to the changes described.

The Executive Officer will forward all entries to
the AAPT High School Awards Committee. This
Committee will read and rank the entries on the basis
of the selection criteria discussed previously.

The teachers submitting the ten most highly rated
papers will be visited by a member of the AAPT.
Visitors will submit reports for a second round of
judging; each judge will vote for five entries which
he believes merit a cash award. The five individuals
receiving the highest number of votes on this ballot
will be the recipients of awards of $500 each. In add¬
ition, all winning entries will be published in THE
PHYSICS TEACHER. The presentation of awards
will be made at the annual winter AAPT meeting
(San Francisco, February 1972). Funding for the
program, which has been provided by the Carnegie
Foundation, is sufficient to maintain this program
for at least three more years.

Any questions about the program should be di¬
rected to the Executive Officer of the AAPT.

VUU GRANTS

Virginia Union University, Richmond, Virginia,
was one of 20 private colleges and universities with
predominantly black enrollments to share in a $4,
500,000 appropriation from the Andrew W. Mellon
Foundation of New York City. The $200,000 grant
is to be disbursed over a period of three years. The
objective of the grant is to help strengthen the selected
institutions generally and the quality of their teach-

News and Notes

155

ing staffs in particular. The Andrew W. Mellon
Foundation was formed through the merger of Old
Dominion Foundation in June, 1969, the name of
the latter having been changed concurrently to the
present designation.

Virginia Union University has also received a
grant of $121,041 to sponsor a career opportunities
program. It is planned to improve the educational
achievement of young people through curriculum
development and the open-classroom approach.
Tuition-free courses will be provided for all persons
enrolled in the program. This program will be in
addition to the one currently sponsored by the Rich-
mong Public Schools through cooperative efforts
with the University. The program is unique because
two other educational enterprises will be involved.
Virginia State College in Petersburg will be respon¬
sible for all work beyond the baccalaureate level.
The Institute for Services to Education in Washing¬
ton, D.C., will serve as a resource service for the pro¬
gram.

UVA SIGMA XI

An associate professor of chemistry, a postdoctoral
research associate in chemistry and a graduate stu¬
dent in biology were recipients of awards presented at
the annual meeting of the University of Virginia
chapter of the Society of Sigma Xi in May.

Dr. Lester S. Andrews, associate professor of chem¬
istry, was the 1971 recipient of the President’s and
Visitors’ Research Prize for outstanding research in
pure and applied science. Dr. Andrews, whose re¬
search subject this year was “Infrared Spectrum
Structure, Vibrational Potential Function and Bond¬
ing in the Lithium Superoxide Molecule,” also won
the prize in 1969.

Dr. Susan Brand Piepho of Amherst, Virginia, a
postdoctoral research associate in chemistry, was the
1971 recipient of the Allan Talbott Gwathmey
Award, while Bruce H. Lipton of Charlottesville, a
graduate student in biology, received the Andrew
Fleming Prize. The Gwathmey prize goes to a grad¬
uate student who has produced evidence of research
ability, and the Fleming award recognizes the out¬
standing graduate student in biology each year. Dr.
Peipho was cited for research done last year as a
graduate student in which she analyzed magnetic
circular dichroism and electronic absorption data of
highly symmetrical inorganic compounds. Tipton’s
research centers around elucidating the structure of
developing muscle cells in tissue culture.

Honorable mention for the President’s and Visitors’
Research Prize this year went to Dr. Charles S. Chen,
assistant professor of mechanical engineering, for a
paper written with Dr. M. M. El-Wakil of the Uni¬
versity of Wisconsin on “Experimental and Theoreti¬
cal Studies of Burning Drops of Hydrocarbon Mix¬
tures.”

Twenty-two new members and 53 associates were
initiated into the University chapter of Sigma Xi.

VCU SIGMA XI

Dr. Seymour J. Kreshover, director of the National
Institute of Dental Research, spoke on “Dentistry
2000; Big Changes Ahead” at the May 6 meeting of
the Virginia Commonwealth University chapter of the
Society of the Sigma Xi. Among the advances Dr.
Kreshover forecasted for dentistry of the future
are revolutionary methods to heal wounds, better un¬
derstanding and control of genetic makeup to pre¬
vent oral malformations, common use of dental
transplants and implants, and regulation of the body’s
natural defense system as an aid to therapy.

Twenty new members and six associates were
initiated into the VCU chapter of the Society of the
Sigma Xi. Dr. Kenneth E. Guyer, Jr., assistant
professor of biochemistry at the Medical College of
Virginia, was elected president of the Virginia Com¬
monwealth University chapter for next year. Other
new officers are Dr. William Stepka, professor of
pharmacognosy in the School of Pharmacy, vice
president, and Dr. Edward R. Bowman, research
associate in pharmacology, as secretary-treasurer.

MCV APPOINTMENTS

Dr. Warren H. Pearse, assistant dean for the Col¬
lege of Medicine of the University of Nebraska, has
been appointed dean of the School of Medicine at the
Medical College of Virginia, Health Sciences Divi¬
sion of Virginia Commonwealth University, effec¬
tive in November, 1971. Dr. Pearse succeeds Dr.
Kinloch Nelson as dean of medicine. Dr. Nelson re¬
tired on July 1 after more than 40 years on the MCV
faculty, the last eight years as dean of the School of
Medicine.

A native of Detroit, Mich., Dr. Pearse has been a
member of the University of Nebraska College of
Medicine faculty since 1959. He was appointed pro¬
fessor and chairman of the Department of Obstetrics
and Gynecology in 1962 and was named assistant
dean of medicine in 1963. Dr. Pearse received the
B.S. degree from Michigan State University in
1948 and his M.D. degree from Northwestern Uni¬
versity in 1951. He interned and completed residency
in obstetrics and gynecology at the University of
Michigan Hospitals and was certified in 1960 by
the American Board of Obstetrics and Gynecology.
He is a member and 1970-71 chairman of the Na¬
tional Children’s Bureau Research Grant Advisory
Council, an associate examiner of the American
Board of Obstetrics and Gynecology, a member of
the residency review committee for ob-gyn, and a
member of the Food and Drug Administration Ob¬
stetrics-Gynecology Advisory Committee. He also is
an ob-gyn consultant to the U. S. Fifth Army and
family planning consultant to the Office of Economic
Opportunity Population Council.

Dr. Pearse is a member of Alpha Omega Alpha,
Sigma Xi, the American College of Obstetrics and
Gynecology, and current secretary-treasurer of the
Association of Professors of Gynecology and Obstet¬
rics.

Dr. F. Norman Briggs, professor of physiology at
the University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, has
been appointed professor and chairman of the De-

156

The Virginia Journal of Science

partment of Physiology. A member of the University
of Pittsburg medical faculty since 1961, Dr. Briggs
also has been on the faculties of Tufts University
School of Medicine, Harvard Medical School, and the
Harvard School of Dental Medicine. A native of Oak¬
land, Calif., he received his A.B., M.A., and Ph.D.
degrees from the University of California. In 1955-56
Dr. Briggs was recipient of a U. S. Public Health
Service Research Fellowship for study of muscular
contraction with H. H. Weber at Max-Planck Institut
fur Medezinische Forschung. He was awarded a Pub¬
lic Health Service Research Career Award from the
National Heart Institute in 1964 and the Established
Investigator award from the American Heart Associa¬
tion, 1960-64. Dr. Briggs is a member of the Society
for Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics,
the American Physiological Society, the Cardiac Mus¬
cle Society, and the study section for physiology train¬
ing programs of the U. S. Public Health Service.

Dr. Giovanni G. Costa has been appointed profes¬
sor of medicine and director of the Clinical Research
Center. The Center is a special unit founded in 1962
to conduct detailed research procedures in a con¬
trolled environment. Sponsored by a grant from the
National Institutes of Health, it is one of a number of
clinical research units established at medical centers
throughout the country to enable physicians to learn
more about disease, how it affects individuals, and
how it can be treated.

Special studies at the MCV center include kidney,
heart and liver transplantation and immunology as
well as work in diabetes, high blood pressure, and eye
and skin infectious diseases. Dr. Costa succeeds Dr.
W. R. Harlan, Jr., as director of the MCV Clinical
Research Center. Before joining the MCV staff. Dr.
Costa was an assistant professor of medicine at State
University of New York at Buffalo. He was a member
of the cancer research staff at Roswell Park Memorial
Institute, 1960-65. Dr. Costa is a native of Collagna,
Italy, and received his medical degree from the
University of Genoa Medical School. He has a Ph.D.
in biochemistry from the University of Oklahoma.
His post-graduate training included work at Peter
Bent Brigham Hospital in Boston.

UVA APPOINTMENTS

Dr. W. Dexter Whitehead, past chairman of the
Academy’s Research Committee, became dean of the
Faculty of Arts and Sciences at the University of Vir¬
ginia July 1. Dr. Whitehead will also continue his
present position as dean of the Graduate School of
Arts and Sciences at the University. The combined
appointment is for one year.

“The University is greatly indebted to Mr. White-
head for his willingness to undertake an additional
major responsibility this year, and it is fortunate to
have available a scientist, teacher and administrator
of such broad and distinguished experience,” Uni¬
versity President Edgar F. Shannon, Jr., said in
announcing the appointment.

Dr. Whitehead succeeds Dr. David A. Shannon
who became vice president and provost of the Uni¬
versity on July 1 . The dean of the faculty is the chief
adviser to the provost and the president of the Uni¬

versity on courses of study in graduate and under¬
graduate arts and sciences and also recommends
additions to the faculty. Of the University’s enroll¬
ment last year of 10,800 students, more than half
were enrolled in arts and sciences. In the Graduate
School of Arts and Sciences, Dr. Robert F. Bryan,
associate professor of chemistry, will serve as as¬
sociate dean for admissions. Dr. Samuel P. Maroney,
Jr., associate professor of biology, will be assistant
to the dean.

Dr. Whitehead, who received his B. S. degree in
chemistry and his M.S. and Ph.D. degrees in physics
from the University of Virginia, is noted for his
work on neutron scattering experiments and photo-
nuclear reactions. He joined the University faculty
in 1956 after working at the Barton Research Foun¬
dation in Swarthmore, Pa., and teaching at North Car¬
olina State College. Before being named dean of the
graduate school in 1969, he was chairman of the
physics department. Dr. Whitehead also directs the
University’s Center for Advanced Studies which was
established in 1965 to help the University strengthen
its academic departments.

Dr. W. Gayle Crutchfield, professor of neurologi¬
cal surgery at the University’s School of Medicine and
former department chairman, and Dr. Yintang Hsu,
professor of pathology at the medical school, have
been named professor emeritus by the University
Board of Visitors. They retired June 30. The rank
of professor emeritus honors certain full professors,
retiring between the ages of 65 and 70, who have
served the University for at least 15 years.

A native of Henry County, Ky., Dr. Crutchfield re¬
ceived his B.S. degree from the University of Ken¬
tucky in 1923 and his M.D. degree from the Johns
Hopkins University in 1927. After service at the
Woman’s Hospital, Baltimore, Peter Bent Brigham
Hospital, Boston, and the Medical College of Virginia,
he went to the University as professor of neurologi¬
cal surgery and department chairman in 1941. He is
author of a number of scientific papers dealing with
various phases of neurological surgery and the de¬
veloper of several important innovations for the treat¬
ment of fractures and fracture dislocation and is a
former vice president of the American Association
of Neurological Surgeons.

Dr. Hsu was born in Tung-kun, Kwang-tung,
China, and received his M.D. degree from the Peking
University School of Medicine in 1923. After a career
in China which included a professorship in pathology
at Hunan Yale Medical College, he went to the Uni¬
versity as visiting professor of pathology and resident
pathologist in 1945. A specialist in surgical pathology
and the author or coauthor of more than 30 scientific
papers. Dr. Hsu has concentrated on tropical, in¬
fectious, parasitic and fungoid diseases and will con¬
tinue his research with members of the department
of dermatology on tissue changes. He was named pro¬
fessor of pathology in 1 970.

Dr. Kenneth R. Crispell, formerly dean of the
School of Medicine, was promoted to the position of
vice president for health sciences effective March 1,
1971. Dr. Crispell succeeds Dr. Thomas H. Hunter
as the top medical administrative officer under

News and Notes

157

President Shannon. Dr. Hunter is returning to full¬
time teaching and research as Owen R. Cheatham
Professor of Science.

As a vice president, Dr. Crispell will be responsible
to Dr. Shannon for the administration of the entire
area of health affairs in the University’s Medical
Center including its 600-bed teaching hospital, the
schools of medicine and nursing and related programs.
In appointing Dr. Crispell as one of his five vice
presidents. President Shannon said Dr. Crispell’s
“distinguished work as dean has conspicuously en¬
hanced the quality of the School of Medicine and in¬
creased its capacity to advance medical science and
education and to serve the public.”

Dr. Crispell, a native of Ithaca, N. Y., first joined
the University in 1949 as instructor in medicine and
became an assistant and then associate professor of
medicine. In 1960, he returned to the University
after two years as professor of medicine and chair¬
man of the department at New York Medical College.
He was appointed dean in 1964. He is on the execu¬
tive council of the Association of American Medical
Colleges and a member of the Duke University
Medical Center Board of Visitors. He has served on
the Governor’s Advisory Committee for Virginia Re¬
gional Medical Programs and is currently on the Gov¬
ernor’s Study Commission for Medical Facilities in
Roanoke. A graduate of Philadelphia College of Phar¬
macy and the University of Michigan School of Medi¬
cine, Dr. Crispell has received distinguished alumni
awards from the college and the Ochsner Clinic in
New Orleans where he interned.

Dr. James T. Hamlin III has been named acting
dean of the School of Medicine to fill the vacancy
created by Dr. Crispell’s promotion. He has been
assistant dean since 1969. A native of Danville, Dr.
Hamlin is a graduate of Virginia Military Institute
and received his M.D. degree from the University
of Virginia. He interned and was later assistant in
medicine at Peter Bent Brigham Hospital in Boston
and then was a research fellow at Harvard Medical
School. He joined the University medical faculty
in 1966 as associate professor of medicine after
teaching at New York Medical College and the
Medical College of Georgia. Dr. Hamlin also directs
the Medical Center’s 10-bed clinical research unit
where investigations into the cause and effects of
human disease problems can be carried out under
precisely controlled conditions.

Dr. Samuel E. Miller, currently in private prac¬
tice in Abingdon, in September will become profes¬
sor of family and community medicine in internal
medicine.

Eugene H. Brock, who is presently deputy assis¬
tant director for computation and flight support at
the NASA-Manned Spacecraft Center in Houston,
Texas, will become director of computing activities
at the University and director of the Region II com¬
puting center for the State of Virginia. He will also
hold an appointment as professor of electrical en¬
gineering in the School of Engineering and Applied
Science. Brock received his bachelor’s degree from
Texas Technological College and his master’s from
Texas A & M University, where he served as assis¬

tant dean of the School of Engineering. Before
joining the National Aeronautics and Space Adminis¬
tration, he managed the computer center General
Electric Company at the Marshall Space Center.

In his new position Brock will have prime re¬
sponsibility for the University’s three main com¬
puter centers — administrative data processing,
computer-science and medical — and for arranging
and coordinating, in conformance with the Virginia
Plan for Educational Data Processing, computer
services required by the 20 colleges and universities
served by the State in Region II. As new director.
Brock will be responsible for future expansion and
plans for the University’s consolidated computer
services. He will be advised by the University com¬
mittee on automated data processing.

Computing facilities at the University have been
expanded recently with the installation in May of a
Burroughs 2500 in the Medical Center. The new
computer has increased computing capability 10
times and is designed to support a general hospital
information system. Drug orders, patients’ records,
bills and lab reports are among the items which
will be handled by the new computer. Dr. Donald
J. Wright is director of the Medical Center com¬
puting center. Arrangements have also been com¬
pleted for the leasing of a new research computer
to be installed in the computer science center in
Gilmer Hall. Valued at $2 million, the high-speed
CDC 6400, manufactured by Control Data Corpor¬
ation, is particularly designed for the kinds of prob¬
lems encountered in scientific calculations. It is ex¬
pected to be at least five times faster than the
present Burroughs 5500 which is used extensively
for instruction and research projects by undergrad¬
ate and graduate students as well as the faculty re¬
search. Dr. Alan P. Batson is director of the com¬
puter-science center.

Dr. A. Wayne Wyman, an expert in systems en¬
gineering. will be visiting professor of aerospace
engineering. He is now professor at the Univer¬
sity of Arizona. Also to be a member of the Center
for Advanced Studies, Dr. Kurt Meyberg will be
visiting associate professor of mathematics. Cur¬
rently associate professor at the University of Mu¬
nich and Munster in his native Germany, he special¬
izes in Jordan algebras. Others appointed to the
Center for Advanced Studies include Dr. Nils A.
Baas, an algebraic topologist now a lecturer at
the University of Aarhaus in Denmark, who will be
visiting assistant professor of mathematics, and Dr.
Leonard L. Scott, to be associate professor of math¬
ematics. Dr. Scott, whose field is group theory, is cur¬
rently assistant professor at Yale University.

Effective September 1, Dr. Robert Ellison, asso¬
ciate professor of environmental sciences, will be
chairman of that department.

VIMS APPOINTMENTS

Four new appointments have been made by Gov¬
ernor Holton to the board of the Virginia Institute
of Marine Sciences. Each will serve four-year terms.

Carter O. Lowance, executive vice president at
the College of William and Mary, replaces Dr. Davis

The Virginia Journal of Science

158

Y. Paschall, president of the college.

Dr. W. Dexter Whitehead, dean of the graduate
school of arts and sciences at the University of Vir¬
ginia, replaces Dr. Edgar F. Shannon, president of
the university.

Gilbert L. Maton of Falls Church, president of a
scientific research and engineering laboratory at

Rockville, Md., replaces Fred Garrett of Bowlers
Wharf.

Roger G. Hopper of Saluda, a lawyer and attorney
for the town of Saluda, replaces former state Sen.
Marvin Minter of Mathews, deceased.

Drs. Shannon and Paschall and Mr. Garrett were
ineligible for reappointment.

EXHIBITORS

VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
ANNUAL MEETING
Blacksburg, May 1971

American Optical Corporation, Scientific Instru¬
ment Division, 7961 Eastern Avenue, Silver
Spring, Maryland 20795

Arthur H. Thomas Company, Third at Vine Street,
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19105

Bausch & Lomb, Inc., 349 Lancaster Avenue,
Haverford, Pennsylvania 19041

Bunton Instrument Company, Inc., 489 South
Stonestreet Avenue, Rockville, Maryland 20850

Carolina Biological Supply Company, Burlington,
North Carolina 27215

Fisher Scientific Company, 7722 Fenton Street, Silver
Spring, Maryland 20910

Gilson Medical Electronics, Inc., 3000 West Belt-
line Highway, Middleton, Wisconsin 53562

Houghton Mifflin Company, 666 Miami Circle,
N.E., Atlanta, Georgia 30324

Phipps & Bird, Inc., Sixth and Byrd Streets, Rich¬
mond, Virginia 23219

Polaroid Corporation, 1501 Wilson Blvd., Arlington,
Virginia

Sargent-Welch Scientific Company, 35 Stern Ave¬
nue, Springfield, New Jersey 07081

SciChem Co., P. O. Box 1129, Durham, North
Carolina 27702

Scientific Products, 3175 V Street, N.E., Washing¬
ton, D.C. 20018

Universal Scientific Company, Inc., 1312 South 13th
Street, Vincennes, Indiana 47591

Van Waters & Rogers/Will Scientific, P. O. Box
5195, Baltimore, Maryland 21224

Varian Anaspect, 61 1 Hansen Way, Palo Alto, Cali¬
fornia 94303

Wang Laboratories, Inc., 3318 West Cary Street,
Richmond, Virginia 23221

News and Notes

159

Mobil Chemical

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A. H. Robins Companv: Richmond, Va. 23220

160

The Virginia Journal of Science

Philip Morris, a publicly-owned company incorporated in Virginia, proudly traces
its heritage to a London tobacconist of a century ago. Quality and innovation
have earned for the company a valued reputation: “Philip Morris . . . makers of
America’s finest cigarettes.” By any professional measure, the Philip Morris Re¬
search and Development Center has become one of the most complete and fully-
integrated facilities for scientific effort related to tobacco products.

Write to:

Administrative Manager
P. O. Box 26583
Richmond, Virginia, 23261

I

I

PHILIP MORRIS
RESEARCH CENTER

VIRGINIA

JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

OFFICIAL PUBLICATION OF THE VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

JAK 4 1’’

V0L.22,N0.4 1971

IISTED BELOW are
JReynoldsMetals
locations in the State of
Virginia. Some 16 in
all . . . plants, research
labs, sales and admini¬
strative offices . . .
including our general
headquarters for busi¬
ness conducted around
the world. Needless to

say our roots are
planted deep in
Commonwealth soil.
Virginia is our “home
state.” Whatever we
have contributed to its
economy is returned
many times in the close
relationship we have
with its people and its
commerce.

REYNOLDS METALS COMPANY
RICHMOND, VIRGINIA 23218

RICHMOND • Executive Office • Styling and Design • Advertising Distribution • Downtown Office Building * Product Development •
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SUSTAINING MEMBERS
VIRGINIA ACADEMY
OF SCIENCE

The following Virginia Educational Institu¬
tions support the objectives of the Virginia Acad¬
emy of Science through Sustaining Memberships.
Their active and financial support is gratefully
acknowledged.

Alderman Library
Christopher Newport College
College of William and Mary
Emory and Henry College
George Mason College
Hampden-Sydney College
Hollins College
Longwood College
Lynchburg College
Madison College
Mary Baldwin College
Mary Washington College
Mathematics and Science Center
Norfolk State College
Old Dominion University
Radford College
Randolph-Macon College
Randolph-Macon Woman’s College
Roanoke College
Stratford College
Sullins College
Sweet Briar College
University of Richmond
University of Virginia
Virginia Commonwealth University
General Academic Division
Health Sciences Division

Virginia Military Institute
Virginia Polytechnic Institute
Virginia State College
Virginia Union University
Virginia Wesleyan College
Virginia Western Community College
Washington and Lee University

BUSINESS MEMBERS
VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

Because of their interest in science and the
economy of Virginia, the following industrial
concerns have become Business Members of
the Academy and have thus contributed greatly
to its work and progress. Their support is
gratefully acknowledged:

Allied Chemical Corporation
American Filtrona Corporation
The American Tobacco Company
The Bank of Virginia
Brunswick Corporation
Bunton Instrument Co.

Burlington Industries, Inc.

Carolina Biological Supply Co.

The Central National Bank

Dow-Badische Company

E. I. duPont de Nemours & Co., Inc.

Ethyl Corporation

First and Merchants National Bank

Hercules, Incorporated

House of Edgeworth

Merck and Company, Inc.

Mobil Chemical Company
National Fruit Product Co.

Newport News Shipbuilding Co. Foundation
Philip Morris and Co., Inc.

Phipps & Bird, Inc.

Reynolds Metals Co.

A. H. Robins Company, Inc.

Southern Bank & Trust Company
Southern States Cooperative, Inc.

Texaco, Inc.

United Virginia Bank — State Planters
Universal Leaf Tobacco Co., Inc.

Virginia Chemicals, Inc.

Virginia Electric and Power Company
Wheat and Company, Inc.

VIRGINIA

JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

OFFICIAL PUBLICATION OF THE
VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

Vol. 22 No. 4 1971

TABLE OF CONTENTS

165 The Science Museum of Virginia

166 The Role of Agriculture in Improving

Environmental Quality

(Sidney S. Negus Memorial Lecture) Nyle C. Brady

172 “What Country, Friends, Is This?” or

Some Remarks on the Writer’s En¬
counter With His Environment Walter R. Coppedge

177 Comparisons of Two Antarctic Lakes

With Different Trophic States Gene L. Samsel, Jr., and Bruce C. Parker

183 Further Studies on the Effects of

Benzimidazole Derivatives on Azo

Dye Carcinogenesis C. C. Clayton

187 Magnetic Susceptibility of Alkali Metals W. M . Pritchard and L. C. Miranda

190 The Use of Principal Components Analysis

in Determining Grades and Detecting
Ambiguous Questions on Multiple

Choice Examinations Walter H. Carter, Jr., and Roger E. Flora

193 Science Teachers Section

195 Communications and Reports

A Note on the Cotton Rat in Central Virginia John F. Pagels and Ronald G. Adleman
VAS Visiting Scientists Program A. M. Clarke

197

News and Notes

THE VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

OfRciill Publication of the Virginia Academy of Science
EDITOR

LYNN D. ABBOTT, JR.
SECTION EDITORS

Boyd L. Samuel
Agricultural Sciences

Lee S. Anthony

Astronomy, Mathematics and Physics

James D. Punch
Microbiology

Robert G. Bass
Chemistry

K. L. Reifsnider
Materials Science

Michael N. Bishara
Engineering

Kenneth A. Blick
Psychology

Alva D. Aukland
Science Teachers

John R. Howell
Statistics

Ricardo N. Zapata

Space Science and Technology

Edwin S. Higgins
Medical Sciences

BUSINESS MANAGER
Charles E. O’Rear

Published quarterly by The Virginia Academy of
Science, Department of Biochemistry, Medical Col¬
lege of Virginia, Richmond, Virginia 23219. Second-
class postage paid at Richmond, Virginia.

Manuscripts for publication (other than section
abstracts) and books for review should be sent to
the Editor, Lynn D. Abbott, Jr., Department of
Biochemistry, Medical College of Virginia, Rich¬
mond, Virginia 23219. Proof, edited manuscripts,
and all correspondence regarding accepted papers
should be sent to the Editor.

Advertising and Business Office: All correspon¬
dence relating to advertising and business affairs
should be directed to Charles E. O’Rear, Business
Manager, Virginia Journal of Science, 1 N. Eour-
teenth St., Ridimond, Virginia 23219.

The Virginia Academy of Science and the Editors
of the Virginia Journal of Science assume no re¬
sponsibility for statements or opinions advanced by
contributors.

© Copyright, 1971, by the Virginia Academy of
Science.

Business and Subscription Information

All remittances and orders for advertising and
subscriptions should be sent to the Business Man¬
ager, Virginia Journal of Science, 1 N. Fourteenth
St., Richmond, Virginia 23219. Changes of address
should be sent promptly to Blanton M. Bruner, Ex¬
ecutive Secretary-Treasurer, Virginia Academy of
Science, P. O. Box 8454, Richmond, Virginia 23226.
Changes of address must include both new and old
addresses with zip code.

Subscription rates for 1971: $8.00 per year,
U.S.A.; Canada and other countries of the Pan-
American Union, $8.50 per year; all other foreign
countries, $9.00 per year. All foreign remittances
must be made at par U.S. dollars or the foreign
equivalent. U.S. dollar remittance is suggested to
avoid currency fluctuation problems and possibly
unfavorable exchange rates.

Back issues are available for some years at $3.00
per issue plus postage.

The front cover is by Douglas C. Hensley.

The Science Museum of Virginia

More than a quarter-century ago a five-member
Museum of Science Advisory Commission reported
to the Governor and General Assembly of Virginia
that “few agencies can be devised to advertise what
we have to offer ourselves, or others, and to di¬
rect the interests of both young and old in building
a greater Virginia than ... a properly set up and
administered State museum of science.”

These men, two of whom— Dr. George W. Jeffers
and Dr. William T. Sanger — remain active museum
supporters, of vision and imagination called for the
museum to be functional, both within and without
its building, in a dynamic, educational way; becom¬
ing a real science center, “a veritable beehive of
activity for all classes.”

Today, their dream, carefully nurtured and en¬
larged by thousands of interested individuals and
hundreds of groups and organizations throughout
Virginia, stands on the threshold of reality.

Spearheaded by the Virginia Academy of Science
and other learned organizations, a comprehensive
Museum Study Commission report in 1969 was the
basis for concrete action by the General Assembly
in 1970. Prior to that several efforts to effectuate
the museum were unsuccessful.

Senate Bill No. 8 created the Science Museum of
Virginia, outlined its purposes, and authorized ap¬
pointment of a nine-member Board of Trustees. An
operating budget for the 1970-72 biennium also
was approved.

Trustee appointments were completed by the
Governor in February, 1971, and the selection re¬
flects probably the most diverse geographic repre¬
sentation of any state institution. Board members
include: Dr. Roscoe D. Hughes, Richmond, chair¬
man; Dr. T. Dale Stewart, McLean, vice chairman;
Mrs. William A. Stuart, Jr., Rosedalc, secretary;
Mrs. J. T. Bird, Salem; Dr. Avery Catlin, Charlottes¬
ville; Lyons Davidson, Lynchburg; Mrs. William T.
Reed, Jr., Manakin-Sabot; Harold Soldinger, Norfolk;
and William J. Vaughan, Virginia Beach.

Since March they have been formulating the
basic concepts of a statewide museum system, and
these efforts are reflected through many positive
policy decisions. For example, the Board has:

* Agreed that the museum system should in¬
clude facilities in three or four population
centers around the state; that “outreach”
centers (existing structures such as small
nature museums or community colleges)
would be used for display of exhibits and col¬
lections on a temporary basis; that mobile
units would be utilized to make periodic
visits to areas without adequate display space;
and that educational television would sup¬
plement all these to carry the message of
science to all corners of the state.

* Approved an appropriations request of $432,
197 from the state for the 1972-74 bien¬
nium. These funds would be used primarily
for employment of a skeletal professional
staff, acquisition of the necessary space for
the storage and cataloguing of exhibits, dis¬

plays, and collections for later use in the
museum system, and for master planning.
Development of a total master plan, to in¬
clude the type of museum facility for each
proposed location, would provide the foun¬
dation for the entire system.

* Set a fund raising goal of $5 million during
1972-75 to supplement state revenue. The
Board will look to foundations, corporations,
and other private sources; the Federal Gov¬
ernment; and localities that have expressed
an interest in a museum facility.

* Launched a preliminary feasibility study of
sites in three areas — Lynchburg, Norfolk,
and Roanoke— to determine land availabil¬
ity. Similar studies are expected for Rich¬
mond and Portsmouth, following presenta¬
tions by each city in the fall.

“Local enthusiasm has been extraordinary,” Dr.
Hugl res has stated, “and the Board is keenly aware
of this spirit of cooperation.” He further indicated
that site evaluations being done now are for planning
purposes only, and by “no means intended as final
determinations.”

Along with the local interest, various groups and
organizations on the state level have indicated sup¬
port for the museum program. Edward S. Harlow re¬
cently was appointed chairman of the VAS Science
Museum Advisory Committee.

As part of its broad information program, advisory
committees also are being organized within communi¬
ties seeking a museum facility, and the Board wel¬
comes comments and suggestions from all interested
citizens.

Each initial museum facility would provide a
different feature, as directed by the enabling legis¬
lation, and each would be carefully designed to
ensure a harmonious relationship between the struc¬
ture and the natural environment. Along with educa¬
tion, major emphasis is placed on the museum’s role
in the field of ecology.

Approved by the General Assembly are:

* Physical Sciences — To include a planetarium
and depict the history, concepts, and basic
principles of such sciences as physics, chemis¬
try, astronomy, and mathematics.

* Botanical Sciences — Primarily to educate in
the kinds and uses of Virginia flora, and
demonstrate the need for new horticultural
varieties in the state.

* Natural History — Would be devoted primar¬
ily to Virginia’s natural resources, as well as
paleontological and archeological artifacts
and specimens.

* Industry and Technology — To communicate
the history, evolution, and development of
Virginia’s industry.

* Oceanography and Limnology — To include
an oceanarium and be concerned with Vir¬
ginia’s total aquatic life and its environment.

* Zoological Gardens — For the preservation
of wildlife and viewing in their natural habi¬
tat.

165

Nyle C. Brady

Associate Dean,

New York State College of Agriculture
Cornell University
Ithaca, New York 14850

The Role of Agriculture in Improving Environmental Quality^

I am continually amazed and not a little appalled
at the depth of public ignorance and misunderstand¬
ing in regard to agriculture’s relationship with the
environment. For many years now, we have worked
hard and long to shore up our public relations with
our urban neighbors by trying to explain what modern
commercial agriculture is and what it means to na¬
tional welfare and abundance. On any other occa¬
sion I would be reluctant to state that agriculture
may be doing too good a job; but on reflection we
may very well have done too well in some areas.

Specifically I refer to the pains and efforts we
have gone to in describing moclern agriculture’s high
degree of specialization and technology. We have
bragged of high producing monoculture and the
inputs of fertilizer and pesticides that such type of
farming requires. We have boasted of lean, high-
quality beef produced under the carefully-controlled
conditions of giant feed lots, and we speak freely of
mass-produced broilers and the egg factories where
30 thousand or more hens may be housed under
one roof and a million in a complex of roofs — close
by to consumer marketing centers.

I submit that these publicity efforts have suc¬
ceeded all too well, and now we find agriculture
very close to where the environmental action is.
By explaining so fully our dependence on pesticides,
our waste disposal problems, and our need for effi¬
ciency through mass production, the public knows
all too well where to find somebody to blame for at
least some of our environmental quality problems.

Agriculture’s Bad Environmental Image

Agriculture’s image as an enhancer of environ¬
mental quality is not good. A brief review of recent
history bears out this conclusion. The ill-timed an¬
nouncement on November 9, 1959 that cranberries
carried traces of the herbicide aminotriazole was the
beginning. The condemning of this crop by the
Secretary of Health, Education and Welfare made
sensational headlines. It called the attention of so¬
ciety to the troublesome characteristics of the wonder
chemicals that had revolutionized agriculture. Pest¬
icides became an unpopular term known to the
housewife, the man in the street, and the youngster
in the school room.

* Sidney S. Neeus Memorial Lecture presented at the 49th Annual
Meeting of the Virginia Academy of Science, Blacksburg, May 13,
1971.

The environmental image of agriculture was fur¬
ther damaged in 1962 by the dedicated but gentle
naturalist-author Rachael Carson. Her Silent Spring
( 1 ) depicted in a realistic manner other side effects
of these wonder chemicals. Although many of her
accusations were unproven, she dramatically called
attention to the innocent non-target organisms which
may be affected by pesticides. Ten years later,
scientists have verified her conclusions for some chem¬
icals such as DDT and refuted them for most of the
others. The accuracy of her accusations is probably
less important than the change in attitude she en¬
gineered. Birds, fish and other wildlife for the first
time were brought into the benefit: cost equation re¬
specting pesticide use.

Rachael Carson brought into focus the excessive
persistence of DDT and other chlorinated hydro¬
carbons and the tendency of these chemicals to build
up in tissue of organisms as they are passed along
the food chain. Unfortunately, public concern en¬
gendered by her and the many who agreed with her
tended to eclipse the remarkable benefits from
pesticides. Just as important, emotion and fear were
human reactions which replaced confidence as it
relates to pesticides and in fact to all man-made chem¬
icals not having originated in nature.

Let us turn our attention to agriculture’s bad
image as witnessed by the urban spectator standing
downwind of the hog lot or one of those egg factories
referred to earlier. Our urban cousin, in driving his
300 horsepower auto out into the country, may have
had a convenient seizure of tunnel vision or plugged
nasal passages as he drove by the factory where he
works and the municipal sewage plant that serves his
city. But these seem not to be relevant when one
is seeking to get back to nature in the countryside.

At any rate, if the effects of agricultural waste
runoff are not readily visible to our urbanite, his
nose will soon inform him of another modern-day
agricultural problem — what to do with animal ma¬
nure? Again, we have a commentary on the chang¬
ing stance of commercial agriculture.

For centuries, the conservation and enthusiastic
use of livestock and poultry manure was a canon of
good husbandry of the soil. Before the dawn of
scientific agriculture, manure was regarded as “good¬
ness” and as an essential ingredient of soil enrich¬
ment, absolutely necessary to the successful produc¬
tion of crops. Homer’s “The Odyssey,” written prior

166

The Virginia Journal of Science

to the seventh century B.C. makes reference to the
manuring of vineyards and to the “manure heap,”
indicating man’s dependence upon animal manure at
this early date in agricultural practice.

For the livestock farmer, disposal of animal wastes
has always been a nuisance, but only in the past
decade has this been acknowledged as a national
problem. And national problems have a way of
eventually getting national attention and action. Of
the four major factors that cause or aggravate the
animal waste problem, the spread of urban centers
into rural farming areas with the concomitant
public awareness of an aesthetically pleasant en¬
vironment (2) has done little to help agriculture’s
image.

Today the problem is still with us on a grand scale.
The amount of animal waste produced by 5 million
feedlot cattle, 7 million milk cows, 100 million
laying hens, 50 million turkeys, 400 million broilers,
10 million hogs, and 2 million lambs on feed is the
equivalent to the human waste produced by more
than 200 million people. In terms of waste disposal,
this is equivalent to doubling of our national popula¬
tion (3).

Closely related to animal manures as sources of
nutrients are the commercial fertilizers that have
largely taken over the job of furnishing plant foods
to meet ever increasing crop demands. For years,
research and extension workers have stressed the
use of fertilizer in balanced crop production schemes,
and with time, farmers have responded to these ef¬
forts and the obvious economic pressure of per-acre
efficiency.

But again this use of agricultural technology has
become a source of environmental concern. Nutrient
buildup in our streams, rivers and lakes is blamed on
agriculture. Many uninformed conjectures stamped a
“guilty” brand on agriculture because it was the most
obvious user of the nitrogen, phosphorus and other
nutrient elements that were contaminating water-
supplies and enriching nearby bodies of water.
Furthermore, nitrate accumulation in leafy vegetables
has led to assertions that man-made fertilizers are
health hazards and that their use should be restricted.

The basic concept of some who attack fertilizers
is a rather simple one. Since nutrient enrichment
and fertilizer usage have both gone up dramatically
during the past 15-20 years, one must be the cause
of the other. Little consideration is given to the fact
that other nutrient inputs have likewise increased
over the same period of time. For example, deter¬
gents have temporarily stolen the spotlight from
agriculture as the prime supplier of phosphorus to
our waterways. Domestic sewage, including deter¬
gents, is now known to supply the bulk of this
element. As steps are taken to eliminate phosphate-
based detergents, this situation will change. Agricul¬
ture will again be a prime target.

In addition to the leaching of nutrients, surface
drainage and erosion of farm soils is a major source
of the enrichment of waters being used for recreation
and municipal supplies. Surface drainage carries off
some fertilizer that has been applied to crop land.
Erosion is still a serious cause of silting as well as

the loss of unprotected crop land. Some 4 billion
tons of sediment are washed into our waterways
each year (4). All this does not come from agricul¬
tural land, however. Denuded soils from highway
construction, residential development, or strip-min¬
ing operations also make vast contributions to these
problems.

Because of their proximity to agriculture — and
because they are processing agricultural products —
food processing plants also come under the same
criticisms being leveled at farmers. The extent of the
pollution problems they present depends on the
nature of the processing wastes and their disposition.
Food processing wastes are problems which require
for their solution research and technology inputs
as well as restrictive criteria and standards for pro¬
cessing effluents.

Last among the major agricultural sources of en¬
vironmental pollution are those activities that con¬
tribute to atmospheric contamination. Some of these
are pesticide dust and sprays, but more to the point
are agricultural practices that depend on burning
wastes and crop residues as a means of disposal.
Increasingly, agriculture is being criticized for con¬
tributing smoke and haze to an already well-laden
atmosphere. Fortunately, however, the burning of
cultivated crop residues is in reality a minor source of
air pollution in terms of noxious contents and con¬
tribution to the total. If I may be allowed to delete
forest fires from commercial agriculture sources,
then agriculture contributes less than 10 percent
by weight of the air pollution emissions produced in
the United States (5).

In reviewing the foregoing environmental con¬
cerns, I return to my original contention in respect
to the bad image of agriculture. Ten years ago this
image was only partially developed. Today it has
become the basis for very serious attacks on com¬
mercial agriculture. I foresee serious problems for
the entire agricultural complex unless current trends
can be altered by the application of knoweldge and
reason.

Of course, agriculture is not alone in the en¬
vironmental arena and other industries are having
their problems as well. Nor can technological agri¬
culture be singled out in what some commentators
have referred to as a growing disenchantment with
science and technology. I submit that flagging
confidence in technology, the unrest in our cities, the
increased attention to social problems, dissatisfac¬
tion with foreign policy, and the growing concern
for the quality of the environment are deeply en¬
meshed with each other and constitute a very serious
array of concerns for the American people.

Unfortunately for agriculture, we have been
caught up in a groundswell of concern, and because
of its subordinate, social, political and economic posi¬
tions, on-the-farm agriculture is all too easy to identify
as a contributor to environmental pollution. In this
sense, our technology and productivity have been
turned to a disadvantage. Because the American far¬
mer has done so good a job in assuring continued
plentiful food simplies, his worth to societv is taken
for granted, and in the public mind our bulging super-

Agriculture and Environmental Quality

167

markets are all-too-easily divorced from the basic
source of that abundance.

Agriculture’s Positive Contributions to
Environmental Quality

In addition to furnishing nearly 55 billion dollar’s
worth of food and other farm commodities to our
economy and social well-being (6), agriculture
makes important positive contributions to the quality
of our environment. Quite likely it will be called
upon to take an even more active role in dissipating
the wastes of our industrial society.

There are some very simple agricultural pro¬
cesses that assist man in maintaining a clean en¬
vironment. For example, all green plants convert
the CO2 wastes from factories, automobiles, homes
and directly from man himself into plant tissue re¬
leasing life-giving oxygen. Other products such as sul¬
fur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, nitrate and ammonium
salts are likewise absorbed. Add to this the scrubbing
capacity of soils to bind chemicals such as fluorine,
lead, arsenic and phosphorus thereby removing them
from contaminated air. Even though these processes
may proceed without man’s guidance, they are ex¬
amples of agriculture’s beneficial contributions to
environmental quality.

Agriculture can take justifiable pride in the long
tradition of concern for the environment. Among
these are schemes of crop rotation that preserve or
aid soil conditions and fertility. Legume crops and
the use of barnyard manures also are examples of
man’s efforts to replenish his basic soil resources
through the protection of cover crops and increased
fertility.

We should also take note of the soil and water
conservation efforts that have been underway for
nearly 40 years. Again, technology and engineering
have instituted strip-cropping, reforestation, con¬
trolled drainage, water impoundments, and better
management practices to enhance the environment.
They have provided recreation facilities and op¬
portunities, and generally contribute to the well
being of our environment — while at the same time
increasing the productivity of our farms and their
contribution to national abundance. Outside of agri¬
culture, there are very few industries that have
combined greater productivity with restoration of
the resources they utilize or consume.

Agriculturalists as partners with landscape archi¬
tects provide positive inputs into a quality environ¬
ment. The culture and special placing of ornamental
plants and flowers can completely transform an en¬
vironmental setting. Affluent Americans have long
recognized and utilized this principle. Tn recent years
we are beginning to realize how important are plants
in the center city and in the intermediate suburbs
as one moves to the open countryside. Ornamentals
are no longer the monopoly of the well to do. These
are beginning to be used to favorably transform the
surroundings of all Americans.

Agricultural Efficiency/Environinental Pollution

It has been said that many of agriculture’s woes
are the direct result of its successes. This relation¬

ship between agriculture efficiency and environ¬
mental quality exemplifies this point. The prime ele¬
ments of an efficient agriculture each carries with it
built-in side effects that can adversely alter the en¬
vironment. For example, economies of scale have
favored concentrating crop and animal production
into gigantic production units. These same mass pro¬
duction units are accompanied by concentrations of
wastes which are the trouble makers. Feedlots and
large food processing plants are cases in point.

Man’s knowledge of the chemistry of life processes
has been a second prime source of increased agri¬
cultural efficiency. Through the manipulation of cri¬
tical chemicals, nature has been improved upon.
At the same time some of these chemicals have side
effects which make them unacceptable.

One important point should be made here.
Science and technology have been responsible to no
small degree for improved agricultural efficiency. Un¬
fortunately, however, they have made relatively less
input into alleviating the side effects which adversely
affect environmental quality. Even more serious
is the seeming attitude of society toward science and
technology. Rather than seek ways by which re¬
search can be used to solve pollution problems,
there is a tendency to ignore research and to seek
solutions exclusively through restriction and regula¬
tion. The proponents of this approach appear to want
to turn the clock back so to speak to the days when
no chemicals were used at all. While this path may
have temporary political advantages, it ignores long¬
term socio-economic disadvantages.

Developing Solutions to Agricultural
Pollution Problems

As I have indicated, the primary challenge to
agriculture is to maintain the advantages of tech¬
nology while at the same time to alleviate the prob¬
lems that result from it. To be sure the task is
not easy, especially in face of reduced absolute sup¬
port for research in these new directions.

One of the best illustrations is found in the realm
of pest control. Again, the dissociation of quality food
supplies from the realities of farm production have
been all too easy for the public. Despite the abun¬
dance of blemish-free fruits and vegetables that
reach the market, pest control remains as a very
serious problem in the United States and more espe¬
cially in the remainder of the world.

Estimates of agricultural production losses due to
pests in this country are as high as $14.3 billion (7).
Another $2.3 billion is lost to pests in storage, pro¬
cessing and marketing activities. Important as such
economic figures are, they are secondary to the
Indian and Pakistani who have a more important
biological problem. Millions of their countrymen are
on the verge of starvation and hundreds of thousands
have died from lack of food. The most optimistic
demographers give some hope of bringing human
population into line with food production, but the
more realistic suggest that this goal is at least a
generation away. In the meantime, food must be
produced — the pesticides and fertilizers and new
high-yielding varieties offer some hope of doing so.

168

The Virginia Journal of Science

The Indians and Pakistanis are unfortunate in that
their primary concern must be for the immediate
benefits to man from these chemicals. In their situa¬
tion, man’s needs must supersede those of fish and
wildlife — on the basis of food production as well as
human health and well being. May I then make one
point abundantly clear? In my judgment, there is no
reasonable alternative in this country or elsewhere.
Man must control pests if he is to survive and if, in
this country, we are to maintain our current level of
living. The task then is to select means of controlling
pests which are computable with a quality environ¬
ment.

A vivid example in our own country is the very
real threat of another newcomer household term —
Southern corn leaf blight. In just over a year’s time,
this pathogen of susceptible hybrid corn strains has
made itself well known in the commodity markets,
the feed industry, and especially in the seed corn
business. Hundreds of thousands of dollars are being
spent for research, monitoring, control, education,
and related activities this year to head off the repeti¬
tion of the losses of millions of dollars that are still
being attributed to the 1970 epidemic. Such out¬
breaks are not rare in agriculture, but when they
occur in major crops and impose a multiple effect
throughout the economy, they can assume substantial
proportions in a relatively short time.

The corn blight episode points to one of our most
dependable and widely used biological techniques
for controlling pests — the development of host re¬
sistance. The creation and improvement of pest-
resistant strains and hybrids of crop plants has pro¬
vided scientists with a dependable tool with minimal
environmental side effects. Unfortunately, the re¬
search and development input has been wholly in¬
adequate to fully realize the potential of this tech¬
nique. For example, only about 4% of the genetics
research effort of the U.S. Department of Agriculture
and the State experiment stations is devoted to
insect control and about 12% to disease control.

Considerable progress is being made to replace
the persistent chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticides.
In some cases new chemicals are being developed
which are more specific for the pest in question and
less persistent in the environment. There is greater
assurance that these chemicals will not harm non¬
target organisms such as fish and wildlife. Unfor¬
tunately, some of these chemicals are more harmful
to man than some they replace. They will tend to
be more expensive because of the much higher re¬
search and development costs and because of the
more limited range of crop-pest situations in which
they can be used. In spite of these difficulties, how¬
ever, the chemical pesticide route seems to be an
ecologically less rocky one than was the case even
a year ago. Tliis is well since pesticides will likely
continue to be our first line of defense against pests
for some time to come.

Even though chemicals are our most practical
immediate means of pest control, alternatives are
being developed. For example, increasing atten¬
tion is being paid to the development of such bio¬
logical controls as predator species, sex attractants,

chemosterilants, parasites, juvenile hormones, steri¬
lization, and genetic resistance. These and cultural
controls, repellants, genetic manipulation and more
specific chemical controls have all been widely
publicized as being promising new developments that
need only further refinement before they will be¬
come reality.

I am not being a pessimist to suggest that many
of the biological control methods are many years
from practical use, if in fact they ever reach that
stage. It is true that some of these hold some promise
for controlling some species. Much remains to be
done, and it is not a breach of secrecy to allow that
all research does not result in eminently successful
innovation. Agriculture has its Edsels and TFX’s too.

The method of using sterile male flies to over¬
whelm the natural breeding population of screw-
worm infestations is often held as a model for the
future of insect pest control. The enthusiasts, how¬
ever, are not always aware that this particular method
was nearly 20 years aborning, being first proposed
in 1938 (8, 9). Pioneering work is nearly always
laborious and it may be that recent work is ac¬
cumulating knowledge applicable to other species.
But these reports should be viewed with caution
when they are accompanied by promises of instant
and widespread success in the offing.

More likely, a combination of pest controls, used
in concert, will become the most useful practice in
time. Such integrated controls will probably involve
all or most of the methods mentioned in one form
or another. Suffice to say, we are not yet ready to
abandon the useful pesticides we now have. And 1
would add that legislating the controls out of exis¬
tence does not take the pests with them.

Progress is being made in the development of
techniques to cope with other wastes and residues.
For example, the utilization of oxidation ditches to
literally burn wastes from hog lots is now a com¬
mon procedure. Techniques to aerate and agitate
water troughs containing the wastes let the micro¬
organisms destroy the wastes with minimal odor
and water pollution possibilities. Similar techniques
are being tried in the poultry industry.

With respect to fertilizers, the first step is to
accurately identify the contribution which agriculture
makes to nutrient build up in waters and in our
foods. Studies are being made to ascertain the quan¬
tities of nutrients flowing from our cultivated fields.
Others measure the concentration of nitrates and
other nutrients in our food and feed. Techniques
for keeping these levels below acceptable health
limits must be found. Timing of fertilizer applica¬
tions and the breeding of varieties which do not
concentrate nitrates are steps that are being taken.

What of the Future?

There are two requisites for a successful and ac¬
ceptable agricultural industry of the future. First, it
must remain efficient, thereby continuing to supply
American consumers with relatively inexpensive food
and fiber. We now have the world’s cheapest
food in terms of the portion of our paychecks which
goes to purchase it. Second, it must reduce its share

Agriculture and Environmental Quality

169

of environmental pollution to levels acceptable by a
knowledgeable society. To achieve these two ob¬
jectives will likely require societal inputs far greater
than those currently being invested.

Turning first to the efficiency problem, we have
customarily quoted evidence to the effect that Amer¬
ica’s agriculture is more efficient today than ever
before. This evidence is expressed in terms of cri¬
teria such as output per hour of labor or the number
of people being fed by one farmer, or to the tax¬
payer it is expressed in terms of subsidies. Un¬
fortunately, there are other criteria of efficiency
which suggest that today’s agriculture is not gaining
in efficiency. The Economic Research Service of
the U.S. Department of Agriculture has compiled
data (10) showing the following increases in agricul¬
tural output per unit of total inputs:

1930’s 13%

1940’s 14%

1950’s 25%

1960’s 2%

Since 1965 a decrease in output-input ratio has
been registered. Bluntly stated, our yields and ani¬
mal performanee are showing signs of reaching
plateaus where added inputs do not bring forth the
degree of response we were receiving 10 or 20
years ago. This situation is serious under any cir¬
cumstances. At a time when many of agriculture’s
tools are being critically examined, it is even more
serious.

Turning to the “environmental” side of our coin,
the situation also presents serious problems. Alter¬
nates to the use of chemical pesticides and to other
chemical additives require greatly increased research
and development inputs from government sources.
Industry cannot be expected to do research to im¬
prove techniques which will put it out of business.
Furthermore, many of the alternates involve tech¬
niques which would provide industry no means of
recouping its research and development investments.
They involve no products which industry can sell
to regain its research and development inputs. Con¬
sequently, the development of these methods must
receive public support if they are to be effective. This
fact does not seem to have registered fully on
those who are most eager to improve the environ¬
ment and to reduce environmental pollution.

It is obvious that research and education are two
prime inputs needed for a sound policy respecting
agriculture and environmental quality. Research
must help provide bases for a two-pronged attack:
(a) continued efforts to maintain and repeat the
efficiency breakthroughs of the preceding decades
and (b) new efforts to improve environmental qual¬
ity.

Education has a multifaceted role, not the least of
which is to provide the public with all the facts. Agri¬
culture cannot lose in the long run if decisions are
made on facts rather than emotion. The probability
of such being the case is greatly increased if educa¬
tors do their part.

It seems to me that one is led to several reasonable
conclusions in evaluating agriculture’s future in re¬

lation to environmental quality. Among the most
significant of these conclusions are the following:

(1) The remarkable strides in American agricul¬
ture which have provided us with an abundance of
wholesome food at the lowest relative costs in the
world have inherent side effects which are damaging
the quality of our environment. While we may differ
with respect to estimates to the extent of the damages
and the benefit:costs associated with them we can¬
not deny they are there. In service to society, it is
agriculture’s responsibility to determine the true ex¬
tent of the damages and to help develop methods
of reducing them.

(2) The drive to obtain public awareness of the
problems of pollution has caused emotion and fear
to replaee science and facts as bases for decisions
relating to agriculture and environmental quality.
Efforts of all reasonable people should be devoted
to the obtaining of facts and to the insistence that
decisions be based on them.

(3) Alleviation of agricultural pollution while
maintaining agricultural efficiency is dependent upon
new techniques which can be developed only with a
marked expansion in public support for agricultural
research and development. Unfortunately, the pub¬
lic generally and legislative bodies particularly have
not recognized this fact.

(4) While awaiting the development of new and
better technologies, decisions relating to restrictions
and regulations of agriculture will be made. These
decisions should be based insofar as possible on
scientific facts and judgments. They should also be
cognizant of their socioeconomic effects on the Amer¬
ican public.

I am impressed with the analogy of our environ¬
mental problems and the situation faced by a fisher¬
man in a leaky boat. The situation is described by
Dr. C. P. Gratto of Iowa State as follows (11). “The
fisherman has a problem with his immediate environ¬
ment. If the water level gets too high the boat will
sink. If the water level gets too low, he has spent all
his time bailing. Either way he goes home without
fish. If the fisherman maintains the water level be¬
tween these two extremes, he has some time to both
fish and bail.”

Our objective is to somehow see that agriculture
and society is able to both fish and bail.

REFERENCES

1. Carson, R., Silent Spring. Houghton Mifflin Company,
Boston, Massachusetts, 1962.

2. Taiganides, E. P., The animal waste disposal problem,
in Agriculture and the Quality of our Environment.
American Association for the Advancement of Science
publication 85. The Plimpton Press, Norwood, Massa¬
chusetts, 1967.

3. Byerly, T. C., The environment in agriculture, in Agri¬
cultural Science Review, CSRS-USDA, 8, 1 (1970).

4. Wadleigh, C. H., Wastes in Relation to Agriculture and
Forestry. Mis. Pub. No. 1065, U.S. Department of Ag¬
riculture, Washington, D.C., 1968.

5. Council on Environmental Quality. Environmental Qual¬
ity. Eirst Annual Report of CEQ, U.S. Government
Printing Qffice, Washington, D.C., August 1970.

170

The Virginia Journal of Science

6. A Compilation of Information Relating to Agriculture
by the Committee on Agriculture, Food Costs-Farm
Prices, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington,
D.C., June 20, 1970.

7. Moseman, A. H., Pest control — its role in the United
States economy and in the world, in Scientific Aspects
of Pest Control, NAS-NRC Publication 1402, National
Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C., 1966.

8. Smith, E. H., Advances, problems and the future of in¬

sect control in Scientific Aspects of Pest Control, NAS-
NRC Publication 1402, National Academy of Sciences,
Washington, D.C., 1966.

9. Knipling, E. F., The eradication of the screwworm fly.
Sclent. Am., 203, 54 (1960).

10. USDA-ERS, Farm Cost Situation, No. 42, February
1971, p. 6.

11. Gratto, C. P., Issues in Environmental Quality, 7. Soil
Wat. Conserv., 26, 45 (1971).

Agriculture and Environmental Quality

171

Walter R. Coppedge

Department of English
Virginia Commonwealth University
Richmond, Virginia 23220
Received September 2, 1971

"What Country, Friends, Is This?”

or

Some Remarks on the Writer's Encounter
With His Environment"'

. . thou canst not stir a flower
Without troubling a star.”

— Francis Thompson.

“What country, friends, is this?” The question is
Viola’s who in Twelfth Night finds herself wrecked
on the coast of Illyria. In the present collision of
twentieth century man and Nature, it is a pertinent
question to ask. As we look about us, the question
obviously, on the whole, has not been critically
posed, for we accept, indifferently and uncomplain¬
ingly, the wilful and witless ravaging of city and
countryside wherever we look.

Ecology, as we all know, attempts to study the re¬
lations between living things and their environments.
The word stems from the Greek root for house, oikos.
As dweller in his own home, as housekeeper, man is
apparently an orderly creature; he does not foul his
own nest. Very early in his historical development,
he evolved orderly sanitary habits, as investigation
of the earliest settlements have indieated. Freud
asserts in Civilization and its Discontents that the
eoming of civilization corresponded directly with the
repression of interest in genital and exeretory
activity. (Civilization is a condition of humankind
resulting directly from the civis or the city; thus the
civil virtues are those which indicate the appropriate
respect and regard common to men living harmoni¬
ously together. Is it merely coincidence that civility
wanes at the same time that interest in excretory
and genital activity increases — as evidenced by the
ready availability of pornography and the presence,
for the first time in history, of common oaths and
expletives which are either sexual or scatological?)

But man has shown himself historically, on the
whole, to be orderly — at least in his own house.
Where there is a widespread sense of eommunity
in a society, a similar sense of order has prevailed
outside the home. But where a society is either

* Presented at the Virginia Commonwealth University seminar on
Unman Ecology, Richmond, Virginia, August 1971.

fragmented, disintegrating or alienated, the strains
of differing values will be reflected in patterns of
behavior no less than in architecture: one may in¬
stance the homogeneity of a medieval city with its
cathedral close vs. the eclectic and haphazard build¬
ing of a modern metropolis; Richmond, Virginia
fifty years ago against Boise, Idaho today; a Breton
fishing village contrasted with a Flemish factory town.
The incongruity and eclectism of differing styles
are thus often a result of the individualistic urge to
do what one likes (in Matthew Arnold’s damning
phrase) at the expense of social harmony.

Individualism, the tendency to view oneself as a
special being apart from one’s fellow creatures, is
a modern philosophical idea of origins too compli¬
cated to trace here. But one source is pertinent to
our present purpose. Protestantism, as Weber and
Tawney have shown, emphasized man’s direct en¬
counter with God, without priestly intervention, a
relationship which in time sanctioned the exercise
of individual initiative. The secularization of society
made possible by the Protestant reformers even¬
tually de-sanctified nature as well: it became pos¬
sible by the end of the seventeenth century to study
science without reference to theology — a dichotomy
inconceivable to an early advocate of scientific
thought such as Raleigh.

The study of things, not words, was of course,
the foundation of empiricism, and hence of science
and technology. It is not therefore accidental that
the most important scientific and technological con¬
tributions, on the whole, have oceurred in Protes¬
tant countries, and where no Counter-Reformation
could repress the intellectual adventurer, as the
Church had repressed Galileo; where a daring
thinker could, as Wordsworth said of Newton, voyage
“through strange seas of thought alone.”

An early Protestant version of the Joseph story
in England emphasized with an innocent moralism
this sentence: “And the Lord was with Joseph, and
Joseph was a luckie fellow.” The sentence — as
Tawney points out in Religion and the Rise of Cap-

112

The Virginia Journal of Science

italism — is deeply significant, for it assumes an
extraordinary connection between piety and pros¬
perity, the divine benison of wealth sanctioning the
pious Protestant’s exploitation of God’s resources.
The pursuit of individual prosperity or happiness
became in time enshrined as a social summum
bonum, a cornerstone of Whig political philosophy
and a central tenet of middle-class liberalism. To¬
day as in the last two centuries the question is asked:
“May I not do what I like with my own?” So de¬
mands the millowner pouring the effluvia of his
factory into sky and water, or the powerful financial
institution which would destroy a landmark for the
sake of an expedient building, or the developer who
lays waste forest and stream for another sprawling
suburb. To such men and institutions there is no
higher social purpose to which they are answerable,
for we still assume, as Tawney pointed out bril¬
liantly m. The Acquisitive Society, that all economic
activities are equally useful. Without some sense
of social responsibility, Tawney continues, “men do
not become religious or wise or artistic, for religion
and wisdom and art imply the acceptance of limi¬
tations. But they become powerful and rich. They
inherit the earth and change the face of nature, if
they do not possess their own souls; and they have
that appearance of freedom which consists in the
absence of obstacles” — an absence, he observes,
which allows the seizing of opportunities for self¬
advancement.

It is the individualistic assertion, an egocentric
regard for one’s own style and practice, which has
sanctioned rapacity, permitted plunder, and laid
waste a continent.

It was Emerson who observed that for every
advance in society there is an equal regression. What
supreme achievements of the age are our marvels
of electronic communication! Yet hearken to the
prophetic Ruskin, who over a hundred years ago
remarked after the installation of the telegraph
linking England to India: “To talk at a distance
when you have nothing to say, though you were ever
so near; to go fast from this place to that, with
nothing to do at either one or the other: these are
powers certainly.” But are we sure that these are
genuine advances? He warns in “Fors Clavigera”
against the “mortal disease of plenty and afflictive
affluence of good things,” for ultimately there are
only three material things needful: “Pure Air, Water,
and Earth.” “All day long,” he continues in his address
to the reader, you are vitiating [the air] with foul
chemical exhalations, and the horrible nests, which
you call towns, are little more than laboratories for
the distillation into heaven of venomous smokes
and smells, mixed with effluvia from decaying ani¬
mal matter, and infectious miasmata from purulent
disease.”

For those of us who value the marvels of super¬
sonic travel here again is Ruskin on the blessing
of transportation technology:

There was a valley between Buxton and Bake-

well, once upon a time, divine as the Vale of

Tempe; you might have seen the Gods there

morning and evening — Apollo and all the sweet
Muses of light — walking in fair procession on
the lawns of it, and to and fro among the pin¬
nacles of its crags. You cared neither for gods
nor crags but cash. . . You enterprised a Rail¬
road through the valley — you blasted its rocks
away, leaped thousands of tons of shale into its
lovely stream. The valley is gone, and the Gods
with it, and now, every fool in Buxton can be in
Bakewell in half-an-hour, and every fool in
Bakewell at Buxton; which you think a lucrative
process of exchange — you Fools Everywhere.

Another scourge of unprincipled industrialism and
folly was William Morris. Surveying the Century of
Commerce as it drew to its close in a speech entitled
“Hopes and Fears for Art: the Beauty of Life,”
Morris complained that men have been deprived of
“possessions which should be common to all of us,
of the green grass, and the leaves, and the waters,
of the very light and air of heaven.” How can one
claim to care about a landscape when the deeds of
the nation indicate contempt for the landscape itself?
And Morris indicts the posters of advertisements who
daub towns with “daily increasing hideousness” as
well as London picknickers who by their refuse at
Hampton Court “take special good care to let every¬
body know that [they] have had something to eat.”

But it was the infernal factory towns with their
noise and grime and stench which were most con¬
spicuously oppressive in the nineteenth century.
Tffley were the “dark Satanic mills” of Blake’s an¬
gered imagination, the belching factories which de¬
filed “England’s green and pleasant land.” Here is
Dickens in Hard Times describing a midlands city,
Coketown :

It was a town of red brick, or of brick that
would have been red if the smoke and ashes had
allowed it; but as matters stood it was a town
of unnatural red and black like the painted
face of a savage. It was a town of machinery
and tall chimneys, out of which interminable
serpents of smoke trailed themselves forever
and ever, and never got uncoiled. It had a black
canal in it, and a river that ran purple with
ill-smelling dye, and vast piles of building full
of windows where there was a rattling and a
trembling all day long, and where the piston of
the steam-engine worked up and down like the
head of an elephant in melancholy madness. It
contained several large streets all very like one
another, and many small streets still more like
one another, inhabited by people equally like
one another, who all went in and out at the
same hours, with the same sound, upon the
same pavements, to do the same work, and to
whom everyday was the same as yesterday and
tomorrow, and every year the counterpart of
the last and the next.

Perhaps it was such a chemically poisoned stream
that Browning depicted in “Childe Harold to the Dark
Tower Came” —

A sudden little river crossed my path

“What Country, Friends, Is This?”

173

As unexpected as a serpent comes.

No sluggish tide congenial to the glooms;

This, as it frothed by, might have been a bath

For the fiend’s glowing hoof — to see the wrath

Of its black eddy bespate with flakes and spumes.

Ruskin bitterly complained that “every river in Eng¬
land” had been turned “into a common sewer — so
that you cannot so much as baptise an English
baby but with filth, unless you hold its face out in
the rain — and even that falls dirty.”

No, “the nymphs are departed” as Eliot observed
in The Wasteland, and that sweet Thames on which
Elizabeth and Leicester sailed their gilded shell is
now littered with “the testimony of summer nights”:

. . . empty bottles, sandwich papers.

Silk handkerchiefs, cardboard boxes, cigarette
ends.

The nymphs are departed and

The river sweats
Oil and tar.

“What country, friends, is this?” Across the waters
of the Atlantic which yearly are filling with the gar¬
bage and refuse of two continents, and which slowly
drain the capacity of the waters to cleanse themselves,
— across the body Byron once described as a “deep
and endless ocean,” stood the shimmering promise
of the New World.

Surveying the land we now live in three hundred
and sixty-five years ago, John Smith declared that
very probably Virginia had “the prerogative over the
most pleasant places of Europe, Asia, Africa, or
America, for large and pleasant navigable rivers:
heaven and earth never agreed better to frame a
place for man’s habitation.” “A fruitfull and de¬
lightsome land,” he continued. “Such pleasant
plaines, hills, and fertile valleys. . . and watered so
conveniently with their sweet brookes and christall
springs, as if art it selfe had devised them.”

Robert Beverly nearly a century later reported
that the fish swam in such abundance into brooks
and fords to spawn that “it is almost impossible to
ride through without treading on them,” and in
winter the waters were so crowded with fowl that one
might sometimes kill several with a single shot. The
foison and abundance of plains and woodlands were
attested by all travellers into Virginia: oaks so
straight that planks twenty feet tall could be hewn;
cypresses three fathoms in girth about their roots;
the ground so enamelled with wildflowers that it
resembled an English garden in the spring. Of that
country D. W. Brogan in The American Character
reported that an ape, had he been so inclined, could
have swung from tree to tree, from as far as the
coast to the Mississippi River.

On the banks of that river I myself grew up. From
the evidence of my own short lifetime’s experience,
the loss of our inheritance is hard to comprehend.
But let me for a moment recount what has come to
pass in twenty years in my own Mississinpi river
town. The vast forests on the other side of the levee,
formerly the recreation of all the country-folk and

townspeople, an area where we learned the birds
and glimpsed the deer, is now fenced off, posted, and
exclusively the property and preserve of a well-known
paper company; and tire fish which were so plentiful
in the river forty years ago that the town boasted (in
the manner of the American grasp for superlatives)
“The World’s Largest Inland Fishing Market” — those
fish are dead: the markets have closed, and the
catfish must be imported from other towns where
the toxic effluvia of St. Louis and Memphis can¬
not reach.

“What country, friends, is this?” Here is how Sin¬
clair Lewis through the eyes of Carol Kennicott in
Main Street surveyed the American encounter with
the Northern Middlewest — “a land of dairy herds
and exquisite lakes; of new automobiles and tar
paper shanties and silos like red towers. . . What is
its future?” Main Street — the street which stretches
from Albany to San Diego — is so familiar that we
have accustomed ourselves to its ugliness. Fifty years
ago, it looked like this — and still does:

It was the planlessness, the flimsy temporari¬
ness of the buildings, their faded, unpleasant
colors. The street was cluttered with electric-
light poles, telephone poles, gasoline pumps for
motor cars, boxes of goods. Each man had
built with the most valiant disregard of all the
others. Between a large new ‘block’ of two-
story brick shops on one side, and the firebrick
Overland garage on the other side, was a one-
story cottage turned into a millinery shop.
The white temple of the Farmer’s Bank was
elbowed back by a grocery of glaring yellow
brick. One store-building had a patchy galva¬
nized iron cornice. . .

She escaped from Main Street, fled home.

Further West, that city so absurdly dedicated to
the Angels, Individualism, and the Automobile, and
mercilessly depicted by Nathanael West and Evelyn
Waugh, is glimpsed with detached irony from a
limousine in Aldous Huxley’s After Many a Summer.
Los Angeles here is an America we see but to whose
horror we become oblivious:

At every corner there was a drug store. . . Most
of the girls as they walked along seemed to be
absorbed in silent prayer; but on second thoughts
he supposed that it was only gum that they were
thus incessantly ruminating. Gum, not God.
... A vast, untidy, suburban world of filling-
stations and billboards, of low houses in gar¬
dens, of vacant lots and waste-paper, of occa¬
sional shops and office buildings and churches,
built surprisingly enough, in the style of the
Cartuja at Granada, Catholic churches like
Canterbury cathedral, synagogues disguised as
Hagia Sophia, Christian Science churches with
pillars and pediments like banks. . .

EATS. Cocktails. Open Nites

Jumbo Malts

Do Things, Go Places with Consol Super Gas!

At Beverly Pantheon Fine Funerals Are Not
Expensive

174

The Virginia Journal of Science

. . . Astrology, Numerology, Psychic Read¬
ings

. . . Science Proves that 73% of all Adults
Have Halitosis
Jesus Saves
Hamburgers
. . . Fine Liquors
Turkey Sandwiches
Go to Church and Feel Good all Week
. . . You Too Can Have Abiding Youth With
Thrill-Form Brassieres

“What country, friends, is this?” The American
city of asphalt, bricks, concrete and plastie is a last¬
ing monument to our collision with Nature. What
noble memorials linger from a gracious past are
maintained with difficulty: since 1940, we have
lost 40% of our national architectural treasures. As
William Morris emphasized eighty years ago, “No
man who consents to the destruction or the mutila¬
tion of an ancient building has any right to pretend
that he cares about art.” Yet, curiously, in this very
America which has stored up the plunderable and
portable treasures of the world’s past in vast and
little-visited museums whose endowments are little
more than the conscienee money industry pays to cul¬
ture, in this America we Americans can hardly pre¬
serve our own inheritance. Here is Morris again:

... if we are not prepared to put up with a
little inconvenience in our lifetimes for the sake
of preserving a monument of art which will
elevate and educate, not only ourselves, but
our sons, it is vain and idle of us to talk about
art — or education either. Brutality must be bred
of brutality.

In England then, as in America today, houses, de¬
velopments, suburbs sprang up for the convenienee
and profit of the developer. “What do you do with
the trees on a site that is going to be built over?”
asks Morris, “do you try to save them, to adapt
your houses at all to them?” Our devastating and
utterly wasteful suburban sprawls — developed from
some clever promotion of the myth of country-living
— are just now coming to be recognized as insup¬
portable in a land where in thirty years there will be
300,000,000. Rather, as Ruskin envisioned in Ses¬
ame and Lilies, let there

be no festering and wretched suburb anywhere,
but clean and busy street within, and the open
country without, with a belt of beautiful garden
and orchard round the walls. So that from any
part of the city perfectly fresh air and grass,
and sight of the horizon, might be reachable in
a few minutes’ walk.

What regard can we have for our communal
habitations if we perceive our towns merely as
functional extensions of commercial enterprise? Who
in Virginia invented the ghastly appellations of Oil-
ville and Gasburg for these communities? “The mere
nomenclature of the country,” observed Matthew
Arnold in “Civilization in the United States,” “acts
upon a cultured person like the incessant pricking

of pins. What people in whom the sense for beauty
and fitness was quick could have invented, or could
tolerate, the hideous names ending in ville, the
Briggsvilles, Higginsvilles, Jacksonvilles, rife from
Maine to Florida?”

We have not loved our land, as these names
indicate — we have loved ourselves and we have
wished to memorialize our names as builders of
empire by attaching to them ungainly suffixes. We
have not loved the soil, or the forest, or the streams,
or the past: we have exploited them; or as Archi¬
bald Macleish in Frescoes for Mr. Rockfeller’s City
wrote of “The Makers Making Ameriea” (in both
senses of the verb) —

They screwed her scrawny and gaunt with
their seven year panics:

They bought her baek on their mortgages old-
whore cheap:

They fattened their bonds at her breasts till
the thin blood ran from them :

Men have forgotten how full and clear and deep

The Yellowstone moved on the gravel and grass
grew

When the land lay waiting for her westward
people.

Thinking only of our own narrow self-interests, we
have used and abused the land that has nourished us,
pushing on when the soil failed, when the forests
were thinned, when the mines were exhausted:
there was always more westward, and leaving our
habitats behind we littered and defiled the path to
the Pacifie. We ignored the quiet and tranquil gifts
of Nature, “the reason and faith” which Emerson
found in the woods as we ravaged the eontinent.
Even the parks themselves have not escaped our
corruption, for in the Sequoia National Park, for a
quarter of a dollar, it was possible a few years ago to
hear Nelson Eddy singing “Trees.”

As Hopkins wrote of the corruption of commerce
on our sensitivities.

Generations have trod, have trod, have trod;

And all is seared with trade; bleared, smeared
with toil;

And wears man’s smudge and shares man’s
smell — the soil

Is bare now, nor can foot feel, being shod.

But new generations are coming. From the perspec¬
tive of the Apollo space flights, the earth is indeed a
lovely, hospitable planet bright with life in “the cold
Interstellar spaces”; and from the supralunary vista,
we must perforce realize our interdependence. The
forests and gardens we cultivate, the buildings we
erect, the waste we deposit, the life-styles we pro¬
fess: all must be seen to serve some greater social
purpose than mere convenience or self-advancement
or doing what one likes and doing what one wants
to with one’s own.

Surely the import of youthful protest derives
largely from the raising of issues which are critical
to our survival, not only as a culture but also as
whole human beings. For in their questioning of
rapacious economic individualism and of the value

“What Country, Friends, Is This?”

175

of accumulating “things” at the expense of ignoring
the needs of our fellow man, the unexamined pursuit
of materialistic ends will not be as possible; and
correspondingly there are signs in the back-to-nature
styles and movements that other and older values
may be eherished once again.

Santayana in 1894 rebelled against his genera¬
tion who would heap up “to make them happy, /
Many possessions.” He asked of them that they
examine the meaning of their striving, lest they leave
another Tower of Babel which their posterity would
eurse;

O leave them rather friendlier gods, and fairer

Orchards and temples, and a freer bosom!

What better comfort have we, or what other
profit in living.

Than to feed, sobered by the truth of Nature,
Awhile upon her bounty and her beauty,

And hand her torch of gladness to the ages
following after?

Against the present generation of empire build¬
ers, of aggressive strivers who forget the interde¬
pendence of flower and star, we must also rebel,
that our children may sing songs of joy for what we
have preserved rather than curse us for the empty
inheritance of an acquisitive society.

176

The Virginia Journal of Science

Gene L. Samsel, Jr.
and

Bruce C. Parker

Department of Biology

Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University
Blacksburg, Virginia 24061
Received' March 5, 1971

Comparisons of Two Antarctic Lakes with
Different Trophic States

Abstract — We compared primary productivity, physical
features, and chemical and biological composition of an
oligotrophic and an eutrophic lake during January, 1970 at
Anvers Island, Antarctica. Both lakes, less than 500 meters
apart, had partial ice cover the entire season and were un¬
derlain with a similar silica-rich granite. Striking dissolved
chemical differences were Cl~ (7.5 and 35.0 mg /I), NH4+-N
(0.1 and 2.5 mg/I), and organic C (0.97 and 6.94 mg/l),
total P04=-P (0.03 and 1.7 mg/l) respectively for the oli¬
gotrophic and eutrophic lake. Particulate organic C was 0.031
and 0.144 mg/l. Extractable total chlorophyll ranged from
15-41 mg/m^ and 35-112 mg/m^ in the two lakes during the
three week study period. Ranges in net photosynthesis were
0.78-3.5 and 9.0-72.0 mg C/mVhr respectively in the oligotro¬
phic and eutrophic lakes. Diel ranges for chlorophyll and carbon
fixation also fell within these values. The advanced degree of
eutrophication of one lake over the other apparently was in¬
duced initially by surpluses of NH4+-N and P04=-P.

Introduction

Limnological information, including some identi¬
fications of fresh-water algae, in the western portion
of the Antarctic Peninsula and subantarctic islands
near Palmer Station have been reported by Bryant
(1), Holdgate (2), Hirano (3), and Cameron (4).
Adie (5) and Hooper (6) noted geological features
of this area. Besides temperature and general habi¬
tat descriptions, these earlier reports of lakes and
melt pools lack detailed information on physical,
chemical, and biological features. This lack of in¬
formation, coupled with our detection of several
apparent small lakes in aerial photographs’ of the
U.S. Palmer Station area, eneouraged this prelim¬
inary investigation of fresh-water phytoplankton
ecology on the Antarctic Peninsula. We report here
a comparison of two aquatic ecosystems with differ¬
ent “trophic states”- studied during January, 1970
at Anvers Island, off the western coast of the Antarc¬
tic Peninsula (64°46'S, 60°05'W).

Methods and Materials

This field study was specifically aimed at corre-

tRevised October 12, 1971.

^Published by the Directorate of Overseas Surveys, Great Britain.
2 “Tropic States" is used here to designate significant differences in
photosynthetic production by phytoplankton.

lating measurements of radiation, temperature, pH,
various chemical “nutrient” levels, extractable
chlorophyll, and photosynthetic “C-fixation rates of
phytoplankton. Studies were conducted daily from
January 10-26, 1970 whenever climate and logistic
support permitted.

We examined morphometric features of the lakes
and measured incident radiation using a pyranom-
eter (model 68, Yellow Springs Instrument Co.),
which is sensitive to the visible spectrum and has
5% precision and ± .01 langley/min accuracy.^
Also, we measured subsurface radiation at the depth
of our experiments with the YSI pyranometer. Air
and water temperatures were taken with a YSI
thermistor (model 41) calibrated against a stan¬
dard mercury thermometer and having ± 0.1 C
accuracy.

Analyses of dissolved chemicals were made both
in field and at Palmer Station laboratory with Hach
Chemical Company’s model DR-EL kit and acces¬
sories, replicate samples yielding values within ±
5% of one another. Representative rock samples
from the lake basins were examined by the thin-
section petrographic counting technique, paying
special attention to iron minerals.

Phytoplankton were identified to genus with a
Nikon field and binocular phase laboratory micro¬
scope, often after necessary concentration in a
Foerst continuous-flow centrifuge or with a 76 /x
pore plankton net. Identifications to species require
extensive study of laboratory cultures, fresh, and
preserved material (7,8).

Total chlorophyll per liter of lake water was
determined by acetone extraction of particulate
matter retained on Millipore GS filters with 0.22 ju,
pores. The acetone extracts were analyzed with a
B and L Spectronic 20, using the equations by SCOR
/UNESCO) cited bv Strickland and Parsons (9) and
adjusting calculated eoncentrations to values equiv¬
alent to 10 cm path-length tube determinations.
Dissolved and particulate organic carbon were de¬
termined for us by Dr. Sayed El-Sayed, employing

3 langley = gram calorie • cm“2 (also, see 12).

Comparisons of Two Antarctic Lakes

177

the sensitive chemical oxidation method used in
his oceanographic investigations (10). Also, we
determined primary productivity by the in situ ^■‘C
method of Steeman-Nielsen (11), as modified by
Goldman (12) and Strickland and Parsons (9). For
this, we employed 250 ml screw cap pharmaceutical
bottles instead of the other types of containers used
in such previous primary productivity studies
(9-12), as we have found these superior in their
optical transmission and operational features to the
other containers (Parker and Samsel, unpubl.).
Values here reported for both total chlorophyll and
carbon fixation are means of duplicate samples
which differed from each other by less than ± 5 % .

Except as indicated, data and collections are from
approximately 20 cm depth in ice-free water; other
methods will be cited concurrently with our data.

General Features of the Lake Basins

Both lakes are located within a 4 km radius of
the new U. S. Palmer Station on Anvers Island,
Antarctica. Lake no. 1 (Fig. 1), possessing the
lower trophic state, had a surface area of about
3.6 km^ and was located directly behind the for¬
merly occupied United Kingdom Base at Norsel
Point, Anvers Island. A resident bird population of
about 60 Sterococarius skua, some of which nested
at the rim of the lake basin, frequented the shallow

open water and ice-covered portion of this lake
during the study period. Lake no. 2 (Fig. 2), pos¬
sessing the higher trophic state, was situated on
Humble Island about 500 m distant. Figures 1 and
2 show also Lake no. 1 had >90% snow and ice
cover and a maximum depth of 6.2 m, while Lake
no. 2 had <30% ice cover and a maximum depth
of 0.6 m during our study. Fauna associated with
Lake no. 2 basin also included about 60 skua, but
in addition, several hundred antarctic terns {Sterna
paradisaea) , a few nesting giant petrels {Macro-
nectes giganteus), and one elephant seal, the total
faunal biomass being at least an order of magni¬
tude greater than that of Lake no. 1. Also, an
Adelie penguin rookery (Manchot adelie), com¬
prising over 6,000 individuals, occupied a signifi¬
cant area of the granitic rocks just beyond the north¬
west rim of Lake no. 2 basin on Humble Island.

Both lakes over-flowed continuously during our
visits as a result of rain and meltwater from glaciers
and snow banks. The complexity of outflow streams
and probable seepage made impossible accurate
comparisons of volume gains and losses during this
preliminary study. However, observations of the
major overflow streams from each lake suggested
that the volume of water flowing through Lake no. 1
was an order of magnitude greater than that of
Lake no. 2 although on the basis of overflow per

178

The Virginia Journal of Science

TABLE 1

N

Fig. 2 — Map of Lake no. 2, Humble Island, near Norsel
Point, Anvers Island, Antarctica.

lake volume, the values were much closer. The
apparent surface outflow rate for Lake no. f was
about 1.0 m^/sec while Lake no. 2 had an average
rate of <0.1 m^sec. No indication of horizontal
stratification based on our measurements occurred
during the period of our study. Other morpho¬
metric features are presented in Fig. 1 and 2.

Much of the basin and periphery of Lake no. 2
possessed dense mats of bryophytes, Calliergidium
aiistrostramineum C. Mull, and Polytrichiim jimi-
perinum Hedvi., also the crustose lichens, Caloplaca
and Xanthoria spp. In striking contrast, Lake no. 1
lacked a luxuriant bryophyte and lichen develop¬
ment, with only occasional rock-inhabiting forms.
Snow algae were poorly developed on the exten¬
sive snow banks which surrounded 75% of Lake
no. 1, and this feature further contrasted with the
frequent patches of pink snow surrounding Lake
no. 2.

Results

Physical and Chemical Parameters

Both lake basins contained an igneous, intrusive,
quartz-rich granite with traces of biotite and appre¬
ciable sodium plagioclase. From extensive collec¬
tions of rocks in the area, there is no reason to ex¬
pect the geological structure of the two lake basins
to differ appreciably. As shown in Table I, the
rock composition from Lake 1 and 2 basins resem¬
bles other diorites in the Anvers Island area. Nota¬
ble points are the relatively small Fe"" and no
detectable chlorides, phosphates, or nitrogen com¬
ponents in rocks from the two lake basins.

Water temperatures ranged from —1.0 to 3.5 C
in Lake no. 1 and from 1.0 to 8.0 C in Lake no. 2
throughout the three-week period of our studies.
Radiation varied from levels below detection to
0.5 langley/min at approximately 20 cm depth
where productivity measurements were made. At no
time, however, was absolute darkness achieved. Ex¬
cept for two days, skies were overcast with incident
surface radiation below 0.6 langley/min.

Elemental composition of granites of the Anvers Island area,
including Lakes 1 and 2, as % of total weight

Element

Gabbro-

diorite*

Quartz

Diorite*

Rocks from Lakes
1 and 2 basins)

Si

24.9

31.8

25-30

A1

10.5

9.4

8-10

Fe+++

1.5

1.1

>1

Mg

3.1

0.9

2

Fe++

5.2

1.4

<5

Na

2.5

3.1

3

Ca

6.8

2.8

<5

K

0.8

2.0

>1

Ti

0.6

0.2

Mn

0.2

0.1

P

-

-

-

O

44.1

47.1

45-50

Total

100.2

99.9

* Taken from Hooper (6).

t Our petrographic analysis with advice and assistance from
K. Cameron, Dept, of Geology, VPlSU, and Professor Roy
Scharon, Dept, of Earth Sciences, Washington University, St.
Louis.

Table II summarizes physical and chemical data
for both lakes; the values are representative for the
entire study period during which numerous analyses
were made. Note that CL, NH/-N, and total
P04=-P concentrations show greatest dissimilarities
between the two lakes, their levels being respectively
5, 25, and > 50 times higher in Lake no. 2 than in
Lake no. 1.

Another striking difference between the two lakes
concerns the organic matter content (Table II).
Dissolved organic carbon was about 7 times greater
in Lake no. 2 than in Lake no. 1, and particulate
organic carbon was 4.5 times greater in Lake no.
2 than in Lake no. 1.

TABLE II

Some physical and chemical parameters of Lakes 1 and 2, {mg! I,
or as indicated; values are means of at least duplicate samples,
differing by less than ±5%

Parameter

Lake No. 1

Lake No. 2

pH

6.4

6.3

Turbidity

15 JTU*

63 JTU*

Dissolved O2

14

13

Total Alkalinity

10

12

Total Hardness

10

15

NH4+ - N

o.n

2.5 )

NO..- - N

nil >1.1

0.05 >4.30

NO3- - N

i.oJ

1.751

Ortho-P04--P

0.02

1.0

Total PO4--P

0.03

1.7

Cl-

7.5

35.0

SiO,

1.0

1.5

Ca++

5.0

10.0

Fe++

0.02

0.02

SO 4-

4.0

6.0

Dissolved Organic C

0.97

6.94

Particulate Organic C

0.031

0.144

* JTU = Jackson turbidity units.

Comparisons of Two Antarctic Lakes

179

Algal Genera, Chlorophyll, and Primary Produc¬
tivity

As seen from Table III, only four algal genera
were found in Lake no. 1, while the algal eom-
munity of Lake no. 2 included nineteen genera
in plankton tows and water-edge collections. Also,
both lakes contained an abundance of Gram-nega-
tive-staining rods, which grew at low temperature
on Difco nutrient agar plates. The bacilli cultured
from Lake no. 1 represented one colony color and
form, while more than 10 colony types grew from
equivalent inocula from Lake no. 2. Abundant
bryophyte mats, large numbers of protozoa, and a
small aquatic crustacean found in Lake no. 2 were
absent in Lake no. 1 collections.

Following combustion at 500 C, pale, sandy bot¬
tom sediment, from Lake no. 1, dried previously
at 100 C, lost <1% of its weight, while the dark
brown mud from Lake no. 2 lost 34% .

Results of one diel experiment in Table IV show
that total chlorophyll content for Lake no. 1 fluctu¬
ated between 35-41 mg/m^, while that of Lake
no. 2 ranged between 37-112 mg/m^. In addition
to the data in this table, we made numerous daily
determinations of extractable chlorophyll during
the three-week field study; these values ranged from
15-41 mg/m^ for Lake no. 1 and 35-112 mg/m''*
for Lake no. 2, with negligible variation between
sample sites at 20 cm depth. Table IV also reveals
that diel carbon fixation for Lake no. 1 ranged
between 0.78-3.3 mg C/m^/hr in contrast to 16-72
mg C/m^/hr for Lake no. 2. In addition to these
data, separate daily carbon fixation rates over the
three-week period range from 0.70-3.5 mg C/m^
/hr for Lake no. 1 and 9-72 mg C 'm'*/hr for Lake
no. 2. In the diel study, (Table IV) the highest
carbon uptake rate at the 20 cm depth occurred at
0940 in Lake no. 1 when the radiation reached a

TABLE III

Algal genera in Lakes 1 and 2*

Genus

Lake No. 1

Lake No. 2

Chroococcus

+

-E

Aphanocapsa

+

Merisimopedia

+

Oscillatoria

+

+

Phormidium

+

Chlamydomonas

+

Scotiella

+

Chlorella

+

+

Chlorosarcina

+

Palmellopsis

+

Dactylococcopsis

+

Ellipsoidion

+

Trachvchloron

+

Trochiscia

+

Monostroma

+

Prasiola

+

Chrvsococcocus

-E

Chrysapsis

+

Navicula

+

* Identifications of several of these algae are tentative pending
further study in cultures.

TABLE IV

Diel measurements of temperature, radiation, total extractable
chlorophyll, and primary productivity of open waters at 20 cm
depth in Lakes 1 and 2, January 18-19, 1970

Lake

Time

Temper

ature

Chloro-

- Radiation phyll

(langley/min) (mg/m^)*

Photosynthetic
CO2 Fixation
mg C/m^/hrt

No. 1

0940

3.5

0.38

37

0.78

1340

0

0.085

41

1.7

1800

-1.0

nil

35

1.0

0200

0

0.12

36

1.6

0800

0

0.18

36

3.3

No. 2

1215

7.5

0.5

112

72

1615

4.0

0.25

56

40

2000

2.2

0. 175

37

19

0100

4.5

0.13

45

16

* Chlorophyll values refer to first time in each interval,
t Values for C fixation are means of duplicate light bottles
less the dark bottle values; values for dark bottles and for
filterable (extracellular), fixed organic matter were always
<5% of the total productivity.

maximum of 0.38 langleys/min. No consistent cor¬
relation existed between chlorophyll content and
carbon fixation for either lake, nor between diurnal
concentrations of sestonic chlorophyll, rate of car¬
bon fixation, and either light intensity or tempera¬
ture.

Discussion

The two lakes contrasted strikingly in several of
their features. The more turbid water of Lake no.
2, containing significantly higher eoneentrations of
phosphate (50X), total inorganic nitrogen (4X),
chloride (5X), and dissolved organic matter (7X),
had up to 20 times the phytoplankton primary
productivity at 20 cm depth per unit area of ice-
free water than Lake no. 1 which was clearer
throughout the study period and contained a rela¬
tively small biomass and low species diversity of
plankton, including culturable bacteria, even in the
ice-free shoreline areas of the lake visited by the
skuas. It is unlikely that numerous species, of phy-
toplanktonic mieroalgae in ice-free subsurface
water of Lake no. 1 were overlooked for two rea¬
sons: (1) Our 76 fjL pore-size plankton net con¬
sistently collected the four genera, two of which
(Chlorella and Chlamydomonas) had cell sizes be¬
low this pore diameter; (2) the same four genera
only occurred in Foerst-centrifuged water samples,
a more efficient method of mieroalgae concentra¬
tion.

Water temperature probably is not the chief
factor inducing nutrient and biological differences
between the two lakes, for daily temperatures
fluetuated in both lakes with maximum water tem¬
peratures approaching 8 C only briefly during our
studies in Lake no. 2. During periods of bright
light in both lakes, water temperatures were usually
highest at the bottom in shallow areas, where much
of the radiant energy is absorbed and converted to
sensible heat; this heat effect on the bottom no
doubt contributed to some nutrient mixing, which

180

The Virginia Journal of Science

may have been more pronounced in the shallower,
more open Lake no. 2 with significant organic
matter accumulation in its sediments. Readings of
radiation penetrating the expanse of snow-covered
ice on most of Lake no. 1 were below the level of
detection by our instrument (<.05 langley/min)
which may have influenced the lower chlorophyll
content and carbon uptake rates for this lake more
than the temperature differences. A level of 0.05
langley/min, however, still constitutes several hun¬
dred foot-candles of photosynthetically usable light;
consequently, a nil reading on our pyranometer
does not constitute proof that no radiation pene¬
trated the snow-ice cover of Lake no. 1. In fact,
in one trial ^■‘C experiment under the ice, we ob¬
tained a photosynthetic fixation rate of 2.0 mg C/
m^hr. Even the higher primary productivity rates
in Table IV occurred in open water at 20 cm depth
in Lake no. I at relatively low radiation levels. This
finding agrees with that of Goldman, et al. (13) who
showed that radiation values above 0.2 langley/
min appeared inhibitory to both chlorophyll pro¬
duction and carbon uptake by antarctic fresh-water
algae.

We conclude that biological production in these
lakes is controlled primarily by certain nutrient
factors. The data for Lake no. 1 suggest relatively
small reserves of both phosphate and nitrogen. Be¬
tween the two nutrients, however, phosphate would
seem to be most limiting in this lake because the ra¬
tio of inorganic N/ortho-phosphate phosphorus is
55:1, while in Lake no. 2, it was 4:1. Nutrient-
enrichment from sea spray, as Sugawara (14) sug¬
gested for antarctic coastal lakes, does not appear
to explain the differences between these two lakes,
both of which have fairly equal exposure to sea
breezes and do not differ markedly in their dis¬
solved sulfate concentrations. Also, the rocky sub¬
strata of the two lakes (Table I) are so similar in
mineral composition that we would not expect
them to be a chief cause of the observed chemical
differences of the lakes. Furthermore, mineral
sources of nitrogen, phosphorus, and chloride, the
major chemical differences between Lakes 1 and
2, are absent from grantitic rocks of this area.

The abundance of macrofauna and flora associ¬
ated with Lake no. 2 basin suggests that at least
some chemical enrichment of this lake may come
from waste products in runoff although little surface
runoff was observed during the period of this study.
The data of Allen, et al. (15) also suggested runoff
as a source of nutrients for lakes in the Cape Evans
area of Antarctica. Lake no. 1 may receive nutri¬
ents from bathing skuas, but this would be relatively
small when compared with that for Lake no. 2
which possessed a much greater biomass of biota
in its basin. Also, we suggest that significant en¬
richment of Lake no. 2 may result from ammonia
gas evolved from the large Adelie penauin rookery
located beyond the basin rim. Uric acid is a major
waste product of birds containing 33% of its
weight as nitrogen and it is only slightly soluble in
cold water (16). Microbial decomposition of pen¬
guin guano might produce ammonium compounds

which, as a result of the alkaline conditions, would
be released from the guano into the air as gaseous
ammonia. On passing in the wind over Lake no.
2 with slightly acid pH and over the extensive mats
of bryophytes and lichens in the lake basin, signifi¬
cant amounts of this ammonia might be absorbed.
This ammonia enrichment from sources outside the
lake basin, coupled with phosphate additions to
Lake no. 2 from sources within the basin, could
promote the observed natural eutrophic features of
high species diversity, high chlorophyll content,
and high primary productivity. Comparatively, the
90% ice-covered Lake no. 1 some 500 meters from
ammonia evolution of the nearest penguin rookery,
we suggest, receives significantly less airborne
ammonia. Also, the reduced biomass of fauna and
flora in Lake no. 1 basin further supports the ob¬
served nutrient-poor state of this oligotrophic lake.
Further investigations during the austral summer of
197 1 have aimed at testing the above hypothesis.

Comparing primary productivity of these lakes
with other studies in Antarctica, Lake no. 2 resem¬
bles “Alga Lake” described by Goldman, et al (13),
while Lake no. 1 approaches the productivity levels
reported in numerous ice-covered, melt-water ponds
of the Cape Evans area of Antarctica (17). How¬
ever, nutrient and extractable chlorophyll in both
Lake no. 1 and no. 2 were orders of magnitude
lower than those levels found by these authors for
“Alga” and “Skua” Lakes in the Cape Evans area.
Such order of magnitude discrepancies between
carbon fixation and both chlorophyll and nutrient
levels of these antarctic lakes cannot be explained
on the basis of our use of different primary pro¬
ductivity bottles for in situ ^^C measurement. While
our ’^C fixation values obtained consistently in 250
ml screw-cap pharmaceutical bottles generally are
25-50% higher than those obtained in the more
standard 300 ml BOD bottles (Parker and Samsel,
unpubl.), we have never found order-of-magnitude
differences.

In summary, we have revealed for the first time a
case of natural chemical eutrophication in Antarctic
fresh-water lakes. The eutrophication of lake no. 2,
resulting in its higher productivity, chlorophyll, and
organic matter content, as well as the greater algal
species numbers and biomass, apparently has been
caused by enrichment with ammonia and phos¬
phate. Resident bird populations, especially, Ade¬
lie penguins located beyond the rim of Lake no. 2
basin, probably represent the chief sources of
these nutrients inducing the higher trophic state.

Acknowledgments

This research was supported by National Science
Foundation grant GA-16768. We are grateful to
Mr. Wayne Marshall for field assistance, to Dr. H.
Robinson for moss identifications, to Mr. Ken
Cameron for microscopic analysis of rock thin sec¬
tions, to Dr. S. El-Sayed for analyses of organic
carbon, and to Dr. K. Dickson for review of our
manuscript.

Comparisons of Two Antarctic Lakes

181

REFERENCES

1. Bryant, H. M., Proc. Am. pliH. Soc., 89, 256 (1945).

2. Holdgate, M. W., in Carrick, Holdgate, and Prevost
(Editors), Biologic aiitarctique, Hermann, Paris, 1964.

3. Hirano, M., in Oye and Mieghem (Editors), Biogeog¬
raphy and ecology in Antarctica, Dr. W. Junk Publish¬
ers, The Hague, 1965, p. 127.

4. Cameron, R. E., Jet Propulsion Lab. Space Programs
Summary No. 37-40, 4, 128 (1966).

5. Adie, R. J., Advmt. Sci., Lond., 53, 454 (1957).

6. Hooper, P., The petrology of Anvers Island and adja¬
cent islands. Sclent. Rep. Falkld. Isl. Depend. Surv.,
Vol. 34 (1962).

7. Parker, B. C., Samsel, G. L., Jr., Prescott, G. W., An¬
tarctic Res. Series, Natn. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., In press.
(1971).

8. Smith, R. L., in B. C. Parker and R. M. Brown, Jr.
(Editors), Contributions in phycology, Allen Press,
Lawrence, Kansas, 1971, p. 31.

9. Strickland, J. P. U. and Parsons, T. R., A practical
handbook of seawater analysis. Ball. Fish. Res. Bd.
Can., Ottawa, Bulletin 167 (1968).

10. Balech, E., El-Sayed, S. Z., Hasle, G., Neushul, M., and
Zaneveld, J. S., Primary productivity and benthic ma¬
rine algae of the Antarctic and subantarctic, Amer.
Geogr. Soc., Antarctic Map Folio Ser., Eolio 10, p. 2
(1968).

11. Steeman-Nielsen, E., Journal du Conseil, Conseil Per¬
manent International pour I’Exploration de la Mer (Den¬
mark), 18, 117 (1952).

12. Goldman, C. R., in M. S. Doly (Editor), Proc. Conf.
on Primary Productivity Measurement, Marine and
Freshwater, Hawaii, 1961; AEC tech. Inf. Docmt., 7633,
103 (1963).

13. Goldman, C. R., Mason, D. T., and Wood, B. J. B.,
Limnol. Oceanogr., 8, 313 (1963).

14. Sugawara, K., Verh. int. Verein. theor. angew. Limnol.,
14, 889 (1961).

15. Allen, S. E., Grimshaw, H. M., and Holdgate, M. W.,
/. Ecol., 55, 381 (1963).

16. Baldwin, E., Dynamic aspects of biochemistry, 3rd Ed.,
Cambridge Univ. Press, 1957, p. 359.

17. Goldman, C. R., Mason, D. T., and Wood, B. J. B.,
Antarctic Res. Series, Natn. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., In press.
(1971).

182

The Virginia Journal of Science

C. C. Clayton

Department of Biochemistry
Medical College of Virginia
Health Sciences Division
Virginia Commonwealth University
Richmond, Virginia 23219
Received May 25, 1971

Further Studies on the Effects of Benzimidazole Derivatives

on Azo Dye Carcinogenesis*

Abstract — 2-Ethyl-5-methylbenzimidazole must be fed
during the entire azo dye feeding period (8 weeks) to be
fully effective. The toxicity of the azo dye, 3'-methyl-4-
dimethylaminoazobenzene, was markedly reduced by the
benzimidazole. Levels of the dye over two times that nor¬
mally used to induce liver tumors could be fed with the
benzimidazole with near complete protection against liver
neoplasia. Glycine appeared not to be a factor in azo dye
carcinogenesis or benzimidazole protection. 2-Ethyl-5-chloro-
benzimidazole was an effective inhibitor of the dye-induced
tumors while 2-a-hydroxybenzyl benzimidazole was ineffec¬
tive.

We have reported previously that liver tumor in¬
duction by 3'-methyl-4-dimethylaminoazobenzene
(3'me-DAB) could be inhibited by feeding 2,5-
dimethylbenzimidazole or 2-ethyl-5-methylbenzi-
midazole (1). This protective effect did not appear
to be due to in vitro destruction of the azo dye (2).
As the protective effect of benzimidazole was found
to be effective during the dye feeding period but
not in the post-dye feeding period during the de¬
velopment of the liver tumors (1), it was desirable
to determine whether there was a critical period
during the dye feeding time in which the benzi¬
midazole was effective. Therefore, 2-ethyl-5-
methylbenzimidazole was fed for various intervals
to determine whether there was an efficacious time
period for preventing formation of dye-induced liver
tumors.

When azo dyes are fed the concentration of the
dye increases in the liver (3) and the concentra¬
tion of riboflavin decreases (4). Benzimidazoles
tend to counteract the changes in concentrations
of these components in the liver ( 1 ) . The benzi¬
midazoles also decrease the toxicity of the azo dye
as indicated by better survival and growth (un¬
published observations). It therefore seemed feasi¬
ble to determine the effect of the 2-ethyl-5-methyl-
benzimidazole upon tumor induction and liver
concentration of dye and riboflavin with increasing
amounts of azo dye in the diet.

* Supported in part by a grant from the National Cancer Institute
of the National Institutes of Health (C-1541) and the Mabel R. Jordon
Memorial Grant for Cancer Research from the American Cancer
Society.

Benzimidazoles inhibit the incorporation of gly¬
cine into heme (5) and there have been reports of
a glycine incorporating factor which may be in¬
hibited by certain benzimidazoles (6). The effect
of added glycine in the diet was studied to deter¬
mine whether this amino acid could counteract
inhibition of carcinogenesis by the benzimidazole.
Other benzimidazole derivatives, the 2-ethyl-5-
chloro- derivative, which is an effective inhibitor
of heme synthesis (7), and the 2-a-hydroxybenzyl
derivative which is a potent antiviral agent (8),
were tested as inhibitors of azo dye induced liver
carcinogenesis.

Methods

Procedures were the same as in previous studies
on the effects of benzimidazoles upon carcinogenesis
(1). Diets were made in two halves to separate the
azo dye and the oil from the benzimidazole so that
there would be a minimal amount of dye destruc¬
tion, and the two halves were mixed daily at the
time of feeding. The complete diet had the follow¬
ing composition: 79% glucose monohydrate
(Cerelose), 4% Wesson salts, 12% casein and
5% corn oil. Vitamins were added such that each
kilo of complete diet contained 3 mg of thiamine
hydrochloride, 7.5 mg calcium pantothenate, 2.5
mg pyridoxine, 2 mg of riboffavin and 1 g of chol¬
ine chloride. Tetracycline was added to the diets at
a level of 100 mg per kilogram (9). Halibut liver oil
was added to the food cups every two weeks in
amounts more than adequate for the animals’ needs.
Food and water were given ad libitum and food
consumption was measured at intervals. Unless
indicated, the level of 3'me-DAB was 0.064%, and
in most cases the 2-ethyl-5-methylbenzimidazole
was at a level of 0.25%. Other benzimidazoles
were fed at equivalent molar or per cent levels.
Young adult Holtzman male rats weighing approxi¬
mately 200 g at the start of the experiment were
housed in wire bottom, stainless steel cages in
groups of three to five. Animals were weighed and
examined at weekly intervals.

Benzimidazoles and Azo Dye Carcinogenesis

183

For most tumor experiments the rats ( 1 5 per
group) were fed the dye-containing diet for 8 weeks
followed by an additional 8 weeks of a dye-free diet
at which time the animals were sacrificed and the
presence of tumors observed grossly and micro¬
scopically. Analytical studies were performed after
3-5 weeks of feeding with five animals per group.
The animals were sacrificed, the livers removed,
homogenized in water and aliquots used for the
appropriate analysis. Riboflavin concentration was
determined fluorometrically (10, 11). Total azo dye
concentration of the liver was determined by the
method of Spain and Clayton (12). Benzimidazoles
were synthesized by the methods previously de¬
scribed (5) with l-chloro-3,4-diaminobenzene and
propionic acid for the 2-ethyl-5-chloro derivative
and DL-mandelic acid with o/Y/;o-phenylenediamine
for the hydroxybenzyl derivative.

Results

Effect of time of feeding benzimidazole. In order
to determine whether there was any critical period
when the benzimidazole derivatives were most ef¬
fective during the eight weeks of dye feeding, the
most active of the compounds, the 2-ethyl-5-
methyl derivative, was fed at different times during
the eight week dye feeding period. In the first
study it was found that the second four week period
of administration afforded more protection than
the first four weeks (Table I). In a second exper¬
iment, animals which received the benzimidazole
for only the first two weeks of dye feeding devel¬
oped nearly as many tumors as those getting no
benzimidazole. When rats were fed the compound
for the first four weeks or the first six weeks, there
was marked reduction in tumors. When they re¬
ceived the compound for the full eight weeks there
were no liver tumors. If the compound were added

TABLE I

Effect of time of feeding of 2-etliyl-5-methylhenzimida:oIe upon
incidence of tumors resulting from feeding 3'-methyl-4-
dimetliylaminoazobenzene (dye fed for 8 weeks)

Tumors/

Survivors

#

Survivors with
Tumors

%

Expt. I

No benzimidazole

9/9

100

.25% benz.* — 8 weeks

0/14

0

.25% benz. — 1st 4 weeks

6/8

75

.25% benz. — 2nd 4 weeks

4/11

36

Expt. II

No benzimidazole

7/7

100

.25% benz. — 8 weeks

0/12

0

.25% benz. — 1st 2 weeks

7/8

88

.25% benz. — 1st 4 weeks

4/11

36

.25% benz. — 1st 6 weeks

5/12

42

.25% benz. — last 2 weeks

8/9

89

.25% benz. — last 4 weeks

7/12

58

.25% benz. — last 6 weeks

5/13

38

* benz. = 2-ethyl-5-methylbenzimidazole

TABLE II

Effect of concentration of dye in the diet in the presence of 2-ethyl-
5-methylbenzimidazole on concentration of liver azo dye and
ribojlavin (4 weeks on diets)

Riboflavin

Mg/gm

Total
Azo Dye

Mg/gm

.064% 3'me-DAB no benz.

16.5

34.5

.064% 3'me-DAB -H 0.25%
2-et-5-me-benz.

24.9

25.5

.08% 3'me-DAB -f 0.25%
2-et-5-me-benz.

25.3

26.7

.10% 3'me-DAB -b 0.25%
2-et-5-me-benz.

22.8

28.7

.12% 3'me-DAB -f 0.25%
2-et-5-me-benz.

21.1

41.3

.15%, 3'me-DAB -b 0.25%
2-et-5-me-benz.

21.7

38.3

to the diet during the last two weeks of dye feed¬
ing, there was only a slight decrease in hepatic
carcinogenesis. When they received the compound
during the last four weeks there was more pro¬
tection, and when they received it for the last six
weeks of dye feeding there was an appreciable
decrease in tumor incidence. Animals must receive
the benzimidazole for four weeks or more to be
effective, and maximum effect was obtained by feed¬
ing the entire eight weeks (Table I).

Higher dietary levels of azo dye. The effect of
the level of azo dye in the diet upon the concen¬
tration of liver riboflavin and total azo dye in the
presenee of 2-ethyl-5-methylbenzimidazole was
studied. It was hoped to find a level of dye which,
in the presence of the benzimidazole, would give
liver concentrations of these factors similar to those
found in dye-fed rats which did not receive the
benzimidazole. The animals were killed after four
weeks on the diet. As was found previously (1),
the benzimidazoles prevented the drop in riboflavin
and the rise in total dye in the liver (Table II).
Even when the azo dye level was increased to
0.15%, the liver riboflavin concentration was not
as low as when the benzimidazole was not fed.
When the dye level in the diet was over 0.12%,
the total azo dye concentration in the liver was
greater than when the dye was fed at 0.064% in
the absence of the benzimidazole. All of the ani¬
mals on the higher levels of the dye without the
benzimidazoles failed to survive the four week
experiment except one with 0.08% 3'me-DAB.

An experiment in which the effect of benzimida¬
zoles on tumor development could be evaluated
with increased levels of dye was performed feeding
levels of dye of 0.064%, 0.08%, 0.10% and
0.12%. The animals were fed these levels of dye
for eight weeks as in previous studies. It was found
that as the level of dye increased there was still
protection afforded % 0.25% of 2-ethyl-5-

methylbenzimidazole. No tumors developed in any
of these groups except 1 tumor out of 13 survivors
at a level of 0.10% of the dye (Table III). Al-

184

The Virginia Journal of Science

TABLE III

Effect of 0.25% 2-elhyl-5-methylbeiiziniiclazole on liver tumor
induction by increasing levels of dietary 3’-metliyl-4-diinetliyl-
aminoazobenzene (3' me- DAB)

3'me-DAB

Benzim¬

idazole

Average Food
Consumption*

Survival

Tumors/

Survivors

%

%

gm/day

%

.064

0

7.8

14/15

93

.064

.25

11.1

14/15

0

.08

.25

10.3

15/15

0

.10

.25

10.1

13/15

8

.12

.25

9.8

12/15

0

* Average daily food consumption during dye feeding period
(1st 8 weeks)

though the dye intake was more than twice as great
with the 0.12% diet than at 0.064% (as measured
by food consumption), the benzimidazole was still
effective in reducing toxicity and tumor induction.

Added dietary glycine. The addition of 2% gly¬
cine to the diet (at expense of glucose) had no ef¬
fect upon the development of liver tumors in the
rats fed 3'me-DAB, and the addition of the benzi¬
midazole inhibited tumor formation completely
whether or not glycine was present. It would ap¬
pear therefore that there was no relationship be¬
tween benzimidazole inhibition of carcinogenesis
and glycine or a glycine incorporating factor.

New benzimidazoles as antitumor agents. In the
first study on the effect of 2-ethyl-5-chlorobenzi-
midazole it was found that this compound was
somewhat more toxic than the other benzimidazoles
and the level in the diet had to be decreased from
0.25% to 0.125% after four weeks. Under these
conditions the compound did not appear to be as
effective as the 2-ethyl-5-methyl derivative since
ten of the thirteen surviving animals developed liver
tumors at the conclusion of the experiment. All the

TABLE IV

Effect of 2-ethyl-5-chlorobenzimidazote and 2-a-hydroxy-
benzylbenzimidazole upon liver tumor induction by
3'-methyl-4-dimetltylamiitoazobenzene
compared to 2-etliyl-5-metltylbenz-
imidazole

Tumors/

Survivors

Survivors with
Tumors

%

Expt. I

0.064% 3'me-DAB

8/9

89

0.064% -f- .25% 2-et-5-me-benz.

0/14

0

0.064% -|- .125% 2-et-5-me-benz.

3/14

21

0.064% -b .125% 2-et-5-Cl-benz.

3/Tl

27

Expt. II

0.064% 3'me-DAB

11/11

100

0.064% -F .175% 2-et-5-me-benz.

0/12

0

0.064% -f .225% OH-benzyl-benz.

10/10

100

animals that survived without the benzimidazole
developed tumors. In a second study the level of
the chloro derivative was 0.125% during the en¬
tire eight weeks of diet feeding. At this level the
chloro derivative was nearly as effective as the
2-ethyl-5-methyl compound at the same concentra¬
tion (Table IV). This result is similar to the effects
of these two compounds on heme synthesis where
they were both effective inhibitors (7).

The first experiment testing the 2-a-hydroxyben-
zyl derivative indicated that this compound could
not be tolerated as well as the 2-ethyl-5-methyl de¬
rivative. A second experiment, with reduced (but
molar equivalent) amounts of these two compounds,
indicated that the hydroxybenzyl derivative at
0.225% was not effective (Table IV) since all of
the surviving animals developed liver tumors.

Discussion

It is of interest that the 2-ethyl-5-methyl- and
the 2-ethyl-5-chloro- benzimidazole derivatives
were equally effective in inhibiting tumor induc¬
tion and in inhibiting the incorporation of glycine
into heme (7). Parallelism between these systems
has also been observed with other benzimidazoles
(1,5, 13). The chloro derivative does not correlate
with some of the other benzimidazoles with regard
to inhibition of dye destruction by liver homogen¬
ates (14) and tumor inhibition; this derivative is
a poor inhibitor of the former.

An effect on glycine incorporation and a glycine
incorporating factor (6) might be overcome by
added glycine if the effect of the benzimidazoles
were the result of simple competitive inhibition.
Addition of glycine to the diet had no effect on
tumor induction in the present experiments. This
result might ind'cate that glycine incorporation
with a specific factor is not involved in this carcino¬
genic process, that added glycine cannot overcome
the inhibition, or that the amount of glycine used
was inadequate. That dye destruction by liver ho¬
mogenates would not involve glycine or its incor¬
porating factor indicates another mode of action
for the benzimidazoles. Additional evidence indi¬
cating another form of action is the response of virus
to the benzimidazoles. Gale reports (15) a poor
correlation of antiviral activity and glycine incor¬
poration inhibition. In this study the hydroxybenzyl
derivative was ineffective in inhibiting azo dye
induced tumors while it was one of the more potent
antiviral agents (8). Such factors as toxicitv, solu¬
bility, absorption and metabolism could affect re¬
sults in the intact animal.

The fact that the benzimidazole must be fed for
the entire length of the dye feeding in order to be
effective might indicate a role of the benzimidazole
in the metabolism of the dye or the initial carcino¬
genic process. They are not effective after the
tumor process has begun (1). Since the dye has to
be fed for an appreciable period of time to produce
tumors (16) it is not disturbing that the benzimida¬
zole has to be fed a comparable time. Evidence
that metabolism of the dye is altered is indicated

Benzimidazoles and Azo Dye Carcinogenesis

185

by the decreased toxicity of the dye in the presence
of the 2-ethyl-5-methylbenzimidazoIe. Levels of
dye which were toxic in the absence of the benz¬
imidazole were not toxic in its presence and the
benzimidazole was still effective in inhibiting the
formation of liver tumors. It has been shown that
the peak time for total and bound azo dye in the
liver when 3'me-DAB was fed was 3 to 4 weeks
(3, 12). The present experiments showed that
the concentration of total azo dye in the liver could
be made equal to or greater than in those animals
not receiving the benzimidazole if the levels of dye
in the diet were doubled and benzimidazole fed.
It is possible the bound dye was not as high, al¬
though previous studies indicated that the bound
and total values tended to run parallel (12). If
the amount of dye in the liver can be elevated
without tumors developing, it would seem to indi¬
cate an effect of the benzimidazoles on the initial
(or early) carcinogenic process. Further work is
needed to indicate more clearly how the benzimi¬
dazoles inhibit the carcinogenic process.

Summary

Certain benzimidazole derivatives inhibit liver
tumor induction in rats fed azo dyes. The most
active of these, the 2-ethyl-5-methyl-benzimida-
zole, must be fed for the duration of the dye feeding
period to be most effective. There was no particular
interval of time during the dye feeding that the
benzimidazole was more effective. The benzimid¬
azole reduced the toxicity of the azo dye (3'-
methyl-4-dimethylaminoazobenzene) so that high
levels of the dye could be fed. When the dye
concentration was increased from 0.064% (normal
level fed) to 0.12% in the diet there were no liver
tumors if the diet contained 0.25% 2-ethyl-5-meth-
ylbenzimidazole. Benzimidazoles have been re¬
ported to be involved in inhibition of glycine in¬
corporation but 2% glycine added to the diet of
rats fed the azo dye did not affect tumor incidence.
2-Ethyl-5-methylbenzimidazole was effective in

reducing tumor induction in the presence of added
glycine indicating the mode of action of benzimid¬
azole was not inhibition of glycine incorporation.
2-Chloro-5-methyl-benzimidazole, an active inhib¬
itor of glycine incorporation into heme, was an
effective inhibitor of azo dye carcinogenesis. An
active anti-viral benzimidazole, the 2-a-hydroxy-
benzyl derivative, was ineffectual in reducing liver
tumors produced by feeding azo dye.

Acknowledgment

The technical assistance of Mr. W, H. Friend is
gratefully acknowledged.

REFERENCES

1. Clayton, C. C., and Abbott, L. D., Jr., Cancer Res., 18,
94 (1958).

2. Clayton, C. C., Va J. Sci., 22, 47 (1971).

3. Miller, E. C., Miller, J. A., Sapp, R. W., and Weber,

G. M., Cancer Res., 9, 336 (1949).

4. Miller, E. C., Miller, J. A., Kline, B. E., and Rusch,

H. P., J. exp. Med., 88, 89 (1948).

5. Abbott, L. D., Jr., and Dodson, M. J., Proc. Soc. exp.
Biol. Med., 86, 475 (1954).

6. Gale, E. F., and Folkes, J. P., Biochem. J., 67, 507
(1957).

7. Abbott, L. D., Jr., and Gindin, R. A., Proc. Soc. exp.
Biol. Med., 96, 846 (1957).

8. Tamm, I., and Eggers, H. J., Science, N.Y., 142, 24
(1963).

9. Clayton, C. C., Va J. Sci., 19, 147 (1968).

10. Conner, R. T., and Straub, G. J., Ind. Engng Chem.
analyt. Edn., 13, 385 (1941).

11. Andrews, J. S., Cereal Chem., 20, 3 (1943).

12. Spain, J. D., and Clayton, C. C., Va J. Sci., 6, 88
(1955).

13. Abbott, L. D., Jr., and Dodson, M. J., /. biol. Chem.,
211, 845 (1954).

14. Clayton, C. C., Proc. Soc. exp. Biol. Med., 97, 510
(1958).

15. Gale, E. F., in Clba Lectures in Microbial Biochemis¬
try, Synthesis and Organization in the Bacterial Cell,
John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1959, p. 97.

16. Cortell, R., Cancer Res., 7, 158 (1947).

186

The Virginia Journal of Science

W. M. Pritchard

Physics Department

Old Dominion University, Norfolk, Virginia 23508
Received September 14, 1971

and

L. C. Miranda

Department of Theoretical Physics
Oxford University, Oxford, England

Magnetic Susceptibility

of Alkali

Metals

Abstract — The magnetic susceptibility of each of the al¬
kali metals was calculated as the sum of three contributions.
Two methods of including the effect of the periodic lattice
potential were considered. The Thomas-Fermi atomic model
was used to determine the ion core part of the total suscep¬
tibility. Generally good agreement was found between theo¬
retical and experimental magnetic susceptibilities.

Introduction

The total magnetic susceptibility x of ^ metal can
be calculated as a sum of contributions of the form

The parameter yleorr is associated with the corre¬
lation energy of the polarized system. Values of ^eon-
can be calculated by first determining the contribu¬
tions OLniq) and agniq) to ztcorr from the long- and
short-range interaction regions. The intermediate
range interactions can be described by an interpola¬
tion between the two extreme cases. A numerical in¬
tegration of a (q) over all momentum transfers yields
Acorr- It was found that Acorr was well represented by
a linear function of the form

X = Xp + Xfl + Xion

(1)

= -0.0025/-, -h 0.043

The paramagnetic part xp is associated with the
polarization of spin magnetic moments of the conduc¬
tion electrons. The diamagnetic contribution xn is
due to motion of the conduction electrons. The dia¬
magnetic term Xion represents the contribution of the
ion cores.

The calculation of each term in (1) will be ex¬
amined in detail.

for the alkali metals.

This result allows the paramagnetic susceptibility
to be expressed by the much simpler equation

Xp

Xf ree

+ 3(a/-,f (0.043 - 0.0025/-,)

ja IT

(3)

Paramagnetic Term xp

The paramagnetic term xp can be calculated from
the theory of Silverstein (1). This theory is based on
the use of a variational technique to determine the
polarized ground state for a system of interacting elec¬
trons. The expression for xp obtained by Silverstein
for a system of electrons with effective mass m* and
n electrons per unit volume is

(2)

where

and

Xp

Xfre,

^ - T 3(q;/-,) Teorr

nV TT

Diamagnetic Term xn

The theory of Kjeldaas and Kohn (2) can be
employed to determine xn- Kjeldaas and Kohn have
calculated the diamagnetic susceptibility for a de¬
generate gas of Bloch electrons. Their procedure was
to show that the effective Hamiltonian of such
electrons in a magnetic field can be rigorously ex¬
pressed as a power series in P of the form H = EfV)
where P = (h/iyv — (e/c)A and £'(P = fiK) is the
energy of a particular band. Expanding EfP) in
powers of P leads to the following series expression
for x/>:

28 (4)

Xd =

1 2tr^ nic~

...jk I

I o/ 1-1221 r’l I22x I 2 2 I

+ 8(E — E )\ao Ko +

(4)

Xfree

3//jLt^

IKTp

is the Pauli spin susceptibility.

In (4), ^0 is the Bohr radius for hydrogen, Kq =
(3iT^n)''-^^, and

Magnetic Susceptibility of Alkali Metals

187

^(4, _ ^ ^ ^2211

4- £-1212 _j_ ^2121 _j_ ^1221 _|_ ^2112^

For a particular band m,

a^rjv

U,

0a

1 1_

i dx^

U„

- 2(U„\ + {UJ, Uj)b‘^^]

Where

Solutions of the Thomas-Fermi equation for the
alkali ions have been obtained by Brudner and Boro-
witz (4). It was found that these solutions are well
approximated by exponential functions out to the
ionic radius. For all of the ions except lithium, the
Thomas-Fermi function <f>{x) can be represented by

(kix) =

[o.59c“°-"®"

0 < a: < 1

X > 1

(7)

where the empirical constants were determined by
the method of least squares. The corresponding re¬
sult for lithium is

0(.V) =

J0.90e'

lo.47e‘

0 < ;c < 1
;c > 1

(8)

Um = f/„o is a Bloch function with K = 0,

Pmn

•'rnn ^in

^ ^ /^m;)

a

(3

Z Z

- 1 Um,

{lirf f ^ 1

d

— ; L„o dr

doell 1

— in

a;c“

Pmi Pit

The parameter fl is the volume of one crystal cell and
is the energy of band m at K = 0.

The first term in the expansion (4) is the well known
Landau-Peierls equation.

Diamagnetic Term

The ion core contribution xion is given by the Lan-
gevin equation

X i c

e^(z — 1 )/;(/-')
6mc^

(5)

The mean square radius of the electron charge
distribution, (/•“), can be estimated on the basis of
the Thomas-Fermi atomic model.

Following the procedure of Gombas ( 3 ) , we define

values of (r-) were obtained from (6) with the aid
of (7) and (8).

Results and Discussion

The magnetic susceptibility contributions xp
XD depend on the effective electron mass m*.
Values of tn* have been determined by Ham (5)
for two cases. In the first case, the periodic lattice
potential was assumed to change only the electron
mass, while the Fermi surface remained spherical.
In the second case, the distortion of the Fermi sur¬
face was considered.

The results of susceptibility calculations for the
spherical Fermi surface case are presented in Table
I. The corresponding results for the distorted Fermi
surface case are given in Table II. Susceptibilities are
given in units of 10““*’ cm^/gm at 300°K. Equation
(3) was employed for the paramagnetic term xp-
Values of xo were calculated on the basis of the
Landau-Peierls approximation except for Li. For Li,
the value obtained by Kjeldaas and Kohn was used
since they have shown that the Landau-Peierls ap¬
proximation is not valid for this metal and that two
terms in (4) must be considered. The ion core con¬
tribution Xion was obtained from equation (5). Ex¬
perimental total magnetic susceptibilities were taken
from Pugh and Goldman (6) for Li, from Kittel (7)

where

(/-■) = Att f r* p(r) dr
J n

pCv)

Bz-

3/2

with

.V

— ■ /■, 6 = 0.88ao.

b

and

B

(37r',/;'r‘

The parameter Ri is the ionic radius.

(6)

TABLE I

Metal

XP

Xn

Xion

Xlh

Xexp

Li

1.53

-0.07

0.00

1.46

1.89

Na

0.86

-0.19

-0.01

0.66

0.70

K

0.63

-0.15

-0.03

0.45

0.53

Rb

0.58

-0.14

-0.21

0.23

0.25

Cs

0.60

-0. 12

-0.55

-0.07

-0.10

TABLE II

Metal

XP

xn

Xion

Xth

Xexp

Li

2.16

-0.07

0.00

2.09

1.89

Na

0.86

-0.20

-0.01

0.65

0.70

K

0.70

-0.15

-0.03

0.52

0.53

Rb

0.74

-0.13

-0.21

0.40

0.25

Cs

1.15

-0.08

-0.55

0.52

-0.10

188

The Virginia Journal of Science

for Na, K, and Rb, and from the Handbook of Chem¬
istry and Physics ( 8 ) for Cs.

In general, somewhat better agreement between
theoretical and experimental total susceptibilities is
observed for the spherical Fermi surface case.

REFERENCES

1. Silverstein, S. D., Phys. Rev., 130, 1703 (1963).

2. Kjeldaas, T., Jr., and Kohn, W., ibid., 105, 806 (1957).

3. Handbuch der Physik, Vol. XXXVI, Springer Verlag,
Berlin, 1956, p. 109.

4. Brudner, H. J., and Borowitz, S., Phys. Rev., 120, 2053
(1960).

5. Ham, F. S., ibid., 128, 2524 (1962).

6. Pugh, E. W., and Goldman, J. E., ibid., 99, 1641 (1955).

7. Kittel, C., Introduction to solid state physics, J. Wiley &
Sons, New York, 1966, p. 448.

8. Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 32nd Edition,
Chemical Rubber Publishing Company, Cleveland, Ohio,
1955.

Magnetic Susceptibility of Alkali Metals

189

Walter H. Carter, Jr.
and

Roger E. Flora

Department of Biometry
Medical College of Virginia
Health Sciences Division
Virginia Commonwealth University
Richmond, Virginia 23219
Received September 30, 1971

The Use of Principal Components Analysis in Determining
Grades and Detecting Ambiguous Questions on
Multiple Choice Examinations*

Abstract — ^This paper illustrates how the statistical method
of principal components can be used in the analysis of mul¬
tiple choice examination scores. It is shown that this pro¬
cedure results in the detection of ambiguous questions and
an increase in the variability of the test scores. Finally, the
method is applied to two multiple choice examinations given
to first year medical students at the Medical College of Vir¬
ginia and the results are given and discussed.

Introduction

Multiple choice examinations have become in¬
creasingly popular with educators as the number of
students has increased. In addition to allowing exam¬
iners to cover a wide range of material on a single
examination, this type of test lends itself quite readily
to computerized grading and analysis [1]. Conse¬
quently, much attention has been given to the ability
of such tests to evaluate the students’ knowledge of
the subject matter presented in a formal course of
instruction.

A frequently used method of obtaining such an
evaluation is through the determination of grades.
This implies that we want to distinguish among those
taking the test according to their knowledge of the
subject matter on which they are tested. It follows
that such a distinction is more readily accomplished
when the standard deviation of the students’ exam¬
ination scores is large. Pratt and Ingersoll [2] pre¬
sent a method of scoring which results in an increase
in the variance of the test scores. Theirs is a subjec¬
tive approach based primarily on intuition. The pre¬
sent paper presents a method of scoring based on a
well known statistical technique which yields scores
having maximum standard deviation. The effect of
maximizing the variability of test scores will be dis¬
cussed later.

The problem of ambiguous questions has long

* This investigation -was supported in part by Public Health Service
Research Grant RR 00016-08, from the National Institutes of Health.

been associated with multiple choice examinations.
In the past, this problem has been handled by the
careful selection of questions to be included on an
examination. In some instances, the examinees are
given the opportunity to point out questions which
they feel are ambiguous and if the examiners are in
agreement such questions are deleted. This or any
similar procedure is seen to be advantageous in that
it allows a more valid evaluation of the test results.
However, in many other instances, such as the Col¬
lege Board Examinations, Graduate Record Exam¬
inations, etc., the examinee is not afforded such an
opportunity. An objective method for detecting those
questions which when correctly answered serve to
cause another question to be incorrectly answered
will be presented and illustrated in this paper.

Method

For each question, a student is given a score of 1
if the answer to that question is correct or a score of
0 if the answer is incorrect. The score for the test is
then determined by assigning a weight to each ques¬
tion, multiplying each question’s score by the weight
assigned to it, and adding the result for all questions;
i.e., the score for the test is a linear combination of
the scores for each question. In order to conform to
the usual methods of scoring, the weights can be
scaled in such a manner that if a student answered
every question correctly his score would equal the
total number of questions or the questions could be
assigned weights in such a manner that a student
would be given a grade of 100 when when he cor¬
rectly answered every question. For these two
methods of scaling, the weight for each question
would be respectively, 1 and 100/n, where n is the
number of test questions.

If the goal is to attain a set of test scores having
maximum standard deviation, it seems logical to as¬
sign weights in such a way that the variance of the

190

The Virginia Journal of Science

test scores thus obtained is as large or larger than for
any other weighting scheme which might be used.
Such a set of weights can be obtained by the method
of prineipal components as described in Anderson
[3] as well as other texts on multivariate statistical
analysis. In applying this method to the analysis of
test scores, each question is considered as a variable
with observed value 1 or 0 depending on whether or
not the response is correct. It turns out that the de¬
sired weights are those corresponding to the first
principal component of the correlation matrix of the
scores for each question. Standard computer pro¬
grams are available for performing a principal com¬
ponents analysis. See, for example, references [4]
and [5].

In this paper, an ambiguous question is one for
which knowledge of the correct answer is independent
of knowledge of the subject matter. Note that this in¬
cludes those questions for which a correct response
for one is at least as likely to elicit an incorrect re¬
sponse as a correct response on another question. A
good test will be defined as a test which does not con¬
tain any ambiguous questions. It then follows that
the covariance matrix (and hence, the correlation
matrix) associated with a good test is a matrix com¬
posed entirely of positive elements.

In what follows, use will be made of a theorem due
to Perron [6] which states that the eigenvector (set
of weights) associated with the first principal compo¬
nent of a matrix of positive elements will consist, ex¬
clusively, of positive elements. Thus, when, as some¬
times happens, negative weights are obtained through
use of the method of principal components, it follows
that the covariance matrix for the test was not posi¬
tive and that there were ambiguous questions on the
test. If negative weights occur in the principal com¬
ponents analysis, the questions associated with these
weights are deleted and the procedure is repeated
using only the questions with positive weights. In
practiee, this second application of the principal com¬
ponents analysis changes only slightly the weights as¬
sociated with the questions retained after the first
analysis. Thus, in general, it may be sufficient to set
all negative weights equal to zero and use the posi¬
tive weights from the first analysis.

Examples

The method outlined aboved was applied to a test
containing 45 mathematics and statistics questions
given to the 1968-1969 class of entering medical
students at the Health Sciences Division of Virginia
Commonwealth Univeristy. As a result, 13 negative
weights were found and those questions correspond¬
ing to these weights were omitted and the method
was applied to the remaining 32 questions. This sec¬
ond application of the method gave rise to an addi¬
tional negative weight. Since this weight was close
to zero (—0.01) and small compared to the other
weights (mean 0.5, estimated variance 0.0091) it
was felt unnecessary to delete the question corre¬
sponding to this weight and reapply the method. It
should be noted that those who constructed the ex¬
amination studied this question and could find no
reason for considering it ambiguous.

In order to illustrate the effect of an increased stan¬
dard deviation of the distribution of test scores, the
grades (% correet) were calculated from the raw
scores and again using the weights from the princi¬
pal component analysis (PCA) for the first and last
15 students in the class. The results are presented in
Table I.

Observe that, in general, when the PCA is used the
higher grades inerease and the lower grades decrease.
This is a result of the increased standard deviation of
the test scores. The standard deviations of the raw
test scores and of the test scores resulting from the
PCA and the method of Pratt and Ingersoll were cal¬
culated. They were 8.8 (raw test scores), 12.8 (Pratt
and Ingersoll) and 37.0 (PCA). Obviously, the
PCA does increase the variability of the test scores.

Another desirable feature of the weights obtained
by the PCA is that the questions which are assigned
the highest weights are those questions which best
distinguish among the students. For the question with
the highest weight, 71% of the upper half students
gave the correct answer while only 32% of the lower
half students correctly answered the question. The
question assigned the lowest non-zero weight was
such that 100% of the upper half and 97% of the
lower half students gave the correct answer. The mag¬
nitude of the weights assigned to the remainder of the
questions was associated, in the same manner, with
the performance of the students in the upper and
lower halves of the class.

Since the variability of the resulting test scores has
been increased, the problem of misclassifying stu¬
dents on the basis of multiple choice examinations is
not as critical as it once was. Notice also that the fre¬
quency of tie scores on a test will be greatly reduced
and hence the problem of ranking students with the
same score will not occur as often when question

TABLE I

Firs

t 15 Students

La

st 15 Students

Raw

Raw

Student

Score*

PCA**

Student

Score

PCA

1

80

0

91.0

113

44.4

42.7

2

77

8

87.8

114

42.2

33.4

3

73

3

79.6

115

42.2

41.5

4

73

3

75.4

116

42.2

40.8

5

71

1

71.2

117

42.2

31.7

6

68

9

77.3

118

40.0

24.2

7

68

9

80.0

119

40.0

26.7

8

68

9

67.9

120

40.0

29.8

9

68

9

83.3

121

37.8

34.6

10

66

7

83.9

122

37.8

33.5

11

66

7

79.1

123

37.8

36.9

12

66

7

80.6

124

37.8

20.6

13

66

7

84.8

125

37.8

27.7

14

66

7

64.2

126

35.6

18.8

15

66

7

74.4

127

33.3

36.7

* The grades were based on the complete test of 45 questions.
** The grades are those which result after the 13 ambiguous
questions are deleted.

Principal Components and Multiple Choice Exams

191

weights are determined by the PCA. For a method of
handling the problem of misclassifying students or
the problem of ranking students with the same scores
regardless of how the scores are obtained, see Carter

m.

The definition of ambiguity given in this paper is
a restrictive one and it is unlikely that the test just
analyzed contained thirteen questions that were truly
ambiguous in the sense of the definition. This test was
given in order that the class could be divided into two
groups, advanced and elementary, on the basis of the
results of this test. For this reason, the examination
was purposely made difficult. It turned out that the
test was so difficult that a large number of students
guessed at the answers to most of the questions. When
guessing, a random process, occurs, it is possible to
have ambiguities occur by chance, that is, ambiguities
which do not really exist being found. This is what ap¬
pears to have occurred in this case.

A similar test consisting of 50 questions was given
to the 1969-1970 entering class of medical students
at the same university. Keeping in mind the results
of the analysis of the test given the previous year,
those who constructed the examination were more
careful not to include ambiguous questions. The test
was also made less difficult than the one of the pre¬
vious year. When this was done, the number of ques¬
tions for which the students would have to guess the
answer was decreased. This would also decrease the
number of chance ambiguities.

The method described in this paper was applied to
the results of this test and no negative weights were
found. The standard deviations of the raw test scores
and of the scores resulting from the PCA were com¬
puted and they were 13.0 and 38.8 respectively. (The
method of Pratt and Ingersoll was not considered
here since it is known that the PCA maximizes the
variability in test scores.)

That there were no questions with negative weights
would seem to indicate that the problem of ambi¬
guity on multiple choice examinations can be solved
by careful test construction. Even though ambiguous
questions may exist, application of the method de¬
scribed here will indicate such questions and remove
their adverse influence on the test scores.

Summary

In this paper, an ambiguous multiple choice test
question is defined. A method for simultaneously in¬
creasing the variability of multiple choice test scores
and detecting ambiguous test questions is presented.
This method was applied to two different tests and
the results of these analyses are presented and dis¬
cussed.

REFERENCES

1. Rosinski, E. F. and Hamilton, D. L., Examination Pro¬
cedures as Part of a New Curriculum. /. med. Educ., 41,
135 (1966).

2. Pratt, P. C. and Ingersoll, R. W., A Method for Increas¬
ing the Reliability and Validity of Multiple Choice Ex¬
aminations. ibid., 43, 1238 (1968).

3. Anderson, T. W., Introduction to multivariate statistical
analysis, lohn Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, 1958.

4. Cooley, W. and Lohnes, R. R., Multivariate procedures
for the behavioral sciences, lohn Wiley and Sons, Inc.,
New York, 1962.

5. 1130 Scientific Subroutine Package Programmers Manual,
IBM Manual H20-0252.

6. Perron, O., Zur Theorie der Matrices. Math. Annin, 64,
248 (1907).

7. Carter, W. H., Jr., The Probability of Misclassification of
Students on Multiple Choice Examinations. To be pub¬
lished in the Journal of Educational and Psychological
Measurement, December, 1971.

192

The Virginia Journal of Science

Especially for

Science and Mathematics Teachers

Ideas

Questions

Opinions

EXPERIENCES IN MATHEMATICS

Graphing — for elementary students

You try it, then have your students try it. Connect
the following points:

(2,

5)

to

(7,

5);

(1,

1)

to

(2,

2);

(7,

8)

to

(7,

9);

(2,

0)

to

(2,

5);

(5,

2)

to

(4,

2);

(7,

0)

to

(7,

5);

(3,

8)

to

(4,

8);

(2,

5)

to

(3,

7);

(4,

0)

to

(4,

2);

(5,

3)

to

(6,

3);

(5,

4)

to

(6,

4);

(6,

7)

to

(6,

9);

(1,

0)

to

(1,

1);

(4,

3)

to

(4,

4);

(3,

4)

to

(3,

3);

(3,

7)

to

(3,

8);

(5,

8)

to

(7,

8);

(5,

0)

to

(5,

2);

(1,

1)

to

(2,

1);

(3,

3)

to

(4,

3);

(6,

3)

to

(6,

4);

(5,

5)

to

(5,

6);

(5,

6)

to

(4,

6);

(5,

4)

to

(5,

3);

(7,

5)

to

(6,

7);

(4,

6)

to

(4,

5);

(4,

4)

to

(3,

4);

(4,

7)

to

(4,

8);

(5,

9)

to

(5,

8);

(6,

7)

to

(3,

7).

Equations — ^for high school students

These equations look simple but quite often incor¬
rect solutions occur. Can your students solve them?
Use the set of real numbers. Wager: At least 95% of
your class, including advanced university classes, will
miss at least one of these.

= 4 -y/ X = 4 x~ = 4 \/4 = x\/4 = x^

X = 4^ -s/x = 4- \x\ = 4 \4\ = X |.v| = -4

Enrichment — for middle and high school students

Have a pair of students use about 5 feet of string
and hang a fishing sinker so that it swings freely.
Start the sinker swinging. Use a stop watch or a watch
with a second hand and have the students determine:

How many complete swings does it make in 10
seconds?

What happens if you increase or decrease the
weight of the sinker?

What happens if you make the string shorter or
longer?

Make a graph showing the relationship between
the number of swings per second and the length
of the string.

Can you fix it so that it swings exactly 10 times
in 10 seconds?

LUCIEN T. HALL
Supervisor of Mathematics
Richmond Public Schools
Richmond, Virginia

DEMONSTRATIONS

Equilibrium

Purpose

To show the shifting of equilibrium by the addi¬
tion of a common or an uncommon ion.

The results can also be used to illustrate Le Chate-
lier’s principle.

Materials Needed

Concentrated CH3COOH and HCl; solutions of
CHsCOONa, NaCl, and NaOH; methyl orange in¬
dicator; 6 large test tubes; test tube holder; stirring
rods; conductivity apparatus; 500 ml beaker.

Procedure

A. Add a few drops of concentrated CH;jCOOH to
beaker containing distilled water. Immerse prongs
of conductivity apparatus. Note brightness of
light. Now add more acid and observe brightness.

B. Put distilled water, concentrated CH3COOH, and
methyl orange in each of 6 test tubes. (Petri
dishes placed on an overhead projector are also
very effective.) While the concentration is not
critical keep the solution level the same in the
six test tubes. Note color of indicator after each
of the following solutions has been added to the
appropriate tube and thoroughly stirred.

The equation for the original solution:

CH3COOH -f H2O =: H3O+ + CH3COO

TEST TUBE

1) Keep as standard

2) Add HCl (no color change)

3) Add CHgCOONa (turns yellow)

4) Add NaCl (no change)

5) Add NaOH (turns yellow)

6) Add water (no visible change —
concentration of standard solution
decreases)

[CH3COOH]

Increases
Increases
No change
Decreases
Decreases

[HsOi

Increases
Decreases
No change
Decreases
Decreases

[CH3COO-]

Decreases
Increases
No change
Increases
Decreases

193

Science Teachers Section

Calculations

Note

This demonstration is planned to be used as a part
of the introduction to Equilibrium. However, if the
students have been exposed to hydrogen ion con¬
centration, pH, hydrolysis, and/or buffers, these may
be brought into the discussion and the hydrogen
ion concentration and pH calculated.

Methyl orange [H^] pH

Red 10-3 _ 1 0-3

Orange 10-^ 4

Yellow 10-» - 10-3 5-14

Solubility

Purpose

To show that an “insoluble” substance can be dis¬
solved by the addition of an ion which will cause
the formation of a “more insoluble” substance.

Materials Needed

Saturated solutions of CHsCOGAg, Na2Cr04, NaCl,
KI and Na2S; large test tube or beaker; stirrer

Procedure

In each step add the indicated solution until precip¬
itation is complete (be sure to use a container of
sufficient size so that the experiment can be com¬
pleted in the initial vessel). Calculate the concen¬
tration of Ag+ after each addition.

1. Place sufficient CHgCOOAg solution in container
to be visible to all students. Ksp for CHgCOOAg =
2.0 X 10-3*

2. Add Na2Cr04 solution. Ag2Cr04 precipitates.
K^p for Ag2Cr04 = 1.9 X lO-^^

3. Add NaCl solution. AgCl precipitates. Ksp for
AgCl = 1.7 X 10-10

4. Add KI solution. Agl precipitates. Ksp for Agl =
8.5 X 10-11

5. Add NaoS solution. Ag2S precipitates. Ksp for
Ag.S = 5.5 X 10-31

CH^COOAg
Ag2Cr04
AgCl
Agl
Ag2S

Answers

4.4 X 10-2 moles/liter [Ag+]
1.6 X 10-1 moles/liter [Ag+]
1.3 X 10-3 moles/liter [Ag+]

9.2 X lO-o moles/liter [Ag+]

2.2 X 10-11 moles/liter [Ag+]

In each case the [Ag+] is less— so a seemingly
soluble” substance is dissolved to form a “more
insoluble” compond.

* Solubility constants vary slightly from book to book.

Let [Ag+] = X
1. AgAc = Ag+ -t- Ac-

Kep = [Ag+][Ac-] = 2.0 X 10-3

(X)(X) = 2.0 X 10-3

X2 = 2.0 X 10-3

X = 4.4 X 10-2 moles/liter

= [Ag+]

2. Na2Cr04 = 2Na+ + Cr04=

Ksp = [Na+]2[Cr04i
(2X)2(X)

4X3

X

2X

3. AgCl = Ag+ + Cl-
Ksp = [Agi[CL] =
X2
X

1.9 X 10-12
1.9 X 10-12
1.9 X 10-12
7.8 X 10-3 moles/liter
= [Cr04i

1.6 X 10-1 moles/liter
= [Ag+]

1.7 X 10-i«

1.7 X lO-ii
1.3 X 10-3 moles/liter

[Ag+]

4. Agl = Ag+ + I-

Ksp = [Ag+][I-] = 8.5 X 10-1^

X2 = 8.5 X 10-12

X = 9.2 X 10-2 moles/liter

= [Ag+]

5.

AgsS = 2Ag+ 4- S=

Ksp = [Ag+]2[S=] = 5.5 X 10-31
(2X)2(X) = 5.5 X 10-31

4X3 5 5 X 10-31

X = 1.1 X 10-12 moles/liter

= [Si

2X = 2.2 X 10-12 moles/liter

= [Agi

VIRGINIA C. ELLETT
Mathematics and Science Center
2200 Mountain Road
Glen Allen, Virginia 23060

Dissolving Glass in Water

Pulverize about a one cm length of five mm soft
glass tubing. Transfer some of the powder to a test
tube, add a little distilled water, and mix well. To
the mixture add several drops of phenolphthalein
solution and note the pink color. Explain this re¬
sult in view of the fact that the mole ratio of the
oxides in soft glass is approximately 8 Si02 : 1.5
NasO : 1 CaO.

HYMAN I. FEINSTEIN
Department of Chemistry
George Mason College of the
University of Virginia
Fairfax, Virginia 22030

194

The Virginia Journal of Science

Communications and Reports

A Note on the Cotton Rat in Central Virginia

On September 18, 1969, Pagels trapped a female
cotton rat, Sigmodon hispidus virginianus, eight and
one half miles south of downtown Richmond, in
Chesterfield County, Virginia. The animal contained
five fetuses of 28-30 mm (crown-rump). We trapped
eleven additional cotton rats at the same site later
in the fall and early winter of 1969. Eight females
range from a juvenile measuring 140 mm in total
length to a large adult 295 mm long, (mean =
199.0) both collected on September 24. The four
male cotton rats range from 161 mm to 250 mm in
total length (mean = 193.0). These specimens
provide a 60 mile extension to the northern range of
the cotton rat in Virginia. Cotton rats were unknown
in Virginia until 1940 when Patton (1) trapped
a single specimen in Mecklenburg County near the
North Carolina border. This specimen extended the
known range of the cotton rat 60 miles from Raleigh,
North Carolina (1). Later, Lewis (2) captured cot¬
ton rats in Virginia near the North Carolina border in
southeastern Brunswick County.

The trapping location is an old field of three and
one half acres, and is bounded by an oak-pine
forest, two roads (including an apartment complex),
a creek, and railroad tracks. Vegetation on the site
includes a large patch of Riibus sp., encircled by
stands of Poa sp. and Andropogon sp., clumps of
Dactylus glomerata and Vicia sp., and several thick¬
ets of honeysuckle (Lonicera sp.). The cotton rats
were caught in an area of the field that is dominated
by Poa and Andropogon. At this site we have also
collected short-tailed shrews, Blarina hrevicaiida,
white-footed mice, Peromyscus leucopus, meadow
voles, Microtus pennsylvaniciis, house mice, Mus
musculus, and a meadow jumping mouse, Zapus
hudsonius.

Meadow voles were captured in many old fields
in Richmond and in adjacent counties but no Sig¬
modon. We trapped at several locations in extreme
southern Virginia within the cotton rat’s earlier re¬
ported range. Adleman collected a male cotton rat
in a lowlying thicket of honeysuckle along a fence
row in the southeast corner of Mecklenburg County
on 24 September 1970. We collected three cotton
rats, all males, four miles east of Clarksville in
Mecklenburg County on 28 January 1971. The one
and one half acre site is isolated behind a road and
enclosed by pine forest. Traps were set over most
of the field, but we observed runways and caught the
cotton rats only in thickets of honeysuckle and black¬
berry. Likewise, Wiegert and Mayenschein (3)
suggested S. h. hispidus near Aiken, Georgia con¬
centrated in “. . . very small ‘islands’ of habitat

which may be easily missed if traps are set in single
lines or widely spaced grids.” In northern Brunswick
County, near the town of Alberta we caught a female
cotton rat on 28 January. This site is a grassy over¬
pass to Interstate 85. We also caught P. leucopus, M.
pennsylvaniciis, and M. musculus at this site.

Cockrum (4), Jones (5) and others reported a
similar northward extension of the range of S. h.
texianus in the western United States. Cockrum (4)
suggested that severe winters may be effective in
reducing numbers of S. h. texianus and in arresting
its northward movement. Even in the center of its
range large ffuctuations in the size of populations
of Sigmodon are not uncommon (6, 7). The decline
of high populations of cotton rats has been at¬
tributed to such factors as lack of shelter, food
deprivation, and an apparent inability of cotton rats
to withstand cold temperatures, especially when
combined with the above factors (4, 6-10). Perhaps
the population discussed herein is the remnant of a
greater overall movement which has been temporar¬
ily checked and the number of animals and sites re¬
duced, possibly by one or a combination of the
factors mentioned above.

References

1. Patton, C. P., The eastern cotton rat in Virginia. /.
Mammal., 22, 91 (1941).

2. Lewis, J. B., Cotton rat in lower piedmont Virginia.
ihid., 25, 195 (1944).

3. Weigert, R. G. and J. C. Mayenschein, Distribution and
trap response of a small wild population of cotton rats
{Sigmodon h. hispidus). ibid., 47, 118 (1966).

4. Cockrum, E. L., Mammals of Kansas. Univ. Kans.
Pubis Mus. nat. Hist., 7, 1-303 ( 1952).

5. Jones, J. K., Jr., The hispid cotton rat in Nebraska. /.
Mammal., 41, 132 (1960).

6. Goertz, J. W., Sex, age and weight variation in cotton
rats, ibid., 46, 471 (1965).

7. Chipman, R. K., Cotton rat age classes during popula¬
tion decline, ibid., 47, 138 (1966).

8. Dunaway, P. B. and S. V. Kaye, Cotton rat mortality
during severe winter, ibid., 42, 265 (1961).

9. Haines, H., Geographical extent and duration of the
cotton rat Sigmodon hispidus, 1958-1960 fluctuation in
Texas. Ecology, 44, 771 (1963).

10. Sealander, J. A. and C. E. Guess, Effect of forced swim¬
ming on body temperatures and eosinophil levels in cot¬
ton rats {Sigmodon hispidus). J. Mammal., 51, 348
(1970).

JOHN F. PAGELS and RONALD G. ADLEMAN
Department of Biology
Virginia Commonwealth University
Richmond, Virginia 23220
(Received July 8, 1971)

Communications and Reports

195

VAS VISITING SCIENTISTS PROGRAM

Statistical Report for 1970-71 School Year

The speakers list was circulated in early Novem¬
ber, 1970, to each Division Superintendent and to
one upper level science teacher in all Public Sec¬
ondary High Schools and all accredited Private
Secondary Schools. It contained the names of 283
volunteers from 22 institutions (see following list).

In May, reply post cards were sent to all 283
volunteers asking for a report on their visits. In
analyzing the data please keep in mind that no re¬
sponse was received from 124 of the volunteers.
Most of these may be assumed to be negative replies
but perhaps a few are not. These would increase the
figures on each of the statistics given.

Visits were made by 52 volunteers in response to
requests from high schools. The 52 volunteers made
68 visits. The basic sciences accounted for the
topics in the majority of the total visits.

The number of students reached, according to the
speakers’ estimates was about 2,900 in grades 8-10
and 5,500 in grades 11-12. Counties and cities
whose schools were visited numbered 26. You may
be proud of the breadth and depth of this influence
for science in Virginia.

On behalf of the Academy, I thank each of the
volunteers and the presidents of our supporting in¬
stitutions. The Academy hopes to have your con¬
tinued support in the 1971-72 school year.

A. M. CLARKE
Director, VAS Visiting
Scientists Program
Box 877 MCV Station
Richmond, Virginia 23219

Institution

Speaker

Volunteers

Visits

Averett College

2

1

Bridgewater College

3

1

Hampden-Sydney College

1

1

Hollins College

6

2

Longwood College

5

4

Lynchburg College

2

0

Madison College

10

2

Norfolk State College

13

3

Old Dominion University

27

9

Randolph-Macon College
Randolph-Macon Woman’s
College

2

3

3

0

Roanoke College

9

5

Sweet Briar College

8

0

University of Richmond

12

9

University of Virginia

25

7

Virginia Commonwealth
University (Academic Div.)

12

10

Virginia Military Institute

14

2

Virginia Polytechnic Institute

82

2

Virginia Union University

6

0

Virginia Wesleyan College

6

0

Washington and Lee University

20

1

William and Mary (College of)

15

6

283

68

Speaker

Topics Volunteers Visits

Astronomy

2

2

Biology

46

31

Botany

1

0

Chemistry

42

9

Computer Science

3

0

Economics

6

0

Engineering and Applied

Science

15

2

Geological Sciences

4

1

Mathematics

23

3

Physics

44

10

Psychology

18

3

Sociology

2

1

Statistics

5

0

Earth Science

1

1

Engineering

9

2

Veterinary Science

3

1

Geology

3

3

Oceanography

1

0

Geophysical Science

5

0

Randolph Macon Woman’s
College

3

0

VPI (Agricultural &
Engineering)

47

0

283

68

Visits Made by Each Volunteer

Total

One

39

39

Two

11

22

Three

1

3

Four

1

4

None

107

No Reply by Postcard

124

283

68

Number of Separate

Presentations at Each Visit Total # of

One Two Three Four Unknown Presentations

23 16 6 7 1 111

Cities and Counties Visited (Number in Parentheses
indicates total if more than one.)

Charles City (5) Hanover

Chatham Henrico

Chesapeake (2) Herndon (2)

Chesterfield (5) King George

Clifton Forge Lynchburg

Collinsville Newport News

Danville Norfolk (4)

Floyd Orange (5)

Front Royal Powhatan (4)

Petersburg (2)
Richmond (11)
Roanoke
Rockbridge
Rockingham
Saltville
West Point (3)
Windsor

196

The Virginia Journal of Science

News and Notes

ROBERT BLACKWELL SMITH, JR.

Dr. Robert Blackwell Smith, Jr., president of the
Medical College of Virginia from 1956 to 1968 and
provost for one year died October 8, 1971. He was
55. Dr. Smith was president of MCV until the in¬
stitution merged with Richmond Professional Insti¬
tute to become part of Virginia Commonwealth
University in 1968. At that time he was appointed
provost of VCU’s health sciences division, as MCV
was designated.

A native of Petersburg, Virginia, Dr. Smith at¬
tended Petersburg public schools and was gradu¬
ated from MCV with a B.S. degree in pharmacy in
1937. He received an M.S. degree from the Uni¬
versity of Florida in 1938 and a Ph.D. in pharmacol¬
ogy from the University of Chicago in 1941. In
1966 he received an honorary LL.D. degree from
Hampden-Sydney College.

Dr. Smith was a pharmacologist with the Food
and Drug Administration’s pharmacology division
from 1941 to 1945. He began teaching at MCV late
in 1945 and was appointed professor of pharmacology
in 1947.

He was assistant dean of the pharmacy school
from 1945 to 1947 until he was named assistant
president of MCV in 1954. Although he resigned as
provost in 1969 for health reasons. Dr. Smith con¬
tinued serving as professor of pharmacology until
his death.

His years as president of MCV were characterized
by his emphasis on developing quality full-time
faculty, on graduate education and on extending
the institution’s building program. The MCV School
of Graduate Studies was formally established in
1957. During Dr. Smith’s tenure as president, six
major MCV buildings were completed or begun,
including the medical education building (Sanger
Hall); the Clinical Center for self-care patients; a
432-bed women’s dormitory, and four residence
halls. In addition, the Jonah L. Larrick Student
Center was dedicated.

Dr. Smith was noted widely as a pharmacologist.
He was a member of the food protection committee
of the National Academy of Science and National
Research Council, and had served as chairman of
its subcommittee on toxicology. He also had served
for several years as national consultant in pharmacol¬
ogy to the surgeon general of the Air Force. Dr.
Smith was a former chairman of the Council of
Presidents of the Virginia State Institutions of
Higher Learning; a past president of the Associa¬
tions of Virginia Colleges and a member of a
number of organizations including the Virginia Acad¬
emy of Science.

Dr. Smith is survived by his wife, Mrs. Esther
O. Smith; a son, Peter Blackwell Smith of Richmond;
two daughters, Mrs. George Cabell Lawton III of

Powhatan and Miss Nan Smith of Richmond; and a
brother, Del. W. Roy Smith of Petersburg.

FRANK PATRICK PITTS

Frank Patrick Pitts, professor emeritus of chem¬
istry at the Medical College of Virginia died August
3, 1971 . He was 76.

Mr. Pitts joined MCV’s department of chemistry
in 1928 and was named assistant dean of the School
of Pharmacy in 1954. He retired in 1965.

A native of Ambler, Pa., he was graduated from
Virginia Polytechnic Institute and received his mast¬
er’s degree in chemistry there.

During World War II, he served with the 45th
General Hospital — staffed by MCV personnel — in
Africa and Italy. He retired from the army as a lieu¬
tenant colonel.

Mr. Pitts was a member of the American Chemi¬
cal Society, the American Institute of Chemists, the
Virginia Academy of Science, the American Associa¬
tion for the Advancement of Science and the Virginia
Pharmaceutical Association.

He is survived by his wife, Mrs. Marion Palmer
Pitts; a son. Dr. Forrest W. Pitts of Charlottesville,
and a daughter, Mrs. William H. Rowan of Alex¬
andria.

JACOBUS MARINES LODEWIJKS

Word has been received of the death of Dr.
Jacobus Marinus Lodewijks, 60, on June 21, 1971,
in The Hague, Holland. Dr. Lodewijks was
former president of the World Aquarium Society,
a nature photographer of distinction, and at the
time of his death, a member of the staff of the Uni¬
versity of Leiden. In 1957-58 he was exchange pro¬
fessor of Biology at Longwood College, Farmville,
Virginia.

DONALD W. DAVIS

A memorial bronze bas-relief of Donald W. Davis,
fifth President of the Virginia Academy of Science
(1927-28) was placed in the new Life Sciences
Building of the College of William and Mary in April,
1970. Dr. Davis, who died in 1950, was one of the
founding members of the Academy. The bas-relief
depicts significant associations of Dr. Davis with Wil¬
liam and Mary and with the Virginia Institute of
Marine Science, surrounding his raised figure.

VEPCO ENVIRONMENTAL OPERATIONS

Dr. Morris L. Brehmer, formerly assistant director
of the Virginia Institute of Marine Science (VIMS),
joined Virginia Electric and Power Company Nov¬
ember 1 as director of environmental operations.

“We feel extremely gratified to have a man of Dr.
Brehmer’s caliber join our environmental control
department,” J. D. Ristroph, executive director of

News and Notes

197

environmental control for Vepco, said. “With our
massive construction program and plans to spend
about $133 million on environmental control from

1971 through 1975, we need highly qualified people
to help us meet our environmental responsibilities.”

Dr. Brehmer has been assistant director and head
of the Division of Applied Marine Science and Ocean
Engineering at VIMS since 1967. He was acting
head of the Department of Marine Resource Services
since 1969. From 1959 to 1967, he was head of the
ecology-pollution department. He received a B.S. de¬
gree in 1950 from Eastern Illinois University and
M.S. and Ph.D. degrees in 1956 and 1958 from
Michigan State University in the field of pollution
biology. A native of Strasburg, Ill., Dr. Brehmer was
a biologist with the State of Illinois from 1951 to
1955 and was assigned to the Sanitary Water Board
in 1952-53. He was a biologist with the Institute of
Paper Chemistry in Appleton, Wis., in 1955. He has
served as a consultant for Enviro Control, Inc., of
Washington, D.C., and for the Celanese Corp. in
New York. He is a member of the American So¬
ciety of Limnology and Oceanography, the Interna¬
tional Association of Theoretical and Applied Lim¬
nology and the Atlantic Estuarine Research Society.
Dr. Brehmer has authored or co-authored many pa¬
pers which deal with the ecology of Virginia rivers.

VIMS STAFF CHANGES

Dr. William J. Hargis, director of VIMS, has
announced the promotion of Dr. Michael E. Bender
to fill the vacancy created by the resignation of Dr.
Morris L. Brehmer. Dr. Bender holds an M.S.
degree from Michigan State University and a Ph.D.
from Rutgers University. He joined the marine lab¬
oratory staff in September 1970 and has served as
chairman of the department of ecology-pollution. In
his new position as assistant direetor Dr. Bender
also will be responsible for establishing a new
marine resources management department.

Dr. Edwin B. Joseph formerly assistant director of
biological and marine science and ocean engineering
has resigned to become director of a new marine
laboratory in South Carolina.

LYNCHBURG COLLEGE GRANT FOR
ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

Lynehburg College has received a commitment of
$15,000 from the W. K. Kellogg Foundation of
Battle Creek, Mich., under the College Resources
for Environmental Studies Program for the support
of projects relating to the environment.

Under this grant the college will improve its
instruction in environmental studies through the
development of College Lake as an instructional
laboratory. The two project years will end Aug. 31,

1972 and Aug. 31, 1973. The grant is in addition
to an earlier one of $5,000 from the W. K. Kellogg
Foundation for resource materials. It is one of ap¬
proximately 25 similar grants made to small private
liberal arts colleges throughout the United States as
part of the Kellogg Foundation’s continuing concern
to find solutions to the Nation’s environmental prob¬
lems.

Dr. Gwynn W. Ramsey, professor of biology and
chairman of the department, will serve as the proj¬
ect director and also as chairman of a review panel,
which will include four other members. These are
Dr. John M. Turner, vice-president for academic
affairs and dean of the College; Dr. John G. Mahan,
professor of biology and chairman of the division of
life sciences, Samuel J. R. Gamble, associate profes¬
sor of chemistry, and Dr. Charles J. Hansrote, Jr.,
professor of chemistry and acting chairman of the de¬
partment.

The 214-acre campus has a lake with a surface
area of about 15 acres. A study of the lake will be
made in terms of the nature of the factors causing
pollution and siltation, utilizing field courses of the
biology department as an organizational framework
to gather data and draw conclusions.

BLANDY EXPERIMENTAL FARM

Tucked away in Clarke County behind a stand of
trees and some hills is a 700-acre farm owned by
the University of Virginia. Many Virginians and
even local residents have never heard of The
Blandy Experimental Farm — but they may soon.
Plans are being made to revitalize the facility which
is located in the northern end of the Shenandoah
Valley where George Washington did much of the
original surveying.

“The University has an unusual opportunity to
develop Blandy Farm into a valuable educational
resource. Students today are interested in their en¬
vironment and what’s happening to it and Blandy
Farm could provide the setting for much of the study,”
says Dr. B. F. D. Runk, Samuel Miller Professor
of Experimental Agriculture and Forestry. Dr. Runk
is the man at the University responsible for the op¬
eration of Blandy Farm.

For several summers Arlington County students
have used the farm for ecology studies. During one
summer some 1,600 high school students camped
out on the grounds of the farm for short periods of
time.

Also in the past year, landscape architecture stu¬
dents from the University of Virginia began taking
field trips to the farm to study a variety of plant ma¬
terials for their work.

Willed to the University in 1926 by Graham F.
Blandy, the farm was to be devoted to experimental
agriculture and to the teaching of young people. For
many years it was.

Dr. Orland E. White, the first director, planted
an arboretum on 100 acres and established an ad¬
vanced program in genetics and cyto-taxonomy for
graduate students. His successor. Dr. Ralph Single-
ton, continued the emphasis on research and estab¬
lished a radiation field so that irradiation effects on
corn and other plants could be studied. Students
from several dozen foreign countries lived and
worked at Blandy learning the techniques and appli¬
cations of irradiation.

When Dr. Singleton retired as director in 1965,
the radiation field was closed, graduate students left
and the farm shifted into neutral. The status quo was

198

The Virginia Journal of Science

maintained, but no new research projects were
started.

Some 600 acres of the farm are commercially
farmed. On the remaining 100 stand the main build¬
ing and dormitory (known as the Quarters), the
greenhouses, research fields, nurseries and the arbo¬
retum.

Now after six years of relative inactivity. The
Blandy Experimental Farm and Orland E. White
Arboretum are being revitalized. The facilities of
the Quarters are being repaired and refurbished. It
contains offices, laboratories and accommodations
for graduate students. Its library, whose holdings are
catalogued in Alderman Library at the University,
contains reference books and current periodicals.
New personnel are also being sought to direct re¬
search and care for Blandy’s outstanding feature —
the Qrland E. White Arboretum.

Some 5,000 species of evergreens, hardwoods,
dwarf specimens and even a variety of weeping trees
such as weeping birch and spruce are represented
in the arboretum, which is sometimes defined as a
living museum of woody plants. Several especially
large collections are well-known — the pines and
firs, the oaks and the boxwoods.

Qther rare or unusual plants include hollies
with black berries, hybrid oaks which are evergreen,
the parasol pine from Japan, the Chinese tulip tree
and the ginkos, which have remained unchanged
since the days of the dinosaurs.

Now mature and fully developed, it is the only
such arboretum between Washington, D.C. and
Miami, Florida.

“The arboretum is a valuable teaching resource
for landscape architects — in one spot students can
view specimens of rare or unusual trees and those
which are not native to this area as well as a great
variety of mature trees. Tire latter is very important
because some trees completely change their shape
and character as they mature,” says Meade Palmer,
lecturer in landscape architecture at the University
School of Architecture. “I think the arboretum
could interest many other groups as well — especially
garden clubs and scout troops. I hope someday it
will have paths, maps and be open to the public.”

Future plans for Blandy are not yet complete, but
research possibilities include cooperating with the
Experimental Fruit Station in Winchester, providing
living material for cellular studies, acting as a
hybridization or disease lab, as well as offering an
environment for ecological studies.

NSF SUMMER STUDENT PROGRAM IN
ELECTRICAL SCIENCE

Twenty-six high school students spent a major
part of their summer vacation at the University of
Virginia learning about the fields of electrical science
and electronics engineering. The students, juniors
and seniors in high schools from 14 states and one
foreign country, were enrolled in an eight-week Na¬
tional Science Foundation secondary training pro¬
gram in electrical science and electronics engineering
which ended August 7. For the first six weeks, the
students divided their time between the lecture room

and the laboratory where members of the University
School of Engineering and Applied Science’s elec¬
trical engineering department introduced them to the
basic theory and practical aspects of electronics en¬
gineering as well as the laboratory approach to prob¬
lem solving. The remainder of the program was spent
at the U. S. Army Electronic Command at Ft. Mon¬
mouth, N. J. There each student worked with a
scientist or engineer on a specific problem related
to the student’s capabilities and interests. While at
the University, students had an opportunity to learn
about computer use and to visit ongoing research
projects in the engineering school. Dr. E. C. Steven¬
son, professor of electrical engineering, was program
director.

ANIMALS IN SCHOOL SCIENCE PROJECTS

The Science Subcommittee of the American Hu¬
mane Association after careful study of existing
guidelines dealing with use of animals in school
science projects has developed its own “Guidelines,”
which have now been adopted by the Board of
Directors of A. H. A. and thereby becomes the
policy of that organization.

One recommendation of the A.H.A. Guidelines
deserves special comment. This is the supervision
affidavit which compels the student to have ade¬
quate supervision, as well as a written outline of the
experiment he proposes to undertake if it involves
living vertebrate animals.

Copies of the text of the A.H.A. Guidelines and
the Supervisor’s Affidavit suitable for distribution
to Science Clubs and secondary schools are avail¬
able on request from The American Humane As¬
sociation, P. Q. Box 1266, Denver, Colorado 80201.

COMPUTER TERMINAL AT MCV
SPEEDS INFORMATION RETRIEVAL

A new computer terminal recently installed in the
Medical College of Virginia library now links re¬
quests for fast retrieval of information in the field
of medicine with the central computer facility at
the State University of New York (SUNY), making
readily available a resource of more than 1 ,300,000
citations to books and journal articles. The com¬
puter terminal at MCV, Health Sciences Division of
Virginia Commonwealth University, is the 22nd
such terminal now in operation connecting medical
libraries in the eastern United States to the SUNY
Biomedical Communication Network headquarters
at Syracuse, N. Y., via telephone lines.

The computer terminal is the latest acquisition of
the Virginia Medical Information Service (VAMIS).
Funded by the Virginia Regional Medical Program,
VAMIS was formed in 1969 by combining the re¬
sources of the biomedical libraries at MCV and at
the University of Virginia. It is the first state-wide
network for the exchange of medical information,
and its operation makes the library resources of the
two state medical schools available to the entire
Virginia medical community.

Before the computer terminal was installed, a
physician’s request to VAMIS for a listing of medical
literature on a specific subject could take two weeks

News and Notes

199

to a month of searching by hand. With the computer,
the most recent citation is available in a matter of
hours, according to Mr. Richard Miller, director of
the MCV library. Another benefit is the ability of
the computer to conduct a multiple concept search,
such as a request for recent articles on the body’s
reaction to implant devices. It also allows VAMIS
personnel to process a number of individual searches
at one time — with requests ranging from information
on gangrene of the foot to methods and statistics
on population control in problem areas of the world.

MCV LIBRARY CONSTRUCTION BEGUN

A $2 million construction project to modern¬
ize and expand the Tompkins-McCaw Library at
the Medical College of Virginia, Health Sciences
Division of Virginia Commonwealth University, is
underway. It will be financed partially from state
funds and partially from federal funds.

MCV/VCU was awarded last year a $1,294,720
federal grant from the Department of Health, Educa¬
tion and Welfare for modernization of the present
38-year-old library and for construction of an addi¬
tion that will more than triple the existing library size.
The library’s current 14,500 square feet will in¬
crease to 52,000 square feet when construction is
completed in 1973.

The present Colonial architecture will be con¬
tinued for the new three-story library addition which
will have two floors above ground and one below.
The present library houses more than 100,000
bound volumes and more than 2,000 journals as
well as historical interest material on MCV and a
small museum collection of medical instruments and
Civil War memorabilia. The new addition is expected
to house the MCV archives.

BIOPHYSICS

The Department of Biophysics at the Medical
College of Virginia has been awarded a $25,000
grant from the Xerox Corporation for support of re¬
search and graduate education. The funds will aid the
department’s graduate program in studies of the ef¬
fects of optical sources on the human eye with em¬
phasis on ocular safety. The grant also will aid other
areas of biophysics research at MCV, the Health
Sciences Division of Virginia Commonwealth Uni¬
versity. The Department of Biophysics, nationally
noted for its research on the biological effects of
electromagnetic radiation on the eye, also is involved
in studies on the basic mechanisms of the photo¬
chemistry of vision, environmental hazards, and the
short and long-term biological effects of microwaves,
lasers, infrared and ultraviolet sources on the eye.

Headed by Dr. William T. Ham Jr., the Depart¬
ment of Biophysics currently is seeking further
industrial support for its program in graduate educa¬
tion and ocular research. There are eight students
presently enrolled in the doctoral degree program
in biophysics.

POULTRY SCIENCE ASSOCIATION

Paul B. Siegel, professor of poultry science at
Virginia Tech, and a past president of the Virginia
Academy of Science, has been elected first vice-
president of the Poultry Science Association, an
organization of industry and academic individuals
involved in poultry research and extension.

The election took place at the association’s an¬
nual meeting at Fayetteville, Ark.

WATER

Water, one of our most precious and abused re¬
sources, gets the full treatment in the new Water
Encyclopedia, recently published by Water Infor¬
mation Center, Inc. The book marks the first time
so much hard-to-find and scattered information is
available in one volume.

An entire chapter is devoted to Water Quality and
Pollution Control, of prime concern today, with such
sub-classifications as: Drinking Water Quality Stan¬
dards, Industrial Water Quality, Irrigation Water
Quality, Water Quality for Aquatic Life, Recrea¬
tional Water Quality, Water Treatment Processes,
Waterborne Diseases, to name just a few.

Qther chapters indicate its broad coverage: Cli¬
mate and Precipitation, Hydrology, Surface Water,
Ground Water, Water Use, Water Resources Man¬
agement, Agencies and Qrganizations, Constants and
Conversion Factors.

More than 200,000 facts qualify The Water
Encyclopedia as a singular and basic reference on the
subject for those in the field or just interested in it.

The 1" X 10", 550-page, hard-cover volume
is available for $27.50 from Water Information Cen¬
ter Inc., Dept. 3P, Water Research Building, Man-
hasset Isle, Port Washington, L. I., N.Y. 11050.

ENVIRONMENTAL REPORTER

“Laboratories are the first line of defense against
environmental pollution.” This is the thesis of the
Environmental Reporter, a new magazine published
by Fisher Scientific Company.

The first edition of the Environmental Reporter
provides information on a wide range of instruments
and methods for detecting and measuring pollutants
in air, water, and other substances. One article of
interest to the environmental scientist gives details
on a new Jarrell-Ash Vapor Analyzer Kit for high
sensitivity atomic absorption determination of mer¬
cury, arsenic, and selenium using the “cold vapor”
technique.

Input for the magazine will come in part from
experts at Fisher Research Laboratories (FRL)
and Fisher Development and Applications Labora¬
tories. The staff of FRL in particular is working
closely with the Commercial Testing Laboratory,
Fisher Jarrell-Ash Division on a number of impor¬
tant and fundamental environmental problems. Per¬
tinent data obtained from this commercial facility
will be reviewed in subsequent issues of the Environ¬
mental Reporter.

200

The Virginia Journal of Science

General Notice To Contributors

The Virginia Journal of Science heartily welcomes
for consideration original articles of technical or
general interest on all phases of mathematics, the
natural, physical and engineering sciences. Submis¬
sion of an article for publication implies that the
article has not been published elsewhere while un¬
der consideration by the Journal.

All articles should be typewritten (double-spaced)
and submitted on good bond paper (8V2 X 11
inches) in triplicate to the Editor. Margins should
not be less than 114 inches on any border. Title,
running title, authors, place of origin, abstract, fig¬
ures, legends, tables, footnotes, and references
should be on individual pages separate from the text.
Technical abbreviations should follow consistent
standard practices with careful avoidance of un¬
necessary neologistic devices. All pages (including
illustrations) should be consecutively numbered in
the upper right corner. A pencil notation of author
names on the back of each page is helpful in identi¬
fication.

Illustrations should be supplied in a form suitable
for the printer with attention to the fact that a reduc¬
tion in size may be necessary.

A good technical article generally contains an
obligatory abstract before the text, an introduction,
with reference to preliminary publications that may
exist, an experimental section, results (which may
be included in the experimental section), a discus¬

sion, and conclusion. References are indicated in the
body of the article by consecutively used numbers
in parentheses. Although publication costs are high,
attention should be given to relatively complete ref¬
erences (bibliographies) since the purpose of an
article is to illuminate the significance of present and
past findings, and not merely to obscure the past.
The Journal reserves the right (generally exer¬
cised) to make page charges for articles in excess of
5 pages and to bill authors at cost for unusually
complicated illustrative material.

Abbreviation of journals for references can be
found in the 4th edition of the World List of Scien¬
tific Periodicals, Butterworth, Inc., Washington,
D. C., 1963, and supplements. References should
be checked carefully.

The form of presentation is illustrated below;

1. Aiyar, A. S., and Olson, R. E., Fedn Proc. Fedn
Am. Socs exp. Biol., 23, 425 ( 1964) .

2. Chappell, J. B., Cohn, M., and Greville, G. D.,
in B. Chance (Editor), Energy linked functions
of mitochondria. Academic Press, Inc., New
York, 1963, p. 219.

3. Riley, G. A., and Haynes, R. C., Jr., J. biol.
Chem., 238, 1563 (1963).

MEMBERSHIP

The Academy membership is organized into
sections representing various scientific disciplines.

Addressograph plates of all members are coded
by a section number. The First Number indicates
the member’s major interest and enables Section
Officers to more easily contact their members.

#1. Agricultural Sciences

2. Astronomy, Mathematics & Physics

3. Microbiology (Bacteriology)

4. Biology

5. Chemistry

6. Materials Science

7. Engineering

8. Geology

9. Medical Sciences

10. Psychology

1 1. Science Teachers

12. Statistics

13. Space Science and Technology

14. Botany

Annual Membership Dues

Approved May 10, 1968

Business . $100

Sustaining . 25*

Contributing . 10

Regular . 5

Students . 3.50

* $25 or more.

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Mobil Chemical

MOBIL CHEMICAL COMPANY/ INDUSTRIAL CHEMICALS DIVISION/RICHMOND, VIRGINIA

MEETINGS, SEMINARS IN
COUNTRY-ESTATE ATMOSPHERE

Versatile new conference and partying facili¬
ties for up to 200 banquet-style, 250 theater-
style. Golf, resort sports, two lakes. Dining in
historic Old Mill Room, new Tack Room.
Minutes by jet from eastern cities.

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THE

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Charlottesvili.e, Va. 22901

Write Conference Consultant for Meetings Portfolio
or Call (70.1) 296-21 81.

AH'DOBINS

Making tocdays mecdicines with integrity,
seeking tomorrows with persistence.

A. H. Robins Company Richmond, Va. 23220

203

TITLE •grt»TJW.ieATlW -

THE VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

S€E ir«6TRL>CTIOM8
ON PAGE 2 (REVERSE)

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15 November 1971

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Medical College of Virginia.

Dr. Lynn D. Abbott, Box 727, BiiKiiemistry lX*pi., Medical College of Va, Rich Va

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Philip Morris, a publicly-owned company incorporated in Virginia, proudly traces
its heritage to a London tobacconist of a century ago. Quality and innovation
have earned for the company a valued reputation: “Philip Morris . . . makers of
America’s finest cigarettes.” By any professional measure, the Philip Morris Re¬
search and Development Center has become one of the most complete and fully-
integrated facilities for scientific effort related to tobacco products.

Write to:

Administrative Manager
P. O. Box 26583
Richmond, Virginia, 23261

PHILIP MORRIS
RESEARCH CENTER

VIRGINIA

JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

OFFICIAL PUBLICATION OF THE VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

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MAY 1 5 1972
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SPRING

1972 V0L.23.N0.1

IISTED BELOW are
JReynoldsMetals
locations in the State of
Virginia. Some 16 in
all . . . plants, research
labs, sales and admini¬
strative offices . . .
including our general
headquarters for busi¬
ness conducted around
the world. Needless to

say our roots are
planted deep in
Commonwealth soil.
Virginia is our “home
state.” Whatever we
have contributed to its
economy is returned
many times in the close
relationship we have
with its people and its
commerce.

REYNOLDS METALS COMPANY
RICHMOND, VIRGINIA 23218

RICHMOND • Executive Office • Styling and Design • Advertising Distribution • Downtown Office Building • Product Development •
Metallurgical Laboratory • Package Research Division • North Plant • South Plant • Equipment Center • CHESTERFIELD COUNTY
Reclamation Plant • Extrusion Plant • Printing Plant • Pilot Particle Sheet Plant • GROTTOES • Plastics Plant • Plastics Research Department

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SUSTAINING MEMBERS

BUSINESS MEMBERS

VIRGINIA ACADEMY

VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

OF SCIENCE

Because of their interest in science and the
economy of Virginia, the following industrial

The following Virginia Educational Institu-

concerns have become Business Members of

tions support the objectives of the Virginia Acad-

the Academy and have thus contributed greatly

emy of Science through Sustaining Memberships.

to its work and progress. Their support is

Their active and financial support is gratefully

gratefully acknowledged:

acknowledged.

Allied Chemical Corporation

Alderman Library

American Filtrona Corporation

Christopher Newport College

College of William and Mary

The American Tobacco Company

The Bank of Virginia

Emory and Henry College

Brunswick Corporation

George Mason College

Bunton Instrument Co.

Hampden-Sydney College

Burlington Industries, Inc.

Hollins College

Longwood College

Carolina Biological Supply Co.

Lynchburg College

The Central National Bank

Madison College

Dow-Badische Company

Mary Baldwin College

E. I. duPont de Nemours & Co., Inc.

Mary Washington College

Ethyl Corporation

Mathematics and Science Center

First and Merchants National Bank

Norfolk State College

Hercules, Incorporated

Old Dominion University

House of Edgeworth

Radford College

Merck and Company, Inc.

Randolph-Macon College

Mobil Chemical Company

Randolph-Macon Woman’s College

National Fruit Product Co.

Roanoke College

Newport News Shipbuilding Co. Foundation

Stratford College

Philip Morris and Co., Inc.

Sullins College

Phipps & Bird, Inc.

Sweet Briar College

Reynolds Metals Co.

University of Richmond

A. H. Robins Company, Inc.

University of Virginia

Southern Bank & Trust Company

Virginia Commonwealth University

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VIRGINIA

JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

OFFICIAL PUBLICATION OF THE
VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

No. 1 1972

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Effects of Diet on Larval Development of Thor Floridan us

(Decapoda, Carides) in the Laboratory Paul A. Sandifer

Physiology of Certain Apple Rot Fungi

1. Factors Affecting Growth of Physalospora

ohtusa in Vitro J. J. Albert and C. R. Drake

A Note on the Simultaneous Diagonalization of Two

Real, Symmetric Matrices Raymond H. Myers and Walter H. Carter, Jr.

Effects of Dimethylsulfoxide on Polyuridylic Acid-Directed
Polypeptide Synthesis by Escherichia Coli Ribosomes

W. E. Feldman and J . D. Punch

Mapping the Seasons in Virginia — You Can Help

Richard J. Kramer

Communications and Reports

Summary of Council Meeting, November 7, 1971
Officers, Members of Council, Committees, 1971-1972
Virginia Academy of Science Presidents, Award Recipients
and Fellows

News and Notes

THE VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

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The front cover is by Douglas C. Hensley.

Paul A. Sandifer

Virginia Institute of Marine Science
Gloucester Point, Virginia 23062
Received September 3, 1971

Effects of Diet on Larval Development of
Thor Floridanus (Decapoda, Caridea) in the Laboratory*^

Abstract — Thor floridanus larvae maintained in labora¬
tory culture at 24-26C and 31%o salinity were subjected
to four diets: a) no food, b) algae (approximately half-
and-half mixture of Monochrysis lutheri and Phaeodactylum
tricorntum), c) live Artemia nauplii, and d) mixed diet
(diets b and c together). Twenty-seven newly hatched larvae
received each diet. None of the starved larvae molted and
all died within nine days. Of those larvae fed only algae,
22% survived through metamorphosis to postlarvae, whereas
only 4% of those fed only Artemia nauplii survived through
metamorphosis. More of the larvae which were fed the mixed
diet survived to the postlarval stage than was recorded with
any other diet; 48% completed metamorphosis. Develop¬
ment of algae-fed larvae was significantly slower than that
of larvae fed the mixed diet, and there also appeared to be
a slight (but non-significant) trend for algae-fed larvae to
pass through more molts prior to metamorphosis than did
those larvae fed the mixed diet. These results are discussed
in relation to the results of other studies concerning the
dietary requirements of caridean shrimp larvae.

Introduction

Live Artemia nauplii have become so widely ac¬
cepted as food for decapod larvae in laboratory
culture that diet, as a factor influencing survival and
development of larvae, has been largely ignored.
Three important exceptions are the experiments of
Broad ( 1 ) concerning the effects of different diets
on larval development of Palaemonetes (Caridea,
Palaemonidae), Chamberlain’s (2, 3) studies of
effects of diet on larvae of four crabs (Brachyura,
Xanthidae), and Regnault’s (4) recent qualitative
and quantitative analysis of the effects of diet on
larval development of Hippolyte inermis (Caridea,
Hippolytidae). The objective of the present study
was to examine grossly the reponses of larval Thor
floridanus Kingsley (Caridea, Hippolytidae) to quali¬
tatively different diets.

Broad (5) described eight zoeal stages and a
postlarval stage in the complete larval development
of T. floridanus reared in the laboratory. He reared
the larvae with four different algal diets, but he had
too few larvae to attempt culture with animal tissue
as food. Dobkin (6) discovered that two species,
one with the long larval development described by

* Contribution No. 421 from the Virginia Institute of Marine Sci¬
ence, Gloucester Point, Virginia 23062

t This study was supported in part by the Virginia Institute of
Marine Science’s Sea Grant Program, under contract GH67, which
is maintained by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administra¬
tion of the U.S. Department of Commerce.

Broad (5) and the other with an abbreviated larval
development, had been confused as the same species
in Florida waters. He suggested that the form with
long larval life be considered as Thor floridanus and
the form with abbreviated development as Thor sp.
until the necessary taxonomic review could be accom¬
plished to establish their correct status. In the pres¬
ent study, T. floridanus refers to the form with long
larval life.

Methods and Materials

An ovigerous female T. floridanus was collected
at Beaufort, N. C., on 17 August 1970. Salinity at
the collection site was 31.5%o. The shrimp was
transported to the Virginia Institute of Marine
Science and was kept, but not fed, in a glass bowl
of seawater (31%o). The larvae hatched during the
night of 20-21 August 1970 and were placed in the
experimental situations during the following morning.

T. floridanus larvae were placed singly in small
plastic vials containing 15 ml of seawater (31%o).
The vials were then placed individually in compart¬
ments of plastic boxes, and the boxes were set in a
water bath maintained at 24-26C. Twenty-seven lar¬
vae were exposed to each of the following four diets:
a) no food, b) algae (approximately half-and half
mixture of Monochrysis lutheri and Phaeodactylum
tricornutum) , c) live Artemia nauplii (California
Brine Shrimp, Inc., Menlo Park, California) hatched
in seawater, and d) mixed diet (diets b and c to¬
gether). Larvae were fed fixed amounts of concen¬
trated algae and/or Artemia nauplii as appropriate.
The quantitative composition of each diet was not
determined, but the amounts given always provided
an abundance of food organisms. In the case of the
algae, the concentration given was always such as to
color the water slightly. There was little noticeable
mortality (other than the predation by T. floridanus
larvae) among the Artemia nauplii in the two diets
containing nauplii. Fresh nauplii were hatched daily
for the diets, and in both cases most nauplii sur¬
vived the 24 hour period during which they were
presented as food to the T. floridanus larvae. No
attempt was made to control the growth of bacteria
in the culture water or to determine the extent, if
any, of the contribution of bacteria to the nutrition
of T. floridanus larvae.

D

Effects of Diet on Thor Larvae

Evidence of deaths and ecdyses among the larvae
was sought by examining each vial under a binocular
dissecting microscope once daily. Afterwards, the
larvae were transferred to clean vials and fed where
appropriate.

Results

The results, although quite limited because of the
small number of experimental animals which were
available, show several features of interest with re¬
gard to the nutritional requirements of T. fioridanus
larvae. Both algal cells and Arteniia nauplii were
ingested. The number of shrimp that completed
larval development, and the number of molts and
days required to reach the post-larval stage, varies
with the diet (Tables I, II). None of the starved
larvae molted and all had died by the ninth day,
so the “no food” series was excuded from the tabu¬
lations. One to several larvae in each of the other
diet series survived through metamorphosis. Lowest
survival (4% ) occurred among Artemia-fed larvae,
intermediate survival (22%) among algae-fed lar¬
vae, and highest survival (48%) among larvae fed
the mixed diet (Table 1). Both the algae and the
Arfemia nauplii contributed nourishment to the
larvae.

In the present study larval development was com¬
pleted in 14 to 29 days (Table I). Broad (5) re¬
ported that T. fioridaniis larvae molted once about
every two days, and development through metamor¬
phosis required approximately 16 days in his study.

The rate of larval development was influenced by
diet. Comparison of the means and ranges of days
required by T. floridcmus to reach the postlarval
stage (Table I) indicates that development of algae-
fed larvae was slower than that of larvae fed the
mixed diet. This difference was shown to be signifi¬
cant at the 1% level with a Student’s t test (12)
(t = 4.49, df = 17). The retardation in the rate of
development of algae-fed larvae did not become
evident until the fifth molt (Table IT). The first
four larval molts occurred at approximately the
same time for algae-fed larvae, for Artemia-itd lar¬
vae, and for larvae fed the mixed diet. Survival of
Artemia-itd larvae through metamorphosis was too
low to allow a comparison of total time for develop¬
ment. However, beginning with the fifth molt de-

TABLE 1

Comparison of survival and development of Thor fioridaniis
larvae reared in the laboratory with different diets

Artemia

Diet

Algae

Mixed

Initial no. of larvae

27

27

27

Survival to postlarva

(No.)

1

6

13

(%)*

4

22

48

Molts to postlarva

(Mean)

9

7.7

7.2

(Range)

—

6-10

6-8

Days to postlarva

(Mean)

21

22.3

16.3

(Range)

—

18-29

14-22

* expressed as nearest whole percent

velopment time of the Artemia-itd larvae appeared
intermediate between that of the algae-fed larvae
and those fed the mixed diet. It is perhaps at this
time that animal tissue, or simply larger food par¬
ticles, become important to the nutrition of T. fiori¬
danus larvae.

Broad (5) reported that metamorphosis of T.
fioridanus larvae occurred at the eighth molt. How¬
ever, in the present study some larvae were observed
to metamorphose at the sixth, seventh, eighth, ninth,
and tenth molts, but most often at the seventh or
eighth (Table II). There also appeared to be a slight
trend for algae-fed larvae to pass through more
molts prior to metamorphosis than did larvae fed
the mixed diet (Tables I, II). However, a modified
t test (12) showed no significant difference between
the mean numbers of molts of algae-fed larvae and
larvae fed the mixed diet (t' = 0.78, 5% level =
2.54).

Discussion

Most studies of the effects of diet on larval de¬
velopment of decapods, like the present, have been
concerned only with qualitatively different diets.
Only a few investigators have made any attempt to
measure the quantitative composition of one or
more of their diets (4, 11). The others apparently
followed the general methodology utilized in the
present study.

Among decapod larvae which have been cultured
in the laboratory to date, only those of Thor fiori¬
danus (5, present study) and Hippolyte inermis (4)
have been successfully reared to postlarvae on diets
consisting only of algae. Broad (5) found Nano-
chioris sp. and Nitzcliia closterium to be adequate
food for T. fioridanus larvae, but the larvae derived
less nourishment from Thorocomonas sp. and little
or none from Chiamydomonas sp. In the present
study a mixture of Monochrysis lutheri and Phaeo-
dactylum tricornutum was found to provide adequate
nourishment for T. fioridanus larvae. Regnault (4)
found that of six uni-algal diets prescribed (Dima-
liella bioculata, Monochrysis lutheri, Phaeodactylum
tricornutum, Platymonas sp., Skeletonema costatum,
and Chaetoceros costatus) only Dunaliella, Mono¬
chrysis, and Phaeodactylum had any nutritive value
for H. inermis larvae, and of these only Monochrysis
provided sufficient nourishment to allow survival of
a few animals through metamorphosis.

Most larval decapods tested to date appear to
require animal tissue in their diets and are able to
derive little, if any, nutritive value from algae (1-4,
7-10). As a rule, survival is highest and develop¬
ment most rapid among larvae fed only animal tissue
(usually Artemia nauplii). However, mixed diets of
plant and animal material also may provide adequate
nourishment for decapod larvae, but such diets gen¬
erally result in decreased survival and retarded de¬
velopment (1-4) and may cause additional instars
( 1 ) . Broad ( 1 ) suggested that algae were nutrition¬
ally inert as far as most decapod larvae were con¬
cerned, and that ingestion of algae restricted a larva’s
intake of Artemia nauplii. He then hypothesized that

6

The Virginia Journal of Science

TABLE II

Comparison of survival and molting of Thor floridanus larvae reared in the laboratory with different diets {initially 27 first-stage larvae in

each diet series) (Z = zoea: PL = post-larva)

Molt

Artemia

Algae

Mixed

Z I

Survival No. (%)*

27(100)

26(96)

26(96)

to

Z II

Age, days Mean

2.6

2.2

2.2

Range

2-3

2-3

2-3

Z II

Survival No. (%)

25(93)

26(96)

26(96)

to

Z III

Age, days Mean

4.8

4.2

4.4

Range

4-7

4-5

4-6

Z III

Survival No. (%)

18(67)

26(96)

25(93)

to

Z IV

Age, days Mean

6.7

6.3

6.4

Range

6-8

6-7

6-8

Z IV

Survival No. (%)

16(59)

22(82)

23(85)

to

Z V

Age, days Mean

8.8

8.9

8.4

Range

8-10

8-13

8-10

Z V

Survival No. (%)

10(37)

17(63)

19(70)

to

Z VI

Age, days Mean

11.1

12.2

10.5

Range

10-12

10-17

10-13

Z VI

Survival No. (%)

0(0)

1(4)

1(4)

to

PL

Age, days Mean

—

21

15

Range

—

—

—

Z VI

Survival No. (%)

6(22)

11(41)

15(56)

to

Z VII

Age, days Mean

13.8

15.3

12.7

Range

12-15

13-18

12-17

Z VII

Survival No. (%)

0(0)

3(11)

8(30)

to

PL

Age, days Mean

—

18.7

15.8

Range

—

18-22

15-17

Z VII

Survival No. (%)

4(15)

5(19)

4(15)

to

Z VIII

Age, days Mean

17.0

19.2

15.5

Range

14-20

18-20

14-19

Z VIII

Survival No. (%)

0(0)

0(0)

4(15)

to

PL

Age, days Mean

—

—

18.5

Range

—

—

17-22

Z VIII

Survival No. (%)

2(7)

2(7)

0(0)

to

Z IX

Age, days Mean

20.5

22.0

—

Range

19-22

21-23

—

Z IX

Survival No. (%)

1(4)

1(4)

0(0)

to

PL

Age, days Mean

25

25

—

Range

—

—

—

Z IX

Survival No. {%)

0(0)

1(4)

0(0)

to

Z X

Age, days Mean

—

26

—

Range

—

—

—

Z X

Survival No. (%)

0(0)

1(4)

0(0)

to

PL

Age, days Mean

—

29

—

Range

—

—

—

* Expressed to nearest whole percent

Effects of Diet on Thor Larvae

7

the above-mentioned effects of the mixed diet were
due simply to a reduction in the quantity of suitable
food ingested by the larvae. Chamberlain (2) sup¬
ported this hypothesis, and Knowlton (11) recently
presented evidence favoring it. Knowlton fed Palcie-
monetes vulgaris larvae various amounts of Arteniia
nauplii, and he found that low food levels resulted
in increased mortality, increased duration of develop¬
ment, and increased number of molts when compared
to high food levels. Regnault (4) also found that in
mixed diets Dimaliella and Monochrysis appeared to
restrict intake of Artemia nauplii by H. inermis lar¬
vae, but he noted that survival of larvae fed a mixed
diet of Phaeodaclylum + Artemia nauplii appeared
to be slightly greater than that of the larvae fed only
Artemia nauplii.

In the present study, survival of larvae fed a mixed
diet of algae and Artemia nauplii was considerably
higher than that seen among algae-fed and Artemia-
fed larvae, and it was evident that both the algae
and the Artemia nauplii contributed nourishment to
the larvae. The very low percent survival of Artcmia-
fed larvae compared to that seen among algae-fed
larvae and larvae fed the mixed diet suggests that
Artemia nauplii may be less suitable food for T.
floridamis larvae than are eertain unicelluar algae.
It should be emphasized, however, that since lack
of animals prevented repetition of the experiment, it
is possible that the extremely low survival seen here
among larvae fed only Artemia nauplii does not re¬
flect the true importance of animal tissue in the
nutrition of T. floridamis larvae. Further, develop¬
ment of larvae fed the mixed diet was significantly
more rapid than that of larvae fed only algae, and
there was a slight (but statistically non-significant)
tendency for larvae fed the mixed diet to undergo
fewer molts than did algae-fed larvae. These re¬
sults suggest that the Artemia nauplii may have sup¬
plied some substance, perhaps an amino acid (8),
which, while not essential for development, pro¬
moted survival and accelerated development. Re¬
gnault (4) suggested that unicellular algae were
suitable food for H. inermis larvae until the second
larval molt, at which time animal tissue began to
be required. It is interesting that, at about the same
time, the larval yolk reserves became exhausted.

Perhaps the Artemia nauplii replaced the yolk in
supplying some substance which is not available
from algae.

From the foregoing discussion it is evident that
there are differences in the physiology of nutrition
among larvae of different species of caridean shrimp.
Specifically, larvae differ with regard to degree of
requirement for animal food and degree of ability
to utilize algae as food. Such differences may even
occur at different stages of development of the same
larva. Much more study will be necessary before the
physiological and ecological significance of such
differences in dietary requirements may be under¬
stood.

Acknowledgments

I would like to thank Dr. John L. Dupuy who
supplied the algae used in this study and Dr. G. C.
Grant, Dr. P. A. Haefner, Jr. and Mr. W. A. Van
Engel who read the manuscript and offered helpful
suggestions. I was the recipient of an NDEA Title
IV Graduate Fellowship during the study.

REFERENCES

1. Broad, A. C., Biol. Bull. Mar. Biol. Lab., Woods Hole,
112, 162 (1957).

2. Chamberlain, N. A., Tech. Rep. Chesapeake Bay lust.,
22, 37 p. (1961).

3. Chamberlain, N. A., ibid., 28, 47 p. (1962).

4. Regnault, M., hit. Revue ges. Hvdroblol. Hydrogr., 54,
749 ( 1969).

5. Broad, A. C., J. Elisha Mitchell Scient Soc., 73, 317
(1957).

6. Dobkin, S., Crustaceana, Suppl. 2, 1 (1968).

7. Tesmer, C. A., and Broad, A. C., Ohio J. Sci., 46, 239
(1964).

8. Costlow, J. D., Jr., and Sastry, A. N., Acta Enibryol.
Morph, exp., 9, 44 (1966).

9. Reeve, M. R., Fishery Invest., Loud., Ser. 2, 26, 1
(1969).

10. Fagetti, E., and Campodonico, I., Mar. Biol., 8, 70
( 1971).

11. Knowlton, R. E., Ph.D. dissertation, Univ. North Caro¬
lina, 544 p. (1970).

12. Steel, R. G. D., and Torrie, J. H., Principles and pro¬
cedures of statistics, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc.,
New York, 1960.

The Virginia Journal of Science

8

.1. J. Albert^ and C. R. Drake-

Department of Plant Pathology and Physiology
Virginia Polytechnic Institute
and State University
Blacksburg, Virginia 24061
Received October 4, 1971

Physiology of Certain Apple Rot Fungi
I. Factors Affecting Growth of
Physalospora obfusa in Vitro*

Abstract — The effects of hydrogen ion concentration
(pH), nitrogen sources and sucrose utilization on growth
of Physalospora obtiisa were studied in vitro. The pH had
a significant effect on growth, often independent of tempera¬
ture. The optimum range for growth was pH 7.0 to 9.5 and
maximum growth occurred at pH 9.0. During the nitrogen
study, the pH of the medium also had a significant effect
on growth that was often independent of the nitrogen
source. Nitrate nitrogen supported growth better than or¬
ganic (DL-aspartic acid) or ammonium nitrogen.

Sucrose was hydrolyzed by the fungus regardless of the
source of nitrogen. However, utilization of the resulting
monosaccharides, glucose and fructose, required specific
nitrogen sources, depending on the pH level of the me¬
dium. Complete utilization of sugars by the fungus was
facilitated by aspartic acid and KNO3 but not by am¬
monium nitrogen at initial values of pH 5.5 and 9.0.

Introduction

Physalospora obtusa (Schw.) Cke. (Sphaeropsis
malorum Peck) causes fruit rot, leaf spot, and branch,
limb, and trunk canker of apple {Mains sylvestris
Mill.). These diseases are economically important
in the midwestern, northeastern, and southeastern
sections of the United States.

Although there have been many studies on the
effects of light on pycnidium formation and sporula-
tion (1, 2), nuclear phenomena (3), life cycle (4-6)
and the control of the pathogen and the diseases it
causes (4, 5, 7), the disease syndrome in the fruit
has not been clearly defined.

Lilly and Barnett (8) described the utilization
of 12 different sugars by P. obtusa. They found that
the fungus utilized all of the sugars but at different
rates. Glucose, fructose, and sucrose were utilized
more quickly than sorbose, xylose, or lactose. In a
later study, Lilly and Barnett (9) showed that with
asparagine as a nitrogen source, P. obtusa utilized
L- and DL-arabinose more quickly than D-arabinose
at a pH of about 5.5. Barnett and Lilly (10) re¬
ported on the growth of P. obtusa and the change in
pH during growth where the fungus was grown alone

* Portion of a Ph.D. Thesis by the senior author. Contribution
No. 161, Department of Plant Pathology and Physiology.

1 Present Address: West Virginia University Experiment Farm,
Kearneysville, West Virginia.

2 Associate Professor of Plant Pathology.

or in combination with a mycoparasite, Calcaris-
porium parasiticum Barnett on a glucose-potassium
nitrate medium adjusted to pH 6.0. They found that
P. obtusa grew better on the medium alone than
when grown in combination with the mycoparasite.
Each funsus developed well together within a pH
of 3.2 to>.0.

Studies are lacking where P. obtusa has been
grown on a chemically defined medium and where
the source of nitrogen or the initial pH values were
varied. A more complete knowledge of the nutri¬
tional requirements of P. obtusa is essential to under¬
stand better the physiological phenomena involved
in pathogenicity of this fungus. The objectives of the
present investigation were (i) to study the influence
of initial pH and nitrogen sources on the growth of
P. obtusa and (ii) to determine the progressive utili¬
zation of sucrose by P. obtusa. A preliminary report
on a portion of this research has been published
(11).

Materials and Methods

A single cultural isolate of P. obtusa (1084), ob¬
tained from Dr. H. L. Barnett, West Virginia Uni¬
versity, and isolated originally from an apple twig,
was used throughout the investigation. The patho¬
genicity of the fungus was demonstrated by inoculat¬
ing apples and observing typical symptoms periodi¬
cally during the investigation.

Experimental procedure. A chemically defined
liquid basal medium was used throughout the investi¬
gation. Unless otherwise indicated, the basal medium
had the following composition; sucrose, 9.5012 g;
KH0PO4, 1.0 g; MgS04-7H20, 0.5 g; Fe (NOh)^-
9H2~0, 0.2 mg; MnSOjAHoO, 0.1 mg; thiamine, 0.1
mg; biotin, 0.005 mg; and deionized water to make
one liter. The nitrogen source was added to the
basal medium in an amount equivalent to the nitro¬
gen in 2 g of asparagine. When the nitrogen source
was DL-aspartic acid, its carbon equivalent was de¬
termined and a quantity of sucrose was added to
the basal medium to yield a total of 4.332 g carbon/
liter.

The basal medium and the source of nitrogen

Apple Rot Fungi

9

were sterilized together, but separate from sucrose,
at 2X concentrations in an autoclave at 20 psi for
15 min at 121 C. Twenty-five ml aliquots of the
sucrose solution were then pipetted aseptically into
250-ml Erlenmeyer flasks that contained 25 ml of
the basal medium plus nitrogen. The pH of the com¬
bined solutions was adjusted aseptically to the de¬
sired pH by adding a predetermined amount of IN
HCl or IN NaOH.

The inoculum for the various investigations was
prepared by incubating the fungus at 28 C on an
agar medium that contained the same components
as those found in the liquid basal medium. The agar
medium was adjusted to pH 6.0 before autoclaving.
The medium in each flask was inoculated with a
5 mm disc of mycelium cut from the periphery of
a 3-day-old culture. The flasks were incubated as
standing cultures in the dark at 28 C.

Growth was determined by harvesting the contents
of each flask on previously coded and fared S and S
No. 589 White Ribbon filter paper. The filtrates
were collected separately and the pH of each was
determined. The mycelium was washed on the filter
paper with warm deionized water to remove any ex¬
ternal material, dried in an oven at 105 C for 24 to
36 hours, and weighed to the nearest mg on a Type
H-16 Mettler Balance. Four cultural replicates of
each variable (pH, temperature and nitrogen
sources) being studied were used at each harvest
date.

Preliminary Investigation. A preliminary test was
conducted to determine the optimum temperature
and initial pH for growth of P. ohtusa. The liquid
basal medium was prepared as previously described
except that sucrose was sterilized by Seitz filtration.
The pH of the medium was adjusted from 2.5 to
10.5 at 0.5 pH intervals and cultures were incubated
at 22, 25, and 28 C. Sucrose and ammonium nitrate
were the sources of carbon and nitrogen respectively.
The cultures were harvested after incubation periods
of 8, 16, and 24 days, respectively.

Nitrogen Investigation. Cultures were incubated at
28 C and initial pH values of 3.5, 5.5, 7.5, and 9.0
for the nitrogen utilization studies. DL-aspartic acid,
potassium nitrate, ammonium nitrate, and ammon¬
ium sulfate were the sources of nitrogen. A control
solution (basal minus nitrogen) was also included.
Cultures were harvested at 4 day intervals through
24 days.

Sucrose Utilization. Hydrolysis of sucrose and the
progressive utilization of the products by P. obtusa
were monitored by ascending paper chromatography
of the cultural filtrates within 3 hours of harvest.
Cultures were incubated at 28 C and initial pH val¬
ues of 5.5 and 9.0. Cultures were harvested and the
filtrates sampled at daily intervals through 24 days.
Approximately 90 4 of the filtrate from the cultures
was spotted on Whatman 3MM paper. Known
standards of sucrose, glucose, and fructose were in¬
cluded in each analysis. Ascending chromatography
in the solvent, ethyl acetate-pyridine-water (8:2:1,
V/V/V), was allowed to proceed for 24 hours be¬
fore drying. The dried chromatograms were devel-

TABLE I

Dry weight of mycelium of Physalosporci ohtusa and resultant pH
of the medium having sucrose as the carbon source and ammonium
nitrate as the nitrogen source at 28

Initial

pH

Incubation (days)

8

16

24

mg

pH

mg

pH

mg

pH

2.5

0j2

2.5

0 1

2.5

01

2.5

3.0

10 i

2.9

27 k

2.8

20 k

2.9

3.5

63 gh

2.8

65 i

2.7

71 fg

3.1

4.0

58 h

2.8

50 j

2.7

47 j

2.7

4.5

59 h

2.6

54 j

2.7

49 j

2.7

5.0

76 f

2.4

75 h

2.6

66 gh

2.6

5.5

77 f

2.7

82 g

2.7

65 h

2.9

6.0

77 f

2.6

75 h

2.5

58 i

2.7

6.5

93 e

2.5

85 g

2.4

76 f

2.6

7.0

108 d

3.1

132 f

2.7

132 e

2.8

7.5

124 c

3.2

156 e

2.9

147 d

3.0

8.0

152 a

3.7

174 d

3.1

148 d

3.7

8.5

134 b

4.8

193 c

3.5

168 c

6.1

9.0

105 d

6.5

216 a

6.2

206 a

7.0

9.5

65 g

7.4

205 b

7.2

194 b

8.2

10.0

Oj

10.0

01

10.0

0 1

10.0

10.5

Oj

10.5

0 1

10.5

0 1

10.5

1 Average of eight replicates, four from each of two tests as
standing cultures.

2 Numbers in the same column having different lower case
letters are significantly different at the 5% level using Duncan’s
multiple range method.

oped by dipping in a solution containing 1 ml of
aniline, 1 g of diphenylamine, and 10 ml of 85%
phosphoric acid per 100 ml of acetone, air dried for
4 to 6 minutes, and heated 5 to 7 minutes at 100 to
105 C.

Results

Initial pH. Growth of the organism was generally
homogeneous at the different temperatures (22, 25,
and 28 C) and incubation periods (8, 16, and 24
days) for the same initial pH values. However, sig¬
nificant differences were recorded at different initial
pH values with the same temperature and different
incubation periods. Due to this phenomenon of
homogeneous growth, only the results of the data
obtained at 28 C are presented (Table I). After
eight days, the pH values were lower than the initial
pH value and remained lower through the conclu¬
sion of the experiment. Optimum growth was re¬
corded at an initial pH 9.0, excellent to good growth
occurred at pH 7.0 to 8.5 and 9.5, fair growth at pH
3.5 to 6.5, least growth at pH 3.0, and no growth at
pH 2.5, 10.0, or 10.5. Two definite growth peaks
occurred after an incubation period of 16 days
(Table I). One peak occurred when the initial pH
was 3.5 while the second and higher peak occurred
when the initial pH was 9.0. Autolysis was generally
evident after 16 days of incubation.

Nitrogen Source. Potassium nitrate was the best
source of nitrogen for growth regardless of the pH
value (Fig. 1). Optimum growth was recorded on
or after the 16th day at all pH values tested.
Pycnidia were abundant after 10 days of incubation

The Virginia Journal of Science

10

Fig. 1 — Effect of initial values of pH (a) 3.5, (b) 5.5,
growth of Physalospora ohtiisa in a basal liquid medium

(c) 7.5, and (d) 9.0 and different nitrogen sources on
incubated at 28 C with sucrose as the carbon source.

Apple Rot Fungi

11

but well defined stromata were not formed until
after 13 days of incubation.

Growth was greater when the initial pH values
were 5.5, 7.5, and 9.0 than at a pH value of 3.5
when DL-aspartic acid was the nitrogen source.
Maximum growth occurred by the 12th day at an
initial pH 5.5, the 16th day at an initial pH 3.5,
and the 20th day at initial pH 7.5 and 9.0 (Fig. 1).
Compact stromata developed after four days incu¬
bation in all cultures except those growing in a
medium at an initial pH 3.5 where growth appeared

I I I .J _ J _ I _ L J- _ 1 _

AA AN AS KN CK STD AA AN AS KN CK

pH-5.5 pH-9,0

as a dispersed accumulation of stromata. Pycnidium
formation was sparse.

Amonium nitrate was a better source of nitrogen
for growth of P. obtiisa than (NH4)2S04 (Fig. 1).
Optimum growth occurred when the initial pH was
9.0 for both NH.,N03 and (NH4)2S04. In NH4NO3
treatments, maximum growth was obtained after 16
days of incubation at all pH values. When (NH4)2
SO4 was the nitrogen source, maximum growth oc¬
curred after 12 days of incubation at an initial pH
3.5, 8 days at pH 5.5, and 16 days at pH 7.5 and

Fig. 2 — Ascending paper chromatography showing hydrolysis of sucrose and progressive utilization of sucrose, glucose
and fructose by P. ohtusa with four nitrogen sources (AA, Aspartic Acid; AN, NHiNO^j; AS, (NHi):SO.i; KN, KNOs’,

CK, Control (minus nitrogen); and STD, sucrose, glucose, fructose standard) in the basal liquid medium at initial

values of pH 5.5 and 9.0. The number on each chromatogram refers to the incubation period: 1, 1 day; 2, 2 days;

3, 4 days; 4, 6 days; 5, 8 days; 6, 10 days; 7, 12 days; 8, 15 days; 9, 18 days; and 10, 24 days. The lower row of

circled spots on each chromatogram represent (sucrose) Rf, middle row (glucose) Rf, and the upper row (fructose) Rf.
The spots were circled immediately after the chromatogram was removed from the oven.

12

The Virginia Journal of Science

9.0. The most rapid growth occurred during the
first 8 days of incubation when the initial pH values
were 3.5, 5.5, and 7.5 and during the first 12 days
at pH 9.0 for both NHjNOs and (NH4)2S04. When
either NH4NO3 or (NH4)2S04 was the nitrogen
source, compact stromata appeared after 8 days of
incubation at all pH values but pycnidium formation
was sparse.

Growth in the control cultural solution (basal
medium minus nitrogen) at the four pH values re¬
sembled that of a watery, gelatinous mass and at no
time was distinct mycelium observed. Although
growth was minimal at all pH values, it was slightly
better at pH 5.5 and 7.5.

Sucrose Utilization. The results of the chromato¬
graphic analyses to test for progressive sucrose
hydrolysis are shown in Fig. 2. Only those chro¬
matograms are shown that represent significant
change in sugar utilization. The hydrolysis of suc¬
rose by P. obtusa when aspartic acid was the nitro¬
gen source occurred after one day of incubation at
an initial pH 5.5 but was not observed until the
8th day with an initial pH 9.0. All sugars were uti¬
lized between the 12th day and 15th day at an initial
pH 5.5 and between the 18th and 24th day at an
initial pH 9.0.

Partial hydrolysis of sucrose was observed one
day after incubation of the media at an initial pH
5.5 but not until the 2nd day at pH 9.0 when KNO3
was the nitrogen source. Complete utilization of
the sugars by P. obtusa at both initial pH values oc¬
curred between the 15th and 18th day of incubation.

Complete utilization of the sugars by the fungus
was facilitated by DL-aspartic acid and KNO3 at
both pH values. The sugars were completely utilized
at an initial pH 9.0 but not at pH 5.5 when NH4NO3
and (NH4)oS04 were the nitrogen sources. The
sugars were not completely utilized at either pH
value in the control. Except for DL-aspartic acid at
an initial pH 9.0, the sequence of sugar utilization by
P. obtusa at both initial pH values was sucrose, fol¬
lowed by glucose, then fructose.

Discussion

Pycnidium formation was more abundant in basal
medium containing KNO3 than when other nitrogen¬
ous sources were used. It was also found to be true
when the fungus was grown on a solid medium con¬
taining the same nutrients. Since P. obtusa sporulates
poorly on many laboratory media the use of KNO3
in a solid medium should be investigated further in
relation to spore formation even though sporulation
did not occur during this investigation. Spores did
not form because these standing cultures were kept
in the dark and it has been determined that light is
necessary for sporulation of P. obtusa (1,2).

Decreases in pH occurred when either NH4NO3
or (NH4)2S04 was used as a nitrogen source. Bar¬
nett and Lilly (10) reported a decrease in pH of a
(NH4)2S04-glucose liquid basal medium during the
growth of Physalospora glandicola (Schw.) Stevens.
This decrease was similar to that observed during
this investigation with P. obtusa. Skirahawa (12)
and Haskins and Weston (13) also reported sig¬

nificant decreases in pH with different genera of
fungi cultured with ammonium nitrogen. According
to Lilly and Barnett (14), other things being equal,
one would expect an increase in pH with utilization
of nitrate ions and a decrease in pH with the utiliza¬
tion of ammonium ions. If P. obtusa were able to
utilize at the same rate, both ammonium ions and
nitrate ions of NH1NO3 the pH should have re¬
mained relatively stable. Since there was a consistent
decrease in pH when NH4NO3 was the nitrogen
source, the overwhelming evidence indicated that P.
obtusa utilized ammonium nitrogen preferentially to
nitrate nitrogen. Cochrane (15) indicated that some
fungi utilize virtually all the ammonium nitrogen be¬
fore they start to utilize the nitrate nitrogen of NH4
NO3.

When DL-aspartic acid served as the nitrogen
source, hydrolysis and subsequent utilization of su¬
crose and the resulting monosaccharides were ac¬
complished more rapidly at an initial pH 5.5 than at
pH 9.0. This may well indicate why optimum growth
by the fungus was reached sooner at an initial pH
5.5 (compared to pH 9.0 initially).

The reason for suppression of growth and incom¬
plete utilization of glucose and fructose in a medium
at an initial pH 5.5 and not at pH 9.0 when NH4NO3
and (NH4)2S04 served as the sources of nitrogen is
not clear. However, a suggestion is offered that may
explain this phenomenon. The initial pH 5.5 of the
medium decreased to pH 2.8 to 2.9 after 8 days of
incubation. This low pH could have prevented P.
obtusa from utilizing either glucose or fructose and,
therefore, suppressed growth.

The progressive utilization of sugars by P. obtusa
after hydrolysis of sucrose in a liquid basal medium
having initial values of pH 5.5 or 9.0 with KNO3 as
the nitrogen source may be attributed to the fact that
the pH of the basal medium did not decrease to
growth suppressing levels.

Conclusion

This investigation has shown that pH has a sig¬
nificant effect on growth of P. obtusa, often inde¬
pendent of the nitrogen source and temperature. It
also was shown that the optimum range of the initial
pH for growth of the fungus was between pH 7.0 to
9.5. Further, it was demonstrated that sucrose was
hydrolyzed by the fungus growing on all nitrogen
sources. However, utilization of the resulting mono¬
saccharides, glucose and fructose, required specific
nitrogen sources depending on the pH of the me¬
dium. Thus, pH and its effect on nitrogen assimila¬
tion and the resulting sugar utilization constituted a
major influence on nutrition of P. obtusa in vitro.
This interaction phenomenon as well as the strongly
alkaline pH optimum for growth may also influence
pathogenicity of the organism in nature.

The alkaline pH optimum for maximum growth
may help explain the slow colonization of apple fruit
by P. obtusa. The pH of apple fruit is approximately
4 and although some growth occurred at pH 4.0
(Table I), it was slow and seemed to parallel that
of slow colonization of the apple in nature.

Apple Rot Fungi

13

REFERENCES

1. Barnett, H. L., and Lilly, V. G., Proc. W. Va Acad.
Sci., 24, 60 (1952).

2. Fulkerson, J. F., Phytopathology, 45, 22 (1955).

3. Aycock, R., Phytopathology, 41, 459 (1951).

4. Anderson, H. W., Diseases of fruit crops, McGraw-
Hill, Inc., New York, 1956, p. 501.

5. Heald, F. D., Introduction to Plant Pathology, Mc¬
Graw-Hill, Inc., New York, 1943, p. 603.

6. Hesler, L. R., and Whetzel, H. H., Manual of fruit
diseases. The Macmillan Company, New York, 1924,
p. 462.

7. Taylor, J., Phytopathology, 45, 392 (1955).

8. Lilly, V. G., and Barnett, H. L., Tech. Bull. W. Va
Exp. Stn, 488, 58p., (1953).

9. Lilly, V. G., and Barnett, H. L., Am. J. Bot., 43, 709
(1956).

10. Barnett, H. L, and Lilly, V G., Tech. Bull. W. Va
Exp. Stn, 420, 37p., (1958).

11. Albert, J. I., and Drake, C. R., Va J. Sci., 19, 165

(1968).

12. Skirahawa, H. S., Am. J. Bot., 42, 379 (1955).

13. Haskins, R. H., and Weston, W. H, Jr, ibid, 37, 739
(1950).

14. Lilly, V. G., and Barnett, H. L., Physiology of the
fungi, 1st ed., McGraw-Hill, Inc., New York, 1951, p.
464.

15. Cochrane, V. W., Physiology of the fungi, John Wiley
& Sons, New York, 1958, p. 524.

14

The Virginia Journal of Science

Raymond H. Myers

Department of Statistics
Virginia Polytechnic Institute
and State University
Blacksburg, Virginia 24061
and

Walter H. Carter, Jr.

Department of Biometry
Medical College of Virginia
Health Sciences Division
Virginia Commonwealth University
Richmond, Virginia 23219
Received November 9, 1971

A Note on the Simultaneous Diagonalization

of

Two Real, Symmetric Matrices

In statistics it is sometimes useful to simultane¬
ously diagonalize two real, symmetric matrices, A
and B. For example, Rao (1), among others, uses
this to display canonical correlation coefficients as
elements of a diagonal matrix. It is well known
(1-4) that if B is positive definite there exists a
non-singular matrix R sueh that

R'AR = A, where A is a diagonal matrix
and

R'BR = I.

The fact that there exists a matrix Q with similar
properties when B is negative definite does not ap¬
pear to be well known. It is the purpose of this
note to prove that result.

Theorem: Given that A and B are real, symmetric
matrices and that B is definite (positive or negative),
there exists a non-singular matrix Q such that

Q'AQ is diagonal

and

Q'BQ = I

Proof: Case I: B is positive definite.

For the proof to this see (3).

Case II: B is negative definite.

Since B is a symmetric, negative definite matrix
there exists an orthogonal matrix P which reduces
B to a diagonal matrix of its eigenvalues; i.e.

P'BP = diag. (01, 02, • • • , 0k) = 0,

0; < 0, i = 1, 2, • • • , k.

Call the diagonal matrix whose i**' diagonal ele¬

ment is 0r^/“, i = 1, 2, • • •, k. (Note that the non¬
zero elements of 0“^/- are all purely imaginary.)
Now we have

0-l/2p/Bp0-l/2 ^ J

Consider now the matrix

^ = 0“'^^P'AP0■'''^

Since the diagonal elements of 0"i/“ are purely imagi¬
nary, 4' contains only real elements. Notice also that
it is a symmetric matrix. Therefore, there exists an
orthogonal matrix S such that S'^S is a diagonal
matrix and

S/[0-i/2p/BP0-i/2]s = s'S = I.

Thus,

Q = P0“'^"S

is the matrix which simultaneously diagonalizes A
and B.

Since, in applications, one is merely interested in
the existence of Q, the fact that Q is imaginary is of
no consequence.

Numerical Example:

Let A =

and B =

10.6 5.2

7.3

5.2 6.2

8.0

7.3 8.0

4.6j

-13.4 -

11.4

-17.6

-11.4 -

14.2

-13.6

-17.6 -

13.6

-26.4

Simultaneous Diagonalization of Symmetric Matrices

15

The eigenvalues of B are —0.6682, —5.3946, and Finally, the matrix which simultaneously diagonal-

—47.9371. The orthogonal matrix P which is such izes A and B is

that P'BP is

a diagonal matrix is

0.8548

0.0006

0.5190~

1.0324i

0.0120i

O.lSlSi"

P =

-0.2827

0.8392

0.4646

Q = PG-'/^s =

-0.3905i

0.2076i

0.2430i

_-0.4353

-0.5438

0.7175_

_-0.4698i

0.0453i

-0.3554i_

In this example

In this case

0

-1/2

1.2233i 0

0.4305i 0

_o

Notice that

0

0.1444i_

~0.9999

0.0000

o.oooo"

0-l/2p/Bp0-l/2 ^

0.0000

0.9999

0.0000

_0.0000

0.0000

0.9998J

The orthogonal matrix S which diagonalizes
e-i/2p'AP 0-1/2 is

S =

0.9787

-0.1664

0.1199

-0.0556

0.3474

0.9361

0.1974

0.9228

-0.3307_

Q'AQ =

4.9202 0 0

0 0.4626 0

0 0 -0.5683

REFERENCES

1. Rao, C. R., Lineal- Statistical Inference and Its Appli¬
cations, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1965, p.
37-38, p. 494.

2. Graybill, F. A., Introduction to Matrices with Applica¬
tions in Statistics, Wadsworth Publishing Company, Bel¬
mont, California, 1969, p. 329.

3. Noble, B., Applied Linear Algebra, Prentice-Hall, Inc.,
Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1969, p. 396-398.

4. Anderson, T. W., Introduction to Multivariate Statistical
Analysis, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1968, p.
341.

16

The Virginia Journal of Science

W. E. Feidman and J. D. Punch

Department of Microbiology
Medical College of Virginia
Health Sciences Division
Virginia Commonwealth University
Richmond, Virginia 23219
Received January 19, 1972

Effects of Dimethylsulfoxide on
Polyuridylic Acid-Directed Polypeptide Synthesis
by Escherichia Co// Ribosomes

Abstract — Dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO) altered the rela¬
tive and absolute incorporation of phenylalanine and iso¬
leucine by a polyuridylic acid-directed polypeptide synthesiz¬
ing system employing Escherichia coli K-12 ribosomes. At
suboptimal Mg^* concentrations (<24 niM) DMSO stimu¬
lated phenylalanine but not isoleucine incorporations; at
optimal or supraoptimal Mg^% DMSO was inhibitory but
caused little misreading. Changes in the amount of phenyla¬
lanine and isoleucine incorporation as a function of in¬
creasing concentrations of Mg^* and DMSO singly and
in combination showed that Mg^^ and DMSO were syner¬
gistic. In contrast ethanol was Inhibitory at all Mg^"^ con¬
centrations and caused a differential increase in isoleucine
incorporation. DMSO reversed the inhibition of phenvla-
lanine incorporation by streptomycin at suboptimal Mg^'^
concentrations and significantly reduced streptomycin-in¬
duced ambiguity. The synergistic relationship between
DMSO and Mg*+ and the antagonistic relationship between
DMSO and streptomycin indicates that DMSO uniquely
alters ribosomal conformation.

Introduction

Dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO) is a highly polar or¬
ganic solvent which possesses many unusual pharma¬
cologic properties (1). Foremost is the ability of
DMSO to alter selectively the permeability of mam¬
malian and bacterial cell membranes (1, 2). DMSO-
induced changes in cellular permeability and in the
activity of certain enzymes under physiological con¬
ditions has been postulated to result from the inter¬
action of DMSO with bound water molecules ( 1 )
and with divalent cations (3, 4). Most bacteria,
fungi and parasites are inhibited by DMSO concen¬
trations of 20% or less (5-8). Subinhibitory con¬
centrations, however, can reversibly alter the pheno¬
typic characteristics of a microorganism (1). Fowler
and Zabin observed that mutants of Escherichia coli
which were cryptic toward lactose, could utilize lac¬
tose for growth in a minimal medium containing 5%
DMSO (2). Recent studies in this laboratory have
shown that a mutant of E. coli K-12 which is chrom-
osomally resistant to >5,000 pg streptomycin (STR)
per ml became sensitive to 5 /xg STR/ml in the pres¬
ence of non-inhibitory concentrations of 5-8%
DMSO, and that 3-8% DMSO could satisfy the

STR requirement of a non-conditional STR-depen-
dent E. coli K-12 mutant (9, 10). The change in re¬
sistance concomitant with increased uptake of
^■‘C-STR by the resistant cells and the apparent
interaction of DMSO with ribosomes in the de¬
pendent cells indicated that low concentrations of
DMSO may funetionally alter both the membrane
and ribosomes in E. coli. This communication de¬
scribes our observations on the effects of DMSO in
the presence and absence of STR on a cell-free poly¬
uridylic acid-directed polypeptide synthesizing sys¬
tem using E. coli K-12 ribosomes.

Materials and Methods

Bacterial culture and preparation of cells. E. coli
K-12 substrain CSH-2 (Met“, Pro ) which is sensi¬
tive to 5 jjLg STR/ml was used for all experiments.
Liter cultures were grown with shaking for 18 hr at
37 C in the minimal medium of Davis and Mingiolli
(11) supplemented with 0.2% glucose and 0.1%
vitamin-free casamino acids (Difco). Cells were eol-
lected by eentrifugation at 10,000 X g for 10 min
at 0 C and washed with 100 ml of cold buffer (0.06
M ammonium chloride, 0.01 M magnesium acetate,
0.01 M tris (hydroxymethyl )aminomethane (Tris)
and 6 mM ^-mercaptoethanol; pH 7.4). The aver¬
age yield was 2 g cells (wet weight) per liter. Washed
cells were rapidly frozen and stored until used.

Preparation of ribosomal and supernatant frac¬
tions. Ribosomal and supernatant fractions were pre¬
pared aecording to the method of Anderson, Gorini
and Breekenridge (12), except that deoxyribonu¬
clease was not added to the cell extract. Ribosomal
protein was determined by the method of Lowry,
et al. (13).

Incubation conditions. Incorporation of ^'*C-phen-
ylalanine (New England Nuclear) and ^H-isoleucine
(New England Nuclear) into hot trichloroaeetic
acid-insoluble material was determined by a modi¬
fication of the procedure of Anderson, Gorini and
Breekenridge (12). Components, listed in the order
of addition, in the system were: adenosine triphos¬
phate (Na salt), 10“^ M; guanosine triphosphate

Effects of DMSO on Poly U-Directed Synthesis

17

Fig. 1 — Phenylalanine and isoleucine incorporation at

various Mg"* concentrations. Phenylalanine @ - © and

isoleucine B - Q expressed in pinoles per mg ribosomal

protein.

(Na salt), M; phosphoenol pyruvate (K salt),
5mM; phosphoenol pyruvate kinase (Calbiochem;
sp. act. 2.62 I.U./mg protein), 7.5 /xg; ^-mercapto-
ethanol, 6 mM; soluble ribonucleic acid (Calbio¬
chem), 100 /xg; polyuridylic acid (Poly U, Calbio¬
chem), 20 jig; ^■^C-phenylalanine (sp. act. 375 /xc/
/xM), 0.04 fxc; ^H-isoleucine (sp. act. 1770 /xc//xM),
0.04 /xc; ^-C-amino acids, 0.52 /xg each (except
phenylalanine and isoleucine); magnesium acetate
(Mg^O as indicated in Results; ammonium chloride,
35 mM; Tris, 89 mM, pH 7.8; soluble enzyme frac¬
tion, 108 /xg; ribosomal protein, 0.154 mg; DMSO
and STR as indicated in Results; and distilled water
to a total volume of 0.25 ml. Reactions were begun
by the addition of the ribosomes to the mixtures at
37 C. Samples were removed at 0 and 30 min,
treated according to the filter disc procedure of
Mans and Novelli (14), and counted in a Packard
Tri-Carb scintillation spectrometer. The pinoles of
^■*C-phenylalanine and ®H-isoleucine incorporated
per mg ribosomal protein were calculated as de¬
scribed by Chase and Rabinowitz (15).

Results

Properties of the poly JJ -directed system. The
pmoles of ^'^C-phenylalanine and ^H-isoleucine in¬
corporated by the reaction mixture was dependent
upon an energy generating system, poly U, and both
the ribosomal and supernatant fractions. Maximal
phenylalanine incorporation (180 pmoles/mg ribo¬
somal protein) occurred with 24 mM Mg'"^, and de¬
creased progressively as the Mg” concentration was
increased (Fig. 1). Isoleucine incorporation was
minimal in Mg” concentrations below 16.6 mM but
increased to a value of 21 pmoles/mg ribosomal

« * i i i

0 0.56 1.12 1.68 2.24

(M)

Fig. 2 — Effect of DMSO on phenylalanine incorporation
at various Mg"'"' concentrations. Mg'"* concentrations were:

12.3 mM, A - A; 16.6 mM, H - E; 20 mM, ® -

24 mM, O - O; and 30 mM, □ - □.

protein at 26 niM Mg^"'. The amount of each amino
acid incorporated after 30 min incubation at the opti¬
mal Mg” concentration was always 20 fold or greater
than the respective 0 time control. These results are
comparable to and consistent with the character¬
istics of the poly U-directed system from this organ¬
ism described by previous workers (16-20).

Effect of DMSO on phenylalanine incorporation.
The degree of stimulation or inhibition of phenyla¬
lanine incorporation by DMSO was strictly depen¬
dent upon the Mg” concentration (Fig. 2). At 12.3
mM Mg”, marked stimulation of phenylalanine in¬
corporation which showed a concentration depen¬
dent response between 0 and 1.68 M DMSO was
observed. With higher Mg” concentrations DMSO
became progressively less stimulatory, and at the
optimal (24 mM) or higher Mg” concentrations all
concentrations of DMSO were inhibitory.

Effect of streptomycin and DMSO-streptomycin
combinations on phenylalanine incorporation. At a
given Mg” concentration, more inhibition was ob¬
served with the higher STR concentration (Table I).
High Mg” concentrations, however, tended to re¬
verse the inhibition at both STR concentrations. At
16 mM Mg” (Fig. 3A), the inhibition caused by

TABLE I

Inhibition of phenylalanine incorporation by streptomycin at
various Mg""*" concentrations

Mg*""^ (mM)

6.9 mM STR

13.8 mM STR

Percent decrease^

16

35

36

20

52

61

24

48

64

30

19

46

1 Expressed as the percent decrease compared to the control
without streptomycin.

18

The Virginia Journal of Science

DMSO (M)

Fig. 3 — Effect of various DMSO-streptomycin combina¬
tions on phenylalanine incorporation at different Mg'^ con¬
centrations. Values are expressed as a percent of the
phenylalanine incorporated in the control without DMSO
at 16.0 mM Mg^*- (A), 20 mM Mg"+ (B), 24 mM Mg^^
(C), and 30 mM Mg^+ (D). (without streptomycin,

• - ®; with 6.9 /tM streptomycin, H - ■; and with

13.8 juM streptomycin, C* - O)-

6.9 JU.M STR was reversed by all DMSO concentra¬
tions tested; maximal reversal occurred with 1.68
M DMSO. Similarly, but to a lesser extent, the in¬
hibition caused by the higher STR concentration
(13.8 /rM) was also reversed by DMSO. In both
instances the STR-DMSO combinations were more
stimulatory than DMSO alone. Likewise, stimulation
occurred with both STR concentrations in 1.68 M
DMSO or less at 20 mM Mg*"' concentration, while
DMSO alone was inhibitory (Fig. 3B). At the opti¬
mal Mg** concentration (Fig. 3C), only the lower
concentration of DMSO with 13.8 /xM STR in¬
creased phenylalanine incorporation while all DMSO
concentrations and DMSO-STR combinations were
inhibitory at 30 mM Mg** (Fig. 3D). Thus, although
STR singly was inhibitory at all Mg** concentrations
(Table I), STR-DMSO combinations were more
stimulatory (Fig. 3 A, B) than DMSO alone at low
Mg** concentrations (Fig. 2) and STR reversed the

TABLE III

The effect of ethanol on phenylalanine and isoleiicine incor¬
poration at various Mg^'^ concentrations

Mg++ (mM)

Ethanol

(%)

Phenyl¬

alanine*

Isoleu-

cine^

0

91

14

20

4

32

18

8

21

22

0

122

16

24

4

45

20

8

24

28

0

88

20

30

4

19

36

8

7

27

1 pmoles /mg ribosomal protein

2 Expressed as molecules isoleucine per 100 molecules
phenylalanine incorporated.

inhibitory effect of DMSO at the optimal Mg** con¬
centration (Fig. 3C).

Effect of DMSO, streptomycin and ethanol on
isoleucine incorporation. Isoleucine incorporation in
a poly U-directed system provides a measure of the
ability of antibiotics and chemicals to cause mis¬
reading of the genetic code (16). In the absence of
DMSO and STR, isoleueine incorporation increased
with increasing Mg** concentrations (Table II). The
addition of STR at all Mg** concentrations caused
more misreading, while misreading was noted only
with high DMSO concentrations when compared to
the controls without DMSO or STR. In contrast to
the synergistic effect on phenylalanine incorpora¬
tion (Fig.'s), DMSO-STR combinations only slightly
increased isoleucine incorporation at 16 and 20 mM
Mg** and were generally inhibitory at higher Mg**
concentrations. Thus, low DMSO concentrations ap¬
peared to decrease the STR-induced misreading at
optimal and higher Mg** concentrations.

Since ethanol has also been reported to increase
misreading in a poly U-directed system (19, 20), the
effect of 4 and 8% ethanol (0.69 M and 1.38 M,
respectively) on phenylalanine and isoleucine in¬
corporation in our system at various Mg** concen¬
trations was determined. Ethanol inhibited phenyl¬
alanine incorporation at all Mg** concentrations and
the degree of inhibition showed a positive correla¬
tion with ethanol concentration (Table 111). The

TABLE II

The effect of DMSO and streptomycin on misreading at various Mg'^'^ concentrations

Molecules isoleucine/ 100 molecules phenylalanine incorporated

DMSO (M)

16 mM Mg++

20 mM Mg++

24 mM Mg++

30 mM Mg++

STR (mM)

STR (;uM)

STR (mM)

STR (mM)

0

13.8

0

13.8

0

13.8

0

13.8

0

8

18

12

20

14

25

20

33

0.56

10

34

14

19

15

17

15

21

1.12

15

20

16

19

17

20

19

21

1.68

15

22

24

19

23

22

28

28

2.24

17

23

21

21

34

25

29

32

Effects of DMSO on Poly U-Directed Synthesis

19

reverse was observed for isoleucine incorporation;
misreading was significantly increased at all Mg*"^
concentrations. Thus, DMSO (Fig. 3, Table II) and
ethanol (Table III) produced opposite effects on
both phenylalanine and isoleucine incorporation.

Discussion

Although Wacker and Mohrbutter (21) have
previously reported that 10% DMSO stimulated
phenylalanine incorporation in a poly U system at
10 niM MgA the effect of different DMSO, Mg^^,
and STR concentrations and combinations on phen¬
ylalanine incorporation and misreading were not in¬
vestigated. The results presented in this report sug¬
gest that DMSO has certain unique effects on a
poly U-directed system from E. coli K-12. In con¬
trast to the general inhibition observed with ethanol
and STR, DMSO stimulated phenylalanine incorpo¬
ration at suboptimal Mg"^ and was inhibitory only at
optimal and supraoptimal Mg'^'^ concentrations. These
observations indicate that DMSO and Mg"* act
synergistically at the ribosomal level. This interpre¬
tation is consistent with the similarly observed effects
of increasing concentrations of DMSO and Mg** on
isoleucine incorporation.

The levels of misreading observed with STR and
ethanol in these studies were somewhat lower than
those reported by other investigators (16, 19, 20).
Our lower values might reflect a competitive effect
between the labeled isoleucine and the relatively high
concentration of tyrosine, serine, and leucine pres¬
ent in the incubation mixture (16). The possibility
that the higher innate level of isoleucine incorporation
in our system masked small levels of DMSO-induced
misreading cannot be excluded.

Since STR specifically interacts with the 30 S rib¬
osomal subunit (16, 17, 22, 23), the antagonistic
effect of DMSO on STR inhibition and ambiguity
might reflect a DMSO-induced conformational change
in the 30 S ribosomal component. However, the
synergistic relationship between Mg** and DMSO in¬
dicates that the effects of DMSO are not necessarily
limited to a single site, and that the varied effects of
Mg** would be mimicked by DMSO. Thus, it seems
likely that DMSO might cause a variety of confor¬
mational changes in ribosomes and affect the as¬
sociation-dissociation of the 30 S-50 S subunits of
the poly U-ribosomal subunits.

The ability of DMSO to stimulate phenylalanine
incorporation, reverse the inhibitory effects of STR
at suboptimal Mg** concentrations and reduce mis¬
reading at optimal or higher Mg** concentrations
appears to be a unique property not observed with
other solvents (19, 20). In conjunction wtih previous
findings that DMSO can affect the phenotypic ex¬
pression of STR resistance and dependence and the
recent report by Momose and Gorini (23) that the
ribosomal component coded by the Str A locus is
not the specific site of STR action, it is conceivable
that the allelic change associated with STR resistance
and dependence genotypes might result in a reduced

intracellular Mg** concentration concomitant with
the altered 30 S ribosomal protein (22). Regardless
of the causative or consequential role a reduced
intracellular Mg** concentration might play in the
expression of STR resistance and dependence, the ex¬
istence of a Mg** deficiency in these genotypes might
be reflected in the differential response of sensitive,
resistant and dependent cells to STR in media con¬
taining various Mg** concentrations ( 17 ) .

Acknowledgments

This investigation was supported by the National
Institutes of Health General Research Support Grant
1S01FR5697 to the School of Pharmacy, Medical
College of Virginia and by the A. D. Williams In¬
stitutional Research Support Funds, Medical College
of Virginia.

W. E. Feldman was supported by the National
Institutes of Health Training Grant 5T01A1 00382.

REFERENCES

1. Leake, C. D. (Editor), Biological Actions of Dimethyl-
sulfoxide, Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci., 141, 1 (1967).

2. Fowler, A. V., and Zabin, I., /. Bact., 92, 353 0966).

3. Perlman, R. L., and Wolff, J., Science, N. Y., 160, 317
(1968).

4. Technical Bulletin, Dimethylstdf oxide, Crown-Zeller-
bach Corp., Camas, Washington, 1962.

5. Ansel, H. C., Norred, W. P., and Roth, I. L., /. Pharm.
Sci., 58, 836 (1969).

6. Basch, M., and Gadebausch, H. H., Appl. Microbiol.,
16, 1953 ( 1968).

7. Kligman, A. M., J. Am. Med. Ass., 193, 923 (1965).

8. Pottz, G. E., Rampey, J. A., and Benjamin, F., Ann.
N. Y. Acad. Sci., 141, 261 (1967).

9. Holden, P. C., and Punch, J. D., Va J. Sci., 19, 208
(1968).

10. Holden, P. C., and Punch, J. D., Bact. Proc., p. 138
(1969).

11. Davis, B. D., and Mingiolli, E. S., J. Bact., 60, 17
(1950).

12. Anderson, W. F., Gorini, L., and Breckenrldge, L.,
Proc. natn. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 54, 1076 (1965).

13. Lowry, O. H., Rosebrough, N. J., Farr, A. L., and
Randall, R. J., J. biol. Chem., 193, 265 (1951).

14. Mans, R. J., and Novelli, G. D., Archs Biochem.
Biophys., 94, 48 (1961).

15. Chase, G. D., and Rabinowitz, J. L., Principles of
Radioisotope Methodology, 2nd ed., Burgess Publishing
Co., Minneapolis, Minn., 1962.

16. Davies, J., Gilbert, W., and Gorini, L., Proc. natn.
Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 51, 883 (1964).

17. Jacoby, G. A., and Gorini, L., in D. Gottlieb, and
P. D. Shaw (Editors), Antibiotics I. Mechanisms of
Action, Springer-Verlag, New York, 1967, p. 726.

18. Pestka, S., J. biol. Chem., 241, 367 (1966).

19. So, A. G., and Davie, E. W., Biochemistry, 3, 1165
(1964).

20. So, A. G., and Davie, E. W., ibid., 4, 1973 (1965).

21. Wacker, A., and Mohrbutter, K. P., Naturwissenschaften,
54, 90 (1967).

22. Traub, P., and Nomura, M., Science, N. Y., 160, 198
(1968).

23. Momose, H., and Gorini, L., Genetics, 67, 19 (1971).

20

The Virginia Journal of Science

Richard J. Kramer

Assistant Professor of Botany and Ecology
Mary Baldwin College
Staunton, Virginia 24401
Received January 17 , 1972

Mapping the Seasons in Virginia-You Can Help

Have you ever wondered why the seasons of the
year and attendant plant responses differed in differ¬
ent parts of our state and the country? Your answer
may be “Yes, but that’s obvious, it’s north or south
of here;” or, . . everyone knows tide-water isn’t
the same as the mountains.” The seasons we are
familiar with are mainly temperature and day length
phenomena caused by different positions of the earth
in relation to the sun. The seasons have been a very
dominant force through eons of time, influencing
the evolution of our ecosystems and the organisms
that live in them.

The International Biological Program (IBP) is
now correlating ecological investigations gathering
information on biological phenomena as they occur
in the different major life regions (biomes) of the
world. Virginia is only one state in many located in
the Eastern Deciduous Forest Biome; many research¬
ers are contributing a wide variety of data to this
biome phase of the project, from all over the eastern
United States, to the project headquarters at Oak
Ridge National Laboratories, Oak Ridge, Tennessee.
Here in Virginia I am conducting and directing a
state-wide compilation of phenological data in co¬
operation with IBP and also with colleagues at the
University of North Carolina where the computeri¬
zation of data is being accomplished. More specifi¬
cally I am attempting to plot the seasons, especially
the onset of Spring and Fall. Phenology deals with
the timing and understanding of the appearances of
various life events (birth to death) in individuals and
communities of organisms as related to environmental
rhythms and variations, basically climate.

Dogwood {Cornus florida'L.) and Redbud (Cercis
canadensis L.) flowering times have been determined
to be the most obvious and also the largest indicators
of the arrival of spring in our area — so obvious in
fact that remote sensing from airplane or satellite
would not be impossible after more concentrated
ground studies are completed. Red Maple (Acer rub-
rum L.) will be added to these spring data during
future observations. The arrival of fall is being
judged by the timing of leaf coloration on the Red
Maple and Tulip Poplar (Liriodendron tulipifera
L.) trees. I will be attempting to correlate these
events of nature with many climatic parameters, such
as day length, temperature, latitude, altitude, and
others, but only if I collect an adequate quantity of
data (and this is where all Virginians can help).

There are very few consistent phenological reports
from this part of the United States from which to
draw significant conclusions to date. I am just com¬
pleting compilation of the first year’s data in Virginia
thanks to the help and cooperation of a network of
just over 500 observers from almost all parts of the
state. These 500 are the responses received from
some 3600 letters sent out in early spring 1971, to
VPI county extension agents, Virginia Federation of
Garden Clubs, Mary Baldwin Alumnae in the state.
University, College, and High School biology and/or
botany departments and selected biologists and
botanists of the Virginia Academy of Science. Uni¬
versity of North Carolina ecologists started a network
of observers two years ago, to collect similar phe¬
nological data. Their data and our data will be more
and more meaningful as the size of the area sampled
and quantity of samples per area continues to ex¬
pand.

The phenological data and known environmental
parameters are computer programmed and mapped
for the entire state; therefore, it is absolutely essential
that our data be as accurate and complete — from all
parts of the state — as possible. Although there were
gaps in the Spring 1971 data (Fig. 1), the 500 re¬
plies were adequate enough to enable construction of
isophene maps (Fig. 2, 3). The number of data
responses per county for redbud were not quite as
numerous as for the dogwood; therefore, the number
of counties (nineteen) with no recorded data for
redbud was greater than the ten counties left blank
for dogwood. Meaningful statistical analysis can not
be accomplished until the responses returned total
at least ten per county per season. As all of us know,
the climate and seasons can and do vary each year;
therefore, I would like to determine a five-year aver¬
age for each species being studied. This should give
reliable enough data to determine the relationships
of spring flowering and fall coloration to specific
environmental parameters throughout the state. By
having both spring and fall data I can also determine
the length of the growing seasons. The fall data were
only just arriving in Staunton at the writing of this
report, but appear to be a much lighter response than
during the spring. We will need added interest and
effort during coming fall seasons to gather adequate
data statewide.

Our most meaningful data to date are mapped
and shown in figure 4. Here the dogwood and redbud

Mapping the Seasons in Virginia

21

data have been combined and mapped. The southern
boundary of this particular phenology map matches
almost perfectly the northern boundary of the North
Carolina phenology map, even with our data gaps.
Again, this should be expected, but we have been
able to show it quantitatively from two states with
a common boundary, whose maps were constructed
independently of each other.

I would like to take this opportunity to thank each
individual who provided me with information for his
area this past year. I can not thank everyone person¬
ally or enough but several people merit special recog¬
nition for their efforts during the spring of 1971, as

Fig. 2 — Estimated arrival of spring 1971 based on the
average flowering dates per county of dogwood (Cornus
florida) throughout the state of Virginia. Data value ex¬
tremes are April 9 to May 19.

they either sent in more than one report, or organized
their own group of observers and duplicated my
response form: Michael Bowman, B. F. D. Runk,
U. Va. Biology Department (Albemarle); H. A.
Holmes (Amelia); E. Sprague, Sweet Briar College;
Pamela von Tassele (Amherst); Charlisie B. Taran-
tola, Oak Ridge Elementary School; Josephine E.
Wood, Groveton High School (Arlington) ; James W.
Engle, Jr.; Samuel Foster (Augusta); Frank Hotz,
E. C. Glass High School; William H. Jenkins, Vir¬
ginia Episcopal School (Bedford, Campbell); Twink
Lewis, Hollins College (Botetourt); Lee Marshall,

22

The Virginia Journal of Science

Fig. 3 — Estimated arrival of spring 1971 based on the
average flowering dates per county of redbud {Cercis
canadensis) throughout the state of Virginia. Data value
extremes are March 31 to May 2.

SVCC, (Buchanan, Tazewell); Elizabeth Phillips,
Altavista High School Biology class; Bill Sladys
(Campbell) ; Mrs. A. T. Brooks (Chesterfield) ; Mrs.
Rice Levi, High School class (Clarke) ; Mrs. Charles
H. Dick (Frederick and others); Mrs. Wellford L.
Sanders (Henrico) ; Mrs. Thomas L. Grove (King
and Queen, Essex); Elizabeth Harris, Jonesville 9th
grade General Science class (Lee); R. B. Shaw
(Louisa); G. T. Dewey, Woodberry Forest School
(Madison) ; Christchurch School Science class (Mid¬
dlesex) ; P. P. Feret, V.P.I. SU Forestry and Wildlife;
L. J. Uttal, V.P.I. SU Biology Department (Mont¬

gomery) ; B. Lloyd Nice, Denbigh High School
(Newport News) ; Mrs. B. Lee Kagey (Rockbridge) ;
Bridgewater College Botany class (Rockingham);
Mrs. Edward S. Taylor, Weber S. Taylor (Stafford
and King George); Jeffrey Barr, Freddie Fink, Shep
Fleet, Stephen A. Henderson, H. B. Hunter, III,
Frank MacConochie, Randy Perrie (Virginia Beach) ;
G. E. Treadwell, Jr., Emory and Henry College Bi¬
ology Department (Washington) and Suzanne K.
Tolson (Westmoreland). Special thanks must also
go to the personnel of the University of North Caro¬
lina botany department, especially Mr. Richard
Reader, who produced the maps of our data with
their computer. This initial phase of the project was
also partially funded by Mary Baldwin College,
Staunton, Virginia.

Dogwood and Redbud flowering isophenes (zones
of similar or close ranging dates) are very similar on
the Virginia map, showing the expected northwest¬
ward progression of flowering dates. Spring arrives
first in Virginia Beach and last in the West to North¬
west mountains. Although this is not news to most
of us as observers this is the first statewide quantifi¬
cation of this type of data which makes it very excit¬
ing. The success of the method of collecting large
amounts of meaningful and scientifically useful data
from a corps of such cooperative volunteers is truly
noteworthy. Isolated deviations from the isophenes
can usually be explained by the lack of replies from
that particular area. Even present flowering patterns
seem to indicate a strong quantitative relationship
between elevation and geographical location of an
area and its flowering dates.

County data composed of fewer than ten responses
were not considered statistically sound for use in any
correlation analyses. Because of their similarities,
dogwood and redbud data were combined to provide
county average flowering dates. Thirty Virginia coun¬
ties did have ten or more data responses (dogwood
plus redbud). These data were used in linear regres¬
sion analyses between average altitude of trees sam¬
pled and their flowering dates (Fig. 5). Two linear
regression equations — A) for counties north of 37°
30' N, and B) for counties south of 37°30'N — ex¬
press the relationships between altitude and flowering
dates better than one equation for all counties.

A. Flowering Date

= (.0048) (elevation in feet) + 108.62

B. Flowering Date

= (.0056) (elevation in feet) + 102.88

The two equations each come closer to predicting
the actual flowering dates within the northern and
southern portions of the state respectively than when
one equation is used for the entire state. A statistic
(coirelation coefficients), which will become even
more meaningful with additional data and environ¬
mental parameters, proved interesting already with
our limited data pool.

Correlation coefficient* Flowering date vs. altitude

.55 counties north of 37 °30' N

.84 counties south of 37 °30' N

* (value of 1.0 would indicate perfect correlation)

Mapping the Seasons in Virginia

23

5 S = BOS S S
OOB: O z

ooommr^omz
OOOOOt-OW:
00 0 00 00»-0»r
OOOOOOCOCOOBr

oocoooooooooo*=
oooooooocoooa= =

OOOOOcOOOOOO*= =
OOOOO .OOOOOBr = =
OOOOOcOOoOOBs = =
OOCOOcmOOOOcBs = r
OOOOf-OOoCB: z z z
OOOOoOCoOWr z z z
OOOOOOOOB: z z z
OOOOOOH= z z z z
OOinOOCB= z z z z
OOO «OC«= z z z z z
BBOcDOB: :

s = = ; r :

OOOO’3OO»-OOOO0= s = s r !
0000000000000= = :
OOOOOOOOOOO0: OS ~ ■
OOOOOOoOOOOiP .= = :

0000000000005 = :
* * 0OOOOOOO»~= - ■
***00riOOOO0s z ;
****0OOOOO0s :
■***•* 0OOOC0S :
***** 000005 :

■ COO05

» ir*

■ COC0S s
.«*»0OO0: z
r* * 0OCBS s z
-'*« 00005 5 5
-* * 0005 5 S e
t * 0CCB5 r C. II
t * 0005 : 0uoa
t 00005 5 0 « II
OOC 0= 5 0X II
005 5 5 0O II

sooc*

BOnCoOr

: 0C:OOU-)OO0= 5 5 = 550
OOOO .CO0=5C5550
COCOOC05 5 ins 5 5 5 I

OC<NOOO05 •S5 = = 55n55S5 = 55S = S55C.5: = 5
O«-OOO05 a-Z = 55555555555 00= 5 5 5 iTI 5 5 5 5
000005 .-5 5 = 5555 05 555 00-00= 5 5 .5 5 5 5
00005 r-5 5 5 5 5 5 50= 5 5 0Oir)OO0= 5 <^5 5 5 5
000005 55555- .5 5 0OC »OOW= = .-5 5 5 5

00000000000^5 0CCO«COB5 5 .-5 5 5 5
OOOCOOOOOO.- 0OOOC.-CCM5 5 5 5 5 5 5
nOOOOC.-COCOC.-OOW= 5 5 5 5 5 5
COCOOOOOOOOOOOOCB5 5 5 5 5 5 5
OOCCOCOOOCOCCCCCC05 5 5 = 5 5
COCc.OOOCOoOc.OOOOo05 5 5 5 = 5
OOCOCOOCCOC.COOOO05 5 5 5 5 5
OO .OOOCOOO *00000005 5 5 5 5

onocooooocc 00000005 s = s =

OfMOCOOOOO.-OOOOCOC00S 5 5

O.-OCOOOO0.-COOOCOOCOO= =
OOOOCOCCs 0000000000000
OOCCOO0005 5 = 5 0COOCCOCO
COOC05 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 0OCOOOOC
CC05 = 5555555 0OOOCOOC
005 5 C.5 5 5 5 5C0OOOOOOO
5 5 5 05 5 5 5 5 C0OOOOOOO
= 55 *5 5555 «0oOOOOOO

5 5 5 3-5 5 5 = 5 r-0OOOOOCC
555 .-= 555 = .-0OOOOOOO
05 5 .-5 5 5 5 0.-OCOOOOOO
000005 00OOOOOOOOOO
OOCOOC0COOOOOOOOOOC
OOOOOOOOCOCOOOOOOCC
OOOOOOOOOOOOCOOOOOOO
OOOOCOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO
OOOOOOOOOOCOOOOOOOOO
OOOCOc OOOOCOOOOOOO0O
000001^000000000000= 0
OOOO .00000000000005
OOOO<NOOOOOOOOO0= = 5

3883?i333333as?ill =

LU

DEPT. OF BOTANY

U. OF NORTH CAROLINA

Fig. 4 Estimated arrival of spring 1971 based on the combined average flowering dates per county of dogwood (Conius floridd) and redbud (Cercis canadensis) throughout the state of Virginia.

COUNTIES BELOW 37° 30'

(16) «ONTGOMERY

(17) R0AN0KE

(18) BEDF0HD

(19) CAMPBELL

(20) CHESTEHPIELD

(23) BLAND

(24) NEWPORT NEWS

(25) LEE

(26) WASHINGTON

(27) HENHI

(28) PITTSYLVANIA

(29) CHESAPEAKE

(30) VA. BEACH

2400 r

2200

2000 h

1000

1600

1400 -

1200 h

1000

ELEVATION (FEET)

800 F

600 F

400 F

200 F

COUNTIES ABOVE 37'

1) FREDERICK
( 2)CLARKE
( 3)FAIHFAX
( 4) ARLINGTON
5) ROCKINGHAM

( 9) ORANGE

(10) ALBEMARLE

(11 ) LOUISA

(12) WESTM0RELAND

(13) ROCKBRIDGE

(14) HAN0VER

(15) AMHERST

(21 ) HENRICO

(22) MIDDLESEX

30 ^

0 1 - 0-0^

100

105 110 115

FLOWERING DATES (YEAR DAYS)

2

I

120

Fig. 5 — Results of two linear regression equations, expressing graphically the relationship between combined average flowering date
of dogwood-redbud and elevation, based on the average county flowering dates reported in 1971.

The very high correlation between the two param¬
eters in the southern counties could be a reflection
of a greater range of values (from east to west across
the state) in the south than in the north, at least for
the counties that provided enough data for these
analyses.

You may also be interested in knowing that our
Virginia data have already been used as an integral
part of a phenology map for the entire eastern United
States. Even though North Carolina has two years
of data to our one, we already have the same quantity
they do. The difference between Dogwood and Red¬
bud combined average flowering dates and Lilac
flowering dates for three West Virginia locations and

one in Pennsylvania, has been reported by other
researchers as being only 2 to 5 days. With the above
information the North Carolina Phenology team
plotted New England lilac flowering data along
with Dogwood-Redbud data from North Carolina
and Virginia and limited data from Florida, Ala¬
bama, Georgia, Tennessee, Kentucky, Mississippi,
South Carolina, West Virginia, Ohio, Indiana, and
Pennsylvania to produce an eastern United States
spring phenology map. The more we know about
the accuracy and reliability of data from our Vir¬
ginia and North Carolina intensive studies, the more
we can use widespread small amounts of data to
give us a broader picture and understanding of what

Mapping the Seasons in Virginia

25

IS happening when with the seasons. By acquiring
all these quantitative data our goal as ecologists is
to be better able to understand what is happening
naturally in our biome area, therefore making it pos¬
sible to more effectively manage our natural resources
by gearing man and his activities toward a closer dy¬
namic balance with his surrounding ecosystems.

If you are among those who previously submitted
completed response forms, or have already indicated
an interest in helping, you are on the mailing list
and will be receiving seasonal forms for future use.
If you have not as yet participated in my program,
I would very much appreciate your help by, 1 ) com¬

pleting and returning response forms you may al¬
ready have, 2) sending me your name and address,
3) telling friends and neighbors who also can help
to broaden our data pool. Those already helping
should also try to spread the word. I will be happy
to furnish as many response forms as you require,
with instructions for observations, or you can dupli¬
cate the forms. We must collect data from all coun¬
ties, and as many different localities within them,
as possible. You do not have to restrict yourself
to the locality nearest you, as long as you can collect
reliable information.

26

The Virginia Journal of Science

Communications and Reports

VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

Summary of Council Meeting*

November 7, 1971

Council was convened at 10:30 A.M. in New¬
comb Hall on the campus of the University of Vir¬
ginia, President Turner presiding. Minutes of the
Council Meeting of May 14, 1971, were read and
approved. President Turner informed Council of
past problems involved with the academy’s account¬
ing firm (see minutes of the Executive Committee
meeting of September 26, 1971). President Turner
represented the Academy at the inauguration of the
new President of the University of Richmond. Mem¬
bers of the Academy have received an invitation,
by way of President Turner, to attend the coming
annual meeting of the West Virginia Academy of
Science. The President also notified Couneil of his
plans to revamp and revitalize the relations of the
Academy with the state’s Business Community.

Treasurer’s Report

Mr. Grigg informed Council concerning the Execu¬
tive Committee’s action in closing the checking ac¬
count of the Virginia Museum of Science Committee
and opening an account in the name of the Commit¬
tee on Conservation and Natural Resources (see
minutes of the Executive Committee, September 26,
1971).

Awards Committee

There was no report. President Turner requested
the chairman of this Committee to initiate a thorough
study regarding the procedures involved in the nomi¬
nation and election of Fellows.

Constitution and Bylaws Committee

Mr. Midyette, Chairman, reported that the new
Constitution and Bylaws, approved by the Academy,
have been published in the Virginia Journal of Sci¬
ence (22, 21, 1971). In accordance with the new
Bylaws President Turner appointed Mr. Midyette to
serve as parliamentarian until May 5, 1972.

Finance Committee

The Chairman of the Finance Committee was un¬
able to attend. A tentative budget was submitted,
however, with the understanding that an official
budget would be presented to the Executive Coun¬
cil on December 10, 1971. After some discussion
President Turner ruled that Council had to approve
the 1972 budget; approval by the Executive Com¬
mittee was not sufficient. Mr. Paul Siegel moved that
until the next Council Meeting the Academy should
operate at a level commensurate with the budget of
1971. This motion was seconded by Mr. E. L. Wis-
man. After a lengthy discussion a substitute mo¬
tion was offered by Mr. E. S. Harlow and seconded
by Mr. J. Midyette. Mr. Harlow moved that the

* Abbreviated by the Editor from minutes provided by the Secre¬
tary, Garnett R. Brooks, Jr.

budget prepared by the Finance Committee meet¬
ing on November 29, 1971, be presented to the
Executive Council which in turn will canvass the
members of Council and, if this budget is approved
by Council it will be in effect until the Council
Meeting in March, 1972. Motion passed with no
dissenting votes.

Virginia Junior Academy of Science

Mr. Wisman reported that the next V.J.A.S. meet¬
ing in Lexington will follow the same format as the
previous meeting. Mr. Wisman also informed Coun¬
cil of possible financial problems in coming years due
to a reduction of funds from N.S.F. This informa¬
tion led to a general discussion of the financial con¬
dition of the Academy and resulted in a recommen¬
dation from Council that the budget requested by
V.J.A.S. for 1972 not be reduced.

Long Range Planning

Mr. Ulrich reported that the committee is study¬
ing the involvement of Junior and Community Col¬
lege scientists in the Academy. The committee is
also interested in finding feasible means to accumu¬
late, store, and quickly retrieve basic data regarding
membership, attendance at meetings, ete.

Membership Committee

A written report of this committee is attached to
the official minutes. In general, the committee will at¬
tempt to canvass all institutions of higher learning in
the state for potential candidates for membership.

Research Committee

Mr. Flint recommended to Council the following
guide-lines:

a) Grant requests will be acted upon on three
dates during a year — January 15, April 15,
and September 15.

b) A grant request must be approved by an of¬
ficial of the applicant’s institution (for exam¬
ple — Head of Department, Dean of Faculty).

c) A written report upon completion of the re¬
search shall be required from each recipient.

d) The grant request must contain a reasonably
detailed budget.

Following Mr. Flint’s report, Mr. Carpenter
moved and Mr. Midyette seconded that Council
authorize the Research Committee to implement the
above described guide-lines in regard to research
grant requests. These guide-lines are to be published
in the Journal of the Virginia Academy of Science.

As of January 1, 1972, Mr. Flint will resign from
the Research Committee and President Turner will
appoint someone to fill Mr. Flint’s unfinished term.
President Turner will designate Mr. N. F. Murphy as
Chairman and if Mr. Murphy is not able to serve in
this capacity the President will appoint an Acting
Chairman.

Communications and Reports

27

Finance and Endowment
Mr. B. Bruner has suggested (Executive Meeting
Minutes, September 26, 1971), that the fee charged
for the audit of trust funds be paid from the trust
funds instead of from the general fund of the Acad¬
emy. Mr. Midyette moved and Mr. Ulrich seconded
that this suggestion be studied by the Finanee and
Endowment Committee. Motion passed without dis¬
sent.

Conservation and Natural Resources

Mr. Hughes reported that the subject of their next
committee meeting will be “the problems coneern-
ing the wetlands of Virginia.”

Virginia Museum of Science

A written report of the Ad Hoe Committee on the
Virginia Museum of Science is attached to the official
minutes. Mr. Carpenter moved and Mr. Harlow sec¬
onded that Council accept the first recommendation
of the Ad Hoe Committee. After much discussion
this motion was withdrawn by its sponsors. Mr.
Bradley then moved and Mr. Clarke seconded that
“The Museum of Science Committee reeommends
that the V.A.S. Couneil reaffirm its support of the
Virginia Science Museum and that V.A.S. members
be encouraged to support the Museum in whatever
ways are appropriate.” This motion passed unani¬
mously. Mr. Hughes then moved and Mr. Grigg sec¬
onded that a letter informing the Board of Trustees
of the Virginia Museum of Science of the above
motion be "sent to the Board’s Chairman. Motion
passed unanimously.

Mr. Carpenter moved and Mr. Bradley seconded
that Council accept the second recommendation of
the Ad Hoc Committee. Mr. Siegel moved to amend
the motion by deleting the words “fifteen minutes”;
Mr. Ragone seconded. Motion to amend was passed.
The amended motion was passed unanimously and
reads as follows:

The Museum of Science Committee recommends
that each section of the Academy be encouraged
to have a paper at the May 1972 meeting de¬
signed to:

a) inform all of its section members about the
Museum plan and its connection with that par¬
ticular section,

b) solicit the formation of advisory groups from
individual sections to assist the museum board
in planning appropriate exhibits, areas, and
activities in each of the Academy’s areas of
expertise.

Mr. Carpenter moved and Mr. Morrow seconded
that Council accept the third recommendation of the
Ad Hoc Committee. Motion passed with three dis¬
senting votes and reads as follows:

The Museum of Science Committee recommends
that Council authorize the Executive Committee to
approve the expenditure of a portion of the Mu¬
seum Fund which remains (about $1270) for

preparation and printing of an informational
packet on the museum to be distributed by the
Academy to various Academy members, women’s
groups, and other possible supporters or bene¬
factors of the museum.

Local Arrangements Conimiftee

Mr. Carpenter reported that a tentative program
for both the V.A.S. and V.J.A.S. had been arranged
and that preparations for the eoming meeting were
progressing nicely. Mr. Midyette moved and Mr.
Clarke seconded that the Executive Committee be
authorized to provide sufficient funds for the use of
the Local Arrangements Committee in preparation
for the annual meeting in Lexington. Motion passed
unanimously.

Registration Fee

Mr. Midyette moved and Mr. Whitehead seconded
that Council accept the recommendation from the
Executive Committee that the standard registration
fee for the 1972 meeting be set at $4.00 and the pre¬
registration fee be set at $3.00. Motion passed unani¬
mously.

Visiting Scientists

Mr. Clarke released a list of scientists who have
volunteered their serviees to high sehools (a copy is
attached to the official minutes).

Section Report — Geology

Geology section members recently held a Virginia
Field Conference in association with interested High
School teachers. One of the highlights of this meet¬
ing was a visit to Nelson County to inspect the flood
areas.

Non-Commercial Exhibitors

Mr. Siegel moved and Mr. Whitehead seconded
that Council accept the recommendation from the
Exeeutive Committee allowing non-commercial in¬
stitutions to exhibit at the annual meeting for a fee
of $50.00. Motion passed without dissent.

New Business

In response to a request from Mr. L. Morrow, Mr.
Carpenter moved and Mr. Midyette seconded that
“Mr. Morrow is hereby granted permission by Coun¬
cil to extract selected material from The James River
Basin (under copyright to the Virginia Academy of
Science) to be distributed with no fee by the Math-
Science Center.” Motion passed unanimously.

The date for the next Council Meeting was set
for March, 1972, in Charlottesville, Virginia.

Notice of Death

Mr. John Mahan of Lynchburg College died on
October 31, 1971.

28

The Virginia Journal of Science

VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
OFFICERS, MEMBERS OF COUNCIL, COMMITTEES— 1971-72

EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE

President

Edward F. Turner, Jr.

Chairman, Physics Department
Washington and Lee University
Lexington, Virginia 24450
Tel. 463-91 iT Ext. 266 (Office)
463-2220 (Home)

President-Elect

Franklin F. Flint
Department of Biology
Randolph-Macon Woman’s College
Box 309

Lynchburg, Virginia 24505
Tel. 846-7392 Ext. 432 (Office)
384-1254 (Home)

Secretary

G. R. Brooks
Department of Biology
College of William and Mary
Williamsburg, Virginia 23185
Tel. 229-3000 Ext. 240 (Office)
229-6043 (Home)

Past-President

Maurice B. Rowe
Commissioner, Va. Department of
Agriculture and Commerce
Box 1163

Richmond, Virginia 23219
Tel. 770-3501 (Office)

272-2494 (Home)

Treasurer

Austin E. Grigg
Dean, Richmond College
University of Richmond
Richmond, Virginia 23173
Tel. 288-1921 Ext. 70 (Office)
272-0739 (Home)

Executive Secretary-Treasurer

Blanton M. Bruner
Virginia Academy of Science
P. O. Box 8454
Richmond, Virginia 23226
Tel. 282-9581 (Office)

282-1838 (Home)

COUNCIL MEVIBERS

Executive Committee (see above)

Chairmen of Standing Committees

Past Presidents

Paul B. Siegel (1969)

Department of Poultry Husbandry
Va. Polytechnic Institute & State Univ.
Blacksburg, Virginia 24061
Tel. 552-6472 (Office)

282-5318 (Home)

D. Rae Carpenter, Jr. (1970)

Chairman, Department of Physics
Virginia Military Institute
Lexington, Virginia 24450
Tel. 463-3151 (Office)

463-4948 (Home)

Editor of the Virginia Journal of Science

Lynn D. Abbott
Biochemistry Department
Virginia Commonwealth University
Richmond, Virginia 23219
Tel. 770-4405 (Office)

282-7766 (Home)

Section Representatives

A qriciiltural Sciences
t1 G. Copeland, Jr. (1974)
203 N. Governor Street
Room 304

Richmond, Virginia 23219
Biology

Warwick West (1972),

Biology Department
University of Richmond
Richmond, Virginia 23220

Chemistry

Randolph N. Gladding (1972)
4600 Cutshaw Avenue
Richmond, Virginia 23230

Astronomy, Mathematics & Physics
Alex M. Clarke (1974)

Department of Biophysics
Box 877, MCV Station
Richmond, Virginia 23219

Academy Officers and Committees

29

Botany

Leonard O. Morrow (1973)

RFD 1, Box 482
Sandston, Virginia 23150

Engineering

Stanley Ragone (1972)

Virginia Electric and Power Co.
402 Lakeway Court
Richmond, Virginia 23229
Tel. 771-3000 (Office)

Geology

Harry W. Webb, Jr. (1973)

Va. Division of Mineral Resources
P. O. Box 3667
Charlottesville, Virginia 22903

Medical Sciences
Charles H. O’Neal (1973)

Virginia Commonwealth University
Box 877, MCV Station
Richmond, Virginia 23219

Psychology

Kenneth A. Blick (1973)

9511 Ridgefield Road
Richmond, Virginia 23229

Space Science & Technology

Ralph A. Lowry (1974)

Dept, of Aerospace Engineering
University of Virginia
Charlottesville, Virginia 22901

Materials Science
J. L. Lytton (1974)

Dept, of Metals and Ceramic Eng.
V. P. I. and S. U.

Blacksburg, Virginia 24060

Microbiology

S. Gaylen Bradley (1972)

Virginia Commonwealth University
Box 27, MCV Station
Richmond, Virginia 23219

Science Teachers

Miss Leslie Watkins (1974)

208 N. Braffex Street
Salem, Virginia 24153

Statistics

Clyde Y. Kramer (1973)
Department of Statistics
V. P. I. and S. U.

Blacksburg, Virginia 24061

AWARDS COMMITTEE

George W. Jeffers (1972)
Route 6, Box 206
Farmville, Virginia 23901
Tel. 392-4651 (Home)

W. D. Whitehead, Chairman (1974)

Dean, Graduate School
444 Cabell Hall
University of Virginia
Charlottesville, Virginia 22903
Tel. 924-3437 (Office)

Roscoe D. Hughes (1973)

Genetics Department (MCV)
Virginia Commonwealth University
Richmond, Virginia 23219
Tel. 770-4133 (Office)

746-5387 (Home)

CONSTITUTION and BY-LAWS COMMITTEE

J. W. Midyette, Jr., Chairman (1972)
Department of Agriculture & Commerce
203 North Governor Street
Richmond, Virginia 23219
Tel. 770-3535 (Office)

Wade J. Temple (1974)
Chairman, Physics Department
Randolph-Macon College
Ashland, Virginia 23005
Tel. 798-8372 Ext. 249 (Office)

FINANCE and ENDOWMENT COMMITTEE

Boyd Harshbarger, Chairman (1974)
Statistics Department
V. P. I. and S. U.

Blacksburg, Virginia 24061
Tel. 552-6566 (Office)

30

The Virginia Journal of Science

D. Rae Carpenter (1974)
Department of Physics
Virginia Military Institute
Lexington, Virginia 24450
Tel. 463-3151 (Office)

463-4948 (Home)

E. S. Harlow (1974)

American Tobacco Company
Virginia Branch, P. O. Box 1798
Richmond, Virginia 23214

Tel. 643-5341 (Office)

282-5318 (Home)

R. D. Hughes (1973)

Genetics Department (MCV)
Virginia Commonwealth University
Richmond, Virginia 23219
Tel. 770-4133 (Office)

746-5387 (Home)

W. T. Thompson, III (1973)
c/o Scott and Stringfellow
P. O. Box 1575
Richmond, Virginia 23213
Tel. 643-1811 (Office)

784-5736 (Home)

JUNIOR

Dorothy C. Bliss (1974)
Department of Biology
Randolph-Macon Woman’s College
Lynchburg, Virginia 24504
Tel. 846-7392 Ext. 393 (Office)
845-5665 (Home)

A. B. Niemeyer, Jr. (1974)
Supervisor of Science
Portsmouth Public Schools
253 Constitution Avenue
Portsmouth, Virginia 23704
Tel. 393-8884 (Office)

484-4162 (Home)

Margaret L. Duncan (1974)
Liberty High School
Route 1

Bedford, Virginia 24523
Tel. 586-1017 (Office)

586-9003 (Home)

Ruth Opp (1974)

W. T. Woodson High School
9525 E. Main Street
Fairfax, Virginia 22030
Tel. 273-0911 (Office)

560-3444 (Home)

D. S. Sears (1973)

P. O. Box 677
Richmond, Virginia 23208
Tel. 646-7611 (Office)
288-5679 (Home)

Paul B. Siegel (1973)

Dept, of Poultry Husbandry
V. P. 1. and S. U.
Blacksburg, Virginia 24061
Tel. 643-5341 (Office)
282-5318 (Home)

Edwin Cox (1972)
Holly Hill

Aylett, Virginia 23009

W. S. Woolcott (1972)

Biology Department
University of Richmond
Richmond, Virginia 23173
Tel. 285-6275 (Office)

282-4947 (Home)

ACADEMY OF SCIENCE COMMITTEE

E. L. Wisman, Chairman (1972)

Department of Poultry Science
V. P. I. and S. U.

Blacksburg, Virginia 24061
Tel. 552-6365 (Office)

552-4881 (Home)

Bruce K. Goodwin (1974)
Department of Geology
College of William and Mary
Williamsburg, Virginia 23185
Tel. 229-2712 (Office)
229-2712 (Home)

William H. Sharpe (1974)
Menchville High School
275 Menchville Road
Newport News, Virginia 23602
Tel. 877-9296 (Office)
595-6888 (Home)

Harold M. Bell (1973)
Department of Chemistry
V. P. 1. and S. U.

Blacksburg, Virginia 24061
Tel. 552-6417 (Office)
552-2923 (Home)

Jean E. Pugh (1973)
Department of Biology
Christopher Newport College
Newport News, Virginia 23601
Tel. 596-7611 (Office)
624-5172 (Home)

Academy Officers and Committees

31

Marvin W. Scott (1973)

Dept, of Natural Sciences
Longwood College
Farmville, Virginia 23901
Tel. 392-5667 (Office)

392-5353 (Home)

Virginia C. Ellett (1973)
Mathematics & Science Center
2200 Mountain Road
Glen Allen, Virginia 23060
Tel. 262-8643 (Office)

359-5545 (Home)

Vera B. Remsburg (1973)

Herndon High School
Herndon, Virginia 22070
Tel. 437-6800 (Office)

437-1445 (Home)

Ertle Thompson (1973)

Dept, of Curriculum & Instruction
Peabody Hall Annex
University of Virginia
Charlottesville, Virginia 22903
Tel. 924-3738 (Office)

293-7330 (Home)

Elva D. Aukland (1972)
Washington-Lee High School
1300 N. Ouincy Street

Arlington, Virginia 22201
Tel. 527-7600 Ext. 66 (Office)
538-6996 (Home)

Constance S. Fletcher (1972)
Waynesboro High School
1200 W. Main Street
Waynesboro, Virginia 22980
Tel. 943-5466 (Office)

942-4335 (Home)

C. Dillard Haley, Jr. (1972)
State Board of Education
Regional Office
801 Fairfax Street
Radford, Virginia 23141
Tel. 639-2489 (Office)

639-0628 (Home)

John L. Perry (1972)
Kempsville High School
574 Kempsville Road
Virginia Beach, Virginia 23462
Tel. 497-0465 (Office)

464-0465 (Home)

Virginia H. Saunders (1972)
Wm. Byrd High School
Vinton, Virginia 24179
Tel. 343-2439 (Office)

890-2119 (Home)

LONG RANGE PLANNING COMMITTEE

Dale V. Ulrich, Chairman (1974)

Dean, Bridgewater College
Bridgewater, Virginia 22812
Tel. 828-2501 Ext. 77 (Office)

Donald G. Cochran (1974)
Department of Entomology
V. P. 1. and S. U.

Blacksburg, Virginia 24061
Tel. 552-6129 (Office)

552-2077 (Home)

Paul B. Siegel (1973)

Dept, of Poultry Science
V. P. I. and S. U.

Blacksburg, Virginia 24061
Tel. 552-6472 (Office)

282-5318 (Home)

S. P. Lingo (1973)

3919 Seminary Avenue
Richmond, Virginia 23227

Robert C. Krug (1973)

Dean of the Faculty
George Mason College
Fairfax, Virginia 22030
Tel. 591-4600 Ext. 216 (Office)

Addison D. Campbell (1973)

8520 Julian Road
Richmond, Virginia 23229

George W. Jeffers (1973)

Route 6, Box 206
Earmville, Virginia 23901
Tel. 392-4651 (Home)

D. S. Sears (1972)

P. O. Box 677
Richmond, Virginia 23208
Tel. 644-7611 (Office)

288-5679 (Home)

Ralph A. Lowry (1972)

Chairman, Dept, of Aerospace
Engineering & Engineering Physics
University of Virginia
Thornton Hall

Charlottesville, Virginia 22901

Mrs. J. J. Thaxton, Jr. (1972)
Liberty High School
Bedford, Virginia 24523

32

The Virginia Journal of Science

Frank Boldridge (1972)
Department of Chemistry
Randolph-Macon College
Ashland, Virginia 23005

Lee S. Anthony (1974)

Physics Department
Roanoke College
Salem, Virginia 24153
Tel. 389-2351 Ext. 276 (Office)
389-6192 (Home)

Kenneth F. Bick (1974)
Department of Geology
College of William and Mary
Williamsburg, Virginia 23185
Tel. 229-3000 (Office)

(Home)

G. Siegfried Kutter (1974)
Department of Astronomy
University of Virginia
Charlottesville, Virginia 22903
Tel. 924-3473 (Office)
973-6748 (Home)

MEMBERSHIP COMMITTEE

William F. Young, Jr., Chairman (1974)
Supervisor, High School Evaluations
State Board of Education
Richmond, Virginia 23216
Tel. 770-2671 (Office)

Lowell Heisey (1973)

Bridgewater College
Bridgewater, Virginia 22812

Bruce K. Goodwin (1973)
College of William and Mary
Williamsburg, Virginia 23185

James McD. Grayson (1973)
1300 Oak Drive
Blacksburg, Virginia 22401

Mrs. Francis Schoomaker (1973)
4319 North 37th Road
Arlington, Virginia 22207

Paul Tillman (1973)
Sargent-Welch Scientific Co.

P. O. Box 1276
Fredericksburg, Virginia 22401

Larry A. Turner (1973)

Blue Ridge Community College
Box 80

Weyers Cave, Virginia 24486

Tully H. Turney (1972)

Biology Department
Hampden-Sydney College
Hampden-Sydney, Virginia 23943

B. R. Woodson (1974)
Department of Biology
Virginia State College
Petersburg, Virginia 23803

F. P. Clay, Jr. (1974)

Physics Department
Old Dominion University
Norfolk, Virginia 23508

NOMINATING COMMITTEE

P. B. Siegel, Chairman (1972)
Poultry Department
V. P. I. and S. U.

Blacksburg, Virginia 24061
Tel. 552-6472 (Office)
282-5318 (Home)

Maurice B. Rowe (1974)

Virginia Dept, of Agriculture & Commerce
203 North Governor Street
Richmond, Virginia 23219
Tel. 770-3501 (Office)

272-2494 (Home)

D. Rae Carpenter (1973)
Department of Physics
Virginia Military Institute
Lexington, Virginia 24450
Tel. 463-3151 (Office)
463-4948 (Home)

Academy Officers and Committees

33

PUBLICATIONS COMMITTEE

W. S. Flory, Chairman (1974)

Biology Dept. Wake Forest University
Box 7325 Reynolda Station
Winston-Salem, North Carolina 27109
Tel. (919) 725-9711 Ext. 459 (Office)
(919) 723-2103 (Home)

Susie V. Floyd (1974)

46 Hopkins Street

Newport News, Virginia 23601

Tel. 596-7261 (Home)

Dorothy Crandall Bliss (1973)

Box 278

Randolph-Macon Woman’s College
Lynchburg, Virginia 24504

Perry C. Holt (1973)

Professor of Zoology
V. P. I. and S. U.

Blacksburg, Virginia 24061
Tel. 552-6765 (Office)

552-0432 (Home)

J. W. Stewart (1973)

Physics Department
University of Virginia
Charlottesville, Virginia 22901
Tel. 924-3781 (Office)

973-5037 (Home)

T. J. Marlowe (1972)

Dept, of Animal Science
V. P. I. and S. U.

Blacksburg, Virginia 23061

R. Lowell Wine (1972)
Department of Statistics
Hollins College
Hollins, Virginia 24020

Otis L. Updike, Jr. (1972)
Thornton Hall
University of Virginia
Charlottesville, Virginia 22903

Stewart Ware (1974)

Department of Biology
College of William and Mary
Williamsburg, Virginia 23185
Tel. 229-3000 Ext. 240 (Office)
229-2810 (Home)

RESEARCH COMMITTEE

F. F. Flint, Chairman (1973)
Biology Department
Randolph-Macon Woman’s College
Lynchburg, Virginia 24505
Tel. 846-7392 Ext. 432 (Office)
384-1254 (Home)

J. Doyle Smith (1975)

Chairman, Dept, of Chemistry and
Pharmaceutical Chemistry (MCV)
Virginia Commonwealth University
Richmond, Virginia 23219

J. L. Calver (1974)

State Geologist

Division of Mineral Resources
Box 3667

Charlottesville, Virginia 22903
Tel. 293-5121 (Office)

Rogers C. Ritter (1974)

Physics Department
University of Virginia
Charlottesville, Virginia 22901
Tel. 924-3781 (Office)

N. F. Murphy (1972)

Chemical Engineering Department
V. P. I. and S. U.

Blacksburg, Virginia 24061
Tel. 552-6631 (Office)

552-4700 (Home)

SCIENCE TALENT SEARCH COMMITTEE

E. V. Russell, Jr., Chairman (1974)
Chemistry Department
V. P. I. and S. U.

Blacksburg, Virginia 24061
Tel. 552-6578 (Office)

34

The Virginia Journal of Science

James P. Wightman (1974)
Chemistry Department
V. P. I. and S. U.
Blacksburg, Virginia 24061
Tel. 552-6579 (Office)
552-2007 (Home)

Lawrence M. Baxt (1973)
1009 Baldwin Road
Richmond, Virginia 23229

Joyce Howell Jones (1973)
Route 1, Box 209
Vinton, Virginia

Miss Leslie Watkins (1973)
Glenvar High School
Salem, Virginia 24153

R. H. Dunn (1972)

Biology Department
Virginia State College
Petersburg, Virginia 23803

H. Y. Loh (1972)

Physics Department
V. P. T. and S. U.
Blacksburg, Virginia 24061

TRUST COMMITTEE

E. S. Harlow, Chairman (1972)
American Tobacco Company
Virginia Branch
P. O. Box 1798
Richmond, Virginia 23214
Tel. 643-5341 Ext. 288 (Office)
282-5318 (Home)

George Stevenson Kemp, Jr. (1973)

Paine, Webber, Jackson & Curtis
830 East Main Street
Richmond, Virginia 23214

Lloyd C. Bird (1971)
c/o Phipps and Bird, Inc.
P. O. Box 2-V
Richmond, Virginia 23205
Tel. 664-5401 (Office)

VIRGINIA FLORA COMMITTEE

Mrs. D. Crandall Bliss, Chairman (1972)
Randolph-Macon Woman’s College
Box 278

Lynchburg, Virginia 24504

Robert P. Carroll (1974)
Box G

Millboro, Virginia 24460

Leonard O. Morrow (1973)
Biology Department
Lynchburg College
Lynchburg, Virginia 24503

Gwynn W. Ramsey (1973)
Biology Department
Lynchburg College
Lynchburg, Virginia 24503

Charles E. Stevens (1973)

615 Preston Place
Charlottesville, Virginia 22903

Rebecca Deramus (1972)
Biology Department
Old Dominion College
Norfolk, Virginia 23508

O. W. Gupton (1972)

Biology Department
Virginia Military Institute
Lexington, Virginia 24450
Tel. 463-3151 (Office)
463-5210 (Home)

3.S

Academy Officers and Committees

VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
PRESIDENTS

*Ivey F. Lewis . 1923-24

*James Lewis Howe . 1924-25

^Robert E. Loving . 1925-26

*J. Shelton Horsley . 1926-27

*Donald W. Davis . 1927-28

*William Mosley Brown . 1928-29

*Garnett Ryland . 1929-30

*L. G. Hoxton . 1930-31

1. D. Wilson . 1931-32

*T. McN. Simpson, Jr . 1932-33

* William A. Kepner . 1933-34

William T. Sanger . 1934-35

Ida Sitler . 1935-36

*H. E. Jordan . 1936-37

D. Maurice Allan . 1937-38

*Earl B. Norris . 1938-39

Ruskin S. Freer . 1939-40

*Wortley F. Rudd . 1940-41

George W. Jeffers . 1941-42

*Marcellus H. Stow . 1942-43

*W. Catesby Jones . 1943-44

Robert F. Smart . 1944-45

H. Rupert Hanmer . 1945-46

* Arthur Bevan . 1946-47

Jesse W. Beams . 1947-48

*Sidney S. Negus . 1948-49

Boyd Harshbarger . 1949-50

*Guy W. Horsley . 1950-51

Paul Patterson . 1951-52

Lloyd C. Bird . 1952-53

*Allan T. Gwathmey . 1953_54

Irving G. Foster . 1954-55

Walter S. Flory, Jr . 1955-56

E. S. Harlow . 1956-57

*William G. Guy . 1957-58

John C. Forbes . 1958-59

William M. Hinton . 1959-60

Wilson B. Bell . 1960-61

Horton H. Hobbs, Jr . 1961-62

Jackson J. Taylor . 1962-63

*Foley F. Smith . 1963-64

S. S. Obenshain . 1964-65

Roscoe D. Hughes . 1965-66

Stanley B. WilHams . 1966-67

James W. Cole, Jr . 1967-68

Paul B. Siegel . 1968-69

D. Rae Carpenter, Jr . 1969-70

Maurice B. Rowe . 1970-71

Edward F. Turner, Jr . 1971-72

*Deceased

RECIPIENTS OF
J. SHELTON HORSLEY
RESEARCH AWARD

Carl C. Speidel . 1 927

John H. Yoe . 1928

J. C. Street . 1929

H. E. Jordan and Carl C. Speidel . 1930

E. C. Stevenson . 1931

James H. Smith . 1932

S. A. Wingard . 1933

E. P. Johnson . 1934

Margaret Hess . 1935

Alfred Chanutin . 1936

R. G. Henderson . 1937

S. G. Bedell . 1938

M. J. Murray and Forrest F. Cleveland . 1939

Walton C. Gregory . 1940

Charles Ray . 1941

No Award . 1942

J. B. Meyer . . . 1943

J. Herbert Taylor . 1944

No Award . 1945

Boyd Harshbarger . 1946

D. B. DeLury . 1947

Henry Leidheiser, Jr . 1948

Walter S. Flory . 1949

Erling S. Hegre . 1950

D. B. Duncan . 1951

D. R. H. Gourley . 1952

Stephan Berko and Frank L. Herford . 1953

Lynn D. Abbott, Jr., and Mary J. Dodson .... 1954

Albert W. Lutz, Jr., and E. B. Reid . 1955

M. C. K. Tweedie . 1956

R. A. Bradley, D. E. W. Schumann, and

Walter H. Lewis . 1957

G. Tyler Miller, Jr., and R. K. Lawless . 1958

Dorothy L. Crandall . 1959

Lawrence 1. Miller . 1960

Irving R. King, Billy W. Sloope, and

Calvin O. Tiller . 1961

Claude P. Talley and G. R. Taylor, Jr . 1962

H. A. David . 1963

E. Rae Harcum . 1964

Doris Kuhlmann-Wilsdorf . 1965

Frank A. Vingiello . 1966

O. R. Rodig and Galal Zanati . 1967

H. H. Hobbs, P. C. Holt, and

Margaret Walton . 1968

A. J. McCaffery, P. N. Schatz, and

T. E. Lester . 1969

I. Gordon Fels . 1970

L. R. Durden, L. H. Slack, and

P. R. Eusner . 1971

JEFFERSON MEDAL WINNERS
RECIPIENTS OF

TI-IE JEFFERSON GOLD MEDAL

Alfred Chanutin . 1936

William B. Porter . 1937

H. M. Phillips . 1938

G. M. Shear and H. D. Ussery . 1939

RECIPIENTS OF
THE JEFFERSON PRIZE

L. G. Overholzer and J. H. Yoe . 1940

Allan T. Gwathmey . 1941

R. N. Jefferson . 1942

W. H. Hough . 1943

Clinton B. Cosby . 1944

RECIPIENTS OF

VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
MERITORIOUS SERVICE AWARDS
Dr. Ivev F. Lewis

Dr. William T. Sanger . . . 1956

36

The Virginia Journal of Science

The American Tobacco Company

Research Laboratory . 1958

Dr. Lloyd C. Bird . . 1959

Dr. Allan T. Gwathmey
Dr. Sidney S. Negus

Dr. Jesse W. Beams . . . . 1963

The name of the award was changed in 1965 to

the Virginia Academy of Science, Ivey F. Lewis Dis¬
tinguished Service Award.

Dr. Boyd Harshbarger . 1966

Dr. Russell J. Rowlett, Jr . 1967

Dr. George W. Jeffers . . 1968

Dr. Walter F. Flory, Jr . 1969

Dr. Roscoe D. Hughes . 1970

Dr. Horton H. Hobbs, Jr . 1971

No awards in 1957, 1960, 1961, 1962 and 1964.

FELLOWS OF THE
VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

Jesse Wakefield Beams, University of Virginia
Robert Clifton Carter, Virginia Polytechnic Institute
John Campbell Forbes, Medical College of Virginia
Thomas E. Gilmer, Hampden-Sydney College
Edward S. Harlow, The American Tobacco Com¬
pany, Virginia Branch
W. T. Harnsberger, Jr., Madison College
Boyd Harshbarger, Virginia Polytechnic Institute
A. M. Harvill, Jr., Longwood College
S. M. Heflin, 508 Highland Road, Lexington, Vir¬
ginia 24450

Roscoe D. Hughes, Medical College of Virginia
George W. Jeffers, Route 6, Farmville, Virginia
23901

Harry G. M. Jobson, Bridgewater College
Clyde Young Kramer, Virginia Polytechnic Institute
J. Douglas Reid, Medical College of Virginia
William T. Sanger, Medical College of Virginia
E. L. Wisman, Virginia Polytechnic Institute

Academy Awards and Fellows

37

News and Notes

VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

1972 Meeting
Virginia Military Institute

Washington and Lee University

Lexinoton, Va.

May 2-5, 1972

1973 Meeting

50th Anniversary

College of William and Mary

Williamsburs, Va.

May 1-4, r973

1974 Meeting

Old Dominion University
Virginia Wesleyan College
Virginia State College

Norfolk, Virginia
April 30-lVIay 4, 1974

1975 Meeting

Madison College

Harrisonburg, Va.

May 6-9, r975

MOUNTAIN LAKE SUMMER SESSION

The University of Virginia has announced that
eight graduate courses emphasizing environmental
biology will be offered at the Mountain Lake Bio¬
logical Station this summer. They are as follows:

First Term: June 14-July 18

Aquatic Ecology: Dr. George M. Simmons, Jr.,
Virginia Polytechnic Institute
Algology: Dr. Francis R. Trainor, University of
Connecticut

Herpetology: Dr. H. G. M. Jopson, Bridge-
water College

Invertebrate Zoology: Dr. Fred Diehl, Univer¬
sity of Virginia

Second Term: July 19-August 22

Ecological Genetics: Dr. David West, Virginia
Polytechnic Institute

Pteridology: Dr. Warren H. Wagner, University
of Michigan

Taxonomy of Seed Plants: Dr. Carl S. Keener,
Pennsylvania State University
Mammalogy: Dr. Charles O. Handley, United
States National Museum

The Ivey F. Lewis Fellowship, an annual award
of $150, is made by the Phipps and Bird Company
of Richmond to a student undertaking research or
graduate training at the Station. Fellowships of $150
for one student in each term have been made avail¬
able by the North Carolina Botanical Garden. This
fellowship may not be held concurrently with any
other stipend from the Station. The recipients of
these awards are chosen by the Research and Awards
Committee of the Department of Biology. Applica¬
tion for awards should be sent to the Director,

Mountain Lake Biological Station, University of Vir¬
ginia, Gilmer Hall, Charlottesville, Virginia 22903.

WEST VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

Dr. Earl L. Core, President of the West Virginia
Academy of Science has issued an invitation to the
members of the Virginia Academy of Science to at¬
tend and participate in the annual meeting of the
West Virginia Academy in Bluefield on April 7,
1972. Dr. Elvis Stahr, President of the National
Audubon Society, will speak at their meeting. Dr.
Core also extends an invitation to our members to
submit papers at that meeting. If you would like to
avail yourself of this opportunity, write Earl L. Core,
Department of Biology, West Virginia University,
Morgantown, West Virginia 26506.

POLLUTION PUBLICATIONS

Tejinder S. Sibia, Science Librarian at VPISU, has
compiled a selected list of publications on pollution
available in the Carol M. Newman Library at the
Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University.
The purpose of the list is to create interest in the
area of pollution and to give some indication of the
types of publications relevant to the subject. It is
planned to expand and improve the list in the future.
Mr. Sibia will be glad to circulate the list free as long
as the supply lasts.

VEPCO POLLUTION CONTROL

The Virginia Electric and Power Company has
been named one of three finalists in the annual Gold
Medal Awards program for water pollution control
presented by the Sports Foundation, Inc. Winners to
be chosen from this list of finalists in the two divis¬
ions will be announced at the presentation ceremon¬
ies on Monday, February 14, at McCormick Place,
in Chicago.

There were 120 entries from across the nation in
the contest.

Finalists in the Water Pollution Control single
plant program were Armstrong Cork Co., Macon,
Georgia; U. S. Gypsum Co., Gypsum, Ohio; and
Vepco.

The Gold Medal Awards in water pollution con¬
trol were established in 1968. The awards are made
annually to members of American industry which
have made outstanding achievements in pollution
control. Judges for this year are nationally recog¬
nized leaders in this field and in the environmental
sciences. They include Dr. Charles B. Wurtz, chair¬
man, consulting biologist, Philadelphia, Pennsyl¬
vania; Earl C. Hubbard, assistant director of North
Carolina Department of Water & Air Resources,
Raleigh, North Carolina; and Roy F. Weston, presi¬
dent of Roy F. Weston Environmental Scientists and
Engineers, West Chester, Pennsylvania.

Vepco’s entry described a set of power spray
modules in the discharge canal of the company’s
Chesterfield Power Station which reduces the tem-

38

The Virginia Journal of Science

perature of the plant’s cooling water before it is
returned to the James River. The Chesterfield op¬
eration is the first such full-scale installation of the
innovative water cooling system, and was installed
at a cost of over $2 million.

BLACKWATER CREEK PROJECT

Last summer was an important one for Randolph-
Macon Woman’s College students who participated
in a National Science Foundation Student-Originated
Studies Program in a project carried out in Lynch¬
burg’s Blackwater Creek area where a prospective
park may be located.

A comprehensive 153-page report resulting from
the summer project presents conclusions generally
favoring the establishment of a park in the Black¬
water Creek area. Flora and fauna surveys revealed
unusual diversity for such a small area of typical
Piedmont terrain, though the soil is of poor quality
and unsuited fcr commercial development. Water
analysis and microbiology teams concurred that

Blackwater Creek is marginally polluted mainly from
a deficient, but repairable sewer system.

The sociology team favored the installation of the
park and approved the facilities as proposed by the
city planning office, which they concluded will be
acceptable to a majority of Lynchburg’s population.

The team of students from R-MWC who con¬
ducted the ecological study of Blackwater Creek
Basin were awarded a grant of $16,760 from the
N.S.F. to carry out research over a twelve week
period. Dr. Franklin F. Flint, R-M professor of bi¬
ology, was faculty project advisor for the research
survey.

The environmental research study was carried out
in cooperation with the Lynchburg Planning Com¬
mission. Student project director was Anne Lindsey
from Bluefield, Va.; and her assistant was Barbara
Laning from Akron, Ohio. They, together with Ellen
Slithers, from Roanoke, Va., presented a report on
the project at a National Science Foundation Stu¬
dent-Originated Studies Program meeting in Phila¬
delphia December 28-29, 1971.

News and Notes

39

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40

The Virginia Journal of Science

Philip Morris, a publicly-owned company incorporated in Virginia, proudly traces
its heritage to a London tobacconist of a century ago. Quality and innovation
have earned for the company a valued reputation: “Philip Morris . . . makers of
America’s finest cigarettes.” By any professional measure, the Philip Morris Re¬
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Write to;

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Richmond, Virginia, 23261

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VIRGINIA

JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

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BUSINESS MEMBERS
VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

SUSTAINING MEMBERS
VIRGINIA ACADEMY
OF SCIENCE

The following Virginia Educational Institu¬
tions support the objectives of the Virginia Acad¬
emy of Science through Sustaining Memberships.
Their active and financial support is gratefully
acknowledged.

Alderman Library

Christopher Newport College

College of William and Mary

Emory and Henry College

George Mason College

Hollins College

Longwood College

Lynchburg College

Madison College

Mary Baldwin College

Mary Washington College

Mathematics and Science Center

Norfolk State College

Old Dominion University

Randolph-Macon College

Randolph-Macon Woman’s College

Stratford College

Sweet Briar College

University of Richmond

University of Virginia

Virginia Commonwealth University

Virginia Military Institute

Virginia Polytechnic Institute

Virginia State College

Virginia Union University

Virginia Wesleyan College

Washington and Lee University

Because of their interest in science and the
economy of Virginia, the following industrial
concerns have become Business Members of
the Academy and have thus contributed greatly
to its work and progress. Their support is
gratefully acknowledged:

Allied Chemical Corporation
American Filtrona Corporation
The American Tobacco Company
Brunswick Corporation
Bunton Instrument Co.

Burlington Industries, Inc.

Carolina Biological Supply Co.

The Central National Bank

Dow-Badische Company

E. 1. duPont de Nemours & Co., Inc.

Ethyl Corporation

First and Merchants National Bank

Hercules, Ineorporated

House of Edgeworth

Merck and Company, Inc.

Mobil Chemical Company
National Fruit Product Co.

Newport News Shipbuilding Co. Foundation
Philip Morris and Co., Inc.

Phipps & Bird, Inc.

Reynolds Metals Co.

A. H. Robins Company, Inc.

Southern Bank & Trust Company
Southern States Cooperative, Inc.

Texaco, Inc.

United Virginia Bank
Universal Leaf Tobacco Co., Inc.

Virginia Chemicals, Inc.

Virginia Electric and Power Company
Wheat, First Securities, Inc.

Vol

45

48

56

62

64

72

77

78

79

82

87

VIRGINIA

JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

OFFICIAL PUBLICATION OF THE
VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

No. 2

TABLE OF CONTENTS

The Effects of Oil on the Gill Filtration Rate of

Mya arenaria Gilbert E. Anderson

Eupatorieae (Asteraceae) in Virginia: Eupatoriadelphus,

Ageratina, Fleischmannia and Conoclinium Miles F. Johnson

Daunomycin — Induced Cytological Alterations in

Root Meristems of Vicia faha Maxwell A. Bempong

Multiple Discriminant Analysis: A Repeated Measures

Design Thomas R. Schori and John E. Tindall

Nutrient Factors Limiting Primary Productivity in

Simulated and Field Antarctic Microecosystems

Gene L. Samsel, Jr. and Bruce C. Parker

Lake Drummond of the Dismal Swamp: 1. Phytoplankton

Composition William H. Poore, Jr. and Harold G. Marshall

Science Teachers Section

Density: A Laboratory Exercise H. I. Feinstein

Book Review: Teaching Modern Science

Gerald C. Llewellyn

Communications and Reports

Summary of Council Meeting, April 9, 1972

News and Notes

1972

Author Index to Volume 22, 1971

THE VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

Official Publication of the Virginia Academy of Science
EDITOR

LYNN D. ABBOTT, JR.

SECTION EDITORS

Boyd L. Samuel
Agricultural Sciences

Lee S. Anthony

Astronomy, Mathematics and Physics

James D. Punch
Microbiology

Robert G. Bass
Chemistry

K. L. Reifsnider
Materials Science

Michael N. Bishara
Engineering

Kenneth A. Blick
Psychology

Elva D. Aukland
Science Teachers

John R. Howell
Statistics

Ricardo N. Zapata

Space Science and Technology

Edwin S. Higgins
Medical Sciences

BUSINESS MANAGER
Charles E. O’Rear

Published quarterly by The Virginia Academy of
Science, Department of Biochemistry, Medical Col¬
lege of Virginia, Richmond, Virginia 23219. Second-
class postage paid at Richmond, Virginia.

Manuscripts for publication (other than section
abstracts) and books for review should be sent to
the Editor, Lynn D. Abbott, Jr., Department of
Biochemistry, Medical College of Virginia, Rich¬
mond, Virginia 23219. Proof, edited manuscripts,
and all correspondence regarding accepted papers
should be sent to the Editor.

Advertising and Business Office; All correspon¬
dence relating to advertising and business affairs
should be directed to Charles E. O’Rear, Business
Manager, Virginia Journal of Science, 1 N. Four¬
teenth St., Richmond, Virginia 23219.

The Virginia Academy of Science and the Editors
of the Virginia Journal of Science assume no re¬
sponsibility for statements or opinions advanced by
contributors.

(C) Copyright, 1972, by the Virginia Academy of
Science.

Business and Subscription Information

All remittances and orders for advertising and
subscriptions should be sent to the Business Man¬
ager, Virginia Journal of Science, 1 N. Fourteenth
St., Richmond, Virginia 23219. Changes of address
should be sent promptly to Blanton M. Bruner, Ex¬
ecutive Secretary-Treasurer, Virginia Academy of
Science, P. O. Box 8454, Richmond, Virginia 23226.
Changes of address must include both new and old
addresses with zip code.

Subscription rates for 1972: $8.00 per year,
U.S.A.; Canada and other countries of the Pan-
American Union, $8.50 per year; all other foreign
countries, $9.00 per year. All foreign remittances
must be made at par U.S. dollars or the foreign
equivalent. U.S. dollar remittance is suggested to
avoid currency fluctuation problems and possibly
unfavorable exchange rates.

Back issues are available for some years at $3.00
per issue plus postage.

The front cover is by Douglas C. Hensley.

Gilbert E. Anderson*

Department of Biology
College of William and Mary
Williamsburg, Virginia 23185
Received January 10, 1972

The Effects of Oil on the Gill Filtration Rate

of My a arenaria

Abstract — The acute effects of oil pollution on the soft-
shelled clam, Mya arenaria, were studied by measuring
changes in turbidity of graphite-particle suspensions as in¬
dices of filtration rates. Filtration rates were measured dur¬
ing three-hour intervals before and after exposure to either
0.9 per cent oil-water emulsions or to 0.9 per cent extracts
of oil in water. A paired observations test Indicated sig¬
nificant rate increases in clams exposed to the emulsions,
but there were no definite trends in the responses of clams
exposed to the oil extract.

Introduction

Oil pollution of coastal areas was recognized as a
serious problem in the United States more than fifty
years ago ( 1 ) . Despite estimated annual spillage of
one million metric tons in coastal areas and in ship¬
ping lanes (2), surprisingly few studies have been
made on the environmental effects of oil. Recently
Blumer, Sanders, Grassle, and Hampson (2) re¬
ported on a long-term study of a small oil spill
(650-700,000 liters) that occurred near Woods
Hole, Massachusetts. Three months after the spill
detectable concentrations of the oil were found in
sediments fourteen meters below the water surface,
and 10 months later the contaminated sediment
covered 10 times the area initially affected. Persistent
oil residues were detected in the flesh of shellfish
taken from the polluted area. Both the chronic and
acute effects of the oil residues on lamellibranch
physiology are still largely unknown. A few studies
using variously measured bivalve filtration rates as
physiological indices have been made (3-5). Using a
procedure adapted from Jorgensen (6), this worker
has attempted to assess the acute effects of oil pollu¬
tion on quantitative aspects of gill filtration by the
soft-shelled clam, Mya arenaria.

Materials and Methods

M. arenaria were collected in mid-March and in
early May at Sandy Point on the York River. A
minimum of 6 days was allowed for acclimation
to the salinity and temperature of the laboratory
aquarium (25.8 %o at 20 °C).

All experiments were performed at 20 °C, using
filtered natural sea water (salinity 24.4 %o) and
suspensions of Aquadag (particle diameter l-2.5fx)

* Present address: Department of Zoology, Duke University, Dur¬
ham, North Carolina 27706.

from the Acheson Colloids Corporation. Changes in
turbidity, as the animal removed suspended particles
by filtration, were determined with a Bausch and
Lomb Spectronie 20 colorimeter set at 500 mix.
Number Six Bunker C fuel oil, either whole or in
extract, was prepared in 10% (v/v) concentrations.
In one series of tests, the water-soluble fractions of
oil were extracted during a minimum of 8 hours’
agitation. The aqueous portion was allowed to sepa¬
rate overnight and was filtered before use. Another
group of clams was exposed to the same quantity of
emulsified oil, which was agitated for 4 hours be¬
fore use.

Each clam was placed in one liter of water under
constant aeration. When their siphons had been open
for 5-10 minutes, approximately 2 ml of a recently
prepared, 4% (w/v) Aquadag suspension was

added, and the first transmittanee reading was taken.
Initial concentrations transmitted 14.5-26.5% . Read¬
ings were made subsequently every 30 minutes for
3 hours. At this point 100 ml of oil or oil extract
plus an additional 0.2 ml Aquadag were added. The
emulsified oil was given to a group of 10 clams, and
the oil extract was given to another group of 15.
Transmittance was measured again at 30 minute
intervals for a minimum of 3 hours. Occasionally it
was necessary to add more Aquadag during this
period.

Filtration rates were calculated for each 30 minute
interval using the equation given by Welsh, Smith,
and Kammer (7). In all cases, corrections were made
for changes in turbidity due to settling and clumping
of particles as measured in a control vessel contain¬
ing no clam. Mean filtration rates for the periods
before and after oil (or extract) addition were then
calculated. Values for intervals following the addi¬
tion of Aquadag and values for intervals during
which transmittance changed 1% or less were not
considered. Presumably no change in transmittance
reflects the normal periodic pauses in generation of
ciliary currents, which were no more frequent after
the addition of oil than before. Previous experimen¬
tation determined transmittance readings to be ac¬
curate to ±0.5%. Paired observation tests compared
changes in mean filtration rates for the group which
received the emulsified oil and for the group which
received only the oil extract. Ninety-five per cent

Oil and Gill Filtration Rate

45

TABLE I

Mean Filtration Values^

Clams Receiving 0.9% Oil Extract

M,b

SD

M,^

SD

Ml

208

81

235

133

1.2

251

218

169

119

-32.6

94

65

68

26

-28.0

131

68

108

62

-17.6

137

117

60

24

-56.0

457

332

422

124

-7.6

435

356

273

268

-37.2

511

132

698

197

34.5

186

85

445

149

139.0

126

58

244

138

93.6

791

257

228

98

-71.2

201

30

250

155

24.4

544

305

783

24

43.9

290

66

423

250

45.9

523

322

314

94

-40.0

Clams Receiving 0.9% Oil Emulsion

Mib

SD

M2'

SD

Ml

433

171

653

133

50.8

210

103

960

586

357.0

703

424

911

296

29.6

337

214

600

281

78.0

1100

183

739

444

-32.8

477

357

503

91

5.4

517

156

866

419

67.5

397

106

824

906

108.0

466

327

1260

971

170.0

278

162

1052

982

2.8

“ Clams 41-61 mm in length

Ml = filtration rate in ml /hr before addition of oil or

extract

' M2 = filtration rate in ml /hr after addition of oil or extract

confidence intervals around the mean per cent
changes in filtration rate were also determined for
both groups, and for a companion experiment which
included other oil types and other concentrations.

Results

In the group given oil extract, 8 of 15 clams
showed rate decreases, six showed rate increases,
and one showed almost no change. These changes
were not significant. On the other hand, significant
changes {p < 0.02) in filtration rates did occur in
clams subjected to the same concentration of emulsi¬
fied oil. In fact, 9 of 10 clams increased their rates
(Table I). Significant rate increases also occurred in
the companion experiment (Table II).

Discussion and Conclusions

Chipman and Galtsoff (4) reported a strong de¬
pression in filtration rates of Crassostrea virginica
following the addition of aqueous, crude oil extracts

TABLE II

Changes in Filtration Rate :
Confidence Limits

Oil Types

No.

Clams

95% Confidence Limits
Max. Min.
D* D D

SAE 30 & Bunker C,
0.5-1.0%

6

194.0

354.0

33.5

Bunker C, 0.9% Extract

15

6.2

38.1

-25.8

Bunker C, 0.9% Emulsion

10

Ill.O

199.0

23.0

* D is the mean % change in filtration rate, Mo — Mi

Mj

in comparable concentrations. In the present experi¬
ment, M. arenaria did not respond similarly, per¬
haps because the light, toxic fractions were removed
from the Bunker C oil during the refining process ( 8 ) .

Among the experimental animals, filtration rates
varied considerably from one 30 minute interval to
the next. Other workers (6) have also reported
large fluctuations in filtration rates. During fifteen
minutes of observation, one clam in a graphite-free
container closed its siphons for several minutes at a
time, perhaps in response to external stimuli such as
low frequency vibrations or changes in light intensity.
Despite variation, increases in gill filtration rates
have been detected. Further, the somewhat surpris¬
ing increases were not caused by water-soluable oil
fractions, but by particles of the oil itself. Under nat¬
ural conditions, large quantities of oil, emulsified by
the action of wind and waves, certainly might enter
the habitat of M. arenaria during an oil spill. Indeed,
Blumer, Souza, and Sass (9) found oil particles
distributed to 10 meter depths following gale condi¬
tions in an area covered by an oil slick. M. arenaria
in oil polluted areas would thus be likely to ingest
considerable quantities of oil.

The physiological stimulus of increased gill filtra¬
tion cannot be identified at present, but the constant
aeration must have insured that the response was
not ventilatory in nature. How ingested oil affects
most aspects of lamellibranch physiology is still
largely unknown. Petroleum hydrocarbons, as well
as some biosynthesized ones, are metabolized very
slowly (9), and they would be more likely to cause
physiological changes in organisms that increase their
ingestion rates during the initial period of oil pollu¬
tion. The potential for long-term damage to shellfish
beds in polluted areas clearly exists. Crassostrea
virginica kept in unpolluted water for six months
following exposure to oil showed no decrease in the
concentration of petroleum residues in their tissues.
Juvenile blue mussels (Mytilus edulis) from the
same area failed to mature sexually (2). Unfortu¬
nately, the potential effects are further complicated
by synergisms. Hartung and Klinger (10) found
that oil dispersed in sediments concentrated water-
insoluble DDT by a factor of one million. Organisms
that ingest oil are also likely to acquire large pesti¬
cide loads. Oil pollution thus is a threat to the

46

The Virginia Journal of Science

biosphere, both due to its own toxic constituents
and because of the other organic compounds that it
concentrates. Clearly, more research to determine
the biological effects of oil pollution is needed.

Acknowledgements

I am deeply indebted to Dr. Charlotte P. Mangum
for her encouragement and guidance during the pe¬
riod of experimentation and during the preparation
of the manuscript.

REFERENCES

1. U. S. Dept, of State, National Committee for Prevention
of Pollution of the Seas by Oil, Official Rept., Washing¬
ton, 1959.

2. Blumer, M., Sanders, H. L., Grassle, J. F., and Hamp-
son, G. R., Environment, 13, 2 (1971).

3. Aljarinskaya, I. O., Zool. Zh., 45, 998 (1966).

4. Chipman, W. A., and Galtsoff, P. S., U. S. Fish and
Wild. Serv., Spec. Sci. Rept. No. 1, 1949.

5. Galtsoff, P. S., Prytherich, H. F., Smith, R. O., and
Koehring, V., Bull. Bur. Fish. Wash., 48, 143 (1935).

6. Jorgensen, C. B., J. mar. biol. Ass. U. K., 28, 333
(1949).

7. Welsh, J. H., Smith, R. I., and Kammer, A. E., Labora¬
tory exercises in invertebrate physiology, Burgess Pub¬
lishing Co., Minneapolis, 1968, p. 12.

8. Grassle, J. F., personal communication (1971).

9. Blumer, M., Souza, G., and Sass, J., Mar. Biol., 5, 195
( 1970).

10. Hartung, R., and Klinger, G. W., Biol. Abstr., 51,
103387 (1970).

Oil and Gill Filtration Rate

47

Miles F. Johnson

Department of Biology
General Academic Division
Virginia Commonwealth University
Richmond, Virginia 23220
Received January 27 , 1972

Eupatorieae (Asteraceae) in Virginia: Eupatoriadelphus,
Ageratina, Fleischmannia and Conoclinium.

Abstract — A key to the genera Eupatoriadelphus, Agera-
tina, Conoclinium and Fleischmannia is presented as well as
keys to species and varieties. Brief genus and species descrip¬
tions, ecological data, flowering and fruiting dates and dis¬
tribution maps for each species are given. Known chromo¬
some numbers are included.

Introduction

This paper is the third in a series dealing with the
floristics of the Virginia Eupatorieae (Asteraceae).
Liatris, Carphephorus, Mikania and Kiihnia have
been considered in previous papers (1, 2). Eupa¬
toriadelphus, Ageratina, Fleischmannia and Conocli-
niunt are dealt with here. Eupatoriurn remains to be
treated as a unit.

This study is based upon collections found in
herbaria of the following institutions: Longwood
College, Farmville, Lynchburg College, Lynchburg,
Old Dominion University, Norfolk, Virginia Com¬
monwealth University, Richmond, Virginia Poly¬
technic Institute and State University, Blacksburg',
Virginia Military Institute, Lexington, University of
North Carolina, Chapel Hill, United States National
Herbarium, Washington, D. C., the Gray Herbarium,
Cambridge, Mass., and the New York Botanical
Garden, The Bronx, New York. I gratefully acknowl¬
edge the assistance given by the curator and/or
director of the herbarium at each institution for
allowing me to study the collections. Travel funds
were provided by the Virginia Academy of Science
and Virginia Commonwealth University.

Approximately 500 specimens have been exam¬
ined and nearly all taxa have been observed in the
field in Virginia and elsewhere. The collections made
by the author during this study are deposited in the
herbarium at Virginia Commonwealth University.

Dots on the maps indicate exact locations; closed
triangles indicate a collection from that county with¬
out specific location data. Open circles are used to
indicate collections cited in literature though not all
specimens have been seen personally.

Nomenclature follows King and Robinson (3-6)
and descriptions generally follow those of Radford,

’•Not all specimens cited by Massey (14) are at the VPTSU
Herbarium; his citations without vouchers are indicated in the body
of the paper.

Ahles and Bell (7), Fernald (8), and Gleason and
Cronquist (9).

Taxonomic Treatment

The Eupatorieae has been characterized previously
(2) in this series.

Key to Genera

Leaves lanceolate, elliptic to ovate, in whorls of 3-6;
involucral bracts purple to cream in succes¬
sively shorter series . 1. Eupatoriadelphus.

Leaves ovate to deltoid, opposite, if whorled, not
lanceolate; involucral bracts scarious or green,
subequal.

Receptacle flat; flowers white or pink.

Corollas with long slender tube and

abruptly expanded limb; white .

. 2. Ageratina.

Corollas tubula, pink. . .4. Fleischmannia.

Receptacle conical; flowers bluish to bluish-

violet . 3. Conoclinium.

1. Eupatoriadelphus King & Robinson. Joe-Pye
Weed; Purple Boneset.

Perennial herbs. Leaves verticillate, narrowly
lanceolate, elliptic to ovate, all cauline. Heads cylin-
dric, in dense to open corymbs. Involucral bracts
unequal, multiseriate, imbricate. Flowers tubular,
perfect, the corolla of varying shades of pink to
purple, bearing stomata on backs of corolla lobes.
Achenes 5-ribbed, prismatic, glandular-atomiferous,
with a rather distinct carpopodium. Pappus capillary.

Eupatoriadelphus is a new genus described by
King and Robinson (6) to include four verticillate¬
leaved species of the northeastern United States pre¬
viously considered under Eupatoriurn s. 1. In addi¬
tion to the readily recognized leaf arrangement, the
flowers possess stomata on the backs of the lobes, a
character not known in Eupatoriurn .y. .y. (6, 10).

The distinctiveness of these species has been rec¬
ognized previously by DeCandolle under Section
Verticillata of Eupatoriurn and by Wiegand and
Weatherby (11) who treated these species as a unit.

The combination of characters listed above is
unique and thus the new genus is considered to be

48

The Virginia Journal of Science

distinct from Eupatoriurn and part of the Virginia
Flora.

The species can be distinguished with the follow¬
ing key:

1. Leaves firm, conspicuously triplinerved and
glandular atomiferous beneath; Coastal Plain
. . . \. E. duhius.

1 . Leaves not firm, pinnately veined, not appear¬
ing triplinerved, glandular-atoms, if present,

not conspicuous . 2.

2. Flowers 8-15 (-24) per head; corymb

flat-topped; rare in western Virginia .

. 2. E. maculatus.

2. Flowers 4-6 (-10) per head; corymb
rounded at the summit; plants more wide¬
spread . 3.

3. Stems solid, purplish at nodes .

. 3. E. purpiireiis.

3. Stems hollow, purple throughout .

. A. E. fistulosus.

1. Eupatoriadelphus duhius (Willd. ex Poir.) King

& Robinson. Joe-Pye Weed.

Eupatoriurn dubium Willd. ex Poir.

Perennials to 8.5 dm tall; stems solid, speckled
with purple; leaves firm, in whorls of 3, less com¬
monly 4, ovate to lanceovate, 6-10 (-18) cm long,
2. 5-6. 5 (-9) cm wide, coarsely serrate, conspicu¬
ously triplinerved and atomiferous-glandular be¬
neath; corymbs dense, convex, heads 5-6 flowered,
involucre cylindric, 8-9 mm high, the corolla pur¬
ple, 4.5-6 mm long, pappus (4-) 5-6 mm long.
2n = 20 (12).

Relatively common on the Coastal Plain in acid
soils of marshes, sphagnous bogs, sandy peat and
roadside ditches (Fig. 1) closely parallelling the
distribution of sand and clay soils (13). Massey (14)
shows the species from Accomack and Greene Coun¬

ties but I have not seen the specimens. The determi¬
nation from Greene County is questionable as this is
far out of the range of E. duhius in Virginia.

The total range of the species extends from Maine
to South Carolina in the Coastal Plain (8,9) and
in the Piedmont of North and South Carolina (7).
This species is in flower and fruit in September and
October but rarely earlier in the summer.

Eupatoriadelphus duhius is distinguished in the
genus by the short, rather thick leaves with the
conspicuous lower pair of veins and the abundant
minute “atoms” on the lower surface. This is also
the only species of Eupatoriadelphus restricted to the
Coastal Plain.

Fernald (8) includes forma elutum Fern, to desig¬
nate those plants with very pale corollas. This form
is not known from Virginia.

2. Eupatoriadelphus maculatus (L. ) King & Robin¬
son. Joe-Pye Weed.

Eupatoriurn maculatum L.

Similar to E. duhius, but usually taller, with sub-
sessile to short petiolate, pinnately veined, lanceo¬
late leaves; heads of 8-15 (-24) flowers in dense,
flat-topped corymbiform clusters. 2n = 20 (12).

A northern species, extending south to Maryland
(9) and to North Carolina in the mountains (7, 8)
is known from a single collection from Augusta
County; Summit of Elliott Knob, H. A. Allard 3255
(US), July 18, 1937, generally in bud with few
mature fruits. It is to be expected in the vicinity of
Grayson County as E. maculatus is known from ad¬
jacent Ashe County, N. C. (7).

Massey (14) reports E. maculatus from Virginia
Beach, Chesterfield County and a non-specific loca¬
tion in the Piedmont. 1 feel these determinations may
have been confused with E. duhius which does occur

Fig. 1 — Distribution of Eiipatorkidelpliiis duhius in Virginia. Closed dots indicate exact locations; open circles indicate collections
cited in literature though the specimens have not been seen personally.

Eupatorieae of Virginia

49

Fig. 2 — Distribution of Eiipatoriacielpliiis pwpweiis in Virginia. Closed dots indicate exact locations; open circles indicate collections
cited in literature though the specimens have not been seen personally. Triangles indicate a collection from that county without specific
location data.

on the Coastal Plain (see Fig. 1 ) and with which E.
macidatus can be confused.

3. Eiipatoriadelphus purpweus (L.) King & Robin¬
son. Queen of the Meadow; Gravel Root; Pur¬
ple Boneset.

Eupatorium piirpiireiim L.

Robust perennials 0.5-12 dm tall; stem solid,
purplish at the nodes, at times spotted with purple
at internodes; leaves in whorls of 3-5 (rarely oppo¬
site), lanceolate, ovate or elliptic, (10-) 12-27
(-40) cm long, (3.5-) 4-10 (-12.5) cm wide,

sharply serrate, rarely crenate, minutely glandular-
atomiferous beneath; corymb rounded, rather open,
heads (4-) 5 flowered, involucres cylindrical, 7-8
mm high, corolla pale pink to violet, rarely whitish,
5-6 mm long, pappus (4.5-) 5-6.5 mm long.
2n = 20 (12, 15) 2n = 40 in Ontario (12).

Relatively common in the mountains, becoming
more rare in the Piedmont and Coastal Plain, in
shaded hardwoods, roadside banks, in shale, along
streams and in other mesic habitats and at times
associated with limestone (Fig. 2). Massey (14)

Fig. 3 — Distribution of Eupatoriaclelp/uis fistiilosus in Virginia. Closed dots indicate exact locations; open circles Indicate collections
cited in literature though the specimens have not been seen personally. Triangles indicate a collection from that county but without
specific location data.

50

The Virginia Journal of Science

reports this species from Amelia, Arlington, Fau¬
quier, Hampton City, Henrico, Nansemond, Pulaski
and Scott Counties. It is reported from Washington
County (16) and from Tazewell County (17). Fos-
berg and Walker (18, 19) have collected E. pur¬
pureas in the Shenandoah National Park. The pat¬
tern of distribution is similar in the Carolinas (7).

The species range extends from southern New
Hampshire to northern Florida and westerly to Min¬
nesota, Nebraska and Oklahoma (8, 9). It is in
flower and fruit in Virginia from (June-) mid-July
through mid-September with some fruits remaining
on the plant into October.

Albino flowered plants are known (20) but none
has been seen in Virginia.

The dried root is reported to be astringent and
the flowers to be diuretic when taken in hot water
(21). Scherry (22) reports the flowers to be as¬
tringent also. This species is listed as a causative
agent of hayfever in man (23).

Eupatoriadelphus purpureas is distinguished from
E. fistulosus, which it closely resembles, by solid,
shorter stems which are purple at the nodes and a
preference for drier habitats.

4. Eupatoriadelphus fistulosus (Barratt) King &
Robinson. Queen of the Meadow; Joe-Pye
Weed; Trumpet Weed.

Eupatorium fistulosum Barratt

Robust perennial to 30 (-45) dm tall; stems usu¬
ally hollow, glaucous, usually purple throughout;
leaves in whorls of 4-6 (-7), narrowly lanceolate
to elliptic, (10-) 12-20 (-26) cm long, 3-6 (-9)
cm wide, crenate to crenate-serrate, few glandu¬
lar atoms or none; corymbs dense, rounded at the
summit, heads 6-10 flowered, involucre cylindric,
(5.5-) 6-7 mm high, corolla 4-5 mm long, bright
pink-purple, pappus 4-5 mm long. 2n = 20 (12).

Common in the Piedmont and Mountains along

roadside ditches, in swales, along streams, in low
woods and other moist habitats (Fig. 3), rare on
the Coastal Plain. Massey (14) reports this species
from Giles, Fairfax, Princess Anne, Prince William
and Sussex Counties though the specimens have not
been seen by this author. Thorne and Cooperrider
(24) also report this plant from Giles County. It is
to be expected in the counties of Southwest Virginia.
It is reported to be in every county in West Vir¬
ginia (25). The total range extends from SW Que¬
bec and Maine to Florida and west to the region of
the Mississippi River (8). It is in bloom from
(mid-) late July through August and in fruit from
August through September.

Jennings (26) reports a white flowered plant from
Pennsylvania though this forma is not known from
Virginia.

Eupatoriadelphus fistulosus most closely resem¬
bles E. purpureas but is distinguished by the usually
hollow stem (small diameter stems and upper parts
may be solid) and the more narrow leaves and an
ecological preference for moist habitats.

2. Ageratina Spach

Perennial herbs. Leaves opposite, rarely whorled,
ovate to deltoid, petiolate, margin dentate, serrate to
subentire. Inflorescence corymbose, involucre of
subimbricate, mostly subequal phyllaries. Flowers
with a long slender tube and abruptly expanded limb;
white. Achenes prismatic, 5-ribbed. Carpopodium
distinct. Pappus of often deeiduous slender, scabrous
setae.

The species included here have been considered to
be in the genus Eupatorium until recently (4). Using
detailed floral anatomy in combination with the
narrow-stemmed corollas and deciduous setae, an
assemblage of species are unquestionably recognized
as Ageratina (4) .

A New World genus of 4 subgenera and 196

Fig. 4 — Distribution of Ageratina aromatica in Virginia. Closed dots indicate exact locations; triangles indicate a collection from
that county but without location data.

Eupatorieae of Virginia

51

species (4), it is represented in the Virginia flora
by two species of the Subgenus Ageratina distin¬
guished in the following key.

1. Leaves somewhat thick and firm, the lower
ones bearing 7—14 teeth per margin, petioles
0.3-1. 5 (-2.0) cm long, corollas 3.75-4.25
mm long . LA. aromatica.

1. Leaves thin and submembranous, not firm, the
lower ones bearing (11)1 6-23 teeth per mar¬
gin, petioles 2. 0-4. 5 (-7.0) cm long corollas
(2.2-) 3-4 (-4.5) mm long. .2. A. altissima.

1. Ageratina aromatica (L. ) Spach

Eupatoriiim aromaticiim L.

Perennial herbs 5-9 (—10) dm tall; stems slender,
usually glabrous; leaves thickish, lanceolate, ovate to
deltoid, 3. 5-8.0 cm long, (1.6-) 2. 0-4.0 (-4.5)
cm wide, margins crenate to serrate, rarely suben¬
tire, bearing from 7-14 (average of 10) teeth per
margin, borne on petioles 0.3-1. 5 (-2.0) cm long;
corymbs open to dense, convex or flat-topped, heads
13-15 flowered, involucre cylindric when young, the
bracts becoming more widespread in fruit, 3-5 mm
high, the corolla white, 3.75-4.5 mm long; achene
2. 5-3. 5 (-5.0) mm long; pappus (3.0-) 3. 5-4.0
mm long. 2n = 34 (12,27).

Generally scattered over the state (Fig. 4) in
association with dry pine and oak woods, fields,
sandy soil and disturbed woodlands, less common in
mesic habitats. The total species range extends from
Massachusetts in the north and continues in an arc
along the Eastern seaboard to eastern Louisiana in
the south and inland to Tennessee, Kentucky, West
Virginia and southern Ohio (27). This species is in
flower in Virginia from late August to early October
and in fruit from late August to late October.

Ageratina aromatica closely resembles some spe¬
cies of Eupatoriiim but is readily distinguished by
the infundibuliform corollas of Ageratina. It is dis¬
tinguished, sometimes with difficulty, from Ageratina
altissima by the thicker leaves borne on short petioles
as described in the key. Ageratina aromatica is also
found in more dry habitats than is A. altissima.

Leaves are usually opposite in this species though
Fernald and Long 11452 (US) from Sussex County
and Lewis 1303 (VPI) from Amelia County show
leaves in whorls of three.

Fernald (8) includes var. incisum Gray, a variety
bearing leaves sharply and coarsely toothed at the
base, from Southeast Virginia. The toothed margins
are variable at best and this variety seems based on
arbitary decisions and following Clewell and Wooten
(27) it is not recognized in the Virginia flora.

Massey (14) reports this species from Pulaski
and Accomack Counties though the specimens have
not been personally examined.

2. Ageratina altissima (L.) King & Robinson. White

Snakeroot.

Perennial herbs to 10 (-11.5) dm tall; stems
glabrous to short-villous, simple or branched from
the upper nodes; leaves thin and submembranous,
ovate to less commonly deltoid, 6-15 (-16) cm
long, 4.5-11 (-12.6) cm wide, base rounded to
truncate, apex at times noticeably acuminate, mar¬

gins crenate to serrate, bearing from 11-23 (average
of 18) teeth per margin, borne on petioles 2-7
(-7.2) cm long; corymbs dense, convex, heads
1 1-22 flowered; involucres cylindric when young,
becoming widespread in fruit, 3. 5-6. 5 (-7.0) mm
long, corollas white, (2.20-) 3-4 (-4.5) mm long,
achenes (1.5-) 2-2.25 mm long, pappus 2-3 (-3.5)
mm long. 2n = 34 ( 1 2, 27 ) .

Key to varieties:

Leaves 6-11 (-16) cm long, 4.5— 7.5 cm wide
borne on petioles 2-4.5 (-7) cm long; in¬
volucres 3. 5-5. 5 mm long; widespread over

Virginia . 2a. var. altissima.

Leaves 10-18 cm long, 7.5-12.6 cm wide,
borne on petioles 4-7.2 cm long; involucres

(5.0-) 5. 5-7.0 mm long; mountains .

. 2b. var. roanensis.

2a. Ageratina altissima (L.) King & Robinson var.

altissima.

Eupatoriiim rugosum Houtt.

Eupatoriiim iirticaefolium Reichard

Eupatoriiim iirticaefolium Reichard var. villicaule
Fern. Type: Bedford County. Curtis s.n. (GH).

Eupatoriiim rugosum Houtt. var. chlorolepis Fern.
Type: Surry County. Fernald and Long 14034
(GH).

See characters listed in the key immediately above.

Abundant over the state with a possible exception
in the extreme outer Coastal Plain (Fig. 5) on
wooded slopes and river banks, in damp woods and
boggy areas, on roadsides, less commonly in drier
habitats; it is at times associated with shale. Massey
(14) includes the counties of Henrico, Scott and
Tazewell in the distribution though these specimens
have not been seen personally. The total range ex¬
tends from Gaspe and Nova Scotia south to Michi¬
gan, Wisconsin and Minnesota and to northwestern
Rorida (27). In Virginia, this species is in flower
and fruit from (late July-) August to mid-October.
Fruits were dispersed on Fernald and Long 14031
(NY) collected on October 13.

Variety villicaule Fernald includes those specimens
with loosely villous stems and petioles (8). Mor¬
phologically, this character is not distinct. However,
Allard (28) reports forma villicaule is only found at
lower levels of the Massanutten Mountains in rich
woodlands while A. altissima (Eupatoriiim rugosum)
may occur anywhere. These forma (varieties) may
be distinctive ecologically but this aspect needs study.

Variety chlorolepis Fernald, based upon a speci¬
men with “corrugated phyllaries” (8), is not mor¬
phologically distinct and thus not included here.

An apparent rarity in which the leaves are in
whorls of three is seen on Uttal 7708c (VPI) from
Bland County.

Ageratina altissima contains tremetol and glyco¬
sides which can be poisonous to cattle, sheep and
man. A disease, “Milk Sickness,” can result in man
by drinking raw milk from cows which have eaten
White Snakeroot. Milk sickness symptoms include
weakness, nausea, vomiting, prostration and at times,
death (29, 30).

2b. Ageratina altissima (L.) King & Robinson var.
roanensis (Small) Clewell and Wooten.

52

The Virginia Journal of Science

Fig. 5 — Distribution of Agenitina altissima var. altissima in Virginia. Closed dots indicate exact locations; triangles indicate a col¬
lection from that county but without specific location data.

Eupatorium roanensis Small

Eupatorium rugosum var. roanense (Small) Fer-

nald

Distinguished by the large leaves and the longer
involucral phyllaries as noted in the key above.

Relatively common on mountain slopes from Page
County in the north to Washington County in the
south (Fig. 6) (see also ref. 27) in rich woods, a
distribution similar to Liatris turgida and L. scariosa
( 1 ) and which follows closely the limits of the Oak-
Chestnut forest region (31). Open circles on Fig. 6

represent specimens mapped by Clewell and Wooten
(27); the symbol in Craig County represents the
collection cited by Massey (14). The range of this
variety continues south to northern Georgia and
westward to eastern Kentucky and Tennessee (27).
It is in flower and fruit from August through Sep¬
tember in Virginia.

This variety intergrades with var. altissima but is
readily distinguished by the longer phyllaries which
become conspicuously twisted in the dried material.

Intergrades between A. aromatica and A. altissima

Fig. 6 — Distribution of Ageratina altissima var. roanensis in Virginia. Closed dots indicate exact locations; open circles indicate
specimens cited in literature though all specimens have not been seen personally. Triangles indicate a collection from that county but
without specific location data.

Eupatorieae of Virginia

53

are reported from Craig, Nansemond, Patrick, Rock¬
ingham, Southampton, Washington and Westmore¬
land Counties and cities of Hampton and Virginia
Beach and the suggestion of hybridization is made
(27). I have seen specimens (Ahles ami Clark
60098, Patrick Co., UNC; Allard 1091, Fauquier
Co., VPI) annotated by the above authors (27) as
“Eiipatoriiim aromaticum L. towards E. rugosum.”
Data from morphological measurements of these
plants are not indicative of hybridization as the “in¬
tergrade” fits well within the variation of A. aro-
matica. See Table I.

3. Conoclinium DC.

Pubescent herbs from perennial roots and rhi¬
zomes. Leaves cauline, opposite, petioled, ovate to
subcordate, crenate. Heads campanulate, in corym¬
bose clusters, (40-) 50-70 flowered. Involucral
bracts narrow, acute. Corolla tubular, glandular,
bluish to bluish-violet. Receptacle conical, glabrous.
Achenes prismatic, sparsely glandular. Pappus of
scabrous setae.

Conoclinium, a genus of three species native to

TABLE I

A comparison of A. aroniuticu, A. a/tissimci
and the proposed intergrade

A. aromatica

“intergradc"

A. ahissima

Leaf length

3. 5-8.0 cm

5. 5-6.8 cm

6-11 '-16)cm

Leaf wid h

(1.6-) 2-4
(-4.5) cm

3-3.7 cm

4. 5-7. 5 cm

Petioles

0.3-L5 (-2.0) cm

1. 1-2.1 cm

2-4.5 (-7) cm

Corolla

3.75-4.5 mm

3-3.5 mm

(2. 2-) .3-4
(-4.5) mm

the southeastern United States, southwestern United
States and Mexico (5) has been submerged in Eupa-
toriuni s.i. by most students of the Eupatorieae.
However, Small (32) recognized the genus as dis¬
tinct from Eiipatoriiim based upon the presence of
extremely narrow involucral bracts and a conical
receptacle. Grant (12) later reported a different
karyotype for E. coe’estiinim when compared with
other Eiipatoriiim species in that the chromosomes
of the former are extremely small ( 1-2 p. in length).
King and Robinson (5) report papillose inner and
outer surfaces of the corolla, and the presence of
glands on the corolla. The combination of these
characters (extremely narrow phyllaries, conical re¬
ceptacle, very small chromosomes and papillose,
glandular corallas) is not present in Eiipatoriiim and
thus the genus Conoclinium is again recognized as
separate and a part of the Virginia flora.

Conoclinium is represented in Virginia by the
following single species.

1. Conoclinium coelestinum (L. ) DC. Mistflower,
Blue Boneset, “Ageratum.”

Eiipatoriiim coelestinum L.

Stems sparingly branched, 4-7 dm tall; leaves
(2.5-) 3-8.5 cm long, (1.6-) 3-5 cm wide, borne
on petioles to 3 cm long; heads numerous, in
corymbose clusters; involucral bracts 3-4 mm long,
0.25-0.5 mm wide, subimbricate, subequal; corol¬
las bluish to violet, ca. 3 mm long, the style exerted
about 3 mm; achenes 1.3-1. 5 mm long; pappus
2.5-3 mm long, n = 10 (12).

Conoclinium coelestinum is common in marshes,
moist roadside ditches, meadows, swales, bordering
creeks and other similar moist habitats generally
throughout the Coastal Plain, becoming less common
in the Piedmont and the Mountains. (Fig. 7). This
distribution is similar to that of Liartis graminifolia

Fig. 7 — Distribution of Conoclinium coelestinum in Virginia. Closed dots indicate exact locations; triangles indicate a collection from
that county but without specific location data.

54

The Virginia Journal of Science

var. typica ( 1 ) . Mistflower is reported to be com¬
mon in the Williamsburg area (33) and reported
as undocumented from the Shenandoah National
Park (34). This paper, however, documents the
records from that Park. The species range extends
from New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Ohio and Indiana
on the north to Florida and inland to Missouri and
Kansas (8, 9). It is in flower and fruit from (late
July-) mid- August through mid-October.

An apparent rare white flowered form, forma alba
Alex. (35) is reported from West Virginia (25)
but is unknown from Virginia, though Barrans 498
(UNC) from James City County shows very pale
blue corollas which may approach forma alba.

ConocUnium is readily recognized by the cone-
shaped receptacle bearing lovely blue to violet flow¬
ers subtended by very narrow involucral bracts. It is
known as an attractive cultivar and may escape from
the garden.

4. Fleischmannia Schultz-Bip.

Perennials with ascending solid stems. Leaves op¬
posite. Receptacle flat. Flowers pink, borne in loosely
branched corymbs. Involucral bracts ca. 30, narrow,
in 2—3 subequal series. Achenes prismatic. Carpopo-
dium distinct. Pappus of 5-40 slender and sometimes
fragile setae.

Fleischmannia has been recharacterized by King
and Robinson (3) and is treated as a natural entity
based upon analysis of microscopic features of ex¬
ternal floral morphology.

The genus, consisting of 53 species native to the
New World (3) is represented in our flora by the
following single species.

1. Fleischmannia incarnata (Walter) King & Robin¬
son. Pink Thoroughwort.

Eupatorium incarnatiim Walter

Perennial herbs ca. 10.5 dm tall; leaves opposite,
deltoid, 5-8.8 cm long, 4-6.6 cm wide, margin
crenate, apex acuminate, base truncate, the two
lateral veins parallel to the midrib and appearing
triplinerved, borne on petioles (2.0-) 4-5.5 cm
long; the longest involucral bracts linear, subequal,
5-5.25 mm long, ca. 0.75 mm wide, 2-ribbed, acute,
glabrous, subtended by much shorter, pubescent
bracts; corollas pink or lilac; pappus white, the indi¬
vidual setae thin and somewhat flexuous in dry
material. 2n = 20 (12).

This southern species associated with rich woods
and wooded swamps extending from Mexico and
along the Gulf Coast north to southern West Vir¬
ginia, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois and Missouri (8), has
been collected four times in Virginia: Bedford Co.:
pine woods, Sept. 12 (in flower) Hening s.n. (VMI);
Princess Anne County: waste places, Munden, Sep¬
tember 3, (in bud and flower), McKenzie 1773
(GH, NY); Surry County: calcareous woods W of
Claremont, August 28 (in bud), FernaJd and Long
12856 (NY, US, VPI, GH); West of Claremont,
Oct. 10 (fruit) Fernald and Long 14023 (GH). It
may be expected from south-central Virginia as
Radford, et al. (7) report this species from Warren
County, N. C.

Fleischmannia incarnata most closely resembles

ConocUnium coelestinum from which it is distin¬
guished by the flat receptacle bearing pink corollas.

REFERENCES

1. Johnson, M. F., Castanea, 36, 137 (1971).

2. Johnson, M. F., Va J. ScL, 22, 38 ( 1971 ).

3. King, R. M., and Robinson, JI., Phytologia, 19, 201
(1970).

4. King, R. M., and Robinson, H., ihicL, 19, 208 (1970).

5. King, R. M., and Robinson, H., ihicl., 19, 299 (1970).

6. King, R. M., and Robinson, H., ibid., 19, 431 (1970).

7. Radford, A. E., Ahles, H. E., and Bell, C. R., Manual

of die Vascular Flora of the Carolinas, The University
of North Carolina Press, 1968.

8. Fernald, M. L., Gray’s Manual of Botany, Eighth (Cen¬
tennial) Edition, American Book Company, New York,
New York, 1950.

9. Gleason, H. A., and Cronquist, A., Manual of Vascular
Plants of Northeastern United States and Adjacent
Canada, D. Van Nostrand Company, Princeton, New
Jersey, 1963.

10. King, R. M., and Robinson, H., Taxon, 19, 769 (1970).

11. Wiegand, K., and Weatherby, C. A., Rhodora, 39, 297
(1937).

12. Grant, W. E., Am. J. Bot., 40, 729 (1953).

13. Wingo, A. L., Bull. State Bd. of Educ., 41, Richmond,
1949.

14. Massey, A. B., Bull. Va. Agric. Exp. Stn., 155, Blacks¬
burg, 1961.

15. Cooper, D. C., and Mahoney, K. L., Ant. J. Bot., 22,
843 (1935).

16. Jervis, R. A., Ca.stanea, 34, 99 (1969).

17. Musselman, L. J., ibid., 35, 194 (1970).

18. Eosberg, E. R., and Walker, E. H., ibid., 6, 89 (1941).

19. Fosberg, F. R., and Walker, E. H., ibid., 20, 61 (1955).

20. Wiegand, K. M., Rhodora, 22, (1920).

21. Meyer, J. E., The Herbalist, revised second edition.
Copyright by the author, 1970.

22. Scherry, R. W., Plants for Man, Prentice Hall, Inc.,
Englewood Cliffs, N. J., 1952.

23. Wodehouse, R. P., Hayfever Plants, The Chronica
Botanica Co., Waltham, Mass. 1945.

24. Thorne, R. E., and Cooperrider, T. S., Castanea, 25, 1
( 1960).

25. Strausbaugh, P. D., and Core, E. L., Elora of West Vir¬
ginia, Part IV, West Virginia University Bulletin Series
65, 861, (1964).

26. Jennings, C. E., Castanea, 7, 43 (1942).

27. Clewell, A. F., and Wooten, J. W. Brittonia, 23, 123
(1971).

28. Allard, H. A., Castanea, 11, 71 (1946).

29. Muenscher, W. C., Poisonous Plants of the United
States, revised edition, MacMillan Co., New York, New
York, 1951.

30. Hardin, J. W., and Arena, J. M., Human Poisoning
From Native and Cultivated Plants, Duke University
Press, Durham, N. C., 1969.

31. Hoffman, R. L., Research Division Bulletin, 48, Virginia
Polytechnic Institute, Blacksburg, 1969.

32. Small, J. K., Flora of the Sotitheastern United States,
New York, New York, 1903.

33. Erlanson, E. W., Papers of the Mich. Acad, of Sci. Arts
Lett., 4, 115 (1925).

34. Mazzeo, P. M., Castanea, 31, 236 (1966).

35. Alexander, E. J., ibid., 5, 91 (1940).

Eupatorieae of Virginia

55

Maxwell A. Benipong

Department of Biology
Norfolk State College
Norfolk, Virginia 23504
Received January 31 , 1972

Daunomycin-Induced Cytological Alterations in Root

Meristems of V/c/o faba

Abstract — The effect of daunomycin (DM) on structural
changes in Vida faba chromosomes was investigated and
compared with some of the reported effects in mammalian
cells. The frequencies of various types of aberrations were
very low and exchanges were the least observed structural
changes. Distribution of chromatid and isochromatid breaks
did not suggest specificity in terms of point of breaks either
among chromosome groups or within a chromosome. The
occurrence of aberrant mitosis is suggested to result from
DM-induced changes in the chemical cytogenetic program¬
ming of portions of genomes, which regulate the functional
mechanism of the spindle system.

Daunomycin (DM) is a chromoglycoside with an
anthracycline type ring system as a chromophore.
It has been used sinee 1963 as an antibiotic against
childhood leukemia and solid tumors ( 1 ). Reported
findings indicate that the drug forms complexes with
DNA and inhibits both cellular RNA and DNA
synthesis (2). It is further suggested that the inhibi¬
tion of nucleie acid synthesis by DM is due to the
binding of the drug between adjacent base pairs in
the helical DNA (3, 4). Consistent with this view
are the observations that DM eauses inhibition
of DNA-dependent RNA polymerase (2), a decrease
in the viscosity of DNA (5), a decrease in the sedi¬
mentation coefficient of DNA (5) stabilization of
DNA to heat denaturation (6), stiffening and/or
elongation of DNA moleeule (7 ), and eauses changes
in the optieal density of DNA (7).

The cytotoxicity, cytostaticity and mutagenicity of
DM has been investigated by many workers (1,
8-13). The findings of Di Marco et al. (8) indicate
that the antibiotic exerts a marked inhibitory effect
on mitotic activity. Vig et al. (10) reported its
chromosome-breaking action on cultured human leu-
koeytes, Ostertag and Kersten (9) showed that DM
eaused no chromosome aberrations in HeLa cells,
and Bempong (11-13) reported on the eytogenetie
and cytological effect of DM in Vida faba.

Since most of the available reports on the ey-
toxicity and mutagenicity of DM have been limited
to mammalian cells, this fourth paper in a series of
studies describes the effects of the antibiotic on 1 )
chromosomal rearrangement, 2) distributions of
aberrations among chromosomes and within a
chromosome, 3 ) mitotie activity and 4 ) chromosome
behavior, in Vida faba.

Materials and Methods

Two em long roots of Vida faba were used in the
study. The seedlings were germinated in the green¬
house at 20C. Following the emergence of the pri¬
mary roots, the seedlings were transferred to Coplin
jars, where they were grown in well aerated tap water
at 20C in the dark. The various concentrations of
DM used were prepared with distilled water. During
the treatments, air was bubbled through the solution
surrounding the roots. After treatment, the seedlings
were thoroughly washed in running water and then
put back in tap water through which air was bubbled,
and allowed varying durations for recovery. The
concentrations of DM used and the recovery periods
allowed for eaeh treatment are presented in Table 1.
All the lateral roots received the same duration of
treatment (1 hour exposure to the chemical); the
only variables were the coneentration of the chemi¬
cal and duration of the recovery period. Three hours
prior to fixation some of the roots were treated in
eolchicine solution (0.025%) to enhance well-
spread metaphases. Roots were fixed in alcohol-
acetic acid (3:1) overnight and slides were pre¬
pared as Feulgen squashes.

Results

Types of chromosome aberration: Structural changes
in chromosomes scored were chromatid breaks (B'),
isochromatid breaks (B"), chromatid exchanges
(C'-C'), isochromatid exchanges (C"-C"), chroma¬
tid breaks in the secondary constriction (S-C/B"),
chromatid gaps (G'), and isochromatid gaps (G"),
(see Fig. la— h). The other noticeable chromosomal
or nuclear changes were proximal and distal sister
ehromatid unions, (Fig. lb & e) micronuclei, elonga¬
tion and spiralization of chromosomes (Fig. 2) ana¬
phase and nuclear bridges (Fig. 3-4). In some of
the preparations chromosomal erosion and very ex¬
tensive pulverization of the entire somatic comple¬
ment were observed (Fig. 5).

It is evident from Table I that the spectrum of
aberrations induced by DM in Vida faba is not as
extensive and drastic as those reported for human
leukocytes (10) or the chromosome breaking action
of other mutagens in Vida faba (14, 15).

56

The Virginia Journal of Science

Fro. la-5 — Chromatid and isochromatid aberrations produced by DM in Vida jaha root meristematic cells,
la — Isochromatid gaps in a long chromosome (G).

b — Multiple aberrations: homologous exchanges (HE), proximal sister unions (P), and acentric fragments (F).
c — Homologous exchanges between two short chromosomes (HE), terminal deletion (TD), and an acentric fragment (E).
d — Homologous exchanges between two long chromosomes (HE),
e — Proximal and distal sister unions (PD).

f — Multiple aberrations — Homologous exchanges (HE), acentric fragment (F), a short dicentric chromosome (DC), and
chromatid break (B).

g — Nonhomologous exchanges (NE) and terminal deletions (D).
h — Nonhomologous exchanges (NE) and apparent subchromatid exchanges (SE).

2 — Spiralized chromosomes (SP). The coils are clearly visible.

3 — Nuclear or chromatin bridge.

4 — Interlocked anaphase bridges.

5 — Eroded or pulverized chromosomes.

TABLE 1

Types and jrequency oj chromosomal aberrations induced by daiinomycin. One hundred cells were scored for each treatment and control.

DM

Concentration
(Mg /ml)

Period of
Recovery
(hr)

Abnormal
cells (%)

Aberrations per 100 cells

Aberration per
analyzed
metaphase

Break events
per analyzed
cell

B'

B"

C'-C'

C"-C"

S-C B' S-C/B"

i G'

G"

Control

0

0

0

0

0

0 0

0

0

0

0

5.0

24

2

-

1

-

-

1

-

-

0.02

0.02

5.0

48

8

1

3

-

-

0 3

-

4

0.11

0.07

6.0

24

6

3

1

-

-

0 2

-

-

0.06

o.os

6.0

48

9

5

11

-

-

9 5

3

7

0.40

0.30

12.0

24

8

5

4

1

-

1 3

1

4

0.19

0.13

12.0

48

17

7

9

2

1

2 7

5

8

0.41

0.25

25.0

24

13

1

2

2

-

4 5

1

7

0.22

0.12

25.0

48

22

13

10

6

1

5 7

4

12

0.58

0.35

The frequencies of the various types of aberrations
scored were very low and exchanges were the least
observed structural abnormalities. There was a trend
toward a high percentage of aberration yield with an
increase in DM concentration, however, the trend
did not hold in all cases. Chromatid and isochromatid
exchanges and to some extent, isochromatid breaks
at the secondary constriction, were the only cytologi-
cal abnormalities that showed a correlation between
concentration of DM and percent aberration. Chro¬
matid and isochromatid gaps scored after 48 hours
of treatment indicated an apparent increase with an
increase in DM concentration. The other structural
changes revealed unaccountable fluctuations in their
aberration frequencies in relation to the concentra¬
tion of DM.

Table I further demonstrates that in Vida faha
higher concentrations of DM are required to induce
chromosomal aberrations. This finding is at variance
with that of Vig et al. (10), which suggests that DM
requires a narrow dose to induce chromosomal aber¬
rations. Their data showed that 0.015 iu.g/ml of DM
produced 97 exchanges and 194 breaks of various
types in about 800 cells scored in human leukocytes.
Our study, as revealed by the data in Table I, shows
that a concentration as high as 5.0 ^ig/ml of DM
produced only a total of 9 breaks and no exchanges
in 400 cells scored. Twenty-five /xg/ml, about
1,666.6-fold increase of the concentration used by
Vig et al. (10), produced 0.26 breakage-exchange
per analyzed cell (the figure excludes breaks at the
secondary constriction).

Distribution of aberrations: Fig. 6 shows the dis¬
tribution of chromatid and isochromatid breaks
among the 6 pairs of chromosomes. The two long,
metacentric chromosomes were grouped in class 1,
4 pairs of the submetacentric chromosomes in class
2 and in class 3, the 2 shortest of the submetacentric
chromosomes. The 78 chromatid and isochromatid
breaks analyzed seemed to suggest no specificity in
terms of point of break either among chromosome
groups or within a chromosome. According to Fig. 6
the six pairs of chromosomes neither show a differ¬
ential susceptibility to the drug nor are the points of
break limited to certain hcterochromatic regions as
observed for mitomycin C effect in Vida faba (14).
It must be mentioned, however, that while all the

chromosomes showed randomly distributed regional
susceptibility to aberration, breaks at secondary con¬
strictions and centromeres were more frequent in all
the chromosomes.

Aberrant mitosis: Roots treated with DM and fixed
immediately or 12 hours after treatment showed no
aberrations. In fact the mitotic index was so low
during this period that we could hardly find well-
spread metaphases. In roots allowed 24 hours of
recovery, only a few aberrant chromosomes were
observed, thus characterizing DM as producing a
delayed type of effect in Vida faba. The mitotic
inhibition observed during the first 12 hours of treat¬
ment was reduced with an increase in the recovery
period. The peak of chromosomal aberration ap¬
peared at 48 hours.

Since some of our colchicine-treated preparations
showed an unexpectedly high incidence of mitotic
irregularities, particularly when 25 pg/ml of DM was
used, some of the lateral roots exposed to the same
concentration of DM were not treated with colchicine
prior to alcohol-acetic acid fixation. The incidence
of different types of anomalous mitosis observed in
the treated material was as follows: apparent tripolar
and tetrapolar anaphases (Fig. 7, 8), C-anaphases,
characterized by abnormal orientation of chromatids
(Fig. 9), and endoreduplicated cells (Fig. 10). In
some of the cells chromosomal movement and dis¬
tribution appeared to indicate somatic reduction
(Fig. 11).

In Table II, the frequency of the various types
of aberrant mitotic cells is presented. The data seem
to suggest an increase in cytological anomaly as the
concentration of DM was increased. A detailed
analysis of the effect of 25 /xg/ml of DM on mitotic
activity after 24 and 48 hours of treatment is shown
in Table III. The data indicate that at this concen¬
tration, mitosis was arrested at metaphase during the
second cell cycle; however, a significantly reduced
number of anaphases was observed.

Chromosome behavior: Irregular distribution of
chromosomes, presumably arising from a disrupted
spindle mechanism, was observed in most of the non-
colchicine-treated preparations. The incidence of this
aberrancy increased as the concentration of the anti¬
biotic was increased. As shown in the histogram
(Fig. 12), the number of chromosomes per cell

The Virginia Journal of Science

Fig. 7-19 — Abnormal mitotic chromosome movement and distribution.

7 — A tripolar anaphase.

8 — Precocious anaphase. The tetrapolar orientation and distribution of the chromosomes are suggestive of anaphase 1 1 .
Note that the chromosomes have not split into chromatids.

9 — C-Anaphase cell. Observe the lack of definite orientation of the chromatids.

10 — C-metaphase configuration of an endoreduplicated cell.

11 — An apparent somatic reduction division. Each group contains six chromosomes. Note the homologous exchanges in one
of the groups (HE).

13 — A cell containing four (2 long and 2 short) chromosomes.

14 — A cell containing five (one long and 4 short) chromosomes.

15 — There are five short chromosomes in the cell.

16 — A true haploid cell — one long and five short chromosomes.

17 — “Pseudo-haploid” cell — two long and four short chromosomes.

18 — “Pseudo-haploid” cell — contains six short chromosomes.

19 — Somatic chromosome associations. All the associations are of homologous types and are either parasynapsis (PA) or
telosynapsis (T).

TABLE II

Per cent aberrant mitotic cells induced by daunomycin

DM

Concentra¬
tion
(Mg /ml)

Endore-

duplication

Multi¬

polar

anaphases

Chromatin

bridges

Anaphase

bridges

5

0.72

0.31

3.43

2.84

6

0.76

0.29

3.65

4.17

12

6.81

4.62

8.32

4.78

25

10.42

7.36

13.54

5.51

TABLE III

Ejfect of 25 nS I tnl of DM on mitotic index and frequency of the
different mitotic stages after treatment of Vida faba lateral roots

Period
of recovery
(hr)

Mitotic index
(% per 100
cells)

Frequency of
prometaphase
per 100 meta¬
phases

Frequency of
anaphase per

100 metaphases

24

Control

49.3

12

5

Treated

10.8

249

42

48

Control

51.2

10

7

Treated

27.9

397

2

Cytological Alterations in Vida Faba

59

60

TOTAL

B'

II

17

9

37

B"

13

15

13

41

C"

23

82

25

130

S^'

33

33

Fig. 6 — Distribution of points of chromatid and iso¬
chromatid breaks in DM-treated Vida faha root meristematic
cells. Short lines represent B' and long lines B". C" and S"
denote isochromatid breaks in the centromere and secondary
constrictions respectively. (The figures, 1, 2, and 3, represent
the classes of chromosomes as described in the text.)

ranged from three to twelve (Fig. 13-18). Eighteen
per cent and 57 per cent of the cells scored had six
and twelve chromosomes respectively. On the basis
of their karyotypes three types of haploid cells were
observed. These were: 1) cells with one half the
total complement, i.e. one metacentric and five sub-
metacentrics (Fig. 16), 2) cells with two metacen-
trics and four submetacentrics (Fig. 17), and 3)
cells containing six submetacentric chromosomes
(Fig. 18). The last two groups of “pseudo-haploids”
were more prevalent than the “true-haploids”. Most
of the cells with less than s'x chromosomes appeared
distorted and small. Another interesting observation
was what appeared to be somatic associations in
some of the metaphases (Fig. 19). These associa-

55

50

45

40

35

OO

g 30

m 25

u

LU

20

15

10

5

^ _ C±J-

3 4 5

6

-TTfr

7 8 9 10 II

12

NUMBER OF CHROMOSOMES PER CELL

Fig. 12 — Frequency of distribution of number of
chromosomes per cell in Vida faba root meristematic cells
treated with 12 and 25 jug/ml of DM. (Fifty cells were
counted in each treatment and pooled.)

tions were of two types: end-to-end (telosynapsis)
or side-by-side (parasynapsis).

Discussion

The data presented reveal that DM induced struc¬
tural changes in the chromosomes of Vicia faba,
however, the frequency of aberrations was very low.
The chromatid and isochromatid exchanges com¬
monly found in DM-treated human leukocytes (10)
were very few even at higher concentrations of the
antibiotic. Furthermore, translocations and dicentrics
were rarely observed in our preparations. The dif¬
ferential effect of DM on different cells as reported
by Ostertag and Kersten (9), Vig et al. (16) and
Bempong (11, 12), suggests that the quality and
extent of damage caused by the drug was dependent
upon the nature and souree of the experimental
materials and the susceptibility of the chromosomes
or parts of the chromosomes to the breaking action
of the chemical. If this assumption is valid, then it is
not unusual that a drug which is capable of 1) in¬
hibiting cellular DNA and RNA synthesis, 2) causing
cross-linking of DNA, and 3) complexing with DNA
in vitro as well as in vivo, fails to induce chromo¬
somal aberrations in HeLa cells or causes few aberra¬
tions in Vicia faba root meristematic cells. However,
in human leukocytes, severe chromosomal structural
changes are observed in the presence of DM.

The spectrum of chromosomal aberrations as pre¬
sented in Table I and summarized in Fig. 6 does not
indicate specificity of DM in its chromosome-break¬
ing action in Vicia faba. This observation is at vari-

60

The Virginia Journal of Science

ance with the findings of Vig et al. (16), who
reported specificity of DM in causing chromosomal
rearrangements in human leukocytes. The few
chromatids and isochromatid exchanges scored did
not indicate preferential exhanges between certain
chromosomes, and the origin of breaks was not
limited to specific regions on the chromosome length
or specific points among chromosome groups.

Association of homologous chromosomes during
mitosis has been reported in some plant and animal
species (17-19). A spatial proximity hypothesis has
been proposed (10). This hypothesis considers
somatic association as a primary role of the cen¬
tromere. Telomeric initiation of pairing is also be¬
lieved to trigger somatic associations (18, 20). The
occurrence of parasynapsis, which suggests centro-
meric initiation of pairing and telosynapsis, which
may imply telomeric initiation of association, may
lead one to infer that the general phenomenon of
somatic association is a gene-controlled event.

The recent findings of Avivi et al. (21 ) eloquently
demonstrated that in the somatic cells of common
wheat, association of homologous chromosomes is
regulated by somatic-association genes. Implicit in
the report was the supposition that the genes
achieved their regulatory effect by controlling the
functional characteristics of the spindle system. They
pointed out that the degree of effective suppression
or enhancement of somatic association was de¬
pendent on the doses of the somatic association
genes.

The evidence of irregular chromosome separation,
C metaphases and anaphases, precocious anaphases,
somatic reduction and association, are suggestive of
disrupted spindle mechanism. It might be plausible
to infer that DM affected a complex of synthetic
reactions related to spindle fiber formation and
function. The literature shows that microtubules of
the spindle fibers exist in a dynamic equilibrium with
their subunits (22, 23). In the presence of drugs
that are capable of causing mitotic poisoning, this
equilibrium can be disturbed and shifted towards
dissociation. Since microtubular proteins consist of
the fibrous component of the spindle system, which
is responsible for chromosomal movement and dis¬
tribution, physical or chemical changes in the spindle
microtubules will culminate in mitotic aberration.

The ability of DM to induce chromosomal struc¬
tural changes (2, 3, 9, 20), to form complexes with
nucleic acids, to inhibit synthesis of DNA-dependent
RNA polymerase (8, 17, 22), and to alter the
physiochemical properties of DNA (11, 12), confer
upon the drug a potential for modifying or com¬
pletely changing the chemical cytogenetic program¬
ming of certain portions of the genome. The sug¬

gestive implication of the regulatory action of DM
may include the control of portions of genome which
dictate essential mitotic events such as the functional
characteristics of the spindle system and the asso¬
ciated chromosomal distribution.

Acknowledgments

My appreciation is extended to Mr. J. H. Clay,
associate professor of Drafting, for his technical as¬
sistance and Mrs. Lorraine H. Taft for her secre¬
tarial services.

REFERENCES

1. Tan, C., Tasaka, H., Yu, K-P., Murphy, M. L., and
Karnofsky, D. A., Cancer, 20, 333 ( 1967).

2. Silvestrini, R., Di Marco, A., and Dasdia, T., Riv.
LstocJum. Norm, e Pat., 14, 287 (1968).

3. Goldberg, I. H., Am. J. Med., 39, 722 ( 1966).

4. Ward, D., Reich, E., and Goldberg, I. H., Science, N.Y.,
149, 1259 (1965).

5. Kersten, W., and Kersten, H., Biocliem. Z. 341, 174
( 1965).

6. Calendi, E., Di Marco, A., Reggiani, M., Scarpinato,
B., and Valentini, L., Biocliim. biopliys. Acta, 201, 706
( 1965).

7. Kersten, W., Kersten, H., and Szybalski, W., Biochem¬
istry, 5, 236 ( 1966).

8. Di Marco, A., Silvestrini, R., and Dasdia, T., Simposio
Nazionale della Societa Itaiiana di Cancerologia, Milano,
Italy, 1963.

9. Ostertag, W., and Kersten, W., E.xpl Cell Res.. 39, 296
( 1965).

10. Vig, B. K., Paddock, E. F., and Samuels, L. D., Ex-
perientia, 24, 271 (1968).

11. Bempong, M. A., EMS Nesvsletter, 4, 16 (1971).

12. Bempong, M. A., National Institute of Science News¬
letter, 2, 14 (1971).

13. Bempong, M. A., Comparative biological effects of
daunomycin and mitomycin C; Induction of aberrant
mitosis, 28th Annual Joint Meeting of Beta Kappa Chi
and National Institute of Science, Petersburg, Virginia,
1971.

14. Rao, R. N., and Natarajan, A. T., Genetics, 57, 821
( 1967).

15. Kihlman, B. A., Hereditas, 49, 353 ( 1963).

16. Vig, B. K., Paddock, E. F., and Samuels, L. D., Chromo-
.soma, 29, 62 (1970).

17. Kitani, Y., Jap. J. Genet., 38, 244 (1963).

18. Wagenaar, E. B., Chromosoma, 26, 410 (1969).

19. Feldman, M., Proc. natn. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 55, 1447
( 1966).

20. Kasha, K. J., and Burnham, C. R., Can. J. Genet.
CytoL, 7, 620 (1965).

21. Avivi, L., Feldman, M., and Bushuk, W., Genetics, 65,
585 (1970).

22. Inoue, S., Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci., 90, 529 (1960).

23. Inoue, S., in R. D. Allen and N. Kamiya (Editors)
Primitive Motile Systems in Cell Biology, Academic
Press, Inc., New York, 1963, p. 549.

Cytological Alterations in Vida Faha

61

Thomas R. Schori
and

John E. Tindall

Research Center
Philip Morris U.S.A.
Richmond, Virginia 23261
Received March 9, 1972

Multiple Discriminant Analysis:
A Repeated Measures Design^"

Abstract — Conventional multiple discriminant analysis
requires that the various treatment groups be independent
of one another, i.e., the same subjects cannot be measured
under each treatment condition. The present paper describes
a simple technique which permits multiple discriminant
analysis to be employed even though the same subjects are
measured on multiple variables under each experimental
condition.

Introduction

Multivariate analysis of variance has been of real
value to investigators interested in problems that
cannot be described adequately in terms of single
variables. This analysis tests for treatment effects in
terms of multiple dependent variables considered
simultaneously — while taking into consideration the
interrelationships among variables.

Conventional multivariate analysis of variance
requires that the various treatment groups be inde¬
pendent of one another (1, 2). This is unfortunate
since there are many research applications in which
it would be desirable to measure each subject on
multiple variables under each experimental treat¬
ment condition. For instance, in an investigation into
the effects on driving performance of various dosages
of alcohol, it might be desirable to test each in¬
dividual at each dosage. This paper describes a
repeated-measures multiple discriminant analysis
(one-way multivariate analysis of variance) tech¬
nique which is appropriate for such situations.

Method

In the usual multiple discriminant analysis there
are K groups of items with items in the kth group
and observations of M variables for each item in
each group. It is assumed that the observations on
items in group k (k = 1,2, • • •, K) come from an
M-variate normal distribution with mean vector /xu
and variance-covariance matrix V. That is, it is as¬
sumed that the mean vector is characteristic of a

* Those wishing to obtain a Fortran IV multiple discriminant
analysis program (with repeated measures option) should request one
from the senior author; example problems will also be provided. This
program is a modification of one reported by Veldman (3). In its
present form it operates on a Xerox Data Systems (XDS) Sigma 5 — a
32K machine. It may require minor modifications to run on other
machines.

particular group of items but that the variance-
covariance matrix is common to all groups.

The degree to which it is possible to discriminate
between groups depends, in part, on the size of the
elements of V.

A comprehensive model of variable m for item i in
group k is

^inik = Mmk + «mik + Cinik- 1

where o-mik is a random error associated with differ¬
ences between items and is distributed normally with
mean 0 and variance o-a-, and where enuk is a random
error associated with differences within items and is
distributed normally with mean 0 and variance o-/.

In the usual multiple discriminant analysis no dis¬
tinction is made between items (since there are dif¬
ferent items in each group and they must be con¬
sidered a source of variation). Equation 1 can be
written

^mik — Mink “h C^mik

^ inik -f- ^mik ^

where

e'niik is distributed normally with mean 0 and
variance a-, and

2 2,2
cr = (Ta + CTj .

That is, in the model for a single variable in the usual
multiple discriminant analysis, the error is not con¬
sidered to consist of two components, and no ad¬
vantages would result from considering two com¬
ponents.

It would be possible to perform a multiple dis¬
criminant analysis in which observations of M vari¬
ables were made on each of N items under K dif¬
ferent treatments instead of in K different groups.
In such an analysis, variation due to items could
presumably be removed thus increasing the chance
of discrimination between treatments.

The appropriate model of variable m for item i
under treatment k would be

^niik Mmk “1“ -j” 3

62

The Virginia Journal of Science

In this instance, because each item appears under
each treatment (in each group, so to speak)
can be considered to be a constant associated with
item i and variable m rather than a random error.
All treatment differences can be absorbed by /tmk
just as they would be in the regular analysis and
equation 3 can be written

^mik Mink ~b ^mi ~b ^inik 4

Without loss of generality it can be assumed that

N

^ ' ^in i b . 5

i =1

With equation 4 and its underlying assumptions,
one can remove differences between items, and,
consequently, variation due to differences between
items, by adjusting observations before the multiple
discriminant analysis. This adjustment can be made
by subtracting the appropriate value of ami from
each observation before the analysis.

Estimates of can be made using X,,,;]; from
equation 4 as follows:

a

m i

K

K

k = )

1

NK

Z Z X

mi k

The adjustment process makes /'mik a combination
of within-item errors rather than a single random
error as it was in equation 2. However, e"j„ik should
be on the order of 1 + 1 /NK + 1 /k times as large
as emik in equation 1 and presumably much smaller
than e'miu in equation 2.

Thus, with the adjustment in observations, a mul¬
tiple discriminant analysis can be performed for this
situation (K treatments instead of K groups) exactly
as in the usual multiple discriminant situation. There
will be three main differences in the analyses and
results:

1. The elements of the variance-covariance matrix
will be smaller and discrimination between treat¬
ments should be much better than if the analyses
had been performed with no adjustment.

2. Wherever the values appear in the usual multi¬
ple discriminant analysis they should be replaced
by N.

3. If there are auxiliary univariate analyses of vari¬
ance based on the adjusted observations, degrees
of freedom in some of these analyses may have
to be adjusted.

REFERENCES

With these adjustments the model of variable m for
item i under treatment k (equation 4) becomes

Xniik Mmk ^ iniks

the same as equation 2, the model for the usual mul¬
tiple discriminant analysis.

1. Cooley, W. W. and Lohnes, P. R., Multivariate proced¬
ures for the behavioral sciences, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,
New York, 1962.

2. Morrison, D. F., Multivariate statistical methods, Mc-
Graw Hill Book Company, New York, 1967.

3. Veldman, D. O., Fortran programming for the behavioral
sciences. Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, New York, 1967.

Multiple Discriminant Analysis

63

Gene L. Samsel, Jr.

Department of Biology
Virginia Commonwealth University
Richmond, Virginia 23220

and

Bruce C. Parker

Department of Biology
Virginia Polytechnic Institute
and State University
Blacksburg, Virginia 24061
Received March 14, 1972

Nutrient Factors Limiting Primary Productivity
in Simulated and Field Antarctic Microecosystems

Abstract — We compared, both in laboratory microeco¬
systems and under natural field conditions, the effects of
selected nutrient enrichments on the algal communities of
two closely associated Antarctic lakes for the purpose of
discovering which inorganic nutrients might most likely be
responsible for the observed “trophic” differences between
them. Laboratory aquatic microecosystems simulating both
lakes were established in several types of containers with
living microbial communities from both lakes. Effects of
enrichments with ammonia, phosphate, nitrate, silicate,
iron, and chloride singly and in combinations were examined
periodically for 30-40 days, by evaluating photosynthetic
uptake rates by phytoplankton. Ammonia was the prin¬
cipal nutrient causing the differences in primary produc¬
tivity between the two lake microecosystems. Phosphate
also induced a small but significant stimulation of primary
productivity, especially in combination with ammonia. Other
enrichments were ineffective. These comparative laboratory
microecosystem studies revealed that ammonium ion con¬
centration is a major factor causing productivity differences
observed earlier in the field. Subsequent field enrichment
studies, although conducted during a second season, es¬
sentially confirm these laboratory results.

Introduction

During the Antarctic summer of 1969-70 we
studied two small lakes which had strikingly different
phytoplankton productivity levels yet were located
only 500 m apart and three km from the U.S. Palmer
Station, on Anvers Island, Antarctica (64°46'S,
60°05'W). Field comparisons of these two lakes
disclosed relatively few parameters (geologic, mor¬
phometric, physical, chemical) which offered prom¬
ise of explaining their in situ biological differences
(primary productivity, algal biomass, extractable
chlorophylls, species diversity) (1-4). These param¬
eters were the concentrations of phosphate (0.03
and 1.7 mg/1, as total P), ammonium (0.10 and
2.5 mg/1, as N), chloride (7.5 and 35.0 mg/1, as
HCl) and nitrate (1.0 and 1.75 mg/1, as N) re¬

spectively for oligotrophic Lake no. L and eutrophic
Lake no. 2^. Levels of iron, silicate, and carbon (as
COo and HCO;r), as well as other chemicals ana¬
lyzed, differed relatively little between the two lakes
(2). However, the low values for iron, (<0.02 mg
Fe^'^/1), and the combined scarcity of diatoms with
low dissolved silica (<0.76 mg SiOo/l) in most of
the freshwater habitats visited near the U.S. Palmer
Station suggested these nutrients might also limit
algal production in these Antarctic ecosystems.

Following this Antarctic summer study, we re¬
turned to V.P.I. & S.U. with microbial communities
from both lakes and established microecosystems in
our laboratory which resembled both lakes suffi¬
ciently to pei-petuate the algal communities and en¬
able our testing of nutrients influencing the observed
trophic differences in Antarctic waters during austral
summer conditions. A second visit to the lakes was
made during the 1970-71 field session. This revisit
enabled field enrichment studies to test the validity
of data obtained from the more artificial laboratory
microecosystems.

Biological research in Antarctica is usually re¬
stricted to a very short period for making field ob¬
servations. Furthermore, adverse weather conditions,
the lack of several items of equipment plus limited
scientific logistic support facilities at Palmer Station,
made it impossible to conduct all this research in the
field. Finally no limnological studies have been re¬
ported previously from the western portion of the
Antarctic Peninsula, nor have studies of the cause of
eutrophication been made anywhere in Antarctica.

1 Lake no. 1, unofficially called “Skua Lake,” is located behind the
abandoned United Kingdom base at Norsel Point, xXnvers Island; lake
no. 2, unofficially called “Humble Lake,” occurs on Humble Island in
Arthur Harbour, 500m from lake no. 1.

64

The Virginia Journal of Science

Materials and Methods

A Wisconsin plankton net, 76 /x pore diameter,
was employed in the field for collection of the larger
phytoplankton. Foerst centrifuge-concentration of
seston collected with a Kemmerer bottle as well as
filtration-concentration through 0.8 /x Millipore mem¬
branes were employed for detection of nanno- and
ultra-plankton, including delicate flagellates (5).
Phytoplankton were identified to genus with a bi¬
nocular phase microscope, and to insure detection
of nanno-plankton and delicate flagellates, field ex¬
aminations with a Nikon field microscope were made
routinely.

Living microbial communities, including algae,
bacteria, yeasts, and protozoa from plankton tows,
water bottle collections, Foerst centrifuged samples,
and sediment samples, from both lakes were trans¬
ported aseptically and under refrigeration to our
laboratory in enrichment media. These media were
specifically designed not to exceed any inorganic
nutrient concentrations determined for these two
lakes by more than 50%. Cultures were maintained
in our laboratory in growth chambers at 5 C and
5000 lux of continuous fluorescent illumination. The
algae in our microbial communities consisted only
of genera which had dominated in numbers and
biomass during our field studies. A number of the
subdominant and rare algal species, which have been
cited by Parker, Samsel, and Prescott (3), did not
survive in our enrichment cultures.

Aquatic microecosystems representing Antarctic
lakes 1 and 2 were simulated with 600 ml Erlen-
meyer flasks, 3000 ml beakers, and 5 gal aquaria, all
producing essentially the same results.^ These mi¬
croecosystems included gravity-flow, calibrated 10
drop /min, 1000 ml flask continuous-flow systems for
regular input of nutrients and similar gravity-flow
bottom drained, screened outflow systems for re¬
moval of by-products, and continuous aeration to
supplement the daily manual swirling for maintain¬
ing microbial dispersion and adequate exchange of
gases. Saturation with dissolved Oo and COo dupli¬
cated the natural field conditions. Specially designed
synthetic defined media with ion concentrations ap¬
proximating the analyzed inorganic components and
pH values for each Antarctic lake were used in our
microecosystems (Table I).

All experiments, unless otherwise stated, employed :
(a) autoclave-sterilized media; (b) regular micro¬
scopic monitoring of algal communities in stock cul¬
tures, inocula, and microecosystems; (c) experiments
run in each of the three sizes of microecosystems in
the same growth chamber, twice in triplicate with
600 and 3000 ml containers and once in duplicate
with 5 gal aquaria; (d) a physical environment of
5 ± 1 C and a 1 2 hr alternating light cycle of 8000
and 2000 lux intensity, approximating the observed
Antarctic summer conditions; (e) standard inocula
of 1.0 ml (40-60 individual algae: Chlamydomonas,

2 3000 ml beaker microecosystems consistently yielded primary pro¬
ductivity values about twice that of other containers, but the trends
were identical and variations among replicates were <10%.

TABLE I

Composition of defined media for laboratory Antarctic
microecosystems*

Chemical

Formula

Calculated Concentrations
(mg/1, or as stated)

Lake no. 1 Lake no. 2

Na,C03

18.0

13.45

MgCfi

5.2

11.1

Na2Si03

2.3

3.05

H2SO4 (1 :1000 dil)

2.5 ml

3.47 ml

HCl (1:1000 dil)

1 . 5 ml

1 . 5 ml

FeCL,

0.417

0.417

MnCb

0.410

0.410

Na2HP04

0.14

6.4

C3(0H )2

8.0

—

KCl

2.2

—

HNO3 (1 : 1000 dil)

2.5

—

NH4CI

0.25

—

CaCb

—

27.7

NH4NO3

—

10.0

NaNO.

—

2.01

KHCO3

—

2.6

pH

6.4

6.3

* Add the following compounds per liter: H3BO3, 1 mg;
ZnS04: THoO, 1 mg; CoCU, 0.2 mg; CU2SO4, 0.04 mg; M0O3,
0.04 mg. This solution is based on analyses of trace elements in
Lake Bonney, Antarctica (15). Na+, COs”, Mn++, K+, and the
composition of this trace element mix are the only components
not analyzed in the two freshwater environments. Na+, K+,
and Mn++ were adjusted to levels found in other Antarctic
lakes (16).

Chroococcus and Chlorella) of lake no. 1 community
stock culture and 0.2 ml (50-80 individual algae:
Chlamydomonas, Oscillatoria, Chroococcus and
Chlorella) of lake no. 2 community stock culture
per 500 ml in 600 ml flasks. As noted previously,
these partial algal communities comprised the domi¬
nant algal genera found in both nanno- net-plankton
collections from the lakes. The inoculum size for
each community had been preadjusted to yield mi¬
croecosystem productivity values after two weeks
which approximated those obtained in our 1969-70
field studies. Microecosystems were allowed an aver¬
age of two weeks for equilibration. Routine chemical
analyses were made at 5-day intervals with the Hach
DR-EL kit and accessories and preceded all primary
productivity determinations.

Low phytoplankton densities and perpetual oxy¬
gen saturation of both these natural lakes led to our
choice of the sensitive in situ primary produc¬
tivity method of Steeman-Nielsen, with modifications
by other workers, as detailed previously (2). We
adapted this field method to our laboratoiy studies
by using duplicate 70 ml screw-cap pharmaceutical
bottles filled with aliquots from the appropriate mi¬
croecosystem, then enriched with 4^Ci of ^'^C-sodium
carbonate, and incubated adjacent to the microeco¬
systems in the growth chamber. Microscopic count¬
ing of the algae in triplicate 1 ml samples from each
system were made weekly throughout the experi¬
ments.

The first series of experiments involved microeco¬
systems for lake no. 1 with continuous dropwise

Antarctic Nutrients Limiting Primary Productivity

65

input of single, select chemical components at rates
predetermined to establish and maintain the approxi¬
mate concentrations of these components to the
levels found in lake no. 2 during the 1969-70 field
season. These were: phosphatc-P (1.7 mg/1, as
Na:;HPO|), ammonium-N (2.5 mg/1, as NH;C1),
chloride (35 mg/1, as MgCU + 1.15 ml of 1:1000
cone. HCl), nitrate-N (1.75 ml/1 of 1:1000
cone. HNO3), and silicate (1.5 mg/1, as NaSiOa);
these additions produced minimal (<10%) changes
in pH. Following two experiments in different sized
microecosystems, we ran one in which separate
chemicals were added only initially during the two-
week equilibration period to evaluate the rates of
depletion of ions from the media.

In a second series of experiments, we enriched
both lake microecosystems with iron (as FeCF) to
ascertain whether the low levels detected in both
natural lakes were limiting to primary productivity.
Concentrations of 0.1 and 1.0 mg/1 Fe^*^ were ulti-
lized and the results followed for 30 days in both
600 ml flask and 3000 ml beaker microecosystems.

A third experimental series tested combinations of
nutrients added to lake no. 1 microecosystems:
phosphate + nitrate, phosphate + chloride, phos¬
phate + silicate, phosphate + ammonium, phos¬
phate -f nitrate -f ammonium, nitrate -t- chloride,
ammonium -f- silicate, using concentrations and com¬
pounds previously cited for the separate enrichments.
Analyses of these ions were made at 5-day intervals
concurrently with primary productivity determina¬
tions.

Finally, experiments were conducted to ascertain
the adaptabilities of the microbial communities of
the two lakes to their reciprocal chemical environ¬
ments. More specifically, we wanted to learn whether
the generic differences between the two microbial
communities might account for part of the observed
differences in primary productivity. Lake no. 1 com¬
munity was grown in lake no. 2 synthetic medium
using only the 600 ml flasks. Reciprocally, lake
no. 2 community was inoculated and grown in lake
no. 1 medium. Other aspects of the microecosystems
were the same as for previous experiments.

Because our data showed similar trends in all
three microecosystem sizes and the replicates for
each experiment differed by only <10%, we shall
report here only one set of representative data from
the 600 ml flask microecosystems.

Following the simulated microecosystem experi¬
ments at VPI & SU, parallel field experiments were
conducted during the 1970-71 season. Transparent
plastic cylinders 8 inches in diameter and 3 feet long
(open at both ends) were placed in both lakes,
thereby delimiting representative water columns.
Each cylinder contained approximately 10 liters of
lake water. Following a 10-day equilibration period,
lake no. 1 cylinders were then enriched generally at
5-day intervals with the same chemicals used in our
laboratory work, each in quantities sufficient to ap¬
proach the concentrations observed in the eutrophic
lake no. 2 evlinder. The chemicals added were
NaoHPO. for PO — P enrichment. HNO3 for NO:;— N
enrichment and NH4CI for NH4-N enrichment. Total

extractable chlorophyll and C’^02 fixation were
measured in situ in the cylinders every 5 days, all by
methods described previously (2).

Results

Separat3 Ion Enrichment Effects on
Laboratory Microecosystems

The algal genera of both community stock cul¬
tures remained the same throughout the course of
all microecosystem experiments with minor changes
in population sizes. Similarly algae dominating in
microecosystems were essentially the same as domi¬
nant algae identified in the respective natural lakes.
Figure 1 reveals that the carbon uptake rates for
synthetic lake no. 2 microecosystems were 5 to 10
times higher than that of unenriched lake no. 1 con¬
trol microecosystems. The addition of ammonium
chloride to lake no. 1 induced a sizable increase in
primary productivity. Sodium phosphate also slightly
stimulated productivity of the control lake no. 1
microecosystems, notably during the middle period
of the experiments. However, additions of calcium
chloride, sodium silicate, dilute nitric acid, and fer¬
rous chloride (Fig. 1 and 2) did not enhance carbon
uptake rates in any of our experiments.

Figure 3 reveals the rates of nutrient depletion in
microecosystems which received only initial separate
ion enrichments. The best fit line analysis to the 0-30
day data using linear regression and the hypothesis
of zero slope was rejected at p = .001 in every case.
Total dissolved phosphate dropped to the original
value of 0.1 ppm (as POi) in lake no. 1, while the
concentration of phosphate in lake no. 2 fell to 0.8
ppm during the same 30 day period. The slopes of
phosphate consumption during this 30 day period
indicate an average rate for phosphate removal of
approximately 0. 1 5 ppm PO|/day for both microeco¬
systems. Similar trends in ammonium ion depletion
occurred, but the concentrations of this ion remained
somewhat higher in lake no. 1 microecosystems after
initial enrichment than in lake no. 2. Average am¬
monium consumption for lake no. 2 microecosystems
was 0.071 ppm NHi-N/day, while lake no. 1 con¬
sumed 0.064 ppm NH4-N/day, based on the re¬
spective 30 day curve slopes. Contrastingly nitrate
depletion rates were only 0.005 ppm NO^-N/day in
both microecosystems. The concentrations of iron,
dissolved silicate, and chloride are omitted from
Figure 3 because they exhibited no detectable change
during any of the depletion experiments.

Figure 4 shows carbon fixation rates for the
nutrient depletion experiments of both microeco¬
systems run in parallel with analyses shown in Fig¬
ure 3. The initial separate enrichments with am¬
monium chloride and perhaps sodium phosphate
produced stimulatory effects comparable to the con¬
tinuous-flow experiments (Fig. 1) but with carbon
uptake rates declining during the latter part of the
experimental period.

Combined Ion Enrichment Effects on
Laboratory Microecosystems

Greatest stimulation of the carbon uptake rate
occurred when ammonium chloride and sodium phos-

66

The Virginia Journal of Science

Fig. 1-5 — Histograms showing primary productivity for simulated Antarctic lake nos. 1 and 2 microecosystems, variously treated.
Data at 5-day intervals for 30, 35, or 40 days as further described in text.

Fig. 1 — Lake no. 1 microecosystems enriched separately and continuously with NH4+, P04=, NOs", SiOa” and Ca++ to approximate
ion concentrations in lake no. 2 microecosystems.

n

~tafc* No. 2
I-IXppin Fo**"

0 30

Fig. 2 — Lake nos. 1 and 2 microecosystems enriched continuously to approximate 0.1 and 1.0 ppm Fe++ as FeCU. Related controls
are at left of each comparable histogram.

phate were combined, with and without nitrate, as
enrichments to lake no. 1 microecosystems (Fig. 5 ) .
In these instances the levels of productivity ap¬
proached those of lake no. 2 microecosystems during
the latter part of the experimental period. Lesser
enhancements were induced by additions of am¬
monium chloride plus calcium chloride, but little or
no stimulation of carbon uptake occurred with other
nutrient combinations. In all experiments employing

continuous-flow vessels, dissolved ion levels remained
relatively constant throughout the experiments.

Community Structure Experiments in
Laboratory Microecosystems

Figure 6 reveals that following the equilibration
period, lake no. 1 microbial community in lake no. 2
medium reached about 3 times the productivity of
the lake no. 2 microbial community in lake no. 1

Antarctic Nutrients Limiting Primary Productivity

67

Fig. 3 — Depletion of ions in lake no. 2 and separately en¬
riched lake no. 1 microecosystems comparable to those in

Fig. 4.

medium. After six weeks, the carbon uptake rates of
lake no. 1 communities in lake no. 2 media nearly
equaled those for the control replicates involving
lake no. 2 media with its native microbial commu¬
nity. Conversely the carbon uptake rates of lake
no. 2 community in lake no. 1 medium barely ap¬
proached the productivity in lake no. 1 control.

1970-71 Field Cylinder Experiments

Figures 7 and 8 reveal also, that in situ cylinder
enrichment of lake no. 1 water with ammonium
chloride stimulated phytoplankton carbon fixation
and chlorophyll production in excess of that caused
by sodium phosphate enrichment and in consider¬
able excess of the control unenriched cylinder. In situ
cylinder enrichment of lake no. 1 water with am¬
monium chloride + sodium phosphate produced the
greatest overall stimulation of phytoplankton pro¬
ductivity as indicated by the total areas under the
graphs. The only trend not consistent between the
laboratory and field experiments occurred when
HNO.-j was added to lake no. 1 water in cylinders,
resulting in an increase in productivity over the con¬
trol. This degree of stimulation was not observed in
the laboratory microecosystems.

Discussion

Our laboratory microecosystem studies suggest
that ammonium ion is a major single nutrient limiting
the level of primary productivity in lake no. 1 mi¬
croecosystems. Phosphate is of lesser importance,
inducing a smaller stimulation of primary produc¬
tivity in the simulated laboratory microecosystems.
A greater stimulation by phosphate might have been

anticipated from the high ratio of inorganic nitrogen
to orthophosphate-phosphorus in lake no. 1 (28:1),
as compared with lake no. 2 (3:1) microecosystems.

Similar results were obtained in the 1970-71 field
cylinder studies. Concentrations of PO4— P and
NH4— N to a lesser degree NOa— N were signifi¬
cantly higher in lake no. 1 during the second field
season (Samsel and Parker, unpublished). These dif¬
ferences may explain the less pronounced stimulation
of productivity in the enriched cylinders as compared
with the laboratory microecosystems which simulated
the chemical composition of the lakes during the
earlier 1969-70 field season.

The microecosystem studies showed that am¬
monium chloride and sodium phosphate in combina¬
tion induced even higher productivity rates than
when added separately. Carbon uptake approached,
and in one instance reached, the level of the control
lake no. 2 microecosystem when these two salts were
added to lake no. 1 laboratory microecesystems. In
contrast, additions of salts containing iron, chloride,
silicate, nitrate (HNO3), and changes in pH (not
shown here) induced no detectable changes in pro¬
ductivity of lake no. 1 microecosystems; furthermore,
these ions were not removed from solution to any
significant degree as compared with the non-depleted
microecosystem experiments (Fig. 1). The data in
Figure 3 and linear regression analysis indicate a
high level of significance for a relatively constant rate
of removal of ammonium and phosphate from both
lakes microecosystems during the initial 30 days.
After 30 days, uptake ceased. This cessation of phos¬
phate uptake at a higher external concentration in
lake no. 2 than in lake no. 1 microecosystem prob¬
ably is due to limiting ammonia nitrogen. This point
further supports our conclusion that ammonium is
the major nutrient inducing the productivity differ¬
ences between the two microecosystems. We are not
certain why the ratios of NH4-N/P removal in our
depletion experiments were as high as 0.7-0. 8 unless
luxury consumption of phosphate occurred by both
algal communities or perhaps some phosphate was
precipitated and adhered to the glass surfaces.

Our laboratory microecosystem studies support the
suggestion made earlier by us (1, 2) that these two
natural Antarctic lakes differ in their primary pro¬
ductivity, extractable chlorophyll, and species diver¬
sity chiefly as a result of differences in ammonium
ion and to a lesser degree phosphate. Silicate, chlo¬
ride, and nitrate do not appear to limit algal pro¬
ductivity in the laboratory microecosystems nor is
iron generally limiting in either lake. Kalff (17)
working on arctic tundra ponds likewise found am¬
monium ion to be the critical limiting factor for
phytoplankton productivity.

Of special interest is the inability of nitrate addi¬
tions to stimulate productivity and its relativelv slow
removal rate from the laboratory media. This in¬
ability of nitrate to produce increases in productivity
in the microecosystems did not prevail in our field
cylinder studies. As far as we are aware no environ¬
mental feature of our microecosystems would have
inhibited nitrate reduction in the algal community.
The synthetic media (Table I) included molybdenum

68

The Virginia Journal of Science

1.90

\80

*^60

a>

E 50
40
30
20
10

F IG . 4

Lake No.1
Control

35

Lake No.2
Control

0 35

Fig. 4 — Like Fig. 1 but with a single, initial enrichment at Day 0.

Lake No.1
Na2HP04

Htfos

NH4CI2

30

n

Fig. 5 — Lake no. 1 microecosystems enriched continuously with NFI4+, PO4-, NO3 , Si03~, and Ca+‘*' in various combinations
to approximate respective ion concentrations in lake no. 2 microecosystems.

in the trace element mix; furthermore, other known
requirements for near optimum nitrate reductase
activity (i.e., other ions — phosphate, silicate, sulfate,
etc; pH; low respiration rates, light, dissolved O2
and COo), as cited by Kessler (6), were present in
both laboratory and field. We have examined the
possibility that ammonia may repress nitrate reduc¬
tase formation by measuring carbon uptake in lakes
1 and 2 laboratory microecosystems lacking am¬
monium; after 30 days, no stimulation of produc¬
tivity occurred. We therefore suggest the tentative
conclusion that nitrate reductive systems may be
genetically lacking or poorly developed in the algae
represented in our culturable partial communities.

In contrast, the more complete community of the
cylinders, which included phytoplankton and at¬
tached organisms, may be more capable of nitrate
utilization. Conclusive proof of these possibilities,
however, awaits further experimentation.

Although the partial algal communities of these
two Antarctic lakes differed appreciably (biomass,
species diversity, different species), neither partial
community used in our laboratory microecosystem
studies differed in dominant algae observed in the
natural lakes during both seasons. Neither did either
of the partial communities appear markedly better
adapted than the other for nutrient comsumption and
utilization on the basis of chemical composition data

Antarctic Nutrients Limiting Primary Productivity

69

Lake i
algae in
I Lake 2
iwater

0 30

Fig. 6 — Lake nos. 1 and 2 microecosystem environments
reciprocally inoculated with each other's partial microbial
community.

for the laboratory microecosystems, allowing of
course a suitable period for acclimation. However,
lake no. 1 partial community consistently revealed
lower initial carbon uptake rates than lake no. 2
community when both communities were grown in
lake no. 2 simulated medium.

Our laboratory microecosystem data show some
fluctuations in carbon uptake which may stem from

diurnal rhythms. The use of triplicate samples with
low variability and repeat experiments and different
size microecosystems with the attainment of the same
trends suggests that these fluctuations in carbon up¬
take observed at 5-day intervals are not due to sta¬
tistical error. Furthermore, these fluctuations repre¬
sent photosynthetic carbon uptake because dark
bottle controls never revealed over 3-4% of the light
bottle values. Similar fluctuations occurred in the
field cylinder data.

The use of culture techniques and laboratory
aquatic simulated ecosystems for determining pri¬
mary productivity relations, metabolism values, and
the availability of nutrients for algal growth has been
recognized for several years. Odum and Hoskin (7),
Ryther and Guillard (8), McConnell (9), Whit¬
taker (10), Beyers (11), and Bozniak (12), have
used such artificial microecosystem techniques.
However to our knowledge, we are the first to use
defined media specifically aimed at simulating the
inorganic composition of the natural water in our
laboratory microecosystems. Also few previous in¬
vestigators have employed a variety of containers in
order to identify container effects on primary pro¬
ductivity rates in closed microecosystems (12) or
have used continuous-flow devices and continuous
and periodic shaking of experimental microecosys¬
tems (13, 14). Admittedly, the artificial media used
in our tests only approximated the inorganic chemical
composition of lakes 1 and 2, including pH, oxygen
and carbon dioxide values, and these approximations
applied only to the 1969-70 field season. Also, or¬
ganic additions were omitted although significant
differences in the total dissolved organic matter oc-

Fig. 7 — Primary productivity resulting from in situ cylinder enrichment in lake no. 1 (1970-71). Data at 5-day intervals for 35 days.

70

The Virginia Journal of Science

Fig. 8 — Primary productivity (total extractable chlorophyll) from in situ cylinder enrichment in lake no. 1 (1970-71). Data at 5-day
intervals for 35 days.

curred between both natural lakes. We recognize the
inherent artificiality of simulated laboratory aquatic
ecosystems, but feel that our methods have enabled a
limited integration of laboratory and field data aimed
at identifying and confirming the factors which limit
the productivity of aquatic communities. This con¬
clusion is supported also by the field cylinder data.

We must emphasize that laboratory microecosys¬
tems represent only simplified models for studying
certain processes which may operate naturally. Such
model systems offer special potential for supplement¬
ing one’s knowledge of remote aquatic ecosystems
which do not lend themselves to the usual year-
round, comprehensive field investigations. The results
of our laboratory studies comparing Antarctic lakes
1 and 2 have not only confirmed the suggestion made
earlier that the ammonium ion concentration is a
factor of major ecological significance causing the
productivity differences observed in the field, but
also have enabled our more efficient design of ex¬
periments for future, necessarily brief visits to these
freshwater habitats during Antarctic summers.

Acknowledgments

This research was supported by National Science
Foundation grant GA-16768. We are grateful to
Drs. Benfield, Beyers, and Dickson for preliminary
reviews of the manuscript and to Mr. Wodehouse
for 1970-71 field assistance.

REFERENCES

1. Parker, B. C., and Samsel, G. L., Jr., Antarct. J. U.S.,
5, 135 (1970).

2. Samsel, G. L., Jr., and Parker, B. C., Va J. Sci., 22, 177
(1971).

3. Parker, B. C., Samsel, G. L., Jr., and Prescott, G. W.,
Antarct. Res. Ser. Natn. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., In press,
1971.

4. Parker, B. C., in Parker (Editor), Proceedings of the
Colloquium on Conservation Problems in Antarctica,
The Allen Press, Lawrence, Kansas, In press, 1972.

5. Kimball, J. F. and Wood, F., Bull. mar. Sci. Gtilf
Carihh., 14, 539 (1964).

6. Kessler, E., A. Rev. PI. Physiol., 15, 57 (1964).

7. Odum, H. T. and Hoskin, C. M., Pubis Inst. mar. Sci.

Univ. Tex., 4, 115 (1957).

8. Ryther, J. H. and Guillard, R. R. L., Deep Sea Res., 6,
65 ( 1959).

9. McConnell, W. J., Limnol. Oceanogr., 6, 80 (1962).

10. Whittaker, R. H., Ecol. Mongr., 31, 157 (1961).

11. Beyers, J. B., ibid., 33, 282 (1963).

12. Bozniak, E. G., Laboratory and field studies of phyto¬
plankton, Thesis, Washington University, Dept, of
Botany, St. Louis, Mo., 1969.

13. Tailing, J. F., Limnol. Oceanogr., 5, 67 (1960).

14. Tailing, J. F. New PhytoL, 56, (1967).

15. Koob, D. B., Unpubl. manuscript. The Ohio State Uni¬
versity and Battelle Memorial Institute. The Ohio State
University, Columbus, Ohio, 64 pp.

16. Goldman, C. R., Mason, D. T., and Wood, B. J. B.,
Antarct. Res. Ser., Natn. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., In press,
1971.

17. Kalff, J., Ecology, 5, 655 (1971).

Antarctic Nutrients Limiting Primary Productivity

71

William H. Poore, Jr.
and

Harold G. Marshall

Department of Biology
Old Dominion University
Norfolk, Virginia 23508
Received March 22, 1972

Lake Drummond of the Dismal Swamp:
I. Phytoplankton Composition*

Abstract — The seasonal composition and fluctuation of
phytoplankton populations for Lake Drummond are dis¬
cussed for a one-year period. The predominant plankton
flora consisted of diatoms, with Asterionella fonnosa the
dominant species. Seasonal variations in oxygen, pH, tem¬
perature, depth, visibility, and chlorophyll values are also
presented for Lake Drummond.

Lake Drummond is located near the center of the
Dismal Swamp in southeastern Virginia. It is 4-5
km in diameter, occupies an area of approximately
13 sq km and has a depth up to 2 meters. The lake
water is acid year round and stained a tea brown
color. The color is the product of rain water seepage
through the surrounding peat deposits in the drain¬
age basin. As this water drains toward the lake, it
leaches out of the peat various humic colloids which
impart the characteristic color.

The age of the lake has been estimated by White-
head (1) to be about 4210 (± 160) years old. This
was determined by pollen analysis and radiocarbon
dating of the basal clay in the lake basin. Further
investigations of swamp peat by radiocarbon dating
determined the oldest collected sample to be esti¬
mated at 8900 years old, indicating a more re¬
cent origin for Lake Drummond than the Dismal
Swamp (1).

The hydrography of Dismal Swamp has been dis¬
cussed by Ramsey, Hinkle, and Benander (2). The
northern part of the swamp drains into the James
River, with the southern portion entering the Pasquo¬
tank and Northwest Rivers. Most of the central and
western portion of the Dismal Swamp drains into
Lake Drummond. This occurs by natural surface flow
patterns and man-made ditches, notably the Wash¬
ington and Jericho ditches from the northeast. The
oldest of these ditches, Washington ditch, dates back
to the 1760s, when it was constructed to transport
logs out of the swamp.

The flow of water out of Lake Drummond is
mainly through the feeder ditch connecting the lake
with the Dismal Swamp canal. This canal was sur¬
veyed by George Washington and completed in 1805.

* The authors acknowledge the cooperation and facilities provided
by the U. S. Army Corns of Engineers, Norfolk, for making this
study possible; supported in part by the Virginia Academy of Science.

Its purpose was to provide a link between the South¬
ern Branch of the Elizabeth River and the Pasquo¬
tank. In order to maintain adequate water level in
the canal, a feeder ditch to Lake Drummond was dug
in 1812. The flow from the lake through the feeder
ditch is controlled by a spillway operated by the
U. S. Army Corps of Engineers. It is not possible
for the lake to be completely drained via the spillway,
because the ditch does not connect to the deepest
portion of the lake basin. The normal level of Lake
Drummond is 17 feet above mean sea level. Since
May 1926 the highest recorded value was 18.8 feet
in October 1956 (U. S. Army Corps of Engineers’
records). The lowest value, 11.5 feet, occurred in
autumn 1952 when the lake shrank close to small
pond proportion after a long drought. Annually,
under normal weather conditions, the water level is
lower in summer and autumn than it is in winter and
spring, when there is less evaporation and precipita¬
tion increases. The present paper concerns a 13-
month study of the phytoplankton composition in
Lake Drummond. Earlier reports on the phytoplank¬
ton in these waters have been made by Marshall and
Poore f3, 4), and Poore (5).

Methods

Two stations were established in Lake Drummond
as collection sites. One was on the eastern margin
about 100 meters from shore, the other was more
centrally located in the lake (Fig. 1). Twenty four
water samples were taken at approximately bi¬
monthly intervals from June 1970 through June
1971. The samples were taken at the surface and
15 cm above the substrate at these two stations.

Water samples were taken with a 2 liter Kem-
merer water bottle. A 500 ml sample was transferred
to a bottle for plankton analysis, and preserved im¬
mediately with a modifled Lugol’s solution consisting
of L-KI-acetic acid (6). After a settling period of
two weeks, the supernatant liquid was siphoned to
obtain a 30-40 ml concentrate. A 0.1 ml portion of
the concentrate was placed in a Palmer-Maloney
counting cell and examined with an AO Spencer
phase contrast microscope. To assure .greater ac-

72

The Virginia Journal of Science

Fig. 1 — Location of stations in Lake Drummond and
the relation of the feeder ditch from the lake to the inter¬
coastal waterway (Dismal Swamp Canal).

curacy 2-4 aliquots from each sample were ex¬
amined. The phytoplankton quantities were expressed
as the number of cells per liter.

Additional water samples were taken at each sta¬
tion for chlorophyll determinations. A millipore ap¬
paratus, with MP filter (HA 0.8 microns) was used
to concentrate the phytoplankton contained in 1 liter
of water. Chlorophyll extraction and spectrophoto-
metric procedures were followed as outlined by
Strictland and Parsons (7). The pH was determined
with a Beckman Model 180 pH meter. A reversing
thermometer was used to obtain the temperature, a
secchi disc for visibility, and a modified Winkler
technique used for oxygen values. Additional nutrient
and chemical analyses of the lake water were ob¬
tained through the courtesy of Mr. W. P. Taylor of
Charles T. Main, Inc.

Results

Physical and chemical conditions

The climate of the Dismal Swamp region is strongly
influenced by its close proximity to the Atlantic
Ocean and the Gulf Stream which offer protective
high humidities and high temperatures. The summers
are long and humid, with the winters mild. Annual
precipitation is about 48 inches per year with only
slight snowfall. Due to the shallow nature of the lake.

the water temperature remained fairly constant with
depth throughout the study. There was no evidence
of a thermocline. The shallow conditions and wind¬
swept surface contributed to repeated periods of
turnover and mixing of the lake waters. Stations 1
and 2 were about 2 km apart but little difference in
the physical and chemical nature was apparent during
the study.

The pH range for the lake was 3.2 to 5.0. Lowest
values were recorded in September, with the highest
point reached in the summer months. Generally, the
values fluctuated between 4.0 and 4.4, with both
stations having a yearly average of 4.3. The high
acidic nature of these waters may be considered influ¬
enced by the swamp drainage patterns into the lake.
The leeching effect of various organic acids from the
surrounding peat deposits, plus the decomposition
products from the lake would tend to maintain the
acidic nature of the lake. In addition, acidity may be
enhanced by the formation of H2SO4, as described
by Frey (8) for some of the bay lakes in North
Carolina. Nutrient and mineral levels for the lake
during August and September 1970 indicated low
nutrient concentrations, with a total hardness of 30
ppm (9). Calcium carbonate and magnesium car¬
bonate each contributed 15 ppm of this amount. The
lake water was very turbid throughout the study,
apparently a product of the mixing effect of the wind
action. Secchi disc readings of 8-12 cm occurred
during low lake levels from October to December,
with readings up to 64 cm noted during high lake
levels in April and May (Fig. 2). These minimal and
maximal visibility ranges were inversely related to
chlorophyll and phytoplankton concentrations (Fig.
2). Higher concentrations of oxygen occurred during
the colder months and directly after a heavy rainfall,
or strong wind agitation to the lake surface. Oxygen
values at the surface were usually slightly higher
than bottom waters with the concentrations generally
between 50 and 90% saturation. The oxygen range
for the time period was from a low of 3.32 to a
winter high of 8.68 ml/liter.

The lake level fluctuated considerably throughout
the year, with an average range of 119 cm at both
stations. This degree of magnitude is not uncommon
to the lake. Kearney (10) reported the greatest depth
of the lake prior to the construction of the feeder
ditch to the Dismal Swamp Canal to be about 4.5 m.
In November 1898, the depth was reported by Kear¬
ney to be considerably less than 2 m in every part
of the lake. Army Corps of Engineers records dating
back to 1952 indicate the lake level fluctuates nor¬
mally 1 meter yearly, depending on the amount of
precipitation and drainage through the spillway into
the feeder ditch. Higher levels occur during the
winter and spring seasons, with low water common
during the summer and fall. During periods of low
lake level, jagged stumps and fallen logs are uncov¬
ered around the lake periphery. At station 2, depth
readings declined from 200 cm on 22 June 1970 to
78 cm on 9 December 1970. Winter rains followed
and the lake level rose 122 cm in the following three
month period to 200 cm on 10 March 1971. This
level remained fairly constant for the next 5 months.

Lake Drummond Phytoplankton

73

Fig. 2 Environmental data obtained from Lake Drummond, at Station 2. between June 1970 and July 1971.

Phytoplankton

A total of 30 phytoplankters were identified with
19 classified to species and 1 1 identified to genera
(Table 1). No attempt was made for a complete
taxonomic analysis of the lake algae. There were 17
chlorophyceans present, with Ankistrodesmus falca-
tus, Scenedesmus opoliensis, and the desmids Clos-
teriinn gracile and Staurastnun paradoxiim pre¬
dominant species. The filamentous green algae
contributed little to the phytoplankton, with Micro-
spora pachyderma the most common form. The
diatoms represented the most abundant plankton
flora of Lake Drummond. Of the 10 noted species
the dominant form was Asterionella formosa. Large
concentrations of this species occurred throughout
the year, reaching bloom conditions of over 10

million cells per liter in the months of May, June,
and September (Fig. 3). Its lowest numbers were
recorded at 300,000 cells/1 in April 1971. Other
common diatoms included Synedra radians, Pinnu-
laria acuminata, and Melosira Herzogii. The dino-
flagellates were present sporadically throughout the
study, with the Euglenophyta and Cyanophyta un¬
common. Other constituents of the phytoplankton
were two Cryptomonas species. These and several
unidentified flagellate forms were frequently observed
and most common in the summer months.

Seasonal phytoplankton distribution

The monthly concentrations for the phytoplankton
groups in Lake Drummond are given in Table IT
There was a basic bimodal pattern within which
occurred numerous pulses indicative of periods of

74

The Virginia Journal of Science

TABLE I

Phyiopltinkion ohserueJ in Lake Driimmoiul

Chrysophyta

Bacillariophyceae
Asterionella jonnosa Hassal
Eunotia curvatci (Kutz) Lagerheim
Melosira Herzogii Lemin
Meridion sp. Agardli
Pinniilaria acuminata W. Sm.

Pinnularia lata (Breb.) Rabh.

Synedra acus Kutz
Synedra radians Kutz
Chrysophyceae

Dinobryon sertularia Ehrenberg
Syniira sp. Ehrenberg
Cliloropliyta
Chlorophyceae

Ankistrodesmiis falcatiis (A. Brown) G. S. West
Coelastruni cambricum Archer
Coelastriim sp. Naegeli
Dictyosphaerium Ehrenbergiamtm Naegeli
Microspora pacliyderma ( Wille) Lagerheim

Moiigeotia sp. (C.A. Agardh) Whittrock
Oedogoniiini sp. Link
Oocystis Borgei Snow

Scenedesmiis qiiadricaiida (Turp.) de Biebisson
Scenedesmus opo/iensis P. Richter
Scenedesmiis sp. Meyen
Ulotlirix sp. Kuetzing
Desmideaceae
A rthrodesmiis triangularis
Closteriiim gracile Brebisson
Desmidiiim baileyi (Ralts) Nordstedt
Netriiim sp. Naegeli
Staurastrum paradoxiim W. West
Eiiglenophyta
Euglenophyceae
Phaciis sp. Dujardin
Cyanophyta
Myxophyceae

Spirulina Nordstedtii Gomont
Pyrrhophyta
Cryptophyceae

Cryptomonas sp. 1 Ehrenberg
Cryptomonas sp. 2 Ehrenberg

varied growth by the individual phytoplankton com¬
ponents. Major growth periods occurred during the
fall months of 1970, that subsided gradually into
winter with the lowest concentrations delayed until
early spring. This was followed by a bloom period

19 7 0 19 7 1

Fig. 3 — Distribution patterns of the major phytoplankton obser'
1971.

in late spring and early summer. This bimodal pat¬
tern of phytoplankton concentrations was not the
product of simultaneous fluctuations of all species
present in the lake, but rather the result of popula¬
tion densities of Asterionella formosa. In Lake Drum-

J JASOND J F M A MJ J
19 7 0 19 7 1

at Station 2 in Lake Drummond between June 1970 and] July

Lake Drummond Phytoplankton

75

TABLE II

Averages oj total phytoplankton according to algal groups jor

all

stations in

number

of cells per

liter (xlO^)

Date

1970-71

Phytoplankton

Chloro.

Diat.

Pyrrho. Eugleno.

Cyano.

June 22

12759

61143

Ill

328

June 30

11291

107481

900

580

-

July 14

6863

12310

3745

2013

-

July 28

5744

12294

2146

1158

-

Aug. 1 1

7668

52704

2107

796

-

Aug. 26

4974

27213

2073

405

-

Sept. 16

4756

17880

1836

330

-

Sept. 28

9849

146176

954

40

-

Oct. 14

16878

29793

1611

30

-

Oct. 28

13737

76677

285

3

-

Nov. 12

17336

32488

656

-

-

Nov. 24

7094

53404

980

-

4

Dec. 9

6263

58416

360

-

-

Dec. 30

1472

66288

216

-

-

Jan. 19

3260

32504

124

-

4

Feb. 8

1608

23224

76

-

-

Feb. 18

976

11080

120

-

-

Mar. 10

640

6640

108

-

4

Mar. 24

1700

28324

260

-

-

Apr. 7

.3412

23509

144

-

-

Apr. 28

1380

4328

308

-

-

May 10

1692

8720

3060

4

-

May 26

2216

151940

2092

20

4

June 1 1

3668

69688

1600

740

-

June 25

4428

4812

1404

1352

-

mond, the Euglenophyta flourished in the summer,
Pyrrhophyta in late spring and summer, Chlorophyta
in early summer and fall, and diatoms abundant
year round (Figs. 2, 3). These results differ from
those of Whitford (11) who found, in brown water
lakes of the coastal plain, chlorophyceae to be abun¬
dant in late spring, diatoms in late summer, and
chrysophyceae in winter.

Summary

Lake Drummond should be recognized as a unique
body of water with distinct characteristics and biota.
It may be characterized as follows: it is a temperate,
freshwater lake, medium in size; protected by a sur¬
rounding swamp forest, but is large enough to possess
a wind swept surface; the depth is shallow and
fluctuates seasonally; there are man-made drainage
ditches; the water is acidic, stained, and very turbid;
there are stagnation zones, mucky and sandy bot¬
toms, and few vegetation beds; thermal stratification
does not exist seasonally, but incipient stratification
might develop; it has low nutrient levels; and sup¬
ports a predominant diatomaceous plankton flora
with slight diversity of species.

The bulk of the phytoplankton was a combination
of diatoms, chlorophyceans, and phytoflagellates. The
dominant species was the diatom Asterionella for-
mosa. The general seasonal distribution pattern of
total phytoplankton followed a bimodal curve of
population density.

REFERENCES

1. Oaks, R. Q., Ph.D. dissertation, Yale University, 1964,

2. Ramsey, E. W., Hinkle, K. R., and Benander, L. E., Va
J. Sci., 21, 81 (1970).

3. Marshall, H. G., and Poore, W. H.. Jr., Castanea, 37, 59
( 1972).

4. Poore, W. H., Jr., and Marshall, H. G., Va J. Sci., 22,
107 (1971).

5. Poore, W. H., Jr., Masters thesis, Old Dominion Uni¬
versity, 1971.

6. Verduin, J., Ecology, 35, 550 (1954).

7. Strictland, J. D., and Parsons, T. R., Manual of sea
water analysis. Bull. FLsh. Res. Bd Can., 123, 1965.

8. Frey, D. G., J. Elisha Mitchell sclent. Soc., 65, 1
(1949).

9. Taylor, W. P., Personal communication, 1971.

10. Kearney, T., Contr. U. S. natn. Herb., 5, 321 (1901).

11. Whitford, L. A., J. Elisha Mitchell .sclent. Soc., 74, 143
(1958).

76

The Virginia Journal of Science

Especially for

Science and Mathematics Teachers

Ideas

Questions

Opinions

DENSITY: A LABORATORY EXERCISE

Density and specific gravity are physical properties
easily determined by nondestructive procedures.

Density = Mass Volume

Density of a substance

Specific Gravity = -

Density of a standard

For solids and liquids, mass is generally in grams and
volume is in cm'h Since density varies with tempera¬
ture, for exact work the temperature of the substance
must be stated. For example, the density of antimony
is given in a table as 6.684-® which means 6.684
g/cm^ at 25° C.

Sometimes the average density of a mixture is
required. In this case, the total mass is divided by
the total volume.

In this experiment the density of a solid, the den¬
sity of water, the average density of a solid-water
system and the density of a salt solution will be
determined.

Experimental

I. Density of a Solid*: If the sample is a regular
solid, determine the dimensions and calculate the
volume. Determine the mass of the solid on a balance
giving 3 significant figures. Calculate the density.

II. Density of Water: Weigh a clean dry 100 or
150 cm^ beaker and watch glass to fit. Using a 100
cm® graduated cylinder, measure as exactly as pos¬
sible 50.0 cm® of water. Transfer the water to the
beaker, cover, and weigh again. Save for part III.
Determine the temperature of the water. Calculate
the density.

III. A verage Density of a Mixture: Carefully slide
the solid (from part I) down the side of the 100 cm®
graduated cylinder. Add the 50 cm® of water from
the beaker and read the total volume. How does this
compare with the sum of the individual volumes?
Calculate the average density of the mixture, the %
by weight of the solid and the % by volume of the
solid in the mixture.

IV. Density of a Salt Solution: Weigh a clean dry
100 or 150 cm® beaker. Add 25.0 ± 0.1 g of an¬
hydrous calcium chloride. Add 75.0 ± 0.5 cm® of
water. Dissolve by stirring. Is the beaker getting hot
or cold? If hot, it indicates that the process of solu¬

* Solids that have been found satisfactory are cylinders of steel,
aluminum, copper and brass.

tion gives off heat (reaction is exothermic). If the
beaker is cold it means that the process absorbs heat
(reaction is endothermic). Is the dissolving of an¬
hydrous calcium chloride in water endothermic or
exothermic? When the solution is at room tempera¬
ture pour it into a 100 cm® graduated cylinder and
read the volume to 0.5 cm®. Calculate the density of
your solution using 75 g as the mass of the water.
Check your result with that in a handbook for the
density of calcium chloride solution of the percent¬
age composition equal to the one you prepared. If
available, use a hydrometer of the battery acid type
to determine the density of your calcium chloride
solution and compare the result with that previously
obtained.

Using the density of anhydrous calcium chloride
as 2.15 g/cm®, calculate the volume of the solid
calcium chloride used in this experiment. Note that
this volume plus the volume of water does not equal
the volume of the solution. In other words, the
volume of a solution does not necessarily equal the
sum of the volumes of the components.

Problems

1. A brass cylinder is 4.57 cm in diameter and 2.16
cm high. It weighs 286 g. Calculate its density in
g/cm®. (3 significant figures)

2. A steel cylinder weighing 238 g is 3.80 cm in
diameter and 2.70 cm high. Calculate the density.

3. A copper cylinder weighing 89.2 g has a diameter
equal to its height. Calculate the diameter if the
density of copper is 8.92 g/cm®.

4. To 100 cm® of water (d = 1.00 g/cm®) are added
100 g of sand (d = 2.66 g/cm®). Calculate (a)
the average density of the mixture, (b) the per¬
centage by weight of the water and (c) the per¬
centage by volume of the water in the mixture.

5. A mixture of silver and copper pellets (all pellets
identical in size) has a density of 9.71 g/cm®.
Calculate (a) the percentage by weight and (b)
the percentage by number (volume) of pellets of
copper in the mixture. D. of copper = 8.92
g/cm®; D. of silver = 10.50 g/cm®.

6. When 256.2 grams of ammonium chloride are
dissolved in 811 grams (811 cm®) of water a
solution is obtained having a density of 1.067
g/cm®. The density of ammonium chloride itself
is 1.53 g/cm®. Calculate (a) the % by weight of
ammonium chloride in the solution, (b) the vol¬
ume of the solution, (c) the volume of the solid
ammonium chloride, and (d) the sum of the
volumes of the solid NH4CI and the added water.

Science Teachers Section

77

7. The density of an aqueous sulfuric acid solution
at 20° C varies with the % by weight of H2SO4
as follows:

D(g/cmO

%H.S04

D(g cm3)

%H.SO

1.000

0

1.779

85

1.032

5

1.814

90

1.066

10

1.828

93

1.139

20

1.831

94

1.219

30

1.834

95

1 . 303

40

1.8355

96

1.395

50

1.8364

97

1.500

60

1.8361

98

1.611

70

1.8342

99

1.727

80

1.8305

100

Plot a smooth curve of D vs % of H2SO4. Is it
feasible to determine the concentration of an
aqueous sulfuric acid solution by density alone in
the range of 93 — 100% H2SO4? Why?

H. I. FEINSTEIN
George Mason College
Fairfax, Virginia 22030

TEACHING MODERN SCIENCE

By Arthur A. Carin and Robert B. Sund
Charles E. Merrill Publishing Company
Columbus, Ohio, 1970
273 pages, $3.25

This paperback book is designed to prepare pros¬
pective and experienced teachers to use the discovery
approach in teaching elementary school science. The
authors believe that this method of learning is de¬
signed to allow the youngster to learn scientific prin¬
ciples in the same way that investigative patterns are
carried out by a professional research scientist. Such
an approach is not at all a new innovation but ap¬
pears to have receded to the elementary school along
with the teaching of science.

The first of the eleven chapters gives a working
definition of science pointing out that teaching science
through discovery should be consistent with both
the process of teaching as well as the product of
teaching.

Teaching guides and suggestions are presented
throughout the three main parts of the book: 1)
Shaping Science Education in the Elementary School,
2) Organizing and Planning for Teaching-Learning
Science Through Discovery, 3) Enrichment Activi¬
ties for Discovery Science Teaching-Learning.

Of particular value and also found throughout the
book are black and white photographs of children
involved in experiments, or teachers working with the
children. Each of these photographs has a question
as the caption. These pictorial situations tend to sug¬
gest to the reader a variety of ideas for possible
classroom use.

Each chapter concludes with a summary and a
section on “Self-Evaluation and Further Study”
which lists additional activities to be carried out by
the teacher and also gives a listing of articles and
books for reference.

A history of elementary school science is pre¬

sented in Chapter Three showing the change in the
past one hundred years due to social, economic,
scientific, and technological advances. The presenta¬
tion is not especially new or interesting.

The section on planning for discovery is quite
short, only eighteen pages. However, it is suggested
in this area that only six to eight broad science areas
be presented yearly. This is based on their philosophy
that the children will study these science areas in
depth and their learning will be more meaningful and
the percentage of retention higher. The unit structure
of teaching science is also supported by the authors.

Laboratory “experiences” are divided into experi¬
ments and demonstrations with each defined. In
elementarv schools, classrooms may be used instead
of the “laboratory” of a high school or college. A
detailed list is given stating the usefulness and ad¬
vantages of demonstrations, whether performed by
the teacher or the student. With experiments, stu¬
dents are the participants rather than the observers
and activity oriented experiments are stressed. Dis¬
covery demonstrations lessons are discussed and
intended to encourage the student to reason from his
observations rather than the teacher explaining it to
him in lecture form. The book explains how to pre¬
pare and the best approach to giving demonstrations.
It also provides the basis to write and develop your
own discovery laboratory lessons. This is in a nine-
step outline. The authors support this approach in
conjunction with the use of positive reinforcement
by encouragement. Laboratory safety is also stressed.

The importance of effective science reading is
pointed out. Participation and first hand experience
are suggested repeatedly as the best means of learn¬
ing science, but the value of reading as an integral
but enriching part of science is not neglected.

The usefulness of machines such as the Bell and
Howell “Language Master,” the overhead projector,
radio and television are noted in planning indoor
discovery activities. Useful and appropriate sugges¬
tions are made for outdoor discovery activities, also.

A few, but very appropriate paragraphs deal with
individualization in the science discovery method to
the gifted students, the slow learners. Project Head
Start children, mentally retarded children, and the
blind. Some examples of school systems working
with individualized science discovery programs are
listed and briefly discussed.

This book would be a very suitable acquisition for
the professional library of an elementary school
teacher, some junior high science teachers and even
some kindergarten teachers. If it is not in their
personal professional library, it definitely should be
made available to them by their supervisor. Approxi¬
mately 60 to 70 percent of the information would be
of value to the experienced teacher.

The obvious strong point of the book is the
emphasis of student involvement and in particular,
the presentation of many very good “Enrichment
Activities” equally concerned with the biological,
chemical and physical sciences and written especially
for use by the elementary teacher.

—GERALD C. LLEWELLYN

78

The Virginia Journal of Science

Communications and Reports

VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
Summary of Council Meeting*

April 9, 1972

Council was called to order at 11:45 a.m. in Room
114 of the University Center, Washington and Lee
University, Lexington, Virginia, President Turner
presiding.

Officers’ Reports

President Turner accompanied President-elect
Flint to the AAAS meetings in Philadelphia, Decem¬
ber, 1971. The AAAS honored Dr. Wisman and Mr.
Rodney Berry at a special banquet. Dr. Turner also
spoke at the banquet meeting of the 47th Annual
Meeting of the West Virginia Academy of Science,
standing in for Dr. Stahr. Dr. Perry Holt and other-
members of the VAS gave papers at the meeting held
at Bluefield State College. Dr. Turner suggests that
we continue to think about ways in which the two
academies can cooperate. Dr. Turner will represent
the VAS at the inauguration of Superintendent Irby
of VMI on April 15, 1972.

The President reported that Dr. Peter van de
Kamp, an astronomer and Director of the Sproul
Observatory will speak at the May, 1972, meeting
on the search for extra-solar planets in our stellar
neighborhood. Dr. Raymond Taylor will be the
official representative to the VAS meeting from
AAAS, as arranged by correspondence with Presi¬
dent Turner.

President-elect Flint reported on meetings and
correspondence with the Association of Academies
of Science (A AS) and made two points which trig¬
gered much discussion: the dues of member acad¬
emies will be raised from 2^- per member to 5^- per
member; the new constitution is not yet in effect, but
when it is operational we will no longer send repre¬
sentatives to their council, rather we will have an
opportunity to present our nominees to the AAS for
their elective procedures. Drs. Harshbarger and Siegel
and Mr. Berry commented on the background and
impact of these changes. Dr. Wisman favors with¬
drawal from AAS and AAAS. In response to the
question “What are the benefits of membership?”,
it was revealed that the VAS receives $1.00 per
member of AAAS resident in Virginia. In 1971 this
amounted to $495; in 1972, $520. The funds can
be carried over to the next year if necessary. On
motion by Dr. Harshbarger, seconded by Dr. Wis¬
man, the Council requested the President appoint a
committee to study our involvement with AAAS and
report back to the Council, perhaps at its Fall meet¬
ing. Dr. Wisman suggested that an official delegate
or officer from the Assn, of Academies be invited to

* Abbreviated by the Editor from minutes provided by Leonard O.
Marrow, acting for the Secretary, G. R. Brooks.

attend our annual meeting to resolve some of the
problems.

Dr. Flint further reported that the program for the
May meeting had gone to press and would be dis¬
tributed to early registrants. There are 354 papers
scheduled for presentation in the VAS, including a
presentation by an astronaut (Donn Eisele) and
Congressman Downing in the Space Science and
Technology Section. Dr. Hughes requested space and
cooperation for an Environmental Symposium on
Thursday morning at which state and national legisla¬
tion relating to the environment would be discussed.

Dr. Carpenter reported that local arrangements for
the annual meeting were progressing satisfactorily.
He raised the question of requiring registration for
students and faculty of the host institutions. After
some discussion Council approved a motion by Paul
Siegel (seconded by Lowry) that students of W & L
and VMI be admitted to the paper sessions as guests
of the Academy by showing their student identifica¬
tion cards. Good pre-meeting and meeting publicity
is expected.

Reports of Standing Committees

The report of the Awards Committee (Dexter
Whitehead, Chairman) was read in which eight
names were offered for election to Fellow of the
Academy, from a list of nominations of ten. Dr.
Harshbarger moved that the eight names read by
the President be accepted as Fellows, approved by
voice vote. After the vote a question was raised
about twenty nominees discussed by Council in 1971.
Dr. Wisman moved (seconded by Carpenter) that
future policy be that those duly nominated but not
selected be carried over for one additional year. In
the discussion the consensus was that late nomina¬
tions for a given year would be carried over to the
next year. Approved by voice vote. Dr. Bradley
moved (seconded by Wisman) that the Executive
Committee make a recommendation to the next meet¬
ing of Council on the feasibility of sending the names
of nominees for Fellows directly to the Executive
Secretary so that he might have a record of the
nominations. Motion carried.

The Chairman of the Finance and Endowment
Committee said that his report will come at the May
meeting. On motion by Dr. Flint, Council approved
the budget for 1971-72 as submitted by mail to
Council.

Virginia Junior Academy of Science: Dr. Wisman
reported that programs had been mailed out and
voiced concern that physical support by the VAS
might drop off, because of the separate site (Natural
Bridge). About 272 papers were submitted, of which
194 were placed on the program. The May meeting
conflicts with the International Science Fair in New
Orleans and some papers may be withdrawn. Leslie
Watkins reported that the 1973 meeting will be held

Communications and Reports

79

in San Diego May 6-1 1 which will not present con¬
flicts. Gifts to the VJ AS this year have totaled $ 1 ,200
and another $1,500 is expected.

Dr. Ulrich reported that the Long Range Plan¬
ning Committee had not met this year, but it was
concerned about the involvement of the staff and
students of junior colleges.

Mr. Young reported that a mailing had been com¬
pleted to a member of the VAS in each college with
notification of the coming meeting. A mailing to
7,000 math and science teachers in the state is being
completed.

Mr. Young also submitted a draft copy of a
brochure to Council, requesting comments on what
should be included. He and the President reminded
Council that a two-part brochure had been recom¬
mended; a directory which would be printed an¬
nually, and a promotional-historical document which
would be printed in large volume and used until the
supply was exhausted. In the discussion which fol¬
lowed, Dr. Harshbarger expressed concern over the
50th anniversary, and lack of preparations for it. The
President read from the minutes of the Executive
Committee of September 26, 1971, a recommenda¬
tion that the list of past presidents and the recipients
of VAS awards be published only in the proceedings
issue of the Journal. Dr. Harshbarger moved that the
recommendation of the Executive Committee be
accepted; Flint seconded the motion but withdrew
his second after additional discussion. It was not
clear if another second was heard. The question was
called and the motion carried by a voice vote with
many abstentions. Dr. Bradley, acknowledging that
he had voted for the motion, moved to reconsider
the question (with second by Lowry) and the motion
to reconsider carried. With no motion on the floor
there was considerable discussion of the promotional-
public relations value of a 5()th anniversary docu¬
ment. Dr. Siegel moved that two existing items, the
Directory and the Russell Rowlett folder, be con¬
tinued, and the Executive Committee consider the
question of a special commemorative publication,
with the cooperation of the Publications Committee.
The motion carried. Dr. Harshbarger requested that
a cost-estimate of the 5()th anniversary issue be made
so that his committee could insure the funding.

The Nomination Committee reported its work
complete, but withheld the names until the May
meeting.

The Publications Committee had no report.

The Research Committee reported that 9 papers
had been submitted for the Horsley award and that
4 research grants had been made.

The Science Talent Search reported that 41 stu¬
dents had been invited to the meeting. The 15 win¬
ners each will receive $15.00 towards purchase of a
handbook, and in cooperation with VJAS, each
participant is given $10.00 towards expenses.

The Trust Committee had no report.

A Flora Committee report was submitted.

There was no report from Visiting Scientist Com¬
mittee.

Reports of ad hnc Committees

Dr. Hughes reported for the Museum of Science
Committee, noting that Dr. Rae Carpenter had been
appointed a trustee. Dr. Hughes said the General
Assembly had cut the proposed budget, and while
there were funds for a director and operating ex¬
penses there were none for capital outlay. The office
will be moved to new quarters on Governor Street
in Richmond. He said the time table calls for com¬
pletion of the Master Plan in 1973. Dr. Turner
expressed his admiration to the Committee for the
booklet prepared to promote the museum.

Dr. Hughes, as Chairman of the ad hoc Commi--
tee on Conservation and Natural Resources, yielded
the floor to the President who read parts of a letter
requesting VAS endorsement of President Nixon’s
statement on wilderness. Dr. Turner had referred
it to Dr. Hughes, who referred it to the Executive
Committee. The Executive Committee recommended
that the letter be circulated by mail to Council for
consideration at the May meeting.

The report of the ad hoc Committee on Academy
Financial Structure had been circulated earlier to
Council by mail. The President explained that he had
sent a copy to the Chairman of the Constitution and
By-Laws Committee and read portions of the re¬
sponse. The thrust of Mr. Midyette’s remarks were
that the present procedure of the VAS is somewhat
at variance with the by-laws and correction is neces¬
sary, and that changes in the by-laws could begin at
the May, 1972, meeting.

On motion by Dr. Carpenter, the Council voted
to receive the report and to commend the commit¬
tee for its diligence and requested the president to
instruct the ad hoc committee to meet with the
Committee on Constitution and By-Laws and to
make a further report to Council as soon as possible.

President-elect Flint read the recommendations of
his report with Council responding as follows:

Page 10, Item A. Recommendation that the Foley
Smith fund be utilized for operating expenses of the
Academy during any emergency situation of what¬
ever nature, as determined by Council, when the
principal can be effective in remedying or improving
the situation. On motion by R. N. Gladding, recom¬
mendation was accepted.

Page 10, Item B. There was considerable and at
times heated discussion of a proposal relating to the
Journal. The salient points appear to be these:

In 1 949 President Harshbarger received from the
Council an agreement to issue a new Virginia Journal
of Science providing a reserve fund of at least $5,000
be solicited from the membership and from friends
of the Academy to be held in reserve for the Journal.
This fund was raised by the President and Dean Ivey
Lewis and by a committee of the membership. A sum
of $5,000 was allotted to the Journal and separate
books were kept for the Journal. When the Editor¬
ship shifted from Blacksburg to Richmond, the dual
bookkeeping system was ended. The editor at present
submits only estimated costs, and is not bound to
any particular budget. The original $5,000 reserve
fund, created by advance payment of dues and other

80

The Virginia Journal of Science

devices, has long since been exhausted and the
Journal presently shows a considerable deficit. The
debate was ended when Council, at the suggestion
of Dr. Bradley, referred Item B to the joint com¬
mittee by authority of its earlier (Carpenter’s) mo¬
tion.

Item C, pages 11-12. The assets of the General
Fund shall be reviewed by the Finance and Endow¬
ment and the Trust Committees. This review should
focus on the investments presently under the cogni¬
zance of the General Fund, particularly the stocks
and Savings Certificates, and this review should
result in a proposal to Council for handling such in¬
vestments. Accepted by Council on motion by Car¬
penter.

Item D. With respect to the E. C. L. Miller Award,
Council, on motion by Carpenter, approved the con¬
tinuation of the present conditions.

Item E. Deferred pending the action of the Execu¬
tive Committee on re-examination of our relationship
with AAAS.

Item F. Referred by earlier (Carpenter’s) motion
to joint committee.

Item G. Considerable discussion as to whether or
not a change in the By-laws is required and useful.
On motion by Dr. Siegel, Council approved the
recommendation that each committee or section of
the Academy which needs funds be requested to send
their requests directly to the Executive Secretary-
Treasurer before September 15 who will then collate
them and consult with the Treasurer before presenta¬
tion to the Finance and Endowment Committee.

Item H. On motion by Dr. Carpenter, Council ap¬
proved a recommendation that the combined Trust
Committee and Einance and Endowment Commit¬
tee be charged with a decision as to the use or
disposition of the Guy Horsley Fund of $820.00.
On motion by Dr. Harshbarger the Council com¬
mended the ad hoc committee for its fruitful study.

Reports of the Sections

Science Teachers: Leslie Watkins reported plans
in 1972 for a luncheon rather than a breakfast meet¬
ing. A paper session may be incorporated on Wednes¬
day night. Dr. Turner added that an open-house for
VJAS members on Wednesday afternoon would free
the teachers and allow them to meet together.

Microbiology: Date of 1976 meeting conflicts with
the national meetings.

Botany: Number system in recently printed mem¬
bership directory did not reflect preferred section.
Instructions from Dr. Flint: please be sure each
section member expresses his preferred section at
May meeting.

Future Meetings

The place of the 1976 meeting, scheduled on the
agenda, was deferred to the May, 1972, meeting.

Old Business

The President reported that the current thinking
on a business advisory committee is to form a group
of past presidents to make known to the business
and industrial community the desire of the Academy
to cooperate in rendering public service.

Council expressed a favorable attitude towards
cooperation with the State Department of Education
in reviewing possible textbooks.

New Business

Dr. Harshbarger moved that the Executive Com¬
mittee prepare a program for the 50th anniversary
meeting and to report at the May, 1972, meeting.
Motion carried.

Dr. Turner announced that the Southeast Physical
Society will make awards to some of our members
at the assembly following the banquet.

Communications and Reports

81

News and Notes

VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

1973 Meering

50th Anniversary
College of William and Mary
Williamsburg, Va.

May 1-4, 1973

1974 Meeting

Old Dominion University
Virginia Wesleyan College
Virginia State College
Norfolk, Virginia
April 30-May 4, 1974

1975 Meeting

Madison College
Harrisonburs, Va.

May 6-9, 1^975

SCIENCE MUSEUM OF VIRGINIA

Appointment of Dr. D. Rae Carpenter as a
Trustee, and substantial activity in the areas of legis¬
lative appropriations, establishment of a museum
foundation, museum site and facility determinations,
and future planning, have highlighted the Science
Museum of Virginia’s program for the past several
months. Dr. Carpenter, immediate past president of
the Virginia Academy of Science, and chairman of
the Department of Physics at Virginia Military In¬
stitute, was named by Governor Holton to fill the
unexpired term of Dr. Avery Catlin, who resigned.
Dr. Carpenter’s term on the nine-member board
expires June 30, 1974. A native of Salem, he is
chairman of the Research and Development Com¬
mittee of the State Council of Higher Education. He
joined the faculty at VMI in 1951, and became
department head in 1969.

Museum operating expense appropriations from
the State for the next biennium (1972-74) amounted
to almost $140,000, compared with $66,500 for
fiscal 1970-72. However, the Museum’s request for
$119,000 for master planning, which was approved
by the Governor, was deleted from the final budget
bill. According to Dr. Roscoe D. Hughes, chair¬
man of the Board of Trustees, “we are greatly en¬
couraged by the increases in operating funds, and
are confident that we will be able to find sufficient
means to continue our planning program.” The up¬
coming operating budget will permit, among other
items, employment of a director, and possibly an
additional staff member.

Dr. Hughes also thanked the many friends and
supporters of the Museum throughout Virginia for
helping to make possible “our accomplishments to
date. This applies in particular to the strong support
and interest from the Academy membership.

In keeping with the Board’s overall plan for fund
raising, a Science Museum of Virginia Foundation

is being established to receive gifts and bequests for
Museum use. This arm of the Museum operation
will be activated in the immediate future.

Meanwhile the Board already has launched the
first phase of its master planning program by au¬
thorizing preparation of a project report — designed
to more closely define sites and initial facilities for
the projected statewide museum system. For study
purposes, specific sites are being considered in the
Lynchburg, Norfolk, Portsmouth, Richmond, and
Roanoke areas. Final recommendations as to num¬
ber, type, and location of facilities will be determined
by the Board after the master plan has been pre¬
pared. The Board also has designated, for study
purposes, four types of initial facilities, located in
the following areas: Lynchburg — industry and tech¬
nology; Richmond — physical sciences, planetarium,
and accommodations for the professional staff and
planning unit; Roanoke — natural history (archaeol¬
ogy, paleontology, geology, etc.); and Tidewater —
oceanography, limnology (to include an aquarium).
Each facility would be considered a major unit of
the Museum system, and be designed to serve large
segments of the population, while fitting into the
cultural and educational plans of the community.
These units will relate to the natural environment,
and as now visualized, be located in a botanical
setting.

To help determine the initial sites and facilities.
Museum Trustees held a series of informal discus¬
sion sessions with Regional Advisory Committees
in the areas under consideration. These groups were
set up to provide a continuing mutual exchange of
ideas and information, and their membership includes
a diverse cross section of community leadership.

Technical Advisory Committees, such as the VAS
Ad Hoc Committee and others, also have been estab¬
lished to provide more specialized knowledge in the
various scientific disciplines covered by the Museum.

A special auction of mineral specimens, held under
sponsorship of the Richmond Gem and Mineral
Society, has yielded a contribution of more than
$100 to the Science Museum of Virginia. Held dur¬
ing the annual Society-sponsored “Wonderful World
of Rocks” show in Richmond in mid-May, the auc¬
tion was the first of its kind during the event. The
hundreds of items sold were given by Society mem¬
bers, dealers at the show, and other friends and
supDorters of the Museum.

Dr. Hughes called the gift “the kind of financial
support and interest needed for the success of our
Museum program.”

DISTINGUISHED SERVICE AWARDS

Three members of the Association of Academies
of Science, chosen by their Distinguished Service
Award Committee, were honored at the annual ban¬
quet in December, 1971. Two were from the Vir-

82

The Virginia Journal of Science

ginia Academy of Science, Rodney C. Berry and Dr.
E. L. Wisman. Wilmer W. Tanner, past president,
was the third awardee and is from Utah.

These awards are presented each year to a mem¬
ber, or members, who have been active in their own
academy, have shown considerable dedication, and
have contributed to the continuing growth and pres¬
tige of the Association.

NEW DIRECTOR VJAS

In a recent letter to friends and supporters of the
Virginia Junior Academy of Science, Dr. E. L. Wis¬
man wrote,

“After a period of eight years, I am giving up the
directorship of the VJAS. It seemed to be a time to
make a change and to provide the opportunity for
new ideas and leadership for the continual growth
of the VJAS program.

The new director, beginning June 1, will be Dr.
Lee S. Anthony, Head of the Department of Physics,
Roanoke College, Salem, Virginia. I assure you he
is a most able and dedicated person and deserves all
of the fine support that each of you has given to me
these many years.

It has been most gratifying having all of you be¬
hind me. Without your support my effort would have
been in vain, and I wanted you to know I appreciated
it.”

NSF CHAUTAUQUA-TYPE SHORT COURSES,
1972-1973

The NSF Chautauqua-Type Short Courses for
College Teachers, conducted by the American Asso¬
ciation for the Advancement of Science with support
from the National Science Foundation, are patterned
after the “Chautauquas” of the early part of the cen¬
tury in which lecture, musical, and other programs
of cultural interest moved in succession from com¬
munity to community through a “circuit.”

Twelve Field Centers have been established, or¬
ganized into three “circuits” of four centers each.
Ten courses will be offered in each of the twelve
Field Centers.

The typical pattern for each class is that the
participants will meet at one of the centers for an
initial two days of lectures, demonstrations, discus¬
sions, and preparation for individual work, study,
research, or other activity to be carried out be¬
tween that time and the second session — approxi¬
mately three months. At the second two-day session,
the participants will meet for discussion of the work
that has been done and for a general “wrap-up.” In
the work assignments, consideration is given to the
heavy academic loads of most college teachers.

The primary purpose of the program is to provide
assistance to college teachers in the natural and social
sciences, mathematics, and engineering in keeping
their courses up-to-date, in introducing materials and
models helpful in the development of new topics in
their established courses, and in determining a basis
for the preparation of new courses.

Applications will be accepted from teachers of un¬
dergraduate students in the natural and social sci¬
ences, mathematics, and engineering from two- and

four-year degree-granting institutions, including
junior and community colleges and undergraduate
faculties of universities. Any qualified teacher may
apply at any Field Center. Participants will be ex¬
pected to attend both sessions of the courses. Each
class is limited to 25 participants. Application forms
may be requested now. The Field Centers and co¬
ordinators are as follows:

EASTERN CIRCUIT

Hampshire College, Robert C. Birney, Vice Presi¬
dent, Amherst, Massachusetts 01002.

The University of Maryland — College Park, Philip
I. Connors, Department of Physics and Astron¬
omy, College Park, Maryland 20742.

Syracuse University, Alfred T. Collette, Chairman,
Center for Science Education, Syracuse, New
York 13210.

Clark College, Alfred S. Spriggs, Head, Department
of Chemistry, Atlanta, Georgia 30314.

CENTRAL CIRCUIT

Miami University, Charles M. Vaughn, Head, De¬
partment of Zoology and Physiology, Oxford, Ohio
45056.

The University of Missouri — Kansas City, Henry A.
Mitchell, Associate Dean, College of Arts and
Sciences, Kansas City, Missouri 64110.

The University of Wisconsin — Madison, Richard S.
Hosman, College of Engineering, Madison, Wis¬
consin 53706.

Louisiana State University, Houston T. Karnes, De¬
partment of Mathematics, Baton Rouge, Louisiana
70803.

WESTERN CIRCUIT

Oregon Graduate Center for Study and Research,
Lynn R. Sarles, Vice President for Administra¬
tion and Planning, Beaverton, Oregon 97005.
Harvey Mudd College, Eldred Tubbs, Department
of Physics, Claremont, California 91711.

Stanford University, Robert Bridgham, School of
Education, Stanford, California 94305.

The University of Texas — Austin, Addison E. Lee,
Director, Science Education Center, Austin, Texas
78712.

SUMMER SCIENCE INSTITUTE

The National Science Foundation has awarded a
grant for the 1972 Summer Institute in Science and
Mathematics for Secondary School Teachers at Ran-
dolph-Macon Woman’s College, Lynchburg. This
grant is under the direction of Dr. Helen L. Whidden,
professor of chemistry and department chairman.

The summer institute is designated to strengthen
the subject matter competence and to increase the
classroom effectiveness of high school science and
mathematics teachers. Participants specialize in
biology, chemistry, mathematics or physics.

This is the 14th institute held at Randolph-Macon
in the past 1 5 years, and is the third of a three-year
sequential program which may lead to a Master of
Science Teaching degree. Successful completion of

News and Notes

83

work for the degree includes twenty-four hours of
course credit and a thesis for six credits.

The 1972 institute began June 26 and will con¬
tinue through August 18.

NEW STUDY AT VISR

The Division of Aquatic Biology, Virginia Institute
for Scientific Research has undertaken a joint pilot
study with the National Environmental Protection
Agency which will investigate the concentration and
variability of pesticide residues in the James and
Rappahannock estuaries. This will study the cycling
and concentration of residues in various components
of the estuarine ecosystem by analyzing sediments,
plankton, oysters and fishes. The ultimate goal is to
determine the effect of these chemicals on the im¬
portant estuarine resources such as fish and oysters.
It has been demonstrated that DDT has seriously
reduced populations of fish-eating birds such as the
bald eagle, and pesticides may be taking a toll of the
fishes themselves. Pesticides must be kept well below
lethal limits for several reasons. Pesticides may in¬
hibit growth or reproduction of aquatic organisms
as they do in birds. Sublethal doses combined with
other stresses may be lethal. Pesticides tend to ac¬
cumulate through the food chain from plankton to
oysters and fishes. Residues may be reabsorbed from
fat depots where they are stored in the body. Tainting
and off-taste may be produced by pesticides. Pesti¬
cides and herbicides are useful but an integrated
control strategy should be substituted for the mass
onslaught and “saturation bombing” strategies.
Clearly, pesticide studies must examine all com¬
ponents of the ecosystem.

VP! TURKEY RESEARCH

A study of certain environmental factors on the
growth performance of turkeys is under way in Vir¬
ginia Tech’s department of poultry science.

The research, supported by a $10,000 grant to the
University from the Virginia Turkey Association,
will explore the effects of intermittent vs. continuous
light, light intensity and colored light on the growth
performance, feed efficiency, mortality and market
quality of turkeys at various periods in their lives.
The influence of population density on these factors
will also be studied.

A. T. Leighton Jr., professor of poultry science
and director of the project, explained that previous
work at Tech has indicated that different light en¬
vironments have important effects of growth perform¬
ance, feeding activity and behavior of turkeys.

Leighton and Davidson J. Gill, a graduate student
in poultry science from Remlik, will compare the
effects of light turned on and off every two hours
with light turned on and off every 1 2 hours. In addi¬
tion, they will study the effects of bright vs. dim
white, blue and red lights. Birds will be raised with
0.8 square feet per bird vs. 1.6 square feet per bird
through 14 weeks of age, after which time floor space
gradually will be increased.

FAN MOUNTAIN TELESCOPE

The University of Virginia’s new 40-inch reflector
telescope, which was dedicated April 28 at the Fan

Mountain station of Leander MeCormick Observa¬
tory, is designed to enable University astronomers
to study some of the faintest objects in space and
accurately record their positions and their motion.
The new telescope will continue the work for which
the observatory is famous — long-focus astrometry.
It involves taking photographs on a large scale to
measure the distance of stars from the sun.

The 40-ineh telescope eventually will replace a 26-
inch refractor telescope at Mount Jefferson, which
is now more than 90 years old. Since its construction
as the largest telescope of its kind in 1881, the 26-
inch refractor has taken thousands of plates of the
stars and the observatory’s extensive collection of
these photographs of the heavens has been used to
measure the infinitestimal movement of stars over a
period of years.

“We discovered that repairing the old telescope,
which is beginning to deteriorate, would cost as much
as building a new one,” said Dr. Laurence W. Fred¬
rick, professor of astronomy and chairman of the
department. “So we decided that to maintain our
position in this specialized area, we would have to
build a telescope with a new design.”

The design was developed for the University by
Dr. James Baker of Harvard University. It incor¬
porates a large field of one degree with a very flat
and stable optical system. This eompromise between
an astrograph, which classifies stars according to
temperature, and a long-focus refracting telescope,
keeps the cost and the size of the observatory dome
within reason, according to Dr. Fredrick.

The new astrometric telescope is connected to a
small control computer which is used to determine
the exposure times for photographing stars, position¬
ing the plates and tracking the telescope. The com¬
puter is able to move the telescope to any coordinate
system and can direct it to track satellites and other
objects not moving in the equatorial system. In
addition there is a television system attached to the
finder telescope which provides a picture of the
view through the lens and which will eventually tell
the computer what stars the telescope is looking at.
It was constructed with funds from the National
Science Foundation, the estate of the late Leander
James McCormick and the University Alumni Fund.

The Fan Mountain observatory station, where the
news telescope is located, is situated on a 215-acre
tract near Covesville, 17 miles south of Charlottes¬
ville. University students and faculty members have
been carrying out research there for nearly 10 years
with a 32-inch reflector telescope and a 10-inch
astrograph.

The prime contractor for the new telescope has
been Davidson Optronics of West Covina, Calif., and
the subcontractor for the large units and mechanical
design was C. W. Jones, Engineering, of Commerce,
Calif. The dome was built and installed by Observa
Dome of Jackson, Miss., and the building was erected
by the Long Construction Co. of Charlottesville.

The basic design of the automatic camera and the
entire electronic system was handled by the depart¬
ment of astronomy’s instrument shops under the di¬
rection of Hermann Bluemel and Robert Redick.

84

The Virginia Journal of Science

UVA MEDICAL DEAN

Dr. William R. Drucker, chairman of the depart¬
ment of surgery at the University of Toronto, Can¬
ada, and Surgeon-in-Chief of the Toronto General
Hospital, has been named the new Dean of Medicine
at the University of Virginia School of Medicine. He
will assume his duties July 1, 1972.

Dr. Drucker became chairman of the department
of surgery at the University of Toronto in 1966. He
previously served 12 years on the faculty of the Case
Western Reserve University School of Medicine.

A graduate of Harvard College, Dr. Drucker re¬
ceived his M.D. degree from the Johns Hopkins Uni¬
versity School of Medicine in 1946. After a year
of internship at Johns Hopkins and military serv¬
ice with the Naval Medical Research Institute at
Bethesda, Md., he was assistant resident in medicine
at the New Haven Hospital, New Haven, Conn. He
was a research fellow in medicine at Case Western
Reserve University in 1950 and later completed three
years of residency in surgery at University Hospitals,
Qeveland, Ohio. He is an authority on shock and
trauma. His other research interests include the meta¬
bolic effects of surgery.

Dr. Drucker was selected as Markle Scholar in
the Medical Sciences in 1958. Earlier, he was named
a Scholar of the American College of Surgeons. He
is currently on the editorial boards of the American
Journal of Surgery and the Canadian Journal of
Surgery and serves on the project committee of the
General Medical Research Program of the National
Institutes of Health. His memberships include the
American College of Surgeons, where he serves on
five committees; the American Association for Sur¬
gery of Trauma, of which he is treasurer; the Ameri¬
can Surgical Association; the Central Society of
Clinical Investigation; the Society of University Sur¬
geons; the American Federation for Clinical Re¬
search; the American Association for the Advance¬
ment of Science, Phi Beta Kappa and numerous other
organizations.

Dr. James T. Hamlin has served as acting dean of
the School of Medicine since March, when the post
was left vacant by Dr. Kenneth R. Crispell’s promo¬
tion from dean to vice president for health sciences
following the retirement from administrative duties
of former vice president Dr. Thomas Hunter.

NEW CHAIRMAN VCU PHARMACY
DEPARTMENT

The Board of Visitors of Virginia Commonwealth
University has announced the appointment of Dr.
William H. Barr as Chairman of the Department
of Pharmacy and Professor of Pharmacy effective
July 1, 1972. Doctor Barr will succeed Doctor
Milton L. Neuroth who has chaired the department
for over twenty years and has been a long time
member of the Virginia Academy of Science.

Doctor Barr received his pharmacy education at
the University of California in San Francisco and
following a year of practice as a staff pharmacist in
San Diego, entered graduate school at the University

of California in San Francisco where he received his
Ph.D. degree in 1966. Doctor Barr joined the staff
of the State University of New York at Buffalo in
1966 where he remained until the present time. He
has numerous publications in the general field of
biopharmaceutics. He is currently a member of the
Committee of Revision of the U. S. Pharmacopoeia
and a member of the Subcommittee on Bioavail¬
ability. He is also a member of the American Hos¬
pital Formulary System Review Panel, a member of
the American Pharmaceutical Association Steering
Committee on the Drug Interaction Project, a mem¬
ber of the American Pharmaceutical Association
Handbook of Drug Interactions Scientific Review
Panel, a member of the Academy of Pharmaceuti¬
cal Sciences Liaison Committee for Professional Af¬
fairs, a member of that Academy’s Committee on
Biological Performance of Drug Products and its
Committee on Drug Product Equivalence. He serves
on the Consultant Panel of the Poison Control Cen¬
ter at Buffalo Children’s Hospital.

Doctor Barr is a member of Kappa Psi and Rho
Chi. He is married and has three children.

JAMES W. ROBINSON, JR. SECONDARY
SCHOOL

The largest secondary school facility in Virginia
was dedicated in a ceremony on March 12, 1972.
Constructed on a 56.8 acre site in Fairfax County
this modern educational complex cost about $8.5
million and contains 491,219 square feet of space.
The school opened in September, 1971, with about
3,600 students in grades 7-11. When grade 12 is
added during the 1972-73 school year, it is expected
to reach or exceed the capacity of 3,900. The facility
was designed for a subschool organization. Chairman
of the planning committee was Principal Samuel J.
Coffey, then associate superintendent. Five sub¬
schools will be operating 1971-1972 with a sixth
to be added in 1972-1973. Each subschool will have
its own principal, guidance personnel, administrators
and staff of teachers to teach its 650-750 students.
The building is completely air-conditioned. It has
174 teaching stations and 924 classes arc taught
daily. There are 78 standard classrooms, 20 science
laboratories and 6 media centers.

The school has been named for Sgt. James W.
Robinson, Jr., who was awarded a posthumous
Medal of Honor in 1967 for conspicuous gallantry
and intrepidity in action while serving with the First
Infantry Division in Vietnam. It was the first Medal
of Honor given to a Virginia resident for the Vietnam
conflict. The Department of the Army has prepared
a special exhibit honoring Sgt. Robinson which is
mounted in a display case in the main lobby of the
school.

The principal speaker on the dedication program
March 12, 1972, was Sgt. Robinson’s father, James
W. Robinson, Sr., now living in Miami, Florida. The
Robinson family formerly resided in Annandale. The
program included presentations by the Old Guard
Fife and Drum Corps and the U. S. Army Drill Team.

News and Notes

85

ORLAND EMILE WHITE

Dr. Orland E. White, Professor Emeritus of Agri¬
cultural Biology and Director Emeritus of the Blandy
Experimental Farm of the University of Virginia,
died the morning of January 10, 1972, in a Char¬
lottesville hospital, of complications following a
broken-leg fall in his home a few days before.
Survivors are a brother, Marion, in South Dakota,
two daughters, Mrs. Dean Winchester, Baldwins-
ville. New York, and Mrs. James C. Quarles, Gaines¬
ville, Florida, and six grandchildren. JJis wife of
more than fifty years, Loto Underwood, predeceased
him some four years ago.

Dr. White was born April 25, 1885, in Sibley,
Iowa, grew up in South Dakota, and received a B.S.
and M.S. from the then State College of South
Dakota, Brookings, (in ’09 and ’ll, respectively).
His graduate work in botany was done in the re¬
nowned Bussey Institution of Harvard University,
from which he received an M.S. (1912) and the
Sc.D. (1913). He joined the staff of the recently
established Brooklyn Botanic Garden the same year.
He was the “Eminent Botanist” of the Mulford Bio¬
logical Exploration of the Amazon Valley, 1921-22,
celebrated in the book. White Waters and Black, by
Gordon MacCreagh.

In 1927, Dr. White resigned his curatorship of
plant breeding and economic plants to become the
first director of the endowed Blandy Experimental
Farm of the University of Virginia, near Boyce. His
researches were principally in plant genetics, espe¬
cially Pisuni, but also tropical plants and winter
hardiness. He has been widely recognized for his
graduate training of the Blandy Fellows, several of
whom have won the J. Shelton Horsley Research
Award. After his retirement from this position he
served as Visiting Professor at Sweet Briar College
for two years. A memorial garden with some of his
collected plants was dedicated there on May 7, 1962,
by Dr. Elizabeth F. Sprague. A portion of the Blandy

Farm, some years ago, was set aside as the Orland E.
White Memorial Arboretum. He was chairman of
the Biology Section, Virginia Academy of Science,
in 1931.

SIDNEY S. NEGUS HONORED

On May 25, 1972, an auditorium in Sanger Hall
of the Medical College of Virginia, Health Sciences
Division, Virginia Commonwealth University, was
dedicated in memory of Dr. Sidney S. Negus, chair¬
man of the Department of Biochemistry at the insti¬
tution from 1927 to 1962. Dr. Negus died May 17,
1963. Dr. Negus served as Director of Public Infor¬
mation for the AAAS from 1938 to 1963, in the
same capacity with the Federation of American So¬
cieties for Experimental Biology from 1960 to 1963,
and for the International Congress of Nutrition held
in Washington, 1960. The first of the annual Sidney
S. Negus lectures was given at the dedication by Dr.
William J. Darby, President and Scientific Director,
The Nutrition Foundation, Inc. The title of his talk
was “Food, Nutrition and Society,” a topic which
was in keeping with the interests and endeavors of
Dr. Negus. In 1963 Dr. Negus, President of the
Virginia Academy of Science, 1948-1949, received a
service award from the National Association of Sci¬
ence Writers for “his contribution over the past
quarter of a century in bettering the public under¬
standing of science.”

PRELIMINARY NOTICE

The Southeastern Section of the Society for Ex¬
perimental Biology and Medicine will meet on Oc¬
tober 19 and 20, 1972, at the Medical College of
Virginia, Health Sciences Division of Virginia Com¬
monwealth University, Richmond. Symposia are
planned on immunology and transplantation and on
drug abuse. General sessions of submitted papers
also will be scheduled.

86

The Virginia Journal of Science

Author Index to Volume 22, 1971

Abstracts of Papers, Forty-ninth Annual Meeting of the Virginia Academy of Science . 80

Adleman, Ronald G. See Pagels, John F . 195

Andrews, Jay D. Fish for Beauty in Dismal Swamp (One Man’s View of the Swamp) . 5

Author Index to Volume 21, 1970 . 31

Brady, Nyle C. The Role of Agriculture in Improving Environmental Quality (Sidney S. Negus Memorial Lecture) . 166

Carter, Walter H., Jr., and Flora. Roger E. The Use of Principal Components Analysis in Determining Grades and Detecting
Ambiguous Questions on Multiple Choice Examinations . 190

Clarke, A. M. VAS Visiting Scientists Program . 196

Clayton, C. C. Studies on Azo Dye Stability as Related to Tumor Production in the Presence of Certain Benzimidazoles . 47

Further Studies on the Effects of Benzimidazole Derivatives on Azo Dye Carcinogenesis . 183

Coppedge, Walter R. “What Country, Friends, Is This?” or Some Remarks on the Writer’s Encounter With His Environment. . 172

Elora, Roger E. See Carter, Walter H., Jr . 190

Goodwin, Bruce K. Folding and Tearing Paper as an Aid to Visualizing Geologic Structures in Three Dimensions . 16

Gregg, Robert E. See Murray, Frank S . 14

Haven, Dexter S. See Oakes, Martin J . 45

Johnson, Miles F. The Genera Carphephoms, Mikania and Knlinia (Eupatorieae-Asteraceae) in Virginia . 38

Kepner, William Allison, 1875-1971 . 37

Marlowe, T. J. See Schalles, R. R . 42

Miranda, L. C. See Pritchard, W. M . 187

Morrow, Leonard O. Protein Biosynthesis; A Teaching Demonstration . 60

Murray, Frank S., and Gregg, Robert E. Two Procedures of Presenting Concepts to Children . 14

Oakes, Martin J., and Haven, Dexter S. Some Predators of Polyps of Clirysaorci cpiinquecirrha (Scyphozoa, Semaeostomeae) in

the Chesapeake Bay . 45

Pagels, John F., and Adleman, Ronald G. A Note on the Cotton Rat in Central Virginia . 195

Parker, Bruce C. See Samsel, Gene L., Jr . 177

Pritchard, W. M., and Miranda, L. C. Magnetic Susceptibility of Alkali Metals . 187

Proceedings of Forty-ninth Annual Meeting of the Virginia Academy of Science, Blacksburg, May 12-14, 1971 . 73

Rosenberg, Harvey J. Some Comments on 'U* (O): The Non-relativistic Electron Probability Density at the Origin . 50

Samsel, Gene L., Jr., and Parker, Bruce C. Comparisons of Two Antarctic Lakes With Different Trophic States . 177

Schalles, R. R., and Marlowe, T. J. Estimates of Phenotypic, Genetic and Environmental Parameters In A Herd of Angus Cows. . 42

Simmons, George M., Jr., and Winfield, Avis. A Feasibility Study Using Conservation Webbing as an Artificial Substrate in
Macrobenthic Studies . 52

Winfield, Avis. See Simmons, George M., Jr . 52

Virginia Academy of Science; Bylaws, November 1, 1970 . 21

Virginia Academy of Science; Constitution, May, 1970 . 25

Mobil Chemical

MOBIL CHEMICAL COMPANY/ INDUSTRIAL CHEMICALS DIVISION/RICHMOND, VIRGINIA

HELP WAMTED

The recent flood in Richmond, Virginia destroyed most of the extra copies of The Virginia
Journal of Science, prior to Volume 22, Number 4, 1971. Anyone having copies of older issues
that they would like to donate to a needy cause, please send them to: Dr. Charles E. O’Rear,
Business Manager, Virginia Journal of Science, 1 North 14th Street, Richmond, Virginia 23219

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Philip Morris, a publicly-owned company incorporated in Virginia, proudly traces
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Richmond, Virginia, 23261

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VIRGINIA

JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

OFFICIAL PUBLICATION OF THE VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

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locations in the State of
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say our roots are
planted deep in
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SUSTAINING MEMBERS
VIRGINIA ACADEMY
OF SCIENCE

The following Virginia Educational Institu¬
tions support the objectives of the Virginia Acad¬
emy of Science through Sustaining Memberships.
Their active and financial support is gratefully
acknowledged.

Alderman Library

Christopher Newport College

College of William and Mary

Emory and Henry College

George Mason College

Hollins College

Longwood College

Lynchburg College

Madison College

Mary Baldwin College

Mary Washington College

Mathematics and Science Center

Norfolk State College

Old Dominion University

Randolph-Macon College

Randolph-Macon Woman’s College

Stratford College

Sweet Briar College

University of Richmond

University of Virginia

Virginia Commonwealth University

Virginia Military Institute

Virginia Polytechnic Institute

Virginia State College

Virginia Union University

Virginia Wesleyan College

Washington and Lee University

BUSINESS MEMBERS
VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

Because of their interest in science and the
economy of Virginia, the following industrial
concerns have become Business Members of
the Academy and have thus contributed greatly
to its work and progress. Their support is
gratefully acknowledged:

Allied Chemical Corporation
American Eiltrona Corporation
The American Tobacco Company
Brunswick Corporation
Bunton Instrument Co.

Burlington Industries, Inc.

Carolina Biological Supply Co.

The Central National Bank

Dow-Badische Company

E. I. duPont de Nemours & Co., Inc.

Ethyl Corporation

First and Merchants National Bank

Hercules, Incorporated

House of Edgeworth

Merck and Company, Inc.

Mobil Chemical Company
National Fruit Product Co.

Newport News Shipbuilding Co. Foundation
Philip Morris and Co., Inc.

Phipps & Bird, Inc,

Reynolds Metals Co.

A. H. Robins Company, Inc.

Southern Bank & Trust Company
Southern States Cooperative, Inc.

Texaco, Inc.

United Virginia Bank
Universal Leaf Tobacco Co., Inc.

Virginia Chemicals, Inc.

Virginia Electric and Power Company
Wheat, First Securities, Inc.

VIRGINIA

JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

OFFICIAL PUBLICATION OF THE
VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

Vol. 23 No. 3 1972

TABLE OF CONTENTS

93 Proceedings of Fiftieth Annual Meeting of

the Virginia Academy of Science, Lexington,
May 3-5, 1972

99

Abstracts of Papers, Fiftieth Annual Meeting of
the Virginia Academy of Science

THE VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

Official Publication of the Virginia Academy of Science

EDITOR

LYNN D. ABBOTT, JR.

SECTION EDITORS

Boyd L. Samuel

Michael N. Bishara

Agricultural Sciences

Engineering

Lee S. Anthony

Kenneth A. Blick

Astronomy, Mathematics and Physics

Psychology

James D. Punch

Elva D. Aukland

Microbiology

Science Teachers

Robert G. Bass

John R. Howell

Chemistry

Statistics

K. L. Reifsnider

Ricardo N. Zapata

Materials Science

Space Science and Technology

Edwin S. Higgins
Medical Sciences

BUSINESS MANAGER

Charles E. O’Rear

Published quarterly by The Virginia Academy of
Science, Department of Biochemistry, Medical Col¬
lege of Virginia, Richmond, Virginia 23219. Second-
class postage paid at Richmond, Virginia.

Manuscripts for publication (other than section
abstracts) and books for review should be sent to
the Editor, Lynn D. Abbott, Jr., Department of
Biochemistry, Medical College of Virginia, Rich¬
mond, Virginia 23219. Proof, edited manuscripts,
and all correspondence regarding accepted papers
should be sent to the Editor.

Advertising and Business Office: All correspon¬
dence relating to advertising and business affairs
should be directed to Charles E. O’Rear, Business
Manager, Virginia Journal of Science, 1 N. Four¬
teenth St., Richmond, Virginia 23219.

The Virginia Academy of Science and the Editors
of the Virginia Journal of Science assume no re¬
sponsibility for statements or opinions advanced by
contributors.

(C) Copyright, 1972, by the Virginia Academy of
Science.

Business and Subscription Information

All remittances and orders for advertising and
subscriptions should be sent to the Business Man¬
ager, Virginia Journal of Science, 1 N. Fourteenth
St., Richmond, Virginia 23219. Changes of address
should be sent promptly to Blanton M. Bruner, Ex¬
ecutive Secretary-Treasurer, Virginia Academy of
Science, P. O. Box 8454, Richmond, Virginia 23226.
Changes of address must include both new and old
addresses with zip code.

Subscription rates for 1972; $8.00 per year,
U.S.A.; Canada and other countries of the Pan-
American Union, $8.50 per year; all other foreign
countries, $9.00 per year. All foreign remittances
must be made at par U.S. dollars or the foreign
equivalent. U.S. dollar remittance is suggested to
avoid currency fluctuation problems and possibly
unfavorable exchange rates.

Back issues are available for some years at $3.00
per issue plus postage.

The front cover is by Douglas C. Hensley.

VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
FIFTIETH ANNUAL MEETING, LEXINGTON
MAY 3-5, 1972

SUMMARY OF COUNCIL MEETINGS AND ACADEMY CONFERENCE

Council met Wednesday, May 3, 1972, at 8:00
p.m. in Moody Hall, Virginia Military Institute,
President Turner presiding, and again on Friday,
May 5, 1972, at 7:30 a.m. in Crozet Hall, VMI,
President Flint presiding. Minutes of the previous
Council Meeting were corrected and a corrected ver¬
sion will be mailed to all Council Members.

On May 3 President Turner first called for reports
of Officers, Committees and Sections.

President-elect Flint offered the program as a re¬
port of his duties.

Rae Carpenter, Co-chairman of the Local Ar¬
rangement Committee, reported that everything was
progressing satisfactorily and that 583 had registered
at the Junior VAS.

The following Section reports were submitted for
presentation to the Academy Conference: Biology,
Agriculture, Botany, Engineering, Statistics, and
Space Science and Technology.

Lynn Abbott, Editor of the Journal, noted that the
first issue of Vol. 23 was in the mail and that the
cover had been improved.

The report of the Nominating Committee was as
follows: for President-elect Stanley Ragone; for
Treasurer W. Allan Powell; for Secretary G. R.
Brooks.

President Turner announced the award of the
George B. Pegram medal by the Southeast Section
of the American Physical Society to two members of
the Academy.

WILDERNESS

President Turner reviewed the literature sent by
Roscoe Hughes to Council members and the diseus-
sion at the recent meeting of the Executive Commit¬
tee. He then opened the floor for discussion and/or
action. A great deal of both followed.

Mr. Harshbarger moved that the President appoint
a commission to investigate this affair and report to
Council on Friday, May 5, 1972. There was no
second to this motion.

Mr. Midyette then moved the following, which
was seconded by Mr. Flint: “The Virginia Academy
of Science recognizes the importance of preserving
our wilderness area and therefore urges its members
to write the President of the United States requesting
him to utilize the powers of his office to accelerate the
programs of review of lands covered by the Wilder¬
ness Act of 1964.” This motion was carried without
dissent.

Mr. Bradley then moved that copies of the above
motion be sent to President Nixon, to the Senators
and Congressional Representatives of Virginia, and
to Dr. Kindschi. Mr. Morrow seconded and the mo¬
tion was passed.

Mr. Bradley then moved that the above two mo¬
tions be submitted to the Academy Conference for
endorsement. Again seconded by Mr. Morrow, the
motion was passed.

“RUSSELL ROWLETT” FOLDER

Mr. Bradley moved and Mr. Midyette seconded
that Council accept the recommendation of the Ex¬
ecutive Committee to authorize purchase of 5,000
copies of the “Russell Rowlett” folder to be used in
recruiting new members. Motion was passed.

50TH ANNIVERSARY PUBLICATIONS

President-elect Flint will oversee plans for special
publications commemorating the 50th Anniversary of
the Academy.

DIRECTORY

Mr. Rowe moved acceptance of the recommenda¬
tion of the Executive Committee to publish a list of
past presidents and recipients of awards in the next
issue of the Directory. Mr. Ragone seconded the
motion and it was passed.

1976 MEETING SITE

Mr. Midyette moved acceptance of the recommen¬
dation of the Executive Committee to accept the
invitation from George Mason University to serve as
host for the annual meeting in 1976 and for the
Executive Committee and appropriate officials from
G.M.U. to set the dates for this meeting. Mr. Morrow
faithfully provided a second and the motion was
passed.

AD HOC COMMITTEE ON ACADEMY
FINANCIAL STRUCTURE

President Turner reviewed action by Council
(April 9, 1972 meeting) on the report by the Ad
Hoc Committee on Academy Financial Structure. A
copy of this report is attached to the official minutes.

Mr. Bradley moved that Recommendation B (page
10) be approved. The second was provided by re¬
liable Mr. Morrow and the motion passed unani¬
mously.

Proceedings, 1971-1972

93

Mr. Morrow, in a change of position, moved that
Council empower the President to facilitate the im¬
plementation of provisions included in Recommen¬
dation F. Mr. Clarke provided a second. After some
discussion Mr. Clarke moved to table; Mr. Bradley
provided a second. The vote on the motion to table
was 7 for and 7 against; President Turner broke the
tie by voting against. Again much discussion concern¬
ing problems with the Constitution and By-laws.
Question was called and the motion passed 9 for and
7 against.

This being the last formal item of business Mr.
Gladding wished to express his appreciation for
serving on Council and thank members for their
work in aiding the Academy.

On May 5 President Flint called for reports and/or
comments from Committees and Sections.

Rae Carpenter, Co-chairman of the Local Ar¬
rangements Committee, reported that the exhibitors
appeared to be satisfied with their arrangements, and
that by having all section meetings in the same build¬
ing registration was very good. He also noted that the
division of labor between Washington and Lee
(which handled the J.V.A.S.) and Virginia Military
Institute (which handled the V.A.S.) worked very
nicely.

It was suggested that at future meetings a notice in
the program could emphasize the importance of the
Academy Conference and that all members of the
Academy should attend. Mr. Midyette suggested a
resume of prior Council actions could be given at the
Conference meeting. Mr. Carpenter suggested that an
agenda for the Conference meeting could be inserted
in the program.

Mr. Clarke informed Council that the Sections of
Astronomy, Mathematics and Physics will meet
jointly with the Chesapeake Section of the American
Association of Physics Teachers at the next annual
meeting.

President Flint will appoint a commission to study
the relationship between the Academy and AAAS in
light of the recent changes in the AAAS constitution.
The President called upon members of Council for
advice in planning special features to commemorate
the 50th Anniversary. It was suggested that all living
charter members and all living past presidents be
recognized and that the program contain a short
history of the Academy. Mr. Bruner will investigate
the feasibility of overprinting Academy stationery
with information about the 50th Anniversary and will
report to the President.

Mr. Midyette moved that the No. 1 issue of Vol.
24 of the Virginia Journal of Science be designated
as a commemorative issue. Mr. Morrow provided a
second and the motion passed.

Mr. Abbott moved to correct the minutes of Coun¬
cil Meeting on April 9, 1972. Motion was passed.

SUMMARY OF THE
ACADEMY CONFERENCE

The Academy Conference convened in Mallory
Hall, Virginia Military Institute, on Thursday, May
4, 1972. President Turner called the meeting to order
and recognized Mr. Clarke.

Mr. Clarke moved that the Conference dispense
with a reading of the minutes of the last Academy
Conference. A second was provided and the motion
passed.

The President then made the following comments:
It had been a very instructive year; he had derived
great satisfaction from working with members of the
Academy, and was pleased with the current meeting.
He represented the Academy at the inaugurations of
the new presidents at the University of Richmond
and Virginia Military Institute, and at the 75th Anni¬
versary of Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State
University. He also attended the annual meeting of
the West Virginia Academy of Science.

President Turner then called for reports from
Officers and Sections.

President-elect Flint complimented the Local Ar¬
rangements Committee for their excellent work and
thanked the Section secretaries for their prompt re¬
turn of programs. He will appoint a commission to
develop a special program for the 50th Anniversary
at the College of William and Mary in 1973.

A report from the Treasurer is attached to the
official minutes.

The Secretary then read the reports of Committees
and Sections. These reports are appended to the
official minutes.

Mr. Boyd Harshbarger reviewed the report of the
Financial and Endowment Committee pointing out
that expected income would be approximately $3,000
less than budgeted expenditures (mainly due to
J.V.A.S. expenses). Mr. Harshbarger also voiced
apprehension concerning future deficit spending.

Mr. Clarke advised the members present to con¬
tinually search for advertising revenue.

LOCAL ARRANGEMENTS COMMITTEE

President Turner recognized Dr. Gilmer from
Washington and Lee and Dr. Carpenter from Vir¬
ginia Military Institute and thanked them for their
work as Co-chairmen of the Local Arrangements
Committee.

AAAS REPRESENTATIVE

President Turner recognized Dr. Raymond Taylor
as the official representative of AAAS. Dr. Taylor
expressed his pleasure at attending the meeting and
briefly reported on changes in the constitution of
AAAS, and how these changes might affect the
Academy.

NEW BUSINESS

The Academy Conference endorsed the two mo¬
tions passed by Council which dealt with the pro¬
posed executive order by President Nixon on Wilder¬
ness areas.

NOMINATING COMMITTEE

Dr. Carpenter, reporting for Dr. Siegel, provided
the following slate of officers for 1972-73:

for President-elect — Mr. Stanley Ragone
for Treasurer — Dr. W. Allan Powell
for Secretary — Dr. Garnett Brooks

94

The Virginia Journal of Science

Dr. Carpenter moved that these nominations be
accepted. A motion to close the nominations and
accept the slate by acclamation was made, seconded,
and passed.

REPORT OF THE LONG-RANGE
PLANNING COMMITTEE

While the Long Range Planning Committee has
been less active during 1971-72 than in the immedi¬
ately preceding years, the Committee continues to be
concerned over several issues facing the Academy.

First, the Committee views the two-year colleges
to be a very significant development in our Common¬
wealth, and it urges all sections and committees of
the Academy to be cognizant of this development so
that the Academy might better serve the needs of the
rapidly growing number of two-year college science
faculty and students.

Second, the Long Range Planning Committee has
discussed science textbook adoption procedures in
the state, and it views the problem to be of sufficient
importance to the education of future scientists to
merit cooperation of the Virginia Academy of Sci¬
ence with the State Department of Education in con¬
sideration of the problem.

Third, the Long Range Planning Committee be¬
lieves that the Virginia Academy of Science needs
more systematic data collection. This information
would enable trends to be more readily observed in
such matters as Academy membership, income, ex¬
penses, etc.

Dale V. Ulrich, Chairman

REPORT OF THE CONSTITUTION
AND BY-LAWS COMMITTEE

The Committee did not meet during the year. The
Chairman served as parliamentarian for the May and
November meetings of Council; but, was unable to
attend the meeting of April 9, 1972. However, prior
to the latter, the Chairman corresponded with the
President relative to Constitutional and By-Law
changes that might be necessary to implement the
recommendations of the Ad Hoc Committee on Fi¬
nancial Structure.

The President was advised that merger of the
Finance and Endowment Committee with the Trustee
Committee would require amendments of both the
Constitution and the By-Laws, and the By-Laws
could not be amended in this regard until the Con¬
stitution is amended, and that the procedures for such
could not be concluded until the May, 1973, Annual
Conference and subsequent Council meeting.

The President was also advised that the Constitu¬
tion provided that the duties of the committees shall
be specified in the By-Laws and as further enumer¬
ated by the Council from time to time; and this being
the case. Council could direct the committees to meet
jointly and to further clarify the responsibility of each
or both without amending either the Constitution or
the By-Laws.

The Chairman also called the President’s attention
to the fact that the responsibility for investing funds
belonged to the Trust Committee and not the Finance
and Endowment Committee.

Having received no instructions to do so, the Con¬
stitution and By-Laws Committee has prepared no
amendments to either the Constitution or By-Laws
for consideration by Council or the Academy Con¬
ference during this (1972) Annual Meeting.

J. W. Midyette, Jr., Chairman

REPORT OF THE FLORA COMMITTEE

During 1971, the Flora Committee held two meet¬
ings, one in conjunction with the May meeting of the
VAS at Blacksburg and the other at Clinch Valley
College in Wise, Virginia on November 6, 1971.
Reports of progress on the Virginia Flora Project
were presented at each meeting. At Wise a field trip
was sponsored to areas of former strip mining opera¬
tions. Several papers relating to the Virginia flora
were presented at the Section of Botany at the annual
meeting of the VAS.

Members of the Flora Committee have continued
active during 1971 on various aspects of the Virginia
Flora Project. Work on specific families and genera
and county collections have continued through the
year.

Jeffersonia, a Newsletter of Virginia Botany, for¬
merly called The Newsletter, published many current
articles of ecological and taxonomic interest to field
botanists of Virginia.

Peter Mazzeo of the U. S. National Arboretum
completed his paper on the distribution of the four
families of conifers of Virginia and has undertaken a
similar study of the Betulaceae. Miles F. Johnson of
Virginia Commonwealth University published a
paper, “The Genus Liatris in Virginia” in Castanea
and a second article in the Virginia Journal of Sci¬
ence on “The Genera Carphephorus, Mikania and
Kuhnia (Eupatorieae-Asteraceae) in Virginia.” Peter
Mazzeo authored an article in Castanea entitled,
‘‘‘’Taxus canadensis, Rediscovered in the Virginia
Piedmont.”

Dorothy C. Bliss, Chairman

REPORT OF THE AGRICULTURAL
SCIENCES SECTION

The Agricultural Sciences Section will meet Thurs¬
day, May 4, 1972 from 8:00 a.m. to 5:00 in Room
249 Mallory Hall.

Twenty-four papers are scheduled for presentation.
Topics range from the social environment of swine
to the use of remote sensing in agriculture. Several
papers are on subjects which are basic to maintaining
the quality of the environment.

The varied subjects covered indicate that the
Agricultural Section will have a most interesting pro¬
gram.

We invite each of you to attend when possible.

T. G. Copeland, Jr., Councilman

Proceedings, 1971-1972

95

REPORT OF THE CHEMISTRY SECTION

No problems have oceurred in the Chemistry Sec¬
tion requiring action of council. Everything has been
planned for a successful meeting. Thirty-three papers
will be presented on Thursday and Friday.

Randolph N. Gladding, Councilman

REPORT OF THE MICROBIOLOGY SECTION

The officers of the Microbiology Section are:

Chairman Mr. Louis D. Smith (VPI)

Vice Chairman Harry P. Dalton (VCU)

Secretary William Steinberg (UVa)

Councilman S. Gaylen Bradley (VCU)

The Microbiology Section of the Virginia Acad¬
emy of Science works closely with the Virginia
Branch of the American Society for Microbiology.
This effective liaison continues to be threatened by
the proximity of the meeting dates of the VAS and
the national ASM. This year the Microbiology Sec¬
tion program consists of only ten papers, largely
because the national ASM meeting was last week. It
should be noted that several papers by members of
the Microbiology Section are being presented in other
sections, apparently because some members believed
that the Microbiology section would not sponsor a
session at the 1972 VAS meeting in Lexington. The
officers of the Microbiology Section have planned all
year to meet this year (as usual) with VAS. The
officers have initiated discussions about the possibil¬
ity of not meeting with VAS next year (1973 in
Williamsburg). It is the view of the present Council¬
man that the Microbiology Section will meet with
VAS in 1973 but that the close connection with the
Virginia Branch of the American Society for Micro¬
biology may be weakened in the process.

There have been preliminary discussions with
members of other sections about the desirability of
joint sessions; for example, one dealing with algae,
fungi, protozoa, bacteria and viruses or one con¬
cerned with water quality (pollution). A final deci¬
sion on programming for 1973 will probably not be
made until the autumn meeting of the officers of the
Microbiology Section.

The Microbiology Section believes that it has a
contribution to make to VAS, and in turn, gains from
the programs of VAS. We hope that our problems
relating to the May meeting can be resolved satis¬
factorily.

S. G. Bradley, Councilman

REPORT OF THE GEOLOGY SECTION

Over 100 people, both professionals and earth sci¬
ence enthusiasts, attended the 3rd annual Virginia
Field Conference of the Geology Section which was
sponsored by the University of Virginia Department
of Environmental Science in October 1971. This was
a 2 day field examination of Triassic age rocks in
Orange County and of Nelson County Hurricane
Camille 1969 damage. For the 1972 annual Acad¬
emy meeting 17 papers from both students and pro¬
fessionals will be presented. The invitational address
will be “Energy Resource Problems in the Virginias”

by Dr. J. M. Dennison, Geology Department, Uni¬
versity of North Carolina.

H. W. Webb, Jr., Councilman

REPORT OF THE ASTRONOMY,

MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS SECTION

The Spring 1972 program of the Astronomy,
Mathematics and Physics Section consists of 28
papers, culminated by an invited paper “The Role of
Abstraction in Quantum Mechanics,” by Paul F.
Zweifel.

The officers of the section are very pleased with the
increased number of astronomy papers, and with the
response to the invitations to a session on Physics
Teaching, issued to all Universities, Colleges and
Junior Colleges throughout the State.

A. M. Clarke, Councilman

REPORT OF THE BIOLOGY SECTION

The Biology Section of the Virginia Academy has
not carried on any special activities during the year.
However, individuals and groups have been active in
research as evidenced by the large number of papers
(67 ) submitted for presentation at this meeting. This
unusual response is further justification for the newly
created Botany Section which also has a full program
of papers.

Warwick R. West, Jr., Councilman

REPORT OF THE BOTANY SECTION

The Botany Section has scheduled 31 papers from
students and professional botanists in State institu¬
tions.

Leonard Morrow, Councilman

REPORT OF THE SPACE SCIENCE
AND TECHNOLOGY SECTION

Section activities have centered solely upon prep¬
aration for the May 5, 1972 meeting of the Section at
VMI. This year, twenty papers were contributed for
presentation at the meeting and quality is high. A
welcome change in the nature of the program is the
increased participation by private industrial and re¬
search concerns. As a means of maintaining a
broader interest in section activities, a congressman,
T. N. Downing, and an astronaut, D. F. Eisele, were
invited to appear as guest speakers, with Eisele
speaking on NASA’s upcoming Space Shuttle
program and with Downing speaking on the future
of space science as a national goal. As true in the
past, the activities of this section continue to be the
nucleus for formation of many useful lines of com¬
munication among groups of similar interests around
the state.

Ralph A. Lowry, Councilman
S. S. Fisher, Section Secretary

REPORT OF THE ENGINEERING SECTION

The Engineering Section officers, during the past
year, met on two occasions in Richmond, Virginia,

96

The Virginia Journal of Science

primarily to discuss the 50th Annual Meeting ar¬
rangements. The theme selected for the meeting was
“Recycling and Solid Waste Management,” and a
number of papers were received to be presented at
the Engineering Section Meeting on May 4, 1972.

In addition to the discussion of program arrange¬
ments, the Engineering Section officers recognized
the need for additional industrial participation on the
Committee, since the press of business in one case
and the transfer of another active Engineering Sec¬
tion member resulted in a depletion of industrial
participation. The present officers of the Section are:

Chairman Mr. E. C. McCormack

Vice Chairman Mr. D. L. Michelsen

Secretary Mr. E. G. Keshock

Editor Mr. M. N. Bishara

The Engineering Section officers also individually
reviewed two industry papers for a possible award at
the May, 1972 meeting. The selection will be made
on the basis of the recommendation of each reviewer
as recorded by the Secretary.

Stanley Ragone, Councilman

Lloyd C. Bird Phipps and Bird, Inc.

Robert P. Carroll Department of Biology

Virginia Military Institute
(Retired)

James W. Cole, Jr.

Walter S. Flory

Mary E. Kapp

Paul B. Siegel

Professor of Chemistry
University of Virginia

Biology Department
Wake Forest College

Chemistry Department (for¬
mer Chairman)

Virginia Commonwealth Uni¬
versity

Professor of Poultry Science
Virginia Polytechnic Institute
and State University

REPORT OF THE FINANCE
AND ENDOWMENT COMMITTEE

Budget as Prepared by the Finance Committee and
Submitted to the Council

SIDNEY S. NEGUS MEMORIAL LECTURE

Dr. Peter van de Kamp, Director of the Sproul Ob¬
servatory, Swarthmore College, presented the annual
Sidney S. Negus Memorial Lecture, “The Search for
Extra-solar Planets in our Stellar Neighborhood” at
the Academy Assembly, May 4, 1972.

J. SHELTON HORSLEY
RESEARCH AWARD

Professor 1. J. Good, Department of Statistics,
VPI & SU and R. A. Gaskins, Department of Mathe¬
matics, Hampden-Sidney College received the 1972
J. Shelton Horsley Research Award for their paper
“Global Nonparametric Estimation of Probability
Densities” presented in the Statistics Section, Fiftieth
Annual Meeting, Virginia Academy of Science, Lex¬
ington, Virginia, May 4, 1972.

FELLOWS OF THE VIRGINIA
ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

The following members of the Virginia Academy
of Science were elected Fellows by vote of the Coun¬
cil in session April 9, 1972 in accordance with the
provision set forth in the Constitution, Article 4.
Announcement was made at the Academy Assembly,
Lexington, Virginia, May 4, 1972 and certificates
were presented to those in attendance.

Lynn D. Abbott, Jr. Chairman, Department of Bio¬
chemistry

Medical College of Virginia

Estimate

for 1972

General Dues — Student Members

210

Dues — Regular Members

7000

Dues — Contributing Members

1450

Dues — Sustaining Members

1500

Dues — Business Members

3000

Dues — Delinquent Members

75

Advanced Payment Dues

General Gifts, Grants & Bequests

3400

Junior Academy — Meetings

1000

AAAS Research Fund

Dividends — Corporate Stocks

1600

Interest on Savings

Annual Meeting — Exhibitor Fees

2500

Annual Meeting — Registration Fees

1780

Sale of Literature

Va. Journal of Science — Income

5000

Other

Total Receipts

28515

From Additional Gifts and/or any Surplus

Generated

2590

Total

31105

Prospective Gifts

Philip Morris

1500

American Tobacco 500

Best Res. Paper 50

Berry

50

Vet. Med.

50

Reynolds

250

New

1000

Rodney C. Berry Virginia Department of Agri¬
culture and Commerce
(Retired)

Proceedings, 1971-1972

97

Disbursement Budget Estimate

Gen’I Fund
Est. 1972

Salary — Exec. Sec’y-Treas

1680

Clerical assistants

500

Office supplies and expenses

1000

General printing & section expenses

1600

Telephone

150

Postage

300

New typewriter

200

Annual meeting expenses & program

2000

Other meeting expense

Less Soc. Sec. & Income Taxes Withheld

300

Social security taxes paid

Income taxes withheld paid

120

Franchise tax

5

ECL Miller Award 50

Teacher Award 100

Science Talent Search 500

Va. Journal of Science Expense 11800*

Va. Jr. Acad, of Science Expense 9000

Visiting Scientists Program 400

Honorarium, speaker 200

Audit & tax service 500

Contingency fund — ^^President 100

Contingency fund — Exec. Sec’y-Treas 500

Miscellaneous expense 100

AAAS Research Fund
Other

Total Disbursements 31105
* Includes estimated earnings of $5000.

Boyd Harshbarger, Chairman

98

The Virginia Journal of Science

Abstracts of Papers

Section of Agricultural Sciences

Fiftieth Annual Meeting of The Virginia Academy of Science
May 3-5, 1972, Lexington, Virginia

ESTIMATING HERITABILITY OF HEREFORD COW WEIGHTS. L. L.
Benyshek* and T. J. Marlowe. Dept, of Animal Science, VPI &
SU, Blacksburg, Va. 24061.

Cow weights were taken in 17 Virginia Hereford herds
during 1959 and 1970, There were a total of 1584 observa¬
tions from which six subsets of data were formed for special
analyses. Subsets were necessary because some observations
did not contain complete data, such as offspring records or
the sire of the cow. The complete model included year-herd,
sire within year-herd, age of cow, condition score, year x
age group, year x condition score and the regression of cow
weight on days post partum. All analyses were performed by
least-squares and maximum likelihood general purpose or SAS
programs. All sources of variation were significant (P<.05)
in one or more of the data sets. The least-squares constants
indicated that cow weight increases up to about five years
with little change thereafter. Cow weight increased linearly
with condition score (score = 1,....,5), and also with days
post partum at the rate of 0.020+0.014 to 0,045+0.010 kg per
day. Heritability estimates, from three data sets, for un¬
adjusted cow weight were 0.81+0.15, 0.15+0.07 and 0.22+0.06.
Two estimates from data sets adjusted for age, condition,
year x age group and days post partum were 0.84^.13 and
0.76+0.15. An indirect approach to obtaining a sire compo¬
nent of variance resulted in an estimate of 0.52+0.15. A
direct approach to obtaining a sire component of variance
using only the 1970 data and 483 observations representing
52 sire groups gave a heritability estimate of 0.88;K).19,

INSECT RESPONSE TO PHYSICAL STIMULI - A PROGRESS REPORT.

U. F. Earp, J. V, Perumpral*, Agricultural Engineering Dept,
and J. L. Eaton*, Entomology Dept., Va. Polytechnic Inst,
and State Univ. , Blacksburg, Va. 24061 and J. M. Stanley*,
Ag. Engr. Res. Div. , ARS, USDA, Gainesville, Fla. 32601.

Traps using blacklight lamps as attractants catch more
tobacco homworm moths than traps using other lamps. Field
observations have been confirmed by numerous laboratory
studies. Behavioral studies show these moths respond bet¬
ter to light in or near the blacklight region than to light
of longer wavelengths. Electromyographic studies indicate
that maximal stimulus of the wing muscle occurs when the
hornworm moth eye was subjected to radiation at about 360
nm.

Electrophysiological observations under field conditions
resulted in electroretinographic response for hornworm moths
when a 15-watt blacklight lamp was used as the stimulus at
a distance in excess of 600 feet.

Sonic energy in the range of 100 H to 100 kHz produced
no detectable response in face flies or houseflies.

Cabbage loopers were shown to respond under some condi¬
tions to certain sonic stimuli thus confirming the results
of other investigators. They tend to respond well to stim¬
uli in the range of 40 kHz if they are already in flight
when the stimulus is applied. Otherwise little response
can be anticipated. Study related to the full nature of
their responses and ways of quantifying them are continuing.

RELATIONSHIP OF CALVING DIFFICULTY IN BEEF CATTLE TO
SUBSEQUENT PERFORMANCE OF COW AND CALF. K. P. Bovard, A. E.
Jones*, and B. M, Priode*. Dept, of Animal Science, VPI &

SU and USDA-ARS, Front Royal, Virginia 22630.

Births of 3491 calves from 1958 through 1969 were
classified in each of 3 dichotomies: born alive or dead;
with or without assistance; and, presentation vertex (normal)
or breech. There were 7.6% stillborn; 4.3% pulled; and, 1.3%
breech births. Data were also classified by breed: Angus,
Hereford, or Shorthorn; by mating system: inbred or selection;
by age of dam; and, by birth year. Calving difficulty was
clearly related to dam's lactation status in preceding
breeding season, 202 (P<< .01, d.f.= 15).

Among the 3491 calves born, the % born alive was 95.2 for
1980 calves from cows that were nursing the preceding
breeding season; 89.2 for 727 calves from cows dry the pre¬
ceding year; and 88.3 for 784 calves from primiparous cows.
Preceding contrasts showed proportionately larger differences,
and less favorable results among inbreds than among selection
(non-inbred) calves; and, among males than females. ADG's
to weaning were 1,61 for 80 calves pulled at birth, not
statistically significantly less than that of 1.66 for 2891
calves whose dams were unassisted at birth.

AN ARENIC PLINTHIC PALEUDULT SOIL AND ITS INFLUENCE ON NUT¬
RIENT AND WATER MOVEMENT IN THE LOWER COASTAL PLAIN OF VA .

W. J. Edmonds, W. F, Kitchel*, and B. L. Flippen*, Dept, of
Agronomy, VPI & SU, Blacksburg, Va. 24061

This soil has thick sandy surface horizons greater than
50 cm thick and contains plinthite within 1.5 m depth. It
was previously classified in the Norfolk series, and it has
been extensively used for peanut production. An investiga¬
tion of nutrient and water movement in this soil as a func¬
tion of time was initiated in February, 1971.

Representing peanut fertilization practices, test plots
received 2500 lbs. of dolomitic lime, 30 lbs. of N, 200 lbs.
of P2^5» lbs. of K2O acre in March. Samples were

collected from each genetic soil horizon to a depth of 2 m
for each test and check plot in early summer and fall.

Soil base saturation was low in the A horizon and highest
in the upper Bt horizon indicating downward movement of
added fertilizer through the thick sandy surface and accumu¬
lation in the lower clayey horizons during one growing
season. Surface horizons exhibited seasonal variations in
soil pH levels from 4.1 to 6.2.

Preliminary results demonstrate the importance of
recognizing the thickness and texture of the surface horizon
in the interpretation soil test results.

Proceedings, 1971-1972

99

INFLUENCE OF SOILS ON CONTAMINATION OF A WATERSHED BY
SEPTIC POLLUTANTS. J. H. Elder , Jr, , R. B. Reneau, Jr., and
T. W. Simpson, Dept, of Agronomy, Va. Polytechnic Inst, and
State Univ., Blacksburg, Va, 24061

The study area consisted of a 79.3 hectare watershed
located between the Coastal Plain and the Piedmont Plateau
in Spotsylvania Co., Va. Only 11.3 hectares (14%) of the
watershed were Appling soils that are well suited to dis¬
posal of septic pollutants from domestic wastes. The
remaining 68 hectares were composed of Colfax, Worsham,
Senica, Louisburg, and Beltsville soils all of which are
poorly suited for domestic wastes disposal.

Five septic tank systems located in Appling soils show
no signs of failure; whereas, 27 systems in the remaining
soils have effluent seeping to the surface. Fecal coliform
counts 22,400,000 MPN/100 ml were present where the effluent
came directly to the surface. Subsequently, even at flood
stages high counts of fecal coliform from failing septic
systems and an elementary school discharging effluent from
a sand filter are present in the drainage from this water¬
shed. (Research supported by the Virginia Department of
Health)

YIELDS OF $1 LINES FROM ORIGINAL AND ADVANCED SYNTHETIC VARI-
TIES OF MAIZE. C. F. Center, Dept, of Agronomy, Va. Poly.
Inst. & St, Univ., Blacksburg, Va, 24061.

Yields and inbreeding depressions were compared among ap¬
proximately 200 S^ (first-generation selfed) lines from each
of four maize populations, * Iowa Stiff Stalk Synthetic’, SSS,
an advanced population, SSS(HT)C7, derived by seven cycles
of recurrent based on test-cross yields, 'Virginia Corn Belt-
Southern Synthetic,* CBS, and an advanced population, CBS(S)C
4, derived by four cycles of recurrent selection for
progeny yield. The coefficient of inbreeding of each
advanced population increased 5% or more per cycle.

Inbreeding depression decreased as the populations became
inbred, averaging 39 and 28%, respectively, for Sj_ lines
from SSS and SSS(HT)C7, and 38 and 33%, respectively, for
S]_ lines from CBS and CBS(S)C4.

SSS(HT)C7, with at least a 35% coefficient of inbreeding,
yielded only slightly less than SSS. CBS(S)C4, with at
least a 20% coefficient of inbreeding, yielded 19% more than
CBS. Inbreeding need not be detrimental to yield.

The maximum S^^ yield from each population approximated
that of the parental population. S^ lines from SSS(HT)C7
averaged 9% higher than those from SSS, whereas S]_ lines from
CBS(S)C4 averaged 27% higher than those from CBS. Two S3_
lines from CBS(S)C4 were comparable in yield to that of an
adapted double cross hybrid check. Thus, one very effective
means of increasing inbred line yields is to first increase
the yields of inbred source populations.

RELATIVE NEMATODE POPULATIONS IN SOIL FOLLOWING TEN YEARS OF
CONTINUOUS CORN OR A CORN-PEANUT ROTATION. D. L. Hallock,

L. I. Miller, and B. J. Gray*. Tidewater Research Station,
Va. Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ,, Holland, Va, 23391,

An experiment was initiated on Woodstown loamy fine sand
at Holland, Va. in 1962 to compare the productivity of corn
grown continuously versus corn in rotation with peanuts.

Ten years after the experiment was initiated, soil samples
were collected from the surface soil along growing crop rows
and assayed for plant parasitic nematodes. Very low popu¬
lations and sporatic distribution of stubby root, lance, and
spiral nematodes occurred. Populations of the stunt nema¬
tode were highest in continuous corn plots, but they were
higher in corn than in peanut plots of the rotation system.
The low population in peanut plots indicates that the stunt
nematode does not reproduce on peanuts . Populations of the
northern rootknot nematode (NRK) were much higher in peanut
than in corn plots. Since corn is not a known host of the
NRK, either a new race of NRK developed or a weed host main¬
tained low populations of NRK in corn plots. Populations
of the ring nematode were highest in the peanut plots and
lowest in the continuous corn plots.

It is believed that the stunt and other plant parasitic
nematodes did not limit corn production in the experiment,
but that some injury to peanuts was incurred by the NRK and
ring nematodes.

ARTIFICIAL REARING OF BABY PIGS. E. T. Kornegay, Dept, of
Animal Science, VPI & SU, Blacksburg, VA 24061.

Presently about 25% of the pigs farrowed are lost before
weaning with most losses occurring during the first 3 days.

A series of trials are in progress to develop the management
and nutrition necessary to artificially rear, using newly
developed automated equipment, baby pigs taken from the sow
soon after birth. In the first two trials, 48 baby pigs were
weaned at 12, 48, 96 and 144 hr. and placed in individual
cages in a temperature controlled room. In both trials, pigs
were hand-fed 5 times each day with fortified whole cow's
milk. Fortification per kilogram was: 5mg Cu, 50mg Fe, 50mg
Zn, 5000 lU Vit. A, 1000 lU Vit. D, 5 lU Vit. E, and 70gm
dried skimmed milk. After about 14 days, a commercial sow
milk replacer was automatically fed every 90 min. At 28 days,
pigs weaned at 12 hr. were slightly lighter than pigs weaned
at a later time (5.40 ys 5.73 kg) and artificially reared
pigs weighed the same as litter-mate pigs left on the sow.
Death losses were: trial 1 - one pig weaned at 96 hr.; trial
2 - three pigs weaned at 12 hr. and 1 pig weaned at 48 hr.

Pigs which died in trial 2 had received little or no colos¬
trum prior to weaning. Also, pigs in trial 1 were 177 gm
heavier at birth than pigs in trial 2 (1296 y£ 1119 gm) . The
greatest problem incurred in these trials was that of con¬
trolling diarrhea. Oral treatment with kaopectate and milk
of bismuth was partially effective. The greatest amount of
diarrhea occurred in pigs weaned at 12 and 48 hr.

INTERRELATIONSHIP OF DIETARY COPPER AND IRON IN GROWING PIGS
J. D. Hedges* and E. T. Kornegay, VPI & SU, Dept, of Animal
Science, Blacksburg, VA 24061.

Three trials were conducted involving 132 pigs to measure
the effect of various levels of Cu and Fe on growth, hemato¬
logy and tissue stores. Rations containing three levels of
Cu, 7, 25 and 250 ppm and two levels of Fe, 101 and 264 (312
in trial 3) ppm, were limit-fed in trials 1 and 2 and full-
fed in trial 3. Growth was increased when the diets contain¬
ing the highest level of Cu were full-fed regardless of the
Fe level. Hemoglobin values were depressed by feeding 250
ppm Cu when the diet contained 101 ppm Fe. Serum Cu concen¬
trations were increased at 2-wks, in trial 1 and 2 and at 6
wks. in trial 3 when pigs were fed diets containing the high¬
est Cu levels. Serum Fe concentrations were depressed at the
highest dietary Cu level and increased at the higher Fe level.
The highest dietary Cu level increased liver Cu stores and
decreased liver Fe stores. High dietary Fe levels increased
liver Fe stores. The concentration of Cu in the kidney was
increased by feeding diets containing 250 ppm Cu. Fe content
of the kidney was increased when diets contained 25 ppm Cu,
but not when diets contained 7 or 250 ppm. The Cu content of
the spleen was not changed by the dietary Cu level, Fe con¬
tent of the spleen was increased when diets contained 25 ppm
Cu and decreased when diets contained 250 ppm Cu. It appears
that 7 ppm of Cu is adequate for normal hematology and growth,
and that 250 ppm Cu will improve growth rate.

CROSSBREEDING FOR BEEF PRODUCTION. T. J. Marlowe, R. C.

Carter and A. L. Grizzard*. Dept, of Animal Science, VPI &

SU, Blacksburg, Va. 24061 and Va. Dept, of Welfare and Inst.,
Richmond, Va. 23220

Extensive crossbreeding research was initiated in 1968
between the Animal Science Dept, of Virginia Polytechnic
Inst, and State Univ. and the Va. Dept, of Welfare and Inst,
to (1) evaluate several sire breeds (Phase I), (2) evaluate
several dam breeds and crosses (Phase II), and (3) determine
best combination of breeds and mating schemes for maximizing
beef production. Approximately 750 Hereford and 125 Angus
cows in 5 prison farm herds are mated to Angus, Brown Swiss,
Charolais, Hereford, Holstein, P. Hereford, Shorthorn, and
Simmental bulls annually in Phase I. Crossbred and straight-
bred heifers are saved for comparison in Phase II. Cow breed
groups will vary in size from 25 to 50 and each group bred to
produce a minimum of 50 offspring. To date, 2 calf crops
have been weaned at 3 locations and 1 calf crop at 1 location.
Calf crops will be weaned at all locations in 1972. With
performance records on 668 calves and on 485 yearlings, sig¬
nificant herd and sire differences are apparent. In general,
sires mated to Hereford cows rank in descending order of Sim¬
mental, Charolais, Holstein, Shorthorn, Angus, and Hereford,
based on 205 and 365 day calf weights. When bred to Angus
cows the rank was Charolais, Holstein, and Angus. Phase II
females are calving for the first time in two locations and
being bred for 1973 calving at four locations.

100

The Virginia Journal of Science

A COMPARISON OF ANGUS, CHAROLAIS, AND HOLSTEIN BULLS ON

ANGUS COWS. T. J. Marlowe, R. C. Carter and E. M. Grizzard*.
Dept, of Animal Science, VPI & SU, Blacksburg, Va. 24061
and Va. Dept, of Welfare and Inst,, Capron, Va. 23829.

Each year 90 Angus cows were allotted at random within age
groups to two bulls each of Angus (A), Charolais (C), and
Holstein (H) breeds for a 75-day breeding season. The offspriig
were weighed at approx. 7, 12 and 18 months of age. All
groups were treated alike within sexes. Calving percentages
for two breeding seasons were 75, 78 and 80 for A, CA and HA,
respectively. Birth weights were 27.5, 34.2 and 33.8 kg.

Calf weights were lower in ‘71 than in '70 by 23 kg at 205

days and 2 kg at 365 days. CA steer calves weighed 36 kg

heavier than A and 27 kg heavier than HA calves at 205 days.
Heifer differences were 29 and 18 kg. Similar differences
at 365 days were 53 and 23 kg for steers and 49 and 27 kg

for heifers. CA calves graded slightly higher than AA and

2 grade points higher than HA calves at both weigh periods.

AA calves were in best condition and HA calves were in poor¬
est condition. All groups combined, steer calves were 2.7
kg heavier at birth, 9 kg at 205 days and 30 kg at 365 days
than heifers, with no significant difference in grade or con¬
dition. Carcass data on 29 steers showed CA steers superior
in carcass WDA, ribeye area, yield grade and percent lean
cuts. HA steers were intermediate in nearly all traits
measured. AA steers were superior in marbling and carcass
grade but were much fatter, more wasty, and had smaller rib-
eyes per hundred weight of carcass.

THE EFFECT OF GROUP VS. INDIVIDUAL CONFINEMENT ON THE

REPRODUCTIVE AND BEHAVIORAL PATTERNS IN YOUNG BOARS IN
PASTURE-LOTS AND ON CONCRETE. T. N. Meacham* and Billy H.

Wells*. Dept, of Animal Science, V.P.I, & S.U.,

Blacksburg, Virginia 24061

The effect of group vs. individual confinement in
pasture-lots and on concrete was compared using 16 purebred
and crossbred boars with an average weight of 54 kg and
average age of 120 days. Libido, age at puberty, semen
characteristics and occurrence of aberrant sexual behavior
were studied in a 185 day trial.

Aberrant sexual behavior was greater (P<.001) in the all¬
male group on concrete. The percent abnormal sperm was the
only semen characteristic which differed significantly
(P<.05) between individuals within sub-treatments in
pasture-lots. Due to "concrete lameness", which prevented
successful collection of semen, no semen data were obtained
from the boars on concrete.

Greater libido, earlier puberty and more aggressive
behavior were exhibited by the individual boars in pasture-
lots followed by the all-male group on concrete, individual
boars on concrete and the all-male group in pasture-lot.

RESISTANCE OF PLANT INTRODUCTIONS OF ARACHIS HYPOGAEA TO
MELOIDOGYNE HAPLA. MELOIDOGYNE ARENARIA, AND BELONALAIMUS

MULTISPECTRAL INTERPRETATION VIA REMOTE SENSING OF SOILS AND
CROPS IN SELECTED COASTAL PLAIN SOILS OF VIRGINIA. M. E.

LONGICAUDATUS. L. I, Miller. Dept, of Plant Path. &

Physiol., V.P.I. & S.U., Blacksburg, Va. 24061.

The resistance of 2000 peanut introductions (series

P.I, 109834 - P.I, 274267) was evaluated (Ross-Brim double
row method using Va. 46-2 Bunch variety as the susceptible
check) on: one farm near Surry, Virginia infested with the
peanut root-knot nematode (Meloidoevne arenaria: one farm
near Cypress Chappel, Virginia and one farm near Holland,
Virginia infested with the northern root-knot nematode
(M.hapla): and one farm near Suffolk, Virginia infested
with the sting nematode (Belonolaimus longicaudatus) . None
of the lines were resistant to the development of the
peanut root-knot and sting nematodes and root abnormalities
caused by these nematodes. On the farm near Cypress

Chappel, the lines P.I- 149636 (Bunch growth habit with

Valencia type fruit and a red testa) and P.I. 158838
(Runner growth habit with Virginia type fruit and pink
testa) were highly resistant to the northern root-knot
nematode. On the farm near Holland, these two lines and
all others tested were not resistant to the northern root-
knot nematode. These findings suggest that races of the
northern root-knot nematode occur in the peanut-producing
area of Virginia.

Newhouse and D. E. Pettry, Department of Agronomy, VPI & SU
Blacksburg, Virginia 24061

During the 1971 growing season 14 photographic missions
were flown of the Va. Truck and Ornamentals Farm at Painter,

Va. Twelve of these flights utilized infrared and con¬
ventional films only, while two flights utilized thermal
scanners. These data were evaluated for both helicopter and
fixed winged aircrafts between altitudes of 500 to 10,000
feet .

Ground truth data were collected for each mission. These
consisted of several plant, soil, and climatic variables.

This data was later used to classify each field for analysis.

Photographic results have been analyzed by two methods.

First, each field with a different treatment was color coded
using the Munsell color system. Second, an isodensitometer
was used to identify areas on the positive transparencies
with similar densities. Several flights could not be
evaluated by the isodensitometer because of the vignetti
effect. This has since been corrected, but still a slight
color shift from one photograph to another poses a problem.

Results of one scanner flight have been very encouraging.
Computer analysis of the scanner tapes indicate that plant
species, plant conditions, and soil conditions may be
accurately classified if appropriate ground truth is
available. (Aided by NASA grant NAS6-1863) .

SEPAL REMOVAL ON DELICIOUS AND YORK IMPERIAL APPLE AS

ASSOCIATED WITH FRUIT SET. G. D. Oberle. Dept, of

Horticulture, Va. Poly. Inst. 6 St. Univ. Blacksburg, Va.

2A06I

Blossoms of most varieties of apple can be emasculated
for controlled pollinations by removal of the distal portion
of the calyx along with petals and stamens. If carefully
done with scalpel, forceps or use of finger and thumb nails
adequate sets of fruit can be expected after subsequent
pollination. Flowers of Delicious and its numerous sports
when so emasculated fail to set fruits. York Imperial
blossoms respond similarly under similar treatment. Flowers
of both varieties set reasonable proportions of fruits if
emasculation is accomplished by removal of petals and stamens
with forceps leaving the calyx intact. Removal of sepals
from blossoms of Delicious at, or after, time of pollina¬
tion did not effect the set of fruit. Removal of from one
to five sepals per blossom at the time of emasculation
reduced fruit set in proportion to the number of sepals
removed. On York Imperial removal of increasing numbers of
sepals per blossom was associated with a tendency for de¬
creasing set of fruit.

REM3TE SENSING IN VIRGINIA AGRICULTURE. D. E. Pettry and

M. E. Newhouse, Department of Agronomy, VPI § SU, Blacksburg,

Va. 24061

A cooperative research project of remote sensing in agri¬
culture was initiated in July, 1970, by the Agronomy Dept,
of Virginia Tech, the National Aeronautics and Space Admin¬
istration, Wallops Island, Va. , and the Va. Truck and Orna¬
mentals Research Station, Painter, Va. Initial objectives
and metliodology were designed to develop and evaluate multi-
spectral sensing techniques for the detection of plant
species and associated disease, soil variation, and cultural
practices. The primary research site at the Painter Experi¬
ment Station is comprised of a 100 acre farm arranged in
rectangular fields.

Infrared photography and multispectral sensing techniques
are employed frcsn aerial platforms of helicopters and fixed
winged aircraft at various altitudes. An environmental
monitoring station has been installed at the research site
to continuously monitor solar radiation as well as air, soil,
and plant tenperatures , relative humidity , and wind speed
and direction. Preliminary results indicate that an in¬
crease of 1001 in reflection between a wet and dry soil may
commonly occur in bare siliceous soils. Evaluations in¬
dicate that bare soils and areas containing vegetable crop
species with small leaf area appear quite similar on color
infrared photographs taken at altitudes of 500 feet and
greater. (Aided by NASA Grant NAS6-1863) .

Proceedings, 1971-1972

101

THE MOVEMENT OF SEPTIC TANK EFFLUENT IN SELECTED COASTAL

PLAIN SOILS OF VIRGINIA. R. B. Reneau, Jr. and D. E. Pettry,
Department of Agronomy, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and

State University, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061.

The movement of total and fecal coliform, surfactants,
phosphorus (P) and nitrate (NO3) from septic tank effluent
through natural soil systems were monitored utilizing series
of piezometers to collect samples at selected distances and
depths. The soils studied were considered to be marginally
suited for the disposal of domestic wastes because of fluc¬
tuating seasonal water tables and/or restricting layers. In
older systems total and fecal coliform bacteria were
observed to move both horizontally and vertically. Coliform
counts exceeding 46,000 (MPN)/100 ml were present at depths
of 1.75 meters at distances of 6 meters from the drainfield.
Surfactants and P traveled less than 1 meter distances
through these natural soil systems. Nitrate accumulations
were encountered approximately 2.5 meters from the drain-
field indicating increased nitrification. Decreases in NO^
concentrations were noted at distances of 6.0 meters due to
denitrification and/or dilution. (Research supported by the
Virginia Department of Health) .

EFFECT OF LIME ON NASON SOIL TWENTY YEARS AFTER APPLICATION.

S. Sampath*, C. I. Rich, and G. D. Jones. Agronomy Dept.,

VPI & SU, Blac'ksburg, Va. 24061

The long term effects of liming under field conditions
on soil acidity and other soil reactions of Nason silt loam
were studied. The soil was limed in 1951 with dolomitic
limestone at the rates of 0, 1, 2, 4, 8, and 16 tons per
acre in a randomized block design. Composite soil samples
were collected in 1971, 20 years after the application,
from surface (0-6 inches) and subsurface (6-12 inches) layers.

After 20 years the effects of lime in amounts up to two
tons per acre were scarcely detectable in both soil layers.
However, the application of limestone at 4, 8, and 16 tons
per acre considerably increased the pH and exchangeable Ca
and Mg content, and significantly decreased the exchangeable

A1 content of both 0-6 inch and 6-12 inch layers. A signi¬
ficant decrease in the pH-dependent acidity of both the soil
layers was observed after the application of eight tons of
lime. In the surface layer, increasing the application from

8 to 16 tons per acre resulted in the neutralization of a
greater proportion of pH-dependent acidity, whereas in the
subsurface layer there was no further decrease after the
application of eight tons of lime.

Liming had no apparent effect on the X-ray diffraction
patterns of hydroxy-Al interlayered vermiculite, an impor¬
tant clay mineral in the soil.

CAEBOFURAN (FURADAN) FOR THE CONmOL OF INSECTS AFFECTING

CORN IN VIRGINIA. J. E. Roberts, Sr.* Dept, of Entomolosv,

Va« Polytechnic Inst. & State Univ., Blacksburg, Va, 24061

Ten per cent granular carbofuran, a systemic insecticide,
is currently labeled for the control of rootworms and for
aid in the control of first generation European corn borer.

It is recommended that this chemical be applied in a narrow
band in front of the planter press wheel at planting time
at the rate of one pound of active ingredient per acre.

Observations made in 1971 strongly indicate that this
same type of application will result in the control of the
armyworm, a serious foliar pest of no-till corn in Virginia.

VALUE OF THRIPS CONTROL ON PEANUTS IN VIRGINIA, J, C. Smith.

Res. Div., Va. Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ., Tidewater

Res. Sta., Holland, Va, 23391.

Control of the tobacco thrips, Frankliniella fusca
(Hinds), on Virginia-type peanuts has failed to increase
yields in experiments conducted from 1965 through 1971.

Yield and value/acre data of a 1971 experiment showed in¬
creased values over untreated controls from treatments that
included a nematicide. Plots receiving systemic control of
thrips without accompanying nematicidal effects had yields
that averaged 271 Ib/acre less than untreated controls and
had a corresponding value decrease of $33. 00/acre. Plots
receiving thrips control from a foliar spray were about
equal to untreated control plots. The value of the cosmetic
effect of thrips control has not been determined, but should
receive low priority in this era of consciousness concerning
pollution and the environment.

HYDROLYZED HOG HAIR MEAL AS A PROTEIN SOURCE FOR SWINE.

H. R. Thomas and E. T. Kornegay, Dept, of Animal Science,

Va. Polytechnic Inst. & State Univ., Holland and Blacksburg,

Va.

Four trials using 285 crossbred pigs were conducted to
evaluate hydrolyzed hog hair (HHH) meal as a protein source
for swine. Using diets with zero to 87. added HHH meal, it
was found that 2-37. HHH meal could be substituted for soy¬
bean meal without depressing gain and increasing feed/gain
if the diets were formulated on a digestible protein basis.

Feed intake was not severely depressed until more than 67.

HHH meal was added. Carcass characteristics were not affect¬
ed by the substitution of HHH meal in the diet on an equal
digestible protein basis. The failure to get a response to
higher levels of HHH meal suggests that less than 70% of the
protein is utilized by the pig, that amino acid deficiencies
and inbalances were occurring or that the amino acids were
not as available as in soybean meal and corn.

UPTAKE OF THREE HERBICIDES BY FOUR SPECIES OF ALGAE. J. P.
Valentine and S. W. Bingham, Dept, of Plant Pathology and
Physiology, VPI & SU , Blacksburg, Virginia 24061.

Four algae were studied for their ability to remove
selected herbicides from water. The algae used in these
studies were Chlorella pyrenoidosa Chick, Scenedesmus
quadrlcauda (Turp) Breb, Chlamydomonas reinhardtil Dangeard
and Euglena gracilis Chod. and Prov. var . irphoria . The
herbicides used were 2, 4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D),
3-amino-s-triazole (amitrole), and 2-chloro-4-(ethylamino)
-6-(isopropylamino)-s-triazine (atrazine) . All herbicides
were labeled.

Cells used in the removal studies were taken from active¬
ly growing batch cultures which were maintained in a growth
chamber at 20^0 under continuous light. The cells were
concentrated by centrifugation and resuspended in pond
water containing the herbicide buffered at various pH
values. The cultures were sampled at various intervals to
determine the amount of label remaining in solution.

Scenedesmus was particularly effective in removing the
pesticides from water. Maximum uptake for 2,4-D was exhib¬
ited at low pH whereas uptake of amitrole and atrazine was
most pronounced at neutral or somewhat alkaline pH values.

The other algae were not nearly as effective in removing
the herbicides from water over a pH range of 4.7 to 8.3.

102

The Virginia Journal of Science

PROFESSIONAL FIELD DAY: A STIMULUS TO UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH
PROGRAMS IN AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE. R. T. Wllfong and J. H.
Elder. Dept, of Biology, Mary Washington Col., Fredericks¬
burg, Va., and VPI & SU, Blacksburg, Va.

An undergraduate Plant Ecology course was initiated at
Mary Washington College of the University of Virginia in the
fall of 1971. In an effort to give students an opportunity
to conduct a professional program of their own and to stimu¬
late interest in professional activities, a Soil Field Day
was held as an integral part of the course. Since the course
was strongly research oriented, it was felt that such parti¬
cipation would give students an insight into graduate and
professional field days, which are generally related to re¬
search activities. Department chairmen from other colleges,
high school representatives, as well as soil and turf
scientists were invited for the day-long sessions. The
morning session was devoted to papers and discussions on soil
and soil ecology by members of the VPI & SU Agronomy staff.
The afternoon session was conducted in the field. Six soil
types were observed at sites in the Fredericksburg area. The
soil types were representative of those studied in the class¬
room prior to the event. Students were involved in both
planning and carrying out the program. Such involvement not
only gave the students training in implementing such a pro¬
gram, but also gave them a better understanding of how their
own research would be presented at professional meetings.

Section of Astronomy,
Mathematics, and Physics

Fiftieth Annual Meeting of The Virginia Academy of Science
May 3-5, 1972, Lexington, Virginia

T-TAURI STARS-KEWLY FORI.^ED OBJECTS Ii; OUH GALAXY.
J. H. Akyuz*. Bept. of Astronomy, Univ. of Va. ,
Charlottesville, Va. 22903

T-Tauri stars are a group of young variables
v/ith characteristics: (1) Rapid, irregular
light variations (2) P to M spectral types, with
a spectrum of strong emission lines of hydrogen
and Call, and absorption lines of Li I (3) Lov/
luminosity (4) Association with dark and bright
nebulosities. They are within one kiloparsec of
distance from the sun, showing high distribution
toward the center and the anticenter of the Gal¬
axy with a;+20“ inclination to the galactic plane.

These stars possess circumstellar gas and
dust envelopes of ^10 A.U. in diameter, which
give rise to ultraviolet and infrared excesses.

The violet displaced absorption components of
emission lines indicate mass loss with a velocity
of 150 km/sec and a rate of 3 . 8x10^ nio/year,

on the average.

The abserption line widths are extraordinarily
wide, due to stellar rotation and/or vertical
turbulence in the atmospheres of these stars.

T-Tauri stars are believed to be highly convec¬
tive, pre-main sequence, contracting protostars-
nevjly formed objects in our Galaxy. They have
have absolute brightness of m +5 magnitudes and
are about 10^ years old.

OPTICAL ABERRATIONS OF THE McCORMICK 26-INCH
REFRACTOR. J. B. Ashcraft" and A. C. Miller, Dept,
of Physics, Va. Mil. Inst., Lexington, Va. 24450
and P. A. lanna. Dept, of Astronomy, U. of Va.,
Charlottesville, VA 22901

Rec.ently a new objective grating, designed by
one of us (lanna), was built for the McCormick
26-inch refractor. It provides two magnitudes of
reduction between the central and first order
images. It was used to study the magnitude and
coma effects of the 26-inch. The results agree
with those obtained earlier by Jefferys, W. H. ,

1962 (Astrom. J., Vol. 67, 533) and Eichhorn,

H. K. , 1970 et al . (Mem. Royal Astron. Soc . , Vol.
73, 125).

The assumption that the average position
of the two reduced first order images is equiva¬
lent to the true position of the central image
was tested. A least square solution was per¬
formed on the difference between this average
position and the central image of a second shorter
exposure of the same region but shifted by
several mm on .the plate. The results indicate
that the assumption is valid.

Proceedings, 1971-1972

103

IMAGE ROOTS OR IMAGE NUMBERS. Katherine H. Barringer. Dept,
of Mathematics, Central Va. Cmnty. Col., Lynchburg VA 24502

In sketching quadratic functions where the graphs are
parabolas, we find the real roots by solving for the zeros
of the function y = ax^ + bx + c, where (b^ - 4ac)^ 0.
Whenever the discriminant, A = b^ - 4ac, is negative we
state that the roots are "imaginary" as the opposite of
"real" roots and merely observe that such curves do not
cross the x-axis .

To give beginning students a clearer picture of the
nature of the parabola that does not cross the x-axis a bet¬
ter choice of words might be that the roots of are "image
roots" found where the image of the curve reflected down¬
ward from the vertex (as a mirror image) crosses the x-axis .
Or the image roots would be the points where the curve it¬
self crosses the "image-axis," drawn parallel to the x-axis
at the same distance above the vertex as the x-axis is be¬
low the vertex. The distance of each of these image roots
on either side of the axis of symmetry is l/(2a) times the
square root of the absolute value of the discriminant. The
image roots on the x-axis are the same distance from the
axis of symmetry as roots on the image axis.

To graph any quadratic function we first examine the dis¬
criminant to determine whether there are real roots. Upon
finding A < 0, we would build a table of values, plot the
points, and draw the resulting curve, the image axis, and
image curve. This can be used to explain to students the
nature of un-real roots or unreal numbers.

PROPOSED NEW METHOD OF MEASURING MINUTE VARIATIONS IN THE
GEIAVITATIONAL CONSTANT G. J. W. Beams. Dept, of Physics,
Univ. of Va., Charlottesville, Va, 22901

A Cavendish type gravitational torsion balance is mounted
on a constant speed rotating table and maintained at a tem¬
perature below 20K. The small mass system (several kilo¬
grams) is suspended by a torsion free magnetic suspension
and the gravitational torque produced by the interaction of
the large and small mass systems is balanced by a fine tor¬
sion fiber or by a constant magnetic field (possibly pro¬
duced by a special permanent magnet) acting on a diamagnetic
small mass system. Both small and large mass systems are in
a high vacuum (less than 10'7 Torr). A change of G in the
Newton relation M,M«

of one part in 10^^ per year should be observed if it exists.
Several theories predict a change in G of one part in 10^^.

NEWTON’S METHOD AND THE USE OF DIFFERENTIALS AS
APPROXIMATIONS. J. Van Bowen. Jr, Mathematics Dept,,
Unlv. of Richmond, Univ. of Richmond, Va, 23173

The use of differentials to approximate y^ = f(xQ) i
compared to Newton's method of locating the zeroes of
f^(y) - Xq.

MOMENTUM AND SOUND. D. Rae Carpenter, Jr., Va.
Military Inst., Lexington, VA 24450.

A revival of interest in physics lecture
demonstrations has occurred in recent years.
Apparatus for a number of demonstrations has been
added at the VMI with the assistance of the
Physics Revitalization Program sponsored by the
National Science Foundation through the Regional
Educational Laboratory for the Carolinas and
Virginia.

Longitudinal waves in 1/2" aluminum rods of
various lengths can be excited by stroking the rod
longitudinally with the fingers.^ Transverse
waves can also be demonstrated.

The slow absorption of a large momentum by a
small force can be demonstrated by throwing an
uncooked egg into a large bedsheet.

Momentum increase for a light aluminum cart
rolling on a long track can be demonstrated by
allowing a group of fifteen 2 1/2" diameter steel
balls to roll from the rear of the cart, each
giving an impulse to the cart as it leaves. ^

^Physics Demonstration Experiments (The Ronald
Press, New York, 1970) p. 496.

^Ibid. p. 188-9

NEGATIVE THERMAL EXPANSION OF RUBBER. Michael H.

Coopersmi th'". Dept, of Physics, Univ. of Va. ,
Charlottesville, Va. 22901

The negative thermal expansion of rubber is demonstrated
by means of two devices. The first is a thermometer using
rubber as the substance with the thermometric property.

The second is a heat engine with rubber as the working
substance. The heat engine can also be used to demonstrate
an apparent violation of the second law of thermodynamics.
It can be made to appear as a perpetual motion machine of
the second kind.

PROJECTION OF OSCILLOSCOPE PATTERN ON SCREEN FOR DEMONSTRA¬
TION LECTURES. G. W. Crawford, Dept, of Physics, College
of William and Mary, Williamsburg, Va. 23185

While the oscilloscope is an indispensible instrument in
the study of physics , especially where wave forms are to be
analyzed, its use in lecture for large groups of students
is limited by the small size of the picture tube. By
attaching an army surplus Aero-Ektar f 2.5, 178mm lens in
front of the tube of a five-inch high intensity oscillo¬
scope so that the lens can be moved for focussing it is
possible to project the oscilloscope pattern on a screen.
The projection may be enlarged to one meter or more in
diameter. For optimum results the room should be completely
darkened and the oscilloscope operated at its highest in¬
tensity. The adaptation is very useful in the study of
sound where characteristic musical notes may be played
through an audio system such as a tape recorder and
simultaneously projected on the screen for the audience to
observe the wave pattern of the specific sounds .

104

The Virginia Journal of Science

USE OF THE LASER TO DEMONSTRATE BASIC PRINCIPLES OF OPTICS

IN LECTURE DEMONSTRATIONS. G. W. Crawford, Dept, of Physics,
College of William and Mary, Williamsburg, Va. 23185

One of the chief difficulties encountered in demonstrat¬
ing principles of optics such as refraction and reflection
in lecture is the inability to show the actual path the ray
of light takes. Utilizing a helium-neon laser such as the
Metrologic Model 1+10 and containers filled with water in
which a small amount of Pream or similar material has been
dissolved it is possible to show the path of the beam
through a tank of water or a large prism filled with water.

If smoke or chalk dust is introduced in the path of the beam
its path before entrance and after emergence are easily seen.

The minimum angle of deviation of a prism, total internal
reflection, refraction, etc. may be demonstrated. For opti¬
mum results the lecture room should be sufficiently lighted
to make the objects through which the beam passes visible.

The tanks should be thin or the beam should be passed
through the water near the audience side of the tank to
minimize the absorption of the scattered beam.

IMPROVED DENSITY MEASUREMENTS ON XENON AS A FUNCTION OF

DEPTH NEAR THE CRITICAL POINT. D. L. Deardorff and D. V,

Ulrich, Department of Physics, Bridgewater College,

Bridgewater, Va. 22812

Described is the measurement of densities of xenon near
the critical point as a function of depth in a sealed glass
cell 1.5 mm diameter by 1.5 cm long. Densities were
determined with a Beams magnetic suspension densitometer
constructed in this laboratory through measurement of
currents required to deviate a Hy Mu "80" magnet 0.3 mm
in diameter and 0.8 mm long. Temperatures were controlled
and relative temperatures measured to * 0.001°C and main¬
tained for 20 hours before readings were taken. Between
the temperatures of 16.519°C and 16.627°C, 36 density-depth
curves were obtained. The values of T and p were
observed to be 16.572 * 0.05°C and 1.117 *0.005 g/ml,
respectively. Relative pressure values as a function of
depth were calculated; for Ah = 2 mm at T^,, ^p/p “ 0.085
and Ap = 0.2 matm. Values of S, defined by

PL - Pq (Tj. - T)® were determined to be 0.335 for

T^ - T » 0.020°C and 0.167 for T^ - T < O.OIO'C.

Appreciation is expressed to the National Science

Foundation for its support of this work.

THE (p.Tr"^) and (n'^.p) REACTIONS and NUCLEAR
STRUCTURE*. J. M. Eisenberg , J. V. Noble and

H. J. Weber, University o£ Virginia.

Theoretical and experimental developments
involving the (p.ir*) and (tr^jp) reactions are
reviewed. Recent experimental developments
would appear to indicate that these reactions may
be capable o£ yielding £airly detailed in£ormation
on nuclear structure. Un£ortunately , the existing
theories are quite inadequate to account £or the
data, presumably due to aspects o£ the reaction
mechanism which are not sufficiently understood.

The present work attempts to improve on this
situation by utilizing the Sopkovitch approximation
to handle effects due to the distortion of the
pion and proton waves. This approach has the
great virtue that it eliminates sensitive and
unknown effects of off-shell behavior.

Quantitative results are presented and compared
with experiment.

THE AO-INCH McCORMICK ASTROMETRIC REFLECTOR. L. W.

Fredrick, Dept, of Astronomy, Univ. of Va. , Charlottesville,

Va. 22903

The new 1.03 meter McCormick Astrometric Reflector is
innovative in many respects. Optically it uses an unique
design by Professor James Baker. The drive is a roller
drive proposed by the author and incorporates stepping
motors. Electronically it is designed to be controlled by
a computer in a step by step process. Its large field as
well as scale make it suitable for a variety of astrometric
problems including the intercomparison of the radio and
optical coordinate systems.

*Work supported in part by the N.S.F.

SHORT TERM VARIATIONS IN THE SPECTRUM OF ALGOL. D. M.

Gibson*. Dept, of Astronomy, Univ. of Va., Charlottesville,

Va. 22903

Spectrograms of the eclipsing binary Algol (B Per) have
revealed complex variations in the Hydrogen line profiles
with a time scale of tens of minutes.

The spectral plates (Kodak 103-a0 emulsion) were secured
at the Fan Mountain Observing Station of the University of
Virginia. A grating spectrograph mounted to the 80 cm
telescope gave a dispersion of 22 A/mm with a resolution of

0.8 A. Microdensitometer tracings were carried out at the

Dept, of Astronomy.

The observations were carried out on the nights of Feb.

11 and lA, and made simultaneously with the NRAO interfero¬
meter observations of Wade, Hjellming, and Webster. Radio
flares occurred on both nights.

Soft emission and absorption appeared superimposed on
the red edge of the Doppler cores of H6 and Hy. No unusual
activity occurred on the blue edge. The lack of correlation
with the orbital period and the positive Doppler velocities
(150 km/sec) determined from the red-shifts of the features
are consistent with the infall of matter into the B3V pri¬
mary. Therefore, this is a new secular variation, different
from the emission due to gas streaming at the Lagrange point
observed by Sahade and Struve. (The author conducted this
work while holding an NDEA Type-IV Fellowship) .

AN ANOMALY IN THE H-BETA INDEX IN F AND G STARS AT HIGH

GALACTIC LATITUDES. William Gutsch* . Dept, of Astronomy,

Univ. of Va., Charlottesville, Va. 22903

Stromgren uvby and Hg photoelectric photometry has been
completed in 26 regions near the north galactic pole at

Kitt Peak National Observatory. Under study are 187 field
stars down to apparent magnitude V = 13.835 in the range

0.000 < b - y < 0.400. Analyses thus far conducted indi¬
cate an anomaly in the Hg index of these stars in the
sense that the program stars on the average show consis¬
tently lower Hg indices for their colors than corresponding
members of the Hyades and local field stars.

This work was conducted under NSF grant GP-18162.

Proceedings, 1971-1972

105

RADIO VARIATIONS OF BETA PERSEI AND BETA LYRAE.

R. M. Hjellming*, C. M. Wade* and E. Webster*.

Nat. Radio Astronomy Observatory, Charlottesville,

Va. 22901

Radio emission has been detected from the
eclipsing binary stars ^ Persei(AlgoI) andpLyrae.
During the first observations, ^ Lyrae showed no
variation in signal whereas fi Persei was clearly
variable in strength. Further observations of

6 Persei with the NRAO interferometer operating
at 8085 and 2695 MHz reveal frequent radio
flaring over a time scale of a few hours. The
spectral index has been observed to vary between
-0.8 and +0.7 with the former dominating during
the major flares.

The Beta Lyrae system faded to a flux level
below the detection limit of the instrument,
thereby proving that it is also a variable radio
source .

A REALISTIC ACTIVE -PHASE MODEL OF GALACTIC NUCLEI. Kenueth.

C. Jacobs*. Dept, of Astronomy* Univ. of Va., Charlottes-
ville, Va. 22903

Since their recent discovery, quasars and active galactic

nuclei (including Seyferts) - though conjectured to be

interrelated - have eluded all attempts at theoretical in¬

terpretation. In addition, we are confronted by the possi¬
bility of numerous energetic pulses of gravitational radia¬
tion emanating from the center of our Galaxy. Among the
less-exotic models advanced to explain and relate these ob¬
served phenomena is the dense-stellar-cluster model, wherein
might occur numerous supernovae, the formation of many
neutron stars, stellar collisions and disruptions, and other
violent activity leading perhaps to gravitational pulse
emission and the production of intense radio sources.

Here we describe ongoing research into the behavior of
such a superdense stellar cluster, from its initial forma¬
tion, through a (conjectured) brief active phase, to its
final state. The feature of fundamental importance in this

"realistic" model is the inclusion of rotation - the cluster

possesses net angular momentum. The surprising consequences
are elucidated in some detail.

BROAD BACKGROUND COMPOHIMT OF INTERSTELLAR HYDROGEN. J. W.
Mast*. Leander McCormick Observatory, Univ. of Va. ,
Charlottesville, Va. 22903

An analysis of the diffuse, high- temperature, optically-
thin component of neutral atomic hydrogen is based on a
survey of 21 cm radiation at intermediate and high galactic
latitudes. A computer was used to fit Gaussian components
to the observed emission profiles. The broad optical ly-thin
component appears in almost every profile and in most cases
one or more narrower cloxil components are also present. At
intermediate galactic latitudes the effect of differential
galactic rotation is clearly present in the mean velocities
of the optically-thin component. The mean coluzun density of
the optical ly-thin component is 2 x 10 cosec lb| atoms cm'
for a large area of the galaxy. However at positive galactic
latitudes, b > 35°, and at intermediate latitudes in the
range of galactic longitude, 1 = 190 - 270°, the mean colimn
density is 1 x 10*° coseo tlsl atoms cm'* .

GRAVITATIONAL RADIATION FROM A HYPERBOLIC KEPLERIAN ORBIT

OF TWO STARS. H. A. McAlister*. Dept, of Astronomy, Univ.
of Va., Charlottesville, Va. 22903

The equation of the orbit of two stars undergoing hyper¬
bolic scattering about their center of mass is obtained
from the general solution to the orbit by expressing the
orbital angular momentum and energy in terms of the impact
parameter and relative velocity at effectively infinite
separation. This procedure additionally yields the orbital
eccentricity and the asymptote angle of the relative hyper¬
bolic orbit in terms of these quantities.

The quadrupole moments are computed from the hyperbolic
orbit equation and arc shown to have the same orbital posi¬
tion angle dependence as those for masses in elliptical
orbits. The moments are then applied to the power equations
which result from a linearization of the equations of gen¬
eral relativity, and power patterns for non-relativistic
encounters are calculated showing maximum beaming at the
poles of the orbit.

Finally, situations are sought for which the power
output is compatible with that being observed by Weber.

Weber’s pulses are thought to be coming from the galactic
center and it is of interest to see if a highly evolved,
dense star cluster at the nucleus (in which hyperbolic en¬
counters occur frequently) might explain these observations.

A BLINK PHOTOMETER FOR THE KLINK OBSERVATORY.

J. A. McLeod* and A. C. Miller, Dept, of Physics,

Va. Mil. Inst., Lexington, Va. 24450.

A Blink photometer was recently built for the

VMI Klink Observatory. This uncooled, battery
operated instrument was specially designed for
the 16-inch, f/8 Newtonian reflector.

The Blink photometer operates by charging a
capacitor from the output of the 931A or 1P21
photomultiplier tube and discharging through a
neon tube at a rate proportional to the intensity
of the incident star light. See A Minimal Cost
Photoelectric System, T. R. Cram and T. E. Houck,

1969, Nat. Radio Astron. Obser.

This photometer will allow UBV measurements
to be made of variable stars of 6th magnitude with
an accuracy that approaches .01 magnitude.

The chief advantages of the Blink photometer
are the simple design and the low cost.

PROGRESS REPORT ON FIBER RESEARCH AT OLD DOMINION UNIVERSITY.

J. B. Miles and D. E. Troyer, Jr. Dept, of Physics, Old

Dominion Univ., Norfolk, VA 23508

Research which has been done on the bending stress-strain
and recovery of a variety of synthetic fibers since our last
report to the Virginia Academy of Sciences is reviewed. In¬
cluded is an analysis of the bending moment vs. curvature
curve based on the measured tensile and compression stress-
strain curves parallel to the fiber axis, which includes the
expected shift of the neutral axis, and an experimental con¬
firmation of this analysis.

106

The Virginia Journal of Science

BERYLLIUM-HYDROGEN COMPLEXES IN SILICON. H. T.
Morgan*, Physics Dept., Va. Military Inst.,

Lexington, VA 24450 and T. E. Gilmer, Jr., Va.
Polytechnic Inst., Blacksburg, VA 24061.

Single crystal silicon, containing the
impurity beryllium, was implanted with energetic
hydrogen ions produced by a Van De Graaff
accelerator. Infrared absorption spectra of the
implanted samples display two new sets of
absorptions caused by the implantation. These
two sets of absorptions are studied as a function
of initial berylliiom content as well as post
irradiation heat treatment and are believed to be
due to two different beryllium-hydrogen acceptor
centers formed in silicon crystal. The
ionization energies for these centers were
determined to be 92.0 mev and 43.4 mev
respectively and a model for each center has been
developed in accordance with the experimental
observations .

A FURTHER STUDY ON THE SEPARATION BY BALMER-LINE PHOTOMETRY

OF HIGH AND LOW LUMINOSITY STARS HAVING H-ALPHA IN EMISSION.
Charles D. Smith*. Dept, of Astronomy, Univ. of Va.,
Charlottesville, Va. 22903

Photoelectric Balmer-line alpha and beta indices have
been determined for 150 H-alpha emission-line stars of
unknown luminosity in a further investigation of a method
for separating normal Be stars and early type la super¬
giants. Abt and Golson (Astrophys. J. 143» 306, 1966)
found the technique was successful in separating about
two-thirds of the Be stars and two-thirds of the super¬
giants from a mixed sample of bright stars (mv < 6.5). The
present study of stars with 7 < my < 10 shows a somewhat
better separation between the two groups but with some
ambiguity caused by objects with peculiar luminosity and
spectral characteristics. It is shown that the expected
number of supergiants found by this method is dependent on
varying stellar density distribution and on the increasing
importance of interstellar absorption for more distant
stars .

TWO GROUPS OF PLANETARY NEBULAE? H. Smith Jr.*. Dept, of
Astronomy, Univ. of Va., Charlottesville, Va. 22903

A growing body of evidence suggests that planetary neb¬
ulae do not comprise a single, homogeneous class of objects.
Although blurred by pronounced evolutionary changes, a
distinction can be made between two groups on the basis of
Doppler expansion velocities and magnitude differences
between central stars and respective nebulae (distance-
independent quantities) . The separation correlates well
with known differences in central star spectral type and
nebular chemical composition. A difference in nebular mass
is marginally indicated. A distance scale has been derived
from evolutionary relations between nebular radius and ex¬
pansion velocity for the two groups. Comparison is made of
the predicted distribution of nebular radii with that found
for the solar neighborhood and with the angular-radius
distribution of nebulae in the direction of the galactic
center .

PRACTICAL AbSORPTION CURVES FOR CALIBRATING DIACI.'OSTIC X-Pu\Y
MACiilNLS, L, L. Sticklcy and A. M. Strash. Radiation

Physics Division, Red. Col. of Va. Commonwealth Univ.,

Richmond, Va. 23219

ileasurements of x-ray output and transmission througli
aluminum and copper absorbers are programmed to give peak
kilovoltage and radiation quality values for diagnostic
x-rays delivered to the skin of patients or to tl'.e image
transducer. This affords an effective comparison of
performance parameters lietueen different machines or with
standard values. Hther factors also evaluated by computer
include timer-control function and adequacy of current
control adjustments. Furtiier extensions of these metiiods
are to test beam size and direction, including accuracy of
alignment of the x-ray tube insert. Standardization curves
and tlieir fitting to data from individual installations will
be illustrated. Tiie objective is to develop the most direct
and practical approach for determining compliance v;itii the
legal radiation rules and regulations and establishing
consistency v:it!i the requirements of good practice.

VISUAL AIDS FROM AN OVERHEAD PROJECTOR. Lewis W. Webb, Jr.,
Dept, of Physics, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, Va.

23508

The use of an overhead projector as a teaching tool is
often neglected by college physics teachers. A number of
examples of transparencies made from printed material,
photographs, and other materials are to be shown as well as
hand made drawings, sketches, etc. Processes for making
the transparencies quickly and easily will be demonstrated.

Several devices designed for use with the overhead
projector, which can be constructed by the instructor using
simple tools and materials that are readily available, will
be shown. These include a ripple tank, a projection
galvanometer, a magnetic field visualizer, a shadow wave
machine, and others.

THE ROLE OF ABSTRACTION IN QUANTUM MECHANICS. P. F. Zwelfel
Department of Physics, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and

State University, Blacksburg, Virginia 24601

Quantum Mechanics is a unique subject in physics curricula
because of the number of abstract concepts which play a
prominent role in the development and understanding of the
theory. An example is the so-called "gedanken experiment"
used to derive the uncertainty principle. Another example is
what I call the "gedanken measurement" which helps clarify
the concept of the collapse of the state vector, which in
turn leads to the introduction of non-causal effects into
quantum mechanics. A more mathematical example involves
the "Abstract Hilbert Space" of Dirac which must be "realized"
before any actual calculation can be carried out.

I feel that these abstractions are not necessary, and
serve often to confuse the student. Thus, I propose more
concrete concepts to replace these abstract notions.

Proceedings, 1971-1972

107

Section of Biology

Fiftieth Annual Meeting of The Virginia Academy of
May 3-5, 1972, Lexington, Virginia

Science

SOME PRELIMINARY HISTOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS OF THE HINDGUT
OF CALLINECTES SAPIDUS RATHBUN. J, G. Aldridge* and J. E.
Pugh. Dept, of Biol., Christopher Newport Col., Newport
News, Va. 23606

The hindgut of Callinectes sapidus Rathbun passes from
the midgut in a generally straight line through the abdomen
between the hepatopancreatic lobes and under the pericardium¬
terminating on the ventral surface of the telson. Inti¬
mately associated with the gut are two glandular elements;
the cephalic intestinal gland which partially encircles the
midgut-hindgut junction and the posterior tubular gland
which enters this junction under cover of the cephalic
gland. The laminated papillated cuticle lies on the free
surface of the tall columnar intestinal epithelium, which
in turn rests upon a basement membrane. The submucosal
layer is composed of scattered connective tissue elements
as well as longitudinal striated muscle. The latter are
apparent in the intestinal folds and probably govern the
diameter of the gut lumen. The entire gut is loosely
enveloped by circular muscles, connective tissue and
cushion cells.

OSMOTIC RESPONSE OF THE BLUE CRAB . CALLINECTES SAPIDUS. TO
TEMPERATURE AND SALINITY STRESS. L.M, Amende and C.P.Mangum
(Sponsor), Dept, of Biology, College of liilliam and Mary,
Williamsburg, Va. 23105

Blue crabs collected from the Chesapeake Bay at
salinity and 25-28’C. during August 9-27,1971 were sub¬
jected to salinities of 1.5,13, and 25?vand temperatures
of 3, 15, and 30'’C. to determine effects on osmoregulation.
The crabs were divided by sex and size (U0-70tnm,80-110nim)
and a 2lt-hour adjustment period was allowed.

The blue crab is an hyperosmotic regulator at these
salinities and temperatures, although slight hypoosmotio
regulation appears at in 25^ salinity. Analysis of

variance of the data show that effects of temperature, sal-
inity,and size are significant, but that effect of sex
is not. Temperature has an inverse effect on osmooonoen-
tration at 15 and 3CP C., except at 1.5^ salinity. At 1.5%>,
highest osmoconcentration is attained at 30'’C., an inter¬
esting response since invasion of freshwater usually
occurs during the hot summer months. The U C. salinity
combinations were too great a shock for the smaller crabs
as they died before measurements were made. The larger
crabs also showed shock reactions to this low temperature
by low osmoconcentrations . Maximum osmoregulation for
both large and small crabs occurs at 15°C. from l5-30^
salinities. The least regulation for both large and small
crabs occurs at 15°C. for 1.5-l5^ salinities.

THE EFFECTS OF OIL ON THE GILL FILTRATION RATE OF MIA ARENARIA.
Gilbert E. Anderson*. Col. of William & Mary, Williamsburg,

Va. 23185

The acute effects of oil pollution on the soft-shelled clam,
Mya arenaria, were studied by measuring changes in turbidity of
graphite-particle suspensions as indices of filtration rates.

A heavy fuel oil, Bunker C, was used in all experiments. Fil¬
tration rates were measured during three-hour intervals before
and after exposure to either 0.9 per cent oil-water emulsions
or to 0.9 per cent extracts of oil in water. A paired obser¬
vations test indicated significant rate increases in clams ex¬
posed to the emulsions, but there were no definite trends in
the responses of clams exposed to the oil extract.

CHARACTERIZATION OF SPINACH CHLOROPLAST LAMELLAR MEMBRANE
PROTEIN USING SODIUM DODECYLSULFATE GEL ELECTROPHORESIS.

M. W. Banschbach* and J. L. Hess, Dept, of Biochemistry and
Nutrition, Va. Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ. , Blacks¬
burg, Va. 24061.

A p-carotene- lamellar protein fraction has been obtained
from spinach chloroplast lamellar membranes using sequential
extraction with 50, 70, 75 and 807. (v/v) acetone; water sol¬
utions. Interaction between p-carotene and lamellar protein
in this fraction was evaluated using spectral analysis, pro¬
teolytic hydrolysis and discontinuous sucrose density gra¬
dient centrifugation. These techniques established that in¬
teraction between p-carotene and lamellar protein does oc¬
cur; however, the specificity of this interaction could not
be determined using these techniques. Sodium dodecylsulfate
(SDS) disc gel electrophoresis was employed to help evaluate
the specificity of p-carotene- lamellar protein interaction.
Two samples of lamellar protein, one with p-carotene, the
other with p-carotene removed by acetone extraction, were
solubilized in 17. SDS, 0.01 M Tris-Cl, pH 8.0. Approximate¬
ly 957. of protein was solubilized; protein bound to p-caro-
tene was not solubilized. A discontinuous buffer SDS gel
electrophoresis system has been successfully used to obtain
protein patterns for both samples. Acrylamide concentra¬
tions varied from 77. to 117. and running pH from 9.05 to
10.01. Proteins with molecular weights from 15,000 to
50,000 have been observed.

108

The Virginia Journal of Science

THE EFFECT OF A TRYPTOPHAN-FREE DIET ON SEROTONIN KINETICS

IN THE RAT DUODENUM. B. A. Beaver* T. D. Kirntroush. Dept,

of Biology, Va. Conmonwealth Univ., Richmond, Va. 23220

Gershon, et al., have recently determined that serotonin
is selectively taken up by certain elements of the myenteric
plexus. If serotonin is the specific neurotransmitter in
these neurons, causing transmission of the action potential
to the longitudinal muscle layer in which this plexus is
embedded, then a deficiency of tryptophan intake in the diet
should cause a noticeable decrease in the motility of the
muscle. Young male and female Wistar rats were kept on a
tryptophan-free synthetic crystalline amino acid diet for a
period of two months. The animals were sacrificed and the
first 2 cm segment of duodenum was excised and connected by
a 1.5 ounce Statham strain gauge to a recording polygraph.

The gut strips were constantly perfused at 37° in a 0.006 M
glucose solution 95^ saturated with oxygen. Time was
allowed for the tissue to adjust. The most active one-
minute period was evaluated by measuring the total area
under the curve with a compensating polar planimeter. The
results showed a general overall decrease in intestinal
motility, with a noticeable decrease particularly in the
activity of the longitudinal muscle layer as compared to con¬
trol readings. The regular pattern of rythmicity of the
circular muscle layer was maintained. Attempts were made to
restore longitudinal motility by the addition of serotonin
to the perfusate. In several instances motility was signifi¬
cantly restored.

AN EVALUATION OF THE SWIFT METHOD OF CLEANING DIATOM

FRUSTULES. Charles W. Belin. Jr. and Jacaues S.

Zaneveld, Institute of Oceanography, Old Dominion

University, Norfolk, Va. 23508.

A quantitative and qualitative study of the

Swift method (1967) of removing epiphytic diatoms
was undertaken using as host plant Sargassum
fluitans Bjirgesen, recovered from Che western Sar-
gasso Sea at 35° 47.1' N. lat., 73° 06.3' W. long.

Counts of epiphytic diatoms were made before il¬
lumination with ultraviolet light, after illumina¬
tion, and of the water in which the algae had been
illuminated. Mean epiphytic diatom densities com¬
puted from these counts were, respectively, 1992.5
diatoms per gram, 76.7 diatoms per gram, and 2222.4
diatoms per gram of S. fluitans. The purpose of
these counts was to derive statistical information
to determine whether there was a change in the num¬
ber of epiphytes as a result of the oxidative nature
of the illumination.

The results of this experiment demonstrate that
the Swift method is an extremely efficient and 're¬
liable method for stripping diatoms from aquatic
plants to which they adhere. Also, the method
appeared to be very effective in cleaning the ex¬
terior of the frustules, facilitating identification
of the specimens.

WINTER MORTALITY OF THE LANDLOCKED ALEWIFE, ALOSA PSEUDO-
HARENGUS, IN CLAYTOR LAKE, VIRGINIA. J. L. Boaze and R. T.
Lackey*. Div. of Forestry and Wildlife Sciences, Va. Poly¬
technic Inst, and State Univ., Blacksburg, Va.

During the winter of 1970, 1971, and 1972, large numbers
of dead or dying landlocked alewives appeared below the

Claytor Lake hydro-electric plant. The dead or dying
alewives, the majority of which were young-of-the-year ,
were in the process of a seasonal downstream movement
seeking warmer water, when they were siphoned out of the
lake by penstock tubes, (Aided by Commission of Game and

Inland Fisheries)

sae GENETIC CHARACTERISTICS OF A CULTURAL-RELIGIOUS

ISOLATE: ABO BLOOD GROUPS AND DERMATOQLYPHICS. K. K.

Brubaker. P. Masalt and A. KdLbt Dept, of Life Sciences.

B. Mann. Col., Harrisonburg, Va. 22801

Data on ABO blood type of 12UU students attending Eastern
Mannonlte College Indicate that cultural -religious factors
seem to have operated quite successfully In maintaining a
gene frequency .dilch resembles that of their Swiss-German
ancestors more than that of their North Aiaarlcan neighbors,
even though the original settlers came to Pennsylvania
before the Revolutionary War.

Dermatoglyphlc studies Indicate 3ub-gro:q)a within the

Mannonlte -Amish population .dun gene pools In various areas
are ccapared. Tlu age of the mother at birth of the subject
may also have an effect on demuitoglyphlc pattern such as
frequency of loops and whorls.

MEIOTIC DRIVE IN COCKROACH CHROMOSOME TRANSLOCATIONS.

D. G. Cochran. Dept, of Entomology, Va. Polytechnic

Inst, and State Univ., Blacksburg, Va. 24061

Chromosomal meiotic drive has been shown to occur in
certain translocation stocks of the German cockroach,

Blattella germanica (L.). It can be detected cytologically
at metaphase I and at late prophase II. Counts of large
numbers of cells have been made to obtain an estimate of
the drive situation for each of several translocations.

In certain instances biological data have also been obtained
to check the correspondence between cytological expectation
and biological reality. The results were variable, and in
one case a possible explanation for a discrepancy was
discovered .

The significance of meiotic drive for experiments
involving genetic manipulation of population size will be
discussed. (Aided by NSF grant GB28954) .

R£GENER/\TION IN THE AFRICAN LUNGFISH PROTOPTERUS UNDER

CONDITIONS OF FASTING AND ESTIVATION. Elizabeth B. Conant.
Visiting Research Associate, Department of Biology, Univ. of
Virginia, Box 966, Charlottesville, Va., 22901

Normal regeneration of extremities by uell-fed lungflsh in
water Involves a 2-3 week latent period followed by first in¬
creasing and Chen decreasing growth. The growth rate tapers
off after 3-4 months as the new structure approaches or sur¬
passes 100% replacement of the part removed. Pectoral limb
regeneration followed In 3 starving Frotopterus revealed a
latent period and an early growth period roughly comparable
to those of the controls, but later growth was significantly/
slowed and replacement was only 50-70% of the amount removed
after 7-10 months of fasting. To investigate the effects of
estivation on regeneration of limbs and call, 15 animals were
Induced to estivate at varying stages of regrowch. When
estivation Interrupted either the latent period or the early
stages of regeneration, further regeneration in the mud was
limited sharply. When estivation was induced in animals
whose extremities averaged 30% or more replacement growth,
some or all appendages actually shrunk in size during Che

4-5 months in the mud.

Proceedings, 1971-1972

109

EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON ACTIVE AND RESTING

METABOLISM IN POLYCHAETES . P. E. Coyer* and

C. P. Mangutn. Dept, of Biology, Col. of William
and Mary, Williamsburg, Va. 23185

The following proposal is being investigated
using three species of polychaetes : resting
metabolism of intertidal invertebrate organisms
remains thermally insensitive over a wide environ¬
mental range. Polychaetes were chosen as repre¬
sentative animals because of their characteristic
patterns of activity and rest during ventilation
which result in rapid and slow rates of oxygen
consumption. To answer the question of active and
resting metabolism, temperature coefficients for
two species Diopatra cuprea and Glycera dibranch-
iata have been computed for a wide temperature
range. In both animals these metabolic rates were
related previously to their behavior cycles during
tube irrigation. No Qjq'® ^ resting metab¬

olism were observed in our experiments over a wide
temperature range and both active and resting Qjo'®
show thermal sensitivity.

KE3PCN3E3 CF THE RIBBaD MUSSEL. EODIOLUS Dci-.ISSUS. TO IDW

SALINITIES. P. delirr and C. P. Mangum, Dept, of Biology, Col.
of V/illiam ana Mary, Williamsburg, Va. 23185.

The investigation concerns a population of Eodiolus demissus
found on the York River, ideld data were collected over an 18
month period and experiments were conducted to compare the ef¬
fects of different salinities on the survival, filtration, and
heart rates in ar. estuarine population and a marine population.

Over approximately 12 months, the M. demissus population on
a 1 scuare meter plot showed a 25/° increase in numbers and a
mortality of about llje per year. The salinity during this time
ranged from 3.7 - 11.1 /oo. Smaller numbers of mussels were
found upstream where the salinity is lower.

The filtration rates in York .diver mussels are lowered at

5 /oo and less; the rates for marine mussels are lowered at

15 /oo and less. The survival for marine mussels in all salin¬
ities was lower than that for York River mussels. Heart beats
of York River mussels decreased in amjlitude and frequency
starting at salinities of 5?oo and were seriously impaired be¬
low 3 /oo. Marine mussels exhibited decreased amplitude and
frequency of heart beat at salinities 15 ?oo and 10 Joo and
serious lowering at 5 ^00 and less.

The York River mussels stem to be highly adapted to very
low salinities, which apparently permits extension of the
species range into brackish waters.

FARMING CHANNEL CATFISH IN VIRGINIA. V. M. Douslass, and

R. T. Lackey. Div. of Forestry and Wildlife Sciences,
V.P.I.&S.U., Blacksburg, Va. 24061

The production of channel catfish has become a multi¬
million dollar industry in the United States during the
past decade. An estimated 55 million pounds of farm-grown
catfish were produced in the United States in 1970. Research
on the practicality of raising channel catfish in Virginia
for supplemental agricultural income was initiated in 1968.

These research efforts showed catfish farming to be feas¬
ible, there are several technological problems to be worked
out, especially in the area of cage culture. Some
conclusions are (1) the production of market-sized channel
catfish is economically and biologically feasible, (2)
there are existing ponds suitable for commercial production,
and (3) under normal conditions and with good management,
reasonable returns can be realized. In addition, a
promising future for Virginia catfish farming related to
the use of northern strains. These catfish might be better
adapted to Virginia's cooler water. Thus, the growing
season could be extended, resulting in better production.
Furthermore, the feasibility of raising catfish on a
commercial scale will be investigated. The results will
determine the kinds of factors a farmer should consider
before entering the catfish farming business in Virginia.

POSSIBLE INVOLVEMENT OF BLOOD CELLS IN THE SYNTHESIS t)F

COCKROACH CUTICLE PROTEINS. J. G. Geiger and R. R. Mills.

Biology Dept., Va. Commonwealth Univ., Richmond, Va. 23220

The American cockroach molts approximately every 28 days
at 25° and a new cuticular matrix of chitin and protein is
formed each time. The cuticle proteins are normally trans¬
ported and stored in the haemolymph (blood) before being
taken up into the integument. Carbon-l4 leucine is incor¬
porated into freely circulating blood and fat body cells at
the time of the molt and subsequent injection of the cellular
4^C-extracted protein into other animals results in labeled
blood cells and cuticle. These data suggest that circulat¬
ing cells are capable of synthesizing potential cuticle
proteins .

COMPARATIVE CHANGES IN THE ORGANIC PRODUCTIVITY

OF AN IMPOUNDED RESERVOIR FOLLOWING ARTIFICAL

DE STRATI FI CAT I ON. C. L. Gibbin* and C. M. Weiss.*

A comparison in the variation of organic
productivity of the periphyton of an impounded
reservoir was examined from 1969 to 1971.

Comparison of chemical oxygen demand (C.O.D.) of
the control year (1969) and the two years of
artifical destratification (1970-1971). Strati¬
fication was accomplished by air hoses. Results
indicated formation of an almost completely
homogeneous nutrient pool as well as a more uniform
dispersal of dissoved oxygen. While values of
maximum productivity decreased with periods of
increasing artificial destratification, the area of
overall productivity increased. (Aided by Project

No. B-007-NC, Matching Grant Agreement No. 14-01-
0001-1933 of the Office of Water Resources

Research, Department of the Interior through the

Water Resources Research Institute of the

University of North Carolina as authorized under
the Water Resources Research Act of 1964.)

TOXICITY OF ZINC SULPHATE TO ISONYCHIA SADLERI
(EPHEMEROPTERA: ISONYCHI IDAE) FROM TWO STREAMS. B. C. Greqq,

E. F. Benfield, Biology Department, Virginia Polytechnic

Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061

Nymphs of the mayfly Isonychia sadleri from two streams
differing in hardness, alkalinity and pH were exposed to
zinc sulphate in an attempt to establish 96 hr. Median

Tolerance Limits. In addition to the regular assays
reciprocal assays were conducted in which nymphs from one
stream were exposed to zinc dissolved in water from the
other streams.

Nymphs from the soft water stream had the highest TL
values, nymphs from the hard water stream had the lowest

TLipij and nymphs used in the reciprocal test exhibited
intermediate TL^'s. Two size classes of nymphs were
employed in all assays. In all test the TL,^'- for the
smaller nymphs were lower than those for the larger nymphs.

The Virginia Journal of Science

no

THE EFFECT OF Dl METHYFORMAMI DE ON Meriones unqu i cu 1 atus .

W. S. Hastings, T. D. Kimbrough and G. C. Llewellyn, Dept,
of Biology, Va. Commonwealth Univ. and C. E. O'Rear and

F. W. Rea, Va. Dept, of Agriculture and Commerce, Richmond,

Va. 23220

The insoluble nature of aflatoxin B| in most injectable
solvents causes a considerable problem when acute quantities
of such toxins are administered. Dimethy 1 formamide (DMF) is
one solvent in which such toxins are highly soluble but,
unfortunately it is also a mild carcinogen. A common
practice has been to administer toxins in 0.1 to 0.2 ml of

DMF, which has been considered an acceptable level for most
rodents and fishes. This level is apparently in the LD50
range for gerbils. Our studies showed that intraperitonea 1
injections, subcutaneous injections and consumption via
drinking water, all caused similar toxic responses. Catheter
i ntubu 1 ations of DMF volumes in excess of 0.12 ml/adult
animal also caused lethality. It is currently recommended
that for minimal liver pathology, DMF be administered in the
drinking water in concentrations not exceeding \% by volume
for not more than 60 days.

A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF THREE FRESH-WATER SURFACE MICROLAYER
SAMPLERS. R.Fo Hatcher* and B.C. Parker. Dept, of

Biology, Va. Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ., Blacksburg,

Va. 24060.

The study of fresh-water surface microlayers is a
largely unexplored area in aquatic sciences. We know from
the literature that marine surface microlayers differ sig¬
nificantly from subsurface water only a few centimeters
below. However, there is very little published data on
fresh-water surface microlayers. To date, there are two
reported methods of collecting surface microlayers, a
surface sampling drum (SSD) designed by Harvey (1965)and
a surface sampling screen described by Garrett (1966).

Although both of these devises are currently being used by
various investigators, to our knowledge, no comparative
study has been done to ascertain the relative effencies of
each technique. This paper will show data comparing the
relative efficiencies of the SSD and the SSS as well as a
third surface sampling devise of our own design, the
surface sampling tray (SST) . (Aided by OWRR grant A-037-Va.)

THE INTERRELATIONS OF URINARY CATIONS AND URIC ACID IN THE
(CALLUS DOMESTICUS). A. P. Hinton,* R. A. McNabb , and F.

M. A. McNabb,* Dept, of Biology, Va. Polytechnic Inst, and

State Univ., Blacksburg, Va. 24061.

Urine was collected from eight roosters, fed low (LP, 11%)
and high (HP, 33%) protein diets, and given ad lib tapwater
(TW) or 1% NaCl solution (SW) . Combinations of these
regimes provided three groups - HPTW, HPSW and LPTW.

Drinking rates increased in the sequence LPTW<HPTW<HPSW .

Drinking tap water, HP excreted urine with the highest uric
acid and IC*" concentrations, and lowest Na"*" concentration.

These differences in electrolyte excretion probably re¬
present differences between the diets. On the high pro¬
tein diet, SW excrete urine most concentrated in Na"^, least
concentrated in IC*’. Concomitant with the increased
electrolyte concentration in the urine of HPSW was an in¬
crease in the proportion of precipitated uric acid present
in the urine. (Aided by NIH Grant AM14991) .

THE DISTRIBUTION AND RELATIVE ABUNDANCE OF THREE SPE¬
CIES OF JUVENILE ALOSIDS (FAMILY CLUPEIDAE) IN THE

JAMES RIVER. VIRGINIA 1969 to 1971. W. J. Hogman* and

J. Davis, Va. Inst, of Mar. Sci. , Gloucester Point, Va.

Data from experimental trawling by the Virginia Insti¬
tute of Marine Science are presented for young of the
year Alosa aestivalis (blueback herring), A. pseudoha-
rengus (alewife) and A. sapidissima.

In Aug. and Sept, juvenile alosids are concentrated
in salinities less than 1 ppt in the James. Peak abun¬
dance was between river mile 35 and 75 with numbers
falling rapidly in proximity to Richmond. Blueback
tend to utilize the lower river (mile 30 to 50) more
than alewife or shad. No significant differences were
found between numbers captured at the surface and mid-
water. Bottom tows always yielded few juvenile alosids.

The abundance of each species did not differ signific¬
antly between the years (F=2. 33, p>. 05 ) nor did the total
number of all species combined (F=2.45, p>.05), but the
relative abundance between the species did in every year
(F=12.37, p^. 01). Blueback made up 81.1 to 96.5% of
the juvenile alosids captured in every year, followed
by alewife, then shad. Thirty additional tows in the
prime nursery area in 1970 yielded an average of 4001
blueback, 398 alewife, and 74 American shad per five
minutes with a 10x10 ft Cobb trawl. The corresponding
coefficient of variation for the three species was

95%, 139%, and 196% of the mean.

A TREE SURVEY OF THE SOUTH SLOPE OF BRUSHY MOUNTAIN. L. 0.
Hunt*, and M. L. Slaughter*, Dept, of Biology, Va. Western
Community Col., Roanoke, Va. 24015

This survey, using the point quarter method of study,
was conducted on the western bank of the Carvin Cove area
in Roanoke County. The survey included only trees of at
least four inches D.B.H. Quercus coccinea, Ouercus prinus,

Pinus rigida and Pinus virginiana were the most important
in numbers and basal area among thirteen recorded species.
Relative dominance and relative frequency in the lower size
categories indicated Quercus prinus and Quercus coccinea
will maintain dominance in the study area. Relative
dominance and relative frequency in the lower size cata-
gories indicated Pinus rigida and Pinus virginiana will
maintain an important status in the area in selected
habitats.

MANIFESTATIONS OF SENESCENCE IN A SEXUAL RACE OF DUGE5IA
DOnOTCCEPHAIA. . M. M. Jenkins. Dept, of Biology, Ms-dison

Col., Harrisonburg, Va. ??S01

Earlier studies of sexual races of Dugesia dorotccephala
have shown that gametic reproduction is continuous but it
eventually culminates in the decline and cessation of repro¬
ductive activity. Other signs of ageing also occur during
the post-reproductive period. Average gliding length dim¬
inishes from 30-35 mm to 25 mm or less under optimal condi¬
tions, and renders it impossible to correlate size with age.
Reduction is occasionally so pronounced that the animals
appear to be juvenile, but their aged state is evidenced by
their inability to undergo rejuvenation. Susceptibility to
injury increases. Spontaneous lesions rarely heal but result
in a pathological separation of the animal into parts. Dis¬
integration commonly follows. Ventral loss of pigment is
characteristic. Partial loss of dorsal pigment, resulting
in striping or spotting, may occur. Post-reproductive
sterility accompanied by various types of senile change
indicate that an organism has a determinate life span and
exhibits ageing, but the occurrence of true senescence is
best demonstrated by showing the existence of a terminal
increase in liability to die. Experimental procedures de¬
signed to reveal this aspect of the planarian life cycle
should be undertaken. (Supported in part by a grant from
Sigma-Xi and NIH grant HD 02217)

Proceedings, 1971-1972

111

REPRODUCTIVE CHARACTERISTICS OF CONFINED COTTONTAIL RABBITS

AT DIFFERENT POPULATION DENSITIES. Roy L. Kirkpatrick*
and David M, Baldwin.* Div. of Forestry and Wildlife

Sciences, Va. Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ., Blacksburg,

Va. 24061

A total of 95 cottontail rabbits was used in three experi¬
ments to investigate the effect of density on reproductive
and other selected characteristics. Rabbits were penned in

0.3 acre enclosures at densities approximating 30 or 90
animals per acre for minimum periods of either 27, 71 or 87
days. All females conceived within a period of one week
during each of the two years involved and were 13 to 20 days
pregnant at the time of necropsy. No consistent effects of
density on reproductive characteristics or endocrine organ
weights were found in either males or females, although
there was a trend toward greater ovarian weights and fewer
live fetuses in late pregnancy in the high density females
in the two longer term experiments. High density animals
also had lower dressed body weights than low density animals.

AN INVESTIGATION ON THE POSSIBLE UPTAKE AND SYNTHESIS OF
l^C-5-HYDROXYTRYPTAMINE IN THE HEMOCYTES OF Periplaneta

Americana. C. D. Kirks ey, T. D. Kimbrough and R. R. Mills.
Biology Dept., Va. Commonwealth Univ., Richmond, Va. 23220

The injection of carbon-llt-serotonin into the hemocoel
of the American cockroach results in the labeling of both
the serum proteins and the hemocytes. Partial purification
of the serum proteins by column chromatography on P-IO
polyacrylamide gel indicates that all of the label becomes
bound to protein or other high molecular weight fractions .

The "bound" radioactive fraction in the blood reaches
a peak concentration within an hour after injection and
declines slowly thereafter. However, even after 2k hours
appreciable label remains.

The significance of the probable serotonin binding to
proteins is not yet completely understood but it is ten¬
tatively suggested that the protein acts as a carrier for
the amine to prevent deactivation.

THE EFFECT OF TRYPTOPFAN-RTCH FOODSTUFFS OF VEGETABLE ORIGIN

OK SEROTOHIM ^IITABOLI.SM I.K MICE. L. Kirksey*and T,D.

Kimbrough, Deot. of Biology, Va. CommonvTealth Univ., Rich¬
mond, Va. 23220.

Endogenous and exogenous serotonin are known stimulators
of intestinal peristalsis. A study was conducted to deter¬
mine if exogenous administration of dried foodstuffs having
var’.’ing concentrations of serotonin would result in a
concomitant increase in intestinal motility. For fo<'r weeks
five groups of Swiss-Uebster mice were fed diets supplement¬
ed vdth known amounts of serotonin, varying in concentration
from low to high as follows: oineapole, avocado, banana pulpv
and banana peel. Controls were fed ^rina Lab. chow. Each
mouse was sacrificed, and the first ^om of duodenum removed
and oo.nnected by a 1.5 ounce strain gau?e to a polygraph.

Gut strips were perfused in oxygenated Tvrode ' s solution at
37.5°C, and gut motility measured in cra2/min. Following
equilibration of muscle tissue, measurements of those one
minute periods highest in motility (3-^ ner graoh) vrere made
viith a polar olanimeter. All experimental gut motility
readings were higher than those of controls. Those readings
taken between 21-31 minutes following initiation exhibited a
marked increase corresponding to concentration of serotonin,
ie., control only increased 8.1 cm^/min; however, pineapple
increased by 22.1, avocado by 23.5. banana pulp by 3^.2, and
banana oeel by 57.6. Thus preliminary findings suggest that
exogenously administered foodstuffs high in serotonin
(particularly banana peel) may result in an augmentation of
gut motility in the mouse.

CORRELATION OF PROTEIN-DIPHENOL BINDING DURING THE MOLTING

CYCLE BY THE COCKROACH. G. M. Levison and R. R. Mills.

Biology Dept., Va. Commonwealth Univ., Richmond, Va. 23220

The American cockroach, Periplaneta americana (L.), molts
approximately every 28 days when held at 25° . Immediately
prior to the molt (ecdysis) the haemolymph protein concen¬
tration rises and various diphenols are synthesized from
tyrosine. During this period the diphenols bind to the
proteins and remain in the haemolymph. At ecdysis, after
the old cuticle is shed, the diphenol-protein complex is
incorporated into the cuticle intact. Evidence is also pre¬
sented that a polypeptide hormone known as bursicon mediates
this post-ecdysial uptake by increasing epidermal membrane
transport.

AN INTEGRATED STUDY OF THE NORTHWEST RIVER

AND ITS WATERSHED. Dr. G.F. Levy (Sponsor), Dr. R.

L. Ake=!s Dr.R.S. Spencer, C. Powell*, L.S, Woodruff*,

R. Fennema*, and K. Ashworth^*'. Dept, of Chemistry, Old
Dominion Univ. .Norfolk, Va , 23508

An eight-week study of the chemical , botanical , and geo¬
logical aspects of the Northwest River and its watershed was
conducted in an attempt to predict the possible effects on the
area of partial deforestationand construction of a dam as
well as to learn the methods of coordinating an interdisci¬
plinary project. The chemical investigation entailed
analyses for chlorides , nitrates , phosphates , water hardness,
alkalinity, pH, and pesticide residues using a combination of
wet and instrumental techniques. The objectives of the
botanical study were to determine the flora and fauna of the
area, to map forest types, and to establish dominant en¬
vironmental parameters. The geological and hydrological
study concentrated upon river flowrates, runoff, drainage
basin boundaries, effects on water level by precipitation and
wind, and soil sampling. Although the project is still in its
initial stages, much insight has been gained into the
methodology of interdisciplinary projects. Conclusions
regarding the organization, goals, and pitfalls of such
integrated studies have proved to be invaluable information
for further work. Recommendations are included.

DETERMINATION OF GEOGRAPHIC VARIATION IN ALLELIC FREQUENCIES

FOR LEUCINE AMINOFSPTIDASE Ai'-’D ALCOHOL DEHYDROGENASE

ISOZYMES IN CUCURBIIA foetidissima. S. E, Lilley t and J. R.

Wail. Dept, of Biology, George Mason Univ., Fairfa,x, Va.

An electrophoretic survey of natural populations of C.
foetidissima, a perennial, xerophytic. wide-ransine-. an¥
monoecious species of the Southwest, has been conducted in
order to examine the electrophoretic analysis of crude seed
extracts, and reveals that the species is pol^Tnorphic for

LAP and ADII. Four different codominant alleles have been
identified for the LAP system. Fast, Slow, and in small fre¬
quencies, Very Fast and Very Slow. Of the ten phenotypes
possible, only the Very Fast/Very Slow form has not been ob¬
served. Mountain populations from Bent, New Mexico, Arabela,

New Mexico, Tinnie-I!ondo , New Mexico, and San Simon, Arizona,
exhibit ACA,, 19. and k^,k% heterozygotes respec¬
tively. Four desert and high plains populations exhibited
from 8.3v to 15.S"o heterozygotes with an average of 11.5"^ as
compared to the average for the montane regions. It is

suggested that the montane populations are older stabilized
populations, while the plains populations are more likely to
derived from recent immigrants and are peripheral.

In general, the geographic variation in ADH polymorphism
is inconclusive at this time, with an average for the mon¬
tane variation being and non-montane 23.65o, although

the range of variation for the montane was 2.2% to kH%,
while the non-montane was from 13-55^ to 33. yA.

The Virginia Journal of Science

112

THE USE OF SERUM CONSTITUENTS OF THE BLUE CRAB, CALLIHECTES
SAPJVUS, AS INDICATORS OF PHYSIOLOGICAL STRESS. M. P.

Lynch and K. L. Wehb. Dept. Environmental Physiolosy. Va.

Inst. Mar. Sci., Gloucester Point, Va. 23062

Selected serum constituents (Chloride - Ct; Protein - P-t;
Glucose - G; Ninhydrin Positive Substances - WPS; and

Osmotic concentration - of blue crabs subjected to

various stresses (red tide, DDT, thermal shock, and hold¬
ing in aquaria) were compared to "baseline" concentrations
of the same constituents in crabs from natural environments.
Comparisons are made to seasonal baselines developed by-
monthly sampling in the same area and to baselines developed
by sampling along a salinity gradient from 30 o/oo to es¬
sentially fresh water.

Glucose in new year class females and PTi in both males
and females were significantly higher in red tide stressed
crabs than in baselines. Protein and O-im were significant¬
ly lower in DDT stressed males than in baselines. Thermal
stress resulted in higher WPS, and G and lower CZ in

seriom from female crabs when compared to control females.

Holding crabs in laboratory aquaria resxilted in short term

G elevations over baselines and lower 0-6m, P-t and WPS.

The technique of comparing serum constituents of animals
from a given area or experimental treatment to control or
baseline values offers promise in developing physiological
indices of condition. (This work was supported by the Sea

Grant Program. )

SO'-IE PROFLEMS IN T IE ISOLATION AND C.TA.RACTE RIZI -
TION OF ENZY:-1E3 F IOM LICIISNS. E. J. M, rtin. Msth/
Science Div., Ferrum Col., Ferrum, Va. 24088.

The various isolation techniques for liclien
enzymes and their problems are discussed with
particular emphasis on Parmelia caperata mycobiont
invertase. Extraction of this enzyme is difficult
due to the resistance of the cells to disruption.

A brief discussion of lichen enzyme purifica¬
tion is follov/ed by a discussion of the problems
of localization and character rzation of lichen
enzymes. The localization is important to the
characterization due to the dual nature of lichens.
This is particularly evident in the characteriza¬
tion of P. caperata thallus invertase. which may
be produced by both symbionts as a co-operative
effort. Characterization must be made on partial¬
ly purified preparations duo to the small amount
of enzyme available and thus is only tentative.

A COMPARISON OF THE FISHES IN THE CLINCH AND

BIG SANDY DRAINAGES IN TAZEWELL COUNTY,

VIRGINIA. M. T. Masnik and W. G. Knol lenbe rg*,

Department of Biology, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and

State University, Blacksburg, Va. , 24061

Several authors have speculated on a piracy of

Clinch River drainage by the Big Sandy in Tazewell

County, Virginia. The hypothesis is based on the presence
of an interfingering divide and a hydraulic advantage. A
preliminary study of the distribution of fishes in both
drainages indicates that a piracy did not occur. Geologic
evidence for the suspected piracy is lacking. Many
headwater taxa found in the adjacent Clinch River system
are not present in the upper portions of the Big Sandy.

Common headwater forms found in the Clinch River are
Campostoma anomalum michauxi, Cottus c. carolinae,
Etheostoma simoterum, and Rhinichthys atratulus obtusus
while the Big Sandy include Campostoma a. anomalum,

Cottus b. bairdi, Etheostoma caeruleum, and Notropis
cornutus chry socephalus. Diversity indices for all
collections are presented. Under similar ecological
conditions the Clinch River ichthyofauna is more diverse
than the Big Sandy.

THE EFFECT OF PERIODIC BURNING ON MARSHLAND INSECT POPULAT¬
IONS. J. F. Matta and C. L. Clouse*, Department of Biology,

Old Dominion University, Norfolk, Virginia.

The deliberate burning of coastal wetlands is a common
practice in Virginia even though the ecological effect of
this practice is largely unknown. There has been little
work done on the effects of burning on the marshland envir¬
onment and there is no information available on its effect
on insect populations.

An analysis of sweep net collections taken at two week
intervals between June 26 and September 18, 1972 from six
island sites (representing four distinct burning situations)
located in the Back Bay National Wildlife refuge indicates
that the occurance of the majority of adult forms found on
the islands is not significantly affected by the burning,
however, the principal herbivore on the islands, [Conoceph-
alus sp. (Fam. Tettigoniidae) ] showed significant differences
in numbers between the island sites. The mean number per
collection ranged from 216 for a site which had not been
burned in six years to 42.0 for a site which had been burn¬
ed 1 year previously; = 3.15.

Three of the sites, with identical burn histories but
radically different plant communities, showed no significant
difference in tettigoniid numbers. The means ranged from

4.6 for spikerush community to 14.9 for a mixed stand of
cattails, chordgrass and low shrubs.

3IJD03HIN.:; rjEUEOi-isi: gf agcrfssivf .lid rAssivD ::iC3

TO 3?ACD I^PAIVATIOIi AlID lilCIiSASIilG SOCIAL CCIITACT.

R. ilcCartr and J, il. Richardson. Der-t; of Llol.c — ■.

Old Dominion Univ., Ilorfolk, Va . 23^0°

The effects of different bousinc conditions '.vere
observed in z^^iressiv" (CFV;) and passive (CF,,'ll)
male mice (I'.us musculus) . Dvrerimentatlon o-cnrred
for a tv-o v;eek period follov/ing ’.veaninp at Z'i-ZF-
days of age. .Idrenal hypertrophy^ v/as greatest in

CF'..' males isolated in space deprivation cages. In¬
creases are also reported for CFV.' males from, fixed
populations of 8 and 16 mice ;.er cage. !Io signif¬
icant adrenal weight changes are .reported for CF.rl
males. Body '.'.'eight changes v.'ere altered by cage
size and population size. Testicular weights ’.';ere
not indicative of endocrine alterations in either
strain. The results are discussed in relation to
the behavior of the CF.7 and CF,i'l strains and to the
endocrine theory of population limitation.

CYTOCHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF ENZYME DISTRIBUTION IN ASCI AND
PARAPHYSES OF PODOSPORA ANSERINA. M. Mitchell* and J.E.

Perham. Dept, of Biology, Randolph-Macon Woman's Col.,

Lynchburg, Va. 24504

Perithecia of wild type Podospora anserina were sub-
jected to cytochemical tests for the following enzyme
systems: esterases, acid phosphatase, alkaline phospha¬
tase, cytochrome oxidase, and peroxidase. Distinct sites
of enzyme activity were observed in ascogenous hyphae and
paraphyses. Age of asci and paraphyses and pH of the re¬
action mixtures were important factors in the patterns of
enzyme distribution.

Proceedings, 1971-1972

113

DIGESTIBILITY OF A HIGH RATION AND A LOW FIBER RATION BY THE

GRAY SQUIRREL. S. D. Montgomery*, R. F. Haynes*, J. Hedge*
and H. S. Mosby. Div. o± Forestry and Wildlife Sciences,

Va. Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ., Blacksburg, Va. 24061

Four live-trapped gray squirrels housed in metabolism
cages, 16 X 10 X 12 inches, were randomly allotted to two
different rations which were similar in nutrients except
for crude fiber which was 16% in one ration and 6% in the
other ration. A six day preliminary period was used to
adjust the squirrels to the cages and to the rations. The
squirrels were fed ad libitum and the amount of feed con-
sumed was recorded. A 16 mesh screen was used to separate
the feces from the urine. Feces were collected daily and
stored in a refrigerator. At the end of the five day
collection period the total feces collection was mixed,
oven-dried, ground and proximate analysis was performed.
Proximate analysis was also performed on samples of the two
rations. The percent digestibility was calculated for each
animal.

For the two squirrels on the low fiber ration the average
percent digestibilities were: crude fiber (34%), crude
protein (74%), ether extract (94%), ash (36%), and dry
matter (77%). The digestibilities of ail nutrients by the
squirrels on the high fiber ration were less. The average
digestibilities of nutrients for the squirrels on the high
fiber ration were: crude fiber (-6%), crude protein (56j^) ,
ether extract (63%), ash (14%). and dry matter (37%).

24, 48, AND 96-HOUR LC50 FOR BLUEGILL (LEPOMIS MACROCHIRUS

RAF.) EXPOSED TO HEXACHLOROPHENE . E. L. Morgan, R. E. Sparks

J. A. Garvin and J. Cairns, Jr., Biology Dept, and Center for
Environmental Studies, Va. Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ.,
Blacksburg, Virginia 24061

Ten bluegill were exposed to each of the following con¬
centrations of hexachlorophene (Sigma Chemical Corp.) in a
static 96-hr. bioassay: 1.8, 1.0, 0.56, 0.32, 0.18, and 0.10
mg/1. Hexachlorophene was dissolved in 10 ml certified A.C.S
acetone and the volume brought to 17 liters with dechlorina-
ted tap water in glass test jars. There were two control
groups: (1) ten fish maintained in dilution water alone and,

(2) ten fish maintained in dilution water plus 10 ml acetone.

At 0.1 mg/1 there was 100% survival after 96 hours. No fish
survived after 24 hours in concentrations of 0.56 rag/1 and
above. In the highest concentration, 1.8 mg/1, all blue-
gills showed signs of distress within the first hour and were
dead within 5 hours. The 24, 48, and 96 hour LC50 (lethal
concentration in which 50% of the fish survive for a given
time intervals) were 0.29, 0.24, and 0.18 mg/1, respectively.

None of the control fish died in the acetone-dilution water
test.

SPECIATION IN A GROUP OF POLYNESIAN LAND SNAILS. ^

Murray and B. Clarke*. Dept, of Biology, Univ. of Va.
and Dept, of Genetics, Univ. of Nottingham, England.

The genus Partula consists of a large number of highly
polymorphic species of land snails inhabiting the volcanic
islands of Polynesia. Ten members of the genus have been
described from Moorea in the Society Islands. The six
nominal species of the P. suturalis group form a complex
network of relationships characterized by partial
reproductive isolation.

In order to assess the evolutionary status of members
of the group, random samples of animals from restricted
areas have been scored for fifty characters and subjected
to principal components analysis. The clusters of
individuals identified in the several local samples have
been compared in a further stage of the analysis. Direct
or indirect genetic exchange may be inferred among four of
the "species": P. suturalis, P. aurantia, P. olympia,
and P. tohiveana. P. mooreana has not yet been included
in the analysis. P. dendroica is spatially isolated from
the rest but is very similar to, and genetically
compatible with, P. suturalis.

The possibility that speciation is occurring in situ
is suggested. (Supported by NSF grant GB-26382.)

ASPECTS OF IODINE METABOLISM IN JELLYFISH POLYPS.

Olmon* and K. L. Webb. Dept. Environmental Physiology, Va.

Inst. Mar. Sci., Gloucester Point, Va. 23062

It has been reported that iodine is required for strobi-
lation in jellyfish polyps, and that it is rapidly lost fol¬
lowing a reduction in temperature. Experiments were set up
to verify these findings and to determine whether iodine
has a role in other metabolic processes in jellyfish polyps.
ChAyiaofia quA.nqaz.cJjinha polyps and podocysts were exposed
to a solution containing 1-131 for 2h hours. The subse¬
quent rate of loss of radioactive iodine was followed both
at a constant temperature of 20 C and after a transfer to

12 C. After an initial loss of radioactive iodine the loss
rate remained stable over a period of 2 to 3 weeks. Con¬
trary to previously reported findings, a reduction in
temperature had no effect on the loss rate. Polyps which
were beginning to form podocysts took up much more iodine
than polyps not forming cysts , and the iodine was concen¬
trated in the base region of the polyp at the site of cyst
formation. Iodine was also found to be important in
strobilation in polyps preconditioned for strobilation by
long-term exposure to low temperature. (This work was sup
ported by Public Law 89-720, Jellyfish Act.)

A METHOD FOR DETERMINING ECTOPARASITE POPULATION DENSITIES

ON GRAY SOUIRRELS. J. C. Parker*. R. B. Holliman*, and M.

M. Jones (Sponsor), Dept, of Microbiology, Med, Ool. of Va,,
Richmond, Va, 23219, and Dept, of Biology, Va, Polytechnic

Inst, and State Univ,, Blacksburg, Va, 2A061

Using a planlmeter for determining the areas of flat
tracings of skin, the body surface area of 12 adult male
and 12 adult female srav soulrrels (Sclurus carollnensls)
was determined by regions. The hair was dissolved from the
skin using a variation of the Hopkins maceration technique
employing a 5 percent solution of sodium hydroxide; a total
count of the ectoparasites was made on each region; and the
densities of the ectoparasite population on each region
were calculated. Eight species of arthropods were found
but three species of lice were Che most abundant. The
average population density of all species combined was
highest on Che back and decreased to legs, head, underparts,
and Call. resoecClvelv. Neohaematoolnus sclurl was oresenC

In greatest density on the back: EYiderlelnellus lonelceos
occurred In greatest density on the head: and Hoolopleura
sclurlcola occurred In greatest density on Che lees and
back.

This study seeks to demonstrate the feasibility of
studying ectoparasite populations by body regions on small
mammals In that the physical position of Che parasite is
disclosed, and to provide a unit of comparison between hosts
by providing the number of arthropods per unit of skin
surface.

A SIMULVrjD MODEL OF .i ^HITE-FOOTED :T0Uoj:(PD.T0My3CUS

LEUC0PU3) POPULATIOi; Li j, PAii'f OF THE G.TEAT DISIUL SWAMP.

J. S. PsEOhsl*, J. Richardson and D. 3. Sonenshine,

Biology Dept., Old Dominion Univ., Norfolk, Virginia.

A computer model was designed to simulate changes of a
white-footed mouse (Peromyscus leucopus) population in a
peripheral area of the Dismal Swamp. The approach of the
simulation is to ask a set of questions about factors that
possibly affect Peromyscus leucopus populations, and then to
make speculative propositions in answer to the questions.

The propositions are stated as logical functions that can be
exjiressed in computer language.

Initially, a number of factors believed to affect small
mammal populations was proposed. Then factors were selected
that were believed to affect Peromyscus leucopus populations
in the study area. The factors selected for study are the
effects of standing water, food availability, nesting site
availability and reproduction.

The factors have been expressed as logical functions thal
affect rates of change within the population, and the
functions have been incorporated into a computer program.

The simulation will be compared with field data,
discrepancies will be identified, and the model will be
modified to fit the natural data.

114

The Virginia Journal of Science

GEHETIC CONTROL OF LiOJCINE AMINOPEPTIDASE AND ESTERASE

ISOZYMES IN THE INTERSPECIFIC CROSS Cucurbita lundelliana x

THE EFFECT OF CHRONIC EXPOSURE OF Calcium Cyclamate ON

Meriones unqu i cu latus . A. E. Pyles and G. C. Llewellyn,

C. moschata, B. G. Pinto and J. R. Wall, Dept„ of Biology,
George Mason Univ. , Fairfax, Va. 22030.

In a continuing study of the origins and evolutionary re¬
lationships of the species of the New World genus Cucurbita,
horizontal starch gel analyses of seed extracts of C,
lundelliana, C. moschata cv. Long Genoa Queen, their F^ and

F2, and three of the four possible interspecific backcrosses
reveal that these two species differ by codominant alleles
for alpha-naphthyl acetate esterase (Est) and leucine amino-
peptidase (lap). C. lundelliana, also known as the Peten

Gourd, segregates for two alleles detennining slow and slow'

Est isozymes and is homozygous for the LAP locus, having a
slow LAP phenotype. C. moschata is homozygous and mono-
morphic for Est (fastT aud LAP (fast). The F , C.
lundelliana (Est slow, LAI slow) x C. moschata, is fast/slow
for both isozyme systems. The F, Est ratio gives a satis¬
factory fit to a 1:2:1 ratio (.S6> P> .30); the F- LAP ratio
reveals a significant deviation from expected (.05> P> .01).
Three of the four possible reciprocal interspecific back-
crosses when analyzed for both enzyme systems give a satis¬
factory fit to the expected 1:1 ratio in five instances, in
the sixth instance the data are inconclusive.

Dept, of Biology, Va. Commonwealth Univ. and C. E. O'Rear
and F. W. Rea, Va. Dept, of Agriculture and Commerce,

Richmond, Va. 23220

The effect of chronic administration of calcium cyclamate
in Mongolian qerbils, Meriones unqu icu 1 atus, was invest!-
gated. Calcium cyclamate in aqueous solution was admini¬
stered as the only liquid to weanling test gerbils of both
sexes over a period of approximately five months. There
were no fatalities in either the experimental or control
animals. An increase in gain in body weight of experimental
over control animals was recorded. As adults, weights in
control and experimental groups were comparable within a
few grams. Significantly larger amounts of water were
consumed by experimental animals throughout the experiment.

Urine analysis conducted included pH, protein, glucose,
ketones, urine bilirubin and blood. Histologically, no
tumors were observed on careful macroscopic and microscopic
examination of the urinary bladder, liver or kidneys at
necropsy. Neither was precarci nogen ic activity observed.

A STUDY OF THE POSSIBLE EFFECTS OF VARIOUS DRUGS AS

INSTIGATORS OF A FRIGHT REACTION IE FISH. J. R. Reed,

W. Wieland. and T. D. Kimbrough. Dept, of Biology, Va.
Commonwealth Univ., Richmond, Va. 23220

Two cvprlnid fishes, Clinostomus funduloides and

Notropis cornutus were tested with natm-allv occurring
substances including some well-known biogenic amines.

Behavioral responses to histamine were similar to those
observed in previous tests with natm-al alarm substance
extracts. A response threshold was obtained at 0.01 ppm.
Speotrophotofluorometric emission spectra also indicated
that the natural alarm substance known to exist in many
species of fish may be a ringed or double ringed compound
similar to a purine.

FOOD HOARDING IN FREELY GROWING LABORATORY POPULATIONS OF

PRAIRIE DEERMICE (Peromyscus maniculatus bairdii). L. Z.Rice*
and C. R. Terman. Dept, of Biology, College of William and

Mary, Williamsburg, Va. 23185-

The purpose of this investigation was to study food hoard¬
ing behavior in three freely growing laboratory populations
of prairie deermice.

Proximity of the nestbox to the feeder, the hoarding ani¬
mal, and the presence of pellets in the feeder were important
in maintaining hoarding activity and determining hoard loca¬
tion.

Both male and female (parous and nulliparous) mice hoarded.
These mice rarely initiated aggressive activity and the hoard
was never defended. Food pellets only were hoarded and not
wooden pellets, cotton balls, or young.

The presence of pellets in a particular nestbox acted as a
cue directing hoarding activity. During early tests when pel¬
lets alone were removed from the original hoard site, disrup¬
tion of hoarding occurred in two of the three populations.

Later tests involving removal of (1) both hoarder and food
pellets and (2) only pellets resulted in hoarding disruption
in all populations.

No evidence was obtained in this study that hoarding causes
cessation of population growth. It appears, however, to result
in spatial organization of the population with respect to the
hoard and location of food consumption. This may, along with
other factors, influence cessation of growth In populations.
Supported by NIH-HD-04787

VARIATIONS IN CEPAEA NEMORALIS IN LYNCHBURG, VA.

A. V. Richards*. Dept, of Biology, Univ. of Va,, Char-
lottesville, Va. 22903

Samples of Cepaea nemoralis have been collected in
lynch biu-g fpDm 56 localities, of which 26 have provided
samples of sufficient size for analysis. The lynchburg
colonies are apparently monomorphic ittth respect to yel¬
low shell color. There is a positive association between
shady habitats and high frequencies of band fusions and
also between the proportions of top and bottom fusions
regardless of vegetational category. An analysis of the
differences in the proportions of unbandeds in neigh¬
boring colonies shows significant variation in areas
whore habitat vegetation differs. There are significant
differences between the proportions of unbandeds in colo¬
nies grouped into four vegetational categories. These
characteristic associations are further evidence of vi¬
sual selection as reported by Cain and Sheppard (195^),

Cepaea nemoralis in Lynchburg achieves crvosis in dark
even habitats in the same manner as C. hortensis, ef-
footing an overall darkening of the shell try the in¬
creasing fusion of bands. The data suggest that there
may be a departure from the equal proportions of adult
and young unbandeds which one would expject in the ab¬
sence of selection. A model Star two kinds of selection
operating at different times in the life cycle is proposed.

INSECTS ASSOCIATED WITH THE THERMAL WATERS OF WARM SPRINGS

RUN. VA. William H Robinson*. Dept, of Entomology, Va.
Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ., Blacksburg, Va. 24061

There is a small community of insects inhabiting the
thermal waters (35^C) of Warm Springs Run, The habitat has
been sampled during all seasons. Some of the insects
include representatives of the orders: Hemiptera,

Coleoptera, Odonata, Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera, and Diptera.

Proceedings, 1971-1972

115

SOME PRELIMINARY HISTOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS OF THE HINDGUT
OF PROCAMBARUS ACUTUS ACUTUS GIRARD. S. J. S. Roman* and
D. J. Peters ■ Dept, of Biol., Christopher Newport Col.,
Newport News, Va. 23606

The hindgut of Procambarus acutus acu tus Girard passes
from the midgut along the dorsal surface of the liver; in¬
to the abdomen between the dorsal and ventral muscle
bundles and terminates on the ventral surface of the telson.

USE OF CHROMIC OXIDE FOR ESTIMATION FECAL OUTPUT IN WHITE¬
TAILED DEER AND SHEEP. 0. T. Sanders*, J. E. Skeen* and
C. Faulds* and Dr. H. S . Mosby (Sponsor) . Div. of Forestry
and Wildlife Sciences, Va. Polytechnic Institute and State
Univ., Blacksburg, Va.

Most procedures for measurement of forage consumption
requires determination of fecal output. External indicators
such as chromic oxide (Cr203) have been successfully used

The gut is lined with tall columnar epithelial cells that
appear to be apocrine. These cells rest upon a thin base¬
ment membrane and their free surface is covered with a
laminated cuticle. The latter is thickest in the anal
region and thinnest at the midgut-hindgut junction.

Several layers of smooth muscle form what appears to be a
sphincter muscle at the previously mentioned junction.
Under the epithelium, scattered muscular elements, cushion
cells and connective tissue form the submucosal layer.
Irregularly arranged muscle bands diverge from the longi¬
tudinal muscles and are attached to the epithelial layer.
This arrangement may govern the diameter of the gut lumen.
The entire hindgut is encased in circular muscle.

FETAL SEX RATIOS IN CATTLE AND SHEEP. Patrick F. Scanlon.
Div. of Forestry and Wildlife Sciences, V.P.I.&S.U.,
Blacksburg, Va. 24061

Theoretically the sex ratio in animals should approach
equality unless factors other than chance interferes with
fertilization. Some reports have indicated that a pre¬
ponderance of males occurs during gestation and that
differential mortality occurs in utero. Also, reports have
indicated that in Bovidae, a tendency exists for a greater
preponderance of males in the left uterine horn. The sex
ratio of 586 cattle fetuses and 1392 sheep fetuses was
examined as was the sex ratios at birth of 2315 calves
and 1151 lambs. Overall sex ratio of cattle fetuses was
51.2% males and of sheep fetuses was 50.0% males. Sex
ratio at birth of calves and lambs was 53.3% males and 49.8%
males respectively. Percent males in left and right uterine
horns in cattle were 50.8 and 51.4 respectively and for
sheep were 52.7 and 47.8 respectively. The difference in
sex ratios within uterine horns in both species were non-
si gni fi cant .

in domestic species. The purpose of this study was (1) to
evaluate the Cr203 method as an estimator of fecal output
in white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virglnianus) , (2) to
determine appropriate sampling times and (3) to compare
the accuracy obtained with deer to that of sheep (Ovis
arles) . Two yearling bucks and two yearling wethers, all
on the same ad libitum diet, were administered 3.0 g of
Cr203 daily for 10 days. After a 5 day equilibration
period fecal samples were collected twice daily (0800 and
1600 hrs.) over a 5 day sampling period. Total feces were
also collected for the 5 day period. Results indicate
that an accurate estimate of fecal output is obtained for
both deer and sheep only when daily samples are pooled
over several days. Pooled evening samples yielded better
estimates of fecal output in deer than the pooled morning
samples. In contrast differences between morning and
evening estimates were small for the sheep. The Cr202
technique was as accurate in estimating fecal output in
the deer (109 and 103 percent of actual) as for the sheep
(95 and 99 percent of actual) .

A LAPAROTOMY TECHNIQUE FOR USE WITH WHITE-TAILED DEER.

Patrick F. Scanlon and David K. Lenker*. Div. of Forestry
and Wildlife Sciences, V.P.I.&S.U., Blacksburg, Va. 24061
A technique for laparotomy would permit examination of
female genitalia without sacrifice of the animal. Observa¬
tions of ovarian activity, pregnancy diagnosis, egg transfer,
ovariectomy and caesarian section are facilitated by the
availability of such a technique. A restraining and support
apparatus has been developed to facilitate restraint of the
white-tailed doe during surgery. When the doe is restrained
in this apparatus, the surgical site is conveniently
exposed. The laparotomy technique follows. A mid-ventral
incision, about 5 mm in length, is made just anterior to
the udder. The reproductive organs are located by inserting
two fingers through the incision. The tip of the uterine
horn is grasped between the fingers and drawn towards the
incision. The ovaries. Fallopian tubes and uterus may be
exposed through the incision in a nonpregnant animal. The
incision is closed using three discontinuous sutures through
the body wall. The laparotomy may be conducted using local
or full anaesthesia and has been conducted successfully
under field conditions.

ASPECTS OF EARLY PREGNANCY IN WHITE-TAILED DEER. Patrick
F. Scanlon, W. F. Murphy, Jr.* and D. F. Urbston*. Div. of
Forestry and Wildlife Sciences, Va. Polytechnic Inst, and
State Univ., Blacksburg, Va. 24061.

Reproductive organs were recovered from 34 pregnant white¬
tailed deer harvested during legal hunts in Aiken and
Barnwell Counties, South Carolina (December 8-11, 1971).
Mean ovulation rate was 1.98 (Range 1-3). Pre- implantation
loss of embryos in 29 double-ovulating does was 6.9 percent
and in 2 triple-ovulating does was 50.0 percent. One of
three embryos in single-ovulating does had undergone trans-
uterine migration to the uterine horn opposite the side of
ovulation. When two ovulations occurred from one ovary and
both embryos survived, transuterine migration of one embryo
was observed in all 15 specimens observed. Sixteen does
were lactating at the time of recovery. This indicates
that estrus, ovulation and pregnancy initiation can occur
while the doe is lactating. The mean stage of gestation
of lactating does was comparable to that of non-lactating
does (45.5 days pregnant vs 46.8 days pregnant). Fetal
membranes in twin-pregnant does were fused in 17 of 24
specimens. The number of maternal cotyledons invaded
ranged from five to 12. The model value was six.

THE OCCURRENCE OF AFLATOXIN IN SAMPLES OF PEANUTS FROM
VIRGINIA. A. Schee I e, G. C. Llewellyn, Dept, of Biology,
Va. Commonwealth Univ. and C. E. O'Rear and T. Eadie, Va.
Dept, of Agriculture and Commerce, Richmond, Va. 23220

Data concerning the percent of shell peanuts containing
aflatoxin in Virginia as tested by the mycotoxin laboratory,
VDAC, was utilized to realize the recent rise in aflatoxin
in Virginia peanuts. Evaluations were made by incorpor¬
ating the different types of aflatoxins (B|, B2, G|, G2) as
a complete entity on a monthly basis. Climatological data
for Virginia as compiled by the U.S. Dept, of Commerce and
Environmental Data Service was utilized to recognize the
monthly patterns of precipitation, temperature and evapo¬
ration for the period Sept. 1964 to Jan. 1972 in the
Suffolk, Virginia area. Attempts were then made to compare
monthly climatological deviations with the percent of
shelled peanuts containing aflatoxin.

Correlations between climate and aflatoxin production
revealed that for the period, 1964 to 1971, the percentage
of aflatoxin found tends to assume two peaks for each year.
These peaks are nearly constant for this period in that
December and June are the predominating peak months.
Aflatoxin levels tend to correlate directly to conducive
temperature range for aflatoxin production. The highest
peaked month for aflatoxin levels is preceeded by a monthly
temperature within the conducive range. It was also noted
that 84% of the time above average rainfall will increase
aflatoxin content in tested peanuts.

116

The Virginia Journal of Science

EFFECT OF FLUCTUATING RESERVOIR DISCHARGE ON PHYTOPLANKTON
POPULATIONS IN CLAYTOR LAKE. VIRGINIA. T. T,. Sr.hultp*. and

R. T. Lackey*. Div. of Forestry and Wildlife Sciences , Va.
Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ. , Blacksburg, Va. 24061

In the past it has been theorized that high lake turnover
time during certain periods of the year may limit phyto¬
plankton production. With the recent, and apparent success¬
ful, introduction of a forage-feeding fish, the landlocked
alewife (Alosa pseudoharengus) , this possible loss of pri-
mary production has become a concern of fisheries scien¬
tists. The possible effects of fluctating reservoir dis¬
charge on reservoir phytoplankton standing crop , productiv¬
ity, and qualitative composition is reported. In addition,
the relationship of the amount and kinds of phytoplankton
discharged from Claytor Lake in relation to the rate of dis¬
charge and amount and kinds of phytoplankton in the reser¬
voir is discussed.

A COMPARISON OF THE OCCURRENCE OF OVARIAN TUMORS AND RE¬
LATED BODY ORGANS IN TWO COLONIES OF Meriones unguiculatus .

C. A. Sledd and G. C. Llewellyn, Dept, of Biology, Va.
Commonwealth Univ. and C. E. O’Rear and F. W. Rea, Va.

Dept, of Agriculture and Commerce, Richmond, Va. 23220

The organs and tissues from adult Mongolian gerbils of
both sexes from two colonies were studied. Colony P con¬
sisted of 92 animals and was obtained from a commercial
source, while Colony L consisted of a random sample of ^3
animals taken from our highly inbred Laboratory Colony.

At necropsy, female animals were examined macroscopically
for ovarian cysts. Ovarian cysts ranged up to 1 cm in
diameter and occurred in Colony P and L at 12^ and 20^
levels respectively. In all animals the liver and spleen
color variations were recorded. Adrenal size was noted.

Weights determined included that of the kidneys, liver,
spleen, testes and total body weight. Muscle tissue from
the thigh regions were analyzed for fat and crude protein.

All animals from both colonies having ovarian cysts were
always below average in body weight, liver weight, kidney
weight and adrenal size.

MASS REARING OF RADIOISOTOPE -TAGGED LARVAL TICKS FOR ECOLOG¬
ICAL INVESTIGATIONS . Daniel E. Sonenshine, Dep't. of Biol-
ogy, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, Va. 23508.

Mass rearing of radiolabelled larval ticks for use in
field studies is described. Mass rearing was done with the
American dog tick, Dermacentor variabilis (Say); the lone

ECOLOGICAL FACTORS AFFECTING THE SURVIVAL OF TWO SPECIES OF

TICKS IN THE GREAT DISMAL SWAMP. Daniel E. Sonenshine and

Mary Keith Garrett*. Dept, of Biology, Old Dominion Univ.,
Norfolk, Virginia. 23508

The relative abundance of the lone star tick, Amblyomma
americanum and the American dog tick, Dermacentor variabilis

star tick, Amblyomma americanum CL.); and the Rocky Mountain
wood tick, D. andersoni Stiles; small numbers of tagged lar-
vae of the rabbit tick, Haemaphysalis leporispalustris (Pack-
ard) , also were reared. Inoculation of 14c glucose into en¬
gorged, procreant females of these 4 species was done to
provide sufficient suitably tagged larvae to meet the needs
of field programs, ranging from only a few thousand in 1
species to approximately 250,000 per year in another species.
Large yields were obtained, although less than predicted in
previous published studies. Responsibility for the reduced
yield was attributed, primarily, to decreases in transtadial
transmission efficiency (eggs to larvae) and percent hatch¬
ing, both of which were less than expected. Nevertheless,
the planned overproduction of tagged larvae compensated for
these reductions in yield (except in 1 instance) . The pro¬
gram was found to be practical both in yield and economics .

^ This study was supported by contract AT- (40-1) -3514 with
the Division of Biology and Medicine, U, S. Atomic Energy
Commision, Washington, D. C.

was determined by roadside flagging of a 25 mile section of
the Great Dismal Swamp. A significant difference was observ¬
ed; the dog tick appears to be well established, though den¬
sity estimates suggest its abundance is low; the lone star
tick apparently is not established in the area.

Preliminary surveys of host populations and abiotic fact¬
ors were conducted in an effort to explain the limited abund¬
ance of the two species of ticks. The observed presence of
small mammals and raccoons suggests that a host support sys¬
tem for the dog tick is present, though the abundance and
distribution of this support system are unknown. Deer and
other large mammals which are among the most important hosts
of the lone star tick were rarely observed. We doubt that an
adequate host support system exists for this species of tick.

Variations in atmospheric moisture deficit were found to
be within reported survival ranges of these ticks. Observ¬
ed light intensities within the forest were only 10% of that
observed in the adjacent exposed fields; this may affect the
degree of activity of these ticks. Up to 60% of a study site
within the forest was flooded for 11 consecutive weeks. This
inundation is believed to be a dominant factor which limits
the survival of introduced ticks in the Swamp.

Heat Seeking Activity and Thyroid Development in Hatchling
Japanese Quail (Coturnix c. iaponica). D. E. Spiers, R. A.
McNabb, and F. M. A. McNabb , Department of Biology, Virginia
Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg,

Virginia.

Heat seeking behavior of hatchling Japanese quail was
examined by two different techniques. In one experiment,
groups of quail chicks (3-4 individuals) were exposed to a
temperature gradient (28-44°C), produced by an infra-red
heat lamp. The body temperature of each bird was determined
at different times during the day, starting 2 days after
hatching. On day 2, the body temperature averaged 40.5°C
and rose steadily, reaching about 42.5®C on day 16. This is
0.5°C higher than adults. In the second experiment, indivi¬
dual birds were placed in a cage containing a photoelectric
relay system. The bird turned on a heat lamp by interrupting
a small beam of white light. At 2-3 days of age, the chicks
kept the lamp on 30 to 24% of the time. By 16 days of age,
chicks kept the lamp on only 14% of the time. The results of
both experiments indicate that body temperature increases
and heat demands decrease after hatching. Histologically,
the thyroid gland showed a decreasing follicle cell height
for 5 days after hatching. After this time there was an in¬
crease in follicle cell height from 1.5p up to the adult
size (4.25y) at approximately day 14. (This study was aided
by a grant from the Frank M. Chapman Memorial Fund, American
Museum of Natural History) .

AN EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF MOVEMENT IN NATURAL POPULATIONS OF

THREE SPECIES OF RODENTS. P. P. Staples*, and C. R. Terman.

Dept, of Biology, College of William and Mary, Williamsburg,

Va. , 23185

Four experimental manipulations, each consisting of a re¬
moval and return phase, were performed to investigate the
i nvas ion-dur ing-removal and movements-after-release of three
species: Mus musculus, Microtus pinetorum, and Microtus
pennsy 1 van i cus . There was a significantly greater movement
of Mus into the experimental than the control area during
the removal period, suggesting that the invasion was not due
to random movement. There was no difference between the two
plots in regard to the invasion of M. pinetorum or M. penn-
sylvanicus during this same interval.

During the period following the release of the removed
animals into the field, new Mus and M. pinetorum animals ap-
pea red to move more than resident animals. Comparisons be¬
tween new and resident, young and adult, male and female,
and experimental and control animals of all species showed
variable results. The different species also varied in
their degree of responsiveness. Their responses, however,
did appear to correlate with the known ecological charac¬
teristics of the different species populations. (Supported

by NIH-HD-04787)

Proceedings, 1971-1972

117

THE EFFECTS OF EXPERBEfiTALLI-VARIED LEVELS OF SEROTOKBJ

ON HEMOGLOBIN MEASUREMENTS IK I:ICE. J. Steiner and

T. D. Kimbrough. Dent, of Biologv. Va. Commonwealth Univ. ,
Richmond, Va. 23220

Varying the levels of serotonin in male and female

Swiss Webster mice by intraperitoneal injections of
serotonin and of two serotonin inhibitors, reserpine and
p-chlorophenylalanine altered the levels of hemoglobin.

The hemoglobin concentration was measxired for each sample
of blood with a spectrophotometer (Spectronic-20) . Wave
length was set at 545 millimicrons. It was found that
females consistently had a slightly higher hemoglobin
concentration than males, that both serotonin and the
inhibitors lowered hemoglobin concentrations, and that
serotonin acting alone apparently caused a moderate
decrease in hemoglobin concentration at 1 hour post-
injection, a marked decrease at 2 hours post-injection
and a moderate increase at 3 hours post-injection. It
was further observed that reserpine treatment caused a
consistent increase in hemoglobin concentration during the

3 hour post-injection period while p-chlorophenylalanine
treatment caused a moderate decrease at 1 hour post¬
injection, a marked increase at 2 hours post-injection
and a slight decrease at 3 hours post-injection.

CORRELATION OF HAEMOLYMPH PROTEIN SYNTHESIS WITH PROTEIN
INCORPORATION INTO THE COCKROACH CUTICLE. E. A. Stielstra
and R. R. Mills. Biology Dept., Va. Coramonwealth Univ.,

Richmond, Va. 23220

After the American cockroach, Periplaneta americana (L.),
molts, the soft, white, new cuticle both hardens and
darkens. Protein is synthesized at this time in various
organs and is transported via the haemolymph to the integu¬
ment. Radioactive analysis of haemolymph and cuticle pro¬
teins after the injection of carbon-l4 leucine suggests that
blood proteins are incorporated into the cuticle relatively
unchanged. Further work using labeled blood proteins from
one animal and injected into another supports this conten¬
tion.

REPRODUCTIVE ATTRIBUTES OF PRAIRIE DEERMICE RELATED TO

MECHANISMS OF POPULATION CONTROL. C. R. Terman. Biology
Department, College of William and Mary, Williamsburg, Va.,

23185

The growth of laboratory populations of prairie deermice
was regulated at widely different numerical levels in the
presence of surplus food and water and under identical con¬
ditions of the physical environment. Control of growth was
achieved by either cessation of reproduction or failure of
young to survive. In this study 94% of the females born into
the populations and reaching at least 90 days of age failed
to reproduce. The weights of the reproductive organs of
males and females from these populations were significantly
smaller than those of bisexual pair controls. Histological
analysis of the ovaries revealed that populations had sig¬
nificantly more atretic follicles and significantly smaller
graafian follicles of maximum size than controls.

The mechanisms by which population growth was controlled
were reflected in the histological characteristics of the
ovaries and the weights of the reproductive organs of both
males and females. Offspring born into populations in which
growth was controlled by cessation of reproduction exhibited
a significantly smaller percentage of ovulations and signif¬
icantly smaller ovaries, uteri, testes, vesicular glands, and
bacula than those in populations whose growth was regulated
by mortality of young. The significance of these findings
to mechanisms of growth regulation and attributes of individ¬
ual populations is di scussed . (Career Dev. Award N 1 H-HD-04787)

THE USE OF COMPUTERS TO TEACH FISHERIES SCIENCE. Franklin

B. Titlow and Robert T. Lackey*. Div. of Forestry and

Wildlife Sciences, Va. Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ.,
Blacksburg, Va. 24061.

Fishing pressure on America’s recreational fisheries
will increase substantially in the future. Effective
management of recreational fisheries is a prerequisite to
even begin to successfully cope with increased demands.

Effective fisheries management is based, to a large extent,
on field experience, combined with a solid education in
fisheries principles. Providing managerial experience to
fisheries science students at the graduate and undergraduate
levels presents a problem to educators. Developing manage¬
ment educational programs under field situations is not
feasible for more than a few students. Computer-implemented
teaching games allow students to devise and apply management
programs during classroom lab periods. Immediate results
of their managerial decisions are made possibly by "playing
the games" with the aid of computer programs. Teaching
games are based on existing aquatic ecosystems. A game
is developed to mimic recorded responses of the ecosystem
on which it is based as closely as possible, thus creating
a realistic management situation.

EFFECT OF HIC3T OXYGEN LEVELS ON MARINE INVERTE¬
BRATES. J. J. Torres and C. P. Mangum, Dept, of
Biology, Col. of William and Mary, Williamsburg,

Va, 23185

Previous investigations dealing with oxygen
poisoning in aquatic metazoa have been scant, and
chiefly limited to fresh water infauna. H. M. Fox
discovered in 1954 that oxygen levels equal to and
exceeding air saturation had deleterious effects
on animals found normally in oxygen deficient
water. Corroborative evidence has been slight and
chiefly restricted to animals previously investi¬
gated by Fox. Due to the dearth of evidence re¬
garding the effects of hyperoxia on marine organ¬
isms , the subject has been reopened for investiga¬
tion .

Eleven species of marine invertebrates repre¬
senting both infaunal and epifaunal forms were
exposed to oxygen concentrations of ca. 300% air
saturation for a minimum period of 7 days. Of
these eleven species only two exhibited a negative
response to hyperbaric oxygen. The anthozoan
Haliplanella luciae showed 100% mortality; and the
polyp form of the scyphyzoan Aurelia auritia ex-
hibited impaired setting ability.

EFFECTS OF SEROTONIN AND CYCLIC AMP ON THE DARKENING OF THE
COCKROACH CUTICLE. R. D. VandenBerg and R. R. Mills.

Biology Dept., Va. Commonwealth Univ,, Richmond, Va. 23220
Previous investigations have shown that newly molted

American cockroaches, Periplaneta americana (L.), release a
tanning hormone (known as bursicon) from the terminal
abdominal ganglion. In addition, if the animal is ligated
at the waist immediately after shedding the old cuticle,
the head and thorax remain white. The injection of sero¬
tonin into the white thorax has little if any effect on the
tanning process and does not increase the incorporation of
carbon-l4 tyrosine into the cuticle. On the other hand,
if dibutrylcyclic AMP is injected into the ligated white
thorax, the tanning process is potentiated and additional
carbon-l4 tyrosine is incorporated into the cuticle. The
cyclic AMP also increases the uptake of ^4(;;_tyrosine by
blood cells and from these data it is speculated that the
tanning hormone may activate membrane adenylate cyclase.

118

The Virginia Journal of Science

NITROGEN COMPONENTS IN URINE OF THE MALE DOMESTIC FOWL
(CALLUS DOMESTICUS). J, M. Ward, Jr.*, R. A, McNabb and
F. M. A. McNabb*. Department of Biology, Va. Polytechnic
Inst, and State Univ., Blacksburg, Va. 24061

Urine was collected from roosters fed high and low pro¬
tein diets (33% protein and 11% protein, respectively) and
provided with water ad libitum. Replicate urine samples were
taken simultaneously and centrifuged. Precipitated uric
acid and supernatant urine were separated and frozen for
storage. Replicates were analyzed for uric acid and ammon¬
ia in both liquid and precipitated urine fractions.

Roosters on the low protein diet excreted ammonia at a
rate four times that of roosters on the high protein diet.
This is contrary to results found in pigeons.

A comparison of the ratio of ammonia to uric acid in the
supernatant and precipitate urine fractions revealed that
ammonia was present primarily in the supernatant, whereas,
uric acid was localized in the precipitate.

As the concentration of total uric acid (precipitate and
supernatant) increased, the concentration of total ammonia
increased initially and then decreased at higher uric acid
concentrations. (Supported by NIH Grant AM1499i.

NITROGEN CYCLING IN ANTARCTIC FRESH-WATER ECOSYSTEMS.

E.B. Wodehouse*, and B.C. Parker. Dept, of Biology, Va.
Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ., Blacksburg, Va, 24060.

During the austral summer of 1970-1971, nitrogen cycling
was studied in two meltwater lake basins in the vicinity of
Palmer Station, Anverse Island, Antarctica (64® 46*S, 60®
05*W), The larger and deeper of the two lakes (located on
Norsel Point) was oligotrophic and supported a relatively
small algal population. The smaller and shallower lake
(located on Humble Island) was eutrophic and supported lux¬
uriant algal growth. An Adelie penguin rookery just out¬
side the Humble Island lake basin was the major source of
nutrient enrichment for the island lake.

Within each lake basin, the movement of nitrogen as
ammonia, nitrate and nitrite was sampled. These nitrogen
sources were measured in rain, snow and glacial meltwater
for each lake. Special attention was given to the sampling
of ammonia evolved from the penguin rookery and transported
through the air. From 1 to 15 mg per sq m per day of
ammonium nitrogen (N) was collected in glacial meltwater
traps situated along the Humble Island lake while less than
1 mg per sq m per day was collected at sites along the
Norsel Point lake. These results help to illustrate that
airborne ammonia can play an important part in the nutrient
enrichment of fresh-water lakes and must be considered in
any evaluation of nitrogen cycling. (Aided by NSF grant
GA - 16768)

Section of Botany

Fiftieth Annual Meeting of The Virginia Academy of Science
May 3-5, 1972, Lexington, Virginia

EFFECT OF ACUTE GAMMA IREADIATION ON THE INCIDENCE OF
TUMOR-LIKE STRUCTURES AND ADVENTITIOUS ROOTS IN LETTUCE
PLANTS. David A. Bankes , Dept, of Biology, Christopher
Newport Col., Newport News, Va. 23606

Acute y -irradiation caused tumor-like structures
and an increase in the incidence of adventitious roots on
(Lactuca sativa H V great lakes). While untreated plants
of this variety only occasionally develop adventitious
roots on stems, the number of plants with adventitious
roots increased after exposures of 4 and 6 kR and reached
100 per cent after 7 kR. Similarly, the number of adven-
roots per plant increased with exposure dose. Some roots
formed directly on the stems, but they occurred more
frequently on small (1-5 mm diam) bulbous, nonchlorophyl-
lous tumors which developed on leaves as well as on stems.
Larger (up to 30 mm diam) chlorophyllous tumors formed
after exposures of 6 and 7 kR. They ware associated with
basal leaves, being most common at the bases of the blades.
In some cases they occurred along the leaf margins. Of
the plants exposed to 6 kR, 80 per cent became tumorous
whereas only 50 per cent of those exposed to 7 kR formed
tumors .

A PRELIMINARY LOOK AT THE GENUS MELANTHIUM L. Norlyn L.

Bodki n , Dept, of Biology, Madison College, Harrisonburg, Va .
22801 and Dept, of Botany, Univ. of Md . , College Park, Md.
20742.

Me I anth I urn is a small North American genus with at least
one of the species occuring from Connecticut to Minesota to
Texas and east to northern Florida. The plants grow in a
wide range of ecological niches from bogs to praries.

There is considerable variation in the taxonomic opinion
in the genus Me I anth i urn L. as to the number of species in the
genus, the status of the genus itself and the taxonomic
characters used in this determination. In Species Plantarum,
1753, Linnaeus described the first two species of the genus,
M^. vi rqi n i cum and s i b i ri cum. Since that time an addi¬
tional 75 species have been recognized, only five since 1885.
Current floras and manuals now include only two to four
species. One of the Linnaean species, M. s i b i ri cum, is in¬
cluded in Zyqadenus Mi chx. Considerable intergeneric and
infrageneric transfer has occured in the history of Me I an¬
th i urn . Of the more common North American taxa to which
transfer has been made 23 of the 77 described species have
been placed in synonomy either within Me I anth i um. Veratrum
or Zyqadenus . The most severe treatment of the genus was
its complete dismantling with all species being placed in
Ve ratrum. Thus, in the taxonomic history of Me I anth i um the
number of species recognized in the judgements of the
taxonomists varies from 77 to none.

Proceedings, 1971-1972

119

HEPATICOLOGY IN VIRGINIA. D.A. Brell. Dept, of Natural
Sciences, Longuood Col., Farmvllle, Va. 23901

Liverworts have been sporadically collected In

Virginia since the mid 19th century. Most collections
have been few In number primarily because the collectors
were more Interested In vascular plants. During the last

50 years, several bryologlsts Including Paul Patterson,

Rudolf Schuster, Aaron Sharp, H. Iltls, Irma Schnooberger ,
and Frances Wynne have added substantially to our present
knowledge of the numbers and distribution of Hepatlcae In
the state. Nonetheless the majority of collections have
been made In the mountainous part of the state or the
coastal plain with almost none from the southern piedmont.

The present number of known Hepatlcae from these regions

Is approximately 140 species, of which 3/4ths are leafy
and the remainder thallose.

In the past two years the author has collected
liverworts In five counties of the southern piedmont of

Virginia. To date, 40 different liverworts have been

Identified and the area has hardly been scratched.

COMPARATIVE ROOT UPTAKE AND TRANSLOCATION OF FOUR ^^C-
LABELED NONIONIC SURFACTANTS FROM NUTRIENT SOLUTION BY

GLYCINE MAX L. E. R. Butts* and C. L. Fov. Dept. Plant

Path. & Physiol., Va. Poly. Inst. 4 State Univ., Blacksburg,

Va. 24061

Eight to 12-day-old soybean plants were allowed to adsorb
fatty acid (FA) or polyoxyethylene (POE) ^^C-labeled non¬
ionic surfactants Tween 20 (FA or POE), Tween 80 (FA or

POE), Span 20 (FA) and Span 80 (FA) from 1/2 strength Hoag-
land's nutrient solution for 1 to 7 days. The plants were
mounted, oven-dried, pressed and exposed to X-ray film for

2 weeks. The distribution of ^^C was determined by auto¬
radiography and counting. Aliquots of the treatment solu¬
tions were also radioassayed at each harvest and the pro¬
gressive removal of was plotted.

For all treatments, small quantities of were trans¬

located to soybean shoots increasingly with uptake time and
concurrently with the diminution of ^^C in the treatment
solution. Relatively more ^^C was retained by the roots
than was transported to the shoots. Root uptake of ^^C was
reduced as the surfactant concentration in the ambient sol¬
ution was increased from 0.003% through 1.0%.

FA label from both Tween and Span surfactants was more
readily absorbed and translocated than POE labeled Tween
compounds. Mobility and accumulation patterns of the POE
label were characteristic of substances which move only In
the apoplast, whereas the FA label appeared to be phloem
mobile also. (Aided by USDA Grant No. 12-14-100-9211 [34] ) .

THE FLORA OF THE HEADWATERS OF CORNELIUS CREEK, BOTETOURT

COUNTY, VIRGINIA. T. H. Dalmas. Dept, of Natural Selences,
Longwood Col,, Farmville, Va. 23901

The headwaters of Cornelius Creek support a rich flora
characteristic of seepage areas at high altitudes on north
facing slopes of the central Virginia Blue Ridge Mountains,

In the two acres studied, three ecological habitats were
encountered; a dry forested tract, a wet forested tract,
and an open glade. Some of the species of vascular plants
which are present are representative of a more northern
flora. One hundred and twenty vascular plants and twenty-
five bryophytes were collected and deposited in the herb*
aria at the Peaks of Otter and Longwood College,

RluT-HAIH Diy?SRENTIATIuN IN ELODEA. Larrv W.

Dosier* and J. L. Rlooel. Dent, of Bloloerv.

Univ. of Va., Charlottesville, Va. 22901

Differences In the growth and differentiation
processes of trichoblasts and their sister epi¬
dermal cells were examined In the root of Elodea
canadensis. Hoots showine near uniform Inltia-
ticn of hairs were selected from field collected
roots and cell, nuclear, and nucleolar dimensions
determined from prepared sections. The Eeulgen
technique was employed with photometry for deter-
mlhatlon of DNA content In other sections.

Cell length accounts for most of the differ¬
ential volume during development. No discontin¬
uity In the rate of growth is evident. Nucleolar
and nuclear diameters are greater from the point
of formation. Preliminary results indicate DNA

Is of the same level of magnitude In both types
of cells. Results are discussed In relation to
recent studies of trichoblasts.

NOTES ON ARCTIC AND SUBARCTIC BAS 1 D 1 OMYC ETES . D. F. Farn'^
and 0. K. Miller, Jr, Dept, of Biolony, Va. Polytechnic

Inst, and State Univ., Blacksburg, Va. 2^061

The species herein reported are Homobas I d ionycetes
typically found in tundra plant communities. The genus

Omphalina has three species which form a symbiotic
association with the green algae Cocconyxa, Omphalina
luteovi tel 1 ina (Pilat and Nannf.) M. Lange, 0. ericetorum
rpr.) M. Lange, and 0. hudsoniana (Jenn.) Bigelow. These
bas id iol ichens have a cl7aracter i s t i c arctic alpine distribu¬
tion. The taxonomy of these three species in Alaska is dis¬
cussed with special reference to (a) the amyloid reaction of
some cell walls in the pileus and gill trama, a new charac¬
teristic reported for the first tine in this genus, and (b)
host ranges. Species of the genus Laccaria also are well
represented in the Alaskan flora. However, placement of
these specimens in knov/n species has proven difficult, and
the reasons for this difficulty are considered. Coprinus
martini i Favre ex Orton is reported for the first time
from North America.

SOME STUDIES ON THE CULTIVATED PLANTS SURVIVING ON THE ABAN¬
DONED HOMES ITES IN THE SHENANDOAH NATIONAL PARK. J. El wood
Fisher. Dept, of Bioloqy, Madison Col., Harrisonburq. Va .

22801 .

The abandoned homes i tes in the Shenandoah National Park
have been undergoing an undisturbed succession ranging from
thirty to forty years. The inhabitants left behind numer¬
ous varieties of cultivated and ornamental plant species.

Some of these have died or are dying, other survive but are
severely crowded, while a few are eUectively competing with
native species.

Most homesites had many fruit trees, but the apple is the
only species with frequent seedlings. The wineberry was a
popular raspberry and is well established at nearly every
site.

A surprisingly large number of ornamental remain. Day-
lilies, daffodils, and irises are the most common perennial
bulbs, but several others have been recorded. Japanese'
honeysuckle and periwinkle are the only ornamental vines
found so far. Several popular shrubs have been noted,
especially lilacs, Japanese bush honeysuckle, and boxwoods.

Virginia pine, black locust, and the tree of heaven are
the most frequent invader in old field succession in the
area .

Some interesting interviews have been made with former
residents of the area.

120

The Virginia Journal of Science

HOST RANGE STUDIES OF ENDOGONE GIGANTEA. J. A. Fox* and
L. Spasoff. Dept, of Plant Pathology and Physiology, Va.
Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ., Blacksburg, Va. 24061
Host range studies of Endogone gigantea were conducted
with a population collected in a tobacco field in Nottoway
County, Virginia and increased on tobacco in the greenhouse.
Twenty zygospores were added to sterilized soil in 15 cm
pots. The treatments consisted of single seedlings of (1)
Zea mays ('Hy x C103') (2) Secale cereale ('Balboa') (3)

Glycine max ('Lee') (4) Nicotiana tabacum ('NC 95') trans¬

planted into infested pots and (5) a no plant check. Each
treatment was replicated five times. Two months after
transplanting, the zygospores of Endogone were washed from
the roots and counted. The average number of spores per
plant for each treatment were (1) 85, (2) 71, (3) 9, (4)

83, and (5) 7. These data indicate that 'Lee' is a poor
host of Endogone gigantea as compared to 'Hy x C103',
'Balboa' and 'NC 95'.

ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS EFFECTING SPECIFIC DIURNAL CYCLES IN
THE LAFAYETTE RIVER, NORFOLK, VA. Burton M. Golub and H. G
Marshall, Dept of Biology, Old Dominion University,

Norfolk, Va. 23508,

Diurnal studies were made at a station on an urban tidal
estuary located on the Lafayette River in Norfolk. Va. from
June to December 1971. A total of eight collection periods
;«7ere recorded. Biological and chemical parameters monitored
Included temperature, salinity, dissolved oxygen, light
oenetration, extractable chlorophylls, phytoplankton
quantities, and predominant phytoplankton species. Cloud
cover, precipitation, and wind conditions were also noted.
Samples were taken at both the surface and the three meter
level at four hour intervals. Results showed salinity and
temperature stratification during the warmer months, with
more homogenous conditions existing during the colder months.
Dissolved oxygen increased with decreasing temperatures.
Diurnal oxygen maximums were recorded in late afternoon.
Diurnal chlorophyll and plankton quantities increased dur¬
ing the early morning and late afternoon hours. Seasonally,
chlorophyll and plankton reached maximum values in late
July and decreased to a minimum in November. December
showed the beginnings of an increase of these two charac¬
teristics. Predominant phytoplankters included diatoms in
the summer and flagellates in the autumn. Tidal fluctua¬
tions, combined with the "bottleneck" shoreline, appeared
to have an effect on population densities.

MARINE LTONICOLOUF F^JNGI OF THF LG'TR CHFFA'^.AKE
BAY* P* W* Yirk, Jro Dept. Biology and Ocean-
ography, Old dominion Unlv. , Norfolk, Va. 23508
Thirty spp. of wood-decay fungi, including 12
Ascomycetes and 8 Deuteromycetes unreported from
Va , , were collected at mouths of the James and
York River estuaries. Tabulating world distribu¬
tions in relation to Feb. isotherms of the oceans
showed 11 spp, to be cosmopolitan, 15-16 temper¬
ate, and 3 tropical. Several cosmopolitan and
temperate spp. predominated year-round, whereas 3
temperate fungi occurred mainly Sept. -April, and 2
tropical ones May-Aug. Fungal Indicators of con¬
tinuous tropical or cold temperate climates were
lacking, as were brackish water fungi. Distribu¬
tion patterns of Lulworthla spp. suggested that
spore length in the cosmopolitan genus forms a
dine governed by water temperature or viscosity.
Early colonizers were distinguished from climax
fungal associations on wood incubated 24 months in
the lab. Fusarlum spp. and Allescheria boyd 11
were abundlTIt on incubated panels that had been
submerged in the estuaries, but lacking on incu¬
bated driftwood. This observation plus reported
growth of similar fungi anaerobically without
SDorulating, suggests that some unspeolalized
fungi are significant in temperate marine ecosys¬
tems, possibly disseminating as hyphal fragments.

A STUDY OF THE IMPACT OF THE EXOTICS LON I CERA JAPONICA
THUNB. AND AILANTHUS ALT I SS IMA (MILL.) SWINGLE ON THE
SHENANDOAH NATIONAL PARK ECOSYSTEM. Paul R. Lee, II* and
J. Elwood Fisher, Madison Col., Dept, of Biology, Harrison¬
burg, Va. 22801

The officials of the Shenandoah National Park have an¬
ticipated the threat which certain exotic plants may pre¬
sent to the native plant associations. More than one hun¬
dred exotic plant species have been discovered on or near
homes ites in the park.

Most of these species have died or are dying out.

Ai I anthus a I ti ss I nria . the Tree of Heaven, is well established
in many areas at all elevations. It can compete effectively
with native species.

Lonicera Japonica, the Japanese Honeysuckle, is readily
naturalized at elevations less than 2500 feet where light
is sufficient.

Seven quadrates in the Swift Run Gap area have been
carefully studied for one year. Ecological data, growth
rate measurements, and related information has been recorded
weekly at these sites.

Conclusions have been reached concerning major limiting
factors affecting each species, the threat each presents to
the re-establishment of native forest species, and the
measure of control necessary to regulate their advancement
into the park ecosystem. (Aided in part by a grant from
the Natural Sciences Res. Project, National Park Service)

NOTES ON ARCTIC AND SUBARCTIC AGARICS FROM ALASKA AND
ADJACENT CANADA. G. A. Laursen, 0. K. Miller, Jr., and
D. L. Manning. Dept, of Biology, VPI & SU, Blacksburg, Va.
24061

Higher fungi have been collected in tundra habitats over
3 seasons. The study areas include: the St. Elias Mt .

Range in Southeast Alaska and the Alaskan North Slope. Four
taxa constitute new records for North America: Russula
erne t lea Schaef. ex Fr. var. alpestris Boud., Russula
xe ramp el in a Schaef. ex Fr. var. pascua Moll. & J. Schaef f.
Hebeloma pus ilium J. Lange and H. marginatulum (Favre)
Bruchet. Two species. Including a Lactarius OKM 10316 and
a Clitocybe OKM 10336 are found only in arctic tundra and
appear to be new species. In the Alaskan Arctic, two
species seem to be dominant decomposers namely: Naemati-
loma udum (Pers . ex Fr . ) Kars t . , and Galerina subannulata
(Sing.) Smith and Sing. Cystoderma amianthlnum (Scop, ex
Fr.) Fayod var typicum Sing, and Smith was found only in
disturbed areas. Inocybe decipientoides Peck is reported
for the first time, above the Arctic Circle.

General information is given on the occurence and
abundance of these species in tundra plant communities.

The sensitivity of the fruiting responses to a subtle
moisture gradient is discussed.

COCCOLITHOPHORES IN THE COASTAL WATERS OFF THE EASTERN
UNITED STATES. Harold G. Marshall. Dept, of Biology, Old
Dominion University, Norfolk, Va . 23508.

Phytoplankton collections were obtained from predomi¬
nantly shelf waters off the eastern coast of the United
States between the Gulf of Maine and Florida. The cocco-
lithophores were discussed specifically in relation to
their geographical distribution and species composition.

A total of 66 coccolithophores were identified. The
greatest diversity of species occurred in the Gulf Stream
where 40 species were noted. These were compared to forms
found in the cold currents coming down the Nova Scotia
coast. The cold water form of Emi liania huxleyi , Syraco-
sphaera pulchra , molischli , and S. tuberculata were
noted as the dominant of nine species found in this colder
current. Emlllania nuxleyi , found In the cold, warm, and
intermediate forms, was ubiquitous. The total numbers of
coccolithophores generally increased along the transects
seaward. Of special interest was the extensive distribution
of the diatom species in the genus Melosira over the entire
sampling area. (Supported by NSF grant GB 13906).

Proceedings, 1971-1972

121

NOTE;i ON THE jISTRIHJTIOI: OF THE BETULACEAE (BIRCH FAMILY)

IN VIRGINIA, Peter M. Mazzeo. U, 3. Nat. Arboretun, Ap;ri~
cultural P?s. Service, U. S. Dept. Agriculture, V/ashin^ton,

D.C. FOOC2.

Recent field ani herbarium studies have produced some
new distribution data about the Betulaceae (Birch Family) in
Virginia. These additional data v'ill bo incorporated in n
treatment of this family for n proposed flora of Virginia.

The Betulaceac, growing nat\irally throughout the various
physiographic provinces of the state, is represented in Vir¬
ginia by five genera containing IF specific taxa. In addi¬
tion to the indigenous taxa, a few exotic species have been
planted for ^-xperimental purposes, w'ith naturalization
some of these exotics may become elements of the estab¬
lished flora in certain areas of the state.

Although the range maps and data included in this paper
may show some gaps in the distribution for certain taxa,
continued field and he'^'bariu.m studies will bridge many of
the gaps, and produce a better known distribution pattern
for each member of the Betulaceae in the Old Dominion.

UEGETATION OF A PIEDiyiONT RAUINF. Heather
lYlcClanahan*, Longmood College, Farmville, Ua .

23901

The ravine at Allen's mill, Prince Edmard

County, Virginia, contains a deep gorge sur¬
rounded by granitic flat-rocks — a topographical
feature not commonly associated ujith the Pied¬
mont. inhere un usual topographical features are
found, one may also expect the vegetation to be
unusual. This expectation mas supported by fact
after making a vegetational study of the ravine,

Tmo hundred and three plant species, representing

66 families, mere collected and identified,
Tmenty-four species are associated mith the gra¬
nitic flat-rocks of the area; 8 species are rare
to the Piedmont and/or occur extremely locally„

The topography seems to be largely responsible
for the unusual vegetation.

POPULATION DYNAMICS OF VIGUIERA PORTERI. A. Clair Mellinger.
Dept, of Life Sciences, E. Menn. Col., Harrisonburg, VA

22801

Viguiera porteri is an annual composite endemic to the
fall- line granite outcrops of Georgia and Alabama. Because
of its sharply delimited habitat, it serves as an excellent
species for a plant population dynamics study. Four factors
affecting the size of the V. porteri plant and seed popu-
lations were emphasized: seed germination polymorphism,
summer drought stress, vegetative and reproductive plasti¬
city, and loss of seeds washed from the population. Numbers
of seeds produced, seeds dormant in the soil, seeds germi¬
nating, and plants surviving to reproduce were presented for
a V. porteri population for the years 1967-1969.

THE TRIBE CICHORIEAE OF COMPOSITAE IN VIRGINIA.

C. L. Nessler*. Dept, of Biology, Col. of

William and Mary, Williamsburg, Va. 23185

The Cichorieae is the only tribe in the sub¬
family Liguliflorae of the family Asteraceae
(Compositae) . Members of this tribe can be dis¬
tinguished from other composites by their heads
of perfect, ligulate flowers and sap of milky-
white latex.

This study is a systematic treatment of the
Cichorieae excepting the genera Hieracium and
Prenanthes, in Virginia. Data was obtained from
eleven herbaria, and from observations and
collections made in the field. All counties in
Virginia were visited during collecting trips in
the spring and summer of 1971.

A total of 1257 specimens were examined and
annotated, including 381 which were collected
personally. Of these 381, approximately 206
represent the only material seen from the county
of origin.

Twenty-six species were studied; of these, it
was found that seven species occur mostly in the
western portions of Virginia, four occur mostly
in the east, nine are ubiquitous, and six are
restricted or local in distribution.

SOYBEAN TISSUE CULTURE, NITROGEN METABOLISM AND pH. L. C.

Olson, Dept, of Biology, Christopher Newport Col,, Newport

News, Va. 23606

Analysis of soybean tissue grown on Murashige skoog

Revised Medium (RM) indicated that about 95% of the medium
nitrogen was present in the tissue when it was supplied
with optimum levels of cytokinin and auxin. This soybean
tissue showed a nitrogen content of 6.5% compared to 3-3.5%
for tobacco tissue.

Under conditions of optimum hormone levels, the dry
weight increase was higher for growth with Miller's medium
which has only 57% of the nitrogen of the revised medium.

Again essentially all the nitrogen added to the medium was
accounted for in the tissue. A study of the growth of
soybean tissue with varying levels and sources of nitrogen
showed maximum growth at levels of nitrogen lower than the

RM.

Data from suspension cultures of soybean cells suggest
that the reason for the lower growth at higher levels of
added Nitrogen is due to a drop in pH to 3.5 which accom¬
panied the selective use of ammonia initially. The nitrate
present in the medium was subsequently used and there was
a concomitant rise in medium pH to slightly above the
initial value at the end of growth.

The tissue culture media currently in use seem inad¬
equately buffered. Higher levels of phosphate to lO-^M
Increased growth and lessened pH changes.

THE CURATIVE EFFECTS OF TWO SYSTEMIC, FUNGITOXIC BENZIMIDA¬
ZOLES ON "MIMOSA" SEEDLINGS EXHIBITING FUSARIUM WILT

SYMPTOMS. P. M. Phipps* and R. J. Stipes. Dept. Plant

Pathology and Physiology, Va, Polytech. Inst. & State Univ. ,
Blacksburg, 24061.

Two systemic, fungitoxic benzimidazoles, benomyl (B) and
thiabendazole (T), were tested for their curative effects on
Fusarium wilt of "Mimosa" (Albizzia iulibrissin) . Six -week-
old seedlings grown in Weblite in the greenhouse were treated
by drenching the growth medium at the time of initial wilt
symptoms with various levels (100, 300 ^g/ml) of either B or

T in water suspension. Symptom expression was recorded
weekly, and growth (fresh wt) and pathogen survival were
determined at harvest. The test was performed twice, and
the degree of symptom expression was 15 and 35 per cent,
respectively, at the time of treatment. B-treated plants in
the first test responded by a 32 and 40 per cent recovery 5
weeks after treatment at the 100 and 300 pg/ml levels,
respectively. In the second test, in which a higher treat¬
ment level (500 ;ig/ml) was included, only B at this level
produced a curative effect. Seven weeks after treatment,
the curative effect of B was lost and plants again succumbed
to disease. In both tests, T at the higher levels (300, 500
pg/ml) retarded the rate of symptom development; however, no
curative effects were observed. The decreased frequency of
recovery of the pathogen in culture and increased plant
growth determined at harvest further confirmed the curative
effect of B treatments.

122

The Virginia Journal of Science

PHYTOPLANKTON SUCCESSION IN THE LAFAYETTE RIVER, NORFOLK
VIRGINIA. Thomas W. Purcell and Harold G. Marshall. Dept,
of Biology, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, Va. 23508
A seasonal phytoplankton study was conducted in the
Lafayette River estuary, Norfolk, Virginia. Composition
and concentration values are given with successional
patterns for the phytoplankton at two stations in the
river. Oxygen, temperature salinity, and chlorophyll para¬
meters were obtained as part of the sampling method. Pre¬
liminary results indicate a marked difference in population
density between the two sites; with lesser differences in
the types of species. The successional pattern appears to
be a modified bi-modal expression with the winter and
spring dominated by diatoms and fall dominated by the phyto-
flagellate. There appears to be some extension of this
latter stage due to a subsequent warming trend. Dominant
species were those expected for the region; these include
Skeletonema costatum (Greville) , Rhizosolenia fragilissma
Bergon, and Gymnodinium splendens Lebour. A great number
of varied species were identified in the river system,
mostly in small numbers. The influence of physical and
chemical factors are discussed in relation to their
influence to phytoplankton patterns.

STABILITY OF TAXONOMIC CRITERIA IN THE CHYTRIDIALES .

Martha K. Roane . Dept, of Biology, Va. Polytechnic Inst,
and State Univ., Blacksburg, Va. 24061

Characters used for taxonomic criteria in the Chytridales
were studied in 20 single-sporangium isolates of 4 species
of chytrids (Chy tridium ottariensis , Chytriomyces hyalinus ,
Phlyctochy trium powhatensis , and Rhizophydium sphaerocarpum)
on 4 media and 8 natural substrates. Variation was examined
among strains of the same species and also among the 4
species. Location of thallus, position of resting spores,
and presence of catenulate apophyses were not constant with¬
in any strain for any medium or substrate. Size of spor¬
angia, size of resting spores, size and shape of zoospores,
and type of thallus development were reliable taxonomic
characters .

DISTRIBUTION OF AQUATIC PHYCOMYCETES IN ANT¬
ARCTICA. Hugh Rooney* and Dr. Robert A. Paterson.
Dept, of Biology, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State
University, Blacksburg, Va. 2406l

Soil and water samples, collected in various areas of
Victoria Land and Ross Island during January and Febru¬
ary, 1972, are being examined to determine occurrence
and distribution of chytrids and Oomycetes. The areas
selected were divided into four major groups: (1) penguin
rookeries, (2) dry valleys, (3) coastal areas, and (4)
areas inhabited by man.

In preliminary data from the investigation of one third of
the samples, fungi occurred in 27% of the samples from
coastal areas, 24% from areas inhabited by man, 16%
from the dry valleys, 11% from the penguin rookeries, and
22% from the lakes near penguin areas. Transects through
the penguin rookeries of Cape Royds and Bird indicated
higher percentage frequency of occurrence of chytride-
aceous fungi at the margin of the nest areas than in the
center of the rookeries.

VASCULAR FLORA OF THE YORKTOWN COLONIAL PARKWAY BETWEEN
KINGS CREEK AND BRACKENS POND. Emi ]y D. Sal le-L Dept,
of Biology, Col. of William and Mary, Williamsburg, Va.
23185

The purpose of this study is to permanently record the
vascular flora of the Yorktown Colonial Parkway between
Kings Creek and Brackens Pond, York County, Virginia.

The area studied extends approximately 4.4 miles along
both sides of the Parkway making the total land area
included about 265 acres. Major vegetational communities
present include (1) roadsides and clearings (2) woods
(3) salt marshes (4) beaches and (5) ponds and fresh¬
water marshes .

Some of the most interesting specimens collected were
Carex d i v i sa , Aureolarla v i rg i n i ca , Ma 1 axi s sp i cata ,

He I i anthus occ i dental i s , Boehmeria n i vea , and Ligustrum
s i nense . The following plants were conspicuously abundant
in the study area: Lonicera Japonica, Myrica cerifera,
Lindera benzoin , Senecio aureus , Cal 1 icarpa amer i cana ,
Spart i na spp . , and Allium ampeloprasum var . at roviol aceum.

Of the specimens collected there were 492 taxa repre¬
senting 109 families and 317 genera. Of the species
found three were state records, S6 were Peninsula
records and 312 were county records.

TRANSLOCATION RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN TOMATO AND OROBANCHE
RAMOS A L. A. R. Saghir*, C. L. Foy, C. R. Drake and S. A.
Tolin. Dept. Plant Path. & Physiol., Va . Poly. Inst. &
State Univ., Blacksburg, Va. 24061

Branched or hemp broomrape (0. ramosa) , a common phaner¬
ogamic root parasite of solonaceous and leguminous crops in
semi-arid regions of the world, readily parasitizes tomato
(Lycopersicon esculentum L. 'Rutgers') under greenhouse
conditions. Structural aspects of the parasitic relation¬
ship were examined by light and electron microscopy.

Solute translocation between species was studied by auto¬
radiography and counting at intervals following adminis¬
tration of ^^C02 to tomato and/or 0. ramosa in photo¬
synthesis chambers.

The vascular system of a functioning haustorium is sim¬
ple structurally. Continuity of xylem and undifferentiated
parenchyma exists between the haustorium of the parasite
and the root of the host; however, there is no evidence of
interconnecting sieve tube elements. Radiolabeled metabol¬
ites in tomato were readily supplied to the attached para¬
site. However, transport of ^^C from tomato to broomrape
in the dark or from parasite to host in either light or
dark was negligible after several hours.

No structures analogous to chloroplasts were observed in
thin sections of leaf or stem tissue of the parasite.
Furthermore, acetone extracts of 0. ramosa shoot tissue
failed to show absorbance in the spectral regions corres¬
ponding to chlorophylls a and b.

AN ORDINATION OF PLANT SUCCESSION IN THE GREAT DISMAL SWAMP
OF VIRGINIA, Susan W. Walker* and Gerald F, Levy, Dept,
of Biology, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, Va, 23508,
Fourteen different areas were analyzed as to environ¬
mental parameters and vegetational composition. Using
ordination techniques as a tool to discover possible inter¬
relationships, it was shown that in most cases the existing
communities could be categorized by soils i peaty soils
with a high water retention capacity versus mineral soils
with a low water retention capacity. An Index of Repro¬
duction based on the densities of the tree and sapling
layers and the numbers of different species in each of these
layers was developed to indicate the state of fluctuation
within a given stand. In each stand the tree layer was
compared to its sapling layer using the Index of Similarity
(2w/a+b) to determine potential similarity of compositiono
Both wetter and drier stands exhibited variations in their
state of fluctuation, as well as in degree of similarity
between their tree and sapling layers. The composition of
the sapling layers of some stands studied provides evidence
of similar successional trends on wetter and drier sites
despite substrate compositional stability. Other succes¬
sional patterns also are evident.

Proceedings, 1971-1972

123

SUBSTRATE TYPE AND DISTRIBUTION OF ROCK OUTCROP PORTULAC-
ACEAE. Stewart Ware. Dept, of Biology, College of William
and Mary, Williamsburg, Va. 23185

In the genera Portulaca and Talinum in the eastern and
central United States there are several rock outcrop species
whose distribution closely parallels that of outcrops of a
certain type. Portulaca smallii is found on granite out¬
crops of the southeast; Talinum calcaricum on the limestone
cedar glades of Tennessee and northern Alabama. Talinum
mengesii is confined to sandstone outcrops centered in north
Alabama, except for a few relict populations on granite in
Georgia; Talinum teretifolium distribution centers on gran¬
ite outcrops in the Piedmont from Georgia to Virginia, with
outlying populations on serpentine and sandstone. In Miss¬
ouri and Arkansas, Talinum parviflorum is found on sandstone
but never on limestone, and Portulaca mundula, like the in¬
troduced Portulaca oleracea occurs on limestone, sandstone,
and granite. Among those plants broadly circumscribed as
Talinum calycinum different forms (species?) occur on sand¬
stone, shale, granite, and perhaps limestone. Recent exper¬
iments have shown that there has been much physiological
specialization in these two genera toward adaptation to a
particular substrate and pH, explaining some of these par¬
allels between distribution and substrate type.

IN VITRO STUDIES OF ADVENTITIOUS ROOTING IN CON-
VOLVULUS SEPIUM L, William A. Wells, James L,
Riopel, John Duesing* Dept, of Biology, Univ.
of Va., Charlottesville, Va. 22903

Root production in excised nodes and inter¬
nodes of Convolvulus sepium is reported. All
auxin-like compounds promoted rooting. In the
presence of indoleacetic acid, gibberellin and
kinetin were inhibitory to rooting. Early stages
of root development were particularly sensitive
to gibberellin inhibition.

The number of adventitious roots induced by
lAA was significantly less in nodal sections.
Removal of the foliar organs increases the root¬
ing competence of the nodal sections to levels
comparable with internodes. Methanolic extracts
of nodes with intact axillary bud and leaf re¬
veal a root inhibitor active in the mung bean
bioassay. Thin-layer chromatography of these ex¬
tracts shows the inhibitor has Rf values of 0.53-
0.73. Assays of fractions obtained after the re¬
moval of the foliar organs no longer show inhibi¬
tion. (Aided by NIH grant HD 29-05)

INTRODUCED SEQUOIA SEMPERVIRENS IN SOUTHEASTERN VIRGINIA,

E. Spencer Wise, Department of Biology, Christopher New¬
port College, Newport News, Va, 23606.

Sequoia sempervirens (Lamb.) Endl. has been introduced
into the Norfolk, Virginia, area as an ornamental. One
tree dates from at least 1863, and is now 35.9 inches
diameter breast height. Another specimen, probably planted
in this century, is now 33.5 inches diameter breast height.
A number of seedlings were planted in Norfolk and Chesa¬
peake in the 1930 *s and appear to be growing well. Normally
there is no winter damage to the foliage, but damage has
been noted following the unusually cold spell of January,
1972. The two largest and oldest trees and one younger
tree examined have suffered top damage at some time in the
past and are considerably shorter than trees of their
respective diameters would be expected to be.

124

The Virginia Journal of Science

Section of Chemistry

Fiftieth Annual Meeting of The Virginia Academy of Science
May 3—5, 1972, Lexington, Virginia

ESCA STUDY OF (SOUP IIB HALIDES. R. W. Alexander, Jr..

L, T. Taylor, and J. G. Dillard, Dept, of Chemistry, Va,

Poly. Inst, & State Univ., Blacksburg, Va . , 24061

An x-ray photoelectron spectroscopic study of the core
electron binding energies of several Group IIB halides,
especially mercury, has been carried out. Binding energies
were measured for core electronic states with large photo¬
ionization cross sections. These states were

4f7/2 for mercury and various states for halogens. The
difference in binding energy relative to known standards is
defined as the chemical shift. The chemical shifts will be
explained using concepts of electron densities and partial
charges. Differences between the binding energies of
selected Hg(I) and Hg(II) compounds will be discussed. Sur¬
prisingly, the binding energy of Hg(I) is greater than that
of Hg(II) in compounds containing the anions Cl” and .

REDUCTION OF COBALT (III) COMPLEXES BY POSITRONIUM. L. J.

Bartal*, and H. J, Ache. Dept, of Chemistry, Virginia

Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg,

Virginia, 24060.

Kinetic studies on the reduction of various cobalt
(III) complexes by positronium are described. The rates of
reactions between positronium and the cobalt (III) complexes
were determined by delayed coincidence techniques. Rate
constants ranging from 1.9 x 10^ to 3.1 x 10 liters
moles”^ sec”^ (at 25°C.) were measured for the reactions of
positronium atoms with Co(NH^)^f2'*', Co(NH^)^Br , Co (NH^j^.d^’^,

Co(NH^)g^'^, Co(NH^)^H203+. Co(NH2) ^OAC^^, Co(NH^)^

(o-phthalate) and Co(NH^)^(p-phthalate)2'*'. The

mechanism of these reactions and the relations of the
observed reactivity patterns will be discussed. (Support
granted by United States Atomic Energy Commission)

SYNTHESIS AND BIOLOGICAL EVALUATION OF INHIBITORS OF HMG-CoA
REDUCTASE. M. R, Boots*. Sharon G. Boots’". Dent, of

Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Chemistry, and K. E. Guyer ,

Dept, of Biochemistry, Med. Col. of Va . , Va . Commonwealth

Univ., Richmond, Va. 23219.

Because of the importance attached to high plasma
cholesterol levels in atherosclerosis many approaches have
been investigated to lower it. A plausible approach
involves the inhibition of endogenous cholesterol synthesis.

The specific step of the biosynthetic pathway to be
inhibited is an important factor. The step involving the
enzyme -methyl- -hydroxyglutaryl CoA reductase (HMG-CoA

Reductase) was selected for inhibition. The design,
synthesis, and biological evaluation of inhibitors of this
important enzyme will be discussed.

BINDING ENERGY STUDIES OF COBALT COMPLEXES. J. Burness ,

J. G. Dillard, and L. T. Taylor, Dept, of Chemistry, Va,

Poly. Inst. & State Univ., Blacksburg, Va., 24061

A short history of ESCA will be reviewed, after which a
description of the principles, applications and techniques
of the method will be described. Specific details will be
given about the AEI ES-lOO x-ray photoelectron spectrometer
which has been used for these binding energy studies.

Pertinent information about sample preparation and intro¬
duction into the spectrometer will be presented. Methods
of data acquisition and time-averaging will be described.

Comments will be made concerning preliminary binding energy
studies of core atomic levels for cobalt metal, Co^O^,

Co(SALEN), CH^Co(SALEN) and [Co(NH^)^Cl]Cl2 . Electron
levels of interest include Co,2p^^2 3/2’ ^^3/2 5/2’

^>I"l/2> ^^’2Pl/2, 3/2-

Proceedings, 1971-1972

125

DETECTION OF DRUGS OF ABUSE IN HUMAN URINE. J. M, Chin*
and R. M. Navari. Dept, of Chemistry, Hollins College,
Virginia 24020.

The detection of drugs of abuse in the urine has
recently elicited much interest due to the need for a rapid,
sensitive, and accurate analytical identification technique.
There exists a wide variety of analytical procedures for
the detection of acidic, basic, and neutral drugs which
primarily employ chromatographic analyses. However, there
does not exist good norms for choosing a specific analysis.

This work presents criteria for employing a particular
analysis based on theoretical considerations of the
structures of the drugs. Application of the criteria to the
acidic, basic, and neutral drugs Illustrates that it is
possible to meet the requirements of a clinical technique.

A particular procedure is proposed which allows the
detection of drugs at a concentration level of 2-5yg drug/

AN INVESTIGATION OF SIMPLE NUCLEAR REACTIONS ON
ZIRCONIUM ISOTOPES USING RADIOCHEMICAL METHODS.
Kathleen Cline* and R. Kiefer, Dent, of Chemistry,
College of William and Mary, Williamsburg, Va.

23185

Several (d,2p) reactions on isotopes of
zirconium have been studied. The reactions are
Zr ’ (d , 2p ) % Zr ’ ^ (p ,2p)Y’ * , and Zr^ ' (p ,2p)Y^ “ .

Protons with energies of 100, 300, and 400 MeV
were used. The radioactive yttrium products were
chemically separated from the target material.

The yields were determined by following the radio¬
active decay of the yttrium isotopes. The simple
nuclear reactions, such as the (p,2d) reaction,
are basically surface reactions. The results will
be discussed in terms of surface effects.

1 ml. of urine.

A CHEMICAL APPROACH TO THE HOST-PARASITE
RELATIONSHIP IN THE CHESTNUT BLIGHT. AN
INTRODUCTION. John Rush Elkins and Srenda Meade.*
Chemistry Dept., Bluefield State Col,, Bluefield,
W.Va. 24701

A brief history of the origin, spread, economic
and esthetic consequences, and preventive measures
attempted to control the spread of the chestnut
blight will be presented. Referral will be made
to the chemical and biological research carried
out to date. Finally, a report on current
approaches, including results from our laboratory,
will be given.

AD7Er'TJR.!.S 11',' J’RA.0 riCAL .ihivLYriGAL lHEt!I3T.RY.

H . I . Fains tain. Dept, of Ghemlstnv, '"■"orsre ’Tason
Univ., Fairfax, Va • 2203C

Some personal case histories ^re recounted.
Emphasis is placed on the chemical thlnkins' that
contributed to the sol-jtions of .a number of araly-
tical problems. .Amons- the cases discussed are the
anmllcation of nloxlme to nickel In st°*l, the
assay of bervlliu.m metal, the uranl um-thioevanate
reaction In the enalvsls of uranium ores, and the
uranlum-azliie complex.

THf USE np TriTCPAaTor! OF FOUR COUFIOURATThr'S If! T!'E CALCU-
LATini! OF aoificiPAL AXES OF folvacENFS If! TI'E TRI^LFT STATE.
L, Ivan Epstein, Dept, of Bionii.ysics, Ned. Col. of Va,, Va.
tonnonweal tli UrTi v . , Richmond, Va. 23219.

The calculation of princioal axic orientation of Ffo of
polyacenes in the tri'^let state has been described in a re¬
cent paper (•!. Chem, Rhys. 5^, 1779 (1972)). If the mole¬
cule is much more lono than wide, the principal axes tend to
alien themselves vn'th the lennth and width of the molecule.

I-F the three 1 owest-enorny confinurations are nixed, it is
found tliat relatively lar^e changes in the proportions of the
mixture in the vicinitv of optimum brim about onlv minor
chances in principal axis orientation. Ho'.'C''er, tiiero exists
another mixture far removed from optimum in whose vicinitv
principal axis orientation is also relativelv insensitive to
chances in tlie proportions of the mixture. In a mixture of
the four 1 ovjcst-enercy corr'^iciirati ons , insensi ti vi t'' O'''
principal axis orientaticn to proportions 0*“ the mixture re-
'cains opI'/ in tlic vicinitv of ontip-um, which shows that the
other insensitive case was snurious. in the mixture of four
confinurations, the two mutually decenerate confinurations
have been tahen to be present in enual amounts, Fyidenco
'./ill be Presented to show that chanpes in their relative
amounts will not produce anv larce chances in principal axis
orientation.

A CHFMICAL 'iV.sLUATICt; OF THE '.-DIKSNT COMPO ITICN C" THE
RAPPAHAra’CCK RIViiR /.ND ITS EFFECT ON THE SUaVIV.'-L OF AQUATIC
LIFE. Barbara P . Friedman* and Bernard L. Mahoney, Jr .Dept,
of Chemistry, Mary Washington Col Fredericksburg, Va. 22401

In connection v/ith a broad study of the Rapj/ahannock River
Eco.oystem, a chemical profile of the surface water and
■sediment have been determined O'/er an eighty mile range.
Measurements were m-de on acidity, dissolved oxygen, water
hardnes.- , and temperature . Chemical analyses were carried
out for Na,K,Mg,Ca,Si,Al,Fe,Cu and 7.n using atomic
absorption, emission .spectrographic and specific ion eleotrocie
methods. Many of these elements had sediment concentrations
that ranged from ten to over a hundred fold elevations
compared with water samples from the .same site .

Previous bioa-.say studie.s in our laboratories have shoi'/n
that low ppii concentration.^ of Zn and Cu are toxic to blue-

gill 'lunfish in the relatively soft water found in the
Rappahannock River. A synergistic effect involving Cu and Zn

gave T1to'° of 0.27 Pl-m Cu and 2.40 ppm Zn under ,'oft water
conditions. The concentration of these metals in the river
are considerably bclov/ these values, but in the case of
sediment samples the TL^ levels are greatly exceeded at
certain sites nea.r Frederioksburg . In their present bound
state in the sediment, they do not present a serious threat
to aquatic life| however disturbances of the river sediment
due to variation in dissolved o.'cygen, acidity or flow
conditions could release these metals in a .soluble form,
posing a danger to aquatic life. (aided by CGSIP-NSF Grant)

126

The Virginia Journal of Science

ANTIMALARIALS 3. SUBSTITUTEDoC -(DIALKYLAMINO-
METHYL) -3- PHENYL- 1-NAPHTHALENEMETHANOLS.

J. S. Gillespie, Jr. , S, P. Acharya* and R. E. Davis. Va.
Inst, for Scientific Res, Richmond, Va. 23229.

Several ■fiC - (dialky laminomethyl) - 3 - phenyl -1 -naphthalene -
methanols patterned after the ^-(dialkylaminomethyl) -2 -
phenyl-4 -quinolinemethanols have been prepared for evalua¬
tion of their antimalarial activities. The syntheses involved
the preparation and cyclization of appropriately substituted
3, 4-diphenylbutane derivatives of the general structure:

RING-CHAIN TAUTOMERS, ^-CARBONYL BENZOIC
ACIDS AND AMIDES. T. A. Gosink, Dep't. of Chemistry,
Old Dominion Univ. , Norfolk, Va. 23508, and P. R, Jones,
Dept, of Chemistry, Univ. ofN.H., Durham, N.H. 03824.

Spectroscopic evidence will be presented to show that
^ and 4 predominate in the tautomeric equilibria of the
parent systems shown below, and in several substituted
cases .

In dimethylsulfoxide-db the methylene protons of 4
and related compounds are nonequivalent in their nmr
spectra .

X

R = CHj or OH

The antimalarial activities of the naphthalenemethanols
compared very favorably with the activities of the quin¬
olinemethanols and, in contrast to the quinolinemethanols,
they were not phototoxic to albino mice.

SOLVOLYSIS REACTION OF ALKYL-SUBSTITUTED
HALOALLENES. P. L. Griffith and M. D. Schiavelli ,
Dept, of Chemistry, College of William and Mary,
Williamsburg, Va. 23185

The solvolysls of six trisubstltuted halo-
allenes is reported. The solvent dependence and
the activation parameters are found to be typical
of Sj^l reactions. The data are interpreted in
terms of a unlmolecular reaction proceeding via a
charge-delocalized allenyl cation. Substitution
of t-butyl groups at the propargylic oosition of
the cation encourages reaction at the allenyl
position. The change in relative rate for <(>
substitution is interpreted in terms of sterio
inhibition of resonance in the cation.

RELATIVE ABSORPTION OP Ca-45 At'iD Sr-89 BX SOME
SOIL FUNGI. J.E. Hard castle. Dept, of Chemistry,
Texas Woman's University, Denton, Texas and W. H.
Puller, Dept, of Chemistry, University of
Arizone, Tuscon.

Fungi are abundant in nature and may well be
a link in the transfer of soil radiocontsiminents
to the food chain of man. Fungi isolated from
calcareous desert soils were grown in liquid
Czapek's medium containing different ratios of
calcium and strontium. Ca-45 and Sr-89 were used
as tracers of these elements, and these isotopes
were counted by liquid scintillation spectro¬
metry. The measured Sr/Ca ratios in the test
organism and in the nutrient medium were used to
calculate the discrimination factor (.DP).

HIGH-TEMPERATURE SAMPLING TECHNIQUES IN THE CHEMICAL SHOCK
TUBE= Shen-Dat Ing and G, Sanzonej Dept, of Chemistry, VPI
& SU, Blacksburg, Va= 24061

The chemical shock tube provides a well-established tech¬
nique for the study of high-temperature gas-phase reaction
kinetics. Although both optical spectroscopic and mass
spectrometric detection methods have been employed in such
studies, the results obtained by these two different tech¬
niques have not always been in complete agreement.

In this paper, some of the sources of error in the mass
spectrometric sampling technique are discussed and a new
experiment is described which will allow a critical compar¬
ison of the optical and mass spectrometric methods as
applied to shock tube sampling.

D.P.= (Sr/ua)in organism/ (Sr/Ca)in medium
All the test organisms absorbed both calcium and
strontium from the culture medium though the
Sr/ca ratios varied from fimgi to fungi. Based
on the calculated D.P. values the soil fungi may
be grouped as follows; 1) those organisms that
discriminate in favor of calcium; 2) those that
discriminate in favor of strontium; and 3) those
that appear to absorb strontium in proportion
to tne amount of this element in the medium.

THE SILVER (I) COMPLEXES OF SOME SUBSTITUTED CYCLOALKENES .

G. M. Kauffman* and D. G. Kennel*, Dept, of Chemistry,
Eastern Mennonite College, Harrisonburg, VA 22801

The equilibrium constants for the formation of the Ag*
complexes of some cyclic olefins in ethylene glycol have
been determined. The gas chromatographic technique of Muhs
and Weiss [^. to. Chem. Soc. , ^,4697 (1962)] was utilized.
The retention data were obtained on ethylene glycol columns
containing 0.0, 0.3M and 0.5M AgN03 at 28°C. The partition
coefficients were linearly related to the Ag"'' concentration
on these columns. Two series of alkyl substituted cyclo-
pentenes were studied along with several cyclohexenes. The
following complexlng constants, Kq, were obtained (values
relative to cyclopentene are in parentheses).

R-Cyclopentene :

R = H: 6.61 (1.00); 3-Methyl; 7.85 (1.19); 3-Ethyl: 6.01
(0.91); 3-lsoPropyl; 4.64 (0.70); 3-t-Butyl: 1.67 (0.25);
4-Methyl; 4.50 (0.68); 4-Ethyl: 4.38 (0.66); 4-isoPropyl;
4.58 (0.69); 4-t-Butyl: 4.24 (0.64).

R- Cy cloh e xen e :

R = H; 3.37 (0.51); 3-Methyl: 3.24 (0.49); 4-Methyl: 2.87
(0.43).

Steric effects appear to be important in the 3-R-Cyolo-
pentenes but are, notably, absent in the 4-R-series. The
differences between these two series also suggest a positive
inductive effect although this is not as apparent in the
cyclohexene series. The possibility of conformational
effects will also be discussed.

Proceedings, 1971-1972

127

PROTON NMR STUDY OF SOME AMINE-IODINE SYSTEMS. M. J. KOGAN*
and J. C. Schug, Dept, of Chemistry, V.P.I.&S.U.,

Blacksburg, Va. 24061.

When I2 is added to butyl amine, the NH resonance peak
shifts downfield. The maximum shift observed is about

3.5 ppm, and is limited by the solubility of in the

amine. With ^-butyl amine, it is possible to isolate a
stable solid 1:1 adduct. However, with sec-butyl amine a
rapid chemical reaction occurs: I2 is reduced to iodide;
amine is oxidized to a symmetric hydrazine; the HI which
is produced forms quaternary ammonium salts. The observed

NH proton chemical shift is a weighted average of several
species which exist in equilibrium. For the sec-butyl
amine -I2 system, a series of NMR experiments was carried
out to determine the equilibrium constants for several
postulated equilibria as well as the proton chemical shifts
for some isolated and some postulated species.

CHEMICAL PERTURBATIONS OF OSCILLATING REACTION SYSTEMS

J. F. Lefelhocz and D. W. Carew. Chemistry Detxtrtment. Virainia
Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia 23220.

Studies of the two oscillating reaction systems, (1) malonic acid,
potassium bromate and ceric ammonium sulfate and (II) malonic acid,
potassium bromate and manganous sulfate have been made ix>tentio-
metrically with Pt, Pt-black electrodes. Our primary objective has
been to elucidate the feedback mechanisms which control the cyclic
changes of t,Ce'*'^J/ CCe"*" Jand [Mn^^J/[Mn^ Jin the respective sys¬
tems. The induction period, period of oscillation and longevity of
the oscillations in 1 and II have been observed as a function of the
metal ion concentration and the acidity of the solution. The cyclic
potentiometric curves have been shown to be due to three different
reaction sequences. A-the oxidation of the metal ion by Br03 B-the
reaction of bromine with malonic acid ond ,C~the feedback step which
involves the reduction of the metal ion by the malonic acid. The time
for the third step to occur may or may not be auto-catalytical ly con¬
trolled by the Br03 system as noted by the shorter period for II as
compared to 1 (all factor being equal). Solutions of the chemical
perturbants KBr, Br2, NaCI, ferroin, 1, 10-phenanthroline and
ferrous ammonium sulfate were added to 1 and II after oscillation had
begun and the effects noted. Br2 and Br" have been ruled out as the
feedback controlling substances. Correlation of the visual effects of
the perturbant ferroin and its constituent parts with the potentiometric
data will be discussed.

MOSSBAUER STUDIES OF SOME SUBSTITUTED UREA AND

SULFOXIDE COMPLEXES OF IRON (III) CHLORIDE. J. F. Lefelhocz
and J. T. Green, Chemistry Department, Virginia Commonwealth
University, Richmond, Virginia 23220.

Mossbauer spectra at 77°K have been observed for the DMSO (di-
methy Isulfoxide), DPSO (diphenylsulfoxide), U (Urea), DMU (dime-
thylurea), and TMU (tetramethy lurea) complexes of Fe(III)Clj*6H^ .
Infrared data have shown,SKT+Fe and.CAD^Fe coordination to be
present in all of these complexes. Earlier I.R. and X-ray studies
showed that the FeCl4” anion forms in both the DMSO and DPSO com¬
plexes. Wide single line Mossbauer absorptions with slight shoulders
Indicate that the complexes have Fe(lll) present in two different coor¬
dination symmetries. NaBPh4 has been used to inhibit the formation of
FeCl4“, allowing the direct observation of the spectra of the DMSO
and DPSO complexes. DMSO has been shown to form stronger ligand

Fe bonds as compared to DPSO, where as the DPSO complex has a
greater distortion from octahedral symmetry. The spectral data for

FeU4Cl3 rule out the possibility that its structure is similar to that of
FeCl3'6HjP . The Fe(lll) complexes of DMU and TMU yield very wide
lined spectra indicative of the presence of more than one tyoe of Iron
site and NaBPh4 has been noted to prevent the formation of some of
those Iron symmetries. The NaBPh4 complexes have shown that FeC^'
does not exist In the urea complexes. Data obtained on Fe(ll)X2
(Cl, Br, 1) DMSO and DPSO complexes will also be presented.

METALATIONS OF ALCOHOLS USING N-BUTYLLITHIUM AND N-
BUTYLLITHIUM-TMEDA. ACID CATALYZED CYCLIZATIONS OF THE
CONDENSATION PRODUCTS TO FORM CYCLIC ETHERS. R. E. Ludt*
and K. N. McGrath, Dept, of Chemistry, Virginia Military
Institute.

When compared with u-hutyllithium alone, n-hutyllithium

N,N,N' ,N'-tetramethylethylenediamine (TMEDA) reagent was
shown to he better for effecting the lithiation of benzyl,
2-methyl benzyl and other structurally similar alcohols.

Positions and extent of metalation were determined by
deuteration and by condensation of the intermediate lithia-
ted alcohols with deuterium oxide and electrophilic com¬
pounds, respectively. The resulting condensation products
of the various alcohols used in this investigation were
readily cyclodehydrated to yield substituted five and six
membered ethers.

THE ENERGY FOCUS OF THE TIME-OF-FLIGHT MASS SPECTROMETER.

Nina L. Marable and G. Sanzone, Dept, of Chemistry, VPI & SU,
Blacksburg, Va. 24061

The resolution of the Time-of-Flight Mass Spectrometer is
limited by the initial spacial (space resolution) and energy
(energy resolution) distributions which the ions to be
analyzed have on their formation. It has been shown that
energy resolution is the limiting factor and that the two-
field ion-source yields the best energy focus for convent¬
ionally focussed T.O.F.'s. Calculations are described
which test a proposed method for improving the energy reso¬
lution of a two-field instrument. These studies could lead
to a new method for focussing the T.O.F. Mass Spectrometer.

In these studies, a new criterion for the discussion of
resolution is introduced.

SOME THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF POLYETHYLENE +
N-DECANE SOLUTIONS. Virsinia A. McKa.y* , Thomas

W. Eppes, Jr.*, and Robert A. Orwoll. Dept, of
Chemistry, Col. of Willieim and Mary, Williamsburg,

Va. 23185

The pressure of n-decane vapor in equilibrium
with a solution of linear polyethylene in decane
has been determined at 150°C over the concentra¬
tion range 50-90 wt-^ polymer. The chemical po¬
tential of the solvent in the solution, determined
from these vaoor sorption measurements , is com¬
pared with theoretical values. The latter have
been computed from equation-of-state properties
of the two liquid components and an interaction
parameter which has been evaluated from proper¬
ties of binary solutions of low molecular weight
n-alkanes. (Aided by NASA grant NGL-47-006-055 )

128

The Virginia Journal of Science

THE PHOTOREDUCTION OF SUBSTITUTED BENZOPHENONES . G. W.

Mushrush, Dept, of Chemistry, George Mason Univ. , Fairfax,

Va. 22030

Substituted benzophenones were irradiated with ultra¬
violet light in degassed isoprpyl alcohol in the presence
of different concentrations of TbCl^. The chemical quantum
yield of ketone conversion and the sensitized-Tb"^ fluores¬
cence quantum efficiency were determined. The quantitative
kinetic data derived are consistent with a mechanism in
which energy transfer to the lanthanide ion acceptor com¬
petes with the hydrogen abstraction reaction of the n, tt*
triplets. Rates of photochemical conversion under contin¬
uous irradiation predicted by the calculated parameters
agree well with experiment. (Aided by NIH 2166-1000,2188-
2000)

A NEW PHEPAEATION OP THE Co[p(OCH3)2']5'*‘ ION.

R.A. Palmer and Susan A. Levy.* Dept, of

Chemistry, Old Dominion Univ., Norfolk, Va. 23508.

It has been found that [[Co(NH3)gH20j (ClOjj^)^
reacts with trimethyl phosphite to^produce
[CoLj^Cl, where L = trimethyl phosphite. This is
a more straightforward preparation than that
previously reported for the perchlorate and
nitrate salts of the CoLg'*' ion, in which Co(ll)
disproportionate s to produce Co(l) and Co (ill)
trimethyl phosphite complexes, and requires
several recrystallizations for purification.

THE ISOTHERMAL COMPRESSIBILITY OF ORGANIC LIQUIDS BY ULTRA¬
CENTRIFUGATION - CORRELATION WITH SURFACE TENSION. A. J.
Richard, Dept, of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Chemistry
and K. S. Rogers, Dept, of Biochemistry, Medical College of
Virginia, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Va.

23219.

Isothermal compressibilities of seven organic liquids
have been determined by analytical ultracentrifuge
techniques, in good agreement with literature values
obtained by other methods.

A least squares regression equation was derived that
correlated the logarithmic values of isothermal compressi¬
bilities of 7 organic liquids, determined experimentally,
with the liquids' surface tensions. This equation was
shown to be valid for 11 other organic liquids (values
obtained from literature) over a temperature range of 0^
through 50°, and a surface tension range of 13 to 44 dyn
per cm.

USE OF DOUBLY-EXCITED CONFIGURATIONS IN CALCULATIONS OF
ELECTRONIC SPECTRA. P. J. Schultz* and J. C. Schug. Dept,
of Chemistry, V.P.I.&S.U,, Blacksburg, Va. 24061

The Par is er -Parr -Pop le method with configuration inter¬
action including singly- and doubly-excited states was used
to calculate the electronic spectra of a variety of conju¬
gated compounds. Inclusion of the doubly-excited configura¬
tions dictated some changes in the optimum values for the
semi-empirical core-Hamiltonian and electron-repulsion inte¬
grals. Agreement with experiment for a series of hydrocar¬
bons required an unusually low value for the one-center
repulsion integral on carbon. Good results were obtained
for another series of molecules by making relatively minor
changes in parameters. The results for a series of £-qui-
nones indicated that the inclusion of doubly-excited states
can substantially improve predictions when heteroatoms are
present. Consistently satisfying results were obtained
when the total number of excited configurations was around

80, with about a 1: 1 ratio of singly-excited to doubly-
excited states. This corresponds roughly to including con¬
figurations with excitation energies less than about 11 eV
above the self-consistent ground configuration. (Aided by
a grant from NASA.)

THE BINDING ENERGIES OF MQ (M = GROUP IIB; Q = GROUP VIA) .

R. D. Seals, J. G. Dillard, L. T. Taylor, Dept, of Chemistry

Va. Poly. Inst. & State Univ., and J. R. Craig, Dept, of

Geology, Va. Poly. Inst. & State Univ., Blacksburg, Va.,

24061

The core electron binding energies of MQ compounds
(M = Group IIB; Q - Group VIA) have been measured using
x-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy, Binding energies in the
atomic levels ^^3/2’ °'^3/2’ ^^5/2* ^5/2 ^7/2

where n is an appropriate quantum number were determined.

The binding energies relative to the elemental state, the
chemical shift, have been measured for all compounds. As
the chemical environment of a metal is varied, the core
electron binding energies change. A comparison of the bind¬
ing energies of various chalcogenides in different crystal
structures will be presented. The variation of the chemi¬
cal shift as a function of environmental change on the
cations and also on the anions will be discussed. The
relationship between binding energies and electron density,
partial charge, and electronegativity will be considered.

A STOCHASTIC MODEL FOR THE SIMULATION OF THE

MOTION OF POLYMER CHAINS IN SOLUTION. J. M.

Spencer and D. E. Kranbuehl , Dept, of Chemistry,
College of William and Mary, Williamsburg, Va.

23185

The dynamic and equilibrium properties of a
random-coil polymer in dilute solution are studied
using a Monte Carlo simulation method. The model
consists of N beads on a cubic lattice, each bead
one lattice site apart. Motion of the chain is
simulated by moving the beads using a random num¬
ber generator. Excluded volume may be introduced
by storing bead locations and by preventing the
chain from Intersecting itself. The equilibrium
properties of - the end-to-end length squared,

S.'* , and Rg^ - the radius of gyration squared are
sampled. The dynamic properties of the chain are
studied by observing the relaxation of autocor¬
relation functions in these quantities. The sto¬
chastic model without excluded volume conforms
well with the properties of a freely-jointed
chain model of a polymer.

Proceedings, 1971-1972

129

EVIDENCE FOR THE FORl^lATION OF APPARENT FIVE-
COORDINATED TIN(IV)-B-DIKETONATE COMPLEXES: THE
SYNTHESIS AND CHARACTERIZATION OF THE PYRIDINE
ADDUCT OF n-BUTYLDICHLORO(2,'l-PENTANEDIONATO)TIN-
(IV). D. W. Thompson and G. Lock, Deot. of Chem¬
istry, College of William and Mary, Williamsburg,
Va. and J. P. Lefelhocz, Deot . of Chemistry, Vir¬
ginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Va.

The reaction of n-butyltrichlorostannane with
2 ,4-Dentanedione in the presence of oyrldlne has
been studied. From this reaction mixture the
aoparent five-coordinate n-but vldichloro ( 2 , 4-
pentanedlonato ) tln( IV) was Isolated as the nyrl-
dlne adduct. The isolation of
n-buty Idichloro (2 , 4-Dentanedionato )Dyridine-
tin(IV) reoresents the first direct evidence for
the existence of monosubstltuted tln(IV)-6-
diketonate comolexes although these tyoes of
intermediates have been oostulated to form in
route the many well-known bis ( 6-dlketonato )tln-
( IV ) comolexes .

The title comoound has four oossible geometric
isomers. Temperature — deoendent nmr measurements
will be discussed in terms of the various struc¬
tural Dosslbllitles .

SOME REACTIONS OF THE Cr(NO)EDTA COMPLEX. J. H. VanderMeer
and J. G. Mason, Dept, of Chemistry, Va. Poly. Inst, and
State Univ., Blacksburg, Va. 23219

A chromium(I) complex containing EDTA has been prepared
both chemically and electrochemically . This complex was
found to be reduced by Cr (II) -EDTA in basic solution and
oxidized by O2, H2O2 or Ce(IV) in acid solution. In the
absence of oxygen, this complex was found to be stable in
slightly acidic solutions. The visible spectrum and ESR
spectrum Indicate that the first step in the oxidation
process (CrI to CrIII) is probably the protonation and sub¬
sequent partial decomposition of the EDTA ligand.

The kinetics of the oxidation of this complex in acid
solution have been studied under saturated oxygen condi¬
tions. The rate constants are reported as a function of
the acid concentration. The oxidation of this complex by
Ce(IV) and ^2^2 discussed.

A CNDO STUDY OF 2 ,3-DITHlABICYCL0[l . 1 . 0 ]BUTANE .

C. 0. Trindle*, University of Virginia, Charlottes¬
ville, Va. 22901 and J. K. George^ Mary Washing¬
ton College, Fredericksburg, Va. 22401

In order to study the importance of d orbitals
in chemical bonding involving second row atoms,

2 ,3-dithiabicyclo[ 1 . 1 . 0 ]butane was chosen as a
model compound. Some points on the potential
energy surface of the unimolecular central bond
scission to give a stable diradical molecule were
computed using the CNDO approximation which in¬
cludes d orbitals in the basis set for second row
atoms. Energies along the indicated path of low¬
est energy for the isomerization were also obtained
using sp and spp' bases. All three basis sets gave
the same qualitative features for isomerization.

The sharply bent parent bicyclic molecule was the
most stable having a shorter than usual carbon-
carbon (C-C) bond. A 'Planar Diradical' molecule
was found at C-C distances of about 3 A. In addi¬
tion, there was a second bent species having a
relative minimum at an intermediate C-C distance.

An explanation of these data is provided by the
nodal properties of d orbitals and by orbital
coupling.

A NEW MODEL FOR THE NATURE OF LIGHT, AND ITS APPLICATION
TO SPECTRAL DISTRIBUTION OF BLACK BODY RADIATION.

H, H. Wadlln,* and D. J. Updegrove.* Dept, of Chemistry,
Randolph-Macon Col., Ashland, Va. 23005

A new model for the nature of light Is suggested as part
of a program to bridge the gap between the wave properties
and corpuscular properties of light. The current Inves¬
tigation Is of the consequences of assuming that photons
are comprised of Integral numbers of elementary energy
units. The particulate nature of light as described by
Planck and Einstein should fit within such a framework.

As an Initial test of the usefulness of this model, an
attempt has been made to apply It to thd problem of spec¬
tral distribution of black-boly radiation. Statistical n
methods have been applied to establlshrfihe relative prob¬
abilities of emission of photons oomprlsed of the various
Integer numbers of energy units as described above. The
products of these probabilities and the energies of each
such photon are plotted as the spectral distribution.
Preliminary trials Indicating agreement between this
model and the Planck distribution law will be presented
and Its limitations will be discussed.

POLYACYLAZIDES: THE THERMAL AND PHOTOLYTIC
DECOMPOSITION OF THE 2 , 2 '-BISACYLAZIDE OF 3 , 3 '
-BIPYRIDINE. R. L. Williams andM. A. El-Fayoumy.
Dep't. of Chemistry, Old Dominion University, Norfolk,
Va. 23508.

The synthesis and characterization of a new and
interesting heterocyclic bis acylazide (1) will be described.
Thermolysis of this new system has been shown to give
rise to a stepwise degradation leading to various
pyridonaphthyridones , (2). Photolysis of this same
bisacylazide gives rise to an apparent isomeric pyrido-
naphthyridone (3).

130

The Virginia Journal of Science

Section of Engineering

Fiftiefh

Annual Meeting of The Virginia Academy of
May 3-5, 1972, Lexington, Virginia

Science

THE DESTRUCTIVE DISTILLATION OF USED TIRES IN A CONTINUOUS
PILOT PLANT. J. A. Beckman*, Grant Crane*, E. L. Kay* and
J. R. Laman*. The Firestone Tire & Rubber Co., Akron, Ohio
44317.

The volume of used tires as well as other scrap rubber
being generated in the U.S.A. confirms that the Rubber
Industry has a pressing solid-waste disposal problem. The
Rubber Industry is investigating several processes to solve
the problem.

The destructive distillation of scrap rubber, which is
being studied by Firestone, has the potential of conserving
our natural resources. Valuable materials can be recovered
from scrap rubber and recycled to manufacturing operations.

Three primary crude products are obtained from the
pyrolysis of scrap rubber* char, oil and hydrocarbon gas.

The char after grinding has reinforcing properties in
rubber vulcanizates. The unground char can be steam- treated
to increase surface area and may be a source of activated
carbon.

The pyrolysis oil can be treated to obtain hydrocarbon
resins which are of interest as tackifiers in the Rubber
Industry.

The hydrocarbon has a BTU value approaching the value of
natural gas. Our present proposal is to use the hydrocarbon
gas as fuel for the "destructive distillation" process.

STUDIES ON IRON AND MANGANESE REMOVAL FROM DOMESTIC WATER
SUPPLIES IN VIRGINIA. D. M. Caldwell*, Virginia Dept, of
Health, Lexington, Va. , and PH. King, Dept, of Civil Eng¬
ineering, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University
24061.

An experimental investigation of the removal of soluble
iron and manganese from water supplies by oxidative precipit¬
ation and filtration was carried out with potassium perman¬
ganate and calcium hypochlorite employed separately as the
oxidant. Adjustment of water quality parameters including
pH and alkalinity was accomplished on four raw water samples
selected for the investigation. Each raw water sarple was
from a location in Virginia vdiich has experienced a problem
with iron and manganese in their water supply.

Results obtained showed potassium permanganate to be a
very effective oxidant for both iron and manganese when the
sample pH ranged from 6.0 to 9.5 and the alkalinity from 15
to 200 mg/1 as CaC03. The hypochlorite treatment resulted in
acceptable iron removal in the pH and alkalinity ranges noted
above. However, this oxidant proved to be unacceptable if
used alone for removal of soluble manganese under these same
pH and alkalinity conditions. The treated water was unable
to meet the Public Health Service Drinking Water Standards.
(Aided by a USPHS Traineeship)

RESOURCE RECOVERY - AN ALTERNATIVE TO REFUSE
DISPOSAL. G. F. Bourcier , R. F. Testin*, K. H.
Dale*, Reynolds Metals Company, Richmond, Virginia
The philosophy of utilizing solid waste,
particularly the municipal refuse fraction, as a
source of raw materials is discussed. Research
accomplishments resulting from Public Health
Service : E . P .A. funded programs, U. S. Bureau of
Mines intramural and contract programs , and
University and Industrial research projects are
highlighted. Data resulting from laboratory
scale and community wide investigations are listed
and discussed. The challenges of the solid waste
problem to our society are enumerated, with
these challenges converted into a charge to
engineers to solve this problem.

HEAT ISLAND STUDIES OF URBAN SHOPPING CENTERS. Kuldlp P.
Chopra, W. Maurice Pritchard, and Kristine E. Thompson.

Dept, of Physics, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, Va.
23508.

Neighborhood shopping centers with sharp spatial
contrasts with the surrounding residential areas may
exhibit pronounced heat island effects on a microscale. The
data gathered in several field trips conducted on Wednesday
and Friday afternoons, and on Wednesday nights during April,
June, July, and August, 1971 is analyzed to establish the
heat island effect associated with the Wards Corner and
Southern Shopping centers in Norfolk, Virginia. The
observed maximum amplitude of the effect on a relatively
calm and clear day is 7°F. The influences on the heat
island effect of the sea breeze, gustiness, degree of cloud
cover, traffic and urban activity, the day and night
difference, and the differences in the local surface
features are brought out. A numerical harmonic model is set
up to provide a quantitative description of the symmetrical
heat island; the higher harmonics determining the extent of
the influence of other factors.

Proceedings, 1971-1972

131

HIGH PURITY OXYGEN AERATION OF PROCESS WASTEWATER.

0. R. Cline* and E. Cox III, Edwin Cox Associates,
Richmond, Va. 23223

Recent technological advances in the use of
high purity oxygen aeration in the activated
sludge process may benefit many industrial waste-
water treatment pro grams. Higher concentrations
of mixed-liquor volatile suspended solids (MLVSS),
shorter aeration detention times, and improved
sludge handling characteristics are some of the
reasons why oxygen use may often be superior to
the conventional air-aerated process.

A simple, inexpensive pilot plant has been
developed to determine the effectiveness of oxygen-
aerated systems in reducing biochemical oxygen
demand (BOD), chemical oxygen demand (COD), total
suspended solids (TSS) and other parameters of
specific industrial wastewaters.

THE USE OF FLY ASH IN ROAD WORK AND LIGHTWEIGHT
AGGREGATE. TohnH. Faber, National Ash Association,
Washington, D.C. 20006

Coal ash utilization has come of age and is now widely
accepted and used in heavy construction and road building.

Ash from coal burning power plant is used in many forms from
admixes to lightweight aggregate for concrete.

During 1971, in excess of 7 million tons of ash was used
in the U.S. in one form or another. In Chicago, more than
one million tons of stabilized base material containing ash
was installed. In England, one structural fill application
used approximately 2 million tons of reclaimed ash and in

France, utilization of ash exceeded production.

Lightweight aggregate usage from fly ash is growing and
the industry is anticipating sizeable growth in this area
in the next few years.

We can expect increasing large amounts of the 40 million
tons of ash produced in this country to be utilized in the
civil engineering industry.

COST-BENEFIT ANALYSIS IN EVALUATING SCENIC RIVERS AS AN
ALTERNATIVE IN WATER RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT. Michael A.

Gaqarine* and William R. Walker, Water Resources Res.

Ctr., Va. Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ., Blacksburg,

Va. 2A06I

Craig Creek in Botetourt and Craig Counties, Va.,
is currently the center of a controversy concerning
whether to construct the proposed Hipes Reservoir on
that creek, to leave the creek in its natural state, or
to have it designated a Scenic River. In the past, the
evaluation of the alternatives has been hampered be¬
cause of the difficulty of quantifying in dollars the
intangible benefits such as natural scenic beauty and
environmental conservation. This paper presents a tech¬
nique for assigning economic values to these intangible
benefits, thus facilitating comparison among the
alternatives utilizing a conventional economic analysis.

Craig Creek is used as a case study in the application
of this technique.

APPLICATION OF AEROSPACE WASTE RECLAMATION TECHNOLOGY TO

DOMESTIC WATER RECYCLING AND SOLID REDUCTION. J. B. Hal I, Jr.
NASA, Hampton, VA 23365

During the past decade waste reclamation technology has
been developed to provide waste water recycling and solid
waste management on broad manned spacecraft for long term
missions. Since the waste materials and crew sizes involved
are similar to those of an average size household, this
technology has direct application to domestic waste recla¬
mation to aid in water conservation and pollution abatement.

Presently, NASA Langley Research Ctr., programs are under
way to integrate various aerospace developed waste recla¬
mation subsystems into a household complex to obtain perfor¬
mance data on waste recycling schemes. Such domestic wastes
as bath and clothes wash water will be processed and reused
as toilet flush. Solids will be separated from commode and
dish waste water and converted to sterile ash through red¬
uction processes. In addition, an assessment will be made of
the energy generated from the solid reduction to supplment
domestic energy requirements.

A discussion of this program is presented which outlines
program objectives, recycling schemes, candidate aerospace
waste reclamation processes and typical performance data for
these processes compared with U. S. Public Health Stds. for
potable water.

NUCLEAR STEAM SUPPLY SYSTEMS RADIOLOGICAL SOLID WASTE HAND¬
LING. J. H. Hicks* and T. L. Baldwin*. Power Generation

Div., Babcock & Wilcox Co., Lynchburg, Va. 24505

The operation of a pressurized water nuclear steam supply
systems requires a strict management of radioactive solid
wastes. The wastes mainly consist of spent ion exchange
resins, liquid wastes with dissolved and suspended solids
that have been concentrated by evaporation, and such miscel¬
laneous items as contaminated rags, paper, clothing, and
plastics. These wastes are packaged in suitable disposal
containers and transported to one of several sites in the

United States for ultimate disposal. The containers, trans¬
portation facilities, and disposal sites must meet specific
requirements based on federal and state regulations.

A rapid expansion in the use of nuclear power is fore¬
cast for the future, and there is a need for improved meth¬
ods of reducing the solid waste volumes and the handling of
ultimate disposal.

THE EFFECT OF HEAT ON ENGINEERING SOIL PROPERTIES. E. J.
Jankiewicz* and J. H. Hunter*. Dept, of Civil Engineering,

Va. Polytechnic Inst., Blacksburg, Va. 24061

The practicality of stabilizing soil by the application
of heat is investigated. It is shown that researchers have
conclusively demonstrated that any soil may be fused and
that even a limited application of heat will increase the
bearing capacity of cohesive soils. Other improvements in
soil characteristics observed as a result of heating are
(1) an increase in resistance to liquif action ; (2) an
absence of differential compressibility; (3) an increase in
cohesive, compressive, and shear strengths; and (4) a
decrease in settlement under load when wet. This paper
provides background material for future development of
thermal roadpaving machines in the United States. An
economic comparison is made of the costs of thermal paving
versus construction by conventional means.

132

The Virginia Journal of Science

CCMPOSTIM} CHGANIC WASTE TO HUMUS WIIH SPECIFIC BEWEFICIAL
PROPERTIES, George A, Jeffreys^-, George A. Jeffreys & Co.,
Inc., Salem, Virginia. 2U153

Organic wastes, including sevjage sludge and paper, were
converted to humus by composting in a series of bins which
were aerated by means of submerged, perforated air cells.
Biese cells permitted the air with slight pressure to
diffuse through the composting waste. Humus in the station¬
ary phase was automatically inoculated with nitrogen fiucing
bacteria and other beneficial soil organisms. Ihe humus at
this stage was recycled to increase the concentration of
said organisms, and then was used as a sanitary animal
litter or as a beneficial soil conditioner.

Sewage sludge produced by chemical and biological
precipitation was heat treated, filtered, combined with a
small amount of ground paper and ccmiposted to himius.

MECHANICAL FRICTION AND THERMAL EXPANSION OF SOLID POLYMERS
FOR BEARING APPLICATIONS. Howard L, Price and Harold D.
Burks.* NASA-Langley Research Center, Hampton, Va. 23365
Although the majority of polymers degrade rapidly in
ionizing radiation, there are two, polyimides and Pyrrones,
which are highly radiation resistant. Such polymers may be
useful as low-maintenance solid bearing material in
radiation fields. Accordingly, the coefficient of friction
against two steels and the coefficient of thermal expansion
from 300°-500OK have been measured for a polyimide, a
Pyrrone, and a Pyrrone-graphite composite. It was found
that the coefficient of friction of the Pyrrone and the
Pyrrone-graphite composite were low 0.2l) relative to
that of the polyimide (~0.35) for surface speeds up to
2 m/sec. The low value may be due to traces of sulfur
which are present in the synthesis of the Pyrrones. All
of the polymers had anisotropic thermal expansion as the
result of the way in which they were molded. The expansion
was higher in the direction in which the molding pressure
was applied than it was perpendicular to that direction.

The coefficient of thermal expansion of the polymers ranged
from 20-60 X 10-6 /OK.

SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT OF PLASTIC WASTES
L. D. Pritchard. * Civil Engineering Student, Virginia
Military Institute, Lexington, Virginia 24450

Plastics are a small but highly visible part of the
overall problem of solid waste disposal. Today plastics
are used in thousands of different products, from artifi¬
cial heart valves to furniture that looks like wood and
wears like iron. Even so, the largest amount of plastics
in collected refuse comes from packaging. This makes up
about 13% of all collected refuse.

All of this adds up to a massive social and economic
problem. That problem, of course, disposal. If our envi¬
ronment is to be improved and protected for future genera¬
tions, government, industry, and private citizens will
have to work together to implement modern methods of
waste disposal utilizing technology that is currently avail¬
able.

The main concern of this thesis lies with how present
solid waste management methods can be applied in the
disposal of plastic solid waste, wholely or in combination
with other types of solid waste.

One conclusion appears to be that if solid waste is
effectively managed, plastics pose no speical problems
over those currently incurred with disposal of mixed
refuse.

SADDLE POINT STREAMLINE CONFIGURATIONS IN TWO-DIMENSIONAL
VISCOUS FLOW, D. P. Telionis, Va. Polytechnic Institute
and State Univ., Blacksburg, Va. 24061.

It has been experimentally
observed [1] that the stream¬
line configuration for separation
over moving boundaries is that of
a saddle point. Following the
speculation of Moore, Rott and Sears
the appearance of such streamline
configuration is studied for flows
over moving boundaries or porous walls with suction and blow
ing, with or without separation. It is proved using the
Navier Stokes equations that "critical" points in streamline
configurations can only be saddle points (nodal points are
excluded). It is also proved that for 2-D flow about ro¬
tating bodies the upstream and downstream stagnation stream¬
line meet the saddle points that correspond to the two-points
of separation respectively.

The boundary- layer equations for a downstream moving wall
and for various pressure gradients are integrated in terms of
Gortler coordinates and according to reference [2] from stag¬
nation to separation. The displacements of the saddle point
in the directions parallel and perpendicular to the wall are
computed as functions of the wall velocity. These results
are used to estimate the circulation according to Howarth's
scheme of zero vorticity shedding. 1 . Ludwig, G. ,AIAA paper 20-
22,(1964) 2. Telionis, D. ,Werle,M. to appear in J.of Appl.Mech.

PRESENT AND FUTURE USES OF SANITARY LANDFILLS,
W. F. Smith. Student, Civil Engineering Department,
Virginia Military Institute, Lexington, Virginia 24450

The Sanitary Landfill is the most misunderstood
method of solid waste disposal currently in use. The
general public equates a Sanitary Landfill with controlled
or uncontrolled dumps as a result of the poor disposal
methods utilized by most municipalities in the past. The
National Survey of Community Solid Waste Practices in
conjunction with the Bureau of Solid Waste Management
has identified over 13,000 land disposal sites in the United
States. Less than 5% of the identified landfills could meet
the minimum standards to qualify as a Sanitary Landfill.
Minimum standards for a Sanitary Landfill include, no
resulting air or water pollution, and a daily cover of earth
surrounding compacted refuse cells. Sanitary Landfills
are not just controlled dumps, they are the most practical,
economical method of disposing of the nearly one billion
pounds of mixed refuse created in this country each day.

The major limitations of Sanitary Landfills, including
a large land requirement, can be easily outweighed with
the recreational benefits derived from vertical landfills.

Proceedings, 1971-1972

133

Section of Geology

Fiftieth

Annual Meeting of The Virginia
May 3-5, 1972, Lexington,

Academy

Virginia

of

Science

VIRGINIA EARTHQUAKES DURING 1971. G. A. BoIlinRer, Dept, of
Geological Sciences, Va. Polytechnic Inst. & State Univ. ,
Blacksburg, Va. 24061

On September 12, 1971 two earthquakes occurred in north¬
eastern Virginia approximately 23 km. south of Fredericks¬
burg. Data from four regional stations placed the epicenters
at 38.1®N - 77.4®W with origin times and magnitudes of
00:06:27.1 (Ml = 3.5) and 00:09:22.6 (Ml - 3.2). An inten¬
sity questionnaire survey gave a maximum intensity (MM) of
IV and a felt area of 1900 square miles.

The larger of the two shocks can be compared to the cen¬
tral Virginia earthquake of December 11, 1969. This latter
event occurred some 35 km. to the south (37.9®N - 77.7°W),
had the same magnitude and maximum intensity, but its asso¬
ciated felt area (6500 square miles) was more than three
times greater. This wide variation in felt area for shocks
within and outside of the Central Virginia Seismic Zone is
important to earthquake risk studies. Without focal
mechanism and focal depth data complete specification of the
underlying seismic causes is, however, not possible.

PALb;oeNVlRONMt;NT OF ISQGNOMON MAXILLATA. Pamela
R, Crowson. uepc, of Geology, college of william
and Mary, Williamsburg, Va., 231b5.

Populations of lso^;nomon maxillata (Deshayes)
were collected from the St, hary"*'^ Formation
(middle Miocene) of Mansfield (1943) on the lower
James-York Peninsula near Williamsburg and near
Sycamore Landing on the York River, The shells,
recovered from thick beds of fine sand composed
of quartz, glauconite, and shell debris, occur in
beds or lenses and are current oriented. They
exhibit abrasion of the thin ventral margins, and
bore holes of Pholadldae are frequently found
near the hinge line of Iso>^nomon. An analysis of
shell morphology indicates that 1 sognomon was a
gregarious, byssally attached filter feeder. The
associated fauna includes a predominance of shal¬
low burrowing mollusks, and abundant Seotastrea
mary landica , byssally attached and free-swimming
pectens, Balanus concavus , and boring sponges,
iNone of the sessile benthos were found attached
to I sognomon , Analysis of shell orientation,
shell morphology, and the associated faunal assem¬
blage indicates that I sognomon flourished on
shoals in warm temperate to subtropical waters.

STRUCTURAL EVOLUTION OF DRAG FOLDING ON THE SOUTHEAST LIMB
OF THE JOHN'S CREEK SYNCLINE, GILES COUNTY, VIRGINIA.

J, T. Crate*, and F. R. Nelson*. Dept, of Geological Sci¬
ences, Va. Polytechnic Inst. & State Univ., Blacksburg, Va.
24061

Drag folding in the Ordovician Martinsburg limes tone along
the southeast limb of the John's Creek syncline provides nu¬
merous interesting structures. Tight folds, faulting, and a
great deal of distortion caused by plastic deformation and
fracturing are characteristic structures. The area studied
is close to the nose of this northeast-plunging syncline,
and lies a considerable distance from its axis. There is no
evidence of a major fault in the area; the Saltville thrust
lies 3 miles to the southeast and is separated from the area
by the Spruce Run syncline and the Clover Hollow anticline.
Thus the structures developed in the Martinsburg are due to
the characteristics and composition of the rocks themselves.
The interbedded thin but rather competent limestones and
thinner, plastic-yielding shaly limestones of the Martins¬
burg comprise a weak structural unit whereas the overlying
Ordovician Juniata and Silurian sandstones and the under¬
lying Eggleston and Middle Ordovician limestones comprise
competent units. The small-scale parasitic structures of the
Martinsburg were produced at the same time as the major folds
and reflect the marked difference in the way in which these
beds responded to regional stress.

EVALUATING THE EFFECT OF AREAL SEISMICITY ON BUILDING
CONSTRUCTION. T. A. Dumper*, Dept, of Geological Sciences,
Va. Polytechnic Inst. & State Univ,, Blacksburg, Va. 24061

The design of a building to withstand the effects of
earthshaking is a trade off between its ability to with¬
stand the effects of earth tremors and economies in con¬
struction cost. Such design is based upon the relationship
between the damage potential of an earthquake and its
return period. This relation may be determined by plotting
the function relating the intensity (I) of an earthquake
felt within a given area with its recurrence interval (Log
N = a + b I). This function may be quantified by estimating
on the basis of historical record, the number of recurrences
of each intensity of earthshaking felt in a given area
during the maximum record length attainable for that area.

This method is demonstrated for an area in Central
Botetourt County for which 27 episodes of earthshaking
related to earthquakes has been recorded since 1774. The
plot of the recurrence function was found to have the
equation Log N ■ - 1.58 -.25 I and the maximum credible
earthquake for the area would be Intensity VIII with a
recurrence interval of .027 or about once in 370 years. It
was concluded that building construction that has an
extensive useful life, that is used to accommodate large
groups of people, or that would provide a special environ¬
mental hazard in case of failure should consider an earth¬
quake of Intensity VIII in its design.

134

The Virginia Journal of Science

GRAVITY AND MAGNETIC STUDY OF THE NORTHWEST RIVER
AREA. R. J. FENNEMA*, M. A. Sabet, Department of
Geophysical Sciences, Old Dominion University,
Norfolk, Virginia 23508.

The fact that most river channels in the

Coastal Plain of Virginia trend NW-SE, strongly
suggests that their locations and trend is struct¬
urally controlled. It is hypothesized that these
channels reflect faulting in the basement complex.

To test the hypothesis, gravity and magnetic
maps of the Northwest River area were made based
on detailed observations. This river was chosen
because of its short course and narrow channel;
thus data could be obtained from equally distri¬
buted locations .

The magnetic map displays a series of NW-SE-
trending anomalies on the north side of the River.
These anomalies change their trend to NE-SW on the
south side. Similarly, the gravity contours swing
from NW to a SW direction across the river. It is
thus concluded that this channel may indeed re¬
flect faulting in the basement complex.

STUDY OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN BEDROCK AND SLOPE NEAR

BUCHANAN. VIRGINIA. G. C. Grander and T. A. Dumper*. Dept,
of Geological Sciences, Va. Polytechnic Inst, and State

Univ.

Lithology and slope in a 31-square-mile area near

Buchanan, Virginia are so closely related that it is
possible to infer generalized bedrock distribution from
slope alone. An elevation and a lithology were assigned to
each point in a 75 x 137 grid (10,275 points) with uniform

300 foot spacing. Computer routines calculated the maximum
slope at each point and made slope frequency distributions
for each of fifteen mapping units. In this area, slopes up
to 10% are associated mainly with alluvium, those from 10%
to 35% mainly with limestone and dolomite, and those greater
than 35% mainly with quartz sandstones. The groups are
distinct. The ridge-forming quartz sandstones have bimodal
distributions, which may reflect the difference between dip
slopes and outcrop slopes.

MAGNETIC AND PETROGRAPHIC STUDY OF THE HARRISON¬
BURG DIKE. 0. L. Hoover,* Dept, of Geology,

Madison Col. , Harrisonburg, Va. 22801.

The Harrisonburg Dike was surficially and
magnetically mapped and found to run continuously
for approximately 2.5 miles. Magnetometer surveys
indicated the major portion of the dike to be
located somewhat to the west of its position as
originally mapped by Brent, 1960.

Petrographic (mineralogical) studies of thin
sections made from samples throughout the extent
of the intrusion revealed the igneous rock to be
an olivine diabase composed of the minerals
olivine, augite, labradorite , chlorite, and
magnetite. Mineralogical composition of the dike
remains unchanged throughout its extent.

Strike and dip measurements were made of joint
patterns within the carbonate rocks through which
the Harrisonburg Dike intruded. This information,
combined with the magnetic profiles and nearly
horizontal bedding of the carbonate rocks,
strongly indicates that the intrusion was joint
controlled .

PETROLOGIC ASPECTS OF A COMPLEX AREA IN THE PETEilSBDRG

GRANITE AT RICHMOND, VIRGINIA. David R. Huber, College
of William and Mary, Williamsburg, Virginia 23185

At the Fall Line, several distinctive rock types crop out
in a one acre area along the south bank of the James River.

A biotite gneiss (BG) containing lenticular, poikiloblastic
plagioclase and quartz is injected by a microcline quartz
raonzonite (QM) with fine, medium, and pegmatitic [ihases. In
turn, this is intruded by a foliated chloritic microcline
biotite granodiorite ^OD). A lighter, coarser non-foliated

GD intrudes biotite schist farther up stream. Late kinematic
aplxtic QM dikes and pegmatites, and veins of pegmatite and
cuartz filling joints cross all rocks. Regional raetamorphism
raised all to greenschist facies. The BG occurs as xenoliths
and massive parallel units as much as 20 feet long injected
lit-par-lit by the QM forming an arteritic migmati te. 11118 ean
be demonstrated by chilled margins, cross cutting dikes vri.th
rotated xenoliths, assimilation, and by tracing the QM free
of inclusions into the BG where it has schlieren and rotated
xenoliths. Non-dilation pegmatite dikes are products of
replacement. A venitic model is appropriate for dikes wdth
mafic borders and septa of biotite paralleling the foliation
of the BG and extending into the dikes undisturbed. Ptygmatic
folds suggest a plastic state caused by anatexis which
differentiated the paleosorae into melanocratic restites and
leucooratic raobilizates, some with porphyroblasts of quartz
and microcline forming constipated veinlets. lUkes with
poikiloblastic texture may represent relic bedding.

A LATE MIOCENE BALEEN WHALE FROM THE YORKTOWN
FORMATION AT HAMPTON, VA . G.H. Johnson, G.D.
Armstrong, M.B. Barney, J.C. Blush, R.R. Ellison,

B.J. France, J.R. Gustafson, G.E. Holt, P.M.

Hopkins, J.S. Norman, S.A. Nunnally, J.B. West,

J. Westgate, and T.Z. Wilke, Dept, of Geology,

College of William and Mary, Williamsburg, Va.

A fossil baleen whale was recovered from the
leached and oxidized part of the silty-sand
facies of the Yorktown Formation at Dellinger
pit near Langley Field, Hampton, Virginia.

These deposits (Orionina vauqhani biozone of

Hazel, 1971) are late Miocene or early Pliocene
in age. Although extensively fractured, the
skeleton (skull, left jaw, ribs, and cervical,
thoraic, and lumbar vertebrae) were only slight¬
ly disarranged. The appendages and caudal ver¬
tebrae were not recovered. The fauna found
directly below the skeleton was composed mostly
of mollusks. The texture and composition of the
sediments, primary structures, orientation and
physical condition of the fossils, and ecology
of extant genera and species indicate that the
whale lived in marine waters 50 to 1 50 feet deep.

Tiic] iNVboi'IGATlON oF AliD A COi'JGLGi’iFiiAIil

ALONG I'liii Lii,ADING FDGL OF PhF PGLAoKI THaUJT F.4ULI, NOaTii OF
BLACKi5BUHG, VA. L. P. Jonnson III*, and C, D. Lee*, Dept, of

Geol*. Sciences, Vi'^I oU, .-iacKsburg, Va. 24061

Aeceniiy, tectonic "erratics" have been found locally within
a recess in the leading edge of the Pulasici thrust sheet east
of US 460, north of hiacksburg. "brratics" of "jasperoid" and
"erratics" composed of brecciatea cnert and dolomite apparently
were plucked from the overriding l.pper Cambrian Llbrook dolo¬
mite. "Erratics" of strained and brecciatea quartzitic sand¬
stone and conglomerate were derived from the underlyi.ng riiss-
issi^pian formations. The direction of tectonic transport was
from south to north.

The "erratics" led to the discovery of several outcrops of
Conglomerate above the Nississippian haccrady reabeds, Petro-
graphically, tne conglomerate is similar to another nighly
strained conglomerate occurring above the i'laccrady reabeds
within the Price .-.ountain window, south of Blacksburg. This
Occurrence represents the only kiiown possible source for tne
conglomerate "erratics" found along die leading edge of the
fault. Therefore, the maximum distance of tectonic transport
for these "erratics" is probably less than five miles.

Proceedings, 1971-1972

135

HEAVY MINERAL DISTRIBUTION IN PLEISTOCENE SEDI¬
MENTS FROM SOUTHEASTERN VIRGINIA. Anne K. Kolesai*
and W. J. Hanna. Geophysical Sciences Department,
Old Dominion University, Norfolk, Virginia 23508

Samples of Pleistocene sediments were collected
from test borings of two sites in Southeastern
Virginia. One site was near the eastern edge of
the Dismal Swamp. Samples taken at this site
ranged from 40 to 65 feet. The other site was be¬
tween the eastern and western branches of the
Lynnhaven River where sampling depths were from 10
to 30 feet. Two samples were taken from Recent
dunes for comparison.

Samples were dry sieved and the 60 to 80 and 80
to 100 mesh fractions were selected for heavy
mineral separation on the Frantz isodynamic Mag¬
netic Separator (Model L-1) . Portions of the sep¬
arated fractions were mounted in lakeside cement
on glass slides and ground to thin section thick¬
ness. Minerals were identified by petrographic
microscope under plane polorized light.

Varying amounts of ilmenite minerals were found »
along with leucoxene in all samples. Of the fer-
romognesians , hornblende and augite appear to be
the most represented minerals.

'geology of GOSHEN PASS, ROCKBRIDGE COUNTY, VIRGINIA.

Philip S. Marshall.^^ Dept, of Geology, Col. of V/illiam and
Mary, Williamsburg, Va. 23185

Goshen Pass, Rockbridge County, Virginia, is located in
the Valley and Ridge province of the Central Appalachians
(Goshen 7g' Quadrangle). The stratigraphic section exposed
in the Pass consists of Middle Ordovician to Middle Silurian
clastic rocks encompassing, in ascending order, the Hartins-
burg Formation, Oswego Sandstone, Clinch Sandstone, Cacapon
Formation and Keefer Sandstone. The Gswego-Keefer interval,
estimated to be approximately 1000' thick, forms a competent
rock layer enclosed between the incompetent Martinsburg and
Devonian shales.

Structures trend northeast in Goshen Pass. Major struc¬
tures are the Wolf Mountain and Chambers Ridge anticlines
and two back -thrust faults. The combination of folds and
faults causes six repetitions of the Oswego-Keefer sequence.
The structures probably record a single episode of deforma¬
tion in which the faults are slightly older than the folds.

The back-thrust faults dip northwest and are overthrust
to the southeast, a geometry and movement opposite to that
typical of the general region. The faults resemble west¬
dipping thrust faults in the Appalachian Plateau province
which Gwinn (I964) explains as flexural-slip responses to
compression in the cores of concentric folds. This explana¬
tion is applicable because on a larger structural scale
Goshen Pass appears to lie on the western flank of a major
anticline. (Aided by NSF Grant GY-8771).

SUBSURFACE COMPLEXITIES OF THE VIRGINIA COASTAL PLAIN RE¬
VEALED BY GRAVITY AND MAGNETIC STUDIES, M. A. SABET. Depart¬
ment of Geophysical Sciences, Old Dominion University,
Norfolk, Virginia 23508.

A simple Bouguer anomaly map was made for the area ex¬
tending eastward from 77°00 W to the Atlantic Coast between
37°00'N and 37 37.5'N. The map is based on 850 gravity

observations made on the subaerial Coastal Plain, and pub¬
lished observations in Chesapeake Bay. In addition, total
magnetic intensity maps of portions of the same area were
made based on ground surveys.

The Bouguer map shows three distinct anomaly trends: N-S,
NE-SW, and NW-SE. The magnetic maps show that every grav¬
ity anomaly is associated with a similar magnetic anomaly.

It is thus inferred that density and magnetic susceptibil¬
ity contrasts between the rooks of the crystalline basement
and the overlying sediments are the main causes of both
gravity and magnetic anomalies.

Quantitative interpretation of the gravity map suggests
that the Coastal Plain sediments are underlain by a topo¬
graphically rugged crystalline basement, probably of struc¬
tural origin. Changes in the depth to the basement from 700
to 7000 feet within 10 or 15 miles are very common. The top¬
ography of the basement appears to be reflected on the sur¬
face by some major physiographic features. For example, the
Surry and Suffolk scarps, as well as the York and lower
James Rivers are located where faults in the basement com¬
plex are most suspected.

PETROLOGY AND ORIGINS OF THE SCHISTOSE XEKOLITHS OF THE
PETERSBURG GitANITE. C. K. Sever , Col. of William and Mary,
Williamsburg, Va. 23185

The darii schistose xenoliths in the body of the Peters¬
burg granite were studied from locations at Richmond and in
Dinwiddie County at the Jack Wuarry. Field observations
show rather distinct contacts between the host rock and the
xenoliths. Xenoliths vary in size from inches to several
feet. Orientation is random, and many of the xenoliths ex¬
hibit curved laminae along the contacts with the granite
where drag has occurred during rotation accompanying granite
emplacement. No primary features are relict, and no reac¬
tion of the xenoliths with the host rock is obvious.

Petrographic study shows the dominant mineral assemblage
to be hornblende, epidote, plagioclase, and biotite. Chlo¬
rite, pyrite, and sphene are common accessories. Veins of
quartz and plagioclase occur in many of the xenoliths paral¬
lel to foliation and as distinct ptygmatic folds. Texture
and mineralogy suggest a medium grade of regional metamorph¬
ism, specifically one of the quartz-albite-epidote subfacies
of the greenschist facies. The composition suggests a for¬
mer iron- and calcium-rich mineralogic assemblage probably
in a sedimentary environment.

Hocks similar to a possible source material for the xeno¬
liths exist northwest of tlie Petersburg granite as an am¬
phibolitic gneiss body. Saaples of this from Sabot, Va.,
show a .luneralogy similar to the xenoliths.

(Aided by N3F Grant 07-8771)

SEQUENCE OF STRUCTURAL DEFORMATION EXHIBITED BY DRAG FOLDS
IN MIDDLE ORDOVICIAN STRATA IN THE CLOVER HOLLOW ANTICLINE,
GILES COUNTY, VIRGINIA. Mark L. Slusarski*. Dept, of
Geological Sciences, Va. Polytechnic Inst. & State Univ.,
Blacksburg, Va. 24061

Drag or parasitic folding is a common type of structural
deformation one is likely to encounter in the folded and
faulted Valley and Ridge Province of the Southern Appa¬
lachians. The Clover Hollow anticline is comprised of Lower
to Middle Paleozoic sediments of which the Moccasin and
Eggleston formations (Middle Ordovician) have been so
deformed. The term drag folding is incorrect, however, as
it implies a specific type of def ormational process.

Plastic deformation of the beds and flexural folding of
alternately Interbedded competent and incompetent units of
the Moccasin-Eggleston sequence resulted in parasitic folds
formed by the same deforming stresses that affected the area
on a regional scale. With continued stress, shear planes,
boudinage, cleavage and wedging were produced. Normal and
reverse faulting of the lithified units subsequently
fractured, jointed and displaced the folded beds.

METAMORPHIC ZONES AS DETERMINED BY STUDY OF STREAM
SEDIMENTS IN THE JAMES RIVER BASIN OF THE VIRGINIA
PIEDMONT. Stephen M. Snyder*. College of William and Mary,
Williamsburg, Va. 23185.

A study of metamorphic index minerals in stream sediment
samples suggests a useful means of reconnaissance to
determine metamorphic isograds in the Piedmont province
of Central Virginia. 30 sand sized fractions of sediment
obtained at 100 localities along small tributaries within
a 2500 square mile area in the James River drainage basin
were analysed to determine relative abundance as well as
the total absence or presence of key minerals studied.

The study revealed a well-defined axis of maximum meta-
morphio intensity in the silliraanite zone bisecting the
area in a narrow north-south trending belt approximately
10 miles west of Richmond. A distinct garnet zone flanks
the axis to the east, with kyanite occurring locally
between these zones. To the west of the sillimanite zone,
metamorphic intensity decreases through garnet and biotite
zones to a concentrated area of kyanite surrounding Willis
Mt. near Dillwyn, Va. Westward of Willis Mt. , garnets
reappear and grade into a distinct staurolite zone near the
eastern edge of the Blue Ridge.

(Aided by NSF Grant'Gr -8771)

136

The Virginia Journal of Science

VERTEBRATE REMAINS FROM A ( ? )POST-WISCONSIN FISSURE
DEPOSIT NEAR PEARISBURG, VIRGINIA. R. E. Weems-'^ Dept,
of Geol. Sci., Va. Polytechnic Inst. & State Univ. ,
Blacksburg, Va. 24061

A small vertebrate fauna has been found at the abandoned
Ripplemead Limestone Company quarry on the western bluff of
the New River near Pearisburg, Giles County, Virginia. The
fauna was collected from three small fissures in the quarry
wall. Each fissure was filled with breccia and red clay
weakly cemented by calcite. Numerous land snails’ shells
are present as well as bones and teeth. The most numerous
remains are snake vertebrae and rodent bones and teeth .

Also a few teeth of larger mammals such as horse, peccary,
deer, bear(?), and bobcat(?) have been found. Only one
vertebra of a fish and two vertebrae of a salamander have
been recovered. This suggests that the fissures were not
suitable for creatures dependent upon a continuous water
supply or prolonged dampness, and the fissures were there¬
fore above the water table when they were filled. The
complexion of this fauna, although certainly prehistoric,
is not very ancient. Assignment of this fauna to post-
Wisconsin time is warranted for this reason. If a carbon-
14 dating can be made, it is hoped that a maximum down¬
cutting rate for the New River can be estimated. Such a
dating might also allow an estimate of the latest time at
which horses and grasslands still existed in western
Virginia.

Section of Materials Science

Fiftieth Annual Meeting
May 3-5, 1

of The Virginia
972, Lexington,

Academy

Virginia

of Science

AN ELECTRICAL MEANS OF MONITORING CLOT FORMATION. T. H.

Boyd, III* , G. E. Stoner. Department of Materials Science,
University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia 22901
Successful implantation of materials in the bloodstream
requires the material to be antithrombogenic, that is, not
inducing clot formation on its surface. In vitro blood
clotting experiments using plasma give results that are
similar to those done with whole blood. A method used in
this laboratory for monitoring the clotting of plasma has
been to measure the change in turbidity with a photoelectric
device by passing light through the plasma. As polymeriza¬
tion proceeds the amount of transmitted light decreases with
turbidity producing a sigmoid curve. Recently, it was also
found that the electrical resistivity of the plasma increases
with increasing turbidity, also displaying a similar sigmiod
curve; thus offering as alternative method of monitoring
the polymerization of either plasma of whole blood. In
addition, the resistivity curve continues to increase after
the optical turbidity curve has leveled off, and undergoes
a distinct inflection several minutes after the original
polymerization — thus indicating continued chemical activity
which may be attributed to crosslinking. With this added
sensitivity, an explanation of the final steps in clot
formation and/or lysis could possibly be explained and
monitored as a function of time.

DYNAMIC TENSILE RESPONSE OF ANNEALED COPPER WIRES. T. H.
Dawson . Dept, of Civil Engineering, Univ. of Va., Char¬
lottesville, Va. 22901

The plastic response of copper wires to Impact tensile
loadings is examined experimentally using results derived
from general viscous and non-viscous similarity relations
and from an appropriately constructed theory as Indicated
by the similarity considerations. For maximum strain rates
ranging from 1 to 11/sec, the plastic response is found to
be governed by a non-viscous time-independent constitutive
law having dynamic stress values for any given strain con¬
sistently greater than those determined from quasi-static
considerations .

Proceedings, 1971-1972

137

A COMPUTER SIMULATION OF ELECTRONIC SWITCHING IN AN AMOR¬
PHOUS SEMICONDUCTOR. L. R. Durden, W. D. Leahy, Jr.*, and

L. H. Slack. Div. of Minerals Engineering, Va. Polytechnic

Inst, and State Univ., Blacksburg, Va. 24061

The switching characteristics of amorphous semiconductor
thin films are compared with a computer simulation of
switching based on a thermal runaway model. The model con¬
sists of applying a square wave voltage pulse through the
semiconducting glass film between two electrical contacts.
Effects of changing the electrode areas, film thickness,
semiconducting glass resistivity and applied voltage have
been explored via the computer simulations. The delay time
for the thermal runaway varies very sensitively with each of
the parameters except electrode area.

Experimental studies of switching for amorphous semi¬
conductor devices of similar geometries reveal that a minor
electronic switch occurs prior to thermal runaway. This
phenomenon is accompanied by ISMHg oscillations. A compar¬
ison of the experimental and simulation results indicates
that this minor switch, when it occurs, greatly reduces the
delay time for thermal runaway. (Aided by ARPA Grant 1562,
Amend . No 1 . )

STERIC AND ENERGY MAPPING OF POLYPEPTIDE CONFORM¬
ATIONS. J.H. Fikus* and R.A. Johnson, Dept, of
Materials Science, Univ. of Va . , Charlottesville,
Virginia 22901

The polypeptides which make up proteins are
linear unbranched chain polymers which may assume
different three-dimensional shapes or conformations
by rotations about the single bonds of its co¬
valent backbone and side chains. With various
hard-sphere contact criteria, steric maps have
been generated using computer modelling techniques,
and illustrate the dominant roll of steric hin¬
drance (i.e. repulsive forces) in restricting chain
folding. Since the hard-sphere model implies an
infinite-step potential, it yields no insight into
the stability due to attractive forces. For energy
calculation, a Buckingham 6-exp potential function
representing the non-bonded interatomic inter¬
actions was used. Potential energy contour maps
and energy surface maps were then generated by
computer techniques . These maps indicate that re¬
pulsive forces are the major factor in regulating
polypeptide chain folding, and yield a quantitative
measure of stability for each conformation.

(Supported by the Center for Advanced Studies
at the University of Virginia) .

ELECTRON DIFRRACTIOM STUDIES QT TWINNING AND ITS
RELATION TO THE ANTIFERROi-JIGKETIC SPI^' DIRECTION

IN THE NATURAL MINERAL HEM.'TITE (o<-Fe.,0,). G. V/.
Franti" Dept, of iiats. .Sci. UVA Charlottesville,

Va. 22901

The antiferroraagnetic structure of hematite
has the electron spins along axis at temp¬

eratures below -10®C. Above -10°C, the spins are
in the basal plane. This is the normal anti¬
ferromagnetic structure for hematite at room
temperature .

In hematite crystals from Elba, the low-temp¬
erature phase js present at room temperature.

Heating to 900^C causes the normal ghase to
appear. Subsequent heating to 1100°C results in
the appearance of the low-tern erature phase.

Twins in hematite were detected by electron
diffraction. A twinned crystal corresponded to
the lov/-temperature phase whereas an untwinned
cr-/-stal had the normal phase of the antiferro¬
magnetic structure.

PRESSURE DEPENDENCE ON THE THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY

OF TEFLON. R.B. Groome* and R.E. Barker, Jr.,

Dept, of Materials Science, Univ. of Virginia,
Charlottesville, Virginia 22901

Polytetraf luoroethylene (Teflon) , exhibits in¬
teresting phase transitions at temperatures slight¬
ly below and above room temperature. These transi¬
tions involve changes in the helical configuration
of the molecules. The thermal conductivity K is
very sensitive to changes in structure and it
would be expected that an increase in order re¬
sulting from one of these transitions would result
in an increase in K. However, PTFE exhibits some
peculiar behavior with both increasing and de¬
creasing values of K in the range of temperatures
examined. By applying pressure up to SKbar and
temperature up to 90°C we are attempting to
characterize the dependence of K on pressure and
temperature and to determine the physical origin
of the transitions.

(Work initiated under NIDR Grant DE02111)

DETERMINATION OF FATIGUE DAMAGE AT STRESS RAISERS IN

COMPOSITE MATERIALS. E.G. Henneke and K. Reifsnider,

Department of Engineering Mechanics, VPI&SU, Blacksburg,

Va. 24061

The heterogeneous nature of composite materials has a
major effect on the development of fatigue damage, eBpec-
cially in the neighborhood of notches, holes, cracks, or
other stress raisers. Fatigue damage modes which are
common to monolithic materials, such as single flow propa¬
gation, are altered and frequently completely arrested by
the material phase interfaces in composite specimens.

The present work reports the results of recent efforts to
establish nondestructive testing techniques which can be
used to identify and describe fatigue damage in boron-epoxy
specimens using penetrating radiation and ultrasound.

USE OF DENSITY MEASUREMENTS TO STUDY THE THERMAL CONVERSION

OF KYANITE TO MULLITE. D. C. Jain and J. J. Brown, Jr.

Div. of Minerals Engineering, Va. Polytechnic Inst, and

State Univ., Blacksburg, Va. 24061

Density measurement was chosen as a tool to study the
kinetics of kyanite to mullite conversion. The average den¬
sity of kyanite was found to be 3.5410 gms/cc and of mullite
after complete conversion (conversion being confirmed by
x-ray diffraction, density and optical observations) to be

2.9855 gms/cc. Raw kyanite samples were heated for differ¬
ent lengths of time at 1200°C, 1250^0, 1300^0, 1350^0, and

1400^0, and degree of conversion was established from den¬
sity measurements. There are two distinct stages in the
course of transformation, the acceleratory period being dom¬
inated by the nucleation rate of the mullite phase and the
deceleratory period by its growth rate, which is typical of
a solid state reaction. The activation energy of the conver¬
sion in the acceleratory period was found to be 95.35 k cal.
Exponential relationships are observed between time of com¬
plete conversion and temperature, and between rate of con¬
version and reciprocal temperature.

138

The Virginia Journal of Science

DIMENSIONAL CHANGE AND PORE DEVELOPMENT DURING HARDENING

OF AG-RN AMAT.GAMR . T, . R. Johnson. Jr.. Dpot . of Mat. Sci . .

Univ . of Va . , Charlottesville, Va . 22901

Dimensional change during the setting of dental amalgam
is one of the most important criteria for determining its
usefulness . It was the purpose of this study to relate
dimensional change to the fundamental structure changes.

Crystallographic data have been used to calculate the
volumes of reactants and products in the amalgamation of

Ag, Sn and AggSn. These have been compared with direct
volumetric measurements made with an electronic micrometer
on compressed cylindrical specimens .

Results indicate that nearly all contraction is due to

Hg going from the liquid to a solid phase. If all amalga¬
mation products had enough mobility to fill all spaces
previously occupied by Hg, all amalgams would show only
contraction during setting. Any that do not show contrac¬
tion, therefore, must develop pores. The amount of porosity
can be calculated .

(Supported by NIH grant DE02111)

BULK MODULUS OF A MATERIAL CONTAINING VOIDS. R.A.
Johnson, Dept, of Materials Science, Univ. of

Virginia, Charlottesville, Va. 22901

The change in the effective bulk modulus of a
material due to the porosity resulting from dis¬
persed spherical voids, is determined using con¬
tinuum elasticity theory. For the case of an
isotropic elastic material under an applied
hydrostatic pressure, the relative decrease in the
bulk modulus is found to be of the order of three
times the relative increase in volume of the
material caused by the voids. (Supported by AEC
Contract No. AT- (40-1) -3108 and the Center for

Advanced Studies at the Univ. of Va . )

CORRELATION OF PROPERTIES OF ANHYDRIDE CURED EPOXY RESINS

WITH STRUCTURE. R. E. Johnson* and A. L. Fricke, Dept, of

Chem. Engr., Va. Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ., Blacks¬
burg, Va. 24061.

Anhydride cured epoxy resins are used extensively in the
chemical industry because of their good combination of cost
and properties and are also often used in filament winding
application because of their good high temperature proper¬
ties. Unfortunately, little was known about their behavior
upon aging. In this work, epoxidized novolac was cured with
a wide range of types of anhydrides and properties determined
as a function of aging temperature. Conclusions are drawn
from the data with respect to the effect of anhydride struc¬
ture on retention of properties upon aging. Appropriate ad¬
ditional work in progress is also discussed.

THE IDENTIFICATION OF PHASES IN FRACTURE SURFACES OF DENTAL
AMALGAM. C. I. Jones, Jr.* and H.G.F. Wilsdorf, Dept, of
Materials Science, University of Va., Charlottesville,

Virginia 22901

Previous interpretations of scanning electron fractographs
have been primarily dependent upon geometrical considera¬
tions of phases depicted. This study confirmed and explic¬
ated earlier descriptions. Samples of dental amalgam made
by mixing mercury with spherical particles of AgsSn and
subsequent pressing were used for diametral tensile tests.

The resulting fracture surfaces were examined in the
scanning electron microscope. Through the use of energy
dispersive X-ray spectroscopy, relative compositions of the
phases present were obtained. Evaluations of fractographs
resulted in a new interpretation of fracture modes in this
material.

Apparent matrix fracture areas, predominately yi
least four times the amount of mercury as the surfaces of
alloy spheres, while the ratio of silver in the matrix to
that on the spheres was less than 1 :4 ; the tin content
increased by a factor of about two from matrix to sphere
surface. For any composition analysis in this study, the
area scanned was about 0.25 square micron. With respect to
sensitivity, elements present in amounts no greater than

3 wt % are easily detectable.

This research is supported by NIDR under Program/Project

5 TOl DE 0015-08.

THE EFFECT OF LOCAL VARIATIONS IN YIELD STRENGTH ON CRACKS

AND FATIGUE CRACK PROPAGATION RATES. M. Kahl* and K.L.
Reifsnider, Department of Engineering Mechanics, VPI&SU,
Blacksburg, Va. 24061

The preponderance of existing literature which deals
with plastic zones near crack tips considers materials and
analyses in which the yield strength value is taken to be
constant and uniform throughout the region under investiga¬
tion, at least initially. Such an assumption is not easily
defended if one is to consider crack initiation and propa¬
gation in real engineering components which may have been
forged, cold worked, annealed, or cast during manufacture.

The present work establishes analytically and experimentally
the influence of one-dimensional gradients of yield strength
on the size and shape of plastic zones in single edge
notched (SEN) 7075-T6 aluminum specimens. The effect of
such gradients on crack propagation rates is also examined.

THE EFFECT OF SOLUTE NITROGEN ON STRESS CORROSION CRACKING

OF TYPE 304 STAINLESS STEEL WIRE. S. Maitra,* G. S.

Clevlneer, and J. L. Lytton, VPIiSU, Div. of Minerals Engr.,
Blacksburg, Va. 24061

The effect of varying solute nitrogen content on the
stress-corrosion cracking behavior of type 304 0.025" di¬
ameter stainless steel wires has been determined for tensile
stress levels of 20,2, 27.0, 33.7, 40,2, and 47.0 ksi.
Time-to-failure was used as a measure of susceptibility.

Three different nitrogen levels were studied: 0.033%,

0.059%, and 0.184%, and these were obtained by a combination
of nitriding in nitrogen hydrogen gas mixtures and homogeni¬
zation annealing.

The results revealed that the "knee" found by other in¬
vestigators in plots of the logarithm of failure time vs.
the applied stress was present at all three nitrogen levels
and that the failure time decreased with Increasing nitrogen
content. The effect of nitrogen was found to be even
greater for stresses well below the yield point than for
stresses above it, suggesting that the effect of nitrogen is
largely electrochemical rather than related to changes in
dislocation structure, (Supported by AEC Contract No.
AT-(40-l)-4052.)

Proceedings, 1971-1972

139

THE ORDERING TRANSFORMATION OF EQDIAT(MIC COPPER-PUTINDM.

R. J. Mi'tch*llt D*pt. »f Materials Science, Dniv. sf V»,.
Charlottesville, Va. 22901 and B. G. LoFevre* Soh. of

Chemical Engineering, Ga. Inst, of Technology, Atlanta, Ga,

30332

Samples of equiatsaaie capper-platinum were quenched from
above the ordering temperature into icy brine, annealed at

300*C, 500®C and 700®C, and examined by miorohardness,
optical microseepo, electron microscope, and X-ray diffrac¬
tion techniques. In samples annealed for short times at

300*C and 500®C, a fino-domained "mottled" structure con¬
sisting of all four orientation variants of the ordered cell
is seen. Continued annealing produces a coarse-demainod
grain boundary component which X-ray diffraction shows to
have a higher degree ef order than the mottled structure.

At lower t«nperatux?e the grain boundary component grows and
replaces the mettled structure to complete the ordering
transition. At high t«nperatures the mottled structures
coarsen into order twins lying on {lOO} and fllOj type
planes. The transformation to order and the resulting
hardness changes are seen to depend largely on the internal
strains resulting from the cubic to rhombohedral distortion.

NON-LINEAR CONSTRAINED OPTIMIZATION OF POLYESTER-FILLER SYS¬
TEMS. V. K. Natarajan*, A. L. Fricke, and J. A. Caskey,

Dept, of Chem. Engr., Va. Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ. ,
Blacksburg, Va. 24061.

Polyester-filler systems are formulated to yield a suit¬
able combination of properties for each application, prefer¬
ably at the lowest possible cost. This typical formulation
problem is an example of constrained optimization where the
properties are the constraints. However, there are so many
components in the average formulation that determination of
the optimum is a complex problem. This work is a demonstra¬
tion of a systematic and efficient method for handling such
problems. An eight variable system was chosen, experiments
were designed and run, and correlations were developed for
each property constraint. Properties for several applica¬
tions were specified and minimum cost formulations were cal¬
culated by a non-linear optimization method for each appli¬
cation.

HOLOGRAPHIC STRESS ANALYSIS. L.E. Parrish*, L.A. Marcus*,

T.K. O'Brien*, and H.F, Brinson*. Dept, of Engineering
Mechanics, VPI&SU, Blacksburg, Va. 24061

The use of holography as a stress analysis technique is
described. Details of the apparatus and its arrangement are
discussed as well as a simplified mathematical description
of the optics necessary for stress analysis. Holograms of
a beam in pure bending and a diametrically compressed disk
are presented. Methods are described by which the iso-
pachic fringes so generated are used in conjunction with
photoelastic isochromatics to ascertain stress and strain
distributions in the disk. Finally, the application of
holography to other types of materials investigations is
discussed .

POROSITY IN DENTAL AMALGAM CONTAINING GOLD. J.R.
Parsons* and H.G.F. Wilsdorf, Dept, of Materials
Science, Univ. of Va., Charlottesville, Va. 22901

A new spherical alloy (10% Au, 64% Ag, 26% Sn)
has been shown to produce amalgams of improved
strength and corrosion characteristics . During
efforts to further improve this alloy, quantitative
metal lographic measurements were made to determine
the average size and distribution of pores within
the amalgam. Variables included condensation
pressure (40,000 psi to 2000 psi) and a surface
cleaning technique.

In all cases, results indicated the generally
accepted pattern of decreasing porosity with
increasing condensation pressure.

Average pore size and distribution was also
affected by condensation pressure. The higher the
packing pressure the smaller the number of pores,
and average pore size. Notable was the fact that
interconnecting pores were virtually eliminated in
the samples compacted at high pressure.

Samples produced with "cleaned" alloy showed
slightly greater porosity at all condensation
pressures. The average pore size was smaller and
the number of pores larger.

A brief comparison was made between amalgams
containing Au and normal dental amalgam.

(Sponsored by NIDR, Program/Project DE02111)_

A HIGH-GAIN LIGHT-INTENSIFYING DEVICE INCORPORATING A FIBER
OPTIC X RAY INTENSIFYING FORCEPLATE. K.L. Reifsnider,

Dept, of Engineering Mechanics, and J,J. Brown, Jr., Dept,
of Metallurgical Engineering, VPI&SU, Blacksburg, Va. 24061

The results of initial attempts to apply a radically new
concept to the development of an X-ray sensitive image
intensifying device are reported. The new device consists
of an X-ray sensitive fiber-optic faceplate which converts

X-ray photons into visible light. The fiber-optic fluores¬
cent plate replaces the powder fluorescent screen common to
such techniques , with a subsequent improvement in resolution
and in the percent of absorbed incident radiation. The
resolution and X-ray stopping power of the fluorescent
fiber-optic plate are not coupled as is the case for powder
fluorescent screens. A resolution of 35 Ip /mm is demon¬
strated in the present work.

THE EFFECT OF ELEVATED TEMPERATURES ON DENTAL ALLOYS. C. L.
Reynolds* and F. E. Wawner, Dept, of Materials Science,

University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia 22901

The influence of elevated temperatures on dental alloys
is of considerable interest to dental technology particu¬
larly the phase changes that occur.

Considerable difference was noted in the phases contain¬
ing Hg obtained by two different preparation techniques. All
of the alloy samples that were subjected to heat and pres¬
sure readily lost Hg with a maximum of 23% occurring in the
sample that contained 13 wt % Sn. The Sn containing alloy
transformed to the B i(Ag-Hg) phase in ayiC^g-Hg) matrix.

There was no evidence of the Y2(Sn-Hg) phase in any of the
samples indicating that by the use of pressure the Sn atoms
can be accommodated into the B i and yi lattices. Samples
that were heated at atmospheric pressure lost virtually no

Hg and in general were composed of B i , Y is y 2 • The

amount of Y2was seen to increase with higher Sn content
until at 26 wt % Sn, the alloy consisted solely of Biand ya-
The fact that no wt. loss was observed implies that Hg
liberated by the yj decomposition is not given off by the
sample as free Hg but reacts with excess AgsSn to force a
self perpetuating reaction.

140

The Virginia Journal of Science

TIN OXIDE FILMS DEPOSITED BY A SPRAYING TECHNIQUE.

A. Rohatgi* and L. H. Slack. Div. of Minerals Ensineerins,

Va. Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ., Blacksburg, Va.

24061

A technique for the deposition of conducting transparent
thin films on plate glass has been refined. The technique
consists of spraying an alcoholic solution of SnCl4 onto the
heated glass. The effects of spray rate, temperature of the
substrate and other sensitive technique variables will be
described.

The films have a colored tint due to optical diffraction,
and the films are usually noncrystalline. Methods currently
being used to determine the film’s composition and structure
are described. (Aided by a grant from ASG Industries.)

THE APPLICATION OF TOPOLOGICAL CONCEPTS IN STEREOLOGY.

J. H. Steele, Jr. Div. of Minerals Engineering, Va. Poly-
technic Inst, and State Univ., Blacksburg, Va. 24061

The quantitative characterization of microstructure
involves consideration of the topological properties of the
physically distinquishable 3-dimensional regions (e.g.
phases of grains) which constitute it. The two topological
properties of primary interest are the connectivity and num¬
ber of separate regions. These two properties do not pro¬
vide a topological classification for the 3-dimensional
microstructure; however, they do provide a basis for quanti¬
tative comparison of the extent of continuity (or inter¬
connectedness) among phase regions. The connectivity of a
single 3-dimensional region may be defined in terms of the
number of closed curves which can be constructed within it
that cannot be continuously deformed into one another or
into a point without penetrating the closed bounding sur¬
faces of the region. This property and the number of sepa¬
rate regions can be measured using a serial sectioning tech¬
nique.

The application of these concepts and equations to sinter¬
ing and porous bodies and to characterization of normal grain
growth will be presented.

TENSILE FRACTURE OF UNIDIRECTIONAL B-AL COMPOSITE. J, H.

Steele, Jr. Div. of Minerals Engineering, Va, Polytechnic

Inst, and State Univ., Blacksburg, Va. 24061, and H. W.

Herring, NASA, Langley Res. Ctr., Hampton, Va. 23602

Fracture in unidirectional boron filament-aluminum matrix
composite under axial tension was studied using scanning
electron microscopy, microradiography, and an acoustic emis¬
sion technique. The combination of these analysis tech¬
niques has allowed the description and microstructural char¬
acterization of a new non-cumulative fracture mode which
involves filament break propagation. The fracture mode was
found to severely limit the tensile strength of the compos¬
ite since its initiation leads to catastrophic failure at
filament stress levels above a critical value. The critical
filament stress was found to be 170,000 psi, apparently
independent of filament diameter, number of filament layers,
and the type of matrix alloy. A comprehensive analysis of
fracture surfaces indicated several different characteris¬
tics, the most prominent of which was the fragmentation of
the filaments to form wedge-like sections indicating the
direction of break propagation. Matrix fracture was charac¬
terized by ductile rupture which occurred after filament
failure. It was found using filament strength distributions
that the initiation of break propagation occurs when a fila¬
ment fails above the critical stress. Thus the weakest
filaments in the strength distribution appear to control the
ultimate strength when filament stresses exceed the critical
value .

MATHEMATICAL ANALYSIS OF THE HIGH TEMPERATURE OXIDATION

OF TD-NiCr. D. R. Tenney and A. V. Pawarf VPI&SU, Div.
of Minerals Engineering, Blacksburg, Va. 24061

In the TD-NiCr system a volatile CrO^ phase is formed at
a significant rate for all temperatures above about 900 ®C.

A correction for the loss of Cr by the formation of Cr03
must be made to weight gain oxidation data for this alloy
before the data can be used by the design engineer to esti¬
mate service life. A theoretical analysis of the total
oxidation process of this alloy which makes such a correc¬
tion possible has been developed. A total mass balance
approach has been used which makes use of the rates of
diffusion in the alloy and oxide phases, rate of dissocia¬
tion of NiO, kinetics of NiCr204 formation, rate of Cr03
volatilization, and reported weight gain data to treat the
problem of a moving metal/oxide interface. The analysis
calculates the time dependence of the oxide thickness, loss
of Cr by formation of Cr03, and the decrease of substrate
thickness for given oxidation conditions. Also, by em¬
ploying the Murray-Landis variable grid technique, the
appropriate diffusion equations have been solved to calcu¬
late the extent of Cr depletion in the alloy substrate as a
result of the selective oxidation of Cr. (Aided by NASA

Grant NGR-47-004-082 . )

X-RAY DIFFRACTION INVESTIGATION OF BIMETALLIC DIFFUSION

ZONES IN THE Cu-Pd SYSTEM. D. R. Tenney, Division of Miner-
als Engr., Va, Polytechnic Inst. & State Univ., Blacksburg,

Va, 24061, P. K. Talty? Airforce Mat'ls. Research Lab.,
Wright-Patterson Air Force Base.

The recent development of new x-ray diffraction tech¬
niques has made it possible to determine both the composi¬
tion profile and the atomic arrangements associated with
small diffusion zones. These techniques have been employed
to investigate the diffusion of lOy thick deposits of Pd into
[100] oriented single crystals of Cu. The concentration
profiles produced by isothermal diffusion at 900®C were de¬
termined by mathematical analysis of two diffracted inten¬
sity bands. The Boltzmann-Matano analysis was used to ex¬
tract concentration dependent diffusion coefficients which
were found to compare favorably with previously reported
values. Also, x-ray rocking curves were made at selected
compositions to determine the degree of diffusion-generated
subgrain misorientation increase in the diffusion zones.

These rocking curves were Gaussian in shape and indicated
that the distribution of subgrain misorientations was

Gaussian. The widths of the Gaussian misorientation
functions were found to be related to the lattice parameter
gradient existing in the specimen after diffusion. The re¬
sults of this investigation are compared with those obtained
from a previous examination of nearly identically prepared

Cu-Ni specimens. (Aided by NSF Grant NSF-GK-5731. )

INVESTIGATION OF THE OXIDATION BEHAVIOR OF DISPERSION-
STABILIZED ALLOYS WHEN EXPOSED TO A DYNAMIC HIGH TEMPERA¬
TURE ENVIRONMENT. D. R. Tenney and C. T. Young, VPI&SU,

Div. of Minerals Engr., Blacksburg, Va. 24061, and H. W,

Herring, NASA, Langley Res. Ctr., Hampton, Va. 23602

The oxidation behavior of TD-NiCr has been studied in
static and high speed flowing air environments at 2000 and

2200®F. Scanning electron microscopy, x-ray diffraction,
and electron microprobe techniques have been employed to
characterize the oxides and oxide morphologies formed on
this alloy as a function of surface preparation, exposure
time, and specific oxidation conditions in both types of
environments. Surface preparation was found to affect the
order, relative amount, and morphology of oxides formed. An
adherent, dark green layer of Cr203 was observed on speci¬
mens prepared by grinding or diamond polishing. However,
on specimens electropolished before oxidation, the primary
oxide formed was NiO.

The stable oxide morphologies formed on the specimens ex¬
posed to the static and dynamic environments were markedly
different. The facited crystal morphology characteristic
of static environments was found to be very unstable under
high temperature high speed flow conditions and rapidly
transformed to a porous "mushroom" type structure. The
mushroom type oxide growths were very friable and easily
broken from the surface. These mushrooms, usually NiO,
were connected to the alloy substrate or in some cases to a
continuous inner oxide layer by solid oxide grains.

Proceedings, 1971-1972

141

QUANTITATIVE ENERGY DISPERSIVE X-RAY SPECTROSCOPY. R.L.

Trent* and W.A. Jesser, Department of Materials Science,
University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia 22901

Experimental investigations using an energy dispersive
x-ray spectrometer in conjunction with a Siemens 120 kV
transmission electron microscope have been carried out on a
quantitative basis which required certain modifications of
the system as well as extensive calibration techniques .

Experiments were carried out at accelerating voltages
between 40 and 120 kV; however, above 40 kV a substantial
increase in background radiation was noted due to an in¬
creased number of backscattered electrons entering the
x-ray detector. The background contribution from these
electrons was eliminated by inserting a magnet between the
microscope and the detector. With this modification
essentially equivalent spectra can be obtained at all
accelerating voltages.

The calibration techniques consisted of standardizing
the incident electron beam with a known specimen as well
as determining the correction factor for peak height as
a function of total countrate.

The system was used to measure film thickness for the
case of silver overlays on gold substrate films. The
apparent increased thickness of the overlay was determined
for a range of substrate thicknesses. We gratefully
acknowledge the support of Atomic Energy Commission Contract

No. AT (40-1) - 3108.

THE INFLUENCE OF MECHANICAL STRAIN ON DIFFUSION

AND PERMEATION IN POLYMERS. R.C. Tsai* and R.E.

Barker, Jr., Dept, of Materials Science, Univ.
of Virginia, Charlottesville, Va . 22901

The effect of mechanical strain on the diffu¬
sion and permeation of O2, N2, CO, CHi, , and Ar in
acrylic polymers and copolymers has been studied.
Because mechanical strain increases the statisti¬
cal order of the polymer chains, there is an im¬
provement in the efficiency of van der Waals bond¬
ing between groups on adjacent polymer chains and
the configurational entropy is thus decreased.
Therefore for each diffusional step to occur, an
additional local disorder must be achieved. The in¬
crease in the activation entropy for diffusion AS*
corresponds to the decrease in the configurational
entropy -AS;, .

An analysis of the experimental data in terms
of the theory of activated rate processes supports
our previous hypothesis of the correlation of AS*
and ASc and also is in accord with a model that
explains the increase in the activation enthalpy

AH* .

(Supported in part by NIDR, Program/Project

DE02111. )

A NON- DESTRUCTIVE X-RAY TECHNIQUE FOR STUDYING GRAIN BOUND¬
ARY DIFFUSION. J. Unnam* and C. R, Houska, Div. of Minerals
Engineering, Va. Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ., Blacks¬
burg, Va. 24061

A generalized two-dimensional diffusion model has been
developed which consists of an array of boundaries coupled
to the free surface and to the substrate lattice. The model
makes use of three nonlinear partial differential equations
which describe lattice, grain boundary, and surface diffu¬
sion. This two dimensional model has been programmed for
the IBM 360 computer using a finite difference solution to
give concentrations as a function of time.

An x-ray intensity simulation program is developed to
give integrated diffracted intensity for a given concentra¬
tion distribution. This simulated intensity is compared
with experimental intensity. Data are presented from a sam¬
ple containing 8 microns of Ni on a (111) oriented Cu crys¬
tal diffused for various times at 900°C and a similar sample
with 6.5 microns of Ni diffused at 600°C. The simulations
are in good agreement with experimental intensity bands.

Activation energies and Dq values are calculated for lat¬
tice diffusion. The lattice activation energies are in
excellent agreement with melting point correlation; namely,

Q “ 38 Tjjj. Activation energies and Dq values are also calcu¬
lated for grain boundary diffusion. These are in good agree¬
ment with the existing literature values.

OBSERVATIONS ON THE GROWTH OF GRAPHITE WHISKERS.

F. E. Wawner , Jr., Department of Materials Science
School of Engineering & Applied Science, Charlot¬
tesville, Virginia 22901

A study has been conducted to show the
dependency of the growth of graphite whiskers on
a metallic impurity. It was seen that heating
carbon monofilament by striking a dc arc utilizing
a tungsten electrode in a gaseous environment of

Ar, N2 and HCl led to growth of graphite whiskers.

If the tungsten electrode was replaced by a
carbon one, whisker growth was not observed. Re¬
peating these experiments after removing HCl from
the gaseous environment showed no whisker growth
in either case.

It is purposed that the growth of the whiskers
can be attributed to the HCl reacting with the
tungsten to form WCle which is reduced to tungsten
on the carbon substrate serving as an impurity
site. The morphology of the observed whiskers
suggests that growth proceeds by Wagner's VLS
mechanism for whisker growth.

PHASE SEPARATION SPINNING OF POLYPROPYLENE. M. C. Williams*
and A. L. Fricke, Dept, of Chem. Engr . . Va. Polytechnic Inst,
and State Univ., Blacksburg, Va. 24061.

Phase separation spinning, a variation of solution spin¬
ning in which a high boiling solvent is used so that, upon
spinning, the polymer and solvent separate but the solvent
does not evaporate, has been applied to the polypropylene-
naphthalene system. Results for this system demonstrate that
the technique offers the advantages of spinning at low tem¬
peratures with large diameter spinnerets to make small denier
fibers, of high spinning speeds, and of imparting unusual
structure to the fiber. Fibers made in this study were
porous, possessed helical crimp in some cases, and exhibited
good tenacity after only moderate drawing treatment.

CHARACTERIZATION OF BICRYSTALS USING KIKUCHI PATTERNS.

C. T. Young, J. H. Steele, Jr., and J. L. Lytton. Div. of
Minerals Engineering, Va. Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ.,
Blacksburg, Va. 24061

Three parameters, the misorientation angle, misorienta-
tion axis, and boundary normal, have been used to describe a
general bicrystal, such as two adjacent grains, subgrains,
or twins. An analysis has been developed to determine these
parameters. The angle and axis of misorientation are calcu¬
lated from a misorientation matrix obtained from two Kikuchi
patterns, one taken from each of the two crystals. To
obtain the boundary normal, a specimen tilt is made inside
the electron microscope. A rotation matrix specifying the
actual specimen tilt is formulated from two Kikuchi patterns
taken from the same crystal before and after tilt. With this
rotation matrix and the change of projected boundary images
before and after tilt, the boundary normal can be calculated.

It has been demonstrated that for high-angle bicrystals, the
misorientation angle may be determined to within + 0.2°, and
the misorientation axis to within 0.1®. For low-angle bi¬
crystals, the misfit angle can be obtained to within + 0.1®,
and the misfit axis to within 4®. The boundary normals so
determined are generally accurate to 2® if suitable correc¬
tion is made for the magnification change resulting from the
specimen tilt. Calibration curves for the correction of
errors in magnification and camera length, which result from
the shifting of specimen along the electron-optical axis,
were obtained.

142

The Virginia Journal of Science

Section of Medical Sciences

Fiftieth Annual Meeting of The Virginia Academy of Science
May 3-5, 1972, Lexington, Virginia

ANALYSIS OF METHYL GLYOXAL. R. B. Brandt and M. J. Black*.
Dept, of Biochem. , Med. Col. of Va., Va, Coinmonwealth Univ., ,

Richmond, Va, 23219

Methyl glyoxal (MeG) has been implicated in mammalian
systems and bacteria as a source of lactic acid, as a metab¬
olite of glycine via amino acetone formation, and most im¬
portantly as an inhibitor of growth. It is a substrate for
the combined enzyme system glyoxalase I and glyoxalase II
with glutathione as a cofactor for the production of D-
lactate.

A number of assay systems have been described for methyl
glyoxal including the enzymic formation and spectrophoto-
metric measurement of glutathione-methyl glyoxal, the mano-
metric measurement of CO2 from the catalyzed formation of
lactate, a titrimetric method and more recently spectro-
photometric measurement of the methyl glyoxal diseraicar-
bazone.

A method was developed for the routine assay of MeG and
is as follows: 4.0 ml of an ethanolic-HCl (10 ml of cone.
HCl/250 ml of abs. EtOH) solution containing 8 x 10"7 moles
of 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazine was incubated at 42® for 70
min. with 0.05 ml samples of aqueous solutions of purified
MeG ranging from 0.8 to 4 x 10"^ moles. The absorbance was
measured at 432 nm. Standard curves indicate reproducibil¬
ity for the pure system. (Supported in part by A. D.
Williams Funds.)

Glomerular Ultrastructure of Preserved Kidneys. Shirley S.
Craig/' Hugo R. Seibel and Richard J. Weymouth, Department of
Anatomy, VCU- Medical College of Virginia.

Glomeruli of eight canine kidneys were studied by light
and electron microscopy to determine if significant struc¬
tural alterations occur during 24 hours of hypothermic
pulsatile perfusion. The kidneys were subsequently auto-
grafted and contralateral nephrectomy was performed at that
time. Biopsies of these kidneys were taken at nephrectomy,
after 24 hours preservation and at one hour post-
anas tomos is .

Profound glomerular changes were observed in all cases;
the changes were observed in all cell types but were more
severe in the endothelial cells. The basement membrane was
edematous and thickened in four cases. At one hour post¬
anastomosis the glomerular structural appearance was
greatly improved.

BUN, serum creatinine and the ability of the kidney to
sustain the life of the recipient were used as criteria for
determining the viability of the preserved kidney. BUN and
serum creatinine returned to a normal range in five dogs.

The physiologic tests and survival attest to the functional
capacity of the preserved kidneys. Study of tissue samples
at autopsy indicated that although some structural changes
persisted, some of the alterations were reversible.

We gratefully acknowledge the surgical procedures that
were carried out by Dr. George Abouna.

DIURNAL VARIATION IN DNA SYNTHESIS IN HAMSTER CORNEAL
EPITHELIUM AND CONDYLAR CARTILAGE. George W. Burke,

Marshall C. England, Jr., and Frank M. Dolwick, School of
Dentistry, Richmond, Virginia 23219

Twenty-four adult male hamsters were administered in-
traperitoneal injections of tritiated thymidine (specific
activity 1.9 curies/millimol) at a dose rate of 1 microcurie
per milligram of body weight. Groups of 4 hamsters were in¬
jected at 4 hour intervals for a period of 24 hours. Animals
were killed one hour following injection and eyes and con¬
dyles were removed and placed in NBF for fixation. Follow¬
ing this procedure the corneas were dissected from each eye
and bone was trimmed from each condylar head back to junc¬
tion with the condylar cartilage. All samples of tissue
were allowed to air dry and weighed to the nearest hundredth
of a milligram. All corneas (3) for each time interval were
placed in a glass vial designed for scintillation studies
and digested in 1/2 ml of NCS (Nuclear of Chicago Solubi¬
lizer) using a heated water bath. Pooled samples of con¬
dyles (3) were similarly treated. A standard liquid scin¬
tillation solution (Aquasol) was added to each vial (l5 ml)
and the samples of digested tissues were monitored for radio¬
activity in a refrigerated scintillation spectrometer.

Counts per minute per milligram (CPM/mg) were calculated and
plotted against time. Both corneas and condylar cartilages
exhibited a diurnal rhythm in DNA synthesis. The curves ex¬
pressing variable activity were similar to those obtained
from samples of oral mucosa from both rats and hamsters.

WHAT IS NORMAL BIOCHEMISTRY FOR THE BLOOD AND
URINE OF PRE-SCHOOL CHILDREN IN SOUTHERN TUNISIA
ON A HIGH CARBOHYDRATE DIET? S. Gamble and Z.
Kallal*, Chem. Dept, Lynchburg College, Lynchburg,
Va. 24504 and Inst. o£ Nutrition, Tunis, Tunisia.

Three thousand pre-school children in southern
Tunisia comprise a sample population that is being
examined to test the effectiveness of supplement¬
ing wheat with the amino acid, lysine. This paper
is concerned with the baseline biochemical data
of the target group. The measurements included
determinations of hematocrit, hemoglobin, plasma
protein, serum albumin, alkaline phosphatase,
urinary riboflavin and creatinine. Parasites are
considered as a variable, and in particular,
Shistosoma haematobium , which was monitored
throughout the study. The data may add to the
parameters of nutritional studies of pre-school
children on a low protein caloric intake. (Spon¬
sored by Dept, of Nutrition, Harvard Univ. and
AID)

Proceedings, 1971-1972

143

MICROCAPSULE SUSPENSIONS AS WHOLE-BLOOD MODELS. Barry
Jordan*, and L. U, Lilleleht* Dept, of Chem, Eng., Univ,
of Va,, Charlottesville, VA 22901

With interest in the use of artificial organs and
circulatory assist devices increasing, the need of a
model blood for use in design studies is accentuated.
Attempts to develop such a model using microcapsule
suspensions have been made at the University of Virginia.
Various oils have been encapsulated with gelatin as the
wall material by a simple coacervation process. Capsules
ranging in size from 20 to 1000 microns have been produced
in this manner. Flow through rigid and distensible tubing
have been carried out to ascertain the usefulness of
capsule suspensions as blood models.

In light of recent whole-blood studies, it has been
shown that the diformability of red cells and their
tendency to aggregate are key determinants of the gross
rheological properties of whole blood. It is felt that
flow of the suspension through small tubes, only a few
times the capsule diameter, will offer further insight
into the effectiveness of the model. These data will be
discussed in light of the new work in the field of blood
rheology.

AN ULTRASTRUCTURAL STUDY OF SECRETION IN THE
RABBIT OVIDUCT. Joan C. Lambert and C. E. Hannner
Dept, of Biology and Dept, of Obstetrics and Gynecology,
University Virginia, Charlottesville, Va. 22901.

A morphological study of the epithelium which lines the
rabbit oviduct indicate the presence of two principal cell
types: ciliated cells and non- ciliated secretory cells.

At estrous, the secretory cells are characterized by the
presence of numerous electron dense secretion granules, a
widely expanded RER and a prominent Golgi complex.
Immediately after ovulation however, many cytological
changes occur which suggest a discharge of this secretory
material into the oviduct Iximen. These changes, which
include a massing of the secretion granules toward the cell
apex and a bulging of the apical portion of the cell into the
oviduct lumen, occur at the time in which the early cleavage
stages are passing through the oviduct.

The changes in the appearance of the secretory cells
during the reproductive cycle suggest that their function is
controlled by the ovarian hormones. Observations of the
rabbit oviduct which had been ovariectomized 21 days and
supplemented with estrogen and/or Progesterone demon¬
strated that estrogen is necessary for the synthesis of the
secretory material while progesterone function is to en-

HOW TIGHT ARE THE "TIGHT JUNCTIONS" IN THE EPIDERMIS OF FROG
SKIN? James H. Martin, Hugh R. Seibel. and Ernst G. Huf.
Dept, of Physiology, Med. Col. of Va. , Richmond, Va. 23219
In the past few years, several authors have suggested
that the site for transepithelial transport might be via the
intercellular spaces through the so-called "tight junctions"
These tight junctions would act as gates, opening and ’clos¬
ing to control the flow. They may be selective by virtue of
charge, carrier molecules, or some other mechanism. If the
tight junctions indeed have the ability to open and close,
then it was reasoned that at some hydrostatic pressure, or
combination of pressure and chemical modifier, the channels
could be opened wide enough to observe an ultrastructural
change and flow of electrolytes and stains across the epi¬
thelium. Differential pressures up to 1 atmosphere were
applied to frog skin in either the inward or outward direc¬
tion. Fluid flow completely stopped when pressure (>100 mm
Hg) was applied to the outer surface (corium) and was
essentially linear with applied pressure when pressure was
applied to the inner surface (0.70 x 10“^^ cm“^/dyne-sec) .
Ultrastructural data indicate that bulk flow occurs across
the cells in the comified layer and that these cells offer
considerable resistance to flow. The pathway between the
subcorneal space and the intercellular spaces is yet undeter¬
mined. The data indicate that discrete pores are involved,
but whether the pores occur in the outer membranes of the
first reacting cells or in the tight junctions is unknown.
(Supported by A. D. Williams Fund 3558-538)

hance the release of the secretion.

STEADY-STATE LEVEIE OF GLYCOLYTIC INTERMEDIATES OF NORMAL
AND HYPOPHYSECTOMIZED RATS, W.R. McConnell* and J.P. Liberti,
Dept, of Biochemistry, Health Sciences Div., Va. Commonwealth
University, Richmond, Va. 23219

Although hypophysectomy (Hx) affects carbohydrate metab¬
olism dramatically, the causes are not well understood. In
order to gain some insight regarding the mechanism by which
Hx manifests these changes, the levels of glycolytic inter¬
mediates from livers of normal and Hx rats were measured. As
an indication of lipid, glycogen, and pentose shunt metab¬
olism; Ac-CoA, glycogen, and 6-P-gluconate were measured
respectively. Hx increased the steady-state level of
gluc.-6-P34% and fruc.-6-P 39% whereas 6-P-gluconate and
Ac-CoA decreased 40% and 18% respectively. The greatest
increase, 300%, was observed in the levels of glyceraldehyde-
3-P.

The elevation of glyceraldehyde-3-P may be due to (1) an
inhibition or reduced synthesis of glyceraldehyde-3-P DH
and/or phosphoglycerate kinase and (2) a decreased NAD'^/NADH
ratio. In addition, elevated levels of gluc.-6-P and fruc.-
6-P could arise by inhibition of phosphofructokinase . The
data presented show that Hx elicits changes in the levels of
glycolytic intermediates which are consistent with a dimin¬
ished rate of glycolysis. These data indicate that Hx may
affect certain key regulatory enzymes of glycolysis.

THE PRESENCE OF DECAPACITATION FACTOR IN CAT
SEMINAL PLASMA. Keith C. McLaughlin and C. E.
Hamner. Dept, of Biology and Dept, of Obstetrics and
Gynecology, Univ. of Va. , Charlottesville, Va. 22901,

The presence of a naturally occurring fertilization
inhibitor (decapacitation factor, DF) in the seminal plasma
of several species has been established. In these pre¬
liminary experiments, cat seminal plasma has also been
shown to exhibit DF activity. The assay for DF used was
the ability of cat seminal plasma to inhibit the fertilizing
capacity of uterine capacitated rabbit sperm (Chang, 1957,
Nature 179: 258). Fresh, untreated cat seminal plasma
completely inhibits fertilization by capacitated rabbit
sperm. DF activity can be progressively attenuated by
diluting the cat seminal plasma to 2 to 3 times its original
volume. Dilutions greater than these render DF undetec¬
table by this assay. Cat DF activity is reduced by heating
the seminal plasma to 100 C for 10 minutes, but heating
to 60 C for 10 minutes has no effect. The fact that cat
seminal plasma does not permanently destroy the fertiliz¬
ing capacity of rabbit sperm is shown since the sperm
regain the ability to fertilize eggs when re-incubated in the
uterus for 6 to 8 hr. after treatment. These results in¬
dicate that cat DF exists, is concentration dependent, and
is partially heat labile.

BLOOD PLASMA OXIDATION-REDUCTION POTENTIAL, PROTEIN AND CORTI¬
COSTERONE LEVELS IN PROTEIN DEFICIENT RATS. M. U. K.
Mgbodile*^ and Colmano . Dept, of Veterinary Science,

VPI & SU, Blacksburg, Va. 24061

Twenty-one day old male rats were divided into 2 groups
and pair-fed for 15 days either a 5% or 20% casein diet. The
protein deficient diet resulted in a severe retardation of
growth as shown by a 12-15% gain compared to a 50-70% gain in
body weight by the 20% group. This observation is consistent
with the reported data of Mgbodile et al (Fed.Proc. .31:729.
1972) that dietary protein insufficiency lowers both the
liver cell DNA and microsomal protein concentrations. Protein
starvation induced a response comparable to stress as shown
by an 89% increase in the plasma corticosterone concentration.
A 26% decrease in the blood plasma protein concentration in
the 5% group correlated with a similar decrease in the avail¬
ability of ceruloplasmin and with a higher oxidation-reduction
potential expressed on a mg of plasma protein basi s . A decreased
ceruloplasmin level caused by protein deficiency is reflected
in a decreased ACTH production in response to stressful situ¬
ations (Rowan and Colmano, Va. J . Sci . , 21: 148 , 1970) . Clinical
applications are feasible by substituting the measurements of
ceruloplasmin for ACTH and of oxidation-reduction potential
for corticosterone. These clinical applications will facili¬
tate further studies of some responses to stress mechanisms,
which in this presentation are related to nutritional protein
deficiencies.

^Graduate student. Dept, of Biochemistry and Nutrition.

144

The Virginia Journal of Science

PROCEDURES FOR THE ISOLATION OF PATHOGENIC NAEGLERIA.

E. Clifford Nelson. Dept, of Microbiology, Va. Commonwealth
Univ., Richmond, Va. 23219

Primary amoebic meningoencephalitis is a highly fatal
human disease caused by infection with a species of Naegleria
Isolation from a fatal case in Virginia was accomplished in

1967. Since then a year around program to devise a method
of detecting the pathogen in nature has been in progress.

The routine procedure has been to grow out Naegleria-like
amoebae by selective cultivation from environmental sources.

To detect invasive pathogenic strains mice are inoculated by
intranasal instillation of culture suspension.

In late summer 1971 the first detection of a pathogenic
strain was accomplished. By this date we had tested a total
of 226 strains obtained from 13 lakes and ponds, 4 streams,
the James River, 2 springs, 3 soil samples, 2 sewage lagoons
and 34 coprozoic strains from animals.

The strain was one of 14 isolated and tested from a small
pond not used for swimming. In the mouse, illness develops
in about a week with evidence of mid brain or hind brain
involvement. This strain may prove to be a bridge between
the devastating pathogen isolated from human cases and the
harmless or swarming in water. The degree of pathogenicity
for man is conjectural but this type of strain should be
considered in insidious forms of middle and inner ear and
hind brain involvement.

A NEW TECHNIQUE FOR STAINING MITES. J. Clark Osborne and

D, F. Watson. Dept, of Veterinary Science, VPI & SU,

Blacksburg, Va. 24061.

Developing stages and adult mites are not readily
visualized in many preparations due to lack of contrast and
low light refractiveness. A new staining method was
accidentally achieved when it was found that red nail
lacquer used to seal the coverglass on a fresh lacto-phenol
preparation slowly diffused into the solution and gave a
light pink stain to the mites. This particular lacquer
contained three pigments dispersed in a nitrocellulose
lacquer base, an alcohol soluble approved dye, dissolved
in isopropyl alcohol and anatase titantium dioxide in a
nitrocellulose base. Small droplets of the red nail
lacquer were added directly into the lacto-phenol from a
drawn out capillary pipette with good staining results.

The Red No. 19 (Rhodamine B) 3-ethochloride of 9-o-
carbony phenyl- 6-die thy lamino-3-e thy llinino-3-isoxanthene in
isopropyl alcohol (Lacquerite Division of SUPRONICS

CORPORATION, Livingston, New Jersey 07039) gave
satisfactory, but not superior staining results on the
mites .

NEDROMORPHO LOGICAL REASONS FOR LESSER PAIN SENSI¬
TIVITY IN PRIIviARY TEETH. C. Pratt and U. Karlsson
*. Dept, of Biology, VPI & SU , Blacksburg, Va,

24061, and Dniv. of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52240.

Clinical experience suggests that primary
teeth are less pain sensitive than permanent
teeth. As a preliminary step to disclose the an¬
atomical basis for this difference, transverse
apical sections from barely erupted and fully e-
rupted primary tooth pulps were examined by light
and electron microscopic technics. Glutaralde-
hyde and osmium fixation was followed by Vestopal

W embedding. Results from beagles, pigs, and
hiunans were compared with data from pennanent
teeth in mannosets and from the literature.

Several structural differences were noted.
Contrasting differences for primary teeth were:

1) Total number of nerve fibers were higher, 2)
Relative number of unmyelinated fibers were high¬
er, 3) Myelinating fibers were common, 4) Myelin
sheaths generally appeared thinner and 5) There
were relatively fewer nerve structures in the
zone of Weil.

These qualitative results were all interpreted
to be consistent with lesser somatic sensitivity
in the primary tooth. The inference is that
neuromorpho logical parameters in the tooth are
amenable to perception difference questions.

EFFECTS OF AMINES ON THE HYDROLYSIS OF ESTERS BY TWO ENZYMES

THAT ARE ESSENTIAL FOR BLOOD CLOTTING. P.S. Roberts, R.M.
Ottenbrite and P. B. Fleming*. Div. of Med. Oncology, Dept, of
Medicine, Med. Col. of Va. and Dept, of Chemistry and Pharma¬
ceutical Chemistry, Va. Commonwealth Univ. , Richmond, Va. 23219.

Choline chloride has no effect on the hydrolysis of esters
by thrombin but it accelerates the hydrolysis of TAME (p-
toluenesulfonyl-L-arginine methyl ester) and inhibits the
hydrolysis of BAME (benzoyl-L-arginine methyl ester) by
thrombokinase, the activated form of blood clotting Factor X
that converts prothrombin to thrombin. Ethanolamine , CH3NH2
and (CH3)2NH have no significant effects on ester hydrolysis
by either enzyme but (CH3)3N weakly accelerates the thrombo-
kinase-TAME reaction. Quaternary amines, however, accelerate

TAME and inhibit BAME hydrolysis by both enzymes. Choline
chloride, (CH3)4NBr and (n. propyl) 4NBr produce about the same
acceleration of the thrombokinase-TAME rates, but (ethyl)4NBr
is a much more and (n. butyl) 4NBr is a slightly more potent
accelerator, t^ile the thrombin-TAME reaction is unaffected
by (CH3)4NBr, it is accelerated by the other quaternary amines
and the thrombin-BAME reaction is inhibited by them. Kinetic
studies show that (ethyl)4NBr is a competitive inhibitor of
the thrombokinase -BAME reaction but its acceleratory effects
on the reaction with TAME are complex. Quaternary amines,
therefore, react with the enzymes to inhibit their action but
a step during the hydrolysis of TAME is probably accelerated
by these cations. (Supported by USPHS Grant HE-13379.)

SOLUBILITY STUDIES ON TOTAL RAT ANTERIOR PITUITARY PROTEIN,
GROWTH HORMONE (GH) AND PROLACTIN (PI) LABELED IN AN IN

VITRO INCUBATION. Marcqueta H. Samli, Dept, of Biochemis-
try and Nutrition, Va« Polytechnic Inst* and State Univ, ,
Blacksburg, Va, 24061*

The particulate-associated nature of a significant pro¬
portion of the rat pituitary protein labeled in an in vitro
incubation was demonstrated. After incubation with a
amino acid mixture pituitaries were homogenized, the homo¬
genates made 0.25 M in sucrose and centrifuged at 10,000 or
105,000 Amount of labeled protein in homogenate super-

nates was determined and compared to non- centrifuged con¬
trols, After homogenization in Krebs-Ringer Bicarbonate
(KRB) or neutral saline, less than half of the total labeled
protein was found in homogenate supernates after a 10-min

10,000 £ centrifugation whereas after homogenization in,
e.g., 1 mM EDTA or 0.1% sodium dodecylsulfate (SDS), 90-100%
of the labeled protein was in the supernates. Of the media
tested only 17, SDS was capable of completely solubilizing
labeled protein as determined after centrifugation at

105,000 £ for 2 hr. Hormonal protein was included in the
labeled protein sedimented during centrifugation. The total
label recovered in GH and Pi, as determined after separation
of these hormones by polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, was
much decreased after centrifugation at 10,000 £ when homo¬
genization was in neutral saline, water or KRB. Conversely,
little decrease was noted for EDTA homogenized pituitaries,
(Aided by NIH Grant 1 ROl AM 13776.)

PRELIMINARY REPORT OF CYSTINURIA IN AN INBRED AMERICAN

INDIAN ISOLATE. M. J. V. Smith*, J. I. Townsend, and W.

L. Banks, Jr, Div. of Urol., Program in Human Genetics,
and Dept, of Biochem., Med. Col. of Va., Va. Commonwealth

Univ., Richmond, Va. 23219

Cystinuria, which has previously been reported only in
Caucasians, has now been diagnosed in 16 Chickahominy

Indians of Charles City County, Virginia, and confirmed by
amino acid analysis in four of these individuals, all
belonging to a large, extended kinship, which is charac¬
terized by moderate inbreeding. This is the largest
kinship in which cystinuria has yet been studied. A
tentative pedigree that includes 155 members of the kinship
has been constructed. Investigations are being continued to
discover whether or not the autosomal gene that apparently
determines the trait is completely recessive in this
isolate. (Supported in part by an A. D. Williams Research

Grant. )

Proceedings, 1971-1972

145

ANTIFERTILITY EFFECTS OF EXTRACTS FROM SPECIES OF MOMORDICA.
W. Stepka, G. E. Madge* and K, Wilson^ Dept, of Pharmacy
and Dept, of Pathology, Med. Col. of Va, , V.C.U., of
Richmond, Va. 23219

Young female mice of proven fertility, dosed daily with
juice expressed from fresh leaves of Momordica, show a sig¬
nificant reduction in fertility compared to controls dosed
with saline, M, balsamina appeared to be somewhat more
effective than M, charantia. In a typical paired group
experiment 91% of the controls delivered litters whereas
only 1879 of treated females did so. Litters delivered by
the latter were normal in number and the pups showed no
gross abnormalities.

Various experimental designs were used in attempts to
elucidate the mechanism of action. Although we succeeded
in producing abortions with the drug, these are uncommon.
Our data do not permit us to distinguish among such possi¬
bilities as prevention of conception or of implantation,
or of early resorption, as the major mechanism.

We looked for, but could not find, a residual effect on
the fertility of experimental females in subsequent matings
without drug.

This investigation was supported in part by General Re¬
search Support Grant FR-5697-02 from the General Research
Support Branch, Division of Research Facilities and Re¬
sources, National Institutes of Health,

PATHOLOGICAL AND HISTOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS ON FEMALE MICE
TREATED WITH EXTRACTS OF MOMORDICA. Kendall Wilson, Jr.*,
Gordon E, Madge*, and William Stepka, Dept, of Pathology
and Dept, of Pharmacy, Med. Col, of Va., Va, Commonwealth
Univ. , Richmond, Va. 23219

Young female mice of proven fertility were subjected to
daily oral doses of juice expressed from the leaves of M,
balsamina beginning on day one of pregnancy. Previous work
indicated this to be an abortive agent. In the present
series we succeeded in producing abortions 5-11 days after
mating which were preceded by vaginal bleeding. Some of
the animals were sacrificed at the first sign of vaginal
bleeding and organs placed in 10% formalin. Tissues were
processed for sectioning and stained with H & E, No patho¬
logical changes were seen in any maternal organs. Examina¬
tion of uteri showed that implantation had taken place, but
that each conceptus was represented by a necrotic mass of
undeveloped tissue. The myometrium showed no histologic
change. However, occasional macrophages filled with hemo¬
siderin were noted and probably indicated previous bleeding.
Saponin have been reported in other species of Momordica.
Treated mice were therefore tested for evidence of vivo
hemolysis. None was found, (This work was supported in
part by General Research Support Grant FR-5697-02 from the
General Research Support Branch, Division of Research
Facilities and Resources, National Institutes of Health.)

Section of Microbiology

FifHeth Annual Meeting of The Virginia Academy of Science
May 3— S, 1972, Lexington, Virginia

STUDIES WITH LA CROSSE VIRUS, A CALIFORNIA GROUP ARBOVIRUS.

A. J. Banes* and P.H. Coleman. Dept, of Microbiology, Health
Sciences Div. , Va. Commonwealth Univ. , Richmond, Va. 23219

The antigenic relationships within the California arbo¬
virus group have been extensively investigated however, few
structural or biochemical studies have been reported. Pre¬
liminary studies in the characterization of the La Crosse
subtype of California virus indicate that the virus produced
plaq,ues with Vero cells in the presence of the following
drugs; amantidine HCl (5 ug/ml); guanidine HCl (100,50,5 ug/
ml); 5-tromodeoxyuridine (5-BUDR) (100,50,5 ug/ral), but did
not produce plaques in the presence of cycloheximide (50,25,

5 ug/ml). In addition, La Crosse virus titer did not change
significantly compared to controls when the virus was titered
in a plaque assay system with Vero cells that were preincu¬
bated 1 hr in 50 ug 5-BUDR/ml and received 50 ug 5-BUDR/ml in
the overlay. In a similar system the titer of Vaccinia virus
was reduced by at least three logs while the titers of Anoph¬
eles B and Bunyamwera control viruses were unchanged. Plaque
formation by La Crosse, Anopholes B, and Bunyamwera viruses
in the presence of 5-BUDR suggests that these are RNA viruses
Inhibition of La Crosse virus in the presence of cyclohexim¬
ide indicates that protein systhesis is required for plaque
formation , while plaque formation in the presence of amanti¬
dine HCl and guanidine HCl indicates that La Crosse virus is
unlike the myxoviruses or enteroviruses respectively, in re¬
sponse to these drugs .

COMPARATIVE CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM OF MEMBERS OF THE GENUS
SPIRILLUM. Phillip B. Hy lemon* and N.R. Krieg. Dept, of
Microbiology, Health Sciences Div., Va. Commonwealth Univ.,
Richmond, Va. 23219 and Dept, of Biology, Va. Polytechnic
Inst, and State Univ., Blacksburg, Va.

Three species of the genus Spivillwn which utilized carbo¬
hydrates as a sole source of carbon and energy have been
studied for the presence of carbohydrate catabolizing en¬
zymes. Spirillwn lunatum^ which catabolized several hexoses,
possessed high specific activities of the Entner-Doudoroff
(ED) pathway and related enzymes, 6-phosphogluconate dehy-
drase, 2-keto-3-deoxy-6-phosphogluconate aldolase, gluco-
kinase, and glucose-b-phosphate dehydrogenase, but little,
if any, enzymatic activity unique to the pentose phosphate
(PP) and Embden-Meyerhof-Parnas (EMP) pathways. Although
synthesis of the latter enzymes were largely unaffected by
growth environments, that of the former was stimulated by
carbohydrate. Growth of S. lunatum on mannitol/ casamino
acids resulted in induction of a soluble NAD^ specific
mannitol dehydrogenase. Spivillwn itevsonii and Spirillum
pevegvimm possessed enzymes unique to the ED pathway and
low or undetectable activities of enzymes unique to the EMP
or PP pathways. The ED enzymes were induced by growth on
fructose/casamino acids but not on succinate/casamino acids,
while the specific enzyme activities of enzymes unique to the
PP or EMP pathways were largely unaffected by culturing con¬
ditions. S. pevegvimm was the only species studied which
possessed an inducible membrane associated glucose dehydro¬
genase.

146

The Virginia Journal of Science

BACTERIOPHAGES OF PSEUDOMONAS PSEUDOMALLEI. G.D. Jacobs^

H.P. Dalton, M.J. Allison'', and M.R. Escobarl Div, of Clini¬
cal Pathologr, Health Science Div,, Va, Commonwealth Univ. ,
Richmond, ¥a. 23219.

The lYSOKenioit.Y of certain strains of P. pseudomallei, the
etiologio agent of melioidosis, was reported on in 1957 by

Smith and Cherry (j.Bact, ,74i668,1957) • The present study
was undertaken to extend their work, which could ultimately
lead to the establishment of a phage typing schema for the
pseudomallei group (P, pseudomallei and P, mallei), A total of

48 strains, originally recovered from patients in Vietnam,
were assayed for phage activity. Thirty-one bacteriophages
were obtained from lysogenic strains of P, pseudomallei. Host
range testing revealed specificity to the pseudomallei group.
Eight other pseudomonas species tested were not susceptible.
Propagation of phages to higher titers than those of the ori¬
ginal isolates increased both the host range and the intensi¬
ty of the individual reactions. Ninety-eight percent of the

P, pseudomallei cultures were lysed bv at least one of the
isolated phages and 8?^ were lysed by at least two or more.

Two phages were found to be active against 68^ of the P.
pseudomallei cultures. These findings compared favorably
with those of Smith and Cherry who found approximately ZO^o
lysogeniolty and SOfo susceptibility for P, pseudomallei.

These results may be valuable for epidemiological studies
as well as specific identification of the pseudomallei group
and/or confirmation of the laboratory diagnosis obtained by
other means.

A CONTROLLING GENE FOR THE TRANSCRIPTION OF LATE GENES IN
SALMONELLA PHAGE P22. Robert A. Kolstad, Dept, of Microbio¬
logy, Health Sciences Div., Va. Commonwealth Univ., Richmond,

Va. 23219.

Gene 79 maps to the right of genes 18 and 12, required
for DNA replication, and to the left of all the known late
genes, which direct the synthesis of endolysin and structural
proteins. Functions to the left of 79 - DNA synthesis and
lysogeny - are independent of gene 79. In 79" infection
structural proteins are not synthesized and lysis does not
occur. The position of gene 79 on the viral genome as well
as its pleiotrophic effect on late gene products suggests
it to be analogous to gene Q of X. Unlike Q, which is very
leaky, the requirement for 79 is stringent. Q promotes late
gene transcription. Q" infection is highly leaky, due to
extension bypass of gene N. A comparison of gene N in X
with its closest counterpart in P22, gene 25, suggests that
the latter is more limited. The stringent requirement for
gene 79 may reflect a limited gene 25. Gene 79 may function
as Q but my be controlled differently.

ENHANCED TOXICITY OF COMBINATIONS OF ANTITUMOR DRUGS AND
BACTERIAL ENDOTOXIN. Helda M. Marecki* and S. G. Bradley.

Dept, of Microbiology 5 Med. Col. of Va. , Richmond, Va. 23219

The administration of cytosine arabinoside (CA), mitomycin

C (MC), 6-meroaptopiirine (6-MP), 6-methyl mercaptopurine
riboside (6-MMP). or sparsontvcin (S) with Salmonella typhosa
endotoxin (E) resulted in increased lethality for BALB/c
mice. The dose of E necessary to kill half of the mice
(LD50) was 15.8 mg/kg in normal mice and 11.45 mg/kg in mice
given 200 mg CA/kg. A dose of 200 mg CA/kg is not lethail.

The LD50 of 6-MP was 271 mg/kg in normal mice and 67.9 mg/kg
in mice given 4 mg E/kg. The LD50 of E was 0.6l mg/kg in
mice given 100 mg 6-MP/kg. The LD50 of 6-MMP was 170 mg/kg
in normal mice and 25 mg/kg in mice given 100 mg 6-MMP /kg.

The 5-day LD50 of MC was l6 mg/kg. The 5-day LD50 of E was

3.9 mg/kg in mice given 8 mg MC/kg. The LD50 of S was 3.78
mg/kg in normal mice and 1.05 mg/kg in mice given 1 mg E/kg.

The LD50 of E was 0.07 mg/kg in mice given 2 mg S/kg. Ad¬
ministration of E with either 5-fluorouracil (5-FU) or
5-fluorouraoil deoxyrihoside {5-FUdR) did not result in an
increased lethality. The LD50 of 5-FU was II8 mg/kg, and
that of 5-FUdR was 200 mg/kg in normal mice.

The effects of the above drugs on hexobarbital sleeping
times were determined using doses less than the LD50 and ad¬
ministered either 24 hr prior to testing or simultaneously
with 80 mg hexobarbital/kg. Pretreatment with all drugs
consistently resulted in an increased sleeping time.

THE QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE NATURE OF ACTINOMYCINS

PRODUCED IN THE PRESENCE OF THE D- AND L- ISOMERS OF PIPE-
COLIC ACID. W Stratford May* and J.V. Formica, Dept, of
Microbiology, Health Sciences Div., Va. Commonwealth Univ.,
Richmond, Va. 23219

New cogeners of actinomycin were synthesised by Strepto-
myoes antihiotiaus when growing cultures were supplemented
with pipecolic acid (PA). It was determined that PA replaced
L-proline at the "imino acid" site in one or both pentapep-
tide chains of the antibiotic. The pattern of actinomycins
produced, however, differed when D- or L- or a combination
of D- and L- PA was added to the medium. Separation of the
actinomycins by circular chromatography . indicated that actino¬
mycins produced in the presence or absence of D-PA were the
same, while those produced in the presence of L-PA enabled
synthesis of pipecolic-actinomycins . Examination of acid
hydrolysates of these actinomycins revealed that PA was
incorporated into the antibiotic from cultures supplemented
with L- or DL-PA. There was no evidence for incorporation of

PA when cultures were supplemented with D-PA. In addition,
exogenous L- or DL-PA inhibited total actinomycin production
by as much as 50%, whereas the addition of D-PA enhanced
actinomycin production. At the same time, these analogues of
proline had no effect on growth. Furthermore, the isomer of

PA incorporated into pipecolic-actinomycins was found to be

L-PA.

REGUIATION OF ALANINE DEHYDROGENASE IN BACILLUS

LICHENIFORMIS. s . McCowen* and Paul V. Phibbs, Jr* Dept,

of Microbiology, Health Sciences Division, Virginia Common¬
wealth University, Richmond, Virginia 23219

Cell-free extracts of Bacillus licheniformis were found
to contain high specific activities of nicotinamide adenine
dinucleotide (NAD) -dependent L-alanine dehydrogenase (ADH)
[L-alanine; NAD oxidoreductase (deaminating) EC 1.4.1.!.].

High specific activities (3. 5-5.5 I.U. per mg protein) were
found in extracts of cells throughout growth cycles when L-
alanine served as carbon and nitrogen source. Specific ac¬
tivities were minimal (0.02-0.04) during growth on glucose
but increased significantly within 5 hours following logari¬
thmic growth. Addition of 10 mM glucose to logarithmic
phase cells growing on L-alanine resulted in apparent repres¬
sion of enzyme synthesis. Approximately 50% of the original
specific activity remained after one generation. Derepres¬
sion of enzyme synthesis during growth on glucose, upon the
addition of 20 itiM L-alanine, was demonstrated by a 41-fold
increase in ADH specific activity after two cell generations.

The enzyme was partially purified from crude extracts of B.
licheniformis and apparent kinetic constants were determined.

The Km values for each substrate were; NhJ, 1.2 x lO^^ m;
Pyruvate, 4.0 x 10“^ M; NADH, 2.5 x 10“^ M; L-alanine,

5 X 10“^ M," NAD, 4.5 X lO'^ m. A catabolic role for ADH
during vegetative growth on L-alanine and during sporulation
of cells cultured on glucose is proposed on the basis of
these experimental results.

INTERACTION OF CYCLOPHOSPHAMIDE WITH BARBITURATES.
W.C.Rose* and S.G. Bradley. Dent, of Microbioloav,

Va . Commonwealth Univ., Richmond, Va . 23219

BALB/c mice simultaneously given cyclophospha¬
mide (C) and pentobarbital (P) experienced an
acute death commencina v/ithin 15 min after chal¬
lenge. The dose-lethal response curve of P was po¬
tentiated 2,6 fold in a parallel manner by 375 me

C/kg (LD50 reduced from 131 to 51 mq P/kg) . Non-
simultaneous injection of C and P did not enhance
lethality, NYLAR mice responded in a manner simi¬
lar to BALB mice when challenged with C and P.
Hexobarbital and phenobarbital substituted success¬
fully for P in causing acute death when injected
with C. Administration of C v.’ith eacli barbiturate
resulted in a more rapid onset of sedation and
marked increases in sedation when compared to mice
treated v/ith barbiturate alone. BALB mice pretreat¬
ed with phenobarbital (65 mg/kg- once daily for 4
days) v;ere protected (p< 0.025) against a lethal
challenge of 500 mg C/kg + 45 mg P/kg, despite an
increased (p< 0.U5) reactivity to 500 mg C/kg only.
Metabolism of aminopyrine in liver homoaenates de¬
rived from C-treated mice were not substantially
different from control levels. Preliminary inves¬
tigations indicated that P levels in brain tissue,
derived from C+P and P-only treated mice 15 min
after injection, were not substantially different.

Proceedings, 1971-1972

147

CHARACTERIZATION OF THE SPORULATION PIGMENT OF Streptomyces
venezuelae. T. Tang* and S.G. Bradley. Dept, of Microbio¬
logy, Health Science Div., Va. Commonwealth Univ., Richmond,
Va. 23219

Streptomyces venezuelae S13 produces a pH indicator pig¬
ment on glucose minimal agar (GM) consisting of 2% glucose,
and 0.2% each of MgS04-7H20, KNO3, and Na2HP04. Pigmentation
of S13 on GM agar appears to be closely associated with
sporulation which normally requires 7-10 days at 30 C. The
present study was directed toward an evaluation of medium
composition with respect to growth and pigmentation by S13
both on solid and in liquid media. Glucose could be replaced
by other sugars, amino acids, and intermediary metabolites in
supporting growth and pigmentation. However, succinate,
aspartate, glutamate and asparagine were found to be superior
to glucose for pigmentation. Ca(II) could replace Mg(II) in
GM agar; other tested divalent cations were inhibitory to
growth. With respect to nitrogen source, KNO3 proved to be
the best. Pigmentation of S13 in liquid media was first
noted in asparagine minimal broth (AMB) . Additional experi¬
ments showed that S13 also produces comparable amount of
pigment with the following carbon sources in minimal broths:
glucose, proline, serine and threonine (TMB] . Glucose added
to AMB and TMB promoted growth, but delayed pigment produc¬
tion.

Section of Psychology

Fiftieth Annual Meeting of The Virginia Academy of Science
May 3-5, 1972, Lexington, Virginia

THE PERSONALITY CHARACTERISTICS OF FEMALE COLOR CREAMERS.
lAa B. ALbvtt, and Btuce. McGfi&got.* . V^pt. o{i ?istic.hotogij ,
Old Vom-inion UniveAi-Lty , NoA/(o£fe, Va. Z350S

A mocU^-ied thz Adje.atLvz Check LuAt wai

admintiteAcd to 63 ^mate andefighadaoteA . The adjecttveA
checked by {^emaZe coton dKeameni viene compoAed to thoie
checked by female non-coloA dAeameu , and ieveAoJL
tnteAedting tAendi emeAged. Hon-coloA dAeameAA icoAed
ilgnt^tcantly hlgheA on two icaZu,: "aboAement" and
"deieAence" . The adjective moit choAacteAZitic o^
non-coZoA dAeameAA woa "deiponden-t" , whlZe the adjective
moit choAacteAAAtic o^ coZoA dAeameu woa " deteAmined" .

AIJ EVALUATION OF THE ARCHIMEDES SPIRAL AFTEREFFECT
UTILIZIHG OPERANT PROCEDURES. John Ballurio* (Sponsored by
George Kent), Department of Psychol ogv, Bridgewater College,
Bridgewater, Va. 22812

The purpose of this research was to develop methods and
instrumentation for studying the spiral aftereffect in
animal subjects. Numerous studies have been reported using
children and adults, brain damaged and normal, with con¬
flicting findings. It was assumed that one possible reason
for such conflicting findings might be the methods eioployed
in studying this illusion. A cinnamon Ringtail monkey,

Cebus Albifrons, served as subject. Lever pressing behavior
was maintained under water deprivation and water reinforce¬
ment. The stimulus consisted of a 12-inch Archimedes Spiral
located a meter in front of the living cage. Two levers
were mounted on the cage. Discrimination training was
given to develop differential responding in the presence of
clockwise and counterclockwise rotation of the spiral.
Operating under a Chain VR-VR reinforcement schedule, the
animal was given training until criterion performance was
reached. Threshold determinations of the spiral illusion
were made by stooping the rotation and examining the lever-
nressing which followed. This permitted determination if
the subject perceived the spiral aftereffect.

148

The Virginia Journal of Science

THE REDUCTION OF SMOKING THROUGH COVERT SENSITIZATION.

R, A. Belvea* (Sponsored by Donald Witters), Department of
Psvchologv, Bridgewater College, Bridgewater, Va., 22812

The purpose of this study was to determine the effect¬
iveness of Covert Sensitization in reducing cigarette
smoking. Covert Sensitization, a treatment program
develooed by Cautela, is a variant of Wolpe's systematic
desensitization. Four volunteer college students served
as subjects for a period of ten weeks. The initial five
weeks were used to gather baseline data on the situations
and daily number of cigarettes smoked. The remainder of
the investigative period employed the Covert Sensitization
procedure. Through the use of stories the S visualized
the pleasurable behavior, smoking, and paired it with an
imagined aversive stimulus, vomiting. Smoking became a
conditioned aversive stimulus and reinforced avoidance
behavior. The frequency of smoking data indicate that

Covert Sensitization is an effective method of reducing
smoking behavior.

A SUnVKi W HECIPIENTS OF FAMILY PUNNING SERVICES- BIO.

DATA AND ATTITUDES. Randi H. Brown* and Frederick B. Rowe

Dept, of Psychology, Handolph-Macon Woman's Col., Lynchburg,

Va. 24504.

This survey was conducted at the Neighborhood Free Clinic
for Family Planning (NFC/FP) and the Family Planning Clinic
at the Public Health Dept. (FPC/PHD), both located in

Lynchburg, Va. A questionnaire was employed in the survey,
developed by the authors in response to the request of the
administrative personnel of both clinics, to determine the
attitudes and opinions of the recipients regarding family
planning services at each clinic. The questionnaire was
administered to the recipients on their first visit during
the period over which the survey was conducted, Oct. 18 to

Dec. 10, 197-1. The FPC/PHD was located within the health Dept,
complex of services anti offered its services one morning
per week from 8: JO am to 12 noon. The NFC/FP was separately
located and had been organized solely to orovide family
planning services. It was open for a doctor's appointment

10.25 hours on three days per week in the evening, morning,
and afternoon, respectively, and open every day from 8:30 am
to 5:00 pm with a nurse in attendance for assistance and
counseling. From the basic biographical data, it was observ¬
ed that the backgrounds of the recipients at the respective
clinics did differ, but there was overlapping in several of
the characteristics. On items designed to educe opinion or
preference, there was relative agreement among the recipi¬
ents at both clinics.

A SURVEY OF MNEMONIC TECHNIQUES USED BY COLLEGE STUDENTS IN
SERIAL LEARNING. J. V. Buonassissi*and K. A. Blick. Dept,
of Psychology, Univ. of Richmond, Va. 23173

College students reported eight categories of memory aids
that they would employ in learning a serial task. Although
no significant differences were found between men and women
by category of memory aids reported, there was a significant
difference among the eight categories. First letter and
simple repetition accounted for 497, of all memory aids, while
the remaining 327, were divided almost evenly among imagery,
phonetic clustering, descriptive story, mediation, other^and
semantic clustering. Clearly, the first-letter technique
was the most popular mnemonic associated with the serial
task.

A TEST OF INDIVIDUAL RECOGNITION IN BLUEGILL SUNFISH USING
OPERANT PROCEDURES. Margaret Butler* and David A. Johnson,

Dept, of Psychology, Sweet Briar College, Sweet Briar, Va.

24595.

In a study designed to substantiate the assumption of
individual recognition frequently occuring in theories
of animal social behavior, three bluegill sunfish, Lepomis
macrochirus, were operantly trained to strike a submerged
manipulandum to obtain food reinforcement. The same
animals were then introduced to a discrimination learning
task intended to appraise the ability of this species to
discriminate among its conspecifics on an individual basis.

The two-choice, successive, discrimination task employed
back projected color slides of conspecific fish as the
discriminanda.

The results were not conclusive in that none of the
three subjects had yet attained a typical discrimination
learning criterion. However, the data reveal significant
trends in the predicted direction. In view of similar
studies which often report that very large numbers of
trials are required for lower vertebrates to reach standard
learning criteria, it seems entirely possible that these
subjects have attained some intermediate point on a learn¬
ing curve which would eventually reach criterion levels.

THE EFFECTS OF RESPONSE INVOLVEMENT AND COMPETENCE ON

OPINION CHANGE. P. Campsen* and V.J. Derlega*. Dept,
of Psychology, Old Dominion Univ., Norfolk, Va. 23508
(Sponsored by I.B. Albert).

Cognitive dissonance theory's predictions about the
relationship between response involvement and opinion
change were tested. Opinion change increased signifi¬
cantly as a function of response involvement under low
competence, whereas opinion change did not change as a
function of response involvement under high competence.

The results were interpreted in terms of the notion of
evaluation apprehension.

THE CONSEQUENCES OF SENSORY BOKEARDMENT. D.M. DAVENPORT*
and C.L. WINSTEAD, Jr.* Dept, of Philosophy and Psychology,

Va. Mil. Inst., Lexington, Va. 24450

The experiments were performed to draw correlations
between sensory bombardment and fatigue, learning, creativ¬
ity, blocking, time lapse, and the state of mind produced
therein. Subjects were placed inside a highly controlled
environment under the effects of diverse stimili, including
a taste pill containing the four basic tastes, strobe light,
tetralight, triliaht, color wheel, tape recordings,
frequency generators, air conditioning, heat gun, electric
shocks, vibrating pillows, ice pack, mixed odors, heating
pillows, and a Niagra cyclorama chair. Subjects were
tested before and after bombardment as the baseline
reference for performance as tested during bombardment.

Tests included short term m.emory, psychomotor coordination,
and creativity. Experimenters conclude among other results,
that there is a positive correlation between bombardment
and fatigue, bambardment and increased , learning, and
bombardment and blocking. Some complementary results
include both tactile and visual hallucinations.

Proceedings, 1971-1972

149

REhL,Roi\L AND ENCODING AS FACTORS IN llASSED /'^D DIS¬
TRIBUTED PRACTICE. John C, Dovel*. Dept, of Psv«
chologv, Washington and Lee Univ, {sponsored by David G.

Elmes), Lexington, Va. 24450

To investigate possible differences in the subjective
processing of massed practice (IS) items as opposed to
distributed practice (DP) items, recall of words which
immediately followed KP and DP items was noted in a free
recall (FR) task that involved either an additional re¬
hearsal equating task or presentation rates of 2, 3, and

4 sec, per item. In lists of 88 presentations which in¬
cluded KP items and DP items of lags 3 and 10, rehearsal
of a given word was assumed to lower the probability of
recalling the immediate after item.

The rehearsal equating task attenuated after item dif¬
ferences; however, increased recall with increased lag was
still observed, suggesting other contributing factors such
as differential encoding. For the FR task under different
presentation rates, a significant reduction in recall of
after items was found between lags 0 and 3 while recall
appeared to increase from lags 3 to 10, A possible non¬
monotonic relationship between differential rehearsal and
encoding was supported. Effects of presentation rate on
differential processing was observed though not significant.

SUBJECT VARIABLES AS PREDICTORS OP 1 AIRED ASSOCIATE
LEAHlilLG. Laurel Faile* (suonaored by L. J.

Tromater) , University of Richmond, Riclimond ,Va.

Three tests from the "K.it of Refrence Tests for
Cognitiye Factors" were used to predict scores on
a paired - associate learning task. T.hese teats
were administered to 64 male and female introduct¬
ory psychology students at the Univ. of Richmond,

CVC nonsense syllables with a mean meaningfullness
value of 2.32 were used as items on tne paired
associate learning task. A significant multiple
correlation was obtained at the .05 level.

SPEED OF CONFLICT RESOLUTION AS RELATED TO THE

TAYLOR MANIFEST ArXIETY SCALE. Jeffrev C. Fracher*
and Kenneth A. BlicF. Dept, of Psychology, Univer¬
sity of Richmond, Va. 23173

Verbal and motor conflict behavior as a functicn
of generalized drive level v/as examined. Twenty

Ss in each of tv/o groucs, designated as high drive
(HD) and low drive (LD) according to extreme scores
on the Taylor MAS, had to resolve AP-AP, AV-AV,
and DAP-AV conflicts of both a motor and a verbal
form. Speed of conflict resolution was the de¬
pendent variable and a 2x3 factorial design for
repeated measures on the second, or Conflict, fact¬
or was used.

Regarding the tv/o drive grouns in the motor
phase of study, results agreed with past findings
in that the HD group, as predicted, took signifi¬
cantly longer (p<. 05) to resolve all three types
of motor conflicts than the LD group. Only AP-AP
v;as found to differ significantly from both other
types.

In the verbal phase of the study the HD group,
also as predicted, took significantly longer to
resolve all types of conflicts than the LD group.

Also, the three conflict types were found to differ
significantly (p<.05). The possible effects of a
confounding variable on the verbal phase were
discussed.

LANGUAGE COMPLEXITY AND CONCEPT FORMATION DIFFERENCES IN

MIDDLE CLASS AND DISADVANTAGES PRESCHOOLERS. B. Francke*.
and K. Riccardi*, Dept, of Psychology, Sweet Briar College,

Sweet Briar, Va. 24595

Twenty middle class and 20 environmentally deprived
preschool children were compared on three cognitive ability
dimensions, 1) complexity of verbal productions, 2) attain¬
ment of the oddity concept, 3) attainment of verbal concepts
varying in degree of abstraction. Middle class children
produced significantly more and more complex verbalizations
than did the disadvantaged children. The oddity concept
was attained in significantly fewer trials by the middle
class children than by the disadvantaged group. A concept
attainment task which involved the labeling of abstract
concepts with nonsense words proved too difficult for
either group and was discontinued. The observed differ¬
ences between the two groups of subjects were interpreted
as being due primarily to differences in environmental
stimulation, with a major factor assumed to be the mother's
"level of control" of the child. In addition there is
some indirect evidence that in the case of the disadvan¬
taged subjects a long history of intermarriage in their
locality may have produced a limited gene pool which could
account for some of the observed variance.

ACCURACY OF "FEELINGS OF KNOWING" IN VERBAL

LEARNING-. Susan J. Good. Dept, of Psychology,

Univ. of Va., Charlottesville, Va. 22903

"Feeling of knowing" may be described as the
feeling that one could recognize a correct re¬
sponse when he cannot recall it. After viewing

48 word triads, Ss were tested on their ability
to recall the third word in each triad, given
one or both of the preceding words as a cue. At
the same time, Ss indicated their confidence that
they could later recognize the third word in the
triad. Such feelings of knowing were highly
correlated with performance on a cued-recognition
test that followed. Two-word cues led to better
recall than one-word cues, whereas the number of
cues available on the recognition test did not
affect the recognizability of words not recalled,
(aided in part by NSF grant GY 7414)

POST REINFORCEMENT PAUSE IN PIGEONS UNDER SOCIAL AND NON¬
SOCIAL CONDITIONS, Sally Henry*, B. D. MacEwen,* Department
of Psychology, Mary Washington College, Fredericksburg,

Virginia 22401.

Changes in post-reinforcement pause were observed for
pairs of pigeons under fixed-ratio schedules, utilizing two
social situations characterized as cooperation or competi¬
tion and one non-social, when one bird under a fixed-ratio
schedule responded alone. Post-reinforcement pause is the
elapsed time between termination of a period of access to
food until the initiation of the next response. In competi¬
tion, when the key light comes on in their separate, but
identical chambers, only the first bird to peck his key is
reinforced. In cooperation, for both birds to be reinforced,
they must peck their respective keys simultaneously, or the
response of one must follow the response of the other within
a specified time interval. In comparison to the non-social
condition, post-reinforcement pause generally decreased in
competition and increased in cooperation. In competition, a
low proportion of reinforcement meant that a bird repeatedly
"lost," resulting in longer post-reinforcement pause, which
then resulted in even lower proportions of obtained reinfor¬
cements. If the proportion became too low, the birdsstopped
responding. A high proportion indicated a bird repeatedly
"won" and pauses would decrease even more. In cooperation,
a short post-reinforcement by one bird resulted in the pairs
not meeting the criterion for cooperative responding, there¬
by decreasing both bird's proportion of obtained reinforcers.

150

The Virginia Journal of Science

ONE-TRIAL VS. INCREMENTAL LEARNING: A RE-EVALUATION USING
SIGNAL DETECTION THEORY. J. W. Hvams* and W. H. Leftwich.

Dept, of Psychology, Univ. of Richmond, Va. 23173

£8 were presented with a list of six A-B pairs followed
by a recognition task which consisted of either an A-B
(original member) or an A-X(new) pair on each of three
identical trials. S^s were required to indicate a binary
decision as well as a confidence rating, ^s making correct
responses on trial 1 were not exposed to trial 2; those
correct on trial 2 were not exposed to trial 3. From these
data receiver operator curves for all three trials were
plotted and d' values computed. The curves were virtually
overlapping and the d' values were not significantly differ¬
ent at the .05 level. Because the results do not indicate
an increment in learning as a result of practice, support
was lent to the one-trial position.

THE EFFECT OF FEMININE ROLE ORIENTATION ON PERCEPTION.

S. H. Klemmack* and E. E, Kemp*. Department of Psychology,

Radford College, Radford, Virginia 24141.

Women's attitudes toward their societal roles should influence
their perception of words that are connotatively related to these
roles. Twelve words, ruled by judges as descriptive of career
women or the housewife, were presented to undergraduate females.

Subjects were previously classified by a questionnaire as either
accepting or rejecting the traditional women's role.

Recognition scores for subjects who most accepted or rejected
the traditional role were compared. No significant differences were
found in the trials required for women of different role orientations
to recognize words representing either orientation.

These results, plus those from an earlier study, suggest that
women's attitudes toward their own roles have not yet differentiated
sufficiently to affect perception of value-ldden words.

A COMPARISON OF GROUP AND INDIVIDUAL RATINGS OF
PROFESSORS. Gary F. Krapf* and Daniel L.

Johnson. Dept, of Psychology, Radford Col.,

Radford, Va. , 24141,

To test the polarization effect of group
decision making, students were asked to rate
their professor on a standard faculty rating
form. These same students were then randomly
assigned to groups of size four, five, or six and
asked to come to consensus decisions on the same
items they had previously rated individually.

Analysis of the individual and group ratings
supported the hypothesis that group decisions
would be more extreme than the average decisions
made by individuals. Results supported previous
findings and confirmed the supposition that
laboratory findings in small group decision
making could be extended to group evaluation of
teachers in real world situations.

DO FEMALES PERCEIVE FEMALE INSTRUCTORS TO BE

INFERIOR? Patrice A. McMonigle* and Daniel L.

Johnson. Dept, of Psychology, Radford Col,,

Radford, Va. 24l4l

Previous research has shown that in certain
conditions females are prejudiced against females.

The present studies attempted to show that fe¬
males who had achieved in a field would be rated
equal to their male counterparts and females who
had not yet succeeded in a field would be rated
lower than their male counterparts.

Two experiments manipulated the post-graduate
degree and sex of college instructors in a 2 X 2
factorial design. In Experiment 1 non-Ph.D's
received significantly higher ratings than did

Ph.D's. There was no sex difference or inter¬
action effect. Experiment 2 showed no signifi¬
cant differences among degrees, sex, or sex/degree
interaction.

CONTOURS OF PERSONAL SPACE AS INFLUENCED BY SEX OF SUBJECT

AND SEX OF ASSISTANT. 0. S. Nice.* Dept, of Psvcholoqv,

Col. of William and Mary , Willi amsburg , Va . 23 i 85

In order to investigate the influence of sex variables on
the boundries of personal space, 20 male and 20 fennale sub¬
jects (Ss) were approached by a male and female assistant
(Am and Af) from each of four directions; the front, right,
left, and rear. On each trial, S 'clicked' a ciicker to
indicate that Am or Af had approached to a normal inter¬
action distance and should stop. Distances were recorded by
a male experimenter who also recorded extremity measurements
for each ^ and subtracted them from distances to correct for
body size, ^s then completed a postexperimenta 1 question¬
naire which rated Am and Af on absolute, and relative at¬
tractiveness, and relative status. It was hypothesized that
(a) distances would differ as a function of direction of
approach, (b) the female assistant would be permitted closer
approach than the male, regardless of subject sex, and (c)
total area of personal space would be smaller for female
than for male ^s. Hypotheses (a), and (b) were confirmed
(p < .01, and p < .025 respectively). Hypothesis (c) was
not confirmed. The relative attractiveness ratings reached
significance, and the implications of those ratings were
di scussed .

THE EFFECT OF NARRATIVE STORIES ON RECALL. Dale Parks*.

Dept, of Psychology, Randolph-Macon Woman's Col., Lynchburg,

Va. 24504

Two study techniques were investigated: a control method
of normal study or a narrative method by constructing a
story around the words. Twelve serial lists of 10 nouns
were presented. Each S learned four lists of high-, four
of low-, and four of zero-inter-item associative strength.

Control ^s received a study time equal to that of their
yoked narrative ^s. Two experiments were done. Probe
lists were used in Experiment II to control for Narrative S
following instructions. In Experiment I, the only signifi¬
cant difference obtained was between associative strength
for the session delay and delay interval recall, at 7, 14,
and 30 days. With the probe technique, significant
differences were obtained between study techniques and
associative strength in the session delay recall. These
results support other studies in this area.

Proceedings, 1971-1972

151

AN ANAIYSIS CF RATIO AND INTERVAL RESPONSES TO

MULTIDIWENSIONAL STIKDLI. Elizabeth Pipe* and Ricardo

Dobson. Dept, of Psychology, Kary Washington College,
Fredericksburg, Virginia 224-01

Forty observers (Os) judged the similarity of pairs of
symmetrical patterns. The patterns, generated by the

Minkowski unit distance equation, define a shape continuum
which includes a cross, diamond, circle, square, and inter¬
mediate forms. Three subsets of fifteen patterns, composed
of concave, convex, or both tyoes of patterns, were paired
in all possible combinations within a subset. Half the Os
made interval scale judgments, but the other half made ratio
scale judgments of the similarity of pairs of patterns.

Each of these halves were further subdivided so that Os saw
either the convex or concave subsets of patterns and the
combined subset in a counterbalanced order.

The impact of the stimulus subset manipulation was asses¬
sed on multiple levels of analysis. When the combined
stimulus subset was presented prior to either the concave or
convex subsets, the latter subsets were generally reported
to be more similar than viien they were not preceded by the
combined subset. Content and distance multidimensional
scaling analyses revealed that both the number and type of
important perceptual attributes of the Minkovrski patterns
depended on which stimulus subset was presented. The
psychophysical significance of the attributes was further
verified by regression of the dimensional coordinates
against objective indices of these attributes.

ELECTRO CONVULSIVE SHOCK: ITS RELATIONSHIP TO STATE-
DEPENDENT LEARNING, P. J. Ray*, S, D. Johnston*,

S. O'Toole*, C. A. Willits*, D. L. Wood*, G. C. VanDyne*,

Dept, of Psychology, Sweet Briar Col., Sweet Briar, Va,

24595

Twenty albino rats were given extensive preliminary
training in pressing the left bar in a 2-bar Skinner box
for food reinforcement. On Day 1 the habit was reversed
by selectively reinforcing responses on the right bar.

The Immediate ECS Group was given ECS within 10 seconds
following criterion performance. On Day 2 all S's were
allowed free access to food pellets for 2 min. and the

24 hr. Hungry Group and the 24 hr. Satiated Group were
given ECS at this time. A non-ECS Control Group did not
receive ECS on either Day 1 or Day 2. Retention of
reversal training was tested on Day 3, 48 hours following
training, by recording the number of R's on each bar
during extinction. As hypothesized, the disruptive effects
of ECS upon retention of a new habit were a function of
both its immediacy and the similarity between the conditions
present during ECS and recent learning.

"SHEEP" AND "GOATS" AS JUDGES OF EXTRA-SENSORY PERCEPTION.

Jane Reeb* and Mary Witt*. Dept, of Psychology, Sweet Briar

Col,, Sweet Briar, Va, 24595

A study in General Extrasensory Perception was conducted
to test Gertrude Schraeidler ' s findings that believers
("Sheep"), score higher on ESP tests than non-believers
("Goats"), (Schmeidler , 1969). The experiment was two-fold.

In the first part, 25 subjects were asked to respond to
five target pictures presented individually in such a way
that any information about them was received by other than
known sensory channels. In the second part, 10 believers
and 10 non-believers in ESP were asked to match responses
of subjects in the first part to the correct target
pictures .

Neither the mean of believers' successful matches, nor
the mean of non-believers' successful matches deviated
significantly from chance expectation. Therefore, the
results of the experiment were non-significant and did not
support Schmeidler' s findings.

A COMPARISON OF COVERT SENSITIZATION AND IN-VIVO TECHNIQUE

IN THE EXTINCTION OF StIOKING BEHAVIOR. Joseph E. Reish* ,

Marie Waters, and Daniel Johnson, Psychology Dept., Radford

Col., Radford, Va, 24141

A Covert Sensitization (CS) group, which consisted of
subjects (Ss) who listened to tape-recorded descriptions
of aversive scenes, and an In-Vivo (IV) group, which were
presented aversive stimuli in the form of hot air mixed
with cigarette smoke, were compared with two control groups
as to the effectiveness in the extinction of smoking
behavior. The results indicated that there was no
significant difference between the two treatment procedures,
although both were significantly more effective in the
reduction of smoking behavior than the two control groups.

The control groups consisted of a Contact Control (CC)
group, in which the Ss were informed that they were part of
the experiment, and a No-Contact Control (NC) group, which
were experimentally naive. No significant difference
between the control procedures was demonstrated.

Also, a validity check on the verbal reports of the Ss'
cigarette consumption was made via telephone contact with
the experimental Ss* friends (confederate Ss). Significant
agreement was found between the experimental Ss and the
confederate Ss in only the CC and NC groups, indicating
a possible lack of validity in the reports of cigarette
consumption of the Cs and IV groups.

*Address orders for reprints to Tidewater Cmnty. Col.,
Portsmouth, Va. 23703

ISOLATION OF ITEMS IN FREE RECALL. Lester W. Sanders, III*,
(sponsored by David G, Elmes). Washington and Lee Univ.,
Lexington, Va. 24450

The effect of combining the Von Restorff phenomenon
with the massed and distributed presentation of items was
studied. The list consisted of two presentations each of

35 common English words with a lag of six items between
distributed presentations. The words were printed in
block letters on index cards, non-isolated items in black
ink and isolated items in red, presented at a three second
rate. There were three conditions of isolation in both
the massed and distributed conditions. Either the first,
second, or both presentations of three critical items in
each list (massed or distributed) were isolated. It was
founa that isolation of massed items resulted in better
recall of the massed than distributed items. Furthermore,
although results showed superior recall in the "double
isolated' condition, it was found that the isolation of
the initial presentation only of the critical items pro¬
duced recall markedly superior to that with isolation of
the second presentation only and approaching the recall
level of the "double isolated" condition in both the
massed and distributed conditions. These results seem
to indicate that attentional processes play a major role
in producing the observed differences in recall between
items presented with massed and distributed practice and
between isolated and non-isolated items.

THE MODI FI CAT I OH OF SPEECH PAHERNS IN Ail IIMSTITUTIOHALIZED
MENTALLY RETARDED CHILD. Marilyn Shrun* (Soonsored by

Donald Witters), Bridgewater College, Bridgewater, Va. 22812

A thirteen year-old institutionalized male mongoloid
whose pronunciation was unclear served as the subject. Two
groups of stimulus cards consisting of sixteen pictures
each were presented to the subject. In the first group of
cards he was required to name the oictured object. In the
second group of cards the requirement was to name the color
of the object as well as the object. Tokens served as
reinforcers and were delivered on a CPF schedule, being
backed up with candy for every fifth token. An incorrect
response resulted in a five second time-out. In the
second phase of the experiment, ten four-word sentences
were used as the stimulus material. Under the reinforce¬
ment procedure the number of words said clearly increased
fifty per cent in the object group, fifty per cent in the
color grouD, and forty-seven per cent in the sentence
grouo. A reversal procedure was carried out, resulting in
decreased clarity in all experimental phases. A rein¬
statement of reinforcement procedures increased the
number of words said clearly to the previous level.

152

The Virginia Journal of Science

TR^iJSFER OF LE/iRNED HELPLESSNE3S. P, D, Swart* (Sponsored
by David G. Elmes). Dept, of Psychology, Washington & Lee

Univ., Lexington, Va, 24450

The first study attempted to determine whether the af¬
fects of inescapable preshock on escape behavior would
transfer to test situations employing a different aversive
stimulus than that used in the pretreatraent . Four groups
of rats were used, IWo groups were treated with inescap¬
able preshock, one of which was then tested with shock as
the aversive stimulus while the other was tested with aver¬
sive noise, IWo groups did not receive preshock, one of
which was tested with aversive shock, the other with aver¬
sive noise. It was found that both preshocked groups ex¬
hibited significant escape decrements compared to the non-
preshocked groups. It was concluded that the effects of
inescapable preshock did transfer to test situations em¬
ploying different aversive stimuli, and that this finding
supported the learned helplessness theory.

The second study employed two more groups of rats,
both of which were treated with inescapable aversive noise,
and one of which was then tested with aversive shock, the
other with aversive noise; thus attempting to show that the
transfer of learned helplessness occurs with inescapable
pretreatments of aversive stimuli other than shock.

A THREE MONTH ANALYSIS OF DRUG CALLS FOR RICHMOND HOTLINE.

S. Wagener* and E. H. Tiller*. Dept, of Psychology, Univ.
of Richmond, Va. 23173

Two hundred and thirty-four drug related calls were
isolated from all calls to Richmond Hotline, a crises
intervention service, received over a three month period.

The drug calls were categorized and described according
to type of drugs discussed, specific drug related problems
including addiction and "tripping", the telephone manner
of the caller, his age and sex, Che time and length of call.

The behavior of the Hotline listener was analyzed according
to telephone techniques used to help the caller and the
kind of referrals made to community agencies. The develop¬
ment and structure of Hotline, including the role and train¬
ing of the listeners was briefly discussed.

THE EFFECTS OF INTIMACY AND DRESS ON DISCLOSURE IN SOCIAL
SITUATIONS. J. Walmer*. V.J. Derlega*. and G. Furman*.

Dept, of Psychology, Old Dominion Univ., Norfolk, Va.

23508 (Sponsored by 1 .B. Albert).

Based on predictions derived from attribution theory,
recipients of intimate information were expected to be more
attracted and disclose more to a conventionally dressed
than to a deviantly dressed individual. Though these
predictions were not confirmed, the results supported

Jourard's notion of the "dyadic effect." Self-disclosure
by female Ss was a positive function of the amount of
disclosure input from another girl.

THE EVALUATION OF TUO TECHfliqUES OF WEIGHT CONTROL:

PERSUASION AND COVERT SENSITIZATION. Wayne Wampler*.

(Sponsored by Donald Witters), Departonent of Psychology,
Bridgewater College, Bridgewater, Va. 22812

The effects of bvo techniques of behavior change. Covert
Sensitization and Persuasion, v:ere investigated in regard
to vjeight control. Thirteen volunteer subjects were
divided into three groups, one control and two experimental.

The subjects were assigned by a randomized block design
created on weight to one of the three groups. The initial

Phase of the study investigated two types of charting and
data gathering. The subjects reported daily weights and
amount of intake for various food types. Neither weighing
nor intake charting were observed to be a significant
factor in long term weight control. In the second phase of
the study all groups met an equal number of times and on
the same days to receive one of the three treatments.

Experimental group procedures ran for thirty- five days with
a total number of ten sessions. It was observed that only
the weight of the Covert Sensitization group was affected
bv the treatment conditions.

SENSITIVITY TO VISUAL GAUSSIAN NOISE PATTERNS AS DETERMINED

BY BINARY AND RATINGS. Charlotte Weitzel* and Ricardo Dob-
son. Department of Psychology, Mary Washington College, Fred¬
ericksburg, Va. 22401

Three trained observers (Os) made judgments as to the pre¬
sence of a signal plus noise (SN) pattern adjacent to a
noise (N) pattern with binary and 4-category rating response
procedures. The computer-generated patterns consisted of Xs
and blanks with SN patterns containing a greater mean num¬
ber of Xs than N patterns. Two mean differences, 2 criter¬
ion levels, and 2 response procedures were factorially com¬
bined to produce 8 experimental conditions. Pay-off contin¬
gencies were varied in binary sessions to establish overall
high and low criterion levels and to induce Os to adopt 3
cut-off points. For the rating procedure, high and low crit¬
erion manipulations were made by changing the a priori prob¬
ability of SN trials. Each 0 was tested twice under each
condition and a different condition was investigated in each
session.

Individual protocols of all Os in rating sessions and of 2

Os in most binary sessions resulted in straight line z-coord-
inate ROC functions. Although criterion shifts were produced
in rating sessions. Os were not influenced by pay-off condi¬
tions to adopt low criteria in binary sessions. Neither re¬
sponse procedures nor criterion manipulations affected dg,
but, as predicted by the TSD model, the effect of the mean
difference manipulation on dg was statistically significant.

DEVELOPMENT OF A LANGUAGE/PRE-LANGUAGE SCREENING INSTRUMENT.

S. J, Zolczynski*, Rt. 1, Concord, Va. 24538, Elizabeth

Stewart*, Div. of Speech & Hearing Services, Dept, of Pedia¬
trics, Univ. of Virginia School of Med., Charlottesville, Va.
22901, and Frederick B. Rowe, Dept, of Psychology, Randolph-
Macon Woman’s Col., Lynchburg, Va. 24504.

An interview type instrument has been developed to yield
both an expressive and a receptive language age from infancy
to five years. Items were drawn from the developmental lit¬
erature and preliminary standardization procedures with in¬
stitutional retarded (n=200) , and Head Start children (n=49)
are encouraging. Administration by paraprofessionals seems
feasible in that their results compare favorably with eval¬
uations done by certified speech pathologists.

A larger more representative sample is indicated as a
next step in development of the instrument.

Proceedings, 1971-1972

153

Section of Science Teachers

Fiftieth Annual Meeting of The Virginia Academy of Science
May 3-5, 1972, Lexington, Virginia

A SIMPLE NUTRITION EXPERIMENT FOR SECONDARY
GRADES. J. E. Hardcastle. Chemistry Dept.

Texas Woman's university, Denton, Texas 76204
A simple nutrition experiment to demonstrate
to children in the secondary grades the nutri¬
tive value of various foodstuffs is described.
Briefly, the experiment is to maintain hamsters
on specified diets, and weigh the animals per¬
iodically. The weight change is related to the
nutrient content of the foodstuff as it is des¬
cribed on the package. The experiment can be
performed with a minimum of equipment and
materials, can be maintained in school rooms,
and can yield good results in 2-3 weeks.

After this experience the children want to and
are able to help plan better family menus.

154

The Virginia Journal of Science

Section of Space Science
and Technology

Fiftieth Annua! Meeting of The Virginia Academy ©f Science
May 3-5, 1972, Lexington, Virginia

ERROR ANALYSIS AND CONVERGENCE OF FINITE ELEMENT MODELS.

F, W. Barton, and R. T. Eppink*. Dept, of Civil Engineer¬
ing, Univ. of Va., Charlottesville, Va. 22901

Although finite element methods have been utilized ex¬
tensively for the analysis of complex structures, relatively
little is known regarding the theoretical accuracy and con¬
vergence properties of the finite element models. The pur¬
pose of the present paper is to present the results of a
study of the accuracy and convergence of standard beam ele¬
ments in buckling problems. Specifically, the errors asso¬
ciated with buckling loads for classical beam problems will
be considered.

A number of methods may be used to study accuracy and
convergence in finite-element problems. One method used
herein has been successfully applied to linear problems and
is based on classical order of error analyses commonly used
with finite difference approximations. Through the use of
Taylor series expansions, differential equations are found
from which convergence and principal error characteristics
of the finite element equations may be determined. These
resulting equations are then compared with known equations
governing the continuum and the error terms are evaluated
for selected problems.

Primary emphasis in this study is on the stability analy¬
sis of bar and beam structures. Discretization errors are
determined for a wide range of problems and the sensitivity
of the buckling load to these errors is studied.

LONG PERIOD MOTION OF A VIKING ORBITER. William J.
Breedlove, Jr., Enqineerincr Mechanics Dept., Old
Dominion University, Norfolk, Virqinia 23508

The Project Vikinq-Type Martian Orbiter orovides
a unique opportunity to estimate Mars' qravita-
tional and atmospheric parameters from Celestial
Mechanics experiments.

The parameter estimation schemes to be used at
Langley Research Center for determininq the
desired properties of Mars involve a trajectory
integration routine. A considerable savinas in
computer time will result if the "Iona period"
trajectory equations are inteorated rather than
the more general equations. In the "lonq period"
approach all short period effects are eliminated
by analytical averaging before numerical integra¬
tion .

This paper discusses a lonq period trajectory
integration routine currently beina developed to
be interfaced with existina parameter estimation
packages at LRC. (Aided bv NASA arant
NASl~9434-44) .

EARTH SATELLITE ORBIT ANALYSIS, J. J, Bosken*
and V. V. Gogolak*. Analytic Services Inc,,

Falls Church, Va. 22041

The use of artificial satellites to support
earth programs (earth resources and communication
satellites) is dependent upon satellite position
as a function of time over the earth's surface.
The problem analyzed is to determine the ground
tracks of satellites deployed in 6 to 24 hour
periods with emphasis on eccentric orbits. The
study avoids sophisticated mathematical models
and concentrates instead on the desirable proper¬
ties of the physical parameters, exploiting the
capabilities of commercial time sharing computer
facilities. The analytic tools used are briefly
discussed. Detailed diagrams showing the ground
tracks of various satellite orbits are given.

AN ANALYSIS OF PLANETARY EXPLORER CONTAMINATION
PROBABILITY. Ronald H. Broadhurst*: Bird Engineering-Research
Associates, Inc., Vienna, Virginia 22180.

This report presents a general discussion of the planetary quarantine
problem for unmanned automatic spacecraft and uses the Orbiting
Planetary EXPLORER Mission to Venus, as an example, to assess the
probability of contamination. Probability formula are derived using
simplified but sufficiently accurate approximations where expedient. The
nature of microorganisms is discussed. Lander versus non-lander missions
are compared and a method for generating a mission contamination model
is presented. Aim point bias techniques are illustrated to reduce the
mission contamination probability.

Proceedings, 1971-1972

155

D-CYCLE: A NEW THERMODYNAMIC VAPOR CYCLE. THEORY AND

POTENTIAL APPLICATIONS. J. G. Davoud* and J. A. Burke, Jr.*
D-Cycle Power Systems, Inc., Richmond, Va. 23225

The D-Cycle is a condensing vapor thermodynamic cycle in
which only a portion of expanded vapor (steam or certain
organic vapors) is condensed.

Condensate is injected as a mist into the remaining un¬
condensed vapor to lower the entropy and the wet vapor is
compressed mechanically to operating pressure. The com¬
pressed vapor, which at this stage can be either wet, dry
saturated, or superheated, is superheated to desired maxi¬
mum temperatures. Thus D-Cycle has no boiler.

The D-Cycle is about 60% more efficient than the Rankine,
for steam at 1000 psia and 1000°F expanding to 40 psia —
conditions suitable for an automobile.

A cycle, not an engine, the D-Cycle can be used in any
form of expander — reciprocating, positive displacement
rotary, or turbine. Thus it is applicable as a basic prime
mover to any power requirement. Suitable applications are
portable electric generating sets for earth and space
vehicles, boat and ship propulsion, automobiles, trucks,
buses, off-road vehicles.

It results, with suitable (patented) compression equip¬
ment, in attractive efficiency increases in fossil-fueled,
and especially nuclear, power plants.

LAMINAR BOUNDARY LAYERS ON SHARP AND BLUNT CONES AT ANGLE OF
ATTACK IN SUPERSONIC STREAMS. M. C. Frieders* and C. H.

Lewis, Aerospace Engrg. Dept., Va. Polytechnic Inst, and

State Univ., Blacksburg, Va. 24061

Laminar boundary layers on sharp and blunt cones at angle
o£ attack in uniform and nonuniform free streams were inves¬
tigated. The inviscid flow fields over blunt cones were
predicted from blunt body and three-dimensional method of
characteristics solutions. Conical flow-field solutions
were used for sharp cones in uniform streams, and three-
dimensional method of characteristics solutions were used
for sharp cones in nonuniform free streams. A three-dimen¬
sional boundary- layer method was used to predict the viscous
flows over sharp and blunt cones. The cases investigated
include sharp cones in two-dimensional shear flows and in
axisymmetric wake flows. Blunt cones were investigated in
axisymmetric wake flows.

Results from the sharp and blunt cone cases are compared
with available data. It is shown that heat transfer and
skin friction increase along the windward streamline, even
in the presence of an adverse pressure gradient. Data are
also compared to a "small crossflow" model for sharp cones
in wake flows to show the importance of the crossflow in
the boundary layer and its effect on skin friction, heat
transfer, and flow separation. (Supported by U.S. Air

Force Contract F33615-70-C-1015) .

DETECTION OF CONTAMINANTS ON SPACECRAFT MATERIALS. R. H.
Honeycutt , III* and J. P. Wightman, Dept, of Chemistry, Va.
Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ., Blacksburg, Va. 24061
Reflection infrared spectroscopy has been shown to be a
convenient means of measuring both the kind and amount of
contamination on solid surfaces. Silicone oil (DC-704) was
chosen as a model contaminant for study on aluminum,
germanium and KRS-5 (42 mole % thallous bromide - 58 mole %
thallous iodide) surfaces . Known volumes of standard solu¬
tions of DC-704 in cyclohexane were introduced onto aluminum
foils. The reflectance infrared spectra obtained for

DC-704 on the three solids agreed with the transmission
spectra of neat DC-704. An absorption peak at 1250 cm"l
due to the =Si-CH3 stretching vibration is unique for DC-704,
Spectra were obtained at atmosphere and at pressures down
to 10”S Torr. The effects of elapsed time, pressure and
temperature on the spectra were studied. [Work supported
under NASA-Langley Master Agreement NASl-10646] .

NONEQUILIBRIUM BOUNDARY LAYER FLOW ON THE SPACE SHUTTLE

ORBITER VEHICLE. G. R. Inger*, Aerospace Engr. Dept., Va.
Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ., Blacksburg, Va. 24061.

There is considerable interest in the nonequilibrium flow
field around hypervelocity lifting reentry vehicles used in
the space shuttle and outer space exploration programs,
which spend an appreciable flight time at high altitudes.
Nonequilibrium dissociation-recombination effects are
important in determining vehicle aerodynamics, heat transfer
and flow field ionization under these flight conditions.

While a good deal is now known about nonequilibrium effects
in high speed two-dimensional or axisymmetric boundary
layers, little has apparently been done in highly-three
dimensional flows, especially those associated with lifting
hypersonic vehicle configurations. In the case of flow
around a swept wing, for example, a number of theoretical
solutions are available for either perfect or equilibrium
real gas flow but nothing for the situation where appreci¬
able departures from dissociative equilibrium occur. As a
first step toward dealing with nonequilibrium effects in
general three-dimensional flows, the present paper analyzes
these effects for the simpler but important case of laminar
flow at the leading edge of a swept infinite span wing with
a highly-cooled surface. The major purpose is to show the
significant influence of cross flow on both the magnitude
and basic nature of the nonequilibrium air reactions,
including finite surface catalycity effects.

A NONLINEAR OSCILLATOR ANALOG OF RIGID BODY DYNAMICS.

John L. Junkins . Ira D. Jacobson, Jeffrey N. Blanton. Dept,
of Aerospace Engineering, Univ. of Va., Charlottesville, Va.
22901

Euler’s equations governing the torque free motion of a
general rigid body are classically solved in terms of ellip¬
tic functions. Due to the complexity of this solution, and
to a general unfamiliarity with elliptic functions, it is
desirable to use some dynamic analog to facilitate visualiza¬
tion of the important aspects of the rigid body motion. The
most famous analog of this type is due to Poinsot and
involves the inertia ellipsoid of the rigid body rolling on
an invariant plane. This analog has several shortcomings -
including the lack of an explicit representation of time
dependency .

It is shown that the motion of an arbitrary rigid body
can be rigorously defined by three second order, nonlinear,
xmaouptedy ordinary differential equations of the Duffing
type. These three uncoupled differential equations are used
to define a new motion analog consisting of three uncoupled
nonlinear oscillators. Three associated phase planes are
developed and discussed. The limiting cases and stability of
the motion, as well as the time dependency, are readily seen
in this phase plane representation.

CHEMICAL NONEQUILIBRIUM EFFECTS ON SUPERSONIC NOZZLE FLOWS

AND FLAT-PLATE HEAT-TRANSFER. R. D. Kirchner* , A. K. Jaku-
bowski* and C. H. Lewis, Dept, of Aerospace Engr., Va.

Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ., Blacksburg, Va. 24061.

A theoretical and experimental study of the effects of
chemical nonequilibrium on supersonic air flows through a
converging-diverging axisymmetric nozzle and along a flat
plate has been made. The experiments were conducted in a

NASA Langley arc-heated wind tunnel facility at exit Mach
numbers of about 4 for a range of moderately low Reynolds
numbers. Equilibrium, frozen and finite-rate nonequilibrium
inviscid expansions were compared with experimental pressure
data and reasonable agreement was obtained for the case of
frozen and nonequilibrium flow calculations. Nonequilibrium
stagnation heat-transfer predictions were found to be with¬
in about 10 percent of the experimental measurements. Noz¬
zle boundary- layer calculations were made to determine the
influence of viscous effects on the numerical predictions.
Flat-plate boundary-layer calculations based on nonequili¬
brium, catalytic-wall conditions were found to be in close
agreement with experimentally determined heat-transfer
distributions. (Supported by NASA Grant NGR 47-004-070).

156

The Virginia Journal of Science

MOVING MASS ON PLATE. R. McNitt, and R. Raehavan* Dept,
of Engineering Mechanics, Virginia Polytechnic Inst, and

State Univ., Blacksburg, Va. 24061

A theory describing the response of plate under a cyclic
moving mass is developed. The theory based on Fourier
transform technique shows that for a particular natural
frequency associated with each mode of vibration of the
plate, there are infinite number of mass movement frequen¬
cies that cause the instability of the system. The theory
shows that for a simply supported plate, the resonance is
reached prior by the moving mass system, than by the moving
force system. The effects of the centripetal acceleration
are also introduced and they are in the order of 10 to 15%.
Numerical examples of typical deflection profile and
instability curves are also presented.

TANGENTIAL SLOT INJECTION INTO SUPERSONIC TURBULENT BOUNDARY

LAYER FLOWS. E. W. Miner* and C. H. Lewis, Aerospace Engrg.
Dept., Va. Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ., Blacksburg,

Va. 24061

An implicit finite-difference method has been developed
for solving the compressible boundary-layer equations with
tangential slot injection. Effects of injecting air into
supersonic turbulent boundary layers at Mach 2.4 and 6.0
are presented. Predictions of Mach number and pitot pres¬
sure profiles through the mixing region and wall skin-fric¬
tion distributions are compared with experimental data and
results of some other numerical solutions. Results of cal¬
culations made with the two-layer eddy viscosity models of

Van Driest-Clauser and Van Driest-Schetz and the multi-layer
model of Beckwith and Bushnell are compared with wall and
profile, data. The effects of pressure interaction on the
wall skin-friction distribution downstream of the slot are
discussed .

Good agreement was obtained for the reduction of wall
skin friction with tangential slot injection. Comparison
with experimental Mach number and pitot pressure profiles
gave reasonable agreement in most cases. Calculations with
the effects of pressure interaction included showed these
effects to be smaller than the effects of changing eddy
viscosity models. (Supported by NASA Grant NGR-41-004-072) .

COMPARISON OF EXPERIMENTALLY DETERMINED PRESSURE
COEFFICIENTS ON FLAT PLATES AND CYLINDRICAL BODIES
INDUCED BY A JET IN A CROSS WIND. D.S. Ousterhout^^
Engineering Mechanics, Old Dominion University,
Norfolk, Virginia 23508.

An experimental investigation was undertaken to
determine the surface pressure distribution on a
flat plate and a cylindrical surface induced by a
subsonic cold air jet exhausting normal to the
surface and into a uniform free stream. The
experimental data was obtained for a range of free
stream velocity to jet velocity ratios between 0.3
and 0.7. The data is presented as plots of press¬
ure coefficients as a function of a non-dimension¬
al length parameter referenced to the jet location.

A comparison of the data obtained for the flat
plate and the cylinder indicated that: a) the
influence of the jet-free stream interaction on
surface pressure was damped out within approximate¬
ly six nozzle diameters of the jet axis; b) the
rate of pressure coefficient decay, in the free
stream direction, was less for a cylindrical sur¬
face than the corresponding decay on a flat plate;
c) jet induced increments of lift and pitching
moments are influenced by the static jet dynamic
pressure decay characteristics.

EFFECT OF AIR POLLUTION ON VISIBILITY AT NORFOLK, VIRGINIA.

W. M. Pritchard*, K. P. Chopra*, and P. M. Patel*. Dept,
of Physics, Old Dominion Univ., Norfolk, VA 23508

The east coast smog belt has expanded southward in
recent years. It is the opinion of weather observers that
a persistent haze has been present in the Hampton Roads
area since about 1965 and has caused a significant decrease
in visibility readings. An analysis is presented of the
noon visibilities recorded on weekdays at the Norfolk

Municipal Airport for the period 1960-1970. The mean
annual visibility is found to have been slightly lower
after 1964. No significant decrease appears to have
occured in the annual frequency of visibility in the 12-15
mile range. However, the annual frequency of visibility
in the 0-4 mile range increased by an average of 37 per
cent after 1964. This effect may be attributed to an
increase in atmospheric concentration of particulate matter.

TECHNOLOGY - FOR A BETTER WORLD. C. Raphael^

Atlantic Research Corporation, Alexandria, Virginia 22314

It has become fashionable to criticize scientific develop¬
ment and to propose that the world stand still in the name
of "ecology." But population is increasing, and people
produce pollution, and they must be transported, and fed,
and housed. Therefore we cannot stand still. We must
recognize that the world is faced with problems of
pollution, transportation, energy demand, natural
resources depletion, hunger, and social conflict, and the
only solution to our prosperous growth and survival is to
solve all of these problems.

This paper discusses some of these problems and offers
the alternatives for our ultimate fate: a Utopian worldwide
community, or a starved, diseased, withering planet. If
we accept the first and work toward its achievement, we
have no alternative but to extend the frontiers of our
knowledge, and to develop the communications satellites,
the supersonic transports, the nuclear power plants, the
automatic machinery, the high-protein rice, and the
artificial hearts .

The presentation finishes with a short description of
some of those programs which Atlantic Research is
pursuing which will hopefully lead to a better world.

EXPERIMENTAL DETERMINATION OF THE NEUTRAL

STABILITY CURVE FOR THE BOUNDARY LAYER OF A

CYLINDER IN LONGITUDINAL FLOW. W.S. Saunders*,

Dept, of Aerospace Engr., Univ. of Va . ,
Charlottesville, Va. 22903

The boundary layer in the longitudinal sub¬
sonic flow about a cylinder was investigated using
a hot wire anemometer. Vorticity perturbations
were introduced into the boundary layer by
applying an acoustic field to a sharp edge
suction slot located near the leading edge of the
body. The neutral stability curve was obtained
by determining the points of maximum growth and
decay of the perturbation. The results are com¬
pared to those obtained with a flat plate.

Proceedings, 1971-1972

157

ESSENTIAL FEATURES OF INFRARED GASEOUS RADIATION AND RADIATIVE
CONTRIBUTIONS FROM WEAK VIBRATION-ROTATION BANDS. S. N. Tiwari ■
Thermal Engr. Dept., Old Dominion Univ. , Norfolk, Va. 23508.

Analysis is presented to investigate the infrared radiative
energy transfer in nongray nonisothermal gases under the con¬
ditions of non-local thermodynamic equilibrium. Attention has
been directed to incorporate the spectral realities of vibra¬
tion-rotation bands and to account for the variable (nongray)
surface emittance in the governing integro-differential equa¬
tions. Results are presented for CO, CO2 , N2O, CHi, , and H2O
for the temperature and pressure range of 300-2000°K, and 0.1-
100 atmosphere respectively.

It is found that at a pressure of one atmosphere, the assum¬
ption of local thermodynamic equilibrium for a gas such as CO
is not valid for temperatures below 600°K, while for gases like
CO2 and N2O, the assumption is justified at room temperature.
Under optically thin conditions, where radiation depends solely
upon integrated band intensity, the contributions from weak
bands are not significant. However, under large path length
conditions, where major portion of the band becomes opaque, the
weaker bands have a significant effect upon the radiative tran¬
sfer process within the gas. The influence of variable surface
emittance upon radiative transfer ability of a gas is pronoun¬
ced only in the large path length limit .

The feasibility of applying the present analysis to investi¬
gate the temperature distribution in the planetary atmosphere
and to predict the concentration of major pollutants in the
earth's atmosphere is discussed.

A NEW POLLUTION FREE TRACKED AIR CUSHION, AIR DRIVEN RAPID
TRANSIT VEHICLE, Yau Wu. , Va. Polytechnic Inst, and State
Univ., Blacksburg, Va. 24061.

A new concept of the linear air turbine vehicle is pro¬
posed. The tracked air cushion and air driven rapid transit
system is designed for the future high speed ground trans¬
portation in the urban area. Through the compressed air
pipe lines to the passive vehicle, the system employes the
principle of compressor, pipe, heating chamber, nozzle,
turbine, air cushion and jet in a new combination. This
vehicle contributes no air, thermal, vibration nor noise
pollution. Many technical, environmental and economical
problems have been discussed. The primary results indicate
that this is indeed a very efficient, practical and eco¬
nomical system for the future high-speed ground transpor¬
tation in the major cities.

NUMERICAL STUDY OF UNSTEADY BOUNDARY -LAYER SEPARATION. D. Th.
Tsahalis* and D. P. Telionis, Va. Polytechnic Inst, and
State Univ., Blacksburg, Va. 24061

In reference [1] a theoretical study of the flow in the
neighborhood of separation was presented. A modification of
a numerical scheme developed by Werle and Davis [2] is pre¬
sently used to verify the basic properties described in re¬
ference [1]. Time dependent terms are included in the
differential equation and the field data are stored for
points in a plane (x,yj, the 2-D flow field above a solid
wall. Unsteadiness is introduced by letting Vg = 1 + At^x
where Vg the free stream velocity t time and A a constant.
Time is incremented and the plane (x,y) is sweeped again
with time derivatives based on the stored information. It is
thus indicated that for upstream motion of separation a
point of zero skin friction is found with no evidence of
singular behavior or any other properties usually accompany¬
ing separation. Downstream of this point a region of re¬
versed flow is encountered and an upwind differencing scheme
is used to continue the integration further downstream to¬
wards the station where the conditions for generalized sepa¬
ration (ref. [1]) are met. The basic conclusion is that the
vanishing of skin friction or the appearance of reversed flow
do not necessarily imply separation and hence termination of
the boundary- layer integration in unsteady flows.

1. Sears, W.R. , and Telionis, D.P., Proceedings of lUTAM
Symposium, Canada, 1971. 2. V/erle, M.J., Davis, R. T. , J.

Appl. Mech. ASME Conference 1971, No. 71-APM-31.

158

The Virginia Journal of Science

Section of Statistics

Fiftieth

Annual Meeting of The Virginia
May 3-5, 1972, Lexington,

Academy

Virginia

of Science

SOME MULTIPLE SAMPLING PROCEDURES FOR CONFIDENCE
INTERVALS. Robert L. Andrews, Va. Polytechnic
Inst, and State Univ . , Blacksburg , Va. 24061
A location parameter 0 is restricted to some
range (a,b), and the observable is distributed
normally with mean 9 and variance tj^. By as¬
suming a uniform prior over the range (a,b] then
the posterior distribution can be shown to be a
function of the observable. To find a fixed
width confidence interval with a minimum confi¬
dence for either knom or unknown then a
multiple-stage sampling procedure is required.

MAXIMUM LIKELIHOOD ESTIMATION IN A PURE BIRTH PROCESS.

R.W. Andrews* and R.G. Krutchkoff. Dept, of Statistics,
Va. Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ., Blacksburg, Va.
24060

In sampling without error at times t^,t2,...,t^ from a

pure birth process with linear birth rate X, the maximum
likelihood estimator ^ is found. Under restrictive con¬
ditions on the population size N^ at time t = 0, X is
shown to be consistent by using a theorem of Wald [Snn.
Math. Stat. , 1948]. In the case where is arbitrary but
fixed it is shown that; for every e > 0, there exists a
5(e,Nq) such that

lim P[i^ -xl > e] < 6 < ^

' n ' — — N„

n-x« 0

Data from brief simulation studies is

also presented.

OPTIMAL KERNEL ESTIMATORS FOR THE DERIVATIVE OF A DENSITY.
R.W. Andrews* and R.G. Krutchkoff. Dept, of Statistics, Va.
Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ., Blacksburg, Va. 24060.

In some empirical Bayes estimation problems a consistent
estimate of the de^rivative of a density function is required.
Such an estimate f (x) was proposed by Rutherford [ph.D.
Thesis, VPISSU, 196^] based on the kernel estimates of the
density proposed by Rosenblatt [Ann. Math. Stat. , 1956] and
extended by Parzen [Ann. Math. Stat., 1962]. The proposed
estimate f'^(x) depends on two sequences of constants h(n)
and h*(n). Based on minimizing

J = E/ (f (x) -f ' (x) ) ^dx,

X n

the mean integrated squared error (MISE) , values for h(n)
ajd h*(n) are found which depend on n, the sample size and
0 , the variance of the underlying density.

CLASSIFICATION IN PSYCHIATRY. John J. Bartko*’'. Nat. Inst,
of Mental Health, NIH Campus, Bldg. 36, Room lD-15, Bethesda,
Maryland 20014

Cluster techniques may possibly contribute to the improve¬
ment and development of methods used in the classification of
psychiatric patients. However, numerous problems and com¬
plexities are encountered in attempting any cluster analysis.
These include lack of a definition of a cluster, choice of
input data format , choice of similarity measure , selecting a
clustering algorithm, and deciding how many groups there are
in the data. Because of these basic difficulties, several
strategies are presented for undertaking a cluster analysis
as well as a comparison of some cluster techniques applied to
Archetypal psychiatric patient data. The reproducibility or
persistence of the Archetypal data clusters as well as the
persistence of cluster results obtained with real psychiatric
data is discussed. The validation of psychiatric clusters by
comparison to external criteria, outcome status and the rela¬
tionship of the problem to quasi-retrospective studies is
touched upon.

Proceedings, 1971-1972

159

THE DISTRIBUTION OF CARDIAC ARRESTS - ANOTHER VERSION OF THE
BIRTHDAY PROBLEM. W. H. Carter, Jr., Department of Biometry,
Medical College of Virginia, Richmond, Virginia 23219

The value of organized programs in cardiopulmonary resus¬
citation is well established. Within most, if not all,
hospitals, teams of trained individuals are formed to re¬
spond to cardiopulmonary arrests. In addition to their
special training, the team requires the use of much expen¬
sive and sophisticated equipment. Most hospitals maintain
more than one complete team in order to be prepared to re¬
spond to a second arrest while the first arrest is in pro¬
gress, or while the equipment used for the first arrest is
being replenished. As a result, there is a problem associ¬
ated with the determination of how many teams a hospital
should maintain, especially since the personnel and equip¬
ment necessary for such teams is expensive.

In this paper, we develop the mathematics necessary to
allow administrators of health centers to calculate the num¬
ber of times multiple arrests can be expected to occur with¬
in a time Interval short enough to necessitate maintaining
more than one cardiopulmonary resuscitation team. The
results are then applied to the experience at the Medical

College of Virginia.

ORTHOGONAL CONTRASTS AND THE GENERALIZED INVERSE IN FIXED

EFFECTS ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE. W. H. Carter. Jr. Dept, of
Biometry, Medical College of Virginia, Richmond, Va. 23219
and R. H. Myers, Department of Statistics, Virginia Poly¬
technic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Va.

24061

Recently there has been a tendency to present textually
the theory of less than full rank linear models through the
use of the generalized Inverse matrix. The difficulty that
students often encounter in the use of the generalized in¬
verse in a theoretical linear models course is visualizing
its relationship to other concepts to which they were ex¬
posed in earlier courses.

In this paper, a method of constructing generalized in¬
verses for the X'X matrix resulting from one and two way
fixed effects analysis of variance models (without inter¬
action) is developed. This method employs the use of ortho¬
gonal contrast constants. An Interesting result is that the
orthogonal contrast constants are elements of the eigen¬
vectors associated with the characteristic roots of X'X.

AN ECONOMICALLY OPTIMAL MARKOVIAN SAMPLING POLICY FOR

MONITORING CONTINUOUS PROCESSES. J. R. Crigler* and

J. C, Arnold, Dept, of Statistics, Va. Polytechnic Inst,
and State Dniv., Blacksburg, Va. 2I4O6I

A sampling procedure for monitoring the outgoing quality
of a continuous process over T time units is considered.

The procedure permits k acceptance levels and uses a vari¬
able sampling ratio, sanqiling less frequently idien the pro¬
cess is in control. Ibe sanqjling procedure is formulated
as a simple Markov process. The types of continuous pro¬
cesses to which the procedure is applicable are discussed.

A method for choosing economically optimal sasqjling
policies is covered. An objective function is presented
which incorporates both a sampling cost and a penalty cost
associated with sensitivity criteria. The objective func¬
tion is flexible in the sense that it permits the monitoring
agency to choose its own cost and sensitivity restrictions.
Optimization is attained by application of the technique of
dynamic programming. An exaa^ile illustrating a possible
application of the procedure is presented.

SOME THEORETICAL ASPECTS OF RANDOM EQUATIONS OF
EVOLUTION IN THEORETICAL POPULATION GENETICS.

A. I. Dale and K. Hinkelmann. Dept, of Statis-
tics, Va. Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ. ,
Blacksburg, Va. 24061

The fundamental step in the evolution of a pop¬
ulation, as far as its genetic make-up is concern¬
ed, is change in gene frequency. This change may
conveniently be regarded as a continuous stochas¬
tic process satisfying the Kolmogorov forward
equation .

Two evolutionary processes involving genic se¬
lection are considered, one for a finite popula¬
tion, the other for an infinite population. Cer¬
tain coefficients in the resulting partial differ¬
ential equations are considered to be random vari¬
ables as is suggested by practical considerations.

This then gives rise to random partial differen¬
tial equations. Various methods of solving these
are investigated and the results are compared with
the deterministic solutions.

A "MAKE OR BUY" MODEL FOE AMMUNITION. I. A. DeArmon, Jr.,

US Army Munitions Command, Operations Research Group,

Edgewood Arsenal, Maryland 21010

The cost of procuring ammunition from contractor-owned
sources (COCO) versus the cost of this procurement from
Government -owned plants (GOCO) was assessed. Claims that
industry could accomplish the task at considerable dollar
savings to the Government either for operations over a long
period of years or for a single year's procurement were
evaluated. Two models were developed.

The first model was a generalized total cost model,
which provided a means of comparing the total cost of
ammunition procured from either a hypothetical COCO plant or
from a GOCO plant. The second model, called the Multiple

Bid Evaluation Model, used in conjunction with the total
cost model, was developed for obtaining a minimum cost
solution when a specific item might be procured on a one¬
time basis from a combination of both COCO and GOCO bidders.
Several applications were made to demonstrate the utility of
the models.

The total cost model was used to compare COCO and GOCO
costs, based on historical and hypothetical plant costs,
over an extended period. Break-even analyses were conducted
to demonstrate trade-off features between COCO profit margins
and plant efficiencies and to illustrate break-even points.

The Multiple Bid Evaluation Model was applied to a single
procurement action of a specific item to determine the
minimim cost of bid quantity options from COCO and GOCO
suppliers.

MULTISTEP THEORY - APPLICATION TO SECTIONING AND PATTERN

SEARCH, J, B. Foster* R. W. Lane.* and W. C, Turner* Dent,
of Industrial Engineering and Operations Research, Va. Poly.

Inst, and State Univ., 24061.

Most directional search procedures develop a program
of "better points" where each is an optimum for the given
direction at that stage. Recently, it has been shown that
the choice of other than optimum points and the simultane¬
ous determination of several steps can implore the rate of
convergence. These concepts can be lumped together as
"multistep" procedures.

The rate of convergence becomes extremely important
when functional evaluations are costly as when experimental
results or simulation runs are involved. Usually deriva¬
tives are not readily available in these situations so
sectioning or pattern search seem appropriate. This paper
discusses the use of multistep theory to improve the rate
of convergence of sectioning and pattern search on several
test functions chosen for their range of diversity.

160

The Virginia Journal of Science

MULTIPLICATIVE COHGRUENTIAL PSEUDO-R AHDOM NUMBER
GEHERATIOH OH THIRD GEHERATION BINARY COMPUTERS.

R . A . Gaskins . Dept, of Math, and Comp. Sci.,

H-S Col., Hampden-Sydney , Va. 239^3

A popular method for producing pseudo-random
numbers by computer is to use the method

X , . = ax ( Mod m ) ,
n-pl n

because, if m is chosen as the natural modulus of
a binary computer having b bits, this method is^
very fast. The modulus of such a computer is 2“.

The most widely known and used generator is
RAHDU (IBM 360 SSP Version III), but it is con¬
structed in such a way that it ignors the b-th
bit at the expense of running time and cycle
length. Faster generators can be constructed if
the natural modulus is used instead. For exam¬
ple, for the IBM 36O or 370 computer (b=l6)
FUNCTION RAGDuUx)

IX=IX*655‘*3

RAGDU=IX».2328307E-<f

RETURN

END

which is written in FORTRAN IV, will simulate
the same uniform distribution as RANDU but
shifted 1/2 unit to the left, i.e. (-.5, .5).

GLOBAL NONPARAMETRIC ESTIMATION OF PROBABILITY DENSITIES.

I. J. Good. Dept, of Statistics, Va. Polytechnic Inst. &

State Univ. , Blacksburg, Va. 24061; and R. A. Gaskins, Dept,
of Mathematics, Hampden-Sydney College, Hampden-Sydney, Va.
23943

Given a number of observations ..., X{q, a nonparamet-

ric method is suggested for estimating the entire probability
density curve. The method is to subtract a roughness penalty
from the log likelihood, where the roughness penalty is a
certain ftmctional of the assumed density function f. Those
used are linear combinations of fy'^dx and Jy'^^dx, where
y = /f. The method appears to be consistent under wide con¬
ditions, although consistent methods can be rough. Numerical
examples are given and show that for certain values of the
coefficients in this linear expression the density function
turns out to be very smooth even when N is small. Multivari¬
ate extensions are proposed, including one to distributions
having some continuous and some discrete components, but
numerical examples of these have not been tried. Some of the
techniques are borrowed from quantum mechanics and tensor
calculus.

SOLUTIONS TO STOCHASTIC INTEGRAL EQUATIONS USING
THE RESOLVENT KERNEL APPROACH. S. Hardiman* and
C.P. Tsokost Dept, of Statistics, Va. Polytechnic
Inst, and State Univ., Blacksburg, Va. 24061

This paper demonstrates the resolvent kernel
approach for obtaining a random solution, a second
order stochastic process, for nonlinear stochastic
Volterra type integral equations

X (t ; to) =y (t,-(b) +/.k (t ,T ,x (t ;ijj) ; (jj) f (t ,x (t ju) )dT

and

x(t;to)=y(tjto)+h(t,x(t;w) )

+ /gk (t , T ,x (t ; to) ; to) f (t ,x (x ; to) ) dx

for teR_|_= {t: t^O}, toefi, fi the underlying

set of a complete probability measure space
(n,A,P). The random unknown process x(t;(o) is
defined on R^ x fj; the stochastic process y(t;ixj)
is defined on R x 52; h(t,x(t;to)) is the stochas¬
tic free term; the nonlinear stochastic kernel
k (t , X ,x (x ito) ; to) is a random variable for
0£x£t, X, teR_^ and to e 52; and the process
f (t,x {t;ti)) ) is a scalar function defined for
t c R_j_ and x e R. We utilize reciprocal stochas¬
tic processes to obtain a series representation of
a random solution, prove that it satisfies the
stochastic equation if y(t;to) is a process contin¬
uous in mean square and that the series represen¬
tation converges in mean square to x(t;to).

OPTIMAL HIERARCHIAL FACTORIAL DESIGNS; THE
MULTIPLE DESIGN MULTIRESPONSE CASE WITH COST
CONSTRAINT. Samuel V. Givens* and Klaus H.
Hinkelmann. Dept, of Statistics, Va. Polytechnic
Inst, and State Univ., Blacksburg, Va. 24061.

In designing multivariate experiments it will
often be the case that different responses have
different design matrices. This most often occurs
when certain responses are not influenced by
various factors. If not all responses are
measured on each observational unit then this
gives the more general linear multiresponse
(MGLM) design.

For a factorial experiment denote by V a
variance-covariance matrix of estimable functions
of the main effect parameters for all responses.
Optimal size designs are found that minimize the
trace of V when the size of the design is restrict¬
ed by a total cost constraint. It is shown that
hierarchial MGLM designs, a subset of the MGLM
designs, need only be considered. Given that the
costs and 'a priori' estimates of the variances
are known, the number of observations can be
determined for each response in the design which
is optimal with respect to the trace criterion.

Similar results hold when using minimization of
the determinant as the criterion for optimality
rather than the trace.

SOME BIVARIATE NEGATIVE BINOMIAL DISTRIBUTIONS.

J . W. Hall . * Dept. o£ Statistics, Va. Polytechnic
Inst . and State Univ., Blacksburg, Va. 24061

A review of past work in the definition of bi¬
variate negative binomial distributions indicates
that in every case the univariate marginal distri¬
butions have the same coefficient of dispersion.
Some unpublished data on fish movements provides
a motive for deriving bivariate negative binomial
distributions whose marginal distributions have
unequal coefficients of dispersion. Three differ¬
ent methods are used to produce such distributions
and the results are compared.

THE GENERAL N-COMPARTMENT MODEL FOR ANALYSIS OF FLOWS IN
BIOLOGICAL MEMBRANES. J. R. Howell . Department of Biometry,
Medical College of Virginia, Richmond, Virginia 23219

A compartment is defined by a characteristic material
that occupies a given volume, e.g., medicine in the stomach.

The mathematical description of biological processes by
means of tracers is called compartment analysis. These pro¬
cesses are represented by systems of first-order, linear,
ordinary differential equations with constant coefficients,
where there is one such differential equation for each com¬
partment. If there is diffusion or flow between compart¬
ments, we have a compartment system.

Consider an n-compartment system with two-way diffusion
between all compartment pairs, with "leaking" from every
compartment , and an initial amount of substance In each com¬
partment at time zero. An algorithm is given for writing
the equations associated with such a system and a solution
is shown. An analog computer diagram is shown which yields
numerical solutions to these differential equations, and
hence provides a model for studying the system for different
values of the parameters.

Finally, the estimation of these parameters by use of
analog and digital computers is discussed. (Aided by NIH
Grant Number RE00016)

Proceedings, 1971-1972

161

COMPUTERIZED FLOWS OF RADIOACTIVITY IN A MULTICOMPARTMENT

SYSTEM SIMULATING Na"^ FLUXES IN FROG SKIN EPITHELIUM. E. G.

Huf, Departments of Physiology and Biometry, Medical College
of Virginia - VCU, Richmond, Virginia 23219

In studies on the kinetics of flow of salt across an epi¬
thelial membrane, frog skin has long been used as a model
membrane to study the movement of Na"^ ions, a "backbone" ion
in the physiological electrolyte structure. The flow of Na‘‘‘
across this multicellular epithelial structure is governed
by both "passive" diffusion processes and an "active" Na"^
transport mechanism. At least 3 separate compartments are
histologically identifiable. When one outside, and one
inside fluid compartment are added in a double chamber sys¬
tem, with the isolated skin separating the two fluid com¬
partments, one deals with a 5-compartment system. The pur¬
pose of this paper is twofold; 1) to present evidence for
the assumption of a 5-compartment system, 2) to apply mass-
law kinetics to the transmembrane flow of Na"*" in the forward
and backward direction, applied to "normal skin", and skins
under the influence of hormones and drugs known to alter
membrane permeability and active transport forces. Five
linear differential equations can be written, but data in
all compartments are not available for estimating the para¬
meters. However, a computer simulation program was applied
to find parameters such that solutions are in general agree¬
ment with a large body of experimental facts. Computer
results from varying these parameters suggest several new
types of laboratory experiments.

AN ANALYSIS OF THE BED ALLOCATION PROBLEM. John E.

Jackson*, and John A. White. Dent, of Ind. Ene, and On.

Res., Va. Polytechnic Inst., Blacksburg, Va. 24061

The problem of optimally allocating the bed resources of
a hospital among several patient services is subjected to
quantitative analysis in this paper. Four patient services
are considered. Based on the result of an investigation of
the bed allocation problem within four small to medium
sized hospitals, an analytic model is developed to assist
the hospital administrator in the allocation of beds. The
objective is taken to be the minimization of the expected
daily cost of patients not being admitted to their desired
service. A dynamic programming solution is obtained and
sensitivity analyses performed.

ON BIASED ESTIMATION IN LINEAR MODELS.

Lawrence S. Mayer? Va. Polytechnic Inst, and State
Univ. , Blacksburg, Va. 24061. Thomas A. Willke?

Ohio State Univ., Columbus, Ohio.

Hoerl and Kennard introduced a class of biased
estimators (ridge estimators) for the parameters
in an ill-conditioned linear model. In this
paper the ridge estimators are viewed as a sub¬
class of the class of linear transforms of the
least squares estimator. An alternative class of
estimators, labeled shrunken estimators is consid¬
ered. It is shown that these estimators satisfy
the optimality condition proposed by Hoerl and
Kennard. In addition, both the ridge estimators
and shrunken estimators are derived as minimum
norm estimators in the class of linear transforms
of the least squares estimators. The former mini¬
mizes the Euclidean norm and the latter minimizes
the design dependent norm. The class of estima¬
tors which are minimum variance linear transforms
of the least squares estimator is obtained and the
members of this class are shown to be stochastic
shrunken estimators. An example is computed to
show the behavior of the different estimators.

INVARIANT ESTIMATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE MODELS. L.S. Maver*.

Dept, of Statistics and Mary Sue Younger*, Dept, of Business
Administration, Va. Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ.,

Blacksburg, Va. 24061

A problem found quite often in social science literature
is that of estimating the parameter 6=(6^,a^) in the linear
model y=X S+s in a manner Invariant under changes of scale
on the independent and dependent variables. The invariant
estimator commonly used is called a "beta coefficient" or
"standardized regression coefficient."

In this paper we attempted a rigorous formulation of the
"beta coefficient." The appropriate invariant estimation
problem was defined and an invariant sufficient estimator
was obtained. This estimator is not the same as the "beta
coefficient" used in the social sciences; thus we con¬
centrated on a comparison of the usual social science
estimator with the invariant sufficient estimator we
obtained.

We found that the invariant sufficient estimator is super¬
ior to the usual estimator in terms of such criteria as
sufficiently, unbiasedness, consistency, and simplicity of
distribution.

A STOCHASTIC MODEL FOR CHEMICRL KHSDETICS. J. Susan Milton.*

Dept, of Statistics, Radford Col., Radford, Va. 24141.

A stochastic model for chemical kinetics is proposed
and a random^integral equaticsi of the form

C(t;u) = / f (C(T;a)) ;ii))dT t>0
o

where for each t is an unknown R dimensional randcm

variable representing the "extent of reaction" at time t
is presented. The mathematical theory necessary to stu<ty
questions of existence and uniqueness of a randan solution
to the above randan equation is developed using the
techniques of probabilistic functional analysis the theory
of admissibility.

COHPUTATION OP PARTUL GAMMAS PROM PRODUCT MOMENT LOGIC.

B. Krishna Sin^, Dept, of Sociolofw. Virginia Commonwealth
Universityi Richmond, Va. 23220

Davis (1967) suggests a way of computing partial gammas
following the measure based directly on probability of error
of ordered polytomies. Tiis technique (l) is an overestimate
and (2) is cumbersome to calculate when the ordered polytomi-
ee are not either dichotomies or trichotomies. This paper
provides a proof for the computational formula ofi

'^xy.z - 'yiz')5rz/(l-V&z) (l-'yyz)

A verbal definition of this partial coefficient iss The
amount of variance explained in two ordered pol^omies (x,y)
when the effects of a third ordered polytomy (z) are partia-
lled out. An illustrative example is given.

162

The Virginia Journal of Science

A BETA DISTRIBUTION APPROACH TO DIAMETER CLASS
FREQUENCIES IN LOBLOLLY J>INE STANDS. M. R. Strub*.

Division of Forestry and Wildlife Sciences, VPI & SU,
Blacksburg, Va. 24061.

Efficient utilization of forest land requires knowledge
of stand characteristics such as the distribution of tree
diameters. Two hundred and forty one- tenth acre sample
plots were taken in loblolly pine (Pinus taeda) plantations
located in piedmont and coastal plain Virginia, Delaware,
Maryland and North Carolina. Tree diameters were grouped
into one-tenth, one, and two inch class Intervals. In
each case the beta distribution was fitted to the data by
the methods of maximum likelihood and moments. Estimates
of the parameters of the beta distribution, as well as
minimum and maximum diameters, were correlated to the stand
parameters, age, average height of the dominant stand, and
number of trees per acre. The resultant diameter class
frequencies for each class interval-parameter estimate
combination were compared to the original data. Recommenda¬
tions concerning class interval and parameter estimation
technique for diameter frequency prediction were made.

ESEDttflHG PAKAMfflraS M MICHAffilS-MKffl’EH KBIETICS. W. A.
Wlegaad*, md R, E. Flora, D^t. of Biometry, Medical Col»
of Va. , Va. Coiaaonwealth Oiiy. , Ricl^ad, Va. 23219

General devel^meat of Mictoelis-Meaten kinetics equation
is given follow^ by sane popralar tecbaiques Med to
linearize the aodel. It is pointed out that statistical
problffl« arise eoneeraiag the experlBmt^ error when these
technifiaea are used la eoajtmction id.th linear l»8t squares
to eetiaate the paraaeters V^^^ and k^. Wei^ted nonlinear

least squares is also discussed.

Developaent of the aajtimoa likelihood estiasates for V ,

and the vBriaaees is given, meeassion of the likelihood

ratio teat and its arollcation to the problem of detwndning
idjether two dose-response curves are the same or alterna¬
tively r^reaent coi^etitiYe, noaeo^etitlYe or mixed in¬
hibition ere inolMed.

THE ECONOMIC OUTLOOK. Leland E. Travwielc*. Dir., Bur. Bus.
Res., Col. Wm. & Mary, Williamsburg, Va. 23185.

After a winter of some discontent, the economic indica¬
tors are blooming along with spring and robins in the first
quarter's reports. The leading economic indicators have
been forecasting this for some months and recently turned up
sharply. The coincident indicators confirm the predictions.
Among these that are most carefully watched are the Federal
Reserve's index of industrial production (up 7,3 percent an¬
nual rate in March), retail sales (up 8 percent over a year
ago), new housing starts (strong at a 2,66 million annual
rate in Feb. --down a bit because of shortages in March), ex¬
penditures planned for capital Improvements stand at an inc¬
rease of 10,5 percent (was 1.9 percent in 1971), and all of
the surveys show a decided Increase in business and consumer
sentiment for the remainder of this year. If the bright ex¬
pectations are reached, GNP could increase by some $100 bil¬
lion as forecast earlier--a great vintage year.

Some drags on the economy occur. One is a threat of inf¬
lation. Wholesale prices jumped 10-12 percent early in the
year. Grocery prices roared up at a 24 percent annual rate
in February. The fiscal federal deficit, although expected
to be $30 billion instead of $39 billion, still is consider¬
ed inflationary. Meanwhile the Federal Reserve increases
the money supply at a 10.9 percent rate. Unemployment re¬
mains high inspite of increases in actual employment. The
international unrest and the failure of dollar devaluation
keep alive a decided balance of payments deficit.

Proceedings, 1971-1972

163

M©bil Chemical

MOBIL CHEMICAL COMPANY/ INDUSTRIAL CHEMICALS DIVISION/RICHMOND, VIRGINIA

HELP WANTED

The recent flood in Richmond, Virginia destroyed most of the extra copies of The Virginia
Journal of Science, prior to Volume 22, Number 4, 1971. Anyone having copies of older issues
that they would like to donate to a needy cause, please send them to: Dr. Charles E. O’Rear,
Business Manager, Virginia Journal of Science, 1 North 14th Street, Richmond, Virginia 23219

Making todays medicines with integrity...
seeking tomorrows with persistence.

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164

The Virginia Journal of Science

Philip Morris, a publicly-owned company incorporated in Virginia, proudly traces
its heritage to a London tobacconist of a century ago. Quality and innovation
have earned for the company a valued reputation; “Philip Morris . . . makers of
America’s finest cigarettes.” By any professional measure, the Philip Morris Re¬
search and Development Center has become one of the most complete and fully-
integrated facilities for scientific effort related to tobacco products.

Write to:

Administrative Manager
P. O. Box 26583
Richmond, Virginia, 23261

PHILIP MORRIS
RESEARCH CENTER

VIRGINIA

JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

OFFICIAL PUBLICATION OF THE VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

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locations in the State of
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including our general
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say our roots are
planted deep in
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Virginia is our “home
state.” Whatever we
have contributed to its
economy is returned
many times in the close
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That Cigarette Smoking Is Dangerous to Your Health.

SUSTAINING MEMBERS
VIRGINIA ACADEMY
OF SCIENCE

The following Virginia Educational Institu¬
tions support the objectives of the Virginia Acad¬
emy of Science through Sustaining Memberships.
Their active and financial support is gratefully
acknowledged.

Alderman Library
Christopher Newport College
College of William and Mary
Emory and Henry College
George Mason College
Hampden-Sydney College
Hollins College
Longwood College
Lynchburg College
Madison College
Mary Baldwin College
Mary Washington College
Mathematics and Science Center
Norfolk State College
Old Dominion University
Randolph-Macon College
Randolph-Macon Woman’s College
Stratford College
Sweet Briar College
University of Richmond
University of Virginia
Virginia Commonwealth University
Virginia Military Institute
Virginia Polytechnic Institute
Virginia State College
Virginia Union University
Washington and Lee University

BUSINESS MEMBERS
VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

Because of their interest in science and the
economy of Virginia, the following industrial
concerns have become Business Members of
the Academy and have thus contributed greatly
to its work and progress. Their support is
gratefully acknowledged:

Allied Chemical Corporation
American Filtrona Corporation
The American Tobacco Company
Brunswick Corporation
Bunton Instrument Co.

Burlington Industries, Inc.

Carolina Biological Supply Co.

The Central National Bank

Dow-Badische Company

E. I. duPont de Nemours & Co., Inc.

Ethyl Corporation

First and Merchants National Bank

Hercules, Incorporated

House of Edgeworth

Merck and Company, Inc.

Mobil Chemical Company
National Fruit Product Co.

Newport News Shipbuilding & Dry Dock Co.
Philip Morris and Co., Inc.

Phipps & Bird, Inc.

A. H. Robins Company, Inc.

Southern Bank & Trust Company
Southern States Cooperative, Inc.

Texaco, Inc.

United Virginia Bank
Universal Leaf Tobacco Co., Inc.

Virginia Chemicals, Inc.

Virginia Electric and Power Company
Wheat, First Securities, Inc.

VIRGINIA

JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

OFFICIAL PUBLICATION OF THE
VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

Vol. 23 No. 4 1972

TABLE OF CONTENTS

169 Semi-Centennial Celebration of the Virginia Academy

of Science, Williamsburg, Virginia, May 1973

Boyd Harshbarger

171 Global Nonparametric Estimation of Probability

Densities

(J. Shelton Horsley Research Award, Virginia
Academy of Science, 1972)

/. /. Good and R. A. Gaskins

Longitudinal Distribution and Habitat of the Fishes
of Mason Creek, an Upper Roanoke River
Drainage Tributary, Virginia

Robert E. Jenkins and Charles A . Freeman

Science Teachers Section

A Simple Nutrition Experiment for Secondary
Grades

J. E. Haj'dcastle

205

News and Notes

THE VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

Official Publication of the Virginia Academy of Science

EDITOR

LYNN D. ABBOTT,

JR.

SECTION EDITORS

Boyd L. Samuel

Michael N. Bishara

Agricultural Sciences

Engineering

Lee S. Anthony

Kenneth A. Blick

Astronomy, Mathematics and Physics

Psychology

James D. Punch

Elva D. Aukland

Microbiology

Science Teachers

Robert G. Bass

John R. Howell

Chemistry

Statistics

K. L. Reifsnider

Ricardo N. Zapata

Materials Science

Space Science and Technology

Edwin S. Higgins
Medical Sciences

BUSINESS MANAGER

Charles E. O’Rear

Published quarterly by The Virginia Academy of
Science, Department of Bioehemistry, Medical Col¬
lege of Virginia, Richmond, Virginia 23219. Second-
class postage paid at Richmond, Virginia.

Manuscripts for publication (other than section
abstracts) and books for review should be sent to
the Editor, Lynn D. Abbott, Jr., Department of
Biochemistry, Medical College of Virginia, Rieh-
mond, Virginia 23219. Proof, edited manuscripts,
and all correspondence regarding accepted papers
should be sent to the Editor.

Advertising and Business Office: All correspon¬
dence relating to advertising and business affairs
should be directed to Charles E. O’Rear, Business
Manager, Virginia Journal of Science, 1 N. Four¬
teenth St., Riclimond, Virginia 23219.

The Virginia Aeademy of Science and the Editors
of the Virginia Journal of Seienee assume no re¬
sponsibility for statements or opinions advanced by
contributors.

(C) Copyright, 1972, by the Virginia Academy of
Science.

Business and Subscription Information

All remittances and orders for advertising and
subscriptions should be sent to the Business Man¬
ager, Virginia Journal of Science, 1 N. Fourteenth
St., Richmond, Virginia 23219. Changes of address
should be sent promptly to Blanton M. Bruner, Ex¬
ecutive Secretary-Treasurer, Virginia Academy of
Science, P. O. Box 8454, Richmond, Virginia 23226.
Changes of address must include both new and old
addresses with zip code.

Subscription rates for 1972: $8.00 per year,
U.S.A.; Canada and other countries of the Pan-
American Union, $8.50 per year; all other foreign
countries, $9.00 per year. All foreign remittances
must be made at par U.S. dollars or the foreign
equivalent. U.S. dollar remittance is suggested to
avoid currency fluctuation problems and possibly
unfavorable exchange rates.

Back issues are available for some years at $3.00
per issue plus postage.

The front cover is by Douglas C. Hensley.

Semi-Centennial Celebration of the
Virginia Academy of Science
College of William and Mary
Williamsburg, Virginia
May 2, 1973

The Virginia Academy of Science will return to
the College of William and Mary in Williamsburg,
Virginia, on Wednesday, May 2, 1973, to commemo¬
rate its founding there fifty years ago. This special
celebration will open a three-day session for the
Senior Academy. The Junior Academy will have con¬
vened several days earlier.

The period, 1923-1973, represents the great awak¬
ening of science in Virginia. This program on May
2 will highlight the great part that the Virginia
Academy played in this renaissance of science. It
will recognize some of the leaders, note a few of the
major contributions to science by its members, and
indicate the growth of the Academy both in mem¬
bership as well as papers submitted at the annual
meetings. A glimpse of the future of the Academy
will be unveiled.

The great impact that the Academy has had on
science and higher education will be featured at the
evening meeting.

The leading role that the Academy has had in en¬
couraging the juniors by its Science Talent Search as
well as the Junior Academy will be described. Fol¬
lowing is the program adopted by the Ad Hoc Com¬
mittee for the celebration.

Program

May 2, 1973, 1:30 p.m.-10:00 p.m.

The Welcome

Dr. Thomas Graves, President of the College of
William and Mary

Dr. Carlisle Humelsine, President of Colonial Wil¬
liamsburg

Response

Dr. Franklin Flint, President of the Virginia
Academy of Science

Early History of the Virginia Academy of Science
Dr. I. D. Wilson, President of the Academy, 1931-
32

Emeritus Professor, V.P.I. & S.U. 30 minutes

Introduction of all living ex-presidents and charter
members of the Academy with comments

Dr. Walter S. Flory, President of the Academy,
1955-56

Wake Forest University 20 minutes

Introduction of the J. Shelton Horsley Award Win¬
ners and the Jefferson Award Winners

Dr. Dexter Whitehead, University of Virginia

15 minutes

Introduction of the Virginia Academy of Science
Meritorious Service Award Winners

E. S. Harlow, President of the Academy, 1956-57
American Tobacco Company, retired 10 minutes

Introduction of the former editors of the Virginia
Journal of Science with a short history of the pub¬
lications of the Academy

Dr. Boyd Harshbarger, President of the Academy,
]949_50 V.P.I. & S.U. 10 minutes

History of the Science Talent Search

E. V. Russell, V.P.I. & S.U. 10 minutes

History of the Junior Academy

Mrs. Vera Remsburg, Herndon High School

10 minutes

Growth of the Academy and Its Future

Dr. Franklin F. Flint, President of the Academy,
1972-73

Randolph-Macon Woman’s College 30 minutes
6:45 p.m. Banquet
8:00 p.m. Evening Meeting

Impact of the Virginia Academy of Science on Sci¬
ence and Higher Education in the State Over the Past
50 Years

Dr. W. T. Sanger, President of the Academy,
1934-35

Chancellor-Emeritus of the Medical College

of Virginia

Semi-Centennial Celebration

169

VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

This issue completes Volume 23 of the Journal,
and the Editor wishes to take this opportunity to ex¬
press his sincere appreciation and gratitude to all
who have assisted him with the Journal during the
past 4V2 years. He also extends best wishes to the
new Editor, Dr. Charles O’Neal, who will continue
to have the able assistance of Business Manager Dr.
Charles O’Rear. In addition Dr. Edward Bowman
will serve as Advertising Manager to try to decrease
the cost of the Journal to the Academy by increasing
advertising revenue.

For a number of years the Virginia Academy of
Science has subsidized about half the cost of publish¬
ing and distributing the Journal as an important part
of its contributions to science and scientists in Vir¬
ginia. Increasing costs have reached the point where
each volume of the Journal costs approximately
$6.00 per member while dues per member are only
$5.00. For this reason the Publications Committee
has recommended to the Finance Committee that the
annual dues to members be increased and that sub¬
scription rates to libraries, etc. be raised $2.00 per
year from the present rates of $8.00 for domestic

subscriptions, $8.50 per year for Canada and other
Pan-American countries and $9.00 per year for all
other foreign countries.

The Publications Committee recognizes the im¬
portance of maintaining the quality of the Journal,
and the Academy plans to continue to subsidize part
of the cost. All members who can afford to upgrade
their membership classification (e.g., contributing
$15.00) are urged to do so. The addresses of the new
Editor, Business Manager and Advertising Manager
are as follows.

Editor: Dr. Charles H. O’Neal, Department of
Biophysics, Box 877 MCV Station, Richmond, Vir¬
ginia 23219.

Business Manager: Dr. Charles E. O’Rear, 1 N.
Fourteenth Street, Richmond, Virginia 23219.

Advertising Manager: Dr. Edward R. Bowman,
Department of Pharmacology, Box 726 MCV Sta¬
tion, Richmond, Virginia 23219.

LYNN D. ABBOTT, JR.

170

The Virginia Journal of Science

I. J. Good

Department of Statistics
Virginia Polytechnic Institute
and State University
Blacksburg, Virginia 24061

and

R. A. Gaskins

Department of Mathematics
Hampden-Sydney College
Hampden-Sydney , Virginia 23943

Global Nonparametric Estimation of Probability Densitiest

Summary

Given a number of observations Xi • • • , x^r, a non¬
parametric method is suggested for estimating the
entire probability density curve (although a para¬
metric method is also briefly mentioned). The
method is to subtract a roughness penalty from the
log-likelihood, where the roughness penalty is a cer¬
tain functional of the assumed density function f.
The penalties used are linear combinations of J y'^
dx and / y"^ dx, where y = \/f. The method is con¬
sistent under wide conditions, although consistent
methods can be rough. Numerical examples are given
and show that for certain values of the coefficients
in the linear expression the density function turns
out to be very smooth even when N is small. Multi¬
variate extensions are proposed, including one to
distributions having some continuous and some dis¬
crete components, but numerical examples of these
have not been tried. Some of the techniques are
borrowed from quantum mechanics and tensor cal¬
culus.

* This paper, which was invited by the editor, con¬
sists of a reprinting of Good and Gaskins (1971b),
together with several additions, and we are grateful
to the Biometrika committee for permission for the
republication. Each addition to the original version,
apart from a few very minor ones, has been enclosed
between a pair of asterisks, and the original hy-
pallagous title has been changed to avoid confusion
of the two versions.

We have now found that the techniques previously
described can be readily adapted to deal with data
given in histogram form, a fact that makes the work
applicable, for example, to a common form of data
occurring in high-energy physics.

We shall report some new extensive sampling ex-

t Presented at the SOth annual meeting of the Virginia Academy of
Science, Lexington, Virginia, May 4, 1972. This paper was awarded
the J. Shelton Horsley Research Award for 1972. The work was
supported in part by H.E.W., N.I.H. Grant # 1 ROl GM 18770.

periments for selecting roughness penalties in terms
of goodness of fit to known populations, and an
iterative method will be described for the selection
of the roughness penalty when a sample is given. In
the earlier work, the selection of the roughness
penalty depended mainly on the smoothness of the
putative density function as estimated by eye.*

*Pre£ace*

* The British statistician George Barnard once re¬
marked that he thought the notion of a histogram is
the most important one in statistics. Since a histo¬
gram is virtually an estimate of a density function it
is not surprising that the literature on density estima¬
tion is large. The method described in the present
work, which can be applied both to histograms and
to raw data from which histograms are often con¬
structed, is the only method known to us with a
Bayesian interpretation applicable when the true den¬
sity is not assumed to belong to a specified parametric
family. But the method can also be used, up to a
point, without a Bayesian interpretation, and thus
provides an example of the Bayesian influence for a
classical problem in statistics that Barnard at least
might consider to be the most important one. From
a fundamental point of view it is very interesting to
see a marriage of the two main conflicting schools
of statistics occurring in so central an area. For it
verifies that a synthesis of the Bayesian and non-
Bayesian points of view, which has been reneatedly
emphasized by one of the present writers, is breaking
through to a new level of maturity.

To prevent misunderstandings we add that the ex¬
pression “Bayesian” has many shades of meaning,
and much controversy arises through overlooking
this. Here we shall not discuss this semantic issue,
but we refer the reader to Good (1972) which was
intended to be only slightly facetious.

This work is not only a wedding of Bayesian and
non-Bayesian methods; it is also a wedding of philo-

Global Probability Density Estimation

171

sophical and numerical methods, of theory and prac¬
tice, and in some ways of statistics and physics. But
a wedding is not the whole of a marriage, and the
future may reveal the full fruitfulness of these
unions.*

1. Introduction

A fundamental problem is statistics is the estima¬
tion of a density function from a sample of observa¬
tions. An example of a useful but not very familiar
application would be for the estimation of probability
densities of discriminant functions. This could be
used, for example, for choosing between treatments
when a discriminant function is available for success
and failure in regard to each treatment. Another kind
of application is for deciding whether a bump in the
apparent density function is genuinely in the popu¬
lation, or more generally for deciding whether one
density function is a better estimate than another one
and by how much. According to Orear & Cassel
(1971), ‘bump hunting’ is one of the major current
activities of experimental physicists, and they re¬
quested aid from statisticians. When a bump is not
due to random variation it is usually due to a new
elementary particle or resonance.

The method of estimating a density function to be
discussed in this paper arose from a proposal of Good
(1971a, b) and is here modified, developed further,
and exemplified numerically and graphically. A
multivariate extension is proposed but no multivariate
numerical calculations have yet been done. *Note
that the problem of bump detection is not precisely
the same as that of density estimation, for bump de¬
tection is not a pure estimation problem.*

2. The Basic Approach

For the estimation of a density function / of a
random scalar or p-dimensional vector, x, given N
observations Xi, • • • , x^r, the likelihood or its loga¬
rithm

L = :2.. log fix,) (1)

is relevant; but a naive application of maximum
likelihood methods would make the estimate the
mean of a set of Dirac functions at the N observations.
*Nobody accepts this solution because it is too rough.
Also it has no predictive value since it is almost
certain that the next value of x will be one that has
never occurred before. (For the one-dimensional case,
the integrated form is the step function usually de¬
scribed as the empirical distribution function, as used
in the Kolmogorov and Smirnov tests. The discus¬
sions of these tests in the literature do not, as far
as we know, mention the maximum-likelihood esti¬
mate of the density function, possibly because of
its absurdity.)* It must be better to subtract a penalty
for roughness from the log likelihood before maximiz¬
ing. Accordingly our basic approach is to maximize
a score co, depending on /, x,, • • • , x.v, and defined by

o) = a;(/) = L - T(/), (2)

where the roughness penalty $ is a functional <!>(/) =
<!>(/(•)) of /. Of course L too is a functional of / but

it depends on the observations in addition. Note the
mnemonics that w is for ‘overall score’ and <I> is for
‘flamboyance functional,’ flamboyant in the sense of
having a wavy edge.

Although this approach seems reasonable from a
non-Bayesian point of view, it was proposed for a
Bayesian reason, and the Bayesian interpretation has
the advantage that it gives some measure for how
much better one density function / is than another
one. It thus contributes to bump theory.

A full-dress Bayesian approach would involve the
maximization of the expected utility of an assumed /.
One would need, among other things, a formula for
the utility of assuming one density function when
another one is true, as discussed by Good (1968b,
1969). Such an approach would be very complicated
so we use only a Bayesian approach in mufti, in
which the aim is to maximize the final density of / in
function space. This is analogous to a familiar method
for estimating a scalar or vector, of which the ordinary
method of maximum likelihood is the special case
where the prior is uniform. A uniform prior in func¬
tion space is out of the question, and would lead to
the Dirac catastrophe mentioned before. The prior
density in function space implied by (2) is propor¬
tional to

(3)

When this Bayesian approach is used, with a spe¬
cific functional, the final log odds in favour of one
density function /i as compared with another one /o
is

w(/i) - wf/a) natural bans, (4)

where a natural ban is the unit suggested in 1940 by
A. Turing for log odds and ‘weights of evidence’
when the base of the logarithms is e. For the bases
2, 10, 10*^-^ and lO'^-®^, the unit is a bit, a ban, a
deciban and a centiban, respectively, and so on.

When the aim is merely to obtain the ‘best’
smoothing, the Bayesian interpretation can be ig¬
nored.

The choice of the penalty functional will be con¬
sidered in §5, and, for the multivariate case, in §9.
Section 10, on invariance, is relevant to both cases.
We shall always assume that

Tf/) > 0, (5)

whenever '!>(/) is defined, and that

T(/o) < (6)

for the true density /q. We do not rule out infinite
values for <!>(/), but such fs will score minus in¬
finity so they will rule themselves out.

Density estimation is probability estimation for

continuous distributions. For discrete distributions

an analogue of a roughness penalty was proposed
by Good''(1963, p. 931; 1965, p. 76), namely the
entropy, as a generalization of the principle of maxi¬
mum entropy. The entropy seems inappropriate for
continuous distributions because they could have
violent small ripples with little affect on the entropy,

172

The Virginia Journal of Science

and it is better that <I> should depend on the deriva¬
tives of /. For multivariate distributions with some
continuous and some discrete components, see §9.

3. Consistency

We shall give a ‘physicist’s proof of the following
theorem. A rigorous proof might require a further
constraint on the allowable density functions. *The
proof now seems rigorous to us, although the details
are not all explicit.*

THEOREM. Suppose that we consider only those
density junctions that are continuous, and satisfy the
the condition

f /(log jf dx < CO , (7)

Then the estimate f, obtained by maximizing is
consistent in the sense that in probability

whenever b < a, where fo is the true density function.

Unspecified ranges of integration are taken to be
( — 00 , 00 ). Consistency does not imply the absence
of false bumps: they could become small and nu¬
merous as N increases.

Proof. To prove this, note that, by (5), in a sam¬
ple of N observations,

E'uifo) — co(/)! > N [ fo(x) log dx — 'h(/o). (9)

The integral here is an “expected weight of evidence
per observation” and we denote it by W (see Section
6). It is non-negative and can vanish only if / = fo.
Moreover, if we assume

J /o(log jf dx < 00 , (7A)

and we shall come back to this, the standard devia¬
tion of L is 0{\/N) so that, by Chebychev’s in¬
equality, in probability w(/o) — w{f) is ultimately
positive. Therefore, by (6), in probability, any spe¬
cified f =7^ fo is ultimately beaten by fo when N is in¬
creased. In a large sample, in probability, those fs
that are not yet beaten will have the integral W
negligibly small so that the limit in (8) is "true in
probability.

Although (7 A) does not follow from (7) it fails
to follow only in virtue of the possibility that / is
much smaller than fo at infinity. If / is replaced by
another density function /* for which this is not true,
in which f is slightly increased at infinity and slightly
decreased elsewhere, the expression w(/o) — wif*)
will be almost the same as <o(fo) — 03(f) or will be
smaller, whereas condition (7A) will be true with /
replaced by /*. This justifies us in assuming (7A)
in the course of the proof. Another point we have
slurred over is that, under condition (7A),

fo log / dx'^ = (^j V/o Vfo log / dx'J

< J fo dx j /o(log ff dx < CO , (10)

This was implicit when we claimed that the standard
deviation of L was 0(\/N).

The condition (7) is weak and is satisfied, for
example, if / G L'-'>°'(— 00, 00).

* COROLLARY. Under the conditions of the
above theorem, the estimate of f is consistent in the
sense that, for each point Xo, /(tq) ^ /o(-^o) in
probability.

We are assuming that / and fo are continuous, and
therefore uniformly continuous in each finite interval.
So, given e > 0, there exists S such that \f(x) —
/(to)| < e and |/o(t) — fo(xo) \ < e whenever [x —
Xol <8. Therefore

25/(.vo) -

/ fix) dx

*^Xo-S

<25e.

Therefore

28/o(.Vo)

< 28e.

28 1/(^0) - /o(.Vo)|

^xo + 8

pxo + 8

<

/ fix) dx -

xo~ 8 ♦

/ foix) dx

^ xo~~ 8

But, by the Theorem,

/*xo + d /tXQ + 8

/ fix) dx — / foix) dx

Xn — 8 Xn — 8

+ 45e.

> 28e| 0

when N CO

Therefore

p\ \fixo) - foixo)\ > 3e! 0 when N co ,

and this proves the corollary.*

"^Conjecture concerning the expected weight of
evidence. We shall later be much concerned with the
value of W and accordingly the following conjecture
is of interest.

Let f be chosen to maximize the functional 03(f),
after a sample of size N has been obtained. Then
NE(W), the expectation being taken over all samples
from the distribution with density fo, seems to tend
to a non-zero limit as N ^ co. This conjecture is
based partly on numerical evidence to be given later,
and partly on the following intuitive argument.

It seems reasonable to assume that

fix) = foix)[l -j- hix)/VN] (lOA)

where hfx) is a random function mathematicaly de¬
pendent upon the function fo, and having expecta¬
tion 0 and finite variance for each x. By expanding
the logarithm we see that

i j foi^"l dx natural bans. 'r(lOB)

Denoting this quantity of evidence by W*, we may
express the conjecture: the expected weight of evi-

Global Probability Density Estimation

173

dence for discriminating the true density from the
fitted one, when the discrimination is based on a
sample of the same size as the one giving rise to the
fit, tends to W-^ when N tends to infinity. This expec¬
tation is with respect to variations of both samples.

This conjecture is analogous to the easily provable
fact that if a sample of size N is taken from a t-cate-
gory multinomial distribution, and is used for the
consistent and asymptotically efficient estimation of
the probability of each category, the expected weight
of evidence for discriminating the true set of t prob¬
abilities from the estimated ones, based on another
sample of size N, tends to {t — l)/2 natural bans
as N tends to infinity. Our conjecture can therefore
be expressed by saying that a density function /o(x)
behaves in some respects like a multinomial with

= 1 + 2W* categories. We may think of t* as
the equivalent number of multinomial categories, al¬
though it need not be an integer. The rougher /o is,
the larger one would expect to be. Some examples
are given in Section 7A.

The above-mentioned proposition for multinomial
distributions can be proved as follows. Let the esti¬
mator of the probability of the /th category be ( 1 +
hi)Pi, so that E{hi) — 0 and E{li.^) := ( 1 — p^)/
{Npi). Therefore the expected weight of evidence
mentioned in the proposition is (in natural bans)

= - NE^pJt, + y EE.pJii' + ■■■
- pd = (? - l)/2.*

4. Comparison With Other Methods

If the statistician makes the assumption that the
true density function belongs to a family with a small
finite number of parameters, then he can estimate
these parameters, for example, by the method of
moments, by maximum likelihood, or by a Bayesian
method. When the assumption can be safely made
it is a pity to waste it. Our procedure, being non¬
par ametric, does not depend on such an assumption.
Other nonparametric methods are the ‘window meth¬
ods’ (Rosenblatt, 1956; Parzen, 1962), a Bayesian
method of Whittle (1958), the use of the Gram-
Charlier or Edgeworth series, and a method of Bo-
neva, Kendall & Stefanov (1971), which came to
our attention when the present work was almost
complete. Although the window methods are con¬
sistent they perhaps require large samples, whereas
our method makes more use of all the observations
at once. Its applicability to small samples might be
a valuable feature. It has a Bayesian interpretation,
which enables it to come to grips with bumps. It
breaks away from the window methods in treating
the density function nonlinearly; in this respect it has
something in common with the method of Boneva,
Kendall and Stefanov. That method also puts a pre¬
mium on small values of a functional of the density,
namely / dx for the one-dimensional case {p =

1 ) . One important distinction is that their purpose
is to smooth without much other change to the his¬

togram, so they do not remove its bumps. *In fact
their method uses spline interpolation, which pre¬
serves the areas of the histogram.* Their results are
locally smooth but oscillatory in the large. This is not
a criticism of their method as an analyst’s aid for the
apprehension of the data more or less undoctored.
Our method, on the other hand, aims to estimate the
true density and to iron out nonsignificant bumps:
compare our veiy smooth Fig. 5 with their bumpy
Fig. 2, both of which use the same data. We obtain
no negative estimates. Also our method seems to
be much more widely applicable than the Gram-
Charlier or Edgeworth series. See also the paragraph
following equation (16). Whittle’s method depends
on the assumption of a prior distribution for the den¬
sity at each point x. This is a much less general-
purpose assumption than ours, and requires more
experience in a given problem area to justify it.

^Further history and applications. Most of the
credit for pioneering work in nonparametric estima¬
tion of a continuous density function, i{x), based
on a sample of N observations, Xi, Xo, • • • , prop¬
erly belongs to Rosenblatt (1956) although Fix and
Hodges (1951) in an earlier paper on nonparametric
discriminant analysis considered the estimation of
p-dimensional density functions by window methods.
Given a sample distribution function Fjf{x), the win¬
dow estimate of the density function is of the form

p j N

fsix) = / — ») dE,y(a) = — — x,),

d-CO iV = 1

J du — 1 .

where

Rosenblatt suggests taking ^^^(w) = {l/N)w{u/h),
where h = Hn 0 as N oo^ and where w(y) is
of integrable square. For the special case w(y) =
V2 (|y| < 1), 0 otherwise, he shows that the optimal
choice for hs in the asymptotic mean square sense
is hf} — He further determines k both for

minimizing the mean square or local error E{f{x) —
/w(-^))^ 2rid for minimizing the mean integrated
square or global error as A — > 00 and h 0. Un¬
fortunately k is, as he admits, based on an assumed
knowledge or guess of the magnitudes of /(x) and
r(x).

Parzen (1962) again used the kernel or window
method and proposed the same class of asymptot¬
ically unbiased estimators for /(x), and he shows
that if Nh(N) -> co as A -> 00, then /a-(x) is mean-
square consistent and asymptotically normal. He also
shows that if /(x) is uniformly continuous, and if
N/F 00 as A CO, then fxix) is uniformly con¬
sistent in the sense that it tends uniformly in prob¬
ability to /(x) (i.e. for e > 0, Pr[sup |/Ar(x) — /(x)|
< ej 1 as A — > 00 ) . He also gives a general ex¬
pression for h(N) which minimizes local error but
it is rather difficult to compute and has the same ob¬
jectionable property as the expression for k for the
rectangular window of Rosenblatt. He gives a table
of seven different choices for w(y), both discrete
and continuous.

174

The Virginia Journal of Science

Many papers have since been written based largely
on Rosenblatt and Parzen. Whittle (1958) intro¬
duces Bayesian arguments with a view to finding the
optimum kernel. Bartlett (1963) considers the prob¬
lem, as proposed by Rosenblatt, of improving the
order of the local error for the one-dimen¬

sional case. Watson and Leadbetter (1963) study
the class of kernels, WAr(j), proposed by Rosenblatt
and derive conditions under which the global error
is minimized. Manija (also spelled Maniya) (1961)
extends Rosenblatt’s work and Nadaraja (also spelled
Nadaraya) (1964b) extends Parzen’s work to bi¬
variate densities. Nadaraja (1964a) in an earlier
paper gives some of Parzen’s results without an ex¬
plicit reference to Parzen. Cacoullos( 1964 and 1966)
gives a multivariate extension of Parzen’s work and
gives a stronger result regarding asymptotic normal¬
ity. Loftsgaarden and Quesenberry (1965) deviate
slightly from the Rosenblatt and Parzen multivariate
extensions in that instead of counting the number of
points lying within a hypersphere, they find the mini¬
mum radius of the hypersphere containing a speci¬
fied number of points. Their method is related to that
of Fix and Hodges (1951). Elkins (1968) extends
Rosenblatt’s rectangular window estimate to p-di-
mensions as a hypercube or block and compares this
method to the hypersphere or ellipsoidal method. He
also gives a brief literature review. A more complete
one is given by Wegman (1972). Epanechnikov
(1969) finds the kernel of minimal global error which
turns out to be independent of fix), N, and the di¬
mensionality p of the space. Nadaraja ( 1963) proves
uniform convergence for the fnix) of Parzen and in
a subsequent paper (1965) proves that if fix) is
uniformly continuous then for a large class of ker¬
nels jjjix) converges uniformly to fix). Schuster
(1969) gives necessary conditions for uniform con¬
vergence of inix). Nadaraja (1965) and Van Ryzin
(1969) improve on the weak consistency of Parzen.
Murthy (1965a) relaxes the condition of absolute
continuity of fix) and later (1966) extends this to
the multivariate case. Craswell (1965) shows that
under mild regularity conditions j^ix) and f^iy),
x ^ y, are asymptotically, independently, and nor¬
mally distributed when suitably normalized. Moore
and Henrichon (1969) show uniform consistency for
the class of estimators of Loftsgaarden and Quesen-
berry. Pelto (1969), who investigates adaptive non-
parametric classification based on counting points
within a hypersphere and simulating a multinormal
population, found the efficiency of this method to be
no different from that of standard parametric pro¬
cedures. Specht (1971) uses Tchebycheff-Hermite
polynomials in order to increase efficiency in eval¬
uating /at (.r).

In an important paper Cencov (also spelled Chen-
cov) (1962a, b) proposed, independently of Parzen,
a different method for estimating f(x) by means of
an orthogonal expansion of the form:

T

iNix) = 23 aiN^iix),

i = l

where r is an integer that is not small, and

1

ly i = i

{6i} is an orthogonal set, and fix) is of integrable
square.

In subsequent papers based on Cencov’s work
Schwartz (1967) investigates the univariate case in
which [Oi] are Hermite functions and Kronmal and
Tarter (1968) use Fourier series techniques.

Regarding comparison of the method of kernels
to the method of orthogonal functions, Watson (1969)
says that there is nothing in theory or practice to
recommend one method over the other and Schwartz
(1969) says that further work needs to be done.

Van Ryzin (1966) applies Bayesian methods to
the work of Parzen (1962), Cencov (1962a), and
the related work of Cacoullos (1964) and Aizerman
et al ( 1964).

Applications of density estimation can be found
in regression analysis (Nadaraja, 1964c, 1965), haz¬
ard analysis (Watson and Leadbetter, 1964a, b),
signal detection (Cooper, 1964), nonparametric dis¬
crimination (Fix and Hodges, 1951; Stoller, 1954;
and Gupta, 1964), reliability (Murthy, 1965b),
“bump-hunting” in high-energy experimental physics
(Orear and Castle, 1971), and empirical Bayes
(Martz and Krutchkoff, 1969). A possible applica¬
tion of bump-hunting in space of high dimensionality
would be in a search for clusters (“botryology”) in
taxonomy or sociology.

Examples of other papers of interest on nonpara¬
metric density estimation are Fix and Hodges (1952),
Leadbetter and Watson (1962), Leadbetter (1963),
Kronmal (1964), Tarter and Kronmal (1967), Blay-
don (1967), Weiss and Wolfowitz (1967), Lin
(1968), Nadaraja (1966, 1970), Bartlett and Mac¬
donald (1971), Schoenberg (1972), and Hendrick¬
son (1972).*

5. Choice of the Roughness Penalty $

One measure of the roughness or complexity of a
density function / is the number of bumps in it, which
can be defined as one half of the number of points
of inflexion (Good, 1950, p. 86). Somewhat in the
spirit of the discussion of complexity by Jeffreys
(1961, Chapter 3), who regards 2“"~^ as the prior
probability that a law has n adjustable parameters,
the roughness penalty could be taken as proportional
to the number of points of inflexion, this being equiv¬
alent to assuming that the initial probability of b
bumps is of the form e-^^. Compare also the discus¬
sion of complexity by Good (1968a). But more in¬
formation about / is taken into account if the pen¬
alty functional of / is assumed to depend on all the
values of f and /" or on the curvature of the graph
of /.

Good (1971a, b) suggested that the roughness
might be measured by the ease of discriminating the
density curve or hypersurface from itself when it is
slid bodily by a slight displacement. Although the
suggestion was along Bayesian lines it led, in the one¬
dimensional case, to the proposal that the roughness
penalty might be taken proportional to Fisher’s in-

Global Probability Density Estimation

175

formation concerning the displacement or location,
regarded as a parameter,

/ (ryDdx. (11)

On putting f = y~, this integral becomes

4 J dx. (12)

Working with y instead of / replaces the awkward
constraint / > 0 by the convenient one that y is real.
Moreover, (12) is slightly simpler than (11). The con¬
straint J / = 1 becomes J 7^ c/x = 1 so that

7 G T^(— 00, 00), that is, it is of integrable square.
Therefore, by the Riesz-Fischer theorem, 7 is the
limit in mean square of its expansion according to
any normal orthogonal system of functions such as
the Hermite functions (Riesz, 1907 a, b; Fischer,
1907). The theory of the expansion of functions
belonging to is simpler than that of functions
belonging to L. *If we were concerned with functions
defined on semi-infinite lines we could use the Laguerre
functions, and on finite intervals the Legendre func¬
tions. But in this paper we shall be explicit only for
the whole of Euclidean spaces, and in particular for
the doubly infinite line.*

Apart from the convergence in mean square, ques¬
tions of ordinary convergence are also of interest and
some attention will be paid to them.

When we tried the penalty 4a / 7'^ dx, we found
it sometimes led to density curves having portions
that looked too straight. This was not very surprising
because curvature depends also on second deriva¬
tives. Since similar methods of analysis were avail¬
able for / 7"^ dx, we went over to the more general
roughness penalty

<f>(/) = 4a J y'^ dx ^ f dx

(a > 0, /? > 0, a -f- /3 > 0) (13)

A referee has commented that if A^, A2 is a dicho¬
tomy of ( — CO, 00 ),

and fi is the density conditional on x G Ai, then

m = pMh) + P2^(f2),
which is a neat feature.

The results of the numerical work are given in §7,
where it is found that smooth density functions were
obtained with a = 0 and various values of yd, even
for samples as small as N = 1, 2, or 3. An intuitively
reasonable constraint on a and yd is given in Ap¬
pendix D.

Some lower bounds for the penalty, in terms of the
moments of /, are given in Appendix E.

A smooth density function does not remain smooth
for all transformations of the x axis, and would be ex¬
pected to be smooth only if x is chosen as a physi¬
cally natural variable. This point is discussed in §10.

6. Method of Calculation

We now consider how to maximize the score to (/)
= L — 4>(/) when $ is given by (13). We then
write ‘CO (/) — w(a, j3', /) — oj. The problem of maxi¬
mizing w, when a and yd and of course Xi, • • • , Xy are
given, is a problem in the calculus of variations for
which Euler’s equations turn out to be inapplicable.
We can, however, use the Rayleigh-Ritz method
(Courant & Hilbert, 1953, p. 175) with any normal
orthogonal system. We select the Hermite system;
that is, we use the formal expansion

05

T(x) = (14)

where the are real and

<1>„,{X) = i/„(x)2-’""“ (15)

HAx) = e-^\ (16)

Since 7 G 00, oo), (14) is at least true in

mean square. It is also true in the sense of Abel
summability; see Appendix F, Moreover, if 7 G
E(— 00 , 00 ) and is of bounded variation in every finite
interval, then the series converges everywhere to
i{7(x T- 0) -f 7(x — 0)} and therefore to 7(x) at
all points of continuity of /. This follows from a
theorem of Galbrun and Cramer; see, for example,
Kendall & Stuart (1969, p. 161). Their notation for
differs from ours. These are much less restrictive
conditions on 7 than the condition for f to have a
Gram-Charlier Type A expansion, which is that
7^G"/2 G ■T(— 00, 03).

We shall also want to differentiate (14) term by
term. Owing to the form of <f>(/), one at least of 7'
and y" must be of integrable square; we shall assume
both of them to be. Then at any rate y' and y" are
limits in mean square of their Hermite expansions.
Some sufficient condititions for convergence are given
in Appendix F.

In numerical work w^ selected the origin of co¬
ordinates at the mean x of the sample, and scaled
the x-axis to force the usual unbiased estimate of
the variance to be equal to |. A nonlinear transforma¬
tion with the same result could be used in accordance
with §10. This is the most natural choice because
when / is a normal distribution of zero mean and
variance | we have 7 = <^o-* (In any applications,
after estimating the density function, one should of
course hold the standardization in mind.)*

By means of the formalism that underlies the
equivalence of Schrodinger’s and Heisenberg’s formu¬
lations of the quantum mechanics of the harmonic
oscillator (Appendix A) it can be neatly shown that

f y'^ dx = (m A- h)yn:

^ m = 0

- E !(»' + l)(/n -b 2)r'G.T„,.2, (17)

176

The Virginia Journal of Science

J 7"" dx = + 2m + \)yj

— 'Eilm + 3){{m + 1)(/;! + 2)} ''' 7,„7„+2
+ |S((m + !)(/» + 2)(m + 3)(m + 4)}'^V„7„+4.

(18)

Further

L = 13 log S X)

(19)

Hence w(a, /) is maximized by solving the equa¬
tions

H (20)

N f <x> 1-1

2 ^ «/>4(-«i)) 13 Tm<?^m(-Vi)f

i=l i.7n = 0 J

- Aa[2ky^ - {(^ + 1)(A- +

- \{k - 1)^)'"V2] - /3[3^S, + 3ky,

- (2A- + 3){(^ + 1)(^- + 2)V'S,,^

- (2A- - 1){(A- - l)^r'"7.-2
+ -I {(A: -f- 1)(A: -f- 2){k + 3)(/c -j- A)Y'^yk+i
+ i!(A- - 3)(/c - 2){k - l)A-p"V4] - 2X7, = 0

(A = 0, 1, •••) (21)

for A, 70, 71, • • •• For example, when = 1, Xi = 0,
a = 14 and ^ = 0, and if we disregard y^ for A > 4,
so that the upper limit of summation becomes 3 in¬
stead of infinity, then we find that 70 = 1, so that the
‘best’ / is normal to this degree of approximation; see
Appendix B. This is one of the few cases that can be
solved by hand. Its reasonableness encouraged us to
write computer programs. All the programming was
done by R. A. Gaskins. *A user’s program will be
submitted for publication elsewhere.*

We used the following method for the computer
solution. Take an integer r and assume that jr =
7r + 1 = • • • =0. Then proceed iteratively, beginning
with 70 = 1. At any stage of the iteration we have
current values for 70, 71, yr-x and A. We now
obtain a new value for 7^(0 < A < r) by substituting
the current values of the other unknowns everywhere
into (21) except where 7^ occurs linearly. The equa¬
tion for 70 is (20).

An equation for A is obtainable by multiplying
(21 ) by 7fc and summing. This gives

A = N -E{4a + f/3(A + 1)1 A7/

-b 2{4a + i3(2A + 3)H(A + 1)(A -b 2))

- i/32{(A + 1)(A + 2)(A -b 3)(A +

(22)

= -b 2a -b I jS — 4a J" 7'^ dx — (3 J y"~ dx.

(23)

The r -b 1 unknowns are computed in turn, cycli¬

cally, and the run is stopped when the same value is
obtained for A to five significant figures. We tried
r = 20, 50, 100 and 200. In most cases there was no
change in the 7^, to three places of decimals, in going
from r = 20 to r = 50. Three samples were tried
with r — 50 and r = 100 and the results were
identical, with 74 == 0.000, for i > 50. We therefore
regard the calculations as robust, and we used r = 50
in most of the runs. As an example of the values of
the coefficients we take those for Fig. 4 with N = 20.
The 70; -1 all vanish and the yoi were 0.986, —0.058,
-0.124, -0.080, -0.040, 0.022, -0.011, 0.005,
—0.002 and all others were less than 0.0005 in ab¬
solute value.

This iterative procedure converged in all the ex¬
amples tried, with a variety of choices for a and (3.

*The rougher the underlying population, as meas¬
ured for example by / 7"^ dx, the larger r needs to
be. For example, r — 25 was found not to be large
enough for estimating the trimodal density mentioned
in Section 7A. If a run is done with a given value
of r, and if it is found, after running to convergence,
that any one of 7, -1, yr-2, or 7^-3 exceeds 0.05,
then we recommend that r be increased.

The largest value of / 7"^ dx, when the Hermite
expansion is truncated after the rth term, 7r-i<f)r(x),
is discussed in Appendix EA. For r = 25 it is
1629.95 (correct to two places of decimals). If the
true value of / y"^ dx is larger than this (after
standardizing the variance to V2), clearly r = 25
would certainly be too small, and could be expected
to be too small also when the integral is appreciably
smaller. In fact we shall see that it is too small for a
certain trimodal density where the integral is equal
to about 500.

In the calculations it is much better to use the
Hermite functions rather than the Hermite poly¬
nomials. The appropriate recursive relation is

<f>m(-v) = ■J— x<p^.i(x) — -J— - - (/)^^o(x). (23.1)

V m V m

Histogram as the raw data. In many high-energy
scattering experiments the raw data consists not of N
values of Xj but of a histogram in which each in¬
terval of values of x corresponds to a single piece of
physical equipment and is known as a “bin”: see,
for example, Orear and Cassell (1971). If the num¬
ber of events in the /th bin is n-, (j = 1, 2, •••,/;
Erij = N), then the log-likelihood is

13 "j log / /(■^')

J = 1 a B ,•

dx

(23. lA)

where B, is the /th bin. From this we can obtain a
score a)(/) by subtracting the same roughness penalty
4>(f) that we used before. To maximize w(f) we need
to solve equations (20) and (21), but with the first
term of (21 ) replaced by

2 23 f 'E:yrrd>m{x)4>k{x) dx

J WB;

7,«</>m(x))‘ dx

(23.2)

Global Probability Density Estimation

177

Even A is given by the same formulae as before. For
the calculation of the integrals, over the narrow
ranges Bj, we expect it will be sufficient to use the
midpoint method with two terms. For the corre¬
sponding multidimensional problem the centroid
method should work well (Good and Gaskins,
1971a).

The iterative determination of the roughness
penalty.

As explained at the end of Appendix D, the fixing
of (3 once and for all is theoretically suspect, and
in Section 7A we give some new numerical evidence
showing that (3 definitely cannot be taken as a con¬
stant. Accordingly we now describe an iterative
method for the selection of a value of /3 after a
sample has been obtained. A more thoroughgoing
Bayesian method would require an assumption for
a distribution of /3, a “Type III distribution” in the
terminology of Good (1965, 1967), but we believe
that the following compromise with more orthodox
statistics would be adequate and easier to apply.

After a sample (xi, X2, • • • , .x^^) is obtained, and
its mean and variance are standardized to 0 and Vi,
let us smooth it assuming some chosen value of
This leads to a smoothed density function /i which
we next regard as a synthetic population density.
For this population density we find a near-optimal
value of (3 by methods exemplified in Section 7A
where numerical examples are described. This value
of f3 can then be used for the original sample again,
thus obtaining a second smoothing /2. The process
can then be repeated until it converges, the evidence
for the convergence of this iterative determination
of f3, and of the smoothing, being given also in Sec¬
tion 7A.

This procedure will be exemplified elsewhere in
relation to some high-energy data supplied by Mal¬
colm H. MacGregor of the Lawrence Radiation
Laboratory.

Bump-hunting.

The evidence for or against a bump in a density
curve can be evaluated by means of the Bayesian
interpretation of the roughness penalty in accord¬
ance with formula (4). This can be done once a
value for j3 is accepted.

When applying this method it is necessary to iron
out the bump in some way, in order to define a
density curve for comparison with the one containing
the bump. One way to iron out a bump is to re¬
move some observations in the neighborhood of the
bump until it just disappears, that is, the local points
of influence disappear. Conversely, if a bump is pre¬
dicted by some theory, then its presence could be
forced by, for example, adding new observations
and the evaluation done as before. An example of
this procedure will also be reported in connection
with MacGregor’s data.*

7. Numerical Examples and Graphs

A large number of graphs have been prepared,
but to save space many fewer have been given than
would really have been desirable. For the reasons
given in Appendix D the pairs (a, (3) = (14, 0),
%) and (0, V6) were emphasized in the ex¬
periments.

In all the graphs the observations have been sub¬
jected to a linear transformation to achieve zero
mean and unbiased sample variance V2. In Fig. 1,
N = 3 and f3 = 0 with « = 14, 14, 1 and 2. All
four graphs are too bumpy. The bumps could per-

178

The Virginia Journal of Science

haps be ironed out by increasing «, but then the
variance becomes too large in our opinion, although
this objection is not yet decisive.

Figs. 2a, 3a and others not given here show again
that « = 14 and = 0 is unsatisfactory, although
14 was the value of « preferred a priori after stan¬
dardization when /3 = 0. Apparently smoothness
is not captured by the first derivative alone.

Figs. 2-5 show that a = 0 and (3 = gives
satisfactory smoothings in all examples tried. It is

very much better than (14, 0) and appears to be
slightly better than {Vs, % ) . There is little to choose
between the pairs (0, 14), (0, %) and (0, %) and,
on slight evidence, (0, %), except that the former
was preferred a priori. A scarcely perceptible bump
in one of the graphs not given here, for N = 6, was
the only graphical evidence against (0, %). If (0,
14 ) is optimal it is to be expected that values of
(a, that are close to it would be almost as good.
The run for a = 0, (3 = % and N = 3 took 42
cycles of the iteration to converge whereas a = 0,
(3 = Vs and N = 3 took only 11 cycles. This at
least is a pragmatic argument against « = 0 and
P — %•

In case p should be smaller than %, we tried
a = 0 and p = Yio, and we obtained a bimodal
curve for Xi = — 1 and X2 = 1; a nose cone for
— 1, V2 = 0 and jcs = 1; and a distinct bump
on the right for the six observations ( — %, — 1,
— Vs, —14, 14, 1). We consider these fits counter¬
intuitive.

A few runs were done in error with standardiza¬
tion of the sample variance to 1. It is of interest to
note that they gave the same results when correctly

Fig. 3 — N = 10. Observations at centres of equal probability
intervals for standard normal distribution, (a) a = J, /3 = 0;
(b) a = 0, /3 = I ; (c) a = 0, /3 = f .

Global Probability Density Estimation

179

and (iii) trimodal,

Fig. 4 — N = 20, 50 and 100. Observations at the centres of
equal probability intervals for the density corresponding to
equal mixture of two normal distributions, means ±2/V5 and
variance J. a = 0, /? = 5. The least bimodal curve is = 20.

repeated, with the a’s divided by 2 and the by 4.
This is another indication of robustness.

In the example of Fig. 3 with = 10, the graphs
with (a, /?) = (0, Vs), (0, Vs), (0, Yiq) and (Vs,
were barely distinguishable. In the situation of
Fig. 4 for a mixture of two normal distributions the
true distribution is more bimodal than our fits to it.
Naturally the fit is smoother than the true density
when the latter is not very smooth.

The data used in Fig. 5 are the same as used by
Boneva et al. (1971) in their Example 1.

We have assumed that when the frequency in one
interval was n the observations are at the centres of
the 77 equal subintervals into which the interval could
be divided. Bliss (1967, p. 97) fitted a normal dis¬
tribution to the histogram and obtained a value
of 10-33 with 10 degrees of freedom. Our fit is
almost identical with Bliss’s but is very slightly
skewed to the left.

*7A. Simulation Experiments and Deductions.*

* Although we obtained smooth results in all the
numerical examples when we took ji = Vs, none
of these runs made use of random samples from
known populations. We have since done some ex¬
tensive experiments of this kind and they shed much
light on the methods. In particular they show that
13 should not be taken as an absolute constant but
rather it depends on the roughness of the under¬
lying population. This roughness will now be tech¬
nically defined as J yn"" dx where fo denotes the
underlying density, and -yo its square root. We again
caution the reader not to confuse yo meaning yo(T)
with yo meaning the coefficient of (j>o(x) in a Hermite
expansion. The corresponding integral for a putative
density function will be called a putative roughness.
When multiplied by j3 it becomes the roughness
penalty.

The population densities assumed each had vari¬
ance 1 and were (i) normal (0, 1); (ii) bimodal
(Mansfield),

^!2lI(-0.94, Y) -h 91(0.94, Y)\ ,

Y = \ - 0.94" = 0.1164;

il9I(-1.2, 0.04) -b 91(0, 0.04) + 91(1.2, 0.04)j .

These three densities have very different rough¬
nesses, in fact when the variances are standardized
to V^ the roughnesses are respectively close to 0.75,
55.4, and 469. The first of these is exact, and the
two approximations can be obtained analytically
because the normal “components” of the bimodal
and trimodal examples are widely enough separated
so that the “cleavages” come down almost to the
X axis.

For each population we took a (second-order)
sample of y first-order samples, each of size N, where
y was at least 100 in each case. N was 50 for the
normal population, 100 and 200 (in two experi¬
ments) for the bimodal population and was 150
for the trimodal population. The smoothings were
done with a variety of values of /3 and with r — 25
terms of the Hermite expansions. But we found that
25 terms were not enough for the trimodal data,
in that, for example, the coefficient y24 was large
(greater than 0.1) for all v first-order samples. It
was clear that the runs for the trimodal density
were trying to break through to the higher dimen¬
sions of Hilbert space, so we increased r to 50 and
found that the later coefficients were very small
(such as 0.003). Accordingly for the trimodal popu¬
lation we shall report only the experiments where
r was 50.

Three criteria were used for measuring how good
a fit a putative density / was to the population
density /o. These were:

(i) The closeness of the putative roughness
.r dx to the true roughness J fo"^ dx.

(ii) The expected weight of evidence W per ob¬
servation for distinguishing the putative population
from the true one, where W is the positive quantity

The expression “weight of evidence” is here used
in the sense of Peirce (1878) or Good (1950), and
the integral W has a long history dating back at least

Fig. 5 — N = 578. a = 0, j3 = F Lengths of ears of corn,
derived from the histogram of Bliss (1967), who was quoting
Emerson and East.

180

The Virginia Journal of Science

to Willard Gibbs, but we shall not list the numerous
references here. For each sample of the first order,
W can be calculated by numerical integration, the
centroid method being convenient in the multidi¬
mensional case (Good and Gaskins, 1971a), and
the mean value and standard deviations of W can
be estimated from the sample of the second order.
We also printed, at negligible cost,

which, in accordance with a theorem of Turing’s is
approximately equal to W (Good, 1950, p. 73); and
the mean squared errors

J [fix) — fo(x)ffo(x) dx and J [f(x) — fo(x)ff(x) dx;

(23.4)

but for the sake of simplicity we used only JV. Note
that fV is invariant under a non-singular transforma¬
tion of X, as is, more generally,

f F(f(x), Uix)) dx (23.5)

where F is any homogeneous function of degree 1
such as [fix) — foix)]^/fix). The mean squared
errors are variant.

(iii) The closeness of the maximum height of
the putative density curve to the true one.

All three of these criteria are exogenous in the
sense that they require knowledge of the true den¬
sity. We shall see, however, that they lead to a
reasonable justification of the iterative determina¬
tion of /? for practical applications (see Section 6)
where the true population is of course unknown.

Results of the new computer simulation runs. We
use the following abbreviations in the tabulations:
Max. Ht. = Maximum height of a density curve;
P. R. = putative roughness = R. P./d where R. P. =
roughness penalty;_mb = millibans. The estimate of
W is denoted by W. The estimated means are shown
with the usual estimates of the standard errors of

these estimates in parentheses. The variability of the
standard errors is partly due to variations in the
number v of first-order samples used. For the Max.
Hts., V was only 5, but the standard errors were
small. The results for the normal, biomdal and tri-
modal populations are shown in Tables 0.1, 0.2,
and 0.3. The runs were done with various values for
N, and v, the sizes of the first-order and second-order
samples. It is more informative to increase A by a
given factor than to increase v by the same factor,
but the running time is proportional to v and more
than proportional to N, perhaps proportional to
N log N.

When N is too small to lead to a very accurate
estimate of the population density, the estimated
density curve is likely to have lower roughness than
the population. Thus, for a given value of fS, the
expected roughness penalties increase with N. They
should tend to a limit as N oo, namely R times
the roughness of the population. If N is small and
if we infer the approximate value of /? by equating
the putative to the population roughness we shall
tend to underestimate /?. The rougher the popula¬
tion, the larger N will need to be, to estimate /3 to
a specified accuracy. But diminishing returns pre¬
sumably set in fairly quickly, for this purpose, be¬
cause a difference of a factor of 2 in /3 makes little
difference to the estimated density curve, in our
experience.

For all three populations, the rows of the tables
have very smooth graphs which, however, have
not been included in this paper. The extreme smooth¬
ness of these rows arises because the various values
of f3 were applied to the same samples from the
populations. The samples for different A’s are dif¬
ferent. Of the three “exogenous” criteria the one
that fixes /? most precisely is the equating of the
putative roughness to the population roughness; for
it is easier to estimate the point where a monotonic
curve cuts a horizontal one than where a curve takes
a stationary value, when both curves have com¬
parable sampling errors. Moreover the standard
errors of the putative roughnesses are small.

From the various graphs we obtained point esti-

TABLE 0.1

Results of simulation runs for the normal population with roughness = 0.75 and Max. Ht. = 0.398. The standard errors of Max. Ht.

are all about 0.03 or 0.04 in (a) and fb)

(a) A = 50, = 100.

$

1/24

1/12

1/6

1/3

2f3

4/3

8/3

16/3

32/3

R.P.

PJl.

W(mb)

Max Ht.

0.49(.03)

11.7(.7)

45(2.1)

0.63(.01)

7.5(.12)

37(2.3)

—

0.84(.03)

2.52(.09)

26.4(1.4)

1.02(.3)

1.52(.04)

18.9(1.4)

0.426

1.34(.03)

1.01(.02)

14.6(1.1)

0.413

I. 93(.02)
0.72(.01)

II. 9(.9)
0.396

2.84(.02)

0.53(.003)

12.1(.8)

0.373

4.07(.01)

0.381(.001)

17.3(1.0)

0.346

(b) N =

25, = 16.

13

1/24

1/12

1/6

1/3

2/3

4/3

8/3

16/3

32/3

R.P.

P.R.

W(mb)

Max Ht.

0.54(.07)

12.9(1.8)

99(23)

0.525

0.60(.07)

7.2(.9)

87(23)

0.506

0.65(.07)

3.9(.4)

74(21)

0.487

0.73(.07)

2.2(.2)

60(19)

0.469

0.88(.07)

1.3(.l)

48(16)

0.449

1.15(.06)

0.9(.04)

38(12)

0.425

1.58(.04)

0.59(.017)

32(9)

0.397

2.16(.03)

0.40(.005)

31(7)

0.366

2.83(.02)

0.27(.001)

39(6)

0.332

Global Probability Density Estimation

181

TABLE 0.2

Results of runs for the bimodal population with roughness = 55.4, and Max. Ht. = 0.575. The standard errors of the Max. Hts. in (a)

are all about 0.006. The Max. Hts. were not observed in fb)

(a) N = 200, I- = 100.

1/24

1/12

1/6

1/3

2/3

R.P.

2.77(.04)

5.05(.07)

8.51(.12)

12.7(.17)

16.3(.19)

P.R

66.6(1.0)

60.6(.8)

51.0(.7)

38.2(.5)

24.5(.3)

IFtmb)

6.6(.36)

6.4(.33)

7.5(.32)

12.4(.4)

24.9(.4)

Max Ht

0.615

0.602

0.580

0.544

0.493

(b) N =

8

11

8

6

1/24

1/12

1/6

1/3

2/3

R.P.

2.75(.06)

4.55(.09)

6.69(.12)

8.47(.14)

9.20(.13)

P.R.

66.0(1.4)

54.6(1.1)

40.1(.7)

25.4(.4)

13.8(.2)

TF(mb)

12.5(.6)

12.4(.5)

16.2(.5)

28.1(.6)

49(.6)

mates of fi for the three populations, using each
of the three exogenous criteria, and for two pairs
(N, v) for each population. These point estimates
are shown in Table 0.4. For each population, the
estimates have an adequate degree of coherence and
we believe that the best of the estimates are given by
the putative roughness criterion and the larger sam¬
ple sizes. This belief leads us to the estimates 2.45,
0.125, and 0.0147 for fd corresponding to the nor¬
mal, bimodal, and trimodal populations. If these
are plotted against the population roughnesses on
double-logarithmic paper we obtain approximately a
straight line fit. TTiis leads to the approximate
empirical formula, a regression of p given the popu¬
lation roughness,

/3 2.15 X (Population roughness)”'’'^®. (23.6)

Perhaps the left side should be written jS. We think
this will give a useful first approximation to d when
the population roughness can be reasonably guessed.
It can certainly be reasonably guessed for the bump¬
hunting data provided by Malcolm MacGregor.

On the other hand, when (5 is varied for a given
sample (xi, X2, ••• , x.v), the putative roughness

TABLE 0.3

Results of runs for the trimodal population with roughness = 469
and Max. Ht. — 0.665. In (a), the S. E.'s of Max Ht. are all
about 0.025 and in (b) are 0.04.

(a) N

= 150, p

= 100.

/3

1/192

1/96

1/48

1/24

R.P.

P.R.
IT(mb)
Max Ht.

2.94(.058) 5

564(11)
12.9(.7)
0.733

i.31(.ll)

509(10)

12.3(.6)

0.713

8.75(.16)

420(8)

13.6(.6)

0.678

12.5(.21)

300(5)

21(.7)

0.597

(b) N 50, V

= 50.

6

1/384

1/192

1/96

1/48

R.P.

P.R.
TT(mb)
Max Ht.

1.61(.06)

619(25)

34.7(3)

0.864

2.72(.l)

522(19)

31.9(3)

0.836

3.99(.13)

383(12)

32.9(3)

0.786

4.99(.l4)

240(7)

43.1(2.3)

0.711

can be regressed on f5, and typical results can be
read off from Tables 0.1, 0.2, and 0.3. We find that
a graph consisting of points with (abscissa = esti¬
mate of log /?, ordinate = logarithm of population
roughness) descends faster than the graphs of points
with (abscissa = log fS, ordinate = putative rough¬
ness). Whenever this is the case the iterative de¬
termination of the roughness penalty, described near
the end of Section 6, should converge up or down
a “staircase,” as the reader may verify by drawing
a diagram.

We remind the reader of the interpretation of W
by means of an example. Take the bimodal popula¬
tion with N = 200, where the minimum of the ex¬
pectation of W is about 6.4 millibans. A typical sample
used with N = 200 would give an estimated density
curve that could be discriminated from the true den¬
sity at a rate of 6.4 millibans per later observation.
For example, 100 later observations would give an
expected weight of evidence of 6.4 decibans, a Bayes
factor of about 4. The standard deviation of this
score of 6.4 db is large, being about 3\/64 = 6.7 db
if the distribution of the score is normal.

The conjectures made near formula (lOB) are
roughly borne out by Tables 0.1, 0.2, and 0.3. The
values of W*, as estimated from these tables, are
1.4 or 1.8 for the normal population, 2.9 or 2.9
for the bimodal, and 4.2 or 3.7 for the trimodal
population. The first of each of these pairs are the
more reliable, being based on larger values of N.
It is not surprising that they are closely proportional
to the numbers of modes when one considers the
shapes of the density curves. The “equivalent num¬
bers of multinomial categories” t* (see Section 3)
are about 4, 7 and 9.*

8. Comparison of Fits

It is useful and essential for bump theory to be
able to compare different assumptions for / more
objectively than by visual inspection alone, when
the observations Xx, • ■ ■ , Xy are given.

When two assumptions both use the same penalty
functional the comparison can be made under the
Bayesian interpretation. Of course, in this case one

182

The Virginia Journal of Science

TABLE 0.4

Point estimates of /3 for the three populations

Population

N

V

From P.R.

From Max. Ht.

From W

Roughness

Normal

50

100

2.45

2.45

3.36

0.75

25

16

1.73

2.91

4.23

Bimodal

200

100

0.125

0.19

0.094

55.4

100

100

0.074

—

0.059

Trimodal

150

100

0.0147

0.025

0.010

469

50

50

0.0069

0.025

0.006

of the /’s will not be the optimal one. We give the
simple theory that is required for the comparison.

Let ft = and /2 = 72“ be regarded as defining
two hypotheses Hi and H2, and let E denote the
observations. Let the values of L under Hi and H^
be Li and Lo, respectively. Let 0{Hi\H2 \ E, ai, /?i)
denote the final odds of Hi as compared with H2
given E and assuming « = «i, and — fSi. *(yi and
72 should not be confused with the coefficients in
(14).)* Then, by (4),

log \ E,ai, /3i) = w(a,, /3,; fi)

— (^log Z.2 — 4ai j 72'^ dx — f 12'^ d^- (24)

Of course, this is positive because fi maximizes <o(ai,
/3i; /). To exemplify this formula we were oppor¬
tunistic and made use of some of the machine output
(Table 1). For brevity we consider only the case

TABLE 1

Some machine output

log L

N

a

/3

i

in cb

Penalty

Score

J 7'^ dx

J 7"^ dx

6

1

0

18

-264

61

-325

0-352

1-213

6

0

20

-241

46

-287

0-538

3-570

6

i

0

12

-223

35

-259

0-822

10-449

6

i

1

6

10

-240

23

-264

0-607

1-429

6

0

i

11

-236

13

-250

0-701

1 -830

6

0

14

-244

16

-260

0-598

1-106

6

0

!

21

-252

20

-272

0-505

0-712

The column I gives the number of cycles in the iteration before
convergence. The log likelihood, penalty, and score, are in
centibans (cb), so that the score is 43-43co(a, /3; /).

N = 6, and the comparisons are shown in Table 2.

The above argument is not rigorous because the
density functions exp(— $) are improper, in the
novel sense that their normalizing constants are
infinite, not zero. Intuitively this is because almost
all density functions are very rough and have

exp (^~ f y'^ (■“/ y"^ ~

The integrals of exp(— / y"^ dx) over the
spheres yo^ + yi^ + • • • + ym^i^ = 1, for m = 4,
8, 12 and 16, were computed by making use of
formulae in a 1963 report, now published in Good
(1971c). These integrals were found to be 0.625,

0.0150, 5.64 X 10“^ and 6.27 X 10“®, respectively,
fairly obviously tending to zero as m -> co. *(We
have made a correction here to the Biometrika ver¬
sion.)*

The argument can be made more rigorous by
imagining the Hermite expansions to be carried out
to only a trillion terms which makes the normalizing
constants finite. An estimation method with a trillion
parameters is nonparametric! Another way to force
propriety would be to divide the roughness penalties
by J' y2 c/x -1- 0-01 .f y"2 dx, although this is ad hoc.
The normalizing constants of the prior distribution
could then be deduced in principle from the theory
of the average of the exponential of a homogeneous
function on a hypersphere, given in the same report.
This is why we wrote 1 as J y^ dx.

The need for natural finite normalizing constants
is more serious when we wish to compare two
different pairs (ai, fit) and (02, J82). It would be
convenient to have a (‘Type IIF) initial distribution
of (a, /3), combined with propriety of the (Type
II) priors in function space. Failing this, we can
only fall back on a strong intuitive feeling that if
fi beats f2 easily, assuming (ai, fii), but /2 does not
beat fi easily, assuming (a2, fi2), then we have
obtained useful evidence in favour of fi. For ex¬
ample, in Table 2, (0, V3) on its own ground beats
(14, 0) by 254 cb, a factor of over 300, but loses
only 15 cb on its opponent’s ground. The pairs
(1/8, %), (0, 1/5), (0, 1/3), (0, 2/3) and (0, %)
never had as much as 3 cb scored against them in

TABLE 2.

Final log-odds in centibans for discriminating between pairs of
assumed density functions, N = 6

Hypotheses

(1,0)

(TO)

(h 0)

(h i) (0, i)

(0, i)

(0, I)

(1,0)

0

10

41

19

33

23

15

(h 0)

8

0

7

6

10

9

9

(h 0)

20

5

0

7

7

11

15

(i, i)

17

15

53

0

0

1

4

(0, i)

23

17

49

0

0

2

7

(0,

22

32

114

1

3

0

2

(0, !)

27

71

254

9

17

4

0

The hypotheses are defined by the ‘best’ density functions
corresponding to the values of (a, /3) shown. The entry in a row
labelled (ai, |8,) and column labelled (aj, di) is the log-odds in
centibans in favour of the best density function corresponding
to (ai, /3i) as against the best density function corresponding to
(«2, I3i), when the coefficients in the penalty are assumed to be
(ai, /3i)-

Global Probability Density Estimation

183

calculations more extensive than those shown in
Table 2, but (14, 0) was over 8 bans down in its
‘away encounter’ with (0, %) for N = 3, cor¬
responding to log odds of 100,000,000 to 1 against.
This method for comparing priors is controversial
but we believe in it. Philosophically it is similar to
the use of Type II maximum likelihood as described
by Good (1967). *The method is, however, only
approximate and there is some numerical evidence
that larger values of /3 have an unfair advantage
and should be substantially handicapped. Until this
point has been further investigated, this method of
comparing pairs of values of j8 should be used with
caution.*

For any positive integer r, consider the following
functional of y(x, y) = yi(x)y2(y) :

dx dy

= f !7i'’'M^ dx + J 172'''’}^

Thus the penalty (13) can be additively generalized
in a straightforward way to

9. Extension to Multivariate Densities

Let X be a random vector with components
(xi, • • • , Xp). This notation should not lead to con¬
fusion because vector observations would be denoted
by Xi, • • • , Xjv. The use of superscripts to denote
components, as in some treatises on tensors, has
other disadvantages, and the usual justification for
it is untenable as pointed out by Schrodinger (1950,
p. 7).

If / is a multivariate density of x we again write
y = V/- We note for future reference that Fisher’s
information matrix, regarding the location of the
density hypersurface, when it is slid bodily, can be
written in the form, generalizing (12),

F = {4/£^^^fxj (25)

4>,(/) = 4a f (Vyf dx + P f i; (1^) dx, (27)

where dx means dxi • • • dx^ as usual, and the bold
integral sign denotes a multiple integral. The first
term is a tr (F). By means of some partial integrations
we can write Tp as

<l>p(/) = —4a J yVS dx + ^ j y dx (28)

= -4aE(y-W\) + 0E(y-^ ' (29)

The first term can also be written as

+ 4aE[y-\Vyf}. (30)

We should like to find appropriate and natural
generalizations of the one-dimensional functionals
S y'^ dx and J" y"^ dx. A desideratum is ‘additivity’
in a sense now to be explained for the case p = 2.

Let the roughness penalty for a p-dimensional
density f = y^ hQ denoted by ^p(f) when p > 1.
Assume that $2 is the integral over the plane —00
<x< CO,— CO <y< CO, of some expression in¬
volving y and its partial derivatives. Now when
y(x, y) is of the form 71 (x) 72(7), that is, if x and
y are assumed to be statistically independent, ^>2
should be the sum of the separate penalties for
7i(x) and 72(y). Expressed in terms of Alonzo
Church’s A-calculus, we should have

<f>2{(Xx, Xy)7i(x)72(y)} = $(7i) + ^’(72), (26)

a condition we describe as additivity. The X in §6
is different! The generalization of this definition to
p dimensions does not need to be spelt out. The
condition of additivity is required for logical con¬
sistency; otherwise the ‘best’ density function, as¬
suming independence, would not be the same as
that obtained by treating x and y separately. The
need for this desideratum depends of course on the
additivity of the log likelihoods from which the
penalties are to be subtracted.

From now on we shall assume the existence and
continuity of all derivatives that occur, and also
that the densities and all their mentioned derivatives
tend to zero at infinity.

An example of a penalty that is not additive is

When the above penalty is used, we would select
the origin at the mean x of the observations and we
might apply a linear transformation so as to force
the sample covariance matrix to be (IS.O- Then
Hermite functions in several variables could be used
but with HJx) equal simply to
Alternatively, we could use the generalized Hermite
functions defined in Appendix A, with the matrix
C equal to the usual unbiased estimate of the covari¬
ance matrix; remember the notational inconsistency
between the univariate and multivariate Hermite func¬
tions. The numerical devices of §6 can all be extended
to the multivariate problem; see especially Appendix
A. The calculations are clearly simplest when C is
a scalar multiple of the identity, and this case might
often be adequate in view of the robustness noted
at the end of §7.

An objection that can be brought against the
penalty (28), is that the various co-ordinates Xi, • • • , Xp
should not necessarily be given equal weight, whether
they are left untransformed or are transformed as
above. For example, if the scales of some of the co¬
ordinates are changed, the use of the penalty (28)
would produce a different ‘best’ density function after
transforming back to the original co-ordinates. Some
condition of invariance is therefore desirable and is
discussed in §10.

If a density /.(x) has some continuous components
and some discrete ones i = (h, 4, • • •), such as will
occur in medical diagnostic problems (see Dickey,

184

The Virginia Journal of Science

1968, who used a kind of window method), we could
try a roughness penalty consisting of a linear combina¬
tion of the entropy (see §2) and of the $’s correspond¬
ing to each value of i. This raises computational
problems not yet examined.

*It is interesting to ask how bumps should be
counted in more than one dimension. In one di¬
mension, as mentioned in Section 5, the number
of bumps could be defined as one half of the number
of points of inflexion. Perhaps a good definition in
two dimensions would be the number of “closed”
curves (where “closed” includes curves that run
to infinity), along which the Gaussian curvature
vanishes; and in p dimensions perhaps it should
be the number of (p — 1 ) -dimensional simply-con¬
nected “closed” hypersurfaces at each point of which
the Gaussian curvature vanishes.*

10. Invariance

replace y by Now the expressions (VT)^ and
have well-known tensorial expressions (for ex¬
ample, Weatherburn (1938, pp. 43, 67)), namely
and where the commas imply covariant

differentiation with respect to all the suffixes following
them, and where of course we are using the summation
convention. The first covariant derivative of an in¬
variant is equal to its ordinary derivative, but the
second one involves a Christoffel three-index symbol.
Hence the generalization of the first term of 4>p(/)
is 4a times

= /7W’r,.r,, r/x = / t.iLis'Wgdx (32)

= -^(rV’r.M) = -/

Even in one dimension (p = 1), a transformation
of co-ordinates raises problems. A density function
cannot remain smooth under all transformations,
even when they are nonsingular and differentiable
as many times as one requires, a condition that we
assume throughout. Belief in smoothness is rational
only if the random variable x is reasonably natural
from a physical or from some other point of view.
The question arises whether a ‘best’ invariant density
can be defined under all well-behaved transformations
of x or X. Whittle (1958) pointed out that his method
had this invariance property. An invariant method
can be achieved in terms of the tensor calculus if a
natural fundamental tensor can be introduced into
X space. This can be done, except when ignorance is
bliss, see below, in terms of the ‘biutility’ u(x, y),
defined as the utility of assuming that a random var¬
iable has the value y when the true value is x (Good,
19686, 1969, 1971o, b). It seems to be the most natural
method that does not go outside the probability and
utility structure of a given density-estimation problem.

As explained in Appendix C, when ignorance
is not bliss, we can define a fundamental tensor and
its matrix by

Sii

y)

dyi dyj Jy=x’

G=U,,-}. (31)

The matrix G is positive semidefinite if v{x, x) >
v{x, y), and we shall assume it to be positive definite,
a fairly small assumption. In particular v(x, x) —
v(x, y) must not be only a fourth-order infinitesimal
when y is close to x. If f is any probability density
function, gi,- is a covariant tensor of the second order
and is invariant, where g = det (G). In the

standard terminology of the tensor calculus, / is a
scalar density (for example, Eddington (1924, p. Ill);
or Weatherburn (1938, p. 33)). Hence defined as
yg~'^''*, is a relative scalar of weight
We can now redefine the penalty (28) in an in¬
variant form. The logic is slightly easier in terms of
expectations than in terms of integrals because the
expected value of an invariant^, unlike its integral,
is again an invariant. In these expectations we first

= -/ tLng'Wgdx. (33)

The equality of the expressions on the right of (32)
and (33) can be verified by what may be called
covariant partial integration, the justification of
which is Ricci’s lemma that gy, gd and g behave like
constants in covariant differentiation. For the same
reason we have

Li = g~''y:i. La == g~''y:ii, (34)

where the covariant differentiation of relative scalars
and tensors is defined, for example, by Korn &
Korn (1961, p. 490). A colon is used here to denote
this form of covariant differentiation to distinguish
it from the more familiar covariant differentiation
of absolute scalars and tensors. The reader might
prefer the formulae expressed in terms of ^ instead
of y. *(A relative tensor of weight K is such that
when multiplied by it becomes an absolute

tensor. The covariant derivative of such a relative
tensor is g^^^ times the covariant derivative of the
corresponding absolute tensor.)*

The invariant form of the first term of 4>p(/) can
be written as

4a J y-.iy.ig'’ dx = —4a J yy-.ag'’ dx. (35)

Similarly, the invariant generalization of Fisher’s
information matrix with respect to location of the
slid density hypersurface is

F = |4£(rt.ir.,)l

= |4 J LiLig^''^ = |4 J y-jy-.i ^/x|- (36)

The previous formula (25) is recovered when"^G
is the identity matrix; in fact this is always the con¬
dition under which the tensorial expressions specialize
to those in §8. Compare the invariant form of entropy
in Good (19686, 1969). The first term of ^Xf) can be
expressed as a tr (FG), when G is a constant matrix.

To generalize the second term of <f>p we note that

Global Probability Density Estimation

185

the fourth covariant derivative t.nki is symmetric
in its first two suffixes so that a natural invariant is

e* = (37)

Hence an invariant form for the second term is
/3 times

Eir'e*) = [ y^r'O* dx

= / f 0 V dx (38)

= f yddx, (39)

where

^ + h:iiklg'’g'‘^- (40)

Thus, an invariant form for #p(/) is

$p(/) = 4q: J y-jy-jg"’ dx -h /3 J yd dx (41)

= —4a j yy-.ijg” dx + jS J yd dx. (42)

Note that the penalty vanishes if / is proportional
to so this is the best density when there are no
observations, although it might be an improper den¬
sity, It is not a prior in the usual sense because the
distribution of x that we are estimating is assumed
to have a physical rather than only a logical or sub¬
jective existence; contrast Jeffreys (1946).

Special cases. If u(x, y) is of the form u{(x — y)^}
with u'(0) = — I, then G is the identity and the ten-
sorial expressions of §9 reduce to those of §8. Again,
if d(x, y) is any well-behaved function of a quadratic
form in X — y, such as the often reasonable form

1 - exp \ —(x — y)'A(x - y)},

with A positive definite, then the fundamental tensor
gij becomes constant. Since it is positive definite,
a transformation of co-ordinates can be made so as
to reduce the first fundamental form to -}- • • • +
dxp^, that is, the x space is Euclidean, g = 1 and
f = 7, and (42) reduces to (28). More generally,
the X space can be made Euclidean, or in tensor
terminology it already is Euclidean, if the Riemann-
Christoffel curvature tensor vanishes (Eddington,
1924, p. 80; Weatherburn, 1938, p. 117).

In one dimension (/? = 1), the Riemann-Christoffel
tensor always vanishes; a one-dimensional manifold
has no intrinsic curvature. Note that this is not to
say that the density function has no curvature when
regarded as embedded in the two-dimensional space
in which x is only one of the co-ordinates. A trans¬
formation that converts the metric ds^ = gn dx^
into d^^ is clearly

11. Contrast with Quantum Mechanics

Since we have used some mathematical techniques
that occur in quantum mechanics, it might be thought
that our methods could be applied to the smoothing
of probability densities of measurements in quantum-
mechanical experiments with unknown wave func¬
tions but whose states have been prepared in the
sense defined, for example, by Ballentine (1970,
p. 366). But these densities are usually flamboyant
because they arise as the squares of absolute values
of complex wave functions, whereas our functions
y(x) are real. Our methods could, without modifica¬
tion, be applied to such problems but the samples
would have to be large enough to pick up the os¬
cillations. Alternatively y could be replaced by the
unknown complex wave function v/here \\p\^ = f.
We could then use the expansions

^(x) = 2r(ar + ibr)4>T{x},

1^(X)|^ = Xr.siarGs +

and extend the methods of §§6 and 9 in the obvious
way for estimating the coefficients. Here the 4»r could
be either the Hermite functions or the eigenfunctions
of the specific Schrodinger equation. It might be
worth noting that V Vr can be rewritten by Schrodin¬
ger ’s equation.

Appendix A. Proof of equations (17) and (18),
and multivariate extensions

We have

J y'^ dx = TrTs j 4>r'<ks' dx

= ^ 'YrT. J !(2r)'^^«^,_i — x^r\

• |(2s)'^^«^,_i — x^,} dx (44)

and (17) quickly follows from the orthogonality
of combined with (65) of Appendix E, and
(Margenau & Murphy, 1943, p. 3M)

J X^4>mix)4>nix) dx

= (I -h ot) 5^" + ^\mim —

-P k\n{n - (45)

A proof of equation (18) along these lines occupies
several pages, but, as v/e noted, there is a short-cut
that uses some of the formalism of quantum me¬
chanics which we now describe. There is a similar
short-cut for the above proof, but it does not save
much work in this case and the above calculation will
serve as a check.

The right side of (18) is a quadratic form in an
infinite number of variables with a matrix Q whose
elements are

d%{z, y)

9/

1/2

dz.

(43)

/

4>r'%r dx

(46)

186

The Virginia Journal of Science

In accordance with the equivalence of Schrodinger’s
and Heisenberg’s formulations of the quantum me¬
chanics of the harmonic oscillator (Schrodinger, 1926),
Q must be the fourth power of the Hermitian mo¬
mentum matrix

23 z4>t{x)4>t{y) = “t727^ - 2^

TT (1 — z )

4xy^ - <x‘ + /)(! + z’)!

2(1 - z') J

see, for example, Erdelyi et al. (1953, p. 194);
Wiener (1933, p. 62); Watson (1933), and finally
letting z 1 — 0.

Rigour can also be attained by using the Chris-
toffel-Darboux formula (see Appendix F), but the
use of Mehler’s formula has the advantage that it
can be generalized to the multivariate case; see for ex¬
ample, Erdelyi (1938), who gives further references
to Koschmieder.

In this appendix we shall use the following multi¬
variate notations:

and can be quickly calculated.

For completeness and for convenience in gen¬
eralization, we here give a proof of the required
identities. We wish to prove that, for each m > 0,
the matrix

{/ ^

where r and 5 index the rows and columns of the
matrices, i.e. the matrix on the left hand side is
expressed as the mth power of a matrix. For m = 0
this merely expresses the normal orthogonality of
the Hermite functions. To prove (48) it is sufficient
to prove that for each pair of positive integers m
and n we have

/ 4:{£) *. ‘1^= tj «,(*)(£) ■I'.M dx

By means of a number of partial integrations, to¬
gether with some inversions of the orders of integra¬
tion and summation, we can write the required
identity in the form

cr<t>r .

1 m 7 n

ax ax

ff d>d.x) r/"0dj) ^ . X X X , , XX.XXX

"" ii - dx^ ^ dx dy, (50)

and this is formally correct since physicists opine that

^4>tix)(j)t{y) = 5(x — >-). (51)

t

Equation (51) is an example of the closure property
of a complete orthonormal system; see, for example,
Messiah (1961, pp. 187, 492).

Formally the identity (51) holds for any com¬
plete orthonormal system, not merely for the Hermite
functions. For the Hermite functions, the argument
can be made rigorous by putting in a convergence
factor z*(|z|) < 1 ), making use of Mehler’s formula

m = (mi, m2, • • • , nip)' ,

lm| = nil + ••• + nip, m! = md ma! ••• mp! ,
••• , a*’ = ai”' ••• ^p^',

where a is a vector. The same convention applies if a
is replaced by a vector matrix defined as A =
(Al, • • • , Ap), where Ai • • • , Ap are commutative
matrices. The matrix A can be regarded as a vector
whose components are matrices and also as a matrix
whose elements are vectors. The convention also
applies to differentiation, that is,

The definitions of the multivariate Hermite poly¬
nomials are (see, for example, Erdelyi et al. (1953,
p. 285))

HAx) = //r(x I C) = (-1)'" exp (Ix'Cx)

(^)

GdC“*x) = GdC'*x I C) = HAx I C“'), (54)

where C = (Cj,) is a positive definite real p X p
matrix. The factor | in the index of the exponential
is a convention differing from our convention for
the case p = 1. Then the functions ^r(x) and Xr(^)
defined by

</>r(^) _ Xr(^) _ _ exp ( jX Gx) _ (55^

HAx) ~ Gdx) “ (27r)^^" V(r!)

form a normal biorthogonal system, that is,

f 4>r(x)Xs(x) dx = 5r^ (56)

The multivariate form of (48) is

{/ cl>rV'^Xs = {/ </>rVXs dx| , (57)

where the right side is the mth power of a vector
matrix. It has a definite meaning because the relevant

Global Probability Density Estimation

187

scalar matrices commute. This corresponds to the
quantum-mechanical fact that components of mo¬
mentum commute, and it also follows from the proof
of (57) along the lines of that of the scalar case,
rigour being provided by the Koschmieder-Erdelyi
generalization of Mehler’s formula.

The univariate argument of Margenau & Murphy
(1943, pp. 120-121) can be conveniently generalized
by using the multivariate notation. After some mani¬
pulation, we obtain

J X,(j)r(x)Xs{x) dx = -f + (58)

MO) = -7ri/V2 and MO) = MO) = 0. *We
have also found by a computer run that the same
solution is obtained when a = 0, = V3*

Appendix C. Invariance of f/\/g

The reader should look at §10 and compare it with
Good (19686, 1969).

If a nonsingular transformation x = h(0 and
y = h(n) is made, where h is some twice differentiable
vector function, the same for both x and y, then of
course

v(x, y) = u{h(0, h(n)| = o*(|, n).

where e,- is the vector whose components are all 0
except the /th which is 1. This generalizes (65) of
Appendix E. But clearly

dx, ~

CijXj — (r, -f 1)'

SO the skew-symmetric matrix

I “{/

Xs ^ </>r dx

(59)

(60)

can be evaluated. Then (57) can be used to evalu¬
ate the penalty (28) by first writing

T = ^ 7 A = ^ 5rXr.

r r

The calculations could be checked by noting that

J

(x)xs(x) dx

= if x0dx)xs

(x) dxf = M

(61)

say, which generalizes Margenau & Murphy (1943,
p. 361), combined with repeated use of (59). Here
(61) is the position analogue of the momentum identity
(57). The characteristic function of f is
where y and 5 are the vectors with components jr
and 8s.

*The remarkable identities (48) and (57) can
be used more generally for the convenient evalua¬
tion of J (Dy)^ dx, where D is any linear differential
operator. This remark should be of use in the theory
of spline interpolation as well as for trying out other
roughness penalties.*

Appendix B. Example of a hand solution of (20)
and (21)

In equations (20) and (21) with a = V4 and
^ = 0, take N = 1, Xi = 0 and jk = 0 for k > 4.
Then the equations become yo" + 71^ + 72“ +73^
= 1 and

3 + l(^ + 1)(^ + 2)} '^^74+2 — (2/c 2X)7i

IZ 7.</>T0)

8=0

- l(k - 1)^}'^7._2 (k = 0, 1, 2, 3).

These equations are satisfied by taking X = 1, 70 =
1 and 71 = 72 =73 = 0 because </>o(0) =

where v* refers to the new co-ordinates. We have

dv*(^, n) _ f dv(x, y) dXu . dv(x, y) djy
dri, ^ \ d7]i dy,, 87],

y)_

dfji

d%*(^, n)

dtji dfjj

d^D(x, y) dy„
dy,i dyy drji drj,-

+

U-

dv(x, y)

dy^

dr], drii

At y = X, the second summation vanishes because
y(x, y), as a function of y, has a maximum at y = x
when truth is the best policy. Hence

d^v(x, y)

_ dy, dy,-

is a covariant tensor of rank 2. The sign in Good
(19686) was misprinted. It also follows that

g(x)(|^) = g*(D,

where 5x/d| denotes a Jacobian. If g(x) never vanishes,
then is positive definite and /(x)/{g(x)) is

invariant; recall that / is a density function so that
f(x) dx/d^ = f*(0.

Appendix D. An intuitive constraint on a and fd

An intuitively reasonable constraint on a and p
will be derived here, namely

2a(x^ + f|8 = c'*, (62)

where is either an initially guessed value of the
variance or an estimate from the sample x^, • • • , x^.
In our numerical work we standardized the sample
variance to V2 so that (62) could be written

4a -f 3/3 = 1 . (63)

Some pairs of values that satisfy (63) are (14, 0),
(0, V3) and (Vs, %), and these were emphasized
in our numerical work. Of all pairs of values for
a and p that satisfy the constraint, the simplest are
the first two of these pairs, and (0, V5) gave good
results in all our computer runs.

The basis for the constraint (62) is the feeling

188

The Virginia Journal of Science

that the normal distributions form the smoothest
class of distributions, the improper uniform distribu¬
tion being a limiting form. Perhaps some justifica¬
tion for this feeling is that a normal distribution is
the distribution of maximum entropy for a given
mean and variance (Shannon, 1948, p. 629). This
is not convincing because the result is different when
more moments are given (Good, 1963, p. 915).
The integral / dx is also minimized for a given
variance when / is normal; see Appendix E. In any
case it seems reasonable to give the normal distribu¬
tion special consideration. We therefore prefer «
and to be such that, when / is normal, the score
w(a, /) is maximized by taking the mean and
variance of / equal to x and 2(Xi — x)^/(N — 1).

If f(x) ^ 9I(m, o-^), we have
j dx = l/(4(r"), f y"\/x = 3/(l6a^), (64)

and therefore

<o(a, d; /) = -N log ((t2'''V’^")

— ^ h(Xi — A‘)Vo'^ — — 3^/(1 6cr‘*).

1 = 1

This is maximized by taking fx. — x — Xxi/N and a-
such that

-N/a + ^(x, - xf/a^ + 2a/ a"" + 3/3/(4(r’’) = 0.

This implies the constraint (62) if we put o-^ =
Mxi - xy/iN - 1).

*The main weakness in the above argument is
that it assumes we know that the true population is
normal, but if we knew this we would not wish to
use a nonparametric method for density estimation.
Accordingly, although we did obtain smooth fits in
all the original runs when we took Z? = 1/3, it is not
very surprising that other values of z? were found to
lead to the best fits to the true density functions in
the numerical examples reported in Section 7A, even
when the true density function was normal. Never¬
theless it is worth noting how the above method can
be generalized for parametric density estimation,
namely the estimation of a vector parameter 0 in
a family of density functions f(x | 6). For such a
density function the total score co would become a
function of 0, a and (8. The maximization of this
score would lead to a value of 0, say 0, and to a
constraint on the values of a and 13 that seems to us
intuitively natural. Of course, when it is assumed that
a = 0, as we have decided is adequate, this method
would usually lead to a specific value of z3. This
value would usually depend on the sample, as well
as on the underlying parametric family of density
functions. If the value of 0 obtained by the maximiza¬
tion were also accepted, namely 0, our method would
reduce to a parametric method of density estimation
which we believe deserves further investigation. The
method described here has been called the method of
Type II maximum likelihood (Good, 1967). We repeat
that it is a parametric method unlike the methods
treated in detail in the rest of this paper. The possi¬

bility of using a significance test for the components
of 0, based on the Type II Likelihood Ratio (Good,
1967), should also be borne in mind.*

Appendix E. A penalty for large variance and some
lower bounds for the roughness penalty

If we have some initial impression of how large
the variance of our distribution should be and also if
we estimate y from the sample, we might wish to
take a penalty for any hypothesis with too large or
too small a variance. Note that the variance can be
expressed in terms of the y’s, by using equation (45)
together with the simpler formula

j X(f>„{x)4)Ax) dx = .

v65)

We obtain

E{x) = V2 27,„7,„+i(m -f (66)

var (x) = 2(m + i)yj

+ ^7mym+2{0n + l)('n + 2)}'^^

- 2{2:y^y^,A>n + if'T- (67)

These formulae are of interest apart from the pos¬
sible use of (67) for a new roughness penalty. We
should have printed these values in our computer
runs. They can be generalized to p dimensions by
using (61).

If the roughness penalty were taken proportional
to var (x) the effect would be that / would vanish
outside the range of the observations and would
therefore be discontinuous. This would be unreason¬
able, but it might be worth while to consider using
this penalty, or one proportional to the generalized
variance in p dimensions, as an addition to the penal¬
ties considered in the main text. This would enable
our dislike of large variance, which we used in §7,
to be taken into account quantitatively. An invariant
form of this penalty could perhaps be devised by re¬
garding Riemannian co-ordinates (Weatherburn,
1938, p. 79) with the pole at x as the most natural;
but X depends on the co-ordinates used so it would
have to be found iteratively and might not be unique.

For p = 1, a penalty for small variances, and
other moments, is already implicit in (13). For if
we assume y, y, y", ••• tend to 0 at oo, and write

(r = 0, 1, 2, •••),

we can prove that

/2 /2
,2 , ^ r fJ.r-1

7 dx > — - 7- ,

4M2r

and in particular

f y'^ dx > ,

J 4m2

Global Probability Density Estimation

189

The first of the inequalities (69) is essentially equiv¬
alent to a form of the uncertainty principle; see for
example, Weyl (1931, p. 393). It becomes an
equality when / is normal. All these inequalities can
be proved by using partial integrations and Schwartz’s
inequality.

The corresponding multivariate inequalities are

4 / (Vt)' dx > (n,oo...'y^ + (mo2oo...')"' + • • • ,

(70)

> (M20o...O“' + (M020n...T" + ••• . (71)

* Appendix EA. The maximum possible value for
the roughness penalty*

*If the Hermite expansion is truncated after the
rth term, then the maximum possible

value for <!>(/), as defined by (13), can be calcu¬
lated. We shall here consider only the maximum
values of J’ y'- dx and / y"~ dx.

By (18), the largest value of the estimate of J y”^ dx
that can be reached, if the series is truncated at
/n = /• — 1, is the maximum eigenvalue of the matrix
Qr of order r in the north-west corner of the matrix
Q defined in Appendix A. Some of these eigenvalues
were computed and are given by the following table.

For r > 50, the maximum value of / 7”^ dx (the
maximum eigenvalue of Q^) can be approximated
as one quarter of the fourth power of the largest
eigenvalue of the corresponding north-west corner of

0 1 0 0 • • •'

1 0 ^2 0 • • •

0 0 V3 0

(The changes of sign from (47) are immaterial.) This
is to be expected and is supported by numerical

evidence. For example, the true value of the maximum
eigenvalue of Q, (as given by Table 3), divided by this
approximate value, is 1.41 when r = 10, 1.24 when
r = 15, and 1.17 when r = 20, fairly obviously tending
to 1 as CO. Moreover the characteristic poly¬

nomial of the north-west r X r corner of matrix

(71.1) can be shown to be (— l)''/7r(K/\/2)2“"^^ The
largest root of E7,(x) is less than and, for r > 5, within
0.05 of

(2r -b 1)'^' - 1.85575(2/- + 1)“'^® (71.2)

(Szego, 1959, p. 132). For example, the largest root
of H2o(-^) is 5.387 (Salzer et al, 1952, quoted by
Abramowitz and Stegun, 1965, p. 924), whereas

(71.2) with r = 20 is 5.404. Thus we can approxi¬
mate within about 10% to the largest possible value
of the estimate of / y"^ dx for any given value of
r > 50, even without tables of the roots of the
Hermite polynomials.

It might be possible to obtain more explicit in¬
formation about the maximum eigenvalue of Q„
in terms of elementary functions and Hermite poly¬
nomials, for we have found some related simple
formulae. First, the determinants are given by

iQol = 1, 16 IQ,, I = (4r + 3)(4/- -b 5) |Q„_.|,

||Q,,_b = ('-!)^ II (1 - "2) • (71.3)

This was found by computation for r ~ 1(1) (15)
and must surely always be true. Second, the cor¬
responding eigenvalue problem for dx is fully
solved in that the corresponding r x r matrix can
be seen (non-trivially) to have characteristic poly¬
nomial equal to

-feP- //,(VO//..i(V«). (71.4)

2 Vk

Thus the maximum possible value of / y'^ dx, when
the Hermite expansion is truncated after r terms, is
equal to the square of the largest root of Hr + i(x).
So there is perhaps a similar neat formula for the
maximum integral of the square of the second deriva¬
tive.*

TABLE 3

Maximum eigenvalues of Q, or of J 7"^ dx

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

0.75

3.75

10.2

20.9

36.4

57.0

83.1

114.8

152.3

195.9

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

245.6

301.6

363.9

432.6

507.9

589.7

678.1

773.2

875.1

938.7

21

22

23

24

25

26

27

28

29

30

1099

1221

1351

1487

1630

1780

1937

2101

2272

2451

31

32

33

34

35

36

37

38

39

40

2636

2829

3028

3235

3449

3670

3899

4134

4377

4627

41

42

43

44

45

46

47

48

49

50

4884

5149

5421

5700

5987

6280

6582

6890

7206

7529

190

The Virginia Journal of Science

Appendix F. Sufficient conditions for yCa:) =
and for its differentiation

We have (for example, Erdelyi et al. (1953, p.
193) and Jackson (1941, p. 158)),

^ 4>rix)4>r(y) = ■f'nix, y) , (72)

r=0

where

;/)

<t>n^■\ix)4>dy) — <f>n^dy)<f>n{x)

X — y

(73)

This is a special case of the Christoffel-Darboux
identity (Szego, 1959, p. 43). Therefore

n 00 n

X yr<f>r{x) = / 7(.r) ^ <f>Xx)<f)r(y) dy

r=0 «/-co 0

= J y{y)^n{x, y) dy. (74)

Let us assume that the derivatives y'(x), -/"(x), • • • ,
as far as the 5th derivative, tend to 0 when x ^ ±oo,
and that y and each relevant derivative is of bounded
variation in each finite interval and is absolutely
integrable in ( — oo, oo). We can then differentiate
(74) 5 times, and after s partial integrations, we
obtain

H yr<l>r^'\x)

r=0

y’^'’\y)^nix, y) dy

(5 = 0, 1, 2, •••). (75)

Now (Plancherel & Rotach, 1929) if x ^ 0 and n
is large,

21/4

<f>n(x) — 1/4 7~

n

•[cos \\{n + l)7r — x(2/0‘'^^} + (76)

Therefore

^ yr<f>/“’(x)

r=0

= i r Tl-’(/).sin.i(.. - .)(2„0 /_L) .

T J_oo X — y \V n/

(77)

see, for 5 = 0, Szego (1959, p. 245). By the
Riemann-Lebesgue theorem, when n 00 the in¬
tegral depends only on values of y'^Ky)? where y
is in the neighbourhood of x. It follows that

^yr<i>r''\x) = y^^\x) (5 = 0, 1. • • •). (78)

r = 0

When X = 0, one could base the proof on the asymp¬
totic formula (2) of Erdelyi et al. (1953, p. 199).

For the multivariate case this argument does not
generalize, but the series (78) can be shown to be

summable in Abel’s sense (Hardy, 1949) by using
Mehler’s identity (52) and this result can be gen¬
eralized by using the generalization of Mehler’s
identity mentioned in Appendix A. The multivariate
notation z“ gives the appropriate generalization of
Abel summability.

*Appendix G. More general roughness penalties.

We have already referred to the practicability of
using roughness penalties of the general form J {Dy)^
dx where £) is a linear differential operator. It would
also be practicable to use roughness penalties of the
even more general form (Dy)- dx] where 'i'
is a smooth function of a real variable. It was natural
to start with the simplest of such roughness penalties,
but it is worth noting the wide class of generaliza¬
tions potentially available. But it is doubtful whether
such generalizations should be used without good
reason.*

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of Its Applications, Cambridge University Press.

Global Probability Density Estimation

193

Robert E. Jenkins

and

Charles A. Freeman^

Department of Biology
Roanoke College
Salem, Virginia 24153
Received March 30,1972

Longitudinal Distribution and Habitat
of the Fishes of Mason Creek,
an Upper Roanoke River Drainage Tributary, Virginia

Abstract — Mason Creek is an Order 4 tributary of 15.0
miles in length within the upper Roanoke drainage, Virginia.
Based on a total of 16 collections from seven localities and
on personal communications, its present ichthyofauna in¬
cludes 40 species distributed among seven families. The
fauna is typical of that of the upper Roanoke drainage.
Faunal diversity (number of species) increased regularly
from the headwaters to the mouth, from six species at the
uppermost station to 31 at the lowermost. The dominant
trend was addition of species, rather than replacement, in
the downstream direction. Most species showed a pattern of
longitudinal zonation, disappearing in the upstream direction
after apparently being continuously distributed, or they
appeared only in the headwaters. Few species were col¬
lected at all stations. Thirty-two species were recorded in
pools and 12 in riffles. Generally, only the larger individuals
of typically pool-inhabiting forms were found in swifter
waters, and the young of species whose adults are riffle
fishes frequented quieter waters.

Introduction

The Roanoke River drainage, Virginia and North
Carolina, probably has the most diverse and dis¬
tinctive fish fauna of all drainages on the Atlantic
slope of the United States ( 1 ) . Little, however, has
been published on the longitudinal distribution pat¬
terns and habitat of many of its non-game fishes.
Baseline information on these aspects of distribution
is generally important for assessing effects of stream
alteration by pollution, channelization and other fac¬
tors.

Early records of fishes from the upper Roanoke
drainage were given by Cope (2) and Jordan (3),
but in most cases specific localities of capture and
habitat were not mentioned. In pollution-related
studies, Jackson and Henderson (4) and Cairns,
et al. (5) tabulated by locality the fishes collected

1 Present address: Franklin County Health Department, Rocky
Mount, Virginia 24151.

from a series of stations along part of the main upper
Roanoke River. Their results largely showed marked
effects of stream pollution in the Roanoke-Salem
cities area (see also McGauhey and Eich (6)), as
relatively little natural faunal change probably oc¬
curs in that river section. The Roanoke River ich¬
thyofauna in the Salem area has recently recovered
to a great extent owing to reduction of pollution, but
it remains depleted in the Roanoke area.

Mason (or Masons) Creek, a moderate-size tribu¬
tary of the upper Roanoke in the Salem area, south-
central Virginia, was selected for our study because
a major landfill has been proposed for a portion of
its basin, and from preliminary survey it appeared
to have a fish fauna typical of that of relatively un¬
polluted sections of the upper Roanoke drainage.
The magnitude of faunal changes per stream mile in
streams the size of Mason Creek may be generally
greater than those in larger streams such as Roanoke
River in the Roanoke-Salem area. A total of 16 col¬
lections from seven localities are documented. In¬
cluded in the discussion is a summary of the com¬
position of the upper Roanoke drainage ichthyo¬
fauna, from Salem upstream.

Methods

Seven stations, numbered in order progressing
upstream, were selected for their accessibility, habitat
diversity, and to achieve representation of fairly
evenly spaced areas of the creek (Fig. 1). All have
riffles, runs and pools with various proportions of
bottom materials ranging from silt to boulder or bed¬
rock. Runs are considered to be areas intermediate
in habitat between riffles and pools; they have a
moderate to fairly swift current, differing from riffles
by generally being deeper, less turbulent, and having
smaller bottom materials.

194

The Virginia Journal of Science

Fig. 1 — Map of Mason Creek system. Closed circles in¬
dicate collecting stations. Stipple indicates mountain ridges.
City of Salem outlined by dashed line. Western limit of
City of Roanoke is about one mile east of Salem. Mason
Creek area indicated by dot on inset map.

The vast majority of the fishes collected were
taken with 10 foot, 14 inch mesh seines. Deeper,
boulder-filled and well-sheltered areas at Stations 1
and 3 were also electrically shocked with a Smith-
Root Type V Electrofisher (325-425 volt pulsed
DC). Each habitat at all stations was worked in the
fall of 1969 with an intensity and strategy judged
sufficient to collect most or all species present. Low
water conditions during most collections enhanced
success. Additional collections by us and others pro¬
vided supplemental data. The term “faunal diversity”
refers to the total number of species. Relative abun¬
dance of species and their habitat occurrence (Table
I) were subjectively assessed in the field, by identi¬
fication of adults and juveniles of all species and the
young of most species when they were collected.
Many individuals of the more common species were
released, permitting more collecting time. Specimens
are stored in 45% isopropyl alcohol at Roanoke
College.

The U. S. Geological Survey 15 minute series,
1:62500 scale Salem 1932 topographic quadrangle
served as the base map for Figure 1 and for location
or determination of geomorphic features and stream
parameters. Drainage area was determined with the
aid of a planimeter, and stream mileage with a map
tracer. The total relief of the creek is the vertic^
elevation rise between the mouth and the most up¬
stream point on the main channel where two first

order streams merge (7). Stream order was deter¬
mined by Strahler’s modification of the Horton sys¬
tem (8). Average width and depth were determined
as outlined by Lagler (9). Three width measure¬
ments each of a pool and a riffle were made at each
station measured. Three depth readings were taken
at each width transect. Discharge was determined
by a timed float method (10).

For pH determinations, water samples were placed
in a temperature insulated container and analyzed
shortly after in the laboratory with a Photovolt
Model 115A pH meter. Dissolved oxygen was de¬
termined in the field with a YSI Model 54 oxygen
meter. Other chemical determinations were made in
the field or laboratory with the following Hach
chemical kits: AC-5, AL-5P, CA-23, CU-4, NI-8,
NI-10, PO-24.

The recent list (5) of fishes from the Roanoke
River in the Salem area includes several misidentifi-
cations or errors; where preserved specimens are
available at Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State
University, the records (except from station 2) are
corrected under the appropriate species in the An¬
notated List herein. Further comment on fishes from
station 2 is not made herein since the species list and
numbers of specimens (for VPI collection number
2515) differs greatly from that published. The sum¬
mary (5) of fishes said to have been taken from
the upper Roanoke River by Jordan (3) and in
1952 by E. C. Raney and R. D. Ross actually in¬
cludes records from tributaries.

Stations and Collections

1. Mile 0.0-0.6. Collection la: 3 Oct. 1969,
REJ 346 (Jenkins’ collection number); Collection
lb: 1 Oct. 1970, REJ 405; Collection Ic: 15 Nov.
1971, REJ 524.

2. Mile 2.0-2.2. Collection 2a: 31 March 1940,
E. C. Raney 705; Collection 2b: 5 Sept. 1947, E. A.
Lachner 503; Collection 2c: 20 Oct. 1969, REJ 354.

3. Mite 4.1-4. 6. Collection 3a: 5, 7 May 1969,
REJ 316; Collection 3b: 10 Sept. 1969, REJ 334;
Collection 3c: 1 Nov. 1971, REJ 512.

4. Mile 5. 8-6.0. Collection 4a: 30 Sept. 1969,
CAP (Freeman) 1; Collection 4b: 9 Oct. 1969,
CAP 5.

5. Mile 8. 1-8.2. Collection 5a: 7 Oct. 1969, REJ
347; Collection 5b: 8 Nov. 1971, REJ 514.

6. Mile 9.0-9. 1. Collection 6: 15 Oct. 1969, REJ
353.

7. Mile 12.5-12.6. Collection 7a: 15 Oct. 1969,
REJ 352; Collection 7b: 8 Nov. 1971, REJ 513.

Description of Creek and Basin

Mason Creek, located in Roanoke County, south-
central Virginia (Fig. 1), is an Order 4 stream of
15.0 miles in len^h. It is generally shallow and
ranges 20-40 feet in width near its mouth. Width,
depth and discharge at four stations are given in
Table II; the discharge at Station 1 was determined
during a period of slightly subnormal water level,
whereas when measured at the other stations the
levels were slightly above normal. In October 1969

Mason Creek Fishes

195

TABLE I

Distribution, abundance and habitat oj Mason Creek fishes {Habitat based on capture of juveniles and adults. Stream mile is that of middle
of station. A = abundant, C = common, U = uncommon, R = rare, * = occurs but not taken in habitat during this study.)

Species

1

0.3

2

2.1

3

4.4

Station

4

Stream Mile
5.9

5

8.1

6

9.0

7

15.5

Pool

Habitat

Run

Riffle

Moxostoma ariommum

R

R

R

Ictaliirus nebulosiis

R

R

—

—

Notropis analostanus

U

U

—

- -

Notropis hudsonius

c

c

—

—

Percina rex

R

R

R

*

R

Micropterus salmoides

R

R

R

—

—

Moxostoma ervthrurum

R

U

U

—

—

Moxostoma rhothoecum

U

R

—

—

U

Etheostoma podostemone

A

C

—

C

A

Moxostoma cervinum

R

—

U

—

R

U

Percina crassa

U

C

c

R

U

c

Exoglossum rnaxillingua

R

u

u

U

u

—

Micropterus dolomieui

R

u

u

u

—

—

Notropis volucellus

U

—

—

R

R

—

. —

Pimephales notatus

C

c

c

U

C

R

—

Notropis albeolus

c

c

c

C

C

U

—

Lepomis macrochirus

u

u

—

U

u

—

—

Notiirus insignis

u

— ■

R

R

u

u

u

Ambloplites rupestris

u

—

—

R

u

—

—

Notropis ardens

A

A

A

A

R

A

u

—

Etheostoma nigrum

c

A

C

C

C

c

R

—

Lepomis auritus

c

C

C

C

R

c

—

—

Notropis procne

c

C

u

C

C

c

—

—

Notropis cerasinus

c

C

c

C

A

U

c

u

R

Nocomis leptocephalus

c

c

A

C

R

R

c

c

C

Catostomus commersoni

c

c

C

U

C

U

c

—

—

Lepomis gibbosus

u

c

—

—

C

R

c

—

—

Hypentelium nigricans

R

R

R

—

—

R

R

R

R

Esox niger

—

C

C

—

C

C

C

—

—

Campostoma anomalum

c

C

C

u

u

U

U

C

c

C

Etheostoma fiabellare

c

C

C

u

A

U

c

u

c

C

Phoxinus oreas

R

u

C

—

A

u

A

A

c

—

Clinostomus funduloides

u

C

u

A

C

u

—

Rhinichthys atratulus

C

c

u

—

Semotilus atromaculatus

C

c

—

—

Total species: 35

31

24

19

16

13

10

6

32

19

12

the creek was intermittent in a few sections between
stations 6 and 7, and residents reported that surface
water is absent at station 7 during periods of very
low water table. The Roanoke area has an average
annual rainfall of 41.2 inches.

The creek drains an asymmetrical basin of 29.4
square miles. Large tributaries are lacking. It is a
northern tributary of the upper Roanoke River.
Minor Roanoke River tributaries drain the area
east and west of the lower portion of the creek.
It heads against Bradshaw Creek, a tributary of
North Fork Roanoke River. Paralleling upper Mason
Creek to the North is Catawba Creek, a major
tributary of the upper James River.

The basin is in the Ridge and Valley physiographic
province. The lower four miles of the creek flow in
an area of the Roanoke Valley having slight to
moderate relief. Stream miles 4. 5-6. 5 occupy a very
narrow gap in the Hanging Rock-Bennett Springs
area, between Fort Lewis Mountain on the West and

Brushy Mountain and Green Ridge on the East. The
valley widens above the gap into Mason Cove, which
is bounded on the South largely by Fort Lewis Moun¬
tain (highest point 3272 feet) and, on the North, by
Catawba Mountain (3201 feet). From about stream
mile 1 1 to the source the valley is quite narrow. The
mouth of the creek is at elevation 960 feet, and its
maximum elevation is 1800 feet; the total relief is
840 feet. The average total gradient is 56 feet/mile.
The lower 10 miles have an average gradient of 35
feet/mile, the upper five miles 9.8 feet/mile. The
stream is well-graded; a slight increment in gradient
through the gap is indicated in the longitudinal
profile (Fig. 2).

Surficial stratigraphy was determined from works
by Woodward (11) and Butts (12, 13). Approxi¬
mately the lower 3.7 miles cross calcareous and shale
strata, each occurring in the Rome Formation (stream
miles 0.0-0. 5, 2.0-2.5), Elbrook Dolomite (0.5-
2.0, 2. 5-3.0) and Athens Shale (3. 0-3. 7). The re-

196

The Virginia Journal of Science

TABLE II

Physical and chemical parameters of Mason Creek {Dates are for width, depth and discharge. Chemical and temperature determinations
made 23 December 1971. Dash denotes compound, ion or element not detected).

1(0.6)

Station (Stream mile)

3(4.5) 5(8.1)

7(12.5)

Date, November 1971

15

1

8

8

Width feet x

31

30

15

11

Depth inchesx

11

8

8

8

Discharge cfs

17.9

23.9

12.3

6.2

Elevation feet

980

1100

1240

1680

Temperature air °C

3.5

3.5

4.0

5.0

Temperature water °C

3.0

4.0

5.5

5.5

Dissolved O2 ppm

14.0

13.0

12.0

11.4

Dissolved CO2 ppm

<5

<5

<5

<5

pH

8.1

7.5

7.3

7.2

Alkalinity, Ph-ln gr/gal CaCOa

—

—

—

—

Alkalinity, MO gr/gal CaCOs

3.6

1.2

0.8

0.4

Ca hardness gr/gal CaCOa

3

1

1

1

Mg hardness gr/gal CaCOa

2

1

1

1

Acidity, free gr /gal CaCOa

—

—

—

—

Acidity, total gr/gal CaCOa

0.4

0.4

0.4

0.4

NOa and/or NO. — nitrogen ppm

0.22

0.11

0.11

0.02

NO2 — nitrogen ppm

—

—

—

—

NH4 — nitrogen ppm

—

—

—

—

PO4 ortho ppm

0.20

0.20

0. 18

0.14

Cu ppm

—

■ - -

—

—

mainder of the creek is bedded on shales and sand¬
stones of the Romney Shale (3. 7-3. 8, 11.0-15.0),
Chemung Formation (4.0-6.0) and Braillier Shale
(3. 8-4.0, 6.0-11.0). The main surrounding ridges
of the middle and upper creeks are capped largely
with sandstones and shales containing few calcareous
rocks, comprising the Chemung and Price forma¬
tions, Clinch Sandstone, Martinsburg and Braillier
shales, and Heidelberg Limestone.

Mason Creek is a warm water stream in its middle
and lower sections. During early May 1969 at an
afternoon air temperature of 30°C the stream at
mile 4.5 was 22°C. At the same locality on the after¬
noon of 6 June 1971 with 32°C air temperature the
creek was 21°C. The next afternoon with the same
air temperature the water rose to 25 °C. Chemical
characteristics are listed in Table II. Alkalinity from
carbonates, hardness and pH significantly increased
in the lower creek, where it crosses calcareous strata.
It is notable that orthophosphate values are higher
than those of nitrate at the upper three stations sam¬
pled.

Fig. 2 — Gradient profile of Mason Creek.

The creek is of the hard bottom type, with ap¬
preciable amounts of sand, silt and mud accumulating
only in the quieter portions of relatively large or
deep pools. Riffles are typically floored with various
proportions of gravel and rubble which are not firmly
anchored. Boulders are common along the stream;
boulder and bedrock bottoms are frequent in the sec¬
tion through the gap and downstream for about two
miles. No trenchant longitudinal differences in bot¬
tom type that would markedly affect fish distribution,
as determined in this study, were noted. Higher
aquatic vegetation is sparse. Beds of water willow
(Justicia) are occasional in the lower creek. The
water is clear except when affected by rain, after
which it clears fairly quickly.

Along the banks of much of the lower creek, in
the eastern sector of the City of Salem, are several
industries, a large amusement park, horse stables and
permanent homes. The middle and upper basin is
rural, with numerous crop farms, stock pastures and
permanent and summer dwellings. The mountain
slopes are almost entirely forested. Slight evidence of
increased eutrophication in the lower creek and an
apparently industrial effluent of unknown nature
entering at mile 2.2 (just above the Route 11-460
bridge) were seen. Portions of the headwaters are
being relocated or harmfully altered by road widen¬
ing. The creek receives some sport-fishing pressure,
but it is not a popular fishing stream. Non-game
fishes were common or abundant at all stations ex¬
cept, for unknown reasons, station 6.

Four spillway dams that have been temporary
barriers to fishes are present. They are located at
miles 3.1, 3.2, 5.9 and 6.8 and range from about four
to six feet in height. The uppermost dam creates a
pond of about four acres surface area, the others
about one acre. The gates of the dams frequently

Mason Creek Fishes

197

have been removed for purposes of log jam and silt
removal, permitting passage by fishes.

Annotated List of Species

Salmonidae, Trout Family

Rainbow trout, Salmo gairdneri Richardson, and
brown trout, S. tnitta Linnaeus, neither native to the
Roanoke drainage, are stocked in Roanoke River at
about two miles and farther upstream from the mouth
of Mason Creek. Their survival is poor in the Salem
area. They are rarely caught by anglers in the creek,
and neither species was collected or observed in our
survey.

Esocidae, Pike Family

Esox niger Lesueur, Chain Pickerel. Collection 2a,
c, 3b, 5a, 6. Juveniles and adults as large as 14
inches total length seined; one of about 16 inches
total length seen at station 2. Inhabited shallows and
deeper portions of pools.

Cyprinidae, Minnow Family

Campostoma anomahim michauxi Fowler, Stone-
roller. All collections except 5a. Found in all habitats
at all stations. Adults not taken at stations 4, 5 and 7
and rare at station 6. Young and juveniles uncommon
at upper four stations.

Clinostomus /. junduloides Girard, Rosyside Dace.
Collections 4a, 5a, b, 6, 7a. Headwater pool in¬
habitant; young to adults taken in varying abundance
as far downstream as station 4.

Cyprinus carpio Linnaeus, Carp. Introduced
species not seen in our survey; individuals reaching
about two feet in length reported present in some
of the impoundments.

Exoglossum maxdlingua (Lesueur), Cutlips Min¬
now. Collections Ic, 2a, c, 3a. Uncommon or rare
inhabitant of slower waters of lower creek. Only
young and juveniles collected; population probably
small as not observed constructing nests.

Nocomis 1. leptocephalus (Girard), Bluehead
Chub. All collections except 7a, b. Typically an in¬
habitant of moderate to fairly small-size streams, not
extending into small brooks (14; this study). Young
to adults common to abundant at lower four stations;
uncommon and represented only by young at stations
5 and 6; not found at station 7. Frequently found in
all habitats.

Nest-building by bluehead chubs was commonly
observed in various sections within stream miles
2. 0-5.0 in 1969 and 1971. Nests were not found at a
few localities between miles 6.0 and 7.0, but repro¬
duction probably occurs there and somewhat farther
upstream based on the presence of young. The lower¬
most section of the creek, where spawning probably
occurs, was not visited during the 1969 and 1971
spawning periods, nor was the creek visited in May
and June of 1970. In 1969, the spring was “early”
and accompanied by little rain. In the area of stream
miles 4. 0-4. 5, no nests were found on 28 April;
however, by 4 May the peak of spawning had been
concluded. Water temperatures reached into the 21-
23 °C range during this interim. In the same creek

section during 1971, a somewhat “late” spring oc¬
curred with much rain during May and June. The
peak of nest-building took place about 6-7 June;
early afternoon water temperatures were 21-25°C.
At least one of the following cyprinid species was
associated with each active nest observed: Campos¬
toma anomalum, Notropis ardens, N. albeolus, N.
cerasiniis and Phoxinus oreas; all five occurred at
the same time over less than 10% of the nests in
both years. The latter four species were apparently
spawning; the purpose (s) of the association by
Campostoma was not clear.

The Roanoke River in the Salem-Roanoke area is
the only known lengthy section of a moderate-size
stream where N. leptocephalus clearly is numerically
dominant over its relative N. raneyi Lachner and
Jenkins, the bull chub. N. raneyi replaces or is gen¬
erally more abundant than N. leptocephalus in other
moderate-size and larger streams of the Roanoke
drainage where the species are sympatric (14).
Numbers of specimens of Nocomis reported from
the lowermost station (7) of Cairns, et al. (5)
suggest that their relative abundance in the Roanoke
River is not exceptional. The following are correc¬
tions of records by these authors; station 7, N.
leptocephalus 15 (specimens were taken), N. raneyi
5; station 6, N. leptocephalus 22, N. raneyi 2; station
5, N. leptocephalus 3, N. raneyi 3. (The total num¬
bers of Nocomis previously reported from these three
localities apparently are in error, based on data in
the accession catalog at Virginia Polytechnic In¬
stitute and State University; none of the Nocomis
from stations 1, 3 and 4 were located.) Both species
were collected from the Roanoke by Jordan (3), as
indicated by Lachner and Jenkins ( 14) .

Notropis albeolus Jordan, White Shiner. Collec¬
tions la, b, c, 2a, b, c, 3a, b, c, 4a, b. Common in
quiet waters of lower four stations, where young to
adults captured. Most of the relatively few specimens
from runs were adults.

Notropis a. analostanus (Girard), Satinfin Shiner.
Collection la. Adults uncommon in pools near
mouth.

Notropis ardens (Cope), Rosefin Shiner. Collec¬
tions la, b, c, 2a, b, c, 3a, b, c, 4a, b, 5a, b. Abun¬
dant from mouth to station 4; rare at station 5.
Young to adults at the five stations. Distinct prefer¬
ence for pools.

Notropis cerasinus (Cope), Crescent Shiner. All
collections except 7a, b. Ubiquitous; penetrates
slightly farther upstream than close relative in sub¬
genus Luxilus Rafinesque, N. albeolus; more abun¬
dant than latter where collected together. Young to
adults at all stations where species found. Most com¬
mon in pools; most individuals inhabiting runs and
riffles were adults.

Notropis hudsonius (Clinton), Spottail Shiner.
Collections la, c. Juveniles and adults found only in
larger pools throughout station 1, where common
but not as numerous as the two species of Luxilus.

Notropis procne (Cope), Swallowtail Shiner. Col¬
lections la, b, 2a, b, 3a, 4a, b, 5a, b. Pool species
of the lower and middle creek, where generally

198

The Virginia Journal of Science

common. Young to adults in most collections in¬
cluding those from station 5. Raney (15) recognized
the subspecies N. procne longiceps (Cope) from the
Roanoke drainage, but we defer subspecific identifi¬
cation because of dubious distinction (16, 17).

Notropis V. volucellus (Cope), Mimic Shiner. Col¬
lections la, 4a. Juveniles and adults of this riverine
species taken only over soft bottoms in pools near
the mouth and, oddly, one young collected at station
4.

Phoxinus areas (Cope), Mountain Redbelly Dace.
Collections la, b, 2c, 3a, 5a, b, 6, 7a, b. Although
found from mouth to headwaters, it clearly increased
in abundance upstream (discounting station 6, at
which fishes were quite scarce). Only adults taken at
station 1, whereas young to adults occurred at others.
Typically a pool dweller, but not uncommon in
slower runs.

Pimephales notatus Rafinesque, Bluntnose Min¬
now. Collections la, b, c, 2c, 3a, 4a, b. Common
species of lower creek; apparently disappears from
fauna between stations 4 and 5. Young to adults
taken in lower creek and a prenuptial male captured
with collection 3b. Much more numerous in pools
than runs. P. notatus was collected from the Roanoke
River in 1952 by Raney and Ross, although not so
indicated by Cairns, et al. (5). This species proba¬
bly is not native to the Roanoke drainage (14, 16).

Rhinichthys a. atratulus (Hermann), Blacknose
Dace. Collections 7a, b. Brook species found only at
the uppermost station. Young to adults common in
pools, uncommon in runs.

Semotilus atrornaculatus (Mitchell), Creek Chub.
Collections 7a, b. A species of small creeks in the
upper Roanoke drainage. Young to large juveniles
commonly taken in pools.

Catostomidae, Sucker Family

Catostomus c. commersoni (Lacepede), White
Sucker. Collections la, b, c, 2c, 3a, b, 4a, 5a, b, 6.
Widely distributed in the creek; although not cap¬
tured at station 7, adults observed about 400 yards
downstream from it on 6 June. Young or juveniles
from pools of stations 1-6. Large population of
adults discovered at station 1 by electrofishing deeper,
well-sheltered areas; many adults observed at station
2. Adults not taken but probably present at or near
stations 3-6. White suckers numerically composed
more than 90% of the suckers collected at stations
1 and 2.

Hypentelium nigricans (Lesueur), Northern Hog
Sucker. Collections la, c, 2c, 3a, 6. Rare when found
and, although occurred upstream to station 6, it was
absent from several collections. Only one young and
one adult taken at station 1, three juveniles to adults
at station 2 and 3, and one adult at station 6.
Juveniles and adults occupied riffles, runs and pools;
the young from a pool.

Moxostoma ariommum Robins and Raney, Bigeye
Jumprock. Collections la, c. Found only at station 1;
three young and one adult taken. Captured in riffles
and pools in Mason Creek, but adults may more fre¬
quently inhabit deep runs and the young, pools ( 18) .

It has been suggested for inclusion on the “List of
rare, endangered and depleted species,” with rare
status.

Moxostoma cervinum (Cope), Black Jumprock.
Collections la, 3c. One adult taken at station 1, from
a run. Several adults captured with collection 3a,
from a riffle seined in each of our collections from
the station. Young found in pools of Roanoke River.

Moxostoma erythrurum (Rafinesque), Golden
Redhorse. Collections la, c, 2c. One young and one
juvenile taken from a pool at station 1 and several
juveniles from long pool just above the Route 1 1-
460 bridge at station 2. One of the three species of
the subgenus Moxostoma Rafinesque known from
Roanoke drainage above the City of Roanoke.

Two species of the subgenus Moxostoma, M. pap-
pillosum (Cope) and M. collapsum (Cope), were
reported from the Roanoke River by Cairns, et al.
(5). The two reported specimens of M. pappillosum
were not located; it is widely distributed in the upper
Roanoke River. M. collapsum was placed in the
synonymy of M. anisurum (Rafinesque) by Jenkins
(18). Of specimens reported as M. collapsum by
Cairns, et al. (5), the following were identified by
Jenkins as M. anisurum: the one from station 6, the
two from station 7, and two of the four from station
1 ; the others from station 1 are M. erythrurum.

Moxostoma rhothoecum (Thoburn), Torrent
Sucker. Collections la, 2c. Taken once, uncommonly
or rarely, in riffles at lower two stations. Literature
records of Moxostoma hamiltoni (Raney and Lach-
ner) for the upper Roanoke drainage proper are
based on M. rhothoecum (18).

Ictaluridae, Catfish Family

Ictalurus nebulosus (Lesueur), Brown Bullhead.
Collection Ic. One juvenile shocked from a log jam
in pool beneath bridge over upper section of station
1. Probably occurs in smaller impoundments farther
upstream.

Noturus insignis (Richardson), Margined Mad-
tom. Collections la, 3a, 4b. Total of five juveniles to
adults taken from a pool, run and riffle of station 1,
and one adult found in riffle at stations 3 and 4.

Centrarchidae, Sunfish Family

Ambloplites r. rupestris (Rafinesque), Rock Bass.
Collections la, b, 4. Five subadults to adults col¬
lected at or just above mouth of creek; one juvenile
from station 4. All from pools. This widespread form
is not native to the Roanoke drainage. Cairns, et al.
(5) reported their upper Roanoke specimens as in¬
tergrades, A. rupestris: cavifrons (Cope) x rupestris.
Jenkins located only the specimens from stations 1
and 5, and identified them as A. r. rupestris. Sys¬
tematic problems with Ambloplites (1) are being
studied by R. C. Cashner, Tulane University.

Lepomis auritus (Linnaeus), Redbreast Sunfish.
Collections la, b, c, 2c, 3a, 4b, 5a. The most abun¬
dant centrarchid of the creek. Young to adults com¬
monly collected or observed in pools from mouth to
station 4; one young and one adult taken at station 5.

Lepomis gibbosus (Linnaeus), Pumpkinseed. Col-

Mason Creek Fishes

199

lections la, b, c, 2c, 5a, 6a. Penetrated farther up¬
stream than the other centrarchids, although less
abundant than L. auritus and not taken at stations 3
and 4. Young to adults occurred in pools.

Lepomis macrochirus Rafinesque, Bluegill. Collec¬
tions la, b, c, 2c, 4a. Young to adults of this pool
inhabitant uncommon the few times found. Regarded
as introduced into Roanoke drainage ( 1 ) .

Micropterus d. dolomieid Lacepede, Smallmouth
Bass. Collections la, 2b, c, 3a. Uncommon in pools
of lower creek. Most specimens were young; largest
observed approximately 10 inches total length. Not
native to Roanoke drainage.

Micropterus s. salmoides (Lacepede), Largemouth
Bass. Collection la, 2c. One young from a pool at
stations 1 and 2.

Pomoxis annularis Rafinesque, White Crappie. A
total of five specimens of this introduced species
caught by angling in lowermost impoundment and
pool approximately one half-mile downstream from
this impoundment since 1969 by B. E. Ingram. No
crappies taken in our survey.

Pomoxis nigromaculatus (Lesueur), Black Crap¬
pie. Introduced species. Two were caught from lower¬
most impoundment during 1970 by B. E. Ingram.

Percidac, Perch Family

Etheostoina flabellare Rafinesque, Fantail Darter.
All collections. Young to adults usually common
from mouth to headwaters. Juveniles and adults
typically occupied riffles and runs; most young found
in pools. Subspecific identification of the Mason
Creek population is pending a comprehensive sys¬
tematic study.

Etheostorna n. nigrum Rafinesque, Johnny Darter.
Collections la, b, 2a, c, 3a, b, c, 4a, b, 5a, b. Com¬
monly represented in quiet waters of lower and
middle creek by young to adults.

Etheostorna podostemone Jordan and Jenkins,
Riverweed Darter. Collections la, b, c, 2c. This
species and the preceding one are members of the
subgenus Boleosoma DeKay with largely comple¬
mentary habitat distributions. Juveniles and adults of
riverweed darter typically occupied swift waters, but
were found only at the lower two stations.

Percina crassa roanoka (Jordan and Jenkins),
Piedmont Darter. Collections la, 2c, 3a, b, c. Adults
and larger juveniles of this common to uncommon
lower creek form typically inhabit swifter waters,
whereas the young tend to occur more frequently in
quieter waters.

Percina rex (Jordan and Evermann), Roanoke
Logperch. Collections la, 2a, b. Rare in the lower
creek; a young and a juvenile seined at station 1, and
five adults from station 2. Juveniles and adults occur
in all macrohabitats, whereas the young apparently
restrict themselves to quiet waters. This species has
been proposed for placement on the “List of rare,
endangered and depleted species,” with rare status.

Discussion

The known native fish fauna of Mason Creek com¬
prises 31 species and six families, a fairly diverse
fauna for a small stream. The presence of four addi¬

tional species collected, Pimephales notatus, Amblo-
plites r. rupestris, Lepomis macrochirus and Micro¬
pterus d. dolomieid, is thought to have resulted from
introductions. Five other introduced species, not seen
in our survey, are Salmo gairdneri, S. trutta, Cyprinus
carpio, Pomoxis annularis and P. nigromaculatus.
The fauna is basically that typical of the upper Roa¬
noke drainage. No evidence of recent occurrence in
Mason Creek of the following five native species of
the upper Roanoke was found; they may be perma¬
nent residents of the creek well above its mouth, but
now rare or very restricted in range in the creek, or
they have been extirpated: the American eel, An¬
guilla rostrata (Lesueur); brook trout, Salvelinus
fontinalis (Mitchell); Roanoke hog sucker, Hypen-
telium roanokense Raney and Lachner; mottled scul-
pin, Cottus b. bairdi Girard; Roanoke bass, Am-
bloplites cavifrons Cope. The eel was said by Jordan
(3) to be common during 1888 in the upper Roa¬
noke, assumedly inclusive of Mason Creek. The last
eel report from above Roanoke was of an individual
observed about 1940 (4). The 52 feet high Niagara
power dam, constructed in 1906 across Roanoke
River about four miles below Roanoke, probably
impeded upstream passage of this catadromus spe¬
cies; more recently constructed, larger dams below
Niagara Dam enforce this barrier. H. roanokense is
widely distributed in the upper and middle Roanoke
drainage, where it is endemic (19). Although it is
absent or rare in the Roanoke River from the Salem
area downstream, it is typically found in small
streams with its close relative, H. nigricans. Our fail¬
ure to find it was as surprising as the rarity of El.
nigricans in the creek. The brook trout and mottled
sculpin are cool or cold water species restricted in
the Roanoke to its upper portion. Their absence from
Mason Creek probably relates to temperature regimes
and intermittency in the headwaters. A. cavifrons
probably occurred in the creek but was replaced by
A . r. rupestris.

All Mason Creek species, except that of Esox, and
the small-stream Clinostomus, Phoxinus, Rhinichthys
and Semotilus, are typical of the upper main channel
of the Roanoke River. The following eight species,
most of which are riverine forms and all of which are
known at least as far up Roanoke River as Salem,
may migrate into lower Mason Creek to spawn, or
occur in the creek as waifs: bowfin, Amia calva Lin¬
naeus; bull chub, Nocomis raneyi; golden shiner,
Notemigonus crysoleucas (Mitchell) ; Quillback, Car-
piodes cyprinus (Lesueur); silver redhorse, Moxos-
toma anisurum (Rafinesque); V-lip redhorse, M.
pappillosum (Cope); orangefin madtom, Noturus
gilberti Jordan and Evermann; shield darter, Percina
peltata (Stauffer). Six of these species, excepting
Amia and the quillback, are widely distributed in the
upper Roanoke. An adult Amia was caught in 1962
by an angler from a small impoundment of the Roa¬
noke in western Salem; a photograph of the specimen
appeared in the Roanoke Times (27 June 1962),
and scales from it were identified by Jenkins. R. E.
and D. J. Jenkins observed a bowfin of about 20
inches length in the South Fork Roanoke River just
above Alleghany Springs. It was seen in clear water

200

The Virginia Journal of Science

from a distance of five feet, on 27 May 1970 in an
area where many cyprinids were spawning. The bow-
fin may have originally been introduced into the
upper Roanoke. If so, its presence in the soft-bot¬
tomed impoundment would not be unexpected, but
its occurrence in the South Fork, a moderate gradi¬
ent, largely hard bottom stream, is most surprising.
The quillbaek was reported from the Roanoke River
by Trautman (20). The specimen on which this
record is based was taken in eastern Salem, and was
deposited at the Museum of Zoology, University of
Michigan. An angler informed Jenkins of snagging
a quillbaek in the Roanoke of eastern Salem.

The species reported from Mason Creek and those
mentioned above constitute the known fauna of the
upper Roanoke drainage from Salem upstream. They
total 53 of the 105 members of the freshwater Roa¬
noke fauna, or 44 of 83 of the total native forms ( 1 ) .
One specimen of Hybognathiis niichalis regiiis Girard
was reported (5) to have been taken in the upper
Roanoke by Raney and Ross in 1952, and a speci¬
men was also recorded from station 1 of Cairns,
et al. (5). These records are not accepted. Jenkins
was unable to locate either specimen at Cornell Uni¬
versity or Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State
University. Hybognathiis is unknown in the Roanoke
drainage above its lower Piedmont section. Only one
record is from the Piedmont (21); many are from
the Coastal Plain section. Pflieger (22:365, Map 80)
recognized regiiis as meriting elevation to specific
status. Previously, Bailey (23) provisionally con¬
tinued to treat regiiis as a subspecies of niichalis,
alluding to the differences given by Hubbs and
Lagler (24) as being inadequately quantified or
broadly overlapping. Al-Rawi and Cross (25) found
a difference between the forms in the shape of the
basioccipital process. Pflieger’s consideration pre¬
sently seems to be the more favorable one, partly
since he has shown that three Mississippi basin
nominal species of Hybognathm, regarded as con-
specific at earlier times, remain distinctive where
sympatric. In addition, the shape of the basioccipital
process is of considerable taxonomic importance in
Hybognathiis (22, 25—27).

Faunal diversity in Mason Creek increased regu¬
larly from the headwaters to its mouth, with six
species taken at station 7 to 31 at station 1 (Table I,
which excludes records by anglers). The progressive
increase in diversity generally relates to addition of
species, rather than replacement of upstream forms.
Only four species failed to persist, in the downstream
direction, to the creek mouth. Two of these, Rhi-
nichthys atratiihis and Semotilus atromaculatiis, oc¬
curred only at the uppermost station, whereas Clinos-
tomus iiinduloides extended down to station 4. Esox
niger was not taken at Station 1, but it occurs, rarely,
in the Salem area of Roanoke River. The trend in
diversity is typical for fishes and other organisms in
small to moderate-size unpolluted streams (among
recent works: 28-30).

A pattern of longitudinal zonation is obvious for
most species. Most of those found only at station 1
or 1 and 2 are more common, in the upper Roanoke
drainage, in streams larger than Mason Creek. Of the

29 species found at two or more stations, a hiatus
was indicated to occur in the range of only nine.
For most of the nine, the gap probably relates to
inadequate collecting, e.g. for centrachids in deep
pools. Only two species, Campostoma anoinalum and
Etheostoma flabellare were found at all stations.
Catostonius comniersoni approached being this widely
distributed; Phoxiniis oreas probably oceurs at sta¬
tion 4 in addition to being found at all other stations.

The largest number of species (32) occurred in
pools, and the smallest number (12) in riffles; the
somewhat intermediate habitat, runs, yielded 19
species (Table I). Considering relative abundance of
both juveniles and adults in the three habitats, only
six of the 35 species listed apparently prefer riffles;
they are benthic fishes of the sucker tribe Moxosto-
matini — Moxostoina ariommum, M. cerviniini and
M. rhothoeciini, and darters — Etheostoma flabellare,
E. podostenione and Percina crassa roanoka. The
paucity of riffle forms probably relates in part to
greater rigors presented by current velocity in this
habitat. No species seemed to prefer runs, or at least
none clearly were numerically more abundant in such
habitat than in riffles or pools. A possible explana¬
tion is that one of the main features by which this
habitat was recognized — less turbulence — is effected
by fewer rocks and thus less cover. Campostoma
anomaliim and Nocomis leptocephaliis were about
equally abundant in all habitats. A habitat preference
was not detected for Hypenteliiim nigricans, Notiirus
insignis and Percina rex, as they were not collected
frequently enough in the creek. They occurred in a
variety of habitats in other streams, and N. insignis
was closely associated with shelter. Pools were pre¬
ferred by the other 24 species, including most cy¬
prinids and all centrarchids (for rare species, this
conclusion is based on collections from other
streams). The relation between stream depth and
diversity was discussed by Sheldon (30) and by Han¬
son and Campbell (31). Young specimens of species
whose adults prefer riffles typically occurred in the
quieter margins of riffles and in pool shallows. Adults
of some of the pool species, notably Notropis albeoliis
and N. cerasinus, were more frequently found in
moderate to rapid currents than were smaller indi¬
viduals. During reproduction the habitat of the cy¬
prinids associated with Nocomis nests and of pool¬
dwelling catostomids often or typically shifts to
swifter waters.

Fishes in general were common and about equally
abundant at all stations except 6, where they were
quite scarce. No distinct differences were noted in
habitats between this and other stations except, as
expected, in depth and width. Although the preda¬
tory Esox was common, and probably effected some
control of forage species populations, it was also
common at other stations. The lower basin is urban¬
ized and industrialized, but the fauna does not appear
to have changed significantly in composition and
abundance from that noted by Jordan (3).

Acknowlegements

A number of Roanoke College students aided in

Mason Creek Fishes

201

making several of the collections. Ernest A. Lachner,
National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian
Institution, and Edward C. Raney, Cornell University,
provided data on their collection from station 2.
Lachner was helpful company during the field ob¬
servations made in 1971, and permitted usage of the
electrofisher. Bruce E. Ingram, a Roanoke College
student with much angling experience in Mason
Creek, provided records of game fishes and carp.
Michael T. Masnik, Virginia Polytechnic Institute
and State University, gave information on a collec¬
tion reported by Cairns, et al. (5) from the Roanoke
River. Robert D. Hoyt, Western Kentucky Univer¬
sity, made suggestions for improvement of the manu¬
script.

REFERENCES

1. Jenkins, R. E., Lachner, E. A., and Schwartz, E. J., in
P. C. Holt (Editor), The distributional history of the
biota of the southern Appalachians. Part III. Verte¬
brates, Res. Div. Monog., Va. Polytech. Inst, and State
Univ., Blacksburg, Va. (1972), p. 43.

2. Cope, E. D., J. Acad. nat. Sci. Philad. (Ser. 2), 6, 207
(1868).

3. Jordan, D. S., Bull. U. S. Fish Commn., 8, 97 (1889).

4. Jackson, H. W., and Henderson, C., Bull. Va. Poly¬
tech. Inst., Eng. Exp. Sta., Ser. 51, 35, 91 (1942).

5. Cairns, J., Jr., Crossman, J. S., Dickson, K. L., and
Herricks, E. E., Bull. Assoc. South. Biol., 18, 79 (1971).

6. McGauhey, P. H. and Eich, H. F., Bull. Va. Polytech.
Inst., Eng. Exp. Sta., Ser. 51, 35, 1 (1942).

7. Dearinger, J. A. and Woolwine, G. M., Univ. Ky.
Water Resour. Inst., Lexington, Ky., Res. Rep. 40
(1971).

8. Kuehne, R. A., Ecology, 43, 608 (1962).

9. Lagler, K. F., Ereshwater fishery biology, W. C. Brown,
Dubuque, Iowa (1956).

10. Robins, C. R., and Crawford, R. W., J. Wildl. Mgmt.,
18, 366 (1954).

11. Woodward, H. P., Bull. Va geol. Surv., 34 (1932).

12. Butts, C., ibid., 42 (1933).

13. Butts, C., ibid., 52 (1940).

14. Lachner, E. A. and Jenkins, R. E., Smithsonian Con-
trib.ZooL, 85 (1971).

15. Raney, E. C., Copeia, 1947, 103 (1947).

16. Ross, R. D., in P. C. Holt (Editor), The distributional
history of the biota of the southern Appalachians.
Part I: Invertebrates. Res. Div. Monog. 1, Va. Polytech.
Inst, and State Univ., Blacksburg, Va. (1969), p. 277.

17. Snelson, F. F., Jr., Copeia, 1971, 449 (1971).

18. Jenkins, R. E., Systematic studies of the catostomid
fish tribe Moxostomatini, Doctoral Diss., Cornell Univ.,
Ithaca, N. Y., 1970.

19. Raney, E. C. and Lachner, E. A., Amer. Mus. Nat.
Hist., Nov. 1333 (1947).

20. Trautman, M. B., Ohio J. Sci., 56, 33 (1956).

21. Fowler, H. W., Acad. Nat. Sci., Phila., Monog. 1
(1945).

22. Pflieger, W. L., Univ. Kans. Pubis Mus. nat. Hist., 20,
225 (1971).

23. Bailey, R. M., Copeia, 1954, 289 (1954).

24. Hubbs, C. L. and Lagler, K. F., Cranbrook Inst. Sci.
Bull., 26 (1958).

25. Al-Rawi, A. H. and Cross, F. B., Trans. Kans. Acad.
Sci., 67, 154 (1964).

26. Bailey, R. M. and Allum, M. O., Misc. Pubis Mus.
Zool. Univ. Mich., 119 (1962).

27. Niazi, A. D. and Moore, G. A., SWest Nat., 7, 41
(1962).

28. Harrell, R. C., Davis, B. J., and Dorris, T. C., Am.
Midi. Nat., 78, 428 (1967).

29. Hynes, H. B. N., Ecology of Running Waters, Univ.
Toronto Press, Toronto, 1970.

30. Sheldon, A. L., Ecology, 49, 193 (1968).

31. Hanson, W. D. and Campbell, R. S., Am. Midi. Nat.,
69, 136 (1963).

202

The Virginia Journal of Science

Especially for

Science and Mathematics Teachers

Ideas

Questions

Opinions

A Simple Nutrition Experiment
for Secondary Grades

Abstract — A simple animal nutrition experiment demon¬
strated to children in the secondary grades the nutritive
value of various foodstuffs. After this experience they
helped plan family menus.

I want to describe a simple experiment that will
demonstrate to children in the secondary grades the
nutritive value of various foodstuffs. Briefly, the ex¬
periment is to maintain hamsters on specified diets,
and weigh the animals periodically to observe weight
changes. The experiment can be performed with a
minimum of equipment and materials, and can be
maintained in school rooms or in the home with little
trouble. Good results can be obtained in 2-3 weeks.

This experiment was first designed as a demon¬
stration for my children, ages 7, 10, 12, and 13.
These children wanted to eat only cold (dry) cereal
for breakfast. (I suspect this is the case with many
American children.) I found it difficult to get my
children to eat other foods at breakfast. While the
breakfast cereals have their value, I believe children
should have a well balanced, varied diet. I saw an
opportunity to show them the value of good nutrition
when our pet hamsters littered. When the little
hamsters were of weaning age, the children and I
started the following experiment to demonstrate the
nutritive value of various foods.

Experimental Procedure

Weanling hamsters (23 days old), all of the same
sex, were weighed and put into cages. Three animals
were put in each of three cages, and were kept on a
diet of commercial rodent chow for the first three
days after weaning. The animals were again weighed
at the end of this time. Then the diets in two of the
cages were changed, one to a popular dry breakfast
cereal, and the other to a dry dog food. The third
cage of hamsters was kept on rodent chow as a
control diet. Food and water were supplied to all
animals ad libitum. The hamsters were then weighed
about every other day for a period of two weeks.
While experiments of this kind usually involve white
rats, I believe for this work the hamster is to be
preferred esthetically. Children and teachers will
enjoy working with hamsters rather than rats.

The weanling hamsters should be obtained from a
biological supply house, as pet stores usually do not
stock weanling animals. The weanling hamster will
cost about one dollar apiece. Cages, with an ex¬
ercise wheel, a water bottle, and a feeder can be
purchased at pet stores for about five dollars apiece.

Litter for the cages and rodent chow usually can be
purchased at pet stores. The litter in the cages should
be changed at least once a week. The children can
also handle this job. Manuals on the care of hamsters
can be purchased at pet stores. For additional infor¬
mation on the care of hamster and other rodents one
can write to Ralston-Purina Co., St. Louis, Missouri.

To get the weight of the hamsters, a small coffee
can (with lid) is weighed. Then all hamsters from
one cage are put in the can, and the can plus hamsters
is weighed. The difference in the weight of the can
plus hamsters and the weight of the can alone, is the
weight of the three hamsters. The average weight can
be calculated by dividing the total weight by the
number of animals weighed. The periodic weighings
are recorded as in Table I. A graph of average weight
versus time is made for each diet. The children may
better understand the experiment if the results are
graphed. The children can do the weighing and the
graphing.

TABLE I

Average weights oj hamsters versus days on various diets.

Day of
Experiment

Average Weight of Animals

Cage 1

Rodent Chow

Cage 2
Dog Food

Cage 3

Dry Cereal

Day 1

45.7 g

37.0 g

47.7 g

4

48.0

42.5

47.5

5

49.0

44.0

46.5

6

57.5

48.0

45.5

8

57.5

50.0

43.0

10

59.0

57.0

42.0

11

60.5

51.5

42.5

13

59.0

59.5

41.5

15

60.3

62.4

42.5

Dry Cereal

Oatmeal

Rodent Chow

16

60.8

64.7

43.0

19

64.4

70.8

53.6

21

63.0

69.5

57.8

23

63.0

74.4

63.6

25

67.6

71.5

70.6

27

66.8

72.6

78.6

29

60.2

77.6

85.5

Cage 1 ; The diet was rodent chow from Day 1 to Day 15, then
it was changed to dry cereal.

Cage 2: The diet was dog food (dry pellets) from Day 1 to
Day 15, then it was changed to dry oatmeal.

Cage 3 : The diet was dry cereal from Day 1 to Day 1 5, then
it was changed to rodent chow.

Science Teachers Section

203

Results and Discussion

At the end of 14 days the hamsters on the diet
of dry cereal had lost weight. These animals showed
symptoms of poor nutrition in having poor coats and
being in an emaciated condition. The animals in the
other cages, on diets of rodent chow and dog food,
had gained weight normally and seemed to be in
good health. The children could see the differences
in the animals, and could readily understand that
this was due to the different diets.

The diets in each cage were now changed. Those
animals that had been on dry cereal were put on
rodent chow; those that had been on dog food were
put on dry oatmeal; those that had been on rodent
chow were put on dry cereal. Again the animals were
supplied with food and water ad libitum, and kept
on these new diets for 14 additional days. The
animals were weighed every two days and these
weighings were graphed as before.

The animals changed from a diet of dry cereal to
rodent chow began to gain weight immediately and
at the end of 14 days had weights expected of nor¬
mal hamsters of this same age. In all respects they
appeared to be quite healthy. In the meantime the
weights of those animals changed from rodent chow
to dry cereal began to level off after 4 days on the
new diet. At the end of the 14 day period these
animals began to lose weight. The hamsters changed
from dog food to oatmeal continued to gain weight,
but at a reduced rate. Again, the children could
readily see and appreciate the meaning of these
changes.

These experiments show that dry breakfast cereals
alone were inadequate to maintain the normal growth
rate and general health of the hamsters. The dry oat¬
meal was shown to occupy a position between the
dry cereal and the rodent chow. The rodent and dog
chows are mixed foods and are nutritionally com¬
plete. Cereals are single foods of limited nutritional

value. As a result of these experiments the children
did see the value of different foods in the hamsters
diet, and they could understand that humans and
hamsters (both being animals) have similar nutri¬
tional requirements.

The children were instructed to read the labels on
the food packages to determine the nutrient content
of the foodstuff used in the experiment. As part of
the instruction, the children should be told that food
is made up of many components. A good diet needs
not only proteins and vitamins, but also fats, carbo¬
hydrates and minerals in balanced proportions. The
children should understand that it is not only the
quantity, but also the quality of the food that is
needed for good nutrition. In reading food package
labels they saw that many human foods and animal
foods have similar composition.

While the children did not like oatmeal any better
(nor dry cereal any less) they did realize the need to
vary their diet. The children were anxious to try
other foods, such as various vegetables, in the
hamsters diet (but not necessarily in their own diet).
They understood that some foods were better than
others, and that they should learn the difference. As
a result of this study, the children helped me prepare
the weekly menus for our family.

Acknowledgement

Michael Hardcastle (age 10) did most of the car¬
ing for and weighing of the animals. He recorded the
weights, and any other pertinent observations, in a
bound notebook. Francie, Julie, and Andy Hard¬
castle (ages 13, 12, and 7 respectively) gave valu¬
able assistance on this project.

J. E. HARDCASTLE
Assistant Professor of Biochemistry
Chemistry Department
Texas Woman’s University
Denton, Texas 76204

204

The Virginia Journal of Science

News and Notes

J. STANTON PIERCE

Dr. J. Stanton Pierce, Professor Emeritus of
Chemistry at the University of Richmond, died on
July 22, 1972. Dr. Pierce retired in 1971 after serv¬
ing on the University of Richmond Faculty for thirty-
four years.

Dr. Pierce received the B.S. degree from George¬
town College in 1920, the M.S. degree in 1921 and
the Ph.D. degree in 1924 from the University of
Illinois. In 1924 Dr. Pierce returned to Georgetown
College as Professor of Chemistry, where he re¬
mained until 1937 at which time he came to the
University of Richmond. In addition to serving as
Professor of Chemistry, Dr. Pierce was Chairman of
the Department from 1947 to 1953.

Dr. Pierce was active in the American Chemical
Society throughout the period of more than fifty years
during which he was a member. Before coming to
Virginia he served as Chairman of the Lexington,
Kentucky section of A.C.S. While at the University
of Richmond Dr. Pierce served on numerous com¬
mittees of the Virginia section including the Execu¬
tive Committee, and held a number of offices. In
1963 he received the Distinguished Service Award
of the Virginia Section.

Dr. Pierce served as Treasurer of the Virginia
Academy of Science and also as Secretary and Chair¬
man of its Chemistry section.

Dr. Pierce was an able and devoted teacher who
guided many students into research and graduate
study in chemistry. He was very active in research
and published numerous articles in chemical journals.
He obtained a number of patents covering organic
compounds in various fields.

SCIENCE MUSEUM NEWS

Dr. Paul H. Knappenberger has been named as¬
sociate director in charge of the Science Museum of
Virginia’s Capital Division (Richmond Region) phys¬
ical sciences facility. The appointment, effective
January 1, 1973, was announced by Dr. Roscoe D.
Hughes, chairman of the Museum’s Board of Trus¬
tees.

Knappenberger, who received M.A. and Ph.D. de¬
grees from the University of Virginia in astronomy,
will also serve, for the time being, as acting director
of the Capital Division, and acting director of the
total Museum system. He also will be associated
with Virginia Commonwealth University as an as¬
sistant professor of physics on a part-time basis.

Currently, Knappenberger is serving as assistant
director of the Fernbank Science Center in Atlanta,
and holds teaching postions at both Emory and
Georgia State Universities. Since joining the Fern-
bank staff in 1968, he has shown a special interest in
coordinating physical science programs for elemen¬

tary, high school, undergraduate, and graduate stu¬
dents.

A Pennsylvania native, he has participated in
national TV coverage of the Apollo moon missions,
and among other duties at Fernbank has been re¬
sponsible for the design and construction of scientific
equipment; and computer programming, with em¬
phasis on trajectory and orbital computations. Dur¬
ing the total eclipse of the sun in March 1970, he
led a team of scientists, teachers, and students into
the area of totality where experiments in astronomy,
meteorology, and biology were conducted.

Knappenberger has received a NASA graduate
fellowship and research grant and is a member of Pi
Mu Epsilon honorary fraternity, the American
Astronomical Society, American Institute of Physics,
and the Georgia Academy of Science.

Preparation of a Master Plan, which will include
details as to type and location of structures, short
and long term expansion possibilities, operating costs,
and the relationship of the Museum to other com¬
munity cultural and educational activities, has begun
for the Capital Division (Richmond Region).

This document is of vital importance since it
will enable the Board of Trustees to make definite
decisions as to phasing and establishment of Mu¬
seum units and facilities. It will also be valuable in
seeking funds from friends of the Museum, founda¬
tions, the federal government, and other non-state
sources.

RTKL, Inc., a nationally known planning/urban
design-architectural-engineering firm has been em¬
ployed for the project, and completion is expected
around the end of December. Unfortunately, capital
outlay funds were deleted from the Museum’s 1972-
74 budget requests, but a reappropriation from
1970-72 and the Governor’s discretionary fund al¬
location of $5000 made sufficient funds available for
this project.

However, non-state funds are still needed for mas¬
ter planning in other Museum divisions, as well as
for steps required beyond the Master Plan.

The Science Museum of Virginia Foundation, Inc.
has been established, and five directors elected by
the Board of Trustees of the Science Museum.

Named were: Robert N. Fishburn, editor of the
editorial page, Roanoke Times, Roanoke; Roscoe D.
Hughes, chairman of the Science Museum of Virginia
Board, Richmond; George T. Stewart, president.
First Colony Life Insurance Company, Lynchburg;
T. Dale Stewart, vice chairman of the Science Mu¬
seum Board, McLean; and Henry L. Valentine, ex¬
ecutive vice president of Davenport and Company,
Richmond.

Hughes and George T. Stewart were elected for
a one year term, Valentine and Fishburn for two
years, and T. Dale Stewart for three years. Additional

News and Notes

205

directors from various areas of the state are expected
to be elected to the Foundation in the near future.

Recently chartered by the State Corporation Com¬
mission, the Foundation will receive gifts for the
development of the Science Museum.

veu DEAN OF ARTS AND SCIENCES

Dr. Paul D. Minton, new dean of the school of
arts and sciences, arrived in Richmond from Dallas,
Texas, the day before flood waters raged in the city,
but his enthusiasm for taking on the job was not
dampened.

Doctor Minton’s appointment was eifective July 1.
He succeeds Dr. J. Edwin Whitesell, who resigned
for a full-time teaching position in the department of
English.

Formerly professor and chairman of the depart¬
ment of statistics at Southern Methodist University
in Dallas, Doctor Minton said he was attracted to
Veu by the challenge of “a new school with a young
faculty, not frozen with a traditional curriculum.”
He particularly anticipates being a part of a uni¬
versity which has as a major thrust the solution of
urban problems. His publications demonstrate inter¬
disciplinary applications and interest, with subjects
(in addition to statistics) including mathematics,
biology, medicine, theology, engineering, and seis¬
mology.

Born in Dallas, Doctor Minton received his B.S.
and M.S. degrees in mathematics at SMU and his
Ph.D. in experimental statistics at North Carolina
State University.

In addition to teaching at SMU and for one year at
Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University,
he has worked with Remington Rand Univac, Texas
Instruments, Inc., Mobil Co., Atlantic Richfield Co.,
and Oak Ridge National Laboratory. He has served
as consultant in statistics to governmental, industrial,
and educational research organizations.

COOPERATIVE CROSSBREEDING RESEARCH

A cooperative research project of crossbreeding
for beef production was initiated in 1968 between
the Animal Science Department of V.P.I. & S.U. and
the Virginia Department of Welfare and Institutions.
An outgrowth of an earlier ten year cooperative bull
testing program, the present research is conducted at
five locations: Beaumont, Bland, Hanover, South¬
ampton, and State Farm. Over 1,000 cows were bred
in 1972 by 41 bulls representing eight breeds. The
specific objectives are: 1) To evaluate several sire
breeds; 2) to compare the productivity of several
kinds of crossbred cows with each other and with
straightbred cows; and 3) to determine the best com¬
bination of breeds and mating schemes for maximiz¬
ing beef production. This research promises to in¬
crease production within these herds by 25% or
more, stated Dr. Thomas J. Marlowe, Professor of
Animal Science at V.P.I. & S.U. and leader of the
project.

POULTRY SCIENCE NEWS

Three poultry science students are benefiting from
scholarships awarded to Virginia Tech’s department

of poultry science by a national chemical company
and two Virginia poultry firms.

Daniel A. Sutton, a sophomore from Timberville,
received a scholarship for $360 from Long Foods,
Inc., of New Market. Both James S. Brown, a
sophomore from Hamilton, and C. Shields Jones
Jr., a sophomore from Esmont, received $300
scholarships from Rocco Feeds, Inc., of Harrison¬
burg.

All three scholarships are sponsored jointly by
Dow Chemical U.S.A. The funds are part of more
than $67,000 in grants awarded by Dow in a joint
program with the poultry industry. The scholarships
are provided through contributions from the firms’
profits.

Criteria for the awards included scholastic achieve¬
ment and financial need, E. L. Wisman, Tech pro¬
fessor of poultry science, said.

Dr. Paul B. Siegel, Virginia Tech professor of
poultry science, was elected president of the Poultry
Science Association at the society’s annual meeting at
Ohio State University recently. He had served the
association as vice-president in 1971 and as a mem¬
ber of the board of directors from 1968 to 1970.
He is a past recipient of the organization’s re¬
search award.

Dr. Siegel received his B.S. degree from the Uni¬
versity of Connecticut and his M.S. and Ph.D. de¬
grees from Kansas State University before coming
to Virginia Tech in 1957. He is a specialist in the
field of poultry genetics and behavior.

Dr. Siegel was president of the Virginia Academy
of Science, 1968-69.

PROFESSOR BEAMS CITED

Dr. Jesse W. Beams, Professor Emeritus of Physics
at the University of Virginia and winner of the Na¬
tional Medal of Science in 1968, received a citation
from the U. S. Atomic Energy Commission (AEC)
in ceremonies November 2 for his work in the de¬
velopment of the gas centrifuge for separating iso¬
topes and in the AEC’s use of the process for sepa¬
rating uranium isotopes.

Dr. Beams is one of three scientists selected to
receive AEC citations. Also named were Dr. Nor¬
man G. Anderson, who headed development at Oak
Ridge National Laboratory of a centrifuge system
for the mass production of a pure influenza vaccine,
and Dr. George C. Cotzias, whose Brookhaven Na¬
tional Laboratory team developed the first successful
treatment of Parkinson’s disease using L-DOPA. The
citations were presented in ceremonies at the AEC
headquarters at Germantown, Md.

Dr. Beams’ citation honors him “for his outstand¬
ing contributions to the nation’s atomic energy pro¬
gram as a pioneer in the field of gas centrifugation;
for his creative and dynamic leadership of the Uni¬
versity of Virginia’s wartime effort on the gas cen¬
trifuge process; for his continued research which
culminated in expansion of the Atomic Energy Com¬
mission’s research and development program; for his
expert guidance of the General Advisory Committee,
as a member of the Committee of Senior Reviewers
and as a consultant.”

206

The Virginia Journal of Science

A 1921 graduate of Fairmont College — now
Wichita State University — Dr. Beams received his
doctorate in physics from the University of Virginia
in 1925. He joined the University faculty in 1928,
became a full professor in 1930 and was named
chairman of the physics department in 1948. He
retired in 1969 and was named a Professor Emeritus
of Physics and senior research scholar by the Uni¬
versity’s Board of Visitors.

In 1968 Dr. Beams was awarded the National
Medal of Science, the government’s highest award
for distinguished achievement in science, mathe¬
matics and engineering. The medal, presented by
President Lyndon B. Johnson, honors him for his
work with centrifuges.

_He is a member of the National Academy of
Sciences and served as president of the American
Physical Society in 1958-59. He is a Fellow of the
Virginia Academy of Science and was president of

the Virginia Academy of Science, 1947-48.

He has received numerous honors, including the
Potts Medal of the Franklin Institute, the Lewis
Award of the American Philosophical Society and
the John Scott Award. He remains a consultant to
the AEC.

DISTINGUISHED SERVICE AWARDS

_ The 1972 Distinguished Service Award of the Vir¬
ginia Section of the American Chemical Society was
presented to Dr. Alfred R. Armstrong, Department
of Chemistry of the College of William and Mary,
Williamsburg, for outstanding contributions in the
advancement of the profession of chemistry.

Mr. William A. Gilbert, chemistry teacher at
Waynesboro High School, Waynesboro, received the
Distinguished High School Teaching Service Award
for 1972. The awards were presented at an annual
awards program in May.

News and Notes

207

M©bil Chemical

MOBIL CHEMICAL COMPANY/ INDUSTRIAL CHEMICALS DIVISION/RICHMOND, VIRGINIA

HELP WANTED

The recent flood in Richmond, Virginia destroyed most of the extra copies of The Virginia
Journal of Science, prior to Volume 22, Number 4, 1971. Anyone having copies of older issues
that they would like to donate to a needy cause, please send them to: Dr. Charles E. O’Rear,
Business Manager, Virginia Journal of Science, 1 North 14th Street, Richmond, Virginia 23219

/I'H'DOBINS

Making todays medicines with integrity...
seeking tomorrow's with persistence.

A. 1 1. Robins Company Richmond V^a. 23220

208

The Virginia Journal of Science

Philip Morris, a publicly-owned company incorporated in Virginia, proudly traces
its heritage to a London tobacconist of a century ago. Quality and innovation
have earned for the company a valued reputation: “Philip Morris . . . makers of
America’s finest cigarettes.” By any professional measure, the Philip Morris Re¬
search and Development Center has become one of the most complete and fully-
integrated facilities for scientific effort related to tobacco products.

Write to:

Administrative Manager
P. O. Box 26583
Richmond, Virginia, 23261

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