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Some 16 in all . . . plants, research labs, sales and admini¬ strative offices . . . including our general headquarters for busi¬ ness conducted around the world. Needless to say our roots are planted deep in Commonwealth soil. Virginia is our “home state.” Whatever we have contributed to its economy is returned many times in the close relationship we have with its people and its commerce. REYNOLDS METALS COMPANY RICHMOND, VIRGINIA 23218 RICHMOND • Executive Office • Styling and Design • Advertising Distribution • Downtown Office Building • Product Development • Metallurgical Laboratory • Package Research Division • North Plant • South Plant • Equipment Center • CHESTERFIELD COUNTY Reclamation Plant • Extrusion Plant • Printing Plant • Pilot Particle Sheet Plant • GROTTOES • Plastics Plant • Plastics Research Department Tareyton’s activated charcoal delivers a better taste. A taste no plain white filter can match. King Size: 19 mg. "tar", 1.3 mg. nicotine; 100 mm: 20 mg. "tar", 1.4 mg. nicotine; av. per cigarette, FTC Report Feb. 73 Warning: The Surgeon General Has Determined That Cigarette Smoking is Dangerous to Your Health. SUSTAINING MEMBERS VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE The following Virginia Educational Institu¬ tions support the objectives of the Virginia Acad¬ emy of Science through Sustaining Memberships. Their active and financial support is gratefully acknowledged. Alderman Library College of William and Mary Emory and Henry College George Mason University Hampden-Sydney College Hollins College Longwood College Lynchburg College Madison College Mary Baldwin College Mary Washington College Mathematics and Science Center Norfolk State College Old Dominion University Randolph-Macon College Randolph-Macon Woman’s College University of Richmond University of Virginia Virginia Commonwealth University Virginia Military Institute Virginia Polytechnic Institute Virginia State College Virginia Union University Virginia Western Community College Washington and Lee University BUSINESS MEMBERS VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE Because of their interest in science and the economy of Virginia, the following industrial concerns have become Business Members of the Academy and have thus contributed greatly to its work and progress. Their support is gratefully acknowledged: Allied Chemical Corporation American Filtrona Corporation The American Tobacco Company Babcock and Wilcox Company Brunswick Corporation Bunton Instrument Co. Carolina Biological Supply Co. Dow-Badische Company E. I. du Pont de Nemours & Co., Inc. Ethyl Corporation First and Merchants National Bank General Medical Scientific House of Edgeworth Merck and Company, Inc. National Fruit Product Co. Newport News Shipbuilding & Dry Dock Co. Philip Morris and Co., Inc. A. H. Robins Company, Inc. Southern Bank & Trust Company Southern States Cooperative, Inc. Texaco, Inc. United Virginia Bank Universal Leaf Tobacco Co., Inc. Virginia Chemicals, Inc. Virginia Electric and Power Company Westinghouse Electric Corporation Wheat, First Securities, Inc. VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE OFFICIAL PUBLICATION OF THE VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE Vol. 24 No. I 1973 TABLE OF CONTENTS 5 History of the Virginia Academy of Science Chapter IV A Job of Work to Do Harry Joseph Staggers and Walter S. Flory 16 Chapter V The Fifties Harry Joseph Staggers and Walter S. Flory 25 Chapter VI The New Frontier Harry Joseph Staggers and Walter S. Flory 37 Chapter VII The Early Seventies Walter S. Flory 45 Chapter VIII The Academy — Its Start, Development and Present Status Walter S. Flory 65 Credits, A History of the History Walter S. Flonj 67 News and Notes 68 Author Index to Volume 23, 1972 THE VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Official Publication of the Virginia Academy of Science EDITOR CHARLES H. O’NEAL SECTION EDITORS Boyd L. Samuel Agricultural Sciences Lee S. Anthony Astronomy, Mathematics and Physics James D. Punch Microbiology Robert G. Bass Chemistry K. L. Reifsnider Materials Science Michael N. Bishara Engineering Kenneth A. Buck Psychology Elva D. Aukland Science Teachers John R. Howell Statistics Ricardo N. Zapata Space Science and Technology Edwin S. Higgins Medical Sciences BUSINESS MANAGER Charles E. O'Rear Published quarterly by The Virginia Academy of Science, Department of Biophysics, Medical Col¬ lege of Virginia, Richmond, Virginia 23298. Second- class postage paid at Richmond, Virginia. Manuscripts for publication (other than section abstracts) and books for review should be sent to the Editor, Dr. Charles H. O’Neal, Department of Biophysics, Box 877, Medical College of Virginia, Richmond, Virginia 23298. Proof, edited manu¬ scripts, and all correspondence regarding accepted papers should be sent to the Editor. Advertising and Business Office: All correspon¬ dence relating to advertising and business affairs should be directed to Charles E. O’Rear, Business Manager, Virginia Journal of Science, 1 N. Four¬ teenth St., Richmond, Virginia 23219. The Virginia Academy of Science and the Editors of the Virginia Journal of Science assume no re¬ sponsibility for statements or opinions advanced by contributors. © Copyright, 1973, by the Virginia Academy of Science. Business and Subscription Information All remittances and orders for advertising and subscriptions should be sent to the Business Man¬ ager, Virginia Journal of Science, 1 N. Fourteenth St., Richmond, Virginia 23219. Changes of address should be sent promptly to Blanton M. Bruner, Ex¬ ecutive Secretary-Treasurer, Virginia Academy of Science, P. O. Box 8454, Richmond, Virginia 23226. Changes of address must include both new and old addresses with zip code. Subscription rates for 1973: $8.00 per year, U.S.A.; Canada and other countries of the Pan- American Union, $8.50 per year; all other foreign countries, $9.00 per year. All foreign remittances must be made at par U.S. dollars or the foreign equivalent. U.S. dollar remittance is suggested to avoid currency fluctuation problems and possibly unfavorable exchange rates. Back issues are available for some years at $3.00 per issue plus postage. The front cover is by Douglas C. Hensley. Chapter IV A Job of Work To Do Harry Joseph Staggers and Walter S. Flory Susquehanna University Wake Forest University The Virginia Academy of Science had undergone difficult times during the World Conflict of the early 1940’s. As summarized in Chapter III of this History, Annual Meetings had been curtailed, and the membership had decreased from a high of 912 in 1941, to 629 in 1945. But the sound foundation laid by the early leaders, officers and members of the Academy insured a strong and continuing in¬ terest in a state-wide scientific organization. With the war past, advancement of Academy objectives could again be approached unhampered by a prime considera¬ tion of national military needs and demands. The Academy could and would emerge from the quiescent period enforced upon it by conditions of war. Actually, this more or less static period was to serve as a stimulus eventuating in a much more dynamic and vital organization. President H. Rupert Hanmer presided over the Twenty-Fourth Annual Meeting of the Virginia Academy of Science at Richmond, in May, 1946. In his address the retiring President summed up the recent years of trial and tribulation for the Academy members. “Within our province,” he began, “we know that the fields of research have lain fallow. ... No one is more keenly aware of this than members of the Academy and no one is more relieved to cast off the shackles of restraint and secrecy within which the spirit of research cannot flourish. We know,” he con¬ cluded by pointing to the future, “that there is a job of work to do. Perhaps we can best express our thankfulness by getting on with it.”1 Probably not since the first gathering in Williamsburg in 1923 had a challenge of the present magnitude confronted the Virginia Academy of Science. Secretary-Treasurer E. C. L. Miller, now in his seventy-ninth year, reported that membership and finances both appeared to be on sound footing. “It gives me pleasure,” he said, “to put these facts on the record since I have resigned as Secre¬ tary-Treasurer and am trying to retire and so am delighted to see others taking up the work with such commendable spirit, energy and wisdom.”- Earlier, President Hanmer had announced Dr. Miller’s intention and described it as “a matter of startling and vital importance. ”:i Actually, at the time Dr. Miller gave his report he had already been nominated and reelected.4 The Virginia Academy of Science had weathered its first postwar crisis. It was, however, with something more than sorrow that the members of the Academy passed a resolution memorializing the late Dr. J. Shelton Horsley, Vir¬ ginia’s foremost surgeon, the fourth President of the Academy and long a valuable counsellor to the organization, who died April 7, 1946. In conclusion the resolution read: “The members of the Virginia Academy of Science mourn his loss but count themselves fortunate to have numbered him as one of them.”5 Edward S. Harlow of Richmond moved, and Dr. Ivey F. Lewis seconded, a recommendation by the Academy officers that the Academy Research Award be renamed “The J. Shelton Horsley Research Award.” This was unanimously accepted. Dr. Horsley had been the first Chairman of the Research Committee of the Academy. He had instigated, and with his great prestige he had personally solicited and raised, the initial endowment fund which has had so much to do with the ef¬ fectiveness of the committee. Until his death he presided over this fund, as Chairman of the Research Committee. This committee made research grants which, over the years, stimulated and made possible the special projects and research of many young Virginia scientists. The committee also guided the procedure leading to selection of an “especially meritorious paper” (as Dr. Horsley always stated it) presented be¬ fore some Section at the annual Academy meeting each year. To have a paper 1 Proceedings, 1945-1946, 17. - Ibid., 46-47. 3 Ibid., 20. 1 Ibid., 46. "'Ibid., 55-56. Ibid., 16. History of Virginia Academy of Science 5 7 Ibid., 51. s Ibid., 27. 0 Ibid., 29-30. 10 Ibid., 52. 71 Ibid., 30. 72 Ibid.. 31. 73 Ibid.. 33-35. 77 Thelma C. Heatwole, His¬ tory of the Virginia junior Academy of Science, 15. Mrs. Heatwole's manuscript is in the possession of the Virginia Acad¬ emy of Science, Virginia In¬ stitute for Scientific Research, Richmond, Virginia. 13 Ibid., 15-16; Proceedings, 1945-1946, 28-29. 70 Proceedings. 1945-1946, 51. 77 Ibid., 42-43. selected for the J. Shelton Horsley Research Award soon came to be considered the top scientific honor granted in Virginia. The first Academy prize under the new title was a joint award. The 1946 honor went to two different Virginia Polytechnic Institute scientists, for separate papers presented, with each paper judged as being “distinctly superior,” and apparently of very equal quality. The two winning scientists, and their papers, were Drs. Boyd Harshbarger writing on “Rectangular Lattices,” and D. B. DeLury whose contri¬ bution was entitled “The Analysis of Latin Squares When Some Observations are Missing.”7 The status of the James River Project, which had been in abeyance during the war years, was carefully considered by Chairman Marcellus H. Stow of Washington and Lee and his committee. Agreement was reached to press on for completion of the Monograph, even though it was noted that the annual $5,000 appropriation granted by the Virginia General Assembly had not been requested in 1946. Some of Stow’s wartime patience with his chapter authors had finally worn thin: “If lack of interest was shown in some cases,” he announced, “new assignments of authorship should be arranged.”8 The Virginia Junior Academy of Science celebrated its fifth birthday at this 1946 meeting. The Junior Academy was one segment of Academy activities that had a nearly normal tenure during the war years. Junior Academy Chairman Hubert J. Davis of Portsmouth reported that 132 science clubs were members. Davis also suggested means by which the Junior Academy might be strengthened.9 A short time later the Council passed a motion made by Dr. R. F. Smart resulting in a more formal organization, with more definite objectives, for the guidance of the steering committee of the junior organization.10 Dr. Sidney S. Negus reported on the Virginia Science Talent Search. The idea of the “Search,” Negus noted, had come from Hubert Davis at a Council Meeting in May, 1944. 11 On October 26, 1945, a letter was sent by the State Department of Education “to principals of all white and negro public high schools in Virginia, to headmasters of all private schools, and to rectors of all parochial schools an¬ nouncing the Virginia Science Talent Search.”12 The state science search was held in conjunction with the fifth national science search. Four Virginians received na¬ tional “honorable mention,” and the Academy threw its prestige behind the fifteen state winners in the young scientists’ efforts to get scholarships.13 In January, 1943, the Academy’s Research Committee had established a prize of $50 to recognize “outstanding work by any science club in the state.”14 This award was named in honor of Dr. E. C. L. Miller. It was first presented to the Warren County Society of Scientists, Front Royal (Miss Vada C. Miller, Sponsor), in 1944. In 1945 no award was made as only a skeleton meeting of the Academy was held.15 However, in 1946 the award took on an annual character and was presented that year to the Newport News High School Science Club (Miss Susie V. Floyd, Sponsor). Among the first indications of a quickening and broadening of Academy interests was brought to the membership at the Thursday night General Meeting in a talk by Dr. Allan T. Gwathmey of the University of Virginia, presented as a part of the report of the Research Committee. “During the past few years, Virginia has been making all too few contributions to the intellectual and social development of the world,”10 said Dr. Gwathmey as he spoke about the need to establish a research institute in Virginia. The institute, reported Dr. Gwathmey, would have two divi¬ sions: basic science and applied science; and once viable would become independent of the Academy. “At the present time, regardless of the immediate difficulties we may be having as a result of the war, the world is passing from an age of scarcity to an age of relative abundance. The significant factor which is making this change possible,” Gwathmey asserted, “is the application of scientific knowledge to our system of production. Only when Virginia is making significant contributions to the world of science,” he concluded, “can she play her proper role in promoting the political and social changes which are now taking place.”17 Dr. Gwathmey’s dream was not to be realized for two more years; but it did come to pass, and its realization stands today near the University of Richmond campus. Another measure of renewed activity was the attention given to reviving the Virginia Journal of Science, which had been dormant since 1943. Discussion of the revival of the Academy journal was led by Dr. Ivey F. Lewis. Dr. Lewis, long 6 The Virginia Journal of Science a supporter of an Academy journal, and earlier chairman of the committee which initiated The Virginia Journal of Science in 1940, delivered an emotional and elo¬ quent plea that the Virginia Academy of Science Journal resume publication. “All we need is to face the future with a high heart,” said the first Academy President. “What if there is an atomic bomb! We have met trouble before. We can meet it again. The Academy is more needed now than ever before, and we should support it with high courage.”18 More discussion followed until Dr. Garnett Ryland of the University of Richmond moved the adoption of the Planning Committee’s resolu¬ tion: “That the publication of The Virginia Journal of Science be resumed — that a committee of three be appointed by the incoming president to make plans for this and to report at the 3947 meeting.” Dr. Boyd Harshbarger of Virginia Polytechnic Institute seconded the motion and it carried unanimously. 111 The result of this ac¬ tion can be seen on our library shelves today as ‘'The Virginia Journal of Science, New Series” (with 23 volumes completed through 1972). Dr. Arthur Bevan, Virginia State Geologist, and the Academy President, 3 946— 47, echoed the sentiments of several members when he called for more intensified education in Virginia, for the sort of education that would produce a new breed of social scientist capable of making man “master of his fate upon this planet.” Dr. Bevan went on to say: “The scientific study of modern social problems is essen¬ tial.”-" Dr. Bevan may have been correct, but unfortunately his call to arms was not taken up. He himself had commented on what he termed “the dawning of a so-called ‘atomic age’.” Clearly, the atomic age had more than dawned almost a year earlier on August 6, 1945.-’ And it was this fact, more than any other, which was to influence the role of science in the ensuing years. The Academy made substantial progress during 1946-47 according to the report submitted by the venerable Dr. E. C. L. Miller at the Charlottesville meeting. How¬ ever, he admonished this twenty-fifth meeting of scientific Virginians when he noted: “The world is entering a new era, an era of science. Most of our people in Virginia know little or nothing about it but are still living in the age-old traditions of their fathers. Is it not peculiarly our duty as a state academy of science,” he asked, “to assume some responsibility for the enlightenment of the people of our state? .... I would urge that the Academy take thought in this matter and find some way to function more effectively.”-2 In that year, too, more pressure was brought to bear on authors working on the James River Project. At a meeting held in Richmond in April, 1947, Chairman Marcellus H. Stow had “emphasized that the Project should not be involved with what somebody may be interested in doing to the James River Basin; it should be concerned solely with presentation of factually accurate information.” The Chair¬ man was to receive all the completed manuscripts by May, 1948. 2:1 However, Dr. Stow’s optimism was again to be diminished by the slow pens of his colleagues. A rather thorough discussion of the Virginia Science Talent Search took place at Charlottesville. It was decided to expand the Search to include members of the junior as well as of the senior high school classes. Science open houses to inter¬ view contestants had been held during the spring at The College of William and Mary, Virginia Polytechnic Institute, University of Virginia, Medical College of Virginia, University of Richmond and Virginia State College. Forty-two boys and girls received awards from the Academy. Edward Minter Foley of George Wash¬ ington High School, Danville (Mr. G. L. Thomasson, Sponsor), and Melissa An¬ thony Warfield of Granby High School, Norfolk (Miss Sybil Boggs, Sponsor), were singled out as “first prize” winners. Mrs. W. Catesby Jones presented Foley with an award in honor of her late husband who was President of the Virginia Academy of Science 1943-44. 24 The W. Catesby Jones Prize was to become an annual pres¬ entation. Granby High School Science Club of Norfolk won the E. C. L. Miller Award for 1947. 25 Virginia Research Institute subcommittee Chairman Dr. Allan Gwathmey made several modest suggestions to get the proposed institute off the drawing board and into operation as soon as possible. Gwathmey’s proposals were accepted and his subcommittee was instructed to continue its work.2" Dr. Ivey F. Lewis, comment¬ ing on the much discussed Academy journal, said that two mandatory conditions had to be met before publication could begin: 1) there must be sufficient financial support, and 2) agreement must be reached on the nature of material to be pub¬ lished.27 History of Virginia Academy of Science 18 Ibid., 44-45. ™ Ibid., 45. 20 Ibid., 12. 21 Samuel Eliot Morison, The Oxford History of the Ameri¬ can People. New York: Oxford University Press, 1965, 1044. 22 Proceedings, 1946-1947 , 17. 23 Ibid., 27-28. 24 Ibid., 35-45; 51. 25 Ibid., 50. 2G Ibid., 29; for full report see 30-31. Ibid., 34. 2S Ibid., 13-14. -9 Proceedings, 1947-1948, 14, 49-50. 30 Ibid., 15. 31 Ibid., 23. 32 Ibid., 54. 33 Ibid., 23; Sidney S. Negus, Statement concerning the Vir¬ ginia Institute for Scientific Re¬ search before the General Laws Committee on January 30, 1958. Paper in the possession of the Virginia Academy of Science, Virginia Institute for Scientific Research, Richmond. 3‘ Proceedings, 1947-1948, 37. 33 Ibid.. 47-48. 30 Ibid.. 47. I I It is interesting to note that the idea of an Academy history was voiced in 1947. President Arthur Bevan, now of the Illinois Geological Survey, suggested that “Charter Secretary” Miller prepare a brief history for the Quarter Centennial.28 It would be a decade before the Academy gave any serious thought to compiling its history, and two decades before such a project was to become a reality. Members of the Academy attending the twenty-sixth Annual Meeting in 1948 were greeted in the lobby of the Hotel Roanoke by the first exhibit that the Ameri¬ can Association for the Advancement of Science had ever displayed at a state academy meeting. The exhibit material was equally divided between national and local Academy displays. This also marked the first time that the Academy’s Re¬ search Committee had sponsored an exhibit of general interest — “Phase Contrast Microscopy.”2" In giving his report to President Jesse W. Beams of the University of Virginia, Secretary Miller credited Chairman Foley F. Smith of the Membership Committee with pulling postwar memberships from 835 to 1007. The Secretary continued his report by saying: “Perhaps the most important accomplishment this year is the launching of the Virginia Institute for Scientific Research. It is now incorporated, independent and functioning and we wish it vigorous growth.”2" Dr. Gwathmey’s dream had been realized. On July 1, 1947, Dr. John C. Strick¬ land of the Biology Department of the University of Richmond became the new Institute’s first full time employee. Dr. Strickland availed himself of the temporary laboratory facilities provided by the University of Richmond to pursue research on “cell growth in the blue-green algae.” Eight months later, on March 6, 1948, as Dr. Gwathmey reported, “the Virginia Institute for Scientific Research was incorporated as an independent non-profit organization operating under its own board of trustees, for the purpose of conducting and promoting research in the natural sciences.”31 Two days later, “through the efforts of the Academy’s loyal member. Senator Bird of Chesterfield,” a bill was introduced in the General Assem¬ bly requesting a $40,000 appropriation covering the two years 1948-49 and 1949-50. Senator Bird, with the support of Senator John Stewart Battle of Char¬ lottesville, was able to secure a $20,000 grant for the Institute for the two-year period.32 Dr. Henry Leidheiser of the University of Virginia was the recipient of the 1948 .1. Shelton Horsley Award for his paper read before the Section on Chemistry. The prize winning paper was entitled “Generalizations Concerning the Surface Behavior of Single Crystals of the Face-Centered Cubic Metals.”33 Chairman Marcellus H. Stow was forced to report that, by the May 1, 1948, deadline he had set, only four chapter manuscripts had reached his hands. How¬ ever, Stow was still optimistic and said that he thought it reasonable to assume that he would receive ten more chapters by January, 1949. In total, the work was to be composed of twenty-four chapters, two of which would not be written until the other twenty-two had come in. There was another reason for trying to wrap up this stage of the James River Project in addition to its already being long over¬ due. The Virginia General Assembly had appropriated $5,000 for publication of the monograph during previous bienniums. In 1948, however, a sum of $10,000 was set aside to aid the Academy, and as Dr. Stow pointed out: “Of course none of this money has been spent, but it is extremely vital that the Academy complete the work on the monograph to assure publication during the current biennium.”34 The Academy had long been workinq for the establishment of a state museum of science through the efforts of a committee chaired by Dr. George W. Jeffers, Academy President 1941-42. However, by 1948 the proposal for a science museum had been taken up by the state of Virginia and was at that time in the hands of a commission appointed by Governor Tuck.35 Consequently there was no report from Dr. Jeffers. Nor was there much of substance reported by Dr. Ladley Husted of the University of Virginia, the Chairman of the committee investigating the resumption of publication of an Academy journal. The Chairman did say that “a great deal of exploratory work was done,” but no other report was given.30 Regulations governing the Virginia Science Talent Search were again revised in 1948, so as to again include only seniors in high school who had entered the National Science Talent Search. The interview system was again employed in centers at the University of Virginia, Virginia Polytechnic Institute, University of Richmond, William and Mary and Hampton Institute to select the fifteen winners 8 The Virginia Journal of Science invited to the Academy meeting/*7 The E. C. L. Miller Award went to Wilson Memorial High School of Fishersville (Mrs. B. G. Heatwole, Sponsor); and the W. Catesby Jones Memorial Prize to Millard C. Townsend of William Fleming High School of Roanoke. Townsend had the highest rating in the 1948 Virginia Science Talent Search/'*8 In concluding his report on the Virginia Junior Academy of Science, Chairman James W. Cole, Jr., of the University of Virginia, pointed out that “it is very dis¬ quieting to see a youngster highly elated over being a winner and then to see him when he finds that only a tuition scholarship might be available. Along this line,” continued Cole, “the great need is for several full subsistence scholarships for the talented young people who cannot attend college unless such help is available. ”;i!l One of the unforgettable and moving moments of the Academy meeting occurred on May 7 at the dinner session when an oil portrait of Dr. E. C. F. Miller painted by Herbert E. Ives, a physicist connected with the development of television, was presented. In his presentation address Dr. Ivey F. Fewis remarked: “I think it may fairly be said of Dr. Miller as of Sir Christopher Wren, the famous architect who rebuilt Fondon after the Great Fire of the seventeenth century and whose influence extended to Virginia, ‘If you would see his monument, look around you’.”1" As Dr. Fewis spoke, Dr. Miller wept silently.71 Dr. Miller, often referred to as “Mr. Academy,” was 8 1 years of age at this time. The most significant piece of business transacted at the twenty-seventh Annual Meeting, presided over by Dr. Sidney S. Negus at Richmond in 1949, concerned the reestablishment of The Virginia Journal of Science. Chairman Fadley Husted presented the Publication Committee’s report covering many problems that an Academy journal would have to deal with. It was a challenging report, filled with recommendations and offered many examples from other state academies engaged in publication.72 After Dr. Husted concluded. Dr. Fewis moved that the Academy Conference recommend to the Council adoption of the Committee’s report that the Council revive publication of The Virginia Journal of Science by January 1, 1950. 7:1 This was seconded and passed by a rising vote. At a Council meeting held in Charlottesville on June 19, 1949, the decision was reached to launch the Journal through a subsidization by the Academy membership. This agreed upon, Dr. Boyd Harshbarger of Virginia Polytechnic Institute and Academy President 1949-50 was unanimously elected Editor-in-Chief for a five- year term. Dr. Horton Hobbs of the University of Virginia was chosen for the position of Technical Editor and Wilbert Schaal of Washington, D. C., became the Assistant Technical Editor.77 Dr. Harshbarger, Academy President 1949-50, together with Dr. Ivey Fewis, immediately instituted a letter writing campaign to the Academy members soliciting financial contributions for The Virginia Journal of Science, New Series. The Academy members responded with gifts totalling over $3,000 and this money served as a financial backlog which assured the successful revival of the Journal. The Journal, however, was not the only success story at this Annual Meeting. Dr. Allan T. Gwathmey, President of the Board of Directors of the Virginia Institute for Scientific Research, gave an encouraging if not entirely satisfying report. After much negotiating and a few false starts it appeared that the Institute had secured the Museum Building in the R. E. Lee Camp Memorial Park for its labora¬ tory and administrative facilities. However, Dr. Gwathmey told the Academy, Mrs. Daisy Avery, Chairman of the committee responsible for operating the mu¬ seum, had annnounced that she would ask for an injunction to halt the "institute’s use of the building. At the time of Dr. Gwathmey’s report a hearing on the question was pending.45 The hearing was held shortly thereafter and resulted in a victory for the em¬ bryonic Institute. As the 1950 Institute report relates: “On June 1, 1949, after a protracted controversy between the State' of Virginia and a branch of the United Daughters of the Confederacy, the Research Institute opened its headquarters in the old Museum Building in the R. E. Lee Memorial Park on the Boulevard in the City of Richmond.”7'’ The new Institute offered the Virginia Academy of Science a third floor room in the building for an office or repository.77 A note of optimism was also obvious as Marcellus Stow reported that the James River Monograph was approaching publication. Chairman Stow suggested that two volumes be published because many of the chapters were already in final form. 37 Ibid., 27-31; Heatwole, 19. *5 Ibid., 51-52. ™ Ibid, 32. ■>» Ibid., 52-53. 11 Virginia Journal of Science, New Ser. 6: 1, 2. 1950. Here¬ inafter cited VJS. J- Proceedings , 1948-1949, 51- 58. Ibid., 60. 14 Ibid., 72-73. 4= Ibid., 27-28. 48 VJS, New Ser., 1 : 298. 1950. 47 Ibid., 299. History of Virginia Academy of Science 9 48 Proceedings, 1948 1949, 42. 40 VJS, New Ser., 1 : 78. 1950. ^Proceedings, 1948 1949, 58. r>1 Ibid., 17; Samuella Crim, History of the Section of Sci¬ ence Teachers of the Virginia Academy of Science, 1 ; Robert M. Hubbard, Virginia Academy of Science History of the Sec¬ tion of Engineering, 1. Both manuscripts in the possession of the Virginia Academy of Science, Virginia Institute for Scientific Research, Richmond. 52 Proceedings , 1948 1949, 67. Ibid., 29; 61. r’4 Ibid., 32-36. a* Ibid., 40-41. 56 Ibid., 18. "'Ibid., 62. RS Ibid., 61 . 59 Ibid., 63-65. f,° Justus H. Cline to Lloyd C. Bird, Stuarts Draft, Va., June 6, 1949, Folder A, Vir¬ ginia Academy of Science Pa¬ pers, Virginia Institute for Sci¬ entific Research. and also because “the Academy is obligated to show specific accomplishment on the Project before the General Assembly convenes in January, 1950, as a justifica¬ tion for the appropriation of $10,000 in 1948 for publication of the monograph.”48 Less than a week later, at an Academy Council meeting, Dr. Stow announced that the monograph. The James River Basin — Past , Present and Future, was set for a January, 1950, publication date.4*' The Museum Committee did not appear to be fairing as well as the James River Project Committee. Chairman George W. Jeffers turned the floor over to Mrs. Alice Pollard Stryker, a member of Governor Tuck’s commission on a State Museum of Science. Mrs. Stryker reported that sometime in the future, after the construction of the new State Office Building, the State Finance Building in Capital Square would be available as a State Science Museum. r,n A new section was instituted at the twenty-seventh Annual Meeting and another section was reorganized. The Section of Science Teachers held its first meeting at Richmond in 1949, while the Section of Engineering, founded in 1939 but not active since 1943, also met at Richmond.''1 Two new honors were established at this Academy meeting. The first “Honorary Life Membership” in the hisfory of the Academy was bestowed on John B. Lewis of Broadnax, a member of the Agricultural Sciences Section."’- Also at this meeting Dr. Guy W. Horsley reported that the Finance and Endowment Committee had authorized the drawing up of certificates to be presented to all the Academy Prize and “J. Shelton Horsley Research Award” winners since 1927. The first of these certificates went to Walter S. Flory of the University of Virginia, when he was presented with the 1949 J. Shelton Horsley Research Award for his prize winning paper “Pollen Condition in Some Species and Hybrids of Rosa with a Consideration of Associated Phylogenetic Factors.” At the same time Mr. Hanmer, Chairman of the Research Committee, “noted that other scrolls were being mailed to the previous recipients” of the Award.33 Seventeen top winners in the Virginia Science Talent Search were named along with winners in the various Junior Academy competitions. The E. C. L. Miller Award went to the Newport News Science Club (Miss Susie Floyd, Sponsor), and the Major W. Catesby Jones Prize to the first place winner in the individual exhibit category, Bcrnett Johnson, Armstrong High School, Richmond.34 Dr. James W. Cole of the University of Virginia again noted that the tangible award for a winner was no more than a diploma. He pointed out that no aid was given to defray travel or research expenses of the entrants. Moreover, the Academy had no funds to assist a worthy but needy student in his quest for knowledge.55 The Academy found itself in 1949 with a new Secretary-Treasurer. Foley F. Smith, formerly the Assistant Secretary-Treasurer, had taken up the responsibilities of Secretary Miller. “As of September 28, 1948,” reported Smith, “Dr. E. C. L. Miller, Secretary-Treasurer of the Academy since its organization in 1923, re¬ quested that the duties of this office be taken over by the Assistant Secretary- Treasurer. His persistence that this change be made finally persuaded those in authority to make it reluctantly.”53 In the nominations for Academy officers for 1949-50, Dr. Miller was singularly honored by being selected for the position of “Secretary-T reasurer Emeritus.”57 The scientists attending the dinner meeting were addressed by Dr. Howard A. Meyerhoff, Administrative Secretary of the American Association for the Advance¬ ment of Science, on the subject of “The Scientist in Politics.” Dr. Meyerhoff an¬ nounced the formation of a new agency to help those scientists squeezed between “governmental directed research and industrial research. To help the scientist in this ‘narrow corridor’ a new agency, the National Science Foundation, was being organized. This foundation has as its purpose the development of scientific research, and the promotion of this research by providing funds.”58 After his installation as President, Dr. Boyd Harshbarger of Virginia Polytechnic Institute spoke concerning the need for making better use of young scientists trained in Virginia graduate schools, and he also addressed himself to the improvement of secondary science education.59 A few weeks later, Justus H. Cline of Stuarts Draft had an opportunity to talk with Dr. Harshbarger and then wrote to Senator Bird concerning his delight that the Academy had “taken on the science instruction problem we’ve agitated ourselves about for so long.”3" A significant milestone in the history of the Virginia Academy of Science was 10 The Virginia Journal of Science reached on January 30, 1950, when The Virginia Journal of Science, volume 1, new series, number 1, edited by Dr. Harshbarger, was mailed from Blacksburg to the members of the Academy. The printing was done by the Graphic Arts Depart¬ ment of the Radford News Journal. The first issue was composed of four articles and a section entitled “News and Notes” which included general information for Academy members and news from the Sections. ,;I The first number of the Journal carried a notice of a change in the procedure in the competition for the J. Shelton Horsley Research Award. Since “few indi¬ viduals were actively competing” for the award, it was decided by the Research Committee that “every paper composing a report of original research performed by its author, which is presented before any Section of the Academy during the 1950 May session, will be eligible for the Award. ”(i2 The second issue of the Journal illustrated more uses to which this organ of communication among Academy members could be put. The complete program for the Academy’s twenty-eighth Annual Meeting was published. u;! It became a standard procedure, followed for some years, to thus inform the members of the May program. In addition, this issue introduced the question of a constitutional revision, since the Academy was operating under rules last revised in May, 1 9 3 9 . r>4 Later, at the Annual Meeting, a revised constitution, as well as certain by-law changes, were accepted.65 The highlight of the Academy meeting in 1950 at Roanoke came when Chair¬ man Stow presented an analysis of the progress of the James River Project and showed the members a printed copy of the advertising brochure.66 An interesting discussion of the events surrounding the report given by Dr. Stow was published by Dr. Sidney Negus shortly after the meeting. As Dr. Negus relates the story, Chairman Stow, scheduled to report to the Academy at approximately 10 P.M. on the evening of May 12, 1950, found himself in a somewhat embarrassing position at 9:30 P.M. A year earlier Stow had more or less predicted that his next report would be to the effect that the monograph had been published. However, as Stow sat empty-handed at 9:30 his appearance was somewhat misleading. The Chairman had arranged for one of his students at Washington and Lee, Richard McDonald, to pick up some of the completed books at the bindery in Baltimore and to rush them to Roanoke. McDonald arrived from the Albrecht Company at 9:45 P.M., and thus Dr. Stow was able to give his report with a copy of The James River Basin — Past, Present and Future in his hands. “At the close of this report, he presented this copy number one to Justus H. Cline, and copy number two to Dr. Rudd, the men to whom the Monograph is dedicated.”67 Mr. Hubert J. Davis reported that the “First Annual Tidewater Fair,” sponsored by the Norfolk Ledger-Dispatch, had been held April 22-25, 1950. It was the first attempt, Davis said, at a science fair by any city in the southeastern United States.68 Science open houses were held in the spring of 1950 at Medical College of Virginia, William and Mary, Bridgewater College, Virginia Polytechnic Institute, University of Virginia, University of Richmond and Saint Paul’s School, Lawrcnce- ville, “for negro students.” The records of the Academy show that there was some confusion in the presentation of awards to Junior Academy winners. Charles Mon¬ cure of Radford High School took first place in the “individual exhibits” category, but there is no record of his having received the W. Catesby Jones Prize — often presented to the junior who distinguished himself in that competition. In addition, the E. C. L, Miller Award, annually given to the outstanding science club, instead was presented in 1950 to the club sponsor, Mr. J. L. Perry of the Booker T. Wash¬ ington High School Science Club, Norfolk,69 where it apparently should have gone to the school club — not the sponsor. Dean Ivey F. Lewis and Dean Wortly F. Rudd, the first and eighteenth Presi¬ dents of the Academy, were both made Honorary Life Members in 1950. 70 The Horsley Research Award went to Erling S. Hegre of the Medical College of Vir¬ ginia for his study “A New Research Tool and Technique for the Biologist.” Honorable Mention went to Donald M. Britton, Blandy Research Fellow of the University of Virginia for his paper on “Cytogenetic Studies on the Boraginaceae.”71 Also in 1950 the Academy found itself with two “Official Collegiate Chapters” when petitions for affiliation from groups at Virginia Military Institute and Virginia Polytechnic Institute were approved.72 01 VJS, New Ser. 1: inside front cover. 1950. 152 Ibid., 68. For full list of J. Shelton Horsley Award Win¬ ners see Table V, Chap. VIII. 63 VJS, New Ser. 1: 147-76. 1950. '"Ibid., 133-37. 05 Ibid., 308-314. It should be noted that the fourth num¬ ber in each volume of the VJS carries the Proceedings of the annual Academy meeting. 00 Ibid., 302-8. 67 Sidney S. Negus, “The James River Project,’’ VJS, New Ser. 1: 194-195. 1950. Note that number three in each volume of the VJS is published in July after the annual meet¬ ing, but before the full record of that meeting is made avail¬ able in number four which comes out in September. 08 VJS, New Ser. 1 : 272-273. 1950. ™ Ibid., 284-85. 70 Ibid ., 322. 71 Ibid., 316. 72 Ibid., 300. History of Virginia Academy of Science 11 73 Ibid., 318. Dr. Guy W. Horsley of Richmond was chosen the twenty-eighth President of the Academy, 1950-51. His election marked the first time a son of a former President, Dr. J. Shelton Horsley (fourth President, 1926-27), had been so honored. 7;i VJS, New Ser. 2: 62. 1951. Shortly after the twenty-eighth meeting the Virginia Academy of Science was saddened by the deaths of two former Presidents. Dr. Donald W. Davis, Chairman of the Biology Department at the College of William and Mary, passed away on June 30, 1950. Dr. Davis was quite instrumental in the founding of the Academy, was one of the charter members, and served as the fifth President, 1927-28. 74 Less than one month later, July 26, 1950, Dr. Wortly F. Rudd, Dean of the School of Pharmacy at Medical College of Virginia, 1920—1947, a significant figure in the history of the James River Project, and Academy President 1940-41, passed 75 Ibid.. 129. on.'J "n Ibid. , 266-6 7. Much of the Academy’s activity at the 1951 meeting, held at Lynchburg, was with regard to students. One aspect of student involvement concerned foreign exchange students. For some years a committee, chaired in 1951 by Dr. Edgar J. Fisher of Sweet Briar College, had been keeping records on foreign students — how many there were, where they were from, their distribution among schools in the United States and in Virginia, and the course of study they pursued. In his report to the Academy, Fisher pointed out that “the significance of the foreign student movement obviously transcends statistics. . . . The enlightened resources of the community should be brought to bear in the academic and non-academic phases of community life. ... It is by no means sufficient,” he concluded, “that these young people from other lands should have merely a successful academic experience. . . . The purely academic should be supplemented by fruitful experiences in the civic, industrial, recreational, religious, and social phases of American life.”78 The Collegiate members of the Academy, although not a large group, decided to continue their activities for another year. They affirmed that a definite effort 77 Ibid., 281-82. would be made to attract new members, and that a separate Section meeting, replete with papers, would be held at the 1952 meeting.77 A notch lower, in the high school competition fostered by the Junior Academy, the Wilson Memorial Science Club of Fishersville (Mrs. B. G. Heatwole, Sponsor), won the E. C. L. Miller Award. The W. Catesby Jones Prize was presented on a different criterion in 1951. The award was given for the best essay in chemistry and was won by Marcella M. Eubank of Wilson Memorial High School at Fishersville for her paper “Reactions 7S Ibid., 262-65. in Gels.”78 ™ Ibid., 276-79. Dr. Stow reported that the press reception of The James River Basin — Past, Present and Future was quite enthusiastic; however, only 226 copies of the book had been sold.79 Another part good-part bad report was presented concerning the Academy’s membership. By revising the constitution so as to drop any member in financial arrears for one year, instead of three years as was formerly the case, some ninety-two members were lost; however, membership recruitment had been 80 Ibid., 267-68. good and the Academy found that it had only ten less members than in 1950. 80 81 /Nd., 280. The honorarium for Secretary-Treasurer Foley F. Smith was increased from $300 to $400. 81 62 Ibid., 258. At the Lynchburg meeting, the coveted research honor went to D. B. Duncan. The title of the V. P. I. statistician’s Horsley Award winning paper was “A Sig¬ nificance Test for Differences Between Ranked Treatments in an Analysis of Variance: the Properties of the Multiple Comparison Test.”82 The thirtieth Annual Meeting in 1952 was called to order at Old Point Comfort by President Paul M. Patterson, the second person and the second biologist from Hollins College to serve in this office. Again a substantial amount of the Academy’s attention was focused on students. 83 VJS, New Ser. 3: 236. 1952. President Patterson recommended to the Academy Conference that the Com¬ mittee on Exchange of Foreign Students, first mentioned in the Proceedings 1946- 1947, be discontinued as its function no longer appeared necessary.83 The com¬ mittee apparently was organized primarily to investigate and report on foreign students engaged in study in the United States. Several agencies of the state and national government kept similar records; nowhere, however, does a clear-cut explanation of the committee’s responsibilities appear. The President’s recommen¬ dation, although no word of decisive action taken on it is found in the records of the Academy, obviously was accepted as the Committee on Exchange of Foreign 12 The Virginia. Journal of Science Students was not among those continued by Senator L. C. Bird, President of the Academy 1 952-53. 84 Dr. Edgar Fisher, in what was to be his last report to the Academy concerning foreign students, pointed out that the state of Virginia was woefully lacking in drawing students from the uncommitted world, especially from the Arab Middle East which was represented by only four students in Virginia. “Virginia should do its part better,” said Fisher, “in helping to train the young men and women from this crucial area. . . . On such a modest basis we cannot do our proper part in liberalizing the thinking of that part of the world or in developing democracies with satisfactory restraint and justice.”85 For some years the “Speakers Bureau” of the Academy had been compiling lists of available speakers from the academic and industrial fields to address interested groups throughout the state. Chairman Frank C. Vilbrandt of V. P. I. reported at the Lynchburg meeting. It was pointed out that sometimes a speaker was objected to by high school principals on the grounds that he tried “to sell the idea of science to high school students.” In addition principals complained that guidance work should continue to be totally within the province of their own staffs.80 New com¬ mittee Chairman Dr. S. S. Obenshain, of Virginia Polytechnic Institute, reported to the Academy that quite often the opportunity to make use of a competent speaker was simply ignored. However, Dr. Obenshain recommended “that once more this service be offered to various groups of the state and unless the demand for speakers is fairly large that the committee be discontinued.”87 The 1952 Horsley Research Award was won by Dr. D. R. H. Gourley, Jr., of the University of Virginia’s Pharmacology Department, for his paper on “The Mechanism of the Uptake of Radioactive Phosphate by Human, Rabbit and Chicken Erythrocytes.”88 For the first time since the Academy inaugurated the Virginia Science Talent Search in 1946 a student from Virginia was named as a winner in the National Science Talent Search. She was Miss Ruth Flinn Harrell of Maury High School, Norfolk. The emphasis which the academy placed on the science search began paying off in other ways as well. Twenty-eight institutions of higher learning in Virginia made over one hundred scholarships available to the top science stu¬ dents, and industries contributed $1,300 to defray the expenses of the finalists.80 The E. C. L. Miller Award went to the Science Club of Martinsville High School (Felix Sanders, Sponsor).0" No mention was made of the W. Catesby Jones Prize. Dr. Marcellus H. Stow, reporting for the Long Range Planning Committee announced that two major subcommittee projects were underway. One was a study of secondary school science teaching under the direction of Dr. F. G. Lankford of the University of Virginia, and the other the establishment of a Dismal Swamp Project with Dr. J. T. Baldwin of William and Mary as the Chairman.01 Both would be heard from again. Between the 1952 and 1953 meetings, the Academy Conference was stream¬ lined. The Council, meeting on October 12, 1952, adopted a suggestion made by Dr. Stow that committee reports be mimeographed in advance and made avail¬ able to the members. In addition, it was decided that the reading of all reports, except those by the Chairmen of the Finance and Research Committees and the Academy Secretary, would be dispensed with.02 Also, “after considerable discus¬ sion” a motion was introduced and passed which eliminated the annual dinner for both the Junior and Senior Academy.00 At a later meeting, in April 1953, the Council members agreed that a new approach for finding a location for a state Museum of Science was essential, “as it was felt that the State Finance Building would not be available at any time in the near future.”04 It was indeed a streamlined Academy Conference that President L. C. Bird convened at the Virginia Military Institute in 1953. With the new procedure in effect the meeting lasted only one hour and five minutes; the previous year the Conference had dragged on for two hours and forty-five minutes, not adjourning until 10:45 P.M. Business of consequence, however, was still transacted at the speeded-up meeting — the fiscal year of the Academy was changed to coincide with the calendar year.05 Chairman Lankford of the Committee on Science Teaching in Secondary Schools presented a disquieting report to the Academy. Dr. Lankford pointed out that Si Ibid., 223-26. Note that the Proceedings are incorrectly printed to be for 1952-53, when they are for 1951-52; and that the committees appointed by President Bird fsee VJS, Vol. 4: 157-160) are for 1952-53, not as printed for 1951-52. *" Ibid., 254-55. 80 VJS, New Ser. 2: 263-64. 1951. 87 VJS, New Ser. 3, 249. 1952. 83 Ibid., 247. S0 Ibid., 252-54. W) Ibid., 251. M Ibid., 246-47. 02 VJS, New Ser. 4: 141. 1953. w Ibid., 142. /fti'rf.. 235-39; Thelma C. Heatwole, History of the Vir¬ ginia Junior Academy of Sci¬ ence, 23; Interview with Mr. Rodney C. Berry, Richmond, Virginia, January 5, 1968. 31 VJS, New Ser. 7: 235-39. 1956. 32 Ibid., 228-30. 33 Dr. Boyd Harshharger to Dr. Walter Flory, Wake Forest University, April 19, 1967. 31 VJS, New Ser. 8: 1-102. 1957. 35 Ibid., 234-5. 256. Dr. Harshbarger then conferred the second Distinguished Service Award on Dr. William T. Sanger, President of the Medical College of Virginia and twelfth Presi¬ dent of the Academy, 1934-35. Dr. Harshbarger referred to Dr. Sanger as a “na¬ tional leader” and “builder of the Medical College of Virginia.” Further, Dr. Sanger was cited as a “superior organizer, and administrator of programs for better health.”-0 The ceremony was televised. No Academy meeting could pass without recognition for the Juniors. This year, 1956, saw the inauguration of the generous Philip Morris Achievement Awards. These were made possible by a grant of $750 by the Philip Morris Corporation to the Virginia Junior Academy of Science. Outstanding projects in Chemistry, Physics, Biology, and “other sciences” were to receive prizes by this grant.30 The E. C. L. Miller Award went to Eagle Rock High School (Mr. W. W. Cash, Sponsor), and the Major Catesby Jones Award was presented to Philip Ingersoll of Douglas Free¬ man High School, Richmond.3' Secretary-Treasurer Foley F. Smith reported to the Academy on several matters. Smith spoke extensively about the American Association for the Advancement of Science meeting held at Atlanta, Georgia, in December, 1955, and noted that the choice of Atlanta as a meeting place brought forth “many different points of view concerning conditions .... connected with such a meeting as the AAAS.” A resolution was passed at the Atlanta meeting to the effect that the American Asso¬ ciation for the Advancement of Science “is a democratic association of all its members; no one is barred from election because of race or creed. . . . No member is limited in his service because of race or creed. In order that the Association may attain its objectives, it is necessary and desirable that all members may freely meet for scientific discussions, the exchange of ideas, and the diffusion of established knowledge. . . . These objectives cannot be fulfilled if free association of the mem¬ bers is hindered by unnatural barriers. ”3~ It is interesting to note that from its beginning the Virginia Academy of Science subscribed to the philosophy enunciated by the AAAS in Atlanta. In the words of Dr. Boyd Harshbarger, the Academy “never allowed any segregation.”33 The key word in the Atlanta resolution is “unnatural,” and, clearly, that word has been variously interpreted. With this in mind. Dr. Harshbarger’s statement may need to be qualified somewhat. The Academy could not always insure that its philosophy would be practiced as almost all Academy activities were subject to the laws of the Commonwealth of Virginia and at times these state laws and the philosophy of the Academy would have to be in conflict. This poses the larger question, which this paper will in no wise attempt to discuss, as to whether state laws might ever be considered unnatural barriers in the sense given that term by the Atlanta resolution of the AAAS. The initial 1957 number of The Virginia Journal of Science may be termed the Jamestown Celebration issue. It commemorated the 350th anniversary of the plant¬ ing of that colony. Marcellus H. Stow provided an introduction for five feature articles: “Indians of Virginia 350 Years Ago,” by Bruce D. Reynolds; “Geological Ancestry of the York-James Peninsula,” by Arthur Bevan; “Seventeenth Century Science in Old Virginia,” by Ivey F. Lewis; “History of Virginia’s Commercial Fisheries,” by J. L. McHugh and Robert S. Bailey; and “Physicians at Early James¬ town,” by Sidney S. Negus. Also with number one of Volume 8 Mary E. Humphreys, Associate Professor of Biology at Mary Baldwin College, became Associate Editor of the Journal ,34 Editor Horton Hobbs and Managing Editor B. F. D. Runk stepped down after this first issue and were replaced by Dr. R. T. Brumfield as Editor and Dr. C. F. Lane as Managing Editor. Both of the new men were from Longwood College. At the Annual Meeting at Old Point Comfort, Brumfield reported to the Council that a new contract to publish the Journal, let to the lowest bidder, would call for production costs almost double that of recent issues. Later Lane told the Academy that a page of straight type had increased from $4 to $8 under the new contract.35 A significant administrative reorganization took place at the thirty-fifth Academy meeting in 1957, presided over by Mr. Edward S. Harlow of the American Tobacco Company Research Laboratory. First, the Academy Conference gave its approval to the separation of the offices of Secretary and Treasurer, and two days later, May 11, 1957, the Academy Council made the separation official. Foley F. Smith continued in the Academy administration as Treasurer, and Past President Paul M. 20 The Virginia Journal of Science Patterson of Hollins College assumed the newly created post of Secretary.30 Smith, chosen as the Secretary-Treasurer of the Academy in 1949 at the suggestion of Dr. E. C. L. Miller was only the second member of the Academy to serve in this capacity. The confidence which the Academy had in him is plain to see when one remembers that only Dr. Miller, a man whose work Smith termed a “labor of love,”37 had held this all important post before Smith. The Council passed a resolu¬ tion that Smith be commended for his work in the Journal. Dr. George W. Jeffers wrote “An Appreciation” for Smith in which he concluded: “Again, fortune favors the Academy because Foley agreed to remain .... and will continue to give his wise counsel and unflagging loyalty to serve the Academy.”38 At this same 1957 meeting the Academy Council declined an invitation from the Virginia State Chamber of Commerce for the Academy to become a member. Also the Council acting on a suggestion by the American Association for the Ad¬ vancement of Science, passed a motion authorizing the President to appoint an History of Science Committee. Former Academy President Colonel Irving G. Foster became the first chairman.31' In 1957 the J. Shelton Horsley Research Award was divided between the authors of two papers of “equal excellency.” Walter H. Lewis, Research Fellow of the Blandy Experimental Farm, University of Virginia, received half the Award for his paper “A Biosystematic Study of Rosa acicularis." Also, R. A. Bradley and D. E. W. Schumann, of the Statistical Laboratory, Virginia Polytechnic Insti¬ tute, were presented half the Award for their joint contribution “The Comparison of the Sensitivities of Similar Compounds.”40 In the Junior Academy, Philip Morris Achievement Awards were given to first, second and third place winners in each of four categories: Physics, Chemistry, Biology, and Miscellaneous Sciences, along with two or more Honorable Mentions in each category. The E. C. L. Miller Award for the outstanding science club was presented for the second consecutive year to the Eagle Rock High School Science Club (W. W. Cash, Jr., Sponsor). The W. Catesby Jones Award went to Tommy Yancy of Buckingham Central High School.41 During the year Academy members were saddened by the passing of Dr. Bruce Dodson Reynolds (1894-1957), a loyal member of the Biology Section, where he and his students contributed papers. Dr. Reynolds had recently contributed an article to the Journal on the Indians of Colonial Virginia, but was better known as the Chairman of the Biology Department at the University of Virginia, a former Director of the Mountain Lake Biological Station, and as a past president of the Association of Southeastern Biologists.42 As can be readily seen throughout the history of the Academy, the members have always been concerned with improving science education in the secondary schools of Virginia. Academy members as well as interested educators everywhere in the United States received a fresh but unexpected impetus, amounting to shock and shattering our complacency, on October 5, 1957, when the Soviet Union announced the successful launching of Sputnik I.43 The first number of Volume 9 of The Virginia Journal of Science (January, 1958) was dedicated to Marcellus H. Stow (1902-1957), who passed away on November 27, 1957. Dr. Stow had been Chairman of the Geology Department at Washington and Lee University since 1937 and had served as President of the Academy, 1942-43. 44 It was under Dr. Stow’s patient guidance and persistent prodding that the chapters of the James River monograph were written, collected, edited and finally published in 1950. The James River Basin — Past, Present and Future, a volume of some 800 pages, stands as a lasting reminder of Dr. Stow’s loyalty and service to science in Virginia. Academy President William G. Guy of the College of William and Mary was quick to seize on the Soviet scientific progress when he wrote to Academy members in early 1958. “This year of the Sputniks,” Guy said, “will be a particularly sig¬ nificant one for the future of science in our state, as on all sides we see a quickened interest in the development of our scientific potential.”45 The thirty-sixth meeting of the Academy, held in Roanoke in 1958, appears to have been somewhat less eventful than others. However, the problem of the financial condition of the Journal was raised as early as March 8, 1958, at a Council meeting in Richmond, and continued to plague the Academy for the next few years. Managing Editor C. F. Lane reported to Council that the reserve fund for the 30 Ibid., 237. 37 Interview with Mr. Foley F. Smith, Richmond, Virginia, January 5, 1968. 33 George W. Jeffers, “An Appreciation,” VJS, New Ser. 8: 210. 1957. 30 Ibid., 233. 40 Ibid., 237. « Ibid., 248-250. 13 Ibid., 175-6. 43 Goldman, 307. 41 VJS, New Ser. 9: 1-2. 1958. 45 Ibid., 199. History of Virginia Academy of Science 21 '» Ibid., 328. Ibid., 347. 18 Ibid., 348. « Ibid., 357-361. 50 VJS, New Ser. 10: 1-2, 1959. 51 Ibid., 85. “a. '> Ibid., 217. ™ Ibid., 231. 51 Ibid., 215. 55 Ibid., 216. 50 VJS, New Ser. 11: 38-9. 1960. Journal was rapidly being depleted by rising publication costs without any increase in revenue.40 Dr. Sidney Negus reported to Council that the American Tobacco Company had been chosen for the Distinguished Service Award of the Academy; after some discussion the Council unanimously approved. President Guy later made the award presentation to Mr. Blanton Bruner, Public Relations Officer of the company.47 The 1958 J. Shelton Horsley Research Prize was won by G. Tyler Miller, Jr., and Kenneth R. Lawless, of the University of Virginia, for the paper which they presented before the Section of Chemistry entitled “An Electron Microscopic Study of the Oxidation of Copper Single Crystals in Aqueous Salt Solutions.”48 Mrs. Thelma G. Heatwole reported for the Junior Academy. Mary Lou Myers of Eagle Rock High School was presented the Major Catesby Jones Award for her research project. This marked the third consecutive year that Eagle Rock High School had been thus honored — a signal distinction. Two science clubs were winners of the coveted E. C. L. Miller Award. Washington and Lee High School, Arlington, and Thomas Jefferson High School, Richmond, were both considered to have outstanding clubs. Again, three Philip Morris Achievement Awards in each of four categories — a total of 12 awards made possible by the Philip Morris Company — were presented. Mrs. Heatwole noted that another $300 grant from the American Tobacco Company Research Laboratory made possible the continued publication of the Junior Science Bulletin begun in 1953 under the direction of Miss Susie V. Floyd of Newport News High School.4" The first number of the Journal for 1959 was dedicated to the memory of Dr. Edwin Morris Betts (1892-1958), Professor of Biology at the University of Vir¬ ginia.50 In October, 1958, President John C. Forbes of the Medical College of Virginia presided over a Council meeting at Farmville. The Council decided to dissolve the long standing James River Project Committee. The Council also proposed State Senator Lloyd C. Bird, President of Phipps & Bird (Scientific Supplies), a man whose service to the Academy had extended over many years and who had been the chief executive of the Academy, 1952-53, for the Distinguished Service Award.51 At the thirty-seventh Academy meeting, held in Charlottesville in 1959, President Forbes made the presentation to Senator Bird.320 The coveted research honor went to Dr. Dorothy L. Crandall of Randolph- Macon Woman’s College, at the 1959 Annual Meeting in Charlottesville. The title of the J. Shelton Horsley Award winning paper, presented before the Section on Biology, was “Ground Vegetation Patterns of the Spruce-Fir Area of the Great Smoky Mountains National Park.”521’ In the Junior Academy the E. C. L. Miller Award was won by the Newport News High School Science Club, and the W. Catesby Jones Award went to Bill Ridenhour of William Fleming High School in Roanoke.53 The Virginia Journal of Science was again a problem for the Academy. At the Council meeting on May 7, 1959, President Forbes read letters of resignation from both the Editor and Managing Editor, Dr. Brumfield and Dr. Lane.lj4 At the Acad¬ emy Conference, later on the same day, Dr. Boyd Harshbarger moved that a com¬ mittee be appointed to look into the finances of the Journal in hopes of finding ways of making it solvent.55 At the October, 1959, Council meeting at the University of Virginia Dr. Horton Hobbs, a former Editor of the Journal, placed in nomination the names of Robert Ross and Robert Krai for the positions of Editor and Business Manager-Managing Editor, respectively. The Council accepted both nominations and the two new men from V.P.I. started work immediately on the first issue of I960.50 Dr. George W. Jeffers, Chairman of the Long Range Planning Committee, came up with a solution for disposing of the issues of the Journal which were causing a storage problem. The extra issues published in conjunction with the Jamestown Festival were to be given to the secondary schools of the state to terminate the 67 VJS, New Ser. 10: 224. 1959. 5S VIS. New Ser. 11: 139. 1960. project.57 At a Council meeting held in Richmond, March 12, 1960, Dr. G. W. Kent of Bridgewater College announced the dissolution of the Education Section. ;,s Conse¬ quently when President William M. Hinton of Washington and Lee welcomed the members to the thirty-eighth Annual Meeting in Richmond the Academy had only eleven sections. 22 The Virginia Journal of Science At the 1960 meeting Dr. J. C. Thompson of Hollins College recommended that the Council be reorganized so that 1) the Council would include representatives from each of the sections and 2) the Council would become the nominating com¬ mittee for Academy officers. It was moved that a committee study these proposals.59 Action, as will be seen, was taken along these lines a year later. The paper by Dr. Lawrence I. Miller, of the Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station at Holland, was designated as the one most worthy of the 1960 J. Shelton Horsley Research Award. This paper, deemed the best of eleven competing con¬ tributions, was titled “The Influence of Soil Components on the Survival and De¬ velopment of the Sting Nematode.”50 Although no report of the Junior Academy’s activities and awards at the thirty- eighth meeting was published in the Journal, one can easily see in Mrs. Heatwole’s history that the Juniors had advanced considerably since George W. Jeffers and Rodney C. Berry first proposed the formation of a Junior Academy of Science in 1940. On the eve of the twentieth anniversary of the Junior Academy eighty-five dubs were affiliated and total membership numbered close to 10,000 students. Approximately 4,000 students and sponsors attended the 1960 Academy meeting.01 Much of the progress of the Junior Academy can be attributed to Mrs. Heatwole’s long continuing and effective efforts. She served as chairman for nine years, during which time the Juniors “took great strides under her leadership.”02 Dr. W. W. Scott, of the Biology Department at V.P.I., succeeded Mrs. Heatwole as Junior Academy Chairman in 1960. And also in 1960 Mrs. Heatwole recommended that the Junior Chairman become a member of the Academy Council. 03 It came to the attention of the Academy that a number of nonregistrants were attending section meetings. This became a source of irritation and at the same time deprived the Academy of a certain amount of revenue. To counteract this. Dr. Jeffers proposed that meeting rooms be marked to the effect that only indi¬ viduals wearing registration badges would be allowed to enter.04 Jeffers’ suggestion took on added significance two days later, May 12, at the Academy Conference. Dr. John C. Forbes recommended that the Academy raise the registration fee from $.50 to $1 with the new funds collected earmarked to help the Academy subsidize the Journal. This recommendation was passed on to the Council for its con¬ sideration and decision.05 Dr. Ross, Journal Editor, discussed some of the problems of the publication at the Council meeting of May 10. The Editor pointed out that no fixed price should be established for advertising as agencies usually sold packaged deals and defined the rates themselves. Before the Council again, on May 12, Dr. Ross cited part of the report of a special Journal study committee chaired by Dr. Wilson B. Bell of V.P.I. The committee report suggested an increase in advertising space from six to twelve pages as well as an increase in rates. It was further suggested that both an advertising manager and an advertising agency be retained by the Academy. The Council approved a $400 rise in Academy support for the Journal .0G However, as will be seen, even this gesture was not enough to see the Journal out of the woods. The years just following the war (Chapter IV) were a time of vigorous expansion and rapidly increasing membership for the Academy. In the following years — the years of the mid and late fifties covered in this chapter — the Academy continued strong and vigorous. The membership shifted to just under 900 in two or three years, and again moved back well above 1200 (1225) by 1961. Programs at the Annual Meetings, for both seniors and juniors, were excellent. But during these years the Academy more or less plateaued so far as membership, number of sections, and similar factors were concerned. Most scientists of the state were members; the Academy flourished; it was well recognized. It had arrived at the point where it served its purpose well. It was at the place where complacency needed to be guarded against, if the organization was not to be taken too much for granted. Otherwise, loss of interest would occur and progress would cease. Few individuals, or organizations, remain at a standstill very long; they either progress or retrogress. In the years from 1954 through 1960 most sections were quite active. Programs of papers on original work were presented at the Annual Meetings by 12 different sections in most years. The original Sections of Biology, Chemistry, the Physical Sciences (Astronomy, Mathematics and Physics), and Psychology (actually Psy¬ chology and Education at first), continued among the dominant areas of interest. Now rivalling these in membership interest and activity were the Sections on 50 Ibid., 153. «° Ibid., 150. 01 Heatwole, 22-3. 02 George W. Jeffers, “Edi¬ tor’s Note,” Heatwole, 24. Penned in at bottom of page. 02 Heatwole, 23; VJS, New Ser. 11: 153. 1960. VJS, New Ser. 11: 151-2. 1960. Ibid., 154. m Ibid., 153-4. History of Virginia Academy of Science 23 Agriculture, the Medical Sciences and Statistics. The interest in the Sections of Geology and Engineering fluctuated from year to year. Interest was at a low ebb in the Sections of Bacteriology and of Science Teachers, at least if numbers of papers presented at Annual Meetings could be used as a criterion. During the seven years, 1954-60, a total of 1477 papers, an average of 211 per year, were presented before the various sections at the Annual Meetings. The abstracts of these continued to appear in the Proceedings issue of The Virginia Journal of Science. The Journal, as suggested above, from time to time had its financial and editing difficulties. At the same time it was proving the cohesive ele¬ ment bringing the various interests of the Academy into focus for the membership, which had been originally visualized. It was the medium for presenting 12 to 15 carefully selected and edited scientific contributions each year. The papers of Academy organized symposia appeared in its pages. It had become the organ of dissemination of news items, obituaries, and announcements in general of concern to the Academy and its members. The Academy and its Journal were mutually necessary and strengthening in their relationships, objectives and growth. As the Journal developed, the Academy grew in strength and vice versa. It has been seen that several new developments of these years were the institution of a new classification of members, the Business Memberships; recognition of out¬ standing leaders of the Academy by the awarding of Meritorious Service Awards from time to time; issuance of the special Jamestown Celebration issue of the Journal; and the division of the office of Secretary-Treasurer, into two offices — a recognition of the growth of the Academy and of the increasing complexity of keep¬ ing up with its happenings and records. The Fifties, with a good portion of all they seem to represent in American his¬ tory and folklore, were now in the past. The threshold of a new decade had already been crossed and a new term was being enunciated in Washington: “the new frontier.” It appears from the evidence at hand that the Virginia Academy of Science, in coming to grips with administrative and organizational problems, was clearly facing new frontiers of its own as it marched into the sixties. 24 The Virginia Journal of Science Chapter VI The New Frontier Harry Joseph Staggers and Walter S. Flory Susquehanna University Wake Forest University One of the first projects to concern the Academy in its thirty-ninth year was that of preparing a history to recount past activities. Dr. William G. Guy of William and Mary reported to a Council meeting convened at the University of Virginia in November, 1960, that the AAAS was promoting the formation of history committees in order to gather information for a general history of the rise of state academies.1 The Virginia Academy had had its own history committee since the summer of 1957, when the then newly elected President, Guy, appointed Colonel Irving G. Foster to chair such a committee. At the annual Academy meeting in May, 1961, Miss Isabel Boggs, Chairman of the history of Science Committee, was able to report to the members that several sectional histories had already been received by her committee.2 At a Council meeting in March, 1961, also held at the University of Virginia, past-president Walter S. Flory, Chairman of the Long Range Planning Committee, renewed the proposal of Dr. J. C. Thompson that the Academy restructure the Council. Specifically, the Council members were to be chosen one from each section, for a three year term. To insure continuity only certain sections would elect representatives each year, thus guaranteeing that experienced members would be on the Council.'1 The Council approved Dr. Flory’s proposal and later in the spring the Academy Conference also gave its approval of the change.4 Mr. Foley F. Smith, an individual long acquainted with the workings of the Academy, saw in this enlargement of the Council not only a democratically inspired reorganization, but also a means by which the responsibility and authority within the Academy could be reapportioned on a much broader base and hence could involve more interested members in the complex workings of the Academy.5 Former Academy President Dr. William M. Hinton of Washington and Lee University, Chairman of the Awards Committee, proposed that the Academy present Mrs. Thelma C. Heatwole, for several years a bulwark of the Junior Academy, the Distinguished Service Award. The Council concurred in this most deserving selection, and on May 12, 1961, at the general Academy assembly Dr. Hinton made the presentation. r> Dr. Hinton further reported for the Awards Committee concerning the gavel authorized at the May 14, 1960, Council meeting, and which the Committee had been directed to provide.7 The Academy gavel had now been secured, and would henceforth be used at official Academy functions, and would be passed on from one President to the next. It was made of the wood of the dogwood tree ( Cornus florida L.), the Virginia State Flower, and left in natural finish.8 Two J. Shelton Horsley Research Awards were presented in 1961. One of these went to Irving R. King of Texaco Experiment Incorporated for his paper “A Study of the Recombination of Ions in Flames.” The other award was to Billy W. Sloope and Calvin O. Tiller, of the Virginia Institute for Scientific Research, for their paper entitled “The Formation, Conditions, and Structure of Thin Epitaxial Silver Films on Rocksalt.”9 In the junior Academy the Lord Botetourt High School Science Club of Dale- ville (Mr. George Stevens, Sponsor) was awarded the annual E. C. L. Miller prize. William Siegfried of Gar-Field High School, Woodbridge, was presented the W. Catesby Jones Award.10 Awards, however, were not the entire story with regard to the Junior Academy this year. It might be well to note at the outset that the civil rights movement, more specifically the “sit-in” aspect of it, had swept across the South in the summer of I960.11 This agitation did a great deal to publicize what many individuals felt was 1 VJS, New Ser., 12: 53. 1961. - Ibid., 132-3. Ibid., 55-6. 1 Ibid., 56, 122. 5 Interview with Mr. Foley F. Smith, Richmond, Virginia, January 5, 1968. *m, New Ser., 12: 140, 141. 1961. 7 VJS, New Ser., 11: 152. 1960. 8 VJS, New Ser., 12: 140. 1961. 9 Ibid., 141. 70 Ibid., 131. 11 Samuel Eliot Morison, The Oxford History of the Ameri¬ can People. 1087. New York, 1965. History of Virginia Academy of Science 25 1; 2 Dean W. W. Scott to Harry J. Staggers, Harrison¬ burg, Virginia, December 5, 1967. 13 VJS, New Ser., 12: 56. 1961. 34 Ibid., 1 3-8 — 9 ; Academy Minute Book, 164. ™ Ibid. 3G VJS, New Ser., 12: 135-6. 1961. 17 VJS, New Ser., 13: 63. 1962; Academy Minute Book, 173-4. 18 Dean W. W. Scott to Harry J. Staggers, Harrison¬ burg, Virginia, December 5, 1967. 30 Dr. Boyd Harshbarger to Dr. Walter S. Flory, Winston- Salem, North Carolina, April 19, 1967. Copy to the Author. 26 inherently wrong in the social, political, economical, and educational structure of the South. As Dr. W. W. Scott, Chairman of the Virginia Junior Academy of Science Committee in 1961, had noted: “At the time of the Lexington meeting (in 1961) school segregation had become a major issue throughout the state. It was not unexpected, therefore, to have the question of segregated Science Days and separate social events brought before the VJAS committee. At a Council meeting at the University of Virginia, March 12, 1961, Dr. Scott announced that the Junior Academy planned to celebrate its twentieth anniversary by holding a ball at the thirty-ninth meeting of the Academy.1'' It was the cancellation of this proposed ball and the reasons advanced as to why a scientific lecture was substituted at the twentieth anniversary celebration which revealed certain conflicting attitudes in 1961 and has since produced various inter¬ pretations of the happenings at Lexington. Even the basic factual data as presented in the Journal and backed up by the minute book is now disputed. For the sake of clarity the course of events as presented in the Journal will be traced and then interpretations which seek to qualify that description will be given. At the Academy Council meeting, called to order by President Wilson B. Bell of Virginia Polytechnic Institute at Lexington on May 11, 1961, Dr. Scott reported for the Junior Academy. “The selection of exhibitors,” Scott said in commenting on the Science Days, “has been made regionally in the state except for the colored schools, where all of their exhibits have been judged exclusively at the Virginia State College in Petersburg.” It was noted that the blacks objected to this arrange¬ ment and wanted to attend and exhibit at the same regional Science Days as the white students. “After considerable discussion,” a motion proposed by former President Walter S. Flory that Academy President Bell appoint a committee to investigate the situation was passed by the Council. Flory, Scott, and Dr. Jackson J. Taylor of the University of Richmond formed the investigating committee which reported back to the Council in two days.14 With regard to the Junior Academy anniversary the minutes state: “Dr. Scott reported that the 20th anniversary balls planned for the Junior Academy were cancelled because the colored students objected to the segregated arrangements, and that a scientific lecture had been substituted.” Also Dr. Scott requested that the Council authorize the severance of Junior Academy connections with Science Clubs of America as well as the establishment of an affiliation fee for science clubs to become members in the Junior Academy. On Dr. Taylor’s motion, the Council so authorized the Junior Academy Chairman. ir> On May 13 Dr. Taylor reported for the investigating committee that President Bell had appointed two days earlier. Taylor said that all exhibitions should take place at one of the seven or more regional centers and that “such preliminary judging programs. ... be set up and conducted in accordance with the established policies of the Academy for its annual meetings.” If no host institution could be found in an area then the Academy itself would undertake the sponsorship of the regional judging.10 This concluded the discussion of the matter at the May meeting. Miss Susie Floyd, long concerned with the Junior Academy, reported for Dr. Scott at the November 19, 1961, Council meeting at the University of Virginia. The old procedure of having the Juniors compete through exhibits was scrapped in favor of selecting finalists by having entrants submit papers to a screening committee. In addition it was decided that the Academy would sponsor no social functions for the Juniors.17 These, then, are the basic facts as gleaned from the minutes of the Academy meetings. Do they tell, as it would seem, a rather straight¬ forward story of racial tension brought to the surface by the extensive action undertaken by civil rights groups? It appears that the dichotomy in the interpretations of events at Lexington in 1961 has a great deal to do with the nature of the observer’s basic assumptions. One premise, made explicit earlier in this history, has been restated by Dr. Scott: “As far as the VAS and VJAS are concerned, there never was a racial problem. Both organizations have always been, as far as I know, completely integrated.”18 Dr. Scott’s statement is bolstered by Dr. Boyd Harshbarger’s comment on the policy of the Academy from its inception: “I have investigated and find there was no other scientific organization or any other organization in the South that rejected segregation except for the Virginia Academy.”10 These comments by Scott and Harshbarger are in keeping with views expressed The Virginia Journal of Science by Dr. E. C. L. Miller in 1944. Although Dr. Miller could state no explicit Academy policy with regard to blacks, as Dr. Harshbarger has been able to do, Miller clearly noted that in the democratic nature of the Academy there was an implicit policy to integration. “We have two A-l (black) colleges in the state and a number of papers have been read by colored persons from time to time. . . . When someone applies for membership from these schools no inquiry is made as to his color.”20 Thus it can be seen that there is an historical continuity in the comments made by Miller, Harshbarger, and Scott. Another aspect of the problem, however, should be considered. Even though the policy of the Academy can easily be established to have been a liberal one, the meaning of all such terms is relative. Perhaps the most decisive event in re-evaluat- ing the position of the black in the Academy can be traced to the rather large scale and dramatic awakening of black aspirations seen in the late fifties and early sixties. Miller, himself, appears to have hit on the basic problem back in 1944. At the time he was not so much concerned with the aspirations of the blacks as with the basic human inequity inherent in a segregated society. In writing to President Ernest V. Jones of the Alabama Academy of Science Miller noted that “everyone just goes blithely along and completely ignores” the demeaning and unequal nature of segre¬ gation.21 The fact of the matter is clearly that the “smug moral vacuum” which Miller described was being destroyed throughout the country by individuals, black and white, who would no longer go blithely along ignoring the situation. This brings us again to the Lexington meeting, and a second basic assumption which seems to have been made about Academy affairs. This second premise may be characterized as being more present minded than the more historically oriented premise visible in the statements of Drs. Scott and Harshbarger. This second view of events at Lexington is not so much geared to interpreting events in light of the historically liberal Academy policy, it seems to see things more in the very real terms of the problems immediately at hand. This view was presented by Dr. D. Rae Carpenter, Jr., then a member of the Local Arrangements Committee and later Secretary, and later yet President 1969-70, who wrote “We were at the time still somewhat sensitive about how to handle an integrated activity. This was in addition to the reservation which most of the members of the Local Arrangements Com¬ mittee had about an integrated dance.”22 In general Dr. Carpenter’s memory of events agrees with the description taken from the Journal. Dr. Scott presents a view somewhat at variance with that found in the Journal. “Many of us,” he has written, “felt that in keeping with the change to a research oriented program for the VJAS, a program of lectures and science films or similar activities should be used to keep the students occupied during the meetings. . . . Program-wise we were at the point of transition to the formal research paper presentation and as far as extracurricular activities were concerned, we were about ready to initiate a science program.”23 As pointed out above, the culmination of this gradual implementation of a more academically oriented Junior Academy program was guaranteed some five months after the adjournment of the Lexington meeting when the Council approved Miss Floyd’s recommendations that Science Days give way to research papers and that social activities for the Juniors be discontinued. Dr. E. C. L. Miller once expressed views quite similar to those adopted by the Council for the regulation of Junior social functions. “Personally, I do not like to have science draw a color line,” he wrote; however, in response to a letter from the President of the Alabama Academy he noted, “it might solve our problem to abolish what little social functioning we have left. Probably no one would object to colored people participating in a strictly scientific meeting.”21 Simply because Dr. Miller enunciated such a policy as a possibility some seventeen years before it was adopted by the Academy does not give any special aura to what the Council did in November, 1961. Miller was speaking of the problem raised by integrated social activities. The problem of 1961, conversely, was brought out by the fact of segregated social functions. In the final analysis one’s point of view is bound to complicate a clear under¬ standing of what actually transpired at Lexington. A combination of both a “spon¬ taneous problem” and a “gradual implementation” of a more scholarly Junior program are clearly involved. From the evidence at hand it would seem that the gradual changing of the Junior program was given a great impetus by the objection 20 Dr. E. C. L. Miller to Dr. Ernest V. Jones, President, Alabama Academy of Science, Richmond, Virginia, January 13, 1944. E. C. L. Miller pa¬ pers, in the possession of the VAS, VISR, Richmond, Vir¬ ginia. 21 Same to Same, January 26, 1944. “It is not just a matter of race segregation. It is much broader and deeper. T know of no white person here in Rich¬ mond who is disturbed in the slightest because the railroads charge colored people first class fares and give them second class service. At each of the stations here the colored wait¬ ing rooms are disgraceful and a colored person is not even allowed in the general con¬ course. It is humiliating that perhaps the Federal Supreme Court will have to tell the South when it has an oppor¬ tunity that if a colored person pays the same fare he should have equal service. Tt took the Supreme Court to tell the South that if a colored teacher is giv¬ ing equal service he should have equal pay. No one, how¬ ever, applies the converse to the railways.” 22 Dr. D. Rae Carpenter to Harry J. Staggers, Lexington, Virginia, November 25, 1967. 23 Dean W. W. Scott to Harry T. Staggers, Harrison¬ burg, Virginia, December 5, 1967. 24 Dr. E. C. L. Miller to Ernest V. Jones, Richmond, Virginia, January 13, 1944. History of Virginia Academy of Science 27 35 Dr. Boyd Harshbarger to Harry J. Staggers, Blacksburg, Virginia, November 22, 1967. 20 Dean W. W. Scott to Harry J. Staggers, Harrison¬ burg, Virginia, December 5, 1967. 27 VJS, New Ser., 12: 139. 1961. !8 Dr. Boyd Harshbarger, History of the Virginia Journal of Science, 33; manuscript in the possession of VAS, VISR, Richmond, Virginia; VJS, New Ser., 13: 59-61. 1962. VJS, New Ser., 13: 185. 1962. Ibid., 185. si Ibid., 186, 193. 32 Ibid., 191. 33 Ibid., 185. of the blacks to the segregated circumstances and the cancellation of the twentieth anniversary party. It appears that until objections were voiced there were to have been dances, and not a lecture; moreover, the “solution” of the Council to the problem was not confirmed until five months after the Annual Meeting. In retro¬ spect the Lexington formula of substituting a lecture for a dance looks like a stopgap measure. Whether the Academy solved a problem or not in 1961 has a great deal to do with, in the first instance, whether agreement can be reached that there actually was a problem, and, in the second instance, whether what was done can be truly considered a solution. Further, the question arises, why belabor the issue? As Dr. Boyd Harshbarger has written, “to try to imply that the Academy had, at any time, been racist is a mistake.”25 Dr. Harshbarger is undoubtedly correct; but, as Dr. Scott noted: “There were problems .... with racial overtones .... inherent in the VJAS organization.”20 And this is precisely the reason why such a discussion seemed pertinent to this history. The Academy, as can be seen from the member¬ ship list and from the scholarly papers presented, has been integrated since 1923. But the Academy, like the American social context within which it functions, has had to come to grips with “problems involving racial overtones.” No other aspect of domestic history has been as important, in recent years, as these problems and their solution. By time of the Annual Meeting in 1961 Mrs. Robert D. Ross, wife of the Editor of the Journal, had replaced Robert Krai as the Managing Editor.27 Dr. and Mrs. Ross appear to have been having difficulty with the publication. As Dr. Harshbarger has recorded in his history of the Journal, conditions become so serious that President Bell appointed Drs. Flory and Harshbarger and Jeffers to examine the reasons for the difficulties. The committee “outlined a procedure for the operation of the Journal and recommended to the Council that unless Dr. Ross could get the Journal on schedule again he should be asked to resign.” Both Dr. and Mrs. Ross submitted resignations which the Council accepted on November 19, 1961. At this same meeting Dr. Harshbarger nominated Dr. Paul B. Siegel for the position of Editor and Dr. Carl Allen for Managing Editor. The Council unani¬ mously approved the nominations of these two men from V.P.I.28 Hence, by the time the Academy gathered at Norfolk in May of 1962 the Journal was under its fourth editor since Dr. Harshbarger retired from the post in 1954. President Horton H. Hobbs of the University of Virginia convened the fortieth ( 1962) meeting of the Academy. For a change, one of the main orders of business was not the Journal. However, the Academy was becoming more concerned with a publication of another type. Miss Isabel Boggs, reporting for the History of Science Committee, called for the acquisition of more source material for the history of the Academy, and concluded that “its publication is desirable.”29 Dr. Stanley B. Williams of William and Mary, an individual instrumental in getting the Academy history written, moved that Miss Boggs’ recommendation that each section choose an historian be passed, and Council concurred.50 Dr. Williams also told the Council that the committee studying the question of a full time Executive Secretary was working informally on the problem. At a later Council meeting. May 12, 1962, it was decided that this committee be dissolved and that Council would address itself to the matter in the future.31 At the Council meeting on the 12th, Mr. Foley F. Smith was nominated for the position of President-Elect and was replaced as Academy Treasurer by Mr. Rodney C. Berry, Sr.32 Smith’s acceptance of the nomination marked the first time since 1949 that he had not served the Academy as Treasurer. The records show that both Dr. Paul M. Patterson, Academy Secretary, and Mr. William B. Wartman, Jr., Assistant Secretary-Treasurer, continued in the posts they had held for the past several years. Past President Wilson B. Bell made a motion that the E. C. L. Miller Award be extended beyond the traditional $50 first prize for the outstanding Junior science club affiliated with the VJAS and, further, that the original intent of the award be investigated. Bells’ proposal, including that two $25 “honorable mention” awards be established, was passed by the Council.33 In the Junior Academy the Catesby Jones Award was presented to Steven R. Mason, William Fleming High School, Roanoke. The E. C. L. Miller prize went to Newport News High School Science Club (Misses Linda Allen and Betty Delbridge, Sponsors). The first recipients of 28 The Virginia Journal of Science the Miller honorable mention awards were the S. O. S. Science Club, Bedford High School (Mrs. J. J. Thaxton, Sponsor), and Lord Botetourt High chool Science Club (Mr. Paul Garber, Sponsor), Daleville.34 A paper read before the Chemistry Section entitled “Preparation of High-purity Single Crystal Boron,” by Claude P. Talley and Gerald R. Taylos, Jr., of Texaco Experiment Incorporated, was selected from 14 competing papers for the 1962 J. Shelton Horsley Award.3'' A symposium entitled “Basic Research on Virginia’s Natural Resources,” the brain child of Dr. Henry Leidheiser, Director of the Virginia Institute for Scientific Research, and co-sponsored by the Academy and the Institute, was held at the Norfolk meeting. The topics presented at the symposium were later published in the July, 1962, issue of the Journal. Six different subjects were discussed: “Coal” by Dr. Gilbert Theissen, Director of Research, Koppers Company, Inc., Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania; “Soils” by Dr. A. Geoffrey Norman, Director, Botanical Gardens, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan; “Forests” by Dr. George H. Hepting, Chief, Division of Forest Disease Research, Asheville, North Carolina; “Water” by Dr. John C. Frye, Chief, Illinois Geological Survey, Urbana, Illinois; “Marine Life” by Dr. John L. McHugh, Chief, Division of Biological Research, Bureau of Commercial Fisheries, Department of the Interior, Washington, D.C.; “Human Resources” by Dr. Clarence C. Little, Scientific Director, Tobacco Indus¬ try Research Committee, New York, New York.30 In the fall of 1962 at a Council meeting at the University of Virginia, Miss Isabel Boggs of the History of Science Committee reported that a manuscript of the history of the Academy had been prepared for publication. The Council moved and passed a motion to the effect that the Academy authorize “A History of the Virginia Academy of Science” as an Academy publication. Undoubtedly the manu¬ script which Miss Boggs had reference to was the one written by Dr. George W. Jeffers and cited extensively earlier in this work. Miss Boggs further noted that the Virginia Institute for Scientific Research had given space for the setting up of an Academy archive.37 Also at this gathering the Council concluded its review of the history of the E. C. L. Miller Award and ascertained that the award was being presented as originally intended — to the winning science club, not to the sponsor of the club.38 Early in 1963 President Jackson J. Taylor of the University of Richmond wrote in the Journal that the efforts to establish the position of Executive Secretary were moving along. He told the members “I am encouraged to believe that progress toward this goal can be reported in the not-too-distant future.39 Later in 1963 the new post of Executive Secretary-Treasurer was established and Mr. Rodney C. Berry, Sr., Treasurer of the Academy for the past two years and recently retired from the State Department of Agriculture, was selected to fill this all important position.40 Mr. Berry became a full time administrator of Academy affairs. His specified duties such as making out detailed reports on membership and finances as well as outlining the duties of the officers and various sections of the general meeting approaches were over-shadowed by the Executive Secretary’s day -to day activities. His home had become a clearing house for all manner of Academy business thus putting this vigorous and dedicated member at the center of Academy affairs.41 Mr. Berry’s appointment was not the only administrative change in the Academy. At the forty-first Annual Meeting, held in Roanoke, Dr. Paul M. Patterson, Secre¬ tary of the Academy since that position was made independent of the Treasurer in 1957, announced his retirement. Dr. Russell J. Rowlett of VISR became the new Academy Secretary, and Mr. William B. Wartman, who had been serving the Academy as Assistant Secretary-Treasurer since 1955, succeeded Berry as Treasurer.42 Meritorious Service Awards were presented at the Academy Conference to Drs. Jesse W. Beams and Allan Gwathmey of the University, and Sidney S. Negus, recently retired from the Medical College of Virginia. All three men had held the position of Academy President and contributed greatly to science in Virginia. The Horsley Award was given to Dr. H. A. David of V.P.I. for his paper entitled “The Method of Paired Comparisons.”43 In the Junior Academy Marc Salzberg of the Norfolk Academy was singled out for the W. Catesby Jones Award and the science club of Bedford High School was 31 Ibid., 190-2. 33 Ibid., 191 3,1 Ibid., 95-168. 37 VIS, New Ser., 14: 68. 1963. 38 Ibid., 68-9. 33 Ibid., 23-4. 73 VJS, New Ser., 16: 93. 1965. 11 Interviews with Mr. Foley F. Smith and Mr. Rodney C. Berry, Richmond, Virginia, Jan¬ uary 5, 1968. ** VJS, New Ser., 14: 146, 142. 1963. J3 Ibid., 142. This award is also known as the Distinguished Service Award. History of Virginia Academy of Science 29 44 Telephone interview with Dr. D. Rae Carpenter, Lexing¬ ton, Virginia, January 15, 1968. The Journal ceased publishing Junior Academy winners, hence all future information on VJAS prizes has been provided by Dr. Carpenter. 45 VJS, New Ser., 15: 1-5. 1964. 46 Ibid., 159-61. « Ibid., 227. 43 Ibid. 40 Ibid. 60 Interview with Mr. Foley F. Smith, Richmond, Virginia, January 5, 1968. 51 Telephone interview with Dr. Carpenter, Lexington, Va., January 15, 1968. 52 VJS, New Ser., 15: 246-7. 1964. 53 VJS, New Ser., 16: 270, 277. 1965. 54 Ibid., 267-8. presented the Miller Award.44 A year earlier Bedford High School had received an honorable mention. Three leaders of the Virginia Academy of Science passed away between the forty- first and forty-second Annual Meetings. Dr. Allan Talbott Gwathmey (1903-63) and Dr. Sidney Stevens Negus (1892-1963) died in 1963. In addition to serving as Academy President, 1953-54, Dr. Gwathmey, of the University, made an out¬ standing contribution to science in Virginia through his unflagging effort to estab¬ lish an institute for scientific research. Dr. Gwathmey’s dream was realized in 1948, at the same time Dr. Negus was assuming the presidency of the Academy. Dr. Negus, long associated with the Medical College of Virginia, was a unique pro¬ moter of the Academy who succeeded in drawing nationwide attention to Richmond in 1938 for the AAAS meeting when he guaranteed that the activities of the Asso¬ ciation would be reported to the country by correspondents treated in a most hospitable manner.45 Early in 1964 the Academy was further saddened by the death of Dean Ivey Foreman Lewis (1882-1964) of the University.40 The history of the Academy bears testimony to the fact that Dr. Lewis was a loyal and concerned supporter of scientific progress in Virginia. It was, of course, Dr. Lewis who was singled out by his colleagues to be honored as the founder of the Academy which he served as President while it was still a fledgling, in 1923-24. The esteem in which Dr. Lewis was held can be seen by the acceptance of the Council of the recommendation of the Awards Committee that the Distinguished Service Award, presented to indi¬ viduals who have contributed both labor and love to the Academy, be renamed the Ivey F. Lewis Distinguished Service Award.47 At the first meeting of the Council at the annual May meeting, presided over by Mr. Foley F. Smith of the Alcoholic Beverage Control Board, at Charlottesville in 1964, Editor Paul B. Siegel of V.P.l. extended the thanks of the Journal staff to Executive Secretary-Treasurer Rodney C. Berry for updating the Academy mem¬ bership file thus substantially cutting down the number of Journals returned by the post office.48 In 1964 the Horsley Award went to Dr. E. Rae Harcum, of the College of William and Mary, for his paper “A Curious Parallel Between Serial Learning and Tachistoscopic Perception.” After Mr. Smith had turned the gavel over to President-Elect S. S. Obenshain of V.P.L, Treasurer William Wartman was recognized by the chair and reported for an ad hoc committee in the form of a motion that Council recognize the long years of service given the Academy by President Smith by electing him to honorary membership for life. The Council unanimously endorsed this motion.49 Smith’s contributions to the Academy have often been mentioned in this history. After his term as President he was heard to remark that a man’s job in the Academy doesn’t really seem to start until he has gone through all the chairs.50 Smith remained active in Academy affairs until his death (when it was revealed a residual portion of his estate was designated as an unrestricted gift to the organization). In the Junior Academy Bedford High School was again honored for having the outstanding science club affiliated with the VJAS. As in 1963 no honorable men¬ tion Miller Awards were presented. Robert Graham of Patrick Henry High School, Ashland, was the recipient of the last W. Catesby Jones Award presented by the Academy.51 In addition. Dr. W. W. Scott, Chairman of the Junior Academy, announced that the most outstanding research papers submitted to the judges by the Juniors had been published in volume one of the Proceedings of the VJASJ’2 Senator Lloyd C. Bird, himself a recipient of the service ward of the Academy, moved at the March, 1965, Council meeting that Dr. H. Rupert Hanmer, President of the Virginia Institute for Scientific Research and a former chief executive of the Academy, be presented the first Ivey F. Lewis Distinguished Service Award. The Council passed this motion and on the evening of May 7, 1965, Senator Bird made the presentation to Dr. Hanmer.55 Also at this Charlottesville Council meeting Dr. Roscoe D. Hughes of the Medical College of Virginia, President-Elect of the Academy, reported that $5,000 had been requested from the National Science Foundation to finance the visiting scientists program under the direction of Colonel S. M. Heflin of V.M.I.54 Three months later, at the Academy Conference, it was announced that about sixty visitation days for professors to speak at high schools throughout the state would 30 The Virginia Journal of Science be arranged.55 It should be recalled that such a lecture program had been tried several years earlier by the Academy. That program had been somewhat less than a success as high school administrators balked at the disruption of their schedules. The new program under Colonel Heflin appeared to function much more smoothly. High schools, it was now reported, request the visiting professors.50 Something new was introduced at the 1965, forty-third Annual Meeting, pre¬ sided over by Dr. S. S. Obenshain of V.P.I., at Richmond — the Sidney S. Negus Memorial Lecture. The Lecture is, of course, in memory of Dr. Negus and is supported in part by a gift which Dr. Negus gave the Academy. Dr. Sterling B. Hendricks of the U.S.D.A. delivered the first Negus lecture on the subject “Photo- periodism.”57 Another change was administrative; Mr. Maurice B. Rowe of the Department of Agriculture and Immigration assumed the office of Treasurer, vacated by Mr. William Wartman, long a dedicated official of the Academy. The 1965 Horsley Research Award went to Dr. Doris Kuhlmann-Wilsdorf of the University of Virginia for her paper “Theory of the Interaction of Vacancies with Stress Fields of Metals.”58 At the May 8 Council meeting the Academy resolved to commend the state of Virginia for taking an interest in the deficiency of science education on the sec¬ ondary school level and for proposing changes in certification requirements. The Academy further pointed to its own readiness to be of service in this matter.59 The Academy also entertained a proposal for a paper to be prepared treating air as a natural resource. The Council unanimously passed this motion to concern the Academy with the rising problem of air pollution.00 In the Junior Academy the Science Club of Ferguson High School, Newport News, was chosen for the Miller Award. Liberty High School of Bedford was credited as an honorable mention. Liberty was the name given the consolidated high school which replaced Bedford High School— winner of the Miller Award for the past two years. The Major W. Catesby Jones Award was discontinued at this meeting.01 Later in the year Editor Paul B. Siegel wrote in the Journal that, effective with the January, 1966, issue, a new Letters to the Editor section would be printed in an effort to stimulate thought and discussion on pertinent subjects.02 Before the year was out another long time member of the Academy passed from the scene. Dr. Thomas McNider Simpson, Jr. (1882-1965) of Randolph Macon College, the ninth President of the Academy, died. The first number of volume seventeen, January, 1966, of the Journal is dedicated to his memory.60 Dr. Roscoe D. Hughes called the forty-fourth Annual Meeting of the Academy to order at Harrisonburg where the members were the guests of Madison College in 1966. Early at this meeting it was decided to hold the fiftieth anniversary cele¬ bration of the founding of the Academy, in 1973, at Williamsburg where the first meeting had been summoned.04 New sections were also a major consideration at this Academy meeting. Dr. S. L. Emory, representing the geographers of Virginia, proposed that the Council con¬ sider the establishment of a geography section. Council encouraged Dr. Emory to proceed with his organizational efforts in accordance with the regulations of the Academy on such matters.05 Off the drawing board and holding successful programs in Harrisonburg were two new Academy sections — Space Sciences and Material Sciences.00 A new ad hoc committee on Academy publications set up by President Hughes early in the 1965-66 year reported at the Academy Conference. This committee had been asked to consider everything having to do with the publications of the Academy — such as finances, formats, personnel, or any possible additional treatises — or the like — that might be desirable. The report on May 5, by Chairman Walter S. Flory, outlined the objectives and potential with reference to publications as visualized by the ad hoc committee. It was decided to make the Publications Committee a standing one, with Flory as the 1966-67 Chairman. At the time of the May 5 Publications Committee report Dr. Paul B. Siegel of V.P.I. had resigned as Editor of the Journal 07 Dr. Siegel had served as Editor since 1961, only the second man to remain five years in this demanding position. A further report for the Publications Committee was made at the May 7 Council meeting regarding selection of a new Journal Editor, and the preparation of an Academy History.08 During the ensuing half dozen years this committee was to 53 Ibid., 275-6. 5,5 Interview with Mr. Foley F. Smith and Mr. Rodney C. Berry, Richmond, Virginia, Jan¬ uary 5, 1968. 5' WS, New Ser., 16: 277. 1965. ss Ibid., 277. 30 Ibid., 280-2. m Ibid., 281. 01 Ibid., 270; telephone inter¬ view with Dr. Carpenter, Lex¬ ington, Virginia, January 15, 1968. VJS, New Ser., 16: 248. 1965. os VJS, New Ser., 17: 1-2. 1966. 04 Ibid., 220. 03 Ibid., 219. mIbid., 220, 226-7. «• Ibid., 227. <*Ibid., 221, 227. History of Virginia Academy of Science 31 80 Ibid., 222. ~°- Telephone interview with Dr. Carpenter, Lexington, Vir¬ ginia, January 15, 1968. fi VJS, New Ser., 17: 239. 1966. 72 VJS, New Ser., 19: 57-89. 1968. recommend three successive new Editors for the Journal, and to stimulate both the publication of articles dealing with scientific aspects of the Dismal Swamp, as well as the history of the first fifty years of the Academy. At the 1966 Assembly Past-President William G. Guy of William and Mary presented Dr. Boyd Harshbarger of V.P.I., himself a former President, a retired Editor of the Journal, and an individual vitally concerned with Academy activities, with the highest honor of the Academy, the Ivey F. Lewis Distinguished Service Award. F. A. Vingiello of V.P.I. received the J. Shelton Horsley Award for his paper “New Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons with Seven Fused Rings.” Also at this Assembly the second Sidney S. Negus Memorial Lecture was given by Dr. Alfred S. Roemer of Harvard University, the President of the AAAS.,!!' In the Junior Academy the Miller Award was presented to the Newport News High School Science Club.7" In conjunction with the report of Junior Academy Chairman, Dr. E. L. Wisman of V.P.I. who replaced Dr. Scott when Scott took a position with N.S.F., Colonel Heflin’s report for the visiting scientists program showed that the Juniors had enjoyed a good year. Of seventy-three visits scheduled seventy-one actually took place, and the N.S.F. approved the continuation of financial aid for 1967. 71 The new Publications Committee acted both on securing a new Editor for the Journal, and also on getting publication of the Academy history underway, during the spring and summer of 1966. Dr. Herbert McKennis, Jr., of the Medical College of Virginia, was recommended for the editorship of the Journal. The appointment of Dr. McKennis was approved and confirmed by the Executive Committee, as had been provided for by Council,1 BH and the new Editor quickly organized his staff and started work on the January 1967 issue of Volume 18 of the Journal. An attractive new format was devised; higher quality paper was used; plans were made for reproducing the Abstracts in the Proceedings issue, by an offset process, to decrease cost; and other changes inaugurated which made for increased attrac¬ tiveness and quality in the publication. Arrangements for progress on the History had been made earlier. President Stanley B. Williams, 1966-67, earlier a member of the ad hoc committee on Pub¬ lications, had arranged with Dr. W. W. Abbot, then graduate history chairman at William and Mary, to have the history of the Academy used as the subject of a Master’s essay in the history department. Through the efforts of Drs. Abbot, Williams, and William G. Guy, on the campus of the College of William and Mary, and countless others throughout the state who had long worked toward the same goal, a history of the Academy was undertaken in the summer of 1966. The result was a Master’s thesis by Mr. Harry Joseph Staggers entitled “A History of the Virginia Academy of Science, 1923-1945” which was published in the first issue of Volume 19 of the Journal, in 1968. 72 Those first three chapters covered Acad¬ emy History from organization in 1923, through 1945. Much of the history of the Academy through 1966 is found in the well docu¬ mented reports of Annual Meetings, interim Council meetings. Treasurer’s records, and various committee activities which were carefully preserved first in the Annual Proceedings, and later in the Proceedings Issues of the Journal. It is these reports which have formed the chief basis of the Academy History as here recorded through 1966. With rapid and constant increase in printing costs and publication expenses, the published reports of Academy activities have been considerably restricted since 1966. Beginning in 1966, a separate Program for the Annual Meeting was pub¬ lished, since it was found that this could be done more economically in a separate publication, than by using the pages of the Journal. Abstracts of all papers pre¬ sented before the various sections at the Annual Meetings have continued to appear regularly in the fall issue of the Journal. The 1967 Proceedings Issue of the Journal contained no report on the Annual Meeting except for the abstracts of papers presented. The Proceedings Issues for the Annual Meetings for 1968 through 1972 have included brief summaries of Council Meetings, annual committee reports, financial reports, and of the most important events of the Annual Meetings. These combined reports, in recent years, have usually been confined to six published pages or less, except for 1970 when they covered eight pages in the Journal. This means that for 1967 practically no Academy records are available to the membership at large, and that for the other 32 The Virginia Journal of Science years since 1966 the detailed accounts of Academy activities previously published for the full membership have been much abbreviated. This has been a definite advantage from the standpoint of dollars and cents. It is a detriment to the organ¬ ization membership from the standpoint of overall information as to Academy activities, and certainly from the standpoint of the availability of historical records. Presumably all the details of Academy functioning formerly published are now available in the records of the Secretary, and are being preserved in the archives of the Academy. The need and the advantages of only briefly summarizing Academy activities in the Journal are clearly apparent and recognized. The same is also true as to the disadvantages accruing from the more recent procedure. In order to make this history as complete as possible, the activities of the years from 1967 through 1972 will be recorded, but in much less detail than for the earlier years. In part, this briefness stems from a seeming justification, since all members should be much more cognizant of recent activities, than of the earlier ones. In part, the briefness is necessitated by the greater difficulty in securing the accurate records of what has transpired in these more recent years. Perhaps more time should have been spent in securing and studying the records of recent years, from the files of the Academy Secretary and of other officers. The forty-fifth Annual Meeting of the Academy was held in 1967 at the Golden Triangle Motor Hotel in Norfolk under the sponsorship of Old Dominion College. It was presided over by President Stanley B. Williams of the College of William and Mary. A total of 314 papers were presented before twelve different sections of the Academy.78 Oscar R. Rodig and Galal Zanati of the Department of Chemistry of the University of Virginia were presented the J. Shelton Horsley Research Award for their paper entitled “Studies on the Synthesis of Enol Acetates of the A 1-3-Keto-AB-Trans-Steroid System.”74 The 1967 Sidney S. Negus Memorial Lec¬ ture was presented by Professor Eliot Stellar of the University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine on the topic “Eating.”7’' The Ivey F. Lewis Distinguished Service Award went to Dr. Russell J. Rowlett, Jr., a longtime member, and a former Secretary of the Academy, now a consultant with Chemical Abstracts Service in Columbus, Ohio.7 Ibid., 23. " Ibid., 24. i VJS, New Ser. 2 1970. s Ibid., 25. 1: 24. : 160. 1 : 25. 25. 100. History of Virginia Academy of Science 37 ® Ibid., 31. 10 Ibid., 70. 11 Ibid., 94. 12 VJS, New Ser. 22: 19. 1971. 53 Ibid., 30. 14 VJS, New Ser. 21: 81-83. 1970. Ibid., 41-46. 10 Ibid., 93-94. 17 Ibid., 94; 118-121. 18 Ibid,, 95. 49 Ibid., 96. ing together in a good cause. Careful planning by experts in the Museum field under the direction of a nine-man Board of Trustees to be appointed by the Governor, and the staff of the Museum, constitute the next order of business.”9 At March 15, 1970, Council meeting, Dr. Austin Grigg reported that the Museum of Science had been approved by the State Legislature and the requested initiating fund had been appropriated.10 At the 1970 Annual Meeting of the Academy a number of nominations were received from various sections for the Virginia Museum Board of Trustees to be appointed by the Governor. It was moved in Council meeting that Dr. Roscoe Hughes’ name be placed at the top of the list and this was passed by acclamation.11 At the November 1, 1970, Council meeting. Dr. Hughes and Mr. Rowe reported on the latest information concerning the Virginia Museum of Science. President Rowe indicated that the Governor had made his decision with respect to the Trustees of the Museum, and Dr. Hughes pointed out that there was still a Museum of Science Committee of the Academy.1- At that time, Governor Linwood A. Holton had named seven of the nine Trustees of the planned Science Museum of Virginia. These included two members of the Academy, Dr. Roscoe D. Hughes, a member of the Science Museum Study Commission, and Dr. Avery Catlin of the University of Virginia, representing the Materials Science Section. Others appointed by Governor Holton included Mrs. J. T. Bird of Salem, Mrs. William A. Stuart of Rosedale, Harold Soldinger of Portsmouth, William J. Vaughan of Virginia Beach and Mrs. William T. Reed, Jr., of Manakin-Sabot. The General Assembly had appropriated $66,500 in planning money for the proposed Museum with a portion of the money to be used in hiring an Executive Director. A site for the proposed Museum had not yet been selected.19 Two additional articles concerned with the story of the Dismal Swamp appeared in the Journal in the spring of 1970. “Waters of the Dismal Swamp” by Elmer W. Ramsey, Kenneth R. Hinkle and Lawrence E. Benander, was one of these articles,14 and “Soils of the Dismal Swamp of Virginia” by Elvin F. Henry15 was the title of the other. Several additional articles in the series had been promised and were in varying stages of preparation. The forty-eighth meeting of the Academy was held in Richmond, May 6-8, 1970, under the presidency of Dr. Rae Carpenter of Virginia Military Institute. There were 20 commercial exhibits on display at the John Marshall Hotel, which was headquarters for the meeting.10 These exhibits, coupled with the continuing business memberships, the grants for special projects which were occasionally received from certain industrial companies, as well as the strong interest and leadership from many members in industry and state government, served to emphasize the important part which all phases of scientific interest in the state played in science and in the Vir¬ ginia Academy of Science. At the 1970 meeting, 352 papers were presented before 14 different Sections of the Academy. Especially strong programs were held in the Sections of Geology (with 54 papers) and of Medical Sciences (with 42 papers). Between thirty and forty papers were presented in each of the Sections of Biology (39 papers). Astron¬ omy, Mathematics and Physics (35 papers), and Chemistry (33 papers). A full program of 25 papers was presented by the botanists meeting in sessions Thurs¬ day morning, Thursday afternoon, and again for most of Friday morning, May 7 and 8. On the basis of this record Council on May 8 approved the acceptance of Botany as a new Section of the Academy. Stewart A. Ware had been elected as first Section Chairman and Leonard Morrow as the first Council representative of the new Section.17 At the Academy Conference, among other things, the proposed re¬ vision of the Academy Constitution was reviewed as amended and adopted, the motion for adoption being approved without dissent.18 The membership of the Academy was reported as 1,767. 19 The 1970 Sidney S. Negus Memorial Lecture was delivered before the Academy Assembly by Dr. Robert M. Wood of MacDonald Douglas Astronautics Company; this lecture was entitled “Giant Discoveries of Future Science,” and was the first lecture by an engineer to be delivered before the Academy Assembly for some time. The J. Shelton Horsley Research Award went to I. Gordon Fels of the Virginia Institute for Scientific Research for the paper which he presented before the Section of Chemistry entitled “A Model System for Molecular Aging and Senescence.” The Ivey F. Lewis Distinguished Service Award was presented to Roscoe D. Hughes, a past-President of the Academy, a Chairman or past Chairman of many of the 38 The Virginia Journal of Science important committees of the organization, and a member outstandingly active in connection with many of the projects of the Academy.20 At the Virginia Junior Academy of Science meetings, 132 member schools were represented, and 285 papers were submitted. Registration was slightly over 700, of which 600 were students. During the year a Proceedings as well as two issues of the Junior Science Bulletin were published, and the Handbook was revised. The first E. C. L. Miller Trophy Cup was retired by Denbigh High School for winning the cup three years in succession. A new cup was being secured to continue the competition. The V. J. A. S. operated on a $7500 budget, with $2500 provided by the senior Academy, $2000 by a grant from the National Science Foundation, $2000 by industry and individual gifts, and with the remainder coming from reg¬ istrations. In the Science Talent Search Virginia had 116 completed entries in the National Competition. The 1 16 students represented 49 different high schools scat¬ tered through the state. While Virginia did not have any students this year among the forty National winners, it did have twenty students from fifteen different high schools in the National Honors group of 300. 21 An important change occurred in the office of the Executive Secretary-Treasurer during the year. It will be recalled that Mr. Rodney Berry had held this position for a number of years following his retirement from the State Department of Agri¬ culture. Now, Mr. Blanton M. Bruner, who was retiring from his position with the American Tobacco Company, was made Associate Executive Secretary-Treasurer of the Academy.22 A few months later, when Mr. Berry retired from his position as Executive Secretary-Treasurer, Mr. Bruner took over this position.23 This has been another of the Academy’s great strengths — the fact that men of outstanding ability have been willing and glad to donate, chiefly as a labor of love, their talents to the betterment and improvement of the Academy. As Mr. Berry was leaving his position as Executive Secretary-Treasurer, the Council and Academy voted him an honorary life membership, with an appropriate certificate and wallet membership card, and also presented him a silver tray bear¬ ing both Mr. and Mrs. Berry’s names in appreciation of their services to the Acad¬ emy.24 A long-time patron of the Academy, Mrs. Alfred I. du Pont (Jessie G. Ball du Pont) died — -at the age of 86 — on September 26, 1970, at her home near Wilming¬ ton, Delaware. A native of Ditchley in Northumberland and a graduate of Long- wood College, Mrs. du Pont was not only a benefactor of the Academy but also of a number of educational institutions in Virginia25 Mrs. du Pont had responded generously to Dr. J. Shelton Horsley’s early request for endowment research funds, and at that time had written to Dr. Horsley: “Am glad to note that you realize that Virginia’s most important asset is the quality of her people, and I earnestly trust we can hold more of our scientifically and professionally trained young people in the state.”20 Building for science research and instruction continued at an accelerated rate in Virginia. The Medical College of Virginia, the Health Sciences Division of Virginia Commonwealth University, in 1970 was awarded more than $7.6 million in federal funds by the Department of Health, Education and Welfare for- two major con¬ struction projects. The grants provided $6,354,002 for construction of a 15-story addition to Sanger Hall, to provide space for the departments of anatomy, bio¬ chemistry, microbiology, physiology, radiology and some medical subspecialties. The remaining $1,294,720 awarded was to provide for expansion and moderniza¬ tion of the Tompkins-McCaw Library.27 The Medical College of Virginia also built a new Animal Research Facility in Hanover County, 9 miles north of Richmond, erected at a cost of $396,350, with funds provided by the State.28 At the same in¬ stitution, the new $4 million addition to the School of Dentistry was named the Lyons Building, in honor of Dr. Harry Lyons who retired July 1, 1970, after serv¬ ing as dean of the MCV School of Dentistry for nearly twenty years. The addition gave the School of Dentistry 130 per cent more floor space.21' The first issue of Volume 22 of the Journal, 1971, carried news of the death of one of the few surviving charter members of the Academy, Miss Harriett Huldah Fillinger, who had passed away on December 26, 1970, in Oak Ridge, Tennessee. Miss Fillinger had been on the Hollins College staff for the thirty-five years from 1921 to 1956, having served that institution as a professor and as Chairman of the Department of Chemistry. When the General Chemistry Laboratory Building was 20 Ibid., 99-100. 21 Ibid., 96-97. 22 Ibid., 70. 23 VIS, New Ser. 22: 19. 1971. 24 VJS., New Ser. 21 : 70-71. 1970. 25 Ibid., 211. 20 Proceedings 1937-38: 22. 27 VJS. New Ser. 21 : 28-29. 1970. 28 Ibid., 211. 20 Ibid., 212. History of Virginia Academy of Science 39 28. 30 VJS, New Ser. 22 : 1971. 31 Ibid., 30. 32 Ibid., 64-66. 33 Ibid., 74-75. 31 Ibid., 37. dedicated at Hollins in 1967, it had been named in honor of Miss Fillinger.30 A few months later the Academy received news of the death of yet another charter mem¬ ber; Mr. S. C. Crawford of Franklin, Virginia, who died on October 9, 1971. Several items in the News and Notes Section of the Journal, Volume 22, indicated that Virginia scientists, as well as other scientists in the country and the world, were having an enlarged awareness of environmental and ecological problems. ( 1 ) Presi¬ dent Maurice B. Rowe, who was also Commissioner of the Virginia Department of Agriculture and Commerce, announced the establishment of an environmental planning committee under auspices of the State Department of Agriculture. The five-man committee was headed by Academy member J. W. Midyette, Jr., Director of Technical Services in the Agriculture Department. The committee was studying such subjects as pesticides and disposal of animal and industrial wastes.31 The Academy’s Committee on Conservation and Natural Resources assembled various items of ecological interest around Virginia. Several of these were described in Volume 22 of the Journal. (2) The Virginia Institute of Marine Science was being responsible for planning and conducting basic and applied research on the environ¬ ments and resources of the Commonwealth’s tidal waters and adjacent waters of the Atlantic Ocean. (3) The Board of Visitors of Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, in May 1970, authorized The Center for Environmental Studies to coordinate research activities at V.P.I., oriented toward the solution of specific environmental problems and also for the purpose of providing counsel and guidance about environmental problems to the government, industry, the University, and other educational institutions of the state. (4) A new Division of Aquatic Biology was formed by the Virginia Institute for Scientific Research. This group was con¬ ducting both laboratory and field investigations in aquatic ecology with particular emphasis on determination of the degree and kind of industrial use to which bodies of water can be put without degrading their quality for recreation, food production, and other uses. (5) Mary Washington College received a National Science Founda¬ tion grant of approximately $50,000 to apply to their Rappahannock River Eco¬ systems Project. This was a cooperative project effort by the Departments of Ge¬ ology, Chemistry and Biology of that institution. (6) Sweet Briar College received a three-year National Science Foundation grant for improvement of the social and natural sciences. A major project supported by this grant was an environmental study using the college’s 3400 acres as well as a part of the neighboring county as study areas. (7) Still another state college, Randolph-Macon Woman’s College in Lynchburg, received a grant from the National Science Foundation in order to conduct an ecological study, this time on the Blackwater Creek Basin in Lynch¬ burg. This $16,760 grant was for a summer study by students. The data gathered was to be submitted to the Lynchburg Planning Commission in connection with the Commission’s study of a proposed 250-acre park development in the area. (8) The paper-lumber complex of The Union Camp Corporation in Franklin, Virginia, formed a special department for environmental protection, designated as the En¬ vironmental Engineering Department.32 Interest in the environment was well represented in the programs of the Vir¬ ginia Junior Academy of Science. Dr. E. L. Wisman of V.P.I. had been Chairman of the VJAS Committee since 1965, and had carried out, expanded and broadened the interest in and the interests of this important group. In his 1971 report on the Juniors, Dr. Wisman wrote: “In keeping with the changing times, the program shows a change in paper categories. The Astronomy and Space Science category has been replaced by a new one — Environmental Science. Last year, five papers were submitted in Astronomy and Space Science; this year, 35 were submitted in Environmental Science. We note that the interest in our junior scientists is no longer all ‘up in the stars’ but rather, is turning more towards ecology and problems of ‘down to earth’ concern.”33 William Allison Kepner, eleventh President of the Virginia Academy of Science, died on March 24, 1971, at Charlotte, North Carolina. He was almost ninety-six years of age. The second issue of Volume 22, 1971, of the Journal was dedicated to this great teacher. Dr. Kepner had taught thousands of students in Biology 1-2 at the University of Virginia, had trained over 300 students in his advanced course, Invertebrate Zoology, and had been the Major Professor of many graduate students. He had played a vital part in the formation of the Virginia Academy of Science.34 President Maurice B. Rowe called the forty-ninth Annual Meeting to order at 40 The Virginia Journal of Science Blacksburg where the Academy members were guests of the Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University for its May 12-14, 1971, meeting. At the May 12 Council meeting, Boyd Harshbarger, Chairman of the Awards Committee, reported that the following had been nominated for Fellows of the Academy: Robert Clifton Carter, Edward S. Harlow, W. T. Harnsberger, Jr., A. M. Harvill, Colonel S. M. Heflin, George W. Jeffers, Harry G. M. Jopson, and E. L. Wisman. All were ap¬ proved by Council. Walter Flory reported for the Publications Committee that the tenure of Dr. Lynn Abbott as Editor of the Journal would expire in August of 1971, and that Dr. Abbott had requested to be relieved of the editorship. The committee recommended that Dr. Charles H. O’Neal, biophysicist of Virginia Commonwealth University, Health Sciences Division, be appointed to the position of Editor be¬ ginning in September, 1972. Dr. O’Neal was to be in England until August of that year and Dr. Abbott had agreed to an interim appointment to fill the position until Dr. O’Neal returned from England. Council approved the arrangement made by the Publications Committee, while highly commending Dr. Abbott for a difficult job well done.'15 A total of 415 papers — by far the largest number for any meeting in the history of the Academy — was presented before the 13 sections at the Blacksburg meeting. More than 30 papers were given before each of eight different sections. There were 58 papers in Biology (and another 23 in Botany), 45 in Agriculture, 44 in Chem¬ istry, 41 in Statistics.'10 In reporting for the Research Committee at the Academy Conference, Chairman W. Dexter Whitehead stated that during the year $2,637.40 had been awarded in research grants to support six different studies, and that 18 papers had been sub¬ mitted in the Horsley Award competition. Later at the Academy Assembly, it was reported that the 1971 J. Shelton Horsley Award winning paper was “The Unusual Electrical Effects in Arsenic-Tellurium Semiconducting Glasses” which was pre¬ sented in the Materials Science Section by L. R. Durden, L. H. Slack, and P. R. Eusner of Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University.07 Also at the Academy Assembly Dr. Horton H. Hobbs, Jr., was presented the Ivey F. Lewis Distinguished Service Award, and the newly elected Fellows of the Academy were presented to the membership.'18 The Sidney S. Negus Memorial Lecture was delivered by Nyle C. Brady, Associate Dean of the College of Agri¬ culture at Cornell University and Chairman of the Agriculture Board of the Na¬ tional Academy of Science. His scholarly address “The Role of Agriculture in Im¬ proving Environmental Quality” was well received by the large group at the banquet and Assembly.00 The Virginia Junior Academy of Science celebrated its 30th Anniversary at the Blacksburg meeting. While the total membership of the Junior Academy had de¬ creased 6 per cent from 1970, the number of research papers submitted for the Annual Meeting increased by 15 per cent. A total of 200 papers was programmed, out of 325 submitted, and an obvious improvement in the quality of papers was noted. A total of 714 attended the VJAS meetings, of which 580 were students, 89 teacher-sponsors, and 45 Senior Academy supporters.4" “The Science Museum of Virginia” titled the lead editorial in is’Sue four of Vol¬ ume 22, 1971, of the Journal, tracing the history of the effort to establish the Museum. This pointed out that “more than a quarter-century ago a five-member Museum of Science Advisory Commission reported to the Governor and General Assembly of Virginia that ‘few agencies can be devised to (better) advertise what we have to offer ourselves, or others, and to direct the interest of both young and old in building a greater Virginia than .... a properly set up and administered State Museum of Science.’ ” It further pointed out that two of the original leaders — Dr. George W. Jeffers and Dr. William T. Sanger— remain active Museum support¬ ers of vision and imagination .... Senate Bill No. 8 created the Science Museum of Virginia, outlined its purposes and authorized appointment of a nine-member Board of Trustees. “Spearheaded by the Virginia Academy of Science and other learned organizations, a comprehensive Museum Study Commission report in 1969 was the basis for concrete action by the General Assembly in 1970.” Trustee ap¬ pointments were completed by the Governor in February, 1971. While some of these have been mentioned earlier, they will be repeated. The first Board of Trustees of the new Museum was made up of: Dr. Roscoe D. Hughes, Richmond, Chairman: Dr. T. Dale Stewart, McLean, Vice-Chairman; Mrs. Wiliam A. Stuart, Jr., Rose- 35 Ibid., 73. so Program 49th Ann. Meet¬ ing, V.A.S., May 11-14, 1971. 37 VJS, New Ser. 22: 76. 1971. 3S Ibid., 78. 39 Ibid., 166 171. 10 Ibid., 74-75. History of Virginia Academy of Science 41 41 Ibid., 165. dale. Secretary; Mrs. J. T. Bird, Salem; Dr. Avery Catlin, Charlottesville; Lyons Davidson, Lynchburg; Mrs. William T. Reed, Jr., Manakin-Sabot; Harold Soldinger, Norfolk; and William J. Vaughan, Virginia Beach.41 The new Board of Trustees of the Museum had now reached several positive policy decisions. They agreed that the Museum system should include facilities in three or four population centers around the state, with other “outreach” centers. Also, they approved an appropriations request of $432,197 from the state for 1972-74 for acquisition of basic staff and facilities; set a fund raising goal of $5 million during 1972-75 to supplement state revenue; and further launched a preliminary feasibility study of sites in three areas — Lynchburg, Norfolk and Roanoke. Each initial Museum facility would provide a different feature. Several Museum areas had been approved by the General Assembly. These in¬ clude ( 1 ) Physical Sciences, to include a planetarium and depict the history, con¬ cepts, and basic principles of the chief sciences; (2) Botanical Sciences, primarily to educate in the kinds and uses of Virginia flora; (3) Natural History, which would be devoted primarily to Virginia’s natural resources, as well as paleontologi¬ cal and archeological artifacts and specimens; (4) Industry and Technology, to communicate the history and development of Virginia’s industry; (5) Oceanography and Limnology, which would include an oceanarium and be concerned with Vir¬ ginia’s total aquatic life and environment; and (6) Zoological Gardens, for the preservation of wildlife and viewing it in its natural habitat.41 The fall Council meeting was called to order in Newcomb Hall at the University of Virginia by President Edward F. Turner, Jr., at 10:30 A.M. on November 7, 1971. A number of committees had reports and recommendations, which for the most part were handled with dispatch. In addition, it was moved and passed that the desk registration fee for the 1972 meeting be set at $4, and the preregistra¬ tion fee be $3. Dr. Alex M. Clark, Chairman of the Visiting Scientists Program, distributed a list of scientists who had volunteered their services to high schools. It was moved and passed that non-commercial institutions be allowed to exhibit 42 VJS., New Ser. 23: 27-28. 1972. at the Annual Meeting for a fee of $50. 42 The spring 1972 issue of the Journal carried the news of the untimely death of Dr. John Gibbs Mahan (1919-1971), Professor of Biology at Lynchburg College. A native Virginian, educated at Lynchburg College and the University of Virginia, he had served on the 1951 Local Arrangements Committee for the Lynchburg 43 Ibid., 28. meeting and had long been a quiet but effective supporter of the Academy.43 The fiftieth Annual Meeting was held in Lexington, Virginia, May 3-5, 1972, with President Edward Turner of Washington and Lee University as presiding officer. The Virginia Military Institute and Washington and Lee University were 14 Ibid., 93-98. joint hosts of the meeting.44 Academy interest in conservation and environmental problems remained strong. Roscoe Hughes, Chairman of the ad hoc committee on Conservation and Natural Resources had distributed literature to Council members relative to national wilder- 45 Ibid., 93. ness areas, prior to the Lexington meeting. This literature was reviewed and dis¬ cussed at the May 3, 1972, Council meeting. The following motion was carried without dissent: “The Virginia Academy of Science recognizes the importance of preserving our wilderness area and therefore urges its members to write the President of the United States requesting him to utilize the powers of his office to accelerate the programs of review of lands covered by the Wilderness Act of 1964.” It was also approved that the motion be submitted to the Academy Con¬ ference for endorsement and that copies of the motion be sent to President Nixon, and to the Senators and Congressional Representatives of Virginia.45 The following morning, May 4, a colloquim on “Virginia’s Environment: Where Do We Stand Today?” with six speakers from institutions scattered across the state, was a main 40 Program 50th Ann. Meet¬ ing, V.A.S., May 2-5, 1972. CP. 1.) feature of the Academy program.46 Sectional and paper interest continued at a high level. A total of 349 papers was delivered before the thirteen sections. There were 67 papers presented before the Section of Biology, while more than 30 papers were presented in each of the Sections of Chemistry, Psychology, Materials Science, and Botany.46 I. J. Good of V.P.I. and S.U. and R. A. Gaskins of Hampden Sidney College received the 1972 J. Shelton Horsley Research Award for their paper “Global Nonparametric 47 VJS, New Ser. 23: 97. 1972. Estimation of Probability Densities,” presented in the Statistics Section.47 The 1972 Class of Fellows annouced at the Academy Assembly on May 4 in- 42 The Virginia Journal of Science eluded: Lynn D. Abbott, Jr., Rodney C. Berry, Lloyd C. Bird, Robert P. Carroll, James W. Cole, Jr., Walter S. Flory, Mary E. Kapp, and Paul B. Siegel — bringing the number of elected Fellows of the Academy to 32. The Sidney S. Negus Me¬ morial Lecture delivered before the Assembly by Dr. Peter van dc Kamp of Swarth- more College was on the subject “The Search for Extra-solar Planets in our Stellar Neighborhood.”48 As with some of the earlier meetings held at Lexington, members of the Virginia Junior Academy of Science were housed at Natural Bridge and held some of their successful meetings at the Natural Bridge Hotel, with others being staged at Wash¬ ington and Lee University. The annual Junior Academy lecture, this year en¬ titled “Sickle Cell — A Model of Human Genetic Disorders,” was given in the ballroom of the Natural Bridge Hotel by Dr. Paul R. McCurdy of Georgetown University Medical Center.4*1 Shortly after the Lexington meeting, Dr. E. L. Wisman resigned as Chairman of the Virginia Junior Academy of Science Committee. Dr. Wisman had success¬ fully directed the activities of the Junior Academy for eight years. He had expanded the publications of the group, had secured considerable amounts of support for Junior Academy programs from the National Science Foundation — and from other sources, and left this most important activity of the Virginia Academy of Science with a vigorous program and interest high. Dr. Lee S. Anthony of Roanoke College succeeded Dr. Wisman in this important position, effective June 1, 1972. 411 Another of the stalwarts and member of the ‘old guard’ of the Academy passed away with the death of Dr. Orland E. White on January 10, 1 972.r,n From 1927 until 1955, Dr. White had been Professor of Agricultural Biology at the University of Virginia and Director of the Blandy Experimental Farm. He was Chairman of the Biology Section of the Academy in 1931. For a number of years he served on the Research Committee. Some six or seven Blandy Fellows, or former Fellows, were winners of Academy Research Awards. Another long-time Academy member, Dr. J. Stanton Pierce, died on July 22, 1972. Dr. Pierce had served on the Chemistry faculty at the University of Richmond for thirty-four years before his 1971 retirement. He had served the Virginia Acad¬ emy of Science as Treasurer and also as Secretary and Chairman of its Chemistry Section.51 New national honors came to several Virginia scientists during 1972. Dr. Jesse W. Beams, Professor Emeritus of Physics at the University of Virginia, Academy President in 1947-48, and winner of the National Medal of Science in 1968, now received a citation from the U. S. Atomic Energy Commission in ceremonies No¬ vember 2 for his work in the development of the gas centrifuge for separating iso¬ topes and in the AEC’s use of the process for separating uranium isotopes. Dr. Beams was one of only three scientists selected to receive the AEC citations. Also, Dr. Paul B. Siegel, Professor of Poultry Science at V.P.I., was elected President of the Poultry Science Association at the Society’s 1972 meeting at Ohio State University.52 We have seen that in 1923 there were 134 charter members at the organizational meeting of the Virginia Academy of Science. Ten years later, in J933, member¬ ship in the Academy had climbed to 743. In the fifth edition (1933) of Cabell's American Men of Science there were 617 scientists listed as being born or educated in Virginia or as being resident in Virginia at that time.53 The 1923 and 1933 membership numbers in the Academy, and Cabell's 1933 listings of Virginia scientists, may be compared with the 1632 Academy members in 1972, down slightly from the highest recorded membership of 1767, in 1970. The number of scientists in Virginia has doubtless increased at a considerably higher rate than the population as a whole. It has been fortunate that scientists of the state, whether they be from academia, from industry, from state government, or other source, have cooperatively, unselfishly and successfully worked together to form and develop a strong state Academy of Science. The Academy has had outstandingly successful Annual Meetings, with numerous papers presented in many areas; sponsored a successful and improving Journal of Science; developed a strong interest in science among high school students of the state, resulting in a large and virile Junior Academy of Science; led to the establishment of the Virginia In¬ stitute of Scientific Research; sponsored successful studies of the James River Basin, of the Dismal Swamp, and of other natural areas; sponsored many symposia, Ibid., 97. 10 Ibid., 83. =" Ibid., 86. 51 Ibid., 205. 32 Ibid., 206-7. 33 K. M. B. Crooks, Va. Jour. Ed. 33: 136-139. 1938. History of Virginia Academy of Science 43 all of which have been of more or less wide ranging interest and importance to the state and its development; sponsored and taken steps leading to the establish¬ ment of a State Museum of Science; paid increasing attention to problems of con¬ servation and environmental import, and in short has interested itself in all phases of science and of scientific development in the state. This history has been an at¬ tempt to present a concise record and chronology of these and other activities of the Academy. If successful, it is a record which can be turned to for useful refer¬ ence in connection with the history of this organization. The following and final chapter attempts to summarize and place on record for ready reference a number of factors in connection with the first fifty years of the development and history of the Virginia Academy of Science. 44 The Virginia. Journal of Science Chapter VIII The Academy-Its Start, Development and Present Status Walter S. Flory Wake Forest University Except for dates, figures and numbers should probably not play a prominent role in the narrative of events, or the systematic written account of the hap¬ penings, concerning the history of an institution. In this chapter, however, a brief text statement will lead up to each of several accounts or — in most cases — summary tables. Each of these accounts or tables points up an important step, or a notable development trend, for the Academy. In some of the tables figures of necessity predominate. It is these figures which show trends, and mostly successful ones, within the Virginia Academy of Science. 1. The Call for Organization The beginning paragraphs of Chapter 1 of this history outline the initiation, organization, and first meetings of the Association of Virginia Biologists. Those paragraphs also tell how this group of biologists initiated the call, and secured the cooperation of other scientists in setting up, the organizational meeting of the Virginia Academy of Science. This letter which went out to the different scientists of Virginia was so important, and had such successful results, that it seems deserv¬ ing of publishing in its entirety so that it may be made a permanent part of this history. Accordingly, this letter with its signers is published below. Association of Virginia Biologists President: W. D. Hoyt, Washington and Lee University Vice President: D. W. Davisv College of William and Mary Secretary-Treasurer: W. L. Dolley, Randolph-Macon College Additional Members of the Executive Committee J. I. Hamaker, Randolph-Macon Woman’s College H. E. Hayden, University of Richmond I. F. Lewis, University of Virginia ? To the Scientists of Virginia: The Association of Virginia Biologists, organized in 1920, will hold its next annual meeting at the College of William and Mary, Williamsburg, on the last Friday and Saturday in April. The Association has among its general objects the stimulation of interest in its field in Virginia, the furthering of the scientific life of the State, and the promotion of a spirit of fellowship and cooperation among its members. The success of this organization has encouraged its executive committee to think that the time is ripe for the organization of a large and more inclusive group of scientists in Virginia. You are therefore invited to join with us in the organization of the Virginia Academy of Science at Williamsburg on Thursday, April 26. The advantages of such an organization, as found by experience in other states, are threefold. First, an Academy serves to arouse the interest and to stimulate the work of its members. Second, it brings about a healthful spirit of cooperation among its members and brings together in a most helpful way the more or less isolated followers of science. Third, it gives a voice to a scattered and unorganized group of scientists, enabling them to support effectively such scientific programs as have a bearing on the public welfare, and to set forth the claims of science to public appreciation and support. History of Virginia Academy of Science 45 As you will see from the signatures below, this call to cooperation is sponsored by a representative of each of the various fields of interest that naturally suggest themselves. It is desired to reach every field of scientific activity in Virginia, and it is hoped that the responses to this invitation will show that there is in this State widespread desire of scientific workers to unite in a common cause. The details of organization may be left for working out together at Williamsburg. On the basis of the experience of similar organizations in Virginia and elsewhere, it is suggested that the Academy should embody in its program and plans the following: 1 . An annual meeting for the reading of papers and the transaction of business, to be held during each spring at the seats of the institutions of learning in Vir¬ ginia in approximate rotation. 2. The publication and distribution of abstracts of the papers presented. 3. The organization of such sections and standing committees as will best further its objects. 4. Affiliation with the American Association for the Advancement of Science, or with some other national group. It may be mentioned that the dues of such organizations are always small. We believe you are in sympathy with any movement looking toward the better¬ ment of the scientific life of Virginia. The only question is whether the time is ripe and the method proposed effective. A partial survey of the number of scientists in Virginia shows that it is rather surprisingly large. Without taking into account the various special societies in the State, such as the Chemists, the Bacteriologists, the Engineers, and others whose lists would furnish additional names, it has been found that there are about three hundred professional scientists in Virginia. The total is certainly much greater than this. From a study of the membership of the American Association for the Advance¬ ment of Science, the distribution of Virginia scientists is about as follows: Biology, including Forestry and Agriculture 65 *Chemistry 48 *Geology 8 Mathematics and Physical Science 85 *Medical Science 15 Psychology and Sociology 50 Not limited to one field 19 The group of scientists in Virginia is therefore large enough for effective organi¬ zation. That some such plan as that indicated presents an effective method of organization we believe is shown by experience. Will you please fill out and return the subjoined blank? Your cooperation is needed and will be heartily welcomed. For the Committee Association of Virginia Biologists I. F. Lewis, Miller Professor of Biology University of Virginia For Chemistry Graham Edgar, Professor of Chemistry University of Virginia For Education and Sociology B. G. Childs, Professor of Education Randolph-Macon College For Geology H. D. Campbell, Professor of Geology Washington and Lee University For Mathematics and Physical Science Joseph E. Rowe, Professor of Mathematics College of William and Mary For Medical Sciences Wortley F. Rudd, Professor of Chemistry Medical College of Virginia For Psychology George 6. Ferguson, Professor of Psychology and Education University of Virginia * These groups would be much larger if the classification included others than members of the A.A.A.S. 46 The Virginia Journal of Science For Sociology Frank Bane, Commissioner of Public Welfare Commonwealth of Virginia II. THE SECTIONS OF THE ACADEMY At the time of organization the Virginia Academy had four sections: Psychology and Education; Astronomy, Mathematics and Physics (the physical sciences); Biology; and Chemistry (actually, the Virginia Section of the American Chemical Society). These original four areas have remained strong, within the Academy, with almost half of all papers presented before all Annual Meetings being read in one of these original sections. And three of these four original sections have been especially active, at least in connection with their programs of papers. Over forty per cent of the papers read before any section of the Academy during the past fifty years has been before either the chemists, the biologists, or the physical scientists in their sectional meetings. The Academy, as outlined at the end of Chapter VII, has often performed as a strong unit, and has had a number of successful all-Academy projects. However, it has been the scientist-members preparing and presenting the results of their studies and researches before their particular sections, and the officers and members of each of the several sections working together as a strong group within their one area of science, within one state — which have been the backbone of the Academy. They have provided the foundation upon which a strong organization of wide scientific interest could be built. As the Academy grew, the original sections increased in size, and several found that their programs became too crowded. As time passed, specialized interest groups broke off into new sections. A few sections which came into existence presented programs for a longer or shorter period of years, and then passed out of existence when not enough interest was present to warrant continuation of these. Several of the new sections became among the strongest and most active in the organization. From the original section of Astronomy, Mathematics and Physics, the engineers gave their own programs in the years 1939 through 1942, and then beginning again in 1949, have continued as an independent Section of Engineering. An off¬ shoot from the same original section, Statistics presented a first sectional program in 1943, and then every year since that date except for 1945, when only a skeletal Academy meeting was held. In keeping with interests of the times, two other sections have originated from the original physical sciences group in the late sixties. Both Materials Science and Space Science presented full programs in 1966, and have continued to do so since that year. The four new sections coming from the original Astronomy, Mathematics and Physics Section all appear on a sound basis in the fifty-first year of the academy. While Biology has continued as one of the strongest sections, it has given origin over the years to a total of six additional sections. Not all of these new sections have survived, however. Five papers were presented before a Section of Bacteriol¬ ogy in 1929. This same section held programs at the Annual Meetings from 1942 through 1944, again in 1946, and then annually from 1948 through 1962. The Section of Microbiology held its first meeting in 1963 — apparently as a continuation of the old Section of Bacteriology. Except for 1967, the Section of Microbiology has presented annual programs since its origination. The medical scientists sepa¬ rated from the Section of Biology in 1932, when they organized a separate Section of Medical Sciences and held sessions before which twenty papers were presented. Full programs in the medical sciences were held in all subsequent years, through 1972, with exception of the war years of 1944 and 1945. The next group to sepa¬ rate from the biologists were the foresters, when they organized a Section of Forestry in 1941 and presented a program of twenty papers. This proved a tran¬ sient group. Six papers were presented before the Section of Forestry in 1942. Sectional officers were elected for an additional year, but the war was curtailing activity in all sections and- the foresters have never again held a sectional meeting with the Academy. The Section of Agriculture proved much more permanent; it held its first program in 1946, and other programs annually thereafter. It has already been mentioned that the Section of Microbiology was first organized in 1963, taking the place of the old Section of Bacteriology. The most recent section to arise from the biology group has been the Section of Botany, the newest section of the Academy — first organized in 1970, and presenting strong programs in subse- History of Virginia Academy of Science 47 quent years. Actually, in earlier days of the Academy, as the Biology Section became larger, and its programs crowded, separate sectional meetings had been held by the zoologists and the botanists, but both as a part of the Section of Biology. There have been some changes, and additional sections, from the original Section of Psychology and Education, also. In 1935 this original section divided into a Section of Education, and a Section of Psychology. The Education Section held annual programs except in 1945, through the Annual Meeting of 1959, when that section ceased to exist. The Section of Psychology has held annual meetings since 1935, except for several of the war years, with a generally increasing number of members and enlarged programs as the years have passed. To the writer, it is not apparent that there has been any direct connection between the Section on Educa¬ tion and the Section of Science Teachers. The latter presented its first program in 1949, and held annual programs — with a small and limited number of papers — through the year 1963. Since 1963 the Science Teachers have continued to be carried as a Section of the Academy, but without presenting a formal program, as such. Usually this group has held a luncheon, or a breakfast, at which an invita¬ tional speaker or two has spoken, and at which time the group has organized for the following year. It seems likely that the Section of Education may have played some part in initiating and perhaps in organizing the Section of Science Teachers. The immediately preceding paragraphs have mentioned and discussed all organ¬ ized sections of the Academy that have functioned through the years, with the exception of the Section of Geology. This section held its first program in 1927 and, again except for 1945, has held annual programs every subsequent year. The geologists would appear to be an entirely separate group. There seems no record that any papers by geologists were presented before the Section of Astronomy, Mathematics and Physics in the years prior to 1927. Hence, the group would not seem to have been an offshoot from that original section. The sections of the Academy might be summarized. There were four sections originally. From the Section of Astronomy, Mathematics and Physics, four new sections seem to have derived; making five current sections from that one original group. From the original Section of Biology, six new sections originated. Two of these, Bacteriology and Microbiology may be considered the same with only a name change being involved. The Section of Forestry was of short duration. As a result, from the original Section of Biology, four additional current sections origi¬ nated; i.e., the sections on Medical Sciences, Agriculture, Microbiology and Botany. Again, five sections where one existed originally. The Section of Chemistry has continued as a strong and vigorous group from the time of the original organization of the Academy. The original Section of Psychology and Education is now essen¬ tially the Section of Psychology. The Section of Geology has been active over a long period of years, and judging from the number of papers presented before the Annual Meetings, interest in this section has been on the increase in recent years. This leaves only the Section of Science Teachers, with its situation as described in a preceding paragraph. Currently then, there are thirteen active sections of the Academy, plus the Science Teachers which meet annually for one session at the time of the Annual Meetings. A summary of the sections of the Academy is given in Table 1. This table attempts to give a picture of the sections, dealing with their time of organization; their duration or tenure; the total numbers of papers which have been given before the sections, at least from 1925 through 1972; the number of years in which paper sessions have been held; and the average number of papers presented before each section per year. In addition, this table lists the number of papers from each section which have received Academy Awards. To a certain extent, it would seem that the number of award winning papers are an indication of the interest in a given section, and of the level of the research work which is reported before the sections. It is realized that this is not entirely true, because certainly many excellent papers have not been submitted for awards. In general, however, it is likely that the great majority of authors have submitted papers in the award competition if they have felt that their paper merited a good chance of receiving an award. III. Growth of Academy Membership by Years There were 1 34 charter members of the Virginia Academy of Science at the time of its organizational meeting at Williamsburg in 1923. The Academy never again had that small a number of members. There were 152 members recorded in 48 The Virginia Journal of Science TABLE I Sections of the Academy, 1925-1972 ; tenure ; papers presented; awards to papers Section and Tenure Program Years Total Papers Average Papers Per Year No. of Award Winning Papers Astronomy, Mathematics and Physics (Beginning to date) 46 1222 27 6 Biology (Beginning to date) 47 1445 31 16 Chemistry (Beginning to date) 47 1297 28 14 Psychology & Education (Beginning to 1934) 8 64 8 Education (1935 to 1959) 24 181 8 Psychology (1935 to date) 36 665 18 1 Geology (1928 to date) 43 744 17 Bacteriology ( 1929; 1942-62) 20 159 8 Medical Sciences (1932 to date) 39 788 20 9 Engineering (1939 to 1942; 1949 to date) 28 639 23 Forestry ( 1941 and 1942) 2 26 13 Statistics (1943 to date) 29 418 14 7 Agriculture (1946 to date) 27 564 21 1 Science Teachers (1949 to 1964) 15 65 4 Microbiology (1963 to date) 9 72 8 Materials Science (1966 to date) 7 164 23 1 Space Science (1966 to date) 7 144 21 Botany (1970 to date) 3 76 25 Total 8733 1924 and 237 in 1925. Actually, there was an increase in membership every year from the time of the 1923 organizational meeting until the twelfth Annual Meeting was held in Harrisonburg in 1934. There were 751 members enrolled in 1934, more than a 460 per cent increase over the charter membership number. This was the greatest percentage increase in membership, in a like period of time, that the Academy experienced during the first fifty years of its existence. Following 1934 there was a slight dip in 1935, and again in 1936, this time to 695 members. But then the membership climbed again until it stood at 843 by 1939, and after a slight dip in 1940, rose again to 912 in 1941, at about the time the United States entered the second World War. This history has earlier recounted the difficult and trying times through which the Academy passed as its members devoted themselves to the war effort during the years between 1941 and 1946. The membership declined from 912 to 882 in 1942, to 811 in 1943, and on to 629 in 1945. This was a 31 per cent decrease in membership during those years. But with cessation of the war, “sunny days were here again,” and the member¬ ship enrollment arose steadily during the next five years until it stood at 1204 in 1950. During the fifties the membership fluctuated, at first going down slightly, then increasing a bit, and in the long run staying about steady during the decade with 1225 members on the rolls in 1960, just a very few members more than the 1950 membership. During the sixties, the membership continued to fluctuate, but there were only three years during this decade when there were decreases in numbers of members. The trend was strongly upward again, so that by 1970 1767 members were on the rolls. This was a 44 per cent increase in membership during the sixties. As the seventies began the membership again decreased sliehtly, to 1650 in 1971, and 1632 in 1972. During the first fifty years of the Academy, the trend in membership has been rather consistently upward. Increases, and at times considerable increases, have occurred in thirty-three different years. In only sixteen years have there been decreases in membership and this includes the long series of trying war years. It has been mentioned before that from time to time the nonpaying members have been removed from the rolls — that in other words the “dead wood” has been cut away. By this procedure the members who have remained on the rolls have been the History of Virginia Academy of Science 49 active ones necessary and important to the best progress of the organization. Re¬ moval of the “dead wood” has been a healthy operation, in the long run, although it has made the membership enrollment seem to fluctuate unduly. Table 2 lists the numbers of members by years and shows the trend of generally steady increase in membership from 1923 to the present time. IV. Meeting Places and Sponsoring Institutions Annual meetings of the Academy have traditionally been held on the campuses of institutions of higher learning, at places scattered widely across the state. As the organization has grown, a larger proportion of the meetings have been held in hotels of the larger cities in the state, but with the meeting in such a hotel being planned and sponsored by one or more educational institutions from nearby areas. The first meeting was held at Williamsburg in 1923. The second was in the TABLE II Membership by Years — 1923-1972 1923—134 1940— 823 1957— 892 1924—152 1941— 912 1958— 961 1925—237 1942— 882 1959—1022 1926—315 1943— 811 1960—1225 1927—323 1944— 765 1961—1300 1928—394 1945— 629 1962—1120 1929—500 1946— 633 1963—1114 1930—535 1947— 835 1964—1250 1931—555 1948—1007 1965—1328 1932—637 1949—1066 1966—1512 1933—743 1950—1204 1967—1444 1934—751 1951—1194 1968—1674 1935—698 1952— 871 1969—1717 1936—695 1953— 973 1970—1767 1937—737 1954— 935 1971—1650 1938—809 1955— 881 1972—1632 1939—843 1956— 891 Valley at Lexington, followed by the 1925 meeting at Richmond, essentially on the border between the Piedmont and the Coastal Plain. The group met at Char¬ lottesville in 1926, followed by a 1927 meeting in the mountains of southwest Virginia at Blacksburg. Thus it was not until the sixth meeting in 1928 that the group met for a second time at a site where a former Annual Meeting had been held — when they met for a second time at the College of William and Mary at Williamsburg. The next half dozen Annual Meetings were each held at a new and different location. Three of these, but not consecutively, were in the Valley, at Staunton, Roanoke, and Harrisonburg, respectively. Two were in the Piedmont, at Fred¬ ericksburg and Lynchburg; and the other was on the Coastal Plain at Norfolk. In 1935 the group met in Richmond for a second time. From then, through 1940, the Annual Meetings met in diverse sections of the state. During the war years most of the meetings, some of them only skeletal ones, were held in Richmond — which seemed the most central point for most attendants, and the point most easily reached when gasoline and tires were limited. Beginning in 1947, following the war, of the next 25 meetings, 14 were held in either Charlottesville (4), Roanoke (5), or Richmond (5). Accommodations for the increased membership were somewhat easier at these three points, than at other places in the state. But yet, during that period, the Academy held eleven meetings at seven other places at quite diverse locations. These seven places ranged from Old Point Comfort and Norfolk to Blacksburg, and from Lynchburg, Lexington and Harrisonburg to Fredericksburg. The various schools in the state took pride in playing host to the Annual Meetings and, without exception, have handled the planning and responsibilities of the meetings in a magnificent manner. Table 3 lists the meeting places and sponsoring institutions for the Annual Meet¬ ings in chronological order. It can be seen that three of these meetings have been held in the mountains of southwest Virginia at Blacksburg. Seventeen times the group has met at Valley cities: Roanoke (7), Lexington (6), Staunton (1), and 50 The Virginia Journal of Science Harrisonburg (3). In eleven cases Annual Meetings have been in the Piedmont area, with six of these being at Charlottesville, two each at Fredericksburg and Lynchburg, and one at Danville. The group has had its annual gathering at points on the Coastal Plain a somewhat greater number of times, at least if Richmond be placed in that area. Already, 19 meetings have been held in the eastern part of the state at Richmond (12), Norfolk (3) and at both Old Point Comfort and Williams¬ burg two times each. And, of course, a twentieth meeting for that area, and a third for Williamsburg, is to be held there in 1973. Table 4 lists the locations of the various meetings, the numbers of times of meeting at each point, and the years of those meetings. TABLE III Meeting Places and Sponsoring Institutions 1923 First, Williamsburg (College of William & Mary) 1924 Second, Lexington (Washington & Lee University) 1925 Third, Richmond (Medical College of Virginia. University of Richmond, Randolph- Macon College) 1926 Fourth, Charlottesville (University of Virginia) 1927 Fifth, Blacksburg (V.P.I. and E. Radford State Teachers College) 1928 Sixth, Williamsburg (College of William & Mary) 1929 Seventh, Staunton (Mary Baldwin College; Staunton Military Institute) 1930 Eighth, Lynchburg (Randolph-Macon Woman’s College) 1931 Ninth, Norfolk (Monticello Hotel. Headquarters) 1932 Tenth, Roanoke (Hollins College) 1933 Eleventh, Fredericksburg (State Teachers College) 1934 Twelfth, Harrisonburg (State Teachers College) 1935 Thirteenth, Richmond (University of Richmond) 1936 Fourteenth, Lexington (Virginia Military Institute) 1937 Fifteenth, Charlottesville (University of Virginia) 1938 Sixteenth, Blacksburg (Virginia Polytechnic Institute) 1939 Seventeenth, Danville (Danville Hotel, Headquarters) 1940 Eighteenth, Lexington (Virginia Military Institute) 1941 Nineteenth, Richmond (Medical College of Virginia) 1942 Twentieth, Roanoke (American Viscose Corporation) 1943 Twenty-first, Richmond (Hotel Jefferson, Headquarters) 1944 Twenty-second, Richmond (Richmond Institutions; Hotel Jefferson, Headquarters) 1945 Twenty-third. Richmond (Skeleton meeting. Hotel Jefferson) 1946 Twenty-fourth, Richmond (John Marshall Hotel, Headquarters) 1947 Twenty-fifth, Charlottesville (University of Virginia) 1948 Twenty-sixth, Roanoke (Virginia Polytechnic Institute) 1949 Twenty-seventh, Richmond (M. C. V.; Richmond University Center; R.P.I.; University of Richmond) 1950 Twenty-eighth, Roanoke (Hollins College, Roanoke College) 1951 Twenty-ninth, Lynchburg (Lynchburg College) 1952 Thirtieth, Old Point Comfort (College of William & Mary and V.P.I. in Norfolk) 1953 Thirty-first, Lexington (Virginia Military Institute) 1954 Thirty-second, Charlottesville (University of Virginia) 1955 Thirty-third, Harrisonburg (Madison College) 1956 Thirty-fourth, Richmond (Richmond Area University Center) 1957 Thirty-fifth, Old Point Comfort (College of William & Mary, Norfolk) 1958 Thirty-sixth, Roanoke (Hollins College; Roanoke College; V.P.I.; American Viscose Corp. ; N & W RR; Veterans Administration Hospital) 1959 Thirty-seventh, Charlottesville (University of Virginia) 1960 Thirty-eighth, Richmond (M.C.V.; University Center in Virginia; R.P.I.; University of Richmond) 1961 Thirty-ninth, Lexington (Virginia Military Institute) 1962 Fortieth, Norfolk (Norfolk College of William & Mary) 1963 Forty-first. Roanoke (Hollins College; Roanoke College; V.P.I.) 1964 Forty-second, Charlottesville (University of Virginia) 1965 Forty-third, Richmond (M.C.V.; R.P.I.; University of Richmond) 1966 Forty- fourth, Harrisonburg (Madison College) 1967 Forty-fifth, Norfolk (Old Dominion College) 1968 Forty-sixth, Roanoke (Hollins College; Roanoke College; V.P.I.) 1969 Forty-seventh, Fredericksburg (Mary Washington College) 1970 Forty-eighth, Richmond (Virginia Commonwealth University; University of Richmond) 1971 Forty-ninth, Blacksburg (Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University) 1972 Fiftieth, Lexington (Virginia Military Institute; Washington and Lee University) 1973 Fifty-first, Williamsburg (College of William & Mary) History of Virginia Academy of Science 51 It is obvious that the Academy has met at widely varied points over the state, and that a majority of the schools of higher education in the state have been involved in one or more Annual Meetings. The only areas of the state which have not played host to the Academy are the extreme northern parts, say at Winchester and also the Fairfax-Arlington areas, and the extreme southwestern part of the Old Dominion, in the Bristol area. TABLE IV PLACE OF MEETINGS BY CITIES With Number , and Years , of Meetings City Number Year(s) Richmond 12 ’25, '35, '41, ’43, ’44, ’45, ’46, ’49, ’56. '60, '65, ’70 Roanoke 7 ’32, ’42, ’48, '50, ’58, ’63, ’68 Lexington 6 ’24, ’36, '40, ’53, ’61, ’72 Charlottesville 6 ’26. ’37, ’47, '54, ’59, ’64 Blacksburg 3 ’27, '38. ’71 Norfolk 3 ’31, '62, ’67 Harrisonburg 3 ’34, ’55, ’66 Williamsburg 2(3) '23, ’28, (’73) Lynchburg 2 ’30, '51 Fredericksburg 2 ’33, '69 Old Point Comfort 2 '52, ’57 Staunton 1 ’29 Danville 1 ’39 V. The Research Committee and Research Awards From its earliest days the Academy has had the promotion of research as one of its primary functions. In the second year of the Academy a preliminary com¬ mittee was appointed on means of achieving this objective. The committee was composed of John H. Yoe, Frederic W. Shaw and J. Shelton Horsley, Chairman. This committee issued and distributed a printed report on its findings and recom¬ mendations to the Academy at its Richmond meeting on May 5, 1926. This con¬ structive report was so favorably received that a permanent Research Committee was created. Dr. Horsley who had served as Chairman of the preliminary committee was elected fourth President of the Academy and served in that capacity during the 1926-27 term. He at once went out among his friends and raised an endowment of about $12,000 for this permanent Research Committee to administer. The fol¬ lowing year, the young Research Committee was able to award a prize of $50 for an outstanding paper read at the meeting, and such a prize has been awarded each year since, except in certain war years. The amount of the prize was later increased to $100, and later yet to $500. The first permanent Research Committee was composed of Robert E. Loving, C. P. Olivier, Donald W. Davis, L. R. Giessler, and Robert F. McCracken. It is not clear who was chairman of this first committee, but it appears to have been Dr. Loving, physicist of the University of Richmond, and he was apparently chairman for several years. Dr. Loving was Chairman of the 1930-31 Research Committee. Dr. J. Shelton Horsley assumed the Chairmanship of the Research Committee in 1931-32 and held this position through 1939. Chairmen of the Research Committee for the following years were as follows: F. A. Geldard, 1939-40 — 1942-43; Harvey B. Haag, 1942-43 — 1944-45; Robert F. Smart, 1945-46 and 1946-47; H. Rupert Hanmer, 1947-48—1949-50; Walter S. Flory, 1950-51 — 1952-53; and Charles L. Gemmill, 1953-54 and 1954-55. From 1943-44 through 1954-55, there had been six, and sometimes seven, members on the committee. Since 1955-56, there have been five members on the Research Committee, with each incoming President appointing one member for a five-year term, while the senior member rotated off. Since 1955-56, the senior member of the Committee has served as Chairman. Accordingly, in recent years each member has served as The Virginia Journal of Science Chairman of the Committee, but for one year only. There has been only one excep¬ tion to this, apparently. In 1958-59, R. W. Engel, senior member of the Committee, was unable to serve in that capacity because of responsibilities outside the state. In that year, the second member in seniority, Jackson J. Taylor, served as Chair¬ man, and Mr. Taylor served again as Chairman in 1959-60, his senior year on the group. The Academy prize, designated the J. Shelton Horsley Research Award since 1946, has gone to a meritorious paper presented before some Academy section in almost every year since 1927. In addition, in the years from 1936 through 1939, The Jefferson Gold Medal went to a second meritorious paper. Also, in the years from 1940 through 1945, The Jefferson Prize went to a second meritorious paper presented before some section of the Academy. Fifty-five different papers have been designated as prizeworthy, with Academy awards going to the author or authors of those papers. A total of 7 1 different authors, or co-authors, have been involved in writing the 55 award winning papers. The titles of these papers are indicative of the breadth of the scientific and research interests prevalent among some Academy members. As such, it appears worth¬ while to publish the list of titles of the award winning papers, with their authors and institutions, in Table 5. TABLE V Winners of Awards for Research Papers Including Year, Institutional Affiliation of Autlior(s), and Title of Paper The Academy Prize 1927 C. C. Speidel. (School of Medicine, University of Virginia.) Regenerative Phenomena Under Conditions of Hyperthyroidism. 1928 John H. Yoe. (Chemistry, University of Virginia. ) Colorimetry of Aluminum. 1929 J. C. Street. ( Physics, University of Virginia.) The Time Lag of the Spark Discharge. 1930 H. E. Jordan and C. C. Speidel. (School of Medicine, University of Virginia.) Hemo- cytopoiesis in the African Lung-Fish Under Normal Conditions and Under Pro¬ longed Dry Estivation and Recovery. 1931 E. C. Stevenson. (Physics, University of Virginia.) The Study of Electro-optical Kerr Effect in Carbon Dioxide as a Function of Density and Temperature. 1932 James H. Smith. (St. Luke’s Hospital. Richmond.) The Influence of Solar Radiation on the Distribution and Prevalence of Exophthalmic Goiter in the United States. 1933 S. A. Wingard. (Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station.) The Production of Rust- Resistant Varieties of Beans by Hybridization. 1934 E. P. Johnson. (Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station.) The Etiology and Histo¬ genesis of Leucosis and Lymphomatosis of Fowls. 1935 Margaret Hess. (Biology, University of Virginia.) Edema and General Atrophy in Stenostomum oesopltagium. 1936 Alfred Chanutin. (School of Medicine, University of Virginia.) The Effect of Whole Dried Meat Diets on Renal Insufficiency Produced by Partial Nephrectomy. 1937 R. G. Henderson. (Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station.) Studies on the Downy Mildew Disease of Tobacco. 1938 S. G. Bedell. (School of Medicine, University of Virginia.) Observations on the Lateral- Line Organs of Living Amphibian Larvae with Special Reference to Orange Colored Granules of the Sensory Cells. 1939 M. J. Murray and Forrest F. Cleveland. (Lynchburg College.) The Use of Polaroid in Depolarization Measurements on Raman Lines. 1940 Walton C. Gregory. (Blandy Experimental Farm, University of Virginia.) Cytology and Phylogeny in the Ranunculaceae. 1941 Charles Ray. (Blandy Experimental Farm, University of Virginia.) Cytological and Genetic Studies on the Flax Genus. Linum. 1942 No Award. 1943 J. B. Meyer. (Blandy Experimental Farm, University of Virginia.) Cytogenetics of Phlox. 1944 J. Herbert Taylor. (Blandy Experimental Farm, University of Virginia.) Cytotaxonomy and Phylogeny of the Oleaceae Lindl. 1945 No Award. The J. Shelton Horsley Research Award 1946 Equal Awards to each of two “distinctly superior” papers. (1) Boyd Harshbarger. (Statistical Laboratory, Virginia Polytechnic Institute.) Rec¬ tangular Lattices. History of Virginia Academy of Science 53 (2) D. B. DeLury. (Statistical Laboratory, Virginia Polytechnic Institute.) The Analy¬ sis of Latin Squares When Some Observations are Missing. 1947 No Award listed in the proceedings (see pages 28-30, and 50.) 1948 Henry Leidheiser. (Chemistry, University of Virginia.) Generalizations Concerning the Surface Behavior of Single Crystals of the Face-Centered Cubic Metals. 1949 Walter S. Flory. ( Blandy Experimental Farm, University of Virginia.) Pollen Condi¬ tions in Some Species and Hybrids of Rosa with a Consideration of Associated Phylogenetic Factors. 1950 Erling S. Hegre. (Medical College of Virginia.) A New Research Tool and Technique for the Biologist. 1951 D. B. Duncan. (Statistical Laboratory, Virginia Polytechnic Institute.) A Significance Test for Differences Between Ranked Treatments in an Analysis of Variance: the Properties of the Multiple Comparison Test. 1952 D. R. H. Gourley. (School of Medicine, University of Virginia.) The Mechanism of the Uptake of Radioactive Phosphate by Human, Rabbit and Chicken Erythrocytes. 1953 Stephan Berko and Frank L. Hereford. (Physics, University of Virginia.) Deflection of High Energy Electrons in Magnetized iron. 1954 Lynn D. Abbott and Mary D. Jackson. (Medical College of Virginia.) Inhibition of In Vitro Heme Synthesis from N1"' Glycine by 2, 5-Dimethyl benzimidazol, 5, 6, Dimethylbenzimidazol, and Related Compounds. 1955 Albert W. Lutz, Jr. and Evans B. Reid. (College of William and Mary.) Clovene and B-Caryophyllene Alcohol. 1956 M. C. Kenneth Tweedie. (Statistical Laboratory, Virginia Polytechnic Institute.) Sta¬ tistical Properties of Inverse Gaussian Distributions. 1957 Equal Award to two papers of “equal excellency.” (1) R. A. Bradley and D. E. W. Schumann. (Statistical Laboratory, Virginia Poly¬ technic Institute.) The Comparison of the Sensitivities of Similar Experi¬ ments. (2) Walter H. Lewis. (Blandy Experimental Farm, University of Virginia.) A Bio- systematic Study of Rosa acicularis. 1958 G. Tyler Miller, Jr. and Kenneth R. Lawless. (Chemistry, University of Virginia.) An Electron Microscope Study of the Oxidation of Copper Single Crystals in Aqueous Salt Solutions. 1959 Dorothy L. Crandall. ( Randolph-Macon Woman’s College.) Ground Vegetation Pat¬ terns of the Spruce-Fir Area of the Great Smoky Mountains National Park. 1960 Lawrence I. Miller. (Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station, Holland.) The Influ¬ ence of Soil Components of the Survival and Development of the Sting Nematode. 1961 Equal Awards to two papers: (1) Irving R. King. (Texaco Experiment Incorporated.) A Study of the Recombina¬ tion of Ions in Flames. (2) Billy W. Sloope and Calvin O. Tiller. (Virginia Institute for Scientific Re¬ search.) The Formation, Conditions and Structure of Thin Epitaxial Films on Rocksalt. 1962 Claude P. Talley and Gerald R. Taylor, Jr. (Texaco Experiment Incorporated.) Prepa¬ ration of High Purity Single-Crystal Boron. 1963 H. A. David. (Statistical Laboratory, Virginia Polytechnic Institute.) The Method of Paired Comparisons. 1964 E. Rae Harcum. (Psychology, College of William and Mary.) A Curious Parallel Be¬ tween Serial Learning and Tachistoscopic Perception. 1965 Doris Kuhlman-Wilsdorf. (Engineering-Physics, University of Virginia.) Theory of the Interaction of Vacancies with Stress Fields of Metals. 1966 Frank A. Vingiello. (Chemistry. Virginia Polytechnic Institute.) New Polycyclic Aro¬ matic Hydrocarbons with Seven Fused Rings. 1967 Oscar R. Rodig and Galal Zanati. (Chemistry, University of Virginia.) Studies on the Synthesis of Enol Acetates of the A i-3-Keto-AB-Trans-Steroid System. 1968 H. H. Hobbs, P. C. Holt and Margaret Walton. (Smithsonian Institution, Virginia Poly¬ technic Institute, and Danville High School.) The Crayfishes and Their Epizootic Ostracod and Branchiobdellid Associates of the Mountain Lake, Virginia, Region. 1969 A. J. McCaffery, P. N. Schatz, and T. E. Lester. (Chemistry, University of Virginia.) Magnetic Circular Dichroism of IrCl«2_ in Crystalline (CHfNUVSnClo. 1970. I. Gordon Fels. (Chemistry, Virginia Institute for Scientific Research.) A Model Sys¬ tem for Molecular Aging and Senescence. 1971 L. R. Durden, L. H. Slack and P. R. Eusner. (Materials Science, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and S.U.) The Unusual Electrical Effects in Arsenic-Tellurium Semi¬ conducting Glasses. 1972 I. J. Good and R. A. Gaskins. (Statistics, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and S.U., and Hampden-Sydney College.) Global Nonparametric Estimation of Probability Densities. The Jefferson Gold Medal 1936 Alfred Chanutin. (School of Medicine, University of Virginia.) The Effect of Whole 54 The Virginia Journal of Science Dried Meat Diets on Renal Insufficiency Produced by Partial Nephrectomy. 1937 William B. Porter. (Medical College of Virginia.) Heart Changes and Physiologic Ad¬ justment in Hookworm Anemia. 1938 H. M. Phillips. (Blandy Experimental Farm, University of Virginia.) Karyology and the Phyletic Relationships in the Plumbaginaceae. 1939 G. M. Shear and H. D. Ussery. (Virginia Polytechnic Institute.) Frenching of Tobacco Distinguished from Thallium Toxicity by Spectrographic Analysis. The Jefferson Prize 1940 L. G. Overholser and John H. Yoe. (Chemistry, University of Virginia.) The Appli¬ cation of a New Class of Organic Reagent to the Detection and Determination of Palladium. 1941 Allan T. Gwathmey. (Chemistry, University of Virginia.) The Action of Some Gases on the Surface of a Single Crystal of Copper. 1942 R. N. Jefferson. (Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station.) The Influence of Carbon Tetrachloride on the Toxic Efficiency of Certain Volatile Compounds. 1943 W. H. Hough. (Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station, Winchester.) Development and Characteristics of Vigorous or Resistant Strains of Codling Moth. 1944 Clifton B. Cosby. (U.S. Patent Office, Richmond.) Graphical Determination of Com¬ plex Roots of the Quadratic. Table 6 indicates the ten different institutions with which the authors of the award winning papers have been affiliated. Also, in the case of the Medical College of Virginia, the University of Virginia and Virginia Polytechnic Institute, this table lists the academic division in which the papers have originated. It is apparent from this Table that an unusually high number of prize winning papers have originated at the Blandy Experimental Farm of the University of Virginia, and in the Depart¬ ment of Statistics at V.P.I. Equally outstanding have been the Department of Chem¬ istry at the University of Virginia, the School of Medicine at the University, and the Plant Pathology and Physiology unit at V.P.I. But the overall impression which is left by the data in Table 6 is that of the wide range of institutions and depart¬ ments over the state which have carried and are carrying on research of merit, as indicated by these awards. TABLE VI Research awards listed by institution and school, 1927 through 1972 Lynchburg College Medical College of Virginia (1 each: Biology, Chemistry and Medicine) Randolph-Macon Woman’s College St. Luke’s Hospital Texaco Experiment, Inc. University of Virginia Astronomy, Mathematics and Physics Biology 1| Blandy Exp. Farm 7^ Chemistry Medicine Virginia Institute of Scientific Research Virginia Polytechnic Institute Animal Pathology Biology 1*| Plant Pathology & Phys. 5 1 Chemistry Materials Science Statistics U. S. Patent Office, Richmond William and Mary 1 3 1 1 2 25 4 8 7 6 2 17 1 6 2 1 7 1 2 Total 55 * In collaboration with Smithsonian Institution History of Virginia Academy of Science 55 VI. Invitational Addresses and Symposia Among the features at most Annual Meetings have been the invitational addresses which have been given before the Academy Assembly most years, and the symposia which have been sponsored by a number of different sections, and sometimes which have been Academy-wide. Since 1923, 46 invitational lectures have been given before the members of the Academy by invited speakers. Almost without exception these speakers have been men of national reputation. Several Nobel laureates are found on the list. These invitational addresses are listed in Table 7, together with the speaker, the year in which the address was given, and the President who was usually responsible for inviting the speaker. By looking over the titles of the addresses, it can be seen that they cover almost the whole range of scientific effort and thought. In Table 8 are listed the symposia which have been sponsored by the Academy, by Sections of the Academy, or by members of the Academy since the first one was held at Williamsburg in 1 928. There are 44 different symposia titles listed. About eight of these were sponsored by the Academy. The majority were sponsored by individual sections or by individual members or groups of the Academy. Especially active in sponsoring symposia have been the Sections of Chemistry (7), and Psychology (6). But it may be noted that symposia have also been sponsored by the Sections of Biology, Education, Engineering, Geology, the Medical Sciences, and the Science Teachers. At least two symposia have been co-sponsored by three different sections, while three other symposia have been co-sponsored by two different sections of the Academy. The speakers delivering the invited addresses and those involved in the symposia have doubtless been responsible for expressing some of the more enlightened thought and opinion heard at the several Annual Meetings. TABLE VII Invitational Addresses Year Academy President Invited Speaker Title of Address 1923 W. C. Coker The Scope and Function of a 1924 Ivey F. Lewis S. C. Lind State Academy of Science Radioactivity 1925 J. L. Howe S. A. Mitchell Fifty Thousand Miles of Travel 1926 R. E. Loving Wm. L. Poteat with an Astronomer to Observe Eclipses of the Sun Nescience or the Limitations of 1927 J. S. Horsley Edgar T. Wherry Science Visits to the Haunts of Virginia’s 1928 D. W. Davis Warren T. Vaughan Rare and Endemic Plants The Biological Aspects of Hay 1929 W. M. Brown No Invited Speaker Fever and Asthma 1930 G. Ryland H. D. Campbell The Geology of the Valley of 1931 L. G. Hoxton W. A. Kepner Virginia in Relation to Virginia History A Modern Drift in Biological 1932 1. D. Wilson Karl T. Compton Thought The Evolution of the Research 1933 T. N. Simpson Carl C. Speidel Laboratory Living Nerve Cells (Movie and 1934 1935 W. A. Kepner W. T. Sanger Alex. Wetmore Commentary) Explorations in Hawaii 1936 Ida Sitler C. C. Little Heredity and Cancer 1937 H. E. Jordan E. O. Lawrence Atoms. New and Old 1938 D. M. Allan .1. F. Dashiell Revisions of our Conceptions of 1939 1940 E. B. Norris R. S. Freer W. H. Camp Learning Demanded by Recent Experimental Findings A Winter in Oaxaca: Exploring 1941 W. F. Rudd Austin H. Clark for Plants in Southern Mexico The Virginia Journal of Science 1942 G. W. Jeffers W. H. Sebrell, Jr. 1943 M. H. Stow J. B. Gittler Demographic, Economic and Social Characteristics of the James River Basin 1944 1945 W. C. Jones R. F. Smart E. H. Hamann The Production of Essentials in Various Countries 1946 H. R. Hanmer S. A. Mitchell Astrophysical Results from Ten Total Eclipses of the Sun 1947 Arthur Bevan Wm. F. Foshag Paricutin, A Modern Volcano 1948 J. W. Beams John Collier The Social Responsibility of Scientists in a Unique World (Panel Discussion) 1949 S. S. Negus H. S. Meyerhoff The Scientist in Politics 1950 B. Harshbarger Russel L. Poor The Impact of Atomic Energy on Southern Education 1951 G. W. Horsley Wm. S. Stone Army Medical Research in National Defense 1952 P. M. Patterson E. N. Harvey Bioluminescence 1953 L. C. Bird H. N. Alyes Atomic Energy: Weapon for Peace 1954 A. T. Gwathmey J. A. Becker Seeing and Counting Atoms with New Field Emission Microscope 1955 LG. Foster Jerome Namias (Weather) 1956 W. S. Flory Edgar Anderson How to Measure a Species Difference and Why Bother 1957 E. S. Harlow W. F. Libby Atomic Energy Commission Policy and Methods 1958 W. G. Guy L. H. Snyder Heredity in Human Health and Disease 1959 J. C. Forbes S. I. Gale Chemistry on a Cosmos Scale 1960 W. M. Hinton H. F. Harlow A Theory of the Development of Affection in Primates 1961 W. B. Bell Arthur Roe Education for the Future 1962 H. H. Hobbs Dietrick Bodenstein Hormones and the Development of the Insect Eye 1963 J. J. Taylor John Sauer The Molecular Motion in Solids 1964 F. F. Smith F. H. Sanford Work and Leisure 1965 S. S. Obenshain S. B. Hendricks Photoperiodism 1966 R. D. Hughes A. S. Roemer Evolutionary Development from Bony Fishes to Amphibians 1967 S. B. Williams Eliot Stellar Eating Behavior of Humans 1968 J. W. Cole R. J. Rowlett Computer Pathways to Scientific Information 1969 P. B. Siegel Wm. J. L. Sladen The Adult and Juvenile Behavior of the Adelie Penguin 1970 D. R. Carpenter R. M. Wood The Giant Discoveries of Future Science 1971 M. B. Rowe N. C. Brady The Role of Agriculture in Improving Environmental Quality 1972 E. F. Turner Peter van de Kamp The Search for Extra-Solar Planets in our Stellar Neighbor¬ hood TABLE VIII SYMPOSIA Sponsored by the Academy, by Sections of the Academy, or by Members of the Academy 1928 Williamsburg 1930 Lynchburg 1931 Norfolk “Chemical Education.” Chemistry Section. "Mental and Physical Tests versus Chronological Age as a Basis for Admission to First Grade.” Education Section. “Industrial Orientation and Professional Guidance for Virginia Chemists.” Chemistry Section, Leader: Negus. “Pollution of the James River.” Joint Session Bacteriology, Bi¬ ology and Chemistry Sections. "Principles from the Natural Sciences that should be taught in Public Schools.” Education Section. “Problems of the Virginia Oyster Industry.” Joint Session: Bi¬ ology and Chemistry Sections. History of Virginia Academy of Science 57 1932 Hollins “The Potentialities of the Natural Resources of Virginia.” Joint Session: Biology, Chemistry and Geology Sections. Arranged by the Industrial Committee. 1935 Richmond “Teacher Education in Virginia,” and "Teaching Science in the Public Schools.” Education Section. “Chemical Industry in the State.” Chemistry Section. 1937 Charlottesville “Farm Chemurgy.” Chemistry Section: Arranged by Edwin C. Cox. 1938 Danville “Agricultural Chemistry." Chemistry Section: Arranged by H. H. Hill. “Organic Analytical Reagents.” Chemistry Section: Arranged by John H. Yoe. 1940 Lexington “Second Organic Analytical Reagents.” Chemistry Section: Ar¬ ranged by John H. Yoe. “Jaundice.” Medical Section. 1941 Richmond “Third Organic Analytical Reagents.” Chemistry Section: Ar¬ ranged by John H. Yoe. 1949 Richmond “Chesapeake Bay Research.” Joint Session: Biology and Chem¬ istry Sections. 1951 Lynchburg Symposium on Civil Defense. Presiding: Jesse W. Beams. 1953 Lexington “Resource-Use Education.” Joint Session: Biology and Science Teachers Sections. 1954 Charlottesville “What’s New in Physics?” Science Teachers Section. “What Kind of Research do Clinical Psychologists Need?” Psychology Section. 1955 Harrisonbu rg "What’s New in Chemistry?” Science Teachers Section. 1956 Richmond “The Psychologist’s Role in Community Mental Health.” Psychology Section. “Why are We Failing to Attract Students to Enter Professional Biology?” Biology Section. 1957 Old Point Comfort “Needed Research on the Gifted Child.” Education Section. 1958 Roanoke “Silica.” Geology Section. “Quantitative Measurements in the Teaching of Science at all Levels.” Science Teachers Section. “Achievement Imagery as Measured by the Iowa Picture In¬ terpretation Test.” Psychology Section. 1 959 Charlottesville “Relative Merits of Laboratory versus Demonstration in tne Teaching of Science.” Education Section. I960 Richmond “Sensory Deprivation. Clinical and Theoretical Implications.'’ Psychology Section. 1961 Lexington “On Recent Developments in Physiological Psychology wan Implications for the Control of Behavior.” Psychology Section. 1962 Norfolk “Basic Research on Virginia’s Natural Resources.” Virginia Academy of Science and Virginia Institute for Scientific Research. 1964 Charlottesville “Exploring Virginia’s Human Resources.” Virginia Academy or Science in cooperation with Virginia Chamber of Commerce. 1965 Richmond “Instrumentation and Controls.” Engineering Section. “Mental Retardation.” Psychology Section. “Planning for Technical and Scientific Post High School Edu¬ cation in Virginia.” 1966 Harrisonburg "Molecular Biology.” 1966 Richmond "The First Virginia Population Conference.” (December 6)* 1967 Norfolk “Myocardial Contraction.” Medical Science Section. 1968 Roanoke “Transportation in the 70’s.” Engineering Section. “Psychedelic Phenomena.” Medical Science Section. 1969 Fredericksburg “Museums of Science.” Science Section. 1970 Richmond “Quality of Environment.” 1971 Blacksburg “The Clean Air Act: Its Technical, Economic and Legal Sig¬ nificance and Social Implications.” Engineering Section. 1972 Lexington (Colloquim) "Virginia’s Environment: Where Do We Stand Today.” * The Academy in cooperation with the Virginia League for Planned Parenthood and eight other organizations. Proceedings published in the Journal 18: 28-54. 1967. VII. The Virginia Journal of Science1 As early as 1931 the Academy had considered and studied the possibilities of 1 The early history of the Journal, as of early Academy publications, is summarized from material in “The History of Early Publications of the Virginia Academy of Science and The History of the Virginia Journal of Science” by Boyd Harshbarger. This is a manuscript in the Archives of the Academy. 58 The Virginia Journal of Science financing and publishing a newsletter or journal of some type. At that time the committee appointed by President L. G. Hoxton to investigate the matter, decided that the Academy could not afford a publication. When an Academy publication did not materialize the botanists in the Biology Section, in 1934, initiated a mimeographed newsletter called CLAYTONIA, the name deriving from the early Virginia botanist, John Clayton. The newsletter was published every two months at first, but less frequently as time passed. It had a struggle to secure both adequate financing and a sufficient contribution of articles. Through the dedication and hard work of Editor R. S. Freer and Business Manager R. P. Carroll, publication continued for about five years. The discontinuance of CLAYTONIA was announced in the Academy Proceedings for 1940. But it was discontinued to be replaced by a publication of wider interests. A large Academy committee had been set up in 1939 to consider an Academy¬ wide journal. The Chairman of this committee was 1. F. Fewis, first President of the Academy, as well as the guiding influence chiefly responsible for initiating CFAYTONIA. The Academy committee recommended that The Virginia Journal of Science replace the botanical newsletter, and worked out details of editorship and financing which led to the first issue of the new Journal appearing in January 1940. Ruskin S. Freer and R. P. Carroll had been selected as Editor-in-Chief and Managing Editor, respectively, of the Journal. But the Journal , as its predecessor, had financial difficulties. Its annual financial reports showed increasing deficits. The inevitable result of such a situation was that the Academy voted to cease publication. The final decision was made at the May 1943 Annual Meeting, and upon motion of I. F. Lewis, the man chiefly responsible for getting the Journal started three years earlier. But while temporarily defeated in his objective of seeing that the Academy pub¬ lished a viable journal, Dr. Lewis had only lost the battle, not the war. On April 15, 1946, Dr. Lewis addressed a letter to every member of the Academy concerning the advantages to the organization of publishing its own journal. At the 1946 Annual Meeting the Academy voted “that the publication of The Virginia Journal of Science be resumed .... that a committee of three be appointed by the incoming president to make plans for this, and to report at the 1947 meeting.” Dr. Ladley Husted was Chairman of this committee. Informal reports were made by the committee at the 1947 and 1948 Annual Meetings. Chapter IV records the final, complete report for the committee, by Dr. Husted, at the 1949 meeting, and the subsequent events lead¬ ing up to the reestablishment of the Journal, and the happy event of securing Dr. Boyd Harshbarger as first Editor for the New Series of the Journal. This is not the place for a detailed account of subsequent publication details concerning the Journal. The fact that 23 volumes of the VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE New Series have now been successfully completed speaks for itself. Since Dr. Harshbarger initiated the New Series, the Journal has had a succession of Editors, most of whom have distinguished themselves in their performance in the office. The Journal, New Series, has published dozens of articles based on original research; the abstracts of all papers presented at the Annual Meetings; the Proceedings of certain symposia; for a period, the program of the Annual Meeting; a synopsis of the actions of Council, as well as of the Annual Meetings; news and notes of, and pertinent to, the Academy. In short, it has served as the medium for exchange of information which has stimulated the thinking of the members, as well as forming a cohesive link between the Academy and its sections and its members. In addition, the quality of the publication adds considerably to the prestige of the Academy as a whole. This section will close with a listing of the officers of the New Series of the Journal, with the Editors, and their associates, since 1950. Editor-in-Chief Boyd Harshbarger Horton H. Hobbs, Jr. Robert T. Brumfield Robert D. Ross Paul B. Siegel Herbert McKennis, Jr. Lynn D. Abbott, Jr. Charles O’Neal 1950-1955 1955-1957 1957-1959 1960-1961 1962-1966 1967-1968 1969-1972 1973- History of Virginia Academy of Science 59 Technical Editor Horton H. Hobbs, Jr. 1950-1955 Assistant Technical Editor Wilbert Schall 1950 Mary E. Humphreys 1950-1954 Associate Editor Mary E. Humphreys 1954-1959 Managing Editor B. F. D. Runk 1955-1957 Charles F. Lane 1957-1959 Robert Krai 1960-1961 Mrs. Robert D. Ross 1961 Carl W. Allen 1962-1966 Advertising Manager Clinton W. Baber 1950-1954 Richard W. Irby, Jr. 1954-1957 Lee S. Harrow 1957-1959 Edward Bowman 1973- Business Manager Charles O'Rear 1971- VIII. Virginia Junior Academy of Science In 1941 the Long Range Planning Committee had sent a questionnaire to the Academy membership asking what they thought should be the primary objectives of a state academy of science. The resulting suggestions were classified under four¬ teen headings, with “Research” standing at the top of the list. On that same list “Science Clubs and Junior Academy” was a suggestion of many. As a result a subcommittee for Junior Academy and Science Club Work was appointed in 1941, with Hubert J. Davis of Matthew Whaley High School, Williamsburg, as Chairman. The resulting development of the V.J.A.S. has been mentioned at many places through this history. It became more or less of a model Junior Academy in the country as a whole. Interest of the Juniors, as well as that of many of the Seniors in the Juniors, grew rapidly. The Junior Academy became a major, and one of the most satisfying and rewarding, projects of the Academy. It was soon holding its own well attended, enthusiastic, high quality programs — usually a day before the Annual Meeting of the Senior group. Much of the development and strength of the V.J.A.S. has been due to the successive dedicated and able men and women who have sponsored, worked with, and directed the Junior work. This summary would not be complete without giving the names, and approximate tenure, of several of the outstanding leaders of this work. The respective Chairmen of the Virginia Junior Academy of Science, since its first organization in 1941, are: J. Hubert Davis 1941-1947 F. G. Lankford, Jr. 1948 Boyd Harshbarger 1949 Flood S. Andrews 1950-1951 Grover W. Everett 1952 Mrs. Thelma C. Heatwole 1953-1959 W. W. Scott 1960-1964 E. L. Wisman 1965-1972 Lee S. Anthony 1 972— There are almost countless dedicated science high school teachers, and science club leaders, that have stimulated and inspired their students to enthusiasm in the Junior Academy, and in working on projects and demonstrations in connection with their membership in the V.J.A.S. Mention of any one of these teachers means that many other dedicated ones are omitted. But even so, two of the teachers out- 60 The Virginia Journal of Science standing in their success in stimulation of Juniors will be mentioned. Miss Vada Miller of Front Royal and Miss Susie Floyd of Newport News have been respon¬ sible, over a long period of years, for bringing a long series of Junior Academy members to the Annual Meetings. Many of these have presented outstanding papers and demonstrations, leading to prizes for themselves and their schools. Leaders of such students have deserved far more credit than they have received. IX. Necrology Herewith we record the names of some of the distinguished members of the Academy who have died. Notices of their passing and appropriate tributes are to be found in the listed Academy publications. Proceedings 1943-44, p. 22. William Clift Granville Valentine Warren T. Vaughan Ernest W. Sniffen Proceedings 1944-45, p. p. P Proceedings 1945-46, p. p. Proceedings 1946-47, p. P- Proceedings 1948-49, p. 37. 38. 39. 56. 55. 105 45. 62. Proceedings 1949-50, p. 317. Major W. Catesby Jones, Past President Henry Kreiger McConnell Howard H. Zimmcrley Roy Jay Holden John Shelton Horsley, Past President Charles Sutts Egbert Watson Magruder Dr. C. Leonard Albright Mrs. Emily W. Dinwiddie Mrs. Robert F. McCrackan Dr. Earle L. Overholser William Ralston Edward Steidtman Frank Redwood Roy S. Cook Chauncey McL. Gilbert Edward R. Stettinius Bradford Walker R. P. Cocke Thomas B. Hutcheson Journal January, 1951, p. 62. Journal April, 1951, p. 129. Journal September, 1954, p. 231. Donald W. Davis, Past President Wortley Fuller Rudd, Past President H. B. Derr Fred A. Dove Carroll Cephas Flora Douglas S. Freeman A. W. Hurd John Lloyd Newcomb M. Pierce Rucker James H. Smith Journal January, 1954, p. 36. p. 38. Journal January 1955, pp. 1-4. p. 56. Journal January, 1956, p. 58. Journal July, 1957, pp. 175-6. Journal January, 1958, pp. 3-4. p. 200. Journal January, 1959, pp. 1-2. Kenneth B. Rhodes Roy P. Ash Edgar Calvin Leroy Miller ( 1 867- 1 954 ) Justus Henry Cline James B. Lucas Bruce Dodson Reynolds Marcellus Henry Stow, Past President Paul Randolph Burch Edwin Morris Betts History of Virginia Academy of Science 61 Journal September, 1962, p. 190. W. E. Bullington G. Talbot French Irwin M. Gladstone Harvey Haag Isabel Harris William Hartung Lewis E. Harvie John B. Lewis Penelope Lewis Garnett Ryland, Past President D. P. Scott John W. Watson Join nal September, 1963, p. 146. Russell Miller Louis A. Pardue William W. Cash, Jr. Gilbert Rich Charles Nelson John Meredith Frederick Vultee W. Meade Addison Ida Sitler, Past President Alfred Ackerman J. Peachy Harrison Journal January, 1964, p. 1. p. 4. Journal July, 1964, p. 1. Journal September, 1964, p. 231. Allan Talbott Gwathmey, Past President Sidney S. Negus, Past President Ivey F. Lewis, Past President Harold L. Alden Earle H. Barkley R. R. Chesson Julian W. Crews W. H. Keeble Claudius Lee Hildcgarde Stucklen R. C. Summerville Journal September, 1965, p. 279. Miss Thursa F. Davis Captain Hugh MacDougal Dr. Earl G. Swen Dr. Percy Holmes Warren Journal November, 1966, p. 224. Thomas McNider Simpson, Past President H. M. Hildreth J. Claggett Jones Ashley Robey Journal January, 1967, p. 5. Journal July, 1967, p. 119. William Mosley Brown, Past President W. Parker Anslow, Jr. Grace J. Blank Warren Wood Brown W. Horatio Brown James H. Carr Lucius J. Desha J. Gray Dinwiddie Jewell J. Glass C. M. Boethe J. Raymond Hodkinson L. G. Hoxton, Past President Robert F. McCracken Earl B. Norris, Past President James B. Patton Joseph R. Roberts Morris Tischler Addison E. Wilkins Lewis C. Williams 62 The Virginia Journal of Science Journal Winter, 1968, p. 5. Journal Summer, 1969, p, 87. p. 87-88. Journal Fall, 1969, p. 157. Journal Fall, 1970, p. 211. Journal Winter, 1970, p. 5. Journal Vol. 22, No. 1, 1971, p. 5. Journal Vol. 22, No. 2, 1971, p. 5. Journal Vol. 22, No. 4, 1971, p. 197. Journal Spring, 1972, p. 28. Journal Summer, 1972, p. 86. Journal Winter, 1972, p. 205. Guy Winston Horsley, Past President Ladley Husted Allan Berne-Alien William George Guy, Past President Mrs. Alfred I. du Pont Foley Foster Smith, Past President Harriett H. Fillinger William Allison Kepner, Past President Dr. Robert Blackwell Smith, Jr. Frank Patrick Pitts John Mahan Orland E. White J. Stanton Pierce X. Academy Finances, 1923-1973 Table 9 presents a summary picture of Academy finances over a fifty year period. A number of these figures are for the “General Fund” only, and do not picture the reserves held in endowment and special funds, and administered for many years by a committee of three “Trustees” under supervision of Council. These figures represent a generally enlarging budget and increasing financial picture, more or less in keeping with the expanding economy, as well as the in¬ creasing membership of the Academy. They also suggest the rather constantly widening programs of the organization. The “Balance” column represents a gen¬ erally favorable surplus, of receipts over expenditures — through the year 1969. As was mentioned in the summary of Chapter VI, the Academy ended the sixties in sound financial shape, a position augmented by the unexpected 1969 legacy from the Foley Smith estate. But the figures of Table 9 reveal a different financial picture for the early seven¬ ties. There were several factors involved in this change of position. Among these were rising costs — of publication (of the Journal ), postage, phone — and all supply — bills, as well as the decrease or elimination of National Science Foundation grants for work of the Junior Academy. In any event, it is evident that for 1970, as well as for the estimated position in 1972, and the budgeted one for 1973, receipts were running behind disbursements, and that the “Balance,” unfortunately, was — and is — a negative rather than a favorable one. This was a financial picture which had bothered, and caused serious discussion by, Council at several meetings. Accordingly, as a first step toward correcting the situation, Council at its November 19, 1972, meeting recommended raising the annual dues of Regular, Contributing and Life Members, as of January 1, 1974. Council also instructed the Constitution and Bylaws Committee to take appropriate action for changing Bylaws of the Academy, so that the dues increase could be authorized. The membership was notified of the proposed Bylaws change, by letter of December 1, 1972, from J. W. Midyette, Chairman of the Committee con¬ cerned. Vote on the proposed change was planned to take place at the 1973 Acad¬ emy Conference during the upcoming Williamsburg meeting. A chapter of this type could go on almost indefinitely. It could list the several Presidents of the Academy. Chairmen, and members, certainly of such important committees as Long Range Planning, Finance, Publications, and the like, might well be mentioned, together with a summary of the important work they have done. Such additions, however, would unduly prolong this chapter. It is felt that the ten subjects dealt with in this final part of the history give a broad view of the development of a state academy; that they adequately depict the growth, and a number of things that have made for such growth, of the Academy. And, finally, that they show a trend leading to what — after fifty years — is essentially a success¬ ful organization. Most of all, these separate items indicate that it is the people, History of Virginia Academy of Science 63 the scientists — great and small — -of Virginia which ore the Academy, and are re¬ sponsible for its present status. The Academy has always had problems, and has them today. But through it, its members are better able to serve themselves as sci¬ entists, and the Commonwealth of Virginia, its industry, and its schools and school children. The Academy, as a group organization, can play its part in working for the development, and for the conservation, of the assets and beauty of the state. Hopefully it can and does make for a better, more prosperous and more beautiful Virginia. TABLE IX Summary oj Academy finances — 1923-1973. Receipts Disbursements Balance 1923-24 236.15 1924-25 487.00 275.90 447.25 1925-26 1 ,029.01 903.28 527.98 1926-27 617.29 571.60 618.67 1927 Proceedings (P. 7) Motion & Committee on Incorporation 1927 Proceedings H. K. McConnell, Chairman of New Endowment Committee 1927-28 748.92 807.04 560.55 1928-29 1 ,317.03 T, 061. 59 815.99 1929-30 674. 1 1 834.87 655.23 1930-31 812.65 596.82 871 .06 1931-32 1 ,095.29 707.83 1 ,258.50 1932-33 984.59 1 ,049.62 1,169.70 1933-34 915.22 1 ,064.82 1 ,035.62 1934-35 1 ,021.91 798.08 1 ,266.95 1935-36 1 ,040.45 1 ,078.92 1,228.48 1936-37 1 ,007.98 1 ,095.05 1,141.41 1937-38 1 ,249.96 1,113.24 1,278.13 1938-39 1 ,331.39 1 ,033.14 1,576.38 1939-40 1,303. 19 1,468.77 1 ,410.80 1940-41 1,576.20 1,379.69 1 ,616.31 1941-42 1,377.28 1 ,254. 12 1 ,739.47 1942-43 1 ,243.34 1 ,262.43 1 ,721 .43 1943-44 1 ,412.92 1,232.44 1 ,900.91 1944-45 1,339.31 1,721.15 1 ,514.07 1945-46 1,583.20 1,279.29 1 ,822.98 1946-47 1 , 643 . 68 2,170.41 1 ,296.25 1947-48 8,282.80 7,515.98 2,663.07 1948-49 2,419.50 3,849.72 672.80 1949-50 7,401.65 5,078.93 2,995.52 1950-51 3,352.00 2,035.31 3,412.21 1951-52 4,139.00 2,891.08 4,660.13 1952-53 4,904.75 6,898.93 2,665.95 1953-54 2,175.96 2,123.65 2,717.26 1954-55 8,773.46 6,172.06 5,318.66 1955-56 2,946.70 2,559.73 5,546.25 1956-57 2,686.59 3,966.88 4,342.88 1957-58 5,219.21 5,437.82 5,176.46 1958-59 6,296.46 6,571.96 2,845.43 1959-60 6,634.70 9,669.41 2,397.89 1960 8,346.41 7,129.90 3,614.40 1961-62 9,267.90 8,144.67 4,737.63 1962 9,450.50 10,624.53 5,880.66 1963 8,357.65 10,481.90 3,756.41 1964 15,430.29 13,925.83 5,260.87 1965 12,829.46 12,330.77 1966 1967 36,880.20 1968 34,570.83 35,894.27 6,862.20 1969 34, 180.00" 20,623.00 13 , 557.00" 1970 27,188.00 33,027.00 (5, 8 39. OOP 1971 26,043.00 23,390.00 2,653.00 1972= 27,034.00 31,905.00 (4,871 .00) 1973d 26,025.00 31 ,880.00 (5,855.00) ■'l Includes a special item of $8,000 — the Smith legacy b (Deficit) c Estimate 11 Budget 64 The Virginia Journal of Science Credits, A History of the History The History of Science in Virginia Committee deserves much more credit in connection with developing an account of the history of the Academy than has been given. In 1963 this committee was made up of Dr. Isabel Boggs, Chairman, Dr. I. F. Lewis, General Edwin Cox, Dr. G. W. Jeffers, Dr. W. G. Guy and Dr. Sidney S. Negus. Dr. George W. Jeffers, of the committee, prepared a manuscript entitled “History of the Virginia Academy of Science” with the preface being written May 3, 1963. The original was sent to Dr. Russell Rowlett, Academy Sec¬ retary, before he left Virginia in 1964. This was done with the thought that Dr. Rowlett would edit and see the History through publication, but events served to prevent this. This copy of Dr. Jeffers’ history apparently went to the Archives of the Academy when Dr. Rowlett left Virginia. On the second page of the first chap¬ ter of “A History of the Virginia Academy of Science, 1923-45,” author H. J. Staggers writes “Dr. George W. Jeffers, President of the Virginia Academy of Sci¬ ence 1941-42, and the man responsible for collecting much of the information dealing with the Academy’s history ....,” and thereafter frequently quotes Jeffers’ unpublished manuscript. In 1966 and 1967 the Publications Committee was under some pressure to get a history of the Academy written and into print. This committee knew, of course, of the Academy’s History of Science Committee, but did not know one of its mem¬ bers had already prepared a history. The two committees should have been in closer contact, but unfortunately were not. The Publications Committee arranged to have Mr. H. J. Staggers, a graduate student in History at the College of William and Mary, write a history of the Academy for his Master’s thesis. The first issue of Volume 19 of the Journal for 1968 published Mr. Staggers’ paper dealing with the Academy history through 1945. Before this paper appeared in print, the Publica¬ tions Committee had arranged for Mr. Staggers — by this time a graduate student at the University of Pennsylvania — to write the history of the Academy for the years following 1945. In the summer of 1967 Mr. Staggers prepared three addi¬ tional chapters, carrying the Academy history into the year 1966. After the first three chapters of the history appeared in print. Dr. Jeffers sent W. S. Flory, then Chairman of the Publications Committee, a copy of his history. So far as can be recalled, references to the Jeffers’ manuscript in Chapter 1 of Mr. Staggers’ history was the first that anyone on the Publications Committee knew of the Jeffers manuscript. Dr. Jeffers’ manuscript is carefully and interestingly written. It is well organized. The writer was familiar with many of the leaders, and knew — first-hand — much of the early history of the Academy. The Jeffers manuscript carries a feeling of the ‘life’ of the Academy, and also contains much more detail concerning the early meetings and actions of the Academy than does the present history. It presents much detail about the early leaders, about Academy objectives, and about the sections of the Academy. Much of the material in the Jeffers manuscript is not contained in the present history. Accordingly, it should be carefully preserved, in published or other form, by the Academy. At the 1972 fall meeting of Academy officers and committees at Lynchburg, the Publications Committee requested W. S. Flory to revise and rewrite the material first prepared by Mr. Staggers in 1967, and to complete the history for publication — prior to the 1973 50th Anniversary meeting. Accordingly, Chapters IV and V have been revised and largely rewritten. The same is true of Chapter VI, and in the case of VI, this chapter has been extended so that it now covers the history not just from 1960-66, but entirely through the sixties. Chapters VII and VIII have been entirely written by Flory. However, several of the items treated in Chap¬ ter VIII are based directly on tables first prepared by Dr. Jeffers and present in his manuscript. Dr. Jeffers had prepared the Chapter VIII material found in Tables 3, 7, 8 and 9 up to 1960, or a little later, and the more recent parts of these tables were added by Flory. The material in the section on Necrology was also started and carried through 1960 by Dr. Jeffers. It is evident that Dr. George Jeffers has played a large and significant role in History of Virginia Academy of Science 65 making the present history possible. Further, he has been kind enough to read, review, criticize and correct much of the material revised or written by" Flory. Dr. Elton C. Cocke of Wake Forest University, another long-time Academy member, and a much more proficient grammarian than the writer, has also been most gen¬ erous in reading, reviewing and criticizing Chapters IV through VIII. The writer is much indebted to both Dr. Jeffers and Dr. Cocke for their kindly and constructive criticisms. It is clear that the present history is due to the efforts of many persons. W.S.F. 66 The Virginia Journal of Science News and Notes GEOLOGY The fourth annual meeting of the Virginia Geo¬ logical Field Conference sponsored by the Geology Section, Virginia Academy of Science took place on October 27-29 in Abingdon, Virginia. Charles S. Bartlett, Jr., of the Department of Geology, Emory and Henry College, and Harry W. Webb of the Virginia Division of Mineral Resources led the group for a two day field trip to study some of the geologic features in Washington County and the anatomy of a Lower Mississippian delta in south¬ western Virginia. The Field Conference was attended by 204 participants from Virginia, North Carolina, Georgia, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, West Vir¬ ginia, and Kentucky. The Department of Geology at Emory and Henry College published a guide¬ book to accompany the field trips and made the local arrangements which allowed the Conference to run in a highly successful manner. GRADUATE BIOLOGY COURSES The University of Virginia announces eight gradu¬ ate courses in biology to be offered at the Mountain Lake Biological Station this summer. They are as follows : First Term: June 1 4— July 17 Plant Taxonomy: Mr. Lytton Musselman, Univer¬ sity of North Carolina Plant Ecology: Mr. Gary Miller, Eisenhower Col¬ lege Ornithology: Mr. David W. Johnston, University of Florida Experimental Morphogenesis: Mr. James N. Dent, University of Virginia Second Term: July 19-August 21 Plant Biosystematics: Mr. C. Ritchie Bell, Univer¬ sity of North Carolina Entomology: Mr. George Byers, University of Kansas Principles of Parasitism: Mr. G. B. Solomon, Uni¬ versity of Pennsylvania Comparative Endocrinology: Mr. B. E. Frye, Uni¬ versity of Michigan Fellowships of $150 for one student in each term have been made available by the North Caro¬ lina Botanical Garden. This fellowship may not be held concurrently with any other stipend from the Station. The recipients of these awards are chosen by the Research and Awards Committee of the De¬ partment of Biology. Application for awards should be sent to the Director, Mountain Lake Biological Station, University of Virginia, Gilmer Hall, Char¬ lottesville, Virginia 22903. THE BIG DISMAL Dr. Perry C. Holt, Chairman of the Academy Pub¬ lications Committee, is continuing his efforts on the publication of a monograph on the Dismal Swamp. Dr. Richard L. Hoffman, Professor of Biology, Radford College, has agreed to be the editor of this volume. Hopefully, this will be a joint effort of both the Virginia and North Carolina Academies of Science. The proposed title will be The Big Dismal: Its Cultural and Natural History. Others who have agreed to contribute to the book are Edmund and Dorothy Berkley, Cultural History; Samuel S. Oben- shain. Soils; George M. Simmonds and the Water Resources Research Center, VPISU, Water; E. S. Benfield, Aquatic Insects; Horton H. Hobbs and John R. Holsinger, Crustaceans; G. R. Brooks, Amphibians and Reptiles; Orson K. Miller, Mush¬ rooms; and Dr. Holt, foreword and summary. Others are presently being considered for contributions in Geology, Paleontology, Botany, and Zoology. History of Virginia Academy of Science 67 Author Index to Volume 23, 1972 Abstracts of Papers, Fiftieth Annual Meeting of the Virginia Academy of Science . 99 Albert, J. J., and Drake, C. R. Physiology of Certain Apple Rot Fungi I. Factors Affecting Growth of Physalospora obtusa in Vitro 9 Anderson, Gilbert E. The Effect of Oil on the Gill Filtration Rate of Mya arenaria . 45 Author Index to Volume 22, 1971 . . . 87 Bempong, Maxwell A. Daunomycin — Induced Cytological Alterations in Root Meristems of Vicia jaba . 56 Carter, Walter H., Jr. See Myers, Raymond FI . . . 15 Drake, C. R. See Albert, J. J . 9 Feinstein, H. I. Density: A Laboratory Exercise . 77 Feldman, W. E. and Punch, J. D. Effects of Dimethylsulfoxide on Polyuridylic Acid-Directed Polypeptide Synthesis by Escherichia Coli Ribosomes . . . 17 Freeman, Charles A. See Jenkins, R. E . . . 194 Gaskins, R. A. See Good, I. J . 171 Good, I. J. and Gaskins, R. A. Global Nonparametric Estimation of Probability Densities . 171 Hardcastle, J. E. A Simple Nutrition Experiment for Secondary Grades . 203 Harshbarger, Boyd. Semi-Centennial Celebration of the Virginia Academy of Science, Williamsburg, Virginia, May 1973 _ ..... 169 Jenkins, Robert E. and Freeman, Charles A. Longitudinal Distribution and Habitat of the Fishes of Mason Creek, an Upper Roa¬ noke River Drainage Tributary, Virginia . 194 Johnson, Miles F. Eupatorieae (Asteraceae) in Virginia: Eupatoriadelplius, Ageratina , Fleischmannia and Conoclinium . 48 Kramer, Richard J. Mapping the Seasons in Virginia — You Can Help . . . 21 Llewellyn, Gerald C. Book Review: Teaching Modern Science . 78 Marshall, Harold G. See. Poore, William H . 72 Myers, Raymond H. and Carter, Walter H., Jr. A Note on the Simultaneous Diagonalization of Two Real, Symmetric Matrices. . . 15 Parker, Bruce C. See Samsel, Gene L., Jr . . . . . 64 Poore, William H., Jr. and Marshall, Harold G. Lake Drummond of the Dismal Swamp: I. Phytoplankton Composition . 72 Proceedings of the Fiftieth Annual Meeting of the Virginia Academy of Science, Lexington, May 3-5, 1972 . 93 Punch, J. D. See Feldman, W. E . 17 Samsel, Gene L., Jr. and Parker, Bruce C. Nutrient Factors Limiting Primary Productivity in Simulated and Field Antarctic Microecosystems . 64 Sandifer, Paul A. Effects of Diet on Larval Development of Thor Floridanus (Decapoda, Carides) in the Laboratory . 5 Schori, Thomas R. and Tindall, John E. Multiple Discriminant Analysis: A Repeated Measures Design . 62 Tindall, John E. See Schori, Thomas R . 62 Mobil Chemical MOBIL CHEMICAL COMPANY/ INDUSTRIAL CHEMICALS DIVISION/RICHMOND, VIRGINIA AH'DOBINS Making todays medicines with integrity.. . seeking tomorrows with persistence. A. H. Robins Company Richmond. Va. 23220 photograph by Ezra Stoller © ESTO. 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Needless to say our roots are planted deep in Commonwealth soil. Virginia is our “home state.” Whatever we have contributed to its economy is returned many times in the close relationship we have with its people and its commerce. REYNOLDS METALS COMPANY RICHMOND, VIRGINIA 23218 RICHMOND • Executive Office • Styling and Design • Advertising Distribution • Downtown Office Building • Product Development • Metallurgical Laboratory • Package Research Division • North Plant • South Plant • Equipment Center • CHESTERFIELD COUNTY Reclamation Plant • Extrusion Plant • Printing Plant • Pilot Particle Sheet Plant • GROTTOES • Plastics Plant • Plastics Research Department CIGARETTES cigarettes Filters Tarev ton is better. ^ ' is why. Tareyton’s activated charcoal delivers a better taste. A taste no plain white filter can match. King Size: 19 mg. "tar", 1.3 mg. nicotine: 100 mm: 20 mg. "tar", 1.4 mg. nicotine: av. per cigarette, FTC Report Feb. 73 Warning: The Surgeon General Has Determined That Cigarette Smoking Is Dangerous to Your Health. SUSTAINING MEMBERS BUSINESS MEMBERS VIRGINIA ACADEMY VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE OF SCIENCE Because of their interest in science and the economy of Virginia, the following industrial concerns have become Business Members of the Academy and have thus contributed greatly to its work and progress. Their support is gratefully acknowledged: Allied Chemical Corporation The following Virginia Educational Institu¬ tions support the objectives of the Virginia Acad¬ emy of Science through Sustaining Memberships. Their active and financial support is gratefully acknowledged. Alderman Library American Filtrona Corporation College of William and Mary The American Tobacco Company Emory and Henry College Babcock and Wilcox Company George Mason University Hampden-Sydney College Brunswick Corporation Bunton Instrument Co. Hollins College Longwood College Carolina Biological Supply Co. Dow-Badische Company Lynchburg College E. I. duPont de Nemours & Co., Inc. Ethyl Corporation Madison College First and Merchants National Bank Mary Baldwin College General Medical Scientific Mary Washington College House of Edgeworth Mathematics and Science Center Merck and Company, Inc. Norfolk State College National Fruit Product Co. Old Dominion University Newport News Shipbuilding & Dry Dock Co. Randolph-Macon College Philip Morris and Co., Inc. Randolph-Macon Woman’s College A. H. Robins Company, Inc. University of Richmond Southern Bank & Trust Company University of Virginia Southern States Cooperative, Inc. Virginia Commonwealth University Texaco, Inc. Virginia Military Institute United Virginia Bank Virginia Polytechnic Institute Universal Leaf Tobacco Co., Inc. Virginia State College Virginia Chemicals, Inc. Virginia Union University Virginia Electric and Power Company Virginia Western Community College Westinghouse Electric Corporation Washington and Lee University Wheat, First Securities, Inc. VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE OFFICIAL PUBLICATION OF THE VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE Vol. 24 No. 2 1973 TABLE OF CONTENTS 73 Editorial the Virginia Journal of Science: Its Status and Goals Perry C. Holt 75 81 Preliminary Comparison of Two Oxidation Ponds with Different Trophic States in Central Virginia /. R. Reed, G. L. Samuel, Jr. and F. B. Blood Blood Studies in the Nine-Banded Armadillo Patricia L. Dementi and Jack D. Burke 87 A Checklist of Aquatic Hydrophilide of Virginia James F. Matta 89 Potential of Channel Catfish Production in Virginia Vaughn M. Douglas and Robert T. Lackey 93 VAS Officers, Members of Council, and Committees — 1973-74 THE VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Official Publication of the Virginia Academy of Science EDITOR CHARLES H. O’NEAL SECTION EDITORS Boyd L. Samuel Agricultural Sciences Lee S. Anthony Astronomy, Mathematics and Physics James D. Punch Microbiology Robert G. Bass Chemistry Edward Henneke Materials Science R. C. Hoehn Engineering Kenneth A. Blick Psychology Elva D. Aukland Science Teachers William D. Ergle Statistics Richard P. McNitt Space Science and Technology Edwin S. Higgins Medical Sciences BUSINESS MANAGER Charles E. O’Rear Published quarterly by The Virginia Academy of Science, Department of Biophysics, Medical Col¬ lege of Virginia, Richmond, Virginia 23298. Second- class postage paid at Richmond, Virginia. Manuscripts for publication (other than section abstracts) and books for review should be sent to the Editor, Dr. Charles H. O’Neal, Department of Biophysics, Box 877, Medical College of Virginia, Richmond, Virginia 23298. Proof, edited manu¬ scripts, and all correspondence regarding accepted papers should be sent to the Editor. Advertising and Business Office: All correspon¬ dence relating to advertising and business affairs should be directed to Charles E. O’Rear, Business Manager, Virginia Journal of Science, 1 N. Four¬ teenth St., Richmond, Virginia 23219. The Virginia Academy of Science and the Editors of the Virginia Journal of Science assume no re¬ sponsibility for statements or opinions advanced by contributors. © Copyright, 1973, by the Virginia Academy of Science. Business and Subscription Information All remittances and orders for advertising and subscriptions should be sent to the Business Man¬ ager, Virginia Journal of Science, 1 N. Fourteenth St., Richmond, Virginia 23219. Changes of address should be sent promptly to Blanton M. Bruner, Ex¬ ecutive Secretary-Treasurer, Virginia Academy of Science, P. O. Box 8454, Richmond, Virginia 23226. Changes of address must include both new and old addresses with zip code. Subscription rates for 1973: $10.00 per year, U.S.A.; Canada and other countries of the Pan- American Union, $10.50 per year; all other foreign countries, $11.00 per year. All foreign remittances must be made at par U.S. dollars or the foreign equivalent. U.S. dollar remittance is suggested to avoid currency fluctuation problems and possibly unfavorable exchange rates. Back issues are available for some years at $3.00 per issue plus postage. The front cover is by Douglas C. Hensley. Editorial The Virginia Journal of Science: Its Status and Goals One can read the constitutions and bylaws of an organization: to know its actual role in the real world, one must observe what it does. Any considera¬ tion of the functions now served by the Virginia Journal of Science, and those that it may serve in the future, perhaps should be prefaced by a brief look at the significance for the state and the scientific community at large of the Virginia Academy of Science itself. The achievements of the Virginia Junior Acad¬ emy, which is sponsored by the Senior Academy, have been great over the years and are of enduring importance. Involving, as it does, 130 science clubs from the 500 or so high schools in the state and, at a conservative estimate, 5,000 students, the impact of the VJAS is of necessity of considerable importance for the education in science of our high school students. Omitting symposia, invited speakers and the semi-centennial program, 466 papers were listed in the program for the 1973 meeting of the Academy. It is not a secret, indeed, it is one of the important functions of the Academy, that many, very likely most, of these papers were presented by graduate students earning their “spurs” in the competitive world of science and by senior scientists establishing priority for findings ultimately to be published elsewhere. The Academy does other things as well, indeed, too many to summarize herein. Perhaps its role in establishing a State Museum of Science will serve to indicate the sorts of contributions it makes as well as any. In any case, the Virginia Academy of Science is a vital component of the intellectual life of the state and as such also serves many important practical interests. Of all these contributions, the publications of the Academy may well be the most enduring. Leaving aside such significant projects accomplished over the years as “The Flora of the Richmond Area,” “The James River Basin: Its Past, Present and Future,” the recently completed “History of the Virginia Academy of Science” and the book that is being written at this time — “The Great Dismal: Its Cul¬ tural and Natural History,” the truly important publication of the Academy is The Virginia Journal of Science. Members of the Academy may in this context wish to glance at an article on academies of science (DePoe, Charles E. Academies of science are alive and flourishing in the United States. AAAS Bulletin, Vol. 18, No. 3, June, 1973, p. 5) in which the activities of state academies are reviewed and the statement is made, I quote: “Most academies also publish scientific journals — some among the more noted of all scientific publications.” The Editor and Publications Committee have as their goal that The Virginia Journal of Science be included among these “more noted” publications. The recent increase in dues for the members of the Academy was initiated, in part at least, by the Academy’s Publications Committee. In view of the fact that the actual increase voted by Council is twice that recommended by the Publications Committee, the Committee, acquiescing in the :c,ion of Council, feels strongly that our already excellent Journal must be improved, must be of greater service to the members of the Academy. Already out-of-state and foreign subscriptions to the Journal are numerous enough to insure a wide audience for any contributor to it. The Publications Committee, with his approval, has instructed the Editor to attempt to increase these extramural sub¬ scriptions. Articles published in the Journal are first rigorously reviewed by outside reviewers and then abstracted by many of the important abstract¬ ing services such as Chemical Abstracts and Biological Abstracts. Again, the Publications Com¬ mittee has instructed the Editor to increase these services so that all fields of science for which ab¬ stracting services exist will be covered. The present distribution of the Journal plus these additional services will truly make it, as it is already, of world¬ wide scientific importance. The Chairman of the Publications Committee of the Academy, the writer, feels it important to make the above observations in order to support the pro¬ posal he now makes: Senior scientists within the Academy must be encouraged — urged — to publish more frequently some of their best work in the Journal. Two considerations have inhibited such publica¬ tion in the past. Many scientists wish to publish in the professional journals of their own field for the sake of greater recognition of their work and the enhancement of their reputations nationally and internationally. Secondly, the administrative officers of at least some of the institutions of higher education in the state have actively discouraged their staff from publishing in the Journal. Permit me to rebut together these reasons for not publishing in the Journal. My own experience has been that papers I have published in the Journal have been as widely cited as those published in national or international journals. With increased extramural subscriptions and increased abstracting services, this should be true for any member of the Academy. It has been said that biologists have an Editorial 73 advantage in this respect, yet I have noted that important papers in statistics, obviously written for an international audience, have appeared in the pages of the Journal. I can only wonder if this cannot be done by scientists in other fields than biology or statistics. With the ever increasing costs of publication, I can only believe that the advantages of speedier publication and lower costs help to out¬ weigh the objections that have been raised against our many members with worldwide reputations from publishing in the Journal. And, finally, granted the importance of the Academy and its Journal to the total welfare and reputation of the Commonwealth of Virginia, we can only increase the stature of the Academy and its Journal by increasing the quality of the papers it publishes. Administrative officers of state institutions and our leading scientists will, I hope, recognize and act on this suggestion. Perry C. Holt, Chairman Publications Committee of the Virginia Academy of Science 74 The Virginia Journal of Science J. R. Reed, G. L. Samsel, Jr. and F. B. Blood Department of Biology Virginia Commonwealth University Richmond, Virginia 23220 Received April 10, 1972 Preliminary Comparison of Two Oxidation Ponds With Different Trophic States in Central Virginia Abstract — Investigations were initiated to compare floral and faunal associations inhabiting two oxidation ponds with different trophic features. The two adjacent 0.7 hectare oxidation ponds were built to receive cage wash water from the Virginia Commonwealth University Animal Research Facility. At the initiation of the study, one of the two-year- old ponds had received the high nutrient-containing waste water. This pond had phytoplankton, nutrient and produc¬ tivity levels associated with eutrophic ponds, the other had low corresponding values, and was considered oligotrophic. Ammonia, phosphates, nitrates, iron, carbon dioxide, silica and chloride differed the most markedly of nutrients analyzed. Toward the end of this preliminary study the effluent was diverted to the oligotrophic pond. Primary productivity (carbon-14 and total extractable chlorophyll), chemical analysis of major nutrients and iden¬ tification of phytoplankton were evaluated on a weekly basis. The study continued through the early weeks of ef¬ fluent diversion to the oligotrophic pond. The differences between the ponds declined significantly after the diversion and productivity decreased with seasonal change. Introduction The purpose of this study was to investigate certain processes of accelerated nutrient enrich¬ ment, eutrophication, in order to evaluate the effects of these processes on selected aquatic environ¬ ments, i.e., sewage oxidation ponds. More specifi¬ cally, two morphometrically identical ponds were analyzed for the following parameters: phytoplank¬ ton primary productivity, chemical concentrations of major nutrients, and taxonomic identification of algae, bottom fauna and adjacent flora. On the basis of chemical and biological parameters, one pond was considered eutrophic and the other oligotrophic. The two oxidation ponds were built in 1969, each with an area of 0.7 hectares, a maximum depth of 1.5 meters and separated by a dike 10 meters wide. They were situated to receive very little run-off from the surrounding terrain. The effluent nutrients entering initially one pond and then the other were excrement and waste food contained in the cage wash-water from the Virginia Commonwealth University Animal Care Facility in Hanover County, Virginia. For approximately one year prior to the study, only one pond received the effluent. The effluent was diverted to the second pond shortly before this preliminary study was terminated. The uniqueness of this investigation was at¬ tributable to the nature of the two ponds. Both were identical in every aspect except trophic features. The contrasted nutrient status of the two ponds was ideally suited for a comparative study to in¬ vestigate floral and faunal succession in response to accelerated nutrient enrichment, i.e., eutrophication. The differences in the trophic status of the two ponds appeared to have been induced by the sewage effluent. Materials and Methods In September 1971 a study was initiated to establish baseline criteria on phytoplankton produc¬ tivity, emergent vegetation, bottom fauna, and nu- rient concentration levels of the two ponds. A series of field enrichment assays were conducted with in situ plastic cylinders and battery jars in order to de¬ termine which nutrients caused accelerated algal growth. After diversion of wastes into the unen¬ riched, oligotrophic pond on November 17, 1971, both ponds were closely monitored to observe changes in trophic features. Preliminary findings are reported here; further work on more detailed lab and field experiment is in progress. Throughout the study the biological productivity of both ponds was determined periodically by measuring 14C02 uptake, total extractable chloro¬ phyll, and the relative dominance of the algal genera in order to evaluate the changes in trophic status. Primary productivity by 14C02 uptake was deter¬ mined by the in situ technique of Steeman-Nielsen (1) as modified by Goldman (2), Strickland and Parsons (3), and Parker and Samsel (4). A Beck¬ man 1500 liquid scintillation counter was used for radioisotope counting. Incident radiation was mea¬ sured with a Yellow Springs Instrument Model 68 recording pyroheliometer. Total extractable chlorophyll was determined spectrophotometrically on a Bausch and Lomb Spectronic 20 Model after filtration of water samples through a 0.45 p pore size G.S. Millipore filter Trophic Comparisons of Oxidation Ponds 75 and extraction of chlorophyll pigments with 90% acetone. A modification of the SCOR UNESCO equations (3) corrected to values equivalent to 10 cm path length tube was used. Weekly surface water samples were collected in polyethylene containers from established stations in the two oxidation ponds. These water samples were filtered and analyzed for dissolved chemicals using the Hach Chemical Company kit model DR- EL; all replicates yielded results within ±7%. During the fall and winter algae from the two ponds were collected and identified on a weekly basis. The phytoplankton was collected with a Wis¬ consin plankton net (76 p pore size). Millipore filtration on a 0.45 p G.S. filter insured collection of the nanno- and ultra-plankton. Microscopic identification of algae to genus was done at 100-400x using a Palmer 0.1 counting cell and microscope equipped with a Whipple disc. The relative dominance of each genus was deter¬ mined and recorded. Both living and samples preserved in Thimersol- Lugol’s solution (5) were identified in order to compile a complete list of phytoplankton popula¬ tions in the two ponds. Bottom fauna was collected with D-frame dip nets along the edges of the two ponds exerting equal time and effort (6). Autumnal emergent vegetation was identified by Dr. Miles Johnson, Biology Department, Virginia Commonwealth University. Two diel studies were performed on each pond, before and after effluent diversion to the unenriched oligotrophic pond. The diels consisted of periodic sampling of temperature, oxygen, carbon dioxide, primary productivity (14C and extractable chloro¬ phyll) at regular intervals over a 24 hour period. Results and Discussion Primary Productivity Chlorophyll values in the eutrophic pond were 8-89 times higher than in the oligotrophic pond before diversion of the effluent (Table I). Values for 44C were correspondingly 6-25 times greater in the eutrophic pond. In many cases the primary productivity values in the eutrophic pond were lower than expected due to the dense cover of Lemna which blocked sunlight and reduced photo¬ synthetic activity. After diversion of nutrients to the oligotrophic pond there was an increase in primary productivity which, when measured as 14COo uptake, continued to increase until the ex¬ periment ended (Table I). Chemical Data Table II summarizes the physical and chemical data for both ponds; the values are representative of weekly analyses before and after diversion of wastes into the oligotrophic pond. Prior to diversion the eutrophic pond contained significantly greater concentrations of ammonia, phosphate, and carbon, with levels respectively 27, 300, and 7x higher in the eutrophic pond than the oligotrophic pond. Thirty days after nutrient enrichment of the oligotrophic pond, the pH and ammonia values had decreased in the eutrophic pond and increased in the previously oligotrophic pond. The pH in the oligotrophic pond rose from 5.9 to 8.8 after nutrient enrichment, and the ammonia level increased 14 times. No appreciable change in nutrient concentration was noted immediately after diversion of wastes around the eutrophic pond because of the release TABLE I Weekly Primary Productivity Comparisons oj Two Central Virginia Ponds Incident Radiation Chlorophyll, total extractable SPU/m3 Primary Productivity mg 14C/m3/hr Water Temp O* E mid Date °C (lang/min) side mid side mid O E 9-26-71 25 — 6.50 — 312.5 — — — 10-5-71 23 .50 3.69 — 115.6 — • — — 10-7-71 20 .50 11.35 — 1013.0 — 5.04 126.5 10-17-71 20 .40 6.98 — 475.0 — 10.0 104.0 10-18-71 19.5 .30 — — 306 — • — — 10-24-71 19 .25 12.78 — 521 1513 14.0 90.0 10-31-71 20 - — 12.44 — 109.1 282.5 20.0 180.0 11-7-71 17 .85 6.60 — 244.5 216.5 13.0 150.0 11-14-71 15 — 14.26 — • — 117.7 13.0 160.0 + 11-21-71 9 .50 58.5 113.5 5.7 137.0 11-28-71 5 .70 58.9 — 80.4 — ■ 8.7 100.0 12-8-71 7 .80 60.25 — 65.9 — 37.0 72.0 12-15-71 6 .90 40.1 — 59.2 — 60.0 40.0 * O = oligotrophic pond; E = eutrophic pond side = side of pond; mid = middle of pond + Nutrients added to O pond on 11-17-71 76 The Virginia Journal of Science TABLE II Physical and chemical parameters oj two central Virginia ponds ( values as mg/ 1 are means of 12 week sampling period ) E* pond O pond Parameter A+ B C D E A B C D E pH 9.4 9.2 8.8 8.8 7.8 5.9 — 7.5 7.8 8.8 Turbidity Dissolved 40 45 35 35 25 — — 3 3 15 o. 6.8 6.5 9.0 11.0 — 9.4 9.0 12.0 10.0 — CO, 34 30 4 2 4 4.7 4.7 2 2 4 Total Alkalinity 154 135 120 125 135 12.5 12 22 22 35 Ca-Hardness 40 40.0 40 40 65 3.6 3.0 5 5 10 NHC-N 8.3 8.0 6.6 7.6 1.1 .25 .3 1.0 1.25 3.5 NOr-N .14 .25 .4 .5 .045 .005 .03 .045 .015 .038 NO3--N 6.1 5.0 7.0 5.0 4.3 4.0 5.0 5.0 6.0 4.0 Ortho- P04=-P 6.2 6.25 5.75 5.5 8.5 — .02 .22 .32 2.0 CP 22.5 26.0 20.0 20.0 30 5.0 6.0 10 10 10 Si02 8.6 10.0 10.5 11.0 .34 2.3 3.2 3.25 3.5 .45 Fe++ .41 .18 .2 .18 .23 .04 .05 .15 38 .03 sor 5.7 7.0 3.0 — 2.0 3.3 1.0 5.0 4.0 4.0 * E pond = eutrophic; O pond = oligotrophic + A = Inshore area of pond E before diversion of wastes to pond O B = Middle of pond E before diversion of wastes to pond O C = Inshore area of pond O 7 days after diversion of wastes to pond O D = Middle of pond O 7 days after diversion of wastes to pond O E = Middle of pond 30 days after diversion of waste to pond O and circulation of nutrients from the organically enriched pond sediment. Higher Aquatic Vegetation Bullrushes, cattails, duckweed, and one group of sedges were restricted to the eutrophic pond and three genera of rushes and composites were confined to the oligotrophic pond (Table III). Seven plant species were common in both ponds. Through¬ out the study, Lemna was the dominant higher plant in the eutrophic pond. This free floating plant, which is capable of utilizing several sources of nitrogen, ammonia, nitrate, and a mixture of the amino acids glutamic, aspartic and arginine (7), was readily able to attain nutrients from the sewage enriched waters of the pond. Algae Table IV summarizes phytoplankton composition for both ponds before and after diversion of the sewage effluent into the oligotrophic pond. As seen from the table the oxidation pond already receiving sewage wastes contained primarily members of the Cyanophyta, Volvocales, Chlorococcales, and Euglenales which are considered to be the normal components of the phytoplankton of sewage oxida¬ tion ponds (8) and indicators of eutrophic and organically polluted conditions in lakes (9, 10). Further evidence of the enriched state of the eutrophic pond was apparent since all of the phyto¬ plankton identified in the eutrophic pond are in¬ cluded in Palmer’s list of the 60 algal genera most tolerant of organic pollution (11). In contrast, the oligotrophic pond prior to nutrient enrichment supported only a paucity of primary producers, mainly desmids, dinoflagellates, pennate diatoms, and filamentous greens. Such an algal community is considered indicative of oligotrophic waters (9, 10). Prior to the addition of nutrients, the oligotrophic pond contained only genera indicative of high water quality: Peridinium, Cosmarium, Mougeotia, Microspora, and pennate diatoms. Mougeotia, which grew in large accumulations along the shoreline, is normally confined to oligotrophic waters which are poor in electrolytes (12). Both Microspora and Dinobryon are considered cold weather organisms. TABLE III Vegetation associated with two central Virginia ponds Plant Eutrophic pond Oligotrophic pond Ambrosia artemisiijolia L. Ragweed + + Andropogon scoparius Michaux + + Bulbostylis capillaris (L.) Clarke + Carex sp. + Cyperus strigosus L. + + Diodia teres Walter Buttonweed + + Eupatorium capillijolium (Lam.) Small + Hypericum gentianoides (L.) BSP Pineweed + + Juncus canadensis J. Gay ex LaHarpe + Lemna perpusilla Torrey = L. minor L. + Panicum + + Sagina decumbens (Ell.) T & G + + Scirpus americanus Persoon + Scirpus cyperinus (L.) Kunth + Typlia latijolia L. + Trophic Comparisons of Oxidation Ponds 77 TABLE IV Microscopic analyses of plankton samples from two central Virginia ponds ( before and after diversion of animal waste effluent) Eutrophic Pond Oligotrophic Pond Genus Type1 9/22/71 A2 B 11/17/713 A B 11/28/71 A B Agmenellum BG l4 — — 1 — — Anacystis BG 5 5 2 2 — — Spirulina BG — — — — — — Cryptomonas FI 2 1 — — 3 — Dinobryon FI — — — — — — Lepocinclis FI — — — — 3 — Peridininm FI Pyrobotrys FI 3 3 — — — — Trachelomonas FI 2 2 4 5 3 3 Volvox FI — — — — — — Actinastrum G 1 Ankistrodesmus G 2 2 1 1 — — Cblamydomonas G 3 3 Chlorogonium G 2 1 — 1 3 — Chlorosarcina G 2 Closterium G — • — — — — — Coelastrum G — — 2 — 1 — Cosmarium G Euglena G 4 4 5 5 5 5 Microspora G Mougeotia G — — — — — — Scenedesmtts G 3 3 1 1 — — Selenastrum G 2 1 — • — 2 — Staurastrum G Ulothrix G — — — — 2 — Diatoma D — — — — — — Frustulia D 1 — — • — — — Gomphonema D — — 5 2 3 3 Navicula D — — 4 — 4 — Nitzschia D 3 2 2 2 1 Surirella D Svnedra D 1 Colpoda P Didinium P 1 — — — — 1 Euplotes P 2 Paramecium P 1 Stylonychia P 3 3 2 2 — — Urocentrum P 1 Vorticella P 3 — — — — — Asplanchna R — — 3 3 Brachionus R — — — — 2 2 Philodina R — — • — — 1 — Polyartha R — 1 — — — — Pompltolyx R 2 1 Trichocera R 3 — 1 Cyclopoid copepod C _ _ 3 3 2 Nauplius of a copepod C 3 2 2 2 1 1 Chironomus I 2 — 1 — — — Culex larvae I 2 — — — — — Phalacrocera I — — — 1 — — Sewage fly larvae I Water boatman I 1 1 2 2 ■ — — Total Genera 28 16 16 15 15 6 1 Type of organism: G = green algae FI = flagellate algea R = rotifer P = protozoan 2 Sample A = littoral; Sample B = limnetic 3 Date of effluent diversion to Oligotrophic pond 4 Numbers refer to relative abundance: 5 = dominant 4 = subdominant 3 = intermediate 2 = occasional 1 = rare 12/22/71 9/22/71 A B A B 1 3 3 2 2 5 2 3 2 1 1 2 — — 4 1 4 — 6 11 13 6 C = crustacean BG = blue green algae D = diatom I = insect 11/17/713 11/28/71 12/22/71 A B A B A B 5 — 4 — 3 — — 5 5 5 5 1 3 — — — 1 — 3 — 2 — — 2 1 — — 1 2 2 — — 4 4 4 — 1 5 1 2 2 5 4 3 — 1 2 2 2 — — 2 2 1 1 5 Phosphorus requirements are low for Dinobryon, and nutrient concentrations optimal for most genera seem to inhibit the growth of Dinobryon. This organ¬ ism normally appears when nutrients become limiting for other genera (13). A shift from high water quality indicators to pollution tolerant forms occurred in the algal popu¬ lation of the oligotrophic pond after introduction of organic wastes (Table IV). Clean water indicators like Navicula, Dinobryon, Peridinium, and Mougeo- tia disappeared and were replaced by algae tolerant of organic pollution. For example, Cosmarium , a frequentor of oligotrophic and acid waters, was replaced by the mesotrophic desmids Staurastrum and Closterium. Other algae classified as tolerant of organic wastes and considered common inhabitants of oxidation ponds introduced to the pond were Volvox, U loth rix, Chlamydomonas, and Chlorogon- ium. Rotifers and copepods composed the zooplankton population of the eutrophic pond. The carnivorous rotifer Asplancha appeared first and was replaced in late November by the herbivore Brachionus, which subsequently dominated the rotifer population of the pond. Both rotifers are considered indicators of sewage lagoons (14). Philodina, which appeared after diversion of wastes, is considered common in activated sludge while Polyartha is less common in oxidation ponds but has been reported in the literature (15). The major cause of reduction in the oxidation pond flora prior to the diversion of the sewage effluent was attributed to lower water temperature rather than the appearance of Brachio¬ nus. Previously absent protozoan consumers such as Styonchia, Vorticella, Paramecium and Colopoda also appeared in the pond for the first time. Bottom Fauna The bottom fauna was collected in late autumn and thus was represented by many late stages in the aquatic insect life cycles. However, a clear separation of faunal types was evident between the two ponds (Table V). In the eutrophic pond Diptera comprised 72.1% of the total population and of these, the Chironomidae, characteristic of such waters, made up 71.5% (16). The other prevalent insect order, Hemiptera, comprised 24.7% of the bottom fauna in the eutrophic pond. The Notonectid, Corixid and Belostomatid families were present and are also indicators of nutrient-enriched waters ( 16) . In the oligotrophic pond prior to nutrient diver¬ sion, there was a more varied bottom fauna with no insect order as dominant as was the Diptera in the eutrophic pond (Table V). The Coleoptera and Odonata were much more common in the oligotrophic pond than in the eutrophic. A comparative investigation of bottom fauna in the two ponds since the diversion of nutrients into the oligotrophic pond is in progress and will be reported in a subsequent paper. Die I Studies Two 24-hour studies were performed during the course of this preliminary investigation (Table VI). TABLE V Bottom fauna community structure of two centra! Virginia ponds with different trophic states Oligotrophic % pop- (n = 212) Eutrophic % pop. (n = 990) Diptera Chironomidae 17 71.5 Culicidae 0 0.6 Coleoptera Hydrophilidae 7 2.5 Dytiscidae 24 0 Gyrinidae 4 0 Hemiptera Notonectidae 7 4.3 Corixidae 35 19.6 Belostomatidae 0 0.8 Odonata Zygoptera Coenagrionidae 1 0.7 Anisoptera Libellulidae 5 0 The first, done in October, showed that all param¬ eters including temperature, carbon dioxide, dissolved oxygen and primary productivity (both 14C and chlorophyll) responded to incident radiation in a predictable fashion (13). Values from the eutrophic pond were indicative of the apparent greater biomass and higher primary productivity in that pond as compared to the oligotrophic pond. The second diel study, performed in December, reflected the November diversion of nutrients into the oligotrophic pond. Both dissolved oxygen levels and primary productivity (14C and chlorophyll) in the oligotrophic pond were higher than they had been in the October study (Table VI). The results from the eutrophic pond reflect continued high primary productivity, with some decrease in chlorophyll probably due to seasonal algal succession. The diel studies thus support previous data discussed herein that illustrate a change in the trophic state of the two ponds following the diver¬ sion of nutrients from the eutrophic into the oli¬ gotrophic pond. Conclusions Preliminary data support the theory that the differences in productivity of the two ponds were controlled primarily by available nutrient concentra¬ tions. The eutrophic pond, already receiving nutrient enrichment from sewage wastes, exhibited a higher trophic status as measured by 14C uptake, total extractable chlorophyll, and relative dominance of algal, emergent vegetation and bottom fauna genera. The other, unenriched pond exhibited productivity levels characteristic of oligotrophic waters. Each pond contained (faunal and floral) genera characteristic of its trophic status. Preliminary work further indicates that nutrient enrichment, especially nitrogen and phosphorus, from the sewage waste effluent promoted the eutro- Trophic Comparisons of Oxidation Ponds 79 TABLE VI Diet primary productivity comparison of two central Virginia ponds with different trophic states Time 10-28-71 Incident Radiation lang/min Temp (°C) co2 (ppm) O* E* o2 (ppm) O E Primary Productivity mg 14C/m3/hr O E Chlorophyll SPU/m:! O E 0600 0 17.5 2 6 9 5 4.14 14.08 17.26 176.8 1000 0.85 19 2 6 10 6 15.50 41.29 17.37 237.6 1400 0.50 23 2 6 11 15 11.60 103.60 17.77 410.9 1800 0 20 1 0 11 15 4.79 21.40 14.53 413.5 2400 0 19 2 8 11 7 1.85 2.86 — — Incident co2 o2 Primary Productivity Chlorophyll Time Radiation Temp (ppm) (ppm) mg 14C/m:i/hr SPU/irP 12-22-72 lang/min (°C) O* E* O E O E O E 0600 0 6 2 2 10 12 — — 48.72 105.68 1000 0.3 7 2 2 12 16 13.06 97.30 69.10 144.76 1400 0.6 8 2 0 13 17 27.50 217.80 91.72 167.96 1800 0 6 2 2 15 16 14.07 63.50 69.00 139.32 2400 0 6 2 2 14 14 0.73 1.26 58.79 122.04 O* = Oligotrophic Pond E* = Eutrophic Pond phic trends of high productivity, high chlorophyll content, and increased plankton abundance in the previously unenriched oligotrophic pond. The change in the composition of the faunal and floral genera appears to be in response to changing chemical conditions in addition to seasonal periodic¬ ity. Our study supports the idea that sewage wastes supply nutrients for algal growth (17). From pre¬ liminary laboratory bioassays and field studies em¬ ploying in situ plastic cylinders and battery jars, it appears that ammonia, phosphate, and nitrate were the nutrients in critical supply in the oligotrophic pond. Of the three, ammonia appeared to cause the fastest acceleration or stimulation of the phyto¬ plankton primary productivity. Similar results were found by Hutchinson and Viets (18), Samsel and Parker (19), and Kalff (20). It should be empha¬ sized, however, that these are preliminary results obtained only over an eight week period in the fall. Considerably more detailed investigations are being conducted. The vast differences in trophic status of the two oxidation ponds provided an unique opportunity to document the effect of nutrient enrichment on faunal and floral succession from the onset of eutrophication. Baseline criteria on phytoplankton, bottom fauna, emergent vegetation, productivity, and nutrient levels of the two ponds were gathered prior to diversion of animal waste effluent into the oligotrophic pond; these comparative data confirm the eutrophic and oligotrophic status of the two ponds. More detailed investigations will be con¬ ducted to determine the responses of various oxida¬ tion pond organisms to accelerated nutrient enrich¬ ment and to determine the role that specific nutrients play in limiting primary productivity. REFERENCES 1. Steeman-Nielsen, E., Journal du Conseil, Conseil Per¬ manent International pour /’ Exploration de la Mer (Denmark), 18, 117 (1952). 2. Goldman, C. R., in M. S. Doly (Editor), Proceedings of the Conference on Primary Productivity Measure¬ ment, Marine and Freshwater, Hawaii, 1961; AEC Tech. Inf. Docmt., 7633, 103 (1963). 3. Strickland, J. P., and Parsons, J. R., Bull. Fish. Res. Bd. Can., Bull. 167 (1968). 4. Parker, B. C., and Samsel, G. L., Jr., Antarct. J. U. S., 5, 135 (1970). 5. Weber, C. I., Trans. Am. Microsc. Soc., 87, 70 (1968). 6. Cairns, J., Jr., J. Wat. Pollut. Control Fed., 60, 1607 (1969). 7. Joy, K. W., PI. Physiol., Lancaster, 44, 845 (1969). 8. Silva, P. C., and Papenfuss, G. F., State Water Poll. Control Board, Sacramento, Calif., 7, 35 (1953). 9. Rawson, D. S., Limnol. Oceanogr., 1, 18 (1956). 10. Kutkuhn, J. N., Iowa St. Coll. J. Sci., 32, 419 (1958). 11. Palmer, C. M., J. Phycol., 5, 178 (1969). 12. Isrealson, G., Bot. Not., 4, 313 (1949). 13. Hutchinson, G. E., A Treatise on Limnology Vol. I, Wiley and Sons, New York, 1957, p. 1015. 14. Arora, H. C., Hydrobiol., 27, 146 (1966). 15. DeNoyles, F., Jr., J. Phycol., 3, 174 (1967). 16. Usinger, R. L., Aquatic Insects of California, University of California Press, Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1968, p. 508. 17. Hasler, A. D., Bioscience, 19, 425 (1969). 18. Hutchinson, G. E., and Viets, F. G., Science, N. Y., 166, 514 (1969). 19. Samsel, G. L., Jr., and Parker, B. C., Va. J. Sci., 22, 177 (1971). 20. Kalff, J., Ecology, 5, 655 (1971). 80 The Virginia Journal of Science Patricia L. Dementi1 and Jack D. Burke2 Department of Anatomy Medical College of Virginia Health Sciences Division of Virginia Commonwealth University Richmond, Virginia 23298 Received May 5, 1972 Blood Studies in the Nine-Banded Armadillo* Abstract — Blood studies conducted on three female and six male nine-banded armadillos ( Dasypus novemcinctus mexicanus Peters, 1864) shipped from Florida and main¬ tained under laboratory conditions yielded mean values of 39.6% for RBC hematocrit, 6.87 X 106/mm3 for erythro¬ cyte count, 14.7 vol% for total blood oxygen capacity by a modification of the Roughton-Scholander microgasometric syringe method, and 12.6 and 14.42 g% for hemoglobin concentration by the Drabkin cyanomethemoglobin and Wong total iron methods, respectively. These and calculated data including mean corpuscular volume, 58. 3^3; hemo¬ globin concentration based on blood oxygen capacity, 10.8 vol%; mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration, 30.8 g/100 ml RBC; mean corpuscular hemoglobin, 17.8/^g; oxygen capacity/100 ml RBC, 36.7 vol%; and oxygen capacity/RBC, 21. 3^3 substantiate and amplify the scat¬ tered observations reported by other investigators. In blood volume studies using T-1824 dye, the mean total plasma volume calculated from five-minute samples for seven armadillos of a mean weight, 4,068 g (± 507 g), was 142.8 ml, with an estimated total blood volume of 236.9 ml (5.8 ml/100 g body weight). Ten-minute samples yielded mean values of 153.8 ml and 253.1 ml (6.2 ml/100 g) for total plasma and total blood volumes, re¬ spectively. Introduction “In this land there are some small animals about the size of a month-old pig. They have . . . small ears, and they are all covered with a shell, from the ears to the tail, which resembles a covered horse. They are pretty to look at, and they graze like a horse” (Bachiller Martin Fernandez de En- ciso, Chief Constable of Castilla de Oro, 1519). This quote by the conquistador is a translation (JDB) of the Spanish record seen in the Museo Nacional, Bogota, Colombia (1972); it apparently represents the first recorded description of the ar¬ madillo (= little armor) in the New World (South America). Armadillos are endemic only to the Americas. Of the ten living genera, Dasypus is the only one represented in the United States. Of the six species of Dasypus, D. novemcinctus Linnaeus, 1758, is the most widespread. The sub-species D. n. mexicanus Peters, 1864, occurs abundantly in South America, and its range extends through Central America and Mexico into the southern United States. It is commonly known as the nine- * Supported in part by grants from the National Science Founda¬ tion,1 The Society of the Sigma Xi,2 and The National Institutes of Health (HE-08774).2 banded armadillo. Until the 1870’s it had only ranged northwardly to the Rio Grande Valley (1), reaching eastern Texas by 1910 (2), and Florida by 1922 (3, 4). Records of the early occurrence of the armadillo have also been reported from New Mexico (5), Oklahoma (6), Arkansas (7), and Colorado and Nebraska (8), but its northernmost range seems to be receding because of unstable weather. It has been reported (9) that the northern range of this species is limited by cold weather. The geographic distribution of D. n. mexicanus in the United States has been reported (10) and mapped (11). In regard to its natural history, ecology, morphol¬ ogy, and reproductive physiology, a comprehensive review about the armadillo has been presented (12). Today the species has become a significant laboratory animal in experimental biology (13), and in transplantation biology, immunology, and developmental endocrinology (14). In contrast to the amount of information ac¬ cumulating in other fields, hematological studies of D. novemcinctus have merited little attention. With the exception of three reports (15-17), only scattered observations of armadillo blood properties have been recorded in the literature. Because of the growing importance of the nine- banded armadillo as a research animal, and the sparcity of reported blood values, a more com¬ plete blood picture is desirable. Therefore, hemato¬ crits, erythrocyte counts, hemoglobin concentrations, total blood oxygen capacities, and blood volumes were determined and evaluated statistically in this study to solidify the blood values for Dasypus novemcinctus. Materials and Methods Three female and six male nine-banded arma¬ dillos, obtained commercially (Mr. Wm. Smith, P. O. Box 1662, Ocala, Florida), were used in this study. They were caged in an air-conditioned room at a temperature of 26 ± 2°C and fed Red Heart canned dog food. Water was given ad libitum. Blood was obtained from etherized animals by cardiac puncture. Two cubic centimeter samples were used in determining hematocrit, red blood cell count, hemoglobin concentration, and blood oxygen capacity. Whole blood was drawn into a greased, heparinized syringe and placed on a rotator Blood Studies in the Armadillo 81 to prevent sedimentation of the red blood cells. As needed for each test, one or two drops of blood were deposited in a depression plate and used immediately. Each test was run in duplicate. Standard laboratory procedure was used in determining red cell hematocrit and erythrocyte count. Blood samples in capillary tubes were spun for five minutes in a Clay-Adams Autocrit centri¬ fuge, and the hematocrits were read from the in¬ strument scale. The RBC counts were made in a Spencer bright-light counting chamber on whole blood samples diluted in a Thoma pipette with Hayem’s fluid. Hemoglobin concentrations were determined by two methods: the cyanomethemoglobin method (18, 19) as modified (20), and the iron method (21) as modified (22). Spectrophotometric read¬ ings were made on samples in each method at 540 m/x either on a Coleman Jr. or Beckman DB spectrophotometer. The cyanomethemoglobin sam¬ ples were allowed to stand for ten minutes before reading, and the Wong samples were read within three minutes after preparation. Hemoglobin con¬ centrations were obtained in each method from calibration curves. With the microgasometric method (23), as modi¬ fied (24), the total oxygen capacity was deter¬ mined on 39.3 cmm of blood. Hemoglobin con¬ centrations were calculated from blood oxygen capacities by assuming that 1.0 g of hemoglobin combines with 1.36 ml of oxygen (25). Mean corpuscular volume (MCV), mean cor¬ puscular hemoglobin concentration (MCHC), mean corpuscular hemoglobin (MCH), oxygen capacity/ 100 ml of cells, and oxygen capacity per cell were calculated. Hemoglobin concentration values used in determining MCHC and MCH were results obtained with the cyanomethemoglobin method. After all other tests had been performed, blood volumes were determined with Evans blue (T- 1824) dye (26) as modified (27, 28). A known amount of dye was injected into the blood stream. Blood samples withdrawn five and ten minutes after injection were centrifuged and the plasma removed and defibrinated. These plasma samples were compared spectrophotometrically with a standard of known concentration of dye and plasma to mea¬ sure the dilution of the original dye sample. Plasma volumes were determined for each sample and the total blood volumes calculated using the hematocrit value of that sample. Results Statistical data are presented in Table I for experimentally determined and calculated values in nine armadillos. These include red cell hematocrit, red blood cell count, mean corpuscular volume, total blood oxygen capacity, oxygen capacity per 100 ml red cells, oxygen capacity per red cell, he¬ moglobin concentration by the cyanomethemoglo¬ bin, iron, and microgasometric methods, mean cor¬ puscular hemoglobin concentration, and mean corpuscular hemoglobin. Mean and median, as well as maximum and minimum, values are shown in addition to standard deviation of the mean. Presented in Table II for each nine-banded armadillo are plasma and total blood volumes deter¬ mined on samples removed five minutes (T5) and ten minutes (T10) after T-1824 dye injection. As blood volume is more commonly expressed in rela¬ tion to body weight, ml of blood/ 100 gm body weight is reported for each sample. Statistically, the mean blood volume for seven armadillos of a mean weight, 4,068 ± 507 g, is 5.8 ± 0.6 ml/100 g at T5 and 6.2 ± 0.7 ml/ 100 g at T10. Discussion Red Blood Cells: The erythrocyte of D. novem- cinctus is of the typical anuclear mammalian variety. Its diameter in a dry smear preparation varies between 7.2 and 10.4^ with a mean diameter of 8.9 /j. (29). Chromium-51 techniques (16) indicated a red cell life span of 70-75 days or less, with an estimated replacement rate of 1.4% per day. In Table III erythrocyte constants are quoted for normal adults (14-17) for a pregnant female (30), and for fetal armadillos (16, 31). These values in¬ clude hematocrit, red cell count, hemoglobin concentration, mean corpuscular volume, mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration, mean cor¬ puscular hemoglobin, and percent reticulocytes. Erythrocytes of the nine-banded armadillo ag- TABLE I Statistical compilation oj blood data lor nine specimens oj D. novemcinctus Property No. of det. Mean Median S.D. Maximum Minimum Hct (vol%) 20 39.6 42.0 6.5 48.0 29.0 RBC (106/cmm) 18 6.87 7.38 0.99 7.78 4.58 MCV (V) 18 58.3 58.8 4.0 63.3 48.2 BOC (vol%) 18 14.7 15.2 2.4 18.2 10.1 O, cap./lOORBC (vol%) 18 36.7 35.9 2.1 41.7 34.4 02 cap. /RBC Or3) 17 21.3 21.1 1.4 24.1 18.2 Hb (Drabkin) (g%) 21 12.6 13.6 2.5 15.5 6.6 Hb (Wong) (g%) 14 14.42 14.56 1.41 16.54 10.88 Hb (BOC) (g%) 18 10.8 11.2 1.8 13.4 7.4 MCHC (g/100 cc RBC) 19 30.8 30.9 3.7 41.7 22.8 MCH (ppg) 18 17.8 18.0 1.7 21.2 14.1 BOC = total blood oxygen capacity S.D. = standard deviation of the mean Other abbrviations are as found in TABLE HI 82 The Virginia Journal of Science TABLE II Blood volume of D, novemcinctm No. Body Weight (g) t5 Tio PV (ml) TBV (ml) TBV/100 g PV (ml) TBV (ml) TBV/100 g 1 4,607 130.6 229.1 5.0 136.6 243.9 5.3 2 4,372 162.8 262.6 6.0 168.9 263.9 6.0 3 3,791 126.5 204.0 5.4 129.9 216.5 5.7 4 3,270 119.4 183.7 5.6 129.2 198.8 6.1 7 3,983 125.7 224.5 5.7 138.2 242.5 6.2 8 4,676 183.7 306.2 6.5 201.2 324.5 6.9 9 3,821 151.2 247.9 6.5 171.6 281.3 7.4 Mean 4.068 142.8 236.9 5.8 153.8 253.1 6.2 Median 3,938 130.6 229.1 5.7 138.2 243.9 6.1 S.D. 507 23.8 40.2 0.6 27.4 41.8 0.7 PV = plasma volume TBV = total blood volume S.D. = standard deviation of mean T = time in minutes after dye injection glutinate with human G-D + and A and B typing sera (17). Red cell potassium content averages 125 ± 1.7 (n = 6) mEq/L while sodium content is 36.9 ± 0.17 (n = 6) mEq/L (16). It was reported (17) that lysis of armadillo erythrocytes began in 0.55% saline and was complete in 0.3% solutions. The sedimentation rate of armadillo red cells as observed by the same authors ranged from three to forty-three. A mean sedimentation rate of 51.7 was reported (14) for 10 armadillos. Studies (16) of the hemoglobin contained in armadillo erythrocytes revealed a heme protein more soluble in phosphate buffer when reduced than when oxygenated, and 99% denatured by four minutes exposure to alkali. With agar gel electro¬ phoresis at pH 6.0 a major and a minor hemoglobin fraction could be detected; on starch at pH 8.9 the only component which appeared migrated at the same rate as human hemoglobin. White Blood Cells. White blood cell and dif¬ ferential counts in the normal, pregnant, and fetal armadillos are recorded in Table IV. Armadillo leukocytes, lymphocytes, and mono¬ cytes closely resembled those of man (17). A diameter of 1 5— 20/a was reported for armadillo granulocytes (15). Their studies on the seasonal variations in hemopoiesis in the shell of D novem- cinctus included an analysis of the peripheral blood elements for concomitant changes. In the work of Knoll (32) figures were presented showing an armadillo basophilic leukocyte stained with the method of May-Grunwald-Giemsa, and a neutrophilic and an eosinophilic leukocyte stained by the oxidase reaction. Knoll reported the oc¬ casional occurrence of unsymmetrically sized baso¬ philic granules in the basophils of the Xenarthra, as well as the very frequent appearance of azure granules in marsupial and xenarthrous lymphocytes. The presence of sex chromatin in the form of a drumstick in the armadillo polymorph has been reported (33) as well as chromosome number (2 N = 64). Platelets: In four male armadillos, platelet counts were found ranging from 246 to 432 X 103 /cmm (17). A value of 480 ± 15 x 103 /cmm was re¬ ported (16) for one adult male, and 192 X IQ3 TABLE III Reported literature values for erythrocytes of D. novemcinctus Authority Hct (vol%) RBC (106/cmm) Hb (g%) MCV (m3) MCHC (g%) MCH (mm g) Ret. (%) 2 adult males (16) 38.5 7.24 12.3 53 32 18 1.3 4 adults (42) 31 5.26 11.1 59.6 35.5 22.12 3 males (17) 41* 4.96* 13.6 1 1 adults (15) 4.2* 10 adults (14) 36.6 12.4 (±4.4) (±1.2) 1 pregnant female (30) 38 6.34 13.0 59.9 34.2 20.0 0.6 4 fetal females ( 1 6) 42 4.29 12.8 98 31 30 1 .4 (±1.26) (±0.14) (±0.3) (±8.1) (±0.8) (±1.9) (±0.3) 4 fetal armadillos (31) 42* 4.29* 12.8* 97.7* 30.6* 30.0* 1.0* Hct = hematocrit (red cell); Hb = hemoglobin concentration; MCH = mean corpuscular hemoglobin; RBC = erythrocyte count; MCV = mean corpuscular volume; Ret = reticulocytes; MCHC = mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration. * Mean values calculated from individual results reported by the authors. Blood Studies in the Armadillo 83 TABLE IV Reported literature values for leukocytes of D. novemcinctus Authority WBC Differential Count (%) lCE/cmm Band Neutrophils Eosinophils Basophils Lymphs Monos 1 adult male (16) 7.75 31 13 2 44 3 (±2.7) (±7.4) (±2.3) (±2.1) (±7.7) (±2.0) Unsexed (32) 55.5 20 0.5 20.5 3.5 3 males (17) 7.2* 5* 54* 5* 7* 21* 8* 11 adults (15) 8.0-11.0 1 pregnant female (31) 10.6 69 l 10 20 4 fetal females (16) 4.90 31 2 0 27 28 (±2.7) (±7.4) (±2.2) (±5.4) (±3.6) 4 fetal armadillos (31) 4.89* 31* 3* 60 7* * Mean values calculated from individual results reported by the authors. /cmm was recorded in a pregnant female (30). In four female fetuses a mean value of 542 ± 116 x 103 /cmm was observed (16); platelet counts rang¬ ing from 378 to 653 x 103 /cmm (mean value in¬ dicated — 542 X 103 /cmm) were found for four fetal armadillos (30). Plasma: From pooled plasma of D. novemcinctus, a protein concentration of 8.74 g% with a fibrinogen level of 0.95 g% was determined (17). Serum elec¬ trophoresis yielded the following values: albumin, 3.58 g%; alphas 0.74 g%; alphao, 0.80 g%; beta, 1.42 g%; gamma, 1.24 g%. Values for plasma potassium and sodium concentra¬ tions of 4.09 ± 0.17 (n — 12) and 147.8 ± 2.45 (n 1 - 12) mEq/L, respectively, were recorded (16). Whole Blood: In studies on the blood of four male nine-banded armadillos, a bleeding time of less than two minutes from an abdominal incision was reported (17). On glass at 37° C armadillo blood was found to clot in five to eight minutes; on silicone the time varied from thirteen to fifty-eight minutes. Assays of clotting factors revealed high levels of factors I (fibrinogen), V, VIII, IX, and XII as compared to human values. Low levels of factors II (prothrombin), VII, and X were attributed to the ineffectiveness of the rabbit brain thromboplastin employed in the study, since use of armadillo brain in a two-stage assay indicated prothrombin levels two and a half times that of human plasma. No spon¬ taneous fibrinolytic activity was evidenced in arma¬ dillo plasma. While studying the respiration of D. novemcinctus, the oxygen content of its arterial blood was deter¬ mined with the Van Slyke manometric apparatus (34). From the values 16.5 to 17 vol% ob¬ tained in two cases h total blood oxygen capacity of 18 to 19 vols% was estimated. The CCL content of the blood of a resting armadillo was found to be 68 vol% and the lactic acid content, 10 to 20 mg%. The presence of free histiocytes has been recognized in the blood of the Brazilian armadillo (35). A pH of 7.3 ±0.1 was reported (14) for 10 armadillos and is confirmed in this study. Hemopoietic Tissues: Red marrow was found in the vertebrae, pectoral and pelvic girdles, steme- brae, and proximal third or fourth of the humeri and femora in eleven representatives of the species, D. noveminctus; slightly red marrow was present in the knee and ankle joints and light pink to grey marrow in the remainder of the limbs and caudal vertebrae. In addition, variable hemopoiesis was found to occur in the marrow cavities of the dermal armor (15). In their studies of the dermal bone marrow cavities, Weiss and Wislocki (15) reported the proportion of reticular cells approximated that of skeletal marrow at all times of the year, and the myeloid-erythroid ratio remained about the same as in femoral marrow. It was the actual amount of active hemopoiesis which was subject to changes in season (ambient temperature). Mid-winter found hemopoiesis virtually non-existent; the dermal marrow cavities were reduced by the accumulation of new bone and fat, and the blood sinusoids were collapsed. By spring osteoclastic activity ini¬ tiated the enlargement of the marrow cavity, the sinusoids opened and blood cell formation began, apparently reaching its peak in the summer. A decrease in hemopoiesis occurred in autumn ac¬ companied by dilatation of the vascular sinusoids, an increase in ground substance and fat cells, and a deposition of bone on the trabeculae in the marrow cavity. Typical mammalian lymph nodes with prominent secondary nodules and a predominance of large and small lymphocytes, monocytes, and reticular cells was also found (15). A stringy thymus with poorly differentiated medulla and cortex and well-developed HassalPs corpuscles completed their picture of the hemopoietic organs in D. novemcinctus. An environmental factor which may be related to the hematology picture is ambient temperature. For example, hematocrits and hemoglobin concen¬ trations in men, Indian cattle, reindeer, mules, deer, beavers, and rabbits were reported to be higher in late autumn, winter, and spring and lower in the summer, implicating the hemopoietic system in meta¬ bolic acclimatization (36). Indeed, seasonal varia¬ tions in the dermal armor of the armadillo, with the peak in blood cell formation occurring in the summer, has been found (15). 84 The Virginia Journal of Science Dehydration may also affect the blood picture. Water loss by an armadillo could cause a decrease in the plasma volume which would effect a rise in the red cell hematocrit. Additional factors which could influence hemato¬ crit and hemoglobin concentration, are sex, age, body weight and hormonal balance (37). These, however, were not investigated in the present study. Hemoglobin concentration is related to total blood oxygen capacity. When it was reported that oxygen combined with human hemoglobin in the ratio of 1.36 ml of oxygen to 1.0 g hemoglobin, this ratio was calculated from the iron content of the pigment on the basis that one mole of iron binds one mole of oxygen (25). The relation was assumed to hold for mammals in general and was used to calculate total blood oxygen capacity from hemoglobin concentration (38). In a study of eighteen species of mammals, the ratio was verified by simultaneous independent determinations of hemoglobin concentration and blood oxygen capac¬ ity (39). Blood oxygen capacities were converted to hemoglobin concentrations in this study by use of the Bernhart and Skeggs ratio. However, values for this method were consistently lower than for either the Drabkin cyanomethemoglobin or Wong iron method as indicated in Table I. Cyanomethe¬ moglobin is useful for estimating total pigment con¬ centration because hemoglobin, oxyhemoglobin, and methemoglobin are readily converted to this form; the Wong method likewise measures total pigment concentration as it is based on total iron content (40). Blood oxygen capacity determinations, how¬ ever, involve only the physiologically active oxygen carrier. If methemoglobin is present in varying de¬ grees in armadillo blood, one would expect oxygen capacity measurements to give an accurate estimate not of total pigment concentration, but of oxygen- active hemoglobin concentration. This could explain the lower values obtained by the blood oxygen capacity (BOC) method. Alternatively, armadillo hemoglobin may not, as in some other mammals, combine with oxygen in the ratio 1 g : 1.36 ml. Plasma and total blood volumes were deter¬ mined from both five and ten-minute samples in the present study to compare with literature values of other mammals (27). In comparison, the five- minute value in the armadillo is 5.8 ml/ 100 g. From these comparisons the blood volume of the armadillo gives indication of being lower than most other mammals, but the same as in the opossum. Hemoglobin electrophoresis studies and oxy¬ hemoglobin affinity in our armadillos are reported elsewhere (41). Summary Whole-blood studies were conducted on three female and six male nine-banded armadillos ( Dasy - pus novemcinctus mexicanus Peters, 1864) to amplify scattered literature observations in estab¬ lishing values for the armadillo as a laboratory animal. Mean values reported include: RBC hema¬ tocrit — -39.6%; RBC count — 6.87 X 108/cmm; total blood oxygen capacity — 14.7 vol%; hemoglo¬ bin concentration — 12.6 (Drabkin method) and 14.42 (Wong method) g% ; mean corpuscular vol¬ ume — 58.3 /i3: mean corpuscular hemoglobin con¬ centration — 30.8 gm/100 ml RBC; mean corpuscu¬ lar hemoglobin — 17.8/i.ju.g; hemoglobin concentration based on oxygen capacity — 10.8 vol%; oxygen capacity/100 ml RBC — 36.7 vol%; oxygen capac¬ ity. RBC — 21.3/a3. Total blood volume estimated from samples removed five minutes after T-1824 dye injection was 236.9 ml (5.8 ml/100 g) for seven armadillos of mean weight, 4,068 g.; for ten minutes, the value was 253.1 ml (6.2 ml/100 g). REFERENCES 1. Strecker, J. K., I. Mammal., 7, 206 (1926). 2. Taber, F. W., ibid., 20, 489 (1939). 3. Bailey, H. H., ibid., 5, 264 (1924). 4. Sherman, H. B., Fla Ent., 26, 54 (1943). 5. Bailey, V., N. Am. Fauna, S3, 8 (1931). 6. Blair, W. F„ J. Mammal., 17, 293 (1936). 7. Dellinger, S. C., and Black, J. D., ibid., 21, 190 (1940). 8. Schultz, C. B., N. Y. Times, p. 74, Jan. 27, 1972. 9. Newman, H. H., Am. Nat., 47, 513 (1913). 10. Buchanan, G. D., and Talmage, R. V., Tex J. Sci., 6, 142 (1954). 11. Cleveland, A. G., ibid., 22, 90 (1970). 12. Talmage, R. V., and Buchanan, G. D., Rice Inst. Pam., 41, 1 (1954). 13. Anderson, J. M., and Benirschke, K., Lab. Animal Care, 16, 202 (1966). 14. Szabuniewiez, M., and McCrady, J. D., ibid., 19, 843 (1969). 15. Weiss, L. P., and Wislocki, G. B., Anat. Rec., 126, 143 (1956). 16. Ebaugh, F. G., Jr., and Benson, M. A., J. cell. comp. Physiol., 64, 183 (1964). 17. Lewis, J. H., and Doyle, A. P., Comp. Biochem. Physiol., 12, 61 (1964). 18. Drabkin, D. L., Am. J. med. Sci., 209, 268 (1945). 19. Drabkin, D. L., ibid., 215, 110 (1948). 20. Crosby, W. H., Munn, J. I., and Forth, F. W., U. S. arm. Forces med. J., 5, 693 (1954). 21. Wong, S. Y., /. biol. Chem., 77, 409 (1928). 22. Levinson, S. A., and MacFate, R. P., Clinical Labora¬ tory Diagnosis, Lea and Febiger, Philadelphia, 1961, p. 419. 23. Roughton, F. J. W., and Scholander, P. F., /. biol. Chem., 148, 541 (1943). 24. Grant, W. C., Proc. Soc. exp. Biol. Med., 66, 60 (1947). 25. Bernhart, F. W., and Skeggs, L., J. biol. Chem., 147, 19 (1943) 26. Gregerson, M. I., Gibson, J. J., and Stead, E. A., Am. J. Physiol. (Proc.), 113, 54 (1935). 27. Burke, J. D., Physiol. Zool, 26, 259 ( 1954). 28. Burke, J. D., Va /. Sci.. ,9, 253 (1958). 29. Peters, N., Z. mikrosk.-Anat. Forsch., 20, 151 (1932). 30. Marin-Padilla, M., and Benirschke, K., Am. J. Path., 43, 999 (1963). 31. Marin-Padilla, M., and Benirschke, K., Am. J. Path. (Proc.), 43, 37a (1963). 32. Knoll, W., Z. mikrosk.-Anat. Forsch., 30, 116 (1932). 33. Beath, M. M., Benirschke, K., and Brownshill, L. E., Chromosoma, 13, 217 (1962). 34. Scholander, P. F., Irving, L., and Grinnell, S. W. J. cell. comp. Physiol., 21, 53 (1943). Blood Studies in the Armadillo 85 35. Oria, J., Ann. Fac. Med., Sao Paulo, 4, 39 (1929). 36. Sealander, J. A., Ecology, 43, 107 (1962). 37. Sealander, J. A., J. Mamma!., 45, 598 (1964). 38. Burke, J. D., Physiol. Zool., 26, 259 (1953). 39. Larimer, J. L., J. Elisha Mitchell sclent. Soc., 75, 174 (1959). 40. Drabkin, D. L., and Austin, H., J. biol. Client., 112, 51 (1935). 41. Dementi, P. L., and Burke, J. D., Am. J. Anat., 134, 509 (1972). 42. Dhindsa, D. S., Hoversland, A. S., and Metcalfe, J. Resp. Physiol., 13, 198 (1971 ). 86 The Virginia Journal of Science James F. Matta Department of Biology Old Dominion University Norfolk, Virginia 23508 Received November 29, 1972 A Checklist of the Aquatic Hydrophilidae of Virginia Abstract — A list of the Aquatic Hydrophilidae known to occur in Virginia is presented. Four subfamilies with 17 genera and 37 species are recorded from Virginia. An addi¬ tional 6 species are recorded from neighboring states and may occur in Virginia. Five species are recorded for the first time in Virginia. In preparation for a review of the Aquatic Hydrophilidae of Virginia the following checklist of species has been developed. This list is based on all Virginia material on deposit at the U.S. National Museum and in the Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Department of Entomology Insect Collection as well as the ma¬ terial which the author has collected. Also included are all species which have been recorded in the literature as occurring in Virginia (if the author has not personally seen a Virginia specimen, the species is marked with an *) and all species recorded from neighboring states which may occur in Virginia (marked with an #) (1, 2, 3, 4, 5). Species new to Virginia are marked with **. If the distribution is not statewide, an indication of distribution within the state is given; however, many species are poorly represented in collections and may be more widely distributed than indicated. HYDROPHILINAE Tropisternus blatchleyi blatchleyi D’Orch. T. lateralis nimbatus (Say) T. mexicanus striolatus (LeC.) T. natator D’Orch. T. quadristriatus Horn Coastal Dibolocelus ovatus G&H** Hydrophilus triangularis (Say) Hydrochar a obtusata (Say) CHAETARTHRIINAE Chaetarthria pallida (LeC.)* Piedmont BEROSINAE Berosus aculeatus (LeC.)** B. corrini Woold.# North Carolina B. exiguus (Say) Coastal B. fraternus LeC.# B. infuscatus LeC. B. ordinatus LeC. Massachusetts to Florida but no Virginia records B. pantherinus LeC.# Northeastern Tennessee B. peregrinus (Herbst) B. striatus (Say) Derallus altus LeC.** Southeastern Virginia HYDROBIINAE Laccobius agilis Rand. Piedmont L. minutoides D’Orch. Piedmont L. reflexipenis Malcolm# Northeastern U. S. Hydrobius fuscipes Linn. Richmond H. melaenus (Germ.) Piedmont H. tumidus LeC. Coastal Sperchopsis tessellatus Zieg. Piedmont Paracymus confiuens Woold.# P. confusus Woold.# P. nanus (Fall) Coastal P. subcupreus (Say) Crenitulus suturalis (LeC.) Anacaena limbata (Fab.)** Western Virginia Enochrus cinctus (Say) E. consortus (Green) E. hamiltoni (Horn) Coastal E. ochraceus (Melsh.) E. per plexus (LeC.) E. sublongus (Fall)** Coastal Helochares maculicollis Muls. Southeastern Virginia, Winters (3) records it from Richmond Helocombus bifidus (LeC.) Southeastern Virginia Cymbiodyta blanchardi Horn C. rotunda (Say)* Horn (5) records this species from Virginia with no locality given. C. vindicata Fall Although at least three species of Hydrochus and one species of Helophorus occur in Virginia these genera have not been included since modern worker (6) place them in separate families. It is probable that many additional species of aquatic Hydrophilidae will be discovered in Virginia and the author would be pleased to examine and identify any material which is sent to him. Of particular interest are the species which are recorded from surrounding states (as noted in the list) but which have not been recorded from Virginia. Checklist of Aquatic Hydrophilidae 87 Acknowledgments The author wishes to thank Dr. Paul Spangler for allowing him to examine material in the United States National Museum collection and Dr. Michael Kosztarab for the loan of the Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University material. This work was supported, in part, by the Old Dominion Uni¬ versity Research Foundation. REFERENCES 1. Brimley, C. S. Insects of North Carolina, North Carolina Department of Agriculture, Raleigh, N. C. 1938, p. 133. 2. Winters, F. C., Pan-Pacific Ent., 3, 49 (1926). 3. Winters, F. C., Pan-Pacific Ent., 4, 19 (1927). 4. Wooldridge, D. P., J. Kans. Ent. Soc., 39, 712 (1966). 5. Horn, G. H., Trans. Amer. Ent. Soc., 17, 237 (1890). 6. Wooldridge, D. P., Trans. III. Acad. Sci., 58, 205 (1965). 88 The Virginia Journal of Science Vaughn M. Douglass and Robert T. Lackey Department of Fisheries and Wildlife Sciences Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University Blacksburg, Virginia 24061 Received September 19, 1972 POTENTIAL OF CHANNEL CATFISH PRODUCTION IN VIRGINIA1 Abstract — Research on the feasibility of raising channel catfish ( Ictalurus punctatus ) in Virginia for supplemental agricultural income was conducted from 1969 to 1971. Re¬ sults have shown catfish farming to be possible, but various problems must be solved, especially with respect to cage culture. Some conclusions are: (1) the production of marketable channel catfish (> 400g) is economically and biologically feasible; (2) there are existing ponds suitable for commercial catfish production; and (3) under normal conditions and with good management, reasonable returns can be realized. Introduction Virginia presently does not have a commercial channel catfish ( Ictalurus punctatus ) farming in¬ dustry, but for the past several years we have been investigating the potential for one in the state. The general objective of our research was to provide the necessary technical information for the estab¬ lishment of a catfish industry in Virginia. In areas of the state where tobacco is the only major cash crop, low income farmers could use catfish farm¬ ing as a supplemental income source. Three phases of our research were conducted from October, 1969 to November, 1971. The first, a survey of farm ponds in Pittsylvania County, was conducted to determine their suitability for commercial production of channel catfish. If a significant portion of these ponds are suitable for catfish culture, their use would minimize necessary capital investment, and result in greater net profits to the farmer. Specific objectives of this phase of the study were: (1) to provide an estimate of the number of suitable ponds available; (2) to design a simple pond rating form that would allow a farmer or county agent to determine if a specific pond is suitable for catfish culture; and (3) to indicate the amount of interest expressed by local pond owners regarding catfish culture. Experimental culture studies were conducted during two growing seasons (1970 and 1971) to test the biological feasibility of channel catfish production in Virginia. The objectives were: (1) 1 Supported in part by Pittsylvania County Community Action, Inc., Chatham, Virginia, through funds from the Office of Educational Op¬ portunity, Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. John M. Beland, Donald W. Holmes, Arn R. Smith, and Richard J. Pfeifer were employed as research assistants during various phases of this project. to determine whether marketable catfish can be produced in existing ponds in one growing season; (2) to determine the growth rate of channel cat¬ fish in Virginia; (3) to determine the effects of pond location on the growth of channel catfish; and (4) to compare the results of pond culture versus cage culture. The final phase dealt with a preliminary evalua¬ tion of the economic potential of catfish production in Virginia. If such an industry is to be established, then information will be needed on profit possibilities, market potential, and marketing channels. The major objectives were to estimate: (1) the extent of potential demand for catfish in Virginia and the Washington, D. C. area; (2) the approximate cost of producing channel catfish; and (3) whether there are sufficient outlets for marketing various catfish products. Methods Located within the Piedmont region of Virginia, Pittsylvania County contains about 1500 farm ponds. Topographic maps were utilized to randomly select ponds to be surveyed. The history of the pond, its uses, and drainage and drawdown char¬ acteristics were obtained from the owner or farm manager. Physical parameters such as depth, presence of a catch basin, the amount of aquatic vegetation, turbidity, water transparency, and water temperature were determined. Chemical parameters such as alkalinity, total dissolved solids, pH, and dissolved oxygen were obtained by analyzing sub¬ surface water. Upon completion of the survey, the pond was subjectively rated for suitability. Three ponds were stocked with channel catfish fingerlings in October, 1969. Two were situated in Pittsylvania County (Farmer and Dalton) and one in Montgomery County (Hoge). Five thousand fingerlings were stocked in each pond, but they were not fed until spring, 1970. Cage culture was also conducted during 1970 in conjunction with the pond culture experiments. Two cages were placed in Dalton Pond and Kessinger Pond (Montgomery County), and one was placed in Farmer Pond. In June cages in Dalton Pond were each stocked with 500 fingerlings. The Farmer Pond cage and Potential of Catfish Production 89 Kessinger Pond cages were each stocked with 350 fish. Cages were commercially produced and measured 2.7 X 1.8 X 1.0 meters. The netting was 7 mm mesh Ace treated (rotproof) nylon, and a 12 mm plywood cover was constructed for each cage. Dalton and Farmer Ponds were again used for research in 1971. Salem Pond, Roanoke County, was added. Dalton and Farmer Ponds were each stocked with 3,000 fingerlings, and Salem Pond was stocked with 6,000. Cage culture was attempted again during the 1971 growing season. Three cages were built from 12 mm mesh hardware cloth on a frame of 12 mm diameter steel pipe. Cages were divided into two sections, each measuring 0.8 X 1.8 X 0.9 meters. Each half was considered to be a complete cage. Two cages, purchased from the Pockman Manufacturing Company, measured 0.8 X 1.8 x 1.0 meters covered with 12 mm X 25 mm galvanized wire mesh. Two cages were placed in Dalton Pond and the remaining were placed in Farmer Pond. The fingerlings were stocked on March 23, 1971, at the rates of 200, 250, 300, and 350 fish per cage. Feeding was done manually six days per week, using Purina Floating Catfish Chow. For pond culture, feed was broadcast over a wide area for up to thirty minutes or as long as fish continued to consume the food. Fish in cages were fed all they would eat in a 15 minute period. Feeding during the 1971 growing season was conducted in the same manner in both cases. Economic analysis of farm-reared channel catfish incorporated estimates of pond construction cost for similar ponds in Tennessee (Rogers and Made- well, 1971) and production costs from Farmer Pond. Results A total of 125 ponds were surveyed in Pittsylvania County during July and August, 1971. Ponds were classified into one of three categories: suitable, un¬ suitable, and marginal. Suitable ponds were further subdivided by the culture type that could be best utilized: cage or pond culture, or both. Of the 1500 ponds in Pittsylvania County 804 were suit¬ able. The total surface area available was 1420 hectares, of which 1050 hectares was suitable. The opinion of pond owners towards culturing catfish was also determined. Almost 20% of the owners surveyed, either gave no opinion or were unavail¬ able for comment, but of the remaining owners, 42% were interested in catfish farming while 38% were not. Ponds were harvested from mid-October to early November in 1970 and 1971 (Table I). During the 1970 summer, the caged fish in Far¬ mer Pond escaped. The mesh of the cage had been torn in several places. On 21 September an oxygen deficit was recorded resulting in 100% mortality in the Dalton Pond cages. The fish in one cage in Kessinger Pond also escaped through holes in the mesh, while the fish in the remaining cage were found dead on 21 September, also due to an oxygen TABLE I Results of pond culture of channel catfish in 1970 and 1971 Research Pond 1970 Dalton Farmer Hoge Number of fish harvested 2800 4130 3780 Feed consumption (kg) 1840 2330 660 Fish wt. produced (kg) 1030 1380 530 Average fish wt. (g) 375 335 140 Conversion ratio 1.77 1.76 1.41 Survival (%) 76 83 76 Marketable fish (%) 39 16 5 1971 Dalton Farmer Salem Number of fish harvested 1330 1240 2720 Feed consumption (kg) 1140 1420 1640 Fish wt. produced (kg) 370 200 820 Average fish wt. (g) 281 165 301 Conversion ratio 3.06 6.90 2.00 Survival (%) 44 41 45 Marketable fish (%) 25 14 38 deficit. The final average weight per fish in the two Dalton Pond cages was 159 grams and 137 grams. This resulted in a conversion ratio (amount of food to weight gain) of 2.28 in one cage and 2.50 in the other. The average weight per fish in one cage in Kessinger Pond was 70 grams which gave a conversion ratio of 2.18. At the end of the 1971 growing season the cages were harvested along with the ponds (Table II). Results were greatly improved over 1970 in that none of the cages suffered mortality due to low dissolved oxygen and fish did not escape. The production of channel catfish in farm ponds is financially feasible for at least the southern por¬ tion of Virginia providing a market would exist (7-27% profit excluding pond cost; a loss to 9% including pond cost). Even though costs and yields can be extremely variable, as indicated by results obtained from Farmer Pond (Tables III and IV), catfish farming can become an income supplement for small operators. The differences depend greatly TABLE II Results of cage culture of channel catfish in 1971 Research Ponds Dalton Farmer Feed consumption (kg) 426 176 Fish wt. produced (kg) 186 41 Average fish wt. (g) 221 111 Conversion ratio 2.28 4.19 Survival (%) 76 44 Marketable fish (%) 30 0 90 The Virginia Journal of Science TABLE III TABLE IV Financial analysis of channel catfish production in Farmer Pond, excluding pond construction costs Annual Expenses Fingerlings — 4,000, 150 mm @ $0.04 each $ 160.00 Feed — 2,334 kg @ $. 15 per kg 384.00 Labor Daily checking & feeding — 49.3 hours @ $1.65 /hr 81.34 Harvesting — 9.0 hours @ $1.65 /hr 14.85 Equipment Oxygen kit (amortized at 8% for 20 years) ($14.00 X .1018) 1.42 Seine, 15 m (amortized at 8% for 3 years) ($45.00 X .388) 17.46 Interest on borrowed capital for: Fingerlings @ 8% 32.00 Feed and labor @ 4% TOTAL $ 691.07 Returns (Expected) 1,319 kg fish @ .66/kg $ 870.60 @ .88 /kg 1160.80 (Based on conversion ratio of 1.77 w/average fish wts. of 330 g) Less Expenses -691.07 Net returns to land management and other fixed costs before taxes /year /0. 6 ha @ .66 /kg 186.53 @ -88/kg 469.73 Breakeven price per kg of fish $.52 Rate of return 27.4% @ .66/kg upon the ability of the particular producer. There appears to be a large potential market for farm raised channel catfish in Virginia and surrounding area. Our research indicates that about 1,600,000 kilograms of catfish (dressed weight) will be consumed annually during the “latent” market phase. Approximately 14,600,000 kilograms of processed catfish will be needed yearly to satisfy the needs of a mature market in the future. It must be noted though, that these figures are potential figures, since the consumer needs to be informed and educated about the product. The product in turn must be made available to the consumer at a reasonable price and in accordance with competitive product quality. In regards to marketing, the sale of live fish for fee fishing may offer promise. However, there are few heavily populated areas where fee fishing is feasible and these locations can probably be satis¬ fied by a small number of producers. Therefore, channel catfish marketed as food fish seems to have the greatest potential in Virginia. Discussion The pond rating form was effective in determining general pond suitability, but beyond that classifica¬ tion, rating form accuracy was considerably lower. The percentage of ponds correctly assigned to the suitable and unsuitable categories was high, while the percentage for the marginal category was low. The percentage of correctly assigned ponds in the culture type subcategories (cage culture or Financial analysis oj channel catfish production in Fanner Pond , including pond construction costs Annual Costs * Pond construction and pipe (amortized at 8% for 20 years) ($1,176.00 X .1018) $ 119.78 Fingerlings — 4,000, 1 50 mm @ $.04 each 160.00 Feed — 2,334 kg @ $.15 per kg 384.00 Labor Daily checking & feeding — 49.3 hours @ $1.65/hr 81.34 Harvesting — 9.0 hours @ $1.65 /hr 14.85 Equipment Oxygen kit (amortized at 8% for 20 years) ($14.00 X .1018) 1.42 Seine, 15 m (amortized at 8% for 3 years) ($45.00 X .388) 17.46 Interest on borrowed capital for: Fingerlings @ 8% 32.00 Feed and labor @ 4% TOTAL $ 810.85 Returns (Expected) 1,319 kg fish @ .66/kg $ 870.60 @ .88/kg 1160.80 (Based on conversion ratio of 1.77 w/average fish wts. of 330 g) Less Expenses -810.85 New returns to land management and other fixed costs before taxes /year /0. 6 ha @ . 66/kg 59.75 ® .88/kg 349.95 Breakeven price per kg of fish $.52 Rate of return 7.3% @ .66/kg * Costs are the estimated costs of land and construction of a 0.6 hectare pond in Tennessee (1). pond culture) was unexpectedly high and this is attributed largely to selection bias. Despite these faults, the form was quite accurate in distinguishing between suitable and unsuitable pond types, and is satisfactory for determining these categories. Results of experimental culture show that it is biologically feasible to raise channel catfish in Virginia. Temperature and elevation have a marked effect on the growth rate as can be seen from the results. Hoge Pond, located in the mountain region of Virginia, had a lower feed consumption due to cooler water temperatures. Therefore, a lower growth rate resulted in a lower total weight produced, a lower average fish weight, and a lower percentage of marketable fish. Dalton, Farmer, and Salem Ponds, located at lower elevations and having higher water temperatures, showed significantly better results. Stocking size was also a factor in determining the percentage of marketable fish. Hastings (2) found that channel catfish grow at a rate commensu¬ rate with their size at the time of stocking. In this study, fish that were initially less than 150 mm in length when stocked did not reach a marketable size. Conversion rates and survival in ponds compared favorably with other studies except during 1971 when a bacterial infection ( Chondrococcus colu- mnaris ) occurred. As a result conversion rates Potential of Catfish Production 91 increased and survival decreased. Accordingly, the prevention of disease can make a catfish farming operation much more profitable. There are still many technological difficulties to be solved in regards to cage culture. Our research shows that dissolved oxygen is much more critical with this method than with pond culture. With low dissolved oxygen conditions prevailing, the fish in cages died while those free in the pond did not suffer any mortality. The fish in the pond can carry on what is known as surface breathing, or escape to more highly oxygenated areas of the pond while the fish in cages are crowded and restricted to one area. The food fish market is the only one capable of absorbing a large volume from a channel catfish industry in Virginia. The products and markets that should be entered depend a great deal upon the size of the industry that develops in the state. If the size remains small, then local markets within the immediate areas of production could provide an outlet for producers. Low scale operation would supply a product in the form of processed fish, iced for preservation, and delivered to local restaurants or grocery stores. In the event that interest by pond owners is high and production is on a medium to large scale, then local marketing structure would not be able to absorb the amount of channel catfish available. In these circumstances large scale processing and distribution facilities would be needed. REFERENCES 1. Rogers, B. D., and C. E. Madewell. Catfish farming — cost of producing in the Tennessee Valley region. Circ. Z-22. National Fertilizer Development Center, TVA, Muscle Shoals, Ala. (1971). 2. Hastings, W. H. Channel catfish growth response to test feeds. Commercial Fish Farming Conference, University of Georgia, pp. 23-25. (1969). 92 The Virginia Journal of Science VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE OFFICERS, MEMBERS OF COUNCIL, AND COMMITTEES— 1973-74 EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE President Stanley Ragone Vpupo P. O. Box 26666 Richmond, Virginia 23261 402 Lakeway Court Richmond, Virginia 23229 Phone: 771-3193 (office) 282-0726 (home) Past President Franklin F, Flint Department of Biology Randolph-Macon Woman’s College Box 309 Lynchburg, Virginia 24504 Phone: 846-7392, Ext. 432 (office) 384-1254 (home) Treasurer President-elect i/ E. L. Wisman Dept, of Poultry Science VPI & SU Blacksburg, Virginia 24061 W. Allen Powell Dept, of Chemistry University of Richmond Richmond, Virginia 23173 Phone: 285-6286 (office) 288-6437 Secretary Arthur W. Burke, Jr. Dept, of Radiology MCV Richmond, Virginia 23219 Rt. 5, Box 21 Mechanicsville, Virginia 23111 Phone: 770-5701 (02, 03, 04) Executive Secretary-Treasurer Blanton M. Bruner Virginia Academy of Science P. O. Box 8454 Richmond, Virginia 23226 Phone: 282-9581 (office) 282-1838 (home) COUNCIL Council consists of: (a) The members of the Executive Committee (p- 93) (b) The following Past Presidents Edward F. Turner, Jr. (1975) Chairman — Physics Dept. Washington & Lee University Lexington, Virginia 24450 Phone: 463-9111, Ext. 266 (office) 463-2220 (home) Maurice B. Rowe (1974) Secretary of Economic Resources 910 Capitol Street — -3rd floor Richmond, Virginia 23219 Phone: 770-7831 (office) 272-2494 (home) (c) The Editor of the Virginia Journal of Science Charles H. O’Neal Biophysics Dept. -MCV MCV Station, Box 877 Richmond, Virginia 23298 (d) The Chairman of the Standing Committees (e) The following Section Representatives: A gricultural Sciences T. G. Copeland, Jr. 203 N. Governor Street Box 304 Richmond, Virginia 23219 (1974) Astronomy, Mathematics & Physics Alex M. Clarke Dept, of Biophysics Box 877, MCV Station Richmond, Virginia 23298 (1974) Biology Warwick West Biology Dept. University of Richmond Richmond, Virginia 23220 Phone: 285-6275 (office) (1975) Academy Officers and Committees 93 Botany Leonard Morrow Math & Science Center Glen Allen, Virginia 23060 (1976) Chemistry Mary E. Kapp 208 N. Vine Street Richmond, Virginia 23220 (1975) Engineering George A. McAlpine Thornton Hall University of Virginia Charlottesville, Virginia 22903 (1975) Geology Bruce K. Goodwin Dept, of Geology College of William and Mary Williamsburg, Virginia 23185 Phone: 229-3000, Ext. 204, 529 (1976) Materials Science J. L. Lytton Dept, of Metals and Ceramic Engineering VPI & SU Blacksburg, Virginia 24060 (1974) Medical Sciences Charles H. O’Neal Biophysics Dept.-MCV MCV Station, Box 877 Richmond, Virginia 23298 Microbiology S. Gaylen Bradley Virginia Commonwealth University Box 27, MCV Station Richmond, Virginia 23298 (1975) Psychology Ira B. Albert Dept, of Psychology Old Dominion University Norfolk, Virginia 23508 (1976) Science Teachers Miss Leslie Watkins Glenvar High School Route 1, Box 476 Salem, Virginia 24153 Phone: 389-9305 (1974) Space Science & Technology Ralph A. Lowry Dept, of Aerospace Engineering University of Virginia Charlottesville, Virginia 22901 (1974) Statistics Richard G. Krutchkoff Dept, of Statistics VPI & SU Blacksburg, Virginia 24061 W. D. Whitehead (1974) Dean, Graduate School University of Virginia 444 Cabell Hall Charlottesville, Virginia 22903 Phone: 924-3437 \ . SCATS 369-3437/ lomcej STANDING COMMITTEES AWARDS COMMITTEE Mrs. Vera Remsburg, Chairman (1975) Box 445 Herndon, Virginia 22070 Phone: 437-6800 (office) 437-1445 (home) Stanley B. Williams (1976) Dept, of Psychology College of William and Mary Williamsburg, Virginia 23185 CONSTITUTION AND BY-LAWS COMMITTEE J. W. Midyette, Jr., Chairman (1975) Department of Agriculture & Commerce 203 N. Governor Street Richmond, Virginia 23219 Phone: 770-3535 \ , . SCATS 369-3535 / ,omceJ Wade J. Temple (1974) Chairman, Physics Dept. Randolph-Macon College Ashland, Virginia 23005 Phone: 798-8372, Ext. 249 (office) 94 The Virginia Journal of Science Thomas J. Marlowe (1975) Dept, of Animal Science VPI & SU Blacksburg, Virginia 24061 Randolph N. Gladding (1976) 4600 Cutshaw Avenue Richmond, Virginia 23230 FINANCE AND ENDOWMENT COMMITTEE D. Rae Carpenter, Chairman (1974) Dept, of Physics Virginia Military Institute Lexington, Virginia 24450 Phone: 463-3151 (office) 462-4948 (home) E. S. Harlow (1974) 201 Ross Road Richmond, Virginia 23229 Phone: 282-5318 (home) Roscoe D. Hughes (1974) The Science Museum of Virginia State Office Building, Room 1215 Richmond, Virginia 23219 Phone: 770-4133 (office) SCATS 369-4646 (office) 746-5397 (home) Shirley Rosser (1975) Physics Dept. Lynchburg College Lynchburg, Virginia 24504 Phone: 845-9071 Mary E. Kapp (1976) Professor of Chemistry VCU — Academic Center Richmond, Virginia 23220 Boyd Harshbarger (1974) Statistics Dept. VPI & SU Blacksburg, Virginia 24061 Phone: 552-6566 (office) SCATS 243-6566 (office) Helen Whidden (1975) Chemistry Dept. Randolph Macon Woman’s College Lynchburg, Virginia 24504 Phone: 846-7392 Jack Davis (1975) Biology Dept. Madison College Harrisonburg, Virginia 22802 Phone: 433-6261 Rodney C. Berry (1975) 5709 Brookfield Road Richmond, Virginia 23219 Phone: 266-1606 Leonard D. Morrow (1976) Mathematics & Science Center 2200 Mountain Road Glen Allen, Virginia 23060 Phone: 262-8643 JUNIOR ACADEMY OF SCIENCE COMMITTEE Dorothy C. Bliss (1974) Dept, of Biology Randolph-Macon Woman’s College Lynchburg, Virginia 24504 Phone: 846-7392, Ext. 393 (office) 845-5665 (home) John Hess (1975) Dept, of Biochemistry VPI & SU Blacksburg, Virginia 24061 Lee Anthony, Chairman (1975) Dept, of Physics Roanoke College Salem, Virginia 24153 Margaret L. Duncan (1974) Liberty High School Route 1 Bedford, Virginia 24523 Phone: 586-1017 (office) 586-9003 (home) George Farris (1975) Rich Valley High School Route 1 Saltville, Virginia 24370 Academy Officers and Committees 95 A. B. Niemeyer, Jr. (1974) Supervisor of Science Portsmouth Public Schools 253 Constitution Avenue Portsmouth, Virginia 23704 Phone: 393-8884 (office) 484-4162 (home) William H. Sharpe (1974) Menchville High School 275 Menchville Road Newport News, Virginia 23602 Phone: 877-9296 (office) 595-6888 (home) Margurite Trent (1975) Douglas Freeman High School 8701 Three Chopt Road Richmond, Virginia 23229 Bruce K. Goodwin (1974) Dept, of Geology College of William and Mary Williamsburg, Virginia 23185 Phone: 229-2712 (office) A1 Mandell (1975) Old Dominion University Norfolk, Virginia Donald L. Plymale Dept, of Chemistry Roanoke College Salem, Virginia 24153 Wes Batten (1976) Mathematics and Science Center 2200 Mountain Road Glen Allen, Virginia 23060 LONG- Dale V. Ulrich, Chairman (1974) Dean, Bridgewater College Bridgewater, Virginia 22812 Phone: 828-2501, Ext. 77 (office) Donald G. Cochran (1974) Dept, of Entomology VPI & su Blacksburg, Virginia 24061 Phone: 552-6129 (office) SCATS 243-6129 (office) 552-2077 (home) Ralph H. Lowry (1975) Dept, of Aerospace Eng. & Eng. Physics University of Virginia Thornton Hall Charlottesville, Virginia 22903 Ruth Opp (1974) W. T. Woodson High School 9525 E. Main Street Fairfax, Virginia 22030 Phone: 273-0911 (office) 560-3444 (home) Mrs. Connie Fletcher (1976) Waynesboro High School 1200 W. Main Street Waynesboro, Virginia 22980 Don Buttermore (1976) Gunston Junior High School 2700 S. Lang Street Arlington, Virginia 22206 Professor Mac Gipson (1976) Dept, of Geology & Earth Science Virginia State College Petersburg, Virginia 23803 Emory Potter (1975) Lexington High School 600 Waddell Street Lexington, Virginia 24450 Mrs. Dorothy Daughtery (1976) John S. Battle High School Lee Highway Bristol, Virginia 24201 Mrs. W. H. Ward, Jr. (1975) Warwick High School 5 1 Copeland Lane Newport News, Virginia 23601 Standing Committees Continued PLANNING COMMITTEE G. Siegfried Kutter (1974) Dept, of Astronomy University of Virginia Charlottesville, Virginia 22903 Phone: 924-3473 (office) 973-6748 (home) Lee S. Anthony (1974) Physics Dept. Roanoke College Salem, Virginia 24153 Phone: 389-2351, Ext. 276 (office) 389-6192 (home) Kenneth F. Bick (1974) Dept, of Geology College of William and Mary Williamsburg, Virginia 23185 Phone: 229-3000 (office) 96 The Virginia Journal of Science MEMBERSHIP COMMITTEE Roscoe Hughes, Chairman (1975) The Science Museum of Virginia Room 1215 State Office Building Richmond, Virginia 23219 William F. Young, Jr, (1974) Supervisor, High School Evaluations State Board of Education Richmond, Virginia 23216 Phone: 770=2677 \ ffi } 369=2671 Jomce; John L. Perry (1974) 1948 Fairlawn Avenue Virginia Beach, Virginia 23455 Charles Headland (1975) Dept, of Physics Virginia Western Community College Box 4195 3095 Colonial Ave., S.W. Roanoke, Virginia 24018 Phone: 344=2031 B. R. Woodson (1974) Dept, of Biology Virginia State College Petersburg, Virginia 23803 F. P. Clay, Jr. (1974) Physics Dept. Old Dominion University Norfolk, Virginia 23508 Phone: 489-8000 (office) Gilbert S. Trelawny (1975) Biology Dept. Madison College Box 606 Harrisonburg, Virginia 22801 Phone: 433=6225 NOMINATING COMMITTEE Franklin F. Flint (1976) Dept, of Biology Randolph-Macon Woman’s College Box 309 Lynchburg ,Virginia 24504 Phone: 846=7392, Ext. 432 (office) 384-1254 (home) Maurice B. Rowe, Chairman (1974) Secretary of Economic Resources 910 Capitol Street Third Floor Richmond, Virginia 23219 Phone: 770=7831 (office) SCATS 369=7831 (office) 272=2494 (home) Ed Turner (1975) Dept, of Physics Washington & Lee University Lexington, Virginia 24450 Phone: 463-9 111, Ext. 266 (office) 463=2220 (home) PUBLICATIONS COMMITTEE Perry C. Holt, Chairman (1976) Professor of Zoology VPI & su Blacksburg, Virginia 24061 Phone 552-6766 (office) 552-0432 (home) Academy Officers and Committees 97 W. S. Flory (1974) Biology Dept. Wake Forest University Box 7325, Reynolds Station Winston-Salem, North Carolina 27109 Phone: (919) 725-971 1, Ext. 459 (office) (919) 723-2103 (home) Susie V. Floyd (1974) 64 Hopkins Street Newport News, Virginia 23601 Phone: 596-7261 (home) J. W. Stewart (1976) Physics Dept. University of Virginia Charlottesville, Virginia 22901 Phone: 924-3781 (office) 973-5037 (home) James E. Perham (1975) Dept, of Biology Randolph-Macon Woman’s College Lynchburg, Virginia 24504 Phone: 846-7392, Ext. 393 (office) 847-8502 (home) Stewart Ware (1974) Dept, of Biology College of William and Mary Williamsburg, Virginia 23185 Phone: 229-3000, Ext. 240 (office) 229-2810 (home) Dorothy Crandall Bliss Box 278 Randolph-Macon Woman’s College Lynchburg, Virginia 24504 Phone: 846-7392, Ext. 393 (office) 845-5665 (home) J. Doyle Smith (1975) Chairman, Dept, of Chemistry & Pharmaceutical Chemistry Medical College of Virginia Box 666 Richmond, Virginia 23298 Phone: 770-4653 (office) 272-4931 (home) R. A. (Bob) Paterson (1978) Biology Dept. VPI & su Blacksburg, Virginia 24061 RESEARCH COMMITTEE J. L. Calver, Chairman (1974) State Geologist Division of Mineral Resources Box 3667 Charlottesville, Virginia 22903 Phone: 293-5121 (office) Rogers C. Ritter (1976) Physics Dept. University of Virginia Charlottesville, Virginia 22901 Phone: 924-3781 (office) Paul Osborne (1977) Biology Dept. Lynchburg College Lynchburg, Virginia 24504 SCIENCE TALENT SEARCH COMMITTEE E. V. Russell, Jr. (1974) Chemistry Dept. VPI & SU Blacksburg, Virginia 24061 Phone: 552-6578 (office) SCATS 243-6578 Lee Anthony, Chairman (1975) Physics Dept. Roanoke College Salem, Virginia 24153 Phone: 389-2351 (office) 389-6192 (home) A. B. Niemeyer, Jr. (1976) Supervisor of Science Portsmouth Public Schools 253 Constitution Avenue Portsmouth, Virginia 23704 98 The Virginia Journal of Science A1 Mandell (1975) Old Dominion University Norfolk, Virginia James P. Wightman (1974) Chemistry Dept. VPI & su Blacksburg, Virginia 24061 Phone: 552-6579 (office) SCATS 243-6579 (office) 552-2007 (home) Henry Terry, Jr. (1976) Science Supervisor Richmond Public Schools 301 N. 9th Street Richmond, Virginia 23219 Elva Aukland (1975) Washington & Lee High School 1 300 N. Quincy Arlington, Virginia 22206 Katherine Turner (1975) Route 3 Bedford, Virginia 24523 Evan A. Sweetser (1976) College of Education VPT & SU Blacksburg, Virginia 24061 College of Education VPI & SU Blacksburg, Virginia 24061 Paul B. Siegel (1976) Dept, of Poultry Husbandry VPI & SU Blacksburg, Virginia 24061 Phone: 643-5341 (office) 282-5318 (home) TRUST COMMITTEE E. S. Harlow, chairman (1974) 201 Ross Road Richmond, Virginia 23229 Phone: 282-5318 (home) Rodney C. Berry (1975) 5709 Brookfield Road Richmond, Virginia 23219 Phone: 266-1606 (home) VIRGINIA FLORA COMMITTEE Gwynn W. Ramsey, Chairman (1976) Biology Dept. Lynchburg College Lynchburg, Virginia 24503 Peter M. Mazzeo (1974) Plant Science Research Division United States National Arboretum Washington, D. C. 20002 Ruskin S. Freer (1975) 1158 Timberlake Drive Lynchburg, Virginia 24502 Phone: 239-4105 Alton M. Harvill, Jr. (1976) Longwood College Farmville, Virginia 23901 Robert P. Carroll (1974) Box G Millboro, Virginia 24460 J. Rex Baird (1974) Biology Dept. Clinch Valley College of the University of Virginia Wise, Virginia 24293 Miles Johnson (1975) Biology Dept. Virginia Commonwealth University Richmond, Virginia 23220 Norlyn Bodkin (1975) Biology Dept. Madison College Box 638 Harrisonburg, Virginia 22802 Academy Officers and Committees 99 Richard S. Mitchell (1974) Dept, of Biology VPI & SU Blacksburg, Virginia 24061 Donna Ware (1976) Biology Dept. College of William and Mary Williamsburg, Virginia 23185 AD HOC COMMITTEE TO PLAN SCIENCE ADVISORY SYSTEM Dennis Barnes Associate Director Center for the Study of Science, Technology & Public Policy University of Virginia Charlottesville, Virginia 22901 Maurice B. Rowe Secretary of Economic Resources 910 Capitol Street Third Floor Richmond, Virginia 23219 Phone: 770-7831 (office) SCATS 369-7381 (office) 272-2494 (home) Edward F. Turner, Jr., Chairman Chairman, Physics Dept. Washington & Lee University Lexington, Virginia 24450 Phone: 463-9111, Ext. 266 (office) 463-2220 (home) Stanley Ragone Vepco P. O. Box 26666 Richmond, Virginia 23261 Phone: 771-3193 (office) 282-0726 (home) Paul B. Siegel Poultry Science Dept. VPI & SU Blacksburg, Virginia 24061 Phone: 552-6472 (office) SCATS 243-6472 (office) 282-5381 (home) AD HOC COMMITTEE ON VIRGINIA MUSEUM OF SCIENCE R. Wesley Batten Director, Math-Science Center 2200 Mountain Road Glen Allen, Virginia 23060 Phone: 262-8643 H. Rubert Hanmer 3215 Hawthorne Avenue Richmond, Virginia 23222 J. Samuel Gillespie, Jr. 22 Maxwell Road Richmond, Virginia 23226 Phone: 282-9581 Arthur W. Burke, Jr. Route 5, Box 21 Mechanicsville, Virginia 23111 Don Kunze Box 4195 Va. Western Community College Roanoke, Virginia 24015 E. S. Harlow, Chairman 201 Ross Road Richmond, Virginia 23229 Phone: 282-5318 Herbert McKennis, Jr. MCV Station Richmond, Virginia 23219 A. G. C. White Dept, of Biology VMT Lexington, Virginia 24451 Susie V. Floyd 46 Hopkins Street Newport News, Virginia 23601 Phone: 596-7261 Mrs. Douglas C. Burke 4549 Arrowhead Road Richmond, Virginia 23235 Director, Visiting Scientists Program Miles F. Johnson Biology Dept. Virginia Commonwealth University Richmond, Va. 23220 100 The Virginia Journal of Science SECTION OFFICERS Agricultural Sciences D. E. Pettry, Chairman Agronomy Dept. VPI & su Blacksburg, Virginia 24061 U. F. Earp, Vice Chairman Agricultural Engineering VPI & SU Blacksburg, Virginia 24061 Phone: 552-6808 R. J. Stipes, Secretary Dept, of Pathology & Physiology VPI&SU Blacksburg, Virginia 24061 Astronomy, Mathematics, Physics Bascom S. Deaver, Chairman Dept, of Physics University of Virginia Charlottesville, Virginia 22903 Lee S. Anthony, Editor Dept, of Physics Roanoke College Salem, Virginia 24153 G. W. Crawford, Secretary 205 John Wythe Place Williamsburg, Virginia 23185 Maurice P. Lynch, Chairman Virginia Institute of Marine Science Gloucester Point, Virginia 23062 Phone: 642-2111 Biology G. R. Brooks, Vice Chairman Dept, of Biology College of William and Mary Williamsburg, Virginia 23185 Roger A. McNabb, Secretary Dept, of Biology VPI & SU Blacksburg, Virginia 24061 Phone: 951-6767 SCATS 243-6407 Phone: 229-3000^ SCATS 427-3458 Gerald Llewellyn, Editor Dept, of Biology 8 1 6 Park Avenue Richmond, Virginia 23220 Donna M. E. Ware, Chairman Dept, of Biology College of William and Mary Williamsburg, Virginia 23185 Phone: 229-3000, Ext. 240 Peter M. Mazzeo, Vice Chairman U. S. National Arboretum Washington, D. C. 20002 Botany Edmund Berkeley, Secretary Dept, of Biology Virginia Piedmont Community College Charlottesville, Virginia 22901 R. L. Williams, Chairman Dept, of Chemistry Old Dominion University Norfolk, Virginia 23508 Phone: 489-8000, Ext. 418 R. C. Atkins, Secretary Dept, of Chemistry Madison College Harrisonburg, Virginia 22801 Chemistry R. G. Bass, Editor Dept, of Chemistry vcu Richmond, Virginia 23220 Academy Officers and Committees 101 E. G. Keshock, Chairman Division of Thermal Engineering Old Dominion University, P. O. Box 6173 Norfolk, Virginia 23508 M. N. Bishara, Vice Chairman Southwest Community College Richlands, Virginia 24641 John W. Funkhouser, Chairman Dept, of Geology John Tyler Community College Chester, Virginia 23831 Phone: 748-2221 William P. Roberts, Vice Chairman Dept, of Geology Madison College Harrisonburg, Virginia 22801 Phone: 433-6130^ Engineering F. W. Barton, Secretary Dept, of Civil Engineering University of Virginia Charlottesville, Virginia 22901 R. C. Hoehn, Editor Dept, of Civil Engineering VPI & SU Blacksburg, Virginia 24061 Geology Randall S. Spencer, Secretary Dept, of Geophysical Sciences Old Dominion University Norfolk, Virginia 23508 Phone: 627-2931, Ext. 270 William A. Jesser, Chairman Dept, of Materials Science University of Virginia Charlottesville, Virginia 22901 Phone: 924-3264 K. R. Reifsnider, Vice Chairman Eng. Science & Mechanics VPI & SU Blacksburg, Virginia 24061 Phone: 951-1620 Nick Sojka, Chairman University of Virginia Medical School Box 261 Charlottesville, Virginia 22903 Materials Science Frank Wawner, Secretary Dept, of Materials Science University of Virginia Charlottesville, Virginia 22901 Phone: 924-3264 Ed Henneke, Editor Eng. Science & Mechanics VPI & SU Blacksburg, Virginia 24061 Phone: 951-3264 Medical Sciences William P. Jollie, Secretary MCV Richmond, Virginia 23298 Miles E. Hench, Chairman Dept, of Pathology MCV Richmond, Virginia 23219 A. L. Rosenzweig, Vice Chairman 4909 Wythe Avenue Richmond, Virginia 23226 Microbiology Marco R. Escobar, Secretary Dept, of Pathology MCV Richmond, Virginia 23219 Eugene A. Lovelace, Chairman Dept, of Psychology University of Virginia Charlottesville, Virginia 22903 Lee Doerries, Secretary Christopher Newport College P. O. Box 6070 Newport News, Virginia 23606 Psychology Kenneth A. Blick, Editor 9511 Ridgefield Road Richmond, Virginia 23229 102 The Virginia Journal of Science Science Teachers Bernie Donaldson, Chairman 3020 N. Edison Street Arlington, Virginia 22207 Phone: 536-6080 Jean Pugh, Vice Chairman Box 11E, Route 1 Hayes, Virginia 23072 Phone: 624-5172 James G. Simmonds, Chairman Engineering Science and Systems University of Virginia Charlottesville, Virginia 22901 Phone: 252-7201 Surendra N. Tiwari, Secretary Old Dominion University Va. Assoc, Res. Campus 12070 Jefferson Avenue Newport News, Virginia 23606 Phone: 877-9231, Ext. 240 H. W. Straley, Secretary Box 25 Woodberry Forrest, Virginia 22989 Phone: 672-1634 Elva Aukland, Editor Washington & Lee High School 1300 North Quincy Arlington, Virginia 538-6996 Space Science and Technology Richard P. McNitt, Editor Engineering Science and Mechanics VPI & su Blacksburg, Virginia 24061 Phone: 951-6627 Statistics Walter H. Carter, Jr., Chairman Dept, of Biometry Medical College of Virginia Richmond, Virginia 23298 Janet W. Campbell, Vice Chairman NASA Langley Research Center, Virginia Klaus Hinklemann, Secretary Dept, of Statsitics VPI & SU Blacksburg, Virginia 24061 William D. Ergle, Editor Dept, of Mathematics Roanoke College Salem, Virginia 24153 Academy Officers and Committees 103 Mobil Chemical MOBIL CHEMICAL COMPANY/ INDUSTRIAL CHEMICALS DIVISION/RICHMOND, VIRGINIA /I'H'f^OBINS Making todays medicines with integrity, seeking tomorrows with persistence. A. H. Robins Company Richmond, Va. 23220 photograph by Ezra S toller © ESTO. Philip Morris, a publicly-owned company incorporated in Virginia, proudly traces its heritage to a London tobacconist of a century ago. Quality and innovation have earned for the company a valued reputation: “Philip Morris . . . makers of America’s finest cigarettes.” By any professional measure, the Philip Morris Re¬ search and Development Center has become one of the most complete and fully- integrated facilities for scientific effort related to tobacco products. This eight story tower is our latest addition to the complex of Research and Development Center buildings. Write to: Administrative Manager P. O. Box 26583 Richmond, Virginia, 23261 VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE VOL. 24, NO. 3 FALL 1973 IISTED below are JReynoldsMetals locations in the State of Virginia. Some 16 in all . . . plants, research labs, sales and admini¬ strative offices . . . including our general headquarters for busi¬ ness conducted around the world. Needless to say our roots are planted deep in Commonwealth soil. Virginia is our “home state.” Whatever we have contributed to its economy is returned many times in the close relationship we have with its people and its commerce. REYNOLDS METALS COMPANY RICHMOND, VIRGINIA 23218 RICHMOND • Executive Office • Styling and Design • Advertising Distribution • Downtown Office Building • Product Development • Metallurgical Laboratory • Package Research Division • North Plant • South Plant • Equipment Center • CHESTERFIELD COUNTY Reclamation Plant • Extrusion Plant • Printing Plant • Pilot Particle Sheet Plant • GROTTOES • Plastics Plant • Plastics Research Department A R ET T R S CIGARETTES I Alters Tareyton is better. J l • l Tareyton’s activated charcoal delivers a better taste. A taste no plain white filter can match. King Size: 19 mg. "tar", 1.3 mg. nicotine; 100 mm: 20 mg. "tar", 1.4 mg. nicotine; av. per cigarette, FTC Report Feb. 73 Warning: The Surgeon General Has Determined That Cigarette Smoking Is Dangerous to Your Health. SUSTAINING MEMBERS VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE The following Virginia Educational Institu¬ tions support the objectives of the Virginia Acad¬ emy of Science through Sustaining Memberships. Their active and financial support is gratefully acknowledged. Alderman Library College of William and Mary Emory and Henry College George Mason University Hampden-Sydney College Hollins College Longwood College Lynchburg College Madison College Mary Baldwin College Mary Washington College Mathematics and Science Center Norfolk State College Old Dominion University Randolph-Macon College Randolph-Macon Woman’s College University of Richmond University of Virginia Virginia Commonwealth University Virginia Military Institute Virginia Polytechnic Institute Virginia State College Virginia Union University Virginia Western Community College Washington and Lee University BUSINESS MEMBERS VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE Because of their interest in science and the economy of Virginia, the following industrial concerns have become Business Members of the Academy and have thus contributed greatly to its work and progress. Their support is gratefully acknowledged: Allied Chemical Corporation American Filtrona Corporation The American Tobacco Company Babcock and Wilcox Company Brunswick Corporation Bunton Instrument Co. Carolina Biological Supply Co. Dow-Badische Company E. I. duPont de Nemours & Co., Inc. Ethyl Corporation First and Merchants National Bank General Medical Scientific House of Edgeworth Merck and Company, Inc. National Fruit Product Co. Newport News Shipbuilding & Dry Dock Co. Philip Morris and Co., Inc. A. H. Robins Company, Inc. Southern Bank & Trust Company Southern States Cooperative, Inc. Texaco, Inc. United Virginia Bank Universal Leaf Tobacco Co., Inc. Virginia Chemicals, Inc. Virginia Electric and Power Company Westinghouse Electric Corporation Wheat, First Securities, Inc. VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE OFFICIAL PUBLICATION OF THE VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE Vol. 24 No. 3 1973 TABLE OF CONTENTS 109 Abstracts of Papers, Fifty-first Annual Meeting of the Virginia Academy of Science, May 1-4, College of William and Mary, Williamsburg THE VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Official Publication of the Virginia Academy of Science EDITOR CHARLES H. O’NEAL SECTION EDITORS Boyd L. Samuel R. C. Hoehn Agricultural Sciences Engineering Lee S. Anthony Kenneth A. Blick Astronomy, Mathematics and Physics Psychology Gerald Llewellyn Elva D. Aukland Biology Science Teachers Robert G. Bass William D. Ergle Chemistry Statistics Ed Henneke Richard P. McNitt Materials Science Space Science and Technology Edwin S. Higgins Medical Sciences BUSINESS MANAGER Charles E. O’Rear Published quarterly by The Virginia Academy of Science, Department of Biophysics, Medical Col¬ lege of Virginia, Richmond, Virginia 23298. Second- class postage paid at Richmond, Virginia. Manuscripts for publication (other than section abstracts) and books for review should be sent to the Editor, Dr. Charles H. O’Neal, Department of Biophysics, Box 877, Medical College of Virginia, Richmond, Virginia 23298. Proof, edited manu¬ scripts, and all correspondence regarding accepted papers should be sent to the Editor. Advertising and Business Office: All correspon¬ dence relating to advertising and business affairs should be directed to Charles E. O’Rear, Business Manager, Virginia Journal of Science, 1 N. Four¬ teenth St., Richmond, Virginia 23219. The Virginia Academy of Science and the Editors of the Virginia Journal of Science assume no re¬ sponsibility for statements or opinions advanced by contributors. © Copyright, 1973, by the Virginia Academy of Science. Business and Subscription Information All remittances and orders for advertising and subscriptions should be sent to the Business Man¬ ager, Virginia Journal of Science, 1 N. Fourteenth St., Richmond, Virginia 23219. Changes of address should be sent promptly to Blanton M. Bruner, Ex¬ ecutive Secretary-Treasurer, Virginia Academy of Science, P. O. Box 8454, Richmond, Virginia 23226. Changes of address must include both new and old addresses with zip code. Subscription rates for 1973: $10.00 per year, U.S.A.; Canada and other countries of the Pan- American Union, $10.50 per year; all other foreign countries, $11.00 per year. All foreign remittances must be made at par U.S. dollars or the foreign equivalent. U.S. dollar remittance is suggested to avoid currency fluctuation problems and possibly unfavorable exchange rates. Back issues are available for some years at $3.00 per issue plus postage. The front cover is by Douglas C. Hensley. Abstracts of Papers Section of Agricultural Sciences Fifty-first Annual Meeting of The Virginia Academy of Science May 1—4, 1973, Williamsburg, Virginia NO-TILLAGE SOYBEAN PRODUCTION IN A DOUBLE-CROPPING SYSTEM. M. W. Alexander. Tidewater Res. & Cont. Ed. Center, VPI & SU, Holland, Va. 23391. Forty percent of Virginia's soybean acreage is double- cropped with wheat, barley and oats. Double-cropping provides for more efficient utilization of land, labor and machinery, and the practice is increasing each year as agricultural production costs become more costly. Fifty percent of the double-cropped acreage uses the no-tillage system of planting. The no-tillage system of planting directly in straw and stubble remaining after grain harvest allows earlier plant¬ ing of soybeans with the many advantages associated with early planting. No-tillage planting reduces the erosion of soil by wind and water thereby reducing the possibility of environmental pollution by stabilizing agri-chemicals applied for weed, insect and disease control. The straw mulch on the soil conserves moisture during periods of moisture stress and aids in weed control. No-tillage soybean production, while reducing labor requirements, requires a higher level of managerial ability for success than conventional tillage methods; however, the probability of above average yields is greater. AUTOMATIC PROCESSING OF PHOTOGRAPHIC IMAGES AS RELATED TO AGRICULTURE. M. E. Newhouse, Dept, of Agronomy, VPI & SU, Blacksburg, Va. 24061. In the past two decades several researchers have used tonal and color variations of aerial photographs to detect important agricultural conditions. Among the methods used to analyze photographs have been visual analysis, Munsell color system, spot type densitometers, isodensitometers, and micro-densitometers . During the 1971 and 1972 growing seasons, 24 aerial flights were made of the Va. Truck and Ornamentals Res. Station at Painter, Va. , with the principal objective to evaluate various film types and filter combinations. In order to meet these objectives, all methods of photographic analyses were evaluated. The micro-densitometer with a tape- computer capability was found to be far superior to any other type of density analysis. However, the usefulness of the Munsell color system could not be overlooked. The systems of analyzing photographs are generally far superior to the images being analyzed. The vignetti effect (the overdevelopment in the center of a photograph) often gives very poor quality images, but can be easily corrected by density type filters. Color shift (change of color or density for a specific area on adjacent photographs) is often corrected by special computer programs. However, preliminary results indicate that color shift can be eliminated by plan¬ ning flight lines perpendicular to the sun. (Aided by NASA Contract No. NAS 6-1863.) THE EFFECT OF FERTILITY TREATMENTS ON THE PERFORMANCE OF SOYBEANS. G. D. Jones, J. A. Lutz, Jr., and T. J. Smith. Dept, of Agronomy, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Va. 24061. York soybeans were grown on Davidson clay loam initially very low in P^O 311(1 low in available K20* Fertility treat¬ ments included 0, 30, 60, and 120 pounds per acre of P_0_ in combination with 0 and 120 pounds of K„0, and 0, 307 o0, and 120 pounds of K^O in combinations with 0 and 120 pounds of Soybean yields, seed weight and seed quality were determined. There was a response to both F2^5 ancl ^2^ ^ertibizati°n* When K^O was applied at the rate of 120 pounds per acre, increasing the rate of P^O,. from 0 to 120 Ko° Pounds Per acre increased seed yields by 21 percent but did not affect size or quality of beans. When no K^O was added, increas¬ ing the P2^5 from 0 t0 60 pounds per acre resulted in a reduction in seed quality. When 120 pounds per acre of P2°c was applied, increasing the rate of I^O from 0 to 120 pounds per acre reduced seed quality, increased seed yields by 45 percent and seed size by 7 percent. There was no reduction in seed quality when no ?20^ was applied. GEOMORPHIC OBSERVATIONS OF LANDF0RMS AND SOILS IN ACCOMACK AND NORTHAMPTON COUNTIES VIA REMOTE SENSING. D. E. Pettry and J. H. Scott, Jr.*. Dept, of Agronomy, VPI & SU, Blacksburg, and NASA, Wallops Station, Va. Geomorphic soil features in Accomack and Northampton Counties, commonly called Carolina Bays, have been investi¬ gated via aerial remote sensing techniques combined with pedologic methods for the past two years. Fixed-wing air¬ craft have been utilized as aerial platforms to detect, measure, and determine the orientation of the oval-shaped depressions from altitudes ranging from 500 to 65,000 feet. Representative areas have been morphologically characterized and soil samples analyzed to determine physical, chemical, and mineralogical parameters. Over 160 of the "saucer-like" depressions were detected via analyses of aerial infrared photographic imagery in the two counties, ranging from near sea level to the highest elevations. Diameters ranged from 200 yards to 1 mile, and the orientation appeared to be random. The higher outer rims of the bays were dominantly comprised of well-drained Sassafras soils, while the centers were wetter Elkton and Keyport soils. Sand and silt fractions were dominantly quartz, while clay fractions were comprised of vermiculite, kaolinite, quartz, and amorphous constituents. Carolina Bays appear to be a dominant topographic feature of the eastern shore of Virginia. [Aided by NASA Grant NAS 6-1863.] Proceedings, 1972-1973 109 ADSORPTION OF ANIONIC SURFACTANTS BY TWO COASTAL PLAIN SOILS OF VIRGINIA. R. B. Reneau, Jr.a Department of Agronomy. VPI & SU, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061. Selected physical, chemical, and morphological properties (Fe203, Exchangeable Al, 2-ly clay, >ly clay, silt, O.M. , and soil horizons) of two Coastal Plain soils were studied in relation to the adsorption of the anionic surfactant linear alhylbenzenesulf onate (LAS) at three concentrations levels (2, 5, and 10 ug LAS/ml). The soils studied were a Plinthic Paleudult; clayey, kaolinitic, thermic (Varina) and an Aquic Paleudult; fine, loamy, silicious, thermic (Goldsboro) . LAS adsorption ranged from a minimum of about 2% in the Varina A3 horizon to a maximum of 88% in the Varina Bx3 horizon. While the best simple correlation was with the silt fraction (r = -0.78) and accounted for approxi¬ mately 60%-of the observed variation, the best multiple regression, using the maximum R2 improvement technique, accounted for 82% of the observed variation. When the physical and chemical properties of the B horizons of both soils were considered, approximately 85% of the observed variation could be accounted for at the 10pg LAS/ml concen¬ tration. The results indicate that multiple regression equations could be used to satisfactorily predict the adsorp¬ tion of anionic surfactants by these Coastal Plain soils. (Research supported by the Virginia Department of Health). RELATIVE CONCENTRATION OF EIGHT NUTRIENTS IN VIRGINIA TYPE PEANUT PETIOLES AND BLADES. D. L. Hallock and D. C. Martens. Dept, of Agronomy, V.P.I. and S.U., Holland, Va. 23391 Ten Virginia variety peanut cultivars and lines were grown on Woods town loamy fine sand at Holland, Va. during 1970 and 1971. The soil was fertilized each year with 60, 300, 1, 10, 5, and 5 Ib/a of P, K, B, Mn , Zn, and Cu, re¬ spectively. The petiole and blade portions of cotyledonary and upper main stem leaves were sampled in July and Septem¬ ber and analyzed separately for contents of eight nutrients in order to determine the leaf portion highest in each nutrient. Data are averages over all cultivars and lines. Petioles were higher than blades in °L K in all samples and in % Mg in the September samples of the main stem leaves. The blades were higher than petioles in P, Ca , B, and Mn con¬ tents of all samples and in Zn and Cu contents of September samples . In general, P, K, Zn, and Cu contents were highest in the July samples (flowering stage), whereas Ca , Mg, and Mn contents were highest in leaves of older plants. Highest contents of Ca, Mg, B, and Mn were found in some portion of the upper main stem leaf samples. Other nutrients contents were similar in certain leaf samples of either branch when both samplings are considered. PLANTING AND HARVEST DATE EFFECT ON SOUTHERN CORN R00TW0RM INJURY IN PEANUTS. J. C. Smith. Tidewater Res. & Continu- ing Education Center, Va. Polytechnic Inst. & State Univ., Holland, Va . 23391. A southern corn rootworm susceptible cultivar and a resis¬ tant breeding line were tested in field plots in 1971 and 1972. Each entry had 4 dates of planting during May, then peanut fruits were evaluated for injury during 6 dates of sampling in September and October. Two distinct larval popu¬ lation peaks were evident in 1971. Population peaks were less distinct and earlier in 1972, and resulted in a much higher percentage of damage in 1972. Date of planting effect was more distinct in 1971, with earlier planted peanuts escaping some injury. Planting date effect was small in 1972 and was reversed in some instances with earlier planted pea¬ nuts suffering the most injury. The rootworm resistant line, NC 343, received significantly less injury than the suscep¬ tible cultivar, Va. 61R in all categories of maturity for both years. NC 343 appears to have resistance factors some¬ what independent of maturity aspects. DEVELOPMENT OF A VIRGINIA ISOLATE OF MELOIDOGYNE ARENARIA ON EIGHTEEN INBRED LINES OF ZEA MAYS. L. I. Miller. Dept. Plant Path. & Physiol., V.P.I. & S.U. , Blacksburg, Va. 24061 An isolate of Meloidogyne arenaria (peanut root-knot nematode) from the W. L. G. farm near Surry, Va. was tested to determine its ability to develop galls and egg masses on eighteen lines of Zea mays (corn). Relative ratings of galling and egg mass production were scored two months after corn was planted in nematode infested soil. No galls or egg masses were formed on corn inbreds Va26, Va53, Va59, Va69, Pa91 and Mol7. No galls and only a few egg masses were formed on inbred A239. A few galls and none to few egg masses were formed on inbreds Va50, Va55, 0h7B, 0h43, 0h45C, IaBl4, IaB37, NC681 and MinnA401. Numerous galls and egg masses were formed on inbreds Va35 and Va43. Al¬ though two of the corn inbred lines were susceptible, most of the inbreds tested were resistant to the Surry, Va. iso¬ late of the peanut root-knot nematode. PLANNING PROGRAM CHANGES IN THE ANIMAL SCIENCES. J. A. Gaines, G. G. Green and T. J. Marlowe. Dept, of Animal Sci., Va. Polytechnic Inst. & State Univ., Blacksburg, Va. 24061. A new era has begun in the makeup of the student body in Animal Science, namely, the enrollment of a large percentage of girls and an ever-increasing percentage of students raised in an urban environment. In 1972, 142 new students enrolled in Animal Science at VPI&SU, 55 of whom are girls, and 867. are from urban or suburban backgrounds. This study is based on individual interviews of these "new" students, and the remaining members of this group will be interviewed each succeeding year until they graduate, to follow the trends in their thinking with respect to their needs and desires for programs of study. The main objective, of course, is to prepare the counselors to do a better job of helping students graduate in Animal Science. Results of the interviews of the girls have been published elsewhere. Results of the interviews of 71 of the boys are as follows; 877. were raised in urban and suburban environments. 717. want Vet. Medicine; 287. want farming or farm-related work. When asked why they chose Animal Science, 427. said it was the best preparation for Vet. School, 277. said it was be¬ cause they like animals, and 327. said it best prepared them for the future they had in mind. The curriculum seemed sat¬ isfactory to 37. and the remaining 87. were not sure. With respect to specific suggestions, 157. wanted small animal management, 107. said lab classes are too large, 117. said all classes are too large and 107. said there should be more animals available in labs. EVALUATION OF PROTEIN LEVELS AND INGREDIENTS FOR PIG STARTER RATIONS. E. T. Komegay and H. R. Thomas. Dept, of Animal Science and Tidewater Center, Va. Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ., Blacksburg, Va. 24061 and Holland, Va. 23391. The objectives of this study were to compare protein level sequences and the use of dried skimmed milk (DSM) in starter rations for pigs weaned at 4 weeks of age. In trial 1, 84 pigs (avg wt. 15 lb) were self-fed either a 20-18-16 or a 22- 20-18 protein sequence from 15 to 100 pounds. At 100 lb, each sequence group was divided equally and fed either a 16 or 14% protein sequence level to 200 pounds. In trial 2, 265 pigs (avg wt . 18.2 lb) were fed either a 20-18 or 18-16% pro¬ tein sequences with and without 10% DSM from 18 to 75 lb. At 75 lb, each sequence was divided equally and fed either a 16 or 14% protein level to 100 pounds. A 14% protein level was fed to all groups from 100 lb to market weight. A corn soy¬ bean meal ration fortified with minerals, vitamins and anti¬ biotics was used. In trial 1, pigs fed the 20-18-16% protein sequence per¬ formed as well as pigs fed the 22-18-16% sequence and there was no advantage for feeding the 16% protein level as com¬ pared to the 14% from 100 to 200 pounds. In trial 2, there was no improvement in performance when the ration contained 10% DSM. Pigs fed the 18-16% protein sequence performed as well as pigs fed the 20-18 sequence. It appeared advanta¬ geous to continue feeding a 16% protein ration to 100 lb and then lower it to a 14% during the finishing phase. 110 The Virginia Journal of Science THE SITE OF COPPER INTERFERENCE WITH IRON ABSORPTION. J. D. Hedges* , L. F. Caswell*, C. E. Polan* and E. T. Kornegay. Depts. of Animal Science and Dairy Science, Va. Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ. , Blacksburg, Va. 24061. The site of interference with dietary iron absorption from copper when fed at a growth stimulating level was studied in 12 crossbred pigs (avg wt. 9.1 kg). Pigs were randomly al¬ lotted within blocks to treatments: 1) control (c) ; 2) intra- peritoneal (IP) injection of copper adequate to double the serum copper level; and 3) intraduodenal (ID) injection of copper calculated to give an intestinal copper: iron ratio of 3:1. ^Fe was injected into two ligated segments of the duo¬ denum of each pig in vivo. Pigs were sacrified 4 hr. later. Serum copper levels were 142, 291 and 152 pg/100 ml (differ¬ ence P<.01)at 2 hr. for C, IP and ID, respectively and con¬ tinued to be different (P<.05) at 4 hr. Disappearance of 5^Fe from duodenal segments, used as a measure of absorption, was greater (P<.05) for the C and IP group as compared to the ID group (65.5, 64.9 vs 39.7%). The percentage recovery of sbsorbed ^Fe was 27.4, 28,3 and 5.2 (P<.01) in bone marrow and 7.0, 10.7 and 1.8 (P<.05) in liver for the above respec¬ tive treatments. Although much lower in spleen, ~^Fe pat¬ terns were similar to liver. The percent dose in serum (4.5% B.W.) was 9.7, 13.1 and 1.6 (P<.05), respectively, at 2 hr. but no treatment differences were found at 4 hours. Interpre¬ tation of these data indicates that copper exhibits its in¬ hibitory effect on iron absorption at the intestinal level and not by accumulation of copper in some non-intes tinal tissue or tissues . EFFECT OF APPLYING SWINE FECES ON SOIL AND PLANT MINERAL LEVELS. J . D. Hedges* , E. T. Kornegay and D. C. Martens. Depts. of Animal Science and Agronomy, Va. Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ., Blacksburg, Va. 24061. Little attention has been directed toward understanding the fate of minerals contained in swine feces when applied to the soil. The purpose of this trial was to determine the ef- feet upon the soil and corn plant of applying feces from pigs fed normal and high, copper diets. Feces was collected from 82 kg pigs fed a fortified corn-soybean diet with or without a growth stimulating level (250 ppm) of copper added. There were three blocks with the following treatments randomly as¬ signed to plots within each block: 1) control— no feces ap¬ plied; 2) feces applied from pigs fed ration without added copper; 3) feces applied from pigs fed ration with 250 ppm copper. Plots for each treatment were 0.76 by 6.10 meters. The feces were incorporated into the surface 10.2 cm of the soil at a rate of 71.9 m tons (21.6% DM) per hectare. The application of feces from pigs fed the diet containing high copper caused an increase (P<.05) in the copper content of the surface 10.2 cm of the soil. Soil phosphorus, magnesium and calcium content was increased (P<.05) when either feces was applied. Soil iron and zinc levels were not affected by treatments. Corn yields were not significantly affected by treatment. There was only a trend toward higher corn ear leaf copper on the plot that received high copper feces. It appears that there is little movement of copper, magnesium, and calcium during one growing season. CONTROL OF LICE ON BEEF CATTLE WITH 20% TIGUVON SPOTTON AND 3% TIGUVON POURON. J. E. Roberts, Sr., Dept, of Entomology, Va. Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ., Blacksburg, Va. 24061 Tiguvon, a systemic organophosphate insecticide, was applied to beef cattle by two methods. Spotton treatments were applied with a calibrated syringe to the skin surface near the hip bones at the rate of 12 cc per animal. Pouron treatments were applied to the backline of animals with a calibrated dipper at the rate of % ounce per 100 pounds of body weight. Shorthorn yearlings were treated with Tiguvon on March 29, 1972 by the two methods indicated. Lice control was 100% effective for 30 days after treatment when compared with untreated check animals. FLIGHT BEHAVIOR OF CABBAGE LOOPERS AND FACTORS AFFECTING IT. J. V. Perumpral*. U. F. Earp, Dept, of Agricultural Engineer¬ ing, Va. Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ., Blacksburg, Va. and J. M. Stanley*, ARS, USDA, Gainesville, Florida. Effects of factors such as age, sex and sexual activity on the normal flight behavior and the acoustical response of cabbage loopers is discussed. The strain gage trans¬ ducer used to record the flight activities and other instru¬ mentation used were discussed. Acoustical response was studied by exposing the moths to 80 dB ultrasonic signal of 40 KHz. From the data available following conclusions were drawn : ( i) After the second day, age had no influence on wingbeat frequency. ( ii) Sex had no effect on wingbeat frequency. (iii) Generally speaking, mated moths had lower wing- beat frequency than unmated moths and ( iv) Cabbage looper responded to the ultrasonic sig¬ nal. But age, sex and mating status had no effect on their response. FACTORS TO CONSIDER BEFORE USING A MICROWAVE OVEN IN YOUR RESEARCH PROGRAM. D. G. Larsen and J. S. Coartney, Depts. of Chemistry and Plant Pathology and Physiology, V.P.I. & S.U., Blacksburg, Va. 24061. Microwaves produce rapid heating in many materials by causing molecular agitation of polar molecules and/or collisions between electrons and molecules. Microwaves are electromagnetic radiation waves slightly above the UHF TV band and about 3 orders of magnitude below the infra¬ red frequency. Microwaves used in electronic ovens are generated by a magnetron tube and transmitted to the oven cavity by a wave guide. Unlike ultraviolet. X-rays, and gamma rays, microwaves have insufficient quantum energy to break chemical bonds. However, overexposure to micro- waves can produce severe and permanent burns. News reports have indicated possible hazards from use of microwave ovens in the home. In reality, there is minimal risk associated with a microwave oven used in accordance with the manu¬ facturer's directions. Data taken from a microwave power source can have large errors if the homogeneity of the microwave field is not known. The oven used in our tests produced significantly more microwave energy at the back of the oven than at the front. This difference was reflected in seed germination data. Oven loading is also important. As the degree of loading increases, the time required to heat is increased. (Microwave Electronic Oven, Model GD-29, 650 watts, was pro¬ vided by Heath Company, Benton Harbor, Mich. 49022). USE OF A MICROWAVE OVEN FOR STERILIZATION OF SMALL QUANTI¬ TIES OF SOIL. J. S. Coartney and D. G. Larsen. Depts. of Plant Pathology and Physiology and Chemistry, V.P.I. & S.U., Blacksburg, Va. 24061 The feasibility of using microwave energy for rapid ster¬ ilization of small quantities of potting soil was examined with the aid of a Heathkit Electronic Oven. Seeds of radish (Scarlet Globe) , clover (Red Man) , fescue (Ky31) and grain sorghum (Dekalb 42Y) were exposed to microwave treatment for various periods of time in moist soil or in various potting mixes. The time required to kill seeds depended upon the size of the pot in which the seeds were embedded and the to¬ tal amount of soil in the oven. Radish seeds in 2 1/4, 3, or 4 inch pots were killed by a 5 min exposure, while seeds in 6 inch pots required 10 min exposure to prevent germination. Bioassays using tobacco plants revealed that Phy tophthora parasitica var. nicotianae in 2 1/4 inch pots was killed by a 2.5 min exposure. Similar results were obtained with Meloidogyne incognita (root knot nematode) using tomato plants as a bioassay. Radish seeds embedded in peat, sand, Weblite, Perlite, Vermiculite, or combinations of these materials with soil responded similar to those embedded in soil. (Microwave Electronic Oven provided by Heath Company, Benton Harbor, Mich. 49022) Proceedings, 1972-1973 111 BREEDING BEHAVIOR OF CAPTIVE MALE WHITE-TAILED DEER. D. E, Buck land* , W. A. Abler*, E. T. Reed*, R. L. Kirkpatrick, and P. F. Scanlon. Dept, of Fisheries and Wildlife Sciences, V.P.I.&S.U. , Blacksburg, Va. 24061. Observations were made from October 26 through December 20, 1972, on six captive white-tailed bucks to determine their behavior toward does in different reproductive states. Does were turned into 12' x. 24' pens individually with a buck daily for a 5-10 minute period until 1-2 days after breeding. The behavior of the buck was stereotyped regard¬ less of the condition of the doe. Immediately after the doe entered the pen, the buck would smell and lick the metatarsal glands and external gen talia of the doe and would frequently exhibit a lip curl. The buck was usually very persistent in his mounting attempts and would usually butt the doe when she would not stand for mounting. During estrus, foreplay was reduced and the doe allowed mounting and intromission. The mount was terminated with a powerful thrust by the buck. No deviations in male behavior were observed on the days prior to or following estrus. Recovery time (time from ejaculation to the next erection and mount) was approximately 15-20 min¬ utes , although the buck would not service the same doe again in this period of time. Two and one half year old bucks were extremely aggressive toward the does and the does could not be left with these bucks long for fear of injury. One six month old buck fawn was exposed to does several times and was quite active sexually, but intromission was never achi¬ eved due to size differences. TEMPERATURE, C02 AND 02 EFFECTS ON JAPANESE QUAIL EGGS. W. L. Beane, Dept, of Poultry Science, Va. Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ. , Blacksburg, Va. 24061 and G. R. McDaniel* Dept, of Poultry Science, Auburn Univ., Auburn, Ala. 36830 Ten adult female quail were subjected to an environmen¬ tal temperature of 94°-98°F (34.5°-36.6°C) and normal 02 and CO2 levels (Treatment 1) . Ten others were subjected to 90°-102°F (32.2°-38.9°C) with 15% O2 and 1.85-2.00% C02 (Treatment 2) . Prior temperature for both groups was 75°- 80°F (23.9°-26. 7°C) . Data were obtained for the 2 days prior to the temperature increase and for 6 days after the increase. For those quail where temperature increase only was main¬ tained, the average egg weight decreased from 11.25 g prior to treatment to 10.45 g for the third 2-day period after treatment started. For those quail subjected to increased C02 and decreased 02 in conjunction with the temperature increase, an increase in average egg weight from 10.04 g to 10.25 g was noted for the same time periods. Likewise, each of the components tend to show a decrease in Treatment 1 and an increase in Treatment 2. Although significance was not determined, the data ap¬ pears to indicate a C02 effect. BREEDING BEHAVIOR OF CAPTIVE FEMALE WHITE-TAILED DEER. W^ A. Abler*, D. E. Buckland*, E. T. Reed*, R. L. Kirkpatrick, and P . F . Scanlon. Dept, of Fisheries and Wildlife Sciences, V.P.I.&S.U. , Blacksburg, Va. 24061. Seven captive white-tailed does were used to examine and clarify some of the female behavioral patterns found during the breeding season. Beginning Oct. 26, 1972, does were individually placed in pens with a buck for 5-10 min. daily. Careful records were kept of the reactions of the female toward the male as she approached estrus, on the day of estrus, and the day after estrus. All does were bred by Dec. 20 when the observations were terminated. Prior to estrus, the female usually paid little attention to the male and would sometimes nip at the coat of the male. If the male was too aggressive, the female would either run away or strike at the male with her front feet. During estrus, about 50 percent of the females exhibited an immobility response toward the handler in the absence of a buck. The female also became much more docile during estrus. After intromission and thrust by the buck the female would assume a urinating position for several minutes, then would practically ignore the male. Behavior the day before and day after estrus was similar to that exhibited in the diestrus period. Only one doe would stand on two consecutive days. One doe bred with the vasectomized buck, then with an intact buck 5 min later; no other doe would accept service again this soon. One doe which was serviced by a vasectomized buck but not an intact buck, returned to estrus 24 days later. SPERMATOZOAN RESERVES IN THE WHITE-TAILED DEER. D. K. Lenker* and P. F. Scanlon. Dept, of Fisheries and Wildlife Sciences. V.P.I. and S.U., Blacksburg, Va. 24061 Reproductive organs were recovered from male deer during November and December, 1971. Testes and epididymides were weighed and individually homogenized and spermatozoan numbers in each organ determined. Data were analysed in terms of age of animals (1.5 year-old vs older deer) and month of collection. Mean paired testis weight (g) , mean paired epididymis weight (g) , mean number of testicular spermatozoa (X10^) , and mean number of epididymal sperma¬ tozoa for eleven 1.5 year-old deer and 16 older deer in November were, respectively, 61.53+ 17.16 and 75.69+ 13.71; 9.61+ 1.99 and 12.53+ 2.30; 6.59+ 2.96 and 8.46+ 3.l0; 9.43+ 2.85 and 11.89+ 4.15. In December the same parameters for seventeen 1.5 year-old deer and 12 older deer were, respectively, 43.66+ 8.91 and 61.62+ 12.91; 8.91+ 1.31 and 10.50+ 2.07; 5.05+ 1.05 and 4.86 + 2.23; 8.73+ 2.44 and 9.01 + 4.18. Testes and epididymides of 1.5 year old deer were significantly lighter (P<0.05) than those of older deer in Doth November and December. There was a significant (P<0.05) decrease in testis weight of both age classes in December. Testicular spermatozoan numbers were also significantly decreased (P<0.05) in December. OBSERVATIONS ON THE SHEDDING OF ANTLERS BY WHITE-TAILED DEER IN VIRGINIA. P.F. Scanlon, R.E. Mirarchi*, and R.L. Kirk¬ patrick. Dept. Fisheries and Wildlife Sciences, V.P.I. and S.U., Blacksburg, Va. 24061 Observations were made on the time of antler shedding by white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virqinianus) during the winter 1972-73. The animals studied were those of the confined herd at the Radford Army Ammunition Plant, Dublin, Virginia. The proportion of adult males with antlers shed was determined at seven day intervals, Dec. 22 through Jan. 19. Prior to Dec. 22 efforts were made to determine the earliest date of antler shedding and after Jan. 19 observations were made twice weekly to determine latest date on which antlers were borne. The proportion of males with antlers shed (total males observed in parentheses) on the dates when observations were made were as follows: Dec. 22, 17.9 percent (28); Dec. 29, 48.6 percent (35); Jan. 5, 60.6 percent (33); Jan. 12, 76.7 percent (43); Jan. 19, 91.3 percent (46). Earliest recorded shedding of antlers was Dec. 12. Latest date when a deer was observed bearing two antlers was Jan. 22; one deer bearing one antler was observed Jan. 27. As the breeding season of deer in the area continues until November the time of antler shedding is indicative of rapid regression in testosterone secretion by male deer after the breeding season. OVULATION AND PREGNANCY IN LACTATING WHITE-TAILED DEER. P. F. Scanlon, W. F. Murphy, Jr.*, and D. F. Urbston*. Dept, of Fisheries and Wildlife Sciences. V.P.I. and S.U., Blacks¬ burg, Va. 24061. Reproductive organs were recovered from 59 adult female white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) taken during hunts on November 3 and 6 and on December 8 and 11, 1971. Twenty-six does were lactating and 33 were non-lactating at time of examination. Reproductive organs were examined for evidence of ovulation and pregnancy and stage of pregnancy was determined in pregnant animals by measuring the crown-rump length of fetuses. All but two animals (one lactating and one non-lactating, both collected November 6) had ovulated prior to time of examination. The stage of pregnancy was determined for animals which were pregnant at the time of examination and adjusted to December 11 for comparison purposes. The adjusted mean number of days pregnant for 17 lactating and 18 non-lactating deer was 44.8 days pregnant and 43.7 days pregnant, respectively. It was concluded that the persistence of lactation in deer was not a factor operating to delay the onset of ovulation and initiation of pregnancy. 112 The Virginia Journal of Science SYSTEMIC MOVEMENT OF BENOMYL AND THIABENDAZOLE IN POTTED APPLE SEEDLINGS AS DETERMINED BY BIOASSAYS AND POWDERY MILDEW OCCURRENCE. K. D. Hickey and D. A. Smith*. Dept, of Plant Pathology and Physiology, Va. Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ., Winchester, Va. 22601 A bioassay of leaf tissue extracts using Penici Ilium expansum on agar plates was used to show uptake and trans¬ location of the fungicides benomyl and thiabendazole in pot¬ ted apple seedlings. Both fungicides were detectable in terminal leaves at 6, 15, 22 and 47 weeks after seedlings re¬ ceived drench or soil incorporation treatments of 300 and 1000 ppm. A standard curve for area of inhibition per micro¬ gram of fungicide was established and used to calculate exact quantities of fungicides present in leaf extracts. It was found that the standard curves were not linear since the area of inhibition per unit of fungicide decreased as fungicide quantity increased. Four to seven times as much thiabenda¬ zole as benomyl was required to produce the same area of in¬ hibition. Accuracy of the standard curves decreased as the inhibition zone increased in size. The amount of benomyl in one gram of leaf tissue taken from 10 individual plants varied between 70 and 150 ug in the 1000 ppm drench treat¬ ment after 47 weeks. Incorporated treatments produced the greatest amount of fungicide residue in the leaves. Thia¬ bendazole was translocated in smaller amounts than benomyl. Suppression of established lesions of the powdery mildew fungus Podosphaera leucotricha was obtained by both fungi¬ cides applied as drench or incorporated treatments. YIELDS FOR LOBLOLLY PINE IN VIRGINIA. M. R. Strub* and H. E. Burkhart. Division of Forestry and Wildlife Resources, VPI & SU, Blacksburg, Va. 24061. Temporary, 0.1-acre sample plots were located in planta¬ tions and natural stands of loblolly pine (Pinus taeda L.). The volume in several units, green weight, and dry weight per acre for various merchantability standards was determined on each sample plot. Multiple regression techniques were used to relate the plot yields to the concomitant stand infor¬ mation. The model employed for loblolly pine plantations was : A COMPARISON OF THREE STAND DENSITY MEASURES FOR LOBLOLLY PINE. C. E. Selph.* Division of Forestry and Wildlife Resources, VPI & SU, Blacksburg, Va. 24061. The relationships of crown competition factor (CCF) , basal area per acre, and trees per acre to stand age and site index were investigated for plantations and natural stands of lob¬ lolly pine, and the efficacy of the stand density measure¬ ments for yield predictions was assessed. Correlations of the selected measures of stand density with stand age and site index were calculated. The following yield model was used to evaluate the effectiveness of the selected stand density measures for yield prediction: loglQYield = bQ + b^Cl/Age) + b2(Site Index) + b^log^Q (Stand Density) , where Yield is the cubic foot volume outside bark of the total stem for all trees in the 1-inch dbh class and above. Simple linear, partial, and multiple correlation coe¬ fficients between yield and the three stand density measures were computed. Analyses of these data indicated that none of the three density measures tested are unrelated to stand age or site index. When employing the above model for predicting yield, there was little difference between using CCF or basal area per acre as the measure of stand density, but both were slightly superior to the number of trees per acre, especially for natural stands. log10Y = bQ + b^l/A) + b2(H/A) + b3(N/100) + b4(A)(log10N), where Y denotes per-acre yield, A denotes total stand age in years, H denotes average height of the dominant and codomi¬ nant trees in feet, and N denotes the number of stems per acre. For natural stands of loblolly pine, the model utili¬ zed was : log1QY = bQ + b1(l/A) + b2(H/A) + b3(log10BAt) + b4(A)(log10BAt) + b5(BA1/BAt), where BAt is the total basal area per acre of the stand in square feet, BA^ is the basal area per acre of loblolly pine in square feet, and Y, A, and H remain as previously defined. Proceedings, 1972-1973 113 Section of Astronomy, Mathematics, and Physics Fifty-first Annual Meeting of The Virginia Academy of Science May 1-4, 1973, Williamsburg, Virginia PREPARATION OF PHYSICS TEACHERS AT THE COLLEGE OF WILLIAM AND MARY. G. W. Crawford, Physics Dept., College of William and Mary, Williamsburg, Va. 23185 During 1961-19T2 NSF summer grants have permitted the Col. to offer refresher courses for secondary school science and mathematics teachers. Qualified participants were admitted to a MTS degree program in biology, chemistry, mathematics or physics or a combination of these. Courses were planned to meet specific needs and to broaden the backgrounds of parti¬ cipants. Over 1000 participants took part in the program in¬ cluding 300 physics teachers, 58 of whom received the MTS de¬ gree in physics . Twenty percent or more of these are teach¬ ing in community colleges. Most of those remaining in secon¬ dary schools teach one or more classes of physics. Three years ago a similar program at the undergraduate level but without Federal aid except for equipment was intro¬ duced at the College (following studies of NASDTEC-AAAS and the Commission on College Physics) to provide a program for students considering teaching, or other professions in which students have less specific interest in physics. Since its introduction, 12 students have taken sufficient work to be certified in physics as well as mathematics or another science . Both programs have led to the development of inexpensive laboratory equipment which gives very satisfactory results . INTERFERENCE AND STANDING WAVES IN SOAP FILMS. Richard B. Minnix, Va. Military Inst., Lexinqton, VA 24450 . The brilliant colors that are often seen when light is reflected from a soap bubble or from a thin layer of oil floating on water are produced by interference effects between the two trains of light waves reflected at opposite surfaces of the thin films of soap solution or of oil. Interference patterns of this type may be easily demonstrated in the classroom by reflecting white light from thin films of soap solution supported in an almost vertical plane. The modes of vibration of plates of various shapes can also be shown by reflecting light from acoustically excited soap films supported on frames of different shape. THE GEIGER-MOLLER DETECTOR - A LECTURE DEMONSTRA¬ TION OF ITS CHARACTERISTICS. R. D. Wilson, Va. Military Inst., Lexington, Va. 24450. The more important characteristics of the Gei ge r - Mu 1 1 er nuclear radiation detector were quickly and effectively displayed in a demonstra¬ tion using conventional electronics and a closed circuit television system. Output pulses were observed directly from the Gei ger-Mul 1 er tube. Pulse size and shape were studied as functions of applied high voltage and of incident particle type. The detector dead-time was illustrated and measured by the method of Stever ■ . This demonstration was presented to electrical engineering students enrolled in a junior level modern physics course. It served as an intro¬ duction to a laboratory study of the most common radiation detector types. ]H.G. Stever, Phys. Rev. 61, 38 (1942). SOME REAL-TIME LABORATORY COMPUTING CAPABILITIES FOR A TIME- SHARED MINI-COMPUTOR. E. Keith Hege . Hollins College, Va. 24020 Some real-time computing capabilities for undergraduate instructional laboratories have been implemented on a time- shared Digital Equipment Corporation PDP-8/I Computer at Hollins College. Patches have been written for the TS5-8 Time Sharing System MONITOR, version 22B/DECtape, to enable multiplexed analog/digital conversion, logical input/output for instrumentation, and oscilloscope display of data points. Access to the system clock allows implementation of real¬ time applications in which timing precision of + or - one second is sufficient. (In some instances + or - 1/llth second can be achieved.) Patches to the TSS-8 interpretive conversational language FOCAL and assembly language (PALD) subroutines have also been written for utilizing this new capability. (Supported in part by National Science Foundation Grant GJ1122) 114 The Virginia Journal of Science PRECISION CLOSED BOMB CALORIMETER*. D.Rae Carpenter, Jr., Department of Physics, Virginia Military Institute, Lexington, VA 24450. A calorimeter has been developed for accurate performance monitoring of electrically or mechani¬ cally actuated flame and gas producing devices, such as squib- type initiators. A 10 cc. closed volume calorimeter was designed to provide a stand¬ ard pressure trace and to measure a nominal 50 calorie output, using the basic components of a Parr Model 1411 calorimeter. Two prototype bombs were fabricated and pressure tested to 2600 psi. The system water equivalent was measured as 284 cal/C°. Monitoring of temperatures to +0.001 C° was found to be feasible. Measurements of 50 +1 cal. are easily obtainable. Greater accuracy is possible with appropriate attention to details of technique. Calibration was accomplished using electrical heating of a resistor in the bomb by capacitor discharge and by constant current. Problems associated with measuring small quantities of heat are discussed including the effects of room tem¬ perature, stirring, bearing friction, stirrer belt tension, initial stabilization period and others. Actual initiators were not tested. *Work supported by NASA through Harry Diamond Laboratories Contract DAAG-39-72-C-0042 . D. C. CHARACTERISTICS OF LARGE ELECTROLYTIC CAPACITORS. S. G. Klinefelter*, S. R. Orr, III*, and D. Rae Carpenter, Jr., Virginia Military Institute, Lexington, Va. 24450. At present large electrolytic capacitors have been used in computer applications to remove ripple in D. C. voltage supplies but not primarily as energy storage devices. Investigations with two 36,000 uf-100V electro¬ lytic capacitors have shown that upon discharging the capacitance does not remain constant. The capacitance also varies with temperature and with initial charging voltage. Temperatures from 263°K to 314°K were used. At the higher voltages, the capacitance was approximately constant. At lower voltages it varies according to C=C0+K/V. Upon partial or complete discharge the capacitor voltage exhibited a recovery of several volts following cessation of discharge. The usual expression W= 1 / 2 C V 2 is valid only for a limited range of voltages and then only if W=l/2 C(V0 + -V-|2) where V, is the "recovered" voltage obtained several minutes after the discharge was interrupted. XEROGRAPHIC RECORDING OF ELECTRICAL DISCHARGES. Z. V. Har- vallk, 5901 River Drive Lorton, VA, 22079 A xerographic recording technique of electrical dischar¬ ges will be described which permits recording at daylight, at real time, and at low cost. Electrical discharges from DC, AC, and RF sources are recorded on paper dusted with carbon black powder prior to the discharge. To obtain re- produceable good patterns a timing device limiting the dur¬ ation of the discharge is used in the firing circuit. The patterns produced by the discharges are fixed with Krylon spay to make the recording permanent. Some sample discharge patterns will be made during the presentation and interpreted in reference to the discharge mechanisms. THE EMISSION EFFICIENCY OF A HOT FILAMENT IN THE PRESENCE OF 0 AT VARIOUS PRESSURES AND TECHNIQUES FOR MAINTAINING CONSTANT EMISSION. F. P. Clay, Jr. and F. J. Brock*, Old Dominion University, and L. T. Melfi, Jr.*, NASA-Langley Research Center. The effective work function of a hot filament is affect¬ ed by the ambient gas atmosphere, with oxygen introducing significant changes in the emission of a filament if it is heated with constant input power. A lightweight, flyable and efficient emission controller for use with a quadrupole mass spectrometer has been developed to stabilize the emission from a thoria coated tungsten filament for a three decade change in the ambient 0^ pressure. A power profile has been experimentally determined for the filament at various 0. pressures with the electron emission main¬ tained at 100 microamperes. The filament had a resistance of approximately one ohm and required approximately 1.5 watts heating power in a 0,, atmosphere at a pressure of 2 x 10~8 torr. A three decade increase in 0^ pressure required a heater power increase of approximately 60% to maintain the electron emission constant. The regulator circuit was a pulse width modulated DC-AC converter operating at aproximately 85 kHz. (Aided by NASA Contract NAS 1-1 17S7-5) PERFORMANCE AND COMPLIANCE TESTING OF MEDICAL X-RAY UNITS E.E.Stickley . Radiation Physics Division, Medical College of Virginia hospitals, Richmond, 23298 Federal and State regulations are now coming into effect to define standards in the use of x-ray equipment in the healing arts. Machine design and construction must meet rigid specifications; the performance must fulfill the demands of best current practice and certain defined criteria for control and delivery of x-rays. The goal is to maximize diagnostic information in the x-ray image while minimizing radiation exposure to patient, personnel and the public. To evaluate diagnostic radiological apparatus under use conditions, the radiological physicist must cover details of practice as well as equipment, including tests to establish accuracy and precision of kilovoltage settings and controls, x-ray tube current, timers, geometrical indicators, radiation leakage control, radiation quality and output; other points are the type of x-ray film, intensifying screens, scatter grids, and the protective interlocks and exposure limiting devices stipulated for fluoroscopy. Additional technical factors sometimes required are the conversion efficiency of electronic image intensif iers, suitability of dark room chemi cals and automatic film processing machines, and comparison of charts used by the technologist staff to determine proper exposure parameters for each individual procedure. Practical methods and useful limits of precision are given in tabular form; the test equipment is discussed as to performance and reliability. A MEASURE THEORY APPROACH TO ELEMENTARY PROBABILITY. Diane M. Spresser, Dept, of Mathematics, Madison Col., Harrisonburg, Va. 22801 The probability set function is discussed as an example of an outer measure and, hence, a measure. The terms "sigma algebra," "measure," and "outer measure" are defined, and several related results are stated or proved. The probability set function is defined and is shown to be an outer measure. Hence, all of those results which have been stated or proved for an outer measure now hold for the probability set function. Emphasis is on the probability set function as an example of a measure, rather than on the probability fraction itself. Proceedings, 1972-1973 115 EXTENDED WEIGHTING FUNCTIONS FOR INTERPOLATION AND APPROXI¬ MATION. James R. Jancaitis, Computer Science Center, Univ. of Va., Charlottesville, Va. 22901 Recent publications have documented the development and successful application of the weighting function interpola¬ tion technique (WIT) for efficient and accurate numerical approximation in N-space with arbitrary order continuity assured. WIT is based upon a family of locally determined functional approximations. The form of these local functional approximations and the manner in which their defining constants are determined are totally arbitrary. Weighting functions are then utilized to merge these local functional approximations into a globally valid functional model--with arbitrary order continuity assured. Up to this time only simple polynomials have been utilized as the weighting functions. This paper presents the general functional form of the required weighting functions and numerous alternatives to the simple polynomial solutions. In particular, one polynomial ratio solution has been found which is computationally more efficient than the simple polynomial solution. SPACE-TIME EVOLUTION OF THE COHERENCE FUNCTION FOR THE QUANTIZED MOTION OF A PARTICLE IN A RANDOM POTENTIAL FIELD. Ioannis M. Besieris, Department of Electrical Engineering, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacks¬ burg, Virginia 24061 Within the framework of the first-order smoothing approx¬ imation, and the long-time Markovian approximation, kinetic equations are derived for the mean Wigner distribution den¬ sity functions < f('^)(x, p, t; a) > and < f ( 2 ) , p# t, t; a)>, i > t, associated with the quantized motion of a particle described by a stochastic Schrcjdinger equation. Integration over £-space of < f(^) > gives the mean probability density in configuration space. On the other hand, integration of < f (2) > over momentum space gives the coherence function computed at two distinct times x and t. It is shown that the equation of evolution of < f^2' > requires < f^1' > as an initial condition at x = t. Special attention is directed to the case that the potential field is a 6-correlated (in time), homogeneous, wide-sense stationary, Gaussian process. IS THE SIZE OF OUR GALAXY SURPRISING? I.J. Good, Dept, of Statistics, Va. Polytechnic Inst. & State Univ., Blacksburg, Va. 24061. Eddington, in The Expanding Universe, after pointing out that the earth and Sun are of middling size, qua planet and star, expressed surprise that our galaxy is quite exception¬ ally large. This raises the interesting question of whether we should expect our galaxy to be a large one if we didn't already know it. The answer is yes. For one thing, the expected size of our galaxy divided by 2 2 the average size of galaxies is 1 + O /y , where y is the mean size and O is the standard deviation. The proof of the formula depends on the information that we belong to our own galaxy, combined with an easy application of Bayes' theorem. The formula cannot be reliably estimated because not enough A MATHEMATICAL MODEL OF THE HUMAN SKIN AS A THIN ELASTIC MEMBRANE. D. A. Danielson, and S. Natarajanfr Dept, of Applied Mathematics and Computer Science, Univ. of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22903 Every day physicians suture wounds and plastic surgeons cut out flaps of skin and stretch and twist them. We have developed a mathematical model of the human skin which we hope will ultimately be useful to physicians in planning their operations. We have been trying to apply our model to the problem of determining the tension on a sutured wound. In particular, we have solved the problem of determining the stresses in a large elastic sheet with a thin elliptical hole which is pulled together and stitched in a straight line through its center. By complex variables techniques we have found that the net force on the sutured hole does not depend on the major axis of the ellipse. The implication of this for surgeons is that the total tension on a narrow wound which is sutured does not depend on the length of the wound. (Aided by NSF grant GP15333 and Dept, of Applied Mathematics and Computer Science, University of Virginia.) EXPANDING CHINESE UNIVERSES. I.J. Good, Dept, of Statistics, Va. Polytechnic Institute & State Univ., Blacksburg, Va. 24061. Sometimes "the universe" means our (observable) universe, but the entire universe might consist of many such universes each observable from within itself. So much for semantics. The Chinese Universe theory is a synthesis of the big-bang and the steady-state theories (Physics Today, July 1972) . It is consistent with the notion that time had no start and with the "Grand Cosmological Principle" (to coin a phrase) that the large-scale properties of the entire universe are essentially the same everywhere and everywhen. In infinite time we are bound to be in a black hole, indeed inside a singularity where matter has "infinite" density and where known laws of physics break down. General Relativity "contains the seeds of its own destruction" as it were. This infinite density can be inter¬ preted as the negative infinite density mentioned in Dirac's theory of the positron. The universe just above us in the hi¬ erarchy has its ordinary matter of the opposite sign to ours. Our ordinary matter is assumed to be continuously created. With physical probability one we are inside an infinite se¬ quence of universes , each a singularity in the one that con¬ tains it, with black and white singularities alternating down the hierarchy. If our universe is rotating, then its space will not be isotropic, and this might explain the breakdown of parity. The energy sucked in causes expansion as observed by us. The picture is more complicated than embedded Chinese ivory spheres in that the universes form an infinite geneo- logical tree. (Aided by NIH grant R01 GM18770-02.) Acceptor States Involving Hydrogen in Beryllium Doped Silicon. ROGER K. CROUCH; NASA-Langley Research Center , - Silicon, containing the impurity beryllium, has been doped with hydrogen, using two different tech¬ niques. Some samples were implanted with 3 MeV protons as a hydrogen source and others were heated in a hydrogen atmosphere at temperatures up to 10GQ®C. Infrared absorption spectra of these samples at liquid helium temperatures have revealed two new series of absorptions, associated with acceptor levels 91 meV and 73 meV above the valence band. Quenching and annealing studies indicate that the complexes giving rise to these absorptions are a direct analogue to the beryllium- lithium complexes reported earlier. Also, a new series of absorptions has been found in samples which have very high beryllium concentrations. These lines at 298 cm"!, 324 cm~^# and 345 cma^ disappear after short anneals at elevated temperatures and are believed to be acceptor levels associated with a more complex beryllium center than previously hypothesized. is known about the frequency in space of small galaxies, but an argument is presented to show that the fraction of irhabitable planets belonging to galaxies as large as ours is about 36%. This work was reported in The American Statistician 27 No. 1 (February 1973), 42-43. (Aided by NIH grant R01 GM18770.) 116 The Virginia Journal of Science ENHANCEMENT OF THE NUCLEAR POLARIZATION THROUGH THE COUPLING OF THE ELECTRON DIPOLE-DIPOLE RESERVOIR AND THE NUCLEAR ZEE- MAN RESERVOIR FOR THE CASE OF WELL-RESOLVED SATELLITE TRANSI¬ TIONS. C. E. Byvik, NASA Langley Research Ctr., Hampton, Va. 23365, and D. S. Wollan*, Dept, of Physics, Va. Polytech¬ nic Inst, and State Univ., Blacksburg, Va 24061 A detailed derivation of the equations of motion governing the dynamic nuclear polarization by the solid effect using the spin temperature theory has been carried to second order in a perturbation expansion of the density matrix. A complete expression, to the order of the derivation, for the steady state enhancement of the nuclear polarization has been derived. It is shown that, in the limit of well-resolved satellite transitions and rapid diffusion, the theory predicts a new enhancement effect near the main ESR transition due to the coupling of the nuclear Zeeman reservoir with the elec¬ tron dipole-dipole reservoir. The coupling can result in peak enhancements near the main ESR transition greater than the peak enhancements possible near the solid effect transi¬ tions. It is also shown that this same interaction can result in distortion and broadening of the steady state enhancement curve near the solid effect transitions. LASER MODULATED OPTICAL ABSORPTION KINETICS IN ZnSe . R. W. Major, Dept, of Physics, Univ. of Richmond, Richmond, Va. 23173. Modulation of the optical absorption in two commercial specimens of ZnSe has been produced from the absorption edge at 476 nm through the visible range, using chopped CW laser stimulation. Kinetics have been studied with a 6mw He-Ne laser for up to 7.5ms following onset of 2.5ms pulses at 57 and 114Hz. Spectra are found to be only rough indicators of modulation signal behavior, as the modulation is bipolar at most primary beam photon ener¬ gies. Kinetics decay studies reveal carrier lifetimes on the order of 2ms at 487nm, the high energy side of a broad increased-abaorption band extending beyond 520nxn. Conway reports nearly double lifetime estimates for a similar effect in CdS*. Thermal effects due to laser heat¬ ing may be part of the observed absorption changes, but cannot alone explain the kinetics at different energies. Impurity levels in the band gap (Eg = 2.67ev) necessarily play a key role. These are being sought. * E. J. Conway, J. Appl. Phys. 4X_, 1689 (1970) Supported by NASA grant NGR-47-023-001 , and the University Of Richmond Research Committee- SUPERCONDUCTING DEVICES FOR EXTREMELY SENSITIVE MAGNETIC MEASUREMENTS! . D. A. Vincent* and B. S. Deaver, Jr. Dept, of Physics, Univ. of Va., Charlottesville, Va. 22901 A variety of superconducting magnetometers (rf SQUIDS) have been tested and their performance analyzed. A thin metal film cylinder linked by a narrow bridge is one example of a superconducting ring geometry containing a weak-link. Particular emphasis has been given to toroidal configura¬ tions using niobium point-contacts. Because of the extreme¬ ly low inductance lO--*--'- H) and relatively large volume of the loop containing the point-contact optimum transfer of the magnetic field energy from a sample volume to the super¬ conducting loop can be achieved. Flux transfer circuits can be used for coupling to magnetic fields and field gradients and the device can be operated as extremely sensitive cur¬ rent or volt meters. Intrinsic energy and flux noise limi¬ tations have been analyzed. The most sensitive toroidal geometry had a flux noise equivalent to 6 x lO--^ gauss cm^ sec 1/2 _ jn a;Q geometries tested the energy noise level was 10_28 joules consistent with thermal noise re¬ flected from the room temperature electronics. The princi¬ ple advantage of the toroidal geometry as a magnetometer is the efficient coupling of large samples to the necessarily small inductance of the sensing element. tResearch supported by the Office of Naval Research MAGNETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY AND MAGNETIC RESONANCE MEASUREMENTS USING A SUPERCONDUCTING MAGNETOMETER! . E. J. Cukauskas* and B. S. Deaver, Jr. Dept, of Physics, Univ. of Va., Charlottesville, Va. 22901 A superconducting susceptometer utilizing a Josephson junction magnetometer, superconducting persistent current solenoid, superconducting shields and a temperature control¬ led sample environment has been constructed. This system has been applied to measurements of nuclear magnetic reso¬ nance and for measuring static susceptibility. Volume sus¬ ceptibility changes of 10--*-® cgs can be measured with a 1 second response time, a 100 Oe field and a 1 crtP sample volume using the prototype system. Present superconducting magnetometers would in principle limit susceptibility sen¬ sitivity to lO-1^ CgS, however extreme temperature control must be maintained in order to approach this limit. Limita¬ tions due to Johnson noise and thermal fluctuations of nu¬ clear paramagnetism in the copper construction material in the prototype system limit its sensitivity at 10-^® cgs. With the use of quartz construction ip^terial and fractional millidegree temperature control, 10 susceptibility should be possible immediately. Perhaps more important than high sensitivity is the fast response of the superconducting susceptometer. With the normal operating frequency of 30 MHz, it is possible to observe changes in magnetization in times as short as 10"^ seconds. tResearch supported by the National Science Foundation. MUONS AS PROBES FOR SOLID STATE PHYSICS. M. L. G. Foy, Neil Heiman*, W. J. Kossler*. Dept, of Physics, Col. of William and Mary, Williamsburg, Va. 23185, and C. E. Stronach , Dept, of Physics, Va. State Col., Petersburg, Va. 23803 Positive muons are excellent new probes to study solids in magnetic fields. Such study is illustrated by experiments implanting polarized, positive muons in Ni and Fe. Observing the precession of the angular distribution of the decay posi¬ trons yields data which can be fit to N ( t ) =N0e- At ( i+pe-t /t cos (art+) ) + Bgnd. P gives the polariz¬ ation of the stopped p+ at t=0. x is the depolarization time constant, and w, the angular frequency of precession, mea¬ sures the internal field at the muon site. Bp. Experiments were done from room temperature to above the Curie point of Ni. For ferromagnetic Ni (TTq) By seemed to be approx¬ imately the externally applied field. The basic techniques of this experiment can be used for other such research. FOUR YEARS OF METEOR SPECTRA PATROL. Gale A. Harvey, NASA, Langley Research Center, Hampton, Va. 23365 The NASA Langley Research Center established and directed the NASA-LaRC Faint Meteor Spectra Patrol in south-central New Mexico from August 1968 to December 1972. The primary objectives of the patrol were to obtain a statistical sample of faint meteor spectra, and to obtain high-definition spectra for analysis of meteor radiation and determination of major element abundances. During the period of patrol almost 800 meteor spectra were obtained. These spectra are the raw data for several new results which include major element abundance determinations for meteors from the major meteor showers, and establishment of a class of iron- deficient meteors. Spectral and quality classifications of the 800 spectra are given. As a result of the number of spectra, the extended wavelength interval of the spectra, the faintness of the meteors, the instrumental homogeneity of the sample, and the good observing conditions, the NASA spectra now constitute the largest and most comprehensive library of meteor spectra in the world. Proceedings, 1972-1973 117 FAST NEUTRON CROSS-SECTIONS FOR Z I RCONI UM-90 . R.D. Wi 1 son ,Va . Mi 1 i tary I ns t . , Lexi ngton , VA 24450. Neutron cross-sections we re measured in the MeV region for the isotope Zr-90. These measurements include the total neutron cross-section from 1.5 to 9.0 MeV, differential elastic and inelastic scattering cross-sections at selected energies and neutron "evaporation" data for 7.06 MeV incident neutrons . A 5.5 MV Van de Graaff accelerator with post¬ acceleration beam compression supplied subnano¬ second bursts of fast neutrons for time-of-fl i ght measurements. Neutrons interacting with Zr-90 were sorted according to velocity. Total cross-sections were determined by the transmission method. Differ¬ ential cross-section normalization was performed by comparison to the scattering of source neutrons from the known number of protons in a polyethylene scatterer . Calculations employing the optical and compound nuclear models were performed. Comparisons with the data suggest an inadequacy in the Hauser-Feshbach- Moldauer compound nuclear model. The optical model calculations established that the imaginary well- depth is about one-half the value expected from global fits to elastic scattering data for a large number of nuclei. This is not surprising since Zr- 90 contains a closed shell of neutrons. STUDY OF pd-*tTT AT 1*70 AND 590 MeV. tW. Dollhopf*, C. Lunke*, and C. F. Perdrisat*. Dept, of Physics, Col. of William and Mary, Williamsburg, Va. 23185. W. K. Roberts*, NASA Lewis Res. Ctr., Cleveland, Ohio 44101. P. Kitching*, and W. C. Olsen*, Dept, of Physics, Univ. of Alberta in Edmonton. J. Priest*, Dept, of Physics, Miami Univ., Oxford, Ohio 45056 The differential cross section has been measured for CM angles from 37° to 154° at 470 MeV, and from 73° to l60° at 590 MeV at the Space Radiation Effects Laboratory**. The ap¬ paratus consisted of two coincident telescopes with the scin¬ tillation counter configurations Tl-T2-T3(absorber) -T4 on the triton side, and Pl(3 spark chambers) -P2(absorber) -P3 on the pion side. Pions were identified from their energy loss in P2 and tritons from their time-of- flight and energy loss in T3. The absorbers helped to reduce the background. The cor¬ rection for pions lost in the absorber preceeding P3 were de¬ termined experimentally at a number of pion energies using secondary pion beams. The results will be compared with a calculation by Ingram et al.1' tSupported in part by Research Corporation. **Supported in part by NASA, the Commonwealth of Va. , and NSF. ''Ingram, Tanner, Domingo and Rohlin, N.P. B31, 331 (71). THE CP,*) REACTION AN£ NUCLEAR STRUCTUREt J.M. Eisenberg , J.V. Noble and H.J. Weber*. Dept, of Physics , Univ. of Va. , Charlottesville, Va. 22901 The (p,ir) reaction at 185 MeV and 600 MeV has been studied in a distorted wave Born approximation theory in order to compare with recent experi¬ ments. We have used eikonal and Sopkovich formalisms to minimize disastrous off-shell effects which may be induced by the pion optical potential. Correct asymptotic behavior for our single¬ particle bound states was assured by the use of Eckart wave functions for them. We have studied the effects of single -particle mechanisms, coupled-channel approaches, isobar exchange, and modifications in the form of the single-nucleon wave functions. Within reasonable ranges of parameters, these mechanisms are separately able to account for the observed data. Thus, there are still many ambiguities in the theory so that it is difficult to extract definitive information on the behavior of the nucleon wave function at the small distances involved here. tWork supported in part by the National Science Foundation . NUCLEAR DE-EXCITATION GAMMA RAYS FOLLOWING NEGATIVE PION CAPTURE ON NUCLEI. C. E. Stronach and L. S. Jackson*, Dept, of Physics, Virginia State College, Petersburg, Va. 23803, and W. J. Kossler* and H. 0. Funsten, Dept, of Physics, College of William and Mary, Williamsburg, Va. 23185 Negative pions from the SREL cyclotron were stopped in 32S and LiNHp targets. Prompt gamma rays were observed with a Ge(Li) detector, and the spectra were analyzed, the strengths and widths of the nuclear de-excitation lines being measured. States of 30P, 30Si, 29si, 28s-j, 26^, ancj 2^Mg were excited in the 32s experiment. The experiment excited the 4433 kev state of ^2(;s which displayed considerable Doppler broadening. Analysis yields the recoil momentum distribution of the '2c, which is approximately the same as that of 14N formed by pion absorption on 1B0.' (Aided by NASA grant NGR 47-014-006) 1 W. J. Kossler, H. 0. Funsten, B. A. MacDonald, and W. F. Lankford, Phys. Rev. C4, 1551 (1971). EFFECTS OF SPIN AND ISOSPIN DEGREES OF FREEDOM FOR P ION-NUCLEUS SCATTERING IN THE GLAUBER THEORY+ A.T. Hess and J.M. Eisenberg, Dept, of Physics, Univ . of Va. , Charlottesville, Va. 22901 We have considered the elastic scattering of negatively charged pions from ^He and 13C in the region of the 3,3 resonance, using Glauber multiple -scattering theory. Both spin-flip exci¬ tations and charge -exchange transitions are included. We assume that after every two scatterings the nucleus returns to the ground state. The sum over intermediate excited states internal to the successive pairs of scattering is evaluated by using closure techniques. Shell model wave functions with soft-core correlations are used for the nuclear states , and Fermi motion is taken into account. The results indicate that at energies below the 3,3 resonance these spin and isospin degrees of freedom are quite important and their inclusion may lead to improved agree¬ ment with experiment. tWork supported in part by the National Science Foundation . EFFECTS OF THE PAULI EXCLUSION PRINCIPLE ON PION- NUCLEUS SCATTERING AT THE 3,3 RESONANCE* J.M. Eisenberg and H.J. Weber* We have studied the scattering of a pion on a nucleus in the region of the 3,3 resonance, taking fully into account the effects of the Pauli exclu¬ sion principle during the fundamental scattering process. This was accomplished by adapting the theory of Chew and Low to a nucleon immersed in a Fermi sea, with suppression of internal nucleon contributions by the exclusion principle. The amplitude which results from such a theory in nuclear matter was then used in a local density approximation, along with a self-consistent determination of the pion energy in the nuclear medium. The consequences of Pauli blocking are to bring theory into much better agreement with experiment than is true without the blocking effects; without adjustment of parameter^ these results rival those of optical potential fitting. tWork supported in part by the National Science Foundation . 118 The Virginia Journal of Science RELATIVISTIC ELECTRODYNAMICS OF A MEDIUM MOVING UNIFORMLY AT ITS PHASE VELOCITY* Ioannis M. BesieriSj, Department of TEMPORAL DECAY OF ELECTROSTATIC WAVES IN AN INHOMOGENEOUS PLASMA.* Jeffrey Lindemuth* (sponsored by F. R. Crownfield, Electrical Engineering, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061 A study is being presented of the electrodynamics of a simple isotropic medium moving uniformly with a speed equal to the phase speed of light in the medium. The Minkowski material relations are not independent in this case; hence, the electric displacement and the magnetic induction cannot be uniquely determined from them. Following, however, a waveguide theory approach, separate equations can be written for the longitudinal and transverse (with respect to the direction of motion) electromagnetic field intensities. The fundamental solutions associated with these equations pro¬ vide, through an interesting wave-diffusion mechanism, a uniform transition between the cases of ordinary and Cerenkov radiation. Both time-dependent and time-harmonic solutions are exhibited. Jr.) Dept, of Physics, College of William and Mary, Williamsburg, Va. 23185 We have observed the presence of damped oscillations fol¬ lowing the application of a short voltage pulse to the anode of a device similar to that described earlier.! The signal appears to reveal the presence of several damped oscilla¬ tions , corresponding to the several resonances described in reference 1. We shall describe the experimental setup and display some typical results. * Research supported in part by NASA. ^M. Stafford, W. Buck, A. Robinson, and F. R. Crownfield, Jr., Bull. Am. Phys . Soc. 15, 1^20 (1970). POWER ABSORPTION VS. FREQUENCY FOR ELECTROSTATIC WAVES IN AN INHOMOGENEOUS PLASMA. Thomas E. Cavton, (sponsored by F. R. Crownfield, Jr.), Department of Physics, College of William and Mary, Williamsburg, Va. 23185 The response of an oscillatory system to a sinusoidal driving force as a function of the driving frequency and the temporal response of the system to a short pulse are related to one another; this is a property of oscillators in general and in particular, of the plasma oscillations we are inves¬ tigating. The radio frequency reflection coefficient has been measured as a function of frequency for the device des¬ cribed in the previous paper. The experimental setup is described and some typical results are presented. A compari¬ son is made between the resonances in the frequency responses of the system and the frequencies of the damped oscillations which have been observed in the same system. SIMULATION OF A PLASMA BY A LUMPED CIRCUIT TRANSMISSION LINE. Walter F. Schoellmann* (sponsored by F. R. Crownfield, Jr.) Dept, of Physics, College of William and Mary, Williamsburg, Va. 23185 By drawing an analogy between the loop equations for a lumped transmission line and the fluid equations for a one dimensional plasma, a physical interpretation is ascribed to the various measurable voltages and currents in terms of the several plasma parameters. A comparison of line properties and plasma properties is made for a transmission line con¬ structed to model ion acoustic waves. A transmission line to simulate the current plasma problem of ion acoustic waves in a density gradient plasma will be discussed. LARGE AMPLITUDE EQUILIBRIUM IN AN ELECTRON PLASMA. F. R. Crownfield, Jr., Physics Dept., College of William and Mary, Williamsburg, Va. 23185 There has been considerable recent interest in the stability of equilibria of inhomogeneous plasmas. The pre¬ sent work is intended to calculate expansion coefficients for orthogonal function expansions of the distribution func¬ tion f(x,v) for such an equilibrium so that they may be used in a numerical investigation of stability. We assume a one¬ dimensional plasma with fixed ions, a given spatially averaged distribution function fpCv), and a given electro¬ static potential (x). Results will be presented for the case where the fixed ions are uniformly distributed, fo(v) is Maxwellian, and (j>(x) = 2 cos k x. (Supported in part by NASA) ION ACCELERATION IN HIGH CURRENT PLASMAS. S. Peter Gary*. Dept, of Physics, Col. of William and Mary, Williamsburg, Va. 23185 We have investigated two mechanisms which may be respon¬ sible for the production of high energy ions in plasmas which carry large currents. The first, which is appropriate for dense plasma focus discharges, considers a rapidly decreasing current density, which induces a strong electric field along the axis of the discharge. Computations show that the com¬ bined effects of the electric and magnetic fields is to move charged particles toward the axis, where they can undergo efficient, straight line acceleration. Results are in gen¬ eral agreement with experimental data. The second mechanism applies to plasmas in which relati¬ vistic electrons stream relative to the ions, giving rise to the two stream plasma instability. Ions can be trapped in the potential troughs of this instability, and if the phase velocity increases, the ions will be accelerated with the wave. Computations show that ions can increase their kinetic energy by factors of 200 by this process, which accelerates ions against the applied electric field, in agreement with results from high current diode experiments. Proceedings 1972-1973 119 Section of Biology Fifty-first Annua! Meeting of The Virginia Academy of Science May 1-4, 1973, Williamsburg, Virginia THE FOOD HABITS OF THE BROWN BULLHEAD (ICTALURUS NEBULOSUS) IN MINE ACID POLLUTED WATERS. D. P. Klarberq and A. Benson* Biology Dept., V a. Poly. Inst. & St. U. , Blacksburg, V a. 24061, and Biology Dept., W. Va. U. , Morgantown, W. Va. A quantitative and qualitative investigation of the food habits of the brown bullhead, Ictalurus nebulosus (Le Sueur), was conducted in the acid polluted Monongahela River, West Virginia. Stomach analyses of fish pooled by individual collection stations and size groupes showed that oligochaetes were the most important invertebrate food source in the river. Also consumed were significant quantities of detritus, and sewage at outfall-associated stations. A bottom fauna servey of the Monongahela River establish¬ ed a sparse, acid tolerant food resource, unevenly distri¬ buted and, therefore, of local availability. The most abun¬ dant organisms in the bottom were oligochaetes, while tendi- pedids ranked second. By comparing pooled bottom fauna data with pooled stomach data average electivity indices indicate strong selectivity for Tendipedidae (+.54) and random feed¬ ing, or non-selectivity (-.06), on Oligochaeta. It was concluded that the brown bullhead is able to meet its nutrictional requirements through its heterogeneous dietary habits including detritus, sewage, and acid tolerant invertebrates. (Aided by Water Research Institute, W. Va. U. , Project W. Va. A-017) THE EFFECT OF RESUSPENDED ESTUARINE SEDIMENT ON THE KILLIFISH. C.R. Berry*, Dept, of Fisheries and Wildlife Sciences, Va. Polytechnic Inst, and State Uni v. , Blacksburg, Va. 24061 and D.S. Bailey*, Biology Section, Va. Water Control Board, Richmond Va. 23230 Bioassays were conducted to determine the effect of resuspended estuarine hydrosoils on the kill ifish Fundulus hetercl i tus . Fish were monitored for changes in hematocrit, total plasma protein, plasma protein electrophoretic pattern, and gill morphology. No mortalities were recorded at suspended solids concen¬ trations of 14,220 ppm and total zinc concentrations of 68.2 ppm. However, the hematocrit and total protein values were significantly depressed and electrophoretic patterns were altered. No change was found in the gill histology. POPULATION DENSITIES OF DUGESIA IN RELATION TO SEWAGE POLLUTION. D. E. French* and P. J. Osborne. Depart, of Biology, Lynchburg Col., Lynchburg, Va. 24504 During intensive investigation of the effects of sewage pollution in College Lake it was dis¬ covered that brown planarian, Dugesia, could effectively be used as an indicator organism. Sampling stations possessing similar environmental conditions were established at 20 meter intervals along the shore between a heavily polluted area and a mildly polluted area. Comparisons made of the planarian populations at each of these stations revealed a distinct gradient in which population figures increased as distance from the main source of pollution increased. Upon analysis, the collected data indicated that although Dugesia is tolerant of mildly polluted areas variations in their population effectively demonstrate any increases in pollutant concentrations. (Aided by a grant from The Kellogg Foundation) ACUTE BIOASSAYS FOR THE ASSESSMENT OF HEAVY METAL POLLUTION USING THE FRESHWATER LITTORAL ROTIFER, PH I LOP I NA SP. G. W. Sullivan*, A. L. Buikema*, and J. Cairns, Jr. Dept, of Biology, VA Polytechnic Inst., Blacksburg, VA 24061 Acute bioassays using Philodina were conducted in a soft water (total hardness, 25 ppm equiv. CaCOg, pH 7. 4-7. 9) containing a mixture of trout food, protozoans^and bacteria. The test temperature was 20°i 1 °C and the photoperiod was 1 2L : 1 2D . The 24 hr, 48 hr, and 96 hr median tolerance limits were determined for six heavy metal salts. The following data were obtained for Philodina: TL50 in ppm of the metal S.D. sal t 24 hr 48 hr 96 hr ZnS04 1 .1±2.0 0.9±2.3 1 .3±1 .8 KoCrgO, 31 ,6±2.5 31 .2±3.0 3. 1+2.1 CuS04 1 .6+4.2 0 . 7 ±3 . 3 0.4±2.2 PbCl 2 47.5±I .1 39.9+1 .5 40.8±1 .6 HgClp l.Q±2.2 1 .3±2 . 1 0.7±1 .9 CdS04 6.4±3.I 0.5±6.4 0. 1 ±2.0 Generally, when compared with data obtained for the bluegill using the same metal salts under similar conditions this rotifer is more sensitive to zinc and chromium; as sensitive to copper and less sensitive to lead. There is insufficient data in the literature concerning the sensiti¬ vity of this fish to mercuric chloride and cadmium sulfate to make a valid comparison. (Supported by 0WRR grant A-047-VA) . The Virginia Journal of Science 120 THE USE OF CLASSIFICATION AND ORDINATION IN THE STUDY OF ESTUARINE BENTHIC INVERTEBRATE COMMUNITIES. Donald F. Boesch* and Robert J. Diaz*. Va. Inst, of Marine Science, Gloucester Point, Va. 23062 Multivariate analytical techniques to assess patterns in the distribution of species include methods which form groups (classification) and those which utilize spatial models (ordination) . Important patterns can often be discerned in the biotic composition of sampling sites or the spa¬ tial and temporal distributions of species. Quantitative data on benthic macrofauna from the Hampton Roads area, the tidal James River, and the Chesapeake-York-Pamunkey estuary were subjected to classification and ordination anal¬ yses. In Hampton Roads classif icatory analyses depicted spatial (related to sediment type and water quality) and seasonal patterns in an in¬ formative manner. A classif icatory analysis of the benthos of the tidal James River dissected the river into mesohaline, oligohaline and two freshwater segments. Ordination analyses of the York estuary benthic data suffered from the in¬ herent non-linearity of organisms' response to gradients, therefore an alternate approach was developed to analyze the rate of faunal change along the estuarine gradient. POPULATION, NATURAL RESOURCES AND POLLUTION. E. C. Cocke, Dept, of Biol., Wake Forest Univ., Winston- Salem, N. C. 27109 There can be no question about the fact that due to overpopulation, the world is facing today a crisis, which threatens the very existance of the human race. Medical discoveries within the last century have enabled man to eliminate most of the infectious diseases and thus lower the death rate drastically. However, the birth rate still remains high, especially in the developing nations of Asia, Africa and Latin America, where the population is doubling at the rate of about once every 25 years in some areas. This tremendous increase in world population is rapidly depleting our natural re- sources--crude oil, natural gas, coal and arable land, and polluting our environment to such an extent that life on the earth is being seriously threatened . The general public seems to be unaware of, or apathetic to the seriousness of the situation. Im¬ mediate action must be taken if we hope to survive. Scientists must not shirk their responsibility. A REPORT OF THE CURRENT LEVELS OF AFLATOXIN IN PEANUTS IN VIRGINIA. C. A. Sledd*, G. C. Llewellyn. Dept, of Biology, Va. Commonwealth Univ., and C. E. O'Rear and T. Eadie, Va. Dept, of Agriculture and Commerce, Richmond, Va. 23220 Data concerning the percent of shell peanuts containing aflatoxin in Virginia as tested by the Mycotoxin Laboratory, VDAC, was utilized to realize the recent rise in aflatoxin in Virginia peanuts . Evaluations were made by incorporating the different types of aflatoxins (Bq, B2, Gq, G2) in total, on a monthly basis. Climatological data for Virginia as com¬ piled by the U.S. Dept, of Commerce and Environmental Data Service was utilized to recognize the monthly patterns for the period Jan. 1971 to Jan. 1973 in the Suffolk, Virginia area. Attempts were then made to compare monthly climato¬ logical deviations with the percent of shelled peanuts con¬ taining aflatoxin. Correlations between climate and afla¬ toxin production revealed that for the 25 month period, 1971- 1973, the percentage of aflatoxin found tended to assume two peaks for each year. These peaks occurred in mid-summer (months of May to July) and again in mid-winter (months of Nov. to Jan.). Aflatoxin levels tended to correlate directly to conducive temperature range for aflatoxin production. The temperature range of 35°F-76°F appears to be the conducive range for aflatoxin production. Months with an average temperature falling within this conducive range are followed by months having increased aflatoxin levels . It was also noted that a conducive range of relative humidity exists and aflatoxin levels increased following such months . RESPONSES OF INVERTEBRATES ON ARTIFICIAL SUB¬ STRATES TO HEATED WATER. J. W. Bishop, J. C. Conyers* and W. S. Woolcott. Va. Inst, for Sci. Res. , Richmond, Va. 23229 and Dept, of Biology, Univ. of Richmond, Va. 23173. Artificial substrates were suspended in the James River near the Virginia Electric and Power Company facility at Bremo Bluff, Virginia. They were exposed to heated effluent from the facility and ambient river temperatures. The invertebrates were fewer in number but more di¬ verse on the substrates in the effluent. Neuroptera, Tri- choptera, Ephemeroptera, Coleoptera and Diptera de¬ creased and Annelida increased in the heated water. The work upon which this publication is based was sup¬ ported in part by funds provided by the United States De¬ partment of Interior as authorized under the Water Re¬ sources Research Act of 1964 as amended; and by Virginia Electric and Power Company. SWITCHING FROM HEMOGLOBIN A TO HEMOGLOBIN C AND VICE VERSA IN GOATS AND SHEEP: BOTH HEMOGLOBINS ARE PRESENT IN THE SAME CELL DURING THE CHANGEOVERS. M.D. Garrick. Depts. of Biochem. and Pediat., St. Univ. of N.Y. at Buffalo, Buffalo, N.Y. 14207. Dept, of Biology, Univ. of Va., Charlottesville, Va. 22903. During anemic episodes, goats and sheep which normally have hemoglobin A (HbA in their peripheral circula¬ tion replace it entirely with hemoglobin C (HbC . This changeover, which is reversed upon recovery from anemia, involves the replacement of the /S^-cha i n with a structur¬ ally d i stinct fi -cha i n without any apparent alteration of thetx-chain. To analyze further the biochemical basis of this alteration in gene expression, one needs to know wheth¬ er the change involves the replacement of a clone of eryth- roid cells that can make only HbA by a separate clone that can make only HbC, or whether the same cell line differenti¬ ates to make either or both hemoglobins, depending upon the degree of anemia. Results from two independent techniques support the latter hypothesis: (I) When synthesis is inhibited in goat reticulocytes making both HbA and HbC, intracellular exchange of I abe I ed ot-cha i ns into HbA can be detected, indicating that A and C are made within the same cel 1.(2) Using fluorescent anti-rabbit immunoglobulin G, plus rabbit specific anti-HbA or anti-HbC, the presence of both hemoglobins can be demonstrated in nearly all erthry- cytes at times when both are present in hemolysates. A PRELIMINARY STUDY OF THE RESPONSE OF THE AMERICAN COCK¬ ROACH, Periplaneta americana, TO AFLATOXIN Bq. W. P ■ Lowery* , W. Hoilman* , R. R. Mills and G. C. Llewellyn. Dept, of Biology, Va. Commonwealth Univ. , Richmond, Va. 23220 Adult , male Periplaneta americana were maintained on a 0.01 M sucrose solution contaminated with 12 tig/ml of afla¬ toxin Bq. Over a period of 56 days both groups lost weight with control animals losing 25% and experimental animals losing 18% of their initial body weights. Control animals consumed 27.2% more liquid diet than the experimental animals Apparently P. americana could taste the toxin at this level and/or there was a reduced metabolic rate or an increased level of water retention due to the toxin. Experimental animals had accumulated a mean of 111.0L8 ug of toxin prior to reaching 50% mortality, which occurred on day 56. Twenty- four pg was the mode for toxin consumed for animals that succumbed during the experiment. There were indications that 19-U2 pg of toxin was the mean range for lethality. When the highest and lowest consumption levels were discarded, the mean level consumed for the remaining dead animals was 2k p g of toxin. Based on this value for toxin consumed, the LDcq for these animals was 2k mg/kg, which is 2 to 3 times higher than the 8-10 mg/kg levels of toxin found to cause 50% mor¬ tality in hamsters and rats. No control animals died in 56 days and histopathological studies have not been complete to date. Proceedings, 1972-1973 121 THE RESPONSE OF Meriones unguiculatus TO TOPICAL ADMINIS¬ TERED AFLATOXIN Bx . S. L. Paulette*, P. M. Bullock*, and G. C. Llewellyn. Dept, of Biology, Va. Commonwealth Univ. , Richmond, Va. 23220 Adult Mongolian gerbils of both sexes were exposed for 35 days to a solution of the hepatocarcinogen, Aflatoxin Bp, dissolved in Dimethylformamide (DMF). These animals were then maintained to the present, 81+ days. The experimental design included the following groups: (l) Absolute Control Groups for both sexes (AC); (2) DMF administered once weekly for both sexes (DMF-1X); (3) DMF administered twice weekly for both sexes (DMF-2X) ; ( U ) Aflatoxin Bp and DMF adminis¬ tered once a week for both sexes (Bp-DMF-lX); (5) Aflatoxin Bp and DMF administered twice a week for both sexes (Bp-DMF- 2X). A total of 1+2 animals was used. All animals except AC had been previously shaved to remove a 2cm2 area of fur from the dorsal skin on the back. This area was painted with DMF and/or Aflatoxin Bp. The concentration of aflatoxin Bp used was lOOug/O.lml /painting. The Bp-DMF-lX group received a total of 500pg of Aflatoxin Bp and Bp-DMF-2X received twice the above topical dose, lOOOpg of Aflatoxin Bp. No lethality was observed in 8U days. No gross skin pathology or skin carcinoma was evident either. Fecal analysis for Bp-DMF-2X (males) indicated that 1+.51+ ppb of Aflatoxin Bp (dry weight basis) was passed unmetabolized. Pathological analysis of liver and skin tissues have not yet been under¬ taken. In nearly all groups, DMF showed a greater toxic response than Aflatoxin Bp and DMF as evaluated by the rate of weight gain. THE EFFECT OF CHRONICALLY FED AFLATOXIN Bp AND 176-ESTRADIOL ON MALE SYRIAN HAMSTERS, Mesocricetus auratus . W. S . Hastings , E. Jesneck and G. C. Llewellyn. Dept, of Biology, Va. Commonwealth Univ., Richmond, Va. 23220 Juvenile male hamsters were fed aflatoxin B^ , a metabolite of Aspergillus flavus and 176-estradiol for 50 days. Afla¬ toxin Bp is a hepatocarcinogen commonly found contaminating stored agricultural products . High levels of estrogen are known to cause carcinomas in the kidney of male hamsters . The mode of chemical carcinogenesin for these compounds is thought to be opposite in action. Twenty-four animals were divided into four groups : Control Groups , C ; Estrogen Group receiving 16 ppm 176-estradiol, E; Aflatoxin Groups receiving 10 ppm, A; and a Double Insult Group receiving both aflatoxin and estradiol as above, AE. The experimental groups were de¬ signed in this manner to compare the histopathology and the rate of growth. During the first 50 days the AE Group had the lowest rate of weight gain. This was as much as 15 g below the other groups. After 35 days the A Group began to show a reduced rate of weight gain and bv day 50 AE and A animals were nearly equal m weight and C and E animals were equal in body weight, being about 10 g heavier than AE or A animals. After ten weeks, 2 1/2 weeks after diet withdrawal, the mean body weights were: AE>E>C>A. After fifteen weeks of the investigation and 7 1/2 weeks on control diet , all animal weights had increased and all groups had mean body weights differing by no more than +3 g. One death occurred at week 28 in the AE Groups . All animals have been maintain¬ ed to the present, 220 days. (Funded in part by the Amer. Cancer Society, Va. Division) INDUCTION OF OVULATION IN COTTONTAIL RABBITS BY GONADOTROPHIN TREATMENT. W.F, Murphy, Jr.*, P.F. Scanlon and R.L. Kirk¬ patrick. Dept, of F’isheries and Wildlife Sciences, V.P.I. and S.U., Blacksburg, Va. 24061 Preliminary experimentation was conducted to determine if cottontail rabbits could be induced to ovulate by means of gonadotrophin treatments (FSH-P, PLH, Armour). Eight rabbits were treated with one of four levels of FSH (0.2 mg, 0.4 mg, 0.6 mg, 0.8 mg) and one of two levels of LH (0.25 mg/kg or 0.50 mg/kg body weight). Mean total follicular response (TFR = ovulations plus stimulated follicles) was not significantly different between the four levels of FSH. A significantly (P<.01) higher ovulation rate (13.8 vs 3.0) was observed in the 0.50 mg/kg LH treatment. A second experiment was de¬ signed to test a new range of FSH levels (0.05 mg, 0.10 mg, 0.20 mg, or 0.40 mg) together with 0.50 mg/kg body weight LH. Thirty-five rabbits were assigned to one of four FSH treat¬ ment groups and one control group (LH only) . The mean ovulation rates of the control and treatment groups were 1.9, 2.7, 6.6, 4.1, and 8.1 respectively and the TFR was 5.9, 4.0, 8.6, 9.7, and 14.6. A significant difference (P<.05) in ovulation rate was observed between the 0.40 mg FSH level and the control. Indications are that the 0.40 mg level of FSH was causing stimulation of follicular growth comparable to a superovulatory response. EVALUATION OF THE EFFECT OF VITAMIN E ON MUSCULAR DYSTROPHY IN GUINEA PIGS. David E. Delzell, Margaret M, Schaefer*. Department of Biology, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, Va. 23508 Prior research indicates that chicks, rabbits, and rats when fed a Vitamin E deficient diet developed muscular dystrophy. The muscular dystrophies encompass a group of diseases of the skeletal muscles characterized by degenerative changes in the muscle. There is yet no treatment to control or correct the disease in humans. The purpose of this research is to conduct a prellmnary study of the effect of Vitamin E on muscular atrophy in guinea pigs. A control group of guinea pigs was given food ad libi turn Two experimental groups A & B were fed a Vitamin E deficient diet. Each group consisted of 5 guinea pigs. After the appearance of the symptoms in Group A, a 10 milligram dose of Vitamin E was administered daily for a period of 5 days. Each guinea pig in Group 7. completely recovered. The disease was allowed to progress in Group B without administration of Vitamin E. Tissue studies indicate muscular atrophy with muscle lesions similar to those found in muscular dystrophy. Further comparative studies will be done using gas chromatography and electron microscopy. OVARIAN RESPONSE OF CAPTIVE GRAY SQUIRRELS TO EXOGENOUS GONADOTROPIN TREATMENT. D. R. Mellace*, R. L. Kirkpatrick, and P. F. Scanlon. Dept, of Fisheries and Wildlife Sciences, V.P.I.&S.U. , Blacksburg, Va. 24061. Two experiments, each using 9 adult female gray squirrels enclosed in 2mX2mX3m outdoor pens , were conducted in an attempt to induce ovulation with exogenous gonadotropins. One experiment was conducted during the squirrel anestrus season (Oct. -Nov.) and the other during the normal breeding season (Feb. -Mar.). Each set of 9 animals was divided into 3 groups of 3. One group received 2 mg FSH and the other received 100 IU PMS on days 1, 3, and 5. On day 7, both groups received 1 mg LH. The control group received saline on days 1,3,5, and 7. All injections were administered subcutaneously. Laparotomies were performed on day 9 to assess treatment response. The sum of the length, width, and depth of each pair of ovaries (as an index of follicular response) and the width of both uterine horns adjacent to the utero-tubal junction were recorded. Average ovarian measure¬ ments for the control, FSH, and PMS groups during the anes- trous season were 15.2, 17.7, and 20.5 mm. Uterine widths were 4.0, 4.7, and 7.8 mm, respectively. Similar measure¬ ments in animals treated during the breeding season were 14.2, 19.5, 20.8 mm and 4.0, 4.5, and 6.3, respectively. Although follicular and uterine growth was induced, no definite ovulations were observed. Increased LH dosages of up to 10 mg on the day of laparotomy (day 9) resulted in no further follicular development or ovulations. PLASMA PROGESTERONE LEVELS IN EXPERIMENTAL POPULATIONS OF PRAIRIE DEERMICE (Peromyscus maniculatus bardii ) . B. D. Albertson* , E. L. Bradley, and C. R. Tertian, Dept, of Biology, College of William and Mary, Williamsburg, Va. 23185 Body weights , ovary weights and plasma progesterone concentrations were studied in nonparous females from asymptotic laboratory populations and throughout the extrus cycle of control nulliparous prairie deermice. Progesterone was measured by a competitive protein binding technique. Body and ovary weights of population animals were significantly lighter than those of controls. Plasma progesterone concentrations of the population females were not significantly different from those of the control females. The control females, however, were shown to undergo cyclic changes in plasma progesterone concentration that were related to their estrus stage . Thus , the mean plasma progesterone concentration for the nulliparous population females was significantly above the proestrus and anestrus values of control females , but was not significantly different from values observed for estrus, metestrus or diestrus in those controls . 122 The Virginia Journal of Science RESPONSE OF MICE TOSFACE BFDRXVA TTOW A>TD IPC^RAFEn SOCXAT, CONTACT . John H. Richardson, Temon M- Heston jtj, pent, of Biologv, old Dominion university, Norfolk, Virginia The ohvsiological responses of male mice to space dep¬ rivation and increased social contact is being measured in the following areas. Al The physiological responses of isolated male mice to s ace deprivation. B) The physiolo¬ gical effects of stress due to increased social contact caused by crowding. C) The differences in responce to these stimuli in CFI (passive) a^d CXJ (aggressive) strains of male mice. Stress is being measured by the ratio of body weight to adrenal, splenic, and tasticular weights. It is also being measured by flourometric analysis of corticosterone levels in the plasma of rapidly killed mice. isolated mice are being subjected to decreased personal space by living in a 2X2X2 inch cage for seven days. Groups of h,8,123and 16 mice are being subjected to increased social contactby placing them in a 1 6x1 hX2 inch cage for seven days. Controls were placed in a 36x19x5 inch cage for the entire period alone. All groups are being acclimated to each other for a period of seven days prior to the experimental period in cages the same size as the controls. The isolate animals are also being being put into the same size cages, alone, prior the experimental period for one week. Aided by HEW grant MH 21520-01 TESTICULAR AND SEMINAL VESICULAR RESPONSE TO SOCIAL INTER¬ ACTION IN THE WHITE-FOOTED MOUSE (PEROMYSCUS LEUCOPUS) . J.A. Sullivan*, P.F. Scanlon, and R.L. Kirkpatrick, Dept, of Fisheries and Wildlife Sciences, V.P.I. & S.U., Blacksburg, Va. 24061. Male white-footed mice were assigned to one of four treatments, each lasting a period of 20 days; 1) housed one male per cage (control), 2) grouped four males per cage, 3) introduced once daily into an empty cage (cage-control), or 4) exposed once daily to a fighter mouse. Weights of the testes, epididymides and vesicular glands were lower in grouped males than in controls (264 vs. 358 mg, 63.6 vs. 85.5 mg, and 75 vs. 137 mg, respectively). Associated with the lighter testis and epididymides were lower sperm reserves in both organs (mean counts of 3.8 vs. 5.9 x 1(7 in the right testis and 5.4 vs. 9.2 x 10? in the right epididymis). Associated with the lighter vesicular glands were a lower vesicular gland tissue weight (18.7 vs. 34.5 mg) and an apparent but non-significant reduction in seminal fluid content (18.2 vs. 33.3 mg). Mean vesicular gland weights, vesicular gland tissue weights and fluid content as well as total testicular and epididymal sperm were consistently lower in fought males than in cage-controls. Reproductive organ weights of fought and cage-control males tended to be intermediate between those of control and grouped males. There were no consistent differences in absolute or relative adrenal weights nor in the weights of bacula. IMMOBILIZATION OF FALLOW DEER (DAMA DAMA) WITH SUCCINYL- CHOLINE CHLORIDE. P.F. Scanlon, Dept, of Fisheries and Wild¬ life Sciences, V.P.I. and S.U., Blacksburg, Va. 24061 Darts containing powdered succinylcholine chloride (SC) were used in attempts to immobilize fallow deer (Dama dama). Ten deer (seven adult females, 32-36 kg bodyweight; two adult males, 45-48 kg bodyweight and one male fawn, 18 kg) were immobilized using darts containing dose levels from 4 mg to 6 mg SC. One adult male was not immobilized using darts containing 4 and 5 mg SC. Six deer were immobilized at first attempt, three deer at the second attempt and one deer at the third attempt. Immobilization of adult deer was effected with dose ranges from 0.105 mg/kg to 0.165 mg/kg. The ineffective dose range for adults was 0.088 mg/kg to 0.165 mg/kg. The fawn was immobilized using 0.220 mg/kg although an earlier application of a similar dose was ineffective. Reaction time (i.e. interval from injection to immobiliza¬ tion) varied from 2 to 22 minutes (mean 7.2 minutes). THE INFLUENCE OF PRESENCE OR ABSENCE OF ADULTS ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS OF YOUNG BORN INTO POPULATIONS OF PRAIRIE DEERMICE. C. Richard Terman. Lab. of Population Ecology, Dept, of Biology, College of William and Mary, Williamsburg, Va. 23185 This experiment was designed to demonstrate the influ¬ ence of presence or absence of adults in populations upon sexual maturation of the young. Eighteen populations were founded, each with four pairs of mice, the females of which were pregnant. The first litters were discarded. When the second litters of each female reached 21 days of age, the adults of half the populations were removed. All popula¬ tions were maintained with surplus food and water until the young were 100 days old. Subsequent litters born during this time were removed. Analysis of the reproductive rates and reproductive organ weights revealed no differences between young maturing in populations in which adults were present or absent. Further, young of populations in which adults were present had significantly larger reproductive organs than those in freely growing populations maintained in similar laboratory environments. (Supported by NIH-HD- 04787-03 and Research Career Development Award HD-07391.) INFLUENCE OF A PCB ON SLEEPING TIMES, ORGAN WEIGHTS, AND SURVIVAL OF ALBINO MICE. 0. T. Sanders*, R. L. Zepp*, and R. L. Kirkpatrick. Dept, of Fisheries and Wildlife Sciences, V.P.I.&S.U. , Blacksburg, Va. 24061 Aroclor 1254 fed daily to groups of five adult (150-180 days) male white mice at dietary levels of 0, 62.5, 250, 1000 and 4000 ppm for 2 wk resulted in one, none, three, and five deaths respectively. Food consumption, determined daily, was reduced by 18 and 30 percent at 250 and 1000 ppm, respectively. Average PCB intake per mouse at the 1000 ppm level was calculated to be 1965 mg/kg body weight. The dietary concentration of Aroclor 1254 that would produce 50 percent mortality in 2 wk was calculated to be approximately 800-900 ppm in dry feed. Pentobarbital sleeping times were significantly decreased (P<.05) in the 250 ppm and 1000 ppm groups (71.7, 97.2, 32.6 and 39.6 minutes for the 0, 62.5, 250, and 1000 ppm groups, respectively). Liver weights expressed as percent of initial body weight were signifi¬ cantly increased (P<.05) in the 250 ppm and 1000 ppm groups (means of 5.7, 5.0, 7.3, 10.8 percent for the four groups, respectively) . Sleeping times and liver weights were not affected by the 62.5 ppm dietary level. Adrenal weights expressed as percent initial body weight were significantly increased only at the 1000 ppm level (means of 0.013, 0.016, 0.016, 0.027 percent, respectively). Relative testes, preputial and seminal vesicle weights were not significantly affected by any of the PCB treatments. TECHNIQUES FOR CONTINUOUS ELECTROCARDIOGRAPHY OF SNAKES James H. Martin, Dept, of Physiology, Med. Col. of Va. , VCU, Richmond, Va. 23298. Continuous ECG monitoring techniques for unrestrained snakes were developed to determine diurnal rhythms and re¬ sponses due to emotion, feeding, and temperature changes. Electrodes were 2-4mm diameter metal discs attached to # 32 gauge, multistrand, plastic coated wire which was braid¬ ed to form a long flexible cable. Discs were tightly sutur¬ ed beneath the skin slightly dorsal to the mid-lateral line on the left and right sides of the body at the level of the heart. A third disc (reference electrode) was similarly attached in the mid-dorsal line several cm posterior to the heart. The cable was attached by a suture to the mid-dorsal skin several cm posterior to the reference electrode in order to keep any tension applied to the cable from affecting the electrodes. ECG's on typical species such as Crotalus, Heterodon, Thamnophis , and Storeria are easily obtained and even when the snakes were moving about muscle artifacts rarely obscur¬ ed P, QRS, or T waves. High degrees of activity and occa¬ sionally eating produced noise levels great enough to obscure the P and T waves. ECG's of large snakes, such as Boas, are the most diffi¬ cult to obtain since the large body diameter and flacid skin combine to produce very large electrode displacements relative to the heart causing vector changes as large as 90°. (aided by NIH Post Doctoral Fellowship 1F02 NS51568-02 NSRB) Proceedings, 1972-1973 123 INFLUENCE OF INSECTICIDE GENERATING COLLARS AND ANTIHELMINTH DRUG TREATMENT ON PARASITES OF COTTONTAIL RABBITS. H. A. Jacobson* and R. L. Kirkpatrick. Dept, of Fisheries and Wildlife Sciences, V.P.I.&S.U., Blacksburg, Va. 24061 Thirty-one cottontail rabbits were used in a 2 x 2 facto¬ rial experiment to test the effects of an antihelminth drug, 1-tetramisole hydrochloride (Tramisole, American Cyanamid) , and insecticide-generating collars (Sergeant's Sentry Dog Collar), containing 2, 2-dichloroviny 1 phosphate, on inter¬ nal and external parasite loads. Antihelminth drug dosage used was 8 mg per kg of body weight. Rabbits were released by treatment subgroup into one of 4 one-quarter acre enclos¬ ures. The minimum elapsed treatment period for any one rabbit was 53 days. A mean of 6.2 nematodes was recovered from the gastrointestinal tract of rabbits which did not receive drug treatment while drug treated rabbits had a mean of 2.6 nematodes (P<.05). This reduction was accounted for mainly by stomach nematodes. Rabbits not receiving drug treatment had a mean of 4.7 stomach nematodes, compared to 1.4 for drug treated animals (P<.05). Intestinal cestode counts and observation of intestinal trematode infestation revealed no significant differences between treatment groups. Rabbits treated with insecticide generating collars had no recoverable ectoparasites, compared to a mean of 0.7 ecto- CROP-MILK PRODUCTION ACTIVITY IN MOURNING DOVES DURING THE HUNTING SEASON IN VIRGINIA. D.E.Guynn* and P.F. Scanlon, Dept, of Fisheries and Wildlife Sciences, V.P.I. and S.U., Blacksburg, Va. 24061 The presence of crop-milk production activity is indica¬ tive of post-hatching rearing of nestlings by adult mourning doves (Zenaidura macroura). Crops were recovered from doves at seven day intervals during the hunting season {September 2, 1972 to September 23, 1972) and again on December 23, 1972. These were examined for evidence of crop-milk production activity. Numbers of adult mourning doves examined on each of the sample days were: September 2, 279; September 9, 89; September 15, 34; September 23, 14; and December 23, 11. The proportion of active milk-producing crops was 23 percent, 24 percent, 29 percent, 21 percent and 0 percent, respectively for the five sample dates. No crop-milk producing activity was observed in immature birds. The results indicate that a substantial proportion of mourning doves were still raising nestlings during the first half of the hunting season in Virginia. parasites for rabbits not treated with insecticide collars (P<.0l). No significant interactions between drug and collar treatment were found. EXPERIMENTAL CULTURE OF THREE STRAINS OF CHANNEL CATFISH. Vaughn M. Douglass and Robert T. Lackey. Dept, of Fisheries and Wildlife Sciences, Va. Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ., Blacksburg, Va. 24061 Three strains of channel catfish, Ictalurus punctatus (Rafinesque) , from the southeastern United States (Arkansas, Kansas, and North Carolina) were cultured in cages to select a strain that would attain a marketable size (>340g) during the relatively short Virginia growing season. Strains were compared in terms of yield, survival, mean harvest weight, food conversion, coefficient of condition, and percent marketable fish. Statistical analysis indicated that the Kansas strain was significantly different from both the Arkansas and North Carolina strains, but the latter two were not significantly different with respect to yield, mean harvest weight, food conversion, and percent marketable fish. An economic analysis showed that fish would have to be sold for more than $. 610/kg ($. 277/lb) to make the operation profitable. Cage culture of channel catfish appears to be possible in Virginia, but is highly dependent on the nature of the pond involved. ALGAE AS A SUPPLEMENT FOR COMMERCIAL CATFISH FEEDS: A FEASIBILITY STUDY. G. L. Samsel, Jr., J. R. Reed and R. R. Daub*. Dept, of Biology, Va. Commonwealth Univ., Richmond, Va. 23220 Investigations were initiated to ascertain the feasi¬ bility of supplementing the feed requirements of the channel catfish, Ictalurus punctalus , with several strains of common algae. Aquaria and laboratory heated raceways were employed to evaluate the effects on growth rates of catfish fingerlings fed medium to high algal supplemented commercial catfish feeds. Three strains of marine algae and one oxidation pond grown algal community were employed as algal supplements. All algae used were of the odorless and tasteless variety. The oxidation pond algae was the same type previously found in the gut of pond reared channel catfish. Aquaria and raceway acclimated fingerlings were fed daily a commercial catfish feed supplemented with a 25% mixture of each of the four different algal types. Growth rates of all fish were determined periodically. Results after 10 weeks of aquaria investigations indicated that fish fed marine algal supplemented feeds lost weight as compared to control fish fed 100% commercial feed. Fish fed oxidation pond grown algal supplemented feed gained as much or more than the control fish. Raceway studies like¬ wise indicate reduced growth rates with marine algal supple¬ mented feeds. Raceway studies with oxidation pond algae are continuing. A PRELIMINARY REPORT ON CLOSED SYSTEM REARING OF STRIPED BASS SAC FRY TO FINGERLING SIZE. W. Rhodes* and J. V. Merriner*. Va. Inst, of Mar. Sci., Gloucester Point, Va. 23062. One million striped bass sac fry were introduced into a 10' diameter plastic-lined pool (900 gal. capacity). Fish were fed brine shrimp nauplii and a prepared flake food. Heavy mortalities reduced the number of fish to 24,000 by day 32. Subsequent mortality was slight through age 53 days (18,000 survivors). At age 56 days cannibalism became a major mortality factor in the pool, reducing the population to approximately 4,000 fish by day 67. Closed system culture appears to have potential for large-scale rearing since the cost per fingerling is low, pro¬ duction of fish per unit area is high and control of water quality and disease is excellent. DECLINE OF WHITE PERCH STOCKS IN THE JAMES RIVER, VIRGINIA. R. St. Pierre" and W. Hoagman*. Dept, of Ichthyology, Va . Inst, of Mar. Sci., Gloucester Point, Virginia 23062. Trawl and seine records of the Virginia Institute of Marine Science and commercial landings indicate that the stock of white perch ( Moron e americana (Gmelin) ) in the James River has declined by 84 to 92% since the spring of 1971. The decline appears to be primarily the result of a large fish kill, which occurred in a 25 -mile area of the estuary in May, 1971. The Virginia Water Control Board investigated the kill. Environmental parameters were measured, metal and pesticide analyses were performed on water samples and tissue samples from moribund specimens. Except for a few high and variable metal concentrations in certain tissues, all values were in the normal range. Other workers have isolated pathogenic bacteria from dying white perch and have found that several organisms are capable of infecting and killing this species when in sufficient concentration. No patho¬ logical analysis of fish tissue was made, however, and the precise cause of the kill was undetermined. 124 The Virginia Journal of Science SUMMARY OF JUVENILE STRIPED BASS ABUNDANCE SURVEYS IN VIRGINIA RIVERS 1967-1972. G. Thomas* and J.V. Merriner*. Va. Inst, of Mar. Sci . , Gloucester Point, Va. 23062. A minnow seine survey of juvenile Morone saxatilis (Walbaum) was conducted in the James, York and Rappa¬ hannock Rivers during July through October of 1967-72. Selected stations in each river, representing approxi¬ mately 40 river miles, were sampled twice a month. Abundance indices developed from these data show an overall peak of young striped bass in 1970. The York River in 1967 was the only index value above that of 1970. The lowest index in each river was recorded in 1972. Average salinities were highest in 1970 and lowest in 1972. THE OPTIMUM AGE, TEMPERATURE, AND SALINITY FOR STOCKING JUVENILE STRIPED BASS, MORONE SAXATILIS . W. Steven Otwell*, Va . Inst, of Mar. Sci., Gloucester Point, Va. 23062. Mortality and growth rates of juvenile striped bass were studied in a factorial experimental design. Six age groups were introduced abruptly into nine tempera¬ ture and salinity combinations. Results indicate considerable hardiness of juvenile fish less than two months old. Significant main effects exist for all factors. All first and second order interactions are significant. Tukey's test for mean differences, and graphed results indicate a broad range of acceptable conditions: 18 to 24 °C and 4& to 12 These results suggest an estuarine stocking program could be flexible in site selection and age at release. HISTORY AND STATUS OF THE WEAKFISH RESOURCE WITH A SERIES OF SUGGESTED MANAGEMENT PRIORITIES. John V. Merriner* . Va. Inst. Mar. Sci., Gloucester Point, Virginia 23062. Historical commercial records show a consistent decline in weakfish landings since the 1940's despite a lessening of commercial fishing effort in recent years. Natural fluctuations in year class strength, pollution, shift in area of maximum landings, heavy landings in Chesapeake Bay after World War II, harvest by the sport fishery, and destruction of juveniles by the commercial fishery are considered interacting factors limiting abundance of weakfish and causing the apparent decline in the resource. Management procedures suggested include modification of commercial gear, limits on sport catch, collection of more detailed catch and effort data, definition of subpopulation structure, definition of weakfish distri¬ bution within nursery areas, assessment of year class strength and definition of mortality rates. The goal should be a quota system for weakfish throughout its range including both sport and commercial harvest. NEW APPROACHES TO MANAGING CATCHABLE TROUT FISHERIES. Dennis E. Hammond and Robert T. Lackey. Dept. Fisheries and Wildlife Sciences, Va. Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ. , Blacksburg, Va. 24061 Catchable trout fisheries are an integral part of most North American coldwater fisheries management programs. The objectives in managing these fisheries are usually to provide maximum percentage return of stocked fish and the maximum number of recreational hours to the fishing public within a fixed budget. Differences in catchability of stocked trouts might be used to advantage to better meet these management objectives. By stocking different ratios of a number of species, some control might be gained over large fluctuations in daily catch per unit effort. A productive fishery might be maintained over a longer period as opposed to the charac¬ teristic rapid decline of catchable trout fisheries follow¬ ing stocking. Although the strategy to meet most management objectives is relatively clearcut in single species stocking, the approach is much more complicated when two or more species are involved. A methodology which simultaneously considers stocking composition and frequency could be used to best meet management objectives in multi-species stocking programs . RESTOCKING AFTER FISHKILLS AS A FISHERIES MANAGEMENT STRATEGY. William T. Bryson and Robert T. Lackey. Dept, of Fisheries and Wildlife Sciences, Va. Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ., Blacksburg, Va. 24061 Literature review and a mail survey of state fisheries management agencies showed that no detailed evaluation of the effectiveness of restocking after fishkills has been made. Twenty of the 26 states giving definite replies do not restock as a normal policy. Research on restocking a short section of the New River following a partial fishkill showed stocking to be unsuccessful. Only an estimated 50 of the 3000 fish stocked were recovered by anglers. Condition factors for the small number of stocked fish were lower than those for native fish caught during the same months. Based on the total cost of the stocking, each recovered fish cost $18. Restocking areas affected by incomplete kills and/or areas where considerable time has passed after the kill are probably futile. This would be especially true if unaffected areas were nearby to act as a source for natural repopulation, as is often the case in streams. VIMS TAGGING PROGRAM FOR STRIPED BASS IN VIRGINIA RIVERS WITH COMMENTS ON 1972 TAG RETURNS. W. H. Kriete Jr. * and J . V . Merriner* . Va . Inst . of Mar . Sci . , Gloucester Point, Va. 23062. VIMS has placed 17,528 tags on striped bass in 3 major Virginia rivers (James, York, and Rappahannock) since 1968. Distribution of tag returns, geographi¬ cally and by gear, vary greatly with year class strength. Larger year classes have the most diversi¬ fied returns. Type of tag used has an effect upon validity of tag return data . Analysis of return data shows a much larger per cent of catch by the sport fishery than had been attributed to it previously. Two-year-old fish make up the largest percent of the tagged fish followed by one-year-old fish. Other age groups represent less than 10 percent of the tagged fish. Proceedings, 1972-1973 125 DAM: A COMPUTER- IMPLEMENTED LEARNING EXERCISE FOR TEACHING MULTIPLE-USE RESERVOIR MANAGEMENT. Franklin B. Titlow and Robert T. Lackey. Dept, of Fisheries and Wildlife Sciences, V a. Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ., Blacksburg, V a. 24061 Computer-implemented learning exercises allow educators to provide students with resource management experience in the classroom. Learning exercises which involve complex system management (biological, political, chemical, physical, socio¬ logical, and economic demands) could become a vital part of the natural resource educational process. DAM, a computer- implemented learning exercise which illustrates the princi¬ ples of managing a large multiple-purpose reservoir system, is described as an example. Reservoir systems are typically very difficult to manage due to unusual economic, socio¬ logical, and political characteristics. With DAM, users assume the roles of: (1) fisheries manager; (2) regional planning commissioner; (3) recreational specialist; (4) power company executive; and (5) city mayor. Each group of users must make decisions regarding all aspects of reservoir man¬ agement, evaluate the results of their management, and revise their strategies accordingly. Management based on total system understanding is vital to the future protection of our natural resources. (Aid by funds provided by the Dept, of the Interior, Office of Water Resources Research Center, administered by the Va. Water Resources Research Center, as Project A-49-Va). ANALOG COMPUTATION IN FISH POPULATION STUDIES. C. E. Richards*. Dept, of Ichthvolocrv , Va. Inst, of Mar. Sci. , Gloucester Point, Va. 23062 Age-growth analyses of fish through standard two di¬ mensional techniques and by three dimensional analog computer technique indicates problems that may arise and not be recognized when a two dimensional technique is used. APPLICATION OF YIELD MODELS IN RECREATIONAL FISHERIES MANAGE¬ MENT. Joseph E. Powers, Robert T. Lackev. James R. Zubov, and Marion R. Reynolds. Dept, of Fisheries and Wildlife Sciences, Va. Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ., Blacksburg, Va. 24061 Several basic models which form the foundation for nearly all management strategies in recreational fisheries are analyzed. There are two general classes of models in recre¬ ational fisheries management: those dealing with single stock (population) fisheries and those dealing with multi-stock fisheries. Most management research has dealt with single stock fisheries or tacitly assumed that stocks are relatively independent. One of the simplest approaches is to assume that a stock increases as a logistic function and manage the stock at the maximum rate of increase. A more complex approach involves treating a stock as a dynamic pool, growth and recruitment as inputs, and natural and fishing mortality as outputs. The third common approach involves modeling population dynamics, the most realistic but data-demanding approach. Multi-stock systems are the normal situation in recreational fisheries. To develop predictable management strategies we must formulate population models by combining single stock models in a general model or develop a totally different approach. General simulation over small time interval appears to be most promising, but system complexity masks key functional relationships. THE ACTIVE POUND- NET FISHERY IN VIRGINIA. 1959-1972 W. L. Wilson*, and J. W. Davis. Va. Inst, of Mar. Sci. Gloucester Point, Va. 23062 An aerial survey of pound nets was conducted in the lower Chesapeake Bay and Virginia rivers from 1959 through 1972. The Potomac River was included from 1965- 1972. Surveys were conducted monthly, excluding Janu¬ ary, during this period. The pound net is one of the most important fishing gears operated in Virginia waters. A brief description of the net is given. The number of pound nets in the fishery fluctuated from 1959-1965, but has been steadily declining since 1965. The term, active pound net, re¬ fer to a stand that has net hanging, and actively fish¬ ing at the time of count. Active pound nets are most abundant during spring. Greatest total catch of fish was reported in 1965. A few species constitute the bulk of the pound net catch and are thus the economically- important species in the fishery. Gray trout, striped bass, spot, shad, butter- fish, American eel, and puffers are the major food species. River herring are considered food fish and nonfood fish, but is one of the most important species, with menhaden the most important nonfood species caught in pound nets. High cost of labor and materials plus a scarcity of younger men in the fishery are the chief reasons for declining pound net effort in Virginia. FREQUENCY DEPENDENT MATE SELECTION IN MORMONIELLA VITRIPENNIS. Steven Glessner^ Ann Snyder* and Bruce Grant. Dept, of Biology, Col. of William and Mary, Williamsburg, Va. 23185. The minority effect in mating or the advantage of the rare-type male has been observed in Drosophila. As this phenomenon can serve to maintain variation in a population, it is desirable to determine if it is more widespread. Several inbred strains of the wasp, M. vitripennis , were chosen for study. Most of the mutant strains examined revealed no minority effect but instead, wild wasps dis¬ criminated against the mutants. However with strain "peach /purple" and the wild type, a minority advantage among males appeared to be operative. Mating tests were performed by direct observation using 20 wasps per trial. Equal sex ratios were maintained in all trials. Females of each type were equally frequent; whereas, the ratio of mutant to wild males was varied (5:53 8:2, 2:8). Several hundred matings were scored for each frequency. Although mating discrimi¬ nation was observed and wild males were more successful at equal frequency, the wild males enjoyed an even greater mating success when in the minority. Mutant males also had a greater mating advantage when their frequency was lowered; however, their mating success was not as pronounced as the minority advantage of the wild males. THE GENETICS OF POLYMORPHISM IN PARTULA (GASTROPODA). James Murray and Bryan Clarke. Dept, of Biology, Univ. of Va. and Univ. of Nottingham, England. The land snails of the genus Partula exhibit an elaborate polymorphism with respect to the color and banding pattern of the shell. Many of the species show parallel series of nhenotvnic variations. Two soecies, P. taeniata and P. suturalis from Moorea in French Polynesia, have been bred under laboratory conditions for over ten years at the Univ. of Virginia. In P. taeniata shell color is determined by a series of alleles at one locus , while two other loci control the color of the lip and the spire. In general, the darker colors are dominant to lighter ones . All types of banding are dominant to the unbanded condition, and at least two loci are involved in the determination of the type of banding. All five loci are closely linked. In P. suturalis the inheritance of six shell patterns (frenata, bisecta, atra, cestata, strigata, and apex) has been determined. The relationships are complex. Either there are at least six loci showing complete linkage , or else the whole complex may be viewed as a single locus with multiple alleles. Both species, therefore, show closely linked or complex loci controlling the elements of the shell polymorphism. Such a system, termed a "supergene", is capable of maintain¬ ing non-equilibrium associations of alleles at different loci. (Supported by NSF grant GB-26382) 126 The Virginia Journal of Science CLINAL MATING DISCRIMINATION IN DROSOPHILA MELANOGASTER . Karen G. Burnett* and Bruce Grant. Dept, of Biology, Col. of William and Mary, Williamsburg , Va. 23185. Intraspecific mating discrimination in Drosophila melanogaster was investigated by means of mating tests among populations along geographical transects of Virginia, West Virginia and the Atlantic coast. Experimental results indicate a cline of increased sexual isolation as a function of partial sympatry between D. melanogaster and other closely related species . CYTOGENETIC STUDIES OF A CHESAPEAKE BAY POPULATION OF MOLGULA MANHATTENSIS (DEKAY) (ASCIDIACEA: STOLIDOBRANCHIA) . E. A. Crawford and P. J. Homsher. Department of Biology, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, Va. 23508. Gonadal development, total gonadal DNA quantity, and the chromosomes of M. manhattensis were studied. Evidence of atrophication and of phagocytosis of residual gametes was found during histological examination. Colorimetric estimations of gonadal DNA indicated two spawning peaks occurred during the summer and suggested that egg release was suppressed by water temperatures above 20°C. Chromo¬ some studies were inconclusive as individual bivalents were uniformly less than l.Oyi and tended to clump toget¬ her. (Supported in part by grants-in-aid from the Society of the Sigma Xi and the Virginia Academy of Science). ALLOZYMIC VARIATION IN DROSOPHILA MELANOGASTER FROM VIRGINIA. Richard J. Hollis*. Dept, of Biology. Col. of William and Mary, Williamsburg, Va. 23185. Populations of Drosophila melanogaster were sampled at six stations in Virginia and West Virginia. Allele and genotype frequencies were examined for both the Esterase 6 and Alcohol dehydrogenase loci. The results of this study indicate that segregation occurred at both loci at all locations sampled. There appeared to be a cline in the frequency of Esterase 6 alleles over distance. Heterosis was indicated at two of the sample sites for Esterase 6. EFFECT OF MONOSODIUM-L-GLUTAMIC ACID ON CROSSING OVER IN THE X CHROMOSOME OF DROSOPHILA MELANOGASTER. Joseph P. Chinnici. Dept, of Biology, Virginia Commonwealth Univ. , Richmond, Va. 23220 Female fruit flies homozygous for the four sex-linked genes scute (sc), crossveinless (cv), singed (sn3), and miniature (m) were mass mated with wild type males and the eggs allowed to develop in medium supplemented with either 5 $, 1055. or 15# MSG (grams/ml of solution). These offspring were then single pair mated in vials containing medium with no MSG and the amount of crossing over in the female parents was determined by scoring the offspring. Some of these second generation offspring were then single pair mated on unsupplemented medium. The degree of crossing over in these females was determined by scoring their offspring. The data show that first generation females, which devel¬ oped on medium supplemented with any concentration of MSG. showed a significant reduction in crossing over for all three genetically marked regions of the X chromosome. For instance, the 5$ MSG data show a 33$ decrease for sc-cv. a 29$ decrease for cv-sn3. and a 19$ decrease for sn37n. However, the second generation females, which developed on unsupplemented medium but whose parents developed on MSG medium, showed normal crossover values. Additional data indicate that MSG has no effect on fecundity or on the percentage of male offspring produced. Possible mechanisms for the action of MSG on crossing over will be discussed. SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPE STUDIES OF HALLER'S ORGAN IN TEN SPECIES OF THE TICK GENUS IXODES. P.J. Homsher and D. E. Sonenshine, Dept, of Biology, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, Va. 23508 Haller's organ of 10 species of 3 subgenera of the tick genus Ixodes were examined by scanning electron microscopy and light microscopy. Six new surface features appeared to show distinct differences among the species examined. These were shape of the entire organ, shape of the anterior trough, height of walls and depth of depression of the trough floor, presence or absence of a distal transverse wall of the anterior trough, location of the through sensillae near to or far from the capsular aperature and the shape of the posterior capsular aperature. The significance of this type study to systematic analysis is discussed. SOME PRELIMINARY HISTOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS OF THE H1NDGUT OF RITHROPANOPEUS HARRISII Gould. T. J. Sobieski* and J. E. Pugh, Dept, of Biol. , Christopher Newport Col. , Newport News, Va. 23606 The hindgut of Rithropanopeus Harrisii Gould passes from midgut in a generally straight line through the abdomen terminating in the anus. At the mid-hindgut junction is a valvular arrangement which functions as a sphincter. Well developed striated muscle inserts on the cuticular lining of the gut. Intimately associated with the gut are three glandular elements: the cephalic intestinal gland which encircles the gut; the posterior tubular gland which enters at the junction, and the caudal intestinal gland situated immediately anterior to the anus. The cephalic and caudal glands are composed of acinar units in various stages of maturity and they open into the gut through pores in the cuticle. The posterior tubular gland ends blindly and hangs free in the hemocoel. It is lined with pseudostrati- fied columnar epithelium proximally and simple columnar distally. Their free surfaces bear a brush border. A cuticle studded with microtichia covers the simple tall columnar cells of the gut proper and the latter rest on a basement membrane. Many folds occur along the length of the gut. The submucosal layer is composed of scattered connect- tive tissue elements, cushion cells and striated longitudi¬ nal and circular muscles. A second muscular valve is located at the anal aperature. Proceedings, 1972-1973 127 SOME PRELIMINARY HISTOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS OF THE HINDGUT OF PALAEMONETES sp. R. W. Phill* and J. E. Pugh. Dept, of Biol., Christopher Newport Col., Newport News, Va. 23606 The hindgut of Palaemonetes sp. is located in the post- erior-most portion of the sixth abdominal somite. It is 0.31 mm in length in adult males. A pair of lateral cuticularized valves are situated at the mid-hindgut junction. Intimately associated with the gut is the caudal intestinal gland which encircles the former. It is composed of an orderly arrangement of acinar units in various stages of maturity and apparently opens via many ducts into the hindgut. A homogeneous cuticle lies on the free surface of the low columnar epithelium which rests upon a basement membrane. The submucosal layer consists of loosely arranged cushion cells, small blood sinuses and striated muscle fibrils. These muscular elements diverge from the intestinal muscularis and insert on the cuticular lining. The blood sinus system and muscles associated with the anal aperature are well developed and govern the opening and closing of the anus. The entire gut is loosely enveloped in circular muscles, connective tissue and cushion cells. AN ULTRASTRUCTURAL STUDY OF CELL -CELL SURFACE INTERACTIONS: THE EFFECTS OF CYTOCHALASIN B. P.A. Meadet Dept. Biology, Col. William and Mary, Williamsburg, Va. 23185 (Introduced by L. Wiseman) Sorting-out and tissue spreading in culture have become excellent models for the investigation of morphogenetic phenomena, particularly cell adhesion and cell movement. Cytochalasin B (CCB) , a drug which paralyzes cell movement in culture (Carter, 1967, Nature 213:261) presumably by dis¬ assembling arrays of intracellular microfilaments (Spooner et al . , 1971, J. Cell Bio. 49:595), has been shown in some cases to stop tissue spreading and cell sorting while not inhibiting cell aggre¬ gation or tissue fusion at the macroscopic level (Steinberg and Wiseman, 1972, J. Cell Bio. 55:606). We have shown here that CCB at 10 ug/ml permits tissue fusion at the macroscopic level but does not seem to permit fusion at the level of the cell interface. Lower concentrations do permit cell contact and microfilaments seem to remain intact. We are presently calculating the extent of cell junction formation in control and in CCB-treated tissue fusions and cell reaggregates (embryonic chick heart and liver cells) ; and we are looking for possible correlations between the presence or absence of microfilaments and the ability of one tissue mass to envelope or spread upon another. LANGERHANS CELLS AND THE ARCHITECTURE OF THE EPIDERMIS IN THE MOUSE AND CHICK. W. M. Reams, Jr. and W. C. Williams, III*. Dept, of Biology, University of Richmond, Va. 23173 For more than a century, Langerhans cells have been known to occur in the mammalian epidermis. Experimental evidence lends support to their origin from the epidermis itself (Reams & Tompkins, 1973). Almost nothing is known of their function. Mackenzie (1972) has shown a good correlation between the arrangement of epidermal Langerhans cells and the ordered structure of the epidermis into columns. He has suggested that Langerhans cells might serve as an active organizer of epidermal structure. As chichens do not have epidermal Langerhans cells (Reams & Tompkins, 1973), the present study was undertaken to compare avian and mammalian architecture of the stratum corneum. As anticipated, Langerhans cells related directly with the columns of cells in the epidermis of the mouse. However, even though Langerhans cells were lacking in the epidermis of the chick, the cornified cells of the stratum corneum nevertheless were arranged in geometric order and columns . Aided by the UR Research Fund. BINDING OF 5 -HYDROXYTRYPTAMINE BY BLOOD PROTEINS OF THE AMERICAN COCKROACH. C. D. Kirksey*, R. R. Mills, and T. D. Kimbrough. Dept, of Biology, Va. Commonwealth Univ., Richmond, Va. 23220 Radioactive serotonin has been injected into adult male American cockroaches Periplaneta americana (L.) and the blood subjected to various analysis. Chromatography of the serum on P-10 polyacrylamide gel indicates that the 1**C- serotonin is binding to proteins of approximately 8000 molecular weight. Binding of the label is maximum at one hr after injection and declines slowly. Radioactive CO2 is released soon after injection and label appears in the feces within h 8 hrs. Electrophoretic separation of the serum proteins shows that a number of compounds including glyco- , muco-, and lipoproteins are serotonin carriers. NITROGEN EXCRETION IN COCKROACHES. Donald G. Cochran. Dept, of Entomology, Va. Polytechnic Inst. & State Univ., Blacksburg, Va. 24061 Excreta from twenty-four species of cockroaches has been examined for the presence or absence of uric acid. It was found that only four species void uric acid exter¬ nally, and that they all belong to the subfamily Blattellinae . The excreta of these four species consists of light- and dark-colored pellets. Uric acid is found predominantly in the light-colored pellets which consist of about 50% uric acid. Only traces of uric acid are present in the dark-colored pellets probably as a contaminant. Discrete pellet formation is obviously impor¬ tant in these species, and possible mechanisms will be discussed. The significance of uric acid voiding by cockroaches will also be explored. (Aided by NSF grant GB 34244) . PROTEIN BINDING PROPERTIES OF 3 ,lt-DIHYDROXYPHENYLACETIC ACID BY THE AMERICAN COCKROACH. G. M. Levison* and R. R. Mills. Dept, of Biology, Va. Commonwealth Univ., Richmond, Va. 23220 Radioactivity from 2--'-1*C-dihydroxyphenylacetic acid binds to the haemolymph proteins of the American cockroach in such a way that they cannot be removed by weak acid or salts . The labeled complex is incorporated into the cuticle and forms an intrical part of the glycoprotein matrix. Analysis of metabolites by high voltage electrophoresis and paper chromatography show that 2--*-1|C-dihydroxyphenylacetic acid is converted to at least 3 other compounds. The significance of these findings in relation to insect cuticle sclerotization is discussed. 128 The Virginia Journal of Science OCCURRENCE OF BENZOYLFORMATE DECARBOXYLASE IN THE AMERICAN COCKROACH AND ITS POSSIBLE ROLE IN THE SYNTHESIS OF 3,1*- DIHYDROXYBENZOIC ACID. N. A. Taylor*, R. R. Curd* and R. R. Mills. Dept, of Biology, Va. Commonwealth Univ. , Richmond, Va. 23220 Warburg analysis of benzoylformate metabolism by the American cockroach shows the evolution of COg and the formation of benzaldehyde . Previous studies have shown that radioactive tyrosine, tyramine and norsynephrine are converted to protocatechuic acid. Norsynephrine can be metabolized to p-hydroxymandelic acid and p-hydroxybenz- aldehyde to p-hvdroxybenzoic acid. The results presented here show that -^C-carboxylmandelic acid is decarboxylated to -^002 which coupled with the presence of benzylformate decarboxylase completes the metabolic pathway of tyrosine conversion to protocatechuic acid (dihydroxybenzoic acid). VARIATIONS IN MAJOR CATIONS IN THE SERUM OF THE BLUE CRAB, CALLINECTES SAPIDUS, RATHBUN. J. Colvocoresses* and M. P. Lynch. Va. Inst, of Mar. Sci., Gloucester Point, Va. 23062 Serum sodium (Na) , magnesium (Mg), calcium (Ca) and pot¬ assium (K) were determined in samples of blood from the blue crab, Callinectes sapidus, collected at various locations and times from Va. waters. The samples had been previously analyzed for protein (Pr) , chloride (Cl), osmotic concentra¬ tion (Osm) . A seasonal variation in mean Na was found which paralleled that earlier reported for Cl and Osm, with high¬ est means recorded for winter months (432-471 meq/1) and lowest for summer months (376-391 meq/1). Mean K also showed a cyclic pattern, but with highest values recorded for late summer (7. 8-8.0 meq/1) and lowest for late winter (6. 0-6. 3 meq/1). Mean Mg and Ca did not exhibit any obvious seasonal trends. Serum Na and K exhibited a positive relationship with en¬ vironmental salinity (r=.80 and .43 respectively) Serum Ca and Mg showed no clear relationship to salinity. Regulation of Na followed the same pattern as previously reported for Osm, with the serum hyperionic below about 28 o/oo and iso¬ ionic above this point. Regulation of K resembled that found for Cl, with hyperionic concentrations below about 24 o/oo and hypoionic concentrations above that point. Ca was main¬ tained at hyperionic levels over the entire salinity range. Serum Mg was maintained hypoionic at salinities over about 7 o/oo, and hyperionic below that point. There was a posi¬ tive correlation between Ca and Pr (r=.72). None of the other major cations were significantly correlated with Pr. dOo gradients in selected invertebrates, d.r. Battles* and C. P. Manaum. Dent, of Bioloav. Col. of William and Mary, Williams burg, Va . 23185 The magnitude and direction of pC>2 gradients in invertebrates is not well known. Three species were chosen to measure pC>2 gradients across the respiratory surface. Specimens of Metridium sen- ile, Glycera dibranchiata, and Thyone briareus were equilibrated for 12 hours to various external oxygen tensions, and the pO of the body fluid measured at this time. At high external pO„ ' s , a rapidly decreasing qradient in G. dibrancniata is seen, and at lower external pO ' s, a small but significant amount of oxvaen is Dfesent. Metridium senile shows a arad- ual decrease in internal pO at high external pO;j ' s and then levels off at an internal pC>2 of approx¬ imately 30 mm. Ha. T. briareus shows a hiah in- ternal p02 at high external pO ' s and levels off at a high level at about 60% air saturation. It is supposed that the oxygen retained in the body fluid is used as a source of oxygen during periods of near anoxia. Oxygenation of the blood piqments in G. dibranchiata and T. briareus could easily occur at such high internal p02's. Cessa¬ tion of pumpinq and volume increases in M. senile and T. briareus at low pO„ ' s could presumably be associated with the utilization of this C>2 store. ARE ALL HEM0CYTES OF THE BLUE CRAB OF ONE BASIC TYPE? Marvin Snyder* and Melissa Stanley. Dept, of Biol., George Mason Univ., Fairfax, Va. 22030 Despite literature references to three or four kinds of hemocvtes in Callinectes sapidus, these proved indist- inguishable in tissue culture and suggested that only one basic cell type was present. According to this hypothesis the variation in fresh, blood cells reflects a maturational series. The fact that all cell types contain some granules and that all granules, regardless of size or distribution, give the same histochemical reactions support this inter¬ pretation. The granules are positive with periodic acid Schiff, Millon and p-dimethylaminobenzaldehyde suggesting the presence of carbohydrate and protein. No lipid could be demonstrated with Sudan Black. Observations on repeat¬ edly bled crabs show an increased number of hemocytes and particularly an increase in the proportion of spherical cells with few granules. These we believe are the least mature and term them granuloblasts. The nucleus of the oval intermediate cells may be somewhat concave but this stage is best distinguished by the variable number and size of cytoplasmic granules. Mature granulocytes are so packed with granules that the nucleus is often obscured. Further study of granule composition, of the response of hemocytes in injury and molting and of the origin of hemo¬ cytes is indicated. VENTILATION AND OXYGEN UPTAKE BY MYA ARENArflA AND HANGIA CUNEATA IN DECLINING OXYGEN TENSION. L. E. Burnett and C. P. Kangum, Dept, of Biology, Col, of VJilliam and Mary, Williamsburg, Va. 23185. The effect of declining oxygen tension on ventilation rate and oxygen uptake has been studied. The rate of oxygen extraction for Hya arenaria increases as water re- mains in contact with the respiratory surfaces for longer periods of time. H, arenaria and Rangia cuneata show increased oxygen extraction efficiency and reduced filtra¬ tion rate under declining oxygen tension, ii. cuneata shows an oxygen debt during recovery from low oxygen tension. Both animals showed partial regulation of oxygen uptake under experimental conditions. Ventilation rate controls the oxygen extraction effi¬ ciency in M. arenaria and R, cuneata. However, at low pO another factor, possibly heart output, combines with decreasing ventilation rate causing a large increase in oxygen extraction efficiency. HARDENING AND DARKENING OF THE COCKROACH CUTICLE: MEDIATION BY CYCLIC AMP. R, D. VandenBerg* and R. R, Mills, Dept, of Biology, Va. Commonwealth Univ., Richmond, Va. 23220 The cockroach tanning hormone mediates the hardening and darkening of the cuticle by increasing membrane permeability to various participating factors. Injection of cyclic AMP into the ligated (hormone deficient) thorax potentiates the tanning process. Uniformally labeled -^C-tyrosine (the precursor of the tanning diphenol) is not incorporated into the cuticle of hormone deficient regions while incorporation is vastly increased by the addition of cyclic AMP. Analysis of cyclic AMP production by the use of -^C-ATP shows that cockroach blood cells contain adenylate cyclase. Further proof of the system via conversion to -*-1*C-5,AMP has been demonstrated. Proceedings, 1972-1973 129 ROLE OF BLOOD CELLS IN THE STORAGE AND POSSIBLE SYNTHESIS OF CUTICLE PROTEINS BY THE AMERICAN COCKROACH. J. G. Geiger* and R. R. Mills. Dept, of Biology, Va. Common¬ wealth Univ., Richmond, Va. 23220 The haemocytes or blood cells of the American cockroach become more numerous during the immediate pre-ecdysial period. Also associated with this increase is a rise in blood volume and serum protein concentration. Injection of l!*C -leucine at ecdysis results in the labeling of both serum and haemocyte proteins. Extraction of the haemocyte proteins and subsequent reinjection results in the incor¬ poration of label in the cuticle, the haemocytes and the serum proteins. These data suggest that blood cell components are instrumental in the synthesis and/or storage of serum and cuticle proteins. SYNTHESIS OF BLOOD PROTEINS AND THEIR INCORPORATION INTO THE COCKROACH CUTICLE. J, R. McNeal*. V, A, Snow* and R. R. Mills. Dept, of Biology, Va. Commonwealth Univ., Richmond, Va. 23220 Concurrent injection of -^C-leucine and %-valine (or the inverse) into the haemocoel of the American cockroach results in the double labeling of the serum proteins. If the injection is done at ecdysis the cuticle proteins also become double labeled but only after a lag period. Con¬ versely, if the labeled serum proteins are injected into a newly ecdysed animal, the cuticle proteins become labeled without an appreciable lag period. These data suggest that blood proteins are incorporated into the cuticle relatively unchanged and are not broken down in the epidermis during transit. MORPHOLOGY AND SYSTEMATICS OF THE TYPE SPECIES IN THE FAMILY LECANODLASPIDIDAE . P. L. Lambdin and M. Kosztarab. Dept, of Entomology, Va. Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ., Blacksburg, Va. 24061 The family Lecanodiaspididae contains 8 genera represent¬ ing 71 species and is found in all major zoogeographical regions. These insects usually have a detrimental effect on their hosts by feeding on the sap, producing galls or forming pits on the bark. The type species of the 8 genera share several morphological characteristics. In addition to the anal cleft, the body is oval or subcircular and protected by a papery or waxlike test. The dorsum is distinguished by an arched plate anterior to or occasionally fused with anal plates and an anal ring with 6 to 14 setae, cribriform plates are in submedial rows or clusters, and a marginal row of setae. Spiracular setae are usually present. Tubular ducts, 8-shaped and simple pores are spaced through¬ out the derm. The ventrum is characterized by a submarginal band of flat 8-shaped pores, a row of setae separating the bent and flat pores, sparse segmental setae, antennae with variable number of segments, legs usually absent or reduced, tubular ducts and simple pores generally distributed throughout derm, bilocular pores present in submarginal and submedial area, 5- locular pores primarily located within spiracular furrows and the multilocular pores usually are arranged in transverse abdominal rows. The morphological characters separating the 8 genera are discussed. PROTEIN INCORPORATION INTO THE EGG CASE CUTICLE OF THE AMERICAN COCKROACH DURING THE SIX-DAY VITELLOGENIC CYCLE. M. Harrelson*, D. Chance* and R. R. Mills. Dept, of Biology, Va. Commonwealth Univ., Richmond, Va. 23220 The egg case or ootheca is produced by adult female American cockroaches approximately every five or six days. During this period the colleterial glands which elaborate this structure synthesize protein bound phenols. Injec¬ tion of 2- ^C-dihydroxyphenylacetic acid results in the radioactive labeling of these protein conjugates which reaches a peak concentration during the !tth day of the cycle. The significance of these data in regard to egg case hardening is discussed. INABILITY OF G I ARP I A M1JR IS TO BE CULTURED JN VITRO. J. C. Parker. Dept, of Microbiology, Med. Col. of Va,, Va. Ossmion- vealth Univ., Richmond, Va. 23298 The intestinal flagellate, Glardla. has been known for many years, but until 1960, all attempts to culture them in vitro had failed. A Russian investigator. In 1960, first succeeded in the cultivation of Glardla lamblla from man in cell cultures with yeast. Subsequently, Glardla has been Isolated and cultured in monoxenlcs (yeast) cultures from the rabbit, chinchilla, cat and squirrel. Recently, axenic cultivation of Glardla from the rabbit, chinchilla, eat and Qiinea pig have been accomplished. Glardla murids, which occurs in rats and mice, haa not been cultured. The present study sought to Isolate and culture Glardla aur la from tha laboratory mouse. Using the culture pro¬ cedures and media formulae known to be successful In the culture of other species as a starting point, I Incorporated a number of progressive variations and modifications in a trial and error system, A total of 137 attempts to culture Glardla mur la were made. All of these trials failed to establish growing colonies and the trophozoites which were inoculated into the various media survived no longer than four days. Although I was unable to find the correct formula for a medium that would provide the environment and nutrients necessary for the _ln vitro propagation of Glardla mur la. I remain optimistic that a medium will be found In the near future which will sustain their growth. (Aided by A. D. Williams grant # 3558(566)2825-1350) PRIMARY ATTRACTION OF BARK BEETLES. Donald E. Munsey, Jr.* Dept, of Fisheries and Wildlife Sciences, Va. Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ., Blacksburg, Va. 24061. Virginia pine (Pinus virginiana Mill.) cabled in an upright position and killed by sawing through the bole attracted 99.65% of the insects in the families Scolytidae, Cerambycidae, Curculio- nidae, and Buprestidae collected in this study. Bark beetles may be attracted to a-pinene and repelled by B-pinene, as shown with a field- sleeve olfactometer. The pattern of insect attack may also be correlated with varying composition of the volatile oils. The volatile oils re¬ leased by dying trees are believed to be the primary attractive stimuli to the beetles. 130 The Virginia Journal of Science AN EFFECT OF A FLOOD ON FISH IN THE JAMES RIVER. W. S. Wool- cott, J. W. White* and J. W. Bishop, Va. Inst, for Sci. Res. and Univ. ot Richmond, Richmond, Va. 23229. The effect of a record flood on abundance and diversity of fishes in the Piedmont section of the James River in Virginia is discussed. Collections made in July 1972, one month after the flood, were compared with collections made prior to, and following this period. A power station on the northside of the river, which releases heated effluent into the James, was inoperational for about three months because of flood damage. The average diversity index for July fish collections from the unheated side of the river was low and differed significantly from the indexes for collections from the same side of the river made during other months. On the northside the diversity index for the July collection was significantly lower than that of collections made in the following August when the water was of ambient temperatures, but did not differ significantly from the diversity index of collections made during months when the plant was operational The work upon which this publication is based was sup¬ ported in part by funds provided by the United States Depart¬ ment of Interior as authorized under the Water Resources Research Act of 1964 as amended; and by Virginia Electric and Power Company. LIMNOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF THE NORTH ANNA RESERVOIR DURING ITS FIRST YEAR OF FILLING. G. M. Simmons, Jr. and B. Armitage. Department of Biology, VPISU, Blacksburg, Va. 24061 . Impoundment of the North Anna River to create Lake Anna began in January 1972. The lake filled very rapidly and by June was near normal pool level. The reservoir and lagoon complex was constructed by VEPCO to provide cooling water for four nuclear reactors. Limnological studies have been underway since March 1972. The information will even¬ tually be used to evaluate the impact of the heated water discharge from the reactor system. The new reservoir stratified weakly during 1972. Homo- thermy occurred in October at 18°C. Oxygen depletion and the presence of hydrogen sulfide were characteristic of the hypolimnion even during the first year. Seventy-six species of phytoplankton have been identified and the carbon-14 productivity studies indicate high rates of fixation during the first year. Benthic studies indicate a very rapid colonization rate by benthic macroinvertebrate forms. As expected, the reservoir appears to be ameliorating the ef¬ fects of Contrary Creek, an acid mine tributary. (This research is being supported by the Virginia Electric and Power Company.) PREDICTING THE PRIMARY PRODUCTION OF WEST- HAMPTON LAKE. G. N. Moore* and J. W. Bishop. Dept, of Biology, Univ. of Richmond, Virginia 23173. Light, temperature, nutrients and primary producers in Westhampton Lake, Virginia were measured from spring through fall of 1972. These measurements were used to examine several mathematical equations for the prediction of primary production. In the equation with the best fit, primary production de¬ pended on products of chlorophyll a and coefficients for light, temperature and nutrients. Even this equation, how¬ ever, did not account for much of the observed variability in primary production. The work upon which this publication is based was sup¬ ported in part by a research grant from the University of Richmond. A POPULATION STUDY OF 0D0NATA. J. K. Grimm. Department of Biology, Madison College, Harrisonburg, Virginia 22801. A population study was made to determine the total number of dragonflies constituting a population in a small restricted habitat. Capturing-marking, releasing-recap¬ turing, techniques were used to obtain basic numbers for determining total population size. Both biotic and abiotic environmental factors were recorded. Statistical methods were used to identify the major con¬ trolling factors which determined the total population size. The study revealed that light intensity was probably the most important single abiotic factor which influenced the activities of the total population. Total numbers of individuals were recorded and identi¬ fied to species. ENERGY FLOW FOR A GRASSHOPPER POPULATION IN A MARSH. L. T. Hackworth,* R. L. Ake and J. F. Matta, Dept, of Bioloav. Old Dominion Univ., Norfolk, Va . 23508 The energy consumption of a grasshopper, Orchelimum Vul- gare Harris on an island in the Back Bay National Wildlife Refuge, Virginia Beach, Virginia, was measured as part of a study of the effects of the burning of marshlands . The mea¬ surement consisted of the determination of the grasshopper population, the energy expended by grasshoppers in respira¬ tion, and the energy expended in building the insects' mass. Population curves for each of the five stages of the grass¬ hopper's growth were predicted. The energy expended in res¬ piration was found to be 20,590 Kcal/acre and the energy ex¬ pended in mass was 5,007 Kcal/acre + 15.63%. These findings will be used in future research to study the effects of the burning of marshlands on insect populations. DISTRIBUTION OF CLAD0CERA IN LOWER CHESAPEAKE BAY. Burton B. Bryan*, and George C. Grant*. Dept, of FlanKtology, Va. Inst. Mar. Science, Gloucester Pt. , Va. 23062 Cladocera species that seasonally form a sig¬ nificant part of lower Chesapeake Bay zooplankton, surveyed monthly by VIMS since August 1971, in¬ clude Podon polyphemoides , Evadne tergestina and Penilia avirostris. Podon polyphemoides is per- sistent throughout the year, with a peak in May. Evadne tergestina and Penilia avirostris are continental shelf species that reached abundance in the lower Bay in August, 1971. Evadne nordmanni was briefly common, and Podon leuckarti and Podon intermedius were found only occasionally near the Bay mouth. Evadne tergestina and Penilia avirostris were far less common in summer 1972 than in 1971. Reduced salinity and lowered bottom concentrations of dissolved oxygen, effects of runoff from Hurri¬ cane Agnes, may have contributed to this observed difference in abundance. Proceedings, 1972-1973 131 SEASONAL COMPOSITION OF ZOOPLANKTON OF LOWER CHESAPEAKE BAY AND VIRGINIA COASTAL WATERS. Elizabeth W. Atkinson* and H. G. Marshall. Dept, of Biology, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, Va. 23508. Surface zooplankton were collected in tow nets at the Wolf Trap Light Tower and at two stations in the Chesapeake channel of the Chesapeake Bay for a one year period between July 1971 and June 1972. Samples from the Atlantic coastal water off Virginia Beach were also collected for comparison. The Crustacea, usually copepods, formed the major part of each catch, with their lowest concentrations noted during the summer, and increasing during the fall when they reached maximum numbers and diversity. Volumes decreased in January, but increased again in the spring. Most of the copepods were northern types. In the Bay, Acartia tonsa was the most numerous copepod, and Centropages typicus was the major oceanic form. Both of these were found in samples year round. Centropages typicus was most common in cold water samples of high salinity. Other copepods found in significant numbers were Acartia clausii and Temora turbinata in the spring, Labidocera aestiva in the summer, Temora longicornis in the fall, and Centropages hamatus , a winter-spring form. Many species of decapod larvae were found, of which Callinectes sapides and Crangon septem- spinosa were the most numerous. Generally, zooplankton populations were more abundant in the Chesapeake Bay than in the Atlantic coastal waters. COMMENTS ON LOWER CHESAPEAKE BAY BIOTA. M. L. Wass , Dept, of Invert. Ecol., Va . Inst. Mar. Science, Gloucester Pt., Va. 23062 Infauna of Chesapeake Bay is compared with the Va. shelf fauna using Jaccard's similarity coef¬ ficient. Use of total species indicates similar¬ ity of 311. A difference of 50% has been agreed adequate to separate provinces. It is proposed that provincial distinctions be based on relative abundance; species common in one area and scarce in an adjacent one being assigned only to the first. Using this criterion, the affinity of in¬ fauna between Chesapeake Bay and the shelf is only 5%, only 23 species being equally common in both areas; 16 of which are scarce. Eel grass beds studied recently by VIMS stu¬ dents are shown to have about 27 obligate epi- faunal species, but only 2 infaunal. These beds appear optimal for another 25 species of epifauna and 18 of infauna. New VIMS check list of bay biota has 2,874 species and 807 references. Included are 719 lower plants, 447 higher plants, 1053 inverte¬ brates, 287 fish, 105 herptiles, 222 wetland birds and 41 mammals. Only 29 fish and 8 birds are considered permanent residents. Benthic microfauna remains poorly known and insects are not listed. PRELIMINARY REPORT ON THE DYNAMICS OF PARASITIC IN¬ FECTIONS IN THE STRIPED BASS, MORONE SAXATILIS (WALBAUM), FROM THE YORK RIVER. I.E. Paperna", and D.E. Zwerner. Dept, of Microbiology- Pathology, Va . Inst, of Mar. Sci., Gloucester Point, Va. 23062 Striped bass from the York River were periodically examined over a one year period for parasites and associated pathological changes. A total of 419 fish over 1 year old and 142 young of the year were examined between April 1972 and April 1973. Forty species of parasites (including microbial agents) were recognized. The dynamics of some of the more dominant and important parasites was studied. Populations of Ergasilus labracis (Copepoda - gills), Philometra rubra (Nematoda - body cavity), Pompho- rhynchus rocci (Acanthocephala - intestine), Lironeca ovalis Tlsopoda - gills ), and Argulus bicolor (Branchiura - skin) exhibited seasonal fluctuations. Prevalence, parasite burden, and reproductive activity of these parasites was associated with definite pathological changes. FEEDING EEHAVOIR IN THE AFRICAN LUNGFISH , i ROTOPTERUS . Elizabeth b. Conant. Dept, of Biology, Mary Baldwin Col., Staunton, va. 24401 The feeding in rr otopterus can be studied from several aspects. Examination of the cranial bones reveals a simplified cranium with massive dental plates, the teeth actually extensions of the upper and lower jaws. Two small additional palatine teeth are situated anterior to the palato- pterygoid tooth plate. The musculature involves those buccal muscles which drop the ceratohyoid and/or open the jaw alternating with the muscles of jaw closure. Food is drawn into the mouth by suction and then masticated by the tooth plates while being moved in and out of the buccal cavity. The handling of the food by the fish depends on whether the food material is alive or dead, soft or hard. Feeding is basically carnivorous with omnivorous capabilities. Protopter- us is highly susceptible to toxins in the skin and muscles of the newt Notophthalmus viridescens. Lungfish can be voracious eaters, showing a remarkably low conversion ratio, perhaps adaptations to annual starvation during estivation. They can gain one gram of body mass for every 2-3 grams of food consumed. The forces of suction, compression, and tearing/pulling can be roughly quantified. Feces are helical, packaged in a mucous envelope, with the fecal material compartmentalized. Finally, lungfish can be conditioned to feed in response to controlled stimuli. 132 The Virginia Journal of Science Section of Botany Fifty-first Annual Meeting of The Virginia Academy of Science May 1-4, 1973, Williamsburg, Virginia SOME INTERESTING AND UNUSUAL WOODY PLANT DISTRIBUTIONS IN THE SHENANDOAH NATIONAL PARK, VIRGINIA. Peter M. Mazzeo, U.S. Nat. Arboretum, Agricultural Res. Service, U.S. Dept. Agriculture, Washington, D.C. 20002. Because of the more than 3.000 ft. of relief in the mountains of the Shenandoah National Park, Virginia, many interesting and unusual woody plant distributions are to be found within the boundaries of the Park. Many northern species grow no farther south and some southern species grow no farther north in the Blue Ridge. In addition there are some taxa represented in the Park by widely disjunct populations. During the past eleven years field observations, notes, and herbarium voucher collections have documented a number of these interesting and unusual distribution and disjunc¬ tion patterns in the Park. Notable examples of these patterns are presented. SOME PROBLEMS IN THE DISTRIBUTION OF A’^ERICAN BEECH(FAGUS GRANDIFOLIA) IN CENTRAL VIRGINIA. J. H. Bussing*. A. H. Strahler*, and J, L. Riopel, Depts, of Environmental Sci¬ ence and Biology, Univ, of Va., Charlottesville, Va. 22903 The results and observations obtained by an examination of American beech on three levels of distribution are pre¬ sented, Mapping from the road over the whole of Albemarle County during the winter months showed beech preferring the northeast, north, and northwest facing slopes, the more acid soil sites, and soil material of non-igneous origin. Close examination on foot of a one-half square mile ridge site, which could offer beech a variety of habitats, found of the beech present on sites with a strictly northern exposure. Diametral measurements of beech on selected sites yielded distinct size classes. Specimens from these classes were cored and dated and found to have arisen in those years pre¬ ceded by above average rainfall during the summer months of June, July, and August. It is suggested this moisture ex¬ cess acting as a direct or indirect environmental release is responsible for increased root sprouting, the major method of beech reproduction. Further field studies and carefully monitored lab experiments now under consideration may yield a more definite answer to these problems in distribution. USE OP MUTATION BREEDING TO REVIVE THE AMERICAN CHESTNUT. I'r. Ralph Singleton. Univ. of Va., Charlottesville, Va., 22903, and Albert Dietz'3'", Jones Chemical Co., Caledonia, N.Y., 14J423. Several bushels of seed of the American Chest¬ nut, Castanea dentate, were treated with gamma rays (most common dose 3,000 r) in an effort to induce a mutant resistant to the fatal blight, Endothia parasitica. Seeds were planted at 'Vadsworth^ Ohio, and in the Augusta nursery of the Va. Div. of forestry. The seedlings have been outplanted in five states, Va., W.Va., Ohio, Penn., and Md. There are approximately 10,000 M]_ trees. Some have reached the bearing stage. In 1972, 833 nuts were harvested. These resulted in about 700 Mg trees, the beginning of a large M2 population. Possibly an entirely resistant tree will appear in this generation, certainly in later ones if sufficient numbers are grown. Mutation breeding has succeeded in improving a wide variety of crops. There is reason to believe it will be successful also with chestnuts. The method might well be tried with other forest trees, such as the American Elm, to produce a mutant resistant to the Dutch elm disease. SURVEY OF THE VASCULAR FLORA OF ORANGE COUNTY, VIRGINIA. Hays B. Lantz, Jr.*" Orange Co. High Sch. , Orange, Va. 22960. In the preparation of a treatment of the vascular plants of Orange County, Virginia, towards a proposed flora of Virginia, the following data have been compiled from speci¬ mens collected and identified by the author and from entries listed in Massey's Virginia Flora for the Northern Piedmont of Virginia. Although the author has no record of them, it is probable that these species listed for the Northern Piedmont in Virginia Flora grow in Orange County. The present vegetation of the county was divided arbi¬ trarily into 6 major groupings 1 ridge forests, lower slopes, pine forests, forested bottomlands, open bottom¬ lands, and clearings. The ecological relationships of these 6 major floristic divisions are discussed. Numerical analysis of the data provides records of 920 species representing 435 genera of 114 families. From this analysis, it was determined that the diversity of conditions of Orange County is conducive to the growth of a relatively large number of species of most genera and thus yields the generic coefficient of 47.3 percent. In addition, the range of 5 species was extended into the Piedmont of Virginia. Acer pensylvanlcum, Actaea pachypoda, Brasenla schreberl, Nelumbo lutea, and Nyaphaea odorata have not been previously reported for the Piedmont region of Virginia. Proceedings, 1972-1973 133 THE INDUMENTUM AND OTHER FEATURES OF LEAF ANATOMY OF SOME RHODODENDRONS. Martha K. Roane. Dept, of Biology^VPI & SU Blacksburg, Va. 24061. Leaf indumentum, long used as a taxonomic character by Europeans, has not been extensively investigated in the North American species of Rhododendron. Previous authors have categorized the North American taxa of the sub-genus Anthodendron as having strigose trichomes. In this study of the 9 Virginia spp. of Rhododendron in the subgenus Anthodendron, it was found that the indumentum varies from species to species and consists of combinations of acicular, strigose, and setose-glandular trichomes occurring on either or both sides of the blade and midrib and on the petiole. A provisional data matrix with a set of 10 descriptor couplets based on the leaf indumentum of R. arborescens, R. atlanticum, R. calendulaceum, R. canescens, R. cumberlan- dense, R. nudiflorum, R. roseum, R. serrulatum and R. viscosum provides a useful tool for species identification. Other anatomical features of the leaf have not as yet proved reliable. A B I0SYSTEMAT1C STUDY OF BLOOM FORMS OF RHODODENDRON CALENDUL ACEUM( MICHX .) TORRE Y . Frank F. Dillingham , Jr . , Uake Forest Univ., Uinston- Salem, N.C. 27109 A detailed study of the bloom pattern of the Flame Azalea, R. calendulaceum. uas made in seve- ral high mountain areas of N.C. Morphological, cytological, and biochemical data strongly suggest that the so-called bloom forms of the species are not distinct and that late-blooming plants are net the product of hybri¬ dization betueen early-blooming R. calendulaceum (2n=52) and R_. bakeri (2n=26). The analysis of ten morphological characters did not reveal a significant difference betueen lou altitude, early-blooming plants and high alti¬ tude, late-blooming plants. Chromatographic pat¬ terns of hydrolyzed flavonoids were identical for all plants examined. No triploid chromosome counts were observed among the late-blooming plants. R,. bakeri is not well differentiated from R. calendulaceum morpholoqlcallv. althouah it does produce a distinct chromatographic pattern. It is reported for N.C. for the first time, although its status as a species is questionable. There is evidence to suggest that it may have a- risen from R. calendulaceum bv oolvhaDloidv . STUDIES ON INVERTASE FROM THE TxiALLUS OF T IE Lie BIT PARMSLIA CAPE RATA. Erik J. 1-Jar cir. Mata/ Science Div. , Ferrum Col., Ferrum, Vs. 24083 Af .cr ace -one treatment, in/ertase was extract¬ ed usl.n-, notnogeniza tion t..en disruption in a Raper Cell. Tne enzyme v/as purified 'ey DSAE-cellulose caromatography and Agarose gel f titration ( 4^-f old) . Toe partially purified invertase was character¬ ized and found to have a mol. wt. of 480,000(ty gel filtration), a pH optimum of 3. 2-4. 3, a (sucrose, p.I 4.7) of 3.‘ mM, and to le approxi- maueL” 50,4 carbohydrate . Tne substrate specifi¬ city is cnat of a novel p-fruc tofur anosidase . The enzyme appears to be sul'fnydryl active and is ratner more heat-stable tnan other inver cases studied. The enzyme j.n vivo is localized in tne algal zone and may represent an aggregate of alga; and fungal subunits. The role of each symbiont and the symbiosis itself in tne formation of Lhallus invertase was investigated. Tne symbiosis causes a marked molecular weight change and may also cause other changes. Some possible origins will be discussed. TWO LECTURES AND A LAB. R. D. Decker. Dept, of Biology, University of Richmond, Va. 23173. The lecture method of teaching, found to be less than desirable, has very widespread use throughout the United States as evidenced by the self-study reports presented by Dr. Dwight R. Ladd in his book Change in Educational Policy (McGraw Hill, 1970). Paul Cameron of Wayne State University reports out that only 12% of a lecture audience commands the attention of the speaker at any given moment. Add to this the advances in communication technology, and it becomes difficult to understand why such an ineffective system is used so extensively in undergraduate courses, particularly at the introductory level. Even with advanced degrees, many persons are not effective as teachers. Their degrees did not train them to teach but to be competent in subject and research. Classroom training is definitely secondary. The result is these persons teach as they were taught, thus perpetuating a less-than-the-best system. Employment and promotional practices reenforce the non-teaching degree. Course content and evaluation are briefly considered in this paper. The author's interpretation of education follows. Learning is having meaningful experiences. Teach¬ ing is providing the opportunity for the learner to have meaningful experiences. Methodology can and should be varied, maybe for each individual. The important thing is that learning occurs, not the methodology or time. THE DISTRIBUTION OF SOIL INHABITING LOWER FUNGI FROM THE MCMURDO OASIS, ANTARCTICA. Hugh Rooney and Robert A. Paterson. Dept, of Biology, V.P.I. & S.U., Blacksburg, Va. 24061. During the Austral summer, 1972, 400 soil samples were collected on Ross Island and in the Dry Valleys. Special attention was given to McMurdo Station, Cape Royds, Mlers Valley, and Victoria Valley, where soil was collected along transects. Methods used by aquatic mycologists were used to Isolate and study the fungi. Several general observa¬ tions were made. Species density was low. Four species of saprophytic chytrids occurred in 47 samples. Rhizophlyetis rosea (deBary & Woronin) Fisher was particu- larly noteworthy in that it occurred in areas disturbed by man. Phlyctorhiza variabilis Karling was characteristic of penguin rookeries. The oomycetes observed from fourteen samples were species of Pythuim. (Aided by NSF grant GA - 16767) OBSERVATIONS ON A GASTROMYCETE RELATED TO PHOLIOTA. Ilene B. Ray. Dept, of Biology, VPI & SU, Blacksburg, Va. 24061 Four cultures of a montane, western snowbank gastromycete, Nivatogastrium nubiginum, are described for the first time. The growth rates, morphological features and chemical re¬ actions are presented. The macroscopic and microscopic features of this species were compared with closely related lamellate agarics to attempt to determine its relationship to these fungi. Only one genus, Pholiota in the Cortinariaceae, seems to possess similar morphological features. The fruiting bodies and the cultural character¬ istics of P. decorata, P. scamba, P. spumosa, and P. subangularis were studied and compared with those of N. nubiginum. The four Pholiotas were chosen because of a number of features the fruiting bodies had in common with N. nubiginum. These include similar spores, cystidia, pileus cutide and a lignicolous habitat on conifers. In culture they possess similar mats, growth rates and oxidase tests. Microscopic features of the vegetative plants were also similar to two western species of Pholiota. 134 The Virginia Journal of Science SIGNIFICANCE OF CULTURAL CHARACTERS IN THE PHOLIOTA AURIVELLA COMPLEX. E. R. Farr. Dept, of Biology, VP I & SU Blacksburg, Va. 24061. Six collections of material close to Pholiota aurivella and dikaryotic cultures made at the time of collection were studied in an effort to clarify the species concept in the Stirps Adiposa of the genus Pholiota. Crosses between single spore isolates from fruiting bodies produced in cul¬ ture indicated all of the collections represented a single species. The mating incompatibility system was found to be bipolar and multiallelic. On the basis of spore size, 4 of the 6 collections must be identified as P^. aurivella. How¬ ever, all 6 collections possessed chrysocystidia, 2 of the 4 collections with large spores also possessed caulocystidia, and 1 collection showed a dextrinoid reaction in the pileus context. None of these features are reported for P. aurivella. One of the 6 collections was found on Hemlock, the others were from various hardwoods. The variation is such within this group of 6 compatible fungi that it makes species identification based on current taxonomic concepts of this group difficult. Mycelial cultures of these 6 col¬ lections were also studied. A range of variation was found in gross macroscopic appearance, growth rate, and the time of development of conidia which precluded a precise descrip¬ tion based on cultural characters. These preliminary investigations reveal a wider range of variability in micro¬ scopic and cultural characters than is described for any one species in the Stirps Adiposa of the genus Pholiota. FRUITING RESPONSES OF BASIDIOMYCETES IN THE GENUS PLEUROTUS . Don Manning. Dept, of Biology, VPI & SU, Blacksburg, Va. 24061. Isolates of Pleurotus ostreatus , Pleurotus sapidus , and Pleurotus columbinus were cultured on different media under a 70F/60F temperature regime and a 12 hr light/12 hr dark period in order to study the morphology of the basidiocarps , basidia, basidiospores , and cystidia as compared to those of the original specimens. None of the isolates fruited on a 1.5% malt extract agar + sawdust medium or a glucose-alanine medium. ]P. ostreatus fruited on a 1.5% malt extract agar medium and on 1.5% malt extract agar + wood. Basidiocarp morphology on 1.5% malt extract agar ranged from cylindrical with a long stipe and a narrow hymenial layer to the typical flabelliform shape. The 1.5% malt extract agar + elm wood medium gave the best results with respect to size and abun¬ dance of basdiocarps, and number of flush periods. Fruiting also occurred on oak and beech, but not on white pine. Pleurotus sapidus fruited only on 1.5% malt extract agar + black locust. Most specimens possessed a well-formed stipe flaring out into a flabelliform to spathulate pileus. In both P. ostreatus and _P. sapidus the basidiocarps produced normal basidia, basidiospores, and cystidia. TWO INTERESTING BOG CHYTRIDS (CHYTRIOMYCETES) . D. F, Farr. Dept, of Biology, VPI & SU, Blacksburg, Va. 24061. Two chytrids found in acid bogs were studied in pure culture using single spore isolates. Their exact determina¬ tion was difficult because of sketchy original descriptions and confusing reinterpretations by later workers. Since this is the first time these chytrids have been observed in pure culture, it has been possible to make a critical evalu¬ ation of the taxonomically important morphological charac¬ ters. One of the chytrids is related to a group of three species, Rhizophydium macrosporum Karling, R. coronum Hanson, and R. stipitatum Sparrow. The important characters in separating these species, (1) gelatinous halo around sporangia, (2) size of zoospore globule, and (3) type of rhizoidal system, showed such variation in the isolate (halo present or absent, globule absent to 5.5 p in diame¬ ter, rhizoidal system with or without one main axis) that their taxonomic value appears limited. R. macrosporum and R. stipitatum are considered to be similar and the isolate is placed here. The taxonomic significance of the occurrence of the parasite Septosperma on these three species is discussed. The second fungus considered is re¬ lated to Phlvctochytrium mucronatum Canter and P. aureliae Ajello. The placement and arrangement of the spines and the presence or absence of an apophysis are evaluated as taxonomic characters. A STUDY OF THE LIGHT REQUIREMENTS NECESSARY FOR THE FRUITING OF RHODOTUS PALMATUS. Orson K. Miller, Jr. and Linnea S. Gillman. Dept, of Biology, VPI & SU, Blacksburg, Va. 24061. Rhodotus palmatus (Bull, ex Fr.) Maire a member of the Basidiomycetes in the Tricholomataceae is infrequently encountered in eastern North America where it fruits on hardwood logs and limbs. Pure polysporous cultures of this species were grown under controlled conditions and mature sporocarps were produced in vitro, apparently, for the first time. They are found to have specific requirements for light quality and quantity. Their development and the conditions under which they form "normal" and abnormal fruiting bodies are presented. Presence, size, and maturity of the sporocarps depends on both the quality and quantity of light. No initials or sporocarps are produced in blue light from 400-450 nm at or above 0.6 yW cm-^ Normal sporocarps are produced when blue light is excluded or at low levels combined with light green, yellow or red from 550-650 nm of at least 1.3 yW or higher. BASIDIOMYCETES IN ARCTIC TUNDRA PLANT COMMUNITIES, Gary A. Laursen and Orson K. Miller, Jr., VPI & SU, Blacksburg, Va. Three of eighteen plots established along a definitive moisture gradient on US/IBP Site 4 near Barrow, Ak. demon¬ strate vascular plant community, surface physiognamy and variations in below ground fungal mycelium at 1-2 and 6-7cm depths. An aquatic grass-sedge slough with loose peat soil demon¬ strated average soil moisture percents of 601% at l-2cm and 182% at 6-7cm. Saprophytic fungi were infrequent. Hyphal biomass at l-2cm averaged 1,292 meters per gram dry weight soil (range 134-4,526); 865 meters (range 53-2,171) at 6-7cm Low flat polygon tops support a willow-grass assemblage, a deep consolidated peat, and a well developed rhizosphere yielding average soil moistures of 387% at l-2cm and 218% at 6-7cm. Saprophytic and mycorrhizal Basidiomycetes spec¬ ies were abundant. Hyphal biomass at l-2cm averaged 5,184 meters (range 1,308-8273); 624 meters (range 26-2118) at 6-7cm. High, exposed, disturbed lichen-willow polygon tops with deep compact and dry peat showed average soil moistures of 280% for l-2cm; 98% for 6-7cm. Saprophytic and mycorrhizal Basidiomycetes were occasional. Hyphal biomass at l-2cm averaged 2-720 meters (range 879-6862); 237 meters (range 9-491) at 6-7cm. Hyphal biomass showed seasonal fluctuation and a 3.6 fold decrease from l-2cm to 6-7cm. Soil tempera¬ tures averaged 3.7°C and 2.1°C at l-2cm and 6-7 cm respective¬ ly. Thaw rate, peat and permafrost depths influence fluctua¬ tions. FACTORS INITIATING A SYMBIOTIC RESPONSE IN STREPTOMYCES B-3156. D. W. Ogle. Dept, of Biology, Va. Highlands Cmnty. Col. , Abingdon, Va. 2b210 Streptomyces B-3156 and Chlorella xanthella form a lichen structure under laboratory conditions. The associ¬ ation, though not found in nature, provides an opportunity to research the initiation of a symbiotic response. Change in morphology and the amount of sporulation were used as indicators of positive response in the Streptomyces ■ Various cell extracts , plant hormones , and sugars were applied to the fungus. A symbiotic response was most evidently initiated by the mucilage-petic substances and lipids extracted from the Chlorella cells. Proceedings, 1972-1973 135 PRIMARY LIPIDS, AMINES, AND SUGAR ALCOllOLS OF HIGHER MARINE FUNGI. P. H. Mirk. Jr.. Dept, of iiiology, Old Dominion Univ., Norfolk, Va. 23508 and P. Catalfomo*, School of Pharmacy, Oregon State Univ., Corvallis, Ore, 97331 Results were given for chromatographic and spectrometric analyses of mycelia in 13 species of lignicolous marine fungi. Studies of 11 Ascornycetes and 2 Fungi Imperfecti continued tnat the accumulation of primary metabolites is similar in marine and terrestrial higher fungi. The most abundant sterol was ergosterol, and choline accumulated mainly as tiie sulfate ester rather tnan the free amine, Otner sLerols and amines, present in low concentrations , are not yet identified. Yields of Mannitol reached 1 Z, and tnose of triglycerides ranged from O.Ob/i to 5% of the dry weignt. Oleic, palmitic and linoleic acids represented 8U-9u4 of tne total triglyceride fatty acid content with oleic acid predominating. Other faLty acids were myristic, palmitoleic, stearic, aracnidonic, helienic, linolenic, and caproic or caprylic. Evidence for the occurrence of fungal metabolites in marine detritus food webs was cited, and it was suggested how tuese substances might serve as nutrients .vitamins aim hormones, or their precursors for marine animals. DlSTKlDUTIuN OF MICROFUNGI, ACTINOMYCETES , AND SACTEklA AN A VIRGINIA CAVE. P. W. Kirk, Jr. Dept, of biology, Old Dominion Univ,, Norfolk, Va. 23508 Plate counts of heterotrophic microorganisms were made on samples of mud, water, dung, and formations occurring in a transect through old Mill Cave, Montgomery County, Va. Counts on forest soil and streams outside the cave were maue for comparison, bacteria, Actinomycetes and microfungi were counted on separate, selective culture media. The Disadvantage of such counts as an index of the ecological significance of filamentous microorganisms was noted. Counts were much higher in forest soil than in most cave samples, exceptions being dung and floor scraping containing decayed arthropod remains. In general, counts were higher on the floors than on walls and ceilings. Cultures of tne former sometimes developed maggots and auults of cave flies. Among the fungi, common Deuteromycetes predominated, including Tricnouerma viride and Aureobasidiuin pullulens . however, the proportion of corenium formers was unusually nigh, suggesting tnat coremia may have adaptive value in caves as a means of elevating spores into turbulent air. The role of microorganisms in detritus food webs of caves and of estuaries was compared. SLIME MOLDS OF THE GREAT DISMAL SWAMP AND TIDEWATER. Patricia 1. Salomon*. M, Huff*, and P, W, Kirk, Jr., DepL. of biology, Old Dominion Univ., Norfolk, Va. 23508 Information is extremely limited regarding the field biology of the Myxomycetes. This is a preliminary report on the development of studies to examine the correlation of Myxomycete distribution and habitat. The methods incorpor¬ ate, first, a uetermiuation of resident species in optimum wooded habitats through field collections and moist chamber cultures. Secondly, specific areas in tne Great Dismal Swamp and adjacent urban wooded areas will be systematically sampled to determine tne degree of distribution and density variation. Tnirdly, selected measurable environmental factors will be examined to determine their correlation with species distribution and density. Collections to date indicate that the Great Dismal Swamp is a high density area. Nineteen species in 14 genera nave been collected in the fruiting stage, and 9 species in y genera have been cultured by moist chamber technique. Prominent among these genera are Ly cogala . Cribrarla. hcninosteiium . Perichaena . Arcyria. Metatrichia. Trichia. Stemonitis. Fuligo. Craterum. and Physarum. HPAT)ILY OBTA.TJTABD1* ’TA.RTCT! F’TITGI FOR TF7.CTTING A'Tn R^FFARCH . P. Kirk. Jr., R. W. Tyndall*, and Chrysisse F. Fassaris* Fept. of Biology, Old Dominion TIniv. , Norfolk, Va, 13508. Methods and locations for the collection and identification of commonly occurring marine fungi were presented, in order that teachers and researchers might more effectively utilize these organisms, ^he ecological groups considered v.’ere the lignicolous, erenicolous, graminicolous , and endocommensal fungi within the guts of marine arthropod s . At Virginia Beach, asoosnores of Oorollosnora spp. can be obtained in sea foam during the summer, and throughout the year the guts of mole crabs (Fmerita talpoida ) contain the ^ric'nomycete , Enterobryus halopnllus. Guts of Ligla contain Asellaria ligiae in abundance at Ruaee Inlet in summer, but not winter. "'any fungi are readily obtainable on wood submerged in the lower Chesapeake Bay and its estuaries, the commonest being Halosnhaeria med iosetigera , Corollosoora me r i 1. 1 ma , C . trifurcata, Femisoora cuadriremis, Lulworthia sop. , and Qeriosporopsls h~lima in the Ascornycetes, and Culcitalna achrasoora in the Fungi Imnerfecti. Leptosphaer ia discors is the most prominent fungus on the msrshgrass, Fpartina a lternif lora . FA CT^RF TN ftp ^j'wg'T’TMr; poopp ’ "tw/\ T TriM I1'T ’"RIFF LIGNICOLOUS FUNGI. R. w. Tyndall* and p. W. Kirk, -Jr. F>ent. of Biology^ Old dominion Univ , Norfolk, Va. 23503. The existence of a mycostatic orinciple in seawater was confirmed. This principle appears similar to that which is widespread in soils, being destroyed by autoclaving and in some cases alleviated by the addition of glucose. Spores of four obligate marine fungi (Culcitalna achraspora, Ha losnhaeria mediosetiaera , Orbimyces spe ctabili s', and ^aierion msrltlmum) and microconidia of Fusarium sp. isolated from wood submerged in seawater, were unaffected by mycostatic factors. All germinated about enually well in raw and in autoclaved natural seawater, and in artificial seawater. Trichoderma viride scores were inhibit¬ ed by salts in seawater, but apparently not by organic constituents. pen jcillium sp. and Asoergillus sc. were inhibited by raw but not by autoclaved or artificial seawater, and inhibition of the latter species was alleviated by glucose. The addition of (JJH, )H,P0. , yeast extract, or NagEUTA did not affect 'Vtiydostasis, although increasing the saline tolerance of some species. These results support the view that the isolation of fungi from seawater using culture methods has limited ecological significance. EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON LINEAR GROWTH OF ENDOTHIA GYROSA AND E. PARASITICA. R. J. Stipes and Jean L. Ratliff. Dept, of Plant Pathology and Physiology, Va. Polytech. Inst, and State Univ., Blacksburg, Va. 24061 Isolates of Endothia gyrosa and E. parasitica, the pin oak and chestnut blight fungal pathogens, respectively, were assayed comparatively for linear growth on potato- dextrose agar at the following temperatures: 10, 15, 20, 25, 28, 30 and 35°0. The test was repeated. Considering the mean values of all isolates of each species, the optimum temperature for growth of E. parasitica was 20°C, while that for E. gyrosa was the range 20 - 28°C. The growth of E. gyrosa generally exceeded that of E. para¬ sitica. After 8 days, none of the isolates of E. para^- sitlca grew at 35°C j at the same temperature, significant growth was recorded for all but one isolate (European) of E. gyrosa. These data suggest that thermotaxonomio growth parameters might be used to differentiate these two species when used as an adjunct to other criteria. (Special thanks are expressed to the American Philosophical Society which provided grant-in-aid support for this study) 136 The Virginia Journal of Science AN EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH TO THE DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS ON SERPENTINE OUTCROPS. E. W. Draper. Jr.* Dept, of Biology, Col. of William and Mary, Williamsburg , Va. 23185 The physiognomy and functional aspects of communities are attributes of the distribution and abundance of organisms, particularly the dominants, in space and time. Consequently, the environmental factors that affect the distribution (pre¬ sence or absence) of species are also involved in community separation. Communities along gradual environmental gradients (as in altitudinal zonation) tend to intergrade continuously and, therefore, the factors responsible for commmity differences are difficult to ascertain. The sharp line of demarcation between the impoverished vegetation on the edaphic dis- climax of a serpentine outcrop, and the surrounding non¬ serpentine vegetation, due to sharp environmental discontinuity, affords an excellent opportunity to study the factors involved in the discontinuities between communities . To analyze the relative importance of abiotic and biotic factors in controlling distribution of serpentine and nonserpentine species , experiments have been designed to measure effects of soil type, moisture levels, com¬ petition and interactions of these on the growth and survival of plants on and around Maryland serpentine barrens. ALTITUDINAL ZONATION AMONG WOODY CANOPY SPECIES ON SOUTHWEST SLOPES OF SHENANDOAH MOUNTAIN. M.S. Hensley, W. M. Markham* and E. D. Ritchie®. Dept, of Biology, Madison College, Harrisonburg, Va. 22801. Upper and lower canopy vegetation was analyzed on nine areas of similar terrain in western Rockingham and Augusta counties. Belt transects were made at 330 feet vertical increments between 15^0 and 1(360 feet elevation. Thirty-two woody species were identified. Foothills up to approximately 1600 feet elevation are characterized by upper austral vegetation with a mixed oak- hickory upper canopy and a dogwood-red maple lower canopy. QuCAcai alba and CofirmH {^.ohlda are the respective dominants at the 15l(0 feet level. Areas between 1600 and 3900 feet have a characteristic transition vegetation. Q.. ptviwA is the dominant upper canopy species throughout, except near the crests of drier ridges where PAnui punge.ni is more abundant. Species from the black oak -red oak group are com¬ mon in this area, but not dominant. AceA tub-turn is the dom¬ inant lower canopy species throughout this zone; CaAya spp. and Nyiia iybjdtica are also abundant. Above 3900 feet an association of northern hardwoods occurs, containing several deciduous species typical of boreal forests. Keen Apleatum, BeXuixz Iwtea, CnaXaeguA spp, and Sonbui ameru.ca.na. are abun¬ dant although, Q_. pninuA remains dominant. The highest peaks are crested by a somewhat dwarfed growth of Q_. AJUci^oLim. Data are presented showing altitudinal distribution, relative density, and basal area of the dominant species. EFFECTS OF ORGANIC AND INORGANIC MERCURY ON PHOTOSYNTHESIS AND CHLOROPHYLL CONTENT OF CHLORKLLA. P.T. Nielsen, Biology Department, Madison College, Harrisonburg, Va. 22801 Chlorella cells grown in inorganic culture medium at pH 6.B~accumirate methylmercury 1700-fold from 2 ppb solu¬ tions of CHjHg+cr" without significant effect on photosyn¬ thesis. Approximately 1/3 of this uptake occurs within the first five minutes, with the remainder being taken up grad¬ ually over a two-hour period. Our results indicate that environmental methylmercury may enter the aquatic food chain at the autotrophic level. The effects of higher concentrations of methylmercury on the photosynthetic rate are maximally apparent within the first half-hour of exposure. Concentrations in the 50 to 200 ppb range increasingly inhibit photosynthesis. Bleaching occurs only above 1000 ppb and becomes apparent only after a 2b -hour- exposure. Photosynthesis is much less sensitive to mercuric chloride. As with methylmercury, mercuric chloride affects photosynthesis within the first half-hour of exposure whereas significant bleaching is not detectable for over 20 hours. Thus the effects of mercury on photosynthesis and chlorophyll content appear to be unrelated phenomena. Mercury-poisoned Chlorella cells leak potassium. We are currently undertaking studies on the time-course of this leakage in an attempt to correlate it with mercury effects on either photosynthesis, membrane permeability or chlorophyll bleaching. EDAPHIC ADAPTATIONS IN TALINUM TERETIFOLIU M PURSH ( PORTULAGAGEAE) . g. E . PinionSlsD onsored by S . Ware.) Dept » of Biology , Col. of William and Mary, Williamsburg , Va. 231 8$ Tal inum tere tifol turn is a hardy perennial herb which occurs in the very shallow soil associated with several different kinds of rock outcrops . It is distributed from the serpentine barrens of Pa. to granite and sands tone outcrops of Ga. For this study, mature plants and soil were ob¬ tained from four different sites (Va. granite , Go. grant te, sandstone, and serpentine) . Seedlings of each population were grown on five different soil types (limestone and the above four types). In general , the granite and sandstone populations were incapable of growing well on the serpentine sot 1, and all four populations grew exceedingly well on the sandstone soil. The serpentine pop¬ ulation, however , grew almost as well on the ser¬ pentine soil as on the Vo. granite and sandstone so i Is, STUDIES OF THE PRODUCTION OF NATURAL POLLUTANTS BY NATIVE PLANT SPECIES. G. F, Levy, Dept, of Biology, Old Dominion Univ., Norfolk, Va. 23508. Under an interdisciplinary contract with NASA -Wallops Island studies on the release of natural plant products such as terpines by native woody plant species has been begun. The kinds and amounts of these products are being determined using gas liquid chromatography from a wide range of species including Pinus taeda, Chamaecyparis thyoides , Taxodium distichum, Acer rub rum, Nyssa sy Ivatica Liquidambar styracif lus and Myrica cerifera. Studies are being conducted using a plant growth chamber so that the influence of light, temperature and relative humdity on production rates can be evaluated. These investigations are part of an overall effort to devise a mathematical model of the atmospheric interactions in southeastern Virginia. EFFECT OF SULFATE DEFICIENCY ON RHIZ0ID FORMATION AND FUC0IDAN SULFATION IN EMBRYOS OF FUCUS VESICULUS. E. Wilson. Dept, of Life Sciences, Va. State Col., Petersburg, Va. 23803 Fucus Vesiculus embryos can be successfully grown in artifical sea water. If S0,_2 is left out of the medium rhizoid formation is lowered and the sulfation of fucoidan, an important cell wall polysaccaride, is interferred with. The addition of SO4” brings about rhizoid formation and fucoidan sulfation within 24 hours to embryos grown without sulfate. Proceedings, 1972-1973 137 ADVENTITIOUS ROOT INITIATION IN CALYSTEOIA SEPIUM (L. ) R. BRCMN. Dorothy F. Chappell and James L. Riopel. Prince Edward Academy, Farmville, Va. 23901 and Dept, of Biology, Univ. of Va., Charlottesville, Va. 22903 The initiation of adventitious root primordia in hedge bindweed was studied under controlled environmental condi¬ tions. It was found that the position of root initiation can be predicted and that the angle between the roots with reference to the stele remains constant. The predictable manner in which the root primordia occur indicates some strict morphogenetic control. VARIATIONS IN POLYRIBOSOMES AND RNA IN SUGAR PINE FEMALE GAMETOPHYTES DURING STRATIFICATION AND GERMINATION. L. B. Barnett and R. E. Adams*. Depts. of Biochemistry and Nutrition and Forestry and Wildlife, Va. Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ., Blacksburg, Va. 24061. Polyribosomes and RNA content in female gametophytes of Pinus lambertiana were studied during stratification and germination. Monoribosomes, which were functional in an in vitro protein synthesizing system, were present in female gametophytes of dry seeds. Proportion of ribosomes that were present as polyribosomes increased during the first 36 hours of stratification but remained constant at about 427. throughout the remainder of stratification (90 days). Evi¬ dence is presented that female gametophytes from dry, dor¬ mant seeds contain mRNA. Stratification increased capacity of female gametophytes to incorporate JJP into total RNA and the majority of this incorporation represented newly synthesized RNA. Total RNA and RNA in nuclear, mitochon¬ drial, ribosomal and supernatant fractions did not vary during stratification. During the initial 40 hours of ger¬ mination total RNA increased more than 607. and most of this increase was ribosomal RNA. Supported by Mclntire-Stennis Grant 636125 and Hatch Grant 616161. THE RESPONSE OF Lilium longiflorum 'Ace' POLLEN TO THE PRO¬ LINE ANALOGUE, AZETIDINE-2-CAKB0XYLIC ACID. R, R. Curd*. W. V. Dashek*, and R. R. Mills. Dept, of Biology, Va. Commonwealth Univ., Richmond, Va. 23220 The proline (pro) analogue, azetidine-2-carboxylic acid (azetidine), occurs naturally in liliaceous plants (Fowden and Steward, Ann. Bot., 21, 53, 1957). Here, we report the influence of azetidine on lily pollen tube elongation and selected metabolic parameters. The analogue was used at 1 x 10-2 M through 1 x 10”° M. Azetidine decreased tube elongation and l^C-pro uptake at 1 x 10“^, l x 10-3 and 1 x 10-^ m. These were not inhibited at 1 x 10-5 and 1 x 10-“ M. Light microscope radioautography of pollen germinated in l!*C-pro but in the absence of azetidine re¬ vealed an uniform distribution of silver grains over tubes. Silver grains were lacking over tubes exposed to 1 x lCT^ m azetidine. The number of silver grains over tubes was lowered at 1 x 10~3 and 1 x 10""^ M. However, the analogue at 1 x 10-5 and 1 x 10-^ M was without effect on silver grain deposition. Uptake of ^C-sucrose by pollen germi¬ nated in azetidine was highly variable. The analogue neither stimulated nor inhibited the respiratory activity of germinating pollen. ISOLATION OF RADIOACTIVE CONSTITUENTS FROM ll(C-PR0LINE LABELED LILY POLLEN CYTOPLASM, WALLS AND GROWTH MEDIUM. R. H. Johnson*, D. M. Hayward*, W. V. Dashek*, and R. R. Mills. Dept, of Biology, Va. Commonwealth Univ., Richmond, Va. 23220 The presence of hydroxyproline (hyp) and proline (pro) in cytoplasm and walls of germinated Lilium longiflorum 'Ace' pollen has been previously demonstrated (Dashek et al ■ , Pollen Development and Physiology, Butterworths , 19^4- 200, 1971). Here, we report the use of radioactive pro (the normal precursor of both protein-bound hyp and pro) to label constituents of growth medium, cytoplasm, and salt extracts as well as enzymic digests of walls derived from germinating lily pollen. Isolation of constituents involved germinating pollen in radioactive pro, gel filtration and examination of resulting radioactive peaks. Gel filtration indicated that cytoplasmic and salt-extractable wall radioactivity appeared in constituents of at least 5,000 molecular weight. Enzymic wall digests and growth medium yielded radioactivity in constituents possessing minimum molecular weights of 150,000. These constituents may be hyp-containing glycopeptides (or glycoproteins ?) which after originating in the cytoplasm arrive at and appear in the pollen tube wall. The occurrence of such glycopeptides in the growth medium may result from either cytoplasmic secretion or release from pollen walls. AN EVALUATION OF Lilium longiflorum 'Ace' POLLEN AS A BIOASSAY SYSTEM FOR AFLAT0XIN B1. W. V. Dashek* and G. C. Llewellyn. Dept, of Biology, Va. Commonwealth Univ., Richmond, Va. 23220 Aflatoxin Bp, a mold metabolite produced by Aspergillus flavus , is a common contaminant of a variety of agricul¬ tural products. It is reported to be the most toxic hepatocarcinogen known. Although the effects of aflatoxin Bp on micro-organisms and animal tissues have been ex¬ tensively examined, few studies have been concerned with the influence of this toxin on plant tissues. Here, we report the possible use of germinating lily pollen as an aflatoxin Bp bioassay system. A minimal effect on percent germination was noted at an aflatoxin concentration of 2pg/ml. As the concentration of aflatoxin Bp was increased from 2 to lUpg/ml percent germination declined in an al¬ most linear fashion. Germination was completely inhibited at 18 and 20yg/ml aflatoxin Bp. Pollen tube elongation appeared to be stimulated by a concentration of 2pg/ml. Tube lengths for pollen germinated in the absence of the toxin and at 4pg/ml aflatoxin Bp were similar. Raising the level of aflatoxin Bp from 6 to l6yg/ml gradually suppressed tube elongation with complete inhibition re¬ sulting at 18 and 20pg/ml. Lily pollen offers certain advantages over many of the current assay systems. These include: a sterile, simple to make medium, a supply of pollen (inexpensive and capable of being stored), 4 hours for a readily observable toxic response and a minimum of equipment . APPLICATION OF THE EARTH RESOURCES TECHNOLOGY SATELLITE FOR MAPPING PHYTOPLANKTON POPULATION DENSITIES IN ATLANTIC COASTAL WATERS. Harold G. Marshall, Dept, of Biology, Old Dominion Univ., Norfolk, Va. 23508. The application of phytoplankton values and sea truth data over the continental shelf region between Nova Scotia and Cape Hatteras, was made to sensor data from the Earth Resources Technology Satellite (ERTS-1). Data was gained from 117 open water stations during summer, fall, and winter collection periods. The composition and concentra¬ tions of phytoplankton were determined along transects directed from the shore seaward. Chlorophyll values, temper¬ ature, salinity, oxygen, and specific nutrient levels were also obtained at each station. Sea collections and data taken 26 January 1973 at three of these stations located off the mouth of the Chesapeake Bay were discussed speci¬ fically. Composite data results obtained from the Multi- spectral Scanner using four separate bands within the 500 to 1100 millimicron wave lengths were used to make contour plots of temperature values and regions of similar chloro¬ phyll concentrations. The results indicated a correlation between chlorophyll values and phytoplankton concentrations with adaptability of the sea truth data to ERTS utilization in mapping phytoplankton concentrations. Shortcomings of parameters were discussed in their relationships to total phytoplankton compositions. Supported by NSF Grant FA31768 and NASA contract NAS5-21816 The Virginia Journal of Science 1 38 A COMPARATIVE LIMNOLOGICAL SURVEY OF A BRACKISH-WATER LAKE AND A FRESH-WATER LAKE AT MOUNT TRASHMORE. Gene R. Cocke* and H. G. Marshall, Dept, of Biology, Old Dominion Univ. Norfolk, Va. 23508. Seasonal studies were made in two borrow pit lakes located on the Mount Trashmore sanitary landfill site from August 15, 1972 to February 10, 1973. Parameters measured included temperature, salinity, dissolved oxygen, light penetration, chlorophyll, plankton composition and distri¬ bution, nitrates, phosphates, hydrogen-ion concentrations, aquatic angiosperms, bird life associated with the ecosys¬ tems and basin contours of each lake. Highest numbers of plankton occurred during late summer and early autumn with significant reductions occurring in late fall and mid-winter Gradual plankton increases recurred in February. Dominant phytoplankters occurring during the summer and fall pulses were Pediastrum simplex, Euglena spiroides , Navicula spp. , Gymnodinium simplex, and Pleurosigma strigosum. Dominant zooplankters included the rotifers Brachionus angularis , B. quadridentata , Ke rate 11a cochlearis , and copepodites. Chlorophyll a and c concentrations were supportive of the species diversity and densities of diatom occurrence, while chlorophyll a and b indicated the diverse algal representa¬ tion. Nutrient levels were highest during plankton maxima and declined during late fall and winter. An hypothesis was made as to the expected rates of eutrophication for the lakes. HOST NUTRITION AND THE INDUCTION OF LEAF TUMORS BY AGRO¬ BACTERIUM TUMEFACIENS . Tom D. Salyer-, Dept, of Biology, Clinch Valley College, Wise, Va. 24293 A correlation between infectivity of primary leaves of Phaseolus vulgaris L. (var. "pinto") by Agrobacterium tumefaciens and the nutritional state of the host plant is indicated. Employing standard hydroponic procedures, plants were deprived of N, P, Ca, and K. To avoid the introduction of additional parameters, uniform conditions of photoperiod and temperature were maintained. In addition, the age of the host, minimum leaf size, and bacterial concentrations in the inocula were standardized at the time of inoculation. The inoculation procedure consisted of the introduction of a fixed number of wounds per leaf, followed by the addition of a constant volume of a broth culture of Agrobacterium sp. The response measured was of an "all or none" type with respect to each potential tumor site (i.e. wound). With the exception of calcium deficient plants, the deprivation resulted in a significant decrease in the ability of the leaves to undergo tumorigenesis, as compared to leaves of control plants cultivated under identical conditions but receiving a full complement of nutrients. These results suggest that the existence of altered nutri¬ tional states in different parts of the plant might be a factor in the normal occurrence of the disease at the crown. REPORT ON STUDIES WITH HYMENOCALUS - A DIFFICULT AMERICAN GENUS. Walter S. Flory, Wake Forest Univ., Box 7325, Reynolds Station, Winston-Salem, N.C. 27109. A total of 206 accessions, 139 from native locations, have been studied. These include 46 from 12 Mexican states, 67 from 12 of the United States; 24 from the West Indies (Puerto Rico, Jamaica, San Saba, New Providence) and 2 from San Salvador. Somatic chromosome numbers for 89 accessions are determined to be 38 (1 species), 40 (11), 42 (5), 44 (3), 46 (29), 47 (1), 48 (10), 50 (1), 52 (3), 54 (10), 60 (1), 69 (3), 70 (1), 84 (4), 86 (1), 88 (1), 92-96 (1), 95 (1), 98 (1), and 195 (1). It appears likely that 12 is a basic number, with many taxa being aneuploids tracing from a tetraploid of 2n = 48, others from an octoploid of 2n = 96, one from a 16-ploid of 2n = 192, and so on. Species differentiation and species relationships often present unusual problems. Material is apt to be difficult to collect. The succulent material does not dry well, and the result is a paucity of herbarium material, and this of a generally poor quality. Chromosome information is not as valuable an aid here, as in many genera. Information on desired meiotic associations can only be obtained with great difficulty after removing buds from bulbs usually sacrificed in the process. Any botanist seeing naturally growing Spider Lilies would greatly aid this work by for¬ warding the author a bulb or two of each taxon encountered, along with collection data. (Study supported by NSF B3296, G11080, and GB1767, and Wake Forest Univ., grants.) EFFECTS OF SEDIMENTATION ON THE ALGAL FLORA OF A SMALL RECREATIONAL IMPOUNDMENT. G. L. Sams el, Jr. and J. R. Reed*. Dept, of Biology, Va. Commonwealth Univ., Richmond, Va. 23220 Investigations were initiated to evaluate the effects of sedimentation on the algal composition, primary productivity rates and chemical nutrient concentrations of a 17 acre re¬ creational impoundment in central Virginia. Comparisons during the winter seasons of 1972-1973 indicated that as a result of sedimentation, from lake front home construction, the total numbers of algal genera in the lake decreased from 2k to 16, productivity as measured by ■*-'*C02 and total extractable chlorophyll decreased two fold, and several important nutrients, i.e. ammonia nitrogen and phosphate phosphorus increased significantly. THE FATE OF FERNALD'S VIRGINIA SPECIES. A. M. Harvill, Jr, Dept, of Natural Sciences, Longwood College, Farmville, Va . 23901 During fourteen seasons of botanical work in Virginia, Professor M. L. Fernald described 46 new species and hundreds of new varieties. Now about one-third of these species and only a few of the varieties are generally recognized by systematists . The drastic discounting of so many proposed taxa is due largely to a better understanding of bio- systematics and of the variability of plants in unglaciated territory. UNUSUAL VASCULAR EPIPHYTES IN THE CENTRAL BLUE RIDGE MOUNTAINS OF VIRGINIA. G. W. Ramsey, Dept, of Biology, Lynchburg, Va. 24S04 Articles have appeared in the recent past on the subject of unusual vascular epiphytes. No liter¬ ature specifically treats unusual vascular epiphytes growing in Virginia. In June 1972 a Ribes rotundifolium Michx. was found growing epiphytically upon the trunk of Quercus velutina Lam. Subsequently, 21 cases of unusual vascular plant epiphytism have been observed. Some other examples are: Hydrophyllum virginianum L. upon Quercus velutina Lam. ; Betula lenta L. upon both Quercus borealis Michx. and Quercus alba L. Juniperus virginiana L. has been found growing upon Quercus falcata Michx. and Platanus occidentalis L. in the upper Piedmont of Virginia. Kodachrome slides document these reports. Proceedings, 1972-1973 139 SOME INTERESTING AND UNUSUAL SHRUBS OF NORTH CARO¬ LINA. Elton C. Cocke. Dept, of Biol.. Wake Forest Univ., Winston-Salem, N. C. 27X09. Three semiparasitic shrubs, members of the San- talaceae, a family represented by only a few genera in the United States, occur in the mountains and piedmont North Carolina. These are: 1. Nestoria umbellula Raf., believed to be parasitic on the roots of pine and some deciduous trees and shrubs, is found sparingly in the piedmont. 2. Pvrularia pubera Michaux, a low shrub, parasitic on the roots of some deciduous trees and shrubs, is widespread but not abundant in the mountains. The fruit is very poisonous. 3. Buckleva distichophvlla (Nutt.) Torrey , a shrub parasitic on the roots of hemlock, Tsuga , is very rare, but found at a few locations in the high mountains. Fruiting plants of paper mulberry, Broussonetia papyrifera L'Her.. which are considered rare in N.C. have been found growing abundantly near Shelby. Five-lobed leaves of Sassafras albidum (Nutt.) Ness are no great rarity; however, a population of Sassafras with predominantly five-lobed leaves is unusual. Such a population occurs in Stokes Co. FERNS AND FERN ALLIES OF A MOUNTAIN COVE. Sarah Faulconer, Dept, of Biology, Strasburg H. S., Strasburg, Va. 22657. Vance's Cove, a small mountain valley lying between Little North Mountain and Greater North Mountain in the northwest portion of Virginia, offers numerous and varied habitats for the ferns and their allies. Since 1968 a number of speol.es of club mosses and horsetails have been found in the cove, including the rare Equisetum sylvaticum. Sawmill operations with accompanying extensive cutting of timber threaten to eliminate some of these choice habitats. TAXONOMY AND DISTRIBUTION OF ClAA-wm AND CaAdu 04 THISTLES IN ROCKINGHAM COUNTY, VIRGINIA. M. S. Hensley. Dept, of Biology, Madison College, Harrisonburg, Virginia 22801. True thistles are represented in the county flora by two genera and at least seven species. Three species comprise the introduced genus CtVidiLUA ' C. acanthoddeA , C. nutanb , and C. CAAApuA . All three are locally abundant and often pestiferous. The genus CUiA-i wn is represented by four species: C. ptmihm, C. diicotoA, C. aJUdA&imum, and C. vuZgaAe.. The latter is introduced and it is the only truly abundant member of the genus . Three of the seven taxa are new county records. A refined key to these taxa (along with seven other probable Virginia species) is presented, along with brief genus and species descriptions, ecological notes, distribution maps, and flowering dates. Since observations seemed to suggest that the CaAchiUA species are limestone indicators, transects were made across narrow belts of limestone, dolomite, shale, and sandstone bedrock. Data are presented which depict a significant correlation of densities of C. nutani and C. acantho-LdeA with both depth and calcium content of underlying bedrock. Greatest densities occur over high-calcium limestone at very shallow depths. C. nuXcunA seems to be a legitimate limestone indicator. C. acantho-LdeA can occur sparsely over shale containing carbonates; however, it is pestiferous only over limestone or dolomite. Preliminary soil tests suggest that this selectivity may be linked to variations in availability of calcium cations rather than pH. THE GENUS EUPATORIUM L. IN VIRGINIA. Miles F. Johnson. Dept, of Biology, Va. Commonwealth Univ., Richmond, Va. 23220 The genus Eupatorium s.l. has been the ob.iect of recent anatomical and morphological studies (King and Robinson, numerous papers) which have rendered Eupatorium s.s. a more natural genus of about 37 species distributed in Europe, Asia and eastern North America north of Mexico. Bio- systematic studies (Montgomery and Fairbrothers , Brittonia 22: 13^*-150, 1970) have aided in understanding the E. rotundifolium species complex. Eupatorium s.s. is represented in Virginia by 17 species, 2 varieties, 2 subspecies and 3 forms. Three species, Eupatorium cannabinum L. , E. pinnatifidum Ell. and E. mohrii Greene are reported as new to the Virginia flora. The ecology of some taxa is presented with dot maps and soil distributions where pertinant. TRANSPLANT STUDY OF ILIAMNA CORE 1 AND 1. REMOTA IN VIRGINIA Marvin W. Scott, Department of Natural Sciences, Longwood College, Farmville, Virginia 23901 In the fall of 1964 seeds were collected from the popula¬ tions of lliamna corei Sherff on Peters Mountain and from the colony of 1. remota Greene near Glen Wilton In Botetourt Co., V a. In the spri ng these seeds were germinated in the laboratory and the seedlings were transplanted to a plot in Clifton Forqe, V a. The two species of lliamna in eastern U.S. have been described and are distinguished mainly on the basis of stem height and leaf characteristics. This study deals with the phenotypic expression of the two species growing under similar environmental conditions. Further cytological studies of the variation in the eastern lliamnas are in progress. The need for further plant exploration for these rare species is emphasized. 140 The Virginia Journal of Science Section of Chemistry Fifty-first Annual Meeting of The Virginia Academy of Science May 1-4, 1973, Williamsburg, Virginia STERIC CONSTRAINTS IN THE SOLVOLYSIS OP CHLOROALLENES . Patricia L. Timpanaro* and Melvyn D. Schiavelli. Dept, of Chemistry, Col. of William and Mary, Williamsburg, Va. 23185 Substitution of a tert-butyl group, as in 1, at the 3-position of a tri-substituted haloallene apparently inhibits resonance stabilization by an aromatic ring placed at the same position. Com¬ pound 2, in which the aromatic ring is constrained to be coplanar with the allenyl ir-system exhibits a rate of solvolysis 6,800 times that of 1 in aqueous acetone at 35°. Temperature and solvent effects are consistent with an S^l mechanism. (CH3)3C\ C=C=C C6H5/ \ Cl C(CH3)3 1 N-ORGANOMETAL-SUBSTITUTED PHENOTHIAZINES : SYNTHESIS, ELECTROCHEMISTRY, AND ESR INVESTIGATION. A. C. Buchanan, III *, J. R. Butcher *, and H. J. Sipe, Jr., Dept, of Chemistry, Hampden-Sydney Col., Hampden-Sydney , Va. 23943 N-trimethylsilylphenothiazine (1) has been synthesized by metallation of phenothiazine (2) by n-butyllithium followed by silylation with trimethylchlorosilane . JL has been characterized by its physical properties. The esr of the radical cation 2*' has been reported by previous investigators; 2*" is quite stable. Thus 1 is of interest as a model compound for investigation of Si-N dative inter¬ actions: there is a large unpaired electron density at N in 1_ ' so that dative electron transfer to Si in should be observable as a decrease in the nitrogen hyperfine coupling constant. Cyclic voltammetric investigations of 1 and 2^ indicate that both have quasireversible , one-electron oxidations to their respective cations at similar potentials. Thus, substitution of Si at N for H has little effect on the energy of the highest filled MO of J., in contrast to the shift in oxidation potential that is observed in N-methyl- phenothiazine compared to 2_. In spite of the stability attributed to l4‘ from cyclic voltammetric results, we are unable to observe the esr of l’-' itself; instead we consistently observe the esr of 2*' when J. is electro- lytically oxidized in situ in the cavity of the esr spectrometer. THE CONTRASTING STEREOCHEMICAL BEHAVIOR OF PHOSPHINAMIDES AND PHOSPHINE OXIDES IN THE PRESENCE OF LITHIUM ALUMINUM HYDRIDE. P. D. Henson, S. 0. Ockrymiek*, and R. E. Markham, Jr.*, Dept, of Chemistry, Roanoke Col., Salem, Va. 24153 In view of recent observations that phosphine oxides undergo rapid stereomutation in the presence of lithium aluminum hydride (LAH) prior to reduction, the LAH reduction of 10-(4-dimethylaminophenyl) -9 , 10-dihydro-9-aza-10-phospha- phenanthrene 10-oxide with virtually complete retention of configuration represents an anomaly. In an attempt to determine the origin of this anomalous behavior, optically active methylphenylphosphinanilide and N,P-dimethylphenylphosphinanilide have been prepared and treated with solutions of LAH in tetrahydrof uran . The two compounds were observed to retain their stereochemical integrities under conditions which produce extensively stereomutated phosphine oxides. These observations indicate that the presence of a nitrogen atom adjacent to the P=0 group provides for the stereochemical rigidity of phosphinamides in the presence of LAH. (Acknowledgment is made to the donors of the Petroleum Research Fund, administered by the American Chemical Society, for support of this research.) CHEMISTRY OF SULFILIMINES . Robert C. Atkins and Carl M. Lentz. Dept, of Chemistry, Madison College, Harrisonburg, Va. 22801 A preliminary report concerning the proposed utilization of sulfilimines (iminosulfuranes ) as nitrogen transfer agents is presented. The synthesis of S , S-dimethyl-N-toluenesulfonyl- sulfilimine is described. Thermolysis of this compound yields a complex mixture of products , including a number of sulfides and disulfides. Mechanisms are proposed to explain product formation, and the mode of decomposition of sulfilimines is discussed. (Aided by Research Corporation - Cottrell Grant Program and Madison College Grants for Faculty Research) Proceedings, 1972-1973 141 ISOMERISM OF AMINO DERIVATIVES O F 1,4-DIPHENYLBUTENE-l, 4-DIONE- R. G. Bass+ and Bryan G. Wells, Department of Chemis¬ try, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia 23220. The products of addition of ammonia, methylamine, benzylamine, isopropylamine, t-butylamine, dimethy lamine, diethy lamine, and ani line to dibenzoylacetylene are shown to be enamines by nmr and ir spectra. Proof of this structure in part is obtained from the observed spin-spin splitting of N-H with the a( protons of the N-Alkyl group. In DCCI3, trans enamine appears to be the predominant form. Enamines formed from primary amines are stabilized by chelation between the nitrogen proton and the carbonyl group. In solutions of DCCI3 - DMSO-d6, the enamines formed from primary amines are observed to exist in two forms which appear to be the result of double bond isomerization. The proportion of cis enamine in solution is shown to increase as the mole percent DMSO-d4 in the solvent mixture increases. The size of the alkyl group appears to influence the cis-trans ratio. Deuteration studies give evidence for the presence of an enolimine as an intermediate between the cis and trans isomers. The amino, dimethy lamino, and diethylamino derivatives do not show this type of isomerization in the solvents used. ELECTROCYCLIC REACTIONS. ALPHA-FYRANS , THIO- ALPHA- PYRANS AND 1 ,2-DIHYDR0FYRIDINES. T. A. Gosink, Dept, of Chemistry, Old Dominion Univ. , Norfolk, Va. 23508. Spectrographic data (n.m.r.) will be presented which will show how the equilibrium between the two forms shown below DIELECTRIC RELAXATION STUDIES OF NITROAROMATICS IN SOLUTION. L. McPeters , A. DiNapoli,* and D. E. Kranbuehl. Dept, of Chemistry, College of William and Mary, Williamsburg, Va. 23185 Experimental measurements of dielectric behavior of solutions of nitrobenzene in carbon tetrachloride, nitrobenzene in benzene, p-nitro- biphenyl in benzene, m-nitrobiphenyl in benzene, o-nitrobiphenyl in benzene and 2 , 2 ' -dinitro- biphenyl in benzene have been made. Measurements were made at 5000 Hz using a General Radio 1615A Capacitance Bridge, in the microwave region using a low loss-slotted line technique, and at optical frequencies using an Abbe refractometer and a Brice-Phoenix Differential Refractometer. Meas¬ urements are used to determine a molecular rota¬ tional relaxation time. These characteristic relaxation times are analyzed in terms of the size and shape of the polar molecule and the direction of its dipole moment. ON THE SYNTHESIS OF 1, 6-CYCL0DECANEDI0NE AS A SYNTHETIC INTERMEDIATE. H.J. DePan, F.W. Frick, P.H. Jones, M.E. Skellenger and J.K. Shillington. Dept, of Chemistry, Washington and Lee University, Lexington, Va. 24450 Synthesis of 1,6-cyclodecanedione via ketene dimerization shifts as a function of the substituents R and the hetero atom X. In general the equilibrium is to the right for X = 0 and to the left for X = N and S. Increased steric bulk in R also shifts the equilibrium to the ring form. R has been investigated the method in general terms is as follows . R02c(CIfe) C0C1 -■-a -) R02C(CHa) n-i CH= c-c< :=0: 0 H(CHa) n-i C02R I— H02c( Clfe ) nC0( Clfe) nC02H (CIfe)„ (CJfe) Nr X = 0, S or N; R = H, alkyl or aryl (Financially supported by the Old Dominion University Research Foundation) The odd-numbered 6-keto-undecanedioic acid has 0 been obtained by reaction of 6-carbomethoxyvalerylU chloride with triethylamine in tnhydrous ether, and hydrolyzed in buffer acid. The con isponding di-acid chloride is next treated with triethylar ne in high dilution followed by a second hydrolysis. A second approach using adipyl chloride directly with triethylamine in high dilution is currently under investi¬ gation. D1METALLATED HETEROCYCLES AS SYNTHETIC INTERMEDIATES. FORM¬ ATION AND REACTIONS OF THE DILITHIO SALT OF 2-METHYL- 4 (3H)- QUINAZOLINONE . J. V. Hay* and J. F. Wolfe, Dept, of Chemistry, Va. Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ. , Blacksburg, Va. 24061 2-Methyl-4(3H)-quinazolinone (I) has been found to under¬ go facile dimetallation with 2 mol equiv of n-butyllithium in THF/hexane at 0°. Reactions of the resulting dilithio salt with electrophilic reagents (alkyl halides, aldehydes, or ketones) afford products derived exclusively from attack of the electrophile at the exocyclic carbanionic site. In contrast, pyrimidine UI also underwent metallation with 2 mol equiv of jn-butyllithium ; however, treatment of the resulting anionic species with alkyl halides afforded 2-, 4-, and 2,4- dialkylated products. A ONE-STEP, ROOM TEMPERATURE ASSAY FOR 0RGAN0LITHIUM REAGENTS, J. Edgar Geddie*, J. R. Butcher?, and H. J. Sipe, Jr., Dept, of Chemistry, Hampden-Sydney Col., Hampden- Sydney, Va. 23943 A one-step, room temperature method for the assay of organolithium reagents has been developed: organolithium reagents may be titrated with sec-butanol using fluorene as the indicator. The indicator color that results from the fluorene carbanion generated upon addition of n-butyl¬ lithium is discharged at the endpoint when titrated with 1.00 M sec-butanol in xylene. Results yield a weight per cent consistent with that obtained for the sec-butanol/ 2 ,2 '-biquinoline method of Ellison, Griffin, and KotsonisT R. A. Ellison, R. Griffin, and F. K. Kotsonis, J. Organo- met. Chem., 36, 209(1972). I II 142 The Virginia Journal of Science THE REACTION OP ORGANOLITHIUM REAGENTS WITH CARBON MONOXIDE IN THE PRESENCE OF COPPER(I) HALIDES. P. M. Barry*, and R. A. Coleman. Dept, of Chemistry, Col. of William and Mary, Williamsburg, Va. 23185 The reaction of a number of organolithium reagents with copper(I) halides to produce lithium dialky leuprates has been examined and will be reviewed. Reaction of the lithium dialkylcuprates with carbon monoxide followed by acid hydrolysis yields symmetrical dialky lketones . The synthetic utility of this ketone synthesis as well as possible additional uses of the reaction intermediate will be discussed. LINKAGE ISOMERISM IN COMPLEXES OF HISTIDINE AND OTHER IMIDAZOLES WITH RUTHENIUM. Richard J. Sund- berg , Goutam Gupta, and Henry Taube. Dept, of Chemistry, Univ. of Va . , Charlottesville, Va . 22901 and Dept, of Chemistry, Stanford Univ., Stanford, Calif. 94305 Simple imidazole derivatives have been shown to be capable of two types of bonding in octahedral Ru(ll) and Ru(lll) complexes. The ligand may be bound through N-3 or through the 2-carbon atom in which case the formal ligand is a dipolar ylide. The present work has involved study of the reaction of histidine with Ru(ll) ions in search of similar linkage isomerism. Isolation and spectral char¬ acterization of both nitrogen-bound and carbon- bound complexes of histidine will be described. The potential biological significance of this observation will be discussed. SYNTHESIS OF SOME HIGH MELTING ORGANIC COMPOUNDS. James A. Harvey and Michael A. Ogliaruso. Dept, of Chemistry, Va. Poly. Inst., Blacksburg, Va. 24061. A Diels-Alder reaction consists of a 1,4-addition of a dienophile to a diene. A series of Diels-Alder reactions has been performed in which 2 ,3 ,4 ,5-tetraphenylcyclopenta- dienone "tetracyclone" , and "bis-tetracyclones" serve as the diene and substituted tolanes, phenylacetylene , and 1,2,3-triphenylcyclopropene serve as the dienophile. The initially formed Diels-Alder adducts, which were not isolated, lost carbon monoxide to form substituted hexaphenyl benzenes, substituted polypheny lated benzenes, and polyphenylated bis-cycloheptatrienes , respectively. Several of these polyphenylated compounds exhibit high thermal stability. In addition a new series of dienes , polyphenylated "bis-cyclopentadienes" , has been synthesized using LiAlH^/AlClj reduction of the "bis-tetracyclones". STRUCTURE OF 3-METHYL BENZYLE TRIMETHYL AMMONIUM IODIDE. William E. Keefe, Department of Biophysics, Medical College of Virginia, Richmond. Virginia 23298 The structure of 3-Methyl benzyl trimethyl ammo¬ nium iodide has been determined. The dimensions of the unit cell are a = 7. 5329 ± . 0020, b = 29. 7673 ± . 0052, c = 5. 8658 ± . 0014. The space group is Cmc2j and there are four molecules per unit cell. An R value of . 053 has been obtained. The iodine and portions of the organic ion lie close to a symmetry plane. Further refinement is in progress. DERIVATIVES Of 2, J-DIMETHYL-1, 3-BUTADIENE, W. Palmer, R. M. Ottenbrite, Dept, of Chemistry, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Va. 2322-. The preparation of 2, 3-bis(chloromethyl)-l, 3-butadiene has been effected from the corresponding 3,4-bis(hydroxymethyl)-2, 5-dihydro- thiophene-1 1-dioxide. Several methods of preparation of the latter compound have been accomplished. The most facile reaction involved silver carbonate with the corresponding dibromide. The 2, 3— bis (iodomethyl)-l, 3-butadiene was prepared by means of the Finkelsteir exchange method with the dibromide and potassium iodide. Fluori¬ dation of the same dibromide compound with potassium fluoride in diethyleneglycol gave a good yield (65 °/o) of 3-fluoromethyl -4- methy lene-5-hydrothiophene-l, 1-dioxide which is a 1,4-elimination product. This compound was found to polymerize readily on standing. BICYCLICS AND POLYCYCLICS with methylenes. George S. Whitney Dept, of Chemistry, Washington and Lee University Lexington, Virginia 244-50. The Diels-Alder adduct of cyclopentadiene and benz- quinone yield upon radiation a bird cage diketone. Under the right conditions a Wittig reaction will put two methylenes back to back. This compound has activity in the U. V. above 200 nm. Proceedings, 1972-1973 143 THERMOLYSIS OP CARBAMOYL ACID AZIDES. Fran Morandini* and R. L. Williams. Dept, of Chemistry, Old Dominion tfniv. , Norfolk, Va. 23508 The synthesis and characterization of the carbamoyl azide-acylazide system (l) will be presented together with a discussion of the thermal rearrangement products of this novel species. Thermolysis of (l) in the melt has been shown to give rise to the 1 -acylazido-benzimidazalone structure (2). This species is described as undergoing a further thermal rearrangement to either (3) or (U) . 0 THE MECHANISM OF THE MEYER-SCHUSTER REARRANGEMENT. Michael W. Edens* and Melvyn D. Schiavelli. Dept, of Chemistry, College of William and Mary, Williamsburg, Va. 23185 Preliminary work on the mechanism of the Meyer- Schuster rearrangement of tertiary propargyl alcohols to a, 0-unsaturated ketones is reported. Substituent effects (p = -1.8 at C-l; p = -2.3 at C-3 vs. a+), activation parameters (AS* = -9-5 eu), and solvent isotope effects (k„ „/kD „ = 0.38) are consistent only with a 2 2 mechanism which involves a rapid preequiligrium formation of the conjugate acid of the alcohol followed by unimolecular or pseudo-unimolecular rearrangement to the product. 0 (3) SYNTHESIS OF 1 -SUBSTITUTED 3,4-DIMETHYLENE PYRROLIDINES, P. V. Alston, and R. M. Ottenbrite, Dept, of Chemistry, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Va. 23220. The reaction of 3,4-bis(bromomethy l)-2, 5-dihydro thiophene- 1, 1-dioxide with primary amines to produce 5-subsfituted-l, 3,4,6- tetrahydrothieno ^3,4-cJ pyrrole-2, 2-dioxides was investigated . It was found that the bicycTic compounds were obtained in good yields for arylamines with substituent groups with Hammett (T~ values of less than 0.40. The reaction of 3, 4-bis(bromomethyl)-2, 5-dihydro thio- phene-1, 1-dioxide with ammonia yielded the spiro-compound instead of the bicyclic product 1,3,4, 6-tetrahydrothieno j3,4-c] pyrrole- 2, 2-dioxide. The preparation of the latter compound was accom¬ plished by another procedure. The bicyclic compounds were ther¬ mally decomposed to produce the corresponding 3,4-dimethylene pyrrolidines in good yields. Several accompanying products of both of the above reactions were isolated and characterized. B-DIKETONATE DERIVATIVES OF TIN AND TITANIUM. D. W. Thompson, J. F. Lefelhocz, and D. D. Carr, Dept, of Chemistry, College of William and Mary, Williamsburg, Virginia. 23185 The reactions of the tin tetrahalides (SnX4 X = Cl, Br, I) with 1-phenyl-l , 3-butanedione in the presence of pyridine in inert organic solvents have been studied. SnCl4 reacts to give pyridin- ium hexachlorostannate and dichlorobis ( 1-phenyl- 1.3- butanedionate)tin(IV) . The latter complex was isolated by fractional crystallization from ben¬ zene. The nmr of Cl2Sn(Bzac)2 shows methyl resonance patterns consistent with the predomi¬ nance of the cis configurations. Snl4 behaves similarly to SnCl4. However, SnBr4 reacts to give the salt-like complex [pyH][Br4Sn(bzac) ]. This latter complex is typical of those isolated for all the tin tetrahalides reacting with 2 . 4- pentanedione in the presence of either pyridine or triethylamine . ELECTROCHEMICAL REACTIONS OF METHYLATED XANTHINES IN NON- AQUEOUS SOLVENTS. A. West and G. CL Grant . Department of Chemistry, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Va. 23220. The electrochemical oxidations of three biologically im¬ portant purines — 1 , 3-dimethylxanthine (theophylline) , 3,7- dime thy lxanthine (theobromine) and 1 , 3 , 7-trimethylxanthine (caffeine) — were studied at a platinum electrode in aceto¬ nitrile. Cyclic voltammetry at scan rates up to 20 V/sec. gives no reverse peak for theophylline. For theobromine and caffeine at scan rates up to 5 V/sec a second forward peak is observed and no reverse peak; at 20 V/sec a small reverse peak is observed for both compounds indicating a partially stable intermediate. This behavior is very different from that observed in aqueous solutions. Some INDO-SCF calculations have been performed on uric acid (8-oxoxanthine) using the X-ray structure, since methyl substituted uric acids are postulated intermediates in the above reactions. The calculations show that a possible di- sarbonium ion intermediate would be readily subjected to nucleophylic attack at the five carbon atom in accord with many observed products. The calculations also lend support to another possible intermediate formed after loss on two electrons and two pro¬ tons . DETERMINATION OF ELEMENTAL COMPOSITION BY NEUTRON ACTIVATION ANALYSIS OF PARTICULATE AIR POLLUTANTS IN TIDEWATER. Roger N. Blais* and G. E. Copeland . Dept . of Geophysical Sciences , Old Dominion University , Norfolk, Virginia , 23508. Preliminary results from an investigation of particulate air pollutant composition in the Hampton Roads area will be offered, together with a description of methods and of additional exper¬ iments to be carried out this spring. Prelimin¬ ary results indicate expected high concentrations of sea salts , together with significant concentra¬ tions of Ti and V. Possible sources of these elements will be described, as will an experiment scheduled for May 12, which may shed further light on the origins of local particulates. 144 The Virginia Journal of Science AUTOMATED DETERMINATION OP HYDROCARBONS ALONG THE VIRGINIA COAST LINE. Eobert B. Denyszyn*. Alan E. Bandy, Dept- of Chemistry, Old Dominion tfniv. , Norfolk, Va. 23508 A computer controlled gas chromatograph has been designed to detect and measure the concentration of trace hydro¬ carbons in the atmosphere- The system consists of a bsckman 72-5 G.C with a temperature control trap, an injection system made of teflon solinoid valves , a multi column system, and a data handling system. SOME OPTICAL MEASUREMENTS OF THE ZAIKIN-ZHABOTINSKY REAGENT. E. V. Mielczarek* , C. Jones*, and G. Mushrush. George Mason University, Fairfax, Va. 22030 Properties of the chemical oscillator, the Zaikin- Zhabot insky reagent have been studied by observing oscilla¬ tions in the optical absorption of the reagent. Spectro¬ photometer measurements were made at 480 These measurements show an oscillatory absorption. If the system contains initial bromide1 the period of the oscillation is longer. An explanation of the lengthening of the period can be given from the kinetics scheme of a similar reaction.2 Other properties of the reagent have been monitored using a HejNe laser. Oscillations in the absorption of this 6328A radiation occur with an initial period of 11 seconds lengthening to 16 seconds. The reagent form as modified by Winfree1 was also studied. Both reagent forms behave similarly with the exception that the Winfree form exhibits a strong resonance flourescence at 6328 A with a period of about 28 seconds. 1A. Winfree, Science, 175, 634 (1972) 2 R. J. Field, E. Koros , and R. M. Noyes, J. Amer . Chem. Soc. 94, 8649 (1972) TEE APPLICATION OF LASER-RAMA1I TECHNIQUES FOR THE DETERMINA¬ TION OF SULFATE IN SEA WATER, A. T . Zimmermann, III*. A. R. Bandy, Dept, of Chemistry, Old Dominion Uhiv. , Norfolk, Va. 23508 Sulfate analysis of sea water can be done quickly and reliably using a Raman scattering technique. Using this technique, the maximum error in sulfate ■concentrations in the range of most sea and estuarine waters was ± 6 %. During a sulfate study in the Hampton Roads area, several low S0r/S% ratios were found in deep water trapped by thermo and haloclines. Sulfate reducing bacteria in the sediments underlying the deep water probably removed the sulfate from the trapped bottom water. DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF PRIMARY STANDARDS FOR CALIBRATION OF AIR POLLUTION MONITORING DEVICES. G. F. Maier*. H. M. Finley*, and A. R. Bandy. Dept, of Chemistry, Old Dominion Univ. , Norfolk, Ya. 23508 Description of the problems and solution to the problems encountered in the construction of an air quality standards lab. Presentation of the operation of a complex permeation system including hydrocarbons and various other chemical constituents of the air and the technique and use of the primary standards for the calibration of air pollution monitoring devices. THE INFLUENCE OF NITRiLOTRIACETIC ACID ON HEAVY METAL ION UPTAKE INBLUEGILLS (LIPOMIS MACHRQCHIRRUS). E. R. Gutzke+, J. R. Reed, and G. C. Grant, Depts. of Biology and Chem¬ istry, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia 23220. Nitrilotriacetic acid (NTA) is being considered as a possible substi¬ tute for soluble phosphates by detergent manufacturers. This study was concerned with the uptake of potentially toxic metal ions in blue- gills with and without the influence of strongly chelating NTA. Also studied was the distribution of toxic metal in eight organs - gills, skin, gut, heart, liver, kidney, muscle and bone. Screening tests were initially performed to determine sublethal levels of Zinc or Cadmium. All fish were maintained in glass aquaria in reconstituted hard water during the experiments. Variables con¬ trolled or monitored include: pH, temperature, Zinc concentration, NTA concentration, light intensity and water hardness. Fish were sacrificed at selected intervals after which the dissected organs were weighed and dissolved in concentrated acids in the ratio 3 HNOj ; 1 H2SC>4 ; 1 HCIO4 . Zinc analysis was performed on an IL 153 Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer in an air/acetylene flame with appro¬ priate checks for matrix effects. Cadmium levels found required the greater sensitivity of a heated Tantalum ribbon flameless technique. Results varied with each organ, but for a complete series with Zinc at pH 6 and 7 the clear trend was towards greater accumulation of the metal ion in the presence of NTA for times longer than a few days. Further studies of these long term effects need to be performed. A COMPARISON OF THE REACTIVITY OF H2S AND HzO WITH <£ -F ep3 MICROCRYSTALLITES. H. M. Gager, J. F. Lefelhocz, and M. C. Hobson, Jr., Chemistry Department, Virginia Common¬ wealth University, Richmond, Virginia 23220. The MSssbauer effect has been employed in studying the reactivity of water and hydrogen sulfide with microcrystalline dispersions of iron- on-silica gel . Samples were prepared by impregnating high surface- area silica gel with an enriched Fe 57 nitrate solution. Calcination or reduction in flowing hydrogen at 500°C produced a surface-active iron species. The reduced state was characterized by two quadrupole split doublets. Addition of water vapor caused an increase in the AEq of the surface active species. No change in the total inte¬ grated intensity of the spectrum was noted, indicating that the iron is chemically bonded to the support. The increase in &Eq may be inter¬ preted as a change in the number of nearest neighbors of the surface active Fe^+ ions. In contrast to the distinct changes observed with H jO , addition of H2S produced a broadening of the spectrum and a general loss of structure. Displacement of the HjS with NH3 showed that the sites active to chemisorption were still available. The spec¬ tra of the oxidized sample also support the interpretation that the HjS is adsorbed on sites not available to the water or ammonia. The changes in the spectra resulting from chemisorption will be discussed in terms of the formation of surface complexes and the chemical and physical properties of the water and hydrogen sulfide molecules. Proceedings, 1972-1973 145 A GUNN DIODE MICROWAVE SOURCE FOR A COMPONENT-ASSEMBLED ESR SPECTROMETER. Bennie Good*, J. R. Butcher*, and H. J. Sipe, Jr. , Dept, of Chemistry, Hampden-Sydney Col., Hampden-Sydney , Va. 23943 A Gunn diode microwave source has been used to replace a klystron microwave source in a component esr spectro¬ meter. The Gunn diode, with home built power supplies, enjoys a considerable cost advantage over commercial klystron microwave equipment. Using integrated circuit voltage regulators, power supplies have been built to provide the 12 volt, 0.5 amp required to drive the diode and a 0 - 20 volt tuning voltage. AM microwave noise due to the power supply is negligible. FM microwave noise due to noise in the tuning voltage supply is 3 milligauss , compared to a typical spectrometer resolution on the order of 100 milligauss. Resolution and signal/noise ratio are comparable to those obtained with a high quality klystron. With access to surplus electronics parts, the total cost of the Gunn diode and associated supplies is ca. $300, while a high quality klystron and klystron power supply may cost ca. $2000. ON THE CHEMISTRY OF POSITRONIUM ATOMS IN AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS OF FE(III) COMPOUNDS, R. E. Wild*, A. L. Nichols, H. J. Ache, Dept, of Chemistry, V.P.I. & S.U., Blacksburg, Va. 24061. The rate constants for the reaction of ortho-positronium with a series of iron(III) compounds have been measured. Compounds investigated include aquo iron(III), ferricyanide, nitroprusside, and iron (III) complexes with a series of alcohols, EDTA, phenanthrolines , and 8-hydroxy quinoline. Ferricyanide, nitroprusside, and the phenanthroline com¬ plexes showed rate constants near the diffusion controlled limit (y2 x 10-*-® M“i s-l) . The rate constants for the alcohol complexes decreased going from methanol to t-butanol and seem to be correlated with the expected change of oxidation potentials of the iron(III) alcohol complexes related to increasing alkyl substitution. Work supported by the U. S. Atomic Energy Cocmission. POSITRONIUM REACTIONS WITH DIAMAGNETIC ORGANIC MOLECULES, W. J. Madia*, A. L. Nichols*, H. J. Ache, Dept, of Chemis - try, V.P.I. & S.U., Blacksburg, Va. 24061. Differences have been observed in the rate constant for the interaction of ortho-positronium with o-nitrotoluene as compared with m- and p-nitro toluene in benzene solu¬ tions. A rate constant of 0.85(+ 0.20) x 10^0 M~1 s~l for o-nitrotoluene compares with a value of 2.10(+ 0.20) x 1010 M"1 s~l for m- and p-nitrotoluene. This difference may be attributed to the relative electron charge density on the atoms of the molecules, and to the predominant steric effects found in o-nitrotoluene. A preliminary study of the effects of saturating benzene solutions with various diamagnetic and paramagnetic gases has been made. The changes in the ortho-positronium annihilation rate can be simply explained in terms of the molecular orbital electron population of the gases. Work supported by the U. S. Atomic Energy Commission. ISOTOPE EFFECTS ON THE SOLVOLYSIS OF HALOALLENES. D. Ellen Ellis* and Melvyn D. Schiavelli. Dept, of Chemistry, College of William and Mary, Williamsburg, Va. 23185 Substitution of a trideuteriomethyl group at the 3-position of a haloallene, as in 1, retards the rate solvolysis by a normal 8-secondary isotope effect, k„/kn = 1.26. Temperature effects (AS = -1 eu), solvent effects (m = 0.72) and element effects (kg /k^ = are consistent with an S.,1 mechanism. Preliminary examina¬ tion of 3 , 3-disubstituted haloallenes, as ?, in aqueous trif luoroethanol exhibit normal S^l a- and 8-secondary isotope effects, k„/kn(a) = 1.20 and kH/kD(8) =1.24. (CH3)3CN Br (Cl ) (CH3)3C^ ^Br(Cl) c=c=c, c=c=cx (CD3)CH3 C(CH3)3 (CD3)CH3 nH(D) 1 2 TRANSITION STATE MODELS FOR ASSYMMETRIC NUCLEOPHILIC ADDI¬ TIONS. E. J. Goller, T. Sturgill*, and H. R. Myler*. Dept, of Chemistry, Virginia Military Inst., Lexington, Va. 24450. We have recently observed that the reaction of MeM<— (M = Zn, Cd, Mg) reagents with 2-phenyl-3-methylbutanal ( i-PrCH0CHO ) gives threo-3-phenyl-4-methyl-2-pentanol as the major diastereomeric product. These results appeared to be in violation of the well known postulates of Cram, Karabatsos, and Felkin regarding controlling factors of transition state geometry in such nucleophilic addition reactions. We have now obtained stereochemical data on the reactions of C2H5-, 11-C3H 7-, and i-C3H7-magnesium and zinc reagents with 2-phenyl- 3-methylbutanal. Although threo-alcohol was the major diastereomer from the reaction wxth“ (C2H5 )2Zn, a shift toward more erythro alcohol occurred with increas¬ ing bulk of organometallic reagent. This result is in agreement with the Felkin postulates. The key to rationali¬ zing these results within present transition state concepts may lie in determining the effective steric bulk of C6H5 and L-C3H7. The identification of threo- and erythro-alcohols is based on their glpc retention times on STAP and on their relative rates of dehydration. An independent synthesis is presently under investigation. RESOLUTION OF DISSYMMETRIC AND ASYMMETRIC CONTRI¬ BUTIONS TO THE OPTICAL ACTIVITY OF L-CYSTINE AND DERIVATIVES. R. Bruce Martin. Chemistry Dept., Univ. of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, 22901 Contributions to optical activity in L-cystine and derivatives including proteins may be due to dissymmetry arising from preferred left or right handed screw senses for disulfide dihedral angles other than 0° and 180° and to asymmetry resulting from propinquity of the asymmetric carbon to the disulfide chromophore. Unraveling of these con¬ tributions is complicated by two absorption bands near 250 nm which, for typical disulfide dihedral angles near 90°, tend to give oppositely signed circular dichroism peaks resulting in extensive cancellation and observation of only weak optical activity in the 250 nm absorption region. It is concluded that for many applications the asym¬ metric contribution to optical activity is comparable to the dissymmetric one. 146 The Virginia Journal of Science PREPARATION AND CHARACTERIZATION OF CHLORO ( ALKOXY )BIS ( 2 , 4-PENTANEDIONATO ) TITANIUM (IV) COMPLEXES. D. W. Thompson and T. V. Harris, Dept, of Chemistry, College of William and Mary, Williamsburg, Va. 23185 We wish to report on the preparation and struc¬ ture of several mixed ligand chloro(alkoxy )bis ( 2 , 1)- pentanedionato)titanium(IV) complexes. The ini¬ tial intent of our investigation was to study the reaction of simple alcohols with [Cl3Ti(C5H702) ]2 with the expectation of synthesizing complexes with the simple formula, Cl2 (RO )Ti ( C sH 702 ) . Direct reaction of alcohols with [Cl3Ti(C5H702 ) ]2 led only to the well-known Cl2Ti (CsH702 ) 2 . On the other hand, reactions of alcohols with [Cl3Ti(CsH702 ) ]2 in the presence of pyridine led to the formation of pyridinium alkoxypentachloro^ T)titante(IV) salts and cis-chloro(alkoxy)bis(2 ,4- pentanedionato)titanium(IV) complexes. Alcohols used in this study include methanol, ethanol, 1-propanol, 2-propanol, and 2-propenol. The syn¬ thetic and characterization data for these com¬ pounds will be discussed. EXCESS VOLUMES FOR THE SYSTEM POLYETHYLENE — n- DECANE. R. A. Orwoll and J. A. Small.* Dept, of Chemistry, Col. of William and Mary, Williamsburg, Va. 23185 The volume changes accompanying mixing of linear polyethylene with n-decane have been observed at temperatures between 135 and 175°. The observed contractions comprise at most 1.5$ of the combined volumes of the two components. The measured excess volumes and their temperature coefficients are in good agreement with values calculated from theory. A small departure from Brs3nsted's principle of congruence was detected. A MONTE CARLO MODEL FOR SIMULATING THE DYNAMIC BEHAVIOR OF POLYMER CHAINS. J. Auping* , S. Metzger*, and D. E. Kranbuehl. Dept, of Chemistry, Col. of William and Mary, Williamsburg, Va. 23185 The dynamic and equilibrium properties of random-coil polymer chains in solution has been simulated using Monte Carlo techniques. In this model the configurations of the polymer chain, N-l, units long, is represented by a string of N connected points, referred to as beads, on a simple cubic lattice. Brownian motion of the chain is simulated by choosing one bead at a time and moving it to a new position. In the present study the relaxation behavior of the vector end- to-end length, of the end-to-end length squared and of a unit vector directed along the end-to-end length was examined. The relaxation behavior of these quantities was studied for chains without excluded volume interactions and for chains confined in a box. FORMATION OF BOARDS THROUGH CROSSLINKING OF GROUND BARK WITH DICARBOXYLIC ANHYDRIDES. F. S. Lin*, P. C. Ferguson*, and W. G. Glasser. Div. of Forestry and Wildlife Resources, Va. Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ., Blacksburg, Va. 24061 Particleboards were formed from ground bark through co¬ polymerization of aromatic substances in bark with maleic an¬ hydride. The reaction of maleic anhydride with cinnamyl alcohol derivatives as model substances representative of aromatic compounds in wood has recently been shown to yield linear copolymers with maleic anhydride. This copolymeriza¬ tion reaction can serve to develop inter particle bonds between lignified plant particles. The formation of such bonds was demonstrated by improvements in physical and mech¬ anical properties of pressed mats of ground bark (boards) impregnated with maleic anhydride as compared to untreated boards. Significantly improved data for strength — determined as modulus of rupture — water sorption, and thickness swelling were obtained after adding only 5 % maleic anhydride, and further improvements were experienced with increasing amounts of maleic anhydride added. The product developed in this study provides a possibility for utilizing large quantities of bark which are by-products of local forest products indus¬ tries. The boards made in this study meet the strength requirements for low density, interior use commercial wood particleboards . PEANUT HULLS: A POTENTIAL RAW MATERIAL FOR PULP, PAPER AND OTHER CELLULOSIC PRODUCTS. R. H. Slupskl*, J. P. Clark*, and W. G. Glasser. Div. of Forestry and Wildlife Resources jointly with Dept, of Chemical Engineering, Va. Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ., Blacksburg, Va. 24061 In Virginia alone, there are approximately 60,000 tons of peanut hulls produced annually. The hulls are either sold as mulch or burned. Since one half of the peanut hull is cellulose, the possibility of using the hulls as a raw mate¬ rial for the production of pulp, paper or other cellulosic products is worth considering. In this investigation, peanut hulls were pulped using a modified kraft pulping procedure with various levels of sulfidity. Other variables such as time, temperature, and liquor :wood ratio were kept constant. A partial bleaching, consisting of chlorination, extraction with alkali and hypochlorite treatment, was performed on the pulps. Handsheets were made from the bleached and unbleached pulps and from blends of various compositions with pure wood cellulose (blotting paper) . Physical tests were performed with these handsheets evaluating strength, freeness (drainage time), and brightness, following standard procedures. The bleached pulp from the 0Z sulfidity cook was treated with alkali and acetylated to investigate its value as chemical cellulose . COMPLEX FORMATION WITH VARIOUS PYRIDINE AND 3IPYRIDYL ACID HYDRAZIDES. W. Leo Johnson, III* and R.L. Williams, Dept, of Chemistry, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, Va. 23508. The structural assignment by Infrared of the copper (II) complexes of plcolinoylhydrazlne (I) and the 2 , 2 ' -bisacylhydrazide of the 3,3'- blpyridlne(2) is discussed. It is proposed that the type of complex formed by (2) with copper (II) involves ring coordination as does (1) Proceedings, 1972-1973 147 INDIVIDUALIZED STUDY PROJECT IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY. J.D.Beck, Dept, of Chemistry, Va. State Col., Petersburg, Va. 23803, and G. Koski*, Instructional Media Ctr., Mich. State Univ., East Lansing, Mich. 48823 Approximately 120 students enroll each year in the Gen¬ eral Chemistry course at Virginia State College. These stud¬ ents vary widely in their backgrounds and interests and bring with them various learning problems. These problems include difficulties in reading scientific material, in handling mathematical problems, and in doing analytical thinking. Poor motivation and improper study habits also contribute to a lack of interest in course material and a high failure rate. We have attempted to solve some of these problems by devising a self-instructional program which utilizes an integrated multi-media approach and rewards individual student effort. Special features of the program include audio tapes made directly from the textbook, "miniexperi- ments" for pertinent illustration of concepts as encounter¬ ed, and the use of numerous problem sets for immediate feedback and reinforcement. Although the approach was tried for only a portion of one semester, the results were encouraging, especially in terms of increased student interest and better study habits. We are hoping to scale up to a full semester next year. A NEW APPROACH TO ACQUISITION AND DISPLAY OF LABORATORY DATA. Frank A. Settle, Jr., Raymond E. Dessy, Jeffery S. Babis*, Dept, of Chemistry, V.P.I. & S.U., Blacksburg, Va., 24061. A reasonably priced computer interfaced system capable of acquiring, processing and outputting experimental data consists of a minicomputer (DEC PDP-8L, 4K core), teletype (ASR-33) interface components (Heath EU-801E interface system) , control board (designed and built by authors), x-y plotter, oscilloscope and digital multimeter (with BCD output). The system can also be used for instruction in computer interfacing. The basic program package can scale, smooth and integrate up to 1000 data points and output results to peripheral devices ( teletype and punch, plotter, and/or oscilloscope). An additional program package allows spectra to be computed using parameters entered from teletype keyboard and a comparison of the computed spectra with experimental data. The program also allows sections of data to be removed and adjustment of sloping base lines. The system has been used with uv-visible spectrophotometers, gas chromatographs and ESR spectrophotometers. COMPUTER-ASSISTED INSTRUCTION IN QUALITATIVE ORGANIC ANALYSIS Harold M. Bell, Dept, of Chemistry, Va. Polytechnic Inst. & State Univ., Blacksburg, Va. 24061 Programs to assist in the identification of organic compounds by spectrometric and related means have been developed or adapted for use at V.P.I. & S.U. Computer assistance is available for treatment of C, H, and N data, mass spectrometric data, and certain types of nmr and esr data. A program to assist in infrared analysis is in preparation. Applications of these programs will be discussed . EXPERIENCE USING A SMALL PROGRAMMABLE CALCULATOR (WANG 600) IN PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY CLASS AND LABOR¬ ATORY, James E. Worsham, Jr., Dept, of Chemistry. University of Richmond, Richmond, Va. A Wang Laboratories Model 600 Programmable Calculator has been used in routine calculations and to extend the range of analysis of data to least squares curve fitting in the Physical Chem¬ istry Laboratory. In the classroom numerical integration has been applied to Third Law entropy calculations. The Runge-Kutta method for the numerical solution of differential equations has proven a powerful tool in modelling chemical kinetic systems and ecological systems. Also, the Model 600 is being interfaced to instruments to provide on-line data collection and analysis under flexible program control. The system is reliable, convenient and inexpensive. ECPERIENCE USBTt A 5MATL PB0GRA1«ABU5 CALCULATOR (NANG 600 AND 600) IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY LABORATORY. Robert H. Beil, Bruce H. Booker*, and Charles M. Carter, Jr.*, Dept, of Chemistry, Univ. of Richmond, Richmond, Virginia 23173* The Wang programmable calculator, over a period of two years, has been gradually introduced into the general chem¬ istry laboratory. This process divides into four phases which are: (1) checking student laboratory results turned in for grading; (2) on the spot analysis of the laboratory results with suggestions for immediate improvement of labo¬ ratory technique; (3) involving the student in writing sim¬ ple programs of bis own to solve problems; and (4) finally, the present state consisting of a combination of 1, 2, and 3 above. This new tool has been found to be very useful for both student and faculty. The tentative conclusion is that the use of the Yang in the general chemistry laboratory can be for student end faculty a new challenge which c_n add depth of understanding and stimulate increased thinking about quantitative chemical problems in the general chemis¬ try laboratory. IMPLEMENTATION OF A SELF-PACED GENERAL CHEMISTRY COURSE FOR PRE-PROFESSIONAL STUDENTS. J. R. Butcher*. W. W. Porter- field* and H. J. Sipe, Jr. Dept, of Chemistry, Hampden- Sydney Col., Hampden-Sydney , Va. 23943 A variation of the Keller Plan (or Personalized System >f Instruction) has been implemented for the 2-semester, jre-prof essional general chemistry course at Hampden-Sydney Sol. Each semester's work is divided into 25 units and the course grade is determined by the number of units passed. Mastery of each unit is demonstrated on a 15 minute written test before moving to the next unit; there is no penalty for falling a unit test but other forms must be taken until mastery is demonstrated. Behavioral objectives are issued for each unit, as well as a study guide keyed to the text, Concepts of Chemistry by Porterfield. There are no lectures. Student response has been enthusiastic and performance has clearly improved. 148 The Virginia Journal of Science ORGANIC CHEMISTRY TAUGHT BY SELF-PACED INSTRUCTION (THE KELLER PLAN). Homer A. Smith, Jr., Dept, of Chemistry, Hampden-Sydney Col., Hampden-Sydney , Va. 23943 A two-semester self-paced course in organic chemistry was offered in 1972-73 with 48 initial enrollees. No lectures were given, and the course was defined by perfor¬ mance objectives. The objectives were issued with an extensive study guide keyed to the text by Hendrickson, Cram, and Hammond. Undergraduate tutors assisted students and graded most tests. Student performance was excellent with 61% of the class receiving A's first semester and with a minimal number of failures and withdrawals. Class response to an end-of-semester questionnaire indicated enthusiastic approval. Most students found the course harder than a lecture course but more enjoyable. Ninety-four percent reported a preference for self-paced organic over a con¬ ventional course. THE OPTICAL ACTIVITY OF DISSYMMETRIC SIX-COORDINATE CO (III) COMPLEXES. F. S. Richardson. Dept, of Chanistrv, Univ. of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, 22901 The optical activity associated with the d-d transitions in dissynrostric six-coordinate Co (III) complexes is exa¬ mined on a model which incorporates both ligand-field theory and the one-electron, static-coupling theory of optical activity. This is a perturbation model on which the zeroth- order spectroscopic states are taken as eigenstates of an octahedral CoLg cluster (L = ligating atoms) . The dissym¬ metric perturbation of these states originates with ligand groups outside the ML5 cluster and with dissymmetric dis¬ tortions of the MLg cluster. The perturbation treatment is carried to second-order in both the wave functions and the rotatory strengths. Expressions are obtained which relate the sign of the net or total d-d rotatory strength to specific stereochemical features in the ligand environ¬ ment. Sector rules based on these expressions are proposed. Applications of these sector rules to chiral (Co (III) com¬ plexes of several classes are presented, and it is found that these rules are reliable in predicting the signs of the contributions made by various "kinds" of stereochemical features to the net d-d rotatory strength. OPTICAL ACTIVITY OF CRYSTALLINE NKHoOUSOi. R. W. Strickland, and F. S. Richardson. Dept, of Chemistry, Univ. of Va., Charlottesville, Va. 22901 The optical activity of crystalline cC-Ni (H20) gSO,; is exclusively a property of the solid state arising from a a dissymmetric crystal environment. We have calculated the circular dichroism of this crystal for electronic transitions within the Ni'f+ 3d manifold of states assuming an ortho¬ rhombic crystal field perturbation on the cubic field of the Ni06 cluster. The rotatory strengths are calculated to second order in perturbation theory and electric dipole- electric quadrupole contributions are included. The latter are non-zero since orientational averaging is inappropriate for crystal calculations. We find that for a given NiOfc octahedron, the major contributions to the dissymmetric perturbing potential arise from neighboring ions located in a plane which is perpendicular to the principal crystal axis (optic axis) and which includes the NiOg cluster. In add¬ ition, we find that the contributions to the rotatory strengths due to Ni(H2C»6++ - Ni(H20)6++ interactions are small compared to contributions arising from local site perturbations. The computed rotatory strengths for the transitions considered are in substantial agreement with experiment. THE REACTION OF ELECTROGENERATED TRANS-1 , 2-DIAMIN0CYCL0- HEXANETETRAACETATECHROMATE (II) WITH NITRITE ION. John G. Mason, Dept, of Chemistry, Va. Poly. Inst. & State Univ.* , Blacksburg, Va., 24061, and James M. VanderMeer*, Dept, of Chemistry, St. Louis University., St. Louis, Mo. Work done at VPI & SU The electrochemical reduction of Cr(III) DCTA in the presence of NC^- is shown to form a new complex Cr(II) NO DCTA. This new complex has been characterized by spectra, esr spectra, and polarography . A polarographic study of the reduction of Cr(III) DCTA in N02“ solution has been completed and is discussed. A reduction mechanism is pro¬ posed to account for the controlled potential electrolysis and the polarographic data. LUMINESCENCE STUDY OF SOME BENZTHIENOPTERI- DINES. Robert L. Ake and Karen S. Burns, Dep't. of Chemistry, Old Dominion Univ., Norfolk, Va. 23508. Some recently synthesized fused ring compounds, the benzthieno(2 , 3 -g) -pteridines , fluoresce in the visible region of the spectrum while other members have no apparent fluorescence. Absorption and emission spectra of two derivatives of this pteridine system are reported. These spectra are discussed in reference to substituent and solvent effects, allowing some preliminary con¬ clusions to be drawn. ION FLUX. CALCULATED FROM MEASURED ELECTRICAL POTENTIAL OF MODEL LIPID MEMBRANES. J.B. liardcastle and Badri Tavasolian*. Dept, of Chemistry, Texas Woman's University, Denton, Texas The object of this research is to determine the ion transport characteristics of lipid mem¬ branes of the double layer (or bi-layer) type. The lecithin and cerebroside membranes were formed across a small aperature in a wall dividing the two sides of a transport cell. After the membrane had been formed in the transport cell the electri¬ cal properties were measured. The electrical cir¬ cuit was designed to pass a constant current across the membrane with one set of electrodes and measure the resulting transmembrane potential with a second pair of electrodes. From the mea¬ sured potential transference numbers were calcu¬ lated, and from these tne ion fluxes were calculated, ion fluxes determined in this manner were in agreement with ion fluxes determined by isotope transport measurements. The calculated ion fluxes were in the order Na+>Ca + +>Sr+ for both membrane systems. This indicates that ion size and charge influence ionic diffusion across membranes. (Supported by Texas Woman's University Institutional Research urant No. 096L) Proceedings, 1972-1973 149 CORE ELECTRON BINDING ENERGY STUDY OF COBALT (II) SCHIFF BASE COMPLEXES. J. H. Burness, J. G. Dillard and L. T. Taylor, Dept, of Chemistry, Va. Poly. Inst. & State Univ., Blacksburg, Va. 24061 The measurement of metal and donor atom core electron binding energies in a series of cobalt (II) Schiff base complexes as well as in the uncomplexed ligands and free metal will be reported. To eliminate charging effects, a thin film of ligand and complex samples was sublimed onto a gold-plated probe. The binding energies of the Au 4f^, levels were measured during each run and used to evaluate the work function of the spectrometer. Energy levels which have been studied include the 2p^. . and 3p^,^ 3/2 levels of the metal and the Is level of’nitrogen ana 6xygen. The binding energy of core electrons on cobalt is dependent on the nature of the ligand. Stronger ligands give rise to lower binding energies than do weaker ligands. The cobalt (II) complexes show the 2p^.^ level to be split into two peaks. The origin of this splitting will be discussed in terms of an Auger transition or a satellite peak. Cobalt- carbon sigma bonded alkyl coordination on cobalt core electron binding energies will be considered. A STUDY OF BONDING IN METAL ACE TY LACE TONATES USING PHOTO¬ ELECTRON SPECTROSCOPY. R. D. Seals, L. T. Taylor, and J. G. Dillard. Dept, of Chemistry, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Va. 24061 X-ray photoelectron spectra of Na(I), Zn(II), Cd(II), Cu(II), Ni(II), Co(II), and Co(III) acetylacetonates have been measured. 'Chemical shifts' in the metal 2p^^ an^ 2^ 3/2 ^3/2 anC* ^ ^5/2^ core electron binding energies are discussed in terms of the electron density in the complexes. Satellite peaks were noted in all metal complexes except for the systems. The multiplet splittings of the metal 2p levels give information on the nature of the bond¬ ing of the metal 3d orbitals. The effect of oxidation number on the chemical shifts is demonstrated by comparing spectra of Co(II) and Co(III) complexes. INTERMOLECULAR ENERGY TRANSFER AS A MEANS FOR QUANTITATIVELY DETERMINING Eu+3 AND Tb+3 IN SOLUTION. G. Mushrush, George Mason University, Fairfax, Va. 22030 With the exception of a few a-diketones, the only other species known to exhibit efficient luminescence in solution corresponding to a change of multiplicity of two are certain trivalent lanthanide ions such as Eu+3 and Tb+^. In the absence of chemical reaction, intermolecular energy transfer provides a simple means of analysis for these ions. Heller and Wasserman (1963) found that several carbonyl compounds are able to transfer electronic excitation energy to these ions by an intermolecular process. McCarthy and Winefordner (1966) were the first to use this process for analytical means. The sensitizers that were selected for this study were 2-acetonaphthone for Eu+^ and 2-scetyl- fluorene for Tb+^. In DMF-the host chosen for this work- the sensitized fluorescence quantum efficiency was found to be 0.59 for Eu+^ and 0.68 for Tb+^. Since oxygen is an excellent quencher, all samples were carefully degassed by the free ze-and- thaw technique. The sample cell was then flame sealed before all spectral measurements. Rhodamine B was the quantum efficiency standard used for Eu+^ emission and eosin in 0.1N NaOH was used for all Tb+^ measurements. When solutions of constant 2-acetonaphthone concentration (0.50 x 10" M) and varying Eu+3 concentrations (10"^ to 10"^M) were excited at 351 nm, quantum efficiency values of 0.59 to 0.11 were found. An R136 photomultiplier tube was used for Eu^^ spectra. When solutions of constant 2-acetyl- fluorene (0.10 x 10"^M) and varying Tb+3 concentrations (lO-3- to 10~^M) were excited at 321nm, quantum efficiency values of 0.68 to 0.04 were found. A 1P28 photomultiplier tube was used for all Tb+3 spectra. It is interesting that this same intermolecular process can be used in rigid matrix. The concentration range that can be determined (10_3M) is of course much lower than in fluid solution. The same sensitizers were used — 2-ace to- naphthone for Eu+3 and 2-ace ty If luorene for Tb+3 - for all measurements. The solvent used was (1:4 v/v) methanol- absolute ethanol. Only those samples that froze in clear glass were used for measurements. (Supported by NIH 2188- 2000) REFERENCES A. Heller, and E. Wasserman, J. Chem. Phys., 42,949(1965) W. J. McCarthy and J. D. Winefordner, Analyt. Chem., 38, 848 (1966). ADSORPTION OF LEAD AND MERCURY AT THE LIQUID-SOLID INTERFACE. Mary Ellen Counts* and J. P. Wightman, Dept, of Chemistry, Va. Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ., Blacksburg, Va., 24061 Isotherms have been measured for Pb(II) adsorption onto Minusil-5 in the pH range 2-6; Hg(II) adsorption onto Minusil 5 at pH 2; Pb(II) adsorption onto kaolinite and montmorillo- nite at pH 4 and 6 from solutions of 25 to 1000 ppm Pb(II), Pb(II) and Ca(II), and Pb(II) and Al(III). Turbidity meas¬ urements have been made of Pb-Minusil systems at pH 2, 4, and 6 and Pb-kaolinite systems at pH 4 and 6. Adsorption of lead on Minusil was found to be pH dependent in the range studied and the quantity of lead adsorbed on kaolinite and montmo- rillonite was significantly greater than that adsorbed on Minusil. An ESCA study of lead adsorbed on montmorillonite supports a bonding state similar to the bonding state in lead oxide. (Aided by Center for Environmental Studies and College of Arts and Sciences, VPI&SU) ADSORPTION OF BENZENE-ETHANOL BENZENE-CYCLOHEXANE AND ETHANOL -CYCLOHEXANE VAPOR MIXTURES ONTO CAB-O-SIL AT 30°C. Gracia A. Perfetti* and J. P. Wightman, Dept, of Chemistry, Va. Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ., Blacksburg, Va., 24061. Adsorption isotherms for pure ethanol, benzene, and cyclohexane vapors and for the three possible binary mix¬ tures of these vapors, onto Cab-O-Sil at 30°C were meas¬ ured. The experimental method was basically a volumetric one. Gas chromatography was employed to determine the amounts of each component adsorbed. The isotherms of the pure vapors indicated that ethanol has the greatest affin¬ ity for the Cab-O-Sil surface, and cyclohexane the least. Ethanol was preferentially adsorbed from ethanol-cyclo- hexane and ethanol-benzene vapor mixtures . The extent of preferential adsorption was greater in the former case. Benzene was preferentially adsorbed from benzene-cyclo- hexane vapor mixtures. In this case, the preferential adsorption was less pronounced than for the other two mixtures. (Aided by NSF Grant GP-29225) . 150 The Virginia Journal of Science FURTHER INVESTIGATIONS OF THE ORIENTATION OF PRINCIPAL AXES OF ESR OF POLYACENE MOLECULES IN THE TRIPLET STATE. Eleanor Campbell* and L. Ivan Epstein, Dept, of Biophysics, Med. Col. of Va. , Va. Commonwealth Univ. , Richmond, Va. 23298, and John C. Schug, Dept, of Chemistry, Va. Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ. , Blacksburg, Va. 24061. This is a continuation of work reported on by one of us (LIE) at last year's meeting of this Academy. The self- consistent field approximation is now used. Non-nearest neighbor interaction is taken into account. Principal axis orientation has been calculated as a function of the con¬ figuration mixing parameters for polyacene molecules which are not much more long than wide. The values of these parameters were obtained by a configuration inter¬ action calculation. Our hope that principal axis orientation would be insensitive to inaccuracies in the configuration mixing parameters has been disappointed. However, when configuration interaction is taken into account, the princi¬ pal axes still show a tendency to align themselves with the length and width of the molecule. APPLICATION OF THE INTEGRAL HELLMANN-FEYNMAN APPROXIMATION TO ISOMERIZATION OF NITRENE AND NITRENIUM ION SYSTEMS. C. 0. Trindle , Univ. of Va. , Charlottesville, Va. 22901 and J. K. George*, Mary Washington Col., Fredericksburg, Va. 22401 Evaluation of the line integral over the energy along a specified path provides information about the nuclear displacements in molecular isomerizations . The energy expression used is given by the integral Hellman-Feynman theorem; EQF = Cft |(HF-HQ)| Tp> / < To | T* > • The rearrangement path giving the minimum value for the line integral determines the isomerization reaction coordinate. Rearrangement pathways of methylnitrene and of methyl- nitrenium ion to the corresponding imines have been studied using the path integral formulation and conventional methods. A least-motion path is found for the methyl- nitrenium ion isomerization while the methylnitrene rearrangement is not least-motion. Section of Engineering Fifty-first Annual Meeting of The Virginia Academy of Science May 1-4, 1973, Williamsburg, Virginia COMPUTER-MANAGED INSTRUCTION AND STUDENT TESTING IN ENGINEER¬ ING. C.M. Siegel*, Dept, of Electrical Engineering, Univ. of Va. , Charlottesville, Va. 22901 A series of time-shared-computer programs has been pre¬ pared to provide testing of students' mastery of topics in beginning courses in electrical engineering. These feature problems whose numerical parameters and other features, via random selection, are different on each run of the programs. The programs provide (1) files for recording students' activity and achievement on the tests, (2) immediate advice to a student of his answer's correctness and printing the correct answer after an allowed number of tries and (3) gen¬ erating questions and answers for an instructor to copy and distribute for use as programmed study material. The latter holds advantage over conventional programmed texts in pro¬ viding new problem parameters and answers as often as one wants to run the programs. Some of the programs draw wave¬ forms and schematic diagrams with randomly selected features as part of the problem presentation. The programs have merit in that, once prepared, they re¬ lieve the instructor of having thereafter to prepare and grade quizzes on the topics thus treated. Their structure can serve equally well for topics in other than electrical branches of engineering; also other sciences and mathematics. Topic examples are multirange meters, transients, bridges, inductance, equivalent circuits, transistor amplifiers, basic electricity and magnetism, capacitance, rectifiers, dividers, and alternating-current and resistance network analysis. THE EFFECTS OF WATER TABLE RATIO AND ANISOTROPIC SOIL STRENGTH ON SLOPE SAFETY. J. H. Amend III* and J . H. Hunter*. Dept, of Civil Engineering, Va. Polytech. Inst, and State Univ., Blacksburg, Va. 24061 The effects of the water table position, expressed as the dimensionless water table ratio, and anisotropic soil strength, as shown by a dimensionless anisotropic strength factor, are considered for normally consolidated clay slopes. Examples show the results of theoretical analyses for the effect of the water table ratio on the relative safety of slopes; anisotropic soil strengths are evaluated as a factor influencing the factor of safety of slopes. It is shown that water table position can have a marked in¬ fluence on slope safety while the effect of anisotropic soil strength is much less. The graphical results illustrate a quick method for determining the effects of either one or both of these parameters on slope safety. Proceedings. 1972-1973 151 PHYSICAL, ECONOMIC, AND LECAL ASPECTS OE DEEP WELL WASTE DISPOSAL. W. R, Walker, and W, E, Cox*. Va. Water Resources Res. Ctr., VPI5SU, Blacksburg, Va. 24061 Disposal of liquid wastes into deep wells has become increasingly popular in the last few years as a result of intensified efforts to reduce the pollution of surface water. This technique oE waste disposal is based on the concept that wastes can be injected into selected geologic strata and permanently confined from the usable environment. Con¬ ditions necessary for this waste disposal method to be feasible include the existence of underground strata capable of accepting waste without the destruction of natural re¬ sources or other detrimental consequences; adequate forma¬ tion porosity, permeability, and physical extent: and the existence of an overlying confining stratum. Principal ad¬ vantages of subsurface injection include cost savings and the elimination of discharges to surface waters. Possible hazards include contamination of natural resources and seismic activity resulting from subsurface pressure alter¬ ations. The possibility of significant environmental damage emphasizes the need for comprehensive regulatory controls concerning the use of deep well injection. Disposal well operations have traditionally been regulated by state governments, but the Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972 appear to provide a basis for the appli¬ cation of federal standards to state regulatory programs. (Aided bv NEE grant CI-34815) SYSTEMS ENGINEERING APPROACH TO APPLICATION OF HIGH PURITY MOLECULAR OXYGEN TO PAPERMAKING. Arthur W. Plummer*, The Chesapeake Corp. of Va., West Point, Va. 23181 Sub-systems engineered by Chesapeake and con¬ sultants to form an integrated network of applica¬ tions for high-purity molecular oxygen represent the first such combination in the world. Initiated by the need to use more hardwood species for opti¬ mizing its reforestation program, Chesapeake chose oxygen hardwood pulp bleaching, oxygen liquid waste treatment and oxygen black liquor oxidation (to re¬ duce kraft pulp mill odor) as the integrated sub¬ systems. Feeding these sub-systems will be a 100 ton/day cryogenic oxygen plant located on Chesa¬ peake's West Point site. Excess liquid oxygen will be sold under long term contract pending develop¬ ment of other molecular oxygen applications in papermaking at Chesapeake. CHARACTERIZATION OF BATTERIES FOR MATERIALS HANDLING EQUIP- MENT. J.B. O'Sullivan*. Electrochemical Div. , USAMERDC, Ft. Belvoir, Va. 22060 Electric lift trucks for materials handling is one of the few applications where electric propulsion has become a com¬ mercial reality. Since the Army Mobility Equipment Research & Development Center has responsibility for both electric propulsion and materials handling equipment, work in the lat¬ ter area is an attractive means of studying systems and con¬ cepts for the former. Though the batteries used in MHE are satisfactory for most of the present applications there are some Army applications characterized by high lifts, ramping or extended shift time in which a higher energy density is needed. As the health and safety constraints on ambient car¬ bon monoxide levels are tightened, it will become desirable to substitute electric trucks for some applications present¬ ly served by engine driven vehicles. In these instances the energy and power available in batteries will become severely limiting. To assist in the evaluation of propulsion concepts for MHE a program involving the collection of field data on performance of fork lift trucks has been initiated. This data is being used to characterize the requirements of bat¬ teries for all battery systems as well as for hybrid systems in which the battery load shares with another energy source, for example a fuel cell. The latter use is not as dependent on their energy storage characteristic as it is upon power transfer. To this end battery test and evaluation also in¬ cludes tasks relating to high rate charging. SURVEY OF PUBLIC REACTION TO TRANSPO RAPID TRANSIT SYSTEMS AND UMTA-SP0NS0RED BUS AND RAIL EXHIBITS. R. B. Sleight, Century Research Corporation, Arlington, VA 22207 Sponsored by the Urban Mass Transportation Ad¬ ministration (UMTA) of the U.S. Dept, of Transpor¬ tation at its Int'l. Transportation Exposition (TRANSPO-72) this survey determined what people did or did not like about new Personal Rapid Trans¬ it Systems (PRT) and some bus and rail vehicles. Personal interviews were conducted at the end of demonstration rides or exhibit viewing. Besides a structured questionnaire, indirect methods of at¬ titude assessment were used to probe basic feel¬ ings, designs and conditions of use. People enjoyed riding the PRTs and visualized many situations in which they might use such sys¬ tems. Over two-thirds rated the vehicles as "very comfortable" with "very satisfactory" entrance and exit convenience. Attitude assessment methods showed the PRTs were preferred to traveling by car in a congested area because riders would be re¬ lieved to be out of the stress of traffic. People considered the PRTs acceptable for trips within a downtown business district, for personal business, and to go to work. Guideways were ac¬ ceptable where they would serve commercial or busi¬ ness centers or public transportation terminals. RADAR CROSS SECTION MEASUREMENTS IN A WIND WAVE TANK. J. W. Johnson* and A. E. Cross*. NASA Langley Res. Ctr., Hampton, Va. 23665 Electromagnetic scattering from wind driven water waves is of considerable Importance in the remote sensing of oceanographic parameters such as sea surface temperature and surface wind speed. Laboratory measurements have been made in a wind wave tank at the Langley Research Center in support of current flight and tower based oceanographic remote sensing programs. A 24 GHz, cw, scatterometer was used to measure the backscattered radar cross section, a°, as a function of viewing angle and wind speed. The measurements were made in a 16 ft. by 4 ft. wind wave tank with a maximum wind speed of 25 knots. Water wave heights were Gaussian distributed and the temporal wave height power spectral density function decayed as f"5 as expected. For viewing angles near nadir, the measured a conformed to predictions based on the physical optics model for large scale roughness. A polarization dependence predicted by a small perturbation model for small scale roughness was evident at angles near grazing. However, neither approach adequately described the scattering at the intermediate viewing angles. THE EFFECT OF VECTORED INJECTION ON THE LOCATION OF SEPARA¬ TION. D. Th. Tsahalis*, and D. P. Telionis, Dept, of Engineering Science and Mechanics, Va. Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ., Blacksburg, Va. 24061 It was previously established1 that the vanishing of the skin friction is not the appropriate criterion for separa¬ tion over boundaries with non-zero boundary conditions. It was recently shown^ that the correct criterion coincides, in the boundary-layer model, with the separation singularity. These ideas jjave immediate application to separation control through blowing. A few characteristic cases are studied for blowing perpendicular or parallel to the wall. The effect of the angle of injection is also investigated for a fixed value of the blowing flow rate. It is found that whereas blowing in general shifts separation upstream, a small angle of injection may easily push the location of separation to the downstream direction. Another interesting feature of the rhenomenon is that separation seems to be affected mainly by the local properties of injection. It is also indicated that for an angle of injection equal to 63.5° the location of separation is independent of the magnitude of the injection vel oci ty . 'W. R. Sears & D. P. Telionis, in Recent Research on Un- steady Boundary Layers, ed. E. Ei chelbrenner, Quebec, 1972, 0. 404. 2d. P. Telionis & W. J. Werle, J. Appl. Mech. to appear in June, 1973. 152 The Virginia Journal of Science A BLOOD VOLUME SENSING DEVICE. C. L. Wright, III, and G. F. Songster. Sch. of Engineering, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, Va. 23508. The need for an improved blood volume sensing method has been generated due to shortcomings of current methods. These include implementation in¬ conveniences, inaccuracies and patient trauma. The device proposed alleviates these shortcomings through non-invasive , non-traumatic tissue imped¬ ance measurements. The circuitry requires tech¬ niques which permit simultaneous common mode re¬ jection of interference and wide bandwidth with good amplitude and phase characteristics at low signal levels. The measurement is made by compar¬ ing voltages across a sample tissue impedance (Zt) and a variable calibration impedance (Zc). A con¬ stant current (I) is introduced into Zt by two current electrodes and the voltage across Zt sens¬ ed by two voltage electrodes. I is also fed through Zc. The voltages across Zt and Zc are ap¬ plied to two identical amplifiers, and Zc is var¬ ied until a null is obtained at a summing point at the amplifier outputs. At null, Zt = Zc. Since each type of tissue is frequency dependent, the measurement is repeated at several frequencies, thereby allowing separation of blood volume from other tissue volumes. (Aided by 0. D. U. Research Foundation and Va. Heart Association grants.) THE BEHAVIOR OF A HYBRID FLEXURAL MEMBER FABRI¬ CATED WITH REINFORCED PLASTICS. H. Alper*, and F. C„ McCormick. Dept, of Civil Engineering, Univ. of Va. , Charlottesville, Va. 22903 Three triangular-trussed girders (TTG) have been fabricated, tested and analyzed in an effort to develop a flexural element of a glass-reinforced plastic material which would be suitable as a load bearing member in a bridge structure. Two of the specimens were assembled with solid web plates and superimposed stranded web members while the third specimen consisted of only the solid top flange plate and stranded web members. All three specimens failed in the joints at the junction of the top plate and web elements. The anticipated total ultimate load dis¬ tributed uniformly over the top of the test specimen was 10, 000 pounds. The ultimate load of the first test specimen was 2,600 pounds; in the second specimen, a load of 8,900 pounds was reach¬ ed after strengthening the joints. The third specimen and it failed at an ultimate load of 2,800 pounds. Allowable centerline deflect¬ ions were reached at loads of 2400, 7200, and 2250 pounds for specimen one, two and three respectively. All deflection readings and strain measurements varied linearly with the magnitude of the load. The maximum tensile stress occurred at the center of the lower chord member of the second specimen and reached a value of 29, 800 psi at the ultimate girder load of 8, 900 pounds. A test value of 4.5 x 10*5 psi for the tensile modulus of the composite material was used for the strain-stress conversion. Analysis of the third specimen indicates truss behavior as expected, but more study will be required to explain the behavior of specimens one and two. Development of a Two-Color. X-Y Addressable Array of Light-Emitting Diodes. ROGER K. CROUCH . * NASA-Langley Research Center. - An array of light-emitting-diodes (LEDs) which can be addressed in a random format for the presentation of vector-graphic or alphanumeric data has been developed. This display uses the III-V semiconductor galliuj-phosphide which will emit light in both the red (6950 A) and the green (5650 X) regions of the visible spectrum. Characteristics of the red and the green emission which make it possible to get both colors from a single junction will be described. Problem areas such as cross-talk, doping optimization, and contacting techniques will be discussed. A CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF THE FEDERAL ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT. Julian A. Brown? New River Valley Planning Dis¬ trict Commission, Radford, Va. , and Paul H. King, Va. Poly¬ technic Inst, and State Univ., Blacksburg, Va. 24061 The Federal Government has made many attempts to legis¬ late environmental quality and protection. However, not until the passage of the National Environmental Protection Act of 1969 was there any effective means of making those who manipulate the biosphere for various purposes account¬ able for their actions. The basic tool utilized in this regard is the requirement for submitting Environmental Impact Statements. The Council on Environmental Quality has established guidelines for the contents of an Environmental Impact State¬ ment. By following these guidelines, federal agencies such as the U.S. Geological Survey, the Atomic Energy Commission, and the Bureau of Reclamation have developed individualized formats for Environmental Impact Statements. These three formats were analyzed and evaluated in terms of the require¬ ments stated in the law. The Bureau of Reclamation uses as its format a so-called "Environmental Evaluation System." The U.S. Atomic Energy Commission favors a "report-compila¬ tion" approach for drafting Environmental Impact Statements. The U.S. Geological Survey and the Bureau of Reclamation favor an approach that utilizes "summary-evaluation matrices" to assess the environmental impact of a proposed project or action. A case study evaluated the Impact Statement for a nuclear power plant. (Aided by an EPA traineeship) MODELING A HEAT EXCHANGER FOR DYNAMIC STATE ESTIMATION. William G. Pettus, Res. and Dev. Div., Babcock & Wilcox Co., Lynchburg, Va. and Gerald Cook,* Dept, of Electrical Engineer¬ ing, Univ. of Va., Charlottesville, Va. Optimal state estimation (Kalman filtering) is a useful procedure for analyzing the performance of complex dynamic systems in which relatively few state variables are available for measurement. In adapting this procedure for nuclear steam system applications, it is convenient to partition the reactor core and the steam generator into a series of coupled elementary heat exchangers each of which is treated as a lumped parameter module. The question considered here is: how should the nodal temperatures of the elementary modules be defined in a dynamic state model in order to most accurately represent transient heat flow? Studies of the exact solutions of the partial differential equations for certain special cases suggest the following representation for the primary and secondary nodal temperatures of an ideal counter-flow heat exchanger: T = (1 - ct)T. + ctT l o T'= aT.' + (1 -a)T ' 1 o where a = 1/y + 1/(1 - EXP(y)) and y = (1/cw - 1/c'w' )/ (1/UA + 1/U'A') The nodal temperature of the wall in this model is: T = (UAT + U'A,T')/(UA + U'A') w PROBLEMS OF MINE DETECTION BY NUCLEAR TECHNIQUES. T. M. Small*. Countermine/Counter Intrusion Dept., Mobility Equipment R&D Center, Ft. Belvoir, VA 22060 Because of the availability of portable sources of penetrating radiation capable of producing a specific reaction, a first impression may be that nuclear techniques provide a convenient method for the detection of buried land mines. In the real world, there are many complicating factors which have frustrated the best of efforts to date. The definition and influence of land mines and their environments on the practical requirements for an efficient, practicable mine detector will be discussed. Salient techniques which have been or are under evaluation will be presented. These include low energy gamma/x-ray back- scattering, high energy gamna backs cattering, excitation of fluorescence radiation, thermal neutron capture radiation, thermal neutron moderation, and inelastic fast neutron processes. Proceedings, 1972-1973 153 PERFORMANCE OF A FAST-RESPONSE CRYSTAL-SORPTION HYGROMETER. T. A. Tomlin* and 0. L. Updike, Depts. of Chemical and Bio- medical Engineering, Univ. of V a., Charlottesville, V a. 22901 Pulmonary physiology and instrument dynamics studies have both demonstrated a need for a simple, fast-responding hygrometer which is accurate in the 50-95% R. H. range. King's quartz-crystal microbalance, which depends on fre¬ quency change of a piezoelectric resonator place caused by sorption on its surface, was adapted for such uses. With adsorption on the bare quartz crystal, mounted in a small chamber having fast turnover of its gas contents, adequate speed was achieved. The static calibration, though non¬ linear, showed good sensitivity in the high-humidity range (3 to 50 Hz/% R. H.). Pulse tests showed sensor dynamics to be dominated by mixing in the sensor chamber, up to the shortest pulses that could be generated. The sensor could thus be dynamically modeled by a first-order lag, with a time constant inversely proportional to flow-rate, plus transportation lags. AIRBORNE LIDAR REMOTE SENSING APPLIED TO OCEANOGRAPHY AND LIMNOLOGY. P. B. Mumola, Olin Jarrett , Jr..* and C. A. Brown, Jr.* NASA, Langley Research Center, Hampton, VA 23665 New laser radar (LIDAR) techniques are described, with specific applications to remote sensing of oceans, estu¬ aries, rivers, and lakes. The incorporation of tunable lasers into "standard" LIDAR systems allows one to make accurate quantitative measurements of: (1) the optical attenuation coefficient, a , as a function of wavelength (and depth) over the entire visible spectrum; (2) the diffusion of fluorescent dye tracers in three dimensions; and (3) the concentration of chlorophyll a^ in algae and phytoplankton. A new multi-frequency airborne LIDAR system has been developed and tested from a Bell 204B helicopter. The system and field data acquired will be described. A "scattering matrix" model is developed to demonstrate the essential requirement of multi-frequency laser probing, especially when applied to the detection of fluorescent matter (chlorophyll a^, dye tracers, etc.). The usefulness of these new sensing techniques to the oceanographer and limnologist will be discussed. DESIGN OF A NEW CONTINUOUS VISCOMETER. P. J. Preston* and R. M. Hubbard, Dept, of Chemical Engineering, Univ. of Virginia, Charlottesville, Va. 22901. An open-end Bourdon tube is used as both flow restrictor and pressure-measuring device in a new continuous viscometer. Theory developed has been confirmed experimentally. A method is outlined for selecting a Bourdon tube to measure viscosity from about 20 to lOOO centipoises. ENERGY CONSERVATION IN THE HOME: OPPORTUNI¬ TIES AND PROBLEMS. M. D. Havron*, Human Sciences Research, Inc., McLean, Va. 22101 Selected sources of energy consumption in the home are examined: space heating and heating plant, air condition¬ ing, cooking and water heating. Existing data are pro¬ jected until 1974 then, assuming conservation measures, for the next decade. Three types of conservative measures are considered: provision of insulation and more efficient heating plants, maintenance, and family and personal habits. Conclusions are tentative. They suggest that by a con¬ certed national effort, supported by the populace, energy consumption in the home could be reduced in absolute amounts over the next 10 years. Obstacles exist in interlocking sets of American values developed in the last few generations. As consumers, our values incline us to be prodigal --to call for ever greater amounts of energy. These same values incline those re¬ sponsible for supporting research or energy to emphasize production and conversion almost to the exclusion of finding ways to modify the consumption ethic. Finally, economet¬ ric elasticity models may well be counterproductive if used exclusively to support long range planning for conservation. NUCLEAR POWER IN VIRGINIA. J. C. Deddens , Manager, Nuclear Service, Babcock & Wilcox Co., Nuclear Power Generation Div. , Lynchburg, Va. 21*505 Major centers of nuclear activity in Virginia are Virginia Electric and Power Company, Newport News Ship¬ building and Dry Dock Company, and Babcock & Wilcox Company. VEPCO has two nuclear power stations in operation or under construction — Surry and North Anna. This paper describes the status of construction and operation at these power stations. Newport News Shipbuilding and Dry Dock Company is the world's largest private shipyard. The paper presents the status of nuclear powered shipping construction at the yard and summarizes activities for the U. S. Navy. Babcock & Wilcox is one of the leading suppliers of commercial nuclear powered generating equipment. Principal facilities located in Lynchburg are the Nuclear Power Generation Div. , the Research & Development Div. , and the Naval Nuclear Fuel Div. This paper summarizes B&W nuclear related facilities and activities centered in Lynchburg, Virginia. STATE'S INVOLVEMENT WITH NUCLEAR ACTIVITY. H. 0. Funsten, Dept, of Physics, Col. of William and Mary, Williamsburg, Va. 23185, and Southern Interstate Nuclear Board. The State of Virginia has a strong background in develop¬ ment and use of nuclear technology. With eight scheduled power reactors, Virginia will have one of the largest number of nuclear facilities among the States. Nuclear plants ac¬ count now for one fifth of electric capacity in the state, by the early 1980 's it will be over h0%. As part of the Virginia Health Department's radiological surveillance program, preliminary results indicate environ¬ mental radioactivity near nuclear sites at approximately background levels . Besides the generation of nuclear power, reactor fabri¬ cation and nuclear services are carried on in the State. Ex¬ tensive research, development, and training are conducted by both private companies and state supported educational insti¬ tutions. In addition to a broadly based community college system, two state universities offer doctoral programs in Chemical, Electrical, and Nuclear Engineering; three confer Ph.D.'s in Physics. Federal laboratories located in Vir¬ ginia, such as the Space Radiation Effects Laboratory in New¬ port News, have a far reaching effect on nuclear technology, particularly through collaborative programs with neighboring educational institutions. 154 The Virginia Journal of Science ELECTROCHEMISTRY AND THE ENERGY ENVIRONMENT. J.R. Huff* Electrochemical Div. , USAMERDC, Ft. Belvoir, Va. 22060 Daily reference to the "energy crisis" in every form of informative media has caused a great deal of attention to focus on many facets of both short- and long-term energy programs. It must be recognized that there will be immedi¬ ate, and probably continuous, conflicts between energy re¬ quirements and environmental protection. Electrochemical sources of energy, both by themselves and in conjunction with other energy sources, offer a means of resolving some of these conflicts. Various electrochemical power sources and their possible impact on the energy-environment situa¬ tion will be discussed. THE ENERGY PLANTATION. G. C. Szeqo and C. C. Kemp*. InterTechnology Corp. , Warrenton, Va. 22186. The energy plantation concept visualizes growth of vege¬ table matter purposely for its fuel value. It is therefore a means for directly harnessing solar energy in the form of a fuel by photosynthesis. Fuel values derived from energy plantations and from environmentally clean fossil and nuclear fuels are likely to become fully cost competitive with one another at equal en¬ vironmental impact within the next few years. Only moderate changes in farming and forestry practices will be required to achieve this cost equality. Energy plantation fuel, how¬ ever, has important fundamental advantages over the other present and possible future sources of energy. Among these advantages are favorable impact on our balance of payments and foreign relations generally because energy plantation fuel can be grown at home; favorable environmental impact; freedom from new potentially catastrophic hazards for man¬ kind such as nuclear fuels unfortunately may bring with them; and perpetual renewability of supply. The technology required for growing fuel in an energy plantation and pro¬ cessing it for use is understood and at hand. It must how¬ ever be adapted and optimized for fuel value production. GEOTHERMAL ENERGY AND ITS POTENTIAL IN THE UNITED STATES. M. D. Hrovatic, Enqineerinq Dept., Southwest Virqinia Community College, Richlands, Va. 24641 Present demand for electrical energy is increasing sharply. Energy production methods must therefore be increased in capacity and/or variety. Unfortunately, today's electrical power generation capabilities, based on conventional fuels, may be stretched to their limit and newer methods must therefore be investigated. The use of geothermal steam in electrical generating plants may be a viable alternative. The method is efficient, relatively inexpensive, pollution-free and, to some extent, readily available. These factors make development of this scheme highly desirable. It is expected that geothermal steam could provide a good auxiliary electrical power source for U. S. consumption. Future research efforts should be directed towards areas involving corrosion chemistry, geological fault and slip control, as well as disposal and use of undesirable gases and vapors. ENERGY CENTER CONCEPT AND ITS APPLICATION IN THE CJTY OF NOR¬ FOLK. A Sidney Roberts, Jr. and David E. Henderson . School of Engineering, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, Va. 23508. The energy center concept involves the siting of relative¬ ly small, multi-purpose power stations in densely populated urban areas. These plants necessarily display high fuel effi¬ ciency (waste heat recovery) and elaborate means of effluent control. After clarifying the energy center or "total” ener¬ gy concept the authors emphasize the growing need for such centers. Availability of system types are discussed. In the context of the city of Norfolk, Va., a solid waste fueled en¬ ergy center is chosen, for compelling reasons, and a general design description is presented. Important interrelated sub¬ systems are identified. To make credible a plant installation in Norfolk, assumptions are made regarding reasonable energy customers, plant location, waste transfer method, the antici¬ pated heating and cooling loads, plant costs, and estimated revenues. Results of a gross technical and economic analysis are presented. (Study supported by Norfolk Redevelopment and Housing Authority Contract 100479) WORLD ENERGY CONSUMPTION AND POSSIBLE GLOBAL CLIMATIC CHANGES. Ralph M. Rottv, Air Resources Laboratories. NOAA, Silver Spring, Md. 20910 (on leave from Old Dominion Univ. , Norfolk, Va. 23508) Global energy consumption data fo'r the decade of the 1960's are presented with totals broken down as to the pri¬ mary fuel source and as to groups of countries with similar national economies. Per capita data are presented for each group and these data are related to "quality of life." Pro¬ jections for the year 2000 are made on the basis of popula¬ tion trends and expected changes in per capita energy con¬ sumption. For the period beyond the year 2000, three pos¬ sible energy growth curves are presented. Without careful planning the rate of growth of energy consumption by man can lead to an upsetting of the planetary radiant energy balance and severe climatic fluctuations. Both world-wide popula¬ tion control and greater use of solar energy will be re¬ quired to maintain stability. ENERGY ALTERNATIVES - OR WATTS WITH THE ENVIRONMENT. G. H. Beyer, Dept. of Chemical Enqineerinq, V a. Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ., Blacksburg, Va. 24061 Once upon a time there was a country that was big and beautiful and full of energy. It was so full of energy that it took energy for granted, and found it hard even to imag¬ ine that shortages could develop as its natural resources were depleted. But the shortages did develop and the re¬ sources were depleted. Every now and then, the attention of the people was di¬ verted to the vast amounts of solar energy delivered free each day, and to the possibility of fusion reactors which could run on the oceans' virtually unlimited supply of deuterium. Why worry, with energy alternatives like that! So, the country used 70 quadrillion units of energy in one year, and looked forward to using even more the next year. It consumed five-and-a-hal f billion barrels of oil and twenty-two trillion cubic feet of natural gas, and over 500 million tons of coal annually, because its expanding population and gross national product demanded energy in ever-increasing amounts. Then, one day, the country began to realize that its entire way of life would have to change because its energy resources were finite, and were being used in profligate ways that compromised the environment. Only then did energy begin to get the attention it de¬ served . Proceedings, 1972-1973 155 Section of Geology Fifty-first Annual Meeting of The Virginia Academy of Science May 1-4, 1973, Williamsburg, Virginia PALEOENVIRONMENTAL INTERPRETATION OF THE LATE PLEISTOCENE NORFOLK FORMATION AT HAMPTON, VIRGINIA. S.M. Kidwelly J.A. Brennan^ B.K. Leister$ S.E. Bennett? K.N. Cole? S.M. Glascock? R.L. Hixon? G.R. Knight? B.A. Morgan? and W.W. Waller? College of William and Mary, Williamsburg, (sponsored by G.H. Johnson) . Stratigraphic and geomorphic evidence from western Hampton reveals much about the late Cenozoic history of the lower Peninsula. The Norfolk Formation (late Pleistocene) uncon- formably overlies the Yorktown Formation (late Miocene) . The Yorktown, a gray silty sand, contains a diverse molluscan as¬ semblage. The Norfolk is a fluvial-estuarine-marine complex. The fluvial-estuarine deposits consist of cross-bedded sand and gravel, thick-bedded gray clay, organic-rich silt, and peat, ^n situ cypress stumps are abundant. The fluvial- estuarine sequence is overlain by a lag gravel that contains whole and disarticulated Crassostrea and Mercenaria. The up¬ per part of the Norfolk consists of fine to coarse sand. The geologic history of this area as inferred from the stratigraphic and geomorphic evidence is: (1) deposition of the Yorktown Formation in a shallow shelf environment, (2) erosion of the Yorktown by the ancestral James River, (3) rise of sea level to about 50 feet and filling of the paleo- channel by the fluvial-estuarine Norfolk Formation during late Pleistocene time, (4) fall of sea level to about 30 feet and formation of the Big Bethel and Harpersville scarps, (5) fall of sea level to 15 feet and deposition of nearshore sand east of the Big Bethel scarp, and (6) fall of sea level during Wisconsin time. HYDRAULIC MODIFICATION OF SIZE FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF KYANITE GRAINS FROM STREAMS IN BUCKINGHAM AND PRINCE EDWARD COUNTIES, VIRGINIA. Katherine R, Davis , Dept, of Geoloay, Col leqe of William and Mary, Wi I I i amsburg, Virginia 23185 Twenty-two bulk samples taken from Whispering Creek and Mountain Creek, which drain mountains composed of kyanite- bearing metamorphic rocks in Buckingham and Prince Edward Counties, were studied for the following purposes: 1)to investigate the size spectrum of kyanite grains in transport from a "point source"; 2) to evaluate the concept of hydraulic equivalence as it applies to kyanite; 3)to compare kyanite distribution of the two streams sampled. Samples represented stream distances of 4.1 and 5.0 stream miles. Laboratory procedures utilizing methods of Rittenhouse (1943) and Briggs (1965) resulted in construction of cumula¬ tive frequency curves for kyanite and light minerals in the 1 4e5 fractions of each sample. Separation in median grain size of kyanite and lights was termed i><5, after the usage of Briggs. Plots of the data showed a slight decrease in both median grain size of kyanite and with distance downstream. These results agreed with findings of Briggs, but low corre¬ lation coefficients and appearance of angular kyanite grains in larger size fractions downstream from the assumed source suggest the presence of multiple sources along both streams. It was concluded that even so-called "point sources" are too diffuse for study conducted over such short distances of transport; moreover, hydraulic equivalence cannot be estab¬ lished within such distances. (Aided by NSF grant GY-10015) MINOR STRUCTURES ASSOCIATED WITH A TRIASSIC BORDER FAULT, E. G. CAKLSOw*. Dept, of Geology, Col. of William and Mary, Williamsburg, Va. A pronounced normal fault separates Petersburg granite rrom Triassic shale, sandstone and coal in the east end of ttie Boscobel quarry near iianakin, Va. Well developed minor structures resulting from faulting occur in the Triassic sediments. The fault dips steeply below the section studied wnich is approximately 480 ieet long, horizontal, and perpindicular to the strike of the fault. Complex struc¬ tures characterize tile Triassic sediments adjacent to the fault and tight drag folds, the largest being 7 feet in neignt, are the dominant def ormational features. At a uistance of 185 feet above the fault, fracturing consisting of jointing and normal faults with minor displacement is uouinant and folding is insignilicant. 400 feet above the major fault are larger jointing of the competent units. Many of the minor faults and joints are parallel to the major border fault. Beyond a distance of 650 feet above the fault the sediments are nearly undeformed. Analysis of the minor folds, joints and small faults suggest tnat the major fault is a normal fault. Aw ALTERNATE INTERPRETATION FOR Tlib ORIGIN OF A "META VOLCANIC" UNIT NEAR hYLAS, VIRGINIA. J. C. Firebaugh. Jr$, Dept, of Geology, Col. of William and Mary, Williams¬ burg, Va. 23185 A petrographic study of a "metavolcanic” unit located near nylas, Va. was undertaken with the original intent of uetermining the rock types present and classifying them on the basis of textures and mineralogy, however, as the study proceeded certain metamorphic minerals and textures suggested a cataclastic origin for the rock. Muscovite is incorporated into the cataclastic flow structure, quartz and feldspars are brecciated and strained, plagioclase twins are bent, garnets are present, and mineral and color lamination is prevalent. From thin section and megascopic determinations the rocks are classified primarily as protomy Ionites , mylonites, and ultramylonites , or cohesive crush breccias resultant of deep seated faulting. The samples, taken from the two mile wide unit, show gradational brecciation in the fragmental mineral constituents, so that no particular type can be said to predominate. Kecrystaliz- ation uoes not appear to be a dominant process associated with the rocks, so that larger augen structures which are not aggregations of fragments may reflect a coarse grained parent rock. (Aided by N8F Grant GY-10015) 156 The Virginia Journal of Science EROSION AND DEPOSITION IN SIEBERT CREEK AND NEW¬ MAN LAKE. HARRISONBURG, VA . R. E. Widdicombe* and W. P. Roberts, Dept, of Geology, Madison Col., Harrisonburg, Va. 22801 Newman Lake was created on the Madison Col. campus in April, 1968 by construction of a con¬ crete spillway across Siebert Creek. The campus reach of the creek was channelized in July, 1971, resulting in shortening from 440m to 403m and in¬ crease in gradient from 6 . 9m/km to 7-6m/km. Dur¬ ing the period July, 1971 to July, 1972, 540 tons of material were removed from the creek banks and 10 tons of gravel were deposited along the con¬ crete flume in the form of five bars. Between 1968 and 1972, a delta (1000m3, 835 tons) formed at the mouth of Siebert Creek. Two other deltas formed at mouths of gully systems (120 m3, 222 tons and 24 m3, 44 tons, respective¬ ly). During this period a layer of mud (Mz, Polk 0.850) formed on the lake bottom with the follow¬ ing dimensions: average thickness 0.15m, volume 6576 m3, weight 10,4577 tons. Considering only the rate of deposition of mud since 1968 (1642 m3/yr) , the lake will be completely filled in 47 years . SEDIMENT YIELD IN AN URBANIZING BASIN: PATUXENT RIVER, MARYLAND, 1968-1969- W. P. Roberts, Dept, of Geology, Madison Col., Harrisonburg, Va. 22801 and J. W. Pierce*, Division of Sedimentol- ogy , National Museum of Natural History, Washing¬ ton, D. C. 20560 During water year 1968-1969 precipitation in the Patuxent River basin was only 79 percent of average, while water discharge was 95 percent of average. Sediment yield to the estuary was 344 tons/km2 as compared to the average of 143 tons/ km2. These increases can be attributed to urbani¬ zation in the watershed. After heavy rain, suspended sediment concen¬ tration in the rural Middle Patuxent River (Pied¬ mont Province) increased only 40-fold from "aver¬ age" runoff (15mg/l to 600mg/l), while concen¬ trations in the urbanizing Little Patuxent basin increased over two orders of magnitude (20mg/l to 2400mg/l). Suspended sediment discharge from the Piedmont portion of the Little Patuxent was more than twice that of the Middle Patuxent (620 tons/ km 2 compared to 290 tons/km2), probably as a re¬ sult of erosion of denuded soils at construction sites. Using erosion rates of the rural Middle Patuxent as a standard, construction sites yielded 87 percent of the suspended sediment discharged into the Patuxent estuary. HOW PERMEABLE ARE VIRGINIA ROCKS? W. C. Sherwood. Dept, of Geology, Madison Col., Harrisonburg, Va. 22801 Laboratory permeability measurements were made on fourteen rock samples collected from litholo¬ gies important in Virginia west of the fall line. Each rock was formed into a disc 2.5cm in diam¬ eter and 2mm thick, dried and mounted in a test chamber with a soap film meter attached. Nitrogen gas was used as the test fluid. Results of the experiment showed that the permeabilities ranged from a high of 890 x 10~4 millidarcys for well sorted, weakly consolidated Erwin sandstone to a low of .06 x 10-4 millidarcys for a Triassic horn- fels. In general the sandstones were high, the igneous rocks intermediate, and carbonates low in this interval. When compared to published figures for petroleum reservoir rocks and other mid-con¬ tinent carbonates the permeabilities of the Vir¬ ginia rocks were significantly lower. As a practical matter the rocks underlying much of Virginia have permeabilities so low that trans¬ mission of ground water through rock pores is in¬ significant. Useful well water supplies must de¬ pend almost totally on rock fractures or other relatively large openings. A CONCEPTUAL MODEL FOR THE TRANSVERSE SEDIMENT TRANSPORT SYSTEM 0W A VIRGINIA-NORTH CAROLINA COASTAL BARRIER CHAIN. Gerald L. Shideler. Dept, of Geophysical Sciences, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, Virginia, 23?08. Comparative size analyses of adjacent foreshore, berm, and dune sediments were conducted along a coastal barrier chain of the Middle Atlantic Bight. The three genetic populations are comprised of characteristic sub -populations, and exhibit statistically significant textural differences; their attributes are interpreted in terms of the following conceptual model. During fair weather, barrier sediments are subjected to sequential environmental processes, resulting in the acqui¬ sition of distinctive and cumulative textural response char¬ acteristics . The foreshore population is generated largely through aqueous processes associated with the normal swash- backwash regime, with only minor response to aeolian pro¬ cesses; whereas, the berm population is generated by high water swash -backwash regimes, and is substantially modified by aeolian processes . The dune population is generated entirely by the aeolian regime, and represents a clastic filtrate derived from adjacent berm and aeolian flat dep¬ osits. The distinctive response characteristics of the three populations tend to be obliterated by inter-populat¬ ion feedback, and through storm homogenization by wash- over fans. Textural responses of the populations appear to be determined both by the types of environmental pro¬ cesses, and by their relative effectiveness. INTENSE DEFORMATION IN MIDDLE ORDOVICIAN STRATA, GILES COUNTY, VIRGINIA. A. R. Prunier* and P. K. Jackson*. Dept, of Geological Sciences, Va. Polytechnic Institute and State Univ. , Blacksburg, Virginia 24061 Extreme disharmony characterizes the structure of the uppermost Moccasin and lower Eggleston formations in the northwest limb of the Greendale syncline along the New River below Goodwins Ferry. Exposures along County Road 682 show the mud rocks, limestones and sandstones of these formations thrown into tight, incongruent subsidiary folds which are complicated by wedging of sandstones, fracture cleaving of mudrock, and extensive faulting promoted by flowage of bentonite. The degree of disharmony is exemplified by an extremely wedged and faulted anticline adjacent to a syncline which exhibits no such disruptions. Eggleston sandstone in this anticline is extremely wedged whereas underlying Moccasin mudrock has excellent fracture cleavage and small faults. These structures attest to the tightness and asymmetry of the Greendale syncline whose southeast limb has been cut off by the Saltville fault (4000 feet local stratigraphic displacement). However, the disharmony of the subsidiary structures developed in Middle Ordovician strata at a depth of approximately 8000 feet directly reflects the variable responses of different lithologies during Appalachian deformation. INTENSIVE FOLDING AND WEDGING IN THE EGGLESTON FORMATION, GILES COUNTY, VIRGINIA. M. F. Hochella, Jr,*. Dept, of Geological Sciences, Va. Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ., Blacksburg, Virginia 24061 The Middle Ordovician Eggleston Formation along New River below Goodwins Ferry, Giles County, Virginia exhibits tight disharmonic drag folds, fracture cleavage, faults along which bentonite is injected, and exceptionally fine examples of wedging. These structures, well exposed along County Road 682, are developed in the northwest limb of the Greendale syncline, whose vertical southeast limb is cut off by the Saltville fault. The disharmonic nature of the deformation is due in part to this formation* s variable lithology of sandstones, shales, and bentonite and in part to its position between incompetent beds of the Moccasin Formation below and Martinsburg above. Wedging occurs locally in two sandstones about 8 feet apart stratigraphi- cally. The wedged ends of the telescoped beds in both zones overlap approximately 10 feet. Much of the over¬ lapping occurs where the sandstones are flat lying but the northwest side of the wedged beds are sharply flexed and indicate wedging occurred before much of the folding. The structures were formed at a depth of roughly 8,000 feet and are the result of a strong dominating compressive force from the southeast that climaxed in either Mississippian or Pennsylvanian time. 157 Proceedings, 1972-1973 CHANGING CHARACTER OF THE SALTVILLE FAULT NEAR NEWPORT, GILES CO., VA. J. K. Campbell*, G. M. Matheson*. Dept, of Geol. Sci. , Va. Poly. Inst. & State Univ., Blacksburg, Va. 24061 The Saltville fault at its type locality at Saltville, Va. is a low angle thrust with a stratigraphic throw of 12,500 ft. Middle Cambrian Honaker Dolomite is in contact with Lower Mississippian strata of the Greendale syncline. The dip of the fault increases from about 30° SE. at Saltville to about 55° at New River and the stratigraphic throw decreases to about 5000 ft. These changes correspond to a decrease in the amplitude of the Greendale syncline. Two miles SW. of Newport, the Saltville fault splits. The more northwesterly fault, the main trace, has a stratigraphic throw of about 1100 ft. and brings Early Ordovician Knox dolomite into contact with Middle or Upper Ordovician beds within the Greendale syncline. The branch to the SE., here named the Newport fault, has a stratigraphic throw of about 2300 ft. and brings upper Honaker Dolomite into contact with Middle Ordovician limestones or underlying Knox dolomites that constitute the axial portion of the Poplar Hill anticline. It is this fault which continues with the bulk of the dis¬ placement and can be traced 30 miles NE. to Newcastle. The Greendale syncline dies out to the northeast as the Clover Hollow anticline on the NW. merges with the larger Newport-faulted Poplar Hill anticline to form the Sinking Creek anticline. The Newport branch of the Saltville fault finally dies out NE. down the plunge of the Sinking Creek anticline. EFFECT OF THE PRICE MOUNTAIN ANTICLINE UPON THE PULASKI THRUST SHEET NEAR BLACKSBURG, VIRGINIA. T. A. Calhoun* and R. E. Kell*. Dept, of Geological Sciences, Va. Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ., Blacksburg, Va. 24061 The Pulaski thrust sheet in the Yellow Sulphur area, adjacent to Mississippian strata exposed in the Price window south of Blacksburg, Virginia, exhibits abnormal structural features and mineralization that bear on the sequence of deformation. They indicate that the eastward plunging Price Mountain anticline had developed sufficiently in the axial portion of the Blacksburg synclinorium to constitute a buttress to Cambrian Elbrook carbonates of the oncoming Pulaski overthrust. In the Acco quarry immediately east of the Yellow Sulphur fault, palygorskite is developed locally where bedding- plane slippage or brecciation of the Elbrook has occurred and especially along slickensided , dip-slip, faults of small throw. The faults are normal and constitute small grabens. The normal faulting is related to tension produced as the thrust sheet overrode the evolving Price Mountain anticline. The Yellow Sulphur fault resulted in the eastward or down-plunge movement of its western block and brought slices of Rome shale and Middle Ordovician strata up from the sole of the Pulaski overthrust sheet. SHORELINE EROSION IN VIRGINIA'S TIDAL RIVERS AND CHESA¬ PEAKE BAY: 1850-1940. Robert J. Byrne* and Gary L. Anderson*, Va. Inst, of Mar. Sci., Gloucester Point, Va. 23062 The magnitude of shore erosion in Tidewater Virginia was assessed utilizing comparative high water shoreline positions on the topographic survey series of 1850 and the 1940’s. Approximately 2,400 miles of shoreline, di¬ vided into 1725 reaches, were studied. Seven parameters were measured or derived for each reach; area change, shoreline length, average erosion distance, erosion rate, shore height, volume change and shore type. The results have been summarized as State, County and sub- system totals. Considered as a state total over 21,000 acres of land have been eroded over the 100 year period or an average loss of about 9 acres per mile per century if the loss was evenly distributed. Conservative estimate of the total volume of sediment material eroded and introduced into the Bay System was 270,126,000 cu. yds. per century. Again assuming uniform losses within a given system the river systems and Bay shores may be ranked as follows: Chesapeake Bay Southern Shore - 18 acres/mile/century Chesapeake Bay Eastern Shore - 12 Chesapeake Bay Western Shore - 11 " " " Rappahannock River - 9 " " " Potomac River (Va.) - 7 " " " York River - 6 " " " James River 5 " " " (Supported by NSF-RANN to Chesapeake Research Consortium) RECENT SHORELINE HISTORY OF VIRGINIA'S BARRIER ISLANDS. Robert J. Byrne, Va. Inst, of Marine Science, Gloucester Point, Va. 23062 The barrier island system of Virginia's Eastern Shore is comprised of thirteen islands fronting a marsh and lagoon complex varying in width between 1.5 and 6 miles. For the most part the islands represent a sandy inter¬ face between the sea and the eroding marsh. The shore¬ line history between 1852 and 1962 was examined by com¬ parison of high water shoreline positions depicted by 5 survey series distributed throughout the 110 years. Those islands of the northern 1/3 of the chain, Wallops, Assawomen, Metomkin and Cedar have retreated in a para¬ llel manner with rates increasing to the south; Wallops 8 ft/yr to Cedar 16 ft/yr. The middle 1/3 of the island chain is characterized by islands (Parramore, Hog, Cobb) flanked by deep inlets. The islands become dramatically offset downdrift under the combined influence of a strcng net southerly littoral drift and wave refraction around the inlet shoals. A manifestation of the offset has been accretion on the northern part of the islands and dramatic erosion on the southern sections with erosion rates as high as 33 ft/yr (Hog Is.). The southern 1/3 of the chain is again characterized by parallel erosion with rates about 25 ft/yr (Smith Is.). Approximately 17 sq. miles of land was eroded in the 110 year period. The last island in the chain, Fishermans Is., increased in area from 0.33 to 1.34 sq. miles during the period. INNER SHELF SEDIMENTS OFF CHESAPEAKE BAY. Galen Thompson and Maynard Nichols. Virginia Institute of Marine Science, Gloucester Point, Virginia 23062 Grain size and composition were analyzed in 780 bot¬ tom samples from a 2400- sq. mile area of the shelf floor off Chesapeake Bay. Dominantly detrital fine sand covers inner parts of the area while relic, medium to coarse sand covers outer parts, 15 miles offshore. The medium-coarse sand is iron-stained, rich in shell and poorly sorted. It contains lesser amounts of gravel, in a zone along the 60-70 foot depth contours. The two chief sediment types are separated by a mean grain size boundary at .250 mm. Sorting in both types varies from poor to well- sorted. Silt and clay are limited to a small low energy embayment off Wallops Island. Distrib¬ utions of grain size reveal sediments are generally coarser on ridge crests than in deeper troughs, and thus follow the bottom topography, but grain size is often highly variable. Sand, shell and gravel occur in suf¬ ficient amounts to constitute a significant mineral resource . LIFE CYCLE OF THE BOUCHON VASEUX. Maynard M. Nichols and Galen Thompson. Virginia Institute of Marine Science, Gloucester Point, Virginia 23062 The dynamic behavior of the mud plug (turbidity maxi¬ mum) has been traced through a full life cycle with changes in river inflow and haline mixing. At all levels of inflow the maximum resides within the estuary. Its locus lies just upstream of the 1%0 isohaline and its position shifts upstream with penetration of the salt intrusion. Development follows a sequence beginning with high inflow, or a major seaward surge of turbulent flood water: (1) formation of an enriched turbid aureole with near- surface and near-bottom maxima and a lean core at mid-depth, (2) progressive upstream migration and vertical (i.e. turbid) homogeneity in a narrow zone, (3) local intensification near the bottom with a partly layered structure, (4) slow decay and dispersion over a broad zone . The maximum reappears with each seasonal inflow and subsists for a life span of 4-16 weeks as estuarine mixing increases. Measurements of residual sediment transport show a significant amount of suspended sediment accumulates in the maximum, approximately 15 percent of the river input, despite losses by downstream advection in near-surface water, diffusion and settling- out on the bottom or in bordering marshes. The obser¬ vations point to river inflow as the chief factor con¬ trolling position of the maximum, and its trapping po¬ tential is supported by the strength of the river- estuarine convergence. 158 The Virginia Journal of Science THE VIRGINIAN SEA WAVE CLIMATE MODEL: APPLICATION TO SHORELINE PROBLEMS IN VIRGINIA. Victor Goldsmith*, Asbury H. Sallenger, Jr.* Virginia Institute of Marine Science, Gloucester Point, Va. 23062; W. Douglas Morris* NASA-Langley Research Center, Hampton, Va. 23365 Knowledge of ocean wave refraction, an important process affecting the distribution of wave energy over the continental shelf and along the shoreline, is re¬ quired for an understanding of many problems, including those involving sea state conditions and shoreline wave energy distributions. A first-order computer simulation model of wave conditions, involving real depths at 0.5 mile grid spacing has been developed for the shelf and shoreline area between Cape Henlopen and Cape Hatteras. Two second-order models (Cape Henry to the Virginia- North Carolina state line and adjacent to Wachapreague , Va. with depths spaced at 0.25 nm, utilizes wave input conditions from the primary model. A third-order model, with depth spacing at 0.1 nm, and centered on Virginia Beach will be used to delineate some of the particulars of the beach erosion problem, and will also be used to simulate various proposed corrective measures. Other uses of these models will be to test hypotheses concern¬ ing historical changes of the Eastern Shore barrier islands, develop solutions for specific beach erosion and harbor shoaling problems, and in planning for positioning and design of offshore structures. DEPOSITION At ENVIRONMENT OF THE CHAHA LITHOFACI ES OF THE Y0RKT0WN FORMATION (LATE MIOCENE) OF SOUTHEASTERN VIRGINIA. Donald W. Neal , Dept, of Geology, Col. of William and Mary, Williamsburg, Virginia 23185 The depositional environment of the Chama lithofacies was interpreted from field and laboratory studies of the compo¬ sition, geometry, and stratigraphic relationships. In south¬ eastern Virginia, the Chama facies is primari ly a matrix supported sediment. The clasts are the shells of the bi¬ valve Chama congregata Conrad and the matrix is a glauconit¬ ic sand; a clayey silt bed occurs in the middle of the unit. The facies thins to the north and west, grades into adjacent facies in the east, and is interbedded with a clayey silt to the south. The Chama facies was deposited in a shallow marine basin protected by an offshore carbonate bar. The rate of accumu¬ lation of sediments was slow and the Chama flourished. Quartz sands were wafted in among the Chama. The formation of the glauconite took place below the sediment-water inter¬ face. An influx of terrigenous clays and silts created unfavorable turbid water and soft bottom conditions under which the Chama population was reduced. Subsequently, the amount of clays and silts decreased and the community was reestablished. The Chama were the dominant faunal element until unstable bottom conditions, caused by an influx of sand, nearly extirpated the Chama . A Panope and 1 iercenari a community migrated into the area, eventually replacing the Chama completely. (Aided by NSF grant GY— 1 00 15) HEAVY MINERAL VARIATIONS ON THE INNER CONTINENTAL SHELF OFF OF PARRAM0RE ISLAND, VIRGINIA. W. Scott Sheely* Dept, of Geology, College of William and Mary, Williamsburg, Va. 23185' Grab samples collected between 2 and 25 miles offshore of Parramore Island, Virginia were evaluated for two pur¬ poses; one, to analyze an area of inner continental shelf sediments in terms of variation of mean grain size in the total sample and two, to determine the distribution and con¬ centrations of the heavy mineral suite of the same area. Funding of this research was by a departmental grant for the summer of 1972. Twenty-eight samples were collected over the 120 square mile area, dry sieved for size analysis and heavy minerals extracted by Bromoform density separation. The heavy minerals were identified optically and plotted by grain percent distribution. All samples were collected on cruises in the early 1960's by the Virginia Institute of Marine Science. Results of the study showed that there were localized concentrations of heavy minerals and coarsest-grai n-si zes , principally In narrow bands parallel to the present-day coastline and in waters less than 60 feet deep suggesting partial preservation of beach lines developed during lower sea levels. Economic potential of the concentrations appears promising but additional study of the vertical variability is definitely necessary. THE PALEOECOLOGY OF A LATE MIOCENE OSTREA DISPARILIS COMMUNITY FROM THE YORKTOWN FORMATION NEAR CLAREMONT, VIRGINIA. J.R. Swanson*. Dept, of Geology, Col. of William and Mary, Williamsburg, Va. 23185- The taphonomy of an Ostrea disparilis community from the Yorktown formation was studied. Thirty-one species we re identified including pelecypods, deco¬ pods, barnacles, coelenterates , bryozoans, annelids, scaphopods, porifera, brachiopods, echinoids, and fish remains. The community was dominated by 0_. disparilis Conrad, Plicatula mar inata Say, and their epi fauna. The assemblage is undisturbed v/hich is evidenced by the articulated shells still found in life position. A comparison to a modern Crassostrea virginica com¬ munity of Beaufort, N.C. was made. Over 300 species are recorded in the modern community. By analogy, it was assumed that much of the fossil community was lost because of nonpreservation. Certain expected species such as the oyster drill were present in the modern community but not in the fossil community. This fact along with the smaller fossil diversity suggests lower salinities for the fossil community. The second purpose of this paper was to establish cause of mortality for the oysters. Possible causes were examined and observations were made on the upper contact of the oysters. Orientation of shells and the abrupt change in fauna suggest that the oysters were killed by sediment burial during a storm. SOME DETAILS OF THE METAM0RPHIC ROCKS ALONG THE JAMES RIVER IN SOUTHERN GOOCHLAND COUNTY, VA. Stephen M. Snyder*. Dept, of Geology, College of William and Mary, Williamsburg, Va. Metamorphic rocks in southern Goochland County, Virginia bear a striking resemblance to those described by Hopson found in the mantled gneiss domes of Baltimore and Howard Counties, Maryland. This study of the structures and min¬ eralogy of the rocks exposed in outcrop north of the James River from Sabot to Rock Castle was undertaken to determine whether a gneiss dome exists in the area, as inferred from recent aeromagnetic studies by the U. S. Geological Survey. Exposed in the area are two units, the State Farm Gneiss to the east and Wissahickon-type metasediments to the west. The State Farm Gneiss is a body of interlayered granite and biotite gneisses, granulites, and amphibolites, strongly foliated parallel to ancient bedding planes. It shows little or no folding in outcrop but is thought to be slightly folded on a regional scale. Throughout the area under study lineation plunges gently to the north and strikes N10°E. The Wissahickon-type rocks are biotite schists and gneisses with porphyroblastic garnets and microcline. These rocks are tightly folded near the contact with the State Farm Gneiss but more gently folded to the west. The rocks have been metamorphosed to the amphibolite facies indicated by the presence of silliraanite in nearby stream sediments and the presence of soapolite with a composition of Me^, suggesting the kyanite or sillimanite subfacies. The rock types, structures and grade of metamorphism suggest that the two units may be part of a gneiss dome. INTERBEDDED GNEISSES AND SANDSTONES IN LOUISA COUNTY, VIRGINIA. John W. Funkhouser , John Tyler Cmnty. College, Chester, Virginia 23831 Location: Buckner Quadrangle on secondary route 618 approximately half way between Buckner and Fredericks Hall and 1500 ft. nw. of Horsepen Branch. Within 65 ft. of exposure are 10 definable sandstone beds ranging in thick¬ ness from 5 in. to 1 ft. 4 in. Their strike is 40° east of north and dip is 86° se. (this agrees closely with other outcrops within a 1 mi. radius). Separating the sandstones is amphibole gneiss whose lineation is the same as the orientation of the sandstones. At one point there is appar¬ ent cross-bedding in the gneiss (also observed in fresh road cuts along Lake Anna). Both the gneisses and sandstones have been cut by quartz veins, and within the section is a badly weathered quartz dike 5 ft. thick. The sandstone beds could not be found in a C 4 0 RR. cut on strike with them, but here weathering was advanced. Additional sands were found along the railroad and were traceable into the highway (all badly weathered and almost unrecognizable); these would fall about 2500 ft. nw. It has so far been impossible to find additional evidence of sands in the area, but outcrops are poor and few. Proceedings, 1972-1973 159 PALEOGEOLOGY OF THE COASTAL PLAIN OF VIRGINIA. R. H. Teifke*, Va. Div. of Mineral Resources, Charlottesville, VA 22903. Relationships between the distribution of sediments and the tectonic framework in which they were deposited are shown on paleogeologic and paleostructure maps. The Patuxent Formation and "transitional beds" of Lower Cretaceous age represent a period of relatively active tec- tonism and rapid deposition of terrigenous detritus during which the major features of the Precambrian-Paleozoic "base¬ ment" surface were obscured. A substantial pre-existing "basement" low and an unknown amount of additional subsi¬ dence during Cretaceous time are inferred from the thickness of the Patuxent Formation. By their location, and litholog¬ ic properties, the "transitional beds" reflect the waning stages of rapid deposition of terrigenous sediments. Upper Cretaceous!?) and Tertiary deposition, characteris¬ tically marine, occurred in a series of transgressive phases in which first the Mattaponi, and then the Nanjemoy, Calvert, and Yorktown sediments were deposited over the area. The Mattaponi basin was of wide extent. Between Mattaponi and Nanjemoy time, the regional tectonic framework changed to produce an areally restricted basin with its deepest portion to the north. From Nanjemoy, through Calvert, to Yorktown time the tectonic framework changed to produce a gradually expanded basin whose deepest portion shifted progressively southward. Effects of basement evolution on sediment dis¬ tribution during the Tertiary are subtle but nevertheless correlate satisfactorily with the distribution of formations and their characteristics as presently mapped. GRAVITY, MAGNETICS, AND VERTICAL ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY SOUNDINGS IN NORTHEASTERN NORTH CAROLINA. James S. Rankin*, Dennis W. Duty*, and Blair M. McCarthy*. Dept, of Geophys¬ ical Sciences, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, Va., 23508. A simple Bouguer anomaly map and a total magnetic intens¬ ity map were made for the area in northeastern North Carolina between the latitudes 36° 15'N and 36° 30'N, and from the 76° 30' longitude eastward to the Atlantic Coast. In addition, three vertical electrical resistivity soundings (V.E.S.) were made in the area. The Schlumberger array was used with 8000 feet spreads. The gravity map displays a large gravity low trending N-S, centered over Currituck Sound, and a large gravity high trending NE-SW in the vicinity of the town of South Mills. The magnetic map displays anomaly features similar to those displayed by the gravity map. The electrical resistivity sounding curves are of the type H. They indicate the presence of saline -water-bearing sand, or shale, section from a depth of 150' to about 2000' where an electric basement has been encountered. On the basis of magnetic interpretation, it was inferred that a dike-like body of diabase material has intruded and uplifted the crystalline basement in the western part of the area. With this inference the gravity map was interpreted. The results suggest the presence of a sedimentary basin underlying the area of Currituck Sound, which contains 13,000-foot-thick section of sediments. Near South Mills, the crystalline basement is estimated at 1^000 feet. A PRELIMINARY INVESTIGATION OF BEACH CUSPS AS RESONANT FREQUENCY PHENOMENA. R. L. Porter. 520 Big Pine Dr., Va. Beach, Va., 23452 Beach cusps have characteristics similar to resonant systems in physics and electronics. Short cusps occur when wave frequencies are high and long cusps occur when wave frequencies are low. The substitution of twice the cusp length for distance between wave crests in a wave velocity formula (2.25Vdistance between crests) results in the calcu¬ lation of velocities within an acceptable range. ORIGIN AND PROCESSES OF SHORELINE REORIENTATION FEATURES. Peter S- Rosen, Va. Inst, of Marine Science, Gloucester Point, Va . 23062 Cuspate spits and cuspate forelands are the result of reorientation of a shoreline into dominant wave approach. Cuspate spits form in elongate lagoons where the basin shape acts as a selective filter on the wave spectrum, so dominant wave approaches are perpendicular to the shoreline . Studies of the cuspate spits in Nantucket Harbor, Massachusetts suggest the initial form of cuspate spits can either be a previous irregularity in the shoreline (i.e. earlier recurved dune ridges) or the result of longshore sediment saturation. Comparisons with other areas show the abrasional or accumulative form (Zenkovitch, 1959) of the spits is a function of tidal range. The tendency for cuspate spits to segment a lagoon occurs only with accumulative spits in non-tidal areas. Cuspate spits form only in micro- tidal areas. Cuspate forelands are genetically identical to cuspate spits except that there are no restrictions on the wave spectrum. They occur only as accumulative forms and theirpresence is not governed by tidal range. 160 The Virginia Journal of Science Section of Materials Science Fifty-first Annual Meeting of The Virginia Academy May 1-4, 1973, Williamsburg, Virginia of Science DISLOCATION BEHAVIOR IN COPPER CRYSTALS FREE OF SUPERSATU- RATED VACANCIES. W.J. Tropf* and D. Kuhlmann-Wilsdorf , Dept, of Physics and Dept, of Materials Science, Univ. of Va., Charlottesville, Va. 22901 In a specially constructed furnace, 99.999% copper single crystals were grown by slowly passing a molten zone through the samples in a high vacuum at a temperature only a few de¬ grees below the melting point of copper. Thus one may be assured that the freshly-grown crystals were almost free of supersaturated thermal vacancies. The crystals were then subjected to a programmed slow cooling, designed to prevent the occurrence of significant vacancy supersaturationsl) . The motivation for the described crystal growth was provided by earlier theoretical speculations according to which the kinked, three-dimensional dislocation arrangements seen in pure metals, even after quite small deformations, is the re¬ sult of dislocation vacancy interactions. The supersaturated vacancies and small vacancy aggregates left in the specimens by preceding heat treatments were held to be responsible for this effect at the smallest strains, rapidly augmented by vacancies generated by gliding dislocations during deforma¬ tion. By preparing specimens initially free of vacancies and small vacancy aggregates, it becomes possible to test the described model. Preliminary results have largely supported the earlier hypotheses. These shall be discussed. (This re¬ search is supported by the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission.) 1) W.J. Tropf and D. Kuhlmann-Wilsdorf, phys . stat . sol . 1^3 241 (1972) THE HEXAGONAL DISLOCATION NETWORK. M.N . Bassim* and D. Kuhlmann-Wilsdorf , Dept, of Materials Science, Univ. of Va., Charlottesville, Va. 22901 Of all dislocation networks, the hexagonal screw disloca¬ tion network, representing a pure twist boundary, is the most commonly observed. Correspondingly, it is most impor¬ tant to study its stresses and their potential interaction with glide dislocations. Such a study, has been performed with the aid of an electronic computer. AN EXTENDED FRANK'S FORMULA FOR LOW-ANGLE MISFIT BOUNDARIES. William A. Jesser , Dept, of Materials Science, Univ. of Va . 22901. Since the development of Frank's formula for low-angle grain boundaries, further treatments have been of a general nature aimed at very com¬ plex interfaces. In between these extremes is the case of a boundary across which a small angular misalignment as well as a lattice parameter differ¬ ence occurs. This case is referred to as a low- angle misfit boundary and includes angles and mis¬ fits which are less than those producing pronounc¬ ed coincidence boundaries. Formally the boundary is generated by transforming a reference crystal into crystals one and two by a rotation matrix and a matrix which changes only the lattice parameters . The resultant vector expression for the net Burgers vector 13 of the dislocations cut by an arbitrary vector v lying in the boundary is B = 2u x vsin(0/2) + f (_u x v ) x j2Coe(0/2) + _u ( v • u_) f where f is the misfit as measured along v before any rotations occur about a unit vector u by + 0/2 for crystal one and two respectively . For f=0 t^e expression reduces to Frank's formula. For f and 0 non zero the boundary dislocation behavior closely parallels that of moire fringes. This work was supported under AEC contract. A MONTE CARLO ANALYSIS OF PARTICLE SPACING PARAMETERS «, J. H. Steele, Jr. Div. of Minerals Engineering, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Va. 24061 The spacing of particles dispersed within a matrix can be characterized by various parameters, including_mean free path, and average nearest neighbor distance, AM. Theo¬ retical equations for spherical particles which relate these to particle size and volume fraction are, IM = 2D(1-Vv)/3Vv and , An - D( (e 8Vv 8V„ dx) 1/3 1/3 v )/vv The ratio, Xj^/Ap, is approximately 30 for a volume fraction, Vv=0 . 04 . Monte Carlo analysis confirms the validity of the nearest neighbor equation for spherical particles up to 15 volume 70 with a size distribution. It also indicates that nearest neighbor spacings have a log-normal distribution with a coefficient of variation which increases with that for the particle size distribution. Radial density functions ob¬ tained with the simulation were reproducible, showing a spectrum with the first peak corresponding to the average nearest neighbor distance. Proceedings, 1972-1973 161 NETWORK SIMULATION OF CONNECTIVITY AND AGGREGATE SIZE IN TWO PHASE MIXTURES. W. D. Leahy and J. H. Steele. Jr. Div. of Minerals Engineering, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Va. 24061 The connectivity and number of separate parts formed in a two phase mixture of grains can be simulated using a network to represent the aggregate in which nodes correspond to grains, and edges to the faces where the grains impinge. A network exhibiting a shape distribution with an average of about 14 faces per grain was obtained by randomly position¬ ing 1000 points within a unit cube and then connecting each node to the neighbors which fall within a selected radial distance. This structure was used to generate two phase aggregates by randomly labeling a given fraction of nodes, (f). The number of separate parts per grain was found to vary approximately as exp(-8f) for f < .2. Both phases were found to be totally interconnected with essentially all grains belonging to a single part for each phase when 0.3 < f < 0.7. A sparse matrix technique (non-zero element storage) was utilized for manipulating and analyzing the large network from its 1000 x 1000 vertex matrix. Periodic boundary con¬ ditions were defined for opposite faces of the unit cube to minimize the effect of the external surface conditions. EFFECT OF SURFACE PRETREATMENT ON THE STATIC AND DYNAMIC OXIDATION BEHAVIOR OF TD-NiCr. D. R. Tennev and C. T. Youne. Metallurgical Engineering, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Va. 24061 The oxidation behavior of TD-NiCr has been studied in static and high speed flowing air environments in the 2000° to 2200°F temperature range. Oxide morphologies and micro¬ structures formed on test specimens as a function of surface preparation, exposure time and specific oxidation conditions in both types of environments have been characterized. Sur¬ face preparation was found to affect the order, relative amount and morphologies of oxides formed on exposed surfaces. Surface recrystallization of mechanically polished specimens was observed to promote the formation of 0^03. However, for the dynamic environment, this layer was rapidly replaced at the external surface with a porous NiO "mushroom'1 type layer. This type of NiO layer was observed to form directly on electropolished specimens. (^03, which provides good oxidation resistance for static environment, is subject to rapid vaporization via formation of Cr03(V) for high speed flowing air environment. It was observed, however, that the stability of was significantly improved by the pre¬ sence of an outer NiO layer even when this layer was very porous . AN ANALYTICAL MODEL FOR THE HIGH TEMPERATURE OXIDATION OF THORIA DISPERSED NICKEL CHROMIUM ALLOY. A. V. Pawar and D. R. Tenney, Department of Metallurgical Engineering, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Va. 24061 Oxidation of TD-NiCr alloy is mathematically analyzed using a total mass-balance approach. The basic mathematical model uses diffusion and oxidation rate data to treat the problem of a moving metal/oxide interface. The appropriate diffusion equations are solved by using a numerical method employing a variable grid technique. The effect of thoria dispersion on the oxidation behavior of TD-NiCr has been investigated and incorporated into the analysis. It has been found that thoria reduces the rate of external oxidation and increases the rate of internal oxidation. It is proposed that accumulation of Th02 at the metal/oxide interface re¬ duces the outward flux of Cr atoms and promotes the dissoci¬ ation of Cr203 at the thoria/oxide interface. A steady state is reached when the rate of oxidation is equal to the rate of vaporization of via formation of CrC^. The mathemati¬ cal analysis calculates time dependence of oxide thickness, substrate thickness decrease, and chromium concentration pro¬ files in alloy substrate for oxidation at 1100 and 1200°C in 0.1 O2 atmosphere. Experimental data was collected to check the accuracy of the mathematical model. A close correlation between the experimental and calculated results indicates that the analytical model accurately describes the oxidation behavior of TD-NiCr alloy. CHARACTERIZATION OF DIFFUSION INTERACTION IN A TWO-PHASE METAL MATRIX COMPOSITE. K. Gross*and D. R. Tennev, Metal- lurgical Engineering, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Va. 24061 The diffusional behavior of a two-phase metal matrix composite has been investigated. A theoretical analysis based on finite difference solution of the appropriate dif¬ fusion equations for a composite where the filaments and matrix comprise a two-phase binary alloy system has been developed. The theoretical model which employs a Murray- Landis variable grid technique assumes a finite diffusion geometry and a diffusion controlled movement of the two- phase interface. Computer simulated composition profiles have been obtained for interaction at 1200°C. To provide experimental verification of the theoretical analysis, tungsten wire reinforced nickel composite samples are being examined. The as-received structure of these specimens has been characterized by employing scanning electron microscopy to examine etched cross-section and electron microprobe analysis to examine the extent of interaction resulting from composite fabrication. Experiments have also been carried out to study the effect of diffusion interaction on mechani¬ cal properties. Preliminary tests with W-wires electro¬ plated with Ni has revealed that diffusion of Ni into W causes a change in the fracture mode of the W-wires. THE VALENCE BANDS OF CRYSTALLINE AND AMORPHOUS SEMICONDUC¬ TORS. L. R. Durden and L. H. Slack. Div. of Minerals Engineering, Va. Polytechnic Inst. & State Univ., Blacksburg, Va. 24061 Conduction theories that describe the semi conduction phenomena in amorphous semiconductors indicate that there are localized electronic energy levels that give rise to energy tails attached to the valence and conduction bands. Theorists postulate that the overlapping of extended energy tails account for all of the electronic conduction phenome¬ na. Valence electron levels and selected subvalence levels of polycrystalline and amorphous thin films are examined by x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy in an attempt to determine whether these tails exist and to determine whether there are electronic differences that could account for the lack of sensitivity to impurities noted in amorphous semicon¬ ductors. The bending energies of subvalence levels are found to be identical in both the crystalline and amorphous states. Valence electron energy levels in amorphous films are found to differ from those in crystalline materials in one or more of three ways: a) they may be reduced in intensity, b) they may be broadened, and c) they may be shifted to lower binding energy. AN EXPERIMENTAL STUDY AND COMPUTER SIMULATION OF SWITCHING IN AN AMORPHOUS SEMICONDUCTOR. W. D. Leahy, Jr.* and L. H. Slack. Div. of Minerals Engineering, Va. Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ. , Blacksburg, Va. 24061 The switching characteristics of amorphous semiconductor thin films are compared with a computer simulation based on a thermal runaway model. The model consists of applying a square wave voltage pulse through the semiconducting glass film between two electrical contacts. The effect of pulse amplitude on delay time was studied experimentally and closely correlates with simulations. Simulation has shown that pre-switching delay time decreases with decreasing thickness, while switching rise time increases with decreasing radius. The simulation and a SEM study of devices (both pre and post switching) suggest that switching occurs in a very small volume of the con¬ ducting region. (Aided by ARPA Grant 1562, Amend. No. 1). 162 The Virginia Journal of Science SEMICONDUCTING TIN OXIDE FILMS ON GLASS. A. Rohatgi* and L. H. Slack. Div. of Minerals Engineering, Va. Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ. , Blacksburg, Va. 24061 Stannic oxide crystals are insulators with a band gap of 3.5 eV. However, thin films of tin oxide, prepared by the pyrolytic decomposition of alcoholic stannic chloride solu¬ tions are n-type semiconductors with a resistivity of 0.05 ohm-cm and a thermal activation energy for conduction of 0.0175 eV. The addition of the group III elements. In and Tl, cause the stannic oxide films to become less conducting and increases their activation energies. Additions of the group V elements increased conduction and decreased the activation energies. The infrared transmission was affected by the deposits in the same sense as was the activation energy. It is proposed that donors in the undoped films are stannous (trivalent) ions associated with thermally origi¬ nated oxygen ion vacancies. Maintenance of charge neutral¬ ity would require that additions of group III ions would decrease the Sn+3 concentration narrowing the donor band; and additions of group V ions would increase the Sn+3 con¬ centration, widening the donor band. These changes in the Sn+3 concentration accounts for all of the observations. A STUDY OF MAGNETIC DOMAIN WALLS IN EVAPORATED IRON FILMS. G . Proto*. K. R. Lawless and R. H. Geiss. Dept, of Materials Science, Univ. of Va., Char¬ lottesville, Va. 22901 The technique of Lorentz microscopy by the Fresnel method is presented together with some of the difficulties of practical domain wall width me as u r em e n t s . A procedure for fabricating single crystal iron films is outlined and the resulting domain wall structure described. Finally, a method is presented which, assuming geometrical optics, gives a measure of the wall width and the beam divergence from a single set data . THE APPLICATION OF HIGH VOLTAGE ELECTRON MICROSCOPY TO THE STUDY OF MICROMECHANISMS OF DUCTILE FRACTURE. R. W. Bauer,* H. G. F. Wilsdorf, and R. L. Ladd. Dept, of Materials Science, Univ. of Va. , Charlottes¬ ville, Va. 22901 Crack propagation in thin sheets of ductile metals proceeds by the initiation, growth and coalescence of voids in the region of the plastic zone immediately adjacent to the crack tip. Convincing evidence has been presented in the literature that voids are initiated in two phase alloys at particle matrix interfaces or by plastic deformation induced cleavage of second phase particles. Void initiation sites in single phase metals and alloys containing a low volume fraction of particles is presently unclear. In a series of tensile tests on 304 stainless steel foils in the thickness range 3 - 1,000 yU. strained to fracture, the measured dimple size on the fracture surface was 3 - 5/-*-, while the interparticle spacing of the alloy was approximately 20 p- . This result implies that there are other initiation sites beside particles. Thin foil tensile samples deformed in a 500 kV. high voltage electron microscope by means of a hydraulically loaded tensile stage indicate that holes are initiated at grain and twin boundary sites and at intersecting slip bands. NEW ETCHING TECHNIQUE APPLI ED TO DENTAL ALLOYS IDENTIF ICATI0N OF Au-S n PHASE IN 15% GO LD CONTAIN- ING DENTAL ALLOY. M. L. M alho t r a* , an d K. R. Lawle s s . Dep t . of Mat erial s S c i e nee , u niv . of Va. , Chari o t tesville, Va. 22901 Th e conventional me thods used for po lishing and e t ch i ng alloys and ama lgams alway s h ave the t r o ub 1 e of ob t a inlng scratch f r ee s ur f ace s wh i c h in tu r n caus e s difficulty in i n t er p reting t h e m icros tr u c- tur e of these material s . The new e t chi ng tech n i qu e using a n argon ion bom b ar dm en t is s u c c e ssf ully appli ed to dental alio y s an d r es u Its in highly im- prove d polished and e t ch ed sur f ac es . 1 1 h as been reporte d by L . B . Joh ns o n and R M. Water s t rat that the 10 % gold cont ai n ing dental alloy p roduces an amal gam i n wh i c h S n-H g ( Y 2 ) ph as e is dr as tically reduced when place d a t b ody tem p era - tur e f o r about 10 days . Th e exp 1 ana t io n for th e ab s en c e of y2- phase i s the fact th a t the gold atoms p ossess a strong chem leal a f f i nity for t i n atoms a nd form a ring o f Au S n 4 at th e b o und ar i e s o f th e y -p articles . The pr es e n t s t u dy i nv olves t h e locat io n of the AuSn., phase in th e d en t al alio y conta i n ing 15% gold us ing x -ray f luo res cence analy ze r coupled with s c ann ing el ec t r on micros C ope S uppo r t ed by USPHS Gra n t DE 02111 URACIL . Lawre nee Fallon , I II*. Dept . of Materials BY DIFFUSION MEASUREMENTS ON ORIENTED POLYMERS. Science , Univ. of Va . , Char lottesvill e, Va. 22901. R. C. Tsai * , and R . E . Barke r , J r . t Dept. 0 f Mate- The s tr uc tu re of 5-fluor ouracil ( C 4H3N2O2F) is rials Scie nee, Univ . 0 f Va. , Cha r lo 1 1 es vi 1 1 e , Va . t r i cl i n ic with space group gl and the unit cell0 22903 . d imens i ons a = 9. ?2 + 0.03 A, b = 12. 66 + 0.03 A, Careful investigatio ns of permeation and d i f f u- c = 12. 67 + 0. 03 A, a = 89. 77 + 0.3°, 8 = 43.90° + sion have b een made for 14 g as-polymer pair s with 0.3°, y = 98.6 9+0.3°. Th ere are 8 f luorour acil an explici t purpose of t es t i ng the entropy co r r e- mo 1 e cul es in o ne uni t cell . Intensity data were 1 at ion hyp 0 thes is . P r e 1 irain ary support for the measure d using an automated diffracto meter with hypothesis was based on data due to Willency and MoKa ra di at ion . Patterson and symbol ic add i tion Bar ker for Ar diffusion in 0 riented fi 1ms o f Korad- methods both f ailed in yielding a cor rect struc- C (an aery lie copolymer of m ethyl methacryl ate (MMA) ture . These m e thods 9 howev er, gave a partial struc- ethyl meth acrylate( EMA) , and methyl butyl m e th- ture which was used to supp ly Initial phases to the aery la t e (MBA) ) . The new res ul ts include da t a for tangent f ormul a. The compl ete struct ure was thus the di f f us ion of 0 2 , N2 , and CO in the homo po lymers found u sing sp ace group PI. Least s q uares refine- PMMA , PEMA , iso-PBMA , a nd no rmal-PBMA. Sel f con- ment in space group PI gave a final w eighted R sistent re suits wer e ob t aine d when the orie n tation factor of 0.05 4 (the final unweighted R = 0.092). was charac terized by bo th le ngth ratio meas ur emen ts The unit c e 11 consists o f two mole cular layers , and by pol arizing micro s co p_y For all gas- polymer each co nt ainin g _ four molecu 1 es . Th es e layers are pairs obse rved the data cons istently suppor t the related by the PI centers o f symmetry . Structural hypothesis , now advance d as a theory: The i ncr eas e feature s of in teres t includ ed several additional that occur s in the acti va t io n entropy of di f f us ion centers of symmetry unrelat ed to the space group, when a non crystalline p olymer is oriented i s equal and sev er al di fferent stack ing inter a ctions . to the dec rease in the conf i gurational entr opy due (Aided by NIH Grant DE 0211 i) to the ori entation . Th e id e a works so well for the cases stud ied that we b e 1 i ev e the hypothesi s should apply to m uch more dive r s e t ypes of activat ed p ro c- esses . (Pa r tially suppo r t ed by USPHS DE 021 id Proceedings, 1972-1973 163 THE STRAIN-RATE BEHAVIOR OF DUCTILE POLYMERS. H. F. Brinson and A. Das Gupta*. Dept, of Engineering Science and Mechanics, V a. Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ., Blacksburg, V a. 24061 A study is presented of the strain-rate dependent behavior of various polymers. These polymers include, polycarbonate, polyesters, PMMA and an epoxy. It is shown that these poly¬ mers possess essentially elastic, viscoelastic and visco¬ plastic behavior regions and some, such as polycarbonate, show Luder's band formation and plastic flow. A discussion of characterization techniques is presented including the use of Bingham-Prager type models and modified Bingham models. It is shown that a particular type model used previously by Brinson can be adapted to fit very closely the strain-rate behavior of all the polymers cited in their various behavior regions over a wide variation in strain rate. The advantages and disadvantages of the modeling tech¬ nique are discussed as well as possible applications to plasticity. An extension to more generalized models is discussed together with possible applications. (Aided by Army Contract No. 303287-2) THERMO-MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF PYROPHYLLITE . R. B. Groome*, and R. E. Barker, Jr., Dept, of Materials Science, Univ. of Va., Charlottesville, Va. 22903. Pyrophyllite is a mineral with many important uses due to certain almost unique thermomechanical properties. For high pressure applications it can be machined and shaped as a solid and then used as a fluid hydrostatic pressure transmitting medium. The compressibility of pyrophyllite (Lava), without heat treatment, has been measured up to 3000 bar at several temperatures between 0° and 100°C. An abrupt change in the volume has been found to occur as a function of pressure, near 750 bar for each of the temperatures. X-ray dif¬ fraction data also have been obtained which reveal a change in crystal structure due to the applied pressure . A NEW EQUATION FOR THE INFLUENCE OF PRESSURE ON MELTING. C. L. Reynolds. Jr..* K. A. Fauehnan.* and R. E. Barker, Jr. Dept, of Materials Science, Univ. of Va. , Charlottesville, Va. 22901. A new equation for the variation of melting points of metals as a function of pressure, p, has been developed on the basis of simplified atomic considerations. The equation, {AT /T (0)} /Bp ~ 2 ( Yq “ 1/3) (1 + C2 B p) » is thought to be in a more convenient form for comparison with experimental data than previous relationships. In this equation, B is the compressibility, Yq the Gruneisen parameter, and C2 is a constant related to the anharmoni ci ty . In checking the equation it was found that a value of C2 = “^-9 appears to be more accurate for the ratio than the value -2.5 reported by Slater (a, and a2 are the ^ coefficients in the expression -AV/VQ = a^p + a2P > for the compression of a material) . Obviously, the proposed equation for AT should not be applied when the compression is not well described by the relation involving a^ and a2* (Supported by a N.I.D.R. Training Grant and Program/Project DE 02111) PHOTOELASTIC DETERMINATION OF THE INFLUENCE OF THREE- DIMENSIONAL EFFECTS ON THE STRESS INTENSITY FACTOR FOR COM¬ PACT SPECIMENS. D. K. Barrett*. Dept, of Enqineerinq Science -,nd Mechanics, Va. Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ., Blacksburg, Va. 24061 Stress freezing photoelastic experiments were conducted on a typical compact tension model having a crack length to effective width ratio of .3. The two inch thick model was then sliced across the thickness and each slice analyzed to determine the value of the stress intensity factor for that location. The results of this analysis are then used to determine the functional form of the stress intensity factor across the thickness of the compact specimen. RESIDUAL STRESS EFFECTS IN PLASTIC ENCLAVE DEVELOPMENT. A. Candogan*, K. L. Reif snider. Dept, of Engineering Science and Mechanics, Va. Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ., Blacksburg, Va. 24061 A finite element model has been developed to study elastic-plastic deformation in a single-edge-notched (SEN) plate during cyclic mode I loading. The program solves two related boundary value problems (for the loaded and un¬ loaded state) to determine the residual stress and strain distribution for each complete cycle. For the ideal case in which there is no relaxation, no reverse-slip, and no crack extension, the original loaded stress and strain field is reproduced upon reloading elastically, verifying the accuracy of the residual stress field. Some important residual stress effects are discussed. COMPOSITE REINFORCED METAL TENSILE BEHAVIOR, PART I: ME¬ CHANICAL RESPONSE. M. P. Renieri*, G. L. Jones*, C. T. Herakovich*, E. G. Henneke, II*. Dept, of Engineering Science and Mechanics, Va. Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ., Blacksburg, Va. 24061 Tension tests were run on boron/epoxy reinforced metals to compare their mechanical properties with predicted values. Both standard coupon specimens and modified dog-bone speci¬ mens were tested to failure. Stiffness and strength proper¬ ties were obtained for a variety of combinations of compos¬ ite and metal. It is shown that the stiffness and the strength of boron/epoxy reinforced aluminum and titanium are greater than their all-metal counterparts. The stiffness is independent of the type of specimen used but the strength is not. (Supported by NASA-Langley Grant NGR 47-004-101 and Contract NAS 1-1 0646- 17) 164 The Virginia Journal of Science COMPOSITE REINFORCED METAL TENSILE BEHAVIOR, PART II: ACOUSTIC EMISSIONS. G. L. Jones*, M. P. Renieri*, E. G. Henneke, II*, and C. T. Herakovich*. Dept, of Engineering Science and Mechanics, V a. Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ., Blacksburg, V a. 24061 Tensile tests of composite reinforced metals were moni¬ tored for acoustic emissions to determine if information about accumulative damage and possible failure mechanisms could be obtained. The AE count rate and total counts have been measured as a function of specimen strain and are com¬ pared with the tensile behavior. Results are given for boron/epoxy reinforced aluminum, boron/epoxy reinforced titanium and boron/epoxy composite. (Supported by NASA- Langley Grant NGR 47-004-101 and Contract NAS 1-1 0646- 17) LIGHT EMISSION DURING THE FRACTURE OF SILICON CARBIDE FILAMENTS. Franklin E. Wawner . Jr. Dept, of Materials Science, Univ. of Va., Charlottesville, Va. 22901 Silicon carbide filaments give off light in the form of a spark when broken in tension. The spark occurs at each point where there is simultaneous fracture. Preliminary experiments show that fac¬ tors such as strain rate variation, testing in an argon atmosphere, annealing to 1100°C in air and in vacuum, and testing at low temperature do not appear to have any influence on the observed phe¬ nomenon. It is felt that the light emission is due to t ribo lumines cence . COMPARISON OF THE THEORETICAL STRESS DISTRIBUTION WITH OB¬ SERVED FATIGUE PHENOMENA IN FIBER REINFORCED MATERIALS. L. A. Marcus*, and W. W. Stinchcomb*. Department of Engi- neering Science and Mechanics, Va. Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ., Blacksburg, Va. 24061 A three-dimensional finite-element computer model is used to obtain a numerical evaluation of normal and shear stresses around a circular hole in a fiber reinforced angle ply laminate. The results are interpreted as to their importance in prediction of fatigue crack initiation in the laminate considered. Thermographic techniques are used to evaluate stress and fatigue damage during a high frequency tension fatigue test. The resulting isothermal patterns correlate well with the theoretical interlaminar shear stress distri¬ bution and show transition of heat generation from stress dependence to damage dependence. Isothermal patterns also show development of damage during the later stages of fatigue life. Failed specimens show evidence of off axis crack initiation at points of highest stress concentration, as predicted by numerical results. EXPERIMENTAL ANALYSIS OF HEAT GENERATION AND THERMAL EMISSIONS DUE TO CYCLIC STRESS AND RELATED DAMAGE IN FIBER REINFORCED MATERIALS. R. S. Williams* and K. L. Reifsnider. Dept, of Engineering Science and Mechanics, Va. Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ., Blacksburg, Va. 24061 The history of thermography is discussed, briefly, leading to the development of the time resolved thermographic camera. The application of the AGA thermographic camera is examined as a research instrument. A direct application to materials research is developed, correlating experimental heat patterns to theoretical stress fields and visual damage regions. The feasibility of a first law type energy balance made possible by measurement of the thermal terms is also discussed. Proceedings, 1972-1973 165 Section of Medical Sciences Fifty-first Annual Meeting of The Virginia Academy of Science May 1-4, 1973, Williamsburg, Virginia THE EFFECTS OF DIPHENHYDRAMINE (BENADRYL) ON BLOOD CLOTTING ENZYMES AND TESTS. P.S„ Roberts and P.B. Fleming*. Div. of Med. Oncology, Dept, of Med., Med. Col. of Va., Richmond, Va. 23298. Benadryl (2-diphenylmethoxy-N,N-dimethylethylamine) , 0.02M or less, in 0.25M Tris.HCl buffer, pH 7.4 at 37°, ac - celerates the hydrolysis of TAME (p-toluenesulfonyl-L-argi- nine methyl ester) and inhibits the hydrolysis of BAME(ben- zoyl-L-arginine methyl ester) by bovine and human thrombin and bovine thrombokinase (activated blood clotting Factor X) . Benadryl also slowly reacts with these enzymes so that their ability to hydrolyze esters is inhibited. Dialyzing away benadryl restores almost all of thrombin's esterase ac¬ tivity but not that of thrombokinase. The clotting of human fibrinogen by human thrombin is only slightly inhibited by 0.01M benadryl, the inhibition decreasing with increasing concentration of fibrinogen. Clotting, however, is accelerated in the presence of 0.025M benadryl and high concentrations of fibrinogen, the acceler¬ ation probably occurs because benadryl reacts with fibrino¬ gen. In contrast to the effects on the fibrinogen-thrombin reaction, a modified one-stage prothrombin test is strongly inhibited by benadryl, clotting times being doubled or in¬ creased 10-fold in the presence of 0.0025 or 0.01M benadryl respectively. The recalcification time of citrated human plasma is also strongly inhibited by low concentrations of benadryl . CORTICOSTERONE LEVELS IN BLOOD PLASMA OF PIGS, RABBITS, RATS, AND BIRDS DETERMINED BY A SIMPLIFIED FLUOROMETRIC METHOD. Colmano. Dept, of Vet. Sci., VPI&SU, Blacksburg, Va. 24061 The basic principle that steroids in chloroform fluoresce with sulfuric acid has been known since 1886 (Lieberman, C. , Ber. _18>: 1804, 1886). The major methods use this principle although additions and modifications have rendered it inac¬ cessible except to the trained biochemist. By the elimina¬ tion of nonessentials, our method has been reduced to six simple steps. 1. Aliquots of blood plasma, shaken with NaOH (0.1 N) to esterify the lipids, are brought to the same vol¬ ume with H2O. 2. Each volume is washed with two volumes of petroleum ether to remove fluorogens other than corticoster¬ one, which is insoluble in petroleum ether. 3. Each volume is extracted in 3 volumes of chloroform. The supernatant is discarded and the chloroform is overlayered and shaken with NaOH (0.1 N). 4. Aliquots of chloroform extract are trans¬ ferred to fluorometer tubes. 5. At timed intervals, the ali¬ quots are vigorously shaken with 2.4 volumes of H2SO4 (30 N) . 6. For each timed sample, fluorescence is read exactly 40 minutes later. A standard of 5.56 ± 0.35 ng of corticosterone per ml of H2SO (30 N) had a 4.00 ± 0.25% fluorescence. This corre¬ sponded to 0.0694 ± 0.0022, 0.0556 ± 0.0019, 0.01042 ± 0.00037, and 0.0347 ± 0.0017 ml of blood plasma per ml of acid for pigs, rabbits, rats, and birds, respectively. Each species had 8.00 ± 0.25, 10.00 ± 0.28, 53.33 ± 1.43, and 16.00 ± 0.24 ^ig of corticosterone, respectively, per 100 ml of blood plasma. A SOLUBLE PROTEIN ACTIVATOR OF (Mg+Ca) -DEPENDENT ATPase FROM HUMAN RED CELLS. D.L. CLOUGH* AND G.H. BOND. Dept, of Physiology, Med. Col. of Va., Va. Commonwelath Univ. , Richmond, Va. 23298. The human red cell membrane contains a (Mg+Ca)-depend- ent ATPase which acts as a Ca pump to extrude Ca from the cell against an electrochemical gradient. We have found that exhaustively dialyzed, membrane-free hemolysates con¬ tain a soluble protein (or proteins) which causes a 2-fold activation of (Mg+Ca)-ATPase, but has no effect on other membrane-bound ATPases. Activation follows saturation ki¬ netics, suggesting that the activator binds to discrete sites on the enzyme. The activator appears to be present in the red cell at a concentration considerably greater than that required for maximal stimulation. The activator in¬ creases the maximum velocity of the enzyme, measured at saturating concentrations of ATP, Mg and Ca. That the (Mg+Ca)-dependent activity and the hemolysate-dependent com¬ ponent of activity are due to a single enzyme is evidenced by their similar rates of inactivation during exposure of membranes to N-ethylmaleimide or to elevated temperatures. The conclusion that the activator is a protein is based on the following evidence: 1) it is non-dialyzable, 2) it is destroyed by treatment of hemolysates with trypsin, and 3) it is heat-labile. COLLECTION AND STORAGE OF CAT SEMEN FOR ARTIFICIAL INSEMINA¬ TION. N . J , So ; k a , and L. L. Jennings*. Vivarium, U. of Va. Medical Center, Charlottesville, Va. 22901 Semen was collected from male cats with an artificial vagina using an estrus female as a teaser. The average ejac¬ ulate volume was 0.04 milliliter containing 57 x 10(' sperm. Fresh semen diluted with saline was used as a baseline giving 50% conception on one insemination and 75% conception rate when repeated in 24 hours. 50 I units and 10 I units of human chorionic gonadotropin were administered intramuscu¬ larly on consecutive days to stimulate ovulation. Semen intended for storage was evaluated and diluted in the origi¬ nal collection tube with an equal volume of 37°C 3% buffered citrate-egg yolk media. This assembly was submerged in an 800 ml beaker of 37°C water and placed in a 4 C refrigerator to equilibrate to 4 C over a 4-5 hour period. Semen stored in this manner for 0, 1, 2, and 3 days was inseminated into estrus queens that were induced to ovulate. The percentage of ova fertilized in relation to the storage times was 100%, 67%, 30%, and 23% respectively. Semen stored by freezing was diluted 1:3 with glycerol- lactose-egg yolk media at o C. This was frozen for 10 min. in drop-size pellets on dry ice. Following this the pellets were stored in liquid nitrogen at -196°C. Following this the pellets were thawed on a 1:1 volume basis in 3.2% Na Citrate and immediately inseminated into estrus queens and they in turn were induced to ovulate. Semen stored 49 and 81 days gave 13% and 17% fertilization rates. 166 The Virginia Journal of Science X-RAY DIFFRACTION STUDIES OF KIDNEY STONES AT MCY. William Es Keefe* Department of Biophysics, Medical College of Virginia, Richmond, Virginia 23298* A review of the first six months of an ongoing study conducted in conjunction with the Department of Urology at the Medical College of Virginia. Powder patterns and pic¬ tures of kidney stones having a mixed composition, as well as those exhibiting a single inorganic component will be shown and discussed. EFFECTS OF VITAMIN C ON URINARY GLUCOSE ANALYSIS: Rs Brandt, Ks Ee Guyer and W. L. Banks, Jr., Dept, of Biochemistry, Med. Cola of Vas, Vae Comm. Univ„, Richmond, Va. 23298 Tests for the presence of glucose in urine are routinely performed. Generally, two procedures are employed 1) Bene¬ dict's (alkaline copper reduction) and 2) specific enzymatic test strips (oxidation of glucose coupled to a dye) . High levels of vitamin C (ascorbic acid or A. A.) interfere with both of these tests. The recent popularity for ingestion of large amounts of A. A. for the treatment and prevention of colds has led to excretion of A. A. at levels that will interfere with urinary testing for glucose. A. A. (250 mgYo) in urine produces a false positive with Benedict's reagent and a false negative with the enzymatic test strip method (when glucose was present up to 2000 mg %) . We utilized an anionic exchange resin (Bio-Rad AG1-X4 chloride) to remove A. A. from urines that gave false results by these tests. Urines were collected from three subjects who ingested between 500 and 3000 mg of A. A. per day. All urines gave negative test strip indications of glucose even after the addition of 500 mgY0 glucose to the urine. Bene¬ dict's test showed a false positive of 100-250 mg% prior to the addition of glucose to test urine samples® Passing the urine one time through small (5 x 10 mm) ion exchange columns gave negative results for both urine glucose tests. Urine that had glucose previously added showed true quanti¬ tative tests after our ion exchange procedure. THE EFFECT OF MITOMYCIN C ON ISOZYME DISTRIBUTION IN HELA CELLS. Rc M. Cribbs and E. S. Kline. Prog, in Human Genetics and Dept, of Biochemistry, Health Sciences Div., Va. Common¬ wealth Univ., Richmond, Va. 23298 HeLa cells cultured in air for their entire growth period have a larger percentage of lactate dehydrogenase isozymes rich in B subunits than do cells cultured in a high nitrogen environment. When the gaseous environment is changed from air to nitrogen midway during the growth period there is an increase in the proportion of A subunits during terminal growth. Conversely, there is an increase in the proportion of B subunits when cells are cultured initially in nitrogen and terminally in air. These results are attributed to differential control of isozyme synthesis in the presence and absence of air. The addition of mitomycin C (1 pg/ml) to the culture medium when the environment is changed from air to nitrogen does not appear to alter the isozymic redis¬ tribution noted in the control culture. However, when mitomycin is added to the medium of cells changed from nitrogen to air, there is an increase in the proportion of B subunits above that noted when the environment is changed in the absence of mitomycin. These results suggest that the action of mitomycin is due to a preferential effect on the synthesis or stability of isozymes, manifested only when the gaseous environment is conducive for the relatively enhanced expression of isozymes rich in B subunits. PRELIMINARY STUDY OF IN VITRO AFLATOXIN Bj METABOLISM BY HUMAN LIVER. Alfred H. Merrill* and T. C. Campbell, Dept, of Biodiem. and Nutrition, Va. Polytechnic Inst.S State Univ., Blacksburg, Va. 24061. l^C-aflatoxin Bi (ring labeled) was incubated for 6.5 hr with 9000 x g supernatant of human liver homogenate obtained from biopsied and autopsied tissue. The chloroform ex¬ tractable metabolites, after purification and identification by thin layer chromatography, were quantitated by liquid scintillation counting. The biopsied sample yielded, as percent of the initial concentration: aflatoxin Bq — 15.4%; aflatoxin M]—0.6%; and aflatoxin Pi (free phenol )--l .3%. The autopsied sample yielded: aflatoxin Bq --1 1 .9%; aflatoxin Mi— 1.1%; aflatoxin Pi (free phenol )--undetected; and two aflatoxin metabolites less polar than aflatoxin Bi--0.9% and 1.7%. The metabolite distribution patterns seen in these samples are consistent with the limited data reported both for human and monkey in vivo metabolism of aflatoxin B] , as well as with the metabolism by several other sus¬ ceptible species . (Supported in part by USPHS Grant No. 1 R01 ES00336 of the National Insti tutes of Health, Division of Environmental Health Sci ences . ) THE CHARACTERIZATION OF RNA ON ACRYLAMIDE GELS. C. H. O'Neal, Dept, of Biophysics, Med. Col. of Va. , Richmond, Va. 23298 Polyacrylamide gels are a highly useful supporting media for high resolution electrophoresis of nucleic acids. Studies were conducted to determine conditions which would allow for maximal resolution of the lower size class of RNA molecules (4-10 S). Patterns of the RNA from bacteria, yeast and animal cell liver will be shown. The major part of the study utilized highly labeled P^ RNA from mouse P-3 lymphocytes in culture (1.0-1.5x10 dpm/pg). It was found that heating or treatment with high concentrations of urea was absolutely necessary to release many of the dif¬ ferent species of RNA from a high molecular weight aggre¬ gate of ribosomal RNA. Urea was not required in the running gels. The resolution obtained on slab gels of 12-15% acrylamide is probably sufficient for preliminary surveys of t-RNA and t-RNA precursors in different tissues. Preliminary studies on cold RNA from normal and regener¬ ating rat liver will also be described. CENTROMERIC HETEROCHROMATIN IN THE HUMAN MALE MEIOTIC CHRO¬ MOSOMES. A. T. L. Chen. Program in Human Genetics, Med. Col. of Va. , Va. Commonwealth Univ., Richmond, Va. 23298 An understanding and a full appreciation of bivalent configuration requires identification of the position of the centromere. Although the heterochromatic centromere regions have been detected in the human male meiotic chromosomes with conventional staining technique (Chen and Falek, Science 166 : 1008 , 1969), the quality of the centromere staining varied from patient to patient. The newly developed C-band methods (Arrighi and Hsu, Cytogenetics U):81» 1971; Yunis et ajL. , Nature 231 : 532, 1971) which reveal dark staining mitotic centromeric heterochromatin enable us to further Investigate the centromeric heterochromatin in the meiotic chromosomes of man. Testicular tissues included in the present study were from seven men. In our hands we found that the C-band techniques reported for the mitotic chromosomes had to be modified for the meiotic chromosomes. With the revised centromere staining methods, centromeric heterochromatin was revealed at various stages of meiosis. Detailed results of the study as well as the nature of the centromeric heter¬ ochromatin in the meiotic chromosomes will be discussed. (Aided by the Institutional Research fund of Virginia Commonwealth University) Proceedings, 1972-1973 167 THE BEHAVIOR OF HUMAN MALE SEX CHROMOSOMES IN EARLY MEIOSIS. C. L. Kirk* and A. T. L. Chen. Program in Human Genetics. Med. Col. of Va. , Va. Commonwealth Univ., Richmond, Va. 23298 Utilizing comparison studies of testicular material stained with quinacrine dihydrochloride, toluidine blue, and a modified heat-Giemsa technique, it was possible to deter¬ mine the behavior of the X and Y-chromosomes in early sperm¬ atogenesis with light microscopy. With all the above staining methods, there first appeared a single stained body that fluorescence identified as the Y-chromosome. This stained body was then found to be associated with the nucleolus. It broke this association at about the same time another, larger stained body appeared at the nuclear periphery. After moving together (leptotene), the two stained bodies formed the sex vesicle (zygotene). Within this small space, the larger stained body appeared as a "cup" with the smaller stained body over the top (pachytene) . Since the smaller stained body fluoresced so brightly, it was identi¬ fied as the Y-chromosome and the "cup" must be the X- chromosome. Later an "8" appeared with one loop staining much more brightly than the other. This seems to be a different spatial configuration of the "cup." At diplotene and diakinesis, the X and Y-chromosomes straighten out into their short arm end-to-end association. [Chen, A. T. L. and A. Falek, Nature 232:555, 1971]. (Aided by Institutional Research fund of Virginia Commonwealth University) ROLE OF Na+ AND ANIONS IN THE TRIPLE RESPONSE OF ISOLATED FROG SKIN TO NOREPINEPHRINE. Mary W. Pinschmidt, A. D. Campbell, and E. G. Huf. Dept, of Physiology, Med. Col. of Virginia, Richmond, Virginia 23298 The triple response of norepinephrine (NE) refers to the known facts that when NE is added to the inside (NEj) of isolated, electrically short-circuited frog skin in Ringer's solutions one can observe: Increase in short circuit current (SCC) with NE-j 510-6M; in this case SCC=equivalent to active inward Na+ transport. 2) Decrease in SCC (i.e., epidermal Na+ transport), and 3) Increase in SCC resulting from glandu¬ lar active outward Cl" transport, at NE-j > 10"6m. To obtain a clear separation of these NE effects, studies were con¬ ducted with either Na+ Ringer's on both sides; or with arginine chloride Ringer's on the outside (ArCl0) when epidermal effects on Na+ transport were undesired. Also, for stimulation of epidermal Na+ transport, NE0 (3 x 10‘=M) was applied. Results: NE0 stimulated the epidermal Na+ pump without affecting glandular Cl" transport. This re¬ sponse was dependent on the presence of the "passively" moving Cl", or HC03" ion. Inhibition, rather than stimu¬ lation was seen in the presence in the outside of Na2S04 - Ringer's. NEj (3 x 1 0"5m ; ArCl0) resulted in stimulation of the glandular Cl" pump only. This response was dependent on the presence of Na+i . No response occured with ArCli. Ion flux studies confirmed the electrical measurements. NaHCOg, replacing NaCli gave similar results. The NEj response could be blocked by propranolol, ouabain, diamox. LOKRELmT 1 Oi J OF 1 i li lOrlU FLUORESCENT OBSERVAT IONS ON EARLY POST- TRAUSPLANT UIOPSIES WITH GRAFT SURVIVAL. C. P. Bryant*. 0. M. Hume and \ 1. A. Sterling*. dept, of Surgery, Med. Col. of Va. , Richmond, Va. 232J8. Immunof luorescent studies were performed on 25 renal lioraot ransp 1 an ts . Tnis group consisted of 3 cadaver trans¬ plants and 17 related donor transplants. Major emphasis was placed on i mmunog Iodu 1 i n deposition during the initial 3*4 months pos t- 1 ransp 1 an t . Biopsies of the grafts were obtained at l-hour pos t-t ransp 1 an t and 120 days pos t-t ransp 1 an t . Within the group of 25 grafts 9 transplants underwent rejection within tne first 6 months (mean survival time = 24.1 days). Comparison of immunof luorescent observations revealed that deposition of IgG, B1C, and fibrinogen was significantly more pronounced at 1-hour pos t- 1 ransp 1 an t in rejected cases than in non-rejected cases. Similar obser¬ vations were noted in biopsies of the rejected grafts at the time of removal. The pattern of deposition in the rejected grafts was predominantly of a linear (anti-GBM) type. Additionally, there was a significant difference in the intensity of non-g lome ru I a r deposits between the rejected and non-rejected grafts. Furtner studies with an additional group of 32 patients have revealed similar findings to those seen in the original g roup . SARC0TUBULAR CALCIUM TRANSPORT IN FAST AND SLOW TWITCH MUSCLES. R. John Solaro*, and James L. Poland*. Dept, of Physiology, Medical College of Virginia, Richmond, Va. 23298 Twitch times of skeletal muscles most likely represent a fundamental difference in parameters determining the kinetics of muscle contractions. We have studied what this difference might be utilizing the rat tibialis anterior (TA), a rela¬ tively fast muscle, and rat soleus, a relatively slow muscle. It is now generally accepted that depolarization triggers release of calcium ions from an internal membrane system - the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR). In turn, deactivation, i.e., relaxation, is thought to be brought about by the ATP-depend- ent reaccumulation of calcium into the SR. We have examined a) the amount of SR per unit weight of muscle and b) the rate of calcium pumping in rat soleus and TA using homogenates rich in vesicles of SR. Since vesicles in the homogenate specifically accumulate calcium oxalate, we have used this SR marker to determine the relative amount of SR in soleus and TA muscle. This method indicates that TA (93 umoles CaOx/g has 3 times the amount of SR as in soleus muscle (31 ymoles/ CaOx/g). Furthermore, rates of calcium accumulation by SR vesicles in TA homogenates are faster (Vmax = 53 umoles Ca/ g-min) than in soleus muscle (Vmax = 9 ymoles/g-min) . It appears, therefore, that the slow relaxation time of the soleus muscle is reflected in the velocity with which calcium is removed by the SR and relatively low SR content of soleus. This evidence reinforces the notion that the SR is not only an effector of muscle relaxation but a determinant of the kinetics of contraction in various kinds of muscle. THE EFFECTS OF NICOTINE WITHDRAWAL ON ALL NIGHT SLEEP PAT¬ TERNS IN ADULT FEMALES. L. C. Parsons*. H. Mills*. J. Min- ter*, T. Mulrenin*, and J. Smith*. Dept, of Physiology, Sch. of Med. and Sch. of Nursing, Univ, of Va., Charlottesville, Va. 22903. Four healthy adult female smokers between the ages of 20 and 23 yr. were electrophysiclogically monitored for 3 con¬ secutive nights following 1 conditioning night to determine rhe effect of 24 hr. nicotine withdrawal on the sleep-awake patterns. Three subjects (S) showed an increase in Stage IV (S.IV) on withdrawal nights while all S. showed a decrease in rapid eye movement sleep (REM) on withdrawal nights while half the S. had an increase, however 3 of the 4 S. showed an increase in REM on the recovery night. All subjects exhib¬ ited a decrease in mean heart rate in all stages of sleep on withdrawal nights compared to control and recovery nights. Almost all mean heart rates for each stage during the recov¬ ery night remained below the mean rates for the control nights. The day of the menstrual cycle appeared to have no apparent effect on the sleep-awake cycle in this study. This res. was supported in part by NIH (Div. of Nur) Res. Development Grant //RO2-NU0C 345-04 and Construction Grant //1C05-NU-042 25-01 . MORPHOLOGY OF EARLY AND OLDER LESIONS PRODUCED IN SKELETAL MUSCLE BY LOCAL ANESTHETIC AGENTS. K. C. Friedman*, G. W. Burke, and Franye Gabbard*. Depts. of Restorative Dentistry and Anatomy, Med. Col. of Va. , Richmond, Va. 23298. Ninety Wistar female rats, weighing 150 grams each, were divided into five groups with 18 animals in each group. The animals were anesthetized by inhalation of methoxyflurane and both masseter muscles, anterior deep division, were in¬ jected with a 0.25 ml. alloquot, intraorally, of one of the following local anesthetic agents: (1) 2 % Lidocaine HC1; (2) 2% Procaine HC1; (3) 3% Carbocaine HC1; (4) 4% Citanest HC1; (5) Isotonic Saline. The animals were sacrificed at days, 1, 2, 3, 4, 7, and 15. The heads were removed and fixed for 24 hours in 10% neutral buffered formalin. The muscles were then removed, washed and processed for section¬ ing at 5 micra and stained with H & E. During the first 24 hours the lesions were characterized by development of acute inflammatory reaction with round cell invasion and early infiltration of muscle fibers by phagocy¬ tic cells leading to destruction of myofibrillae leaving empty sarcolenma sheaths. By the second day there were evi¬ dences of early regeneration. Eventually large hypertro¬ phied nuclei appeared in large numbers in the center of re¬ generating fibers and new myofibrillae began to appear. By day 15 regeneration was nearly completed, cross-striations were reconstituted, and centrally located nuclei began to fragment. 168 The Virginia Journal of Science MODULATION OF CORTICAL AND PYRAMIDAL TRACT RESPONSES BY ELECTRICAL STIMULATION OF THE BASAL GANGLIA. R. A. Newton and D. D. Price*. Department of Physiology, Medical College of Virginia, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia 23298. Lightly anesthetized cats (Na-pentobarbital , i.p.) were used to investigate caudate nucleus modulation of hindlimb flexion induced by trains of electrical shocks delivered to sensorimotor cortex (SM-Cx) and medullary pyramidal tract (Pt). Ant. tibialis flexor responses (EMG, myogram and la afferent activity) to SM-Cx or Pt trains could be modulated by simultaneous trains presented to selected points within caudate. When the caudate was mapped with this method, rostral and caudal portions of the caudate respectively in¬ hibited and facilitated cortically induced flexor gamma (la activity) and alpha (EMG) motoneuron responses. Flexor responses to Pt trains were modulated in a facilitatory manner similar to the cortical train but with less intense effects. This latter effect would be produced in both decorticate and intact cats. Caudate trains alone produced no effect on flexor responses. Anatomical evidence points to a strong link from caudate to globus pallidus to thalamic VA-VL nucleus to SM-Cx. Globus pallidus and caudate have ■minor projections to pre-rubral area and S. nigra respec¬ tively. Combining these anatomical facts with our present data, we conclude that the caudate nucleus modulates motor responses predominately via its influence on SM-Cx and to a lesser extent via non-cortical influences. EFFECTS OF DECENTRALIZATION ON TEE SUPERIOR CERVICAL GANGLION AND THE PINEAL GLAND IN THE GOLDEN HAMSTER. J. R. Scully* and J. W. Clabough. Sch. of Dentistry and Dept, of Anatomy, Med. Col. of Va., Richmond, Va. 23298 In the golden hamster, environmental light impinging on the retina inhibits pineal antigonadal activity. This effect is mediated via the optic nerves, central nervous system and cervical sympathetic nerves. Hie purpose of this study was to investigate a possible site in this pathway where impulses originating in the retina inhibit pineal antigonadal activity. Since po6t-ganglionic sympathetics to the pineal are essential for pineal activation, it was hypothesized that inhibition takes place in the superior cervical ganglion, i.e„, between pre- and post-ganglionic sympathetics. Groups of adult male hamsters, examined 1, 5, and 12 weeks after surgery, included Untreated, Blinded, Decen¬ tralized, Decentralized-blinded, and Decentralized-pinealec- tomized. Testicular weights were used as an indication of pineal antigonadal activity, and superior cervical ganglia were studied using a histochemlcal technique for cholinergic nerves. The results indicate that our hypothesis was incorrect, i.e., decentralization does not release the pineal from light-induced inhibition. Additionally, the pre-ganglionic nerves must be intact for the pineal to be activated by blinding. Unexpectedly, changes were observed in the nerve cell bodies in the superior cervical ganglia 1 and 5 weeks after decentralization. RESPONSE OF SYNGENIC, TUMOR SUSCEPTIBLE RATS TO TUMOR ANTIGEN WITH RESPECT TO MAST CELL SENSITIZING ANTIBODY. W. T. Sweeney* and Hugo R. Seibel, Dept, of Anatomy, Med. Coll, of Va., Va. Commonwealth Univ., Richmond, Va. 23298 Fischer- 344, inbred rats and fibrosarcoma, BP1, which grown in this strain, were used to evaluate in vivo histamine release from peritoneal mast cells upon challenge with antigen prepared from this tumor. Rats were sensitized seven days prior to challenge with either IM tumor homogenate + B. pertussis or by subcutaneous tumor transplant. Challenge was carried out by depositing 5. ml. of antigen solution intraperitonealy and incubating for a period of 5. min. The wash was then separated by centrifugation into cell¬ ular and supernatant fractions. Histamine concentrations in each of these fractions was determined fluorometrically and percent release was calculated. Percent histamine release was found to be significantly greater in both groups than in untreated and ad¬ juvant controls. Rats that received transplants released one-half the histamine of those given tumor antigen + B. pertussis (3.14% vs. 6.2%). — fflSTOCHEMICAL STUDIES ON INTRAFUSAL FIBERS IN THE MASSETER MUSCLE OF RATS. M.F. Dolwick*, F.M. Bush, and H.R. Seibel. Dept, of Anabany, Med. Col. of Va. , Richmond, Va. 23298 Histochemical methods have demonstrated the presence of two fiber types among the extrafusal muscle fibers of the rat masseter muscle. These are fibers with low oxidative and high glycolytic enzyme activity (type A, white or fast- twitch) and fibers with high oxidative and low glycolytic enzyme activity (type B, red or slcw-twitch) . A preliminary study was undertaken to determine if this duality of fiber types was present among the intrafusal muscle fibers. Frozen sections of muscle spindles in the deep portion of rat masseter muscle were studied as to their succinic dehydrogenase and phosphorylase activity. Muscle spindles were identified with toluidine blue and the modified Gcmori trichrcms stains. Numerous muscle spindles were located near the insertion of the masseter muscle into the mandible. TWo types of intrafusal muscle fibers were identified with respect to enzyme activity. These were small fibers with high succinic dehydrogenase and low phosphorylase activity and larger fibers with low succinic dehydrogenase and high phosphorylase activity. (Supported by N.I.D.R. Training Grant DE 0008-15) THE PREGNANT RABBIT UTERUS AND STREPTOCOCCUS FAECALIS . J. Clark Osborne, T. L. Bibb and D. F. Watson. Dept, of Veterinary Science, V.P.I.&S.U., Blacksburg, Va . 24061 The action and fate of the various infectious agents in the gravid uterus have not been adequately studied. The uterus of domestic animals consists of two horns and a body. In those animals, such as the rabbit, that give birth to litters, the horns are extensive, so that developing embryos are spaced along the uterine wall in such a manner as to re¬ ceive a separate nutrient supply from the uterine lining. The habitat of Str. faecalis is the intestines of man and many of the warm blooded animals. (Bergey's 7th ed . ) Str . faecalis was recently isolated from the reproductive tracts in 5 different cow herds that were experiencing significant problems with infertility and abortions. The organisms were recovered from cervical swabs in the cows and from stomach contents of aborted fetuses. To study the response of the gravid uterus to this organism, pregnant rabbits (bred 10-12 days) were injected with l\ million cells intrauterine via a laporotomy incision and under ether anaesthesia. The in¬ jection site was between 2 or 3 embryos in one horn only. A necro-purulent lysis of the fetuses in both horns was essentially complete 3 or 4 days following injection. Pure cultures of Str. faecalis were recovered from the uterus. These studies indicate that the gravid rabbit uterus can contain this organism, but disrupted pregnancy will surely follow infection with it. HISTIOCYTE-TUMOR CELL INTERACTIONS IN GUINEA PIGS DURING TUMOR REGRESSION INDUCED BY INTRAIESIONAL INJECTION OF MYCO¬ BACTERIUM BOVIS. M.J. Snodgrass* and M.G. Hanna, Jr.*, Dept, of Anatomy, Med. Col. of Va., Richmond, Va. 23298, and Oak Ridge Nat. Lab., Oak Ridge, Tenn. 38730 Injection of living Mycobacterium bovis (BCG) into trans¬ planted syngeneic hepatocarcinomas in Strain 2 guinea pigs will induce regression of tumors which otherwise kill the host. Intradermal tumors were treated on day 7 after trans¬ plantation when metastasis to the regional draining lymph node (DLN) had. occurred. Evaluation of tissue at serial time intervals revealed critical morphological similarities among activated histiocytes that were infiltrating the tumor site, migrating to the subcapsular sinus of the DLN, autochthonous to the DLN, or infiltrating the medullary sinuses of the DLN. These are all quite likely forms of a specific class of cells within the histiocyte -macrophage series. The cyto- pathic effect of these activated histiocytes on tumor cells is mediated by cell surface contact. Areas of apparent fusion of the plasmalemmae of histiocytes and hepatocari- noma cells were frequently observed, while phagocytosis of tumor cells was rarely observed, except at late intervals. Destruction of the timor cells by nonphagocytic mechanisms may be a phenonmenon of activated but not specifically sensitized cells of the histiocyte-macrophage series. (Supported jointly by the National Cancer Institute and the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission under contract with the Union Carbide Corporation) Proceedings, 1972-1973 169 MYOCARDIAL FAILURE INDUCED BY GRAM NEGATIVE ENDOTOXIN: THE ROLE OF THE SARCOPLASMIC RETICULUM. L.R.Trent* and M.L.Hess, Dept, of Physiology, Med. Col. of Va., Richmond, Va. 23298 Gram negative endotoxin (E. coli, Difco labs, 5 mg/kg body weight) administered to the isolated Starling Heart-Lung preparation produced significant myocardial failure indicated by a shift of the ventricular function curve down and to the right. Control heart-lung preparations showed no deteriora¬ tion in ventricular performance over the same time course. Since the sarcoplasmic reticulum is a key subcellular structure in mediating the performance of the myocardium, the in vitro function of this organelle was examined in the whole heart and in the isolated sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR). Whole heart studies were performed by homogenizing the myocardium and studying the calcium uptake velocity and capacity under conditions which maximize calcium accumulation by the SR and minimize calcium accumulation by other structures. Both the velocity of calcium uptake and the total calcium capacity of the homogenate were depressed in the endotoxin-failed hearts. The isolated sarcoplasmic reticulum performed in a similar manner. Both the velocity of calcium uptake and the total calcium capacity were depressed in the SR isolated from the failed hearts. Accompanying this depression of calcium uptake was a parallel depression of the calcium stimulated ATPase activity. Further by varying preincubation time, the structural integrity of the SR isolated from the failed pre¬ parations was found to be impaired. (Supported by a Grant- in-Aid from the American Heart Association) GASEOUS DIFFUSION IN THE PULMONARY CAPILLARIES. Sarah C. Bryant* and R. M. Navari . Department of Chemistry, HolTins College, Hollins College, Va. 24020 The experimental measurement of the gaseous diffusion capacities of the pulmonary membrane, the blood plasma, and the red blood cell, and considerations of the structural characteristics of the mammalian capillaries show that the pulmonary membrane and the plasma may be major resistances to the gas transport from the alveoli of the lungs to the hemoglobin molecules of the red cells. As a result, it appears that the overall gas transport may be controlled by altering the gaseous diffusion coefficient in plasma through regulation of the concentration of the plasma proteins. Section of Microbiology Fifty-first Annual Meeting of The Virginia Academy of Science May 1-4, 1973, Williamsburg, Virginia ENHANCED TOXICITY FOR MICE OF 6-MERCAPTOPURINE AND BACTERIAL CELLS OR PURIFIED ENDOTOXIN. N. Marecki* (introduced by S. G. Bradley), Dept, of Microbiology, Med. Col. of Va., Richmond, Va. 23298 6-Mercaptopurine (6-MP) has been found to interact syner- gistically vivo with bacterial endotoxin or gram negative bacterial cells in BALB/c mice. When 100 mg 6-MP/kg is ad¬ ministered with Salmonella typhosa 0901 W lipopolysaccharide , the endotoxin LD^q is reduced from 13.5 mg/kg to 0.58 mg/kg, a 23 fold-decrease. The LDjq of 6-MP is reduced from 200 mg/ kg to 53.8 mg/kg when administered with 4 mg endotoxin/kg. It was found that 6-MP and endotoxin must be given simulta¬ neously to achieve enhancement of lethality. However, the interaction is independent of the route of administration for both agents. Mice pretreated with either 100 mg hexobarbi- tal/kg or 80 mg phenobarbital/kg for four days prior to a simultaneous challenge with 6-MP and endotoxin were protected from the lethal effects of the combination of agents. Like¬ wise, pretreatment of mice with graded non-lethal doses of Escherichia coli 026 :B6 B before challenge with 6-MP and en¬ dotoxin protects against the lethal interaction. Gram nega¬ tive bacterial cells, either live or heat-killed were capable of interacting with 6-MP to enhance lethality in mice. Paper chromatography was used to monitor drug clearance from blood after intravenous administration of 6-MP either alone or in combination with endotoxin in normal, phenobarbital- or endo- toxin-pretreated mice. Differences could be demonstrated in rate of clearance, and appearance and disappearance of a metabolite, 6-thiouric acid. OXACILLIN TREATMENT AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF GRAM NEG¬ ATIVE BACILLI PNEUMONIA. S. M, Muhovich*, H. P. Dalton M. R. Escobar, and M. J. Allison-’ MCV, Richmond, Va. The problem of interpretation of throat cultures containing gram negative bacilli and their relation to the diagnosis of gram negative bacilli pneumonia was studied using an animal model. Adult Golden Syrian hamsters have a throat flora similar to humans. These animals were given two injections of oxacillin totaling 37 mg in order to alter the normal bacterial flora. Semiquantitative oropharyngeal cultures were taken prior to the antibiotic injection and at various inter¬ vals thereafter. Blood cultures were also taken. If the animal died, cultures and histological sections were taken of the lungs . Normal flora in the throat declined in numbers and was replaced by Klebsiella pneumoniae and Escherichia coli within 48 hours after injection. Blood cultures were also positive for the same gram negative bacilli. Most of the animals died within 72 hours and their lung cultures grew Klebsiella and Escherichia . Lung sec¬ tions revealed a diffuse patchy bronchopneumonia. These results indicate that oropharyngeal cultures can reflect the organisms occurring within the lung and demonstrate the usefulness of an animal model in study¬ ing this problem. 170 The Virginia Journal of Science CHARACTERIZATION OF INTERFERON ANTAGONIST ACTIVITY IN MOUSE L929 CELLS AND CHICK EMBRYO CELLS . Rose H. Ragland* and Page S. Morahan. Dept, of Microbiology, Med. Col. of Va., IN VITRO EVIDENCE LINKING INDUCTION OF THE SPONTANEOUS ANTI¬ BODY RESPONSE WITH PERSISTING ANTIGEN ON NON-ADHERENT SESSILE MACROPHAGES. J. G. Tew. Dept, of Microbiology, Med. Col. of Richmond, Va. 23298 Cells from six and thirteen day old chick embryos show a fifty fold difference in sensitivity to interferon under cer¬ tain assay conditions. Mixtures of six and thirteen day cells grown together (containing as little as 12% six day cells) showed the same lack of sensitivity to interferon as did 100% six day cells. This observation led to the proposal of an antagonist which blocks the action of interferon and permits viral replication in embryonic cells. Human amnionic membranes and whole six day chick embryos with membranes were lyophilized, homogenized, and ultracentrifuged to extract this antagonist. Studies on the mode of antagonist activity are in progress. Preliminary results indicate that the anta¬ gonists do not directly inactivate interferon, but may reduce the interferon titer when the antagonists are added either before or after interferon adsorption. When applied to thirteen day old chick embryo cell monolayers and L929 cell monolayers, the chick embryo extract was found to signifi¬ cantly reduce the interferon titer. Antagonists, prepared from chick embryos ranging from six to thirteen days of age, showed decreasing activity. This decrease in antagonist activity with increasing embryonic maturation may be corre¬ lated with the increasing sensitivity of the cells to inter¬ feron. (Supported by NIH grant CA12689) Va., Richmond, Va. 23298 Antibody synthesis was induced spontaneously simply by transferring lymphoid cells from an immunized rabbit into cell culture. Induction of this response was attributed to cell associated persisting antigen. The cell with which the antigen is associated was sought in these studies. Rabbits were primed by injecting glutaraldehyde polymerized human serum albumin (HSA) . Three to 12 months later lymph nodes were removed and cell cultures prepared. The cultures were pulsed with llfC-leucine and newly synthesized radioactive antibody was exposed to bromoacetly cellulose-HSA, washed and counted. Antibody inducing activity was localized for months in draining lymph nodes indicating that antigen was not attached to a freely circulating cell . Removal of the adher¬ ent cell population from culture did not inhibit the sponta¬ neous response. However, removal of cells capable of ingest¬ ing particulate material by the carbonyl iron method did in¬ hibit the response. The response could be restored by simply adding antigen to the phagocyte depleted cultures. These data support the hypothesis that humoral antibody levels are maintained by antigen which persists in lymph nodes in asso¬ ciation with relatively immobile non-adherent phagocytic cells which are probably sessile macrophages. (Aided by NIH Grant AI 11101-01) THE COSMOPOLITAN CHARACTER OF AUSTRALIA ANTIGEN. M. R. Escobar, A. A. Hossaini, M. J. Allison* and H. P. Dalton, Dept, of Pathology, Med. Col. of Va. Virginia Common¬ wealth University, Richmond, Virginia 23298. Several designations other than Australia antigen have been used for the same agent, but the National Research Council has recommended adoption of the name Hepatitis B antigen (HB Ag). Increasing evidence in support of the viral nature of this agent is quoted from the literature, including replication using in vivo and m vitro systems. Data are shown giving the distribution of HB Ag in various population groups. The prevalence of HB Ag among symptomatic and asymptomatic drug abusers and other hepatitis patients is compared; however, its prevalence in asymptomatic drug abusers is not much higher than that found in multiple trans¬ fused patients. At the MCV Blood Bank, the prevalence among volunteer blood donors is between 0. 1-0.5%; among commercial blood donors, it can be as high as 2% or 20 times higher than in volunteers. Incidence in the general world population has varied between 0. 1-20%, depending on the geographical area. A genetic predisposition for HB Ag infection and persistence has been clearly demonstrated by other workers. Results are presented from part of a study done at MCV to compare the relative sensi¬ tivity of 6 counterelectrophoresis methods among themselves and with the complement fixation, reverse-passive hemagglutination and radioimmunoassay procedures. PRESUMPTIVE IDENTIFICATION OF STREPTOCOCCI— A COMPAR¬ ISON OF TWO METHODS. T. E. McKay*, M. J. Allison*, H. P. Dalton, and M. R. Escobar, MCV, Richmond, Va. Two methods for the presumptive identification of Streptococcus pyogenes and Streptococcus pneumoniae were compared. The conventional 13-hour disc sensi- tivity test and a four-hour hemoglobin reduction disc sensitivity test were performed on 50 strains of beta- hemolytic streptococci, all of which were isolated from clinical specimens. The hemoglobin reduction method was performed by inoculating a 20% sheep blood agar plate with a suspension of a streptococcus in molten agar. A commercially prepared "Taxo-P’1 or "Taxo-A" disc was placed on the top agar layer. After a four- hour incubation period the plates were observed for darkening of the blood in the bottom agar layer which indicated hemoglobin reduction. Sensitivity was indi¬ cated by the absence of hemoglobin reduction in a 5mm zone surrounding the disc. The two methods gave iden¬ tical results for 91 of the 100 strains tested. Nine strains were interpreted as negative by the four-hour method and positive by the conventional method. When the plates used in the four-hour determination were incubated approximately 14 additional hours they gave identical results as those obtained by the conventional method . H'SAT AND FCR.-ALI TREAT VISIT CF CLOT RIDIU... oC.'U- Lr-TU;y| TOXIN. j. Upadhyay . Department of Life Sciences, 7a. State Col., Petersburg, Va. 23803 '■’his study was designed to determine the lowest concentration of formalin and lowest temperature for the denaturation of C. botulinum toxin. ■*he cells were grown in 5i’ trypticase broth, harvested by centrifugation, washed three times, suspended in normal saline and heated at defferent temperatures or incubated at room temperature in different concentrations of formalin, white al¬ bino mice were injected with .2 ml of cell suspen¬ sion and length of time required to kill the mice or absence of death indicated the strength or de¬ struction of the toxin. 'he results indicated that a) heating the cells at 62 C for 10 minutes destroyed the toxicity of the cells; b) heating at 45 or 55 C for as long as 75 min. could not destroy the toxin. However, as the heating time increased, the toxicity decreased linearly; c) incubation of the cell suspension in 0.5% formalin denatured the toxin in about 30 hours whereas 1.0%, 2.0% and 4.0% formalin destroy¬ ed the toxin with incubation times of 4, 2 and 1 hour respectively. The data indicate that the mechanics of heat denaturation of toxin may be due to the breakage of hydrogen bonds of the toxin protein configuration. PIGMENTATION OF STREPTOMYCES VENEZUELAE IN SUBMERGED CULTURE . Terry Tang* and S. G. Bradley. Dept, of Microbiology, Med. Col. of Va. , Richmond, Va. 23298 Streptomyces venezuelae S13 produced a pH indicator pig¬ ment in a defined broth medium containing asparagine, KNO3 , MgSC>4 and Na2HP04. Fortification of the medium with yeast extract and peptone enhanced pigmentation. The organism did not pigment in peptone-yeast extract or tryptone-yeast ex- tract-glucose broth. An asparagine-salts culture of S. ven¬ ezuelae S13 initiated from a spore inoculum produced a de¬ tectable amount of the pigment in ca. 30 hr at 30 C; the max¬ imum amount of the pigment was produced in 96 hr. The max¬ imum extent of spore germination in the asparagine-salts broth was 80% as determined by counting microscopic smears. The rate of germination was linear in the initial 15 hr of incubation which accounted for 70% of the germinated spores. Asparagine added to spores incubated in basal salts broth for 2 to 8 hr produced more pigment than if asparagine were pre¬ sent in the medium initially. Glucose and a number of amino acids could replace asparagine in the basal salts broth to support growth and pigmentation. A number of water immisc¬ ible organic solvents were effective in extracting the pig¬ ment from the culture medium. Gel filtration on a Sephadex G25 column indicated that the pigment produced in asparagine- salts medium consisted of a large and a small molecular com¬ ponent. Pigment isolated from the glucose-salts agar com¬ posed of a single component as determined by gel filtration. Proceedings, 1972-1973 171 L-GLUTAMATE STIMULATION OF IMINO ACID TRANSPORT BY STREPTOMYCES ANTIBIOTICUS ■ W. S. May, Jr.* and J. V. Formica. Dept, of Microbiology, Med. Col. of Va., Va. Commonwealth Univ., Richmond, Va. 23298 Uptake studies with radiolabeled amino acids by S. anti- bioticus revealed the presence of an energy dependent, satur- atable transport system. Growth of cells in medium containing L-glutamate as sole nitrogen source stimulated proline and pipecolate uptake ten fold as compared to their uptake by cells grown in proline. The glutamate inducible transport was found to be non-specific for proline uptake since alanine and glutamate uptake was also stimulated to the same degree by glutamate. The specificity of proline transport by proline or glutamate grown cells revealed that these transport systems could be differentiated by their competitive response to structurally unrelated amino acids. These results demonstrat¬ ed that the glutamate inducible proline transport system was nonspecific, since all amino acids tested competed succesful- ly with proline for uptake. By contrast, proline transport by proline grown cells was relatively specific, exhibiting only a low level of sensitivity (30-45% inhibition) to glycine, alanine and valine, and no sensitivity to several other amino acids tested. These data indicate that S, antibioticus po- sesses two distinct systems for proline transport. One sys¬ tem, developed in proline grown cells, is relatively specific for proline uptake but allows only a low level of uptake. The other system, induced in glutamate grown cells, is nonspeci¬ fic for proline transport, but causes a ten-fold increase in uptake . LYS0S0ME STABILIZATION: INHIBITION OF RELEASE OF 0-GLUCU- RONIDASE BY TISSUE EXTRACTS. B. E, Brenner and J. S. Bond, Depts. of Microbiology and Biochemistry, Health Sciences Division, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia 23298 Liver cell extracts, prepared from male Sprague Dawley rats, inhibited the release 0-glucuronidase from rat liver lysosomes upon incubation at 37 °C in isotonic sucrose containing 0.01 M Tris-HCl buffer, pH 7.0. Control experiments showed that the liver extracts did not inhibit or destroy 0-glucuronidase activity. Thus, it appears that a lysosomal membrane stabilizing factor(s) is present in the extracts. The factor(s) in the liver extract is non- dialyzable and stable to boiling but inactivated when extracts are pre- incubated at 37 °C. This inactivation was prevented if the extracts were boiled prior to the 37 °C pre-incubations. This indicates that a heat-labile substance is present in the extracts which is capable of destroying the lysosomal membrane stabilizer. Extracts from spleen and kidney also were found to stabilize liver lysosomes whereas brain extracts were not effective. (Supported by an A. D. Williams Summer Fellowship) . THE EFFECT OF SODIUM ION CONCENTRATION ON THE REPLI¬ CATIVE CYCLES OF TWO MARINE BACTERIOPHAGES. A. Zachary*, Dept, of Microbiol .- Pathol . , Va . Inst, of Mar. Sci., Gloucester Point, Va . 23062. Two bacteriophages, which lysed the marine bacterium Beneckea natriegens, were isolated from salt marsh from the York River Estuary, Va . The phages were host specific and did not lyse any of 14 freshwater and 8 marine bacteria tested. The lower limit of host survival (0.06 MNaCl) determined the lower limit of phage replication. One step growth curves at various Na+ concentrations above this lower limit showed that the two phages had different Na- dependent optima in the same host bacterium. One phage was better suited to replicate at Na+ concen¬ trations typical of brackish water marshes (5-19%o ) and the other was better suited to replicate at Na+ concentrations typical of higher salinity marshes (20- 35%° ). Bacteriophages for Beneckea natriegens were present in all marsh samples above 8%„, their presence was variable in upper marsh areas where sample salinities ranged from <1 to 8%„, and they were never found in freshwater samples . ULTRASTRUCTURE AND "TRANSMISSION" OF THE FUNGUS HERPES¬ LIKE VIRUS. F.Y. Kazama*. Dept, of Microbiology- Pathology, Va. Inst, of Marine Science, Gloucester Point, Va. 23062. The replicative cycle of a herpes-like virus associated with a fungus Thraustochytrium sp. (Family: Thraustochytriaceae; Order: Saprolegniales ) was examined with the electron microscope. The nucleo- capsid, which has a deoxyribonucleic acid core and measures HOnm in diameter, is assembled within the nucleus. During the egress from the nucleus, the nucleocapsid is temporarily enveloped by the two unit membranes of the nucleus. Final envelopment involves the membranes of several types of cytoplasmic organ¬ elles . The fungus herpes-like virus, like other herpes¬ viruses, is capable of remaining latent throughout the fungal life cycle. Single spore isolations indicate that "vertical transmission" occurs and that all the fungal progeny carry the viral genome. CHARACTERIZATION OF AN ACTINOPHAGE ISOLATED FROM STREPTOMYCES VIOLACEORUBER 3740. R. H. L. Pang (introduced by S. G. Bradley). Dept, of Microbiology, Med. Col. of Va., Richmond, Va. 23298 MORPHOGENESIS OF PENICILLIUM CLAVIFORME AS RELAT¬ ED TO MN AND AMINO ACID REQUIREMENTS. B. L. Jeff erson and R. E. Benoit*. Dept, of Biology, Va. Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ. , Blacksburg An actinophage was isolated from Streptomyces violaceo- ruber 3740, using strain 210 as the indicator. Strain 3740 itself was immune to killing action of further infection. The phage was stable in 20% CHCI3 , 8 M urea, 9% C2H5OH, 9% DMSO and at temperatures up to 60 C for an hour. It was serologically related to phages MSP-10, MSP-11 and MSP-18 but not MSP-17. The phage was temperate with respect to strain 210. The ’ lysogenized ' strain 210/3740 was immune to killing action of further infection and capable of producing phages. Time course study on phage release from strain 210/ 3740 indicated that there were two phases of phage libera¬ tion. A concentration of 10 ug mitomycin C/ml in the medium did not affect appreciably the phage titer after 24 hr of incubation, although the concentration was lethal to the bac¬ teria. A concentration of 100 yg/ml of either chloramphen¬ icol (CAM) or rifamycin decreased the final titer of the phages released after 24 hr of incubation, when compared with the control. However, in presence of CAM only, the first phase of phage liberation was absent. Both CAM and rifamycin was inhibitory to the bacterial growth. Time course of re¬ lease of phages from strain 210/3740 in presence of polymyxin B, together with the previous antibiotic studies, suggested the presence of an intracellular pool of phage components but not viable phage particles . Virginia 24061 The optimum growth response of P. clavlf orme was observed when 4.5 mg/1 of manganese was added to the defined medium. Data from neutron acti¬ vation showed that accumulation of manganese in the spores ranged from two to five times as much when compared with tissue from coremla and the mycelial mat. Deposition of this element was lowest in coremla. The dry weight is reduced 75-80,£ if an amino acid is not present in the maltose-mineral salts medium. Several amino acids can satisfy this requirement, but proline consistently produced the maximal growth yield of all amino acids tested . 172 The Virginia Journal of Science ULTRASTRUCTURE OF MITOSIS IN THE OYSTER DISEASE ORGANISM MINCHINIA NELSONI (HAPLOSPORIDA, SPOROZOA). F. 0. Perkins'". Dept, of Microbiology-Pathology, Va. Inst, of Marine Science, Gloucester Point, Va. 23062. The fine structure of mitosis is described from observations of plasmodia of the oyster pathogen Minchinia nelsoni . The nuclear envelope remains intact during division. Unlike any other described mitotic sequence, two plaque-like spindle pole bodies (SPB's) or microtubular organizing centers are formed in the nucleoplasm on opposed sides of the nucleus and independent of the nuclear envelope. A bundle of 25 to 40 microtubules connect the SPB's and are found to terminate in the f ibrogranular matrix of the SPB's. No kinetochores were observed and it is not known whether microtubules extend from chromosome to SPB. The distance between SPB's lengthens from about 3.5 ^ at metaphase to about 7 p at telophase, apparently by extension of microtubules. The nuclear envelope around anaphase figures is nearly pointed at the ends thus suggesting a centrifugally-directed force generated in the vicinity of the SPB's. CHEMICAL AND MICROBIOLOGICAL ENRICHMENT OF FRESH-WATER SUR¬ FACE MICROLAYERS. R. F. Hatcher*, and B. C. Parker. Dept, of Biology, Va. polytechnic Inst., Blacksburg, Va. 24061 While many variables connected with the hydrologic cy¬ cle remain to be thoroughly understood in terms of fresh¬ water surface microlayers, it is clear that chemical and microbiological differences exist within surface micro¬ layers which may be useful in pollution monitoring. Fre¬ quently in our studies fungi and bacteria, including con¬ forms, were found in significantly higher numbers in our microlayer samples than in samples via routine water sam¬ pling techniques. The chemical composition of the micro¬ layer samples also differed frequently from routine sub¬ surface samples, emphasing further the possible limitation in focusing exclusively on bucket-dipping and subsurface samples for monitoring changes in aquatic ecosystems. Section of Psychology Fifty-first Annual Meeting of The Virginia Academy of Science May 1-4, 1973, Williamsburg, Virginia LOCUS OF CONTROL AND SELF CCL'CEFT AS PREDICTORS OF COLLEGE WOMEN’S INTENTIONS CONCERNING FAMILY PLANTING. D. P. Capas bo.* Dept, of Psychology, Col. of William and Nary, Williamsburg, Va. 2 3 1 P 5 The usel illness of measures of sell -concept and locus of control as predictors of sivnll leant life events was Investigated. Eighty-three college women of diverse religious backgrounds responded so as to characterize an adult female and them¬ selves on 40 adjectival scales relevant to sex- role stereotypes, Measures of locus of control and social desirability were also administered and the subjects were asked to respond to a series of questions concerning marriage, family planning, and birth control. Intercorrelations among the personality measures and relationships between personality end family planning variables were determined. Discussion of the results focused on the pattern of relationships among the person¬ ality variables and the relative utility of global and factorial personality scores as well as upon the relative contributions of sex-role stereotypes and locus of control in the prediction of family- planning intentions. FREE DRAWINGS AND SELF-CONCEPTS AS A FUNCTION OF SEX AND AGE. Gale E. Hofmann*. Dept, of Psychology, College of William and Mary , Willi amsburg, Va . 23185 To determine if the sex and age of drawers could be perceived in human figure drawings, as indicating self- concepts, sixty William and Mary students were paid Ss in an Artistic Judgement experiment, and identified thirty-six human figure drawings of self-concepts, as they related to sex and three age categories (college, elementary - fourth through seventh grades, and first grade and kindergarten). _2_s identified the sex and age of elementary and first grade and kindergarten drawers, but the results for the college drawers were less clear- cut. The use of randomized stratification resulted in college drawings being underrepresented. These results supported earlier studies that have shown that sex and age are reflected in human figure drawings. Proceedings, 972-1973 173 RESPONSE SETS AND THE WELSH FIGURE PREFERENCE TEST. D. S. Nice.* Dept, of Psychology, Col. of William and Mary, Williamsburg, Va. 23185 The present study was designed to investigate the effect of response sets on the Barron-Welsh Art Scale (revised) and the Origence Scale of the Welsh Figure Preference Test. By administering different sets of instructions, E randomly placed Ss in one of four conditions. These conditions were to respond to the test items in (I) a creative manner, (2) a deviant manner, and (3) a socially desirable manner. A fourth group was given standard instructions and used as a control. It was predicted that the group given creative in¬ structions and the group given deviant instructions would score significantly higher on the B-W Art Scale (revised) and the Origence Scale, than the control group or the group given social desirability instructions. In experiment I, 64 high school Ss were used, and only the deviant group on the Ori¬ gence Scale reached significance. In experiment II, 60 col¬ lege student Ss were used, and the creative and deviant groups scored significantly higher on both scales. The is¬ sue of social desirability and other response sets operating in non-verbal instruments was discussed. EFFECTS OF PUBLIC COMMITMENT ON ATTITUDE CHANGE IN CONSONANT AND DISSONANT SITUATIONS. M. J. Slichter*. Dept, of Psychology, Univ. of Richmond Richmond, Va. 23173 Previous studies have indicated the function of commitment in dissonance reduction to be that of specifying the interrelationships of cognitive elements and defining the particular mode reduc¬ tion will take. An attempt is made to apply this formulation to consonant situations in which atti¬ tude change occurs without dissonance arousal. 120 S_s were drawn from Introductory Psychology classes at the University of Richmond. S s ' atti¬ tudes toward two controversial topics were deter¬ mined by a Likert-type questionnaire. Ss were asked to commit themselves to verbally argue for or against their own position on one topic. Attitude shift was then measured by a similar questionnaire either before (effect of commitment alone) or after the actual delivery of the argu¬ ment (effects of commitment and argument). The results are expected to show that: (1) dissonance aroused by public commitment to a counterattitu- dinal task is reduced by either attitude shift or the verbal task itself, but not both; (2) commit¬ ment to a consonant task increases the strength of the attitude, which is then reduced after actu¬ al performance of the task. VERBAL CONFLICT RESOLUTION TIME AS RELATED TO THE GUILFORD ZIMMERMAN TEMPERAMENT SURVEY AND THE TAYLOR MANIFEST ANXIETY SCALE. D. R. Bloomfield", and K. A. Blick, Dept, of Psychology, Univ. of Richmond, Richmond, Va. 23173 Eleven Guilford Zimmerman Scale scores and the Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale scores of 80 Ss were related in 4 multiple regression equations to av¬ erage resolution times of Approach-Approach, Avoidance-Avoidance, Double Approach-Avpidanfce Verbal Conflicts and an average time of all con¬ flict types. Females displayed significantly shorter times for resolution than males in Approach-Approach and Double Approach-Avoidance conflicts. Males, however, exhibited shorter resolution times than females in Avoidance- Avoid¬ ance conflicts. The 4 multiple regression equa¬ tions, however, were not significant. Low drive S_s as defined by the Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale took significantly shorter times to resolve all conflict types than did high drive Ss. All conflict types differed significantly From each other at both drive levels. A relative¬ ly high level of generalized drive increased the amount of time required to solve verbal conflicts. This finding gave support to a previous study by Fracher (1973) using motor conflict situations. DEVELOPMENT OF A SCALE TO PREDICT PATTERNS OF COGNITIVE AP¬ PRAISAL OF STRESS. E. A. Schmaltz* and G. D. Shean*. Dept. OF Psychology, Col. of William and Mary, Williamsburg, Va. 23185 In order to test the hypothesis that repressors (on the Byrne R-S scale) would exhibit more autonomic than subjec¬ tive response to stress and sensitizers would show the re¬ verst, 20 Ss were shown slides of homicide victims or pornography. Physiological responses were recorded contin¬ uously and Ss rated their subjective reaction on a 7 point scale. The hypothesis was not supported. Over and under¬ raters of emotional response were distinguished by a dis¬ crepancy score between self report and autonomic measures. Items from personality tests which successfully discrim¬ inated over from underraters were combined with fillers to form a self description questionnaire (SDQ) . To validate the SDQ's ability to predict cognitive patterns of appraisal of stress, 56 Ss were exposed to stressful slides. The SDQ was moderately able to predict appraisal patterns of stress¬ ful slides (r > . 37) . There was no significant difference between over and underrating groups in physiological re¬ sponses, suggesting that the discrepancies were caused by differential patterns of cognitive appraisal of stress. An item analysis of the SDQ yielded two factors that described overraters; social desirability and a tendency to worry, and two that described underraters; hostility factor and a denial factor. NORM FORMATION AND SUBSEQUENT DIVERGENCE, REPLIC¬ ATION AND VARIATION. J. D. Martin*, J. S. Wi 1 1 jams* , and L. N. Gray*, Dept, of Sociology, Va. Commonwealth Univ., Richmond, Va. 23220. Two experiments are reported which re-examine the "autokinetic" type of norm formation. Both experiments indicate that divergence from the group norm occurs subsequent to group dissolution. This is interpreted as suggesting that while norm formation may occur in these short-term experi¬ ments, it is not completed within the time span they represent. It is suggested that norm forma¬ tion may be essentially a process of multiperson learning in which people serve as reinforcers for one another. The concept of "internalization" is questioned as a necessary element in the process of norm formation. It is suggested that the mechanisms known as conditioning may more parsi¬ moniously explain what occurs during norm forma¬ tion. HYPERPHAGIA PRODUCED BY A ONE MINUTE VARIABLE— INTERVAL SCHEDULE OF REINFORCEMENT. T. P. MOESCHL* Dept, of Psycholo¬ gy, Col. of William and Mary, Williamsburg, Va. 23185 To determine whether the thirst drive could produce abnormal eating behavior in albino rats, an experimental situation was set up in parallel to a replication of a polydipsia producing paradigm. In the first condition two animals, food deprived and trained to bar-press for Noyes pellets in a 1-min. variable-interval schedule (VI 1-min.), with water concurrently available, incurred polydipsia. In the second condition two animals, water deprived and trained to bar-press for .15cc reinforcements of water on a VI 1- min. schedule, with food concurrently available, developed hyperphagia. Abnormal eating behavior was produced by con¬ trolling size and spacing of water reinforcements, just as previous research has demonstrated abnormal drinking by controlling these variables for food reinforcement. 174 The Virginia Journal of Science EFFECTS OF ENTORHINAL LESIONS ON EATING, DRINKING, AND ACTI¬ VITY. Greqory M. Croqhan*, Richard H. Shepard, Jr.*, Leonard Jarrard. Dapt. of Psychology, Washington and Lee Uni v. , Lexington, Ya. 24450 Sixteen adult male albino rats were employed to study be¬ havioral effects of radio frequency lesions of entorhinal cortex. Measures of amount of food and water consumed were taken daily, and activity measures of eating, drinking, and locomotion were recorded every fifteen seconds, twenty four hours a day. No significant differences were found between entorhinal, operated and unoperated control animals, either on ad lib. or during twenty three hour deprivation feeding schedules. Entorhinal animals tended to be less active than controls, but the differences were not statistically signifi¬ cant. The present findings are in contrast with the findings of Entingh (1971) and of Ross Walsch and Grossman (1973) which suggest that entorhinal rats are temporarily hyper- phagie and, are generally more active. (Supported by HSF Grant GB-30113 to L. E. J.) THE EFFECT OF ETHER ON THE SALT AROUSAL OF DRINKING. M. C. Vetter*. Dept, of Psychology. Univ, of Richmond, Richmond, Va. 23229 Adult male and female rats were subjected to hypertonic NaCl stomach loads with and without ether. There was no difference in water intake between the load ether (LE) and the load no ether (LK) groups for any of the post load times measured ( 15 minute intervals for 2 hours, then 3,4,12, and 24 hours). Males responded by de¬ creasing their food intake over the 24 hours after load while females did not. Water intake results were discussed in terms of the suppression of the salt arousal of drinking by cholinergic blocking agents. Food intake results were dis¬ cussed in terms of the effects of female sex hormones on renal function. THE EFFECT OF FUNCTIONAL CECOTOMY ON FOOD AND WATER INTAKE IN THE RAT. S. P. Farr*. Dept., of Psychology, Univ. of Richmond, Richmond, Va, 23229 The effect of functional cecotomy on ingestion and excretory behavior in the rat was viewed as short term (ST) and long term (LT) stress adjustment. Findings in both ST and LT conditions were discussed in terms of precision, rapidity, sensitivity, and reliability. Under functional cecotomy water intake, fecal moisture content and dry fecal weight increased. Food intake remained constant. Stress adjustment in terms of precision, rapidity, sensitivity and reliabil¬ ity were discussed as correlations and their accompanying standard errors over daily, 3 day and ? day time blocks. Results are pending! the study is in progress. AROUSAL EFFECTS OF MIRROR-IMAGE STIMULATION. Michael Cook* and Michael Irby*. Dept, of Psychol- ogy, Lynchburg Col., Lynchburg, VA 24504 (Sponsored by A. L. Cone) Four studies investigated the "arousal effects" of Mirror Image Stimulation (MIS) on MIS-naive hooded and albino rats as a function of task com¬ plexity. MIS facilitated performance on a simple task (straight runway) , maintained performance on a more complex task (brightness discrimination) , but produced a decrement in an even more complex task (Lashley III Maze) . Running speed in the maze was disrupted less for albinos than hoods, and less for overtrained than non-overtrained Ss. Maze errors were not affected by MIS. These findings were interpreted as analogous to findings with other "general arousal" stimuli which facilitate the performance of "simple" behaviors, but which produce a decrement in the performance of "complex" behaviors. It seems unlikely that MIS serves as an incentive or reinforcer in the MIS-naive rat. TEMPORAL INTERRELATIONSHIPS AMONG ESTROUS, WATER INTAKE, AND CAGE ACTIVITY IN FEMALE ALBINO RATS. Julia J. Mize*. Dept, of Psychology, Lynchburg Col. , Lynchburg , VA 24504 (Sponsored by A. L. Cone) Previous research suggests that, while circa¬ dian cage activity and water consumption are "in- phase" for the female albino rat, estrous-linked untradian cage activity and water consumption are "out-of-phase." In this study, cage activity and water consumption were simultaneously quantified every 15 minutes for 20 days under LD 12:12. Vaginal smears were taken every 8 hours and were scored on a 6 point scale. Circadian rhythms for both cage activity and drinking were found to be "in phase." Quadradian cycles were also found for cage activity and drinking. However, these estrous-linked cycles were "out-of-phase , " with activity leading drink¬ ing by approximately 20 hours. Peak cage activity occurred during the first 6 hours after "lights- off" during early estrous; peak water consumption occurred during the first 6 hours after "lights- off" during metestrous. DIURNAL ACTIVITY OF THE RAT AT ELEVATED AMBIENT TEMPERATURES. D. L. Averv, Jr.* Dept, of Psych- ology, Univ. of Va., Charlottesville, Va. 22901 An albino rat living in a running wheel or a stationary cage bisected by an infrared light beam concentrates most of his activity in the dark half of the 24 hr. period if the ambient temperature is about 22°C. When the temperature is raised to 34oC., the animal becomes highly active during the light period, while the dark cycle scores may decline slightly. Thus a moderately high activity score is maintained throughout the 24 hrs. Outside the laboratory this might increase the likelyhood of escape to a cooler location. In the laboratory the rat's response to heat stress may be modified by early training. If naive rats are first taught an active avoidance task in a shuttle box, the activity increase in the heat is enhanced. Naive rats taught to avoid shock by immobility respond to heat with decreased light-period activity. (Supported in part by USPHS grant MH 04920) Proceedings, 1972-1973 175 DARK ADAPTATION IN AMBLYOPIC EYES. A. M. Prestrude* Dept, of Psychology, Va. Polytechnic Inst. & State Unlv. . Blacksburg. Va. 24061 and Jacqueline K. Paris* Ferrum Col., Ferrum. Va. Monocular dark-adaptation functions from the normal and non-normal eyes of amblyopic Os are the same even though the acuities of the two eyes are considerably different. The above dark-adaptation functions are the same as those from the eyes of an 0 with normal vision. However, following binocular preadaptation. Os with normal binocular vision exhibit a faster rate of monocular dark adaptation (Lansf ord-Baker effect) than after monocular pre¬ adaptation. Amblyopic Os exhibit such an effect only under preadaptation conditions which don't require some central brightness averaging process. The presence of any interaction between normal and amblyopic eyes suggests that there is a basis for developing binocular vision In amblyopic Os. Techniques requiring binocular brightness discrimi¬ nation rather than binocular pattern discrimination could be the basis for training techniques to be used with amblyopes. PERCEPTION OF EMBEDDED TACH 1 STOSCOP 1 C PATTERNS. M. R. Shaw*. Dept, of Psychology, Col. of William and Mary, Williamsburg, Va. 23185 The end elements of binary patterns are usually perceived more accurately because of their differentiated spatial posi¬ tion. The left elements are favored presumably by a selec¬ tive reading process. This results in a bow-shaped curve, with fewest errors at the left and ends of the array. To find if the distribution of errors can be changed by making the ends less segregated, 24 Ss were presented with 8- element binary patterns which were embedded between two groups of irrelevant stimuli. There were three conditions: Plain--3 irrelevant circles on each end of the 8-element pattern; Slash — a short slash between the 3 irrelevant circles on each end of the 8 center elements, thus percep¬ tually setting off the relevant pattern; and Black-out--3 irrelevant elements on each end covered by black rectangles. There were significant differences between the total errors and error distributions under the three conditions, with Ss performing best under slash condition, followed by black-out and plain conditions. Plain resulted in a flattened error curve, with slash showing the steepest slope. In plain, the saliency of the ends was disrupted by a cognitive masking effect, which was reduced by adding the slashes. The black¬ out condition reduced cognitive masking, but enhanced sensory masking. THE EFFECT OF REPETITION OF OBJECTS AND OBJECT NAMES ON FREE RECALL. Jean E. Dunman and Peter L. Derks, Dept, of Psychology, College of William and Mary, Williamsburg, Va., 23185 In a free recall task, objects were recalled more frequently than object names while repetition of either stimulus also resulted in better recall. Presentation of the object and its name separately in a sequence re¬ sulted in still better recall than simple repetition in either mode. These results support a dual code inter¬ pretation of memory for objects and names. INTERMITTENT REINFORCEMENT AND EMERGENCY HELPING BEHAVIOR. L, D. Nelson. Dent, of Sociology and Anthropology, Virginia Commonweal th Unlv., Rich¬ mond, Va. 23220 While emergency helping behavior may often be unreinforced, helping roles are shaped through reinforcement. It Is hypothesized that inter¬ mittent reinforcement schedules result in unreln- foroed helping behavior In emergency situations. Data comparing pre-emergency and post-emergency helping behavior In a city extensively damaged by a recent tornado are presented. In support of the hypotheses, the findings demonstrate that role performance occurred during the emergency In the absence of obvious social rewards. Findings are discussed In terms of previous explanations presented for the prevalence of unrelnforoed helping behavior In emergency situations. SOME ATTITUDINAL CORRELATES OF LABELLING LAWBREAKERS. T. E. DeWolfe and T. T. Adams*, Dept, of Psychology, Hampden-Sy dney College, Hampden-Sy dney , Va. 239^3 Relationships between social attitudes and labelling lawbreakers were explored by admin¬ istering to college student and professional groups the Dogmatism Scale, the California F Scale, the Florida Scale of Civic Beliefs, and descriptions of various lawbreaking deviancies to be rated "criminal” and/or "mentally ill." Both authoritarianism and conservatism were positively related to tendencies to rate law¬ breakers "criminal," but unrelated to general tendencies to label them "mentally ill." Low F scalers selectively rated as "mentally ill" those lawbreakers who would otherwise be assigned the "criminal" category. This ten¬ dency was interpreted as consistent with views of mental illness as a residual category which replaces in this instance one more negatively evaluated . A PROCEDURE FOR GROUP DESENSITIZATION OF SNAKE PHOBIC BEHAVIOR. John P. Lindstrom*, and Lee E. Doerries*. Dept, of Psychology, Christopher Newport Col. of the Col. of William & Mary, Newport News, Va. 23606. The study was designed to investigate the effectiveness of an in vivo qroup desensitization procedure in the elimination of snake phobic behavior. The desensitization procedure involved three components; hierarchy construction, modeling, and peer pressure. Ss were undergraduate college students. All Ss (N-102) were asked to indicate l) whether or not they would touch a nonpoisonous snake that was present in the room and 2) how fearful they were at that time. Control Ss were randomly asked to come forward and touch the snake. An independent group of experimental Ss were asked to line up in order from least afraid to most afraid of snakes. E gradually introduced the snake closer to Ss until each S had an opportunity to touch it. Control results indicated only 50 percent of Ss touched the snake. 95 to 100 percent of the Experimental J>s touched the snake. Results were discussed in terms of the effects of hierarchy construction, modeling, and peer pressure. An additional sample was tested in which 20 Ss were asked to line up in order of fearfulness. When 3 of the first 10 Ss, confederates of E, refused to touch the snake, 8 of the last 10 Ss in the fear ranking refused to touch the snake, indicating support for the peer pressure hypothesis. The Virginia Journal of Science 176 CHOICE OF IMMEDIATE OR DELAYED TOKEN TRADE-IN AS A FUNCTION OF VISUAL FEEDBACK OF TOKEN ACCUMULATION. Marilyn Shrum* (Sponsored by Donald Witters) , Bridgewater College, Bridgewater, Va. 22812 Four elementary school students were asked questions about material they had been assigned to read. For each correct answer they were reinforced with a token which could be traded in immediately for two cents or put into a bottle which contained fifty tokens. The subject was rein¬ forced with one dollar when the bottle was filled. The bottle was visible either all the time, at the beginning and end of each session or not at all. The results of one subject showed a saving rate of fifty-six percent when the bottle was visible at the beginning and end of each session, sixty-four percent when the bottle was always visible, and seventy-eight percent when the bottle was never visible. The remaining subjects developed one strategy in the choice situation. In the second experiment, the procedure was the same except the bottle was always visible and the size of the bottle was varied to contain fifty or one hundred tokens. The subject was reinforced with two dollars for each one hundred token bottle filled. The results showed a higher saving rate for the one hundred token bottle than the fifty token bottle. THE MODIFICATION OF LINE FORMING AND BLURTING OUT BEHAVIORS IN A SPECIAL EDUCATION CLASS, James Fox« Dept, of Psych- ology, Univ. of Richmond, Richmond, Va. 23226. Several student and teacher behaviors were treated in a multiple baseline procedure. Elapsed time to form an order¬ ly line in 3 settings was markedly decreased using a time criterion and group contingency which involved dispersing token reinforcers to each student if all students performed within the criteria. Tokens were later exchanged for back up reinforcers. Blurting out responses were substantially reduced using an individual contingency, response cost program. Initially the teacher monitored student blurting out, later a student self monitoring system was employed. The shift from teacher to student monitoring resulted in decreased accurracy with which students recorded their blurts and in a slight increase in the number of blurts, although the latter measure remained substantially below the baseline measure. Till MODIFICATION OF DISRUPTIVE BEhAVlORS, HAND RAISING , AND TIME-ON-TASK IN A SPECIAL EDUCATION CLASS. Snerwin L. Davis Dept, of Psychology, Univ. of Riclmond, Richmond, Va, 23219 Tne project involved the use of behavior modification techniques to reduce the frequency of occurrence of dis¬ ruptive behaviors in a special education class of eight boys. During the baseline period recordings were made of student out-of-seat, blurting-out , hand-raising, aud on-task behav¬ iors as well as teacher responses to each of these. Student were "on-task" during any recording interval in which nei¬ ther of the disruptive behaviors of concern occured. Treatment 1 focused upon out-of-seat behavior. Teachers were instructed to attend only to boys who were seated, praising them for their in-seat behavior and for their aca¬ demic work. Treatment 2 was designed to reduce blurting-out and to initiate hand-raising » Teacners were asked to attend only to seated indivaduals who raised their hands. As this behavior was novel for the class, it was introduced with the following rule: Raise your nand for help. Teachers were assisted in learning to attend rapidly to hana-raising through the use of a vibrator belt operated remotely by the observer. Post-treatment recordings indicated that out-of-seat ana blurting-out responses had been reduced by 39% and 70% respectively while nand-raising was increased by 32% and time-on- taste by 49%. INDUCING ORDERLY BEHAVIOR IN A SPECIAL EDUCATION CLASS THROUGH POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT. L. K. Furgurson*. Dept, of Psychology, Univ. of Richmond Richmond, Va. 23173 A class of seven children at the Memorial Learn¬ ing Center of Richmond, Va. was observed. The class was composed of students referred from the public school system. The students were described as having learning disabilities and/or being emo¬ tionally disturbed. The students were observed to be excessively disruptive and difficult to control while walking in the school hallways to varied destinations. A contingency contract, employing positive reinforcement, was developed by E in an attempt to modify this behavior. The behavior modification program produced a significant de¬ crease in the amount of time spent in transition from classroom to lunchroom and returning. There was also significant improvement in the quality of student behavior in the hallways. Follow-up inter¬ view disclosed that the teacher was able to main¬ tain the program without consultation and with beneficial effects. ELECTROENCEPHALOGRAPHIC AND TEMPORAL CORRELATES OF SNORING. Ira B. Albert and Nicholas C. Ballast Dept, of EFFECTS OF REM DEPRIVATION AND REM REBOUND ON RETENTION. William B. Wells-"- Washington and Lee Psychology, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, Virginia 23508 The present study attempted to correlate snoring with the various stages of sleep. Subjects were 8 male volun¬ teers, who claimed that they were reliable snorers. EEG, EMG, and EOG were continuously monitored on three consecu¬ tive nights. The sleep records were scored by two observers according to a standardized system. Although 70.6% of the snoring occurred in stage 2 sleep, the proportion of time spent snoring was not significantly different for the various sleep stages. The greatest amount of snoring occurred at the beginning of the night, while the early morning hours had somewhat less snoring. This trend has been noted previously and has been attributed to autonomic changes which widen the nasal passages and reduce the necessity for mouth breathing. Although it is well known that sleep on the first recording night is often dissimilar to sleep on subsequent nights, differences in amount of snoring between nights were not observed. University, Lexington, Virginia 214± 50 T-maze performances of laboratory mice suggest that a memory transference occurs during the REM (rapid-eye-movement) sleep cycle. The first experiment measured the animals 1 ability to perform accurately immediately following periods of RD (REM deprivation) sleep and SS (stress sleep) The second experiment measured differences in the animals' ability; once immediately following RD and SS and again twenty-four hours later to test the effects rendered following "recovery sleep". Per cent error recorded during retrial suggests that short tern memory is transferred during the REM sleep cycle. Interference with this cycle following learning trials seems to block this memory transfer; yet the learned response can be performed after a twenty-four hour period of recov¬ ery sleep. Proceedings, 1972-1973 177 FREE-OPERANT "FRUSTRATION EFFECTS" REFLECT INHIBITION BY REINFORCEMENT. John E. Kello*. Dept, of Psychol. , Duke Univ. , Durham, N. C. 27706. In a variety of experimental situations reinforcement omission results in an immediate increase in the rate of the instrumental response. The usual interpretation of this finding is that nonreinforcement presented in lieu of rein¬ forcement engenders frustration which increases drive and energizes ongoing behavior (frustration hypothesis). How¬ ever, on free-operant fixed-interval schedules the data support an account of the "frustration effect" not in terms of excitatory effects of non reinforcement, but in terms of inhibitory effects of reinforcement (temporal inhibition hypothesis). It is shown that a test of the two accounts of the effect on fixed-ratio schedules also supports a reinforce- THE ROLE OF SHIFTS OF PUNISHMENT UPON THE FRUSTRATION EFFECT. L. S. Porterfield,* and J. A. Sgro. Dept, of Psychology, Virginia Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ., Blacksburg, Va. 24061. The proposed hypothesis (Fallon, 1971) that punishment administered immediately upon performance of the consummatory response reduces the functional magnitude of reward was in¬ vestigated. Of particular interest was whether punishment, (electric shock) would affect the frustration effect (FE) . During Phase I, one group of rats (Group S) received 50% reward with shock on each rewarded trial and a second group (Group NS) received 50% reward without shock in Goalbox 1. During Phase II, half of the rats in each group were shifted to the opposite Goalbox 1 treatment: Group S-NS re¬ ceived 50% reward without shock and Group NS-S received 50% reward with shock on rewarded trials . Groups S-S and NS-NS were maintained on 50% reward with shock and 50% reward with- ment -inhibition view. Further evidence in favor of rein¬ forcement-inhibition as the mechanism underlying free- operant "frustration effects" is briefly discuss ed, and it is suggested that the paradigmatic double alleyway effect be reexamined in light of these results. out shock, respectively. According to Fallon's (1971) hypo¬ thesis, Group S-NS, relative to Group S-S, should show an increase in the FE while Group NS-S, relative to Group NS-NS, should demonstrate a decrease in the FE. Results from Phase I were consistent with Fallon’s (1971) reward magnitude hy¬ pothesis. Also, during Phase II, the FE of Group NS-S gradually became significantly smaller. However, Group S-NS failed to exhibit an increase in the FE. EFFECTIVENESS OF EXPERIMENTER-SUPPLIED AND SUBJECT- ORIGINATED FIRST LETTER AND DESCRIPTIVE SENTENCE MNEMONICS IN LEARNING WORD PAIRS. M. B. Pines- and K. A. _Blick. Dept, of Psychology, Univ. of Richmond, Richmond, Va. 23173. The effectiveness of E-supplied and Ss-origina- ted first letter and descriptive sentence mnemonics were compared to a simple repetition condition. The Ss using E-supplied schemes suffered no losses in recall of 10 word pairs over 6-weeks, while Ss in the other three conditions showed significant retention losses at 2-day and 6-week intervals. The E-supplied schemes were significantly superior to S_-originated schemes which in turn excelled the simple repetition condition. There were no dif¬ ferences in recall between the two E-supplied groups or between the two ^-originated conditions. It was concluded that the source of the mnemonic was the crucial variable affecting recall. EFFECTS OF ANTICIPATED FORM OF TESTING ON MEMORY FOR WORD LISTS. N. A, Me.rF.and * and E. A. Lovelace. Dept, of Psychology, Univ. of Va. , Charlottesville, Va. 22901 Subjects' expectations about the forr of reten¬ tion test they would receive was manipulated by various instructions. The Ss were shown a list of 60 common words at a 3 sec. presentation rate and were set to expect either a recall or a recogni¬ tion test. Half the ,3s received the recall test which they had been set to expect and half received a recall test after being set for recognition. The results indicated that recall performance was sig¬ nificantly superior when 3s expected a recall test than when they expected a recognition test. The results are interpreted as suggesting that the examination set does influence either the nature or the amount of material stored, or at least its retrieval ility in a test situation. The present data are consistent with the notion that the chief difference between a recall and a recog¬ nition set involves the organizational processes employed by recall-set Ss when preparing for a recall test. It appears that recognition-set Ss typically make less use of available organizational opportunities and thus perform at a poorer level on a recall task. ( Aided by 0E grant OEG-3-72- C0NTEXT EFFECTS ON THE FREE RECALL OF REPEATED ITEMS. J. C. Dovel* and D. G. Elmes. Dept, of Psychology, Washington and Lee Univ., Lexington, Va. 24450 Verbal learning studies have reported that in a single trial free recall (FR) task, recall of a repeated item increases with an increase in the number of events (lag) which separate the two rep¬ etitions. If the two presentations are contiguous, it is assumed that they share the same list con¬ text. If they are separated by a large lag, the item is organized into two different list contexts and is thus differentially encoded. In a 2X4 factorial design, the recall of re¬ peated items with lags of 0, 4, 8, and 20 was noted in two FR lists which differed in context. In List Form I, the second presentations of the crit¬ ical items at all lags were grouped within a range of not less than 7 nor more than 9 events. The corresponding range in List Form II was not less than 16 nor more than 25 items. Recall increased significantly as a function of lag in List II. In List I, recall of items with lags 4-20 was the same, indicating the contextual effects of that list. The recall of items from lag 0 to lag 4 increased significantly in both list forms and was assumed to be the result of differential rehearsal. EFFECTS OF STUDY QUESTION PLACEMENT AND INCENTIVE CONDITIONS ON LEARNING PROSE MATERIAL. Janice Veach,* and Donald Witters. Dept, of Psychology, Bridgewater Col., Bridgewater, Va. 22812. The purpose of the experiment was (1) to determine if there is a differential effect (measurable by a retention test) in placing questions before or after prose material and 2) to note if incentive conditions alter this effect. Subjects for the experiment were college general psychology students. Some groups were given questions before each page of reading material; other groups received questions after each page; and others received no questions. Some of the groups received points for attendance; others received points only if they made a certain cut-line score on the test; and others received 2 points for each correct answer. Results indicated no significant differences between groups . Another experiment, also testing the effect of passage length, showed significantly higher scores for students receiving points for performance. 0033 )■ 178 The Virginia Journal of Science Section of Science Teachers Fifty-first Annual Meeting of The Virginia Academy of Science May 1-4, 1973, Williamsburg, Virginia HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS AS TEACHER AIDS. H. W. Straley IV, Woodberry Forest School, Woodberry Forest, Va. 22989 This paper deals with one part of a study being done by the author to develop a model for continual progress elementary algebra instruction. Over a three year period high school juniors and seniors were used as teacher aids in elementary algebra, plane geometry and computer programming classes at the Woodberry Forest School. The use of such aids has grown in acceptance by the faculty and the students. All persons involved consider the idea a success even though there are certain minor problems. The historical growth of the concept at the Woodberry Forest School, the teacher aid experience, the rationale behind the idea, and some recommendations are given in this paper. (Aided by grant from the Mary Reynolds Babcock Foundation) SCIENTIFIC SAFETY SYMBOLS IN THE CLASSROOM. G. C. Llewellyn. Depts. of Biology and Secondary Education, Va. Commonwealth Univ., Richmond, Va. 23220 Although there is an increased emphasis. on safety and safety regulations as enacted by the federal legislature to date there is only one federally required symbol applicable to science teaching, the Radiation symbol. There appears to be a need for several other, more common symbolic cau¬ tions which could be beneficial to both the teacher and the student. Some of the examples could include the following: Caustic Material, Noxious Gases, Ultraviolet Light, Laser Beam, Toxic Material, Bio-hazard and Explosive Material. With the advent of such Programs as ISCS and others, students at all grade levels are encountering and using more chemical substances in experimental procedures. A series of precautionary symbols illustrating pictorially and verbally a warning, has been found to be more valuable than a geometric shaped, brightly colored symbol such as the Radiation sign. From our work we propose that a series of symbols be developed using most of the above noted ex¬ amples showing a picture, related wording and a shape re¬ lating the degree of danger. The triangular shape could be used to designate caution; the diamond shape to illustrate moderate danger and the octagon shape to depict great dan¬ ger. These shapes are quite similar to the highway symbols. The new Do Not symbol used on the highway signs , a red circle with one slanted line has been tested and found to be more effective than an "X" over the picture. Proceedings, 1972-1973 179 Section of Space Science and Technology Fifty-first Annual Meeting of The Virginia Academy of Science May 1-4, 1973, Williamsburg, Virginia BEHAVIOR OF ENG I NEER I NO MATERIALS UNDER COMBINED STRESS: MICROSTRAtN. S. G. Cupschalk, Deni", of Engineering Mechanics, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, Va. 23508 Engineering designs freguently reouire a mate¬ rial to be subjected to complex states of stress during service. The most common evaluation of a material's suitability under such conditions con¬ sists of applying an empirical, macroscopic "the¬ ory of failure" which is based solely upon the ma¬ terial's tensile behavior. The present study, uti¬ lizing dislocation theory, is concerned with establishing a guantitative bridge between micro¬ scopic and macroscopic behavior under general stress conditions. Although confined to the micro¬ strain region, i.e., to stress levels immediately below that of yielding, calculations indicate that the "Octahedral Shear Stress Law" provides, for¬ tuitously, a rather faithful representation of material behavior under combined stress. (Supported by a grant from the ODU Research Foun¬ dation) METAL MATRIX COMPOSITING OF STRUCTURAL MATERIALS BY CONTINUOUS CASTING. Robert G. Shaver, General Technologies Corp., Springfield, Va, 22131 Many structural shapes and preforms of constant cross section are fabricable of high performance composites of light metal alloys and several types of fibers by a process called "continuous casting." Of the several metal matrix compositing processes, this one has uniquely low cost features which are the result of continuous formation at rel¬ atively high rates and modest labor requirements. Aluminum alloy composite structural tubing and hat-section stiffeners have been pro¬ duced for aerospace application by such continuous casting. Magnes¬ ium alloy composite radio antennae with a low visibility characteristic have been produced in quantity having a mixture of reinforcement fibers of boron and high strength steel. Monolayer tapes containing boron fiber have been produced for use as layup preform in the for¬ mation of composite structures by diffusion bonding. Successful processing of composites by this technique requires a sufficient degree of chemical and physical stability of the reinforce¬ ment fibers in contact with the liquid matrix metal that no significant loss of properties of the fibers occurs. Of the high performance fibers, only silicon carbide-coated boron filament and silicon carbide filament itself are sufficiently stable in the presence of liquid aluminum alloys. Magnesium alloys in general are quite compatible with uncoated boron filament, on the other hand. FLEXURAL WAVE MECHANICS - AN ANALYTICAL AP¬ PROACH TO THE VIBRATION OF PERIODIC STRUCTURES FORCED BY CONVECTED PRESSURE FIELDS. A. L. Abrahams on* of Wyle Laboratories, Hampton Va. Many flight vehicle structures are spatially periodic - or1 nearly so - with a large number of fundamental periodic elements. It is exceedingly difficult to apply a multi-modal approach to this type of structure because the modal den¬ sity in certain frequency bands tends to infinity, as the num¬ ber of elements becomes infinite. Mead and his co-workers have demonstrated how solutions may readily be obtained employing the concept of flexural waves. The methods de¬ veloped hitherto have, however, all been limited to situa¬ tions where the forced vibration differential equations are derivable. Also, a solution of them is necessary for each point on the wavenumber-frequency spectrum of the forcing field, implying excessive computation for complex struc¬ tures. Here, forced vibration is considered using the Ex¬ tended Hamilton's Principle, with structural response ex¬ pressed in terms of a series of orthogonal flexural waves. These are represented by generalized parameters of stiff¬ ness and mass, with an associated generalized force. This method of evaluating the aero-acoustic induced response of infinite periodic systems shows considerable reduction in computation over other methods, particularly for complex structures , OPTIMALITY CRITERIA APPLIED TO THE DESIGN OF WING STRUCTURES. K. C. Choy* and F. W. Barton. Dept, of Civil Engineering, Univ . of Va. , Charlottes¬ ville, Va. 22901 Most existing optimization procedures are based on some form of mathematical programming. The method developed herein is based on the concept of optimality criteria. The optimality condition is derived from a functional which, when extremized , describes an optimum design of the system. The analysis portion of the design is based on a fi¬ nite element model. In this particular study, minimum weight is selected as the design objective. It is shown that , for linear structures , the derived opti¬ mality conditions are equivalent to the require¬ ment that all structural elements have the same strain energy density. Solutions for a variety of examples are presented, and compared with de¬ signs obtained by other optimization schemes . 180 The Virginia Journal of Science A NECESSARY CONDITION FOR THE NON-OCCURENCE OF VON MISES YIELDING IN IMPULSIVELY LOADED PLATES. J. G. SimiTionds* . Dept, of Applied Math. & Computer Science, Univ. of Va., Charlottesville, Va. 22901 For an elastically isotropic plate subject to an impulsive load and boundary conditions which prevent rigid-body motion and do no work, it is shown that a necessary condition for the non¬ occurence of plastic yielding according to the vonMises criteria is that T (0 ) <(2/3 ) V (I-iIIo'q/E, where T(0) is the initial kinetic energy imparted by the impulse, V is the volume of the plate, 0 is Poisson's ratio, E is Young's modulus, and il0 is the yield stress of the plate material in a simple tension test. A FINITE ELEMENT APPROACH TO THE DETERMINATION OF THE DE¬ FLECTIONS OF A BEAM SUBJECTED TO THE INFLUENCE OF A POINT MASS MOVING AT CONSTANT VELOCITY ALONG ITS LENGTH. W. F. Morris, Jr.*, and R. P. McNitt. Dept, of Engineering Science and Mechanics, Va. Polytechnic Inst., Blacksburg, Va. 24061 A spacial/temporal finite element grid system is used to discretize both the space and time coordinates. Beam ele¬ ment motion is approximated by a polynomial displacement function of x and t which insures compatibility of displace¬ ment, velocity, slope, and angular velocity at node points common to adjacent elements. The polynomial selected is cubic in both x and t. The Lagrangian for the moving point mass problem is formulated and integrated over both space and time yielding the action integral. Since Hamilton's Principle is only applicable to boundary-value problems, the principle is extended to include initial-value problems. Numerical results are presented for beams with various sup¬ port conditions. DYNAMIC STABILITY OF A TRANSLATING HELICOPTER WITH A SLUNG LOAD. E. M. Cliff*, and D. B. Bailey*. Dept, of Aero. Engrg., VPI&SU, Blacksburg, Va. 24061 The motion of a simplified model of a helicopter with a slung load is analyzed. The helicopter and load are each considered to be point masses connected by a rigid link of negligible mass. The forces acting on each body are: its weight, an aerodynamic force, and the restraint from the link. The aerodynamic force is drag only; that is it acts opposite to the local motion of the body and is given by the usual square speed law. No downwash is included. In addition to these forces the helicopter has a rotor thrust force. The equations are linearized about a steady level flight condition and it is shown that the perturbation equations separate into longitudinal and lateral motions. The system characteristics generally depend on four parameters. These parameters are: ratio of vehicle mass to load mass (m); ratio of vehicle ballistic coefficient to that of the load; ratio of drag to weight of the load (D/W); and, a dimension¬ less length of the tether. For the case of equal ballistic coefficients the stability of the longitudinal motions depends upon the m being less than a simple function of the (D/W) and the tether being shorter than a critical length which depends upon (D/W) and m. Violating the former condition leads to a dynamic in¬ stability, while if the latter condition is not fulfilled a static instability results. The lateral motions are stable if m is less than unity, and the tether is shorter than the critical lenqth mentioned above. HYPERSONIC VISCOUS SHOCK-LAYER FLOWS OVER SPHERICALLY BLUNTED CONES. E. W. Miner* and C. H. Lewis, Aerospace Engrg. Dept., Va. Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ., Blacksburg, Va. 24061 Finite-difference methods have been developed to predict nonreacting and chemically reacting viscous shock layer flows over spherically blunted cones in hypersonic flows at zero lift. Methods previously developed for analytic shapes (hy¬ perboloids, and paraboloids) have been extended to consider nonanalytic spherically blunted cones. Calculations have been made for a 9-degree half-angle sphere cone for compari¬ son with classical nonreacting and chemically reacting bound¬ ary layer flows and recently available thin viscous shock layer predictions of Kanq at Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory who used an integral method to solve the shock layer problem. Comparisons will be presented with Kang's results including wall heat-transfer, skin-friction, pressure, shock-tempera¬ ture and shock layer thickness distributions for all results published by Kang. In general large differences were found between the present finite-difference predictions using either the thin viscous shock layer or fully viscous shock layer model upon comparison with Kang's integral method pre¬ dictions. BOUNDARY-LAYER TRANSITION AND DISPLACEMENT THICKNESS EFFECTS ON THE ZERO-LIFT DRAG OF POWER-LAW BODIES AT MACH 6. G. C. Ashby, Jr., and Dr. J. E. Harris,* NASA-Laneley . Pressure and viscous drags have been computed at Mach 6 for a series of power-law bodies with boundary-layers which ranged from laminar to laminar-transitional-turbulent. Inviscid surfaces pressures, obtained by the inverse method coupled with the method of characteristic, along with measured locations of boundary-layer transition were used in a nonsimilar boundary-layer solution to compute the viscous results. The inviscid and viscous solutions were also coupled to account for boundary-layer displacement thickness. The results show that boundary-layer transition can cause the body for minimum zero-lift drag to have a blunter fore¬ body than the one for laminar flow. The maximum increase in drag due to displacement thickness was 9 percent for the conditions of this investigation. MEASURED AXIAL AND NORMAL FORCE COEFFICIENTS FOR 9° CONES IN RAREFIED, HYPERSONIC FLOW. D. Bharathan* and S. S. Fisher. Dept, of Engineering Science & Systems, Univ. of Va., Charlottesville, Va. 22901. Axial and normal force coefficients for slender cones in the transitional regime of low-density, hypersonic flow have been measured. The flow fields are freely expanding jets emerging from sharp-edged orifices. Models are supported in a three-dimensional electromagnetic suspension system in which the aerodynamic forces are measured by monitoring the currents in various electromagnetic coils. In the experiments the following conditions are fixed: models of 9* semivertex angle, free-stream Mach number 8.2 at model mid-chord point, nitrogen test gas, ratio of model wall temperature to gas stagnation temperature unity. For all tests, care is taken to avoid the identifiable extraneous influences of a) finite static pressure outside the free-jet Mach bottle and b) variation of free-stream properties over the extent of the submerged model. Angle of attack is varied from 0 to 18 ® Model Reynolds number, based on free-stream density, free- stream velocity, model length, and viscosity at the model wall temperature, varies from L to 60. Comparisons to theoretical predictions at low and high Reynolds numbers and to available experimental data are discussed. Proceedings, 1972-1973 181 THE LANGLEY MANNED ACTIVITY SCHEDULING SYSTEM - A DESCRIPTION AND SELECTED APPLICATIONS. C.P. Llewellyn and Karen D. Brender*, Shuttle Experiments Office, Space Systems Div., Langley Research Center, NASA, Hampton, V A 23365. The LRC Manned Activity Scheduling System (MASS) is a family of seven operational computer programs developed to provide the tools for indepth space mission planning and to aid in achieving efficient utilization of resources. The models and their associated data libraries were initially structured around the Manned Orbital Research Laboratory (MORL) and other space station studies during the mid- and late-60's. The system has been continually updated and re¬ fined to be responsive to the Agency's needs. The MASS is currently capable of analysis of a wide variety of space system concepts including shuttle sortie missions. The total model concept is one of sequential development of a mission simulation from parametric studies of basic mission requirements and alternatives to a detailed analysis of on-orbit operations. This paper will present an overview of the system and its capabilities and will discuss selected applications to speci¬ fic programs such as the recently-completed 56-Day SKYLAB Medical Experiments and Altitude Test (SMEAT). CARBON DIOXIDE PRODUCTION FROM FOSSIL FUELS AND ITS POSSIBLE IMPACT ON GLOBAL CLIMATE. Ralph M. Rotty, Air Resources Laboratory, NOAA, Silver Spring, Md. 20910 (on leave from Old Dominion Univ., Norfolk, Va. 23508) The impact of the increased atmospheric carbon dioxide content is not yet completely clear. The greenhouse effect of carbon dioxide theoretically causes a warming at the earth's surface with increased CO2 concentrations, yet the global average temperature shows a decrease since 1940. The quantities of carbon dioxide produced by man's activ¬ ities have been calculated on a world wide basis from United Nations reported consumption of fossil fuels. These amounts have increased steadily during the period of industrialis¬ ation of the world reaching a total of nearly 16 billion metric tons in 1971. Measurements of atmospheric COj made at Mauna Loa in addition to demonstrating an annual cyclic variation with the seasons, show a steady increase from year to year since measurements were begun in 1958. These measurements considered along with the cumulative CO2 emissions from fossil fuels indicate that over 58% of the CO2 has remained airborne. Computer models of the atmosphere predict over a 2°C temperature rise in the lower troposphere and a substantial cooling in the stratosphere with a doubling of atmospheric carbon dioxide content - a condition which will be reached in just over 50 years at current growth rates. MODELLING OF AIRCRAFT RIDE QUALITY. A.N. Rudrapatna' and I.D. Jacobson. Dept, of Engineering Science and Systems, Univ. of Va., Charlottesville, Va. 22901 Mathematical relationships between subjective comfort and environmental variables in an air transportation system are investigated. As a first step in model building, only the motion variables are incorporated and sensitivities are obtained using stepwise multiple regression analysis. The data for these models have been collected in commercial passenger f 1 i ghts . Two models are considered. In the first, subjective comfort is assumed to depend on rms values of the six- degrees-of-f reedom accelerations. Variations in the model for different subjects are also explored. The second assumes a Rustenburg-type human response function in obtaining frequency-weighted rms accelerations, which are used in a linear model. The form of the human response function is examined, the results yield a human response weighting function for different degrees of freedom, and in addition an improved subjective comfort model is obtained. (Supported by NASA grant NGR 47-005-181) PHYSISORPTION OF ARGON ON PYREX AND IRON AT LOW PRESSURES. J. S. Jen* and J. P. Wightman, Dept, of Chemistry, Va . Poly- technic Inst, and State Univ., Blacksburg, Va. 24061 Studies of argon physically adsorbed on Pyrex and iron (without surface pre-treatment) under ultrahigh vacuum condi¬ tions were carried out. The data were analyzed by using the Dubinin-Radushkevich(D-R) theory. A phase transition was found in the case of argon adsorbed on Pyrex and was suspect¬ ed in the case of argon adsorbed on iron. By comparing the D-R parameters, it was found that both Pyrex and iron have similar surfaces, however, iron appears to be more porous. THE TRANSIENT TEMPERATURE PROFILE OF A THIN FOIL HEAT FLUX SENSOR BY THE NUMERICAL METHOR H.S. Chang. Wyle Lab. for NASA LRC Hampton, Va. 23665 Numerical solutions are obtained for three dimensional heat equation describing the temperature response of a Gardon heat flux sensor upon exposure to a radiant heat flux. The solutions are plotted and compared with the approximate solutions of R. L. Ash and E.W. Malone. The numerical method employed was an explicit finite differ¬ ence scheme combined with an electrical network analogy by emphasis on establishing an experimental stability cri¬ teria. The program was written in FORTRAN executed by CDC- 6600 Computer. (Directed by Dr. R. L. Ash. Dept, of M. E. Old Dominion Univ.) REMOTE DETECTION OF AEROSOL POLLUTION. G. E. Copeland, A. R. Bandy*, R. N. Blais*, G. M. Hilton* Dept, of Geophysical Sciences, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, Virginia 23508 Photogrammetric and densitometric examination of ERTS-1 MSS imagery of Eastern Virginia coupled with extensive ground truth air quality and met¬ eorological data has shown that the identification and surveying of fixed particulate emitters (smoke plumes) is feasible. A description of the ground truth network is included. The quantitat¬ ive monitoring of smoke stacks from orbital alti¬ tudes over state size regions appears possible when tied to realistic plume models and minimal ground truth. Contrast reductions over urban areas can possibly be utilized to produce isopleths of particulates when supplemented by local meas¬ urements . 182 The Virginia Journal of Science CONDENSING TWO-PHASE FLOW IN A ZERO-GRAVITY EN¬ VIRONMENT. E. G. Keshock, Mech. Engr . Dept., Old Dominion Univ. , Norfolk, Va. , J. L. Williams*, Vought Systems Div. , LTV Aerospace Corp. , Dallas, Texas, and Gordon Spencer*, Johnson Space Ctr., Houston, Texas A vapor compression refrigeration system for potential use in advanced spacecraft is of interest due to the possibility of significantly reducing the external area required for heat rejection radi¬ ators in some cases. One of the practical aspects in the successful operation of a vapor compression system in a zero-gravity field concerns the con¬ densation process. That is, questions as to whether flow condensation heat transfer and pressure drop characteristics of particular systems are not seriously affected by 0-g operation must be answered. A full scale parallel tube radiator con¬ denser panel has been designed and tested in 1 and 0-g environments, the latter condition being achieved by installing the panel in a C-135 air¬ plane and flying suitable parabolic trajectories. A quartz-tube system modelled thermally and hydro- dynamically after the full-size panel was tested concurrently. High-speed photographs were taken of the condensing flow phenomena in 1 and 0-g environ¬ ments. Preliminary results indicate a possible improvement in both heat transfer and pressure drop characteristics . AIRBORNE LIDAR REMOTE SENSING APPLIED TO OCEANOGRAPHY AND LIMNOLOGY. P. B. Mumola, Olin Jarrett, Jr.,* and C. A. Brown, Jr.* NASA, Langley Research Center, Hampton, VA 23365 New laser radar (LIDAR) techniques are described, with specific applications to remote sensing of oceans, estu¬ aries, rivers, and lakes. The incorporation of tunable lasers into "standard" LIDAR systems allows one to make accurate quantitative measurements of: (l) the optical attenuation coefficient, a , as a function of wavelength (and depth) over the entire visible spectrum; (2) the diffusion of fluorescent dye tracers in three dimensions ; and (3) the concentration of chlorophyll ei in algae and phytoplankton. A new multi-frequency airborne LIDAR system has been developed and tested from a Bell 20UB helicopter. The system and field data acquired will be described. A "scattering matrix" model is developed to demonstrate the essential requirement of multi-frequency laser probing, especially when applied to the detection of fluorescent matter (chlorophyll a, dye tracers, etc.). The usefulness of these new sensing techniques to the oceanographer and limnologist will be discussed. Section of Statistics Fifty-first Annual Meeting of The Virginia Academy of Science May 1-4, 1973, Williamsburg, Virginia SOME DESIGN CRITERIA FOR FITTING POLYNOMIAL RESPONSE FUNCTIONS. R. H. Myers. Dept, of Statistics, Va. Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ., Blacksburg, Va. 24061 A review is given of some of the fundamental literature on the application of experimental de¬ signs that minimize model inadequacy in the fit¬ ting of polynomial response functions. The high¬ lights of several recent works are given and numerical evidence is presented in support of the consideration of bias in the response function as a major source of error. EFFECT OF PRELIMINARY TEST ESTIMATORS ON MEAN SQUARED ERROR IN RESPONSE SURFACE MODELS. R. R. W. Ellerton* and R. H. Myers. Dept, of Statistics, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State Univ. , Blacksburg, Va. 24061. Suppose that the true relationship between a response n and k continuous variables x' = (x^.x^ , . . . ,x^) over the operability space is a polynomial of the form r|(x) = x|j3^ + x^, = XrBr- fs assumed there are guf ficient^observa- tions available to estimate 6^- . Either y^OO = xjJLi or ^ (x) = .XjiL will be used to estimate the response function. The integrated mean squared error is determined for both fitted equations (J^ and J2 respectively) and a test of hypothesis is performed to test <. J2. A new test statistic F. is compared with the test statistic F2 (F2 is the statistic used to test H„ : JL = () in the General Linear Model of Full Rank). In testing the hypothesis £ J~> the new test statistic F. is found to be at least as powerful as F 1 2 A preliminary test estimator for the response is given by „ J X5 6.5 if Hq : J1 £ J2 is rejected y(x) = < ( 2Eq Jlq otherwise . The integrated mean squared error J is determined for the preliminary test estimator and various restrictions on the experimental design are discussed. Proceedings, 1972-1973 183 OPTIMAL EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS FOR ESTIMATING THE SLOPE OF A RESPONSE SURFACE. S.J. Lahoda* and R.H. Myers. Dept, of Statistics, Va. Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ. , Blacksburg, Va. 24061 A well-known criterion by G.E.P. Box and N.R. Draper for the selection of a response surface de¬ sign is extended. The extended criterion is ap¬ plied to the problem of selecting a design in situ¬ ations where the partial derivatives of a fitted polynomial function are to be used to estimate the slope of the true response surface within some spe¬ cified region of interest. The criterion considers the variances of the partial derivatives as well as bias due to inadequate representation of the true response function by the fitted polynomial. The specific cases in which the fitted polynomi¬ al is a first or second order polynomial involving several independent variables and the region of in¬ terest is either a k-dimensional hypercube or hy¬ persphere are considered in detail. For the first order case, designs that are optimal with respect to the extended criterion are obtainable. For the second order case, the optimal designs depend on whether the variance or bias contribution is like¬ ly to be predominant. Optimal designs are obtain¬ able for each of these cases. MEASURING SURFACE LACK OF FIT FOR NONCONTROLLABLE INDEPEND¬ ENT VARIABLES. Robert L. Andrews. Dept, of Business Admin- istrations Va. Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ., Blacks¬ burg, Va. 24061 The problem is that of determining regression surface lack of fit when replications are not available to provide a satisfactory estimate of pure error. Some ad-hoc proce¬ dures along with the procedures of Green and Thornby are discussed, all of which are dependent upon the grouping of the independent variables. Finally procedures are pre¬ sented which order the residuals according to some function of the dependent variables. OPTIMAL EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS FOR FITTING TWO INTERSECTING STRAIGHT LINES. W. H. Carter, Jr., Dept, of Biometry. Med. Col. of Va. , Richmond, Va. 23298 and R. H. Myers, Dept, of Statistics, Va. Polytechnic Inst, and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061. In light of the attention given the problem of making inferences about the parameters in segmented linear regres¬ sion models, it is somewhat surprising that there appears to have been no work on the associated design problem. Here, we discuss the problem of choosing an experimental plan when fitting two intersecting straight lines. Applications for such designs occur when one fits dose-response curves in the presence of a dosage threshold or in data fitting problems resulting from a process occurring in time in which at some point in time an action is taken which changes the parameters in the model. As in the case of design problems approached by other workers in the past, we attempt to study not only designs that are applicable when the model of two intersecting lines is a correct one, but also when the researcher desires to be afforded some protection against the possibilities of incor¬ rect model assumption. In either situation we shall assume that the abscissa of the join point and the ratiopf of the two slopes are known. The resulting designs will be shown to be relatively insensitive to the assumed slope ratio. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR THE DESIGN OF A NATIONWIDE SURVEY OF OUTDOOR RECREATIONAL FACILITIES. J. T. Massey. The MITRE Corporation, McLean, Virginia. In 1965 the Bureau of Outdoor Recreation conducted an inventory of the existing outdoor recreational facilities. The U.S. Department of the Interior is currently conducting another inventory of outdoor recreational facilities. A review was made of the existing sources of supply data for outdoor recreational facilities. Recommendations are given for the design of a new inventory of outdoor recreational facilities, including sample design recommendations for certain sectors of the population. Recommendations for the collection of recreational facility data for the private sector of the population are also presented. The size and distribution of the sample for each sector of the population that may be sampled are specified. A compromise between proportional allocation, divisional allocation, and optimum allocation is proposed for the distribution of the sample among census divisions. The formulation of the estimates for the recreational facilities is given along with the variances of the estimates. STATISTICS IN THE VAS - SOME HISTORICAL NOTES. Boyd Harshbarqer. Dept, of Statistics, VPI&SU, Blacksburg, Va. 24061 This paper gives the historical background of initiating a Statistics Section in the Virginia Academy of Science as it was conceived and carried through by Dr. Boyd Harshbarger. It gives details about the program of the first meeting of this section in 1944 listing the speakers and their topics. This points out the widespread interest in statistics and its applications in various scientific fields as it existed already at that time . AN ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF PHASE 3 AND BEYOND. L. E. Traywick, Director, Bureau of Business Res., Col. of William and Mary, Williamsburg, VA 23185. The record of Phase 3 has been written in the economic data for the first quarter of 1973. Gross national product surged forward 14.3 percent on an annual rate basis and turned in a $40 billion record. Yet, 6 percent of the in¬ crease was because of inflated prices. Last year GNP infla¬ tion was only 3 percent. The 7.9 percent rise in real GNP represented noninflationary growth in the economy- -nearly double the long term rate. Since there is not enough pro¬ ductive capacity or labor to maintain this kind of growth rate, the economy can literally burn itself out. The worst part of the quarterly reports was the rate of inflation at the consumer level. On an annual basis it was 8.8 percent. In all of 1972 it was only 3.3 percent. The hope was that 1973 would have a 2.5 percent rate. The cure for the over expansion of the economy and concom¬ itant inflation is not a more rigorous Phase 3 nor a return to Phase 2. Neither is a tightening of fiscal and monetary policies-- they are stringent now. What is really needed is a Phase 0, a freezing of all prices and wages plus a rollback to January. This should continue long enough to permit a changing of the structure of the economy. The concentration of power in big business and big labor plus a benevolent gov¬ ernment which grants them subsidies makes for mercantilism. What is likely to happen, however, is a tightening of Phase 3 and the imposition of some temporary taxes. 1 84 The Virginia Journal of Science THE RELATIVE IMPACT OF MONETARY AND FISCAL POLICY INSTRUMENTS : SOME STRUCTURE -BASED ESTIMATES . B.T. McCalliun*, Dept, of Economics, Univ. of Va. , Charlottesville, Va. 22901. This paper reports estimates of a small macro-economet¬ ric model that is designed to be consistent with both "monetarist" and "Keynesian" theories of aggregate economic phenomena. The model is basically of the IS-IM type, but utilizes a neoclassical price adjustment function that permits it to specify how changes in nominal GNP are split between price level and output changes. Three-stage least squares estimates of structural equations are solved for implied reduced-form coefficients, complete with asymptotic standard errors, that are relevant for the debate over the relative impact of monetary and fiscal influences on eco¬ nomic activity. Interim and total multiplier values are also obtained. Reported estimates are based on quarterly U.S. data for the period 1954-1970. The results are clearly inconsis¬ tent with the assumption, implicit in the well-known model of the Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis, that the only important predetermined variables in a reduced- form GNP equation are ones reflecting monetary and fiscal policy. On the other hand, the results do not contradict the St. Louis conclusion that monetary influences are stronger than fiscal influences. A STATISTICAL MODEL OF THE ATMOSPHERE, Janet W. Campbell. NASA Langley Research Center, Hampton, Va. 23365, A statistical model of the atmosphere between 50 and 90 km was developed for use in Monte Carlo Space Shuttle entry studies. The model generates a pseudo-random atmospheric temperature profile whose mean is the appropriate temper¬ ature profile from the 1966 U. S. Standard Atmosphere Sup¬ plements, and whose variance at each altitude is estimated from sounding-rocket data. Departures from the mean temper¬ ature at each altitude are produced by assuming a linear regression of temperatures on the solar heating rate of ozone. Pseudo-random heating rates are computed for ozone concentrations generated by an auxiliary stochastic ozone model, also developed as a part of this study. Atmospheric pressure and density profiles are calculated from each temperature profile by solving simultaneously the hydro¬ static equation and the equation of state. The model was used in Monte Carlo simulations of Shuttle entry trajectories to study the effect of atmospheric vari¬ ability on five important entry parameters. Parameter distributions resulting from 1000 entry simulations were analysed to determine design values (i.e., values with exceedance probabilities of .0013). Pearson distributions were fitted to the empirical distributions, and design val¬ ues obtained in this manner were compared with the tradi¬ tional "three-sigma" design values. AN APPLICATION OF CONTINGENCY TABLE ANALYSIS IN GENETIC STATISTICS. Paula K. Norwood'*. Dept, of Statistics, Va. Polytechnic Institute and State Univ., Blacksburg, Va. 24061. H. 0. Lancaster's partition of x2 contingency table analysis is modified to provide an analysis of a particular problem in medical genetics, that of genetic association with disease. Given a sample in which individuals are classified by genotype and diseased or non-diseased , one may test for Hardy-Weinberg proportions as well as two hypotheses related to association of disease with genotype, is disease independent of allele and are the effects of alleles on susceptibility to disease additive. The test statistics given are asymptotically independent chi-squared statistics. The analysis is limited to loci at which all genotypes are distinguishable from one another . DETERMINATION OF YIELD FROM THE DIAMETER DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTED LOBLOLLY PINE STANDS. M. R. Strub*, and H. E. Burkhart. Division of Forestry and Wildlife Resources, VPI & SU, Blacksburg, Va. 24061 The diameter distribution of planted loblolly pine ( ViruiA tcLtda. L. ) trees is assumed to be: .... _ r(..8) ( D"Dm1n )a_1( Dmax_D l6"1 11 - (5^71—) where a, 6, 0 , and D . are parameters estimated for max min particular forest stands and D is tree diameter at breast height (4.5 feet above ground level). One method currently used for estimating wood yields of tree stems in forest stands is to divide the diameter distribution into a finite number of classes. The yield of a representative tree in each diameter class is determined and multiplied by the number of trees in that size class. Yields for all diameter classes of interest are summed to determine the yield of the stand. An alternative method is to consider the number of size classes infinite. The derivation and utility of this option is presented. INVERSE VS. CLASSICAL REGRESSION IN THE ESTIMATION OR RELATIVE POTENCY IN PARALLEL-LINE BIOLOGICAL ASSAY. E. R. Jones*. Dept, of Statistics, Va. Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ., Blacksburg, Va. 24061 The use of the inverse regression model = y + 6y^ + for the calibration problem is extended to the problem of estimating p, the rela¬ tive potency of two preparations, in parallel-line biological assays. A Monte Carlo simulation study is described which compares the inverse estimator with the classical estimator using both Pitman's Closeness Criterion and Mean Square Error. Al¬ though the simulation study used a design that was most favorable for the classical estimator, in many cases the inverse estimator was found to be as good as or better than the classical estimator in both Mean Square Error and Closeness. Addition¬ ally it was noted that the classical estimator was significantly superior only when the experimental design was poor. A RAPID METHOD OF PRODUCING OPTIMAL RADIUM LOADINGS FOR TREATMENT OF CARCINOMA OF THE CERVIX. W. H. Carter, Jr. Department of Biometry, Medical College of Virginia, Richmond, Virginia 23298 This paper describes and discusses a method of determin¬ ing the best radium loadings for treatment of carcinoma of the cervix to deliver a predetermined dose level to a speci¬ fied volume while holding the dose at any other to pre¬ selected levels. In order to obtain a treatment the only data required are the coordinates of the after-loading appli¬ cators or dummy sources in situ and the coordinates of all other points of interest. These are easily obtained from orthogonal radiographs. The method is simple to use, quick and powerful, and enables the calculations to be determined accurately for radium therapy. It is anticipated that the system will be of practical value since it is ideally suited for use on remote computer terminals. Proceedings. 972-1973 185 THE NEED FOR ESTIMATING NON-LINEAR ECONOMETRIC MODELS. E. G. Charatsis*, Dept, of Statistics and Economics, Va. Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ. , Blacksburg, Va. 2406 1 This deals with the special problem of using for computa¬ tional convenience a second or third-order linear approxima¬ te form to a non-linear in the parameters Econometric model. The higher-order terms of a Taylor's series expansion, taken as additional explanatory variables, do usually give a sta¬ tistically insignificant increase in the Regression Sum of Squares. However, by omitting these variables the resulting non-constant point estimators are usually badly biased when they refer to points further off the center of gravity point The opposite occurs when misspecifying the error distri¬ bution; this usually results to a relatively negligible bias of the estimators, compared with the gain in efficiency obtained by correctly specifying the error distribution. The above results, derived through a Monte Carlo study, were identical with those obtained using an analytical study based on a large number of empirical micro-data. ON A COMPARISON OF FOUR LINEAR FORECASTING MODELS. S. Z. Shariq f R. C. Burness*, J. A. White. DeDt. of Tnd. Fop. and Opers. Res., Virginia Poly. Inst, and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061. Four linear forecasting models are compared in this paper. The models considered are: second order smoothing, double exponential smoothing, simple smoothing with smoothed trend adjustment, and trend smoothing. All four models are special cases of the general class of exponential smoothing fore¬ casting models. By employing the transfer functions for the models, the responses of the models to linear inputs are compared. HEALTH SYSTEMS APPLICATIONS OF SOME SELF-ADAPTIVE FORE¬ CASTING TECHNIQUES. J. R. Purcell*, J. A. White, and G. K. Bennett*. Dept, of Ind. Engr. and Opers. Res., Va. Poly. Inst, and State Univ., Blacksburg, Va. 24061 Two forecasting techniques are developed that model the situation in which the mean of a time series is subject to infrequent but significant changes. Based on the simple exponential smoothing model, the smoothing constant is adapted on the basis of the forecast error. One self- adaptive model employs a functional relationship between the forecast error and the smoothing constant to adapt the fore¬ cast to changes in the demand process. The second self- adaptive model selects the value of the smoothing constant such that the sum of squared forecasting errors over the most recent N periods is minimized. Both models are tested via simulation and actual hospital admissions data and are com¬ pared with existing models. A STATISTICAL COMPARISON OF SEVERAL HEURISTIC , QUADRATIC ASSIGNMENT PROCEDURES - J.E. Jackson? Computing Ctr. , and J.A. White, Dept, of Industrial En¬ gineering & Operations Research, Va. Polytechnic Inst. & State Univ. , Blacksburg, Virginia 24061 In a facilities location context, the problem of assigning facilities among n location sites can be formulated as a quadratic assignment problem. No exact procedure exists for solving, exactly, quadratic assignment problems, ex¬ cept for small sized problems. Consequently, a number of heuristic procedures have been developed for solving this combinatorial problem. In this paper four heuristic procedures for solving the quadratic assignment problem are described and compared. A mean squared error criterion is used in performing the comparison for pro¬ blems involving six, eight, and twelve location sites. The heuristic procedures treated are improvement algorithums involving pairwise interchanges of facilities. Specifically, the steepest descent procedure, the natural selection pro¬ cedure, the ranked product procedure, and the Hillier Connors procedure are compared. DEVELOPMENT OF OPTIMAL AND HEURISTIC SOLUTION PROCEDURES FOR TWO FREQUENTLY ENCOUNTERED TRANSPORTATION ROUTING PROBLEMS. L. R. Foulds*, and W. C. Turner*, Dept, of Ind. Engr. and Opers. Res., Va. Poly. Inst, and State Univ., Blacksburg, Va. 24061. A common problem in vehicle scheduling is that of assign¬ ing to each of a fleet of trucks, operating out of one depot, an itinerary of stops where there is a demand for the material the trucks carry. The stops must be sequenced in a fashion which takes into account that truck capacities must not be exceeded. The aim is to schedule each truck with an itinerary so as to minimize the total cost incurred. Total cost may be defined as the total time taken for delivery, the total distance travelled, or some other suitable objective. This paper develops an optimal solution by reducing the problem to that of finding the shortest path through a network. This path is found by dynamic programming. PRIME WORDS, FACTORIZATION OF A MATRIX SUM, AND THE JOINT CUMULANTS OF SEVERAL QUADRATIC EXPRESSIONS. I.J. Good, Dept, of Statistics, Va. Polytechnic Inst. & State Univ., Blacks¬ burg, Va. 24061. A word is a sequence of letters such as ABBABBB. A standard list is an infinite sequence of prime words P^, P„, P3, ... such that every possible word can be expressed uniquely as a juxtaposition (abutment) of these words with their subscripts in non- ascending order. It is proved that standard lists exist and that the matrix I - h - B can be ex¬ pressed as an infinite product, I - A - B = (I - P.) (I - P.) (I - P *) ... 12 3 where is the enboldened form of P^ (i = 1, 2, 3, ...). The method of proof is somewhat number-theoretic and a conjecture is made analogous to the prime-number theorem. [The challenge of producing a non-matrix proof of the exis¬ tence of standard lists has been met by R.J. Gregorac, with some assistance from myself. He noticed the connection with "Basic Commutators" in group theory.] The results can be used to jot down formulae for the joint cumulants of quadratic expressions in a multinormal variable X. Full details are given in a paper submitted to the Journal of Combinatorial Theory in 1968 and published therein in Vol. 11 (1971), 27-37. [Aided by NIH grant R01 GM18770-02.] 186 The Virginia Journal of Science A FRESH LOOK AT SOME CONTINUITY CORRECTIONS. W. R. Pirie* and M. A. Hamdan*. Dept, of Statistics, Va. Polytechnic Institute & State Univ. , Blacksburg, Va. 24061 The use of continuity corrections in continuous approximations to discrete distributions is a very old, accepted practice, yet it has been the subject of much recent interest and controversy. In the past decade alone, a fresh theoretical justification has appeared, as well as several studies providing strong evidence that in certain standard testing applications, continuity corrections lead to very poor (conservative) performance. The present discussion shows that in each case, the poor performance results from approximating conditional distributions for the problem. An unconditional approach is introduced which provides quite different corrections, and results in improved performance of the tests. This unconditional approach is also somewhat controver¬ sial because it utilizes consistent estimators for the variance of the test statistics, whereas in the conditional approach, the exact conditional variance is known. Since in most cases the "natural" variance estimate is the same as the conditional variance, this should not be a cause for serious reservations. TWO POPULATION DISCRIMINANT FUNCTIONS UNDER PRIOR LOGICAL CONSTRAINTS. John M. Lachin*. Va. Dept. Mental Hygiene and Hospitals and Dept, of Biometry, Med. Col. of Va., Richmond, Va. 23219 Given an observation vector which can be logically parti¬ tioned into k sub-groups, the discriminant function is developed under the constraint that the relative proportion¬ al contribution of a given subgroup to overall discrimina¬ tion equals a specified constant. The distribution of the resulting discriminant criterion is then developed under the assumption of multivariate normality as well as the error rates for the associated decision procedure when the para¬ meters are assumed known. These are then compared with those optimal error rates derived from Fisher's solution without constraints. Sample estimators of the parametric error rates (with and without constraints) are then pre¬ sented. Finally, some of the Implications of these constraints on the classification process are explored. All of the above is then illustrated with reference to a parti¬ cular set of data. A SEQUENTIAL SIGNED RANK TEST FOR SYMMETRY. M. R. Reynolds Jr.* Dept, of Statistics, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State Univ. , Blacksburg, Va. 24061. Consider the problem of testing that the density f of a sequence X^,X„, ... of i.i.d. random variables is symmetric about zero. The proposed sequential nonparametric test is based on the signs and the ranks of the absolute values of the observations. If K|" is the rank of | X, | in { |XjJ , | X2 | , . . . , |XjJ } ancl sgn(X^) = 1 if X^1^ 0 and -1 otherwise, then define the signed sequential rank of X^ to be Y. = sgn(X^)R"j\ The value of Y^ depends only on the previous i observations and so does not change as more obser¬ vations are taken. When f is symmetric about zero, the random variables Y^,Y2>... are independent and E[Y^] = 0. The test is a truncated linear barrier procedure using Z+ = E” Y^/(i+l) as the test statistic. Let N be the truncated point of the test and a be a positive constant. If for any n £ N, Z+ crosses above a or below -a then stop sampling and reject. If -CL < Z+ < CL for all n N then accept. The value of a necessary to achieve a desired sig¬ nificance level, the power of the test, and the expected sample size can be determined approximately by using the fact that, asymptotically, Z+ behaves like a Brownian motion process. Based on limited simulation studies for N = 20 and N = 50 it appears that the Brownian motion approximation slightly overestimates the probability of rejection under both the null and alternative hypotheses. VARIANCE COMPONENT TESTING IN UNBALANCED NESTED CLASSIFICA¬ TIONS. N. B. Cummings. Dept. of Biometry. Med. Col. of Va. . Richmond, Va. 23298. D. W. G&ylar*. Rat. Ctr. for Toxi¬ cological Res., Jefferson, Ark. 72079- The consnonly used approximate F test procedure for variance component testing in unbalanced nested designs is evaluated to determine the test size disturbances introduced by failure of the analysis of variance mean squares to have chi-square type distributions and be independent as assumed. The test size disturbances are estimated for particular ex¬ ample designs by re-expressing probability statements of the stated test size in terms of the ratio of positive linear combinations of independent chi-square variables. This ratio is then approximated with an F statistic and the estimated test size is computed for comparison with the stated size. Isolation of the test size disturbances in unbalanced three level designs due to dependence and non- chi-squaredness of the mean squares is performed by con¬ structing designs containing one of these properties and not the other. Combined effects examples are then analyzed and the extension to four and higher level unbalanced nested classifications discussed. APPLICATIONS OF NONPARAMETRIC DENSITY ESTIMATION. Arlo Hendrickson* Dept, of Statistics, Va. Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ., Blacksburg, Va. 24061 Nonparametric density estimation is important in all fields of statistics. The basic problem is to define a class of densities and a procedure which chooses an estimate of the true unknown den¬ sity from this class. This estimate depends on a random sample. The class is large enough to con¬ tain consistent estimators of all continuous den¬ sity functions. A well-known estimator is that given by the kernel method introduced by Rosenblatt (Ann. Math. Stat. , 1956, 27, 832-837). A very dif¬ ferent procedure which gives smooth densities is the modified maximum likelihood method of Good and Gaskins (Biometrika, 58, 255-277). The present article describes a rank kernel procedure (univar¬ iate and multivariate) which, as in the case of a histogram, depends on a subset of m quantiles from the original sample. The method gives a nonnega¬ tive, smooth estimate with a very small bias when the true density has a continuous, second deriva¬ tive, Applications to forecasting and to other specific areas are given. Proceedings, 1972-1973 187 Mobil Chemical MOBIL CHEMICAL COMPANY/ INDUSTRIAL CHEMICALS DIVISION/RICHMOND, VIRGINIA /I'H'DOBINS Making todays medicines with integrity., seeking tomorrows with persistence. A. H. Robins Company Richmond. Va. 23220 188 The Virginia Journal of Science photograph by Ezra S toller © ESTO. Philip Morris, a publicly-owned company incorporated in Virginia, proudly traces its heritage to a London tobacconist of a century ago. Quality and innovation have earned for the company a valued reputation: “Philip Morris . . . makers of America’s finest cigarettes.” By any professional measure, the Philip Morris Re¬ search and Development Center has become one of the most complete and fully- integrated facilities for scientific effort related to tobacco products. This eight story tower is our latest addition to the complex of Research and Development Center buildings. Write to: Administrative Manager P. O. 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Their support is gratefully acknowledged: Allied Chemical Corporation American Filtrona Corporation The American Tobacco Company Babcock and Wilcox Company Brunswick Corporation Bunton Instrument Co. Carolina Biological Supply Co. Dow-Badische Company E. I. duPont de Nemours & Co., Inc. Ethyl Corporation First and Merchants National Bank General Medical Scientific House of Edgeworth Merck and Company, Inc. National Fruit Product Co. Newport News Shipbuilding & Dry Dock Co. Philip Morris and Co., Inc. A. H. Robins Company, Inc. Southern Bank & Trust Company Southern States Cooperative, Inc. Texaco, Inc. United Virginia Bank Universal Leaf Tobacco Co., Inc. Virginia Chemicals, Inc. Virginia Electric and Power Company Westinghouse Electric Corporation Wheat, First Securities, Inc. VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE OFFICIAL PUBLICATION OF THE VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE Vol. 24 No. 4 1973 TABLE OF CONTENTS 193 The Search for Extra-solar Planets in our Stellar Neighborhood, The Sidney Negus Lecture Peter van de Kamp 199 The Aquatic Coleoptera of the Dismal Swamp James F. Matta 206 Observations on Limnetic Carbon Assimilation in Mountain Lake, Virginia During Its Thermal Stratification Periods George M. Simmons, Jr. and Stewart E. Neff 212 Feeding Habits of an Insular Barn Owl, Tyto alba Charles R. Blem and John F. Pagels 215 Summary of Council Meetings and Academy Conference Virginia Academy of Science, Fifty-first Annual Meeting, Williamsburg 218 News and Notes THE VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Official Publication of the Virginia Academy of Science EDITOR CHARLES H. O’NEAL SECTION EDITORS Boyd L. Samuel Agricultural Sciences Lee S. Anthony Astronomy , Mathematics and Physics James D. Punch Microbiology Robert G. Bass Chemistry Edward Henneke Materials Science R. C. Hqehn Engineering Kenneth A. Blick Psychology Elva D. Aukland Science Teachers William D, Ergle Statistics Richard P, McNitt Space Science and Technology Edwin S. Higgins Medical Sciences BUSINESS MANAGER Charles E. O’Rear Published quarterly by The Virginia Academy of Science, Department of Biophysics, Medical Col¬ lege of Virginia, Richmond, Virginia 23298. Second- class postage paid at Richmond, Virginia. Manuscripts for publication (other than section abstracts) and books for review should be sent to the Editor, Dr. Charles H. O’Neal, Department of Biophysics, Box 877, Medical College of Virginia, Richmond, Virginia 23298. Proof, edited manu¬ scripts, and all correspondence regarding accepted papers should be sent to the Editor. Advertising and Business Office: All correspon¬ dence relating to advertising and business affairs should be directed to Charles E O’Rear, Business Manager, Virginia Journal of Science, 1 N. Four¬ teenth St., Richmond, Virginia 23219. The Virginia Academy of Science and the Editors of the Virginia Journal of Science assume no re¬ sponsibility for statements or opinions advanced by contributors. © Copyright, 1973, by the Virginia Academy of Science. Business and Subscription Information All remittances and orders for advertising and subscriptions should be sent to the Business Man¬ ager, Virginia Journal of Science, 1 N. Fourteenth St., Richmond, Virginia 23219. Changes of address should be sent promptly to Blanton M. Bruner, Ex¬ ecutive Secretary-Treasurer, Virginia Academy of Science, P. O. Box 8454, Richmond, Virginia 23226. Changes of address must include both new and old addresses with zip code. Subscription rates for 1973: $10.00 per year, U.S. A.; Canada and other countries of the Pan- American Union, $10.50 per year; all other foreign countries, $11.00 per year. All foreign remittances must be made at par U.S. dollars or the foreign equivalent. U.S. dollar remittance is suggested to avoid currency fluctuation problems and possibly unfavorable exchange rates. Back issues are available for some years at $3.00 per issue plus postage. The front cover is by Douglas C, Hensley. PETER van de KAMP Sprout Observatory Swarthmore College The Search for Extra-Solar Pianets in Our Stellar Neighborhood* I’m very glad to be here. I have a very special feeling for Virginia because I started my astronomi¬ cal career in this country at the University of Virginia. I always feel that I was fortunate, coming from Holland, that I first came to Virginia — I must admit that, at that time, I didn’t know anything about Swarthmore — I feel that I was very fortunate that I was bom in Holland; however, you will be pleased to know that I have a daughter who was bom in Virginia — in Charlottesville — and who can speak Virginian, which I can’t, very well. My stay in the United States, which approaches half a cen¬ tury now, coincides with the life of the Virginia Academy of Science, which meant a lot to us young people in the nineteen twenties and thirties because, once a year, in the spring it gave us a chance to travel and see another section of Virginia which we hadn’t seen before. I must be careful in the limited time which I have not to start becoming sentimental and speaking about the good old days. I do wish however to remind myself, perhaps more than anyone else, of some of the people from that happy period in Virginia, some of the best years of my life; I knew some of your former presidents — Kepner, Lewis, Hoxton, and, of course, several times a week I saw our good friend, Fred Brown in the physical labora¬ tory where he taught, and where I also taught my astronomy course. I was glad to find here today one of your professors who was a student of mine 39 years ago — Colonel Weaver. It was the first time that I was asked to teach a group of graduate stu¬ dents in physics and — well, it really didn’t get me down, although I realized that they knew a lot more about physics than I did. But then, I knew a lot more about astronomy than they did, so I think it was a happy combination. One more name I want to get off my chest since I‘ve been walking around here looking for things that I saw when I first visited here some forty years ago — I looked in vain for Traveller. I found that he has been put underground now. But I saw more than once the name of Matthew Fontaine Maury, a very distin¬ guished name in astronomy. One of the brightest students I ever had at the University of Virginia * Sidney S. Negus Memorial Lecture presented at the 50th Annual Meeting of the Virginia Academy of Science, Washington and Lee University, May 4, 1972. was a descendant of Matthew Fontaine Maury; his name was M. F. M. Osborne. I have wondered what has become of him. The last I heard he had eight children — that’s all I know. I often presented either singly or jointly with Dr. Vyssotsky or Dr. Reuyl papers at the Virginia Academy. Forty-two years ago in the V.A.S. pro¬ ceedings, Vol. 9, I presented a paper called (rather stuffily) “The Leander McCormick Observatory Program of Photographic Masses of Physical Double Star Systems,” which is getting close to the subject of my lecture. Actually, about 42 years ago I started this work which I will refer to in a moment. And, also, I presented papers on “The Diameter of Mars,” for example, the “The Motion of Stars” and the like. My lecture is called something like “Our Stellar Neighborhood with Special Emphasis on the Dis¬ covery of Extra-Solar Planets.” No matter what the title or subject it will be the same presentation. I find it difficult, having been in professional astron¬ omy for 50 years, not to become slightly — -well, not sentimental, but looking backward — back in time. When I was in Virginia, I worked on motions of stars. The structure of stellar systems was a very important problem in those days and it still is. After having worked on that for about 15 years, and having reached the ripe old age of about 35 I began to realize that one cannot possibly solve all problems of the universe. Young people think they can, and it is correct that they should think that way, but how terrible it would be if within a lifespan, all problems of the universe would be solved — there would be nothing left for those who come after¬ wards. Fortunately, that cannot happen, as we all know. For every problem that is solved, several new ones arise, and you sometimes wonder whether the universe will last long enough so that we will be able to find out everything about it. I decided that I would get away from this statis¬ tical approach, no matter how important it is, and do something precise, though more limited in scope. I decided to limit myself to the nearby sample of stars, which obviously is the most accurate sample, primarily because we can determine the distances to the nearby stars with very high accuracy. This I began to do slowly about 1930, but then when I came to the Sproul Observatory 35 years ago, and The Search for Extra-solar Planets 193 Fig. 1 — The Sproul 61-cm refractor, in service since De¬ cember 1911, renovated in 1966. The objective consists of a concave flint and a convex crown glass lens separated 0.1 millimeters. Plates are taken in the focal plane 1093 cm behind the objective, through a yellow filter to insure sharp images. The scale in the focal plane is 1 mm = 18". 87 or 1" = 0.053 mm. was my own boss, so to speak, I devoted the pro¬ gram of the Sproul Observatory completely to this problem of a study of the nearby stars. The prin¬ cipal instrument of the Sproul Observatory is a long-focus telescope, an old-fashioned refracting telescope (of the kind they don’t make any more, and should not make anymore as a matter of fact) with an aperture of 24 inches (61 cm) and a focal length of 36 ft. (1093 cm) — quite long enough. The importance of such a long-focus instrument is that it permits you to observe very precisely or, although that was not envisioned at the time of the construc¬ tion of the telescope, to photograph with high pre¬ cision. In other words, a long focus telescope is a tele-, tele-, telephoto lens, which provides you with a large scale representation of a small portion of the sky which you can study very accurately. Its basic precision is something like one-hundredth of a second of arc. That’s a very small amount — some¬ thing like a quarter seen at the distance of 300 miles. Anything in the sky which moves to the extent of about .01 second of arc we can study by means of long focus instruments. The McCormick Observatory has a similar instrument, and my work in this field has been divided between McCormick Observatory first, and then the Sproul Observatory. This type of work should be continued indefinitely — for a few hundred years or something like that, for there is a lot to be done yet. If you look at the sky you see thousands of stars and the problem is: “How do we pick out the stars which are nearest to us.” That’s quite simple; the stars don’t stand still. They move, and the stars that seem to move very rapidly, uniformly turn out to be very close to us. In other words the cross motion, what the astronomers call the proper motion , the angular motion of the stars is a virtually foolproof criterion for proximity. In this way then, we know which stars to study among the millions of stars that are out there and we can pick up those which are in our neighborhood. By now we know the distances of thousands of stars and for tonight, for our “immediate neighbor¬ hood,” I will limit myself to a sample up to an arbitrary limit of about 17 light-years. It happens that within 17 light years we get about 60 stars, a nice sample, and, let us never forget, it is the most precise sample in the whole universe. Studies of more distant portions of the Universe have shown that these nearby 60 stars really give representative information about the population of the universe at large. It’s true that as we go further on we find, now and then, other kinds of stars, but many basic prop¬ erties of the universe are contained in and are re¬ vealed to us by these 60 stars in our immediate neighborhood. To measure the distance to a star you observe the star today and again half a year later, when we are on the other side of the sun, and then from the convergence of the two directions as seen pro¬ jected upon a background of very, very distant stars, we can determine the small parallactic effect, and convert it into distance. This is the principle of the procedure. The distances to these 60 nearby stars are known to high accuracy — often to some¬ thing like 1 or 2 percent. The distances permit us to determine how bright these stars are. We know the apparent brightness of the star, and now we can determine the intrinsic brightness or luminosity — you might say the candlepower, but I think “sun- power” is a better word. One of the most interesting and basic results is that there is a terrific range in stellar luminosities. Our sun — and the sun is a star — is a sphere essentially consisting of glowing hydrogen converting itself into helium. This and other nuclear processes permit sun and stars to live for a very, very long time. We find that for every star brighter than the sun there are at least 20 stars that are fainter. In other words, the sun is near the head of the class. The intrinsically brightest star in our neighborhood is Sirius, also the brightest star as seen in the sky. Sirius has a “sunpower” of 23; i.e., it is intrinsically 23 times as bright as the sun and as luminous as all other stars combined in our immediate neighbor¬ hood. You begin to realize, since this pattern is repeated further on, that the brilliance, i.e., the light of this universe is primarily provided by a limited number of very luminous stars. On the other hand, there are all these very feeble stars, stars that have a luminosity of only one-thousandth or one-ten- 194 The Virginia Journal of Science thousandth of the sun. These comparatively cool stars are called red dwarf stars. There are so many of them; the great majority of all the stars in our neighborhood are faint red stars. I used to refer to them as the “great red proletariat” of stars; although they don’t have much luminosity, they have appre¬ ciable masses, which I will come to in a moment. There are also intrinsically feeble white dwarf stars, stars that have seen better days. We repeat: the light of the universe is provided by a limited number of very bright stars, while the bulk, the mass of the universe (the gravitational potential, to the physicist) is provided by large numbers of feeble stars of low luminosity. What is significant about the little red proletarian stars — they will outlast all of us because, although they have very little luminosity, they have an appreciable mass and they thriftily convert their mass into energy very slowly. As I always like to point out to my students, you see that bright star Rigel over there in Orion. It’s a very bright star; it pours out its energy at a rate 35 thousand times that of the sun. Its mass is perhaps only 10 times that of the sun. Better take a good look. In another 10 million years or so that star won’t be visible any more. It is a spendthrift star. On the other hand, all these little red fellows will go on for a long time. And our sun, just in between, of course, is doing the right thing, still having a lifetime of some ten thousand million years ahead, according to the theoreticians, time enough to revise their theories, if need be. So much for the luminosities. Now, the masses of stars. Those are the two important properties of everything — just like in people. Students are graded according to their luminosities A, B, C, D, E, and then of course everybody is concerned about their mass or weight. There are several social analogies between stars and people; I don’t want to make too much of that tonight. The masses of stars can be determined only if two stars are sufficiently close together so that they revolve around each other; the mass of a celestial object can be determined only if the object exerts a gravitational pull on something else which is sufficiently near. Our luck here: the good Lord has provided. When I was young, it was stated that about 1 star in 20 was double — was a pair of stars. Well, by now we know that it is probably the other way around — that at least 1 star out of 20 is single. Double or binary stars are quite the thing. It is very common for stars to appear in pairs. Again you can draw your social analogy there, for people often appear in pairs. There is a difference there. For people it is often a matter of choice, but in the case of double stars they were probably born that way. We really don’t know — the origin of double stars is still a mystery, and that’s why every three years we hold a meeting somewhere, at some desirable location, to discuss this matter again. We just did it in Swarth- more a few weeks ago (April 12-15, 1972) and we decided we must have a meeting a few years from now, possibly in Mexico City, to continue the dis¬ cussion. By that time we will have still more infor¬ mation about how little we know. Fortunately, in our immediate neighborhood, as I have said, the majority of stars appear in pairs. There are even two triple systems. In the case of stars, if we have a double star — two stars revolving around each other in 20 years, or something like that, if there is a third star that belongs to the system, it is always much farther away. Draw your analogies. If two people live together, the third one had better be far away or it will lead to a situation which in astronomy we call gravitational instability. Now if you have a double star and follow this star through its orbit, the size of the orbit and its period will give you the combined mass of the two com¬ ponents; this is known as Kepler’s Third Law. There are stars that go around in less than two days and there are other stars that revolve around each other in 10,000 years or more; anything seems to go. One component may be a little red star and the other a blue star, or vice versa, and again it’s a lot like with people. You sometimes wonder what the one sees in the other, but anything goes in these com¬ binations. Very mysterious, especially if there is a choice involved and the pair would not be born that way. Now we can measure, in our neighborhood, the combined mass, in several double star systems. It is an elementary matter to divide it between the two components; you have to introduce the concept of mass ratio. As the two stars move around each other, their center of mass drifts through space in a straight line (Newton’s first law). Using elemen¬ tary mathematics, algebra and simple trigonometry, you can now determine the mass of the separate components. It is found that the range of stellar masses is not anywhere nearly as large as for their luminosities. Roughly, stellar luminosities vary with the cube of their masses. The largest stars are ten or twenty times as heavy as the sun, and the smallest stellar mass known at present is 6% of the sun’s mass. That’s one thing perhaps you should take home with you tonight even if you forget everything else — that we have learned that the smallest mass of a star we can see — I’m not yet speaking about what we can’t see, is 6% of the sun’s mass. The first of these stars was discovered at McCormick Observatory and then two more were found at the Sproul Observatory. What about planets? A planet is, well, a chip of the old “sol” in our case, anyway. There is the sun and there, then, are these various other space plat¬ forms which are called planets — the most massive of all is Jupiter. Jupiter has a mass slightly less than one tenth of one percent of the sun’s mass. It is the largest planetary mass as far as we can see. The star of lowest mass is therefore 60 times as heavy as the heaviest planet. What about planets near other stars? Historically the answer comes from double star studies. You will recall that double stars are quite the thing. You begin to wonder if there are really any single stars. As our equipment becomes more powerful, most of the stars you look at, really prove to be double stars. There still might be double stars in which the two components are so close togther that even powerful The Search for Extra-solar Planets 195 telescopes will not detect them. There is another way of detecting double stars, especially where the one component is very feeble compared with the parent component and if the two stars are close together so that the feeble component is lost in the glare. This goes back almost a century and a half, when it was found that the bright star Sirius moves across the sky, not in a straight line with uniform motion, as a single star should, according to the first law of motion of Newton; Sirius exhibited in a nice wobble with a period of 50 years. This was noticed by Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel, the same man who in¬ vented those mathematical functions; Bessel, after continuing for another 10 years — that’s the way we do in astronomy — to make sure he was right, gave the explanation. He said this can’t be; a single star should move in a straight line with a uniform motion, so if I see a star that wobbles around and does not follow a straight and narrow path, then that star is obviously under the influence — that means under the gravitational influence — of a nearby object, and he postulated the existence of a nearby object even though he couldn’t see it. A very daring thing, because people had never thought of talking about things that you couldn’t see. Bessel pointed out that not luminosity but mass is the primary property of matter. I hope it’s still that way. Physi¬ cists talk a great deal about negative matter nowa¬ days, but we old-fashioned astronomers just deal with positive matter, the way matter should be. If a thing hasn’t got matter, then it’s a spook or a ghost or a soul, and we turn it over to the department of psychology or religion, or another appropriate dis¬ cipline. Bessel’s announcement in 1844 of the unseen companion of Sirius, and also of Procyon was even¬ tually followed by these objects’ being seen with large telescopes. The companion of Sirius is still difficult to see, although in a six or eight-inch tele¬ scope you can manage it when the two components are far apart. For a while nothing much happened in this in¬ teresting field of the discovery of unseen objects through their gravitational influence on visible ob¬ jects. Most people know about the discovery of Neptune which was found through its perturbing influence on Uranus and, later on, Pluto was found by the very same method, through its perturbing influence on Neptune, and a few days ago I saw in the newspaper the announcement of another planet. They always call it planet “X” first. It is postulated in order to explain certain wobbles, dis¬ turbances, perturbations on the part of the comet of Halley. I think we should keep our fingers crossed. It is pointed out that it could be very diffi¬ cult to find this planet “X.” One of its properties is that it is far away and it orbits in the wrong direc¬ tion, from the conventional point of view. Now about 1850 photography is invented; spec¬ troscopy and astrophysics begin to appear, and what happens is that the old-fashioned mathematical as¬ tronomy becomes more neglected — the situation is not too favorable even right now — there is terrific emphasis on physical astronomy, which is good, but mathematical astronomy dealing with motions and locations and ultimately with stellar masses remains very important. The first people who realize this are the theoretical astrophysicists, but they don’t want to do the work. They are looking for people who will sit at a telescope and freeze while they sit in comfort and push buttons. Well, there are some observatories where people are still observ¬ ing — McCormick Observatory, Sproul Observatory, the U.S. Naval Observatory are very active in this respect. It is no accident that quite a few people on the staff of these observatories were either Vir¬ ginia or Swarthmore students. Some 40 years ago, when I started studying the nearby stars, I reasoned to myself something like this. “It was comparatively easy for Bessel to find a perturbation in the path of Sirius which is a nearby star — Bessel had a very fine telescope but he didn’t have the accuracy that we have now. Think what we might be able to do with photography and long-focus telescopes.” No sooner said than done. I started, in a limited way, doing this at the Mc¬ Cormick Observatory with the tolerant disapproval of the director, S. A. Mitchell. It has worked, over the past 40 years. The classic discovery was made at McCormick Observatory in 1934. I know. I was there; I can still see it happening. All of a sudden, a star was acting up. It was Ross 614, one of those little red stars, a member of the proletariat; the then invisible companion was later seen with power¬ ful telescopes. Over the past 40 years, we have discovered a dozen or so wobbles or “perturbations” and except for one case, which I will come back to in a short while, we can say that they are caused by the presence of star-like objects — with masses exceeding one percent of the sun’s mass, i.e., at least 10 times as heavy as Jupiter, but several prove to be of lower mass than the star of the lowest mass that we can see at this moment. It is an in¬ teresting thing, of course, since according to our present specifications, they are neither fish nor fowl. They are neither star nor planet, but they must be something that fills the gap in between, and as we observe and fill in this gap, the theoreticians will explain that it can be, and I will say, “The universe knew it before you did.” The theoreticians play a role — they prod us and they keep us on our toes, and I suppose we reciprocate and annoy them too. This is good: within any group, scientific or other¬ wise, if there were always complete agreement it wouldn’t lead to further advances. We realized all the time that this technique of finding stars which are invisible at the moment at least but have sufficient mass that we can notice their effect on other stars — this technique should enable us also to discover planetary companions of other stars. A simple consideration shows that if the nearest star, « Centauri, in the southern hemisphere, had a planet as large as Jupiter shining by reflected light — the same way our Jupiter shines bv reflected light — we would not be able to see that planet with present-day equipment. I decided about 35 years ago that I would choose a few nearby stars which might reveal a planetary companion if they had 196 The Virginia Journal of Science Fig. 2 — Barnard’s Star is notable for its large proper motion (10". 3 yearly) and parallax (".53). Photographs of Barnard’s Star were taken with the Sproul refractor at three successive epochs of extreme parallactic displacement, separated by approximately half a year each. The brightness of Barnard’s Star, apparent magnitude 9.7, was reduced by two magnitudes by a rotating sector, to provide approximate equality with the two background stars in the upper right of the portion of the field illustrated. In this composite print the three photographs have been superimposed. The “fixed” background stars each give one image, whereas Bar¬ nard’s Star gives three separate images, showing displacement both south-north (proper motion) and east-west (parallax), which may be checked against the diagram. The orientation is inverted, corresponding to that ordinarily presented by the astronomical telescope. The Sproul 24-inch visual refractor has a focal length of 10.93 meters (36 feet) and has therefore a scale of 1" = .053 mm at the focal plane. In this composite print the original plates have been enlarged nearly ten times, to yield a scale very close to 2" = 1 millimeter. one. In particular we concentrated on the nearest star in the northern hemisphere discovered by E. E. Barnard of the University of Chicago astronomy department in 1916. Barnard’s star has a distance of only 5.9 light years, known with a precision of about one light week. If you ever go there you can budget your fuel and your food very precisely, since we know the distance to that star so accurately. We have observed that star intensely since 1938; in 1956 we noticed that its motion deviates from the straight and narrow path. Simple calculations showed that the perturbations could be explained by a planet-like companion with a mass one and a half times Jupiter’s. Not being an astrophysicist, I would say that anything that is one and a half times as heavy as Jupiter cannot be very different from Jupi¬ ter, a little smaller perhaps. We were careful; we waited for several more years — we don’t believe in publishing or perishing. I, for one, may establish an award some day for people who do not publish too quickly — for people who work and are sufficiently patient in their work. This becomes easier and easier as you get older. I know that to the younger people — people in their twenties — a year is so long. Then later on, the unit changes, and I have recently changed my unit in terms of one third of a century. How long can this go on? I observed the star for several more years and then, under pressure from a distinguished astrophysi¬ cist, I announced in 1963 that — I didn’t say Barnard's star had a planetary companion — I said that “it looks as if the perturbation in Barnard’s star can be interpreted by a planetary companion.” The orbit was rather elongated, but the law of gravitation permitted any kind of eccentricity. Then we really went to work, more intensely, obtained more material and — in 1969 we made another analysis which confirmed what we had found before, except that the eccentricity had become uncom¬ fortably large, and even I became concerned. Mean¬ while, by friends, the cosmologists were very diffi¬ cult. They had tried so hard to explain our own planetary system in which the planets move virtually in circles. Of course I realized that an elliptical motion really can be split up into two circular motions. Remember historically what happened; Ptolemy and Copernicus worked with circles on top of circles in order to achieve ellipses. I rather felt that I was going backward, to split an ellipse into two circles. I did it and I found that the perturba¬ tions could be just as well explained by assuming that there were two planets going in circular orbits, each with a mass less than Jupiter’s. I was rather pleased with that and wrote a paper on that; I sent a preprint to those theoreticians who had been annoying me and I never heard from them. I don’t quite know how to take that — it could simply be bad manners. But it also could mean that they said to themselves it was about time that they gave up, and that they are now working on another theory which will explain elliptical orbits. The Search for Extra-solar Planets 197 The universe reveals things, and we try to under¬ stand what goes on, have our eyes open all the time for things that the universe might reveal. We must not shove things under the rug. I’m open- minded about it, whether to make it two planets or one. There will be articles in the future by people who say that there are three or more planets, using our material. I believe in free speech; I wouldn’t say it, but they are theoreticians, and — -“forgive them for they know r»ot what they do.” Meanwhile, what can I do? Keep on observing, of course, in¬ definitely, and improve the accuracy. One obvious way of improving the accuracy is to get more mate¬ rial in the future. The past material — about 4000 photographic plates — we are planning to remeasure on a high precision measuring machine. Up to 3 years ago, all plates, all star positions were measured by visually bisecting star images. The eye is very fine in that respect. You get considerable accuracy, but now we use photoelectric scan and can obtain a lot more information from our photographic plates. We plan to remeasure everything, so wait for further announcements in another year or two. I shall anticipate one or two questions that you might ask. If you were to go to the nearest star, would you be able to see a wobble in the sun caused by Jupiter and Saturn? Yes, you would; we make allowance for that in our analysis. Another ques¬ tion — “What about planets near other stars?” Well, if Barnard’s star were farther away, we would have had a hard time discovering anything at all. Then you might say, “Yes, but what about Alpha-Centauri, in the southern hemisphere, a star which is one and a half times as near as Barnard’s Star?” Yes, but nobody does this sort of work in the Southern Hemi¬ sphere. Another question — “Couldn’t what you have done be confirmed by somebody else doing it?” Who is going to take 4000 plates over the last 35 years? We have over 4000 plates. The McCormick Obser¬ vatory has loaned us all they have — 85 plates — not sufficient either to confirm or invalidate our results. If one of these days through the results of the new techniques a better method, perhaps a direct method, is found for detecting extra solar planets, I’ll be the first to want to say, “Good, there are other things I can do now.” I’m not saying I’m really doing it the hard way; I may be doing it the only way it can be done. Some would say, “If a planet passed in front of a star, wouldn’t that cause a diminution of light, an eclipse?” Yes, it would, but which star is going to do that? Are you going to monitor all stars in the sky all the time? I think nobody’s going to do that, and it’s partly because the problem is basically a long range problem. Look at our own solar system. Pluto has a period of 248 years. This new planet ”X”, if it’s real, has a period of about 1500 years. In other words, the crux of our problem is that the time scale may be large, possibly 100 years or more. In order to tackle these problems, you have to make observations over that kind of period. Don’t say now that the computer can do it. The computer can do certain things faster, but no computer has been invented yet which can compress time from 1500 years to 15 years, let us say. I think that’s all I have to say. Thank you very much. The Virginia Journal of Science 198 James F. Matta Department of Biology Old Dominion University Norfolk, Virginia 23508 Received Oct. 16, 1972 The Aquatic Coleoptera of the Dismal Swamp Abstract — A brief review of the aquatic habitats and an annotated list of the aquatic Cleoptera of the Dismal Swamp is presented. Six families with a total of 53 species are rep¬ resented in the swamp but most species do not appear to be well adapted to the special conditions in the swamp and only seven species, Hydroporus carolinus, H. lobatus, H. verius- tus, H. clypealis, Copelatus glyphicus, Coptotomus i. interrogatus, and Dineutus carolinus can be consistently found in the “typical” aquatic habitats within the swamp. The Virginia portion of the Dismal Swamp is a low-land area on the eastern coast which is consid¬ ered by recent authors to be delimited on the west by the 25 foot elevation line at the foot of the Nanse- mond Escarpment and on the east by the Dismal Swamp Canal and U.S. Route 17. The northern boundary is essentially the roadbed of the Norfolk and Western Railway, however, there are limited areas, particularly on the northwestern boundary, which extend beyond the roadbed. The southern boundary is the North Carolina-Virginia state line. The Dismal Swamp exhibits an interesting diver¬ sity of aquatic situations which are suitable as hab¬ itats for water beetles. The predominant vegetation of the swamp is a mixed hardwood forest which is subject to frequent and often extensive flooding. The woodland pools left behind when the flooding recedes support a variety of water beetles. The canals which gird the swamp also support a number of beetles, with the species distribution depending, to a great extent, on the source of the water and the flow rates in the canals. Lake Drummond provides a rather restricted habitat which supports one dis¬ tinctive species found nowhere else in the swamp. Several minor areas such as willow swamps, marshes and sand bottomed pools add to the variety of aquatic habitats. Modern studies on the Dismal Swamp have been limited. Murray (1), discussed the birds of the area. Dean (2) has dealt with the forests and forestry in the swamp and the soil were studied by Henry (3). The waters of the swamp were briefly discussed by Ramsey et al. (4) and its fish as well as some philo¬ sophical comments were presented by Andrews (5). While disparaging remarks concerning the mos¬ quito and deer fly populations of the swamp appear in several papers, the only study on the insect fauna was done by Gurney (6) in his natural history treat¬ ment of the area. This work discusses the distribu¬ tion and abundance of several insect groups with an emphasis on the Orthoptera. The material included in the present paper is pri¬ marily the result of 75 collections made over a two year period. During the course of the investigation over 1000 aquatic beetles were collected, mounted and identified. Material not in the author’s collec¬ tion has been included wherever possible, however, this is quite limited. Six families of aquatic Coleop¬ tera with a total of 53 species have been recorded from the Dismal Swamp. A Summary of the Aquatic Habitats of the Dismal Swamp A review of the aquatic habitats of the Dismal Swamp is given below. Reference to the collection sites given in the discussion of each species, listed below and on figure 1 will allow the reader to de¬ termine the distribution and habitat preference of each beetle. Fig. 1 — Map of the Dismal Swamp showing the major ditches and the location of collecting sites. The dashed line represents the 25 foot elevation line at the foot of the Nansemond Escarpment. Aquatic Coleptera of the Dismal Swamp 199 WOODLAND POOLS The woodland pools include a broad range of aquatic habitats. Those pools located near the edge of the swamp, (sites 1, 3, 7, and 11) are usually relatively shallow, not extremely acil (pH 6-7) and often have a very diverse beetle fauna. Many of the pools located in the interior are deeper, most are more acidic and most have a more restricted beetle fauna (sites 14, 17, and 20). Sites 22, 27, and 28 are shallow woodland pools located in the interior of the swamp, fluctuating greatly in size with the season of the year, but rarely getting over 2-3 feet deep, and often becoming quite shallow or com¬ pletely drying. The vast majority of aquatic situa¬ tions in the swamp are pools of this type. Site 9 is a relatively shallow pool located in a clearing near the periphery of the swamp. The bot¬ tom is carpeted with aquatic vegetation and the water is quite clear in contrast to the brownish color of most pools in the swamp. Site 19 is also a dear- water pool, however, it is quite deep and surrounded by trees. It has a sand bottom rather than one of clay or peat and no significant amounts of aquatic vegetation. Site 21 appears to be a unique area of the swamp; the pools appear quite stagnant the water is very- acidic (pH 3.5), there is no observable aquatic vegetation present and no aquatic beetles were found in this area. THE DITCHES The character of the ditches varies with the source of the water flowing into them. Those that drain large areas of the swamp (and this includes most ditches) are quite acid in nature, (pH 4-5) support little rooted vegetation, and normally support a lim¬ ited aquatic beetle fauna (sites 12, 13, 16, 23, 24, and 25). The ditches which have their primary drain¬ age area outside of the swamp, principally Washing¬ ton Ditch (sites 2, 4, and 6) and a cross ditch on Jericho Lane (site 19) are quite different from the other ditches. While Washington Ditch drains large areas of the swamp, a good deal of its water comes from surrounding farmlands and is much less acid (pH 6-7 in some areas) in nature than the waters of other ditches in the swamp. Rooted vegetation is quite abundant and the aquatic beetle fauna is more diverse than in the other ditches. LAKE DRUMMOND The absence of any rooted aquatic vegetation along the margin, the acidity (pH 4. 0-4. 5) and often heavy wave action place severe limitations on the aquatic beetle fauna of Lake Drummond. Despite many at¬ tempts the author has never collected any aquatic beetles in Lake Drummond. However, a single spe¬ cies, Hydrophilus triangularis, is recorded from the Lake. Sites 26 and 29 represent the primary col¬ lection areas although collections have been at¬ tempted along much of the periphery of the Lake. MINOR AQUATIC SITUATIONS Several small and rather atypical aquatic areas occur in the swamp and for lack of a better arrange¬ ment they will be discussed here. Site 5 is a narrow willow ( Salix niger ) swamp beside Jericho Lane. It is steep banked, brushlined, and usually covered with a thick growth of duckweed. Beetles were usually collected at the margin clinging to the banks or on submerged aquatic vegetation. Site 15 is a small bog characterized by large clumps of Typha latifolia and Juncus effusus which is located at the very edge of the Dismal Swamp on Jericho Lane. It is the only area of this type which has been encountered within the area studied. Sites 8 and 10 are semipermanent puddles in or beside roads in the swamp. The long string of large puddles which made up site 8 has recently been filled and leveled during the process of road improve¬ ment. This was a particularly rich collecting area; on one occasion, June 25, 1970, 15 species of aquatic beetles were collected from this site in a half hour’s time, and of the 53 species of aquatic beetles re¬ corded from the swamp 18 have been collected at this site during the course of a summer’s work. An Annotated List of the Aquatic Beetles of the Dismal Swamp FAMILY HALIPLIDAE — The Crawling Water Beetles This family of small broadly convex beetles is represented by five species in the Dismal Swamp. While poorly adapted for swimming, the members of this group are well equipped for their life of crawl¬ ing about on the bottom of pools or on the aquatic vegetation at the edge of ponds and streams. They are generally believed to be omnivores and it is prob¬ able that secretions on the body surface confer some protection against vertebrate predators. Genus Peltodytes Pel tody tes opposPus: This is the most abundant ac¬ tive haliplid in the swamp, being represented in the collections by 66 specimens. It is found in most of the non-acid waters of the swamp such as the edge of Washington Ditch, in a small willow pond on Jericho Ditch Lane (where it is very abundant) and in temporary rain water pools on the periphery of the swamp. It has been collected at sites 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 23, and 25. Peltodytes muticus: Often found in association with P. oppositus and occupying the same habitat, it may be differentiated from closely related species by the absence of a humeral spot. It is represented by 14 specimens in the collections from sites 3, 4, 5, 10, 24, and 25. Peltodytes dunavani: Represented in the collections by a single specimen which was found in a mod¬ erately deep leaf littered pool which had a high population of Hydroporus lobatus (collection site 16). Young (7) records a single male from the Dismal Swamp. This is primarily a southern species and the southern Tidewater area probably repre¬ sents the northern limit of its range. 200 The Virginia Journal of Science Genus Haliplus Haliplus punctatus : It is represented by only 7 specimens in the collections, one from site 2 one from site 5, and five from site 24. It is reported from New Jersey to Florida and west to Texas but ap¬ parently does not find most areas in the swamp suit¬ able for habitation. Haliplus fasciatus: This species, which is recorded from Massachusetts to Georgia, is represented in the Dismal Swamp material by a single specimen which was collected in a woodland pool, near the margin of the swamp, which had almost completely dried up (site 1). FAMILY DYTISCIDAE — The Predaceous Diving Beetles The family Dytiscidae contains some of the most frequently encountered species of water beetles in the Dismal Swamp. Its members, which are all carni¬ vores, range in size from less than 3mm to 25mm in length. They are well adapted to life in the water and are vigorous swimmers. The family is repre¬ sented in the swamp by 21 species. Genus Laccophilus Laccophilus fasciatus: It is often referred to as a pioneer species and is frequently found in newly formed pools where other aquatic beetles have not become established. The species is common in the swamp, being represented by 36 specimens in the col¬ lections and is also abundant in other areas of Tide¬ water; however, while it was collected from sites 1, 3, 7, 8, and 10, the majority of the specimens were found at site 8, a newly formed series of large pud¬ dles in Jericho Ditch road. This species was also collected on several occasions when it landed on a yellow car, apparently mistaking the glossy finish for a water surface. Laccophilus maculosus: It is often found in asso¬ ciation with L. fasciatus and is also considered a pio¬ neer species. It was much less abundant in the swamp, being represented by only 3 specimens, all from site 8, which were taken on three separate oc¬ casions several weeks apart. It should be noted that L. proximus, a species which is abundant in Tidewater, being found pri¬ marily in water collecting in borrow pits, is not re¬ corded from the Dismal Swamp. Genus Bidessonotus Bidessonotus inconspicuus: This very small species is undoubtedly more abundant in the swamp than the 36 specimens collected would indicate. The small size, dark coloration and tendency to “play dead” and hide in the leaf littler causes a great many speci¬ mens to be overlooked. It seems to be most abundant in the smaller woodland pools which have some vege¬ tation. B. inconspicuus is recorded from sites 1, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 11. Bidessonotus pulicaris: This species is very similar to B. inconspicuus and is usually found associated with it. It is represented in the Dismal Swamp ma¬ terial by eight specimens collected at sites 1, 3, 6, and 11. Genus Uvarus U varus sp.: This genus is represented in the collec¬ tions by a single specimen of an undetermined spe¬ cies which was collected in a mass of Myriophyllum at site 2. I Genus Hydroporus Hydroporus lobatus: It is represented in the collec¬ tions by 82 specimens, many more having been col¬ lected and released. It is one of the few species which can be found in the acid ditches such as Lynn, Jeri¬ cho, or Middle Ditch, and is usually found behind obstructions or in very slow moving areas. It is most abundant in broad, moderately deep pools with a great deal of leaf litter on the bottom, and is pres¬ ent throughout the year, having been collected at such extreme dates as December 31 and July 24. Collected from sites 4, 6, 8, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, and 25. Hydroporus carolinus: This species is represented in the collection by 84 specimens and while it is often collected in association with H. lobatus it attains its highest densities (densities have been recorded at 132 per sq. ft.) in areas with emergent rooted aquatic vegetation. It has been collected from sites 1, 4, 5, 7,1 1 , 17, and 23. Hydroporus venustus: While easily recognized by the sharply ascending anterior elytral margin this species exhibits a great variation in color pattern and may be confused with H. carolinus upon casual observation. It is represented by 18 specimens in the Dismal Swamp collections, from sites 17, 24, and 25, and seems to be most abundant along the mar¬ gins of the ditches in the southern part of the swamp. Hydroporus niger: This northern species is repre¬ sented in the Dismal Swamp collection by a single specimen which was collected at site 8. The author has seen no specimens from any other area of Tide¬ water. Hydroporus clypealis: This species is easily rec¬ ognized by the sinuate prothoracic margin in the fe¬ male and the reduced prothoracic claw of the male. The 15 specimens in the Dismal Swamp collections were collected from sites 23, 24, and 25. Hydroporus sp. : The two specimens which represent this record were collected from sites 23 and 25. It is possible that they are small specimens of H. carol¬ inus; however, their positive determination will not be possible until more material is available. Genus Agabus Agabus SP.: This species was never abundant but was regularly encountered in woodland pool situations. The 23 specimens in the Dismal Swamp collection were from sites 3, 8, and 11. Genus Laccornis Laccornis difformis: This reportedly widespread eastern species is represented in the Dismal Swamp collection by 9 specimens from sites 8 and 1 1 . The Aquatic Coleptera of the Dismal Swamp 201 author has never collected it from any other area in Tidewater. Genus Agabetes A gabetes accuductus: This is a widespread, primarily northern species, although Young (8) records a sin¬ gle specimen from north central Florida. It is abun¬ dant in the Dismal Swamp, (85 specimens in the col¬ lections) and is found primarily in woodland pools having been collected at sites 1, 3, 8, 11, and 18. Genus Copelatus Copelatus caelatipennis princeps: This southeastern subspecies is rare in the swamp, being represented by only three specimens from collection sites 9 and 11. This is apparently the first record of this species from Virginia, however, it is not a northern record since Young (9) records a single specimen from New Jersey. The Dismal Swamp specimens compare well with material collected in Florida. Copelatus glypicus: This species is abundant throughout the eastern United States and south¬ eastern Canada. It is represented by 12 specimens in the collections, the majority of which were re¬ moved from site 22. It has also been collected at sites 7 and 8. Genus Copotomus Copototornus interrogatus interrogatus: This species is most abundant in the larger woodland pools but it can also be collected at the margins of most of the ditches where obstructions create areas of reduced flow. It is represented by 53 specimens in the collec¬ tions from sites 1, 3, 4, 6, 8, 14, 23, and 24. Genus Rhantus Rhantus calidus: This rather uncommon species ap¬ pears to prefer large woodland pools. It is repre¬ sented in the collections by 3 specimens from sites 1, 3, and 11. Genus Hoparius Hopartus planata: This rare dytiscid is restricted to the woodland pools at the margins of the swamp. The Dismal Swamp collection contains 7 specimens from sites 3 and 8. While it was first reported by Fall in 1927 (10) from Arkansas, this is probably the first Virginia record. Specimens have also been collected from the Stumpy Lake region of Chesa¬ peake, where they were found in a woodland pool. Genus Dytiscus Dytiscus fasciventris: This species is recorded from the Dismal Swamp by a single specimen in the Nor¬ folk museum collection which is labeled “White Marsh Road near Jericho Ditch”. The author has not collected it in the swamp nor in any part of Tide¬ water. Genus Hydacticus Hydacticus bimarginatus: This is an abundant south¬ eastern species which is well represented in the Dis¬ mal Swamp collections (52 specimens). While it was collected at sites 1, 3, 4, 8, 11, 15, and 19, it was most often found in woodland pools, and was also routinely collected in the thickly vegetated areas of the non-acid ditches. Genus Acilius Acilius mediatus: While this species was never collected in large numbers it was frequently en¬ countered and is represented by 53 specimens in the Dismal Swamp collections. It is recorded from sites 1, 2, 4, 5, and 11, but seemed to perfer the larger woodland pools. Genus Thermonectus Thermonectus basillaris: This species is found in a variety of situations in the swamp but appears to be primarily a woodland pool species. It is represented in the collections by 27 specimens from sites 1, 3, 8, 15, and 19. Thermonectus ornaticollis: This species is also pri¬ marily a woodland pool species and is often taken in association with T. basillaris and A. mediatus. It is represented in the Dismal Swamp materials by 33 specimens from sites 1, 3, 8, and 17. FAMILY GYRINIDAE — The Wirligig Beetles This family of fascinating beetles includes the most conspicuous of the aquatic beetles of the swamp. Their surface-dwelling habit and gregarious character quickly draws the attention of even the most casual observer. Most species are quite wary, fast and difficult to collect. Most seem to circle just out of reach and can move so fast over the surface of the water that a quick leap into the water and an ener¬ getic swing of the net is the only effective method the author has found for collecting them. Needless to say when the water covers three to four feet of mud (as in site 20) the results of this tactic can be dis¬ quieting. Genus Gyrinus Gyrinus borealis: A single specimen of the species, which was taken in association with Gyrinus frosti and Dineutus carolinus at collection site 23 is in the Dismal Swamp collection. It is primarily a north¬ ern species but has been collected as far south as Fredericksburg, Virginia (11). If this specimen is the true borelis it represents a southern record for the species. Gyrinus elevatus: Young (8) indicated that this species is apparently confined to the southern United States and that the type locality of New York is possibly in error. This is the first recent record of G. elevatus north of Georgia. It is represented in the Dismal Swamp collections by a single specimen from site 2. Gyrinus frosti: This species is doubtfully determined as G. frosti. I have three specimens collected from sites 20 and 23. Genus Dineutus Dineutus carolinus: This species is very abundant in some of the ditches and occasionally in large pools in the swamp. It is the most obvious of the aquatic beetles in the swamp, occurring in large groups in 202 The Virginia Journal of Science all but the most barren areas of the interior ditches, but it seems most adundant in Washington ditch and in several small nameless cross ditches at the periphery of the swamp. The Dismal Swamp col¬ lection contains 24 specimens from sites 2, 4, 16, 18, and 19. Dineutus discolor: This species always occurs in association with D. carolinus in Washington Ditch but is less abundant. It is represented in the Dismal Swamp collection by 15 specimens from sites 2 and 4. FAMILY HYDROCHIDAE The family Hydrochidae has been established by modem workers to contain the aberrant hydro- philoids which superfically resemble the Dryopidae and Elmidae (8, 12). The genus Hydrochus is the only member of this group which occurs in Virginia. Genus Hydrochus Hydroshus sp.: This species, which is represented in the Dismal Swamp collection by 14 specimens is apparently restricted to the non acid waters of the swamp and in fact has been collected from only the very shallow areas of two sites (5 and 10) near the periphery of the swamp. FAMILY HYDROPHILIDAE — The Water Scavenger Beetles The family Hydrophilidae, a group strongly con¬ vex, dark colored beetles includes both the largest and the smallest species of aquatic beetles found in the swamp, ranging in size from 1.5mm to over 30mm. The larvae are ravenous predators, however, the adults are omnivorous and apparently feed primarily on dead or decaying organic matter. It is represented in the Dismal Swamp by 17 species. Genus Tropisternus Tropisternus blatchleyi blatchleyi: While this sub¬ species, as well as the two following, is quite abun¬ dant in the Tidewater area it is apparently quite restricted in the swamp. It is represented by 21 specimens in the swamp collections from sites 5 and 8. Tropisternus lateralis: While very abundant in some freshwater situations in the Tidewater area, T, l at emails is uncommon in the swamp, being repre¬ sented by only 4 specimens in the collections from sites 5 and 8. Tropisternus mexicanus stnolatus: This is the north¬ ern subspecies of a species which is found through¬ out North and Central America. While it is repre¬ sented in the collections by only 12 specimens, it is fairly abundant in the swamp being found not only in the temporary nonacid pools, but also in those ditches which are able to support a heavy growth or Ludwigia along the margins. It is recorded from sites 8, 10, 15, 18, and 19. The swamp forms of this subspecies appear to be somewhat lighter than T. mexicanus virdus, the southern subspecies. Tropisternus natator: This species T. natator is represented in the Dismal Swamp collection by a single specimen from site 10. It is not as abundant as the preceding three species of Tropisternus in the Tidewater area. The specimen appears to be typical of the northern specimens of this species rather than exhibiting the southern variations as do the specimens of T. mexicanus striolatus. Genus Hydrophilus Hydrophilus triangularis: One specimen of this species was collected by J. D. Hatch, Jr., on October 31, 1955, and bears the label “Lake Drummond”. This is the only specimen of this species recorded from the Dismal Swamp and is probably the only species of aquatic beetle which lives in Lake Drum¬ mond. (See also Paracymus subcupreus.) Genus Hydrochara Hydrochara obtusatus: It is very abundant in the swamp, appearing to prefer pools of standing water in which a great deal of leaf litter has accumulated. It is represented in the collections by 71 specimens from collection sites 1, 3, 11, and 19. Genus Berosus Berosus ad.uleat.us: This species has apparently not been previously recorded from Virginia although the lectotype is from North Carolina, and it has been recorded from both Maryland and Pennsylvania. It is represented in the Dismal Swamp material by 19 specimens from sites 4, 6, 10, and 11. Berosus exiguus: This species is widespread in the eastern United States but apparently, in the Dismal Swamp, it is restricted to roadside puddles of clear water. It is represented in the collections by six specimens from site 10. Berosus injuscatus: This is the commonest of the species of the genus Berosus in the Dismal Swamp, being represented by 41 specimens in the collections. It is found in most shallow nonacid pools but in addition also appears to be established in the ditches which are able to support a good growth of Ludwigia. It is recorded from collection sites 3, 6, 8, 9, and 10. Berosus peregrinus: This widely distributed species is represented by only 3 specimens in the Dismal Swamp collections from sites 6 and 7. It is easily confused with B. aculeatus and great care must be exercised in separating it. Genus Paracymus Paracymus subcupreus: The small size of the mem¬ bers of this genus make them very difficult to identify, and undoubtedly, also result in many specimens being missed in the field. The only species of the genus which has been collected in the Dismal Swamp to date, P. subcupreus, is represented by three speci¬ mens from sites 6 and 11. It may be separated from all other aquatic beetles found in the swamp by its small size, convex shape and by the metallic black dorsum. A single specimen bearing the locality label “Lake Drummond, June 8, H. S. Barber” is in the U. S. National Museum Collection. The author has collected this species at the mouth of Jericho Ditch where it enters Lake Drummond (between the union of Jericho Ditch and Washington Ditch and Lake Drummond, site 6) but never in the lake. Aquatic Coleptera of the Dismal Swamp 203 In all probability this lable is referring to the general locality of the lake rather than the lake itself. Genus Enochrus Enochrus cinctus: This species is very similar to E. consortus, but may be separated on the basis of the slightly smaller size and the darker margins of the pronotum and elytra. It is represented in the Dismal Swamp collections by a single specimen from site 8. Enochrus consortus: This is the most abundant species of the genus Enochrus in the Dismal Swamp, being represented in the collections by 7 specimens from sites 2 and 3. It is the largest member of the genus in this area. Enochrus sublongus: This small species is repre¬ sented by a single specimen from site 4 in the Dismal Swamp collections. It is very similar to the following species, E. ochraceus, but it may be distinguished on the basis of size, and the pale epiplura. Enochrus ochraceus: While this species occasionally reaches high densities in some areas of Tidewater, (the author has collected 50 specimens in a matter of a few minutes from a large drying pool full of soggy rotten leaves at Sea Shore State Park) it is not abundant in the Dismal Swamp, even though apparently favorable aquatic situations do exist there. It is represented in the Dismal Swamp collections by 3 specimens and these were collected in the rather atypical situation (for it) of a roadside pool, site 8. Genus Helocombus Helocombus bifidus: This species is superficially quite similar to the larger members of the genus Enochrus but may be easily separated on the basis of the four segmented middle and hind tarsi and the maxillary palps. The three specimens from site 3 in the Dismal Swamp are the only specimens recorded from the Tidewater area; however, the species has also been collected from Ft. Monroe, Virginia. Genus Cymbiodyta Cymbiodyta blanchardi: The 5 specimens from the Dismal Swamp were all collected at site 2, in a shallow section of Washington Ditch with a heavy growth of Ludwigia. Cymbiodyta vindicata: Although it is recorded as being common from Canada to Texas only a single specimen, from the margin of site 1 is present in the Dismal Swamp collections. FAMILY LIMNEBIIDAE — The Minute Moss Beetles Members of this family are separated from the Hydrophilidae on the basis of larval characters. It is represented in the Dismal Swamp by a single species. Genus Hvdraena Hydraena marginicollis or pennsylvanica: Three specimens were collected from a water filled rut in a woodland road near the periphery of the swamp. site 1. Since is is small it might be easily overlooked and probably is more abundant than these collection records indicate. DISCUSSION Of the 53 species of aquatic beetles recorded from the Dismal Swamp, 12 species are represented by a single specimen and 12 additional species by from 2 to 5 specimens in the Dismal Swamp collection. An examination of the distribution of the aquatic beetles in the swamp indicates that few species are able to live in the most typical parts of the swamp and that most of the species recorded from the swamp are invaders ekeing out a marginal existence at best. Most of the “common” species are really quite restricted in habitat, being confined to the woodland pools or nonacid ditches on the periphery of the swamp. Only 7 species, Hydroporus carolinus, H. lobatus, H. venustus, H. clypealis, Copelatus gly- phicus, Coptotomus i. interrogatus and Dineutus carolinus can be consistantly found in the “typical” aquatic situations within the swamp. While there is no direct evidence available on the limiting factors involved in the restriction of aquatic beetle populations in the swamp there is some indi¬ cations that water pH may play an important role. Certainly wherever waters of reduced acidity occur in the swamp a dramatic change in both species composition and numbers in the aquatic beetle pop¬ ulations is seen. Representatives of the family Noteridae have not been recorded from the Dismal Swamp, but several species have been collected from the upper North¬ west River, an area just to the east. The Berosine Hydrophilid, Derallus altus, which is recorded from the Northwest River is also missing from the swamp collections. This is somewhat surprising since the Northwest River was probably an integral part of the Dismal Swamp drainage system prior to the construction of the Dismal Swamp Canal and US Route 17. Collections in the eastern portion of the Dismal Swamp have been quite limited (see Figure 1). Access to this area is difficult and has resulted in a less than satisfactory representation of the area in the collections. It is possible, however, that an in¬ tensive survey of those areas just west of the Dismal Swamp Canal would add several additional species to those already recorded from the swamp, includ¬ ing those presently recorded from the upper North¬ west River. Acknowledgment The author wishes to express his appreciation to his colleagues in the Department of Biology for their help and encouragement and particularly to Dr. Gerald Levy for his constructive criticism of the manuscript. This study was supported, in part, by a grant from the Virginia Academy of Science and, in part, by the Old Dominion University Research Foundation. 204 The Virginia Journal of Science References 1. Murray, J. J., Va J. Sci., 20, 158 (1969 ). 2. Dean, G. W., Va J. Sci., 20, 166 (1969). 3. Henry, E. F., Va J. Sci., 21, 41 (1970). 4. Ramsey, E. W., Hinkle, R. and Benander, L. E., Va J. Sci., 21, 81 (1970). 5. Andrews, J. D., Va. J. Sci., 22, 5 (1971). 6. Gurney, A. B„ J. Wash. Acad. Sci., 53, 57 (1963). 7. Young, F. N., Ann. Ent. Soc. Amer., 54, 214 (1961). 8. Young, F. N., The Water Beetles of Florida, University of Florida Press, Gainesville, 1954, p. 38. 9. Young, F. N„ J. Fla Acad. Sci., 26, 56 (1963). 10. Fall, H. C., J. N. Y Ent. Soc., 35, 177 (1927). 11. Fall, H. C., Trans. Am. Ent Soc, 47, 269 (1922). 12. Woolbridge, D. P., Trans. Ill Acad. Sci., 58, 205 (1965). Aquatic Coleptera of the Dismal Swamp 205 George M. Simmons Jr. Department of Biology Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University Blacksburg, Virginia 24061 and Stuart E. Neff Water Resources Laboratory University of Louisville Louisville, Kentucky 40208 Received August 2, 1972 Observations on Limnetic Carbon Assimilation Rates in Mountain Lake, Virginia During its Thermal Stratification Periods Abstract — Preliminary observations have been made dur¬ ing stratification periods on the carbon assimilation rates of the limnetic phytoplankton in Mountain Lake. Data col¬ lected to date indicate that the oligotrophic lake has higher assimilative capacities than has been indicated by other studies dealing with bottom fauna, physical and chemical characteristics, paleolimnology, and phytoplankton quo¬ tients. Assimilation rates were generally higher in the spring (~480.0 mgC/m2) in comparison to the fall values (~176.7 mg C/m2). During inverse stratification, rather high values were obtained on one occasion. Heterotrophic fixation was observed, but the major autotrophic producers appear to be net plankton. Factors, other than limnetic fixation, appear to influence the metalimnetic oxygen maxima which is char¬ acteristic of the lake during summer stratification. Introduction Mountain Lake is a small (0.2 sq. km.), dimictic lake located in Giles County, Virginia at an altitude of 1180 meters, and is the only natural lake in existence in the unglaciated region of the southern Appalachians. The lake is located between the densely forested peaks of Salt Pond, Doe, and Bald Knob Mountains and stands nearly 305 meters 1 1000 feet] above most of the surrounding ridge tops. As a result, the lake has received little eutrophic enrichment. Due to the elevation of the lake, it has been compared with alpine bodies of water (1, 2). The lake was apparently formed by a rockslide which dammed a steep-sided mountain valley (3, 4). Composition of the phytoplankton and bottom fauna, along with the summer hypolimnetic oxygen deficit (5, 6) indicate that Mountain Lake should be considered an oligotrophic body of water. Al¬ though various investigations have been completed The authors thank Dr. S. W. Bingham of the VPI Department of Plant Pathology and Physiology for technical assistance. on the lake (5-8) it is only recently that studies have been made on the phytoplankton and water chemistry of the lake (9). Due to the accessibility of the lake to the campus of Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, the opportunity was taken to obtain some preliminary data on limnetic inorganic carbon assimilation rates to supplement the existing limnetic information on Mountain Lake. The purpose of this paper is to report the results of the preliminary work and to suggest additional work worthy of consideration. This study was made be¬ fore Obeng-Asamoa (9) began his investigation, and our information is intended to complement his findings. Methods The limnetic area used for this investigation was a station near the deepest part of the lake (31 meters). Water samples were collected and trans¬ ferred to 300 ml. light and dark bottles. Both light and dark bottles were suspended from a float at selected invervals (cf. figs.). Five microcuries (pc) of NaoC1408 were introduced into each of the bottles and after vigorous shaking, the samples were re¬ turned to their respective depths. Samples for total inorganic carbon determination were also taken and immediately returned to the laboratory for titration. The bottles remained in the water for a full sun-day of 10-12 hours. Goldman (10) reviewed the prob¬ lem of incubation periods. As can be seen from his paper, incubation times vary between 4 and 48 hours. We used a full sun-day ( 10-12 hrs.) primarily for convenience sake, i.e. we put the bottles out before sun-rise and picked them up at dusk. A 4- hour period from 10:00-2:00 would have been desirable, but was not practical at the time. The 206 The Virginia Journal of Science entire contents were recovered by filtration on an HA (0.45 + 0.02/x) Millipore filter over 10-12 inches of mercury as outlined by Strickland and Parsons (11). The residue on each filter was washed with 0.003N HC1 according to Goldman (10). The samples were counted for 20 minutes by a Bechman Lowbeta II counter with an ultrathin window (30 mg/cm2) and with a counting efficiency of 30%. The efficiency of the counter was determined each time an experiment was conducted by a standard planchet (Beckman Instruments). The contents of each bottle were corrected for self-absorption. The determination of total alkalinity was accomplished by the potentiometric method and a differential titration curve as outlined by American Public Health Association, et al (12). Total inorganic carbon available for photosynthesis was determined from Saunders, et al (13). Oxygen and temperature de¬ terminations were made by means of a Yellow Springs Instrument, model 51 oxygen-temperature meter, and oxygen values were verified by the un¬ modified Winkler method. Values expressing carbon fixation per unit area of lake surface were integrated by means of a polar planimeter (13). Results Primary Production During Summer Thermal Stratification Periods Summer stratification is the longest thermal period in Mountain Lake. The summer stratification period in this montane body of water usually begins some¬ where between mid-March and mid-April and usu¬ ally lasts through mid-November. Five observations during this thermal period over four years showed that the assimilation rates on every occasion except one exceeded 200 mg C/m2/day (Table 1) and on May 1, 1968, 450 mg C/m2/day was exceeded. The first measurement of inorganic carbon as¬ similation was made during September near the end of the thermal stratification period. As Figure 1 shows, the lake was definitely stratified and a posi¬ tive heterograde oxygen curve prevailed. This type of oxygen curve is not unusual for Mountann Lake and it was observed on other occasions during the summer stratification period. The positive heterograde curve has been discussed by Hutchinson (3, p. 620). It may be caused either by physical means or by in¬ creased production in the stabilized layers of water. Eberly (14) has summarized metalimnetic oxygen maxima and concluded that in addition to algal pro- TABLE 1 Integrated assimilation rates of the phytoplankton in Mountain Lake, Virginia Date mg C Assim./i September 26, 1965 267.5 February 10, 1966 0.9 May 19, 1966 233.0 July 11, 1966 226.6 August 3, 1967 86.0 February 28, 1968 170.0 May 1, 1968 482.2 mg CARBON /m3/0AY 0 10 20 30 40 ■ i i i 1 1 1 — i 1 1 — i 1 — i — i 1 ■ 1 — i ' — i 1 OXYGEN (mg/I) Fig. 1 — Temperature, oxygen, and limnetic photosyn¬ thetic profiles in Mountain Lake on September 26, 1965. duction, area and relative depths are also closely associated with this phenomena. Extensive beds of Chara extend to a depth of ~12.0 m (40 ft.) and are particularly abundant at the 10 meter depth. The photosynthetic rates of these macrophytes have never been estimated and it could be that these plants are contributing significantly to the positive heterograde oxygen curve. On this occasion, we measured a total of 267.5 mg C m2/day being assimilated. Since we did not extend the bottles throughout the entire water column the total amount of fixation would have exceeded this value. The oxygen and temperature data were collected on September 25 and the peak of oxygen production, indicative of elevated photo¬ synthetic activity, occurred in the metalimnion at 8 meters. On the 26th, however, the maximum peak according to the 14C data, was observed at 5 meters. Below this level, the 14C uptake declined. The next estimate of carbon assimilative capacity was made on May 19, 1966. As Figure 2 shows, metalimnion formation was very weak and an ortho¬ grade oxygn curve prevailed. On this data, two metalimnia prevailed; one between 4-5 meters, and one between 8-9 meters. This experiment showed that the peak of carbon assimilation occurred on the first metalimnion. The photosynthetic rates de¬ clined below 4 meters. The assimilation rate for the water column during this period of early thermal stratification execeeded 233.0 mgC/m2, because we again did not observe an extinction of the C-14 up¬ take over the length of water column which we measured. Considering the fact that the lake had not stratified completely, the plankton populations had probably not become established in the epilim- nion. On this date we also filtered our sample water first through a 5p Millipore filter and then through Limnetic Carbon Assimilation in Mt. Lake 207 TEMPERATURE (°c) 0 5 10 15 20 Fig. 2 — Fixation rates, as determined by differential filtration, in relation to temperature and oxygen profiles. a ,45/x Millipore filter. This differential filtration showed that, at least on this date, the majority of the carbon assimilation was due to the net phyto- plankters in contrast to the ultraplankton (15). By July 12 of the same year, stratification was al¬ most in its maximal state (Fig. 3). Although a com¬ plete oxygen profile was not established, sufficient mg CARBON /m3/ DAY 0 10 2 0 30 4 0 50 60 70 ■ i i _ i _ i _ i - 1 - 1 - 1 - 1 - 1 - 1 - 1 - 1 _ i 0 n 2 ' 4 n 6 ' 8 ' 10 12 OXYGEN (mg/I) Fig. 3 — Limnetic photosynthetic profiles in relation to thermal stratification. information was obtained to show that another positive heterograde oxygen curve prevailed. The carbon- 14 curve indicated that the maximal photo¬ synthetic rate occurred at a depth of 3 meters which was slightly above the metalimnion. The carbon assimilation rates dropped off sharpely below 3 meters and almost tapered to extinction at 13 meters. July 12 was predominantly overcast and this may explain the lack of surface inhibition and a maximal photosynthetic rate near the surface. A total uptake of approximately 226.6 mgC/m2 was measured on this date. The lowest carbon assimilation rates measured during the summer stratification periods occurred on August 3, 1967 (Figure 4). On this date 80 mgC/m2/day was measured. The carbon assimila¬ tion curve showed considerable variation with the maximum rate occurring at the four meter level. A positive heterograde oxygen curve was again pre¬ sent, but the oxygen curve in general did not show the same variation as the carbon assimilation curve. The last measurement of carbon assimilation dur¬ ing summer thermal stratification was made on May 1, 1968. As Figure 5 shows, thermal stratification was much more definite than observed on May 19, 1966. The carbon assimilation rate was also con¬ siderably greater and a measurable amount could even be detected at the bottom of the water column at 20 meters. It was interesting to note that even though surface inhibition prevailed, the maximum 208 The Virginia Journal of Science I - 1 - 1 - 1 - 1 - 1 - 1 - 1 - 1 - 1 - 1 0 2 4 6 3 10 OXYGEN (mg/I) Fig. 4 — Temperature, oxygen, and limnetic photosyn¬ thetic profiles in Mountain Lake during maximum summer thermal stratification. observed rate occurred at the one meter level. There was a general decline of carbon uptake through the metalimnion and then an increase in the shallow hypolimnion. This would suggest that sufficient light was passing through the metalimnion to allow photo- snythetic activity in the hypoliminion. The oxygen curve for this period is slightly orthograde which further supports the idea of hypolimnetic produc¬ tivity. The carbon assimilation rate on this data exceeded 450.0 mgC/m3/day. Whether or not the dramatic increase in carbon fixation in contrast to the same period in 1966 was due to the establish¬ ment of thermal stratification and departure from homothermy which allowed for the corresponding establishment of a phytoplankton community for simply natural variation in carbon assimilation rates mg CARBON /m 3 /DAY 0 20 40 60 60 100 20 J i — i — i — i — i — i — i — i — i — i — i — i — i 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 TEMPERATURE Pc) 0 ' 2 ' 4 ' 6 ' 8 ' 10 ' 12 OXYGEN (mg/I) Fig. 5 — Temperature, oxygen, and limnetic profiles at the onset of thermal stratification. remain to be determined. Obeng-Asamoa (9), for example, found a variation of approximately 250.9 mgC/m2/day (based on 4 hrs. incubation time with carbon-14) between experiments conducted only 9 days apart (~ 171.7 mgC/m2/day on April 20, 1971 and ~422.6 mgC/m2/day on April 29, 1971). As it can be seen from these data, additional studies are needed to determine the intrinsic variation of carbon assimilation rates. Winter Stratification Two measurements of carbon fixation rates were made during the winter or inverse stratification periods. The first was made on February 10, 1966 when the lake was completely frozen by several inches of ice. The day was very cloudy and inter¬ mittent snow and rain prevailed all day. The re¬ sulting fixation rate showed only 1.2 mg C/m2 assimilated in the 10 meter column. Figure 6 shows the inverse stratification pattern at this time of the year and the assimilation curve for this date. On February 28, 1968 a second inorganic carbon as¬ similation rate was measured during the winter stratification period. The values obtained were ex¬ ceedingly high and closely approximated some of the estimates obtained during the summer stratifica- mg CARBON/m^/DAY O 0.2 0.4 0.6 i _ I - 1 - 1 - 1 - 1 - 1 i - 1 - 1 - 1 - 1 - 1 - 1 - 1 - 1 - 1 - 1 - 1 l 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 OXYGEN (mg/I) Fig. 6 — Limnetic photosynthetic profiles under the ice during inverse thermal stratification. Limnetic Carbon Assimilation in Mt. Lake 209 tion period. Figure 7 shows that the inorganic fixation rate for this date was approximately 186.5 mg C/m2. February 28, 1968 was a bright sunny day and the difference in light intensity may be part of the answer for this wide difference in rates. Obeng- Asamoa (9), however, found that during the winter months high densities of flagellate algae were in the surface layers of the lake near the ice cover. Although the populations were dense, the cells flour¬ ished for only a brief period of time. The high assimilation rate on February 28, 1968 in contrast to the low value on February 10, 1966 may have been due to the combination of higher light intensities and algal densities on the former date. Dark Bottle Fixation The carbon- 14 method of estimating primary pro¬ duction is slightly different from the oxygen method in that the dark bottles in the carbon- 14 method measures uptake of carbon by any means other than photosynthesis. The uptake of inorganic carbon in the dark bottle is not a measure of respiration, but may be a measure of heterotrophic fixation. Steeman Nielsen (16) summarized the topic of heterotrophic fixation and stated that the filters must be washed with HC1 strong enough to remove absorbed car¬ bonate; otherwise, the counts attributed to dark fixation would be exaggerated. He also presented data to show that such fixation may be higher than mg CARBON/m3/DAY 0 10 20 30 40 i I_ 1_ L I 1 -I — l J r— i — i i i - 1 i — i - 1 — -i— i - r— i 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 OXYGEN (mg/I) Fig. 7 — Limnetic photosynthetic profiles under the ice during inverse thermal stratification. the normal 1-3% (16) when the water is polluted or when the rate of production is extremely low. As stated previously, the filters from the experiments in the Mountain Lake study were rinsed with the recommended concentration of HC1. Therefore, the majority of the observed dark fixation during these studies may indeed be heterotrophic fixation. If this is the case, we observed heterotrophic fixation in nearly all of our experiments, and it was generally greater during summer stratification in the hypo- limnion. Parsons and Strickland (17) noted that this phenomenon has been observed in the ocean and various workers in productivity studies in fresh water have also reported the occurrence of dark fixation (16) (18-20). In addition to possible heterotrophic carbon fixation by phytoplankton there are several species of zooplankters in Mountain Lake and many have been noted to exhibit diurnal activity (21, 22). It is possible that some of these plankters were collected at the lower depths and then held there for the duration of the experiment when placed in the B.O.D. bottles. Therefore, what is apparent heterotrophic carbon fixation by algae, may also rep¬ resent a feeding rate by zooplankton. Bishop (23) recently completed a study dealing with the effects of zooplankton grazing on algae. He found, however, that copepods and cladocerans had no significant influence on photosynthesis. The magnitude of these types of carbon assimilation in Mountain Lake are certainly worthy of further consideration. Summary Roth and Neff (5), Marland (6), and Obeng- Asamoa (9) reported that the areal oxygen deficit, water quality, bottom fauna, and phytoplankton quotients indicated oligotrophy, while the morpho¬ metry of the basin indicated eutrophy. Rodhe (24) proposed 100 mg C/m2/day as being a dividing point between oligotrophy and eutrophy. Unfortunately adherence to absolute carbon as¬ similation values that separate oligotrophic form eutrophic lakes is tenuous. Findenegg (25) found that in most cases an inverse correlation exists be¬ tween algal density and assimilation rates. Consider¬ ing the clarity of Mountain Lake (Secchi disc usually about 7 m), the density of the limnetic phyto¬ plankton is certainly much less than some of the surrounding eutrophic reservoirs in western Virginia. Obeng-Asamoa (9) found, for example, that the phytoplankton density in Mountain Lake was usually 4 cells/ml or less with the highest density of 62 cells/ ml occurring in September. Simmons (26) found that phytoplankton densities of 100 cells/ml or more were quite common in Smith Mountain Reser¬ voir and densities of 1000 cells/ml or greater were not unusual in Claytor Lake Reservoir. Observations on the assimilation rates during thermal stratification periods in Mountain Lake have been conducted. Preliminary observations on the carbon assimilation rates indicate that Mountain Lake is not as unproduc¬ tive as other evidence would indicate. Additional information is needed regarding the annual assimilative capacity of the limnetic phyto¬ plankton, the contribution of the macrophytes to The Virginia Journal of Science 210 the assimilative capacity of the lake as well as the positive heterograde oxygen curve, and the assimila¬ tive capacities of the lake in winter. Mountain Lake offers a unique opportunity for limnological studies, dealing particularly with natural plankton popula¬ tions. Literature Cited 1. Dietrich, R. V., Mineral Industries Jour., 4, 7 (1957). 2. Platt, R. B., and Shoup, C. S., Ecol, 31, 484 (1950). 3. Hutchinson, G. E., A treatise on limnology , Vol. 1, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1957. 4. Dietrich, R. V., Geology and Virginia, The University Press of Virginia, Charlottesville, Va., 1970. 5. Roth, J. C., and Neff, S. E., Va Agric. Exp. Sta., Tech. Bull, 169, 1964. 6. Marland, F. C., The History of Mountain Lake, Giles County, Virginia: an Interpretation Based on Paleolim- nology, Ph.D. thesis, VPI & SU (1967). 7. Hutchinson, G. E., and Pickford, G. E., hit. Rev. Hy- drobiol., 27, 252 (1932). 8. Whitford, L. A., Adv. Frontiers of Plant Sci., 8, 157 (1964). 9. Obeng-Asamoa, E. K., Limnological Investigations of Mountain Lake, Giles County, Virginia, Ph.D. thesis, VPI&SU (1971). 10. Goldman, C. R. in M. S. Doty (Editor), Proceedings of the Conference on Primary Productivity Measure¬ ments, Marine and Freshwater, U. S. Atomic Energy Commission, 1961, p. 103. 11. Strickland, J. D. H., and Parsons, T. R., Bull. Fish. Res. Bd. Can., 125, 1 (1965). 12. American Public Health Association, American Water Works Association, and Water Pollution Control Fed¬ eration, 11th ed., Amer. Publ. Health Assoc., New York, 1960. 13. Saunders, G. W„ Trama, F. B., and Bachman, R. W., Great Lakes Research Division, 8, 1 (1962). 14. Eberly, W. R., Verb. Internat. Verein. LimnoL, 15, 394 (1964). 15. Strickland, J. D. H., Fish. Res. Bd. Can., Bull., 122, 1 (1960). 16. Nielsen, S. E., Physiol. Plant., 13, 348 (1960). 17. Parsons, T. R., and Strickland, J. D. H., Deep-Sea Res., 8, 211 (1962). 18. Rodhe, W„ Verb. Internat. Ver. LimnoL, 12, 117 (1955). 19. Jonasson, P. M. and Mathiesen, H., Oikos, 10, 137 (1959). 20. Lund, J. W. G., Biol. Rev., 40, 231 (1965). 21. Williams, M. G., The Net-Plankton of Mountain Lake, M.A. thesis, U. Va., Charlottesville, Va. (1930). 22. Grover W. W., and Coker, R. E., Ecology, 21, 199 (1940). 23. Bishop, J. W., Water Resources Research Center, VPI & SU, Bull., 43 (1971). 24. Rodhe, W., Rapp. Proc.-verb., Cons. Internat. Explor. Mer., 144, 122 (1958). 25. Findenegg, I., in C. Goldman (Editor), Primary Pro¬ ductivity in Aquatic Environments, Univ. Calif. Press, Berkeley, 1966, p. 273. 26. Simmons, G., Investigations of Limnetic Inorganic Car¬ bon Assimilation in a Mainstream and Pumped-Storage Impoundment, Ph.D. thesis, VPI & SU, Blacksburg, Va. (1968). Limnetic Carbon Assimilation in Mt. Lake 211 Charles R. Blem and John F. Pagels Virginia Commonwealth University Department of Biology Richmond, Virginia 23220 Received Sept. 26, 1972 Feeding Habits of an Insular Barn Owl, Tyto alba Introduction The Barn Owl, Tyto alba, is relatively common in the Chesapeake Bay area and occasionally nests on offshore structures ( 1 ) and in abandoned build¬ ings along the coast. The following report is an analysis of the prey items contained in the pellets regurgitated by Barn Owls nesting at Fisherman Island, Northampton County, Virginia. Fisherman Island is the southernmost barrier island of the chain that flanks the Delmarva peninsula, is crossed by the Chesopeake Bay bridge-tunnel, and is well known as a haven for many birds during migration and breeding season. Investigations of the food of owls as assessed from pellet contents are numerous and generally of value as a contribution to the knowledge of the life history of the species. We believe the present study is of special interest because of the scarcity of information about owl predation on coastal nesting islands (2), the potential effect of this predator upon nearby avian breeding colonies, and the variety of prey types to which it may be exposed. This report is also part of a continuing study of the distribution of the mammals of Virginia (3), and may serve as a basis for analysis of future changes in the mammalian fauna of the island. Methods From July, 1971 through July, 1972, we collected 270 pellets and several pounds of loose materials at two nest sites around the abandoned naval base on the west side of the island. Crania were separated from these materials and each regarded as one oc¬ currence of each species. These counts were oc¬ casionally checked against the number of lower mandibles present. Number of crania and mandibles were closely associated in both pellets and loose ma¬ terials. Results Avian remains were found in 24.4% of the pellets, mammalian items in 88.8%. There was an average of 1.73 crania/pellet (0.19 bird; 1.54 mammal craina/pellet). Skulls representing five species of mammals and at least thirteen families of birds were present in the material (Table 1). Mammalian prey items constituted 86.6% of all crania, the re¬ mainder were birds. The most frequently consumed species were the house mouse, Mus musculus, and the rice rat, Oryzomys pal us tr is, which together comprised 72.3% of the total food items. The family Fringillidae included 43.0% of the avian prey. No indication of herons, ducks, gulls or terns were found among the pellet materials. Table 2 contains a summary of several Barn Owl feeding studies. Diversity is a combination of equitability of species abundance and the number of species involved, and is defined in this instance as I/2pi2, where p is the proportion of each species in the total population (4). Diversity of prey types in the present study is in the upper range of values available to us, and the number of taxa is the largest we encountered in our survey of the literature. Discussion Birds constitute a relatively minor portion of the total diet of the Barn Owls at Fisherman Island, TABLE 1 Food items represented by crania found in Barn Owl pellets and at nest sites Food item Number of individuals Per Cent of Total Birds Charadriidae (plovers) 2 0.31 Scolopacidae (sandpipers) 6 0.94 Columbidae (doves) 10 1.56 Picidae (woodpeckers) 3 0.47 Tyrannidae (flycatchers) 3 0.47 Alaudidae (larks) 1 0.16 Troglodytidae (wrens) 2 0.31 Mimidae (Brown Thrasher) 1 0.16 Turdidae (thrushes) 2 0.31 Sturnidae (Starling) 3 0.47 Parulidae (wood warblers) 1 0.16 Icteridae (blackbirds) 6 0.94 Fringillidae (finches) 37 5.78 Unidentified 9 1.41 Mammals Oryzomys palustris (Rice Rat) 168 26.25 Microtus pennsylvanicus ( Meadow Vole) 46 7.19 Rattus norcegicus (Norway Rat) 29 4.53 Mus musculus (House Mouse) 295 46.09 Sylvilagus floridanus (Eastern Cottontail) 16 2.50 Total 640 212 The Virginia Journal of Science TABLE 2 Summary of fifteen studies of Barn Owl pellets Source Habitat Major prey No. families of birds Crania pellet Diversity Fisher (15) Urban (Washington, D. C.) Medow Vole (Microtus pennsylvanicus) 1 2.27 2.47 Townsend (5) Farmland (S. Carolina) Rice Rat (Oryzomys palustris) 2 1.63 1.87 Bonnot (13) Barrier Island (California) Leach’s Petrel ( Oceanodroma leuchorhoa) 1 — — Wilson (16) Pine Forest (Michigan) Meadow Vole * 3.05 1.22 Price (17) Farmland (Ohio, Indiana) Meadow Vole 1 — 2.22-3.18** Hawbecker (9) Chapparal, grassland (California) Pocket Mouse (. Perognathus inornatus) 7 1.09-4.79** 1.17-6.30** Kirkpatrick and Conway (18) Farmland (Indiana) Prairie Vole ( Microtus ochrogaster) * 2.73 5.61 Streams (19 Farmland (New Jersey) Meadow Vole * — — Phillips (20) Farmland (Ohio) Meadow Vole 5 1.65-2.19** 1.24-1.68** Boyd and Skinner (21) Rural (Massachusetts) Meadow Vole 1 2.79 2.18 Parmalee (7) Urban (Texas) Cotton Rat ( Sigmodon hispidus ) 4 1.12 3.47 Lange and Mikita (22) Desert (Arizona) Pocket Gopher ( Thomomys bottae ) 7 1.52-2.06** 1.76-3.49** Cunningham (6) Coastal (California) Wood Rat ( Neotoma fuscipes) * — 2.24 Cowan (23) Farmland (B.C.) Voles {Microtus townsendi and M. sepens) 4 2.05 3.38 Present study Barrier Island (Virginia) House Mouse ( Mus muse ulus) 13 1.73 3.41 * Birds present in small numbers, but unidentified. * * Range of two or more values. but include a great number of families. Several taxa not previously reported as prey items include the Yellow-bellied Sapsucker, Sphympicus varius, a plover (probably the Semipalmated Plover, Char- adrius semipalmatus) , flycatchers ( Tyrannus and Empidonax), and an unidentified wood warbler (Parulidae). Remains of Rock Doves, Columba livia, were found several times with the pellets, but were recognized as part of a pellet in only one in¬ stance. Since these doves are common in and around buildings on the base, their occurrence may have been largely accidental. Although colonies of Black Skimmers, Rvnchops nigra, Herring Gulls, Larus argentatus, Common Terns, Sterna hirundo, Royal Terns, Thalasseus maximus, Black-crowned Night Herons, Nycticorax nycticorax, and Yellow-crowned Night Herons, Nyctanossa violacea, are usually nearby, no remains of any of these or their young are among the pellet materials. There also were no remains of rails, although Barn Owls will eat these (5). Mammalian remains in the pellets indicate an island fauna of very low diversity. House mice and rice rats are probably fairly common, but three other species are relatively rare. Two of the five mammals, the house mouse and Norway rat, are introduced pest species. Barn Owls show a preference for larger rodents in the size range of meadow voles and cotton rats (Table 2). Prey of this size (i.e. 100-180 g) is best represented by rice rats on Fisherman Island. Although Bam Owls may forage considerable distances from nest or roosting sites (6, 7, 8), we have found no indication that mammalian prey has been taken from the nearby mainland. Insectivores such as the short-tailed shrew, Blarina brevicauda, and the least shrew, Cryptotis parva, or rodents such as the white-footed mouse, Peromyscus leu- copus, were not among the prey even though they are common food items for Bam Owls and are gen¬ erally abundant along the Virginia coast. The pre¬ ferred foraging area as indicated by prey types and their habitat, is probably the nearby Spartina salt marsh; lesser amounts of prey are captured on the open beach. Hawbecker (9) contended that Bam Owls will pick up anything that can be handled and take most of whatever is easiest to catch. A current theory of avian predation (10, 11) proposes that such a predator accepts prey only after acquiring the proper search image and does not capture prey merely as a result of random encounters. Density of each prey species and the ability of the predator to catch and subdue it are important controls on the fre¬ quency of occurrence of an item as food. We agree that the Barn Owl seems to have a search image, but contend an element of chance is involved. The majority of prey taken at Fisherman Island (as well as in all studies we have read) have several features in common: (1) The prey tends to be dark (usually brown). We think it is significant that there is a color similarity between rodent prey and the most Feeding Habits of an Insular Barn Owl 213 commonly selected avian prey (sparrows, wrens, sandpipers, Brown Thrasher, thrushes, flycatchers). The shades involved are very common among higher vertebrates, but few colorful or light-colored species such as terns, gulls, warblers, or the like appear as prey. (2) The size range of avian prey is similar to that of mammalian prey. (3) Most avian prey items include those birds living near the ground who are not exceptionally strong or active flyers. These are most apt to be mistaken for mammals and captured. Large numbers of birds migrate through Fisherman Island; the demands of migration may increase their vulnerability to predation. Errington (12) suggested that Barn Owls were unable to prey upon birds sufficiently to supplement declining mammalian prey. Local conditions are probably important in such situations, as Barn Owls may select few birds (most studies), many birds (9, the present study) or even subsist solely on avian prey (13). In the present study, the insular nature of the habitat may influence food selection. Van Valen (14) and others have suggested that niche width varies as a result of differences in the action of stabilizing selection of adjacent species. We sug¬ gest that greater prey diversity in the diet of Barn Owls on Fisherman Island may be influenced by lack of local competition. The only falconiform or strigiform predators commonly on the island are the Osprey, Pandion haliaetus, and the Sparrow Hawk, Falco sparverius. Neither species regularly chooses prey items that overlap the Barn Owls’ diet. Several other avian predators that might com¬ pete with the Barn Owl are winter visitors, and occur on the island irregularly. Acknowledgments We are indebted to officials of Back Bay National Wildlife Refuge and the Chesapeake Bay Bridge and Tunnel Commission for permission to visit the island. We thank Clyde Jones, United States Na¬ tional Museum, for the loan of specimens in his care. References 1. Reese, J. G., A Chesapeake Barn Owl population The Auk, 106 (1972). 2. Morse, D. H., Great Horned Owls and nesting seabirds, ibid., 88, 426 (1971). 3. Pagels, J. F. and R. G. Adleman, A note on the cotton rat in central Virginia, Va J. Sci., 22, 195 (1971). 4. MacArthur, R. H., Geographical Ecology, Harper and Row, N.Y., 1972. 5. Townsend, C. W., Findings in pellets of Barn Owl, The Auk, 43, 544 (1926). 6. Cunningham, J. D., Food habits of the Horned and Barn Owls, The Condor, 62, 222 (1960). 7. Parmalee, P. W., Food of the Great Horned Owl and Barn Owl in East Texas, The Auk, 71, 469 (1954). 8. Wallace, G. S., The Bam Owl in Michigan, Tech. Bull. 208, Michigan State College (1948). 9. Hawbecker, A. C., Food habits of the Barn Owl, The Condor, 47, 161 (1945). 10. Tinbergen, L., The Natural control of insects in pine- woods. Part I. Factors influencing the intensity of predation by songbirds, Arch, neerl. Zook, 13, 265 (1960). 11. Gibb, J. A., L. Tinbergen’s hypothesis of the role of specific search images, ibis, 104, 106 (1962). 12. Errington, P. L., Food habits of southern Wisconsin raptors. Pt. I. Owls, The Condor, 34, 176 (1932). 13. Bonnot P., An outlaw Barn Owl, ibid., 30, 320 (1928). 14. Van Valen, L., Morphological variation and width of ecological niche, Amer. Nat., 99, 377 (1965). 15. Fisher, A. K., The hawks and owls of the United States in their relation to agriculture, U. S. D. A. Div. Orn. Mamm. Bull., 3 (1893). 16. Wilson, K. A., Owl studies at Ann Arbor, Michigan, The Auk, 55, 187 (1938). 17. Price, H. F., Contents of owl pellets, Amer. Midi. Nat., 28, 524 (1942). 18. Kirkpatrick, C. M. and C. H. Conway, The winter foods of some Indiana owls, ibid., 38, 755 (1947). 19. Stearns, E. I., Pampering Barn Owls, Aud. Mag. 52, 178 (1950). 20. Phillips, R. S., Food of the Barn Owl, Tyto alba pratin¬ cole, in Hancock County, Ohio, The Auk, 68, 239 (1951). 21. Boyd, Elizabeth M. and Joan Shriver, Nest and food of the Barn Owl (Tyto alba ) in Hampshire County, Mas¬ sachusetts, ibid., 71, 199 (1954). 22. Lange, K. I. and J. R. Mikita, Mammal remains from owl pellets in Arizona, J. Mammal., 40, 607 (1959). 23. Cowan, I. McT., Food habits of the Barn Owl in British Columbia. The Murrelet, 23, 48 (1942). 214 The Virginia Journal of Science VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE FIFTY-FIRST ANNUAL MEETING, WILLIAMSBURG MAY 1-4, 1973 SUMMARY OF COUNCIL MEETINGS AND ACADEMY CONFERENCE The Council of the Virginia Academy of Science convened in Small Hall, College of William and Mary, at 2:00 PM, May 2, 1973. In attendance were: Franklin Flint, Stanley Ragone, D. Rae Car¬ penter, Jr., Leonard Morrow, Dale Ulrich, Perry Holt, Mary Kapp, Lee Anthony, Rodney Berry, Leslie Watkins, Rosco Hughes, Edward Turner, Jr., Ralph Lowry, Warwick West, Jr., Charles O’Neal, Jim Midyette, and Garnett Brooks. President Flint reported to Council the changes in the program of the Semi-Centerial celebration and made note of the large number (467) of papers and symposia (4) to be presented in the sections. Pres. -elect Ragone informed Council of the Ex¬ ecutive Committee’s discussion on the feasibility of increasing the funds to be awarded by the Research Committee. Mr. Carpenter moved that the 1974 budget contain an additional $1000.00 over the 1973 budget for the use of the Research Committee. Seconded by Mr. Powell and passed without dis¬ sent. Reports of Committees Junior Academy of Science Approximately 156 papers will be presented at this meeting representing 43 high schools. Science Talent Search Fifteen winners and 24 honorable mentions were selected. Long Range Planning A full report is attached to the official minutes. The Committee recommends the following amend¬ ment of Art. VII of the Bylaws: The annual meeting of this organization shall be held during the spring each year at a time and place selected by Council which shall arrange for all appropriate sessions. This recommendation will be sent to the Executive Committee for study and they will report to the November, 1973, meeting of Council. Nomination Mr. Midyette moved that the Nominating Com¬ mittee report be made available to Council before the Academy conference. The motion was seconded by Mr. Morrow and then defeated by a vote of 5-4. Publication A report from this committee is attached to the official minutes. Highlights of the report included: a) There are 65 domestic and 8 foreign non¬ member subscribers, thus well distributed and avail¬ able to the scientific community. b) With the increase in dues, a greater emphasis will be placed on further improving the quality and number of papers submitted for publication in the Journal. c) Contact has been made with “Current Con¬ tents” for them to carry the Journal’s content page. d) The Editor of the Journal will attempt a re¬ view of higher institutions in the state in search of research equipment available for use by qualified scientists. e) Contact has been made with the N.C. Acad, of Science and they have expressed an interest in joining as partners in the Dismal Swamp project. Mr. Richard Hoffman then reported on plans for the book which will include the following sections: (1) Post-Columbian historical introduction, (2) Combined section on geological and paleoecological history of the swamp, and (3) summary of present flora and fauna. Anticipated publication is in 1975. Science Advisory Mr. Turner reported on his two meetings with Mr. Maurice Rowe, Mr. Earl Shiflet, and other government officials. The general concensus was that the Academy needs a group to supply information on the Academy’s members and their areas of ex¬ pertise to the State Government. It was also sug¬ gested that contact be made with the candidates for Governor requesting a statement on their position vis a vis aid from Virginia scientists. Meeting adjourned — 3:30 PM Respectfully submitted, Garnett R. Brooks Secretary Minutes of Executive Committee May 2, 1973 The Executive Committee of the Virginia Acad¬ emy of Science met in Millington Hall, College of William and Mary at 10:00 a.m., May 2, 1973. In attendance were: Franklin Flint, W. Allen Powell, Stanley Ragone, Edward Turner and Garnett Brooks. President Flint informed the Committee of cer¬ tain changes in the Semi-centenial program (Mr. Walter Flory will serve as moderator, Mr. Franklin Flint will speak in Place of Mr. Ed. Harlow, Mr. Fifty-first Annual Meeting 215 Paul Siegal will speak in place of Mr. Boyd Harsh- barger, and Mr. Edward Turner will read Mr. Sanger’s address). Local Arrangement Committee — Mr. Brooks suggested that in the future the L.A.C., when feasible, assign sections with over¬ lapping interests (Botany-Biology for example) to meeting rooms in close proximity. Research Committee — At present, $2,000 is now funded for the Re¬ search Committee of which $500 is reserved for the Horsley award. It has been suggested that the Research Committee’s budget be increased by at least $1,000 so that each time they meet (three times/year) they have approximately $1,000 to award. Since $2,000 has been placed into the Trust Fund from the Research Fund it could be used by authority of Council in case the general fund could not supply additional funds. Mr. Turner remarked on how a survey of sci¬ entific resources of the academy’s members would be of importance to the state government. Mr. Ragone reported on a letter received by Mr. Bruner. Since the Academy is a member of A.A.A.S. we must enroll in at least one section of A.A.A.S. and appoint a representative. The Executive Com¬ mittee decided to enroll in Section X (general) and for the new incoming Executive Committee to appoint a representative. Respectfully submitted, G. R. Brooks Secretary Minutes of the Academy Conference May 3, 1973 The Academy Conference met at 11:30 a.m., May 3, 1973, in Millington Hall, College of William and Mary, President Franklin Flint presiding. President Flint offered the Academy’s thanks to the Local Arrangements Committee for their excel¬ lent work and particular thanks for the dinner on May 2. Treasurer’s Report: The records of the Executive-Secretary-Treasurer have been audited and the books are in proper order. Reports from Committees: The reports of the following committees were presented and were essentially the same as reported to Council and thus are included in the minutes of the May 2 Council meeting: Virginia Junior Acad¬ emy, Science Talent Search, and Publications. Dr. Anthony of the V.J.A.S. expressed his appreciation to the senior members for their interest and support. President Flint on behalf of the Academy ex¬ pressed appreciation for the tireless efforts of Dr. Lynn Abbitt as past editor of the Journal. Flora Committee: A report from this committee is attached to the official minutes. Finance and Endowment Committee: A report from this committee is attached to the official minutes. Several items of concern include a decrease in the number of business members and increasing expenses for the V.J.A.S. and the Journal. Reports from Sections: Reports from the following sections were read at the conference and are attached to the official minutes (Biology, Botany, Chemistry, Microbiology, and Science Teachers) . Research Funds: Mr. Ragone explained the action of Council in shifting excess money in the Research Fund to the Trust Fund. However, with an increasing demand for research grants, Council acted to seek an in¬ crease in the 1974 budget for the Research Com¬ mittee from the General Fund. If it is not possible to supply these added funds from the General Fund, Council will seek to shift the original $2,000 from the Trust Fund back to the Research Fund. President Flint emphasized that the Academy should indicate its strong support for research in the state. Increase in dues: President Hint explained the steps involved in increasing the dues of the Academy. After notifica¬ tion of all members by mail final approval for the changes in dues structure was granted by Council at its March, 1973, meeting. Report of Nominating Committee: Mr. Carpenter requested Mr. Flint to present the following nominees : for President-elect: Mr. E. L. Wisman for Secretary: Mr. Arthur Burke, Jr. for Treasurer: Mr. W. Allen Powell Mr. Perry Holt moved that nominations for these three officers be closed. Motion was seconded and passed. Mr. Walter Flory then moved that the slate of nominees be accepted by acclamation. Motion was seconded and passed. History of Academy: Mr. Charles O’Neal announced that Mr. Flory has finished the final section of the history of the Academy. State Science Museum: In response to a question for information from the floor, Mr. Carpenter reported that one museum will be in operation soon in Richmond and will con¬ sist of administrative and physical science units. Negotiations are in progress with the City Council of Richmond concerning facilities at Maymount 216 The Virginia Journal of Science Park. Money is now being solicited for planning and the acquisition of a mobile unit. The Academy has contributed $1,000 to the Science Museum. President Flint mentioned that an ad hoc com¬ mittee had been working to foster relations between the Academy and the Museum. Meeting adjourned at 12:15 p.m. Respectfully submitted, G. R. Brooks Secretary Virginia Academy of Science — Minutes of Council Meeting May 4, 1973— -Hospitality House, Williamsburg, Va. President Ragone called Council Meeting to order. He then announced that the 1974 annual meeting of the Academy would be held in Norfolk, Va., the meeting to be sponsored jointly by Old Dominion University, Virginia Wesleyan College, and Norfolk State College. Mr. Ragone next reminded Council that the term as Trustee of Mr. Kemp was ending and that Council was called upon to nominate a successor. After a brief review of the requirements for trustee¬ ship, the name of Dr. Paul Siegel was placed in nomination, was seconded, and the nominations were closed. The Council voted to cast a single ballot in unanimous support of the nomination of Dr. Paul Siegel. President Ragone presented the names of new members to the working Committees of The Acad¬ emy and stated that a complete listing of Committee memberships would be mailed to Council in the near future. In response to a call for business of the Council, from the floor, Dr. Leonard Morrow stated that for several years the Geology Section of the Academy had conducted a “Field Conference” field trip, and that this function was well attended and that it offered a service to Academy members. It was also noted that the costs of mailing advance information and promotion of these “Field Conferences” had exceeded the immediate financial resources of the organizers. Dr. Morrow called upon Dr. Bruce Goodwin to elaborate upon this aspect of the under¬ taking. Dr. Goodwin stated that the spring 1974 “Field Conference” was attended by about 200 persons. The organizers plan in the future to assess from each participant a registration fee which will offset operat¬ ing costs. In the meantime, it was noted that back¬ log expenses have amounted to something less than $100.00 and, that amount was urgently needed to repay debts. Dr. Morrow made the motion that Council ap¬ propriate $100.00 from contingency funds to assist the Geology Section in meeting these obligations. Mr. Goodwin seconded the motion. In discussion of the motion it was stated that this request had not been reviewed by the Finance Committee, main¬ ly owing to the urgent timing of the need. Discussion was also heard of the irregularity of this approach and the need for Council to consider the proper role of the Finance Committee and that such re¬ quests should be referred to the Finance Committee. The motion was carried by a majority of the Council members present and voting. President Ragone, reflecting the feeling of Council, instructed that the minutes show that this $100.00 expenditure of contingency funds by Council re¬ presented “one time” emergency action by Council owing to the urgency of the need and the criticality of timing to meet that need. Further discussion was held of the desirability for the cost savings which could be realized if the “Field Conference” mailings were channeled thru the Academy mailing system. Mr. Rodney Berry, Sr. called attention of Council to the fact that recognition should be made of the services of past editors of the Virginia Journal of Science, especially to noncovered financial burdens. It was suggested that the Finance Committee study slUch situations and reccommend appropriate action. Mr. Berry also urged early appointment of a local Arrangements Chairman and especially a working Committee on Exhibits for the 1974 Norfolk meet¬ ing. He also stated that he felt that the Academy Membership Committee was very important to the Academy. President Ragone recognized Mr. Berry’s suggestions. A question was raised concerning the appropriate registration fee which should be con¬ sidered for college students for “on campus” meet¬ ings. President Ragone requested that this point be deferred to the Fall Meeting of Council. The question was asked, if the Junior Academy could use the Academy mailing system. The answer given was yes, provided the requirements of timing, zip code, etc were met by those using the system. There being no further business, the meeting was adjourned. Respectfully, Arthur W. Burke, Jr. Secretary Fifty-first Annual Meeting 217 News and Notes VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 1974 Meeting Old Dominion University Virginia Wesleyan College Virginia State College Norfolk, Virginia May 7-10, 1974 1975 Meeting Madison College Harrisonburg, Va. May 6-9, 1975 SCIENCE MUSEUM OF VIRGINIA Richmond, Va., Sep. 6 — $75,000 — earmarked for the purchase, equipping, and operation of a mobile science education unit — was received today from United Virginia Bankshares, Inc. by the Science Museum of Virginia Foundation, Inc. Kenneth A. Randall, president and chief execu¬ tive officer of United Virginia Bankshares, made the presentation in ceremonies this morning at the bank’s Richmond headquarters. Foundation Presi¬ dent Robert N. Fishburn termed United Virginia’s sponsorship, “an outstanding example of corporate leadership in a project that will benefit thousands of people throughout the State.” Designated as the Sciencemobile, the unit’s op¬ eration will be supervised by the Science Museum of Virginia (a State agency) as a major phase of its science education program. It will serve as a source for education, motivation, and information; and be designed to provide both children and adults alike with the opportunity to participate in a learn¬ ing experience not otherwise available. The Foundation was established “to solicit and to accept grants, gifts. . . . and other donations of money and property. ... for the advancement, pro¬ motion, encouragement, welfare, and progress of the Science Museum of Virginia.” The United Virginia funds will be utilized in four main project catagories: 1) acquisition of a custom- built trailer; 2) design, fabrication and installation of exhibits and other related items for the interior; 3) cost of salary and related expenses for a Science- mobile coordinator; and 4) expenses associated with the unit’s on-the-road operation. Funds for the last two items will expire June 30, 1974. The Science Museum has requested State support for these aspects of the program in its budget for the 1974-76 biennium. Preliminary plans call for the unit’s first state¬ wide tour to begin around November 1. Prior to that, however, the following will be accomplished: acquisition of a custom-built trailer (at least 10 feet wide, 50 feet long); design, fabrication, and installation of exhibits and other items for the in¬ terior; preparation of exterior graphics; completion of a tour schedule; and employment of a Science- mobile coordinator. Two general viewing areas within the unit are now under consideration. One would feature ex¬ hibits and information related to the Museum’s proposed headquarters/physical sciences facility (planned for Richmond’s Byrd Park, with comple¬ tion by early 1976). Included in this area may be a model of the physical sciences facility, and displays related to astronomy, chemistry/environment, geol¬ ogy, meteorology, physics, and mathematics. The other area may feature exhibits related to astronomy, with emphasis on man-made satellites and their benefits, characteristics, and flight paths; the manned space program, with particular refer¬ ence to Skylab; and information and displays on the Comet Kohoutek. It will be possible to view this comet, one of the brightest in recent years, during the fall and winter months. Special features of the exhibit area will include a small planetarium, as well as computer equipment. The computer equipment will provide information on satellite visibility within any area of the State. History of the Virginia Academy of Science Extra copies of the history issue of the Virginia Journal of Science Vol. 24, No. 1, 1973 are avail¬ able with a reprint of the first three chapters pub¬ lished in 1968 for $3.50 plus postage. Copies of the reprint alone are $.50. Anyone desiring copies for themselves or their institutions please contact the editor or business manager. Natural Areas in Virginia’s State Forests State Forester George W. Dean has reserved as natural areas many of the major timber types found on the Piedmont State Forests. With few exceptions, the natural areas are mature stands. Developments such as roads and trails will not be permitted in those areas. No timber cutting will be permitted and all wildfires will be controlled. The “Natural Areas” are not intended to be high use recreation areas, but laboratories for those seriously interested in studying ecology, botany, dendrology, biology and other plant and animal sci¬ ences. “We believe in the multiple-use management philosophy,” said Dean; “and this new program is another sound environmental use for the forests.” These areas are located in the Pocahontas State Park and Forest, Cumberland State Forest, Bucking- ham-Appomatox State Forest and the Prince Ed- ward-Gallion State Forest. Contact the Virginia Di¬ vision of Forestry, Box 3758 Charlottesville, Va. 22903 for a map of these areas. 218 The Virginia Journal of Science Center tor Systematic Collections Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University has organized, with Dr. Perry C. Holt as Director, a Center for Systematic Collections and has been accepted as a member of the North American or¬ ganization, The Association of Systematics Collec¬ tions. The VPI & SU Center has strong systematic collections of fungi, vascular plants, fishes, birds, fossil invertebrates, insects and some other recent invertebrate groups, with lesser strength in other taxa. One of the primary objectives of the Asso¬ ciation of Systematics Collections is cooperation be¬ tween museums and between museums and users. The VPI & SU Center for Systematic Collections will welcome inquiries for assistance in systematics from other institutions, the opportunity to help in preparing environmental impact statements, the re¬ ceipt of collections with a guarantee of permanent care of specimens or collections and any other co¬ operation it is capable of giving. Plant Records Center The American Horticultural Society, Plant Re¬ cords Center is pleased to announce the availability of a new service to the bioscience community. Utiliz¬ ing its modem, computerized data files, where more than 200,000 records are maintained representing living plants cultivated within major North American botanic gardens, parks and arboreta, the Plant Re¬ cords Center is capable of researching its files for information relating to plants cultivated within North America. Generally, if available, the basic informa¬ tion sought regarding any desired taxon — collec¬ tion (s) where grown, date of acquisition, and original source(s) — can be provided for the minimum ser¬ vice fee of $10. Though it cannot imply that plants or plant ma¬ terials may be obtained from these collections, the Plant Records Center can serve to direct scientists to desired living plants. Never before has there been one place for researchers to refer to in order to lo¬ cate specific plants. Additional information regarding this service, estimates for or answers to specific requests will be supplied promptly upon request. Richard A. Brown Director Dr. Alexander Vyssotsky Alexander Vyssotsky, Emeritus Professor of As¬ tronomy at the University passed away on 31 De¬ cember 1973 in Winter Park, Florida. Professor Vyssotsky was 85 years of age. He was born in Moscow in 1888. Dr. Vyssotsky received his masters degree from the University of Moscow and his PhD from the University of Virginia. He taught in Constantinople and Bizarte before coming to the University of Virginia in 1923. He retired in 1958. Dr. Vyssotsky was internationally renowned for his work on stellar motions and stellar distributions. A major contribution was his “An Investigation of Stellar Motions” published in 1948 which is still considered the standard in its field and was reprinted in 1971. Dr. Vyssotsky married Emma Williams of Phil¬ adelphia in 1928 and is survived by her and their son Victor. News and Notes 219 Erratum SYNTHESIS OF TRANS-4-(3- PYRIDYL)-3-BUTENOIC ACID, A META- NICOTINE METABOLITE. C. T. Sprouse* and Herbert McKennis, Jr. Dept, of Pharmacology, Med. Col. of Va., Richmond, Va. 23298 In the metabolism of the cis and trans isomers of metanicotine in the dog, a number of pyridyl carboxylic acids are formed (Meacham et al, Fed. Proc., 32, 511 (1973)). Physical and chemical data suggested that one of the metabolic acids was trans-4- ( 3-pyridyl ) -3-butenoic acid, which is subsequently metabolized to 3-pyridylacetic acid. To facilitate further studies, and confirmation of structure, a synthesis of tmns-4-{ 3-pyridyl) -3-butenoic acid was sought. l-Methoxy-2-(3- pyridyl) ethylene, prepared from pyridine-3-carboxyaldehyde and methoxymethyl- enetriphenyl phosphorane, was reacted with carbomethoxymethylenetriphenyl- phosphorane to form methyl trans-4- ( 3-pyridyl )-2-butenoate. Upon treatment with aqueous base, for hydrolysis and isomerization, this ester afforded trans- 4- ( 3-pyridyl) -3-butenoic acid in good yield. The synthetic product was identical in all respects to the metabolite previously isolated from dog urine. [Aided by grants from the AMA-Education and Research Foundation, and the Council for Tobacco Research-U.S.A., and The American Tobacco Company.] 220 The Virginia Journal of Science AH ROBINS Making today’s medicines with integrity... seeking tomorrows with persistence. A. H. Robins Company Richmond, Va. 23220 Mobil Chemical MOBIL CHEMICAL COMPANY/ INDUSTRIAL CHEMICALS DIVISION/RICHMOND, VIRGINIA U. S, POSTAL SERVICE STATEMENT OF OWNERSHIP. MANAGEMENT AND CIRCULATION (Act of August 12, 1970 : Section 3685. Title 39. United Statti Code ) SEE INSTRUCTIONS ON PAGE 2 (REVERSE) The Virginia Journal of Science 2. DATE OF FILING 17 October 1973 3. FREQUENCY OF ISSUE Quarterly - Spring, Summer, Fall, Winter 4 LOCATION OF KNOWN OFFICE OF PUBLICATION (Street, city, county, note. ZIP code) ( Not printers) Dept, of Biophysics, Medical College of Va., Richmond, Virginia 23298 c/o Virqinia Institute for Scientific Research, 6300 River Road, Richmond, Va. 23 6. NAMES AND ADDRESSES OF PUBLISHER, EDITOR, AND MANAGING EDITOR The virqinia Academy of Science, Dept, of Biophysics, Medical College of Va. editor (Name and adSeu] Richmond, Virginia 23298 Dr. Charles H. O'Neal, Dept, of Biophysics, Box 877 Medical College of Va. manager editor (Name and addrea) Richmond, Virginia 23298 NONE 7 OWNER (If owned by a corporation. In name and addrea mutt be stated and also immediately thereunder the names and addresses of stockholders owning or holding 1 percent or more of total amount of stock. If not owned by a corporation, the names and addresses of the Individual owners must be given. If owned by a partnership or other unincorporated firm. Its name and addrea, as well as that of each indl vidual mutt be gl ven.) NAME AODRESS c/o Virqinia Institute for Scientific Research 8 KNOWN BONDHOLDERS. 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TOTAL PAID CIRCULATION 1796 1758 O. FREE DISTRIBUTION BY MAIL, CARRIER OR OTHER MEANS 1 SAMPLES, COMPLIMENTARY. AND OTHER FREE COPIES 0 0 2. COPIES DISTRIBUTED TO NEWS AGENTS. BUT NOT SOLD 0 0 E. TOTAL DISTRIBUTION (Sum of C and D) 1796 1758 F. OFFICE USE, LEFT-OVER, UNACCOUNTED. SPOILED AFTER PRINTING 424 612 G. TOTAL (Sum of E A F -should equal net prea run shown In A) 2220 2370 . . . . e QJLwJLx- P- (0 PS Form 3526 July 1971 photograph by Ezra S toller © ESTO. Philip Morris, a publicly-owned company incorporated in Virginia, proudly traces its heritage to a London tobacconist of a century ago. Quality and innovation have earned for the company a valued reputation: “Philip Morris . . . makers of America’s finest cigarettes.” By any professional measure, the Philip Morris Re¬ search and Development Center has become one of the most complete and fully- integrated facilities for scientific effort related to tobacco products. This eight story tower is our latest addition to the complex of Research and Development Center buildings. Write to: Administrative Manager P. O. Box 26583 Richmond, Virginia, 23261 VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE OFFICIAL PUBLICATION OF THE VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 3'CS -]3 yii VOL. 25. NOT SPRING 1974 IISTED BELOW are JReynoldsMetals locations in the State of Virginia. Some 16 in all . . . plants, research labs, sales and admini¬ strative offices . . . including our general headquarters for busi¬ ness conducted around the world. Needless to say our roots are planted deep in Commonwealth soil. Virginia is our “home state.” Whatever we have contributed to its economy is returned many times in the close relationship we have with its people and its commerce. REYNOLDS METALS COMPANY RICHMOND, VIRGINIA 23218 RICHMOND • Executive Office • Styling and Design • Advertising Distribution • Downtown Office Building • Product Development • Metallurgical Laboratory • Package Research Division • North Plant • South Plant • Equipment Center • CHESTERFIELD COUNTY Reclamation Plant • Extrusion Plant • Printing Plant • Pilot Particle Sheet Plant • GROTTOES • Plastics Plant • Plastics Research Department would rather fight than switch! \vVvv — - JSZ&5&:' IS vas'e King Size: 21 mg. "tar", 1.4 mg. nicotine: 100 mm: 21 mg. "tar", 1.5 mg. nicotine: av. per cigarette, FTC Report March 74. vwmm % I IIP* Warning: The Surgeon General Has Determined That Cigarette Smoking Is Dangerous toYour Health. SUSTAINING MEMBERS VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE The following Virginia Educational Institu¬ tions support the objectives of the Virginia Acad¬ emy of Science through Sustaining Memberships. Their active and financial support is gratefully acknowledged. Alderman Library College of William and Mary Emory and Henry College George Mason University Hampden-Sydney College Hollins College Longwood College Lynchburg College Madison College Mary Baldwin College Mary Washington College Mathematics and Science Center Norfolk State College Old Dominion University Randolph-Macon College Randolph-Macon Woman’s College University of Richmond University of Virginia Virginia Commonwealth University Virginia Military Institute Virginia Polytechnic Institute Virginia State College Virginia Union University Virginia Western Community College Washington and Lee University BUSINESS MEMBERS VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE Because of their interest in science and the economy of Virginia, the following industrial concerns have become Business Members of the Academy and have thus contributed greatly to its work and progress. Their support is gratefully acknowledged: Allied Chemical Corporation American Filtrona Corporation The American Tobacco Company Babcock and Wilcox Company Brunswick Corporation Bunton Instrument Co. Carolina Biological Supply Co. Dow-Badische Company E. I. duPont de Nemours & Co., Inc. Ethyl Corporation First and Merchants National Bank General Medical Scientific House of Edgeworth Merck and Company, Inc. National Fruit Product Co. Newport News Shipbuilding & Dry Dock Co. Philip Morris and Co., Inc. A. H. Robins Company, Inc. Southern Bank & Trust Company Southern States Cooperative, Inc. Texaco, Inc. United Virginia Bank Universal Leaf Tobacco Co., Inc. Virginia Chemicals, Inc. Virginia Electric and Power Company Westinghouse Electric Corporation Wheat, First Securities, Inc. VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE OFFICIAL PUBLICATION OF THE VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE Vol. 25 No. 1 1974 TABLE OF CONTENTS The Genus XIRONOGITON Ellis, 1919 (Clitellata: Branchiobdellida) Perry C. Holt 20 Unionid Mussels of the Wabash, White and East Fork White Rivers, Indiana Edward R. Meyer 26 A Taxonomic Survey of Freshwater Oligochaetes from the Richmond Virginia Area with Reference to Commensal Ciliates Elsa Q. Falls 30 Combined Effects of Changes in Temperature and Salinity in Early Stages of Rangia Cuneata Thomas D. Cain Science Teachers Section 32 Phenylketonuria Arnold Anderson 33 News and Notes THE VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Official Publication of the Virginia Academy of Science EDITOR CHARLES H. O’NEAL SECTION EDITORS Boyd L. Samuel Agricultural Sciences Lee S. Anthony Astronomy, Mathematics and Physics James D. Punch Microbiology Robert G. Bass Chemistry Edward Henneke Materials Science R. C. Hoehn Engineering Kenneth A. Blick Psychology Elva D. Aukland Science Teachers William D. Ergle Statistics Richard P. McNitt Space Science and Technology Edwin S. Higgins Medical Sciences BUSINESS MANAGER Charles E. O’Rear Published quarterly by The Virginia Academy of Science, Department of Biophysics, Medical Col¬ lege of Virginia, Richmond, Virginia 23298. Second- class postage paid at Richmond, Virginia. Manuscripts for publication (other than section abstracts) and books for review should be sent to the Editor, Dr. Charles H. O’Neal, Department of Biophysics, Box 877, Medical College of Virginia, Richmond, Virginia 23298. Proof, edited manu¬ scripts, and all correspondence regarding accepted papers should be sent to the Editor. Advertising and Business Office: All correspon¬ dence relating to advertising and business affairs should be directed to Charles E. O’Rear, Business Manager, Virginia Journal of Science, 1 N. Four¬ teenth St., Richmond, Virginia 23219. The Virginia Academy of Science and the Editors of the Virginia Journal of Science assume no re¬ sponsibility for statements or opinions advanced by contributors. © Copyright, 1974, by the Virginia Academy of Science. Business and Subscription Information All remittances and orders for advertising and subscriptions should be sent to the Business Man¬ ager, Virginia Journal of Science, 1 N. Fourteenth St., Richmond, Virginia 23219. Changes of address should be sent promptly to Blanton M. Bruner, Ex¬ ecutive Secretary-Treasurer, Virginia Academy of Science, P. O. Box 8454, Richmond, Virginia 23226. Changes of address must include both new and old addresses with zip code. Subscription rates for 1974: $10.00 per year, U.S, A.; Canada and other countries of the Pan- American Union, $10.50 per year; all other foreign countries, $11.00 per year. All foreign remittances must be made at par U.S. dollars or the foreign equivalent. U.S. dollar remittance is suggested to avoid currency fluctuation problems and possibly unfavorable exchange rates. Back issues are available for some years at $3.00 per issue plus postage. The front cover is by Douglas C. Hensley. Perry C. Holt Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University Department of Biology Blacksburg, Virginia 24061 The Genus Xironogiton Ellis, 1919 (Clitellofa: Branchiobdellida) Abstract — Holt, Perry C. The Genus Xironogiton Ellis, 1919 (Clitellata: Branchiobdellida). Virginia Journal of Science [Vol. 25, 5-19 (1974)]. Five species of the genus Xironogiton, three newly described, are recognized. One formerly recognized nominal species is reduced to syn- onomy. The present center of speciation in the genus is the Pacific northwest. The presence of X. instabilis in the mountains of the eastern United States argues for the antiq¬ uity of the order Branchiobdellida and its contained genera, since Xironogiton cannot be considered as primitive and X. instabilis, at least, reached the Pacific drainage before the present barriers between east and west came into existence. The hypothesis that the order differentiated in the southern Appalachians is not invalidated by this unusual distributional pattern which does not correspond to that of the hosts: several species of cambarid crayfishes of the genera Cam- barus and Orconectes in the east and species of the astacid genus Pacifastacus in the west. The accumulation of a large amount of material over the past twenty-five years makes it possible to offer an account of the systematics, evolution and zoogeographical relationships of the genus Xironogi¬ ton Ellis, 1919, as one of a continuing series of studies of the North American members of the order Branchiobdellida. Such is the purpose of this paper. Following a summary of the history of the knowl¬ edge of the genus, the methods and materials are described and some comments on the ecology of the members of the genus are presented. Taxonomic characteristics of the branchiobdellids have been rather fully discussed in the past (Holt, 1953, 1960, 1968c, Hoffman, 1963), but a brief review of taxo- nomically important characters, with emphasis on those peculiar to the genus, is given. The evolutionary and distributional relationships of the genus are ob¬ scure and hypotheses that deal with these questions are difficult to formulate, but tentative ones are considered. An emended diagnosis of the genus is followed by a key to its component species. Of the five species recognized, three are newly described and one previously described species composed of two subspecies (Ellis, 1919: 249-251), reduced to the status of a subspecies by Goodnight (1940:47), is synonomyzed with a previously recognized species (Moore, 1894:425-427). All species are diagnosed, Perry C. Holt, Professor of Zoology, Department of Biology, Vir¬ ginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061 fully described (or former descriptions emended), illustrated, locality data and the disposition of ma¬ terials given, their hosts recorded (if possible) and their distributions plotted on a map. Acknowledgments Many of my efforts in collecting specimens of species of Xironogiton were supported by the Na¬ tional Science Foundation (Grants G-4439, G-9828, GB-372). This paper was partially written during the tenure of a Senior Postdoctoral Research Asso- ciateship at the Smithsonian Institution. I am grateful to Marian H. Pettibone and Horton H. Hobbs, Jr., for reading the manuscript. Dr. Hobbs has kindly furnished me with most of the host identifications. He, Denton W. Crocker and others have contributed material, but I am in most debt for the help, often arduous and hazardous, given me by my wife, Virgie F. Holt, on a number of extensive collecting trips, and the less hazardous, but painstaking help in col¬ lating material for this paper. Review of the Literature Our knowledge of the genus Xironogiton begins with the publication of the description of Branchiob- della instabilia (Moore, 1894:425-497) from Watauga County, North Carolina. Smallwood (1906) discussed what was known in his time of the natural history of branchiobdellids, concentrating on Br. instabilia, and studied gametogenesis in this species. He was the first, to my knowledge, to call attention to the fact that most branchiobdellids are not para¬ sitic. Pierantoni (1912:22), in his short mono¬ graph of the order (then considered a family of the Oligochaeta) assigned Br. instabilia (as instabilis ) to the genus Bdellodrilus Moore, 1895, without ap¬ parently, having seen any specimens of the species. Similarly, Hall (1914:190, 192) lists Bd. instabilis in a key and quotes Moore’s records. Ellis (1912: 248) included Br. instabilia in a key to the branchi¬ obdellids of eastern North America. Later, he (1919: 247) erected the genus Xironogiton for three species and one subspecies: X. oregonensis oregonensis Ellis, designated as the type species, X. o. pectinatus Ellis, X. occidentalis Ellis and X. instabilius Moore. Stephenson (1930:802) listed Xironogiton among the genera of the branchiobdellids. Goodnight (1940: 43-48) emended the proviously presented generic The Genus Xironogiton 5 diagnoses, reduced X. oregonensis to the status of a subspecies of X. instabilius, quoted extensively from the descriptions of Moore (1894) and Ellis (1919) of all the nominal species and added a few locality records. The reproductive systems of X. instabilius were studied by Holt (1949) and compared with those of Cambarincola philadelphicus (Leidy, 1851). Holt (1951:198-119) further considered very briefly our knowledge of the genus and commented upon Ellis’s types of X. oregonensis. Berry and Holt (1959) studied the responses of X. instabilius (and Xirono- drilus formosus Ellis, 1918) to experimentally pro¬ duced changes in temperature and oxygen tensions. McManus (1960) studied the ecology of X. insta¬ bilius in New York. Brown (1961) recorded obser¬ vations on the ecology and microhabitat on the host of a population of the species in Virginia. Franzen (1962) wrote on the histology of the muscles. Hobbs, Holt and Walton (1967) included this species in their study of the crayfishes and their epizootic asso¬ ciates of the Mountain Lake, Virginia, region. Holt (1968a) summarized the ecological knowledge of the species, commented on its distribution and pointed out that X. i. instabilius and X. i. oregonensis are at present indistinguishable. In another paper (Holt, 1969), the distribution of X. instabilius in the southern Appalachians and the relationship of the genus to other genera of the order were discussed. Three nominal species of branchiobdellids from Lake Dojran, Yugoslavia, were. assigned to Xironogi- ton by Georgevitch (1955): X. bidens, X. dilatus, X. dolicoderos. Later (1957), he added X. tridens and X. latus to the list of Jugoslavian branchiobdel¬ lids. Pop (1965:237) reduced all of these names proposed by Georgevitch to synonomy as follows: Xironogiton bidens Georgevitch, 1955, to synonomy with Branchiob della parasita Henle, 1835; Xironogi¬ ton dilatus Georgevitch, 1955, Xironogiton doli¬ coderos Georgevitch, 1955, Xironogiton latus Georgevitch, 1957, and Xironogiton tridens George¬ vitch, 1957, all to synonomy with Branchiobdella pentodonta Whitman, 1882. Specimens referred to Xironogiton dolicoderos by Georgevitch (1957) were described as Branchiobdella pentodonta orientalis Pop, 1965. There is not any doubt of Pop’s cor¬ rectness in referring Georgevitch’s Macedonian worms to the genus Branchiobdella. There remains, then, only the North American species to consider in treating the genus Xironogiton. Other than casual mention in papers primarily devoted to other genera ( e.g . Holt, 1967), mention in textbooks and generalized compendia (e.g. Pen- nak, 1953) and, possibly, in papers by others not primarily devoted to branchiobdellids that may have been overlooked, nothing else has been written about the genus Xironogiton. Methods and Disposition of Materials The general methods used in the taxonomic study of the branchiobdellids have been described before (Holt, 1960:67; and other papers). The taxonomi- cally more significant structures are labelled (Figure 5). The serial sections were prepared according to standard paraffin embedding methods, sectioned at ten microns, stained with Delafield’s hematoxylin and counter-stained in eosin. The use of a 40X fluorite oil immersion objective, corrected to a work¬ ing distance of 1.5 mm, makes it possible to study specimens mounted entire from both sides. Some very large (for branchiobdellids) specimens lend themselves profitably to dissection with fine needles. All drawings are so oriented that the anterior of the animal, or part thereof, is to the reader’s right. Measurements, made with a calibrated ocular mi¬ crometer, are to be regarded as approximations and are given to the nearest 0.1 mm. Numbers in paren¬ theses following the average size of a dimension represent the range in size of the animals, or parts thereof, measured. The greatest width given is always that of segment VII. Most of the material upon which this paper is based is deposited in the collections of the National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution (USNM); some paratypes and reference specimens are retained in my collections at the Virginia Poly¬ technic Institute and State University (PCH). In all cases complete locality data, if not given herein, are available from my files or from the Registrar, Na¬ tional Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian In¬ stitution. Evolutionary and Zoogeographical Considerations The evolutionary relationships of the genus Xironogiton and its members present difficult prob¬ lems, some of which have been considered briefly (Holt, 1964:260; 1968a:38-34; 1969:196-197). I shall review the tentative conclusions of these papers. The distributional pattern of the members of the genus, which has been touched upon in the papers cited immediately above, is a more difficult problem involving the hosts and their other epizootic asso¬ ciates, the entocytherid ostracods, and serious uncertainties concerning the geology of the region. I shall consider first the phylogentic relationships of the genus and its constituent species. In the almost total absence of a fossil record of any of these three groups (freshwater astacids are presumed to have been in existence since at least late Mesozoic times and North American fossils are known from Tertiary beds of Idaho and Wyoming, Hobbs, personal communication) — the crayfishes, the entocytherid ostracods and the branchiobdellids, that seem to form an indissoluble symbiotic assem¬ blage, but with limited, if any host species specificity — one is perforce constrained to postulate separate phylogenetic hypotheses for each based upon the more or less uncertain grounds of morphological affinities. Four genera ( Cirrodrilus Pierantoni, 1905; A nky- rodrilus Holt, 1965, Xironogiton Ellis, 1919; Bran¬ chiobdella Odier, 1823) are characterized by two anterior nephridopores, the entry of the vasa de- ferentia into the spermiducal gland ectal to its ental end and the absence of a prostate or prostatic pro¬ tuberance. They are related to, but nonetheless, in localized areas with species of Cambarincola, the Bdellodrilus Moore, 1895, which have only one anterior nephridiopore. 6 The Virginia Journal of Science Of this group of genera, the Cirrodrilus-lmcage, Cirrodrilus is Asiatic and has a completely eversible penis and on this basis has to be considered as primi¬ tive. Branchiob della, European and east Asian in dis¬ tribution, likewise has an eversible penis but has lost a pair of testes in segment V. The American Anky- rodrilus is represented by two southern Appalachian species with a bursa composed of a very large penial sheath region that appears to be eversible and to carry, as a protrusible cone, the penis with it when everted (Holt, 1965). Xironogiton, with a large, muscular bursa and a protrusible penis, and the movement of the vasa deferentia to or near the junc¬ tion of the spermiducal gland and the ejaculatory duct must be considered as an advanced member of the lineage. In addition, the “somatic” (non-geni- talic) characters and the microniche occupied on their hosts are advanced characteristics of the mem¬ bers of the genus Xironogiton. All members of the genus are specialized for an existence on the ex¬ posed surfaces of the chelipeds or carapace of their hosts by a flattening of the body. Xironogiton occi¬ dental^, a species, the members of which are among the largest of known branchiobdellids, has a body that gradually widens to its greatest extent in seg¬ ment VII (resembling markedly the otherwise dis¬ tantly related members of the genus Xironodrilus in this respect); the other species of Xironogiton (except X. cassiensis) have terete anterior segments with a dramatic widening and flattening of the pos¬ terior ones and are small-to medium-sized members of the order. They all occupy the chelipeds of their hosts and as a group they are the most specialized members of the genus. All anatomical evidence, however it is interpreted, and the adaptation to the exposed areas of the host indicate that Xironogiton is composed of advanced, specialized or more recently evolved species within its lineage, nevertheless the ranges of its species pose a difficult problem in historical zoogeography. Xironogiton instabilis, more specialized than X. occidentalis, is almost equally common (almost ubiquitous) in the colder mountain streams of the east and west (Figure 1). The other species (X. fordi, X. cassiensis, X. kittitasi) are all western, but are of apparently equal standing as advanced species. If one assumes the primitiveness within the genus of X. occidentalis as a grazer on the exposed carapace of the hosts, the other species could have arisen, in geographical isolation, by escaping com¬ petition for the resources furnished by the surface of the host’s carapace in a retreat to the still more exposed and dangerous surfaces of the chelipeds of the hosts. In the east, species of the dominant genus Cambarincola and the less common, and perhaps now relict, members of Xironodrilus could have furnished such competition. In the west, X. occiden- talis, itself, may have played such a competitive role contra its congeners, but it may, and appears to be, a geographical relict that has survived competition in localized areas with species of Cambarincola, the genus with the largest number of species of that region. To summarize: Xironogiton arose as a genus in early, or at least by the Oligocene, Cenozoic times and underwent a very modest radiation as a group of species capable of living on the exposed upper surfaces of the host crayfish. This probably occurred (Holt 1968a: 86) in the area now represented by the southern Appalachians and related uplands. If X. occidentalis is the most primitive species of the genus, it and the ancestors (X. instabilis, at the least) of its congeners were carried westward by the as- tacid progenitors of the crayfish genus Pacifastacus before the unknown time of the origin of an unsur- mountable barrier for these animals between east and west. X. instabilis is confined to cold clear waters (Berry and Holt, 1959) and, in spite of its wide range, can be considered a relict species in the east. In the west, the reverse is true, it has available a greater number, almost the total Pacific drainage north of the Stanislaus River in California, of streams of favorable characteristics. In any case, the species, or its anatomically indistinguishable progenitor, is of great antiquity and is composed of two groups of populations that must, as two disjunct groups, have set some sort of record in maintaining their simi¬ larities without the remotest possibility of them exchanging genes across a barrier close to two thousand miles in width for a period of millions of years. An uncertain caveat to this conclusion must be entered on the basis of our ignorance of events in northern Canada in the interglacial times of the Pleistocene, or indeed, the conditions in northern Canada in pre-Pleistocene times, though the distinct¬ ness and distribution, to reemphasize, of the crayfish hosts minimize this warning. The other species (V. fordi, X. cassiensis, X. kit¬ titasi) most likely evolved in pockets of isolation produced by the tectonic and volcanic events of the Cenozoic from one or the other stocks (X. occiden¬ talis and X. instabilis ) already discussed. They could be either ancient or quite recent in origin; witness the apparent recent divergence of Ceratodrilus thysanosomus Hall, 1914, and C. ophiorhysus Holt, 1960 (Holt, 1960:58). Nothing more can be said: the history of the genus Xironogiton is blurred by the mists of astacid wanderings and evolution, the lack of host specificity, the vagaries of plate tectonics and consequent orogenies (McKenzie, 1972) and those of the Pleistocene and pre-Pleistocene climatic shifts. Xironogiton Ellis, 1919 Type-species. — Xironogiton oregonensis Ellis, 1919:248, by original designation. Diagnosis. — Medium to large branchiobdellids (known species from approximately 1.4 mm to 7.5 mm, preserved specimens, in length); body terete anteriorly, depressed posteriorly, without peristo- mial tentacles or dorsal projections on trunk seg¬ ments, posterior sucker directed ventrad; jaws sub- rectangular; paired nephridiopores on dorsum of segment III; with two pairs of testes; spermiducal gland with vasa deferentia entering ectally; prostate or prostatic protuberance absent; ejaculatory duct present; penis protrusible, non-eversible; bursa large, heavily muscular, spherical, ellipsoid or asymmetri- The Genus Xironogiton 7 Fig. 2 — Xironogiton instabilis. a. dorsal view of entire animal; b, reprorductive systems in ventral view; c. male reproductive system in dorsal view; d, upper jaw; e, lower jaw. (From various sources, all by Holt). 8 The Virginia Journal of Science cally subpyriform; spermatheca disproportionately small. Etymological note. — The name Xironogiton has been regarded as masculine and Ellis appears to have so intended when he used pectinatus as a name for what he thought was a subspecies of his X. ore- gonensis. A discussion of this point is important in an attempt to determine the correct form of the name of one of the species of the genus; the names applied to this species will be considered at the ap¬ propriate place below. An effort made by Dr. Thomas O. MacAdoo, Associate Professor of Foreign Lan¬ guages, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State Uni¬ versity, to whom I am grateful, to determine more clearly the meaning and gender of the name Xirono¬ giton revealed that the English of the Greek giton is “neighbor” and the word may be either masculine or feminine in Greek. Xirono — may have been derived from Xyris (= razor). Some credence is lent to these conjectures by virtue of the fact that Ellis (1919: 243) proposed the name Xironodrilus for a genus which he appears to have thought to be closely related to Xironogiton (Ellis, 1919:247). Xirono¬ drilus can be translated loosely as “razor worm” (the members of this genus are flattened and a fanci¬ ful resemblance in shape, to a razor can be imagined) and Xironogiton as “neighbor to the razor.” In any case, Xironogiton must be regarded as of Greek origin and as masculine in gender on the basis of Article 30, al and 2, of the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature, London, 1961, since Ellis did not indicate otherwise. Key to the Species of the Genus Xironogiton 1 Teeth of subequal length, teeth-bearing mar¬ gin of jaws linear . Xironogiton jordi V Teeth of at least one jaw of unequal length, teeth-bearing margin of jaws variable. . 2 2(1') Teeth-bearing margin of jaws concave; dental formula 6/6 to 7/7, body increasing grad¬ ually to greatest width, spermiducal gland long extending beyond mid-line of body . . . Xironogiton cassiensis 2' Teeth-bearing margin of jaws sublinear or convex, dental formula, spermiducal gland and body form variable . 3 3(2') Dental formula 4/4 to 11/11, segments V- VIII much broader than terete anterior segments, ental end of spermiducal gland rarely or never extending beyond mid-line of body . Xironogiton instabilis 3' Either very large worms (greater than 5.4 mm in length) with spermiducal gland looped laterally to bursa; or small worms (about 1.4 to 2.0 mm in length) with proportion¬ ately very long spermiducal gland lying transversally in segment dorsal to gut . . 4 4(3') Teeth-bearing margin of jaws convex, dental formula 6/6, body increasing gradually to greatest diameter, very large worms, sper¬ miducal gland looped laterally to bursa . Xironogiton occidental^ 4' Teeth-bearing margin of jaws sublinear, dental formula 4/4 to 6/6, segments V-VII much broader than terete anterior segments, small worms, spermiducal gland extending entally to opposite body wall . . . . . Xironogiton kittitasi Xironogiton instabilis (Moore) Figures 1 , 2 Branchiobdella instabilia Moore, 1894: 425-427. — Smallwood, 1906: 100-1 1 1.— Ellis, 1912: 484. Bdellodrilus instabilis. — Pierantoni, 1912: 22. — Hall, 1914: 190, 192. Xironogiton oregonensis oregonensis Ellis, 1919: 249-251. Xironogiton oregonensis pectinatus Ellis, 1919: 251. Xironogiton instabilius. — Ellis, 1919: 252-253. Xironogiton instabilius instabilius Goodnight, 1940: 45-47.— Holt 1949:536.— McManus, 1960: 421- 427. Xironogiton instabilius oregonensis. — Goodnight, 1940:47-48. Xironogiton instabilius. — Berry and Holt, 1959: 5-11. — Hobbs, Holt and Walton, 1967: 64. — Holt, 1968a: 82-84, 86, 88, 91; 1969: 194, 196-197, 201-202,213. Xironogiton instabilia. — Franzen, 1962: 369-383. Type-specimens. — The material from Watauga County, North Carolina, and Delaware County, Pennsylvania, upon which Moore (1894: 425) based Branchiobdella instabilia, has not been found in Moore’s collections, now at the National Museum of Natural History (Marvin Meyer, personal com¬ munication), and is presumed to have been lost. (Much of Moore’s extensive collections were de¬ stroyed by vandals while he was living at Media, Pennsylvania). There is no dispute as to the identity of the eastern populations of the species. Diagnosis. — Medium sized branchiobdellids (length about 2. 0-2. 7 mm); segments I-IV terete, segments V-VIII broadly flattened, often indistin¬ guishable externally; jaws subrectangular, dental formulae from about 4/4 to 11/11, teeth often, but not always of unequal length; bursa subspherical to pyriform; spermiducal gland extending dorsad, bend¬ ing mesad over bursa never extending to opposite body wall; spermatheca clavate, very small. Etymological note. — The correct form of the name of this species is that used by Pierantoni (1912: 22 ) . The Latin word “instabilius” is a neuter comparative meaning “more unstable: “instabilia” is a neuter plural in Latin and is, therefore, impossible as a modifier of any singular noun, while “instabilis” means “unstable” and is either masculine or feminine in form. Since the word, in all the forms in which it has been used, is clearly intended as an adjective in the nominative singular, it must, then, be written as “instabilis” instead of the impossible “instabilia” or the awkward, at least, “ instabilius ” first used by Ellis. Again, I am indebted to Dr. MacAdoo who furnished me with the information on which this nomenclatural decision is based. Description. — Individuals of Xironogiton insta¬ bilis (Figure 2a) are worms of medium size. The The Genus Xironogiton 9 average length of ten mature specimens selected at random from throughout the range of the species is 2.3 mm (2. 0-2. 7 mm); the greatest width, 1.1 mm (0.8-1. 3 mm). The head is somewhat longer than wide, but not greatly so, a little less in diameter than the sucker and only slightly shorter than the combined length of the first four, terete, trunk seg¬ ments. The peristomium is divided by shallow lateral incisions into upper and lower lips, each with shallow median indentations, and is set off by a sulcus from the remainder of the head which shows no other external signs of segmentation. Segments V through VIII are depressed and form, in effect, a large sucker that encloses the true sucker, except for the latter’s posterior-most part. Segments X and XI are incorporated into the structure of the sucker. The expansion of the flattened segments is accomplished by dorsoventrally oriented muscles of the septa ( cf . Ellis’s “buttress-like supports”; Ellis, 1919: 243). The edges of the expanded segments are generously supplied with groups of unicellular glands that appear in hematoxylin-eosin stained sec¬ tion to be of the same nature as those found through¬ out the epidermis of all branchiobdellids, indeed the lateral-most part of the flattened segments is simply an extension of the epidermis. The mouth is surrounded internally by about twelve oral papillae which are not easily seen except with the aid of the higher powers of the microscope in favorably arranged specimens. The “pharyngeal diverticula”, thought by Elis (1919: 243, 247) to be of diagnostic value, are not diverticula at all, but sulci (expansions) of the lumen of the pharynx that may correspond to the segmentation of the head. There may be three such pharyngeal sulci in X. instab ilis (they are difficult to see in some speci¬ mens). The jaws (Figure 2d, e) are as described by Ellis (1919: 252-253), but the variation in number and arrangement of the teeth are greater than he observed; ranging from 3/4 to 11/11, but there is no detectable geographical pattern to these differ¬ ences in number of teeth. Both jaws usually have the same number of teeth. Ellis (1919: 247) stressed, in his generic diag¬ nosis, that the “alimentary canal [is] looped once or twice in segment VII. . . .” This is not so in X. in- stabilis. The gut is expanded intrasegmentally in almost all branchiobdellids and these expansions are exagerated by the flattening of the trunk in X. insta- bilis, although, as Ellis noted, the gut is pushed to one side and reduced in diameter in segment VI by the enlarged male reproductive organs. The reproductive systems of X. instabilis have been described in some detail (Holt, 1949: 538- 550) and the account of them that follows, with some changes in terminology, is a condensation of that report. The spermiducal gland is long: its ental “blind” end lies dorsally above the bursa near the mid-line of the animal, courses laterad ectally along the dorsal border of the bursa and runs ventrad along the lateral end of the latter to its junction with the ejaculatory duct. Its ental third is composed of glandular cells that stain lightly and contain baso¬ philic granules; the median third is composed of cells packed with coarser, eosin staining granules; while the ectal third is similar to the ental portion. The vasa deferentia enter the spermiducal gland near the junction of its ectal and median portions. The ejaculatory duct is a long, slender muscular tube that runs mesad and then dorsad between the spermiducal gland and the bursa to its junction with the ental apex of the latter. Together with the spermiducal gland, the bursa fills from 1/2 to 3/4 of the body cavity of segment VI. The bursa is divided into the usual penial sheath and atrium separated incompletely by an inwardly directed atrial fold. The penial sheath region is remarkable by virtue of its extremely thick muscular wall (Holt, 1949: pi. 3, fig. 21) which encloses almost completely the cone-like and like¬ wise heavily muscular penis: the latter the ectal end of the ejaculatory duct. Ellis (1919: 250) described the bursa of X. o. oregonenis and X. o. pectinatus as small and spherical. I concurred in this descrip¬ tion in my unpublished dissertation (Holt, 1951: 199). Through the courtesy of Dr. Marian H. Pettibone I have had the opportunity to examine, not only the types, but the entire type series of both these nominal subspecies. Both Ellis and I were wrong. The animals are small and submature, but the bursae of all in which the reproductive organs can be seen (some worms are mounted in what appears to be Hoyer’s medium and are worthless; the notation “co-type” on some of the slides is in a handwriting other than that of either Ellis or me) are identical in form and proportional size to those of other members of the species. The clavate spermatheca is, in comparison to the bursa and spermiducal gland, riduculously small (Figure 2b). The ectal duct widens gradually into the bulbular portion which, however, contains spermatozoa within its narrow lumen. [Again, the spermatheca has been incorrectly described. It does not have an ental process (Holt, 1960: 64) as im¬ plied by Ellis (1919: 250) and Holt (1951: 199), but is, in the type series referred to above, as de¬ scribed herein and previously (Holt, 1949: 547- 549)]. The presence of spermatozoa in the sper- mathecal bulb is significant in view of the presence of packets of spermatozoa found on the dorsal surface of a number of specimens (Holt, 1949: 549), suggesting the possibility of a leech-like “hypodermic” impregnation, but such sperm packets have been seen rarely since and never on specimens of other members of the genus with similarly small spermathecae. The whole question of the reproduc¬ tive processes, in not only X. instabilis, but also its congeners, needs investigation. Variation. — Xironogiton instabilis varies in the number of teeth and the order of short and long ones on the jaws. But these variations present no consistent pattern and Ellis’s (1919: 241-243) attempt to develop a formula for the arrangement of large and short teeth fails. In some specimens, the intersegmental furrows separating the posterior segments are obscure. Otherwise there are the 10 The Virginia Journal of Science common age associated variations in size (within species specific limits) and shape and position of internal organs attributed to variations in killing agents used and the animals position at death. Hosts. — Xironogiton instabilis has been found associated with the following hosts (and can be expected to occur on many others within its range) : Cambarus b. bartonii (Fabr.), C. (Jugicambarus) carolinus (Erichson), C. ( Hiaticambarus) longulus Girard, C. (H.) longirostris Faxon, C. (Puncticam- barus) acuminatus Faxon, C. (P.) veter anus Faxon, Orconectes erichsonianus (Faxon), O. immunis (Hagen), O. limosus (Rafinesque), O. obscurus (Hagen), O. p. propinquus (Girard), O. transfuga Fitzpatrick, Pacifastctcus g. gambelii (Girard), P. leniusculus leniusculus (Dana), P. 1. klamathensis (Stimpson), P. 1. trowbridgii (Stimpson). Distribution. — In the western part of the conti¬ nent, X. instabilis is known from Sonoma and Tuo¬ lumne Counties in California, through Oregon and Washington to Clallam County at the northern tip of the Olympic Peninsula, and eastward into Idaho and Lincoln County, Wyoming. In the east, the species ranges from northern New York southward to the mountains of North Carolina and Tennessee with its westernmost known limit at Natural Bridge State Park in Powell County, Kentucky. The species may be expected to occur in Canada, where little collecting has been done, in both the east and west. The apparent significance of this extremely disjunct distribution has been discussed above in the section on “Evolutionary and Zoogeographical considera¬ tions.” Material examined. — Thousands of specimens from at least 194 collections, including topotypical material from Watauga County, North Carolina, USNM 36783 (PCH 138) (see mimeographed “Locality Data for the Specimens of the genus Xironogiton ” referred to above). Remarks. — Little is known of the ecology of the branchiobdellids (Holt, 1968a), but a few things are known of the habits and habitats of X. instabilis. The species is confined to cold mountain streams in the east, at least in the southern part of its range, and all the streams from which it has been taken in the west are of the same character, although they reach the hightide level on the coast. It is known (Berry and Holt, 1959) that the species is intolerant of warm waters. Brown (1961) confirmed my field observations that it is essentialy confined to the chelipeds of the hosts. The history of the names given the species has been reviewed above from a legalistic standpoint, but the decision to reduce a nominal species to synonomy is a biological one and in this case de¬ serves a few remarks. It is not clear from his descrp- tion of X. oregonensis why Ellis (1919: 249-251) separated the twenty-two specimens he studied from Moore’s (1894) “instabilia” , but it is likely that it was done on the basis of a presumed difference in the number of teeth borne on each jaw and the subtle influence of geography. Goodnight (1940: 48), on the basis of the overlap in dental formulae that he observed, reduced oregonensis (including both X. o. oregonensis and X. o. pectinatus) to the rank of a western subspecies of “ instabilius ”. Ap¬ parently he did not perceive that this overlap in¬ cludes without remainder the eastern populations as well. Believing that Goodnight was mistaken I made, several years ago, an extensive analysis of the dental formulae of western and eastern populations and convinced myself that not only is it impossible to separate the western populations into two taxa; fur¬ thermore on the basis of a careful comparison of size, segmentation, proportions of reproductive organs and other possible characters, I became convinced that the eastern and western populations are anatomically indistinguishable. Xironogiton occidentals Ellis Figure 1, 3 Xironogiton occidentals Ellis, 1919: 248-249. — Goodnight, 1940: 44-45 Type-specimens. — USNM 17639, Crab Creek, Washington, taken from Astacus klamathensis Stimpson by John T. Nichols, U.S. Bureau of Fish¬ eries (Ellis 1919: 248). Date unknown. Diagnosis. — Large branchiobdellids (length about 4. 5-7. 5 mm); body flattened, gradually widening from segment I to segment VII, segments I-VII usually distinguishable externally; jaws subrectangu- lar, teeth of varying length, dental formula 6/6; bursa subglobose, heavily muscular; spermiducal gland inverted U-shaped, middle portion reaching dorsal body wall; spermatheca calvate, small, thick- walled. Description. — Xironogiton occidentals is a very large branchiobdellid and is immediately recogniz¬ able on the basis of body shape and its size that is not exceeded by any member of the order known to me. The holotype is 4.5 mm in length and the paratype 5.0 mm (Ellis, 1919: 249). The dimen¬ sions of five mature worms from Lincoln County, Oregon, are as follows: total length, 6.6 mm (5.4- 7.5 mm); greatest diameter, 2.1 mm (2.0-2. 1 mm); head length, 1.5 mm (1.1-1. 7 mm); head diameter, 1.1 mm (0.95-1.3 mm); diameter, segment I, 1.1 mm (0.95-1.1 mm) , diameter, sucker 1.3 mm (1.1- 1.5 mm). Specimens from Washington that I have seen are of comparable size. Though the worms I have studied are larger than Ellis’ types, there is no doubt about their identification. The head is large and muscular and has no ex¬ ternal sulci except the prominent one that sets off the peristomium. The latter is, as usual, composed of upper and lower lips; the upper is entire, but the lower has a shallow median emargination. An inde¬ terminate number of obscure oral papillae are pres¬ ent and one prominent pharyngeal sulcus at the midlength of the pharynx, though less apparent ones may be present just behind the jaws and posteriorly at the posterior border of the head. The head and the first two or three segments are terete, but the trunk flattens and widens gradually posteriorly in such a way that the posterior end is rounded and the sucker is not readily detectable in The Genus Xironogiton 11 Fig. 3— Xironogiton occidentalis. a, ventral view of entire animal from Lincoln County, Oregon; b, ventral view of reproductive systems; c, upper jaw; d, lower jaw. (c and d from Ellis, 1919: 249). dorsal view. The margins of the posterior segments are not greatly expanded and the obvious flattening of them is more apparent than real, as a study of serial sections reveal, and they contain muscle fibers that are thinner than those of the body wall and the glandular elements are hardly more numerous than in other parts of the epidermis. The “adhesive glandular disks” (Ellis, 1919: 243) are simply not there and Ellis must have been referring to the lateral expansions of the epidermis in this region. The jaws are well described by Ellis and I have used his illustrations of them (Figure 3c, d). The dental formula is 6/6 and the body of the jaws is composed of prominently thickened ridges which terminate in the teeth and are held together by thinner portions of the presumably chitinous struc¬ ture. Again, the gut does not form an “S”-shaped curve in segment VII (Ellis, 1919: 249) and, in actuality, is unremarkable were it not for the size of the ani¬ mals and a correspondingly more readily apparent expansion of the gut in each segment. Except for stating “spermatheca simple; testes present in segments V and VI joining the atrium in segment VI; a long accessory sperm tube pres¬ ent; . . Ellis (1919: 249) had nothing to say about the reproductive systems of X. occidentalis. A fuller account is called for. The “accessory sperm tube” is the structure I have called the “prostate” in other genera, e.g., Cani- barincola, but in some cases Ellis (1919) and Good¬ night (1940) used the term for the structure I refer to as the “spermiducal gland” (see Holt, 1960, for a fuller discussion of anatomical nomenclature in the branchiobdellids). In X. occidentalis, the spermiducal gland begins entally in the posterior lateroventral region of the coelom of segment VI, runs dorsad to the dorsal border of the coelom, bends there to course ventrad to the ventral body wall where it narrows and be¬ comes muscular to form the ejaculatory duct. The anterior vas deferens, formed by the union of the vasa efferentia of segment V enters at the juncture of the spermiducal gland and the ejaculatory duct, the posterior one enters the gland a short distance entally. The ectal and ental portions of the sper¬ miducal gland stain darkly with hematoxylin; the middle portion is composed of lighter staining and more vacuolated cells. The ejaculatory duct is a thin muscular tube that loops its way dorsad to the dorsal extrtmity of the bursa which it enters there to form the muscular penis which is hardly distinct from the heavily muscular wall of the penial sheath. The atrial fold of the bursa is formed by the projection into the bursal lumen of the penial sheath. The bursal atrium is enclosed by a thin wall which consists of hardly more than the investing peritoneum and a very thin sheet of muscle fibers. The spermatheca is very small with a proportion- 12 The Virginia Journal of Science ally thick muscular wall throughout its extent, so that there is no sharp boundary between ectal duct and bulbular regions, though a mass of spermatozoa is always found in its slightly expanded inner portion. Variation.- — Other than a rather unusual range in size of mature individuals (those with spermatozoa filling the testicular segments) no differences of note were observed. Hosts. — Xironogiton occidentalis has been found associated with the following crayfish hosts: Paci- fastacus l. leniusculus (Dana) P. 1. klamathensis (Stimpson), and (Goodnight’s records, 1940: 45) P. 1. trowbridgii (Stimpson), and P. g. gambelii (Girard). Distribution. — Crab Creek, the type-locality of X. occidentalis, arises west of Spokane, Washington, and following a westward course through the arid region of the central part of the state, flows into the Columbia River. I, however, have taken speci¬ mens of X. occidentalis only in streams of the west¬ ern slope of the Coastal Range which flow directly into the Pacific Ocean. Goodnight (1940: 45), whose records of this species can be accepted, since its size and shape is distinctive, records it from Harney County, Oregon, a region of central Oregon that must be much like the type-locality; Vernonia, Oregon, again in the Coastal Range and near some of my localities; and Young River, Oregon, which I have been unable to locate. All this suggests that X. occidentalis may have a relatively widespread, but discontinuous, distribution in the Columbia (in¬ cluding the lower Snake) River drainage and in the streams of the Coastal Range that flow directly into the Pacific in Washington and Oregon (? British Columbia). Material examined. — Twenty specimens from the following localities: Oregon, Lincoln County, Slick Rock Creek, 5 miles southwest of Rose Lodge on state highway 18, taken on Pacifastacus l. leniusculus byP. C. & V. F. Holt, July 13, 1960 (USNM 48564; PCH 1122: 7 specimens). Washington, Clallam County, Mill Creek at Forks on U.S. Highway 101, taken on Pacifastacus leniusculus trowbridgii (Stimp¬ son) by P. C. & V. F. Holt, July 16, 1960 (USNM 48567; PCH 1137: 5 specimens); Gray’s Harbor County, West Fork Hoquiam River at crossing of U.S. Highway 101, 14.5 miles south of Humptulips, taken on P. 1. klamathensis by P. C. & V. F. Holt, July 16, 1960 (USNM 48566; PCH 1132: 2 im¬ mature specimens); Wahkiakum County, Gray’s River, 21 miles east of Gray’s River on U.S. High¬ way 830, taken on P. 1. klamathensis by P. C. & V. F. Holt, July 14, 1960 (USNM 48565; PCH 1130: 6 specimens). Remarks. — It is known (Brown 1961; personal field observations) that most species of Xironogiton are essentially confined to the distal portion of the chelipeds of their hosts. This, relying on my memory of twelve years ago, is not true of X. occidentalis and, indeed, the very size of animals of this species argues against them occupying such a microhabitat. Rather, they occur on the dorsal surface of the carapace, and perhaps elsewhere, of their hosts. The size of the animals is remarkable and, as in the case of Cambarincola ingens Hoffman, seems to be due to an increase in the size of individual cells, especially the muscle cells of the body wall, which raises the interesting possibility of the existence of polyploidy among the branchiobdellids. Xironogiton fordi, new species Figures 1 , 4 Type-specimens. Holotype and two paratypes, USNM 48549: three paratypes, USNM 48550; two paratypes, PCH 785, taken on Pacifastacus gambelii connectens (Faxon) from Riley Creek at Idaho Fish Hatchery, Gooding County, Idaho by P. C. and V. F. Holt, Judson and Willia Ford, July 14, 1958. Diagnosis. — Small branchiobdellids (length about 1.6 to 2.1 mm); segments I-IV terete, segments V-VIII broadly flattened, segments, V-VII hardly or not at all distinguishable externally; jaws sub- rectangular, anteroposterior dimensions much less than transverse ones, teeth always subequal in length, dental formula from 6/6 to 11/11; bursa ellipsoid; spermiducal gland arising ectally at ventral border of coelom, curving dorsally over bursa to about midline of body or beyond; spermatheca clavate, directed laterad, thick-walled, 1 /4 or more width of segment V in length. Etymology. — This species is named in honor of the late Judson Ford whose hospitality and guidance while collecting branchiobdellids in southern Idaho were sources of great help and comfort to me. Description. — Members of the species Xirono¬ giton fordi are small-to-medium-sized worms. The holotype has the following dimensions: total length, 2.1 mm; greatest diameter, 0.9 mm; head length, 0.5 mm; head diameter, 0.4 mm; diameter, segment 1, 0.3 mm; diameter, sucker, 0.5 mm. The holotype and four paratypes have the following average dimen¬ sions: total length, 1.9 mm ,1. 6-2.1 mm ), greatest diameter, 0.9 mm (0. 6-1.0 mm); head length, 0.5 mm (0.4-0. 5 mm); head, [ diameter, 0.4 mm ( 0.3— 0.4 mm); diameter, segment 1, 0.3 mm (0.6-0. 4 mm); diameter, sucker, 0.4 mm (0. 3-0.5 mm). The head is almost as great in diameter as its length; it has no external sulci except the peristomial one. The peristomium is hardly, if at all, divided into upper and lower lips and there are no median emar- ginations of the lips. Oral papillae are present. In¬ ternally, the pharynx is expanded in the type series and pharyngeal sulci are obscure: serial sections reveal two. The jaws are distinctive. Subrectangular, as are all those of the genus, the teeth-bearing border is straight, the teeth are of equal length, ranging in number for each jaw of an individual from six to eleven; the number of teeth is the same for both jaws of a single specimen. The first four segments are terete, increasing only slightly in diameter through segment IV. The re¬ maining segments are dramatically flattened, much broader, and intrasegmental furrows 5/6 and 6/7 are obliterated. Segment VIII is set off by furrow 7/8; the remaining segments (IX-XI) are incorpo¬ rated into the sucker. The Genus Xironogiton 13 Fig. 4 — Xironogiton jordi. a, ventral view of holotype; b, ventral view of reproductive systems of holotype; c, lower jaw of holo- type, d, upper jaw of holotype. The gut is not “looped” in any segment, but is displaced to the left side of the coelom in segment VI. The spermiducal gland entally extends to the dorsomedian border of the bursa, curves ventrad along the lateral margin of the latter, narrowing rapidly as it approaches its junction with the ejacu¬ latory duct. The vasa deferentia enter it immediately before its narrowed ectal part becomes the ejacula¬ tory duct. The gland is histologically different along its length; the ental and ectal parts taking a darker stain with hematoxylin than the lightly staining me¬ dian portion. The ejaculatory duct is a thin muscular tube that runs along the lateroposterior border of the bursa to enter the latter at its lateroposterior apex where it forms a heavily muscular penis which projects through the bursal atrium to the ventral wall of the bursa. Heavily muscular atrial folds are present and the atrial wall itself is thick. In shape, the bursa is an almost perfect ellipsoid in longitudinal section. The spermatheca, through typical of the genus in shape (clavate) and in its thick muscular wall, ex¬ tends entally posterolaterad and is relatively large, reaching a length of about 1 /4 the width of segment V. There is no definite boundary between ectal duct and bulb and the bulb always contains spermatozoa in mature specimens. Variation. — The variation in number of teeth is noted above and I have deliberated gravely as to whether to include the worms from northwestern Wyoming, where the specimens with the largest num¬ ber of teeth are found, in the species. But variability in the number of teeth occurs in other species of the genus. One serially sectioned animal from Lincoln County, Wyoming, shows the reverse of the staining properties of the spermiducal gland from those de¬ scribed for a sectioned and stained specimen of the type series. In spite of the apparent constancy of the staining properties of the spermiducal gland in X. instabilis, too little is known of the physiological functions of the glands associated with the male reproductive system of any branchiobdellid to allow one to draw any conclusions from this variation, which well may simply represent a different stage in the secretory cycle of the gland. The coherence and constancy of the other observable characters of the specimens studied convinces me of their conspeci- ficity. Affinities. — Xironogiton jordi is indistinguishable in size and body proportions from X. instabilis, ex¬ cept for the easily overlooked median emarginations of the lips of the latter. The jaws and teeth of X. jordi are diagnostic: the narrow linear jaws and teeth of equal length are found in no other species of the genus. The ellipsoid bursa differs in shape from the pyriform (often deformed and elongated in the trans¬ verse plane of its segment) one of X. instabilis and the spermathetca is distinctly larger in X. jordi, pro¬ portionately the largest in the genus. The large size of X. occidentals greatly exceeds that of X. jordi and the other species of the genus. The bursa of these two species differ in shape and proportional size: that of X. occidentals is sub- spherical and it is proportionately smaller. The spermatheca of X. jordi extends, dorsal to the bursa, entally to approximately the mid-line of the body; that of X. occidentals forms an inverted “U” lateral to the bursa. Distribution. — The Snake River and its tributaries 14 The Virginia Journal of Science in Idaho and Wyoming and, presumably (I have not been able to accurately place the Lincoln County lo¬ cality), the Bear River drainage — part of the Great Basin drainage with no outlet to the sea now, but formerly a part of the Snake River system. The alternative would put this record in the Colorado River drainage by way of the Green River and this is unlikely since the host crayfish do not inhabit the Colorado system. The other two localities on the Absaroka Plateau (at an elevation of approximately 7,800 feet) in Wyoming may represent altitudinal records for any branchiobdellid. Hosts. — P. g. gambelii and P. g. connectens. Material examined. — Thirty-three specimens: the type-series and 3 others (PCH 785: 11 specimens); Wyoming, Lincoln County, Crow Creek, taken on Pacijastacus g. gambelii by Tracey (first name un¬ known), September 28, 1946, USNM 48557 (PCH 420: 10 specimens); Teton County, Polecat Creek, taken on P. g. gambelii by Lipke B. Holthuis, July 29, 1960, USNM 48553 (PCH 1327: 6 specimens); Yellowstone National Park, Crayfish Creek at Moose Falls, taken on P. g. gambelii by Robert C. Powell, 1961, USNM 48554 (PCH 1501 : 6 specimens). Xironogiton cassiensis, new species Figures 1 , 5 Type-specimens. — Holotype, USNM 48555 and nine paratypes, USNM 48556; seven paratypes, PCH 782, taken on Pacijastacus g. gambelii from the Raft River between Alma and Bridge on county road. Cassia County, Idaho, by P. C. and V. F. Holt and Ray Bronson, July 13, 1958. Diagnosis. — Small branchiobdellids (length about 1.5 to 2.1 mm); segments I-IV terete, segments V- VIII broadly flattened, distinct externally; jaws sub- rectangular, tooth bearing margin concave, lateral teeth longer than median ones, dental formula 6/6 to 7/7; bursa ovoid; spermiducal gland long, extend¬ ing entally well beyond dorsomedian margin of bursa; spermatheca small, thick-walled, directed posteriorad. Etymology. — For Cassia County, Idaho, the type locality. Description. — Individuals of Xironogiton cassiensis are small members of the genus: only X. kittitasi is as small. The holotype has the following dimensions: total length, 2.1 mm; greatest diameter, 0.8 mm; head length, 0.4 mm; head diameter, 0.3 mm; diameter, segment I, 0.3 mm; diameter, sucker, 0.4 mm. The holotype and four randomly selected paratypes have the following average dimensions: total length, 1.8 mm (1. 5-2.1 mm); greatest diameter, 0.7 mm (0.6- 0.8 mm); head length, 0.4 mm (0. 3-0.4 mm); head diameter, 0.3 mm (0.3-0. 3 mm); diameter, segment I, 0.3 mm (0.3-0. 3 mm); diameter, sucker, 0.3 mm (0.3-0. 4 mm). Segments I-IV are terete, increasing gradually in diameter posteriorly so that the flattened posterior segments are not sharply demarcated in transverse diameter from the anterior ones. The head, except for the peristomial sulcus, has no external signs of segmentation. The peristomium is not obviously divided into upper and lower lips, except that its dorsal part projects beyond the lower. Rarely the lower “lip” shows a faint median emargination and in some specimens it clearly bears at its inner border a number (not easily determined) of oral papillae. In other specimens, these are not detectable and they are apparently entirely absent from one serially sec¬ tioned paratype. Internally, three pharyngeal sulci are evident. The jaws have a concave tooth bearing border; the median teeth are always shorter than the lateral ones; the dental formula is 6/6 or 7/7. The gut is, indeed, looped in segment VIII; a feature regarded by Ellis (1919: 247) as a generic character. This has been referred to above and it is strange to find that this peculiarity of the gut occurs only in a species of the genus of which Ellis almost surely never saw a specimen on the basis of his locality records. The spermiducal gland is very long: its ental por¬ tion extends dorsal to the bursa almost to the body wall opposite to the half of the segment that is filled with the major portions of the male reproductive system. The division of the gland into distinct histo¬ logically different regions is not evident in serial sec¬ tions, although some more heavily granular cells, which stain deeply with eosin, are intermingled with, along the median portion of the gland, those not so granular, that are stained predominantly with hema¬ toxylin. The anterior vas deferens enters the gland at its junction with the ejaculatory duct; the posterior at a point approximately level with the laterodorsal margin of the bursa. The ejaculatory duct is a slender tube which meanders dorsad along the lateral side of the bursa to enter the latter at its apex opposite its external opening. The bursa, itself, is distinguished by its quite symmetrical ovoid shape; its internal struc¬ ture conforms to that of most other members of the genus. As is generally true of the species of Xirono¬ giton, the bursa and spermiducal gland fill half of the coelom of segment VI. The clavate spermatheca is short, thick-walled, with ectal duct and bulb poorly demacated (though spermatozoa are always present in the fundus) and directed posteriorad underneath the gut. Variation. — The variability in tooth number has been noted and it occurs within a single population from Lincoln County, Wyoming. It is not, therefore of any taxonomic significance. More significantly, these four specimens and one from Lake County, Idaho, have shorter spermiducal glands that end entally at about the mid-line of the body. It is with extreme reluctance that I assign these specimens, from the Great Salt Lake drainage, to X. cassiensis and I would not do so except for the conformity in jaw structure and, more importantly, the fact that I have a single specimen from Gooding County, Idaho, with a 6/6 dental formula and a spermiducal gland of intermediate length. Future collecting quite likely will demonstrate the specific distinctness of the Great Salt Lake Basin (Bear River drainage) specimens. It might be noted, though, that the latter occur on the same host as the type-series. Affinities. — Xironogiton cassiensis has the body The Genus Xironogiton 15 Fig. 5 — Xironogiton cassiensis. a, ventral view of holotype; b, ventral view of reproductive systems of holotype; c, jaw of paratype. (Abbreviations: b = bursa; ed = ejaculatory duct ; sb = bulb of spermatheca; sd = ectal duct of spermatheca; sg = spermiducal gland ; vd = vas deferens). form of X. occidentalis, but differs from the later in the shape of the jaws, a concave teeth-bearing margin in the former and a convex one in the latter. The bursa of X. cassiensis is distinctly egg-shaped and differs in this respect from the other species of the genus. The distance between the junctions of the vasa deferentia with the spermiducal gland is greater than in the other species, but resembles X. occidentalis most closely in this respect. The spermiducal gland differs from that of X. instabilis, X. fordi and X. occidentalis in its greater proportional length, which, however, does not reach that of X. kittitasi. In addi¬ tion, it appears to be unique in not being divided into histologically distinct portions (but, cf. X. kittitasi below). The bulbular wall of the spermatheca is thicker than in other species of the genus. Hosts. — Pacifastacus g. gambelii, P. g. connectens. Distribution. — The middle of Snake River drain¬ age in Cassia (Raft River) and Gooding Counties, Idaho, and the Bear River drainage in Lincoln County, Wyoming, and Lake County, Idaho. Material examined. — Twenty-three specimens: the type-series (PCH 782: 17 specimens); Idaho, Lake County, Paris, taken on Pacifastacus g. gambelii by C. L. Hayward and D. Eldon Beck, October 28, 1950, USNM 48558 (PCH 424: 1 specimen); Gooding County, Riley Creek (Idaho Fish Hatch¬ ery), taken on P. g. connectens by P. C. and V. F. 16 The Virginia Journal of Science Holt, and J. and W. Ford, July 14, 1958, USNM 48559 (PCH 785: 1 specimen); Wyoming, Lincoln County, Crow Creek, taken on P. g. gambelii by Tracey (first name unknown), September 28, 1946, USNM 48557 (PCH 420: 4 specimens). Xironogiton kittitasi, new species Figures 1, 6 Type-specimens. — Holotype, USNM 48560, two paratypes, USNM 48561; two paratypes, PCH 1141, taken on Pacijastacus leriiusculus klamathensis (Stimpson) from Teenaway River, Kittitas County, Washington, by P. C. and V. F. Holt, July 18, 1960. Diagnosis. — Small (length about 1.4 to 2.0 mm); segments I-IV terete; segments V-VIII broadly flattened, hardly or not at all distinguishable ex¬ ternally; jaws subrectangular, median teeth always shorter than lateral ones, dental formula 4/4 to 6/6; bursa irregularly ellipsoid; spermiducal gland very long, extending from ectal end dorsad to dorsal body wall, thence transversely to opposite laterodorsal body wall, exceeding in length total transverse diameter of segment VI, ectally narrowing gradually to junction with ejaculatory duct, vasa deferentia entering at different levels of narrowed ectal portion; spermatheca small, clavate, directed laterad. Etymology. — Genitive form of Kittitas, the county in Washington which contains the type-locality. Description. — Xironogiton kittitasi includes the smallest known members of the genus. The holotype has the following dimensions: total length, 1.5 mm; greatest diameter, 0.8 mm; head length, 0.3 mm; head diameter, 0.25 mm; diameter, segment I, 0.2 mm; diameter, sucker, 0.3 mm. The type -series (five specimens) have the following average dimensions: total length, 1.6 mm (1. 4-2.0 mm); greatest diam¬ eter, 0.8 mm (0.6-0. 9 mm); head length, 0.3 mm (0.3-0. 4 mm); head diameter, 0.3 mm (0.25-0.35 mm); diameter, segment I, 0.2 mm (0.2-0.3 mm); diameter, sucker, 0.3 mm (0.3-0. 4 mm). The head is only slightly greater in length than diameter and has no external sulci except the peristomial one. The peristomium is entire, not di¬ vided into upper and lower lips, although it has very shallow, almost indetectable dorsal and ventral indentations. Oral papillae are present. Internally, there are three, not very distinct, pharyngeal sulci. The teeth bearing margins of the jaws are sub- linear; the dental formula varies from 4/4 to 6/6; the median tooth or teeth are invariably shorter than the lateral ones, though the most lateral tooth is not always the longest. The first two segments are subequal in diameter, the third slightly greater, while segment IV, though noticeably greater in diameter than the first three, is distinctly less so than the broadly flattened pos¬ terior segments. Intersegmental furrows between seg¬ ments V-VIII may or may not be externally evident. The sucker is somewhat greater in diameter than either the head or the somewhat narrower segment I. The gut may be pushed aside in segment VII by maturing eggs (as it always is by the male organs Fig. 6 — Xironogiton kittitasi — a, ventral view of holotype; b, reproductive system of holotype; c, upper jaw of holotype; d, lower jaw of holotype. The Genus Xironogiton 17 among members of the genus in segment VI) but it cannot truly be said to be “looped”. The spermiducal gland is very long, its “blind” ental end abuts the dorsolateral margin of the body wall and it extends dorsad above the gut and the bursa and then curves ventrad between the bursa and the opposite body wall to the lateroventral mar¬ gin of the coelom to pass into the muscular ejaculatory duct. It is difficult to determine in my unstained material, that is mounted entire, if the spermiducal gland is histologically differentiated along its length, but approximately the second one-fourth of the gland from its ental end appears to be composed of less granular cells than the remainder, though this is un¬ certain and I cannot determine whether the expected histological distinctness of the ental, median and ectal portions of the gland exists. The gland narrows ectally before it passes into the ejaculatory duct. The posterior vas deferens enters at the junction of the gland and the ejaculatory duct; the anterior one enters somewhat entally to this junction. These statements should be checked by reference to serially sectioned animals. Nonetheless, the spermiducal gland is, by virtue of its length, one of the most distinctive char¬ acters of the species. The ejaculatory duct is, as usual, a long slender muscular tube that courses dorsad around the lateral margin of the bursa to enter the latter at its postero- dorsal apex opposite its external opening. The bursa, itself, is irregularly ellipsoid in shape and its muscular walls are disproportionately thick and the broad conical penis, directed ventromesad, essentially fills the atrial space of the bursa, effectively obliterating the atrial folds, so often prominent in other species, not only of Xironogiton but in other genera of the order. Much of the total coelomic space of segment VI is filled by these components of the male repro¬ ductive system. The clavate spermatheca is directed laterad and is, though small, proportionately larger than usual. Variation. — None noted, other than the variability in the number of teeth remarked upon above. Affinities. — In body form and size (though some¬ times somewhat smaller), X. kittitasi is indistinguish¬ able from X. instabilis and X. fordi and the few speci¬ mens studied were almost overlooked as ones of X. instabilis until the extreme length of the spermiducal gland was noted. The jaws differ subtly from those of X. instabilis in their essentially straight, as op¬ posed to convex, teeth-bearing margins and from those of X. fordi in the smaller number of teeth and their unequal length. The bursa is essentially indis¬ tinguishable from that of the latter species. The spermiducal gland appears to be differentiated into histological regions — since I have no serial sections of X. kittitasi this point is uncertain — which is true of the other members of the genus except X. cas- siensis. It is unique in its extreme length, approached in this respect only by X. cassiensis from which it appears to also differ in the distance between the points of entry into it of the vasa deferentia which is much greater in the latter. It is not easy to determine degrees of affinities among these species, each of which is distinct in some respects that can neither be regarded with assurance as primitive or advanced, except for the tentative postulation of the primitive status of X. occidental is. Host. — Pacifastacus leniusculus (Stimpson). Distribution. — Upper reaches of the Y akirna River drainage on the eastern slopes of the Cascade Range in Washington. Material examined.- — Thirteen specimens: the type-series (PCH 1141: 5 specimens); Washington, Kittitas County, (?) irrigation ditch, 7.2 miles east of Ellensburg on U. S. Highway 10, taken on Pacifastacus leniusculus klamathensis (Stimpson) by P. C. and V. F. Holt, July 18, 1960, USNM 48562 (PCH 1142: 8 specimens). Note I have a number of specimens (PCH 1285) taken from Cambarus carolinus, a burrowing crayfish and an unlikely host for a species of Xironogiton, on the grounds of the Mountain Lake Hotel, Giles County, Virginia, by Kenneth Simonds and Hugo James, August 10, 1960, that are indisputably mem¬ bers of the genus Xironogiton, These specimens dif¬ fer from X. instabilis, which is very common in the region, in the peculiar narrowing and elongation of the posterior part of the body, a feature that I would consider of specific value if I were convinced that it is constant and characteristic of a distinct population. Many efforts to obtain additional specimens failed and since these were taken from crayfish that were out of water on a rainy night, I am inclined to at¬ tribute their unusual shape to some influence of the conditions under which they were taken and tenta¬ tively assign them to X. instabilis. Yet, the possibility remains that these animals do represent a new species and future students of the branchiobdellids should be alerted to this. Literature Cited Berry, James W. and Perry C. Holt 1959. Reactions of two species of Branchiobdellidae (Oligochaeta) to high temperatures and low oxy¬ gen tensions. Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station, Technical Bulletin, 141: 1-11. Brown, George G. 1961. Some Ecological Studies of the Branchiobdellidae found in Sinking Creek, Giles County, Virginia. Unpublished master’s thesis. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. 67 pages, figures 1-5. Ellis, Max M. 1912. A New Discodrilid Worm from Colorado. Pro¬ ceedings of the United States National Museum, 42(1912): 481-486, figures 1-5. 1918. Branchiobdellid Worms (Annelida) from Michi¬ gan Crayfishes. T ransactions of the American Microscopical Society, 37(1): 49-5 1 . 1919. The Branchiobdellid Worms in the Collections of the United States National Museum, with De¬ scription of New Genera and New Species. Pro¬ ceedings of the United States National Museum, 55(2267): 241-265, figures 1-18, plates 10-13. Franzen, Ake 1962. Notes on the Morphology and Histology of Xironogiton instabilia (Moore 1893) (fam. Bran¬ chiobdellidae) with Special Reference to the 18 The Virginia Journal of Science Muscle Cells. Zoologiska Bidrag frdn Uppsala, 35: 369-384, figures 1-4, plates I-IV. Georgevitch, Jivoin 1955. Sur les Branchiobdellides des ecrivisses du Lac Dojran./lcta Musei Macedonici Scientiarum Nat- uralium, 2(10/21): 199-221, figures 1-33. 1957. Les Branchiobdellides de Yougoslavie. Bulletin de 1’ Academic serbe des Sciences, 18: 7-22, figures 1-33. Goodnight, Clarende J. 1940. The Branchiobdellidae (Oligochaeta) of North American Crayfishes. Illinois Biological Mono¬ graphs, 17(3): 1—75, plates 1—3. Hall, Maurice C. 1914. Descriptions of a New Genus and Species of the Discodrilid Worms. Proceedings of the United States National Museum, 48(2071): 187-193, figures 1-3. Henle, G. J. 1835. Ueber die Gattung Branchiobdella. Archiv fur Anatomic, Physiologie und Wissenschaftliche Medicin, 1835: 574-608, plate 14. Hobbs, Horton H., Jr., Perry C. Holt and Margaret Walton 1967. The Crayfishes and their Epizootic Ostracod and Branchiobedellid Associates of the Mountain Lake, Virginia, Region. Proceedings of the United States National Museum, 123(3602): 1-84, figures 1-22. Hoffman, Richard L. 1963. A Revision of the North American Annelid Worms of the Genus Cambarincola (Oligochaeta: Bran¬ chiobdellidae). Proceedings of the United States National Museum. 114(3470): 271-371, figures 1-79. Holt, Perry C. 1949. A Comparative Study of the Reproductive Systems of Xironogiton instabilius instabilius (Moore) and Cambarincola philadelphica (Leidy) (An¬ nelida, Oligochaeta, Branchiobdellidae). Journal of Morphology, 84(3): 535-572, plates 1-4. 1951. The Genera Xironodrilus and Pterodrilus in North America with Notes on other North Ameri¬ can Genera of the Family Branchiobdellidae (An¬ nelida, Oligochaeta). Unpublished dissertation, University of Virginia, 1-241, plates 1-30. 1953. Characters of Systematic Importance in the Family Branchiobdellidae (Oligochaeta). The Virginia Journal of Science, New Series, 4(2): 57-61. 1960. The Genus Ceratodrilus Hall (Branchiobdellidae, Oligochaeta) with the Description of a New Species. The Virginia Journal of Science, New Series, 11(2): 53-77, plates 1-4. 1964. The Distribution of the Branchiobdellids: Some Zoogeographical Problems. American Zoologist, 4(4): 260. (Abstract). 1965. On Ankyrodrilus, a New Genus of Branchiobdel- lid Worms (Annelida). The Virginia Journal of Science, New Series, 16(1): 9—21, figures 1—14. 1967. Status of the Genera Branchiobdella and Steph- anodrilus in North America with Description of a New Genus (Clitellata: Branchiobdellida). Pro¬ ceedings of the United States National Museum, 124(3631): 1-10, figures 1-4. 1968a. The Branchiobdellida: Epizootic Annelids. The Biologist, 50(3-4) : 79-94, figures 1-2. 1968b. New Genera and Species of Branchiobdellid Worms (Annelida: Clitellata). Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington, 81:291-318, figures 1-9. 1968c. The Genus Pterodrilus (Annelida: Branchiobdel¬ lida). Proceedings of the United States National Museum, 125(3668): 1-44, figures 1-12. 1969. The Relationships of the Branchiobdellid Fauna of the Southern Appalachians, (in) Holt, Perry C., ed., The Distributional History of the Biota of the Southern Appalachians, Part 1, Invertebrates. Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Research Division Monograph 1: 191-219, figures 1-10. Leidy, Joseph 1851. Contributions to Helminthology. Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, 5: 205-209.’ McManus, Lawrence R. 1960. Some Ecological Studies of the Branchiobdellidae (Oligochaeta). Transactions of the American Microscopical Society, 79(4): 420-428. McKenzie, Dan P. 1972. Plate Tectonics and Sea Floor Spreading. Ameri¬ can Scientist, 60(4) : 425-435. Moore, J. Percy 1894. On Some Leech-like Parasites of American Cray¬ fishes. Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, (for 1893): 419-428, plate 12. 1895. The anatomy of Bdellodrilus illuminatus, an American discodrillid. Journal of Morphology, 10(2) : 497-540, plates 28-32. Odier, Auguste 1823. Memoire sur le Branchiobdelle, Nouveau Genre d’ Annelides de la Famille des Hirudinees. Me- moires de la Societe d’ Histoire Naturelle de Paris, 1 : 7 1—7 8, plate 4. Pennak, Robert W. 1953. Fresh-water Invertebrates of the United States. The Ronald Press Company, New York, ix + 769. Pierantoni, Umberto 1965. Cirrodrilus cirratus, n.g., n. sp. parassita del’ Astacus japonicus. Annuario del Museo Zoologico delta ( R . Universita ) di Napoli ( Nuova Serie ), 2(11): 1-9. 1912. Monografia dei Discodrilidae. Annuario del Museo Zoologico (R. Universitai di Napoli (Nuova Serie), 3(24): 1-28, figures 1-20, plate 5. Pop, Victor 1965. Systematische revision der europaischen Bran- chiobdelliden (Oligochaeta). Zoologische Jalir- buch fur Systematik, 92: 219-238, figures 1-12. Smallwood, W. M. 1906. Notes on Branchiobdella. Biological Bulletin, 1 1 : 100-111. Stephenson, J. 1930. The Oligochaeta. University Press, Oxford, xiv, 978. Whitman, C. O. 1882. A New Species of Branchiobdella. Zoologischer Anzeiger, 3(4): 636-637. The Genus Xironogiton 19 Edward R. Meyer Department of Biology General Academic Division Virginia Commonwealth University Richmond, Virginia 23284 Unionid Mussels of the Wabash, White, and East Fork White Rivers, Indiana Abstract — Distributions and abundances of unionid mus¬ sels (Mollusca: Pelecypoda) in the Wabash, White, and East Fork White rivers, Indiana, are presented as based on collections made at 49 stations during 1966-67. Only 30 of 64 species reported from the study area by previous workers were encountered. Comparisons of these findings with the results of earlier investigations indicate that re¬ ductions in the ranges and abundances of many species, and apparent extirpation of several kinds, have occurred within the last three decades. Introduction In 1900 Call (1 ) listed about 70 kinds of mussels, or freshwater clams of the family Unionidae (Mol¬ lusca: Pelecypoda), as inhabitants of Indiana. Four decades later Goodrich and van der Schalie (2) catalogued 75 different unionids from that state, 64 of which reportedly lived in the Wabash and White rivers. This paper documents the recent distributions and abundances of unionid clams in the Wabash, White, and East Fork White rivers of Indiana, and is based on data accumulated during a survey of the commercially valuable mussels of the rivers in con¬ sideration as reported by Krumholz, Bingham, and Meyer (3). Comparisons of the results presented here with those of the earlier investigations (1, 2) indicate that a dramatic modification of this fauna has occurred within the last 25-30 years, consisting principally of reductions in the ranges and abun¬ dances of many species and apparent local extinc¬ tions of others. The purpose of this paper is to record those changes and to relate them to Stansbery’s (4) recent compilation of rare, endangered, and recently extinct mussels of the region east of the Mississippi River. The findings presented here are only one ex¬ ample of the gross modifications that continue to appear in the benthic faunas of North American waters. Methods Unionid mussels were collected at 49 stations on the Wabash, White, and East Fork White rivers (Fig. 1) during 1966 and 1967. The stations were located approximately 16 km apart on the Wabash River from Delphi, Indiana, to its confluence with the Ohio River (ca. 533 river km), and on the mainstream and East Fork of the White River from Tunnelton, Ind., to junction of the former with the Wabash at Mt. Carmel, Illinois (ca. 259 river km). Living mussels were collected with a crowfoot bar over a distance of at least 1.6 km at each station. The crow¬ foot bar is a specialized type of mussel dredge used by many commercial mussel harvesters operating on the Mississippi River and its larger tributaries, and has been described in detail by Coker (5) and Carlander (6). Living animals and valves of dead specimens were also collected by hand at most stations in con¬ junction with the crowfoot bar collections, and shells were gathered and examined along river banks throughout the study area. Most living mussels that were captured were returned to the rivers, but in¬ dividuals were retained for identification purposes when necessary. Species Accounts The following accounts are arranged alphabetically by genus. Entries are included for each of the 64- species reported from the Wabash and White rivers by Goodrich and van der Schalie (2), even though living specimens of only 30 kinds appeared during 1966-67, to emphasize the substantial degree of modification this fauna has . undergone in recent years. Living specimens of a species deemed abundant (A) within a given river segment were present in quantity at all or most stations in the area, and were the predominant members of the unionid fauna in that segment. Shells of each abundant form were present on the river bottoms and banks throughout the area(s) of abundance. Presence of a species in¬ dicated as common (C) within a river section was indicated by at least one but usually several living specimens at most stations in the area. Valves of dead individuals of common species were usually present throughout the section (s) inhabited by their living counterparts. Species defined as rare (R) were represented by four or fewer living animals in a given river segment. The arbitrary limits of the upper, middle, and lower sections of the Wabash River used for this report are given in Fig. 1, and my evaluations of 20 The Virginia Journal of Science Fig. 1 — Sections of the Wabash, White, and East Fork White rivers included in the study area. Upper Wabash; Delphi, Ind. to Terre Haute, Ind.: middle Wabash; Terre Haute to Mt. Carmel, Ill.: lower Wabash; Mt. Carmel to the Ohio River. the distributions and abundances of the species pres¬ ent in the study area at the time of this investigation are summarized in Table 1. Actinonaias carinata (Barnes). Call (1) and Goodrich and van der Schalie (2) reported this mussel to be common in larger Indiana rivers. At the time of this investigation it was common in the White River system and in the lower Wabash, and abundant in all sections of the Wabash upstream from Mt. Carmel, Ill. Alasmidonta marginata (Say). Call (1) reported this clam as present in every river basin in Indiana, but did not comment on its abundance. Goodrich and van der Schalie (2) described it as present in head¬ water situations throughout the state. One small liv¬ ing specimen was collected during this project, in the upper Wabash a few km downstream from Americus, Ind. There was no evidence of its presence elsewhere in the study area. Amblema costata Rafinesque. Goodrich and van der Schalie (2) described this mussel as widely dis¬ tributed in Indiana. I found it common throughout the Wabash and mainstream White rivers, and abun¬ dant in all areas of the East Fork upstream from Haysville, Ind. Amblema peruviana (Lamarck). Goodrich and van der Schalie (2) reported this form to be present in the Wabash and White rivers, but did not com¬ ment on its abundance. The only evidence I found of it were several old eroded valves on a bank of the East Fork between Shoals, Ind. and Haysville, Ind. Anodonta grandis Say. Call (1) recorded this species as abundant in sluggish streams, backwaters, and oxbow lakes along the Wabash and Ohio rivers. Goodrich and van der Schalie (2) considered it common in Indiana, and noted several collection lo¬ calities for it on the Wabash. One living specimen TABLE 1 Distribution and abundance of unionids in the Wabash, White, and East Fork White rivers, Indiana. R = rare, C = common, A = abundant. A dash indicates absence of a species from a river segment. White River Main Stream East Fork Species Upper Middle Lower Actinonaias carinata A A C C C Alasmidonta marginata R _ _ _ _ Amblema costata C C c c A Anodonta grandis — — R — — Anodontoides ferussacianus R _ _ _ _ Cyclonaias tuberculata _ _ _ _ R Cyprogenia irrorata — R — — — Elliptio crassidens — — — — C Fusconaia ebenus R R R c C F. undata R R — R c Lampsilis anodontoides C C C L. ventricosa c C C C c Lasmigona complanata c C c R c L. compressa R — — — — L. costata R R — — — Leptodea fragilis C C c C c L. laevissima — — R — — Megalonaias gigantea R C _ R c Obliquaria reflexa R R R R c Obovaria olivaria A A C C c O. subrotunda R — — — R Plethobasus cyphus C — — — R Pleurobema cordatum R _ _ Proptera alata C C C C c Quadrula metanevra C C R R R Q. pustulosa A A A A A Q. quadrula A A A A A Strophitus rugosus R — — — — Tritogonia verrucosa C C _ _ _ Truncilla truncata R R R R R Unionid Mussels 21 was taken during this investigation, from the lower Wabash. No further evidence of it appeared. Anodonta imbecillis (Say). I found no evidence of this form. Goodrich and van der Schalie (2) described it as present in most Indiana drainages and noted several collection localities for the species on the upper Wabash. Anodonta suborbiculata (Say). Goodrich and van der Schalie (2) reported this unionid as present in the lower Wabash and in the mainstream of the White River. I did not find it in the study area. Anodontoides jerussacianus (Lea). Both previous monographs (1, 2) recorded this mussel as common in Indiana, and Goodrich and van der Schalie noted a collection site for it on the upper Wabash. Two living specimens were collected during this study, both from the upper Wabash. No further evidence of the species appeared. Arcidens confragosus (Say). I did not find this unionid. Goodrich and van der Schalie reported it from the White River and from two locations on the middle and lower Wabash. Carunculina glans (Lea). I found no evidence of this animal. Goodrich and van der Schalie (2) re¬ ported it from the White River system and from the lower Wabash. Stansbery (4) considers the species to be rare and endangered. Carunculina parva (Barnes). I obtained no speci¬ mens. Goodrich and van der Schalie (2) considered the species to be widespread in Indiana rivers and mentioned three collection localities for it on the Wabash. Cyclonaias tuberculata (Rafinesque). The earlier investigators (1, 2) considered this mussel to be common in large Indiana rivers. I found no evidence of it in the Wabash and mainstream White rivers. A few specimens appeared at stations on the East Fork upstream from Shoals, Ind., and the species was rare in that area. Cyprogenia irrorata (Lea). Call (1) reported this unionid as common in the Wabash River. Goodrich and van der Schalie (2) reported it from the Wabash and White rivers and their larger tributaries, and provided collection localities for it from the middle and lower Wabash. I collected one living specimen and two shells of the species from stations on the middle Wabash. No further evidence of it appeared. Dysnomia flexulosa (Rafinesque). Goodrich and van der Schalie (2) indicated this mussel to be a rare inhabitant of the White and lower Wabash rivers. Stansbery (4) considers it to be extinct, and I found no evidence of its persistence in the present study area. Dysnomia perplexa (Lea). Goodrich and van der Schalie (2) described this species as “well repre¬ sented” in the Wabash and White rivers. I found no evidence of it. Dysnomia per sonata (Say). Goodrich and van der Schalie (2) recorded this animal as rare in the White and lower Wabash rivers. I obtained no specimens and Stansbery (4) considers it to be extinct. These same statements apply to the following two species, with the exception that Stansbery (4) considers D. sulcata to be rare and endangered rather than extinct. Dysnomia sampsoni (Lea) Dysnomia sulcata (Lea) Dysnomia triquetra (Rafinesque). Goodrich and van der Schalie (2) considered this form to be the most common member of its genus in Indiana, and reported it to be rare in the Wabash and White rivers. No evidence of it appeared during this investigation. Elliptio crassidens (Lamarck). Call (1) described this mussel as present in the Wabash River. Goodrich and van der Schalie (2) reported it to be an inhabi¬ tant of the larger rivers draining southern Indiana, and noted collection records for the species from the middle Wabash and the East Fork. It did not appear in the Wabash or mainstream White rivers during 1966-67, but was common throughout the East Fork upstream from Haysville, Ind. Elliptio dilatatus (Rafinesque). Call (1) consid¬ ered this species to be one of Indiana’s most abun¬ dant mussels, and particularly so in the Wabash River. Goodrich and van der Schalie (2) concurred, noting a number of collection sites for it on the Wabash. The only evidence I found of it was several old and weathered valves on a bank of the East Fork at Shoals, Ind. Fusconaia ebenus (Lea). Call (1) reported this mussel as common in larger Indiana rivers, and Goodrich and van der Schalie (2) described it as present in the Wabash and White rivers. At the time of this study it was rare in the Wabash, and common in the mainstream and East Fork of the White River. Fusconaia subrotunda (Lea). Goodrich and van der Schalie (2) reported this clam from the Wabash, but made no statement concerning its abundance. I found no evidence of it. Fusconaia undata (Barnes). Goodrich and van der Schalie (2) indicated this mussel to be present in the Wabash and White rivers. I collected a few living specimens in the upper and middle segments of the Wabash, and consider the species rare in those areas. Individuals appeared sporadically in collections from the mainstream and East Fork of the White River downstream from Shoals, Ind., and the species was common throughout the East Fork upstream from Shoals. Call ( 1 ) noted that F. undata is quite variable in appearance, becoming larger and more laterally in¬ flated with increasing distance downstream. Good¬ rich and van der Schalie (2) pointed out that some taxonomists assign the smaller upstream form to a separate species, F. flava (Lea). All specimens taken during the present study were referred to as F. undata. Lampsilis anodontoides (Lea). Call (1) consid¬ ered this clam to be common in Indiana rivers. Good¬ rich and van der Schalie (2) limited its distribution to tributaries of the Ohio River, and mentioned three collection localities for the species in the middle and lower Wabash. Specimens were common in all areas of the Wabash that I studied, but none appeared in the White river system. Lampsilis fasciola Rafinesque. Goodrich and van der Schalie (2) described this animal as rare in Indiana and noted two collection sites for it on the 22 The Virginia Journal of Science Wabash River. I found no evidence of its presence in the study area. Lampsilis orbiculata (Hildreth). I did not find this species. Goodrich and van der Schalie (2) indi¬ cated it to be present in both the Wabash and White rivers. Lampsilis siliquoidea (Barnes). Goodrich and van der Schalie (2) considered this mussel to be one of Indiana’s most common unionids and gave four col¬ lection sites for it on the Wabash River. I obtained no specimens. Lampsilis ventricosa (Barnes). Due to confusion surrounding the taxonomic status of the nominal forms L. ovata (Say), L. ventricosa, and L. ovata ventricosa (Barnes) (2), I am treating them collec¬ tively as a single species, L. ventricosa. Both earlier reports (1, 2) described this mussel as common in the Wabash and White rivers, and it remained so throughout the 1966-67 study area. Lasmigona complanata (Barnes). Call (1) and Goodrich and van der Schalie (2) described this animal as common to abundant in large Indiana rivers. Living specimens were common in all areas studied in 1966-67 except the mainstream of the White River. Presence of the species in that area was indicated by several fresh and intact valves of dead animals collected from sections of river bottom. Lasmigona compressa (Lea). I collected only one specimen of this unionid, from a station on the upper Wabash at Americus, Ind. Goodrich and van der Schalie (2) described the species as common and wide-spread in the streams and rivers of Indiana. Lasmigona costata (Rafinesque). Call (1) con¬ sidered this clam to be common in all large rivers of Indiana. Goodrich and van der Schalie (2) men¬ tioned collection locations for it on the upper and middle sections of the Wabash River. I found it to be rare in the Wabash as far downstream as Vin- cinnes, Ind. The species did not appear elsewhere in the study area. Lastena lata (Rafinesque). Goodrich and van der Schalie (2) described this unionid as a rare inhabi¬ tant of the Wabash and White rivers. No specimens were taken during this survey, and Stansbery (4) considers it to be a rare and endangered species. Leptodea blatchleyi (Daniels). This form is known only from its type locality near the Grand Chains Islands in the lower Wabash (2). I found no evidence of it there or elsewhere in the study area. Leptodea fragilis (Rafinesque). Both earlier works (1, 2) indicated this animal to be common in the Wabash and White rivers. It remained so at the time of this investigation, and was common throughout the study area. Leptodea laevissima (Lea). Goodrich and van der Schalie (2) described this species as rare in the lower portion of the Wabash River. I collected one living specimen from the lower Wabash. No further evi¬ dence of it appeared. Leptodea leptodon (Rafinesque). Goodrich and van der Schalie (2) reported this animal as rare in the lower Wabash. I took no specimens and Stansbery (4) considers it to be a rare and en¬ dangered species. Ligumia recta (Rafinesque). Goodrich and van der Schalie (2) considered this mussel to be an inhabitant of all major Indiana drainages. I found no evidence of its presence in the study area. Megalonaias gigantea (Barnes). Call (1) reported this clam as present in larger Indiana rivers. Good¬ rich and van der Schalie (2) mentioned its presence in the Wabash and White rivers, but did not com¬ ment on its abundance. I collected a few living specimens from the upper and middle segments of the Wabash, but found no evidence of it in the lower section of that river. Several old and worn valves of the species appeared in the mainstream of the White River, but no living specimens were obtained in that area. The species was rare in the East Fork below Shoals, Ind., and common upstream from that point. Obliquaria reflexa Rafinesque. Call ( 1 ) considered O. reflexa to be common in Indiana. Goodrich and van der Schalie (2) mentioned its presence in the Wabash and White rivers, and noted that it was rarely found in large numbers. I found living indi¬ viduals throughout the study area. It was rare in the Wabash and mainstream White rivers, and common in the East Fork. Obovaria olivaria (Rafinesque). Call (1) de¬ scribed this species as abundant in all Indiana rivers, and Goodrich and van der Schalie (2) considered it to be common in the Wabash and White rivers. I found it to be abundant in the upper and middle sections of the Wabash River, and common through¬ out the remainder of the study area. Obovaria retusa (Lamarck) . Goodrich and van der Schalie (2) indicated this animal to be rare in the Wabash and White rivers. No evidence of it appeared during this investigation and Stansbery (4) con¬ siders it to be a rare and endangered species. Obovaria subrotunda (Rafinesque). Both earlier works (1, 2) reported this clam to be common in the Wabash and White rivers. I found it to be rare in the upper Wabash and in the East Fork. This species did not appear elsewhere in the study area. Plagiola lineolata (Rafinesque). I did not obtain this species. Goodrich and van der Schalie (2) re¬ ported it from the Wabash and White rivers but did not comment on its abundance. Plethobasus cicatricosus (Lea). Goodrich and van der Schalie (2) described P. cicatricosus as a rare inhabitant of the Wabash River. No specimens were taken during this survey, and Stansbery (4) con¬ siders the species to be rare and endangered. Plethobasus cooperianus (Rafinesque). All state¬ ments made for P. cicatricosus apply for this species. Plethobasus cyphus (Say). Call (1) considered this to be one of Indiana’s least abundant unionids, but reported it present in most rivers of the state. Goodrich and van der Schalie. (2) described it as a rare inhabitant of the Wabash and White rivers. At the time of this investigation it was common in the upper Wabash and rare in the East Fork. There was no evidence of its presence elsewhere in the study area. Pleurobema clava (Lamarck). Goodrich and van der Schalie (2) reported this mussel from the Wabash and White rivers but gave no information concem- Unionid Mussels 23 ing its abundance. I found no evidence of it, and Stansbery (4) considers the species to be rare and endangered. Pleurobema cor datum (Rafinesque). Both earlier reports (1,2) indicated this clam to present in larger Indiana rivers, but neither mentioned its abundance. At the time of this investigation it was a rare in¬ habitant of the lower Wabash. The species did not appear elsewhere in the study area. Proptera alata (Say). This is another unionid de¬ scribed as common in large Indiana rivers by the earlier workers (1, 2). It remained common in all areas studied during 1966-67. Proptera capex (Green). Goodrich and van der Schalie (2) listed this mussel as a rare inhabitant of the Wabash River. It did not appear during this study, and Stansbery (4) considers the species to be rare and endangered. Ptychobranchus fasciolaris (Rafinesque). Good¬ rich and van der Schalie (2) considered this clam to be rare in the lower Wabash River. I found no evi¬ dence of it. Quadrula cylindrica (Say). Call (1) considered this form to be common in the Wabash and White river systems, and Goodrich and van der Schalie (2) gave several collection localities for it on the Wabash. The only evidence of it to appear during the present investigation was a fragment of valve found on a bank of the Wabash near Hutsonville, Ill. Stansbery (4) considers the species to be rare and endangered, and it appears to have been extirpated from the Wabash and White rivers. Quadrula metanevra (Rafinesque). Call (1) re¬ corded this mussel as present in Indiana, and Good¬ rich and van der Schalie (2) described it as common in the Wabash and White rivers. At the time of this study the species was common in the upper and middle sections of the Wabash, and rare in the re¬ mainder of the investigated areas. Quadrula nodulata (Rafinesque). Goodrich and van der Schalie (2) reported this mussel from the Wabash and White rivers, but did not comment on its abundance. I found no evidence of it. Quadrula pustulosa (Lea). Both earlier mono¬ graphs (1, 2) described this unionid as common in larger Indiana rivers. It was abundant throughout the 1966-67 study area. Quadrula quadrula (Rafinesque). All statements made for Q. pustulosa apply to this species. Simpsoniconcha ambigua (Say). Goodrich and van der Schalie (2) described this animal as rare in the Wabash and White drainages. No evidence of it appeared during this investigation, and Stansbery (4) considers the species to be rare and endangered. Strophitus rugosus (Rafinesque). Call (1) re¬ ported this clam as present in all Indiana rivers. Goodrich and van der Schalie (2) considered it to be abundant in the headwaters of every drainage sys¬ tem in the state, and noted six widely-spaced collec¬ tion localities for the species on the Wabash. I found the species to be rare in the upper Wabash. It did not appear elsewhere in the study area. Tritogonia verrucosa (Barnes). Both earlier works (1, 2) indicated this species to be present in the Wa¬ bash River and its larger tributaries. During this study it appeared only in the upper and middle sections of the Wabash, where it was common. Truncilla donaciformis (Lea). Goodrich and van der Schalie (2) considered this species to be com¬ mon in the Wabash and White rivers. I found no evidence of its presence in the study area. Truncilla truncata (Rafinesque). Call (1) and Goodrich and van der Schalie (2) reported this unionid to be common in the Wabash and White river systems. It was rare throughout the areas investigated in 1966-67. Uniomerus tetralasmus (Say). Both Call (1) and Goodrich and van der Schalie (2) described this animal as present in the Wabash River, but neither commented on its abundance. I did not find it. Villosa ( —Micromya) lienosa (Conrad). Good¬ rich and van der Schalie (2) reported this form from the Wabash and White rivers, but gave no informa¬ tion concerning its abundance. I obtained no speci¬ mens. Discussion The 34 unionid species reported from the Wabash and White rivers by Goodrich and van der Schalie (2) that did not appear during 1966-67 are listed in Table 2. Stansbery (4) considers 11 of those species as being rare and endangered, and three of the six species of Dysnomia as being extinct. Elliptio dilatatus and Quadrula cylindrica, mussels once com¬ mon in the Wabash and White rivers, were repre¬ sented in the study area only by isolated shells found on river banks and seem to have been extirpated within the last three decades. A number of the species included in Table 2 were rare during the 1940’s, however, and their absence may be more apparent than real. They may live in unsampled habitats, or simply may be rare and very difficult to obtain. Most of the species that were present appeared to be less abundant than indicated by Call (1) and Goodrich TABLE 2 Unionids reported from the Wabash and White rivers by Goodrich and van der Schalie (2) that did not appear during this investigation. Species considered rare and endangered by Stansbery ( 4) are indicated by one asterisk. Species considered extinct by Stansbery are indicated by two asterisks. Amblema peruviana Leptodea blatchleyi Anodonta imbecillis L. leptodon* A. suborbiculata Ligumia recta Arcidens confragosus Obovaria retusa* Carunculina glans* Plagiola lineolata C. parva Plethobasus cicatricosus* Dysnomia flexuosa** P. cooperianus* D. perplexa Pleuorbema clava* D. personata** Proptera capex* D. sampsoni** Ptychobranchus fasciolaris D. sulcata* Quadrula cylindrica* D. triquetra Q. nodulata Elliptio dilatatus Simpsoniconcha ambigua* Fusconaia subrotunda Truncilla donaciformis Lampsilis fasciola Uniomerus tetralasmus L. orbiculata Villosa ( = Micromya) L. siliquoidea Lastena lata* lienosa 24 The Virginia Journal of Science and van der Schalie (2), and most exhibited more restricted ranges than were indicated by the earlier authors. Only a few kinds, most notably Quadmla quadrula, Quadmla pustulosa , Lampsilis ventrieosa, Actinormias carimta , and Obovaria olivaria, ap¬ peared to be as or possibly more abundant at the time of this investigation as in years past. A trend towards restriction of ranges and declines in abundance of many members of the unionid fauna of the Wabash and White rivers is clearly indicated, as is extirpation of certain species. Starrett (7) re¬ cently documented similar trends for the unionid fauna of the Illinois River, including local extinctions of 25 species. A gradual demise during the twentieth century of the mussel faunas of other rivers and streams in North America has been noted by many biologists, and the pattern appears to be general in drainages east of the Mississippi River (4). Earlier authors have attributed this phenomenon to a num¬ ber of factors, the more important of which seem to be deterioration of rivers as suitable habitats for unionids caused by ever-increasing burdens of or¬ ganic and industrial pollutants (8, 9, 10, 11), and destruction of mussel beds by damming and siltation (8,12). Acknowledgments I am grateful to L. A. Krumholz, Director of the University of Louisville Water Resources Labora¬ tory, for guidance during all phases of this project. Thanks are extended to J. K. Neel, University of North Dakota, for aid in identifying mussels, and to R. L. Bingham for assistance in the field. Financial support was provided by a grant to the University of Louisville from the Indiana Department of Natural Resources, Division of Fish and Game, in coopera¬ tion with the U. S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Commercial Fisheries. REFERENCES 1. Call, R. E., Ann. Rep. Geol. Surv. Indiana, 24, 335 (1900). 2. Goodrich, C., and van der Schalie, H., Amer. Midland Naturalist, 32, 257 (1944). 3. Krumholz, L. A., Bingham, R. L., and Meyer, E. R., Proc. Indiana Acad. Sci., 79, 205 (1970). 4. Stansbery, D. H., Malacologia, 10, 9 ( 1970). 5. Coker, R. E., Bull. U. S. Bur. Fisheries, 36, 13 (1921). 6. Carlander, H. B., Upper Mississippi River Conserv. Comm. Pub., 1, 1 (1954). 7. Starrett, W. C., Illinois Natural Hist. Surv. Bull., 30, 265 (1971). 3. Forbes, S. A., and Richardson, R. E., Bull. Illinois State Lab. Natural Hist., 13, 139 (1919). 9. Ortmann, A. E., Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc., 47, 90 (1909). 10. Ortmann, A. E., Ibid., 57, 521 (1918). 11. Wurtz, C. B., Nautilus, 69, 97 (1956). 12. Ortmann, A. E., Science, 60, 565 (1945). Unionid Mussels 25 Elsa Q. Falls 1515 Helmsdale Drive Richmond, Virginia 23233 A Taxonomic Survey of Freshwater Oligochaetes from the Richmond, Virginia Area With Reference to Commensal Gliates1 Abstract — In the first survey of smaller freshwater oligo¬ chaetes undertaken in Virginia, nineteen species were collected from four lakes of the Richmond area over a twelve-month period; two species belong to the family Aeolosomatidae, 15 to Naididae, 1 to Opistocystidae, and 1 to Lumbriculidae. The genus Homochaeta is identified for the first time from North America. Fifteen of the species have not been recorded previously from the state. Two of the 19 species harbored commensal ciliates within the gut: Radiophrya deronis in Dero digitata; Mesnilella clavata and Ptychostomum lumbriculi in Lumbriculus variegatus. These ciliates are reported for the first time in North American oligochaetes. Attempts to maintain ciliates within cultured worms were unsuccessful. Introduction The distribution of North American aquatic oligochaetes and the occurrence of ciliates in their guts have received very limited attention. For this reason, the present study was initiated to survey freshwater oligochaetes of the families Aeolosoma¬ tidae, Naididae, Opistocystidae, and Lumbriculidae in four bodies of water of the Richmond, Virginia area and to determine the incidence of commensal ciliates within the gut. The freshwater oligochaetes have been a notori¬ ously troublesome group with which to work and appear not to have been a major point of interest to limnologists (1). Many species have been inade¬ quately described, and taxonomy is in a constant state of revision. The most recent comprehensive studies on North American oligochaetes have been conducted by Brinkhurst. His surveys include the families Naididae and Opistocystidae (2), TuMficidae (3), and Lum¬ briculidae and Aeolosomatidae (4). In 1971 Brink¬ hurst and Jamieson published a volume reviewing the aquatic oligochaetes of the world (5). Sperber’s (6) comparative morphological studies of the Naididae, in which she attempts a phylogentic revision of the family, are based almost exclusively on specimens from Sweden; forms from other continents are studied solely from the literature. Although Brinkhurst and Sperber remain the most reliable guides to North American freshwater oligochaetes, other helpful 1 This work represents part of a thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts at the University of Richmond. sources include Goodnight’s (7) revision of the fresh¬ water oligochaetes of North America; Pennak’s (8) guide to the oligochaetes which does, however, lack recent taxonomic revisions; and Stephenson’s (9) descriptions of British specimens. There have been no previous published surveys of the smaller oligochaetes of Virginia, but several re¬ cent studies have been conducted in other localized areas of the United States (Causey (1), in Arkansas; Harman (10), in Mississippi; Wurtz and Roback (11), in some Gulf Coast rivers; and Harman and Platt (12), in Louisiana). Studies concerning the incidence of ciliates in oligochaetes have been carried out almost totally on European and Asian specimens. Rossolimo (13) published a survey of ciliates found in oligochaetes from Lake Baikal. Heidenreich (14) compiled a re¬ view of cilitates occurring in annelids from ponds, ditches, and pools near Breslau, Germany. Raabe (15) includes a complete history of the Hysterocine- tidae. De Puytorac, who has contributed some of the most authoritative research on the Astomatida, com¬ pleted a comprehensive study in 1954 of the cytology and taxonomy of the astomates of freshwater oligo¬ chaetes as well as an extensive review of the literature (16) ; and, in 1959 (17) and 1960 (18), he pub¬ lished papers describing a number of astomates found in QJigochaeta from Ochrida Lake in Yugoslavia. Meier (19) made an extensive survey in Germany of oligochaetes and ciliates found within the gut. There are no published accounts of ciliates found within the gut of Naididae and Lumbriculidae in the United States. Materials and Methods Monthly collections were made from Westhamp- ton Lake on the University of Richmond campus (February 1971 to February 1972); Maymont Park Ponds (February 1971 to August 1971); Swan Lake in Byrd Park (August 1971 to February 1972); and Twin Lakes, on River Road (February 1971 to February 1972). Bottom debris and mud from shallow portions of the lakes were collected in wide-mouthed jars and examined within 24 hours under a stereoscopic bi¬ nocular microscope. Tentative identifications were 26 The Virginia Journal of Science made on live organisms, as preservation renders the body opaque, making observations and measure¬ ments of chaetae difficult and the study of locomo¬ tion impossible. Chaetal types were determined and measured under the microscope on specimens prepared for study by removing water from under a cover slip with paper toweling, causing them to burst, thus leaving the chaetae visible and in segmental position. Specimens of all identified species were killed and fixed in hot Schaudinn’s solution and preserved in 70% alcohol for future examination. For exami¬ nation of chaetae in preserved material, the speci¬ men was placed on a slide in a saturated solution of KOH for five to ten minutes, after which the KOH was replaced with distilled water (6). On occasion, worms were cultured for further study. For each culture a fingerbowl was filled with 200 ml spring water, and four boiled wheat grains were added. Since the commensal ciliates died when their hosts were cultured, destruction of the worms to search for ciliates was carried out within 24^-8 hours after collection. After the body of a worm was squashed under a cover slip to release the ciliates, these were studied microscopically. On oc¬ casion, however, ciliates could be seen within the gut of living Dero digitata which had been flattened by the removal of water from beneath the cover slip with toweling. A 0.65% saline solution was used for observation of ciliates, but even so they lived only minutes out¬ side the body of the host. In such preparations, methyl green was employed to stain the nucleus. Be¬ cause of the delicate nature of the ciliates, permanent slides were made by squashing a number of worms on a slide and allowing the paste formed to dry. The organisms were then fixed with Schaudinn’s, stained with Delafield’s hematoxylin, dehydrated with ethyl alcohol, cleared in xylol, and mounted in balsam. Results Collection data for oligochaetes is summarized in Table 1. A total of 42 collections were made: 17 at Westhampton Lake; 13 at Twin Lakes; 6 at Swan Lake; and 6 at Maymont. Table 2 includes taxonomic data which deviates from that of Brinkhurst (2). With the exception of Aeolosoma headleyi and Nais pseudobtusa, all species were successfully cul¬ tured. The following section summarizes observations on eight of the species collected which extend and sup¬ plement those of other investigators. Homochaeta sp.: No eyes were present, and the prostomium was short and rounded. The dorsal chaetae, which began in segment II and numbered 2-3 per bundle, were bifid crochets, with a distal nodulus. They were similar in shape to the ventral chaetae, with the distal prong being longer than the proximal. Chaetae varied in length from 41-52 p. Worms were 5-10 mm long and were observed to undergo budding when cultured. A swimming re¬ sponse was absent. Stylaria lacustris: There were 2-4 needles present TABLE 1 Collection Data for Oligochaetes. Abbreviations: MM, Maymont Ponds; SL, Swan Lake; TL, Twin Lakes; W L, Westhampton Lake Species Collection Site No. of Specimens Collected Aeolosomatidae Aeolosoma hemprichii Ehrenberg, 1831 SL, TL, WL 8 Aeolosoma headleyi Beddard, 1880 NAIDIDAE SL 1 Chaetogaster langi Bretcher, 1896 SL, TL, WL 21 Chaetogaster diaphanus Gruithuisen, 1828 MM, SL, TL, WL 105 Homochaeta sp. Bretcher, 1896 SL, WL 5 Nais communis, Piguet, 1906 SL, TL 21 Nais variabilis Piguet, 1906 SL, TL, WL 34 Nais pseudobtusa Piguet, 1906 SL 3 Slavina appendiculata d’Udeken, 1855 MM, SL, TL 27 Stylaria lacustris Linnaeus, 1767 TL 1 Stylaria fossularis Leidy, 1852 TL 4 Haemonais waldvogeli Bretscher, 1900 TL 6 Dero (Dero) digitata (Muller), 1773 MM, SL, TL, WL 400-600 Dero (Dero) oblusa d’Udekem, 1855 SL, TL, WL 50 Dero (Aulophorus) furcatus (Muller), 1773 SL, WL 1000-2000 Pristina osborni Walton, 1906 SL 1000-2000 Pristina longiseta leidyi Smith, 1896 Opistocystidae MM, SL, TL, WL 46 Opistocysta flagellum (Leidy), 1880 Lumbriculidae WL 3 Lumbriculus variegatus (Muller), 1774 TL, WL 72 per bundle. Brinkhurst (2) states that needles vary in number from 3-4. Pennak (8), however, contains an illustration of S. proboscidea, which is synony¬ mous with S. lacustris, showing two needles per bundle. Stylaria fossularis: This oligochaete was found in two collections at Twin Lakes. Brinkhurst (2) re¬ ports that S. lacustris often has been merged with S. fossularis and that fresh material would be required to be certain that characters used in separation do not vary with fixation. From the present study of fresh material of both species, the point of attach¬ ment of the probosis is definitely different. S. fos¬ sularis has the probosis projecting from the tip of the pointed prostomium, whereas it projects from between two lobes in S. lacustris. Also, S. lacustris has serrations on the hairs while S. fossularis does not; and, in agreement with Sperber (6), the ventral chaetae of S. lacustris are distinctive, having two sharp proximal bends. Dero (Dero) digitata: This was the only oligo- Freshwater Oligochaetes 27 TABLE 2 Taxonomic Data jor Oligochaetes Compared With That oj Brinkhurst Species Present Data Brinkhurst, 1964 C. langi Chaetae of segment II as much as 112/i in length Maximum length 100/i C. diaphanus Longest chaetae of seg. II 186-275/1 Shortest chaetae of seg. II 130/i Longest 200-350/1 Shortest 145/i N. pseudobtusa Posterior to seg. VI, nodulus of ventral chaetae proximal Nodulus distal S. lacustris Needles 52-65/1 long. Ventral chaetae 114-125/1 long Needles 75-120/1 long Ventral chaetae 159-222 long H. waldvogeli Hairs 140-171/1 long. Needles as long as 126/i. Anterior ventral chaetae as long as 127/i Hairs 1 32—1 60/t long Needles as long as 155/i. Anterior ventral chaetae as long as 117/i A. jurcatus Dorsal needles as short as 41/i Dorsal needles as short as 45/i chaete in which sexual forms were observed. Sexual individuals were present in collections from West- hampton Lake on April 2 and May 10, and from Maymont on April 25. These specimens were main¬ tained in culture, as were non-sexual worms from the same collections. Many non-sexual forms de¬ veloped into sexual individuals while under culture. No sexual individuals were observed to reproduce by fission. By June 10, all cultured sexual worms were dead, with no discharge of ova having been observed. Pristina osborni: Specimens fitting Brinkhurst and Jamieson’s (5) description (no record of chaetal lengths) numbered in the thousands in the October collection from Swan Lake. Dorsal hairs of speci¬ mens measured 65-68 p long; needles were 25-26 p long. Pristina longiseta leidyi: Brinkhurst (2) and Sper- ber (6) give no length measurements for chaetae. In the present study hair chaetae measured 1 72— 228 p long, except in segment III where they were 601-688 p long, and needles were 33-52 p long. Opistocysta flagellum: Because Harmon (20) could not find specimens of this species at the site where Leidy (21) had collected and because of Leidy’s incomplete description, he proposes relegat¬ ing O. flagellum to species inquirenda and restricting its use to Leidy’s species from Pennsylvania and New Jersey. However, specimens from Westhampton Lake fit the descriptions given by Brinkhurst and Jamieson (5). Lumbriculus variegatus: Specimens in culture re¬ produced by fragmentation, a phenomenon common within the family. Five subspecies of L. variegatus are recognized (5). Of these, L. variegatus variegatus (Muller, 1774) with atria in segment VIII and L. variegatus inconstans with atria in segment X are found in North America. Although whole mounts were fixed, cleared, and stained and cross-sections were made, the atria could not be located, and, therefore, the subspecies could not be determined. Of the 19 species of oligochaetes studied and identified, only D. digitata and L. variegatus had ciliates within the gut. D. digitata harbored Radio- phrya deronis; L. variegatus harbored Ptychostomum lumbriculi and Mesnilella clavata. Collection data for the ciliates is presented in Table i3. When host worms of both species were cultured longer than two or three days, the number of ciliates found within them was fewer than in freshly collected worms. In worms cultured for several months, the percentage of infection decreased to zero. Discussion This study is the first survey of the freshwater oligochaetes undertaken in any locality in Virginia. Of the 19 species collected and identified, C. langi, N. communis, D. digitata, and P. longiseta leidyi have been recorded previously in the State (2). The genus Homochaeta, not recorded previously in North America, has been reported from Eurasia and possibly Africa and South America (5). As the worms cannot be identified from Sperber’s (6) de¬ scriptions of species from other continents, a new species is indicated, but the collection and study of additional specimens is necessary before a complete description and definite identification can be made. Many of the oligochaetes identified are cosmopoli¬ tan, but P. longiseta leidyi and O. flagellum are re¬ stricted to North America (2). This is the second recorded occurrence in North America for H. waldvogeli which is also found in Europe, Asia, South America, and possibly Africa (5). Causey (1), in his report on the microdrili in artificial lakes in Northwest Arkansas, identified four species of Naididae, three of Tubificidae, and one of Lumbriculidae. Three species, D. obtusa and S. lacustris (Naididae) and L. variegatus (Lum- TABLE 3 Collection Data jor Ciliates. Abbreviations: MM, Maymont Ponds; SL , Swan Lake; TL, Twin Lakes; WL, Westhampton Lake Hosts Harboring No. No. Hosts Ciliates Ciliates Species Examined (%) per Host Order Thigmotrichida, Family Hysterocinetidae Ptychostomum 11 from TL 36.4% up to 80 lumbriculi Heiden- 26 from WL 19.2% up to 12 reich 1935 Order Astomatida, Family Xntoshellinidae Mesnillela clavata 11 from TL 45.5% up to 400 (Leidy), 1855 26 from WL 73.1% up to 100 Radiophrya deronis 35 from MM 17.1% up to 17 Heidenreich, 1935 24 from SL 8.3% up to 6 36 from TL 55.6% up to 11 86 from WL 62.8% up to 12 28 The Virginia Journal of Science briculidae), were also identified in the present study. Cole (22) in an investigation of the microbenthic fauna of two Minnesota Lakes identified A. hem- prichii and S. lacustris, which were also found in the present investigation. Of eight species of oligochaetes described by Harman (10) from Mississippi, four (A. hemprichii, D. digitata, A. furcatus, and P. longiseta leidyi ) were collected in this survey. Only D. digitata became sexual, in April and May. Although sexual forms are relatively uncommon in the Aeolosomatidae and Naididae and indeed un¬ known in some genera, they have been reported by Stephenson (9) in D. digitata in May. The present survey, in which 2 of 19 species har¬ bored ciliates, supports evidence presented by other workers that fewer of the Aeolosomatidae and Naidi¬ dae are hosts to ciliates than the larger worms of other families. Many workers investigating ciliates in oligochaetes have not included the smaller oligo¬ chaetes in their surveys (13,23, 24, 25 ) . Ciliates were not observed in the Aeolosomatidae. Meier (19), likewise, found none in A . hemprichii. Naidu (26) reports that several species of Radio- phryoides (Family Astomatida) have been found in India in the Aeolosomatidae, including A. hemprichii. As far as could be determined, there is no record of O. flagellum (Family Opistocystidae) containing ciliates, nor were any encountered in the present study. Of the 15 species of Naididae identified, only D. digitata harbored a protozoan ( R . deronis). Similarly, of the 32 species of ciliates reported by Heidenreich (14), D. limosa ( digitata ) was the only Naid with ciliates (R. deronis and Metaradiophrya stammer i sp. nov.). Of the 17 species of Naididae identified by Meier (19), two harbored ciliates; N. variabilis con¬ tained Radiophrya naidos Mackinnon and Adam, and D. digitata harbored R. deronis. The ciliates P. lumbriculi and M. clavata identified here have also been reported in L. variegatus by others ( P . lumbriculi by Heidenreich (27), and M. clavata by Heidenreich (14), de Puytorac (16), and Meier (19).) Other ciliates have been reported in L. variegatus ( Mesnilella trispiculata Kejensky by de Puytorac (16), Heidenreich (14), and Meier (19); Hoplitophrya secans Stein by de Puytorac (16); and Ptychostomum chattoni Rossolimo by Heidenreich (14), and Meier (19).) As noted above, attempts to maintain ciliates within their oligochaete hosts in the laboratory were unsuccessful. Jones and Rodrigues (28), likewise, report that a holotrichous ciliate species decreased in the gut of the polychaete Hermodice carunculata when the worm was maintained in the laboratory longer than three days. Apparently there have been no previous comparable experiments with oligo¬ chaetes. Acknowledgments I would like to express my appreciation to the following faculty members of the Department of Biology of the University of Richmond: Dr. Nolan E. Rice, who checked all identifications and under whose direction this study was completed, and Drs. Warwick R. West and John W. Bishop who provided helpful criticism. References 1. Causey, D., Amer. Midi. Nat., 50, 420-425 (1953). 2. Brinkhurst, R., Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 116(5), 195-230 (1964). 3. Brinkhurst, R., ibid., 117(4), 117-173 (1965). 4. Brinkhurst, R., and Cook, D. G., ibid., 118(1), 1-33 (1966). 5. Brinkhurst, R., and Jamieson, B. G. M., Aquatic Oligochaeta of the World, Oliver & Boyd, Edinburgh, 1971, 860 p. 6. Sperber, C., Zool. Bidr., 28, 1-296 ( 1948). 7. Goodnight, C. J., Oligochaeta, in Ward and Whipple, Freshwater Biology, ed. Edmondson, Wiley, New York, 2nd ed., 1959, 522-537. 8. Pennak, R., Freshwater Invertebrates of the United States, Ronald Press Co., New York, 1953, 278-300. 9. Stephenson, J., The Oligochaeta, Clarendon Press, Ox¬ ford, 1930, 978 p. 10. Harman, W„ Amer. Midi. Nat., 76(1), 239-242 (1966). 11. Wurtz, C. B., and Roback, S. S., Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 107, 167-206 (1955). 12. Harman, W. and Platt, J. H., Proc. Louisiana Acad. Sci., 24, 90-95 (1961). 13. Rossolimo, L. L., Arch. Protistenk, 54, 469-509 (1926). 14. Heidenreich, E., ibid., 84, 315-414 (1935). 15. Raabe, Z., Ann. Mus. Zool. Polonici, 14, 21-68 (1949). 16. Puytorac, P. de, Ann. Sci. Nat. Zool., 18, 85-270 (1954). 17. Puytorac, P. de, /. Prot., 6, 157-166 (1959). 18. Puytorac, P. de, ibid., 7, 278-289 (1960). 19. Meier, M., Arch. Protistenk, 100, 212-245 (1954). 20. Harman, W., Trans. Amer. Micro. Soc., 88, 472-478 (1969). 21. Leidy, J., Am. Nat., 14, 421-425 (1880). 22. Cole, G. A., Amer. Midi. Nat., S3, 213-230 (1955). 23. Frolova, E. N., Zoo/. Z/;., 36, 1281-1291 (1957). 24. Kozloff, E., J. Prot., 7(1), 41-50 (1960). 25. Conklin, C., Biol. Bull., 58, 196 (1930). 26. Naidu, K. V., J. Prot., 8(3), 248 (1961). 27. Heidenreich, E., Arch. Protistenk, 85, 303-305 (1935). 28. Jones, I. and Rodrigues, I. R., Bull. S. Calif. Acad. Sci., 69(314), 150-153 (1971). Freshwater Oligochaetes 29 Thomas D. Cain1 2 3 Virginia Institute of Marine Science Gloucester Point, Virginia 23062 Combined Effects of Changes in Temperature and Salinity on Early Stages of Rangia Cuneata 12 Abstract — Embryos and early straight-hinge larvae of Rangia cuneata were subjected to a temperature change of 8°C in 5 seconds, a salinity change of 4%0 (5 to l%o), and to the combination of both stresses. Embryos were relatively insensitive to the thermal shock but were killed by the salinity shock and by the combined salinity — temperature shock. Survival and growth of larvae were reduced by the salinity shock and by the combination of temperature and salinity shocks. The combination of the thermal shock and salinity change produced a mortality higher than the sum of the mortalities for either of the two factors alone. Introduction The use of estuarine waters for once-through cool¬ ing of a steam-electric power plant may result in damage to non-motile organisms that are forced to go through the plant cooling system ( 1 ) . It is not generally recognized that the “entrained” organ¬ isms may be subjected not only to thermal and pressure changes and mechanical stresses but may also be subjected to a salinity change. In a number of power plants located in estuarine waters, the salinity of the intake water differs by several parts per thousand from that of the receiving water. The salinity difference results from the requirement that the cooling water intake must be located at some distance (or at different depths) from the discharge in order to avoid recirculation. As a consequence, there is a need for studies of the response of poten¬ tially entrained organisms to the combined stress of a thermal shock and a salinity change. The availability of fertilized eggs during a broader study of the early life stages of the clam Rangia cuneata (Gray) and access to an apparatus de¬ signed to subject organisms to thermal shock per¬ mitted me to conduct an experiment on the sensitivity of embryos and larvae to the stress consisting of a thermal shock followed by a rapid salinity change. Materials and Methods Test organism: Rangia cuneata is a bivalve com¬ mon in upper estuaries and low salinity embayments along the southeast and gulf coasts of North America (2). Although the adults can inhabit waters ranging in salinity from fresh through 15 %c, development of 1 Contribution No. 614 from the Virginia Institute of Marine Sci- enee. 2 Research supported by the Virginia Electric and Power Company. 3 Present address: United States Atomic Energy Commission, Wash¬ ington, D. C. 20545 the embryos is restricted to more stenohaline con¬ ditions (3). Physical apparatus: A heat exchange device de¬ signed by Dressel (4) was adjusted to produce a temperature increase (AT) of 8°C to water of 28 °C during its 5-second transit through the device. The apparatus consists of a 600 mm Graham condenser with a restrictive nozzle to decrease the flow rate to the 5-second passage time. Heated water is circulated through the condenser to obtain the desired AT. Methods: Four-hour-old embryos and 24-hour-old straight-hinge larvae were separately subjected to (1) thermal shock, (2) salinity shock, (3) com¬ bined thermal-salinity shock, and (4) controlled con¬ ditions. Spawning, culturing, and subsampling tech¬ niques, and the combined effects of temperature and salinity on survival and growth of Rangia cuneata embryos and larvae are described by Cain (3). In the current experiment, embryos were obtained by spawning Rangia in water at 5 %0 salinity at 28 °C. Approximately 16,500 recently-fertilized eggs were transferred to each of 12 one-liter breakers in new water of 5 %0 salinity and held four hours (to the ciliated stage) in a constant-temperature (28°C) bath. Experimental conditions were imposed as follows: three samples were passed separately through the heat-shock apparatus, heated from 28 °C to 36°C in 5 seconds and cooled from 36°C to 28°C over a 15-minute period; three samples were passed sep¬ arately through the apparatus without added heat, collected on a 44 pm screen, and placed in water of 1 %0 salinity; three samples of embryos were passed through the apparatus, heated 8°C, collected on a 44 pm screen, placed in 36°C water of 1 %c salinity and cooled to 28 °C over 15 minutes; and, three samples of embryos were passed separately through the heat shock apparatus without added heat. All samples, regardless of treatment, were returned to the 28 °C constant temperature bath, and incu¬ bated for 20 hours, until they developed to the straight-hinge stage. Quantitative subsamples were taken by concentrating the straight-hinge larvae in a 250 ml round bottom flask, shaking, and with¬ drawing two-2 ml samples with a pipette. Twenty-four-hour old, straight-hinge larvae were reared and tested. Eggs from the previous spawning were held in a 30-liter container at 28 °C and 5%c 30 The Virginia Journal of Science until they developed to the straight-hinge stage. Approximately 24,000 larvae were placed in each of 12 beakers and subjected to the same procedure as in the embryo experiment. After this treatment the larvae were reared to setting size, which normally takes 6 days at 28 °C. Quantitative subsamples were collected as before and 50 larvae were measured to the nearest 5 ffm with an ocular micrometer in a compound microscope. Results The combined effect of thermal and salinity shocks are presented in Table 1. The 8°C AT in 5 seconds produced only a 7% increase in mortality over the control. The effect of salinity shock alone and temperature-salinity killed all embryos (Table 1A). The combined effect of changes in salinity and temperature on survival of straight-hinge larvae was not as pronounced as its effect on the embryos. The 8°C-5 second thermal shock had a slight effect on larvae while the salinity shock caused a mortality of 45% over the control group (Table IB). The com¬ bined stress resulted in a 70% mortality of the larvae. The effect of the thermal shock on the growth of TABLE 1 Effects of Thermal and Salinity Shocks on the Survival of Embryos and on Survival and Growth of Straight-Hinge R. Cuneata Larvae {Thermal Shock = +8°C, Salinity Shock = — 4%c) A. Survival of 4 hour old embryos to straight-hinge larvae. Salinity Thermal Control Shock (AS) Shock (AT) AT & AS 1. 266 1 257 0 Explicates 2. 260 0 245 0 3. 267 0 236 0 Mean 264.3 0 246 0 Mortality 0% 100% 7% 100% B. Survival of straight-hinge larvae after 6 days. Salinity Thermal Control Shock (AS) Shock (AT) AT & AS 1. 406 209 346 51 Replicates 2. 377 238 377 159 3. 384 198 378 145 Mean 389 215 367 118 Mortality 0% 45% 6% 70% C. Length (microns) of larvae at end of experiment (6 days). Salinity Thermal Control Shock (AS) Shock (AT) AT & AS 1. 158 120 148 112 Replicates 2. 157 119 146 115 3. 148 117 147 111 Mean 155 119 147 113 Reduction in Growth 0% 23% 5% 27% larvae produced only a 5% reduction in growth (Table 1C). A 23% reduction in growth resulted from the salinity change alone, while the combination of thermal shock and salinity change had an effect of 27%. Discussion Rangia embryos and larvae were relatively insensi¬ tive to the thermal shock of 8°C for 5 seconds. How¬ ever, the 5 second exposure followed by a 15 minute return to the ambient temperature is a less severe thermal stress than that which most organisms would experience at a power plant. The detrimental effect of reducing the salinity from 5 to 1 %0 on embryos reaffirms the previous work showing 1%0 to be outside their salinity toler¬ ance region. Although Rangia straight-hinge larvae are more tolerant to lower salinity concentrations, they nevertheless suffered considerable mortality with the rapid decline in salinity. The combination of the thermal shock and salinity change produced a mortality higher than the sum of the mortalities for either of the two factors alone. The effect of a gradual change in salinity ( 10-30 minutes), as would actually happen during the operation of a power plant, was not studied. Future work on Rangia and other species should be conducted to determine the effects of other ranges of temperature-salinity combinations during all of the organism’s early stages. It has been shown by Calabrese and Davis (5) and others, that the early stages of molluscs are more sensitive to environmental conditions than adults. Successful recruitment to adult bivalve populations is dependent upon the survival and settling of the planktonic stages. If salinity changes, either singly or in combination with heat, could cause mortality to a significant por¬ tion of the larval populations, they could be an im¬ portant factor in power plant siting or in the arrange¬ ment of the cooling water canals. Acknowledgments I thank Richard Peddicord and David Dressel for their assistance during this experiment. Dr. M. Bender guided the author during the investigation. References 1. Coutant, C. C., CRC Critical Rev. Env. Control, 1(3), 341 (1970). 2. Hopkins, S. H. and J. D. Andrews, Science, 167, 868 (1970). 3. Cain, T. D., Mar. Biol., 21, 1 (1973). 4. Dressel, D. M., 1971. The effects of thermal shock and chlorine on the estuarine copepod, Acartia tonsa. M. S. Thesis, University of Virginia. 58 p. 5. Calabrese, A. and H . C. Davis, Helgolander Wiss. Meeresuntersuch., 20, 553 (1970). Temperature-Salinity Effects on Rangia 31 Arnold Andersen Section on Intermediary Metabolism Laboratory of Biomedical Sciences National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Bethesda, Maryland 20014 Science Teachers Section Phenylketonuria Phenylketonuria Phenylketonuria (PKU) is an inherited disorder of amino acid metabolism characterized by inactivity of phenylalanine hydroxylase, the enzyme responsible for the conversion of phenylalanine to tyrosine. It is potentially a treatable disease, in contrast to many other causes of retardation, and therefore has been under intensive investigation as a “model” system to study mental retardation. Multiple consequences result from this single gene defect when it is present in the homozygous recessive form. (1) The outstanding behavioral characteristic of PKU children is their severe mental retardation. Less than 2% have an IQ above 60. Most have IQ’s below 20. These children are hyperactive and have frequent emotional outbursts. Typically they are blonde with blue eyes due to the interference in melanin synthesis. Biochemically, serum phenylalanine is increased from a normal value of about one milligram percent to greater than 20 milligram percent (milligrams per 100 ml.). All the metabolites of phenylalanine are increased in the cerebrospinal fluid, blood, and urine. The associated disaggregation of polyribosomes in the brain results in impaired protein synthesis. (2) The neurotransmitter serotonin is decreased. Which of these factors is the “toxic” element in PKU is uncertain. Probably they all contribute to the ab¬ normal brain development. The brain in PKU is smaller than normal in size and is deficient and delayed in myelination. (3) Seizures are common and reflexes are hyperactive. The developmental milestones are often delayed. In short, there is global brain damage. The incidence of PKU is between 3 and 10 per 100,000. PKU was originally detected by the reaction of ferric chloride with phenylpyruvic acid in the urine. A blood test to detect PKU in newborns has now been introduced by most states in place of the urine test which often did not give positive results until after a child was sent home from the hospital. It is vitally important to detect PKU early because the resulting mental retardation is preventable if affected in¬ dividuals are placed on a low phenylalanine diet. PKU children treated early approach their expected intellectual performance. (4) There are several reasons for research interest in phenylketonuria. Its well-defined biochemical ab¬ normality makes it a model system for studying mental retardation in general. Experimental animal models of PKU have provided an opportunity to systematically study the growth of neural tissue in the abnormal hyperphenylalaninemic milieu. A good animal model of clinical PKU has been produced in developing rats by giving them para-chlorophenyla- lanine, an inhibitor of phenylalanine hydroxylase, plus L-phenylalanine to raise serum phenylalanine levels. (5) The resulting animal is permanently hy¬ peractive and deficient in performance on standard learning tasks. Future goals for phenylketonuria research include better detection and treatment methods. A still theo¬ retical hope for the future is the development of molecular biology to the point where a gene for the synthesis of phenylalanine hydroxylase may be intro¬ duced into phenylketonuric children. Bibliography 1. Knox, W. E. (1966) in The Metabolic Basis of In¬ herited Disease, eds. Stanbury, J. B., Wyngaarden, J. B,, & Fredrickson, D. S. (McGraw-Hill, New York), 2nd Ed., p. 258-294. 2. Siegel, F. L., Aoki, K., & Colwell, R. E. (1971) J. Neurochem., 18, 537-547. 3. Malamud, N. (1966) /. Neuropath. Exp. Neurol., 25, 254-268. 4. O’Grady, D. J., Berry, H. K., & Sutherland, B. S. (1970) Develop. Med. Child Neurol., 12, 343-347. 5. Andersen, A. E., Abramowitz, A. Z. & Guroff, G. (1973) in Proceedings of the Conference on Serotonin and Be¬ havior, eds. Barchas, J. & Usdin, E. (Academic Press, New York), p. 335-349. 32 The Virginia Journal of Science News and Notes A. HUGHLETT MASON Dr. A. Hughlett Mason died on January 31, 1974 at Arlington Hospital after a brief illness caused by a heart condition. Dr. Mason graduated with honors in civil engineering from the University of South Carolina in 1929 and a Ph. D. in astronomy from the University of Pennsylvania in 1953. His career included assignments with the National Geodetic Survey, the Maritime Commission, the National Bu¬ reau of Standards and the Office of Chief of Staff of the Army. He was a fellow in the AAAS, the Philosophical Society of Washington, the Washington Society of Civil Engineers, and was a long-time member of the Virginia Academy of Science. His publications in¬ clude Nomographic Diagrams for the Solutions of Kepler’s Equation, The Journal of Charles Mason and Jeremiah Dixon, Vibration Frequencies of the Chesapeake Bay Bridge and History of Steam Navi¬ gation to the Eastern Shore of Virginia. Dr. Mason is survived by his wife, Mary C. Mason of 2407 N. Kenmore St. Arlington. News and Notes 33 Author Index to Volume 24, 1973 Abstracts of Papers, Fifty-first Annual Meeting of the Virginia Academy of Science, May 1-4, Williamsburg . 109 Blem, Charles R., and Pagels, John F. Feeding Habits of an Insular Barn Owl, Tyto alba. . . . . . 212 Blood, F. B. See Reed, J. R. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 Burke, Jack D. See Dementi, P. L . . . . . 81 Dementi, P. L., and Burke, Jack D. Blood Studies in the Nine-Banded Armadillo . 81 Douglas, V. M., and Lackey, R. T. Potential of Channel Catfish Production in Virginia . 89 Matta, James F. A Checklist of Aquatic Hydrophilide of Virginia . 87 Flory, Walter S. See Staggers, Harry Joseph. . 5 Flory, Walter S. History of the Virginia Academy of Science, Chapter VII-VIII . 37 Flory, Walter S. Credits, A History of the History . . . . . . . . .... 65 Holt, Perry C. Editorial, The Virginia Journal of Science: Its Status and Goals . . . . . . . 73 Index of Authors, Volume 23, 1972. . . . . . . 68 Kamp van de, Peter The Search for Extra-solar Planets in our Stellar Neighborhood, The Sidney Negus Lecture . 193 Lackey, R. T. See Douglas, V. M . 89 Matta, James F., The Aquatic Coleoptera of the Dismal Swamp . 199 Neff, Stewart E. See Simmons, George M . 206 Pagels, John F. See Blem, Charles R . . . 212 Reed, J. R., Samuel, G. L., and Blood, F. B. Preliminary Comparison of Two Oxidation Ponds with Different Trophic States in Central Virginia . . . . . . . . 75 Samuel, G. L. See Reed, J. R . . . . . . . 75 Simmons, George M., Jr., and Neff, Stewart E. Observations on Limnetic Carbon Assimilation in Mountain Lake, Virginia During Its Thermal Stratification Periods . . . 206 Staggers, Harry Joseph, and Flory, Walter S. History of the Virginia Academy of Science, Chapters IV-VI . 5 Virginia Academy of Science, Council Minutes, Fifty-first Annual Meeting Williamsburg, May 1973 . 215 Virginia Academy of Science, Members of Council and Committees 1973-74. . . 93 34 The Virginia Journal of Science General Notice To Contributors The Virginia Journal of Science heartily welcomes for consideration original articles of technical or general interest on all phases of mathematics, the natural, physical and engineering sciences. Submis¬ sion of an article for publication implies that the article has not been published elsewhere while un¬ der consideration by the Journal. All articles should be typewritten (double-spaced) and submitted on good bond paper ( 8V2 X 11 inches) in triplicate to the Editor. Margins should not be less than 114 inches on any border. Title, running title, authors, place of origin, abstract, fig¬ ures, legends, tables, footnotes, and references should be on individual pages separate from the text. Technical abbreviations should follow consistent standard practices with careful avoidance of un¬ necessary neologistic devices. All pages (including illustrations) should be consecutively numbered in the upper right corner. A pencil notation of author names on the back of each page is helpful in identi¬ fication. Illustrations should be supplied in a form suitable for the printer with attention to the fact that a reduc¬ tion in size may be necessary. A good technical article generally contains an obligatory abstract before the text, an introduction, with reference to preliminary publications that may exist, an experimental section, results (which may be included in the experimental section), a discus¬ sion, and conclusion. References are indicated in the body of the article by consecutively used numbers in parentheses. Although publication costs are high, attention should be given to relatively complete ref¬ erences (bibliographies) since the purpose of an article is to illuminate the significance of present and past findings, and not merely to obscure the past. The Journal reserves the right (generally exer¬ cised) to make page charges for articles in excess of 5 pages and to bill authors at cost for unusually complicated illustrative material. Abbreviation of journals for references can be found in the 4th edition of the World List of Scien¬ tific Periodicals, Butterworth, Inc., Washington, D. C., 1963, and supplements. References should be checked carefully. The form of presentation is illustrated below: 1. Aiyar, A. S., and Olson, R. E., Fedn Proc. Fedn Am. Socs exp. Biol., 23, 425 (1964). 2. Chappell, J. B., Cohn, M., and Greville, G. D., in B. Chance (Editor), Energy linked functions of mitochondria, Academic Press, Inc., New York, 1963, p. 219. 3. Riley, G. A., and Haynes, R. C., Jr., /. biol. Chem., 238, 1563 (1963). MEMBERSHIP The Academy membership is organized into sections representing various scientific disciplines. Addressograph plates of all members are coded by a section number. The First Number indicates the member’s major interest and enables Section Officers to more easily contact their members. #1. Agricultural Sciences 2. Astronomy, Mathematics & Physics 3. Microbiology (Bacteriology) 4. Biology 5. Chemistry 6. Materials Science 7. Engineering 8. Geology 9. Medical Sciences 10. Psychology 1 1 . Science Teachers 12. Statistics 13. Space Science and Technology 14. Botany Annual Membership Dues Approved May 10, 1968 Business . $100 Sustaining . . . . . . . 25* Contributing . 10 Regular . 5 Students . 3.50 * $25 or more o Ph 73 0> 73 G + o(l + a cos 4>)V the functional dependence of the pair density on the phase may be obtained which is consistent with the result from Ginsburg-Landau theory. This functional form has been used to calculate the time dependence of the cur¬ rents in the link for current and voltage biased conditions. TResearch supported by the Office of Naval Research. ANOTHER LOOK AT NEGATIVE ENERGY WAVES. W. F. Schoellmann* ■ Dent, of Physics, Col. of William and Mary, Williamsburg, Va. 23185 One dimensional waves characterized by a phase velocity Cs and a wavelength A experience a Doppler shift when their propagation medium is set into motion. This well known fact can be easily demonstrated in a flow ripple tank. The waves which were isotropic in the stationary water are no longer isotropic when the water is made to flow. The Doppler shifted phase velocity in the direction of the flow is fas¬ ter than Cs and against the flow the phase velocity is slower than Cg. For this reason, these waves are usually referred to as "fast waves" and "slow waves" respectively. When the flow velocity is supersonic, i.e. Vq > Cg , the Doppler shift predicts a change in sign of the phase velocitv for the slow wave. More importantly, the rules for Galilean transformation also predict a change in sign for the energy density. The slow wave under supersonic flow conditions is a negative energy wave. An electrical transmission line simulation of one dimen¬ sional waves in a moving medium is presented. The signifi¬ cance of the negative energy density is shown to be related to the values of the circuit elements. Finally the exis¬ tence of the negative energy mode is associated to the term¬ ination of the transmission line. P ION ABSORPTION ON LIGHT AND MEDIUM NUCLEI. C. E. Stronach, Dept, of Physics, Va. State Col., Petersburg, Va". 23803 , W. 0. Kossler* and H. 0. Funsten, Dept, of Physics, Coi . of William and Mary, Williamsburg, Va. 23185, and W. F. Lankford, Dept, of Physics, George Mason Univ., Fairfax, Va. 23030 Analysis of the prompt gamma ray spectrum pro¬ duced by stopping negative pions from the SREL1 synchrocyclotron on “Na indicates approximately equal fractions of one, two, three, and four nucleon emission processes plus a smaller fraction of six nucleon emission processes. The prompt gamma spectrum from stopping of negative pions on 3 2 S indicates relatively strong emission of one, two, and three alpha particles, similar to an effect observed in fast pi on reac¬ tions. (Aided by NASA grant NGR 47-014-006) 1 The Space Radiation Effects Laboratory is sup¬ ported by the NSE, NASA, and the Commonwealth of Virginia. 2 V. G. Lind, H. S. Plendl, H. 0. Eunsten, W. J. Kossler, B. J. Lieb, W. F. Lankford, and A. J. Buffa, Phys. Rev. Letters 32_, 479 (1974). Proceedings, 1973-1974 59 THE COS 4> TERM IN THE JOSEPHSON CURRENT*. D. A. Vincent* and B. S. Deaver, Jr. Dept, of Physics, Univ. of V a., Charlottesville, Va. 22901. The total current through a superconducting weak link \ was calculated by Josephson to be i=icsin + ( G-] cos ) V + G0 V. Only in the last two years have the consequences of the cos <(> term been identified experimentally. It is con¬ venient to represent the current path through a weak link by an equivalent circuit consisting of a dynamic inductor i= 4>0/2-m'ccos shunted by a conductance G = G0(1 +a cos ) with a = G-]/G0. By measuring the impedance of a Nb point contact incorporated in a superconducting ring we have determined these circuit elements at 30 MHZ as a function of phase and find a%-l at 4.2K. The effect of the cos $ term is also evidenced when the weak link is operated as a mag¬ netometer (rf SQUID) by a characteristic asymmetry in the response as a function of drive frequency. The presence of this term also introduces additional harmonic components in the voltage waveform when the weak link is driven with a small sinusoidal current. Research supported by the Office of Naval Research and the National Science Foundation. VICTOR VASARELY: AN ARTIST'S TRUTH FROM THE MODELS OF CONTEMPORARY PHYSICS. George R. and Jane C. Webb. Dept, of Physics & Division of Humanities, Christopher Newport College., Newport News,Va 23606 Historically, artists have been influenced by the models of reality offered by Natural Philo¬ sophy. Some have strongly rejected the models of their times, while others have gone so far as to try to represent these models in the plastic arts. This situation has continued in our own day. Pablo Picasso was strongly influenced by what he learned of the space-time continuum, and this influence shows itself most clearly in his early Cubist works of the period 1907-1913- Salvadore Dali, on the other hand, rejected what he learned of con¬ temporary physical models, and mounted a satiric attack on the dilitation of time. Victor Vasarely, born and reared in Hungary and now a permanent resident of France, is an enthu¬ siastic champion of twentieth century physical science. He acknowledges that his work has been affected by the theories of quantum mechanics, by relativity, and by Bohr's notion of complementar¬ ity. He uses his thorough knowledge of optics to support his efforts to explore these models in the medium of the plastic arts. ARGOCOMP — COMPUTER ANALYSIS OF SPECTROSCOPIC PLATES. * John H- Wise, Dept. of Chemistry, Washington and Lee Univ. , Lexington, Virginia 24450 A system has been developed for the rapid analysis of spectroscopic plates through a computer interface with a Gaertner scanning microphotometer. The microphotometer was equipped with an encoder and scaler reading each jjm over a 0.25 m span, and the phototube output was fed to a DVM with rapid BCD conversion. BCD signals were transmitted to the computer at a selectable interval of from 1 to 64 j^m. The computer accumulated all BCD readings In a scan, with an analysis for peak finding every block of 10 sectors of raw data during the scan and all remaining data after the scan. An initial Teletype dialogue provides indentification and sets parameters for the scan. Normally, an interval of 2 at the fastest scan speed of 25.6 mm/min is used. First scan is of a standard Th spectrum, and the peaks found are matched with known standards to compute a polynomial equation for wavelength calculations. Subsequent scans of the same plate (in either direction of stage travel) are of sample spectra. Following a scan, options for treating the data are: a) out¬ put on Teletype, b) permanent file storage., c) construction of a plot file with a 16 fj.m step., and d) construction of a limited-range plot file with a 2 ^m step. Off-line plots, printer lists., or punched cards may be obtained whenever desired. *Work performed at Argonne Nat.. Lab., Argonne, II. 6o439 THE OPTICAL DIFFRACTION PATTERN OF A TIME-DEPEN- DENT SINUSOIDAL GRATING. Charles M. Ward* and William C. Sauder, Dept, of Physics, VMI, Lexington, Va. 24450. We have developed an ultrasonic (500 kHz) electrostatic transducer that employs a 1/4 mil aluminized mylar diaphragm as the vibrating element. A 500 line per cm diffraction grating functions as a backing plate for the diaphragm. Thus the transducer when operating performs as a sinusoidal grating with vibrating diffracting elements. We have studied the diffracted optical field from the transducer for incident monochro¬ matic ( 6 3 2 8 A ) light, and have shown that the re¬ sulting pattern is proportional to the instan¬ taneous Fourier transform of the diaphragm shape broadened by a narrow apparatus window function. Reduction of the method to practice will be discussed. ELECTRON SPECTROSCOPY USING A SURFACE BARRIER DETECTOR. Philip B. Will is-'-, David L. Nicholson*, £ William B. Newbolt Physics Department, Washinqton and Lee University, Lexington, VA. 24450 We have been developing an electron spectrometer for studying low energy beta spectra and internal conversion electrons. The spectrometer consists of a partially deplet¬ ed silicon surface barrier detector, its bias supply, an amplifier-single channel analyser, and a scaler-timer in the conventional arrangement. A measurement of the Co° beta spectrum yielded a straight line Fermi-Kurie plot with an end point energy of 1.653 n^c^ uni ts. A portion of the Pb^'O beta spectrum has been measured, and the contributions due to the intermediate energy beta particle, the .0465 MeV photons, and the L-shell internal conversion electrons have been identified. An approximate separation of the peaks from the beta spectrum shows a width of 9.36 KeV for the internal conversion peak and a width of 11.18 KeV for the photon peak. The L subshells were not resolved. The approximate end ate beta particle from the Pb^ un i t s . joint energy of the intermedi- Kurie plot was 1.11 mQc^ 60 The Virginia Journal of Science Section of Biology Fifty-second Annual Meeting of the Virginia Academy of Science May 7-10, 1974, Norfolk, Virginia Benfield, E.F. 21,31,62 Berkaw, M.N. 1,19 Berry, C.R. 2,54,57 Black, R.E.L. 13 Blood, S.H. 3 Boatman, S. 27 Brisbin, I.L. 60 Browne, M.E. 4 Cairns, J. 5,21,31 Camp , F . A . 5 Cengel, D.J. 6,14 Chancey, J.C. 10 Chinnici, J.P. 33 Clarke, B. 43 Cobb, R.G. 7 Conant , E.B. 8 Cone, C.D. S3 Courson, B.W. 52 Cowles, C.J. 9,41 Dashek, W.V. 10 Deaton, L.E. 11 Delzell, D.E. 12 Englander, S. 30 Enright, R. 13 Esarey, W.L. 40 Estep, J.E. 14 Fashing, N.J. 15 AUTHOR INDEX Freadman, M.A. 16 Fueston, V.M. 17 Garrick, L.M. 18 Garrick, M.D. 18 Goldsmith, C.D. 19 Gregg, B.C. 20,21 Haefner, P.A. 22 Heath, A. G. 21 Hedgepeth, M.E. 23 Hege, E.K. 27 Hendricks, A.C. 5 Hensley, M.S. 45 Hetrick, S.W. 24 Holsinger, J.R. 25 Homsher, P.J. 26 Hoover, O.L. 45 Huxley, V.H. 27 Irons, H.T. 28 Kirkpatrick, R.L. 6,9,14,29,30, 41,42,46,48,63 Klarberg, D.P. 31 Kosztarb, M. 32 Lai or , J.H. 33 Laue, C.L. 34 Lewis, S . R . 10 Lint , J. B. 35 Llewellyn, G.C. 10,33,51 Lowe, J.S. 40 Lucid, V.J. 42 Lynch, M.P. 23 Male, R.W. 45 Markham, W.M. 45 Marshall, H.G. 3,37 Mart in , D . L . 40 Martin, J.H. 38 Matta, J.F. 39 McGinnes, B.S. 44 McIntosh, J.W. 40 McNabb, F.M.A. 34,58 McNabb, R.A. 34,58 Merson, M.H. 41 Mills, R.R. 51 Minter, D.B. 40 Mirarchi, R.F.. 42,48,49 Mosby, H.S. 35 Murray, J. 43 Newell, J.O. 9 Osborne, R.P. 40 Pierson, T.A. 7 Portlock, W. 12 Reed, B.N. 44 Reed, E.T. 44,49 Richardson, J.H. 17 Ritchie, R.D. 45 Sanders, O.T. 46 Scanlon, P.F. 1,7,19,42,47, 48,49,50 Schreck, C.B. 2,28,54,57 Sheretz, P.C. 51 Sonenshine, D.E. 26 Spiegelman, B.M. 52 Stillwell, E.F. 53,59 Strachan, D.R. 4 o Strange, R. 2,54,57 Terman, C.R. 55 Thiemens, M.H. 56 Urbston, D.F. 50 Valentine, G.L. 30 Van Engel, W.A. 22 Van Horn, S. 2,54,57 Vermilya, W.E. 51 Ward, J.M. 58 Westfall, H. 59 Williams, P.R. 60 Willoughby, P.A. 32 Wright, J.R. 61,62 Young, J.W. 10 Zaneveld, J.S. 4,56 Zepp, R.L. 63 SEASONAL VARIATION IN REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS OF KALE COTTONTAIL RABBITS. M.N. Berkaw* and P.F. Scanlon, Dept. Fisheries and Wildlife Sciences, Va. Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ., Blacksburg, Virginia. 24061. Ninety male cottontail rabbits (Sylvilagus floridanus) were collected over a 12-month period in Montgomery County, Va. and data on reproductive organ weights were recorded. The objective was to collect 5-10 adults per month but based on analysis of eye-lens weights many rabbits were considered immature and samples were thus available only for the months January through May plus July and December. Reproductive organs studied were testes, epididymides, prostates, and sem¬ inal vesicles. Mean paired testis weights were highest in April (8.23 g + 0.332 S.E.) and lowest in December (1.98 g +0.451 S.E.). Mean paired epididymides weights were high¬ est in March (2.07 g + 0.263 S.E.) and lowest in December (0.30 g+ 0.124 S.E.). Seminal vesicle weight was highest in July (0.49 g + 0.061 S.E.) and lowest in January (0.12 g + 0.015 S.E.). The prostate gland was heaviest in April (0.95 g + 0.144 S.E.) and lowest in December (0.10 g + 0.020 S.E.). Results indicate that reproductive organs vary con¬ siderably during the year but increase to maximum size to correspond to the breeding season. Results also indicated that the different male reproductive organs tend to respond in a sequential manner to external stimuli. [Supported by Mclntire-Stennis Project No. 636201] AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHIC MONITORING OF AN AQUATIC MACROPHYTE COMMUNITY FOLLOWING HERBICIDE APPLICATION. C. R. Berry. Jr* C. B. Schreck*, R. Strange*, S. Van Horn*, Dept, of Fisheries and Wildlife Sci., Va. Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ., Blacksburg, Va. 24061 and R. V. Corning*, Va. Comm. Game and Inland Fisheries, Richmond, Va. 23230. An aquatic weed control project using a mixture of two herbicides, diquat and endothal, was carried out on the Chickahominy Reservoir, Southeastern Virginia. Aerial photography using various films and filters was used to monitor the plant die-off. No combination of film and filters was found to give photographic penetration of the water surface. Color infra¬ red film with a minus -blue filter was effective for general monitoring. Vegetation appeared magenta to red and was clearly outlined by blue to black colored open water areas. Terres terial , emergent and floating plants could be distin¬ guished. Photoreconnaissance showed that the quantity of problem weeds was significantly reduced by the herbicide treatment. The amount of surface water and fishable shore¬ line cleared could be calculated, providing a useful tool for fisheries management. [Supported by U.S. Army O.E.C. Contract No. DAW 65 -74-C-0013 . ] Bio . 2 Bio. 1 Proceedings, 1973-1974 61 DISTRIBUTION OF PHYTOPLANKTON IN THE OFFSHORE WATERS BE¬ TWEEN NOVA SCOTIA AND CAPE HATTERAS , N.C. Samuel H. Blood* and Harold G. Marshall, Dept, of Biology, Old Dominion Univ. Norfolk, Va. 23508. A fall survey was undertaken of the spatial distribution of surface phytoplankton communities over the continental shelf region of the eastern seaboard of the United States. 106 stations were established between Nova Scotia and Cape Hatteras for September and October 1971. Regional and local distribution patterns were determined for the dominant phytoplankton taxa and relationships concerning the influ¬ ence of major circulation patterns of the area were cor¬ related to species distribution. Preliminary data findings indicate that the diatom genus Me losira dominated (over 50%) the pla.nkton population in 78 (76.4%) of the 106 stations examined. Dinof lagellates and diatoms other than Me losira spp. , coccolithophores , silicoflagellates , and filamentous blue-green algae (Trichodesmium thieboutii) generally followed in decreasing numerical abundance. Specific distribution patterns for the phytoplankter species in relation to shore and seaward concentrations over the collection area were also discussed. Supported by NSF Grant GA 31768. Bio. 3 ZINC TOXIC m STUDIES WITH ALGAL BIOASSAYS. Frank A. Gamp, Albert G. Hendricks, and John Cairns, Jr. Department of Biology, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061 Preliminary investigations were undertaken to determine the effects of temperature on the toxicity of zinc to the green alga Selenastrum capricornutum. The algal bioassay procedures used were basically those outlined by the E. P.A. The temperatures selected for study were 24 and 29° C. Growth was measured by absorbance at 600 nm with a double-beam spectrophotometer. Algal growth was inhibited by zinc concentrations in the range of 0,06-0.10 mg Zn/1. The degree of algal growth inhibition by zinc was greater at the higher temperature. This phenomenon may be an important stress factor in aquatic eco¬ systems that receive thermal effluents and heavy metal discharges. Bio . 5 FOODS AND GRITS USED BY AN URBAN PIGEON POPULATION. R.G. COBB* , T.A. Pierson, and P.F. Scanlon. Dept. Fisheries and Wildlife Sciences, Va. Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ. Blacksburg, Va. 24061. A study was conducted in December 1973 to determine the food habits of a feral pigeon population in an urban area. Crop contents were examined from 144 pigeons collected from the Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University cam¬ pus and the types of food consumed were recorded on a volume basis. The gizzards of birds were examined to determine the amount, size and type of grits present. The majority( 96 . 3 percent) of the foods utilized were agricultural grain crops. Corn made up 92 percent of the foods utilized: wheat, oats and barley were also utilized. Wild plant seeds and cherry pits made up the remaining 3.7 percent of crop contents. The mean weight of grit found in the gizzards of pigeons was 0.84 g. The proportion of grits in the size categories < 1 mm, 1-2 mm, 2-4 mm and > 4 mm were 0.4 percent, 26.5 percent 67.4 percent and 5.7 percent, respectively. Results indicate that pigeons subsisted largely on agricultural grains and because of this are a significant pest of stored agricultural feedstuffs. Bio. 7 SEASONAL ANALYSIS OF THE ABUNDANCE AND COMPOSITION OK THE SURFACE ZOOPLANKTON OF MAGOTHY ESTUARY, VIRGINIA. M, E. Browne and J. S. Zaneveld, Institute of Oceanography, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, Va. 23508 Magothy Bay, a shallow estuary located near the south¬ eastern tip of the Delmarva peninsula, was quantitatively sampled for net zooplankton at monthly intervals from March 1973 to March 197U (# 6 mesh 30-cm net for 10 minute horizon¬ tal surface tows ) . Observed salinity and temperature ranges were 28.27-32.58 °/oo and 2.7 - 28.1°C., respectively. Total zooplankton abundance was greatest in late spring with a secondary peak in late summer and was minimal in late fall-early winter, Copepods were by far the dominant organisms, comprising over 95% of all zooplankters counted. Dominant winter-spring copepods were Centropages typicus , C. hamatus , Acartia clausi , Oithona similis , Temora longicornis , and Pseudocalanus minutus . Acartia tons a , Paracalanus parvus , and Pseudodiaptomus corona tus were the predominant summer-fall copepods with Euterpina acutlfrons , Oithona brevicornis , Corycaeus venustus , and Oncaea venusta occurring in lesser abundance. Meroplanktonic larvae of benthic invertebrates such as Gastropoda, Pelecypoda, Cirripedia, and Polychaeta were seasonally important, especially in spring and summer. Significant quantities of Cladocera, ctenophores, chaeto- gnaths, hydromedusae, rrysids, penacids, amphipods , isopods, fish eggs, and fish larvae were captured periodically. Bio . 4 PINE VOLE REPRODUCTION IN TWO ORCHARD HABITATS. D. J. Cengel* and R. L. Kirkpatrick. Dept of Fisheries aid Wildlife Sciences, V.P.I. 4 S. U., Blacksburg, Va . 24061. Pine voles (Micro tus pinetorum) were collected bimonthly from September 1972 to May 1973 in an actively-farmed orchard and an abandoned orchard . Nearly 400 voles were removed and necropsied from the two orchards, both of which are located near Sperryville, Va. The following repro¬ ductive information indicates that more successful repro¬ ductive activity occurred in the actively-farmed orchard than in the abandoned one. Twenty percent of 199 voles from the actively-farmed orchard, as compared to only 7 percent of 184 voles from the abandoned orchard, were immature animals. This was true even though a higher per¬ centage of female voles was in the abandoned orchard samples (40 percent) than in the actively-farmed orchard samples (34 percent) . Thirty-six percent of 67 female voles from the actively-farmed orchard were pregnant, while only 15 percent of 73 female voles from the abandoned orchard were pregnant. Further, the average number of fetuses per preg¬ nant female was 2.0 in the actively-farmed orchard, and only 1.5 in the abandoned one. Mean testicular and seminal vesicular weights of male voles were usually greater in the actively-farmed orchard than in the abandoned one. Food habits data are being collected on these voles and may serve to help explain the observed differences in reproduction. (Supported in part by a grant from the Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife.) OBSERVATIONS ON CARDIAC AND RESPIRATORY FUNCTION IN THE AFRICAN LUNGFISH, PROTQPTERUS . Elizabeth B. Conant, Dept, of Biology, Mary Baldwin College, Staunton, Va. 24401 ECG records were obtained from free-swimming African lung- fish using silver wire electrodes. Depending on the place¬ ment of the active electrode, it was possible to record heart beat, opercular movement/ gi 11 irrigation, and lung ventilation and to study the interrelationships between cardiac and respiratory activity. The relative strengths of the cardlographie components varied with electrode placement. Simultaneous recordings of heart beat and gill Irrigation revealed no sustained synchrony between ventricular contrac¬ tion and opercular nsvement. Likewise th@r® appeared to fa@ no fixed pattern in the masher of heart beats between the opercular movements or In the number of opercular movements between aerial breaths. The length of th® respiratory interval varied, although several short intervals often followed a long one; in th® experimental conditions, most fish averaged on® breath every 1^-3 minutes. The heart rata slowed between aerial breaths; in general, the longer the respiratory Interval, the greater th® bradycardia. The heart rate dropped as much as 11 beats/minute out of 30-38 beats/mlnut® in several fish, returning to almost th® original rat® before and while the fish surfaced to breathe. There was no significant change in heart rats when the fish was lifted out of water and held in the air, uni i ke th© diving bradycardia of most pulmonate vertebrates of the air brady¬ cardia of some fishes. Bio. 8 62 The Virginia Journal of Science ADRENAL WEIGHTS OF GRAY SQUIRRELS AS AFFECTED BY SEASON, SEX, AND AGE. C. J. Covles^ R. L. Kirkpatrick, and J. 0. Newell* Dept, of Fisheries and Wildlife Sciences, V.P.I. & S.U., Blacksburg, Va. 24061. Two hundred and forty adult and subadult gray squirrels, Sciurus carolinensis , were collected over a period of one year beginning in Dec., 1966 and ending in Nov., 1967. Animals were aged and sexed, and paired adrenal weights and body weights were obtained. Paired absolute and relative adrenal weights were analyzed by analysis of variance and a multiple range test. Adult animals had significantly greater (P< .01) absolute adrenal weights than subadults (131 mg. vs. 109 mg.) but there was no significant diff¬ erence in relative adrenal weights (252mg./kg. vs. 227 mg./ kg. respectively). There were no significant differences between sexes nor were there significant differences between pregnant and nonpregnant females in either age class. For all age classes monthly differences in both absolute and relative adrenal weights generally were sign¬ ificantly higher during early fall (Sept., Oct.), declined rapidly to a low during Dec. and Jan., and gradually increased throughout the rest of the year. These results are similar to seasonal trends demonstrated in other rodents such as the pine vole, Microtus pinetorum, and the woodchuck, Mar mot a monax . Bio . 9 INFLUENCE OF AFLATOXIN B ON LILY POLLEN TUBE ELONGATION AND CERTAIN METABOLIC PARAMETERS. W.V. Dashek . J.C. Chancey , Jr. J.W. Young, S.R. Lewis, and G.C. Llewellyn. Dept, of Biology Va. Commonwealth Univ. , Richmond, Va. 23281*. Previously, Dashek and Llewellyn (Va. J. Sci ■ , 24:122, 1973)reported on an evaluation of Lilium longiflorum, 'Ace' pollen as a bioassay system for aflatoxin B^. Here, we re¬ examine the toxin's influence on tube elongation and report preliminary data on both uptake and incorporation of l4c - proline (pro), uptake of l^C - Leucine (leu) and total pro¬ tein. Aflatoxin B^ had no effect on pollen tube elongation from 2-30 yg/ml. In one experiment total protein decreased from 2-8 yg/ml aflatoxin for both 2 and 1* hr. germination and then increased between 8-20 yg/ml during a 1+ hr. exposure to the toxin. In contrast, a 2 hr. incubation with aflatoxin Bp resulted in a leveling of total protein from 8-20 yg/ml. In a subsequent experiment, exposure to the toxin at 2, 8 and l*t Mg/ml for 2 hr. yielded a slight increase in total protein and then a decrease. A 4 hr. incubation with the toxin re¬ sulted in a decrease in total protein between 2 and 8 yg/ml followed by an increase from 8-20 yg/ml aflatoxin Bp. Uptake of 1 ^C - leu at 2, 8, lit and 20 yg/ml aflatoxin Bp was higher than that of the control for all times tested. Marked dif¬ ferences were observed in ^C - pro uptake for two separate experiments. Whereas aflatoxin Bp stimulated incorporation of H) c - pro into wall fractions, between 2 and 8 yg/ml, this incorporation was inhibited at lit and 20 yg/ml. QUANTITATIVE ROLE OF HEMOGLOBIN IN OXYGEN UPTAKE OF THE ARK CLAM NOETIA PONDEROSA SAY. Lewi s E^ Deaton* Dept, of Biology, Col. of William and Mary, Williamsburg, Va . 23185. Noet ia ponderosa is one of relatively few bi¬ valves which possess hemoglobin. The role of the hemoglobin in the oxygen uptake of the animal was investigated by comparing the normal rate of oxy¬ gen uptake of an animal with the rate of oxygen uptake of the same animal following exposure to carbon monoxide to block the function of the pig¬ ment. At 23°C. , the values obtained for the per¬ centage of oxygen uptake due to hemoglobin ranged from 30-60 at PCL, ' s of 50-130mm Hg and 10-30 at PCL's of 10- 50mm Hg . The large values obtained indicate a transport function for the pigment, especially at high oxygen tensions. Bio. 10 FIELD STUDIES OF CALLING BEHAVIOUR IN THE SPRING PEEPER HYLA C. CRUCIFER. D. E. Delzell and W. Portlock.* Department of Biology, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, Virginia 23508. The Spring Peeper sings from three positions during the year. In the summer, fall and winter, while terrestrial, the males sing from the forest floor. In spring, males, as they approach the breeding pond, sing from terrestrial posts elevated eight inches to seven feet. In the pond, the males sing from a position zero to four inches above the water's surface. Marked and recaptured males, when leaving the pond, again sing from elevated positions, up to 35.5 inches above the forest floor. Apparently male frogs spend their terrestrial existence on the forest floor and move up to elevated singing posts while approaching and possibly leaving the pond. Bio. 12 Bio. 11 PROTEIN SYNTHESIS IN DORMANT AND DEVELOPING P0D0CYSTS OF THE SCYPH0ZQAN, CHRYSAORA QUINQUBCIRRHA. R. Enright and R. E-. Black, Va. Inst. Marine Sci., Gloucester Point, Va. and Dept, of Biology, Col. of William and Mary, Williams¬ burg, Va. 23185 Polyps of Chrysaora reproduce asexually by the forma¬ tion of podocysts. A podocyst contains a cellular mass covered by a tough, chitinous coat. A population of podocysts was held at 25°C and observed for a period of 25 months. The period of dormancy ranged from 0 to 24 months, with apparent modes at 9 and 18 months. Incubation of podocysts at 5°C for 23 weeks, followed by return to 25°C, resulted in 80$ germination. Cold treatment followed by warming evidently triggers germination; in nature, cysts may germinate Ill the spring after surviving winter tempera¬ tures . The rate of protein synthesis in dormant podocysts is about one-tenth that of the starved adult polyp. Artificial removal of the chitinous covering induces 70 - 85$ of the cysts to develop into polyps. The rate of protein synthesis in newly-opened cysts is about A times that of dormant cysts. The rate continues to increase, exceeding that of the adult polyp at the 4-tent'acled stage. Further development to the 8-tentacled stage occurs without feeding, and with no fur¬ ther increase in the rate of amino acid incorporation into protein. SEASONAL VARIATION OF BODY FAT LEVELS IN PINE VOLES. J. E. Estep*, D. J. Cengel*, and R. L. Kirkpatrick. Dept, of Fisheries and Wildlife Sciences, V.P.I.&S.U. , Blacksburg, Va. 24061. Pine voles (Microtus pinetorum) were snap-trapped bi¬ monthly in two Virginia apple orchards from September 1972 to May 1973. One orchard was actively maintained for apple production while the other orchard had been abandoned for six years. Carcasses (minus stomachs, intestines and reproductive organs) of 224 adult voles were analyzed for crude fat content by an ether extraction method. The fat content values (expressed as percent of dry body weight) were compared to determine differences between orchards, months and sexes. Fat content of voles from the abandoned orchard was higher except during November. Seasonal trends in fat content were not similar in the two orchard habitats. The fat content of voles from the active orchard did not fluctuate radically between months. Highest and lowest fat values (mean+std. error) were found in November (15.0+0.5 percent) and May (11.8+0.9 percent), respectively. In the abandoned orchard fat content of trapped voles fluctuated from a high of 16.9+0.9 percent in January to a low of 11.5+ 0.4 percent in November. In both orchards, the fat content of female voles was generally higher than males throughout the trapping period. Bio. 14 Bio. 13 Proceedings, 1973-1974 63 DISPERSAL IN NAIABACARUS ARBORICOLA, A KITE RESTRICTED TO HATER-FILLED TREEHOLES . Norman J. Fashing, Dept, of Biology, Col. of William & Mary, Williamsburg, Va. 23185 The facultative hypopial instar of acarid mites is a dispersal stage and in most species forms only in response to adverse or declining environmental conditions, allowing the species to disperse to more favorable conditions. However, in Naiadacarus arboricola which inhabits water- filled treeholes, hypopi form only in May and June when environmental conditions in the treehole are optimal, thus increasing the success of dispersing hypopi. This adaptation is correlated with the fact that the treehole habitat is stable, not transient as are the habitats of most acarids. The hypopial instar of N. arboricola has thus evolved to serve purely as a dispersal agent for the purpose of colonizing new treeholes and for outcrossing among populations (treeholes) , not to escape adverse conditions. Hypopi of N. arboricola are phoretic only on adult syrphid flies of the genus Mallota, the larvae of which are rat- tailed maggots in treeholes. Mallota adults are also present only during May and June. Hypopi utilize only female flies as dispersal agents since they return to treeholes to oviposit. Male flies never return to treeholes 9 but scan flowers in search of females. Thus hypopi attaching to mal@ flies would be on a dead-end trip. Bio. 15 The Function Of The Cellular Hemoglobin Of The Arcid Clam Noetia ponderosa (Say). Marvin A. Freadman*. Dept, of Bio'logy, Coi. of William and Mary, Williamsburg, Va. 23185 Oxygen equilibrium curves of the cellular hemoglobin of Noetia ponderosa were studied in buffered suspensions of intact’ cells in the pH range 6. 6-7. 4 at 10 and 23°C. The oxygen equil¬ ibrium curves are not linearized by the Hill transformation. Two phases can be detected, each with a significantly different Hill coefficient (n), with the slope of the first phase less than that of the second phase. Oxygen affinity at 10°C is 5*30 mm Hg while at 23°C the value is 6.25 mm Hg. Curves of total oxygen content and internal F02's of animals exposed to a wide range of oxy¬ gen conditions suggest that the cellular hemoglo¬ bin functions in oxygen transport at intermediate and high oxygen levels. At lower external P02*s it may be utilized as an oxygen store when vent¬ ilation is inhibited. The molecular weight of the hemoprotein estimated on a calibrated gel column, appears to be 34,500, suggesting a dimeric hemo¬ globin. Bio. 16 THE RESPONSE OF CFW VS. CF#1 MICE TO SPACE DEPRIVATION AND INCREASED SOCIAL CONTACT. Vernon M. Fueston III, and John H. Richardson, Ph.D. , Department of Biology, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, Virginia. Male mice of two strains, CF#1 and CFW, of Carworth Farms of New York were subjected to isolation in small (2 inch length x 2 inch width x 2 inch height) cages and to popula¬ tion sizes of 1 , 4, and 16 mice per large cage (16 inches width x 14 inches length x 2 inches height) for a period of 14 days. At the end of the experimental period, the animals were sacrificed by cervical fracture and the blood serum analyzed by flourometry for corticosterone, a hormone which indicates adrenal cortex activity. CFW mice were shown to have a significant endochrine response to the increasing population density while the CF#1 mice did not. This indicates that genetic factors have an influence on the endochrine response to increasing population size. Isolated mice of both strains and cage sizes showed significantly high hormone levels indicating that isolation as well as high density is stressful. Aided by NIH Grant MH 21520 01 Bio 17 GENETICALLY DETERMINED HETEROGENEITY IN THE BETA CHAINS OF RABBIT HEMOGLOBIN AND ASSOCIATED POLYRIBOSOME PATTERNS. M.D. Garrick and L.M. Garrick. Dept, of Biol,. Univ. of Va. Charlottesville, Va, 22903 and Depts. of Bioch. and Ped,, St. Univ. of N.Y. at Bflo. , Buffalo, N.Y. 14207 The 3 chain of rabbit (Oryctolagus caniculus) hemoglobin has previously been reported to contain a single residue of isoleucine at (3112. He have detected variant rabbits with either zero isoleucyl residues or half a residue per P chain. This character is polymorphic and inherited as a simple Men- delian autosomal codominant. Normally the modal number of ribosomes per polyribosome is 4 to 6 in reticulocyte lysates; but incubation of rabbit reticulocytes prior to lysis with L-o-methylthreonine (0MT), an isostere of isoleucine, leads to a bimodal distribution in lysates with 2 to 3 and 8-12 ribosomes as modes. This alteration has been attributed to ribosomal traffic jams caused by starvation for ile-tRNA codons corresponding to the locations of isoleucyl residues at positions alO, al7,a55 and Pll2. He have confirmed this interpretation by incubating 0MT with reticulocytes from rabbits with integral and nil values for isoleucyl residues per 3 chain to show that formation of the larger clusters of polyribosomes required that (3112= ile. Bio. 18 BODYWEIGHT -ORGAN WEIGHT RELATIONSHIPS IN COTTONTAIL RABBITS. C. D. Goldsmith, Jr.*, M. N. Berkaw* and P. F. Scanlon. Dept. Fisheries and Wildlife Sciences, Va. Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ., Blacksburg, Va. 24061 Adult male cottontail rabbits (Sylvilagus floridanus) were collected over a period of one year (sample size up to ten animals monthly). Body weights were recorded for each animal as well as the weights of the heart, spleen, liver, paired adrenals, paired kidneys and kidney fat. Comparisons were made between body weights and the absolute weights taken. The average body weight was highest in July (1,367+ 66.84 g S.E.) with the lowest average body weight in August ( 1,036 . 16+57 .53g) and early fall (Sept. 107142t5.54g and Oct. 1071 .43+59 . 63g) . The heart, spleen, liver, kidneys and adrenals seemed to fluctuate along the same pattern as the body weights. Kidney fat which is often used in wildlife management as an indicator of an animal's body condition was found to be highest in December (6 . 323+1 . 253g) while the lowest kidney fat weights were found to occur in August (0.631HK). 154g) , early fall, Sept. 0 . 8086+0 . 349g , and spring April (0. 842+0 . 181g) , May (0 . 888+0 . 127g) . [Supported by Mclntire-Stennis Project No. 636201] Bio. 19 A PHYSICAL -CHEMICAL DESCRIPTION OF AN UPPER HYP0LIMNIAL BLOOM. B. C. Greqq, Zooloqy Dept., Univ. of Vermont, Burlington, Vt. 05401. Vertical microstratifications of algal and/or bacterial populations within hypolimnia have been reported for many lakes. During the summer stratification of 1969 basic physical -chemical parameters of Outer Malletts Bay, Lake Champlain indicate the probable occurrence of these micro¬ layers in the upper hypolimnion at all 5 sampling stations. Water chemistry samples were taken at 2 meter depth inter¬ vals and temperature, pH, alkalinity, dissolved oxygen, and free CO2 were plotted against depth for each station and date. For some stations on a given date there were discon¬ tinuities in the expected clinograde curves. At the certain depth at each station there would be an increase of dissolved oxygen, pH, and alkalinity and a decrease of free CO2. These discontinuities as well as other data, though there were no algal samplings, are interpreted to reflect significant algal microlayers. (Present address: Biology Dept., VPI & SU, Blacksburg.) Bio. 20 64 The Virginia Journal of Science THE EFFECTS OF CHLORINE AND TEMPERATURE ON STREAM INVERTE¬ BRATES. B. C. Greqq, E. F. Benfield, J. Cairns, Jr., and A. G. Heath. Biology Dept., VPI&SU, Blacksburg, Va. 24061. Toxicity tests at 6°C and 17°C in dechlorinated Blacks¬ burg tap water with chlorine upon the mayfly Ison.ychia sp. and other stream invertebrates were performed in continuous flow stainless steel "streams" with paddle-driven circula¬ tion. Times - until - death at similar concentrations were not significantly different at 6°C and 17°C. Thermal and chlorine shock experiments with Isonychia sp., Stenonema fuscum, and Pel toperla maria with high-temperature, high-concentration, short-exposure, death-resulting tests indicate that the addition of up to 10 mg/1 chlorine did not significantly increase mortal i ty. Multiple regression equations are presented for the effect of acclimation temper¬ ature, shock temperature, increase-above-ambient temperature, and chlorine concentration for the different organisms. Death occurs more rapidly at higher shock temperatures, acclimation at higher temperatures increases thermal resist¬ ance, and short term chlorine exposures do not add signifi¬ cantly to mortality. (Partially supported by American Electric Power Corp.) Bio. 21 ASPECTS OF MOLTING IN MALE ROCK CRABS, CANCER IRRORATUS . P. A. Haefner, Jr." and W. A. Van Engel. Virginia Inst. Mar. Sci., Gloucester Point, Virginia 23062. Male rock crabs were collected from lower Chesapeake Bay during the winter. They migrate into the bay in late fall. The majority molt in January, remain in papershell condition until April and leave the bay by May. Most laboratory -he Id crabs molted in January, re¬ flecting the observed field pattern. Premolt develop¬ ment was determined by examination of mouth parts for apolysis and setae formation, and by relative resiliency of the shell near the ecdysial suture line. Crabs > 100 mm carapace width did not molt. Progression through the intermolt cycle is temperature dependent: crabs held at 17.5 C advanced from C4 to B2 in one-third the time re¬ quired for crabs held at 7 C. Most water uptake and weight change occurred between D4 and A2 (Orach's stages); mean percent water content ranged from 67% for C4 to 87% for A2 stages. Mean percent weight increase ranged from 52-59% in relation to size. Progressive growth was observed for length and width: percent in¬ crement ranged from 18-23% for length and 19-27% for width. Width-weight relationships of premolt and post- molt crabs were compared by covariance analysis. A significant difference in the adjusted means was inter¬ preted as the weight gain still to be realized by the soft crab as it attains the C-^-Cj stages. (Research supported by NOAA, Sea Grant). g^0 22 SALINITY RELATED CHANGES IN ATPASE LEVELS IN THE VIRGINIA OYSTER, CRASSOSTREA VIRGINICA AND THE HARD CLAM. MERCENARIA MERCENARIA. M. E. Hedqepeth, Mathematics and Science Center, Richmond, V a. and M. P. Lynch, Virginia Institute of Marine Science, Gloucester Point, V a. The effects of environmental salinity on gill Na-K- activated ATPase activity in the common oyster, Crassostrea virginica and the hard clam, Mercenaria mercenaria were investigated. Animals were transferred from ambient salinity to higher and lower salinities. In each case, the gill ATPase levels were periodically monitored for 72 hours. The ATPase levels recorded under experimental conditions were compared to the ATPase levels of controls kept at ambient salinity. Significant increases in gill ATPase activity were recorded for animals transferred to higher than ambient salinities. Corresponding decreases in ATPase levels occurred when animals were transferred to lower salinities. Fluctuations in ATPase levels were detectable within 6 hours after transfer. Under similar environmental conditions, ATPase levels in C. virqinica and M. mercenaria are approximately equal. Results could indicate that the gills are a major site of ionic regulation. Bio. 23 GENETIC STUDIES OF CAVE AND SPRING POPULATIONS OF THE FRESHWATER AMPHIPOD CRUSTACEAN GAMMARUS MINUS SAY. S. W. Hetrick*. Dept, of Biology, Old Dominion Univ., Norfolk, Va. 23508 The amphipod Gammarus minus has 3 morphotypes in its Appalachian range: (1) a spring form with well developed eyes, (2) an intermediate cave form with slightly reduced eyes, and (3) an extreme cave form with greatly reduced eyes. This study compares the genetic structure of populations in 2 karst areas and analyzes the genetics of populations of the morphotypes. Genetic data were collected from populations in the Ward's Cove, Va. and Greenbrier Valley, W. Va . karst areas using zone electrophoresis zymograms. One hundred percent of the Ward's Cove populations are polymorphic at both MDH-1 and PEP-1 loci with alleles and allelic frequencies nearly iden¬ tical. Polymorphism is low in most of the Greenbrier Valley populations. The allele frequencies are also nearly identical* The well integrated subterranean drainage of both the Greenbrier Valley and Ward's Cove areas favor intermittent gene flow among populations genetically homogeneous. No systematic genetic differences were found between the morphotypes. A preliminary study of the chromosome make-up also indicates no differences (2N = 53) . This indicates that photoreceptor regression has not been accompanied by a major reorganization of the genome. Bio. 24 ZOOGEOGRAPHY OF THE SUBTERRANEAN AMPHIPOD CRUSTACEANS (GAMMARIDAE , HADZIA GROUP) OF THE GREATER CARIBBEAN REGION. J. R. I-Iol singer. Dept, of Biology, Old Dominion Univ. , Norfolk, Va . 23508 The Hadzia group is composed of nine or ten aenera of primarily eyeless, unpigmented amphipods which occupy marine littoral, brackish interstitial and freshwater subterranean biotopes. The distribution of this croup is circumtropical , but the majority of species are found in the Caribbean and Mediterranean reaions . The Hadzia croup is represented by six genera of subterranean amphipods in the creater Caribbean recion, including: Alloweckelia (1 cavernicolous species from puerto Rico) , Hadzia (2 cavernicolous and 2 interstitial species from the Lesser Antilles and Jamaica) , Mexiweckelia (1 cavernicolous, 2 interstitial and 1 pheratobitic species from northern Mexico and central Texas), Paraweckelia (1 cavernicolous species from central Cuba) , Weckelia (2 cavernicolous species from western Cuba) , and an undescribed cenus (2 cavernicolous species from the Yucatan Peninsula of Mexico) . The freshwater aenera are believed to have evolved from interstitial, brackish-water ancestors followi.na periods of marine embayment durina Cretaceous and Tertiary times. The ancestral forms were probably closely related to the modern form of Hadzia. This theory is supported by the wide distribution, ecological diversity and comparatively unspecialized morphology of the latter aenus . Bio. 25 RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN MATURATION OF FED DERMACENTOR VARIABILIS MALES AND NUMBER OF FEEDING FEMALES ON THE SAME HOST. P. J. Homsher and D. E. Sonenshine, Department of Biology, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, Virginia 23508. Sonenshine et al . (1974) have reported evidence for the presence of a sex pheromone in 2 species of hard ticks, Dermacentor variabilis and Dermacentor andersoni. In an attempt to determine if numbers of attractive females influ¬ ence duration of attachment of feeding males and rate of spermatogenesis, unfed males were released in capsules in which 0, 1, 2, 3, 6, 12 and 25 females were feeding. Results show that, on the average, males detached earlier to start mate seeking in capsules with larger numbers of females in both species tested. In D. variabilis, spermatogensis in males that had detached in capsules with fewer females (0-3) was more complete than those in capsules with greater numbers of females (6-25). The shorter attachment time may be at least a partial explanation of this finding. Bio. 26 Proceedings, 1973-1974 65 PRELIMINARY REPORT ON STUDIES OF NICOTINE BINDING WITH HUMAN HEMOGLOBIN. V. H. Huxley*. S. Boatman, and E. K. Hege. Dept.s of Chemistry and Physics, Hollins College, Hollins College, Va. 24020 Nicotine, which is highly toxic, is rapidlv metabolized in large quantities by the human body. Because of the reactive nature of nicotine the question arose concerning its possible effects on the function of the plasma protein hemoglobin. A pilot study was conducted using radioactively labled nicotine in dialysis with hemoglobin. Preliminary analysis of the C counts at various times during the dialysis indicate a binding of nicotine to hemoglobin. Uptake increases over the first 18 hours at 3 C but drops off rapidly from 22 to 25 hours under the same temperature. Bio. 27 SEX DETERMINATION OF JAPANESE MEDAKA (ORYZIAS LATIPES) BY AN ANTIANDROGEN. Helen T. Irons* and Carl B. Schreck.* Dept, of Fisheries and Wildlife Sci., Va. Polytech. Inst, and State Univ., Blacksburg, Va. 24061. Complete and functional sex reversal in certain gonochor- istic fishes has been accomplished by treatment of juveniles with sex hormones of the opposite sex. Effects of inhibit¬ ing endogenous sex steroid action on sex determination in fishes has, however, not been evaluated. Cyproterone acetate (CA) (1 , 2a-methylene-6-chloro-AZf » ^-pregnadiene-17a-ol-3 , 20- dione-17a-acetate) a potent synthetic antiandrogen in high¬ er vertebrates, was administered per os at a rate of 0, 50, 250, and 500 ug CA/g diet to triplicate groups of the golden variety of Japanese Medaka (Oryzias latipes) for the first 12 weeks following hatching. The sex of the fish at matur¬ ity was determined histologically (H & E staining) and ex¬ ternally by examination of fin morphology. State of gameto- genesis was also noted. No differences in growth or survival between treatments was found. There was, however, a highly significant difference in sex ratios between control (M=ll, F=10) and the highest dosage (M=5 , F=15) levels (a=.021, binomial test). [Funded by West Va. Dept. Nat. Res., N.M.F. S., PL88-309 , Contract No. 04-3-043-11]. Bio. 28 ACTH, FSH AND LH ACTIVITY OF COTTONTAIL RABBITS AS IN¬ FLUENCED BY CAPTIVITY. R. L. Kirkpatrick. Dept, of Fisheries and Wildlife Sciences, V.P.I. & S.U., Blacksburg, Va. 24061. Two experiments were conducted to determine the effects of laboratory confinement on pituitary hormone activity of male cottontail rabbits (Sylvilagus floridanus) . In the first experiment 4 rabbits which had been in laboratory cages measuring 30 x 60 cm under natural lighting for 12 weeks were compared to 6 rabbits collected directly from the wild. All rabbits were killed between 1900 and 2400 hr. on the same days in late April. Confined, rabbits had sign¬ ificantly (P < .05) smaller anterior pituitary and prostate weights. Also testes and seminal vesicle weights generally were smaller, but not significantly so. FSH and LH activity of the anterior pituitary as measured by the HCG augment¬ ation and ovarian ascorbic acid depletion tests, respective¬ ly, tended to be less (P 08 ™ Experimental methods were developed to elucidate the site of sex pheromone production and/or release in the American dog tick (Dermacentor variabilis) and the Rocky Mountain wood tick (Dermacentor andersoni). The experimental evidence sug¬ gests that the foveae dorsales are the site of pheromone re¬ lease and that the glands (Layton’s Glands) associated with them are the site of production. Specimens were maintained in the laboratory as source ma¬ terial for the histological and experimental research. Ex¬ perimental disruption of the foveae dorsales caused the fed females to lose attractancy. This evidence was followed by morphological and histological studies. Marked changes were observed in the previously unreported glands associated with the foveae dorsales. The glands differentiated from the surrounding tissues and developed into granular, vacuolated, lobe-like paired structures. These changes were correlated with attractancy of the feeding females to sexually active males of that species or the other species. (Aided by NIH grant AI 10,986) SPECIES DIVERSITY OF BREEDING BIRDS IN RESIDENTIAL AREAS. V. J. Lucid*. Dept, of Fisheries & Wildlife Sciences, Va. Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ., Blacksburg, Va. 24061 Counts were conducted in six residential areas of Blacks¬ burg, Va., to measure the diversity and relative numbers of birds during the breeding season. Developments of new, high-density housing, new, detached houses, and older neigh¬ borhoods of detached houses were represented in each of two groups: those built within wooded areas, and those built on open ground. In each of the six areas, three sample plots 300 feet square were established. Bird counts con¬ sisted of recording numbers by species of all birds seen or heard in four minutes. Twenty-eight such counts were made in each of the plots between 1 May and 17 July 1973. The highest number of birds was observed in the open, high-density area, but consisted almost entirely of House Sparrows and Starlings. These introduced species responded well to certain architectural features of the buildings, while the occurrence of native songbirds depended upon nat¬ ural and/or landscape vegetation. Three housing developments built within wooded areas had consistently greater varieties of birds than did develop¬ ments of approximately the same age built on open ground. High-density housing attracted the lowest variety of birds for both the wooded and open groups. Within each group the species diversity increased with the degree of maturity of the neighborhood. (Funded by the U, S. Bureau of Sport Fisheries & Wildlife.) Bio. 36 EFFECT OF A SUPPLEMENTAL FOOD SUPPLY ON THE REPRODUCTIVE ATTAINMENT OF THE GRAY SQUIRREL (SCIURUS CAROLINENSIS) . J. B. Lint*, and H. S. Mosby. Div. of Forestry and Wildlife Sciences, Va. Polytechnic Instit. and State Univ., Blacks¬ burg, Va. 24061 This study was conducted from Dec. 1972 to Dec. 1973 to determine the effect of a supplemental food supply on the reproductive attainment of the gray squirrel. Mast, the major fall-winter food for the gray squirrel, was scarce in the fall of 1972 and 1973. The squirrel populations in two food-supplemented mature woodlots and two control mature woodlots near the campus of Va. Polytechnic Instit. and State Univ., Blacksburg, Va . were investigated. After one year of treatment, the food -supplemented wood- lots had an average rj (number of young per adult female) value of 1.50 as compared with an average rj value of .765 for the control woodlots (t-test, P>.80). A significant decrease in rj ratio occurred between the years 1972 and 1973 in the control woodlots (Fall 1972, rj =* 3.065; Fall 1973, rj = .765; t-test, P>.90), but no significant change of the rj occurred in the supplemented woodlots (Fall 1972, rj = 1.895; Fall 1973, r. = 1.50). No significant differ¬ ences in sex ratio, average weight by age-class or sex, juvenile survival, or number of squirrels per acre were noted as a result of the supplemented food supply. This investigation suggests that the supplemental food supply maintained the pretreatment rj value, while the rj of the control woodlots decreased significantly, apparently as. a result of the deficient fall-winter natural roods. Bio. 35 ZOOPLANKTON POPULATIONS IN LAKE DRUMMOND, DISMAL SWAMP, VIRGINIA. Harold G. Marshall. Dept, of Biology, Old Dominion Univ., Norfolk, Va. 23508. Observations of zooplankton populations were given for a seven month period, over fall, winter and spring months in Lake Drummond, with additional samples taken in Jericho Ditch and Washington Ditch of the Dismal Swamp. In Lake Drummond the total population numbers decreased from peak periods during early fall with lowest values reported for winter (January), followed by increased numbers into spring. A similar pattern was noted for stations in Jericho and Washington Ditch. The most prominant zooplankton group over this period in Lake Drummond were the Cladocerans. Bosmina longirostris was the dominant species each month of the sampling. Calanoid and cyclopoid copepods, ostracods and rotifers were present in lesser concentrations. Many of the zooplankters in Jericho Ditch and Washington Ditch differed in concentrations from those present in Lake Drummond. Rotifers were specifically more abundant in Washington Ditch. These differences in populations and their densities through the sampling period were discussed for Lake Drummond and the two ditches. Supported by the Old Dominion University Research Foundation Bio. 37 Proceedings, 1973-1974 67 BLOOD CHEMISTRY OF THE RATTLESNAKE, CROTALUS ATROX, JAMES H. MARTIN. Div. of Math, and Nat. Sci., J.S. Reynolds Cmnty. Col., Richmond, Virginia 23230 In order to study the physiological properties of rattlesnake muscle a suitable bathing medium was needed. Using clinical instruments (SMA-12, SMA- 6/60 autoanalyzers) various electrolyte and organit concentrations were determined from 17 western Diamondback rattlesnakes, Crotalus atrox. These data were used as guidelines for the construction of a rattlesnake saline. Blood was collected from the aortas of ether¬ ized snakes in heparinized tubes. Collections were made over a 2 year period from animals which re¬ fused to eat and the effects of fasting were ob¬ served. Fasting for up to 20 weeks had little effect on most blood constituents. Cholesterol and NaCl decreased and all other values were essentially unchanged . Mean electrolyte values obtained were: Na+-163 meg/1; K+-3.4 meq/1; Cl”~129 meq/1 ; HCC>3_-7.2 meq/1 Ca*+-13.4 mg%; inorganic phosphate 4.4 mg% . Mean organic values obtained were: uric acid- 7.7mg%; total protein-5 . 2g% ; albumin-0.52 g%; glucose-106 mg% ; BUN-0.6 mg% ; cholesterol-158 mg% . Bio. 3k AQUATIC ENTOMOLOGY IN SOUTHEASTERN VIRGINIA, James F. Matta. Department of Biology, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, Va, 23508. A review of the progress in aquatic entomology in southeastern Virginia is presented. A total of seven orders with 39 families, 12b genera and 25b species of aquatic and semiaquatic insects are recorded from the area. The aquatic Coleoptera - the group which has been most extensively studied in the area - represents 37.8% of the species total. The least studied order - the Diptera - makes up 31 .9% of the species recorded; however the vast majority of the species recorded are pest species. Relatively little work has been done on the majority of the aquatic families. Copelatus chevrolati chevrolati Aube, Celin* slossani Mutchler and Laccophilus gentilis gentilis LeConte are recorded for the first time from Virginia. This is the northermost record of L. gentilis. The aquatic insect reference collection housed at Old Dominion University contains over UOO named species of aquatic and semiaquatic insects from the eastern United States and a large backlog of material awaits encorporation into the collection. Bio. 39 A COMPARATIVE SURVEY OF MACRO INVERTEBRATE BETHNIC FAUNA OF THE HEADWATERS OF THE SMITH RIVER AND ITS MAJOR TRIBUTARY, ROCK CASTLE CREEK. James W. McIntosh, Jennifer S. Lowe, W. Logan Esarey, Darrell L. Martin, Donald B. Minter, Robert P. Osborne, and Donald R. Strachan, Jr. Dept of Biology, Patrick Henry Comnty. Col., Martinsville, Va. 24112 Monthly surveys of bottom fauna are being made in the headwaters of Smith River and its main tributary, Rock Castle Creek in Patrick County, Va. Six sampling stations have been established on each stream. Comparisons are being made between taxa present, shifts in densities are being noted and diversity indices are being calculated (using Cairns-Dickson Modified Sequential Comparison Method) for each station each month. At the half-way point in the year study the following observations can be made: (1) The density of organisms per site per month was similar from Nov. through Apr. (2) The estimated Diversity Indices of Smith River showed an increase from Nov. to Feb. and then began to drop in Mar. and Apr. This increase in Diversity was probably due to a decrease in the Mayfly, Caddisfly and Diptera populations. On the Rock Castle Creek the diversity gradually dropped from Nov. through Apr. (3) The predominate groups present during the study were Mayflies and Caddisflies. The May¬ fly density for both streams were similar in Nov. , both dropped significantly in Jan. and have increased through Apr. The Caddisflies dropped from Nov. to Jan. and have remained rather stable through Apr. g^D 4^ EFFECT OF FOOD DEPRIVATION AND COLD STRESS ON WEIGHT CHANGES AND SURVIVAL OF CAPTIVE GRAY SQUIRRELS. M. H. Mersore) C. J. Cowles^ and R. L. Kirkpatrick. Dept, of Fisheries and Wildlife Sciences, V.P.I. & S.U., Blacksburg, Va . 24061. Guthrie et al. (J. Wildl. Manage. 31(1): 102-108, 1967.) described a "shock" condition in wild trapped gray squirrels (Sciurus carolinensis) which was characterized bv uncon- ciousness, low body temperature, and convulsions. An attempt was made to induce this condition in captive squirrels experimentally by depriving them of food and ex¬ posing them to low temperatures. Nine animals were divided into 4 groups; cold temperature (1-4°C) and food deprived (CD), cold temperature and food ad libitum (CF) , room temp- erature and food deprived (RD) , and room temperature and food ad libitum (RF) . The animals were kept on experiment for 2 weeks or until they exhibited a comatose condition or died. Three of 3 CD animals died between days 5 and 13 of the experiment. One of 2 RD animals died on day 11. The average percent weight losses (+ std. error) for the CD, CF, RD, and RF groups were 36.6+4.8%, 18.9+13.9%, 28.3+10.2%, and 10.8+1.9%, respectively. The average percent weight loss of animals dying during treatment was 36.1+3.4%. Two squirrels exhibited a comatose condition prior to death somewhat similar to that reported in wild squirrels by Guthrie et al. Attempts to revive these animals by intra- peritoneal injection and/or oral administration of con¬ centrated glucose solution (0.53g/cc) were unsuccessful. Bio. 41 MONTHLY GONADAL CHANGES IN MALE WHITE-TAILED DEER. R. E. Mirarchi,* P. F. Scanlon, and R. L. Kirkpatrick. Dept. Fisheries and Wildlife Sciences, Va. Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ., Blacksburg, Va. 24061. One testis and epididymis was collected from each of 70 adult (> 12 months) male white-tailed deer (Odocoileus vir- ginianus) from January through December in Southwest Vir¬ ginia. Testes weights (g) were heaviest in October (46.76 + 8.16 S.E.) and lightest in March (8.21 + 0.86 S.E.). Epidi¬ dymides weights (g) were heaviest in November (7.40 + 1.11 S.E.) and lightest in April (3.12 + 0.38 S.E.). Total testi¬ cular spermatozoan numbers (xlO^) were highest in November (4.406 + 0.572 S.E.) and lowest in May (0.020 + 0.012 S.E.). Total epididymal spermatozoan numbers (xlO^) were highest in November (6.602 + 1.600 S.E.) and lowest in May (0.005 + 0.004 S.E.) Organ weights and spermatozoan numbers were sta¬ tistically analyzed for variation between months. Testes Weights during October differed significantly (P < 0.05) from every month except September and November. Epididymides Weights in November differed significantly (P < 0.05 from every month except September and October. Total testicular spermatozoan numbers in November differed significantly (P < 0.05 from every month except October. Total epididymal spermatozoan numbers in November differed significantly (P <0.05) from every month except October. Results indicate maximum male reproductive capability in November when the majority of does are bred in Southwest Virginia. (Supported by Mclntire-Stennis Project No. 636201). Bio. 42 THE ROLE OF LINKAGE IN A COMPLEX POLYMORPHISM. J. Murray and B. Clarke*. Dept, of Biology, Univ. of Virginia and Dept, of Genetics, Univ. of Nottingham, England. Complex polymorphisms, in which some combinations of alleles at different loci are favorable and some are not, frequently show strong linkage between the interacting loci. Examples of such supergenes have been described in a number of organisms and have been analyzed in detail in butterflies of the genus Papilio by Clarke and Sheppard. Related species with progressive development of supergenes have been noted in grouse locusts (Tettigidae) and in the isopod genus Sphaeroma . The land snails of the qenus Partula show a similar supergene development. In Partula taeniata five loci controlling color of the shell, color of the lip, color of the spire, and two forms of banding are genetically distinguishable but are very closely linked. In Partula suturalis genetic dissection of the superqene has not so far proved possible. Six principal patterns may be recognized which behave as a series of multiple alleles. The two species therefore represent two stages in the integration of a complex polymorphism into a supergene. (Aided by NSF grant GB-26382) Bio. 43 68 The Virginia Journal of Science PARTURITION SITE IN RELATION TO SUBSEQUENT HOME RANGE OF WHITE-TAILED DEER FAWNS. E. T. Reed*, B. S. McGinnes*, and B. N. Reed*. Dept, of Fisheries and Wildlife Sciences, V.P.I. & S.U., Blacksburg, Va . 24061. From May 20 to June 15, 1973, white-tailed deer fawns were captured and tagged in the Radford Army Ammunition Plant, Dublin, Va . From July through December observations were made and the location of each fawn was recorded. Maps were plotted which included the tagging locations, all subsequent locations, and a calculated center of activity. The center of activity was determined by drawing two lines, one on a north-south axis, and one on an east-west axis, each of which divided the locations into equal groups. The point where the two lines intersected was the center of activity. The data on 36 fawns were pooled and the mean distance from the center of activity of both the tagging locations and locations of fawns following tagging was calculated. The mean distance from the center of activity of tagging locations was 496 m (+ 589) s.D. while the mean distance from the center of activity for subsequent locations was 253 m (+ 245) . These means were significantly different (P<0.01). This indicates that there exists an inclination for does to drop fawns on the periphery of their range. There are two possible explanations for this behavior: 1) does intentionally seek the edge of their home range for parturition, or 2) fawn drop coincides with a time when does are normally at the periphery of their home range. Bio. 44 EFFECTS OF RESTRICTED FEED INTAKE AND GROUPING ON SELECTED PHYSIOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF FEMALE WHITE-FOOTED MICE. 0. T. Sanders*, and R. L. Kirkpatrick. Dept, of Fisheries and Wildlife Sciences, V.P.I. & S.U., Blacksburg, Va . 24061. Grouped (5/cage) or singly-caged white-footed mice (Peromycus leucopus) were fed ad lib itum or 65% ad libitum for 2 weeks. Food consumption was measured daily during the experiment. Daily food consumption per mouse or per gram of metabolic body weight was significantly less (P<.05) in the grouped than in the singly-caged mice. Grouping did not significantly affect final body weight, adrenal weight or plasma corticoid level. In addition, grouping did not significantly reduce ovarian or uterine weights. However, the percent of mice exhibiting estrual smears was less in the grouped (69%) than in the singly-caged mice (83%) . Bar¬ biturate-induced sleeping times were shorter (though not significantly) in singly-caged mice than in grouped mice, possibly indicating isolation stress. Feed-restricted mice exhibited a significant weight loss; significantly smaller ovaries, uteri, and adrenals; and were characterized by va¬ ginal mucification and anestrus. Plasma corticoid levels were significantly elevated (P<.05) in the singly-caged, feed-restricted mice but were not altered in the grouped, feed-restricted animals. Feed restriction affected re¬ productive organs and the estrous cycle more adversely than did grouping. ( Supported in part by PHS Grant No. 1-R01-ES00863-01 . ) Bio. 46 TIMING OF VELVET SHEDDING AND ANTLER CASTING BY WHITE-TAILED DEER IN VIRGINIA. P.F. Scanlon, R.F.. Mirarchi*, and R.L . Kirkpatrick. Dept, of Fisheries and Wildlife Sciences, Va. Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ. Blacksburg, Va. 24061. White-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) from two con¬ fined herds at the Radford Army Ammunition Plant lands at Dublin (D) and Radford (R) , Virginia were studied to deter¬ mine the timing of velvet shedding and antler casting during the antler-cycle of 1973-1974. The proportion of male deer with velvet rubbed off and antlers cast was determined at weekly intervals. Velvet shedding was first observed 9 Sep¬ tember in D and 26 August in R. All antlers of deer older than yearlings were rubbed-out by 18 September in D and 27 September in R. Antlers of yearling deer in both D and R were all rubbed-out by 3 October. Yearling deer commenced velvet shedding later than older deer and some were in velvet later than older deer. Earliest antler loss was 2 December (D) . By the end of December the following proportions of deer had lost antlers: 64.7% (D) and 27.3% (R) . A.ntlers v/ere lost by 90% of deer before 23 January (D) and 77.8% before 31 January (R) . Mean numbers of males seen per ob¬ servation period were 25 (D) and 15 (R) during velvet shed¬ ding studies and 36 (D) and 11 (R) during antler casting studies. Results indicate some differences between study areas in timing of antler loss and differences from available literature reports. (Supported by McTnt ire-Stennis Project No. 636201) " Bio. 48 A PRELIMINARY STUDY OF THE EFFECTS OF STREAM CHANNELIZATION ON THE BIOTA AND WATER QUALITY OF DRY RIVER. R.D. Ritchie* W.M. Markham* , M.S. Hensley , R.W. Male* , O.L. TToove7*~, Department of Biology, Madison College, Harrisonburg , Va. Four stations were selected for a study of the effects of channelization on Dry River in western Rockingham County. Two of these stations were located in a five mile channelized area while the remaining two stations were located upstream and downstream, respective to the channelization project, in unchannelized waters. Physical and chemical properties of the stream were monitored at each station at regular intervals from June to Aug. 1973. Substrate studies of the non-micro- scopic benthos organisms were conducted during Nov. and Dec. 1973 and the total number of individuals of each Genera was recorded for each station. The dry wt. biomass per square meter of stream bottom was calculated for each station. In addition, the stream gradients were determined for the chan¬ nelized and unchannelized areas and the pool riffle ratio calculated for each area. Analysis of the data revealed that there was no significant change in chemical and physical pro¬ perties of the water from station to station. However, it was observed that benthos organisms of the order Ephemeroptera were almost absent at stations in the channelized area while the order Diptera was sparsely represented at stations in the unchannelized sections ; in each case the organisms were found to be abundant at the alternative stations.lt was also found that the dry wt. biomass per square meter for the channelized area was slightly greater than one half that of the unchannel¬ ized areas. Bio. 45 MULTIPLE OVULATIONS IN MARES. P. F. Scanlon. Dept, of Fisheries and Wildlife Sciences, Va. Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ., Blacksburg, Va., 24061. Successful completion of multiple pregnancy in the mare is seldom reported as usually such pregnancies result in fetal resorption, in abortion, or in the birth of non-viable foals. Consequently, multiple ovulation in mares could be considered a disadvantage. Reproductive organs were recovered from 46 non-pregnant mares slaughtered at an abattoir in Ontario, Canada during an interval January to June, 1970 and ovulation rate examined. None of seven mares examined in January had ovulated, five of 20 examined in February had ovulated, and all of 19 examined in June had ovulated. Of the 24 cycling animals examined six had two ovulations and one had five ovulations. In all 29.2 percent of cycling mares had multiple ovulations. The data indicate that a substantial proportion of mares may have multiple ovulations. As pregnancy diagnosis tests in horses are based on immunological reactions the high proportion of false positive results (Mitchell, 1971) may be due to resorbing fetuses of multiple pregnancies. Mitchell, D. 1971. Early fetal death and a serum gonadotrophin test for pregnancy in the mare. Can. Vet. IMMOBILIZATION OF WHITE-TAILED DEER WITH SUCCINYLCHOLINE CHLORIDE. P.F. Scanlon, R.E. Mirarchi*, E.T. Reed.* Dept, of Fisheries and Wildlife Sciences, Va. Polytechnic Inst., Blacksburg, Va. 24061. Attempts were made to immobilize white-tailed deer (Odo¬ coileus virginianus) using darts containing powdered succiny- lcholine chloride (SC). The animals were those of the con¬ fined herd of the Radford Army Ammunition Plant, Dublin, Virginia. A total of 256 attempts were made at immobiliza¬ tion resulting in 164 captures (a success rate of 64.1 per¬ cent). The success rate was 63.6 percent for adult deer and 65.5 percent for immature deer. Fatalities occurred in 8.6 percent and 13.8 percent of immobilization attempts for adult and immature animals, respectively. Dose levels of SC which successfully immobilized adult deer without fatalities rang¬ ed from 0.078 mg/kg to 0.265 mg/kg. Lethal doses for adult deer ranged from 0.132 mg/kg to 0.225 mg/kg. The success¬ ful dose range of SC, without fatalities, for immature ani¬ mals was 0.141 mg/kg to 0.298 mg/kg. Lethal doses for im¬ mature deer ranged from 0.176 mg/kg to 0.299 mg/kg. Reaction times (i.e. time of injection to immobilization) varied from less than 1 minute to 23 minutes with a mean reaction time of 6.19 +0.31 S.E. Differences were observed between im¬ mature and adult animals in both successful non-lethal, and lethal dose ranges. [Supported by Mclntire-Stennis Project No. 636201] Bio. 49 Proceedings, 1973-1974 69 THE DURATION OF LACTATION IN WHITE-TAILED DEER. P.F. Scanlon and D. F. Urbston.* Dept, of Fisheries and Wildlife Sciences, Va. Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ., Blacksburg, Va. 24061. Observations were made on white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) to determine the duration of lactation in does. Deer studied were females, 2 years old or older which were killed during hunting seasons and in automobile accidents during the interval 1965 to 1972 in Aiken and Barnwell counties. South Carolina. Age, date of examination and whether the animal was lactating was recorded. The criteria for judging lactation was the presence of milk in the udder. Rather few deer were examined during the intervals January through August (maximum of 6 deer in any month) . One lac¬ tating deer (12 examined) was observed during the interval January through April. Lactation was present in 14 of 15 females examined, May through August. Numbers of deer examined and the proportion of deer lactating during the months September through December were as follows: September 52 (90.38%); October 236 (88.98%); November 244 (77. 71%); and December 339 (53.10%). Results indicate that lactation persists into December, but that lactation probably terminates in December or soon thereafter in all deer. (Supported by Mclntire-Stennis Grant No. 636201). Bio. 50 AGE RELATED CHANGES ASSOCIATED WITH THE INDUCTION OF 0-PYR0- CATECHUIC ACID CARBOXYLYASE IN ASPERGILLUS ORNATUS (RAPER). Bruce M. Spiegelman and Bradner W. Coursen. Sponsored by Stewart Ware. Dept, of Biology, College of William and Mary, Williamsburg, Va. 23185 Mycelial mats of Aspergillus ornatus grown on cellulose xanthate membranes placed on defined agar medium showed o-pyrocatechuic acid carboxylyase activity which could be induced to over six times its basal level by the addition of 0.1$ L-tryptophan to the medium. The effect of age on this enzyme adaptation process was investigated by transferring membranes and mats of various ages from defined medium to fresh defined medium or defined medium containing 0.1$ L-tryptophan. With increasing mycelial age, the basal act¬ ivity level of the enzyme increased sharply, while the level to which it could be induced by a constant exposure to tryp¬ tophan decreased. Though cellular aging maybe responsible the exact causes of these age related changes are not known. EVALUATING THE EFFECT OF FEEDING TOXIC LEVELS OF AFLAT0XIN Bp TO THE AMERICAN COCKROACH, Periplaneta americana. P. C. Sherertz, W.E. Vermilya, R.R. Mills and G.C. Llewellyn. Dept, of Biology, Virginia Commonwealth Univ., Richmond, Va. 23284. The effects of aflatoxin Bp have been document on mammals but few studies have been completed on the invertebrates and in particular the insects. Previously we estimated the LD-q for this toxin in the American Cockroach to be 24 mg/kg. In this study 4 groups of 6 animals each were used. Adult males were fed dry, pulverized, dog feed contaminated at 9 ppm, 50 ppm, 150 ppm and 200 ppm of pure, grade B aflatoxin B-^. All animals were housed in individual chambers. Feed and water consumption were recorded as well as changes in body weight. The mean percent change in body weight for 6 weeks of expo¬ sure showed that the 50 ppm group had a slight loss during the first week but thereafter showed a definite gain. Their mean percent gain averaged 4.33$ for this time period. The control group lost weight after week 2 but showed a 1$ loss on week 5- The 200 ppm group showed a steady decline in weight (9$) at week 5 followed by a 6 $ weight loss by week 6 Water and feed consumption were similar for all 4 groups . No animal deaths were attributed to the toxins, indicating that the LDcg may be greater than 24 mg/kg as previously reported. Final data for lethality values is still being processed. Feed analysis have not been completed. The loss of body weight seems to parallel that for mammals using high concen¬ trations of the toxin. Bio. 51 STIMULATION OF DNA SYNTHESIS IN CNS NEURONS BY SUSTAINED DEPOLARIZATION. E.F, Stillwell * and C.D. Cone, Jr.* Dept, of Biology, Old Dominion Univ., Norfolk, Va. 23508 and Lab. of Cell and Molecular Biol., Eastern Va. Med. Sch., Langley Res. Ctr., Hampton, Va. 23365 The hypothesis that ionic conditions associated with low electrical transmembrane potential (Em) levels stimulate mitogenesis was investigated by sustained depolarization of 16-day cultures of mature chick spinal cord neurons with ouabain. Verification of neuron depolarization by ouabain treatment was obtained in separate tests by direct E measurements. Mean resting potentials of -60 mV. and -12 mV. before and after a 2.5 hour exposure to 10-5 M ouabain were recorded . DNA synthesis was induced ig up to 14$ of the neurons by a 3 hour exposure to a 1C“5 M ouabain concentration. (Aided by NASA task order $23 under Master Agreement NAS1-9U34) Bio. S3 Bio. 52 THE RESPONSE OF PHYTOPLANKTON TO THE CHEMICAL TREATMENT OF AQUATIC MACROPHYTES. R^J. Strange,* C.B. Schreck,* C.R. Berry,* S.L. Van Horn,* Dept, of Fisheries and Wildlife Sci., Va. Polytech, Inst, and State Univ., Blacksburg, Va. 24061 and R.V. Corning,* Va. Comm. Game & Inland Fisheries, Rich¬ mond, Va. 23230. Chickahominy Reservoir, a shallow, eutrophic, 1100 ha water supply in Tidewater Virginia was treated at 0.23 ppm diquat and 0.17 ppm endothal to control the macrophyte, Egeria densa. Phytoplankton numbers in localized, littoral areas increased steadily for two weeks after the July 11, 1974 treatment, doubling the pretreatment count of 7000 cell- clumps/ml. The blooms persisted until September and were typified by diverse species composition. Phytoplankton primary productivity measured by oxygen based light/dark bottles dropped the week after treatment to half the pre¬ treatment rate of 4.5 gC/m^/da. Two weeks after treatment the rate had risen to match pretreatment values. Three weeks after treatment the rate had doubled pretreatment lev¬ els and this production was maintained until September. Increased phytoplankton primary production during the time of maximum macrophyte die-off may have been a factor in maintaing aerobic conditions. Comparison of treated and untreated bays six-weeks after treatment verified conclusions drawn from routine monitoring. [Supported by U.S. Army O.E.C. Contract No. DAW 65-74-C-0013 ] Bio. 54 BEHAVIORAL FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH CESSATION OF GROWTH OF LABORATORY POPULATIONS OF PRAIRIE DEERMICE. C^_ Richard Terman, Biology Dept., Col. of William and Mary, Williams¬ burg, Va. 23185 Eight populations composed of four bisexual pairs of deermice were released into circular pens enclosing ten or twenty square feet of area. Each population was maintained until at asymptote (no young surviving for 15 weeks) and food, water, and nest boxes were supplied in excess of utilization. Social organization took place among the males during the first few days following founding of the popula¬ tions. There was no evidence of social organization among the females. Forty-four percent of the overt aggressive interactions took place among the males during the first 7 days after founding the populations and there was no evi¬ dence for increased aggression as asymptote was approached. Consistent food hoarding occurred in all populations ex¬ cept one and in all hoarding populations, a founding female was the first and most consistent hoarder. The food was not defended and other members of the populations were permitted to eat the food as long as they remained at the site of the hoard. A significant positive correlation (P<. 05) was found between the length of time after founding the populations until the beginning of consistent hoarding and the size of the population at asymptote. Food and water consumption per day per mouse declined dur¬ ing the period of consistent food hoarding and subsequent to birth of the last surviving litter as compared to consumption prior to these periods. ‘ Bio. 55 70 The Virginia Journal of Science AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE COMPOSITION OF INTERSTITIAL WATER OF THE LOWER CHESAPEAKE BAY. Mark H. Thiemens* and Jacques S. Zaneveld, Institute of Oceanography, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, Virginia. Interstitial water samples were obtained from stations located in the lower part of Chesapeake Bay, Virginia. Samples were analyzed for sodium, magnesium, potassium, and chlorinity. In addition, samples were taken from the over- lying water and analyzed for the same chemical species. Values for the ionic species of the pore fluids in general showed little deviation from the concentrations in the overlying water. Potassium was found to be slightly enriched in the upper 27 cm of the sediments presumably as a result of solvation of potassium feldspars. Magnesium exhibited a tendency towards depletion in the sediments, possibly as a result of uptake by chloritic minerals. Sodium and chlorinity both were found to exist in concen¬ trations very near those found in the overlying water with no trends apparent. Findings of the investigation indicate that as a general finding the early diagenetic changes are slight but the composition of the interstitial water determines the speciation of the minerals. Bio. 56 PERSISTENCE OF TWO HERBICIDES IN AN AQUATIC ENVIRONMENT . S.L. Van Horn,* C.B. Schreck,* C.R. Berry,* R.J. Strange,* Dept, of Fisheries and Wildlife Sci., Va. Polytech. Inst, and State Univ., Blacksburg, Va. 24061, and R.V. Corning,* Va. Comm. Game and Inland Fisheries, Richmond, Va. 23230. As part of a broader ecological study, water samples from Chickahominy Reservoir, Va., were monitored for the herbi¬ cides diquat and endothal following treatment for the nui¬ sance weed Egeria densa at target concentrations of 0.23 ppm. and 0.17 ppm., respectively. Two sampling stations were selected, a still water bay (SWQ) and a slightly more lotic bay (FWQ) . Triplicate samples were collected at each station before and after treatment, daily through July and twice we¬ ekly in August. Samples were stored at -15°C until analyz¬ ed at VPI & SU. One diquat replicate from each sampling was analyzed by Chevron. Diquat was isolated using a cation ex¬ change column and quantified spectrophotometrically (Chevron, 1970)‘. Endothal was converted to an imide, extracted with chloroform, and analyzed on a GLC using a nitrogen detector (Pennwalt Corp., 1973). The lower limit of detection for each method is 0.01 ppm. In SWQ, average values for the first pos treatment day were 0.07 ppm. diquat and 0.18 ppm. endothal. Both herbicides were undetectable by the 16th day after treatment. The corresponding values in FWQ were 0.02 ppm. diquat and 0.02 ppm. endothal and neither herbi¬ cide persisted beyond 10 days. [Supported by U.S. Army O.E.C. Contract No. DAW 65-74-C-0013] Bio 57 THE EFFECTS OF THYROID STATUS ON THERMOREGULATION OF JAPANESE QUAIL CHICKS. J. M. Ward, Jr.? R. A. McNabb and F. M. A. McNabb*. Dept, of Biology, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Va. 24061. Precocial birds that have been studied to date are capa¬ ble of some endothermy immediately after hatching; however, complete homeothermy is not accomplished until 2-4 weeks later. The development of thyroid function has been impli¬ cated as one factor which plays a role in the development of thermoregulation in young birds. Short term (at 4, 8, and 16 days of age) and long term (4-10 days of age) studies were made of the effects of thy¬ roxine (T4) on body temperature (Tg) of Japanese quail in three different environmental regimes. At 39C, chicks in¬ jected with T^ had significantly higher Tg than saline in¬ jected controls. At 35C, or in a thermal gradient where a preferred temperature could be selected behaviorally , Tg of T^-injected and saline-injected chicks did not differ sig¬ nificantly. The thermogenic effect of T, on the Tg of quail maintained at 39C implies that the thyroid gland plays a role in the development of thermoregulatory function. The lack of thermogenic response when chicks are maintained in a thermal gradient may be due to differences in behavior between T^ and saline-injected birds. No explanation is available for the absence of thermogenic effects when birds were kept at 35C. Both the developing thyroid and behavior appear to have a part in the development of thermoregulatory ability in Japanese quail. (NSF grant GB37966) . Bio. 58 REPAIR SYNTHESIS OF DNA IN CHICK CNS NEURONS „ H. Westfall*, and E.F. Stillwell*. Dept, of Biology, Old Dominion Univ., Norfolk, Va. 23508 Internunciary and motor neurons in tissue cultures from 7 or 8 day chick embryo spinal cords demonstrated the cap¬ acity to repair ultraviolet (UV ) irradiation-induced damage to their DNA but failed to respond to methyl methanesulfon- ate (MMS) treatment. That TdR-^H was incorporated into the nuclear DNA of these CNS neurons was supported by a.) following liquid emulsion autoradiography, silver grains were confined to the nuclear area after 3 and 21* hours of post-irradiation incubation in medium containing TdR--*H, and b.) DNase I treatment completely removed the label from the cells. Viability tests showed that the TdR-^H incorporation did not occur exclusively in neurons which had received a lethal UV dose. A UV dose-response curve indicated that increasing damage to the DNA and repair of that damage occurred with increasing UV dosage, and a time-response curve indicated that repair of UV-induced damage was essentially complete within 5 hours post-irradiation. The repair mechanism which was functioning in these neurons was probably excision-repair, since pre¬ cautions were taken to minimize the possibility of photo¬ reactivation of the UV damage, and the non-dividing nature of the neurons rules out a post-replication repair process. (This research was carried out at the Eastern Va. Med. Sch., Cell Lab., Langley Res. Ctr., Hampton, Va.) Bio. 59 RESPONSE OF CAPTIVE-RAISED CHAIN KING SNAKES TO PREY ODOR STIMULI. P. R. Williams, Jr., I. Lehr Brisbin, Jr.* Orange County School Board, Orange, VA. 22960, Savannah River Eco¬ logy Laboratory, Aiken, S.C. 29801. Thirteen captive-reared chain kinq snakes, Lampropeltis qetulus qetulus, which had never eaten any prey other than laboratory mice, were exposed to seven prey-odor extracts In six series of tests. Each extract was presented on a swab in random order to the subject and tongue flicks directed at the swab were counted. Mouse, snake and chicken extracts caused statistically significantly greater responses, than human scent, distilled water, and mammalian and amphibian salines. There were also statistically significant differ¬ ences in rate of tongue flicks between individuals. How¬ ever, there was no significant interaction between individu¬ al variability and the variability due to different prey- odor responses. The general patterns of response remained the same for all individuals. It appears that these cap¬ tive-reared snakes retain their ability to recognize sever¬ al different prey-odors, even though their diet was confined only to laboratory mice for periods of the several years following their hatching in captivity. Bio. 60 THE USE OF TUBES VS. FLASKS IN STATIC ALGAL ASSAYS. J.R. Wright, Jr.* Dept, of Biology, Va. Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ., Blacksburg, Va. 24061. (Sponsored by E. F. Benfield). The Environmental Protection Agency (1971) recommends the use of either 125-ml., 250-ml., or 500-ml. Erlenmeyer flasks as culture vessels in static algal bioassays. Forsberg (1972) has recommended the use of test tubes in performing such assays. Loaded to capacity, the growth chamber in our laboratory will hold 168 250-ml. flasks, 256 125-ml. flasks, or 480 30 -ml . test tubes. The costs of purchasing these amounts of glassware would be: $98 for the 250-ml. flasks, $93 for the 125-ml. flasks, or $41 for the test tubes. The purpose of this study was to compare results obtained using 250-ml. flasks and 30-ml . test tubes on assays run at the same time under identical conditions. Three such assays were conducted, involving a total of 33 treatments. The means of 2 parameters, final biomass and maximum specific growth rate, were calculated for each treatment. These data were then examined to determine (1) which culture vessels gave the least amount of variability, and (2) which vessels allowed for the greatest significant difference among treat¬ ments. Examination revealed that flasks had less variability within replicate groups, and the use of flasks also resulted in a larger number of significant differences among treat¬ ments. Bio. 6^ Proceedings, 1973-1974 71 PRELIMINARY ALGAL GROWTH POTENTIAL STUDIES AS PART OF A PRE- IMPOUNDMENT WATER QUALITY SURVEY OF THE MEW RIVER. d.R, Wright., Jr.* and E.F. Renfield. Dept of Rioloqv, Va. Polvtechnic Inst, and State Univ., Blacksburg, Va. 24061 Studies were conducted during the winter and sorina of 1Q73 to determine the relative algal growth Dotential of waters at various sites in the UDDer New River and its tributaries. Exoeriments were conducted at one mainstream station to identify nutrients limiting Drimarv nroducti vit.v , and the concentrations of those nutrients that must be added to cause statistically significant increases in algal growth Selenastrum capri cornutum (Chloroohyceae) was used as the assay organism, and growth was monitored as optical density (600 nm) on a dual beam spectrophotometer. Spiking tech¬ niques used were generally those outlined in The Environ¬ mental Protection Aqency's Alqal Assay Procedure Pottle Test (1971). These exoeriments indicate that phosphorus is the nutrient limiting primary productivity in the system. Bio. 62 DIURNAL VARIATION OF PLASMA CORTICOID LEVELS IN CAPTIVE COTTONTAIL RABBITS. R. L. Zepp* and R. L. Kirkpatrick. Dept, of Fisheries and Wildlife Sciences, V.P.I.&S.U. , Blacksburg, Va . 24061 Nine wild-trapped male cottontail rabbits (Sylvilagus f lor idanus ) were bled from a marginal ear vein once per day over a 5 day period at each of the following times: 0600 hr, 1200 hr, 1800 hr, and 2400 hr. They were housed in 45x60 cm wire cages in a laboratory with a 14L:10D light cycle. The light period occurred between 0700 and 2100 hr. All animals were fed commercial rabbit checkers ad 1 ib i t urn and 5 had 20 ppm of PCB (Aroclor 1254) incorporated into their diet for 2 weeks prior to bleeding. Total plasma corticoid levels were determined by the competitive protein binding method using corticosterone as the standard. PCB treatment had no significant (P<.05) effect on total corticoid levels and there was no significant interaction between PCB treatment and time of day. Total corticoid levels (means for all 9 animals) were 27.9, 47.6, 37.2, and 27.4 ng/ml, respectively, for the 4 sampling times. Duncan's multiple range test indi¬ cated that the level at 1200 hr was significantly greater (P<.05) than those at 0600 hr and 2400 hr. All other differ¬ ences were nonsignificant. It appears from these data that a diurnal variation in corticoid secretion does exist in captive cottontails with highest levels occurring sometime during the daylight hours. Supported in part by PHS Grant No. 1-R01-ES00863-01) . Bio. 63 Section of Botany Fifty-second Annual Meeting of the Virginia Academy of Science May 7-10, 1974, Norfolk, Virginia VASCULAR 5L0RA OF FORT EUSTIS, CITY OF NEWPORT NEWS, VA. Phyllis K . Appier, Dept, of Biology, Col. of William and M ary ,~Will i amstxirg , Va. 23185 The area studied includes all of Ft. Eustis, a total of 8,391 acres. It is bounded by the Warwick River and the Ft. Eustis property lines above Bailey Creek on the east and by the James River on the north and west. Major com¬ munities present are 1) brackish marshes ?) freshwater lakes and marshes 3) pine woods 4) pine-hardwood stands 5) mature beech-oak woods 6) roadsides and other mowed areas and 7) old homesites. Specimens were collected of 511 species of 308 genera, representing 107 families. Of these species, 390 were not previously reported for the City of Newport News (formerly Warwick County) and 21 are Peninsula records. Some speci¬ mens of interest are Bromus catharticus, Draba brachyaarpa, Myriophyllum pinnatum, and Plantago he terophylla. EARLY BRYOPHYTE SUCCESSION FOLLOWING FIRE IN THE VIRGINIA PIEDMONT. David A. Bret I. Longwood College, Farmville, Va. 23901 Five wooded areas that were chopped and burned prior to replanting with loblolly pines were Investigated. In nearly all areas up to 4 years after the burn, the early bryophytes Included: Ditrlchum pallidum, Pleurldium subulatum, Funaria spp., and Atrlchum angus tatum In addition to a few less common acrocarpous species. Pleurocarpous mosses and leafy liverworts began invading these areas in the third or fourth years after the burn. The type of succession observed is mid-way In species composition to that found on sandy loams In the Northeast and Florida. 72 The Virginia Journal of Science THE ANATOMY OF IANGSDORFFIA PAPUANA (BAIANOPHORACEAE) . Steven H. Davis*. Dept, of Biology, Old Dominion Univ. , Norfolk, Va. 23508. Haustorium- like cells penetrate the host root and induce tuber formation. The swollen tuber consists of both host and parasite tissue. The host tissue (consisting of helical tracheary elements that are sclariformly pitted, sieve tube elements with sieve plates, and parenchymatic cells) is induced to enter the tuber and to branch into individual, lengthened segments. These segments are surrounded by an area of crushed parasite parenchymatic cells, resulting from an increase in the host tissue segment area within the tuber . The parasite xylem consists of helical tracheary elements with bordered pits and occurs in chains running parallel to the host tissue segments, scattered within the periphery of the host tissue segments, and located independently in the parasite parenchyma of the tuber. No direct contact between host and parasite xylem was observed, but the presence of uniseriate filaments indicates this form of host and para¬ site xylem interconnection. Exterior to the host tissue segments are located the larger parasite parenchymatic cells with large, dark stain¬ ing nuclei. Large clumps of parasite brachysclereids are scattered throughout the tuber, but proliferate to the great¬ est accumulation in contact with the tuber epidermis. The tuber epidermis is varyingly multiseriate and ligni fied ,and is completely covered by thick walled, lignified, septate trichomes. EFFECTS OF 2,4,5,-T ON SOME HORTICULTURAL PLANTS. R. D. Decker, Dept, of Biology, Univ. of Richmond, Va. 23173. During the spring of 1973 a commercial greenhouse near Richmond, Va. was accidently contaminated by an unknown concentration of 2,4,5,-T. Some of the various potting plants were killed outright. A wide range of delayed effects also occurred. These included leaf discoloration, leaf fusion, petiole splitting, and unusual leaf brittle¬ ness. Stems were unusually thick and extremely stiff. Microscopic examination revealed abnormally large amounts of wood. Excessive branching was common. Adventitious roots were very extensive on some kinds of plants and in one pot of Ageratum a root was growing upward out of the soil. Flowers were deformed in color and form and in geraniums ovaries had prematurely enlarged. The overall effects could be summarized as deformities and premature ageing. EFFECT OF STRATIFICATION ON IN VITRO PROTEIN BIOSYNTHESIS IN PINUS LAMBERTIANA. C. G. Dury*. R. E. Adams", and L. B. Barnett. Depts. of Forestry and Forest Products, and Bio¬ chemistry and Nutrition, Va. Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ., Blacksburg, Va. 24061 Capacity of the ribosomes and various preparations from the 105,000 xg supernatants to support protein synthesis was studied, using an in vitro system, at various times during 90 days of stratification. During stratification embryo ribosomes were capable of supporting protein synthesis, whereas female gametophyte ribosomes became inactive by the 10th day of stratification. Both the pH 5 fraction and a gel-filtered preparation of the 105,000 xg supernatant from embryos increased in capacity to support protein synthesis as stratification progressed. Supernatant preparations from the female gametophyte were inactive in protein synthesis throughout stratification. The pH 5 fraction from female gametophytes had no inhibiting effect upon protein synthesis in embryo cell-free systems. Ribosomes from female gametophytes and embryos of dry, dormant seeds were present primarily as monoribosomes. De¬ velopment of polyribosomes occurred during the first 36 hours of stratification. (Supported by Mclntire-S tennis Grant 635125 and Hatch Grant 616161.) PERICARP ANATOMY OF THE COMMERCIAL PEANUT, ARACHIS HYPOGEA. B. W. Halliburton*, J. M. Byrne, and W. G. Glasser, Dept. Forestry & Forest Products, Va. Polytechnic Inst. & -State Univ., Blacksburg, VA 24061. The pericarp of the commercial peanut, Arachis hvpogea, has recently been the subject of pulp and papermaking studies. The now reported anatomical study was initiated in order to help explain the abnormal behavior of peanut hull pulp in papermaking. The objectives of this study were to describe the anatomy of the mature fruit wall and to quantify the fruit wall according to histological regions and cell types. Mature pericarps were prepared for scanning electron and light microscopy. The three histological regions of the pericarp are described and are illustrated in photomicro¬ graphs. Tables are given which present the volumetric compo¬ sition of the regions according to cell type. The cells of major interest to pulp and papermaking are the sclereids of the sclerenchymatous layer and the fibers surrounding the vascular bundles. Because of its influential role in paper¬ making, the sclerenchymatous layer was the area most thoroughly investigated. The three classes of cells in this layer are herein named vermiso sclereids, cruxo sclereids and calceous sclereids. Cruxo and calceous sclereids make up projections from the layer and are associated with the vascular bundles. The vermiso sclereids are arranged in strata and compose the bulk of the sclerenchymatous layer. New observations reported herein center around the fact that vermiso sclereids of a stratum are parallel to each other, but adjacent strata are slightly oblique to each other. ”HYTOGEOGRAPHY OF THE CARICES OF VIRGINIA. A. M. Harvill, Jr. Longwood College, Farmville, VA 23901 Virginia has 123 species of carices of which 118 are native. Only four of them extend to the tropics, whereas three are southern Appalachian endimics. In their Virginia distribution, fifteen species are disjunct between the mountains and the coastal plain. Their distributional patterns, plus palynological evidences, indicate, at least for most of these plants, that their coastal Dlain populations migrated to the coastal plain during the Wisconsin and have persisted there, while their piedmont populations were eliminated by post- Wisconsin changes. ANATOMICAL ASPECTS OF PARASITISM IN THE PARASITIC GYMN0SPERM, PARASITAXUS USTUS (PODOCARPACEAE) . John L. Jennings, Jr.*, L. J. Musselman, Dept, of Biology, Old Dominion Univ. , Norfolk, Va. 23508 and D. J. de Laubenfels*, Dept, of Geo¬ graphy, Syracuse Univ., Syracuse, N. Y. Parasitaxus ustus is endemic to New Caledonia and is the only parasitic gymnosperra known to science. Sliding micro¬ tome sections of P. ustus parasitizing Falcatif olium taxoides (Podocarpaceae) examined with light microscopy revealed an unusual attack upon the host in which the parasite invades the bark of the host tree via root penetration. Bundles of xylem traverse the bark longitudinally and branch laterally to form an interconnected network of xylem strands which extend into the stem of the host. These xylem strands, bordered peripherally by a storied cambium, undergo secondary thickening producing an external swelling in the host bark. No direct parasitic xylem to xylem contact has been observed as in parasitic vascular plants. Associated with the xylem strands is anomalous growth of the host rays. Unicellular rays become multicellular with ray to xylem bundle contact. Ray cells become expanded in the host xylem causing rupture of xylem elements. It is suggested that nutrition is obtained laterally from the host via specialized host rays. Nothing resembling this form of parasitism has previously been recorded for any parasitic vascular plants. (Research supported by Old Dominion Univ. Res. Fndn. ) Proceedings, 1973-1974 73 AN ECOLOGICAL STUDY ON THE CRANEY ISLAND DISPOSAL AREA IN HAMPTON ROADS VIRGINIA. David Laist* and H. G. Marshall, Old Dominion Univ. , Norfolk, Va. 23508. A one year study was conducted on the Craney Island dredge spoil reclaimation area to examine the types and dis¬ tribution of life forms invading these deposits. This dis¬ posal area, enclosing 2,546 square acres of former bay bot¬ tom, represents an attempt to provide a location which will accomodate a large volume of dredge spoil and which may eventually be reused as a valuable addition of real estate to the Tidewater area. The spoil area was constructed in 1957 and is expected to reach capacity by early 1980s. A total of 193 species were identified in the area, which included vascular plants, aquatic and terrestrial insects, crustaceans, plankters, mammals, and birds. Fifteen sites representing the variety of habitats present were samples or observed at weekly intervals during the study period. The species distribution was divided into six major commun¬ ity associations, or zones, which were correlated to sub¬ strate quality and age. The species composition was not di¬ verse but usually was in intimate association with vascular plants. Future successional patterns were discussed. Supported by the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers. STUDIES ON THE RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN MICROTOPOGRAPH IC AND PE- DOLOGICAL FACTORS AND TREE DISTRIBUTION IN THE DISMAL SWAMP. Dr. Gerald F. Levy, Thomas A. Janszen* . Dept, of Biol., Old Dominion University, Norfolk, Virginia 23508 An autecological study of woody species was undertaken to imporve understanding of relationships of woody species to topography and pedological factors in the Dismal Swamp of S. E. Va.. A 0.5ha. forest stand was located on Jericho Ditch in the Dismal Swamp National Wildlife Refuge. The stand was divided into 200, 5X5 meter contiguous quadrates and the tree, sapling, and seedling vegetation was precisely mapped. Fifty soil samples were analyzed for texture, pH, Ca . , Mg., P., and K. . A topographic map was constructed with precision to 0.01 ft.. Standing water and hummocks were mapped. Two-way analysis of varience, homogeity tests, and factor analysis were utilized to detect patterns and correlations between all variables. Red maple (Acer rubrum) and sweet gum (Liquidambar styraci flua) were the dominant species in the more hydric areas though red maple dominated throughout. Oaks, (Quercus phel- los , Q. nigra , Q. prinus) had significantly higher densities in more mesic areas. American holly (Ilex opaca) and iron- wood (Carpinus caroliniana) dominated in the understory with ironwood more prominant in the more mesic areas. Soil texture and nutrient content showed no correlation to vegetation. Significant differences in topography appeared to be the major factor in controlling species distribution. FERN VALLEY AT THE NATIONAL ARBORETUM - A LIVING MUSEUM AND TEACHING LABORATORY. Peter M. Mazzeo. Herbarium, U.S. Nat. Arboretum, Agricultural Res. Service, U.S. Dept. Agri¬ culture, Washington, D C. 20002. The Fern Valley, a four-acre natural wooded area at the National Arboretum in Washington, D.C., is planted with additional specimens and species of the indigenous flora; i.e., trees, shrubs, wildflowers, and ferns and fern allies. Begun in 1959 as a co-sponsored, nature-education project of the National Arboretum and the National Capital Area Federation of Garden Clubs, the plan is to represent various species of the native vegetation growing in the respective plant communities typical of the physiographic provinces of the eastern United States. Along a trail that leads through this naturalistic valley of stream and vegetation, labels or markers identify many of the individual species and plant communities represented. Accordingly, the Fern Valley serves as a living museum and teaching laboratory for the indigenous flora of the eastern United States. VESSEL ELEMENT MORPHOLOGY OF HAUST0RIA OF PARASITIC ANGIO- SPERMS. Lytton J. Musselman, Dept, of Biology, Old Dominion Univ. , Norfolk, Va. 23508. Haustoria of species from the six orders of angiosperms containing parasitic members (Cassytha f ilif ormis , Lauraceae, Laurales; Buckleya disticophylla, Santalaceae and Phoradendron f lavescens , Loranthaceae of the Santalales; Langsdorffia papuana, Balanophoraceae, Raf f lesiales ; Macranthera f lammea, Scrophulariaceae and Orobanche aegyptiaca, Orobanchaceae of the Scrophulariales ; Cuscuta campestris , Convolulaceae, Polemoniales ; Krameria spathulata, Krameriaceae, Polygalales) were studied with respect to xylem element morphology. Vessel elements of haustoria of all these species are scalarif ormly thickened and in size and shape resemble xylem elements which have developed with¬ out being "blocked out". Results of this study are con¬ sidered in the light of the possible role of growth regulators in haustorial development. (Research supported by Old Dominion Univ. Res. Fndn. ) MARINE COASTAL PHYTOPLANKTON FROM SPRING COLLECTIONS ALONG THE NORTHEAST COAST OF THE U.S. Larry W. Neal* and Harold G. Marshall, Dept, of Biology, Old Dominion Univ., Norfolk, Va. 23508. In the spring of 1971, phytoplankton samples and physical data were collected aboard the USCG R0CKAWAY from surface waters of the continental shelf over a grid pattern between Cape Hatteras and Nova Scotia. Qualitative and quantitative results were reported. The genus Melosira was the dominant phytoplankter group among the dominants at every station. Their concentrations frequently reached numbers as high as 50,000 cells/1. Melosira distans accounted for 80-85% of the genus present with M. granulata representing 15-207o. Larger numbers were recorded near shore. A general increase of flagellates and decrease of diatoms seaward was evident. Total phytoplankters , as well as, species diversity at each station was lower north of Cape Cod, excluding Me losia , the northern stations were dominated by Thalassionema nitzschoides and Thalassiosira gravida. The dominant members of the population south of Long Island were Rhizosolenia fragilissima , R. delicatula , Guinardia f laccida reaching a maximum of 54,000 cells/1, and Asterionella japonica with a maximum of 135,360 cells/1. Possible correlations between phytoplankters and physical and chemical parameters were discussed. METABOLISM OF C02 WHICH IS NONAUTOTROPH ICALLY FIXED IN- SUSPENSION CULTURES OF PLANT TISSUE, IC. K. Nesius . Dept, of Biology, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, Virginia 23508 Provision of an internal or external source of 1^C02 in suspension cultures of plant tissue showed that both were used for nonauto trophic C02 fixation, and that the ^^C entered the same cell constituents but at a different percent distribution. C02 is nonautotrophically fixed at different sites within the cell depending upon whether it is supplied as an internal or an external source; and oxaloacetate , the presumed product, is metabolized differently. A comparison of the turn over rates of the -^C entering the malate pools showed that the malate formed from the external source of CC>2 turned over more quickly than the malate formed from the internal source of CO^. The amino acids formed from C02 fixed from an external source were more readily available for protein synthesis than those formed from an internal source of C02. Supported by NSF Grant GA 31768 and NASA Contract 5-21816 74 The Virginia Journal of Science FREE AMINO ACIDS IN HIGHER MARINE FUNGI.. I. E. ' Peters*, P. Catalfomo* , G. H. Constantine, Jr.*, School of Pharmacy, Oregon State Univ., Corvallis, Ore. 97-351 and P. W. Kirk, Jr., Dept, of Biology, Old Dominion Univ., Norfolk, Va . 23508, Owing to their abundance in decaying Spartlna alternlf lora, it is thought that Leptoshhaeria spp., Sphaerullna sap. , Dendryphiella sap, and other filamentous marine fungi may be important ultimate sources of metabolites in estuarine detritus food webs. Previous investigations have identified several triglyceride fatty acids, sterols, amines and sugar alcohols. A preliminary study of free amino acids in ten species of marine Ascomycetes and Fungi Imperfect! was made using thin layer and gas-liouid chroma¬ tography. Amino acids produced consistently in the mycelia but not occurring in the culture medium included alanine, proline, serine, ornithine, tryptophan, cystine, cysteine and hydroxyproline,. The latter has been considered rare in fungi, and may have been derived from autolytic decomposition of proteins in mycelia. A continuation of these studies includes the development of chemically defined media for marine llgnicolous and grsminlcolous fungi. PRODUCTION AND UTILIZATION OF MARSH ELDER LEAVES. Walter I. Priest, 111* and P.W. Kirk, Jr. Dept, of Biology, Old Dominion Univ., Norfolk, Va. 23508 Leaf productivity was measured in salt marshes dominated by the marsh elder, Iva frutescens L., on the Eastern Branch of the Elizabeth River in Virginia Beach, Va. The weighted average yearly production of leaves at two study sites was 204.4 g dry vt./sq, meter (.9 tons/acre). An attempt was made to correlate leaf production with the number of shoots of various diameters within a clump, the height of the clumps, the circumference of the clumps and of the fasciated shoots. The highest correlation, r=.934 at a .001$ confidence level was found between the dry wt. productivity and the circumference of the fasciated shoots. Samples of fresh leaves in nylon mesh bags were placed in the intertidal zone and submerged in the estuary. After one month the intertidal samples showed a dry weight loss of 55$ and the submerged 53$ • At the end of three months the intertidal samples showed a dry weight loss of 90$ and the submerged 84$. A heavy initial infestation of common "terrestrial" Deuteromycetes was noted. After submergence for one month "terrestrial" forms decreased and marine forms appeared. Numerous amphipods, shrimp, and polychaetes were found in association with the decaying leaves. The Genus Endothia: a Reappraisal. Martha K. Roane, Depart¬ ment of Biology; R. Jay Stipes, Department of Plant Pathol- MORPH0L0GICAL CONSIDERATIONS OF MISTLETOE PARASITISM OF RED MAPLE IN THE DISMAL SWAMP. J. W, Usher.* Dept, of ogy and Physiology, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Va. 24061. Biology, Old Dominion Univ., Norfolk, Va. 23508 Mistletoe (Phoradendron flavescens; Loranthaceae) is a shrub which parasitizes woody hosts. Its stem arises from In the treatment of the genus Endothia (Diaporthaceae) by Shear, Stevens, and Tiller (1917), six species were in¬ cluded. Since then seven additional species have been des¬ cribed. Similarity coefficients calculated from 70 morpho¬ logic, equally weighted characters varied from 0.286 for IS. slngUlaris/E. macrospora to 0.619 for EL macrospora/E. nltschkei with coefficients less than 0.400 for 74 of the possible 78 combinations of pairs of species. There is evi¬ dence from biochemical investigations that there are very distinct differences in some of the metabolites produced by the different species. The induction of any species to syn¬ onymy with any other species is not presently indicated. a network of axial and radial extensions termed sinkers which occur within the host bark. Older sinkers show a higher degree of branching than do younger ones. Invasion of secondary host branches from primary branches is accom¬ plished by these sinkers. New stems arise from some sinkers which emerge from the host stem. As the parasite stem develops, short, irregularly thickened tracheids begin to differentiate at the junction of the host and the parasite. The organization of the sinker resembles that of a root. Disruptions of the host vascular tissue were noticed in more heavily infected sections. (Research supported by Old Dominion Univ. Research Foundation). WATER VAPOR DIFFUSION THROUGH EASTERN HEMLOCK (Tsuga canadensis) PERIDERM AT 26°C. Marshall S. White*. Dept. Forestry and Forest Products, VPI & SU, Blacksburg, VA 24061 Physiologicallsyi, rhytidome on the living tree has been considered a moidture barrier. It is proposed in this study that the periderm tissues in eastern hemlock inhibit radial moisture movement and may therefore prevent dessication of the living secondary phloem. The kenetics of water vapor sorption by the phloem region of the rhytidome was measured gravimetrically and compared with moisture movement through the thick-walled phellem and phelloderm tissues on composite and old phloem specimens. A short-time solution of Fickes second law of diffusion was derived for unidirectional flow into a composite, layered, finite slab. The functional form was descriptive of experimental results and enabled the calculation of the transient diffusion coefficients for phellem, phelloderm and old phloem layers. The Fickian diffusion coefficient for old phleom was comparable to that for bound water in wood; however, under identical experimental conditions, the coefficient deter¬ mined for either the thick-walled phellem or phelloderm was about 1/10 that of the remaining rhytidome tissues. There¬ fore resistance to water vapor movement in the rhytidome of eastern hemlock may be attributed specifically to the thick-walled periderm tissues. Proceedings, 1973-1974 75 Section of Chemistry Fifty-second Annual Meeting of the Virginia Academy of Science May 7-10, 1974, Norfolk, Virginia LUMINESCENCE OF BIBENZYL. Robert L. Ake, Dept, of Chemistry Old Dominion Dniv. , Norfolk, Va. 23508 Luminescence spectra of crystalline bibenzyl containing stilbene asa. trace impurity are reported and analyzed for the temperature range 20°K-300°K. Fluorescence and phos¬ phorescence spectra of bibenzyl in several glassing solvents over the temperature range 2O°K-30O°K are also presented. Techniques for crystal-growing and sample preparation and apparatus relevant to the cryogenic environment are discussed. THE RECOMBINATION OF ATOMIC OXYGEN IN THE PRESENCE OF AEROSOLS. Ftank. I. Akers and J. P. Nightman Chemistry Dept., Va. Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ., Blacksburg, Va., 24061 The recombination rate of atomic oxygen has been measured in a fast flow system, under various conditions. Atomic oxygen (JP) was generated by dissociation of pure, low pressure oxygen in a microwave discharge (2.45 GHz).. Concentrations of atomic oxygen were measured using chemiluminscent titration with N02* The first order atomic oxygen disappearance rate was measured at several pressures with pyrax reactor wall treatments including HNO3 wash; (NH4) 2S0fy(s) , H2S04(2.) , and NH^Cl^g) coatings. Electron spectroscopy for chemical analysis (ESCA) studies were made of pyrex treated in ways similar to the reactor walls. Preliminary studies have been made of the interaction between atomic oxygen and an NH4CI aerosol. AN IMPROVED LASER-SCHLIEREN- SYSTEM FOR THE MEASUREMENT OF SHOCK-WAVE VELOCITY. John A. Bander and George Sanzone, Dept, of Chemistry, Virginia Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ. , Blacksburg, Va-. 24061 An improved laser^schli'eren system for the measurement of shock-wave velocities has been developed which employs a single detector. Calibration of multiple detectors has been obviated. The system has been shown to yield, in addition to the shock-wave velocity, additional information on the arrival time of the contact surface.. Shock-tube performance is compared to the predictions of Mirels’ theories. ATMOSPHERIC PHOTOCHEMICAL OXIDANT SYNTHESIS IN THE TIDEWATER AREA. Alan R. Bandy, Dept, of Chemistry, ©Id Dominion University, Norfolk, Va . 23 508 Photochemical oxidant has emerged as a serious air pollution problem in the Tidewater area. The low CO concentrations observed indicate that automobile emissions may not be the source of hydrocarbons which drive the photochemical process producing atmospheric oxidant. Initial studies indicate that hydrocarbon evaporation from fuel and petrochemical storage areas and emissions from natural areas are important sources of active hydro¬ carbons . 76 The Virginia Journal of Science CHEMISTRY AND THE 4-1-4 CALENDAR. Parker B. Baum, Dept, of Chemistry, Skidmore College, Saratoga Springs, N.Y. 12866 The 4-1-4 calendar has had a significant impact on the structure and content of courses in all disciplines. It has necessitated a rearrangement of priorities in many instances. It also has provided the opportunity for faculty members and students alike to pursue areas of interest which are not necessarily related to their major fields of study. The Chemistry Department of Skidmore College has utilized the minimester to offer courses in Astronomy; Meteorology; Earth, Air, Fire, and Water: Science, Society, and Survival; Radiochemistry; and Chemistry of Life Processes. In addition to course offerings, many independent study projects have been carried out during this time. These have ranged in scope from senior thesis research by chemistry majors to library projects on such topics as drug chemistry, cosmology, and science and religion. The response to these offerings of students from a wide variety of major fields has been uniformly good. AN INDIVIDUALIZED, INTEGRATED, MULTI-MEDIA APPROACH TO TEACHING GENERAL CHEMISTRY. James D. Beck. Dept, of Chemistry, Va. State Col., Petersburg, Va. 23803 An experimental approach was used in one section of general chemistry for a short time during the spring semester, 1973. This approach has been modified and ex¬ panded this year and utilized for an entire semester. The method has students work individually in an auto-tutorial framework developed around a set of audio tapes keyed to the textbook. Numerous problems are required for practice, feedback, and reinforcement. Concepts from the textbook are integrated with illustrative demonstrations and "mini- experiments" which are performed by the students individ¬ ually. For each unit, students are provided with a set of instructions, a list of performance objectives, the answers to textbook problems, and a sample quiz. Models, films, filmstrips, filmloops, slides, audio tapes, minitexts, special lectures and demonstrations, and magazine and newspaper articles have been employed in various ways. Results have been encouraging, with a large majority of the class preferring this method to the traditional lecture-recitation approach. Performance on quizzes and examinations appears to be better than it was previously, and students have a more positive attitute toward chemistry. BONDING IN THE MONOHOMOCYCLOOCTATETRAENE ANION RADICAL. Dana A. Brewer* and John C. Schug. Dept, of Chemistry, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061 We have carried out a series of INDO calculations on the monohomocyclooctatetraene anion radical (MHC0T‘). Based upon both the calculated molecular binding energy and com¬ parison of calculated proton hyperfine coupling constants with previously published data, we conclude that the eight- membered ring of MHCOT* is planar. Good agreement was obtained with the experimental hyperfine splittings when the angle between the plane of the eight-membered ring and the plane of the fused cyclopropyl ring was 83.5 . A high pi bond order between the carbon atoms at the base of the fused cyclopropyl group strongly supports Winstein's concept of homoconjugation. However, the sigma bond orders across the interruption are only reduced by 10-20% relative to the other C-C bonds in the ring, so this bond cannot be con¬ sidered opened in the anion radical. DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OP A DIGITAL ACQUISITION SYSTEM FOR THE OLD DOMINION UNIVERSITY MOBILE AIR POLLUTION LABORATORY. Joseph E. Byrd*, Gary E. Copeland and Alan R. Bandy, Dept, of Chemistry, Old Dominion Uhiv. , Norfolk, Va. 23508 A data acquisition system has been constructed around a Digital Equipment Corp. PDP-8E minicomputer and is currently being used in the Old Dominion Mobile Air Pollution Lab. It is capable of addressing 32 channels of analog data and supplying up to 3 amps to 32 independent on/off controls. The system has a real time clock which together with the appropriate software determines when samples are taken and control functions changed. ORGANOCUPRATE - CARBON MONOXIDE REACTIONS - SYNTHETIC ASPECTS. James Campbell, Jr.* and R. A. Coleman. Dept, of Chemistry, Col. of William and Mary, Williamsburg, Va. 23185 The preparation and reactivity of a number of lithium dialkylcuprates under various experimental conditions has been examined and will be reviewed. The reaction of simple and mixed alkylcuprates with a number of reagents including carbon mon¬ oxide will be discussed. Particular emphasis will be placed on the carbon monoxide reaction leading to ketone formation in moderate yields. COMPLEXES OF TRIFLUOROACETYLP I COLINE . R.P. Cassity and L. T. Taylor, Dept, of Chemistry, Virginia Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ. , Blacksburg, Va. 24061 Nickel(II) complexes derived from 2-(trif luoro- acety 1 )picolinate ion are prepared and character¬ ized. Octahedral complexes are prepared from absolute ethanol. The dipyridine, a , a ' -bipyridine , and monohydrate adducts are octahedral as indicated by visible spectra and magnetic moments of 3.20, 3.19 and 3.02 B.M. respectively. The monohydrate is thought to be dimeric with bridging water mole¬ cules. Ni(TFAP>2 is prepared by heating the pyri¬ dine complex at 150°C in air. The solid complex is believed to have a dimeric structure with 5-coor¬ dinate Ni(II). This is indicated by the magnetic moment at 295°K equal to 3.49 B.M. and the magnetic moment at 20°K equal to 3.00 B.M. Furthermore the visible spectrum is best interpreted in terms of a 5-coordinate complex. Ni(TFAP)2 solid reacts slow¬ ly and reversible with water in the air to form a light green solid. The mechanism of this reaction is discussed. Ni(TFAP>2 solutions in nondonor sol¬ vents exhibits polymer (S = l) *" monor (S = 0) equi¬ librium. Spectral data of Ni(TFAP)2 in donor sol¬ vents show Ni(II) to be in an octahedral environ¬ ment . Proceedings, 1973-1974 77 FREE ROTATION AROUND THE pir-dir BOND: THE CASE OF RN=SF_. A. F. Clifford and A. Shanzer. Department of Chemistry, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg , Va . 24061 The role of d orbitals is fundamental in Inorganic chemistry, and is of special importance in the higher oxidation states of elements like sulfur, where multiple bonding is a common phenomenon. For many years there has been debate on whether free rotation can occur around such multiple bonds. The present study has addressed itself to this problem and has involved a dual theoretical and experimental approach. The compounds used for this study (SF_N=SF„, CF N=SF2, C„F5N=SF2 and FC(0)N=SF ) were treated theoretically °by extended Huckel calculations and experimentally by low temperature F-19 NMR studies . The calculation of total energy of the molecule as a function of rotation about the N-S(IV) multiple bond suggested that this rotation does occur. Low temperature F-19 NMR studies of the theoretically treated compounds supports this conclusion . On the other hand, the question arises whether "tying the multiple bond down" by conjugation would reduce freedom of rotation. This seems so. ADSORPTION OF LEAD, MERCURY, AND NICKEL FROM AQUEOUS SOLUTION ONTO SEVERAL SOLIDS. Mary Ellen Counts* and J.P. Wightman , Dept, of Chemistry, Va . Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ., Blacksburg, Va. 24061 Room temperature isotherms have been measured for Hg(II) onto a montmorillonite and two kaolinites from solutions initially at pH 2; Fb(II) adsorption onto two kaolinites and montmorillonites from solutions initially at pH 2 and 4; and Ni(II) adsorption onto Minusil-5, a montmorillonite, and a kaolinite from solutions initially at pH 2, 4, and 6. Iso¬ therms were also measured for adsorption of Pb(II) onto a kaolinite and a montmorillonite at 4°C from solutions ini¬ tially at pH 4. Turbidity measurements were made for Ni(II)- minusil systems at pH 2 and 6 and a Ni (Il)-kaolinite system at pH 6. The nitrate salts of each test metal were used in initial concentration ranges of 25 to 1000 ppm metal. The difference in behavior of the two batches of each clay (Na- saturated in the same manner and each clay of the same type) is evidenced by the difference in the adsorption isotherms obtained on each. There was no apparent difference in the isotherms obtained at 4°C and room temperature (25 ± 2°C) for the systems studied at these temperatures. Adsorption of each metal increased on the solids studied in the order minu- sil-5 < kaolinite < montmorillonite . Equilibrium pH values support hydronium ion competition for sorption sites in that greater final pH values were measured from systems of ini¬ tially lower test metal concentration and the final pH decreases with greater test metal adsorption. AMBIENT AIR TRACE HYDROCARBONS IN THE TIDEWATER AREA, WHO IS TO BLAME, NATURE OR MANKIND? A GAS CHROMATOGRAPHIC STUDY, Robert Denyszyn* and Alan R. Bandy, Dept, of Chemistry, Old Dominion Univ. , Norfolk, Va, 23508 For the past year we have Been analyzing for ambient air hydrocarbons in the Tidewater area. Gas chromatographic techniques were employed to obtain qualitative , quantita¬ tive as well as fluctuation of the hydrocarbons. With the system constructed, hydrocarbons in the C^-Cgo molecular weight range could be monitored. (Construction of a system which will be able to monitor C2-C2O is under way) . Con¬ centration as low as 10 part-per- trillion could be detec¬ ted. Several injection systems as well as sampling tech¬ niques will be described. Some of last years data and its implication about the air quality in the Tidewater area will be discussed. 1.6- CYCL0DECANEDI0NE via hydroxylation OF £9’10 0CTALIN. Harry J. DePan, Fred W. Frick, Peter H. Jones. Roger G. Lloyd, C. Joshua Patton. James K. Shillington, Dept, of Chemistry, Washington and Lee Univ. Lexington, Va. 241-50 We have achieved the simple hydroylation of A9' 10-octalin with a subsequent oxidation of the product to the 1 6-dione. Our starting material is /3-decalol, reached first with boric acid (although 85$ phosphoric acid can be used with a drop in yield) and later with phosphorus pentoxide to convert all isomers to the A9’10-unsaturation. Standard hydroxylation of the bond with formic acid and hydrogen peroxide gives 1.6- cyclodecanediol at 20$ yield from the octalin. An oxidation to the 1, 6-dione was achieved by lead tetracetate, with a yield of about 10$ from 65$ yield from /?-decalol. This product serves as an intermediate in the preparation of 1,6-cyclodecane-dimethylene. SODIUM DITHIONITE STABILIZATION STUDIES. Leonard C. Ellis* and Mearl A. Kise. Virginia Chemicals Inc., Portsmouth, Va. 23703 0 Under normal storage conditions, where moisture is excluded and the free circulation of air avoided, sodium dithionite can be held without appreciable decomposition for several years- However, upon dissolution in water, decomposition starts immediately and unless steps are taken to control the degradation, it will continue to accelerate until all the sodium dithionite has been consumed. His¬ torically, sodium dithionite solutions have been treated with caustic to effect a degree of stabilization. Recent data has shoim that such additions must be carefully con¬ trolled to prevent side reactions between the sodium dithionite and caustic soda. With proper controls, solu¬ tions can be effectively stabilized at various concentration levels for relatively long periods of time with 1.4% to 20.0%, caustic soda (sodium dithionite basis). The optimum percentage of alkali is closely related to the length of the storage period. Best storage stability is realized when the pH is maintained above 9 but excessive caustic soda is avoided. A 5% solution of sodium dithionite is more stable than a 15%, solution under comparable conditions. Solutions containing 10%, sodium dithionite have been stored under proper conditions at 35°F0 for 84 days with less than 6%, decomposition of the sodium dithionite. THE THERMAL DEGRADATION AND ABSORPTION OF POLYMERS ON A REAL TEMPERATURE SCALE. J.C. Farmer, J.J. Madis , G. Sanzone and T.C. Ward, Dept, of Chemistry, Virginia Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ., Blacksburg, Va. 24061 The adsorbtion/absorbtion of gases on/into polymeric sur¬ faces is presently being investigated by our shock-tube kinetics research group. The proposed work uses a unique process by which surface layers of thin polymers are thermally degraded by a shock wave. Polymeric and absorbed/adsorbed materials are immedi¬ ately passed through the polymer shock-tube end wall via a small orifice into a T.O.F. mass spectrometer for analysis. Kinetics and mechanisms of polymer degradation determine the composition of the sampled polymeric materials. It is proposed to determine absolute concentrations of absorbed/ adsorbed gases as well as their penatration into the polymer. Correct interpretation of the experimental data requires a basic understanding of the nature of the polymer degradation itself . This paper reviews the basic concepts involved, discusses the instrumentation and reports on our progress to date. 78 The Virginia Journal of Science RELEVANCE AND TRIVIA IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY . H. I. Felnstein. Dept, of Chemistry. Georcce Mason Univ., Fairfax, Va. 22030 There has been a general decline of interest, in chemistry as a career In recent years, despite the fact that the need for trained people in such fields as energy, food, and the environment will be greater than ever in the near future. It Is important for the chemistry teacher to present his subject not only as a useful and essential discipline in modern civilization but also as an enjoyable one. 'what better combination is there than a career that makes a significant contribu¬ tion to society, and Is fun at the same time. Suggestions are offered to hold and enhance interest in chemistry among beginning students. Specific examples of lecture and laboratory ex¬ periments will be demonstrated. Some less usual lecture material will be presented. OZONE DETECTION USING RUBRENE-OZONE CHEMILUMINESCENCE. Harry M. Finley* and Alan R. Bandy, Dent, of Chemistry. Old Dominion University, Norfolk, Virginia 23508 The organic compound rubrene when exposed to ozone exhibits chemiluminescence on heating. The emission spectrum of ozonized rubrene has been measured and found by other workers to have a maximum intensity at 570 nm. We have found ozone concentrations as low as 0.01 ppm can be detected with solid rubrene after an exposure time of one hour. The potential applications of atmospheric monitoring with this delayed chemiluminescence technique are discussed. SOLVENT DEPENDENCE AND ISOTOPE EFFECTS IN THE SOLVOLYSIS OF DISUBSTITUTED BROMOALLENES . Ted C. Germroth and Melv.yn D. Schiavelli, Dept, of Chem- istry, College of William and Mary, Williamsburg, Va. 23185 Deuterium substitution in the 3-positiom of a di- or trisubstituted haloallene results in the observation of a normal S-secondary isotope effect upon solvolysis, kH/kD = 1.21-1.27. Isotopic substitution at the reaction center results in a normal a-effect kH/^p = 1.22. Both results are independent of structure and solvent nucleophilic- ity indicating the lack of involvement of any nucleophilic solvent assisted solvolysis. The a- effect is the largest yet reported and is expected on the basis of theoretical calculations using isotope fracturation equilibria. SYNTHESIS AND REACTIONS OF 3-BR0M0-1-METHYLNAPHTHALENES. J. S. 'Gillespie, Jr.„ S. P. Acharya* and D. A. Shambleet Va. Inst, for Scientific Res., Richmond, Va. 23229 The synthetic procedures for preparation of the title com¬ pounds started with 3-arylbutanoic acids which were prepared by two methods. According to method I, methyl magnesium iodide was added to 2, 2-dimethy 1-5-ary l-4-pentene-3-ones, which gave exclusively 2 ,2-dimethyl-5-aryl-3-hexones (1:4- addition products) . The resultant hexanones underwent Baeyer-Villiger oxidation with peracetic acid to give 3- arylbutanoic acids. In method II acetophenones when treated with ethyl bromoacetate and zinc gave ethyl 3-aryl-3-hydroxy- butanoates, which on treatment with HI/P gave 3-arylbutanoic acids. The arylbutanoic acids were cyclized to 1-indanones, which on reduction and dehydration gave 1-methylindenes. The 1-methylindenes are unstable under basic conditions and rearrange to 3-methylindenes, which on ring expansion with dihalocarbenes give 2-halo-l-methylnaphthalenes. However, 1-methylindenes on ring expansion under neutral conditions with phenyl (tribromomethyl) mercury gave 3-bromo- 1-methyl- naphthalenes . The 3-bromo-l-methylnaphthalenes were con¬ verted into 3-aryloxy, 3-carboxy and 3-ary loxy-l-aldehyde derivatives. SIMULATION OF THE GLASSY STATE -BY CONFINING POLY¬ MER CHAINS TO A BOX. M. Graichen and D. Kranbuehl, Dept, of Chemistry, Col. of William and Mary, Williamsburg, Va. 23185 The dynamic and equilibrium properties of random-coil polymer chains -confined t-o a box -has been simulated using Monte Carlo techniques. In this model the configurations of the polymer chain, N-l units long, are represented by a string of N connected points, referred to as beads, on a simple cubic lattice. Brownian motion of the chain is simulated by choosing one bead at a time and moving it to a new position. Excluded volume is accounted for by not allowing two beads to oc¬ cupy the same lattice site. The relaxation be¬ havior of the vector end-to-e-nd length was exam¬ ined for chains confined to boxes of varying volume and shape. It was found that relaxation behavior was only slightly dependent on -the volume of a cubic box. For chains in small assymetric boxes, a bimodal relaxation spectrum was produced which was qualitatively similar to the a, 3 relaxation pattern of polymer glasses. CHARACTERIZATION OF THE NATIVE AND DENATURED FORMS OF tRNATrP by REACTION WITH KETH0XAL. C. M. Greenspan and M. Lift, Dept, of Chemistry, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, Va. 23508 and Dept, of Biochemistry and Div. of Med. Genetics, Univ. of Oregon Med. Sch. , Portland, Oregon 97201 The E. coli tRNA-^P is one of several tRNAs which have biologically inactive denatured conformations which are metastable at room temperature in the presence of Mg2+. The denatured (D) form and renaturad (R) forms of this tRNA are readily interconvertible by heating above a transition temperature under the proper ionic conditions. In this study, we have elucidated the reactivity of both of these forms with kethoxal , -ethoxy-©^-ketobutyraldehyde , a reagent specific for guanines in single stranded regions. The sites of kethoxalation were ascertained by use of the Sangerprint method for electrophoretic separation of Tl- or pancreatic RNAse oligonucleotides. Base analyses were performed by two dimensional thin layer chromatography. The R form showed little reaction with kethoxal and no specificity as to the guanine kethoxalated. After dena- turation, the anticodon stem-miniloop region, the D loop, and the D stem regions were all reactive. Denaturation thus makes these regions more susceptible to kethoxalation. The pattern of kethoxalation of the D form indicates that dena¬ turation involves the breaking of hydrogen bonds in both the anticodon and D stems. Proceedings, 19-73-19-74 79 ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF CEREBROSIDE AND LECITHIN BILAYER MEMBRANES. J. E. Hardcastle and B. Tavasolian*, Dept, of Chemistry, Texas Woman's University, Denton, Texas 76204 To study transport phenomena of bilayer lipid membranes, artificial membranes were prepared from commercially obtain¬ ed cerebroside (bovine) and dipalmitoyllecithin. The mem¬ brane potential and capacitance were measured to help charac¬ terize these membranes. From the measured electrical po¬ tential the specific resistances of the membranes were cal¬ culated to be about 10^ ohm - cm^. The transference numbers for Na+, Ca44", and Sr++ in these membranes were calculated from the membrane potential data. The transference numbers were about 0.5, there being little difference between the various cation-membrane systems, and this indicates little cation selectivity. From the measured membrane capacitances (“TO""6 farads) the lecithin membrane was calculated to be about 50 A thick and the cerebroside about 80 A thick. These facts are consistant with a bilayer membrane structure hav¬ ing a net surface charge of zero. CLEAVAGE OF PHOSPHINAMIDES WITH LITHIUM ALUMINUM HYDRIDE . P. D. Henson and D. W. McCourt*, Dep.t.. of Chemistry, Roanoke College, Salem, Virginia 24L53 Methylphenyl- and diphenylphosphinanilide (1_ and 2) and their N-methyl derivatives (3^ and 4) have been synthesized and their reactions with lithium aluminum hydride studied. €>n.-©> _1, R- = H, R' = Me 2, R = H, R' = Ph Jl, R = Me,. R' = Me 4, R = Me, R' = Ph The phosphinanilides , in contrast to 5_ which is reduced to 6^ by LAH„ were found to undergo P-N bond cleavage rather than deoxygenation. Although the N-methyl derivatives were extremely reactive for both systems, the methylphenylphos- phinic amides were more reactive than their diphenyl ana¬ logues. Aniline or N-methylaniline and. the corresponding secondary phosphine and/Or phosphine oxide, depending on the reaction conditions , were the principal products . (Acknowledgment is made to the Donors of the Petroleum Research Fund, administered by the American Chemical Society, for support of this research.) IMPROVED DETERMINATION OF FIBRINOGEN IN SERUM WITH LIGHT SCATTERING TECHNIQUES. M. Hoatlin* , D. Ostromecky*, and A. J. Diefenderfer , Dept, of Chemistry, Old Dominion Univ., Norfolk, Va. 23508 The clinical laboratory determination of fibrinogen in serum or plasma can be of significance in certain emer¬ gency situations. The traditional methods are relatively accurate but slow. The existing turbidimetric method, using thrombin to form a precipitate, is rapid but has large errors associated with the determination. An im¬ proved turbidimetric method is reported and initial results obtained in comparison with standard methods for the determination will be discussed. Appropriate modifica¬ tions of the precipitation procedure and of the instrumental measurement are described. The modified technique offers the potential of a fast and accurate method for fibrinogen determination. AN UNDERGRADUATE EXPERIMENT: SYNTHESIS AND CHARAC¬ TERIZATION OF LINEAR POLYETHYLENE. Allen Howe, T. Harris j. D. Kranbuehl, and D. Thompson, Dept., of Chemistry, Col. of William and Mary, Williamsburg, Va. 23185 An upper-division laboratory experiment has been developed which introduces students in a uni¬ fied manner to several aspects o.f the currently important and active areas of polymers, catalysis by transition metal complexes and main group and transition metal organometallic chemistry. Within these three major areas, several useful and inter¬ esting areas to which students will be exposed in this experiment are: 1. Ziegler-type catalytic polymerization of olefins such as ethylene. 2. Use of transition metal complexes as reaction catalysts. 3- Polymer characterization techniques including infrared, density gradient, and viscosity measurements plus polymer film fabrication. 4. Organometallic in¬ sertion reactions. 5- Use, handling, and chemistry of organometallic chemicals such as diethy laluminum chloride and bis (pentahaptocyclopentadienyl)- dichlorotitanium(IV) . 6. Use of vacuum line and inert atmospheres for chemical syntheses. 7- Lin¬ earity and crystallinity in polyolefin polymers. THE USE POTENTIAL OF SOME NATURAL POLYMERS FOR THE MANUFAC¬ TURE OF POLYURETHANES. H.-H. Hsu* and W. G. Glasser, Dept. Forestry & Forest Products, Va. Polytechnic Inst. & State Univ., Blacksburg, VA 24061. Attempts were made to employ lignins from different sources in the manufacture of polyurethanes following chemical modi¬ fication. The lignin samples used were isolated from the black liquor of a kraft pulping process (Kraft lignin) and from the alkaline extract of pine sawdust which had been reacted with maleic anhydride (MA) in a rotating autoclave at 170°C for two hours (MA-lignin) . MA-lignin proved to be a polycarboxy acid suitable for reaction with propylene oxide (PO) and polyethylene glycol (PEG) (M.W. : 400) . The resulting highly viscous, dark brown polyol was subsequently reacted with toluene-di-isocyanate (TDI) to yield a polyurethane foam of low density. In contrast, Kraft lignin demonstrated a significant tardiness in reacting with PO, and it was found that TDI reacted with oxyalkylated MA-lignin (OAMAL) polyol much faster and more uniformly than with oxyalkylated Kraft lignin (OAKL) . A lower density foam was obtained with OAMAL polyol than with OAKL polyol. It is felt that the introduc¬ tion of large numbers of aliphatic hydroxyl, ether, and ester groups by polymerization or condensation with maleic anhy¬ dride and alkylene oxide will permit lignin to become a competitive polyol with a variety of properties. It is further felt that polyurethane rigid foams with wide ranges of physical properties can be made from lignin sources if all modification reactions are carefully controlled. VAPOR SORPTION MEASUREMENTS ON SOLUTIONS OF POLYETHYLENE IN NORMAL ALKANES. J, A. Jokl* and R. A. Orwoll. Dept, of Chemistry, Col. of William and Mary, Williamsburg, Va. 2318? Activities of n-hexane and n-octane dissolved in linear polyethylene were determined as a function of their concen¬ tration at 150°C. They were obtained as the ratio P\/pf of the pressure of alkane above the solution to the vapor pressure of the pure liquid at 150® from vapor sorption measurements with a KcBain balance. The observed activities have been compared with values calculated from a theory for polymer solutions. Parameters in this model depend on the eauation-of-state properties of the polymer and solvent; they have previously been com¬ puted. The initial slopes (at infinite dilution of alkane) of the vapor pressure p^ as a function of alkane concen¬ tration were found to be in good agreement with the cor¬ responding values calculated from theory. 80 The Virginia Journal of Science THE ELECTROCHEMISTRY OF THE LIQUID CHYSTAL-N- (p-METHOXY- BENZYLIDENE)-p-BUTYLANILINE(MBBA). J. A. Kern*. D.M. Oglesby*, C.E. Bell, Dept, of Chemistry, Old Dominion Univ. , Norfolk, Va. 23508. J.B. Robertson*, mail stop 1*73, NASA, L-uigley Research Center, Hampton, Va. The electrochemistry of liquid crystals is of interest because, when placed in an electrical field, these compounds undergo the phenomena of dynamic scattering and are there¬ fore useful in display devices. One of the problems associated with the use of liquid crystals in display de¬ vices is the limited lifetime of about 3)000 hours. A study of the failure mechanisms which result in this limited lifetime has been undertaken. MBBA is a nematic liquid crystal widely used in display devices. Electrochemical reduction studies of MBBA have been conducted using cyclic voltametry and controlled potential coulometry. Studies to date indicate that two reduction products are formed, one resulting from an electro¬ chemical-chemical process and the other from a two electron reduction process. (Supported by NASA grant NAS1-9U34-51 ) THE BINDING OF METAL IONS TO ALUMINOSILICATE CLAY MINERALS. M. H. Koppelman, and J. G. Dillard. Dept, of Chemistry Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061 The binding energies of constituent atoms in selected aluminosilicate clay minerals have been measured using photoelectron spectroscopy, (ESCA) . Minerals studied included chlorite, kaolinite, and illite. Binding energies for stochiometric elements, aluminum, silicon, oxygen, and metal cations have been determined. The binding energies of adsorbed metal ions .thallium, iron, and magnesium have also been determined. Examination of the binding energy data for adsorbed ions suggests that the ions are bound predominantly to oxygens of the clay mineral. CHO 3 THE MEASUREMENT OF FRAGMENT-ION KINETIC ENERGIES BY IFF TIME-OF-FLIGHT MASS SPECTROMETRY. T . A ■ Ligon and George Sanzone, Dept, of Chemistry, Virginia Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ., Blacksburg, Va. 24061 A recent theoretical study of Impulse-Field Focusing for the Time-Of-Flight mass spectrometer has predicted the possibility of a great increase in mass resolution over the conventional T0F.U»^] This paper reports studies on the effects of the IFF focusing process on mass peak width and symmetry. It is shown that these effects are a function of initial ion kinetic energy. APPROXIMATE SELF-CONSISTENT FIELD THEORY FOR A ONE-POSITRON MANY-ELECTRON SYSTEM. W. J. Madia*. J. C. Schug. A. L. Nichols*, and H. J. Ache. Dept, of Chemistry, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Va. 24061. The possible existence of positron-molecule complexes is of fundamental interest in positronium chemistry. The CNDO (complete neglect of differential overlap) approximations are applied to Hartree-Fock theory in order to calculate positron orbital energies, binding energies, and charge densities in molecules such as benzene, toluene, and nitrobenzene. Preliminary results show the positron in these complexes to be bound. The CNDO approximations as applied to the positron will be discussed along with the calculated parameters. These calculations can be extended to positronium complexes in attempting to interpret observed orthopositronium lifetimes. INACTIVATION BY KETH0XAL OF THREE TRANSFER RNAs. .CHARGEABLE BY YEAST PHENYLALANYL TRANSFER RNA SYNTHETASE. M. Lift and C. M. Greenspan, Department of Biochemistry and Division of Medical Genetics, University of Oregon Med. Soh. , Portland, Oregon 97201 and Department of Chemistry, Old Dominion Univ. Norfolk, Virginia 23508 Several transfer RNA species can be aminoacylated by yeast phenylalanyl tRNA synthetase. By studying the reaction of three of these tRNAs with kethoxal, a G-specific reagent, we hoped to provide insights into the nature of the synthetase recognition of tRNA. The tRNAs studied were yeast tRNAF^e, which is homologously charged by this synthetase, and E.coli tRNA^e and E.coli tRNA-i^3-^, both of which are heterologously charged by this synthetase. Guanines are present in all three of these tRNAs at positions 20 and/or 3U. When present, these guanines reacted with kethoxal readily. Such reaction caused partial loss of phenylalanine acceptor activity. The ability of E.coli tRNA-|Val to be aminoacylated was unimpaired by kethoxalation. Inactivation of yeast tRNAp“e is a single-hit process. Combined with our previous studies on this tRNA, these results suggest that either site 20 or 34 can act as a target for inactivation, if the bulky o<,-ethoxyethyl side chain of the kethoxal moiety is properly oriented. EVALUATION AND INTERPRETATION OF AIR CONCENTRATION DATA OBTAINED WITH THE OLD DOMINION UNIVERSITY MOBILE AIR POLLUTION LABORATORY IN THE DISMAL SWAMP AREA. George F. Maier-*, Gary E. Copeland, and Alan R. Bandy, Dept, of Chemistry, Old Dominion Univ., Norfolk, Va. 23508 The Deep Creek Lock site on the Intracoastal Waterway was chosen for the Fall, 1973 experiment. The locks are situated between the Great Dismal Swamp to the south and the heavily industrialized Southern Branch of the Elizabeth River to the north. Ambient air was sampled at 15’, 25', 50', and 75' for ozone, total hydrocarbons, total sulfur, hydrogen sulfide, wind speed, wind direction, and temperature. Total loading of particulates averaged over twenty-four hours was obtained at ground level. The location was relatively "clean" withreadings below the National Ambient Air Quality Standards. The most interesting measurments were those ofSHC andSS which were highly dependent upon the direction of the wind as were the concen¬ trations of various hydrocarbons present. Proceedings, 1973-1974 81 RESPONSE CHARACTERISTICS OP A MODEL SH-202 RT MELOY TOTAL HYDROCARBON AND TOTAL SULFUR ANALYZER. Peter Maroulis* and Alan R. Bandy, Dept, of Chemistry, Old Dominion Univ. , Norfolk, Va. 23508 The sensitivity of the Model SH-202 RT Meloy Total Hydrocarbon and Total Sulfur Analyzer to fluctuations in hydrogen flow and sample flow has been determined. This instrument was found to be quite sensitive to hydrogen flow rate changes. Variations in sample flow rate did occur during field operation of the instrument which greatly reduced the reliability of the instrument for field monitoring. KINETIC STUDY OF A BASE-CATALYZED PHENYL REARRANGEMENT IN 2.3 .4 .5-PENTAPHENYLCYCLOPENTADIEN-2 ,4-OL-l . J. G. Mason, A. K. Youssef and M. A. Ogliaruso, Dept, of Chemistry, Va. Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ., Blacksburg, Va. 24061 The rate of formation of 2 ,3 ,4 ,5 ,5-pentaphenylcyclo- penten-2-one-l (C) from 1 , 2 ,3 ,4 , 5-pentaphenylcyclopentadien- 2,4-ol-l (A) has been studied as a function of sodium amide concentration. Detailed kinetic analysis establishes this conversion as two consecutive first order reactions, the second member of which exhibits base catalysis. [NH "] A - > B « _ I _ C On the basis of these kinetic analyses and product analyses a detailed mechanism has been developed and will be presented. THE BINDING OF METAL IONS TO NUCLEIC ACID . George Kushrush, Donald Helman*, and Gene Yonuschot*, Dept, of Chemistry, George Mason University, Fairfax, Virginia 22C30. Tb+3 has been shown to bind to DNA and gives characteris¬ tic emission spectra which shows the amount of Tb+3 bound to DNA-P. The stoichmetry of the complex was a one/cne ratio of Tb+3 to PNA-P. We investigated the use of other metal ions. Members of the lanthanide series (Eu+3, Tb+3, Gd+J, Dy+3, Sm+3) and selected uranium ions (U*3# U0+^) were bound to DNA-P and FNA-P. It was found that Eu+3, Tb+^ and Dy+^ were, able to show sufficient fluorescence. Further investi¬ gation showed Tb+3 to be the superior fluorescent probe, and that Eu"*^ could also be used. Py+3 was found to have no quantitative use. It was found that DNA-P showed a much greater fluorescence than RNA-F. Tb+3 was used as a fluorescent probe with Adenosine, Ribose si- phosphate and the dAMP and AMP. This showed that there was no significance due to the difference between the. deoxy and ribose structure. A great difference existed due to the differences between the bases, with GKP, d-GMP, CMP and d-CMF giving a greater fluorescence. It was concluded that the fluorescence emission of the nucleic acid-terbium complex is dependent to some extent upor the base composition of the nucleic acid. NICKEL AND COBALT COMPLEXES OF PENTADENTATE SCHIFF BASE LIGANDS. R. H. Niswander* and L. T. Taylor, Dept, of Chemistry, Virginia Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ., Blacksburg, Va. 24061 Nickel(II) and cobalt(II) complexes of potent¬ ially pentadentate Schiff bases derived from salicylaldehyde and bis( 3-aminopropy 1 ) ether (SalDAPE), bis ( 3-aminopropy 1 ) sulfide (SalDAPS), bis( 3-aminopropyl) methyl phosphine (SalMeDAPP), or bis( 3-aminopropy 1 ) phenyl amine (SalPhDPT) have been isolated and characterized. The stereochem¬ istries of these complexes are discussed on the basis of their magnetic and spectrophotometr ic pro¬ perties. The nickel complexes of (SalDAPE) and (SalDAPS) are intermediate between square planar and five-coordinate geometries and show anomalous magnetic behavior. Ni(SalPhDPT) also shows some anomalous magnetism but more closely resembles a five coordinate complex similar to Ni(SalMeDAPP ) . All the nickel complexes form hexacoordinate adducts in pyridine. Co(SalDAPE) and Co(SalDAPS) were found to be pseudo-tetrahedral while the cobalt complexes of (SalMeDAPP) and (SalPhDPT) have five- coordinate structures. ESR INVESTIGATIONS OF PERFLUOROMETHYL-SUBSTITUTED-B I PHENYL RADICAL ANIONS. C. A. Nottingham, lilt Carter Noble, Jr.t SEVERAL APPROACHES TO THE SYNTHESIS OF ALLENYL ESTERS. David G. Oelberg and Melvyn D. Schiavelli, and H. J. Sipe, Jr. Dept, of Chemistry, Hampden-Sydney College, Hampden-Sydney, Va. 23943 The compounds 2-, 3-, and 4-trifluoromethylbiphenyl (£, 2, and ^),4 ,4' - b i s ( tri fluoromethyl )biphenyl (£) , and 4-methyl-4'-trifluoromethyl biphenyl (5) have been synthe¬ sized and characterized as model compounds for esr studies of beta-fiuorine hyperfine interactions. Radical anions of 4, and have been generated and studied by esr spectroscopy. Fluorine hyperfine coupling constants of 15.89 + 0.12 gauss and 15.48 + 0.08 gauss were measured for 4; and,57, respectively. Ring proton hyperfine coupling constants in 4r and 5.7 were quite similar to those in the unsubstituted Iriphenyl radical anion (6), which suggests that the pi electron spin density is distributed approximately the same in 4- and _5T as in 67 . Attempts to 7tudy 1/ ,°£7 , and £7 by esr spectroscopy were unsuccessful; only spectra characteristic of complex reactions were observed. The high stability of 4_7 and _57 suggests that blocking the 4- and 4'-ring'positi'ons of ~ biphenyl hinders the formation of complex products that is observed upon reduction of J_, 2, and _3. Dept, of Chemistry, College of William and Mary, Williamsburg, Va. 23185 This paper reports the synthesis of allenyl esters (1) by two routes. Each route involves px Q 0 Q ^C=C=C x=-C-CH3 , -P ( OEt ) 2 , -C--N02 Rs n R3 Ri = CH3 or t-C 9 R2 = CH3 or t-C„H9 Rb = H or CH3 the initial synthesis of the corresponding pro- pargyl ester followed by a) thermal rearrangement to allene or b) Ag -catalyzed rearrangement to allene During the course of this work 7 new propargyl esters and 11 new allenyl esters were prepared. The hydrolysis of allenyl phosphates is also dis¬ cussed . 82 The Virginia Journal of Science THE PREPARATION OF A NEW CYCLIC CATIONIC POLYELEC¬ TROLYTE. R. M. Ottenbrite and G. R. Myers*. Dept, of Chemistry, Va. Comm. Univ. , Richmond, Va. 23284 The monomer N ,N-Dimethyl-3 , 4-dimethylenepyrroli- dinium bromide was prepared by reacting 2,3-bis (bromomethyl ) -1 , 3-butadiene with dimethylamine . Aqueous solutions of this compound polymerized readily without initiator to form a polymer con¬ taining a 3-pyrrolinium ring as part of the chain. Initiators had varying effects on the polymeriza¬ tion process from inhibition to acceleration of rate . At low monomer concentrations (10%) an intrinsic viscosity of 1.3 to 1.7 dl/g was obtained which is comparable to the well known polydiallyldimethyl ammonium chloride, which contains a six-membered piper idinium ring in the polymer chain. As the concentration of monomer was increased the visco¬ sity increased accordingly until 50% monomer solu¬ tions yielded gels. RESOLUTION OF jco (NHj ) 50P(H ) (0CH2CH2CH2CH3 (C104)2 INTO ITS OPTICALLY ACTIVE ISOMERS, AND THEIR CIRCULAR DICHROISM SPECTRA. R, A, Palmer. Dept, of Chemistry, Old Dominion Univ., Norfolk, Va. 23508 The above cobalt amirine phosphito complex ion was resolved into its optically active isomers using d-tartrate dibenzoate as the resolving agent. The circular dichroism spectra show the vicinal effect on the d-d transitions of the cobalt atom due to the presence of the asymetric phosphorous atom. A similar result has been observed in cobalt(UI) pentaammine complexes containing an optically active amino acid as the sixth, unidentate ligand. ^ (Aided by a grant from the Old Dominion University Research Foundation.) "''Hawkins, C.J. and P.J. Lawson, Inorg. Chem., 9,6(1970). BASICITY DEPENDENCE OF AMINES FOR GUANIDINE CON¬ VERSION. R. M. Ottenbrite, R. G. Myers*, L. Teng*, J. W. Russell*, and P. S. Roberts. Dept, of Chem., Va. Comm. Univ., Richmond, Va . 23284 The synthesis of guanidine analogs of 6 -amino- caproic acid has been examined. Of the currently available synthetic methods for converting amines to guanidines, our studies have shown that the rea¬ gent selected for carrying out this transformation is determined by the basicity of the amine. We have found that when the amino group is attached to a phenyl ring bearing an electron with¬ drawing group (acid or ester) conversion of the amine to the corresponding guanidine must be done through a thioureide intermediate. In contrast, guanidines of 3- or 4- aminophenylacetic acid (or ester) require milder conditions and are readily obtained by refluxing the amine with 2-methyl-2- thiopseudourea sulfate in water. Finally, when the amino group is removed from the phenyl ring by one or more methylene groups, the amine is transformed to the guanidine by heating with S- ethylthiourea hydrobromide in ethanol. THE USE OF N-ETHOXYCARBONYL-2-ETH.OXY-1 , 2-DIHYDR0QUIN0LINE (EEDQ) IN THE STUDY OF SULFHYDRYL PROTEINASES . R ■ B ■ PERFETTI*, C.D. ANDERSON*, and P.L. HALL, DEPT. OF CHEMISTRY, VA. POLYTECHNIC INSTIT. and STATE UNIV., BLACKSBURG, Va. 24061. EEDQ has been found to be a useful reagent for the activ¬ ation of carboxyl groups. Reaction of the activated inter¬ mediate with nucleophiles gives the appropriate carboxyl derivative. This reagent has also been employed in the mod¬ ification of carboxyl groups in the serine hydrolases (Belleau et. al. , Biochem. Pharmacol. _18, 1039 (1969)). We have observed a facile reaction of EEDQ with the active sulfhydryl group of papain at pH=4.5,25°. The observed pseudo first order rate constant of inactivation of papain via reaction of the essential thiol with EEDQ in 111-fold molar excess was found to be 185±8.5 sec.--*-. This observed rate constant decreased to 45±3.3 sec.-^ at pH=6.5, and no inactivation of the enzyme was observed at pH=7.5. In all cases a 1:1 correspondence was found between enzyme activity lost and disappearance of free thiol. Mercuripapain showed qualitatively the same pH dependence for this reaction, but the observed rates at all pH values were slower indicating a partial protection of the thiol group by the mercuric ion. Reaction of EEDQ with mercuripapain at pH=7.0 in the presence of glycine--*^ C-ethyl ester showed no inactivation over a 5 hr. period with incorporation of 3 ethyl glycinate residues per molecule of enzyme. (Supported by NSF grant #GB 38238). CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF THE DISMAL SWAMP WATERS. P. Rosevear* and A. J. Diefenderfer, Dept, of Chemistry, Old Dominion Univ., Norfolk, Va. 23508 The chemical composition of the Dismal Swamp waters have been qualitatively established. These analyses have not been useful in adequately describing the ecosystem. In particular, the several sulfur moieties have been largely ignored. The particular relevance of these species is suggested and analysis procedures have been developed. The methylene blue method for sulfides has been found to be useful. An automated scheme of analysis for these species, and several others, has been developed. Initial results and tentative conclusions are presented (Aided by Old Dominion Research Foundation grant). RESPONSE CHARACTERISTICS OF AN ETHYLENE- OZONE CHEMILUMI¬ NESCENCE INSTRUMENT. Ronald G. Reed* and Alan R. Bandy, Dept, of Chemistry, Old Dominion Univ., Norfolk, Va. 23508 A prototype chemiluminescence ozone detector has been built utilizing the reaction between ozone and ethylene. Prior to field testing, the device's response and long term stability were ascertained. Data was gathered on the stability of the photomultiplier gain and dark current and electrometer output as a function of sample gas (ozone) flow rate and reactant gas (ethylene) flow rate. Inquiry was also made into the resolution obtainable with the instrument. The flow rate data was gathered using primary standard calibration equipment. As expected, the geometry of the reaction chamber appeared to have a minor effect on the out put of the instrument. Proceedings, 1973-1974 83 ORGANOBORANE - CARBON MONOXIDE REACTIONS - SYNTHETIC ASPECTS. Robert Shiffer, Jr.* and R. A. Coleman. Dept, of Chemistry, Col. of William and Mary, Williamsburg, Va. 23185 The reaction of organoboranes with carbon mon¬ oxide in the presence of metal hydrides provides a convenient route to aldehydes. The scope of this reaction will be reviewed briefly. Using lithium triethylborodeuteride (LiEt3BD) as the reducing agent, a convenient preparation of deu- terated aldehydes (RCDO) has been achieved. The preliminary results of this investigation will be presented . CYANIDE ION INDUCED DIMERIZATION REACTIONS OF 3-SUBSTITUTED PYRIDINIUM COMPOUNDS. Junaid Siddiqui* , L.J. Winters, Dept of Chemistry, Va. Commonwealth Univ., Richmond, Va., 23284. Cyanide ion induced dimerization reactions of l-methyl-3- bromopyridinium iodide (1), 1 , 3-dimethy Ipyridinium iodide (2) and several other substituted pyridinium compounds have been studied in the absence of oxygen. When Q) was reacted with sodium cyanide at room temperature for twelve hours, 1, 1 '-dimethyl -3, 3'-dibromo- 4, 4' -pyridinium iodide (3) was obtained. The involvement of cation radical (4) is proposed in the formation of (3). In contrast, 1,3- dimethylpyridinium iodide was recovered unchanged after reaction under identical conditions as used for the compound 1. Even if the same reaction is carried out at 140 C for three weeks in a sealed SYNTHESIS AND STEREOCHEMISTRY OF CHL0R0(ALK0XY)BIS( 2,k- PENTANEDIONATO ) T ITANIUM (IV) COMPLEXES AND THEIR REACTION WITH ORGANOALUMINUM COMPOUNDS. D. W. Thompson, T. V. Harris R. C. Coleman, R. B. Dickson, and J. R. Loehe, Dept, of Chemistry, Col. of William and Mary, Williamsburg, Va. 23185 Several studies have reported the synthesis and charac¬ terization of hexacoordinate titaniura(lV) complexes com¬ prised of two chelated 2,h-pentanedionate groups and two monodentate ligands. The most thoroughly studied of these complexes have been the dialkoxy- and dihalo-bis(2,lt-pen- tanedionato)titanium(lV) complexes. We wish to report stereochemical data on six new mixed ligand chloro(alkenoxy)- bis ( 2,U-pentanedionato ) titanium( IV ) complexes . In the course of studying the title complexes we found that they function as ethylene polymerization catalysts when reacted with (CjH^gAlCL This observation and the accepted fact that chain growth occurs at titanium led us to postu¬ late that alkenols, incorporated as a title complex, could be alkylated intramolecularly when reacted with R^AICI spe¬ cies. Hydrolysis would then yield a saturated alcohol. In¬ deed, reaction of the 3-buten-l-oxy complex with (C^H^^AICI in CH^Cl,^ or C^Hg at 0° for 3 hr gave a $0% yield of two Cg alcohols which were identified to be 1-hexanol and trans- 3-hexen-l-ol. Results for additional alkenoxy complexes and organoaluminum compounds will be discussed as well. HYDROXY LAMINE DERIVATIVES IN THE CHEMOTHERAPY OF CANCER. Bart van't Riet, Karl P. Floral and Galen L. Wampler5!: Dept, of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Div. of Oncology, Med. Col. of Va., Richmond, Virginia 23298 Hydroxyurea is the simplest organic compound in clinical use as an antitumor agent. Although the closely related formamidoxime was identified just 100 years ago, it was not until 1971 that it was shown to be effective against L1210 leukemia in mice (T/C=158%). We have repeated the synthesis of many known amidoximes for testing against animal tumors. In addition, we have prepared several new hydroxylamine de¬ rivatives. The general method of synthesis of amidoximes is the addition of hydroxylamine to a cyano group. Most of the compounds were isolated in the form of their hydrochlorides from their solutions at room temperature. Purification of the crude products was done using solvent pairs with a mini¬ mum of heat. The products are unstable when alpha amino groups are present, and often explode when heated to the melt¬ ing point. New identified compounds were the amidoximes of glycine, alanine, glycolic acid, and of 1-hydroxycyclopentane- 1-carboxylic acid (all T/C>150% against L1210 leukemia). Pre¬ viously prepared acetamidoxime and acetohydroxyamidoxime also showed antitumor activity. No activity was noted for any amidoxime having unsubstituted straight or branched C chains of 3 or more carbons, or for the new compounds iminodiacet- amidoxime, iminodiacetimiddioxime, their N-nitroso derivatives and N-hydroxyliminodiacetic acid. An excessive stimulation of the central nervous system was observed after administra¬ tion of any amidoxime at toxic levels. tube, there was no evidence of dimerization . However, 1 -phenyl - 3- methyl-pyridinium chloride and 1 -(2, 4-dini tropheny I) -3-methy I - pyridinium chloride reacted with sodium cyanide to form isolable 4- cyano adducts and dimerized products at room temperature. Pre¬ liminary results on the substituent effects of this dimerization will be discussed. INTEGRAL HELLMANN -FEYNMAN COMPUTATIONS ON EASILY REARRANGED SYSTEMS. Carl Trindle and Lucy A. Cline, Chemistry Department, University of Va., Charlottesville, Va. 22901 Lewis orbital computations on C2H6, B2H6 , CH3CH2+, and CH3BH2 , with optimization of orbital position and scale, produce wave functions satis¬ fying the Hellmann-Feynman theorem and the virial theorem and yields reliable geometries. Electron deficient B2H6 forms a bridged structure, well described by the Lewis orbital model, though the bridge bond is three-centered. CH3CH2+ and CH3BH2 distort easily toward bridged forms, though the stable geometry is not fully bridged. The question whether a simple but fully opti¬ mized Lewis orbital wave function satisfies the integral Hellmann-Feynman theorem is illustrated by direct computation of energy differences between geometries of the systems. AN INEXPENSIVE, PORTABLE INSTRUMENT FOR TURBIDITY MEASUREMENTS. L. Widener* and A. J. Diefenderfer , Dept, of Chemistry, Old Dominion Univ., Norfolk, Va . 23508 A small, inexpensive turbidimeter capable of battery operation, is described which uses a light emitting diode (LED) as the radiation source and a phototransistor as the radiation detector. The unique properties of the LED permit design of a system with significantly enhanced capability. Several electronic circuit approaches are described whereby the optico-electronic system is held in negative feedback. This allows "null" operation with the feedback current being proportional to the amount of radiation scattered. Preliminary results are presented. (Aided by Old Dominion Research Foundation grant). 84 The Virginia Journal of Science TEMPERATURE DEPENDENCE OP THE 1 1 . 1/irn INPRARED VXBRATIONAL TRANSITION OP 9 % SULFURIC ACID. Robert Wolfe* and Alan R. Bandy, Dept, of Chemistry, Old Dominion Univ., Norfolk, Va. 23508, E.E. Remsberg, NASA Langley, Hampton, Va. 23665 Thin film infrared spectra of aqueous 99% sulfuric aoid were obtained over a temperature range of 300-210°K. The 10-121x11 region is of interest because of stratospheric emission spectra which show peaks at 10.8 and 11.2yum. The 11.2 yum feature has previously been identified as nitric acid vapor, however, the existance of sulfate in an altitude range of 18 Km is known. Therefore, it is possible that aqueous sulfuric acid ( 1 1 . 1 yum peak) could distort the 11.2 yum band of nitric acid vapor. The ll.lyum band of aqueous 95% sulfuric acid exhibited no band shift at lower temperatures. It is therefore unlikely that the 10.8 yum band is due to sulfuric acid emission. SYNTHESIS AND ELECTROCHEMICAL STUDIES ON N-TRIMETHYLSILYL- 3, 6-DIME THYLCARBAZOLE . R. S. Young,* J. R. Butcher,* and H. J. Sipe, Jr. Dept, of Chemistry, Hampden-Sydney College Hampden-Sydney, Va. 23943 N-trimethylsilylcarbazole (lj and N-trimethylsilyl-3,6- di methyl carbazole (2) have been synthesized and character¬ ized to serve as moHel compounds for the investigation of silicon-nitrogen dative interactions. The presence of significant silicon-nitrogen interaction might be expected to influence the oxidation potentials of the substituted carbazole derivatives compared with the unsubstituted parent compound (3). Cyclic voltammetry has been used to determine the oxidation potentials of silyl-substituted carbazoles and to investigate the stability of the oxidized species. The first oxidation potential of i is 1.153 +.008 v vs_. SCE( acetonitrile; TEAP) compared with 1.163 +.009 v for j, indicating that the silyl substituent has little effect on the energy of the highest filled molecular orbital of the carbazole nucleus. As reported previously for j, J, also undergoes an irreversible first oxidation with chemical coupling reactions occurring subsequent to the oxidation. Since N-alkyl-3,6-dimethylcarbazole (jt) is reported to undergo reversible one-electron oxidation, we have synthe¬ sized 2 and investigated it by cyclic voltammetry. In con¬ trast with 4, 2 undergoes an irreversible oxidation. Presumably "the~chemi cal reaction(s) subsequent to the oxidation step involve the silicon-nitrogen bond since this is the only feature of ,2. different from ,4. ISOMERIZATION OF 2 ,3 ,4 ,5-TETRAPHENYLCYCLOPENTA-2 ,4-DIEN-l- 3NE (TETRACYCLONE) TO l,3-DIHYDRO-l,3-DIPHENYL-2H-CYCLO- PENTA[£]PHENANTHREN-2-ONE (1,3-DIHYDROPHENCYCLONE) . A. K. Youssef and M. A. Ogliaruso, Dept, of Chemistry, Va. Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ., Blacksburg, Va. 24061 The results of an investigation to find the optimum conditions (solvent, Lewis Acids and temperature) for the previously reported rearrangement of tetracyclone to 1,3-dihydrophencyclone will be presented. In addition to the above conditions, the rate of addition and the concentration of the Lewis Acid catalysts were also investigated . Discussion of this rearrangement, which is believed to occur via a pseudo-Scholl mechanism, will also be presented. A method for the conversion of the 1,3-dihydrophencyclone obtained to 2,5-diphenyl-3 ,4-biphenylene-2 ,4-cyclopentadien- 1-one (phencyclone) will also be reported. Proceedings, 1973-1974 85 Section of Engineering Fifty-second Annual Meeting of the Virginia Academy of Science May 7-10, 1974, Norfolk, Virginia COMPUTER-AIDED STABILITY ANALYSIS FOR NORTH ATLANTIC ICE¬ BERGS. J, K. Carmack, P. E. Allaire, Dept, of Mechanical Engineering, Univ. of Va., Charlottesville, Va. 22901 With the advent of extensive petroleum drilling in the Eastern Canadian off shore regions, iceberg towing with con¬ ventional ships has proven feasible as a method of preventing collisions with off shore platforms. Because of the danger of the berg rolling, more on-board information on stability is required before the method can be completely depended upon. An iceberg stability analysis program has been developed for use with a small on-board computer such as those present¬ ly used for navigational purposed on many ships. The program utilizes information about the shape of the iceberg available from visual and sonar sources to compute the metacentric height which is a measure of the stability. Five actual North Atlantic icebergs ranging in length from 90 feet to 600 feet were analysed with the program. Two were found to be unstable, two neutrally stable, and one stable. THE ROLE QF ALUMINUM IN PRACTICAL COMMERCIAL ASPECTS CF SOLAR COLLECTOR PANEIS. D. A. Fauth* and D. A. Kaechele*. Reynolds Metals Co. , Product Development Div. , Richmond, Va. 23219 This paper presents a brief review of literature pertain¬ ing to design concepts of fixed solar collector panels for heating and cooling residential and snail camvercial buildings. A great deal of published literature dates back to pre- Wbrld War II. However, it was not until recently that much serious attention has been oonmanded outside of universities or other Government funded studies into the practical aspects of solar heating and cooling systsns. The challenge to industry still exists in making solar panels and complete systsns that are practical, economically feasible and competitive for voluite production uses. The many properties of aluminum, i.e. its combination of light weight, high structural strength, good thermal con¬ ductivity, excellent corrosion resistance, its versatility in extruded shapes, and availability at lew cost make it a leading candidate for solar panel construction. Studies for combining solar collectors with integrated modular architectural roofing panels are presented in this paper. GROUNDWATER LAW AND MANAGEMENT IN VIRGINIA. W. E. Cox* and W. R. Walker. Va. Water Resources Res. Ctr., Va. Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ., Blacksburg, Va. 24061. A substantial increase in demand for groundwater in the Commonwealth of Virginia, especially in the southeastern por¬ tion of the state, has resulted in need for management of a resource which has been subjected to few controls in the past. This need has resulted in adoption of the Groundwater Act of 1973 by the General Assembly. Prior to enactment of this legislation, rights in ground- water were defined primarily through a body of common law es¬ tablished by the decisions of the courts of the state in cases arising from disputes between competing groundwater users. In a majority of the cases that have been decided by the Virginia Supreme Court of Appeals, relief has been denied to the party injured by interference with his groundwater supply. Thus the system of private rights has been largely ineffective in controlling use of groundwater having detri¬ mental impact on others. The Groundwater Act of 1973 is designed to manage this re¬ source by imposing direct state controls upon specially des¬ ignated critical groundwater areas. Provisions of the Act allowing continuance of uses in existence on the date of des¬ ignation may have the result of promoting increased use in potential critical areas as users attempt to increase vested rights before controls are instituted. Thus it is possible that additional managerial controls may become necessary as demands on the groundwater resource continue to increase. AN APPLICATION OF FLOQUET THEORY TO PREDICTION OF HELICOPTER MECHANICAL INSTABILITY. C. E. Hammond*. U. S. Army Air Mobility R & D Lab., NASA Langley Res. Ctr., Hampton, Va. 23665 The problem of helicopter mechanical instability is con¬ sidered for the case where one blade damper is inoperative. It is shown that if the hub is considered to be nonisotropic the equations of motion have periodic coefficients which cannot be eliminated. However, if the hub is isotropic the equations can be transformed to a rotating frame of refer¬ ence and the periodic coefficients eliminated. The Floquet Transition Matrix method is shown to be an effective way of dealing with the nonisotropic hub and nonisotropic rotor situation. Time history calculations are examined and shown to he inferior to the Floquet technique for determining sys¬ tem stability. A smearing technique used in the past for treating the one damper inoperative case is examined and shown to yield unconservative results. It is shown that instabilities which occur when one blade damper is inopera¬ tive may consist of nearly pure blade motion or they may be similar to the classical mechanical instability. 86 The Virginia Journal of Science DEViSLOfliiHT OF A DIGITAL OUT ALARM TERMIHAL J.JS.HiillJShSOli and JAMES D SC UDDER* GENERAL SECURITY CClilMUY .LYNCHBURG VA. 24604 Concerning the design of a read out terminal to be used in security systems with oomcieroial telephone dialers. The terminal oan aooept informatb from end read the identif ieet ion of 100 dialers It oan be hooked to the telephone line, private exchanges or to intercom lines. Applioation to uses other than security are suggested. The primary design problems were 1) insuring the proper detection of each oode burst and 2) insuring the proper order of digits. Major problems being solved, the unit is now in limited production EFFECT OF TILT OF FREE LIQUID SURFACE ON SHELL VIBRATION MODES. R. W. Herr.* Structures and Dynamics Division, NASA Langley Research Center, Hampton, Va. 23665 The fundamental research presented in this paper arose from a need associated with the Space Shuttle Program. One of the dynamics problems unique to the space shuttle is the effect of a tilted free liquid surface on the shell vibra¬ tion modes. The literature is replete with experiments and analyses of shell vibration modes of vertical shells contain¬ ing liquid, but until the current experimental investigation, the effect of tank tilt on shell vibration had not been examined. For space shuttle this tilt angle reaches approx¬ imately 15 degrees. Vibration modes have now been mapped on a circular cylin¬ der for several liquid levels and ullage pressures at tilt angles up to 30 degrees. The results show that for a given liquid volume the shapes of the lowest resonant frequency vibration modes, but not the resonant frequencies, are nearly identical for tilt angles from 5° to 30° with most of the motion occurring on the deep side of the tank. An empirical expression has been formulated relating the liquid depth of a tilted shell to an effective liquid depth of an untilted shell having the same resonant frequency for corresponding modes . POST-BUCKLING BEHAVIOR OF A CONSTRAINED COLUMN. L. L. Ichter*, F. W, Barton, and R. T. Eppink. Dept, of Civil Engineering, Univ. of Va., Charlottesville, Va. 22901 The load carrying capability of a slender structural mem¬ ber can be increased significantly if lateral restraint is provided to limit transverse displacements. Consideration of this problem arises in the case of a structural component which is used with a pretensioned cable for the purpose of limiting displacements or otherwise improving the effective load carrying capacity of the structure. In this example, the pretensioned cable would serve to constrain large buck¬ ling deformations when the member is compressed. To design such a system, it is necessary to determine the postbuckling behavior of the compression member which requires an under¬ standing of the interaction between the buckled column and the restraining medium. The purpose of this study is to determine the capacity and postbuckling behavior of an axially-loaded elastic column in which lateral displacement during postbuckling is limited by an elastic restraint Con¬ ditions of symmetry permit the problem to be analyzed as a two-dimensional problem. Both rigid and flexible con¬ straints are investigated. For the case of non-rigid con¬ straints, two cases are considered: (a) linearly elastic re¬ straints such as provided by an elastic foundation, and (b) nonlinear restoring forces such as would be provided by a cable or membrane in tension. LEKTR0-CAR: AN ELECTRIC MOTOR VEHICLE PROPELLED BY CAPACITOR ENERGY CELLS. Siegfried S. Meyers. Dept, of Physics, Madison College, Harrisonburg, Va. 22801. Using a series-parallel bank of electrolytic capacitors rated at 0.65 Farads and 100 volts charged from a conven¬ tional silicon bridge rectifier, this electric motor vehicle was constructed and operated by a 1/4 horsepower shunt D.C. motor. Speed was field controlled and its forward-reverse direction was achieved with a D.P.D.T. field-coil reversing switch . Under no-load conditions the vehicle's blocked— up rear wheels were operated for 90 seconds running at 1750 R.P.M. and gradually slowed down to a stop as the voltage decreased logarithmically with time. Under actual on-ground conditions the 150 pound unblocked vehicle's test run operated at 9 miles per hour at its peak and traveled about 100 feet before the entire charge was dissipated. Conventional electric vehicles using lead-acid batteries have the disadvantages of weight and chemical deterioration. Aluminum capacitors do not suffer from these limitations. Further research is needed to improve capacitor dielectrics before a practical and competitive vehicle may be realized. Motors should be re-designed to preserve the capacitor's loss of voltage for a longer running period. Increasing the number of windings by using finer wire with same ampere-turns will extend the discharge time and maintain the capacitor's voltage sufficiently long to maintain adequate running time of the motor. ARTIFICIAL MIXING AND REAERATION OF RESERVOIRS FOR WATER QUALITY CONTROL. B. J. Neilson, Dept, of Phys. Oceanoq. £ Hydraulics, Va . Inst, of Marine Sci., Gloucester Point, Va. 23062 Thermal stratification of water supply reservoirs during the summer often leads to water quality deterioration due to oxygen depletion of the cooler bottom waters. One means of reducing or eliminating this problem is to artificially mix or destratify the reservoir. Mechanical pumping and a variety of air injection systems have been employed to achieve this goal. One system, which appears to be very effective, utilizes a curtain of fine bubbles with diameters of several millimeters. However, the relative roles of aeration due to the bubbles alone and the natural aeration that is enhanced by the mixing have never been determined. Therefore it is not clear whether the system should be de¬ signed to maximize mass transfer for bubble aeration or to maximize momentum transfer for greater mixing. The present study was geared to measuring the liquid film coefficients for the various modes of oxygen transfer so that the design criteria could be established. Oxygen uptake for varying water depths and surface areas provided the means of determining the K values. When these laboratory determined values are applied to water geometries typical of small water supply reservoirs, one concludes that the natural aeration is the dominant source of dissolved oxygen and that the de¬ sign criteria for the future should be to provide for the greatest amount of mixing. IMPACT OF THE STAR- 100 ON FINITE ELEMENT STRUCTUR¬ AL ANALYSIS. Ahmed K. Noor and Robert E. Fulton, NASA-Langley Res. Ctr., Hampton, VA 23665 New computers, such as the STAR-100, have the potential for major improvements in structural ana¬ lysis and design capability. Such improvements, however, may require major reorganization of com¬ puter program architecture and alternate numerical methods. The heart of large-scale structural ana¬ lysis programs is the finite element method, and improvements in this area will significantly im¬ pact future structural analysis systems. This paper gives a progress report on an in-house re¬ search project at LRC to study the effective use of the STAR- 100 for finite element structural ana¬ lysis. A discussion is given of the impact of selected STAR features on the architecture of finite element systems including data structure, problem formulation, algorithms for equation solu¬ tion, and modularization of the system. Alternate approaches are discussed which appear to take advantage of key STAR capabilities. Proceedings, 1973-1974 87 HEAT TRANSFER TO VISCOUS MATERIALS IN A CONTINUOUS-FLOW, SCRAPED-WALL HEAT EXCHANGER. V. Ramdas, V. W. Uhl. Dept, of Chemical Engineering, Univ. of Va. , Charlottesville, V a. 22901. The need to improve heat transfer to high consistency materials is an important industrial problem. Because the achievement of turbulent conditions to enhance heat transfer can entail enormous' consumption of mechanical energy, viable alternatives including mechanically scraping the heat transfer surface have been considered. Experimen¬ tal studies conducted in liquid-full, continuous flow, scraped-wall heat exchangers with low, medium and high viscosity liquids in a commeri cal -scale heater and cooler result in an empirical design relation. The results indi¬ cate that scrapers are relatively ineffective in such units with very viscous fluids apparently due to insufficient mixing action. THE ENERGY PROBLEM AND ITS RELATIONSHIP TO SYNTHETIC FIBER RAW MATERIALS. Dr. Arthur M. Reader*. Thiokol Fibers Division, Box 460, Waynesboro, Virginia 22980. Almost all the basic raw materials for synthetic fibers are derived from petroleum and natural gas. To a large extent these raw materials are manufactured as a by-product of hydrocarbon fuels. Economics dictate the end- uses of these materials, e.g. , energy source or petrochemical feedstock. Refinery processes are examined and the sources of the various synthetic fibers are defined. The product slate of a typical refinery is examined, and the economic effects of maximizing fuel or fiber raw material examined. The effects of shifts to alternate energy sources, and the idiosyncrasies of crude oil transportation and marketing are also discussed. Short-range and long-range effects on fiber costs and avail¬ ability are dramatic. The conclusion is drawn that today's general purpose synthetic fibers will become unavailable by the end of this century. LAND MINE DETECTION VIA FUZE FLUORESCENCE - THE TECHNOLOGICAL ADVANCEMENTS NEEDED TO MAKE IT WORK. Timothy M. Small*. US Army Mobility Equipment Research & Development Center, Fort Bel voir, Virginia 22060 Land mines are extremely effective weapons which are within the technological capability of all nations. If the mines are of a non-metallic construction, the physical characteristics usually fall within the ranges encountered in soils (or soil inclusions), so that attempts to detect them are often unable to clearly discriminate between the mine and its host soil. A unique characteristic of essentially all current land mines is the presence of a small quantity of lead in the initial elements of the fuze train, whose detection would infer the presence of a mine. Laboratory studies have demonstrated the basic feasibility of detecting the fluorescent radiation from lead induced in the fuze of a buried anti-personnel mine, a particularly difficult class of mines to detect. Applying this technique to "real world" conditions and requirements imposes severe constraints on hardware specifications which exceed those within the current state-of-the-art. The development of these specifications and potential trade-offs to provide a solution to this crucial problem will be discussed. A LINEAR INDUCTION MOTOR CONVEYER: THEORY AND APPLICATION. K. S. Solinsky*, U. S. Army Mobil- ity Equipment Research and Development Center, Ft. Belvoir, Va. 22060 The subject of this paper is a linear induc¬ tion motor conveyer; a completely new conveying system in which the only moving parts are the items being conveyed. Such a conveying system has many advantages, among which are its ex¬ tremely high reliability and high flexibility. A linear motor conveyer consists of a series of coils embedded in an iron core, above which non-ferrous metal parts are placed. Movement of these parts results from the interaction of two traveling magnetic waves. One wave is created by three phase current flowing through the coils, and the other wave results from a current in¬ duced in the parts. From a few elementary prin¬ ciples of transverse waves and magnetism, a de¬ tailed qualitative description of the operation of a linear induction motor is developed. A linear induction motor conveyer was con¬ structed and then studied with respect to effi¬ ciency and feasibility. It was found that on a cost basis, such conveyers are feasible for lengths up to seven feet. However, because of their many advantages over conventional convey¬ ers, they can be justified for greater lengths. STUDIES OF POSTBUCKLING BEHAVIOR OF STIFFENED SHEAR WEBS. Manuel Stein* and James H. Starnes, Jr.* NASA Langley Research Center, Hampton, Va. 23665 Some studies of stiffened shear webs are described for a range of loading which extends into the nonlinear post- buckling range. A discussion is presented of the models chosen and the strategy involved in order to get a solution using the STAGS computer program which is based on two dimensional finite differences. The models considered have stiffeners which divide the shear web into rectangular panels of isotropic or composite material. The program gives values of the various stresses and deformations at each of the nodal points. By varying dimensions, non- dimensional parameters are found which greatly increase the applicability of the results obtained. The local slope of the characteristic shear stress resultant-applied displace¬ ment curve determines a measure of the stiffness of the shear web. Results obtained indicate that isotropic shear webs retain about two-thirds of their stiffness after buckling. Comparisons of results calculated for an isotropic web with results calculated for a web with layere composite panels show that the composite web is stiffer in the prebuckling range and the isotropic web is stiffer in the postbuckling range. STEADY STREAMING IN PULSATING FLOW. D.Th. Tsahalis and D.P. Telionis. Dept, of Eng. Science 6 Mech., Va. Polytechnic Inst. 5 State Univ., Blacksburg, Va., 24061 Viscosity effects along solid boundaries generate non¬ vanishing mean flows if the outer flow oscillates about a zero mean) The present investigation considers for the first time the case of oscillatory external outer flows with a nonvanishing mean. The definition of streaming phenomena is extended to denote any departure of the mean of properties from their steady state value derived with outer flow dis¬ tribution the mean of the outer flow oscillation. Distributions of the form Ue = Uo + Uicosmt are chosen where U0(s) is the mean and Uj(s) the amplitude of oscil¬ lation and s is the distance along the surface of the solid boundary. The dependence on s permits consideration of cases with favorable or adverse pressure gradient. A num¬ erical computer program was developed2 to solve the unsteady two dimensional laminar boundary layer equations. Velocity profiles of the streaming were calculated. The effect of large amplitudes of oscillation, which cannot be treated by perturbation methods, was considered. It was found that streaming phenomena are amplified as the neighborhood of separation is approached but they are completely eliminated if the pressure gradient of the outer flow is zero. Stuart, J.T., in Recent Research on Unsteady Boundary Layers ed. E. Eichelbrenner, 1, 1-59 (1971) 2Telionis, D.P., Tsahalis, D.Th. 6 Werle, M.J., Phys. Fluids, 16, 968-973 (1973) 88 The Virginia Journal of Science REGROWTH OF COLIFORM AND FECAL STREPTOCOCCUS BACTERIA IN A STREAM RECEIVING CHLORINATED SEWAGE EFFLUENT. R. E. Underhill*, Bureau of Sanitary Engineering, Va. Dept, of Health, Norfolk, Va. 23500, and R. C. Hoehn, Dept, of Civil Engineering, Va. Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ. , Blacksburg, Va. 24061 The objectives of this study were to demonstrate the in- stream regrowth of bacteria discharged to Cedar Run in the Cedar Run Sewage Treatment Plant effluent and to correlate the chemical and physical characteristics of the stream with any bacterial regrowth. A laboratory study was conducted to investigate regrowth in stream water over a longer period than was provided by instream detention time. The results showed that bacterial regrowth did occur both in Cedar Run and the laboratory. It was impossible to. deter¬ mine whether the source of the bacteria that regrew was the sewage treatment plant effluent or upstream water, because both were mixed and exposed to chlorine residual in Cedar Run downstream from the sewage treatment plant. Instream re¬ growth was accompanied by a lack of chlorine residual and temperatures conducive to bacterial growth. No other corre¬ lations were established. If the data for the chlorine contact tank effluent at the sewage treatment plant is substantiated by further investi¬ gation, the fecal streptococcus population should be used in lieu of the fecal coliform population as an indicator of dangerous pollution. GASIFICATION OF WOOD. D. 0. Valliere*, L. U. Lilleleht. Dept, of Chemical Engineering, Univ. of Va., Charlottes¬ ville, Va. 22901 Major problems associated with harnessing solar energy arise from its low intensity and intermittent nature. Photosynthesis of biomass provides another option to be considered for increased utilization of solar energy as well as for helping to maintain carbon dioxide balance in the atmosphere. The combustible biomass could be used directly to fuel conventional power plants or converted to some other form of fuel such as gas. Studies are now being conducted at the University of Virginia to develop a gasification process for wood. Low temperature and low pressure gasification attempts have resulted in excessive amounts of carbon dioxide in the product gases. Pretreatment of wood with an organic solvent appears to remove many of the carbon dioxide forming constitutents, and raises the levels of methane, carbon monoxide and hydrogen. Efforts are continuing to increase the heating value of the gaseous products through changes in the reactor configuration, reaction temperature, and the level of pretreatment. HEAT TRANSFER TO VISCOUS MATERIALS IN A SCRAPED-WALL HEAT EXCHANGER. R„ Venkatram*, V. W. Uhl. Dept, of Chemical Engineering, Univ. of Virginia, Charlottesville, Va. 22901. Experimental runs were conducted in liquid-full continuous-flow, scraped-wall heat exchangers of commercial scale. Fluids tested were two petroleum lube fractions, a corn syrup and a 2% aqueous carboxy-methyl -cellulose solu¬ tion. Reliable and consistent data obtained were used to develop an empirical design correlation in the laminar regime for rotational Reynolds number less than 150. The correlation obtained for heating and cooling was Nu = 57 Ref 0.059 0.113 0 063 -0.018 Rer Pr ' Visr FUSION POWER - SOME ENGINEERING PROBLEMS. T. G. Williamson, Dept, of Nuclear Eng., Univ. of Va. , 22901. The fusion of light isotopes in a controlled manner to produce useful power must be accomplished to meet the long range demands of our society for electric power. Many engineering designs have been proposed which will convert the fusion power to electrical power, once it has been shown that the thermonuclear reactions can be contained. Some of the problems such as radiation damage, environmental effects, materials supplies, plant sizing, etc., which will be encountered in the design, construction, and operation of these plants will be discussed. Comparisons will be made with the delays encountered in the development of commer¬ cial fission reactors. This equation and plots indicate that scraping is a rela¬ tively poor method for improving heat transfer. The experimental film coefficient were less than predicted by the penetration theory and the variance increased with the viscosity. Proceedings, 1973-1974 89 Section of Geology Fifty-second Annual Meeting of the Virginia Academy of Science May 7-10, 1974, Norfolk, Virginia GEOLOGICAL FACTORS IN ENVIRONMENTAL PLANNING AND DEVELOPMENT IN THE ROANOKE AREA, VIRGINIA. Roger V. Amato*. Earth Sat¬ ellite Corp., Washington, D.C. 20006 The Roanoke area is the largest population and growth cen¬ ter of southwestern Virginia. Because of the complex geo¬ logical structure, great variety of bedrock lithologies and surficial deposits, and diverse topography of the area, num¬ erous problems are encountered in construction, environmental planning and groundwater development activities. Thus, de¬ tailed knowledge of the geology of the area is important in planning to avoid potential problems in urban expansion. The bedrock of the area ranges in age from Precambrian to Mississippian and has been deformed into a complex series of folds and thrust faults. The principal rock types are gneiss , limestone, dolomite, shale, sandstone, and conglomerate. More than ninety-five percent of the bedrock is covered by inter¬ related deposits of residual soil, alluvium, and colluvium. The residual soils are thinnest over the sandstone (0-5 ft.), thicker over the shales (0-20 ft.), and are highly variable (0-over 100 ft.) over carbonate bedrock. The alluvium in¬ cludes present channel and floodplain deposits, older ter¬ raced alluvium, and alluvial fan deposits. Colluvial depos¬ its occur on the slopes of the ridges and have contributed to several area landslides. Other applications of geological data include evaluation of solid waste sites, flood hazard analysis, prediction of excavation and foundation problems, groundwater well-site evaluation, and the location of geo¬ logical deposits suitable for construction materials. PETROLOGY OF GNEISSIC ROCKS AT SELECTED LOCALITIES IN THE EAST CENTRAL PIEDMONT OF VIRGINIA Neil Thomas Bockoven, Department of Geology, College of William and Mary, Wmburg, Virginia, 23185 Chemical analyses were performed on seven rocks from the gneiss and schist belts in Goochland County. One analysis was made on a gneiss with apparent cataclastic texture collected at Rockets Mill near Verdon. The seven Goochland rocks were collected from various spots on the north side of the James River, forming an approximate transection from Sabot to Rock Castle, Most of the samples plotted in the feldspar field of the ternary liquidus diagram of the granite system, in¬ dicating igneous origin, _ Three of the samples, one from Sabot Station, one from Thorncliff, and one from near Maidens, are of basaltic to andesitic composition. Two rocks from the State Farm quarries are similar to rhyolites or rhyodacites in composition, A calc-silicate block from Rock Castle appears to have been an impure calcareous sedi¬ mentary rock, while a white quartzofeldspathic rock from there is similar to a granite in composition and probably was an aplite. The cataclastic Verdon gneiss is similar to a graywacke in composition but also compared to inter¬ mediate Igneous rocks. (Aided by NSF grant # GY 106o7) ELEMENTAL ENRICHMENT FACTORS IN AIRBORNE PARTICULATES AT THE HAMPTON ROADS REGION OF VIRGINIA AS DETERMINED BY NEUTRON ACTIVATION ANALYSIS. Roger N, Blais, Old Dominion Univ. , Norfolk, Va. 23508. Elemental analysis of airborne particles was done on samples collected on S&S Green Ribbon 589 filter paper ex¬ posed by high volume air samplers at twelve regular monitor¬ ing sites of the State Air Pollution Control Board on 14 May 1973. Data was reduced by the method of Zoller to enrich¬ ment factors, or ratios of elemental abundance in airborne particles to crustal abundance of the same element, both normalized respectively against airborne or crustal Al. Twenty-seven elements were monitored. Certain elements (e.g., Br-auto exhaust, V-residual fuel oil, etc.) can tag specific sources, an analysis of geographic distribution is used to characterize local air quality. Spatially averaged enrichments exceeded 1000 for Au, Br, Cu, Sb and Zn; exceed¬ ed 100 for Ba, Cl, Cr, Ta, and W; exceeded 10 for As, Ce, Co, Cs, Fe, Mg, Mn, Na, Sc, Th, Ti, V; and were below 10 for Ca, K, La, and Sm. UNDERGROUND STORAGE AND RETRIEVAL OF FRESH WATER FROM A BRACKISH-WATER AQUIFER. D.L. Brown*, W.D. Silvey*. U.S. Geological Survey, Richmond, Va. 23220 In 1967, the U.S. Geological Survey, in cooperation with the City of Norfolk, Va., began a study of the feasability of storing fresh water in an underground confined aquifer containing brackish water (1400 mg/1 chloride). Storage of fresh water in a brackish-water aquifer was investigated as an alternative to building water storage tanks for processed city water. A confined sand aquifer between the depths of 900 to 1,000 ft was selected as the injection zone. Irreversible clogging of the injection well occurred when the fresh water reacted with clay in the injection sand causing the clay to disperse and plug the aquifer. The specific capacity of the injection well decreased nearly 75 percent by the end of the third injection test. Rede¬ velopment and chemical treatment prevented further decrease in specific capacity. For future wells, an injection of a polymeric hydroxyl aluminum solution into the aquifer prior to the injection of any fresh water should prevent clogging due to clay dispersion. Four injection tests were conducted with a maximum of 20.1 million gallons of fresh water injected during test 4, after redevelopment and chemical treatment. This study indicated that as much as 85 percent of the injected water could be recovered. The recovered water would be within the U.S. Public Health Service drinking-water standards. 90 The Virginia Journal of Science FLUSHING CHARACTERISTICS OF A SMALL BOAT BASIN. M. J. Carron*, Bruce Neilson*, and John Zeigler. Virginia Institute of Marine Science, Gloucester Point, Va . 23062 The ability of a harbor or a marina to flush toxic materials and maintain clean water should be upmost in the designer's plan. In order to better understand the mechanisms involved in flushing, the "Flushing Constant," K, in the standard formulation of concentration of dis¬ solved material over time, C = Coe-^, was investigated. Alternate formulas were developed introducing the tidal prism of the basin as a variable. The results point to the possibility of a general formula for predicting the flushing time of any basin or harbor depending on the geometry and tidal prism of the basin. SOME PROPERTIES OF COASTAL PLAIN LAKE SEDIMENTS. Raymond S. Chapman* and Rixey L. Wilcher*. Dept, of Physics and Geo- physical Sciences, Old Dominion Univ., Norfolk, Va. 23508 A comparative study was made of bottom sediments from two freshwater lakes in Southeastern Va. The study consisted of laboratory analysis of 32 sediment cores and an attempt to relate certain properties of the sediments to the effect of urbanization. Insight was gained into the effects on the lake bottom environment due to sediment-water interaction. Standard methods were used to determine the pH, Eh, clay mineralogy, particle size distribution, and organic content. Through spectrophotometr ic , flame emission, and atomic ab- sorbtion analyses, the amounts of phosphorus, gulfur, and certain trace metals were determined. The lakes were chosen on the basis of the existing condi¬ tion of their watersheds. Where the control lake exists in essentially its natural state with only some agriculture approaching its periphery, the test lake has been modified by the recent occurence of building construction, hence the removal of the ground cover. The major trends in the data indicate that the sediments from the test lake had a higher quantity of phosphorus, a lower percentage of organic materials, and a greater varia¬ tion in particle size distribution. Minor differences in¬ clude Eh, pH, and sulfur content with no appreciable differ¬ ences in the clay mineralogy or amounts of trace metals. Thus it is shown that urbanization has a direct effect on the various properties of the lake bottom environment. IRON ORES IN PAGE AND ADJOINING COUNTIES, VIRGINIA. C. H. Cherrywell* . Dept, of Geology, Madison Col., Harrison- burg, Va. 22801 Limonite, sometimes occurring with goethite, was mined from the Devonian undivided, Martinsburg Shale, Rome, Shady, Erwin (Antietam) Formations in Page, portions of Warren, Shenandoah, and Rockingham Counties between 1760 and 1907. Nine furnaces, eight charcoal and one coke, were erected locally to smelt a quantity of the mined ore, the remainder of which was shipped out of state. Initially, the iron was produced to supply the needs of the local populous; later both the processed iron and iron ore were shipped to be fur¬ ther worked by larger manufacturers. The iron industry de¬ clined owing to: 1) the mining out of high grade easily ob¬ tainable ore; 2) competition of Great Lake Ores; and 3) in¬ creases in the shipping rates. Some of the larger abandoned pit mines could possibly be used for sanitary landfills as the pits are lined with a residual clay from which the ore was originally mined. Historically poor directions were given for the location of the studied iron mines and furnaces as well as other items of geologic interest. A numbered grid system printed on an acetate overlay could be used for easier identification of locations on topographic maps. INTERPRETATION OF AIR QUALITY DATA FOR A 30-DAY EXPERIMENT AT DEEP CREEK, VIRGINIA. G. E. Copeland, A. R. Bandy, G. Maier*, and E. C. Kindle. School of Sciences, Old Domin¬ ion University, Norfolk, Virginia 23508. An experiment that continuously monitored SO2, H2S, O3, total hydrocarbons, as well as wind speed, direction, and air temperature at four levels (15*, 25’, 50’, 75’) over the month of October 1973, has been conducted near the north¬ eastern edge of the Great Dismal Swamp. Particulate loading was obtained for 24-hour integration times by hi-vol samp¬ lers. Local meteorological data was obtained from three stations to determine mesoscale circulation patterns. Addi¬ tionally gas chromatographic analysis of hydrocarbons to less than 1 ppb were correlated with wind directions. Histograms, pollution roses, and graphical analysis of this very large data set have been completed. During this October experi¬ ment ozone averaged near 10 ppb, total sulfur concentrations showed interesting vertical and horizontal distributions (average about 15 ppb) , and total hydrocarbons values varied considerably with wind direction and altitude. SUBSURFACE INFORMATION AND ENVIRONMENTAL APPLICATIONS IN THE VIRGINIA COASTAL PLAIN. P. A. Daniels. Va. Div. Mineral Resources, Box 3667, Charlottesville, Va. 22903 The Virginia Division of Mineral Resources acquires sub¬ surface geologic information from several sources. Such information from the Coastal Plain Province is screened, analyzed, and utilized in the construction of various types of geologic maps and cross sections. These include iso¬ chore, structure contour, lithofacies, depositional systems, and many similar maps. Such products have numerous applica¬ tions, many of which are environmental in nature. Private, industrial, and governmental sectors of society can utilize these products as valuable guides to land-use and resource management . With the permission of the State Geologist. WEATHER RADAR STUDIES OF SUMMERTIME CONVECTIVE RAINFALL OVER EASTERN VIRGINIA. D.M. Decker* and E.G. Astling, Dept, of Physics and Geophysical Sciences, Old Dominion Univ., Norfolk, Va. 23508. Radar echoes over eastern Virginia and the Chesapeake Bay environs have been digitized for six hour intervals during the month of August from 1971 to 1973. The digitized data were ob¬ tained from a WSR-S7 weather radar that was located on the Chesapeake Bay and was equipped with a video- integrator-processor display instru¬ ment. Detailed analyses of precipitation echoes revealed that temporal and spatial variations of summertime convective activity were due to synoptic scale circulations and local factors related to land-sea differences. Echoes occurred less fre¬ quently over the Chesapeake Bay than the adjacent land areas. Time lapse radar photography and con¬ ventional meterological observations supplemented the investigation. Proceedings, 1973-1974 91 SOME ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY SOUNDINGS ON THE COASTAL PLAIN OP SOUTHEASTERN VIRGINIA. D. W. Duty*, J. S. Rankin, and R. E. VanNieuwenhuise, Old Dominion Univ. , Norfolk, Va. 23508. Interpretation of resistivity sounding data is based on the assumptions that the stratigraphic section is made of a finite number of layers which are horizontal, electrically homogeneous and isotropic, and of infinite lateral extent. In reality, these conditions do not exist, and the accuracy of the data usually falls in the range of ±5%. For these reasons, the interpretations are not unique. In order to establish some measure of confidence in the interpretations of resistivity soundings on the Coastal Plain of Southeast¬ ern Virginia, seven soundings were made adjacent to wells whose resistivity logs are available. The Schlumberger array was used with a maximum distance of 8000 ft. between the current electrodes (AB=8000 'max. ) . The results revealed close agreements between the logs and the resistivity inter¬ pretations. However, in the area east of the Dismal Swamp, and near the village of Atlantic on the Eastern Shore, an "electric basement" rather than the basement complex was en¬ countered. To assure that no further penetration is possible the bipole-dipole array was used in one site. This array gave results equivalent to a Schlumberger array with AB= 17,200 ft. The results indicated that the electric basement cannot be penetrated. Thus, the depth of investigation in the vicinity of the Atlantic Coast is estimated to range between 500 and 2000 ft. A few miles west of the Dismal Swamp, penetration to the basement complex is assured. A PRELIMINARY STUDY OF THE METAMORPHIC GRADES IN THE EAST-CENTRAL PIEDMONT OF VIRGINIA Russell p. Ellison in. Dept, of Geology, College of William and Mary, Williamsburg, Va. 23185 This study defines the position of the Sil- limanite isograd in a section of the eastern piedmont of Va. between the North Anna and James Rivers. Interpretation is based on the first occurrence of sillimanite in the saprolite developed on the gneisses and schists. Index minerals were separated from stream sediment samples by bromoform and by magnetic separation when necessary and verified by index of refraction oils. Sampling was restricted to streams with small drainage basins. The isograd trends NE-SW and separates the Kyanite zone to the east from the Sillimanite zone to the west. The isograd extends from Beaverdam near the North Anna River south through Oilville to the James River. Sillimanite has developed in both schists and gneisses to the west of the isograd » The isograd parallels the major axis of a domal structure. Abundant Sillimanite occurs in the rocks near the center of the structure .Due to the wide zone of Sillimanite-grade rocks, it is concluded that the dome is unrelated to this episode of metamorphism. (Aid by NSF grant# GY10607) CALCIBI0CAVIT0L0GY IN SOME PLEISTOCENE MERCENARLA. Lee D. Entsminger* Department of Physics and Geophysical Sciences, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, Virginia 23508. Calcibiocavitology is the excavation of calcium carbonate material by biological activity. This paper is an attempt to examine the results of the biological activity of various epibiont faunas on Mercenaria in four selected sample sites. A comparison is made on the population variance from site to site and it was found that changes in assemblages and their relative proportions correlate with interpreted environ¬ mental conditions based on molluscan and foraminiferal analysis. The major epibionts present are Electra mono- stackys, Spathipora longicauda, Polysora ciliata, Cliona celata, Cliona megastoma and Cliona sp. aff. Clionolithes radicans. Exterior marks of vertebrate predation are found in most samples. In addition a peculiar morphologic response described here as a ridge which is oriented sub dorsoven- trally on the interior of the valves is directed toward and parallel to the pallial sinus. Its origin apparently is related to siphonal irritation and subsequent shell response, perhaps is due to grains of sand being trapped and dragged against the mantle during siphon extension and retraction. POSSIBLE CATACLASIS IN THE PETERSBURG GRANITE NEAR GLEN AL¬ LEN. VIRGINIA. J. C. FIREBAUGK. JR.* Dept, of Geology. Col of William and Mary, Williamsburg, Va. 23185 A petrographic study was undertaken on foliated rocks exposed in the Tidewater Crushed Stone Co. quarry located near Glen Allen, Va. , in order to determine the most proba¬ ble origin for the rocks mapped within the Petersburg Gran¬ ite. Founded solely on this petrographic evidence, a vol-' canic and cataclastic origin for the rock can be postulated. Apparent flow structure in the rock resembles the volcan¬ ic flow structure associated with welded tuffs ( however, other characteristic volcanic textures such as euhedral crystals and zoned plagioclases are lacking. Inspection of the rocks reveals a gradational sequence between a mildly foliated "granite" into rocks which have progressively small¬ er porphyroclasts and increasingly larger amounts of darken¬ ed material, and finally, a fine grained, dark rock. According to the classification of K. W. Higgins in U.S. G.S. Professional Paner 687. these rocks are classified as my Ionites and blastomylonites. The criteria for this class¬ ification is based on the degree of recrystalization and the presence of fluxion structure. Recrystalization is not en¬ tirely dominant with the cataclastic texture still recogniz¬ able. Fluxion structure is apparent in most samples, with muscovite and biotite incorporated into it, winding around the larger microcline grains. Bent twin lamellae of plagio- clase are present but scarce. The presence of these rocks in the Petersburg Granite suggests an urmapped fault zone. STRATIGRAPHIC IMPLICATIONS OF QUARTZITE INCLUSIONS IN THE MOLE HILL OLIVINE BASALT, ROCKINGHAM COUNTY, VIRGINIA. William J. Frazier*. Madison College, Harrisonburg, Va. PALE0ENVIR0NMENTAL ANALYSIS OF AN ORDOVICIAN CAR¬ BONATE - CLASTIC SEQUENCE IN THE SHENANDOAH VALLEY, VIRGINIA. W. J. Frazier*, G. T. Farmer, Jr., Dept. 22801. Mole Hill, approximately four miles west of Harrison¬ burg, Virginia and standing about 500 feet above the Shenandoah Valley floor, is a volcanic plug of spinel-bearing olivine basalt intruded into the Beekmantown Formation (Lower Ordovician). The basalt is dark green to black, porphyritic, and shows imperfectly-developed columnar jointing at its mar¬ gins. The major minerals are: labradorite laths (which show a strong parallel orientation), augite, olivine, magnetite, and spinel. Phenocrysts of olivine and augite increase in size and abundance toward the center of the intrusion. In¬ clusions of quartzite (from 1/2 to 2 inches in diameter), present in many samples, consist of fine to medium sand sized moderately sorted, subrounded quartz grains with sutured boundaries. Comparison with arenaceous units below the Beekmantown indicates that the source of the inclusion may be the Erwin Quartzite or the Weaverton Formation, both mem¬ bers of the Lower Cambrian Chilhowee Group, which lies at least 5000-6000 feet beneath the surface. The continental presence of quartz and the lack of a well-developed contact aureole indicate that the basalt magma was relatively cool during emplacement. of Geology, Madison College, Harrisonburg, Va. 22801, and D. R. Suter*, Dept, of Geology, Georgia State University, Atlanta, Ga. 30303 Middle Ordovician strata in the Shenandoah Valley of Va. are divided into the New Market Lime¬ stone, a light gray birdseye dismicrite, the Lincolnshire Limestone, a medium dark gray, cherty bioclastic calcarenite and the Edinburg Formation, a dark gray to black micritic limestone interbeddad with dark gray, graptolitic shale. The sequence is underlain by the Beekmantown Formation and overlain by the Martinsburg Shale. Biostratigraphic and petrologic study of the Middle Ordovician sequence indicates that it formed during a transgressive phase represented regionally by the submergence of the Appalachian geosyncline following subaerial erosion which resulted in the post-Knox unconformity. The New Market formed in the intertidal zone and the Lincolnshire represents marine deposition in protected lagoons (the Rock¬ bridge Facies) and wave-agitated barrier bars (the Murat Facies). The Edinburg was deposited in deeper waters farther off shore. 92 The Virginia Journal of Science GEOCHEMICAL EXPLORATION FOR GOLD IN THE COLUMBIA SYNCLINE, CENTRAL PIEDMONT, VIRGINIA. R. S. Good, 0. M. Fordham, Jr.* and C. R. Halladay, Virginia Division of Mineral Resources, Charlottesville, Va. 22903 An area of no known gold deposits in the Pendleton Quad., Louisa Co., was investigated by A. A. analysis of panned con¬ centrates of stream sediments and compared with streams draining 20 inactive gold mines in the Caledonia Quad, to the SW in Goochland and Fluvanna counties. Panned sieved sand samples proved more useful than unpanned sediment, soil, mull, or plant ash in outlining mineralized areas. In the known mineralized area 233 samples, taken every 500 ft., showed values of >100 ppm Au in the immediate vicinity of a mine, 10-100 ppm up to 1 mile downstream, 1-10 ppm from 1-2 miles, and <1 ppm or not detectable (<0.02) more than 2 miles down¬ stream. Soil traverses across the Tellurium Mine showed only one anomalous value (0.4-1 ppm) at the mine site, no apparent enrichment in Hg, and one As high. Of 128 panned samples taken at 1000 ft. intervals in the "blank" area, only 10 show¬ ed values above 1 ppm. The highest (7 ppm) near Yanceyville was further investigated by soil sampling. Known gold depos¬ its and geochemical anomalies all occur in areas of quartz veins in thin quartzites, in quartz garnet-staurolite schists and phyllites, or in the stratigraphically underlying mafic and felsic interbanded metavolcanics, volcaniclastic , and metasedimentary rocks which have been metamorphosed to am¬ phibolite grade. A volcanigenic source, possibly related to an ancient plate boundary, is considered for the gold. POSSIBLE GLACIAL ERRATICS IN THE PLEISTOCENE NORFOLK FORMAT¬ ION, VIRGINIA BEACH, VIRGINIA. John J. Hanretty, Jr.* Dept, of Physics & Geophysical Sciences, Old Dominion Univ. , Norfolk, Virginia 23508. Sand removal at a depth of 43 feet in fine grain, shallow brackish water, gray clayey-sand of the Pleistocene Norfolk Formation revealed orthigenic quartzite boulders ranging in size from 20 to 200 pounds. This occurrence was laterally confined to 50 square meters on the pit floor and represents the only such find encountered in this area. The smaller boulders, characterized by smooth flat sur¬ faces joined by brief, smooth, well-rounded edges forming irregular blocks were most prevalent. Larger boulders were predominantly tabular though rough spherical forms were found. These large tabular forms exhibit three distinct character¬ istics: (1) The larger (in excess of 100 lbs) are a cream colored quartzite as opposed to the gray and almost black quartzites of the smaller boulders. (2) Large tabular forms exhibit the fingerprint of scholithes tubes absent in all smaller block forms. (3) The majority of larger tabular forms bear what appear to be scour striations on one or both tab¬ ular facies. Absence of evidence to suggest fluvial processes, tree root systems, or any other transporting mechanism; in con¬ junction with further evidence accumulated, suggests that these boulders are the result of the accumulation, transport¬ ation and subsequent deposition by ice rafting associated with the early Sangamonian interglacial stage which preceeded the last, the Wisconsin, glacial advance. APPLIED GEOLOGY AS USED IN FOREST SERVICE , UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, LAND MANAGEMENT PLANNING * S.P. Hughes Forest Service, USDA, The Forest Service, USDA, is a federal agency responsible for the management of approximately 187 million acres of public land. The objectives of the geological services pro¬ gram of the Forest Service is to provide adequate and timely geologic information needed by land managers. The data is for, (1) soil inventories and surveys, (2) explanation of geologic features for public education and enjoyment, (3) water management and development, (4) engineering geo¬ logy, (5) inventories of known mineral commodities and (6) land management planning. The Forest Service uses geologic information at three general levels of planning. Level I in¬ volves intense investigation and greatest accuracy in data gathering of the three levels, The infor¬ mation supplied is used for engineering design specifications, water well development for immed¬ iate application. Level II is designed to provide geologic data, conclusions, interpretations and recommendations for the 5-10 year period immediat¬ ely ahead. Level III is an inventory of geologic materials and processes for long range planning purposes. SOME CHARACTERISTICS OF A PLEISTOCENE CHANNEL. Paul Gruber*. S. Albertson, L.Ambs, C. Dunn, J. Gilchrist, C. Hadley, D. Hadley, J. Johnson, M. Lyle, R. Lutton, D. Steward. Dept, of Geophysical Sci., Old Dominion Univ., Norfolk, Va. 23508 Some questions have been raised about the age of the sediments in the outer coastal plain in South¬ eastern Va. The area in question is characterized by a transgression of the beachface eastward during the Pleistocene. During this time a channel was cut into the beach which was later filled with sed- ments . The area of the channel consists of four distinct formations, the Norfolk, Kempsville, Lon- donbridge, and Sandbridge (Sandbridge being the youngest) . A faunal analysis was made within the channel. In addition, an analysis of the stratigraphic re¬ lationships at the center of the channel was made to enable us to better understand the depositional history of the area. The faunal analysis confirmed our belief that the the paleoenvironment was a lagoonal or paludal en¬ vironment. Analysis of the stratigraphic relation¬ ships confirms this. It was also evident that add¬ itional investigations in this area need to be made. THE ROLE OF GEOLOGY IN VIRGINIA'S RECLAMATION LAWS AND IN PROPOSED FEDERAL STATUTES. A. U. Honkala. Consulting Geologist, 3819 Arklow Road, Richmond, Virginia, 23235 The profession of geology and geologists are uniquely trained to serve reclamation needs in coal and other than coal surface mining. Geologic for¬ mations and their engineering geology characteris¬ tics determine, in most instances, how reclamation procedures can best be applied. Subsurface drain¬ age, soil and rock stability, and mineral content are among the many factors that go into a success¬ ful reclamation project. Geologists are urged to become qualified to serve both the State and Feder¬ al governments in reclamation work. The problem of recognition of geologists as professionals in reclamation and associated geological work requires geologists to become more aware of the geopolitical side of the profession. EVALUATION OF REMOTE SENSOR IMAGES FOR ROCK DISCRIMINATION AND MAPPING. L. H, Jefferls*. Old Dominion University, Norf oik ,~VA 23508 " A study of rock discrimination with remote sensor images from the Buena Vista quadrangle of central Colorado demonstrates the potential of these data as a geologic research tool. The study involved the interpretation of precambrian Igneous and metamorphic, Tertiary volcanic and Quaternary alluvial units on color, color Infrared, panchro¬ matic black and white and multiband photography. The study area has a semi-arid climate with a moderate to sparse vegetation cover. Results of the study indicate that the color and color infrared photography at a scale of 1:20,000 provided the best results, especially in the region underlain by Precambrian units. This was due to the presence of subdued topographic and vegetation contrasts between the rock types, as well as complex contact relations. The only practical method for differentiating and mapping the rocks was on the basis of color differences, which were apparent on the color and color infrared photos while obscure on the panchromatic and multiband photos. The combination of remote sensor inter¬ pretation and field work provided a better final geologic map than either method used by Itself. Research supported by NASA Grant NGL-06-001 -01 5. t Watershed Management, Arlington, Va. 22209 Proceedings, 1973-1974 93 STRUCTURAL INTERPRETATION OF THE MIDDLE ORDOVICIAN MOCCASIN FORMATION, GILES COUNTY, VIRGINIA. J. B. Karpa III? Dept, of Geological Sciences, Va. Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061. Structurally on the normal northwest limb of the overturn¬ ed Greendale Syncline and stratigraphically between the competent Ordovician Knox carbonates and Silurian sandstones, the incompetent Moccasin Formation displays well developed fracture cleavage, parasitic drag folds, and faulting with wedging and overlapping of beds. The cleavage resulted from simple shear associated with bedding plane slippage early in the def ormational cycle. Continued folding in the Moccasin siltstones and claystones caused the cleavage to fan radially around the axial plane. Faulting and overlapping of beds represent the end phases of deformation. During cleavage formation, thin competent micritic beds were fractured, rotated, and displaced, up to a foot, common¬ ly obliterating bedding. Where micritic interbeds are present, cleavage surfaces are widely spaced and refracted nearly perpendicular to bedding. Where cleavage is well de¬ veloped, both sets of shear planes were formed, the neutral shear plane being dominant . Internally, the mudstones locally show mudstone dikes in¬ truding the overlying bed along cleavage planes. The cleavage of the Moccasin is seen microscopically to be the result of shear folding accompanied by partial rotation of the clays. THE ROLE OF THE MINING COMPANY AND THE ENVIRONMENT. D. S. Kirstein*. Senior Geologist, Solite Corporation. Richmond. Virginia 23261 When we speak of "The Environment" in relationship to mining, there are two types which must be considered. The> are: human and natural. In order for humans to live on this planet within the population levels of the past 100 decades, a habitable en¬ vironment must be created apart from the natural. This can only be done through mining. Therefore, it must be recognized that a primary role of the mining company is to produce a useful quality product at the lowest possible cost. However, the company, in its haste of performance, cannot overlook the role of preserving and protecting the natural environment from excessive disturbances and pol¬ lutants. For many years responsible companies have been volun¬ tarily doing just that long before local, state and fed¬ eral regulations were enacted. OPTICAL AND STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF HEAVY KINSRAIS FROM THE Y0RKT0WN FORMATION, Conrad Ten Eyck Lawrence. Jr.* A heavy mineral analysis of the Pliocene Yorktown Forma¬ tion at Kingsmill Neck was studied for its vertical and la¬ teral variation. 52 samples were collected from the sectio! which was 26 ft. high and 35 ft. wide and sampled at 2 ft. intervals in 4 random columns. The heavy mineral fractions were separated by Bromoform floatation. Optical identification based on 200 point counts of each aliquat showed the following minerals in order of decreasing abundance: opaque minerals (ilmenite and magnetite), horn¬ blende, shell fragments, garnet, zircon, tourmaline, silli- manite, apatite, rutile, staurolite, andalusite, iron- stained quartz, epidote, and kyanite. Total weight percentages range between 0.265 and 2.521. Vertical distribution shows 2 trends. In the lower portion of the exposure (levels #1-7), the weight percentages show a positive relationship with average increases of 0,347$ per level. Level #7 contains the maximum weight percentage of 2.521. At level #8 the weight percentage drops to 0.924 and shows a decreasing trend through level #13. The presence of the two trends is also strengthened by analysis of the individual mineral means and variances. All uiinerals in the fraction except rutile, zircon, and garnet show statistically different populations in the upper and lower sections. Analysis of the regression lines of the in¬ dividual minerals through testing of their slope and Y-in- tercept also shows the same rexationship. (aid by NSF GY10607) A PETROFABRIC ANALYSIS OF SOME PLEISTOCENE GRAVEL BEDS IN CHESAPEAKE, VIRGINIA. P. A. Macfarlane* and G. L. Shideler. Inst, of Oceanography and Dept, of Physics and Geophysical Sciences, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, Virginia 23508. A petrofabric analysis was performed on two Pleistocene gravel beds exposed near the town of Deep Creek in Chesa¬ peake, Virginia. The gravels are composed of igneous and metamorphic clasts characteristic of the Piedmont and Blue Ridge provinces, and appear to have been originally trans¬ ported to their present site by the ancestral James River. Approximately 500 clast orientation measurements were made at five exposure sites. The measurements illustrate a variable mean azimuth vector among the five sites, and a statistically significant preferred orientation at only two sites. The data suggest that the gravels do not exhibit un¬ modified fluvial apposition fabrics produced by the ances¬ tral James River, but rather palimpset fabrics reflecting various degrees of subsequent reworking within transgressive paralic environments. The oriented gravels may reflect nearly complete reworking under relatively high energy hy¬ draulic conditions, whereas the non-oriented gravels may reflect only partial reworking under a lower energy hydraulic regime. This interpretation is consistent with available stratigraphic evidence. PLEISTOCENE-HOLOCENE DEPOSITIONAL SYSTEMS OF THE VIRGINIA COASTAL PLAIN AND THEIR ENVIRONMENTAL GEOLOGIC IMPLICATIONS. Emil Onuschak, Jr., Virqinia Division of Mineral Resources, Charlottesville, Virginia 22903 Detailed geologic mapping completed to date on the Virginia Coastal Plain shows it is possible to subdivide and map the Pleistocene-Holocene sediments on the basis of sedimentologic parameters. These parameters reflect the processes that were active during deposition of the sediments. Sedimentary units defined in this way can be grouped into depositional systems that consist of large- scale, naturally-occurring assemblages of genetically related facies. Each depositional system has a number of characteristic geomorphic criteria by which it can be recognized on modem topographic maps and aerial photographs. Maps of depositional systems are an effective way to portray the physical geology of an area, to selectively identify additional areas requiring detailed mapping, and to derive a wide variety of special -use environmental geologic maps that show practical applications of geologic information that can be made by persons who are not geologists. (Presented with permission of Virginia Division of Mineral Resources, James L. Calver, State Geologist) A SURVEY OF EROSION AND SILTATI0N CONTROL METHODS IN USE ON VIRGINIA'S HIGHWAYS. David Poche* and W. Cullen Sherwood, Va. Highway Res. Council, Charlottesville, Va. 22901 and Mad¬ ison Col., Harrisonburg, Va. 22801 Since 1969 The Virginia Department of Highways has devel¬ oped a statewide program aimed at controlling erosion and siltation. The ultimate objective of this program is the protection of downstream ecology and water quality. Sediment control can be viewed as two related but separate problems. First is the control of erosion, second is the control of silt laden waters once erosion has occurred. Erosion control is viewed as the ultimate answer to the problem. Vegetation is the most efficient erosion control measure so early seeding, temporary seeding and off-season seeding are being developed and used. A variety of mulches and other surface cover usually accompany seeding, and paved ditches and rip-rap are used for high energy flow situations. Control of silt, once waterborne has no simple solution. Some of the most common control measures now in use include, straw and hay filter barriers, earth berms, sediment traps, siltation ponds, benching and furrowing of slopes, brush dams, energy dissipators and green (vegetation) belts. Due to the complexities of soil erodability, slope condi¬ tions, weather, amount of denuded area, natural vegetation, proximity of streams and construction practices and schedules a great deal remains to be learned about sediment control. However numerous successes have been accomplished and signif¬ icant improvements statewide appear to be in progress. 94 The Virginia Journal of Science BEACH RIDGES ON A LOW ENERGY BEACH: VIMS BEACH, GLOUCESTER PT., VA . A-H- Sallenger, Jr.*, and P.S. Rosen, Va. Inst, of Marine Science, Gloucester Point, Virginia 23062 Beach ridges are linear accumulations of unconsoli¬ dated sediment oriented parallel to the shoreline that migrate shoreward in the surf zone. The accretional period of VIMS Beach is characterized by the post-storm replenishment of sediment to the foreshore by beach ridges. The ridges in this low energy environment are distinct from those commonly observed on ocean beaches by the lack of a well defined runnel, lesser magnitude, greater migration rate and lack of slipface internal structure. The genesis of these ridges appears to be related to an increase in incident wave height which widens the surf zone, allowing the swash to flow onto relatively unsaturated sediment. The upwash infiltrates rapidly into the unsaturated sediment, thus decreasing the erosive capacity of the backwash. Deposition occurs since the diminished backwash is unable to remove a portion of the sediment transported landward by the up¬ wash. The high pore space of this incipient deposition enhances infiltration, inducing additional accretion. The swash shapes the depositional body into a beach ridge. A well defined ridge on the order of 10cm in height can develop in a few minutes after a relatively rapid increase in incident wave height. UTILITY OF TEXTURAL PARAMETERS IN DIFFERENTIATING GENETIC SEDIMENT POPULATIONS ALONG A VIRGINIA-NORTH CAROLINA BARRIER ISLAND CHAIN. Gerald L. Shideler. Dept, of Physics and Geophysical Sciences and Inst, of Oceanography, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, Va. , 23508. The relative effectiveness of several textural parameter combinations as environmental discriminators was evaluated for sediments of the Outer Banks barrier chain along the Middle Atlantic coast. Combinations of moment measures, maximum particle size, and total heavy mineral contents were evaluated in differentiating foreshore, berm, and dune popu¬ lations . The more effective parameters in distinguishing beach and dune sands along the barrier are the less sensitive measures that reflect basic competence differentials between the aeolian and hydraulic regimes. The more sensitive parameters that reflect differences in component sub-populations are of more limited utility because of their greater susceptibility to bias induced by local physiography and source materials , sampling techniques, and analytical procedures. Comparisons of total heavy mineral contents are effective in different¬ iating adjacent foreshore-berm couplets and foreshore-dune couplets, but ineffective in distinguishing berm-dune coup¬ lets. Relative differences in heavy mineral concentrations among the three populations reflect both the varying degrees of aeolian influence, and the relative amounts of sediment interchange between populations. ZONAL INFLUENCE OF WACHAPREAGUE INLET. Jerome Sovich*, and Robert J. Byrne, Va. Inst, of Marine Science, Gloucester Point, Va- 23062 Tidal inlets during flood tide conditions act as a sink into which currents flow carrying sediment sup¬ plied by longshore drift. The ebb currents issue as a confined jet scouring the channel and maintaining it against the choking forces of littoral drift. The coastal current zone adjacent to tidal inlets are di¬ rectly affected by the currents issuing from and con¬ verging to the inlet. Wachapreague Inlet, a stable natural offset inlet located on the lower Delmarva Peninsula of Virginia’s Eastern Shore was studied to determine the zone of in¬ fluence of the inlet's hydraulic currents and their role in sediment transport. The offset character of the inlet with ephemeral shoals on the north flank of the channel results in variable lateral inflow. Observations indicate a strong flood convergence on the north side controlled by the configuration of the ebb delta bar. The ebb currents are weak in this zone, thus the zonal influence of the flood currents enhance the tendency for net sediment advection into the inlet. This studv was supported by ONR Geography Programs. AN OPTICAL EXAMINATION AND IDENTIFICATION OF THE HEAVY MINERAL SUITE ON THE CONTINENTAL SHELF OF THE VIRGINIA SEA. W. Scott Sheelyfr Dept, of Geology, College of William and Mary, Williamsburg, Va. 23185 The heavy minerals in 37 grab samples collected off the Eastern shore of Virginia were optically examined for their grain size and mineralogy. The purpose of this work was to determine the heavy mineral suite and show its distribution on the shelf floor. The heavy minerals in this 380 square mile area were optically identified and plotted by total weight percent and grain percent to delineate concentrations and distribution. The dominant members (arbitrarily greater than 12%), were hornblende, garnet, epidote, and the opaques (ilmenite and magnetite). Lesser concentrations of the following minerals were noted: kyanite, tourmaline, rutile, sillimanite, andalusite, and pyroxene. Examination with cathodolumines- cence also showed the presence of some phosphatlzed shell fragments . The study shows that tke heavy minerals are concentrated between the 60 and 90 foot depth intervals in a distribution parallel to the coastline. Trends in the mean grain size also tend to parallel the coastline with maximum grain size occurring most frequently near the 90 foot isobath. PAI£GKNvTR0NMEOT AND MORPHOMETRIC S OF SELECTED BIVALVES (GIYCTMERIS . AST ARTE) OF THE UPPER Y0RET0WN FORMATION NEAR YADKIN, VIRGINIA. David L. Smith. Dept, of Physics and Geo¬ physical Sciences, Old Dondnicn Urdv., Norfolk, Va. 23508 and Neil T. Bockoven, Dept, of Geology, Col. of WiUiani and Mary, Williamsburg, Va. 23185 A sample from the upper lor kt own Formation was studied to determine the environment of deposition and morphometric variations of Glycyneris and Astarte. Ostracode identificat¬ ions place the simple in the Purl ana mesacostalia Zone (lower Pliocene), indicative of warm-temperate or subtropical temp¬ eratures. Size-frequency histograms, shell orientation, and faunal ecology suggest that a local Pliocene transgression deposited the transported assemblage in shallow aubtldal water within proximity of a brackish water environment. Bivariate analysis of measurements of height, convexity, and Hgamental width on the shells of Glycymerla subovata show linear and aUometrlc growth. The height and conveodty grow at a constant rate throughout life, while the ligamental width growth increases with age in order to maintain the Ug- amental strength in relation to the weight of the animal. Statistical tests and graphs of measurements of shell size inflation, roundness, coarseness of rugae and presence or ab¬ sence of marginal crenulations on the shells of Astarte. A, coneentrica and A. undulata. show strong evidence of sexual dimorpbfrau Marginal crenulations develop at the same rate as the rate of seat change from male to female. Crenulations, overall size, and roundness were found to be the best features to determine sex.. (Aided by NSF grant GT-I0Q15) APPLICATIONS OF REMOTE SENSING AT WACHAPREAGUE INLET, VIRGINIA. D.K. Stauble* and C.S. Welch*, Virginia Institute of Marine Science, Gloucester Point, Va . 23062 Nearshore circulation in the vicinity of a natural tidal inlet has been studied by remote sensing. From three separate series of sequential aerial photographs flown on three separate days by NASA- Johnson Spacecraft Center aircraft it was possible to document a complete, if not single tidal cycle and evaluate the nearshore influences of such circulation. Using this set of aerial photographs it was also possible to compute the approximate depth of the turbidity plume for each hour of the tidal cycle sequence knowing the area of the plume and an approximate storage function of the complex inlet-marsh storage system. The study area was located at Wachapreague Inlet in the barrier island chain on the Eastern Shore of Virginia. (Study supported by NASA grant NASA-NGL-47-022-005) . Proceedings, 1973-1974 95 THE PALEOECCLOGY OF THE EARLY PLIOCENE CHAMA COMMUNITY FROM THE YOHKTOWN FORMATION ALONG THE JAMES RIVER, VIR¬ GINIA. J.R. Swanson*. Dept, of Geology, Col. of Wil¬ liam and Mary, Williamsburg, Va . 23185. A paleoecologic study of the Chama-bearing bio- strome of the Yorktovm Formation (Mansfield's Zone 2 and Hazel's Orionina vaughani Zone) was conducted on outcrops along the northbank of the James River be¬ tween Carter's Grove and Kingsmill . The sediments of the biostrome are divisable into an upper and lower glauconitic sand and a middle clayey silt. More than 100 species of mollusks, bryozoans, an¬ nelids, decopods, ostracodes, porifera, echinoids, for- ams, brachiopods, coelenterates , and fish remains have been identified from the biostrome. The bivalve, Chama congregata Conrad dominates the fauna, but the burrow¬ ing bivalves such as A starts and Venercardia and the nestling bivalve, Barba tia . comprise a large part of the community. The articulated bivalves, Chama in life position and the preservation of delicate anatomical structures indicate that the dominant elements of the community are in situ. The Ghana community was structurally analogous to a modern oyster bank in its method of establishment and pattern of development. The network of Chama shells provided niches in which other bivalves lived and also acted as a sediment trap. (Aided by NSF Grant GY-10015) TOPOGRAPHIC MAPS: AIDS IN ENVIRONMENTAL MAPPING. H. W.Webb, Jr. , Virginia Division of Mineral Resources, Charlottesville, VA 22903 Topographic maps present an inventory of the physical and cultural features of the Commonwealth; 805 separate 1:24,000 scale maps depict the State. Photorevised editions uniquely depict growth features in a separate color. From the aerial photography from which the maps are made, vegeta¬ tion type, land -use, field-lines, water-current direction, and fracture-lineations can be interpreted. New mapping products will be orthophotoquads, orthophotomaps, slope maps, and county maps. Important types of environmental data derivable from inspection of photos and/or maps include areas susceptible to landslides, rock falls, karst collapse, flooding and erosion; positions of springs, caves, reservoirs; location of potential disruptments of natural processes as embankments, paved lots, quarries; and classification of restricted-use areas such as schools, hospitals, cemetaries, transmission facilities, and military bases. The following derivative environmental maps can be pro¬ duced from topographic maps or their related photos: relief, drainage basins, karst, landforms, hypsography, slope orientation, drainage density, land-use, slope, and lineation. By a combination of these with bedrock data the following second-order maps can be derived: landslide susceptibility, resource availability, flooding hazard, and UNDERGROUND WASTE DISPOSAL. H. M, Townsend, Dept, of Water Well Drilling Techology, J. Sargeant Reynolds Cmnty. Col. , Richmond, Va. 23230 The injection of wastewater into the subsurface environment thru wells is not a new concept. During the 1920 's oil producers were encouraged or required to dispose of oil field brines to the subsurface instead of disposing of it in surface waters. It is estimated now that there are 40,000 oil field brine injection wells and 278 wastewater injection wells in use. The above mentioned wells are in controlled disposal systems, injecting into saline-water aquifers and therefore are subject to some form of regulation. A great deal of interest and concern has been focused on this type of waste disposal. Most of the concern is about the impact of the industrial waste fluid to the subsurface environment. NEW OCCURRENCES OF SOME FOSSIL FISHES DESCRIBED BY COPS AND LEIDY FROM THE MIOCENE OF VIRGINIA AND MARYLAND. Robert E, Weems---. Dept, of Geology, Va. Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Va. 2I4.O6I Few species of Miocene actinopterygian fishes have been reported from Virginia and Maryland. The exact age and origin of most of the fragmenta¬ ry types still are unclear. New and more exact occurrences are noted as follows: Acipenser ornatus Leidy ( 1673 ) ---Calvert Formation: Fair- haven member, Popes Creek, Maryland, and Plum Point Member, Nomini Cliffs, Virginia; Spnyraenodu3 (Sphyraena ) speciosus (Leidy) (1056) - Cai.ert Formation: basal Fairliaven Member, King William County, Virginia; Protautoga conidens Leidy (1673) - Calvert Formation: Plum Point Member, Nomini Cliffs, Virginia; and Pogonias multi dent at us Cope (1869 )---basal St. Tlarys Formation, Nomini Cliffs. The indicated ranges may not be inclusive since reported specimens are rare. carbonate subsidence. A RETURN TO REASON — — THE APPLICATION OF SIMPLE GEOLOGY TO COMPLEX URBAN PROBLEMS. Burrell S. Whitlow*. Geotechnics, Inc. Vinton, Va. 24179 The present acceptance of the role of geology and soils in urban environments is somewhat limited due to a lack of appreciation of its potential benefits to large elements of the population. Professionals, outside the field of geology and foundation engineering, are some of the worst offenders. The meteoric increase in firms specializing in soils and geological work since World War II is to a large extent offset by older praetloners who regard it with scepticism and recall the "old days" when any respectable architect, engineer or contractor knew all there was to know about soil and rock. SOLUBILITY OF SELECTED SILICATE MINERALS IN RAIN AND DIS¬ TILLED WATER. John C. Wright, Jr.,* and W. Cullen Sherwood, Madison College, Harrisonburg, Va. 22801 The silicate minerals olivine, hornblende, albite and lab- radorite were pulverized and mixed with rain and distilled water for a period of four years. At the end of that time, the solutions were analyzed for Ca, Fe, Mg, Na, and K ions, silica and pH. These data were used to construct a series of concentration graphs and to locate points on silicate-water stability diagrams. Important findings from the study in¬ clude; 1) ion concentrations in solution generally reflect the major elements making up the mineral in contact; 2) a- nomalously high concentrations of other elements may be due to a combination of atmospheric contamination and the high solubility of trace elements included in the mineral; 3) the amount of silica in solution generally reflects the amount of mineral dissolved; 4) in accordance with the findings of Keller et al. (1963) the presence of Mg and Ca ions seemingly tends to suppress silica solubility while Na and K ions do not; 5) pH levels increased with time in accordance with classical hydrolysis type reactions; 6) an unexplained anom¬ aly developed when it was found that the original distilled water mixtures contained higher ion concentrations but lower pH values than the rainwater samples; and 7) microscopic ex¬ amination showed slight coatings resembling Fe oxide on the labradorite grains while X-ray diffraction yielded no evi¬ dence of weathering products. All points plotted on sili¬ cate-water stability diagrams fell in the kaolinite field. 96 The Virginia Journal of Science DESIGN CRITERIA FOR AN OPEN COAST MARINA. John Zeigler and M • J • Carron * ■ Virginia Institute of Marine Science, Gloucester Point, Va . 23062 Marinas on high energy, open coasts must be designed to reject the energy or spread in such a way that the marina is usable . A key aid for understanding appro¬ priate design is wave refraction and diffraction. An example how these applications determine design is pre¬ sented for a marina on the Pacific Coast of Mexico. Section of Materials Science Fifty-second Annual Meeting of the Virginia Academy of Science May 7-10, 1974, Norfolk, Virginia MAGNIFICATION CALIBRATION OF THE SIEMENS 1A ELECTRON MICRO- SCOPE. R. A. Bayles, W. A. Jesser. Dept, of Materials Science, School of Engineering and Applied Science, Univ. of Va., Charlottesville, VA 22901 A convenient and reliable magnification calibration of a Siemens Elmiskop 1A transmission electron microscope may be made by monitoring lens currents and the accelerating volt¬ age. The precision and accuracy of the calibration are both less than 5 percent and depend upon the quality of the standard and measuring techniques. Commercially available latex spheres of several sizes were used as standards. Pin cushion distortion, change in magnification with specimen height, accelerating voltage and lens current stability, and hysteresis effects, as well as methods for accurately measuring the above parameters are discussed. The useful¬ ness of such a calibration is illustrated by jLn situ heating experiments in which thermal expansion changes the specimen height and, thereby, the magnification. A statis¬ tical analysis of the calibration data is presented with a computer program. THE EFFECT OF LATTICE HYDROGEN ON THE PRODUCTION OF ELECTRON IRRADIATION DAMAGE IN ALUMINUM. S. K. Bhatnagar* and W. A. Jesser. Dept, of Materials Science, School of Engineering and Applied Science, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22901 Typically during anodic electrothinning in acid electrol¬ ytes, hydrogen is introduced into the metal lattice. The present study of aluminum shows that the lattice hydrogen may be removed from its trapping sites by a vacuum anneal at 400°C for several hours. A comparison of as thinned aluminum with aluminum specimens which were vacuum annealed after thinning showed that the specimens containing hydrogen exhibited enhanced rates of formation of dislocation loops during ambient temperature electron irradiation in a high voltage electron microscope operating at 400kV. As a further demonstration that the effect was the result of lattice hydrogen, specimens which were thinned and annealed were reintroduced into the thinning solution at the cathode and cathodically charged with hydrogen before electron irradiation at 400kV. These charged specimens also exhibited enhanced damage rates over the uncharged annealed specimens. These results show that electron irradiation simulations performed in electron microscopes on thinned specimens which have not been annealed after thinning are subject to an overestimation of the damage rates. Proceedings, 1973-1974 97 LONGITUDINAL RESIDUAL STRESSES IN BORON FILAMENTS. K. A. Faughnan , Naval Weapons Lab., Dahlgren, Va. 22448 and F. E. Wawner, Materials Science Dept. , Univ. of Va. , Charlottes¬ ville, Va. 22901 Longitudinal residual stresses in Boron/Carbon (B/C) and Boron/Tungsten (B/W) filaments were measured. A stress model is proposed and discussed based upon effects of phase changes, thermal expansion coefficient, and vapor deposition process. Stress directions determined from model are com¬ pared with experimental results. Longitudinal stress dis¬ tributions for both filaments are given. Experimental techniques used during this work included X-ray analysis, length change measurements, curvature change measurements, and tensile tests. Results of this work indicate that proposed stress model is accurate. Length and curvature change measurements both indicate large surface compressive stresses. Stress magni¬ tudes on order of 250,000 psi are shown by both filaments. Inner layers of B/W filaments exhibit tensile stresses near 60,000 psi. Larger tensile values of 250,000 psi were found in B/C filaments. Estimations of magnitude of compressive stress in tungsten core are about 300,000 psi, and are based upon graphical techniques. Changes in production speeds for boron filaments appear to have little influence upon stress directions or magnitudes. Tensile test comparisons confirm this belief. Length change measurements, X-ray analysis, and core-sheath separation show no structural bonding between boron sheath and carbon core. ASSYMMETRIC DOMAIN WALLS IN SINGLE CRYSTAL IRON FILMS VIEWED BY L0RENTZ ELECTRON MICROSCOPY. K. R. Lawless and G. R. Proto*. Dept, of Materials Science, School of Engineering and Applied Science, Univ. of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22901 The results of a study of domain walls in single crystal iron films by Lorentz electron microscopy are presented. The films were prepared by evaporating 99.99% pure iron wire onto air-cleaved, (100), rock salt heated to 400°C. The films were stripped from the rock salt mounted on Cu folding grids and annealed at a temperature between 700°C and 900 C. The study was performed in a Siemens Elmiskop 1A operated in the weak field objective mode with the specimen raised 5.4 mm above its normal operating position. Converging wall images observed in this way showed peaks near each edge which can be predicted on the basis of geometrical optical inten¬ sity calculations and this peak distance in the image was used to measure the wall width by a method not previously proposed. It was also observed that 180° converging and diverging walls gave assymmetric images of the type predicted by the vortex models of Hubert and Labonte while the 90° walls were symmetric. THE ELECTROCHEMICAL DISINFECTION OF AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS. J. W. Parcells*, and G. L. Cahen, Jr.* Dept, of Materials Science, Univ. of Va., Charlottesville, Va. 22901 Organisms existing in an aqueous medium and ranging in size from viruses to rotifers can be effectively inactivated by an electrochemical treatment of the medium. This is ac¬ complished by applying a cycling potential across a pair of electrodes which are in contact with the contaminated solu¬ tion. The effects caused by varying voltage, current, and frequency of voltage alternation for two waveforms have been studied using various bacteria, viruses, and larger micro¬ organisms such as protozoans. It is the purpose of this work to discover what the mechanisms of disinfection are and how equipment can be constructed to optimize this effect. The results indicate that there are several mechanisms in¬ volved in the destruction of the microorganisms; the most likely being an oxidation reduction reaction involving membrane proteins. RESISTANCE ANOMALY IN POLYCRYSTALLINE SILICON. A. L. Fripp*, NASA Langley Research Center, Hampton, VA 23365 and W. A. Jesser, Dept. Materials Science, School of Engineering and Applied Science, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22901 The electrical resistivity of polycrystalline silicon films has been investigated. The films were grown by the chemical vapor decomposition of silane on oxidized silicon wafers. The resistivity was found to be independent of dopant atom concentration in the lightly doped regions but was a strong function of dopant levels in the more heavily doped regions. A model, based on high dopant atom segreg¬ ation in the grain boundaries, is proposed to explain the results . OBSERVATIONS OF OXIDATION OF T-lll ALLOY AT LICIT TEMPERATURES AND LOW PRESSURES. Richard Mitchell, and K. R. Lawless* Dept, of Materials Science, Univ. of Va., Charlottesville, VA 22901 T-lll alloy (Ta - 8%W - 2%Hf) is a refractory alloy being considered for use in power systems for long duration space flights. In these applications, it must maintain its strength and ductility at high temperatures (1200°C). Inter¬ stitial alloying elements, and in particular oxygen, have an embrittling effect on Ta and Ta alloys. The hafnium in T-lll getters oxygen allowing T-lll to be used for long periods of time at high temperatures and, in audition, prevents oxide formation when the alloy is used in liquid metal environments. T-lll has been oxidized at 4 x 10 ^ Torr at temperatures from 850°C to 1000°C. Oxidations at 900°C are marked by interference colors due to thin film formation and, subseq¬ uently, by platelet formation which initiates at grain boundaries. These features are accompanied by severe em¬ brittling. Mishandling results in brittle fracture in both intergranular and transgranular modes. Weight gains observed are dramatically larger and occur faster than those reported by other workers for oxidations performed at 10 ** Torr. CERAMIC FILM OXYGEN SENSORS. E. W. Rilee* and L. H. Slack. Division of Minerals Engineering, Va. Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ., Blacksburg, Va. 24061 Heated oxides are being studied as sensors of the combustion process in internal combustion engines because their resistivities change when exposed to the exhaust gases by several orders of magnitude when the fuel-air mixture deviates from stoichiometry. Thin film oxides are being studied as combustion sensors because their response times should be considerably shorter than for bulk oxides. A theoretical discussion of the physical mechanisms responsible for the observed phenomena is presented along with the criteria for an acceptable automotive sensor, and some likely candidates. 98 The Virginia Journal of Science ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS ON HIGH STRENGTH COMPOSITE MATERIALS. A. B. Thakker*, C. A. Arthur*, and R. A. Heller*. Dept, of Engineering Science 6 Mechanics, Va. Polytechnic Inst. 5 State Univ., Blacksburg, Va. 24061 Environmental factors of major importance like high humidity and extreme temperature on advanced composites are investigated. Forced vibration tests were run to determine these effects on fiber reinforced angle ply Boron Epoxy and Graphite Epoxy composites. Dynamic complex modulus and internal damping changes due to different environmental preconditioning are reported. An attempt has been made to establish the question of reversibility of damage due to water absorption. Brief literature review on the subject is also presented. (Aided by AFML contract No. F33615-72-C2111) SOLAR REFLECTANCE AND ABSORBANCE WITH OXIDE FILMS. T. R. Viverito* and L. H. Slack, Division of Minerals Engineering, Va. Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ., Blacksburg, Va. 24061 Thin film coatings on architectural glass of both metals and metallic oxides have been receiving much attention for solar reflecting and absorbing applications. It has been found that as much as 90%, of the sun's radiant energy can be blocked with metallic films, while some oxides can screen more than 50% of this energy. This solar reflection conserves electrical energy by decreasing energy consumption for air conditioning. The soaring cost of precious metals creates the economic need for oxides. Composition and design for a good optical filter will be discussed. Reflection and absorption data in the visible and infrared wavelength region will be presented for both metals and metallic oxides. APPLICATION OF A THREE-DIMENSIONAL FINITE ELEMENT MODEL TO FATIGUE RELATED DAMAGE IN LAMINATED COMPOSITE MATERIALS. H. M_. Turgay* and W. W. Stinchcomb. Dept, of Engineering Science and Mechanics, VA Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ., Blacksburg, VA 24061 An attempt was made at characterizing damage in composite materials through the relaxation of the elastic moduli of the material. The regions where the moduli are relaxed are chosen by applying a strain energy density criteria obtained from a tliree -dimensional finite element program. Similarly, the direction in which damage extends can be predicted by reapplying the strain energy density criteria to the new stress fields formed after relaxation. The specific moduli to be relaxed and the amount of relaxation are decided upon by comparisons with thermographic data and compliance changes observed during experiments run on boron-epoxy specimens. ACOUSTIC EMISSION AS A MEASURE OF DAMAGE DURING FATIGUE OF FIBER REINFORCED COMPOSITES. R. S. Williams* and K. L. Reif. snider. Dept, of Engineering Science and Mechanics, VA Polytechnic Ii.st. and State Univ., Blacksburg, VA 24061 The feasibility of various experimental techniques to measure the effective damage in fiber -reinforced composite materials during cyclic loading are examined. Two types of acoustic emission test systems are used to monitor acoustic emission signals during strain-controlled fatigue tests on boron-epoxy and boron-aluminum fiber-reinforced composite materials. The test system incorporating a unique grating system tnat eliminated most machine and extraneous noise was found to produce the best results. Good correlation between acoustic emission rate and surface damage propagation, de¬ bonding and reduction in overall specimen stiffness is observed and discussed. (Supported by AFOSR Contract No. AFOSR-72 -2E58) Proceedings, 1973-1974 99 Section of Medical Sciences Fifty-second Annual Meeting of the Virginia Academy of Science May 7-10, 1974, Norfolk, Virginia POLYAMINE METABOLISM IN BREAST CANCER. W. L. Banks, Jr. , G. K. Harrington-, M. H. Gorelik* and Walter Lawrence, Jr.* Departments of Biochemistry and Surgery and the MCV-VCU Com¬ prehensive Cancer Center, Med. Col. of Va., Richmond, Va. 23298. Mammary carcinomas were induced in female albino rats by intravenous pulse-doses (2 mg) of dimethylbenz-^X) -antra- cene when the rats were 50, 53 and 56 days of age. After the tumors had developed, the animals were killed (35-44 weeks) and the tumors and livers excised. The concentra¬ tions of the polyamines, putrescine, spermidine (Sd) and spermine (Sm) were estimated on protein free filtrates from 20,000 xg supernatants from homogenates of both of these tissues. No meanful differences were noted in the concen¬ trations of putrescine or Sd between the tumor and the host liver tissues. However, the Sm concentration was signifi¬ cantly (p^ .01) lower in the tumor than in the liver, thus leading to a significant (p^.01) 3 fold decrease in Sd/Sm. Hence, elevated urinary polyamine levels in cancer patients reported by others may be due to host as well as tumor re¬ lated factors. Biopsy samples of human breast carcinomas and fibroadeno¬ mas were obtained within fifteen minutes of surgical exci¬ sion. Polyamine concentrations estimated in these tissues revealed that there were no significant differences between the cancer and benign neoplasms. Thus, the levels of these polyamines seemed to be related to neoplastic growth per se rather than malignant disease. THE EFFECT OF SHORT-TERM CAFFEINE WITHDRAWAL ON THE SLEEP AWAKE CYCLE. C. Beiser*, A. O’Donnell*, and L.C. Parsons , Ph.D., Dept, of Physiology, Sch. of Med. and Sch. of Nursing, Univ. of Va. , Charlottesville, Va. 22903. Healthy adult females between the ages of 20 and 21 years were electrophysiologically monitored for three consecutive nights following one conditioning night to determine the effects of 24 hour caffeine withdrawal on sleep-awake pat¬ terns. The mean latency to sleep onset was decreased by 2/3 following caffeine withdrawal. Following the initiation of sleep, the time interval to subsequent stages of deeper sleep, i.e., Stages II, III and IV, was decreased by 1/2 on caffeine withdrawal nights when compared to control and recovery nights. No significant changes in percent of total time, per¬ cent of total sleep time, mean time in stage or cycling were observed. No significant changes in body movements during control, caffeine withdrawal or recovery nights were apparent in any subject. These data suggest that changes in sleep patterns following short-term withdrawal appear to be associ¬ ated only with sleep onset, and once sleep has been establish¬ ed, does not influence any other part of the sleep-awake pattern . This research was supported in part by NIH (Division of Nursing) Research Development Grant //R02-NU-00345-05 and Con¬ struction Grant //1C05-NU-04225-01 . THE EFFECT OF SHORT-TERM CAFFEINE WITHDRAWAL ON HEART RATE AND CORE TEMPERATURE. D. Buchanan*, j\ . Janovich*, and L. C. Parsons , Ph.D., Dept, of Physiology, Sch. of Med. and Sch. of Nursing, Univ. of Va., Charlottesville, Va. 22903. Heart rates and core temperatures were continuously mon¬ itored during all stages of the sleep-awake cycle during con¬ trol, caffeine withdrawal and recovery nights in adult fe¬ males between the ages of 20 and 21 years following one con¬ ditioning night. Mean heart rates on caffeine withdrawal nights showed an increase ranging from 5 to 9 beats per minute when compared to control nights. Significant changes ( p < . 05) in mean heart rates were observed during Stages I, II, IV and REM when caffeine withdrawal nights were compared to control and recovery nights. On caffeine withdrawal nights all subjects showed either a decrease in core tempera¬ ture at sleep onset or temperature dropped more rapidly with¬ in the first half hour of sleep than on previous control or recovery nights. Severe headaches and a feeling of extreme fatigue were reported by all subjects on caffeine withdrawal days. These data suggest that withdrawal of moderate amounts of caffeine (400 mg/day) tended to decrease vagal tone of the heart. The observed temperature decreases and complaints of fatigue on caffeine withdrawal nights probably reflect a gen¬ eralized decrease in metabolic rate. This research was supported in part by NIH (Division of Nursing) Research Development Grant #R02-NU-00345-05 and Con¬ struction Grant //1C05-NU-04225-01 . THE EFFECTS OF EXERCISE TOLERANCE DURING VARIOUS STAGES OF THE MENSTRUAL CYCLE. W.K. Caldwell-, J. Crawford *, and L.C. Parsons, Ph.D., Dept, of Physiology, Sch. of Medicine and Sch. of Nursing, Univ. of Va., Charlottesville, Va. 22903. Subjects were four healthy adult ovulating females be¬ tween the ages of 21 and 23 years who subsequently adhered to a prescribed exercise regimen during 4 periods of the menstrual cycle. These periods included the first and eighth days of the cycle, days of ovulation and seventh days postovulation. The standard exercise period consisted of walking on a treadmill set at 3 mph, 15 degrees incline for a 10 minute time interval. Tolerance to exercise was deter¬ mined on the basis of systolic blood pressure (SBP) , pulse plethesmograph and respiration. Following control recording, pulse and respiratory rates were continuously monitored dur¬ ing the exercise period with SBP being added at the termina¬ tion of the activity period. Monitoring of these vital signs continued for a 15 minute recovery period. Control SBP was observed to be highest on the first day of the men¬ strual cycle with pulse rates being lowest in 3 of the 4 subjects. Following the initiation of exercise, both pulse and respiratory rates were highest on the first day of the menses. Thus, from these preliminary data no significant conclusions can be drawn; however, some physiological tendencies suggest that exercise of the type used in this study may be tolerated less well on the first day of the menstrual cycle. This research was supported in part by NIH Grant // RO-NU- 00345-05 and Construction Grant #lC05-NU-04225-01 . 100 The Virginia Journal of Science COMPARISON OF PORPHIN, PROTEIN, AND PEPTIDE CHROMOPHORES AT THEIR RESPECTIVE 414, 279, AND 205nra PEAK ABSORBANCE IN RATS ON HIGH AND LOW PROTEIN DIETS. G. Colmano. Dept, of Vet. Sci., Va. Polytechnic Inst., Blacksburg, Va. 24061 Growth retardation, blood plasma corticosterone fluores¬ cence, and absorption spectra of blood plasma at three dif¬ ferent dilutions (1:10, 1:50, and 1:2000) in distilled water, were determined for 21-day old male rats for 15 days on a protein starvation diet (5%. as compared to 20% casein). Re¬ sults were as follows: 1. a 78%, decrease in body weight; 2. an 85%, increase in blood plasma corticosterone, indicative cf a stressful condition; 3. a 37%, increase in oxidative poten¬ tial in blood plasma (1:10 dilution) calculated from the difference in absorbance at 630nm between blood plasma and blood plasma oxidized by DBIP dye and expressed in terms of mg protein (measured at 279nm)/ml; 4. a 56%, decrease in ce¬ ruloplasmin equivalent to a 53% decrease in copper availabi¬ lity in blood plasma (1:10 dilution) obtained from the ratio 280/610nm; 5. a 44%, increase of albumin-bilirubin in blood plasma (1:10 dilution) obtained from the ratio 414/280nm; 6. a 26%, decrease in the protein level of blood plasma (1:50 dilution), derived from the peak at 279nm or from the 280- 260nm relationship; and 7. a 22%, decrease in peptide chromo- phore of blood plasma (1:2000 dilution) derived from absorb¬ ance at 198nm. This is the first time that an absorption spectrum of blood plasma has been given from 700 to 180nm. On the absorption peaks of this spectrum seven parameters, all usable clinically, may be utilized to separate unstressed and healthy from stressed and diseased animals. SOME ELECTROCARDIOGRAPHIC CHANGES ACCOMPANYING CHEST PHYSI¬ CAL THERAPY. L. J. Crosby* and L. C. Parsons. Ph.D.. DeDt. of Physiology, Sch. of Medicine and Sch. of Nursing, Univ. of Va., Charlottesville, Va. 22903. The use of chest percussion and vibration (two physical therapeutic techniques) in postoperative open heart surgical patients has been a source of dissension among health care professionals. A reluctance to employ these techniques as preventative measures for postoperative pulmonary complica¬ tions stems from fear of (1) initiation of cardiac arrhythmia and (2) resumption of bleeding at the surgical site. Lead II of the electrocardiogram (EKG) was used to moni¬ tor both healthy control subjects and postoperative open heart patients during periods of rest, percussion, and vibra¬ tion. Group analysis of data revealed significant (p<.05) increases in heart rates when resting rates were compared to rates during percussion and vibration therapy in both control subjects and postoperative patients. Significant increases in heart rates were also observed when rates during percuss¬ ion were compared to rates recorded during vibration of both control subjects and patients. Cardiac arrhythmias were not observed to occur in either control subjects or other patients with one exception. This patient was observed to have had a cardiac arrhythmia during resting periods which was subsequently potentiated during both percussion and vib¬ ration therapy. This research was supported in part by NIH (Division of Nursing) Research Development Grant //R02-NU-00345-05 and Construction Grant //1C05-NU-04225-01. GALLSTONE DISSOLUTION: A NOVEL METHOD IN RATS. D. A. DropplemarT, B. 1. King* and R. S. Alphin. A. H. Robins Company, Research Laboratories, Richmond, Va. 23220. A simple method is described that allows gallstone dissolution studies to be readily carried out in the rat. The bile ducts of large male rats (300-400 g) were cannulated with PE 60 tubing. A second cannula of larger size was introduced into the duodenum 2.5 cm distal to the pylorus. Both cannulas were exteriorized on the animal's back and attached to a small chamber fitted to a soft plastic harness, maintaining an essentially intact entero-hepatic circulation. Small human gallstones, of the mixed type, were then placed in the chamber where they were bathed by the rat's own bile. To illustrate the utility of the method, a group of 24 rats was treated with chenodeoxycholic acid (CDCA). CDCA (15 mg/kg), administered intraduodenally twice daily for an average of 16 days, produced a mean stone weight loss of 4.36 + 0.54 mg compared with a weight loss of 3.09 ± 0.31 mg in 24 control rats receiving saline. The method is simple in design and facilitates determination of gallstone weights at desired times. CHANGES IN AMINO ACID POOLS FOLLOWING ISONIAZID TREATMENT S. L. Dudley* and W. L. Banks, Jr., Dept, of Biochemistry Med. Col. of Va., Va. Commonwealth Univ., Richmond, Va. 23298 Groups of male albino rats received a single intraperito- neal injection (150 mg/kg body weight) of isoniazid (INH) and were fasted until sacrifice at 2, 12 and 24 hrs. at which time the liver was excised and systemic blood samples taken. Control groups received water and were fasted similarly. Amino acid analysis by elution chromatography revealed that INH treatment produced changes in specific free amino acid pools in both liver and serum. Striking alterations in tyrosine, ornithine and alanine concentrations were found in the drug-treated groups as compared to the control groups. Specifically, INH treatment produced an early rise in hep¬ atic tyrosine concentrations, with subsequent marked eleva¬ tions in both serum (10 fold) and liver (6 fold) at 12 hrs. which remained increased (2 fold) in serum and liver at 24 hrs. Liver ornithine levels were elevated 3 fold at 2 hrs. and 4 fold thereafter, while serum ornithine levels rose to 3 fold at 12 hrs. and 4 fold at 24 hrs. Drug treatment also produced a 2 fold elevation in alanine concentrations in both liver and serum at 12 hrs. which had not abated by the 24 hr. point. Aside from these major changes, there were slight alter¬ ations in amides, serine and taurine levels at 12 and 24 hrs. while other amino acid pools were not affected by INH treat¬ ment. IN VITRO SECRETION OF MUCUS BY RAT DUODENUM. C. T. Edwards. Dept. Physiol., Med. Col. of Va., Richmond, Va . 23298 USA. Isolated, everted sacs of rat duodenum, prepared by the method of Wilson and Wiseman, were found, at the end of a 30 min. incubation period, to be covered by an adherent layer which appeared to be mucous in nature. It could readily be removed by gentle scraping and reappeared on further incubation. The bathing solution plus the adherent material was homogenized and dialyzed prior to chemical (colorimetric) analysis for carbohydrate constituents of mucus (sialic acid, fucose, hexose and hexosamine). In some experiments the sample was centrifuged and the super¬ natant and pellet were analyzed separately. Analyses showed reasonably consistent values (+ 15%) for total carbohydrate (per gram wet weight of tissue) and for the relative proportions of the various carbohydrates. The composition was different for the soluble (supernatant) and insoluble (pellet) fractions, especially as regards hexosamine, which was higher in the insoluble portion. These results indicate that mucus is secreted by the tissue and that the method could be suitable for testing the effect of drugs, hormones, etc. on the in vitro secretion of mucus by the mechanically stimulated rat duodenum. (Aided by a grant from the A. D. Williams Foundation.) VITAMIN C, DIABETES, AND FALSE URINARY GLUCOSE TESTS. K. E. Guyer, W. L. Banks, Jr., and R. Brandt. Dept, of Biochemistry, Med. Col. of Va. , Va. Commonwealth Univ., Richmond, Va. 23298 Although it has been known for some time that ascorbic acid (vitamin C) could interfere with the estimation of glu¬ cose in urine by either the glucose oxidase-peroxidase chromogen-coupled enzyme method or by Benedict's reagent, the low urinary levels of vitamin C were thought to pose no problem in the monitoring of urinary glucose. Within recent years, the popularization of ingestion of up to 15 gm/day of vitamin C has changed this situation. We reported (Clin. Chim. Acta 51:103, 1974) that amounts of vitamin C as low as 50 mg/100 ml of urine prevented detection of glucose by the chromogen-coupled enzyme method ("Tes-Tape" or "Labstix"). However, 250 mg/ 100 ml of urinary vitamin C will also pro¬ duce a false positive test using Benedict's reagent. The present study involves analysis of urine from a vitamin C-treated diabetic. The results obtained parallel those we previously reported on analysis of vitamin C-con- taining urine to which glucose was added or from an in¬ dividual with a low renal threshold for glucose. Thus, as we expected, interference was noted in testing for glucose in urine from a diabetic ingesting 2 gm/day or more of ascor¬ bic acid. Proceedings, 1973-1974 101 CELL SPECIFIC EVENTS OCCURRING DURING DEVELOPMENT OF DICTY- OSTELIUM DISCOIDEUM. J. F. Harris and C. L. Rutherford. Dept, of Biology, Va. Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ. , Blacksburg, Va. 24061 The cellular slime mold, _D. discoideum, is useful as a model system in studies of cellular development and differ¬ entiation. The life cycle is complete upon differentiation of a myxameba cell type into a spore or a stalk cell type. Until recently studies of differentiation in this organism have been limited to biochemical analysis of tissue homogen¬ ates. The data thus obtained represent an average of all cell types. Its usefulness to elucidate biochemical path¬ ways in relation to cell specific events has been restricted. In our laboratory a microtechnique is employed to analyse tissue samples of each cell type taken from any locale in a single individual at anytime during the life cycle. We are now routinely measuring enzyme activities and substrate lev¬ els in 0.1 pg. of tissue using 0.1 pi. reaction volumes. The microtechnique utilizes enzymatic cycling of pyridine nucle¬ otides to amplify tissue levels of enzymes. Our current studies involve glycogen turn over and its conversion to cell wall material as related to differentiation. A dramatic de¬ crease in glycogen synthetase activity from the tip to the base of the developing stalk has been observed. In addition, the requirement for glycogen as a primer decreases sharply during development of spore cells. This information suggests that glycogen synthetase activity can be related to spatial as well as temporal parameters. THE DELIPIDATION OF PLASMA FOR STUDY OF PHOSPHOLIPID SPECI¬ FICITY IN BLOOD CLOTTING REACTIONS. H.N. Hughes,* and P.S. Roberts, Div. of Med. Oncology, Dept, of Medicine, Med. Col. of Va., Va. Commonwealth Univ., Richmond, Va. 23298 Phospholipids (PL) function in at least three steps in the blood clotting mechanism. To determine the specific PL requirement for the conversion of prothrombin to thrombin we first removed the lipids present in human plasma [Albutt, E.C., J. Med .Lab. Tech. 23^y 61(1966)]. The recalcification and activated partial thromboplastin times of this plasma were normal and the one-stage prothrombin time was only slightly prolonged. Russell Viper Venom (RW) activates Factor X to Xa and Xa then enzymatically converts prothrombin to thrombin. A study of the effects of aqueous dispersions of purified phospha¬ tidyl-serine (PS), -ethanolamine (PE) or -choline (PC) or cholesterol (CH) on the clotting of intact plasma (InPl) and delipidated plasma (DePl) by RW showed that while PS alone produced the shortest clotting times with InPl, PS had to be dispersed with PE, PC or CH to obtain these short times with DePl. These tests were also done, substituting bovine Xa for RW with DePl (human and bovine). The phospholipid specifici¬ ty in the two tests was the same suggesting that when RW activates Factor X it does not require PL and that PS is es¬ sential for the conversion of prothrombin to thrombin by Xa. These data also show that the activation of prothrombin may be studied using either RW or Xa. (Supported by a Research Grant from the John A. Hartford Foundation) INHIBITORS OF RAT LIVER HMG CoA REDUCTASE AS POTENTIAL HYPO- CHOLESTEROLEMIC AGENTS. P.E. Marecki*, S ,G . Boots*, M.R„ Boots, and K.E. Guyer. Depts. of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Biochemistry, Med. Col. of Va., Va . Commonwealth Univ., Rich¬ mond, Va. 23298 HMG CoA reductase mediates the rate limiting step of mam¬ malian cholesterol biosynthesis. Inhibition of this reaction provides the most efficient inhibition of the entire biosyn¬ thetic pathway and thereby hopefully causes a reduction of serum cholesterol levels. A series of arylalkyl hydrogen suc¬ cinates, hydrogen glutarates, and their derivatives have been prepared and evaluated as inhibitors of this enzyme. Inhibi¬ tion of the enzyme by 1- (4-biphenyly 1) -n-pentyl hydrogen 3- methyl-3-methoxyglutara te indicated that the 3-hydroxyl group of the corresponding direct substrate analogue participates in binding to the enzyme by acting as a proton donor for hy¬ drogen bonding. Similarly, inhibition observed with N-Cl“ (4-biphenylyl)-n-pentyl[] succinamic and glutaramic acids sup¬ ported the hypothesis that functional groups in the ester region do not enhance binding of inhibitor to enzyme. Finally biological evaluation of a series of arylepoxya lkyl hydrogen succinates and glutarates demonstrated the successful incorp¬ oration of a potential alkylating group into the inhibitors without loss of inhibitory activity. (Supported in part by USPHS Grant HL-11768.) PHARMACOLOGY OF MARIHUANA CONSTITUENTS. BILLY R. MARTIN*. WILLIAM L. DEWEY* AND LOUIS S. HARRIS , DEPT. OF PHARMACOLOGY, MED. COL. OF VA., RICHMOND, VA. 23298. A^-and A - tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) , the active constitu¬ ents of marihuana, are rapidly converted _in vivo to their 11- hydroxy metabolites. It has been postulated that 11-hydroxy- lation of THC is a prerequisite to behavioral and pharmacolo¬ gical activity. We have accumulated evidence which indicates that A^-THC itself may be active. Thirty minutes after the intravenous injection of H^-A^-THC (0.5 mg/kg) dogs were sac¬ rificed, and the brains were removed, homogenized and extrac¬ ted with petroleum ether and diethyl ether. Thin layer chro- motography of these extracts reveiled that 41% of the radio¬ activity was due to A^-THC. TLC of extracts from fetal dog brains showed that 607o of the radioactivity was unchanged A^-THC. The presence of high quantities of A^-THC and very low quantities of 11-hydroxy-A^-THC in dog brain at the time of peak activity do not support the hypothesis that only the 11-hydroxy metabolite is active. In addition, two analogs of A&-THC, 11-methyl- and 9-nor-A^-THC, were investigated for cannabinoid-like activity. 11-methyl-A^-THC is probably not converted to 11-hydroxy-A^-THC; whereas, 9-nor-A°-THC cannot be. In the unanesthetized dog, these analogs produce a cannabinoid-like effect on overt behavior. The intravenous minimal effective doses are 0. 1-0.2 mg/kg for both A^-THC and A^-nor-A -THC, and 0. 8-1.0 mg/kg for 11-methyl-A^-THC. In the anesthetized dog 9-nor-A°-THC is as effective as A^-THC in producing bradycardia and hypotension: whereas, 11-methyl- A°-THC is less effective. (USPHS Grants-DA00490 & DA00776.) VOX-STROBE: A DIAGNOSTIC VO ICE -OPERATED GAS-LAMP STROBOSCOPE. Siegfried S. Meyers. Dept, of Physics, Madison College, Harrisonburg, Va. 22801. Vocal sounds are amplified via a microphone and a transis¬ torized audio-frequency amplifier whose output triggers the stroboscope. During diagnosis the mildly anesthetized nasal pharynx enables the observer to view the patient's stationary vocal chords as he pulls the patient's tongue outward and downward over the lower teeth with one hand; then slowly and carefully passes an inclined examining mirror to the back of the patient's throat, orienting the examining mirror's angle until he visualizes the stationary vocal chords by reflection from a luminous conventional standing incandescent lamp, the white light from which, is gathered and reflected to the throat by his head-mounted concave mirror. The observer now orients the position of his head-mounted mirror and lines up the image of the patient's vocal chords. The reflected image pursues a light path from the hand-held inclined examining mirror through the one-half inch diameter hole in the head-mirror directly to his eye. On signal from the observer the patient vocalizes a high- pitched E-e-e. The patient's neck-suspended microphone then triggers the gas-lamp stroboscope to flash via the microphone and amplifier in step with the patient's vocal chord vibra¬ tions, the phase of which may be changed with the adjustable length of the microphone's neck-cord due to the relative time-difference occurring between the travel-time of the sound waves versus the light waves. STEROID INFLUENCE ON CARDIAC GLYCOGEN. Timothy D. Myers*, James L. Poland*, Raphael J. Witorsch*, Richard B. Brandt*. Dept. Physiol, and Biochem., Med. Col. of Va., Richmond, Virginia 23298 USA. An exercising stress of 15 min. of swimming for control rats is sufficient to lower cardiac glycogen and elevate plasma glucocorticoids. A long lasting supercompensation of cardiac glycogen occurs with a peak approximately 4 hrs after the exercise when myocardial glycogen levels are above pre-exercising levels. Adrenal ectomi zed rats have a normal degree of exercise glycogenolysis but lack the typical supercompensation response 4 hrs later. Dexamethasone treated adrenal ectomi zed rats had elevated cardiac glycogen levels which displayed a pattern of depletion during exer¬ cise and supercompensation following exercise similar to the control rats. Five minutes of an ether stress produced insignificant changes in plasma glucocorticoids and no changes in myo¬ cardial glycogen levels immediately or 4 hrs after the stress. In this experiment, as in the others, adrenalecto- mized rats had lowered and dexamethasone treated adrenalecto- mized rats had elevated myocardial glycogen levels. It is concluded that the level of plasma glucocorticoids is a major factor in generating the observed supercompensa¬ tion of myocardial glycogen following exercise. Whether ether stress differs from exercise in its effect on cardiac glycogen cannot be determined because of the inadequacy of the ether stress to elevate plasma glucocorticoid levels. 102 The Virginia Journal of Science A PRELIMINARY STUDY OF LIPID METABOLISM IN CONDITIONED AND NONCONDITIONED ADULT MALES. L.C.Parsons. Ph.D. and P. J. Verhonick*, Ed.D., Dept, of Physiology, Sch. of Medicine and Sch. of Nursing, Univ. of Va. , Charlottesville, Va. 22903. A preliminary study was undertaken to determine whether physically conditioned adult males (CS=3) between the ages of 18 and 25 years were able to more efficiently metabolize a high lipid diet (half-cream and half-milk) than unconditioned adult males (US=6) of the same age group who did not adhere to a programmed regimen of physical exercise. All subjects received diagnostic profiles I and IV as well as a T-^ (by competitive binding) test to determine normal metabolic func¬ tion. Serum triglycerides, total serum cholesterols and serum fatty acids were determined following 12 hour fasting and at 2, 4, and 6 hour intervals after subjects consumed a high lipid meal. The most significant findings appear to be re¬ lated to changes observed in serum triglyceride levels (STL) . Within group and between group analysis indicated that CS consistently had and maintained lower STL throughout the study than US. When compared to unconditioned subjects, CS were found to have significantly lower STL at 2 and 6 hours post lipid meal. Conclusions cannot be drawn on this small sample size; however, some interesting tendencies have been observed . This preliminary study was supported in part by NIH (Divi¬ sion of Nursing) Grant //NU-00444-02 and Construction Grant //1C05-NU-04225-01. STUDIES hn MORPHINE TO! TRANCE AND DEPENDENCE IN MICE AND RATS. G.A. Patrick*, V,'.!. Dewey* and L.S. Parris. Dept, cf Pharma¬ cology, Mod. Col. of Va., Richmond, Va. 23?n8. Chron’c administration of morphine (M) to rodents leads to development of the phenomena of tolerance and dependence. Tolerance is characterized hv decreased analgesic activity uf M* dependence is charact eri zed by a number nf signs upon withdrawal of M, among which loss of body weight i* most reliable. Mice were treated chronically by s.c. implantation of a pellet containing M base, while rats were treated by continuous i.p. infusion of morphine sulfate. The analgesic effect of M was measured by means of the tail -flick test, and the concentration of M was measured by a standard fluorometric technique. Brain M levels corresponded quantitatively to analgesic effect on acute M administration, in regard both to magnitude and to time course of effect. Tolerance develop¬ ment was observed after 24 hours of chronic treatment, and pronounced tolerance and dependence were apparent at 72 hours. Upon cessation of treatment in mice, brain M levels returned to baseline within 6 hours while significant tolerance persis¬ ted for at least 24 hours. Following M withdrawal in rats, a 20 to 25% loss in body weight was observed after 24 hours; however, this sign of dependence was not observed if a pellet of the narcotic antagonist naloxone was imnlanted at the beginning of the infusion regimen. This latter finding is of theoretical and practical importance in the search for a better treatment of narcotic addiction. (Supported by USPHS Grant No. DA00490) ALCOHOLIC CARDIOMYOPATHY IN THE RAT - HEMODYNAMIC AND SUB- CELLULAR FUNCTION. James L. Poland*. Andrea Hastillo*, F. N. Briggst William Wise*. Dept. Physiol., Med., and Pathology, Med. Col. of Va., Richmond, Virginia 23298 USA. A rat model for the study of alcoholic cardiomyopathy was utilized. One group of rats (alcoholics) received 20 - 23% ethyl alcohol while control rats were pair fed and received no alcohol. At approximately six week intervals, and two days after alcohol was discontinued, alcoholics and their paired controls were sacrificed. Cardiac myofibril ATPase activity as well as both rate and total capacity of calcium uptake by heart homogenates (H) and fragmented sarcoplasmic reticulum (FSR) were determined. Animals also underwent hemodynamic studies in which isovolumetric end diastolic pressure, peak systolic pressure and dP/dT of the left ventricle were measured. After 17 weeks of alcohol imbibition, the alcoholic rats failed to differ from the control rats in any of these parameters. Electron microscopic studies also failed to demonstrate any structural differences in the myocardium. It is believed that not enough time has accrued for hemodynamic and subcellular changes to occur in this model. These studies are being continued to determine both when the hearts start to fail due to alcohol and at which site alcohol may be responsible for any observed change. (Supported by the Richmond Area Heart Association.) INTRACELLULAR RESPONSIVENESS TO EXTRACELLULAR STIMULATION. Simon Rothberg and G.E. Nancarrow’', Dept, of Dermatology, Med. Col. of Va. , V. C.U. , Richmond, Va. 23298 Previous reports have indicated that stimulation of the topmost layer(s) of the epidermis by cellular stripping re¬ sults in a stimulation of mitotic activity in basal cells twenty to forty cell layers removed from the site of strip¬ ping. How this extracellular stimulus alters the normal reg¬ ulation of intracellular events is unclear. To obtain a bet¬ ter understanding of the nature of the extracellular stimula¬ tion, 3h-6- thymidine incorporation into epidermal and dermal DMA was measured at intervals after stripping. Hairless mice were injected with 3n-6-thymidine 15-30 min. after stripping one half of the body surface epidermis. The other half of the body skin served as control. The skin dis¬ sected from mice 2,4,8,16,24,36,48, and 60 hrs after injec¬ tion was separated into epidermis and dermis from which DNA was isolated and assayed. The specific activity of the DNA from the stripped area upon comparison with that from the control epidermis and dermis indicated an increase in thymi¬ dine incorporation into both epidermis and dermis DNA begin¬ ning 6-8 hrs after injection. The data suggests that the stimulation is active in the epidermis for about 24 hrs and for 10 hrs in the dermis. The data suggests an apparent response of both the epider¬ mis and dermis to the stimulus. The dermis had previously been thought to have a more passive role after extracellular stimulation. Further studies are required to clarify the steps leading to stimulation of DNA synthesis after extracell¬ ular stimulation. (Supported by NIAMDD grant 15285) SPLENIC ESTERASE ACTIVITY AND THE SUSCEPTIBILITY OF MICE TO FRIEND LEUKEMIA VIRUS I NFECT IQN.Phy I I i s S. Roberts, William Regelson* & Douglas Heritage*. Div. of Med. Oncology, Dept, of Med., Med. Col. of Va . , Va. Commonwealth Univ., Richmond, Va. 23298. Friend Leukemia Virus(FLV) induces a neoplastic condition in mice characterized by enlargement of the spleen. Mice can be divided into N-type or B-type mice depending upon whether they are susceptible to the N-tropic or B-tropic strain of FLV. We found that splenic homogenates from Nylar mice (N-type) injected with N-tropic FLV, cyclophosphamide (cytoxan) or a combination of these agents, lose most of their ability to hydrolyze TAME or BAME ( p-to I uenesu I f ony I - or benzoy I -L-arg in i ne methyl ester) but not tr i butyr i n, wh ich remains unchanged. Splenic homogenates from BALB/C mice (B- type) infected with N-tropic FLV lose practically none of their ability to hydrolyze TAME or BAME but lose these activities when injected with cytoxan or N-type FLV plus cytoxan. Splenic homogenates from untreated C57BI/6J mice, highly resistant to both N- and B-tropic FLV, have high levels of an enzyme(s) that hydrolyzes TAME and BAME while splenic homogenates from untreated DBA/2 mice, highly sus¬ ceptible to both N- and B-tropic FLV, have very low levels. Splenic homogenates from untreated Nylar and BALB/C mice have levels between these values. These data indicate that the resistance of mice to FLV disease depends upon a proteo¬ lytic enzyme(s) in the spleen, acting in the neutral to alkaline range and this is presently under investigation. RECORDING FROM SINGLE MUSCLE AFFERENTS IN NORMAL AND SPASTIC HUMAN SUBJECTS. A. J. Szumski , D. Burg*, A. Struppler*, F. Velho*. Dept. Physiol., Med. Col. Va., Richmond, Va. USA, 23298 and Neurol. Clinic. Tech. U., Munich, W. Germany. Single muscle afferents were recorded with tungsten semi¬ microelectrodes in a nerve in unanesthetized normal and spastic human subjects. The afferents from a muscle were identified as muscle spindle or Golgi tendon organ afferents by several criteria which included muscle and tendon taps, muscle stretch, voluntary contraction and electrical muscle stimulation. In the normal subject, a generalized facilitation of the muscle spindle receptor was seen during efferent activation by remote muscle contraction, mental activity and unsuspected stimuli (acoustic). During the twitch, muscle spindles were silenced during contraction and fired in a bursting manner during relaxation. Alpha-gamma coactivation was seen during voluntary contraction. In spastic human subjects, voluntary remote muscle con¬ traction more effectively facilitated the firing of spindle receptors. In patients with a minimal tendancy for clonus, facilitated twitch relaxation spindle bursting could acti¬ vate clonic contractions. Increased receptor activity and decreased clonus activation latency during reinforcement suggests an increased dynamic gamma drive in spastic patients. Proceedings, 1973-1974 103 STUDIES ON ELECTRIC BIREFRINGENCE OF TRNA. Michael Thompson, Dept, of Biophysics Medical College of Virginia, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia 23298. The relaxation time of the transient electric birefringence of yeast tRNA (bulk and tRN-APhe) has been measured in an electro- optic kerr apparatus constructed in the Dept, of Biophysics, MCV, by R. C. Williams. The apparatus has been shown to have a RC time constant of about 10 ns with molecules having very fast relaxation time (urea, nitroben¬ zene). A concentration dependence has been observed for the relaxation time for both bulk yeast tRNA and tRNAP^e in distilled water, t ranged from 35 ns (1.0 g % solution) to 80 ns (0. 005 g %). The magnitude of the birefringence signal and the relaxation time for yeast tRNA (bulk) was found to vary considerably with temperature, indicating that this method may be useful in studing changes in con¬ formation not observable with normal Tm methodology. If heatingis too rapid (1° C/min. ), the molecule appears to undergo an irreversible conformational change yielding! = 35 ns, corresponding to a very compact form. Mg de¬ pendence and separatory methods for obtaining purified single isoaccepting species of tRN-A from yeast and rat liver are presented. Section of Microbiology Fifty-second Annual Meeting of the Virginia Academy of Science May 7-10, 1974, Norfolk, Virginia ANALYSIS OF LA CROSSE VIRUS PROTEINS. Banes, A.J. and P.H. Coleman. Dept, of Microbiology, Med. Col. of Va., Richmond, Va. 23298 In the present study. La Crosse Virus (LAC) proteins la¬ beled with a 14C-amino acid mixture in medium containing 1/10 the normal concentration of amino acids, were separated on SDS-urea polyacrylamide gel slabs and were identified by difference analysis of autoradiograms. Results indicate the presence of 14 LAC proteins in non-drug-treated (107K (107,000 daltons) , 101K, 83K, 78K, 69K, 65K, 60K, 55K, 48K, 44K, 40K, 36K, 30K, 23K) , and 8 LAC proteins in actinomycin D-treated BHK-21 cells (70K, 62K, 57K, 52K, 50K, 45K, 35K, 23K) infected with 150 plaque-forming units of LAC/cell. Peaks corresponding to MW of structural proteins are under¬ lined. At 7 and 9 hrs PI the 42K peak is prominent while higher molecular weight peaks prominent at 7 hrs diminish at 9 hrs, apparently giving rise to the 42K peak. The synthetic capability of many arboviruses permits a minimal production of 330-370Kd of protein. LAC codes for ~839Kd in non-drug- treated and ~394Kd of protein in actinomycin D-treated cells at 14 hrs PI. The experimental figures exceed the minimum hypothetical synthetic capability and indicate that precur¬ sor-product relationships may exist in LAC-infected cells. In addition, LAC appears to depress host-protein syn¬ thesis. LAC-infected and actinomycin D-treated-LAC-infected cells incorporated only 58 and 66% respectively of the con¬ trol level of ^C-amino acid label. SEROLOGICAL CROSSREACTIVITY BETWEEN TUMOR, FETAL AND ADULT CELLS. R. C. Campbell*, M. R. Escobar and H. P. Dalton. Dept, of Pathology , Med . Col. of Va., Richmond, Va. 23298 In host-tumor interaction, the character of the immune response of the host as well as the antigenic nature of the tumor should be investigated . The latter was studied by determining serological crossreactions between cells in culture from a "spontaneous" human carcinoma of the nasopharynx (KB), a SV4o-induced hamster tumor (LL-1), a normal human amnion (HA), and human fetal skin (HFS). Antisera to these cells pro¬ duced in Lewis rats were tested by complement fixation, immunofluorescence (FA) and immunodiffusion, before and after absorptions, with antigens from the above cells and those from FL and WISH strains of normal human amnion, human carcinoma of the larynx (H- Ep-2), human embryonic lung (WI-38), and normal human conjunctiva (HC). General agreement of results by these methods was observed with differences in sensitivity. FA was the most sensitive . Crossreactions between tumor and fetal cells were noted varying in degree depending on type of test employed, except for LL-1 cells. The latter were the only cells used in this work which were known to be transformed by a virus. Antisera absorp¬ tions with each antigen, in all possible combinations, were done to ascertain serological specificity and to analyze the nature of these crossreactions. 104 The Virginia Journal of Science A, B, 0 BLOOD GROUPS IN PRE-COLUMBIAN AMERICANS. N. E. Castro, M. J. Allison*. Dept, of Pathology, Med. Col. of Va . , Richmond, Va. 23298 Thirty Pre-Columbian Peruvian mummies from the State of lea , that ranged from newborn to 35 years of age at the time of death were typed for A, B, 0 blood group. All mummies were carbon dated from 400 B.C. to 1650 A.D., and represented the cultures of Paracas, Nazca , Huari , lea and Inca . Three different techniques were used: Adsorption, Induction of antibody production and mixed cell agglutination. The data from all three techniques were compiled, resulting in agreement and correlation. Results showed widely the presence of A, B, and 0 blood groups in Pre-Columbian habitants of South America, differing with the prior, generalized idea that all American Indian populations were group 0. The findings of this study will be responsible for opening new pathways for the tracing of the origins of not only the blood groups in the Americas, but also the origin of the Americans. COMPARATIVE STUDIES ON THE SENSITIVITY OF RAPID TECHNICS FOR DETECTION OF VIRAL ANTIGENS. M. R. Escobar and H. P. Dalton. Dept, of Pathology, Va. Comm. U. , Richmond In an effort to expedite the laboratory diagnosis of viral infections, several methods were studied in terms of time, simplicity, sensitivity and specificity. Agar gel double immunodiffusion, counterelectrophoresis, complement fixation, reverse passive hemagglutination, and radioimmunoassay procedures for detection of HB an¬ tigen were compared. Counterelectrophoresis was a simple technique which offered a good balance between sensitiv¬ ity and specificity and took the shortest time to per¬ form. The effect of various factors, such as depth and type of agar, pH and ionicity of the buffer, size and shape of the wells , interval distances , voltage , temper¬ ature and antibody concentration, on the time and sensi¬ tivity of this procedure was investigated using polio. Under optimal conditions, it was also applied to the de¬ tection of echo and coxsackie viruses. The sensitivity thus obtained was enhanced 5-10 times after concentration with lyphogel and up to 100 times using other concentrat¬ ion procedures, such as ultracentrifugation, membrane chromatography , hydroextraction and two-phase polymer separation. Further studies are underway to ascertain the specificity of the results since the sensitivity de¬ monstrated was much greater than that reported in the literature. Application of this procedure to the detect¬ ion of other viruses , especially those which are diffic¬ ult to isolate in tissue culture is being investigated. INCREASED THERAPEUTIC INDEX OF ACTINOMYCIN PIP 16 OVER ACTINOMYCIN D IN FRIEND LEUKEMIA VIRUS INFECTED MICE. J. V. Formica and A. Munson. Virqinia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Va. 23298. Actinomycin Pip 13 has been shown to differ from the parent compound, Actinomycin D (Act D) , by the substitution of pipecolic acid for a proline residue in one of the penta- peptides. Both actinomycins inhibited RNA synthesis at iden¬ tical concentrations, but differed in their LD^q values i.e. Act D, 0.7 mg/kg; Act Pip 13, 4.9 mg/kg in BALB/c mice in¬ jected ip. A comparison in BALB/c mice infected with Friend leukemia virus revealed that Act D had a therapeutic index (T.I) of one, while Act Pip 13 had a T.I = 2.4 using inhibition of spleenomegaly as a parameter of effectiveness. In addition, the EDgo dose of Pip 13 caused a 91% inhibition of leuco- cytosis while the EDg0 dose of Act D caused an 85% inhibi¬ tion as compared to untreated infected controls. Clearance studies, using 14C-labeled drug, demonstrated that 13% of Act Pip 13 was found in the urine in 24 hr and 40% in the feces; with Act D, 6% was found in the urine and 32% in the feces. Furthermore, calculation of blood clear¬ ance levels showed a T/2 = 41.4 min for Act Pip 13 and a T/2 = 3 min for Act D. The maintenance of a higher blood level and greater urinary excretion for Act Pip 13 could indicate that this drug is not retained in tissue as avidily as Act D. The pre¬ viously demonstrated inefficiency of binding to DNA would predict such a situation. CYCLIC 3 ', 5 -ADENOSINE MONOPHOSPHATE (c-AMP) CONCENTRATIONS AND c-AMP PHOSPHODIESTERASE ACTIVITY IN SELECTED GRAM-NEGA¬ TIVE BACTERIA. IL Hy lemon and P. V. Phibbs . Dept, of Microbiology, Med. Col. of Va., Richmond, Va. 23298 Cyclic-AMP has been measured in cultures of Pseudomonas aeruginosa. The intracellular c-AMP concentrations were approximately 70-100 fold higher than the extracellular con¬ centrations in log-phase cultures of this organism. No change in the intracellular concentrations of c-AMP was ob¬ served following the addition of a strong catabolite repress¬ or (succinate) to cultures initially growing on a non-prefer- able source of carbon and energy (glucose) . However, an immediate decrease in the intracellular c-AMP concentration was readily shown in an analogous control experiment with Escherichia coli using the same experimental methods. The exogenous addition of high concentrations of sodium c-AMP (5 rnM) or dibutyryl-c-AMP (4 mM) failed to reverse catabolite repression, by succinate, of selected inducible glucose cat¬ abolic enzymes in P. aeruginosa. Cyclic-AMP phosphodiesterase activity was detected in cell extracts of P. aeruginosa. The specific activity was approximately 10-fold lower than the specific activity in cell extracts of EL coli K-12. Cyclic- AMP was not detected in whole cells, culture supernatant fluid or total cell cultures of selected strains of Bacte- roides fragilis. Cyclic-AMP phosphodiesterase activity was not detected in cell extracts of B. fragilis under a variety of assay conditions. LOCALIZATION OF ENZYMES IN SPECIFIC CELL TYPES DURING DIFFERENTIATION OF DICTYOSTELIUM DISCOIDEUM. B. L. Jefferson and C. L. Rutherford. Dept, of Biology, Va. Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ. , Blacksburg, Virginia 24061 D. discoideum is a model system in which to observe the differentiation of myxamebae into spore cells and stalk cells . Trehalose, an end product of differentiation, is localiz¬ ed in the spores. The enzymatic synthesis of trehalose is catalyzed by trehalose-6-P synthetase. During the 24 hour growth cycle, there is no detectable activity of this enzyme before 3 hours, and there is a linear increase in specific activity from 5 to 17 hours. After that time, the enzyme rapidly disappears. Previous work with this enzyme was done by using both cell types contained in homogenates. This study employs the use of specific cell types in enzymatic cycling with the microtechnique. One section of an individual, weighing about 0.1 yg, is used in a reaction mixture of 0.1 pi. This method makes it possible to detect enzyme activity in dis¬ crete portions of one individual. Data from this method indicate that trehalose-6-P synthetase activity is present in spore cells and stalk cells. In addition there is a decreasing gradient of this enzyme from the top to the bottom of the stalk. TRANSPORTATION DELAY AND THE QUALITY OF CLINICAL SPECIMENS. H. Jefferson, H. Dalton, M. Escobar, and M. Allison*. Dept, of Pathology, Med. Col. of Va., Richmond, Va. 23298 An evaluation of the effects that transportation delay had on the microflora of clinical specimens was made by analyzing clinical specimens under actual work” day conditions. Aliquots of urinary, respiratory and wound specimens were planted for aerobic and anaerobic bacteria on conventional media immediately after collection. The remainder of each specimen was kept at roan temperature until messengers arrived to trans¬ port it to the bacteriology laboratory by standard channels. The results obtained by immediate planting on the ward were compared to those provided by planting in the bacteriology laboratory. An alteration in microflora was observed in all types of specimens after average periods of 2 and 4 hours of delay in culturing. This type of study can give a baseline for evaluating collection techniques and the effect of transportation delay on specimen quality. Such in-use studies would aid the quality control programs of bacteriology laboratories, especially those in large hospitals. Proceedings, 1973-1974 105 EFFECT OF MITOGENS ON TOXICITY OF DAUNOMYCIN FOR MICE. Nelda M. Marecki*, and S. G. Bradley. Dept, of Microbiology, Med. Col. of Va. , Richmond, Va. 23298. Daunomycin, a cancer chemotherapeutic antibiotic of the anthracycline glycoside group exerts its primary effects through interaction with DNA. Bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS) is known to interact synergistically with several anti¬ neoplastic agents which interfere with DNA synthesis or func¬ tion. Because the mitogenic action of LPS is thought to be responsible for these interactions, a series of mitogens ad¬ ministered at non-lethal doses was evaluated for possible in¬ teraction with daunomycin in male BALB/c mice. Administration of 2 mg of Escherichia coli 026 :B6 LPS/kg simultaneously with, or up to 48 hr after, 10 mg of daunomy- cin/kg resulted in 60 to 80% lethality 4 days after daunomy¬ cin. At this time only 10% of the daunomycin-treated mice had died. When 5 mg of concanavalin A/kg was given simultaneously with, or up to 48 hr after, 10 mg of daunomycin/kg, the 4-day lethality was 40 to 50%. Eighty mg/kg of a complex of bovine serum albumin and lipid A extracted from E. coli 0127:B8 LPS administered 24 hr after 10 mg of daunomycin/kg resulted in 100% lethality at 3 days. The administration of 200 mg of pokeweed mitogen/kg 48 hr after daunomycin resulted in 40% lethality at the time when only 10% of the daunomycin-treated animals had died. In contrast to the other mitogens studied, the administration of 40 mg of phytohemagglutinin/kg simul¬ taneously with, or up to 48 hr after, 10 mg of daunomycin/kg did not result in an enhancement of lethality but provided some protection against daunomycin toxicity. MACROPHAGE MIGRATION INHIBITION IN GUINEA PIGS INFECTED WITH SALMONELLA TYPHIMURIUM. D. R. Mayo* H. S. Hsu. Dept, of Microbiology, Med. Col. of Va., Richmond, Va. 23298 The in vitro macrophage migration inhibition test was used to detect the development of delayed type hypersensitivity in guinea pigs infected with Salmonella tvphimurium. Four different prepara- tions from supernatants of S. tvphimurium cultures were used as the antigens in this test. They in¬ cluded a crude concentrate, a high molecular weight preparation (M.W. 7 50,000), an ammonium sulfate-precipitated extract, and a ribonuclease- treated preparation. All four antigenic prepara¬ tions were shown to inhibit the migration of peri¬ toneal macrophages of Salmonella-infected guinea pigs from capillary tubes, in comparison with cells of normal control animals. Using the high M.W. antigens and the ammonium sulfate-precipitated antigens, the production of migration inhibition factor (MIF) was elicited from cultures of lympho¬ cytes obtained from the peripheral blood of Sal¬ monella-infected guinea pigs. The activity of MIF was demonstrated by its ability to inhibit the migration of normal peritoneal macrophages from capillary tubes. It was concluded that the bac¬ terial antigens responsible for the macrophage inhibition were probably proteins with MW. 7 50, 0 00 PYRAN INDUCED RESISTANCE TO HERPESVIRUS H0MINIS . Ronald S. McCord and Page S. Morahan. Va. Commonwealth Univ. 23298 Herpesvirus hominis type 2 (herpes simplex virus, HSV-2) , a ubiquitious pathogen of man has recently been suggested as the oncogenic virus of human cervical cancer. When inoculat¬ ed into 5 week old Balb/c mice, HSV-2 causes posterior para¬ lysis; the mice die of acute encephalitis within 25 days. The synthetic polyanion pyran (divinyl ether-maleic anhy¬ dride copolymer) has been shown to have protective effects against several viral infections and viral oncogenesis in mice. Pyran (75mg/kg,IP) administered to 5 week old Balb/c mice protects against a lethal IP challenge with HSV 24 hours later. Pyran (25mg/kg,IV) also protects mice against a lethal IV challenge with HSV-2. The antiviral effect is dem¬ onstrated by a significant (p<.005) increase in the mean time to death and by a 60-70% protection from mortality. In order to determine the mechanisms of action of pyran against HSV-2, investigations are currently underway to se¬ lectively suppress the immune system of mice. Thymectomy, X- irradiation, and bone marrow reconstitution will render mice incapable of the T-dependent immune responses including de¬ layed hypersensitivity reactions and antibody response to a number of antigens. A method to suppress the reticuloendo¬ thelial system in mice by injection of Si is currently being evaluated. Preliminary data indicate that mice treated with Si show decreased phagocytic activity. With these procedures we plan to determine the involvement of T-lymphocytes or macrophages in pyran' s antiviral effect. IMMUNOLOGICAL STUDIES OF LOCAL CUTANEOUS INSULIN RE¬ ACTIONS. N. Minars*, Y. S. Fu* and M. R. Escobar. Depts. of Dermatology and Pathology. Med. Col. of Va., Richmond, Va. 23298 Local cutaneous reactions to insulin occur frequent¬ ly during therapy of diabetes mellitus. Excisions for biopsy from the skin of a patient who had a severe local cutaneous "dual" reaction of the immediate type to insulin were carried out at different times after subcutaneous injection of 100 units of "single peak" U-100 MPH insulin to investigate the immunopathology of his response. Serum antibodies to beef and pork insulins were normal (less than 10 mU/ml) . Skin tests using NPH and "single peak" mixed insulins and passive cutaneous transfer (PK) were negative. Immuno- fluorescent studies of biopsy sections failed to reveal deposition of IgG, XgM and ByC within the vascular endothelium and in the cytoplasm of the perivascular inflammatory cells. The early histological appearance with heavy infiltrate of eosinophils was strinkingly similar to cutaneous allergic "dual" reactions mediated by IgE, but sufficiently different from a type III re¬ action (Arthus phenomenon). The possibility of a pseudoallergic phenomenon cannot be discounted . However, the clinical and histological findings in this case, coupled with undetectable levels of IgE as re¬ ported in other cases of insulin allergy, suggest that the reaction of our patient was specific. ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS ON C0LIF0RM COUNTS IN THE NEW RIVER. Steve Orndorff, Dept, of Biology, VPI& SU, Blacksburg, Va. 24060 Using Standard Methods (APHA) procedures a chem¬ ical and bacteriological analysis of three points on the New River was made. This analysis indicat¬ ed that the most important factors affecting coli- form numbers were turbidity, surface runoff, avail¬ able nutrients and temperature on a seasonal basis. Daily and seasonal coliform values of all three sampling points showed direct responses to the ef¬ fects of wastes from the City of Radford and to surface runoff due to rainfall. Average coliform numbers in Spring were 1.32 x lCP/100 ml t>ut heavy rainfall often resulted in two or threefold in¬ creases in numbers. Seasonal trends were reflected as a result of water temperature and nutrient availability. Ave . Fall values were 1.29 x 1CP Coliform MPN/100 ml, Winter - 6.30 x 10^ Coliform MPN/100 ml, and Spring values were 9-48 x 10^ Coliform MPN/100 ml. Statistical analysis also revealed that turbid¬ ity on a daily basis had an almost linear effect on coliform numbers. Turbidity acted as a "floc¬ culating agent" that tended to sediment cells onto the stream bottom. Coliform numbers also showed an increase in re¬ sponse to nutrients released at sewage outfalls. PROTEIN DEGRADATION IN NOCARDIA ERYTHROPOLIS . Roy H.L. Pang*, J.S. Bond, and S.G. Bradley, Dept, of Microbiology and Bio¬ chemistry. Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Va. Asparagine (ASN) -grown Nocardia erythropolis , labeled with ■L4C-leucine was subcultured in basal salts medium containing 1 mM leucine (LEU) and ASN or glucose (GLU) or in 10 mM mixed phosphate buffer, pH 6.8. Radiochromatograms of labeled cell extracts demonstrated that small-migrating molecules were not present, indicating that 1^C was incorporated into macro¬ molecules. The rate of 3<*C- release from prelabeled cells was about 2% per hour. Cells prelabeled with 3H-LEU incorporated l-^C-LEU when subcultured in ASN medium, GLU medium or 10 mM mixed phosphate buffer containing 1^C-LEU. This indicates that re incorporation of labeled amino acid into protein may result in low estimates of the rate of protein degradation. Soluble proteins from the supernatant fraction (105,000Xg) of ASN-grown cells labeled with 4C-LEU, subcultured for 0 or 4 hr in ASN or mannitol (MTL) , were separated by poly¬ acrylamide gel electrophoresis in cylindrical gels containing 6% polyacrylamide. About 20 bands were detected after stain¬ ing with 0.35% Coomassie blue. 6-Phosphogluconic dehydro¬ genase (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate [NADP+J- linked) and malic dehydrogenase (NADP+-linked) were located in the gel by enzyme assays coupled with p-nitro blue tetra- zolium and phenazine methosulphate . 6-Phosphogluconic dehy¬ drogenase (NADP+-linked) was found in ASN-grown cells but not in MTL-grown cells, whereas malic dehydrogenase (NADP+-linke 2, however, the tests are quite different, depending on exactly how the hypothesis and alter¬ natives of McNemar are extended. An example illustrates how widely the results may differ, depending on which extended framework is used. SAMPLE DESIGN AND ESTIMATION WHEN THERE IS EXTENSIVE PRIOR INFORMATION AVAILABLE : AN APPLICATION TO THE ESTIMATION OF MONETARY AGGREGATES. J. Sedransk. Federal Reserve Board, Washington, D.C. 20551 The purpose of this paper is to describe the investiga¬ tion leading to the selection of a sample in a situation where extensive historical information is present. Specif¬ ically, a sample of Federal Reserve System "member" banks is to be chosen. The objective is timely and accurate estima¬ tion of several monetary aggregates. Each variable of interest is measured as a seven day average--Thursday through Wednesday. The primary objective is to estimate, on the first Thursday following the end of a week,.2^Y^ where Yj denotes the seven day average for the i-th £ank in the population. It is important to note that census information (i.e., final values of Y^,..., Yjj) be¬ comes available with approximately a 2-3 week lag. Thus, historical information for all member banks is available from January 1968 until 2-3 weeks before the current week. Further, within a stratum, h, of banks of comparable size Yhi(t) = ^hiCt-j) + ehi where t denotes the current week, t-j a "base" week, and ehihhi(t-j)- N(0,cjfiYhi(t-j)). The investigation includes comparison of 1) various stratification variables; 2) alternative total sample sizes and sample size allocation methods; and 3) various estima¬ tors o APPROXIMATING FOREST DIAMETER DISTRIBUTIONS USING THE WE I BULL DENSITY FUNCTION. M. R. Strub* and H. E. Burkhart, Dept, of Forestry and Forest Products, VPI & SU, Blacksburg, Va. 24061 Four methods for estimating dry weight yield of planted loblolly pine (Pinus taeda L.) stands were compared. The methods tested were: (1) multiple regression techniques to predict yield from pertinant stand parameters, (2) a diameter distribution approach where tree diameters were assumed to be Beta distributed, (3) use of the Weibull density with quantile estimates of the parameters to approximate diameter distributions, and (4) application of the Weibull density with a proposed new estimator for the shape parameter: £ = In (N) / [ In (X) - ln(X(1))], where N = sample size X = sample mean X(1) = smallest observation in the sample The Weibull distribution with the proposed new estimator (Method 4) was found to provide biologically logical results within the range of observed data and to have very good predictive ability when tested with a set of independent observations . CUMULATIVE SUM CONTROL CHARTS. Marion R. Reyirids , Jr . Dept, of Statistics, Va, Polytechnic Inst . and State Univ., Blacksburg, Va. 24061. A sequence of observations taken at regular time intervals on the output of a process is a measure of the quality of the product. Assume X^, X^ , . . . are independent with E[X^] = p. and Var (Xi) -a2 (known) . Decide at stage n whether pn = p0 or whether the mean has changed to p* > p0. Observe Xn+i if pn = p0 and stop if pn = p*. The average run length (ARL) is the expected stopping time. The ARL should be large when p^ = p0 and small after p^ changes to p*. The cumulative sum control chart (CSCC) stops as soon as Sn - minQ h where Sn = Zj(X^ - p0 - k) and h > 0 and k > 0 are parameters. No exact expression for the ARL is available. Approximate the ARL for the CSCC by replacing Sn with a continuous time Brownian motion process X(t) and using the expected time until X(t) - niinQig h. The analytical expression thus obtained can be used to determine h and k so as to minimize the ARL at p*, subject to a fixed ARL at »*o« COMPUTER METHODS OF PARAMETER ESTIMATION IN SPECIES- -ABUNDANCE RELATIONS- -A PRELIMINARY REPORT. B. M. Stauffer*. Statistics Dept., V.P.I. § S.U., Blacksburg , Va . 24061 Techniques for estimating parameters in species abundance relationships are discussed. These methods are more suitable for computer processing than the graphical techniques usually used and should lead to better fitting curves. 120 The Virginia Journal of Science Symposium on Environmental Science Fifty-second Annual Meeting of the Virginia Academy of Science May 7-10, 1974, Norfolk, Virginia WIND AND SOLAR ENERGY POTENTIAL IN VIRGINIA. C.I. Aspliden, Dept, of Environmental Sciences, Univ. of Va. , Charlottes¬ ville, Va., 22903. The State of Virginia is situated east of the Appalachian mountains in a region favoured by a relatively high primary and secondary solar energy potential. The latitude is mod¬ erate so that even in winter the sun stays well above the horizon for several hours. The prevailing westerlies cover the region most of the year inducing less cloudy and rainy conditions east of the mountains than west thereof. There¬ fore, more solar heat is received here than on the average for this latitude. The precipitation that falls west of the mountains drains underground and appears as cool spring water on the eastern slopes, where it can be used for cooling pur¬ poses in summer time. Also lakes and ponds can readily be constructed to be used as reflection surfaces at low sun angles in winter time to increase area and energy reception. The windflow across the mountains is deformed in the vertical under the realistic assumption that the thermodynamic struc¬ ture of the air is relatively stable. Mass continuity re¬ quires that the windspeed increases as the air flows across the mountains. There are several situations when the two energy forms complement each other. Extraction of energy can be made on any scale, e.g. to meet the requirements of a family dwelling or the needs of a city. Research is required to locate efficient sites where large windmills could be erected to feed electricity into existing power systems and/or where solar furnaces could be built to drive steam turbines or to electrolyze water. SHORELINE SITUATION REPORTS: A TOOL FOR COASTAL ZONE MANAGEMENT. Robert Byrne , John Zeigler, Gary Anderson, William Athearn, and Carl Hobbs, III, Va. Inst. Marine Science, Gloucester Point, Virginia 23062. The importance of comprehensive planning in the util¬ ization of the resources of the coastal zone is gaining increased recognition in many nations of the world. One central facet of such considerations is the character¬ istics of the shorelands, a limited resource. Although planners frequently have a generalized idea of the im¬ portance of coastal processes much of the relevant knowl¬ edge is generally not available in a useful form. Our goal has been to supply the assessment, and at least a partial integration, of those important shore- land parameters and characteristics which will aid the planners and managers. We have given particular atten¬ tion to shore erosion and approaches to correction. In addition we include potential uses of the shoreline, particularly with respect to recreational use since such information could influence the perception of the coast by potential users. This paper illustrates the approach by exemplification using our results from the studies of the 3,000 miles of Virginia Chesapeake Bay System. Those characteristics included in the reports are : Shorelands physiographic use and ownership, classification, zoning, water quality, shore erosion, existing defenses and rec¬ ommendations, potential shore uses, distribution of marshes, flood hazard levels, and shellfish leases and public grounds. BI0METE0R0L0GY : THE SCIENCE OF ENVIRONMENT AND HEALTH. KulGip P. Chopra, Old Dominion University, Norfolk and Virginia Institute of Marine Science, Gloucester Point, Va., ana W. Maurice Pritchard, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, Virginia 23508. Biometeorology deals with the influence of environmental parameters on the physiology and pathology of living organi¬ sms anu tneir behavior. This paper reviews recent statistical data on (a) the chill factor and thermal stress in regard to human confort, (b) the effect of temperature and wind condi¬ tions on rates of births and crib deaths, (c) the seasonal pattern in the occurrence of myocardial infractions; (d) the influence of climate and weather on the physico-chemical state of blood, eye and heart, and on the incidence of asthma, bronchitis, rheumatic and heart diseases, and (e) the correlation of air quality and wind data with weekly cyclic pattern in emergency ward visits. PLANNING OF LARGE CITIES ADJACENT TO THE SEA E.G. Echeverria, Pres. Planners, Inc. Washington, D.C. 20007 Traditionally, Europeans unlike North Americans, have valued public urban waterfront for its recreation potential. By contrast, U.S. cities were built for maximum profit. Ship¬ ping, warehousing, processing & manufacturing facilities ob¬ literate view of & access to water. With change in urban e- conomies 6 technology waterfront areas have deteriorated, ma¬ king them even less compatible with urban living. So far, only tool for rebuilding water's edge has been costly, leng¬ thy 6 spotty urban renewal. Alternative: extend cities along sea in large-scale urban programs. Definition of space by heirarchy of public £ private needs to create organic unity. Project beyond existing urban patternto maximize benefits of coastal environments, using sea as modulator of climate for heat exchange, reversing cycles. Application of solar fur¬ naces, wind energy, recycling of waste waters, solid wastes to create pol i ut ion-free environments. Environmentally con¬ scious planning to protect delicate eco-systems, e.g. marshes and dunes. Suggested concepts- coastal development of self-con¬ tained linear cities (1/2-1 /A million population) along high capacity corridors. Sinuous water's edge as foil against which to build nucleated living/work centers for pedestrian journey to work. Example: Virginia Beach (Norfolk/Newport News/Hampton area). Opportunity to reorganize edge of sea in conjunction with harbor entrances £ new islands, integrating living £ work, preserving natural environments. Proceedings, 1973-1974 121 MATHEMATICAL MODELLING OF VIRGINIA ESTUARIES FOR MANAGEMENT. Ching Seng Fangy Albert Y. Kuo*and Paul V. HyerV Va. Inst, of Marine Science, Gloucester Point, Va. 23062 Recent concern with preserving or improving the quality of the water resources has precipitated a need for their intelligent management and regulation. The management function is difficult since most water bodies are subject to conflicting uses, each of which has socio-economic benefit. Regulatory agencies must decide which use or com¬ bination of uses will devolve the greatest benefits to the most people. Mathematical models have become increasingly important as a tool for scientists and engineers in the solution of a wide variety of problems. The Virginia Institute of Marine Science has been engaged in constructing water quality management models of Va. estuaries for several years, in cooperation with other state agencies. The basic premise of a mathematical model is that the system to be modeled can be more or less accurately described by one or more equations. The solutions of these equations for any given set of variables and constraints is presumed to be analogous to the response of the prototype system to equivalent inputs. Water quality models for three Va. major rivers have been completed and verified. A long term water quality monitor¬ ing program has been established. All models will be im¬ proved and verified whenever new knowledge and data infor¬ mation becomes available. VIRGINIAN SEA WAVE CLIMATE MODEL AND CONTINENTAL SHELF DEVELOPMENTS. V. Goldsmith, A-H- Sallenger, Jr., VIMS, Gloucester Point, Va., 23062, and W.D. Morris, NASA- Langley Research Center, Hampton, Virginia 23665 The presentation and analysis of the data derived from the Virginian Sea Wave Climate Model further sub¬ stantiates the general recognition that ocean wave re¬ fraction plays a dominant role in controlling the dis¬ tribution of wave energy over the continental shelf and along our coasts. Furthermore, this data illustrates how knowledge of a specific refracted wave input at a site is critical to the successful implementation of shoreline defense programs, knowledge of continental shelf sediment mobility, and the construction and main¬ tenance of coastal and offshore structures. This wave data (discussed at last year’s meeting) is being displayed as follows: (1) shoreline histograms of wave heights, wave energy and wave power. The spec¬ tral analysis of these frequency distributions suggest strong periodicities in increased wave heights and wave energy in the order of 3 to 5 mile spacing along the shore; (2) shelf contour maps of wave heights and bottom orbital velocities. This data is being made available in this synthesized format to all potential users. Thus, the synthesis of this wave climate data of the shelf will provide valuable input for all types of shoreline planning and continental shelf development. QUALITY OF AIR AMD VISIBILITY IM NORFOLK, . VIRGINIA. W. Maurice Pritchard and Kuldip P. Chopra7, Old Dominion . University, Norfolk and Virginia Institute of Marine Science! Gloucester Point, Virginia. The results of statistical analysis of climatological parameters like precipitation, prevailing winds and atmosph¬ eric conditions, and visibility for the Norfolk area are presented. The data analyzed covers the period 1960-72. The visibility and precipitation data show a trend of increasing concentration of particulate matter in Norfolk air. It appears that Norfolk has more stable wind conditions than are typical of most urban areas. The air over Norfolk is generally stable, but the prevailing winds over Norfolk do not show any preferential direction except for the land or sea breeze effects. Furthermore, the heated island effects associated with localized sources of heat like the Wards Corner and Southern shopping centers may induce circulation patterns of their own. These conditions of air and wind, together with the knowledge of the sources of heat and air pollution produce useful information regarding the quality of regional air and the concentration and removal of pollutants for purposes of land-use applications. INTERACTION OF LAND USE AND AIR QUALITY IN NORFOLK, VIRGINIA. Wallace Reed, Dept, of Environment Science, Univ. of Va. , Charlottesville, Va. , 22903 and John E. Lewis, Jr., Dept, of Geography, Univ. of Md. , College Park, Md. , 207^2. Recent Federal decisions and proposed national land use legislation will require reevaluating land use strategies to achieve specified air quality standards. As an example, current and future concentrations of sulfur dioxide (SOg) are estimated for the Norfolk, Va. area using present land use patterns, pollutant emissions and meteorological data, by means of a Gaussian diffusion model, AQDM. Given Norfolk's air flow characteristics and land use patterns, only a small area in the northern section of Norfolk has concentrations above the national and state primary standards of 80 micro¬ grams per cubic meter. On this basis air quality standards can be met with only minor modifications in the current emissions control plan. However, if existing air quality is not to be degraded, future growth will require considering alternative locations and levels of emission for industrial and other types of land use. AIR POLLUTION DISPERSION MODELING FOR NORFOLK AREA. N. T. Stephens, E. S. Hougland*, Dept, of Civil Engineering, Va. Polytechnic Institute and State Univ. , Blacksburg, Va. 24061 This study, which is currently in progress, is designed to determine the distribution of airborne sulfur dioxide and particulate matter in Norfolk and surrounding areas. Comput¬ erized mathematical dispersion models based on the so-called "Gaussian" plume model, are being used to determine ground level concentrations of these two atmospheric pollutants based on an emissions inventory supplied by the Regional office of the Virginia Air Pollution Control Board in Virginia Beach, and meteorological data from the NOAA. Results from this study provide an opportunity for evalu¬ ation of various alternate air pollution control strategies, and for studying the impact of proposed land use patterns in the region. Existing levels of concentration of these pollu¬ tants are available in tabular or isopleth plot form for analysis. Changes due to additions or modifications to current emission sources may be compared with existing patterns very readily. In addition to these forms of data output, the program provides a tabular display of the percentage contribution of all sources to the highest computed concentrations, thus permitting selective source evaluation and control. As might be anticipated, the regions of highest pollutant concentrations are downwind of major sources of these pollu¬ tants, however, the role of "area" or "non-point" sources in pollutant concentrations in some areas is surprising. General Notice To Contributors The Virginia Journal of Science heartily welcomes for consideration original articles of technical or general interest on all phases of mathematics, the natural, physical and engineering sciences. Submis¬ sion of an article for publication implies that the article has not been published elsewhere while un¬ der consideration by the Journal. All articles should be typewritten (double-spaced) and submitted on good bond paper (8V2 X 11 inches) in triplicate to the Editor. Margins should not be less than 1!4 inches on any border. Title, running title, authors, place of origin, abstract, fig¬ ures, legends, tables, footnotes, and references should be on individual pages separate from the text. Technical abbreviations should follow consistent standard practices with careful avoidance of un¬ necessary neologistic devices. All pages (including illustrations) should be consecutively numbered in the upper right corner. A pencil notation of author names on the back of each page is helpful in identi¬ fication. Illustrations should be supplied in a form suitable for the printer with attention to the fact that a reduc¬ tion in size may be necessary. A good technical article generally contains an obligatory abstract before the text, an introduction, with reference to preliminary publications that may exist, an experimental section, results (which may be included in the experimental section), a discus¬ sion, and conclusion. References are indicated in the body of the article by consecutively used numbers in parentheses. Although publication costs are high, attention should be given to relatively complete ref¬ erences (bibliographies) since the purpose of an article is to illuminate the significance of present and past findings, and not merely to obscure the past. The Journal reserves the right (generally exer¬ cised) to make page charges for articles in excess of 5 pages and to bill authors at cost for unusually complicated illustrative material. Abbreviation of journals for references can be found in the 4th edition of the World List of Scien¬ tific Periodicals, Butterworth, Inc., Washington, D. C., 1963, and supplements. References should be checked carefully. The form of presentation is illustrated below: 1. Aiyar, A. S., and Olson, R. E., Fedn Proc. Fedn Am. Socs exp. Biol., 23, 425 (1964). 2. Chappell, J. B., Cohn, M., and Greville, G. D., in B. Chance (Editor), Energy linked functions of mitochondria, Academic Press, Inc., New York, 1963, p. 219. 3. Riley, G. A., and Haynes, R. C., Jr., J. biol. Chem., 238, 1563 (1963). MEMBERSHIP The Academy membership is organized into sections representing various scientific disciplines. Addressograph plates of all members are coded by a section number. The First Number indicates the member’s major interest and enables Section Officers to more easily contact their members. #1. Agricultural Sciences 2. Astronomy, Mathematics & Physics 3. Microbiology (Bacteriology) 4. Biology 5. Chemistry 6. Materials Science 7. Engineering 8. Geology 9. Medical Sciences 10. Psychology 1 1 . Science Teachers 12. Statistics 13. Space Science and Technology 14. 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Their support is gratefully acknowledged: American Filtrona Corporation The American Tobacco Company Babcock and Wilcox Company Bunton Instrument Co. Carolina Biological Supply Co. Dow-Badische Company E. I. duPont de Nemours & Co., Inc. Ethyl Corporation First and Merchants National Bank General Electric Co. General Scientific Merck and Company, Inc. National Fruit Product Co. Newport News Shipbuilding & Dry Dock Co. Philip Morris and Co., Inc. A. H. Robins Company, Inc. Southern Bank & Trust Company Southern States Cooperative, Inc. United Virginia Bank Universal Leaf Tobacco Co., Inc. Virginia Chemicals, Inc. Virginia Electric and Power Company Westinghouse Electric Corporation Wheat, First Securities, Inc. VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE OFFICIAL PUBLICATION OF THE VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE Vol. 25 No. 3 1974 TABLE OF CONTENTS 129 132 136 141 147 152 161 Some Helminth Parasites from Dogs of Roanoke County, Virginia and a Review of their Clinical Importance Ronald A. Campbell Paul R. Merriman’s Flora of Richmond and Vicinity. The First Publication of the Committee on Virginia Flora Howard M. Smith Observation of in situ Concentrations and Production of Organic Matter in an Antarctic Lake Bruce C. Parker, Jeffrey T. Whitehurst and Robert C. Hoehn Experimental Cage Culture of Channel Catfish Strains in Virginia Vaughan M. Douglass and Robert T. Lackey Smoking and Multiple-Task Performance T. R. Schori and Barbara W. Jones Cynareae (Asteraceae) in Virginia: Cirsium, Carduus, Onopordum Miles F. Johnson Science Teachers Section The Development and Evaluation of an Audio-Tutorial Approach in the Introductory Biology Laboratory Martin C. Mathes 164 News and Notes THE VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Official Publication of the Virginia Academy of Science EDITOR DAVID A. WEST SECTION EDITORS Gerald R. Taylor, Jr. Astronomy, Mathematics and Physics Maurice P. Lynch Biology Robert G. Bass Chemistry William J. Breedlove, Jr. Engineering W. Maurice Pritchard Environmental Sciences Stephen Cupschalk Materials Science Herbert Friedman Psychology Elva Aukland Science Teachers James N. Moss Space Science and Technology Edward Meydrech Statistics BUSINESS MANAGER (Position temporarily vacant) Published quarterly by The Virginia Academy of Science, Department of Biology, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061. Second-class postage paid at Richmond, Vir¬ ginia. Manuscripts for publication (other than section abstracts) and books for review should be sent to the Editor, Dr. David A. West, Department of Biol¬ ogy, V.P.I. and S.U., Blacksburg, Virginia 24061. Proof, edited manuscripts, and all correspondence re¬ garding accepted papers should be sent to the Editor. Advertising and Business Office: All correspon¬ dence relating to advertising and business affairs should be directed to Business Manager, Virginia Journal of Science, c/o Department of Biology, V.P.I. and S.U., Blacksburg Va. 24061. The Virginia Academy of Science and the Editors of the Virginia Journal of Science assume no re¬ sponsibility for statements or opinions advanced by contributors. © Copyright, 1974, by the Virginia Academy of Science. Business and Subscription Information All remittances and orders for advertising and subscriptions should be sent to the Business Man¬ ager, Virginia Journal of Science, c/o Department of Biology, V.P.I. and S.U., Blacksburg, Va. 24061. Changes of address should be sent promptly to Blanton M. Bruner, Executive Secretary-Treasurer, Virginia Academy of Science, P. O. Box 8454, Richmond, Virginia 23226. Changes of address must include both new and old addresses with zip code. Subscription rates for 1974: $10.00 per year, U.S.A.; Canada and other countries of the Pan- American Union, $10.50 per year; all other foreign countries, $11.00 per year. All foreign remittances must be made at par U.S. dollars or the foreign equivalent. U.S. dollar remittance is suggested to avoid currency fluctuation problems and possibly unfavorable exchange rates. Back issues are available for some years at $3.00 per issue plus postage. The front cover is by Douglas C. Hensley. Canine Helminths from Roanoke County, Virginia 129 Some Helminth Parasites of Virginia and a Review of Abstract — Examination of 20 stray dogs from Roanoke County, Virginia for parasitic helminths resulted in the recovery of nine species: Ancylostoma caninum, Toxocara cams, Trichuris vulpis, Pliysaloptera sp., Dipylidium cani¬ num, Mesocestoides lineatus, Mesocestoides variabilis, Taenia pisiformis, and Echinochasmus schwartzi. Results agree with similar studies involving larger numbers of hosts. Multiple infections were found in nine dogs and involved as many as four species of helminths. Echinochasmus schwartzi is reported from Virginia for the first time and constitutes the third report of this trematode from a dog in the United States. The relation of these parasites to public health is discussed. Many helminth parasites of dogs are of clinical importance because they are transmissible in some stage of their life history to man or livestock. Several helminths that occur as adults in the alimentary tract of dogs may also occur as adults in man (13, 24). In addition, dogs harbor several adult helminths which may parasitize man as larvae (3, 11, 22, 23, 24). Several types of canine parasitic nematodes may induce human larva migrans (6). Reports have documented ophthalmic nematodiasis ( Ancylostoma , Toxocara; 1, 2, 3, 20), cutaneous larva migrans ( Ancylostoma ; 6), nematodiasis of the central nervous system ( Toxocara ; 22, 23), and visceral larva migrans ( Ancylostoma , Toxocara; 5, 6, 10, 14, 19). The nematode larvae of Toxocara cams and T. cad appear to be the principal etiological agents of visceral larva migrans, T. cams being the most common and most dangerous to humans. Beaver (5, 6) has summarized the role of animal parasites in causing human disease and has found those of household pets to be increasingly important. Knowledge of the helminths harbored by dogs in a given area is an indicator of potential danger to small children, especially boys aged about two years (21), who may become infected by ingesting infec¬ tive eggs by direct or accidental geophagy (23). The association of dogs with livestock and unsanitary conditions make possible the completion of the life history of Trichinella spiralis, or tapeworms of the genus Echinococcus whose larvae produce a high mortality in man. Va J. Sci., 25, 129-131 Fall 1974 Ronald A. Campbell Department of Biology Southeastern Massachusetts University North Dartmouth, Massachusetts 02747 Manuscript received February 26, 1973 Revised copy received April 5, 1974 Dogs from Roanoke County, their Clinical Importance The ascarid, T. canis, and the hookworm, Ancylostoma caninum are of considerable veterinary importance in temperate zones. These nematodes are debilitating to adult dogs and potentially fatal to puppies. The distribution of certain helminths such as the insect-borne heartworms, Dirofilaria spp., are also of special interest because they are lethal to dogs and have been reported from humans (12). Although veterinarians are aware of many of the species of helminths of cats and dogs in a given geographic locale a review of the literature revealed that no such survey has been published from Vir¬ ginia. The following data are desirable, therefore, for medical as well as veterinary interests as they may serve as a reminder of the importance of edu¬ cating pet owners in proper animal care. Materials and Methods The 20 adult dogs examined during this study were selected at random by the dog warden from the Roanoke County Dog Pound, Salem, Virginia. Following terminal sedation with Nembutol each dog was immediately examined according to the follow¬ ing procedure: two thick blood smears were pre¬ pared for staining with Wright’s blood stain; several cc of peripheral blood were removed by venipunc¬ ture, hemolyzed with distilled water, centrifuged for five minutes at 1,500 r.p.m., and examined for microfilariae; gross microscopic and artificial diges¬ tion techniques were employed in examining portions of the masseter and diaphragm muscles for larvae of T. spiralis; the heart, lungs, liver, spleen, pancreas, and kidneys were removed and dissected; gross examination of the alimentary tract was followed by division of the tract into its respective topographic portions and placement in individual Baerman fun¬ nels filled to the tissue level with 0.9% physiological saline and warmed overnight by incandescent lights. Trematodes and cestodes recovered were relaxed by chilling in a refrigerator in saline solution, fixed in A.F.A., and stained in Semichon’s aceto carmine or Mayer’s carmalum. Nematodes were fixed in hot glycerine alcohol. All helminths were mounted ac¬ cording to standard procedures. 130 The Virginia Journal of Science Results and Discussion In a total of 20 stray dogs examined, 650 hel¬ minths of nine species were recovered: Trematoda (1) ; Cestoda (4); and Mematoda (4). The species recovered are those that would be routinely expected except for Mesocestoides lineatus, Mesocestoides variabilis, and Echinochasmus schwartzi which are of special interest as new distribution records for helminths of dogs. Species of Mesocestoides are in¬ frequently encountered in dogs and this is the third report of E. schwartzi in the United States. The previous two reports were from the District of Columbia (7) and a survey of trematodes of cats and dogs in New Jersey by Burrows and Lillis (9) in which they redescribed the species. Although the infection data are based on a rela¬ tively small number of hosts, they are in agreement with findings of other investigators whose data were based on a larger numbers of dogs (16, 18, 19). Only two of the 20 dogs examined were negative for helminths. Of the nine infections involving only one species of helminth five were either the roundworms T. canis or A. caninum. Three of the four remaining single infections involved the tapeworm Dipylidium caninum and one involved M. variabilis. Multiple infections were common, occurring in nine hosts. Of these, one produced two species of helminths, six showed three species, and two in¬ volved four species. Of the two multiple infections involving four species, one comprised T. canis and the tapeworms D. caninum, Taenia pisiformis, and M. lineatus. The second consisted of T. canis, A. caninum, D. caninum, and E. schwartzi. The cestode D. caninum was the most common helminth en¬ countered (12 hosts) and was found in all nine multiple infections. Toxocara canis was the most frequently encountered nematode (nine hosts) with an average worm burden of 20.1 per dog. No specific correlation was noted between the number of speci¬ mens of a particular helminth present and single or multiple infections. The three most abundant species recovered, D. caninum (60%), A. caninum (30%), and T. canis (45%), are common helminths causing zoonoses involving dogs (6, 25). Ancylostoma caninum and T. canis are infective for man as larvae and pose special danger to children because of their behavior. Children may acquire cutaneous larva migrans (in¬ vasion of the skin by infective larvae of A. caninum ) by playing in a sandbox or on moist soil on which dogs or cats have previously defecated. Visceral larva migrans may be caused by ingestion of eggs of T. canis whose larvae cause lesions in such organs as the heart, liver, lungs, and brain during their migra¬ tion. Passive ingestion of eggs of T. canis may occur by allowing the infected dog to lick about the hands or face, or by accidental geophagy. Beaver (6) has remarked on the resourcefulness of T. canis in being able to complete its life history by four differ¬ ent methods: (1) ingestion of embryonated eggs; (2) ingestion of an intermediate host containing infective larvae; (3) transplacental transmission from the bitch to unborn pups; or (4) ingestion of advanced stage larvae from the feces of a young pup. The first of these methods is undoubtedly the cycle inducing visceral larva migrans in man but the report by Bisseru et al. (8) of an intestinal infection by T. canis adults in a 16-month old girl is of in¬ terest because it indicates that the fourth method is also possible for man. Reports of human infection with helminth para¬ sites of cats and dogs have been numerous in recent years but infections of humans by species of Meso¬ cestoides are rare. Gleason and Healey (13) re¬ viewed the literature on the six reported infections of Mesocestoides in humans noting that M. lineatus was implicated in three cases, M. variabilis in two cases, and possibly a new species in one case. Both M. lineatus and M. variabilis were found in separate infections in this study. Kotlan (17) regarded infec¬ tions of dogs with Mesocestoides species as harmless but the cause of severe diarrhea in humans. Re¬ search by investigators on the life history of Meso¬ cestoides indicates that infections occur after inges¬ tion of the tetrathyridia (infective larval stage) found in a variety of wild and domestic birds, snakes, frogs, and rodents. Asexual multiplication of tetrathyridia may occur in dogs (10) but there is no evidence that they may be passed from dogs to humans. According to Voge (26), species of Mesoces¬ toides, although commonly found in a variety of hosts including dogs, are not well defined. Identifica¬ tion is hampered because precise data, including morphological as well as biometric, are inadequate or contradictory. More recent studies (16) indicate that host-induced variations are involved. My speci¬ mens of M. lineatus are in agreement with the de¬ scription given by Voge in her review of the genus. However, specimens of M. variabilis had a notably smaller strobilar length (1.5-4 cm) but agreed with Voge in all other morphological details. The small size of these worms is not considered of taxonomic significance because it may be the result of intra¬ specific competition resulting from the heavy infec¬ tion (64 worms). Abnormalities such as proglottid reversal and variable position of vitelline glands were also noted. Prevention of human infection by these helminths involves the proper administration of antihelminthics to cats and dogs as advised by a veterinarian, pro¬ tection of playgrounds by fences, screening of sand¬ boxes, and teaching children not to eat dirt or allow dogs or cats to lick their hands or faces. Acknowledgments — The author gratefully acknowledges the direction and collaboration of Dr. H. L. Holloway, Jr. at Roanoke College, Salem, Virginia (now Head of Depart¬ ment of Zoology, University of North Dakota); and the cooperation of the Roanoke County Dog Pound. Literature Cited 1. Ashton, N., Br. J. Ophthal., 44, 129 (1960). 2. Baldone, J. A., Clark, W. B. and Jung, R. C., Am. J. Ophthal., 57, 763 (1964). 3. Beaver, P. C., Vet. Med., 49, 199 (1954). 4. Beaver, P. C., Expl. Parasit., 5, 587 (1956). 5. Beaver, P. C., Pediatrics, 22, 380 (1958). 6. Beaver, P. C., J. Parasit., 55, 3 (1969). 7. Becklund, W. W., Am. J. vet. Res, 25, 1380 (1964). Canine Helminths from Roanoke County, Virginia 131 8. Bisseru, B., Woodruff, A. W. and Hutchinson, R. I., Brit. med. J ., 25, 1583 (1966). 9. Burrows, R. and Lillis, W. I., /. Parasit., 51, 570 (1965). 10. Eckert, J., von Brand, T. and Voge, M., J. Parasit., 55, 241 (1969). 11. Ehrenford, F. A., Am. J. trap. Med. Hyg., 6, 166 (1957). 12. Faust, E. C., Z. Tropenmed. Parasit., 8, 59 (1957). 13. Gleason, N. and Healy, G., J. Parasit, 53, 83 (1967). 14. Heiner, D. C. and Keny, S. V., New Engl. J. Med, 254, 629 (1956). 15. Hinman, H. and Baker, D. D., J. Parasit., 39, 101 (1936). 16. James, H. A., Ph.D. Thesis, Iowa State Univ., Diss. Abstr. 29/09B/3541 (1969). 17. Kotlan, A., Helmintliologie, Akademia Kiado, Budapest, 1960. 18. Mann, P. and Bjovedt, G., Lab. Anin. Care, 15, 102 (1963). 19. Muhleisen, J. P., Ann. intern. Med., 38, 595 (1963). 20. Nadbath, R. P. and Lawlor, P. P., Am. J. Ophthal., 59, 486 (1965). 21. Snyder, C. H., Pediatrics, 28, 85 (1961). 22. Sprent, J. F. A., J. Parasit., 40, 608 (1954). 23. Sprent, J. F. A., Parasitology, 45, 31 (1955). 24. Sprent, J. F. A., Parasitology, 45, 41 (1955). 25. Sprent, J. F. A., Helminth. Abstr., 38, 333 (1970). 26. Voge, M., Univ. Calif. Pubis. Zool., 59, 125 (1955). 27. Worley, D. E., J. Am. vet. med. Ass., 144, 42 (1964). 132 The Virginia Journal of Science Howard M. Smith Department of Biology University of Richmond Richmond, Virginia 23173 Manuscript received July 31, 1973 Paul R. Merriman's Flora of Richmond and Vicinity: The First Publication of the Committee on Virginia Flora Virginia is one of only seven states in the United States which has never had a complete flora written about the plants found within its boundaries. Publi¬ cations concerning the plants of local areas in the state are also relatively scarce, and the best one of these, Paul R. Merriman’s Flora of Richmond and Vicinity, is a much-neglected work. This paper is concerned with the circumstances surrounding the publication of Merriman’s Flora, its importance in the history of botany in Virginia and the reasons for its neglect. Merriman (Fig. 1) was born at Jordan, New York, on 17 July 1882. In 1903 he earned an A.B. degree from Miami University of Ohio and was employed as a science teacher and principal in various New York state schools until 1916. In 1917 he went to Rochester to serve as instructor in biology in the West High School and held that position until 1920 when he was appointed associate professor of botany at the University of Richmond. He was a student at the 1912 summer session at Harvard and studied at Cornell each summer from 1915 to 1920. He earned his M.S. degree from that uni¬ versity in 1921 and was promoted to professor of botany at Richmond in 1923. He taught all of the botany courses there until 1925 when he had a very severe nervous collapse and never again completely recovered his health. Later in 1925 Merriman moved to Fairport, New York, where his wife’s family lived, and remained there for the rest of his life (1 ). Merriman began collecting in the Richmond area as soon as he arrived in 1920 and was assisted by one of his students, Miss Mary Smith Lynn who later did all of the illustrations for the manual (2). They had completed the work by 1925, but publi¬ cation was delayed due to Merriman’s health for he wrote to Miss Lynn from New York in January 1926 that he had been so ill that he had “. . . not been able to do anything on the book as yet. . . .” (3). It is possible that it never would have been published had it not been for the efforts of Dr. Ivy F. Lewis, Miller Professor of Biology at the University of Vir¬ ginia and chairman of the Committee on Virginia Flora. This committee, one of the oldest of the Va J. Sci., 25, 132-135 Fall 1974 Virginia Academy of Science, existed to encourage the development of a state flora — a project having Lewis’ enthusiastic support. Writing about the his¬ tory of the committee in 1934, he recalled, “The first publication of the Committee on Vir¬ ginia Flora was the Flora of Richmond and Vicinity by Paul R. Merriman, formerly professor in the University of Richmond. This was made possible by a State appropriation of $1,000 in¬ serted in the budget of Virginia by Governor Byrd after a conference with Dr. J. S. Horsley, Dr. E. C. L. Miller, Professor Garnett Ryland Fig. 1 — Paul Robinson Merriman. Paul R. Merriman’s Flora of Richmond and Vicinity 133 (then President of the Academy) and Mr. Lewis representing the Committee. The appropriation became available in 1930 and resulted in the publication of Mr. Merriman’s manuscript, excel¬ lently illustrated by Miss Mary S. Lynn.” (4) On 17 January 1931 Lewis wrote to Miss Lynn that the manual would not be put on sale until February but that he was sending her an advance copy (5). The same letter contains all of the publi¬ cation information about the book. Two thousand copies were printed — 1800 in paperback and 200 in hard covers (Fig. 2). In addition, six copies were bound in red leather, . . one for the author, one for the Governor [Pollard], one for former Governor Byrd, one for the president of the Academy [Ryland], one for the secretary [Miller] and one for the chairman of the Committee [Lewis] which devoted some time and effort to getting the necessary work done.” (6) The manual itself is an impressive scientific work even though it was to the amateur and not the pro¬ fessional botanist that Merriman directed it. In the foreword he stated that he wrote the book in “. . . response to requests from teachers, Scout- leaders and Nature-lovers who have desired a field manual of wild herbs and shrubs that is reasonably accurate and not too difficult.” (7) The book deals with only part of the vascular flora of the area, omitting the ferns and all species of trees, grasses, sedges and rushes. Merriman thought the trees were adequately dealt with in R. Chapin Jones’ Common Forest Trees of Virginia, the first edition of this pamphlet having been published in 1922 (8). It was also devoted to the needs of the amateur for Jones wrote that it did not . . pretend to be a complete scientific key for the botanist and the forester. It is intended for the general public. . . .” (9) Quite obviously Jones’ pamphlet was for the same audience Merriman envisioned, so he did not feel compelled to repeat Jones’ work in his own manual. Merriman thought the grasses, sedges and rushes were too difficult for the beginning student and furthermore, Miss Lynn was at that time working up the grasses of the Richmond area for her master’s thesis (10). The model Merriman chose for his book was that of the seventh edition of Gray’s Manual (11). The nomenclature is substantially the same as Gray’s and detailed descriptions of all the plants are given with the common and scientific names for each. Keys for determining families, genera and species are included as well as a glossary, an index of common and scientific names and a frontispiece of diagrams illustrating the morphology of leaves, stems and flowers. Collecting localities are not given for each plant (nor are they in Gray’s Manual) but they were chiefly in Henrico and Chesterfield Counties with some specimens taken from Hanover, Goochland, Powhatan, Amelia, Dinwiddie and Nottoway Coun¬ ties (12). The manual describes about 700 species and over one half of them are illustrated by particu¬ larly fine drawings done from the living plant by Miss Lynn (Fig. 3). In short, given its aim and scope, it was a well- done work and was recognized as such by profes¬ sional botanists around the state. Ivy Lewis saw it as a standard which other local flora committees should try to emulate (13) and A. B. Massey spoke of its “. . . very considerable interest and impor¬ tance. . . .” (14). Dr. C. R. Williams of Washington, D.C., appraised it as “. . . the most satisfactory local flora I know in both form and contents. . . .” (15). Considered historically, not only was Merriman’s work the first publication of the Committee on Vir¬ ginia Flora, it was the first manual produced in Virginia’s history. Plant collecting began very soon after Virginia was discovered in the 17th century and the flora of the state has continued to attract botanists. However, the only major publication con¬ cerning Virginia plants prior to Merriman’s was Gronovius’ in 1739 (16). It is an annotated list of plants and not a manual in the proper sense since it contains only descriptions of the plants and not keys (17). Furthermore, Merriman’s book was the only manual for any part of the state until the publi¬ cation of A. M. Harvill’s, Spring Flora of Virginia in 1970 (18). Given its importance, the neglect of Merriman’s book must now be explained, and it is due to at least two circumstances. The first of these is that the flora was only locally publicized and was never reviewed in a scientific journal. Just prior to the sale of the book, Lewis wrote to Miss Lynn that he was . . planning to send out a folder, describing the book, to as good a list of prospects as we can find, have the newspapers review the book, and in other ways try to bring it to the attention of interested people.” (19) I do not know the fate of the folder, but he did succeed in having the Richmond newspapers review the book on four occasions. All of these were com¬ plimentary but none done by a trained botanist and, Fig. 2 — The three bindings of the Flora of Richmond and Vicinity. 134 The Virginia Journal of Science Fig. 3 — Plate 3 of the Flora, illustrated by Mary Smith Lynn. of course, they were of limited circulation, particu¬ larly insofar as the scientific community was con¬ cerned. Associated with this lack of publicity is the fact that after Merriman no Virginia botanist was interested in the flora of the Richmond area, and no publications about it came out until 1937. In the meantime, and in fact even before the manual was published, an event occurred which had serious consequences for the acceptance of the work. On the night of 21 October 1925, the science build¬ ing at the University of Richmond burned, and all of the collections upon which Merriman had based his descriptions were destroyed in the fire. It is precisely for this reason that M. L. Fernald of Harvard University rejected Merriman’s work. Fer¬ nald was director of the Gray Herbarium and a world-renowned figure in botany, in addition to being the most active person working with the Vir¬ ginia flora from 1933 to 1947. During that period he collected in the state almost every year and pub¬ lished several lists of plants with complete descrip¬ tions (20). He visited the region covered by Merri¬ man’s manual in the summer of 1936, and in the report of this trip, Fernald dismissed the Flora of Richmond and Vicinity because, “Merriman gave no localities and his collections were destroyed by fire so that there is no way now to tell just what he had before him.” (21) This is certainly the most serious reason why the value of Merriman’s work is diminished for the professional botanist today. In the continuing effort to develop a state flora, it is essential that voucher specimens be available in order to check identifica¬ tions and make necessary revisions in nomenclature. Names applied to plants by Merriman almost 50 years ago cannot now be accepted without the veri¬ fication of identification afforded by a re-examination of the precise specimens which he saw. Even so, this admittedly serious drawback is no reason for the complete rejection of the book by professional botanists. Much of the Berlin herbarium, the largest in the world at the time, was destroyed during World War II, but the vast number of books written citing specimens deposited there were by no means disregarded after the war. These works were substantiated by further collections and renewed efforts in the areas concerned, and this is precisely what is needed for the counties surrounding Rich¬ mond. It is a fascinating botanical area where floral elements of the inner coastal plain and piedmont regions meet — well worth renewed efforts by every¬ one interested in the conservation and description of the state’s botanical resources. Finally, the importance of Merriman and his manual to the history of botany in Virginia has not diminished at all and, whatever the fate of his actual specimens, his interest and efforts insure him a place in the first rank of Virginia botanists. Literature Cited and Notes 1. Biographical details are taken from Bailey, J. W., Biology at the University of Richmond, Richmond, 1934, p. 44, and from the University of Richmond catalogues for 1920-1925. 2. Miss Lynn still lives near the University of Richmond campus, and to her I am deeply indebted for allowing me to examine and copy the correspondence between Merriman and her concerning the Flora of Richmond and Vicinity. 3. Private correspondence of Mary S. Lynn, 39 Towana Road, Richmond, Virginia. Hereafter, Lynn corresp. Merriman to Lynn, 17 January 1926. 4. Lewis, I. F., Claytonia, 1, 5 (1934). The James River Garden Club also donated $25.00 for the Flora. 5. Lynn corresp. Lewis to Lynn, 17 January 1931. 6. Ibid. 7. Merriman, P. R., Flora of Richmond and Vicinity, Richmond 1930, p. 7. The book was published without ever being copyrighted. Lynn corresp. Lewis to Lynn, 20 February 1931. 8. Jones, R. C., Common Forest Trees of Virginia, Char¬ lottesville, 1922. Bull. #26 of the Va. Geological Com¬ mission. 9. Ibid., p. 2. 10. Lynn, M. S., Gramineae, Vicinity of Richmond, Va., unpublished M.S. thesis, University of Richmond, 1925. This work contains a list of 70 species with collecting localities but no keys or descriptions. 11. Robinson, B. L. and M. L. Fernald, Gray’s New Manual of Botany, 7th ed., New York, 1908. 12. Merriman, l.c., p. 7. 13. Lewis, l.c., p. 5. 14. Massey, A. B,, Commonwealth, 6, 16 (1939). 15. Lynn corresp. Copy of letter from C. R. Williams to John Dunn, 15 February 1931. Dr. John Dunn was a Richmond physician and was interested in the local orchids. His collection was donated to the State Her¬ barium. Lewis, l.c., p. 5. 16. Gronovius, J. H., Flora Virginica, Leiden, 1739. Paul R. Merriman’s Flora of Richmond and Vicinity 135 17. I use the definition of “manual” as in Lawrence, G. H. M., Taxonomy of Vascular Plants, New York, 1960, p. 288-290. 18. Harvill, A. M., Jr., Spring Flora of Virginia, Privately printed, 1970. 19. Lynn cor res p. Lewis to Lynn, 17 January 1931. 20. Partial references to these are given in Blake, S. F., and Atwood, A. C., Geographical Guide to Floras of the World, New York, 1967, p. 218-219. 21. Femald, M. L., Rhodora, 39, 325 (1937). 136 The Virginia Journal of Science Bruce C. Parker Jeffrey T. Whitehurst Department of Biology and Robert C. Hoehn Department of Civil Engineering Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University Blacksburg, Virginia 24061 Manuscript received November 23, 1973 Observations of in situ Concentrations and Production of Organic Matter in an Antarctic Meromictic Lake Abstract — During the 1972-73 field season, unexpected and heretofore undetected high concentrations of total or¬ ganic carbon were detected at various depths in Lake Bonney. Striking fluctuations in organic matter occurred throughout the field season, suggesting an annual cycle of photosynthetic production and dark or photoassimilation by the unique microbial communities in this permanently ice- covered and stratified polar lake. Field and laboratory ex¬ periments with carbon- 14 isotope further support the as¬ sumption that the microbial community of Lake Bonney is well adapted to a rapid in situ annual production and recycling of organic matter. Introduction Lake Bonney, located in the Taylor Valley, South Victoria Land, Antarctica, is a meromictic lake stratified both thermally and chemically with a fresh¬ water mixolimnion from about 3.5 to 10 m, a chemocline from 10 to 15 m, and a monimolimnion from 15 to 35 m. With the exception of a narrow moat of water which forms late in the austral summer around a part of the shoreline, this lake is covered permanently with rough ice 2.5 to 4.0 m thick. Workers who have studied this lake for one or more scientific objectives include Angino and Armitage (1), Angino, Armitage, and Tash (2), Hoare, Popplewell, House, Henderson, Prebble and Wilson (9), Ragotzkie and Likens (12), Shirt- cliffe (14), Goldman (6) (7), Goldman, Mason, and Hobbie (8), Yamagata, Torii, and Marata (16), Torii, Yamagata, and Cho (15), Benoit, Hatcher and Green (4), Armitage (3), Koob and Leister (10). Of these investigators, only Goldman (7) and Koob and Leister ( 10) conducted studies of primary productivity, and no one has examined the organic carbon in Lake Bonney or any comparable Ant¬ arctic lake. Va J. Sci., 25, 136-140 Fall 1974 This report of organic carbon in Lake Bonney is part of a comprehensive research program aiming to characterize and understand the community me¬ tabolism of the lake and to develop a mathematical model describing it. Hence, organic carbon has been measured in the first field season and will be mea¬ sured in subsequent field seasons as it represents one parameter important to an understanding of the lake’s total metabolism. As this first season’s data may contribute new insights to Lake Bonney and other lakes of the dry valleys, we have sought to report our organic carbon data along with our pre¬ liminary interpretations here. Materials and Methods Figure 1 shows an outline of Lake Bonney, which is approximately 97 km by helicopter from the United States’ year-round McMurdo Station. The approximate locations from which our water sam¬ ples were taken include Holes I and II located over the deep basins of the East and West lobes of the lake, Hole III near the shallower south side of the East lobe, and Hole IV at the shallow channel con¬ necting the two lobes. Temporary holes were made through 2. 5-3. 5 m of permanent ice using a 5 in. diam. Sipre drill and rig powered by a small generator and electric motor. Sampling dates during the field season usually coin¬ cided with those for other measurements but also depended on weather conditions and logistic sup¬ port. The 1972-73 field season at Lake Bonney is the longest yet to be reported for continuous bio¬ logical or chemical studies; previous studies often were for one or two weeks only. Samples were collected in either a Kemmerer water bottle or a sterilized, Pyrex glass, vacuum- filled bottle. Within 48 hr. of collection, water was Production of Organic Matter in an Antarctic Meromictic Lake 137 Fig. 1 — Outline of Lake Bonney showing approximate locations of sample holes in the permanent lake ice. prepared for analysis of total organic carbon (TOC) and dissolved organic carbon (DOC), employing the wet oxidation procedure of Menzel and Vac- caro (11) and using the total carbon system manu¬ factured by Oceanography International, College Station, Texas. Removal of particulates for DOC was accomplished by filtration at a slightly reduced pressure through a Gelman type A, glass fiber filter which had been combusted at 400°C for two hr. to remove organic contaminants. In the field, 3 ampoules for each analysis at each depth were purged and sealed with the necessary reagents. The sealed ampoules were returned to VPI & SU for subsequent analysis several months later. Also, water from Lake Bonney was fixed with 1 ml/1 of cone FLSO4 and transported to VPI & SU for the purpose of validating field data by a com¬ parative study of the accuracies of the wet oxidation method of Oceanography International’s total carbon system and the combustion method for total organic carbon using a Beckman model 915 total organic carbon analyzer, Beckman Instruments, Fullerton, Calif. Both methods employed fresh standard curves using standard solutions of dried reagent grade or¬ ganic compounds. Results Table 1 summarizes data from the comparison TABLE 1 Comparison of Total Organic Carbon ( mg C/l) Obtained by Oceanography International's Wet Oxidation and Beckman Instruments Combustion Methods for Lake Bonney Water Samples Lake Lobe Depth (m) Date Wet Oxidation (Mean of 5 Replicates) Combustion (Mean of 5 Replicates) (90% Confidence Limits) EAST 3.5 1-6-73 1.6 1.2 0.9-1. 6 EAST 7.5 1-6-73 4.0 3.2 2.2-4. 3 EAST 12.5 1-6-73 7.0 7.1 6. 5-7. 7 EAST 14.5 1-14-73 17.8 17.3 16.3-18.3 EAST 24.5 1-22-73 24.3 32.2 31.0-33.4 WEST 5.5 1-24-73 1.6 0.14 0-0.5 WEST 9.5 1-24-73 14.5 10.6 9.3-11.9 WEST 17.5 1-24-73 13.5 12.2 10.3-13.1 WEST 24.5 1-24-73 20.5 19.8 18.5-21.1 WEST 31.5 1-24-73 19.5 19.2 17.6-20.8 138 The Virginia Journal of Science of wet oxidation and combustion methods. Of the 10 samples, 8 gave higher mean values for wet oxidation than for combustion. In six of the 10 samples the combustion method gave means for which the 90% confidence limits were not signifi¬ cantly different from those given by the wet oxidation method. Thus, generally good agreement was ob¬ tained between the analytical methods. Furthermore, the accuracy of the combustion method was checked by the method of standard additions (using internal standards with Lake Bonney water), and the re¬ sponse of the instrument to changing concentrations was linear over the range 0-50 ppm C. Figures 2 and 3 show graphically values obtained for total organic carbon for various depths, dates, and sampling sites. While we have omitted DOC data because of apparent greater variability between replicates, we are reasonably certain that dissolved organic carbon constitutes the main bulk of this total organic matter. Lines drawn to connect points at successive depths are not intended to imply TOC concentrations at intermediate depths which were not sampled. Especially interesting are the seasonal changes in TOC apparent in Hole I (Fig. 2) at 4.0 and 7.5 m. TOC was below 5 mg/1 in November at these depths, exhibited a dramatic increase by December 8, and then subsided by the later dates. TOC changes at lower levels also suggest increases in the East lobe of Lake Bonney between November and December. Hole II shows a clearly different pattern of changes. TOC differences between Holes I and II were not unexpected because numerous other chemical and physical differences also have been found and may be illustrated by some of our temperature profiles (Figs. 4 & 5). A small increase in TOC on De¬ cember 8 seems to have occurred at Hole II between 3. 5-6.0 m, as with Hole I, but the pattern below this depth generally lacks any obvious similarity with the East lobe of Lake Bonney. Hole III data on Decem¬ ber 16 resembles somewhat Hole I data for De¬ cember, but a noticeable difference is the apparent peak in TOC at about 8 m which occurred at Hole I but not in Hole III. Hole IV data might be envisioned as intermediate between Holes I and II, as might be expected from its intermediate location. This hole at the channel goes to a maximum depth of about 9 m, and as this lake is meromictic, the two lake lobes are relatively independent on one another. Discussion This paper reports the first data on organic matter in Lake Bonney or any comparable Antarctic eco¬ system. In spite of the obvious limitations of these mg.C/ liter Fig. 2 — Total organic carbon via wet oxidation at various depths and for various dates at two sites located in the East lobe of Lake Bonney. Production of Organic Matter in an Antarctic Meromictic Lake 139 mg.C/liter Fig. 3 — Total organic carbon via wet oxidation at various depths and for various dates at two sites located in the West lobe of Lake Bonney. preliminary data, it is apparent that relatively high concentrations of organic matter occur in this lake. Smaller, more maritime lakes located near the U. S. Palmer Station on the Antarctic Peninsula have considerably lower concentrations of organic mat¬ ter (13). Our TOC data, chiefly by the wet oxida¬ tion method, further demonstrate the following: (1) Seasonal changes in TOC generally occur in different patterns for the East and West lobes; these different patterns in the two lobes of Lake Bonney are also reflected by other physical and chemical data and tend to reinforce the idea that the East and West lobes of Lake Bonney are relatively separate and distinct, communicating only through the narrow connecting strait, which goes to 9 m deep. (2) The apparent sudden increase in TOC at 4.0 and 8.0 m in Hole I suggests a possible surge in phytoplankton primary production in the East lobe during early December, an interpretation compatible with the observation by Koob and Leister (10) of extreme oxygen supersaturation, which was also ob¬ served during the 1972-3 field season. (3) Change in TOC in the deep highly saline water of Lake Bonney (Holes I & II) could be due to seepage input rather than production in situ; seepage input has been suggested by other measure¬ ments, but with respect to TOC, the Taylor Valley lake basin in relatively devoid of biotic activity which might impart appreciable allochthonous organic matter to the lake, except perhaps for a few small glacial melt streams. (4) Extensive 14C primary productivity data col¬ lected by us and currently under interpretation also suggest the possibility of short-term seasonal surges in production of organic matter for the East lobe of Lake Bonney. On the basis of both the wet oxidation and com¬ bustion methods, Lake Bonney clearly possesses a large reservoir of organic matter, the ecological sig¬ nificance of which currently must remain speculative. We suggest that while much organic matter in Lake Bonney may be of long-term origin, perhaps even concentrated by evaporation, at least a significant fraction of the total is produced and recycled an¬ nually in the ecosystem. Rates of microbial decom¬ position have been considered slow at the existing low temperatures (4), and our observations and those of others (3, 10) suggest that consumers play 140 The Virginia Journal of Science TEMPERATURE, °C Fig. 4 — Select temperature profiles taken at Hole I for four dates. only trivial roles in the carbon cycle of this perma¬ nently ice-covered lake. Most of the annual organic matter production is probably in the form of dis¬ solved extracellular material derived directly from photosynthesis, for example as suggested by Fogg and Horne (5). Laboratory studies with benthic algal mat communities from Lake Bonney in which light Fig. 5 — Select temperature profiles taken at Hole II for four dates. and temperature conditions were simulated, showed that as much as 75% of the total photosynthetically fixed 14C was extracellular (Parker, unpubl.). These laboratory results, hence, support our suggestion that much of the organic matter in Lake Bonney is autochthonous and of recent origin. Possibly also photorespiration and photoassimilation may have developed to maximum capability within the algae of this polar meromictic lake. Less than 3% of the incident light penetrates the ice and no more than 0.5% reaches the bottom in some cases, and for an appreciable period of each year low fluxes of solar radiation reach the lake. A metabolic capacity to use low levels of light for photophosphorylation and production of high energy phosphate and re¬ duced nucleotides, and thus for the assimilation of extracellular organic matter and concomitant growth, would constitute desirable characteristics for any photosynthetic organism in this lake. Subsequent field seasons and laboratory experiments will be aimed at testing these hypotheses. Acknowledgments — This research was supported by grant GV-35171XI from the Office of Polar Programs of the National Science Foundation. Also, we are grateful to Harold G. Sugg, Jr., Edmund B. Wodehouse, and other 1972-73 field team members for collection and preparation of water samples for subsequent analysis. Literature Cited 1. Angino, E. E., and Armitage, K. B., /. Geol., 71, 89 (1963). 2. Angino, E. E., Armitage, K. B., and Tash, J. C., Limnol. Oceanogr., 9, 207 (1964). 3. Armitage, K. B., in Parker (Editor), Proceedings of the Colloquium on Conservation Problems in Antarctica, VPI & SU, Blacksburg, Virginia, 163 (1972). 4. Benoit, R., Hatcher, R., and Green, B. W., in Cairns (Editor), The Structure and Function of Fresh-Water Microbial Communities, VPI & SU, Blacksburg, Vir¬ ginia, 281 (1971). 5. Fogg, G. E., and Horne, A. J., in Holdgate (Editor), Antarctic Ecology Academic Press Inc., London, 622 (1970). 6. Goldman, C. R., in Holdgate (Editor), Antarctic Ecology, Academic Press, New York, 609 (1970). 7. Goldman, C. R., in Carrick, Holdgate, and Prevost (Editors), Biologie Antarctique, Hermann, Paris, 291 (1964). 8. Goldman, C. R., Mason, D. T., and Hobbie, J. E., Limnol. Oceanogr., 12, 295 (1967). 9. Hoare, R. A., Popplewell, K. B., House, D. A., Hender¬ son, R. A., Prebble, W. M., and Wilson, A. T., Nature, Land., 202, 886 (1964). 10. Koob, D. D., and Leister, G. L., Antarctic Research Series, 20, 51 (1972). 11. Menzel, D. W., and Vaccaro, R. F., Limnol. Oceanogr., 9, 138 (1964). 12. Ragotzkie, R. A., and Likens, G. E., Limnol. Oceanogr., 9, 412 (1964). 13. Samsel, G. L., Jr., and Parker, B. C., Va J. Sci., 22, 111 (1971). 14. Shirtcliffe, T. G. L., /. geophys. Res., 69, 5257 (1964). 15. Torii, T., Yamagata, N,, and Cho, T., Antarctic Rec., 28, 1 (1967). 16. Yamagata, N., Torii, T., and Murata, S., Antarctic Rec., 29, 53 (1967). Cage Culture of Channel Catfish 141 Vaughn M. Douglass and Robert T. Lackey Department of Fisheries and Wildlife Sciences Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University Blacksburg, Virginia 24061 Manuscript received December 19, 1973 Experimental Cage Culture of Channel Catfish Strains in Virginia Abstract — Three strains of channel catfish, Ictalurus punctatus (Rafinesque), from the southeastern United States were cultured in cages to select a strain that would attain marketable size during the relatively short Virginia growing season. Strains were compared in terms of yield, survival, mean weight, food conversion, coefficient of condition, and percent marketable fish. Statistical analysis indicated that the Kansas strain was significantly different from both the Arkansas and North Carolina strains, but the latter two were not significantly different with respect to yield, mean weight, food conversion, and percent marketable fish. Finan¬ cial analysis, conducted to evaluate feasibility of culturing channel catfish in cages moored in small farm ponds, showed that catfish would have to be sold for more than $.610 per kg ($. 277/lb.) to make the operation profitable. Cage culture of channel catfish is possible in Virginia, but is not generally recommended for small farm ponds unless exten¬ sive preliminary test culture is undertaken at the proposed site. Introduction Production of channel catfish, Ictalurus punctatus (Rafinesque), in agricultural waters is a new and promising farm industry. During the past decade, channel catfish farming in the United States has become a multimillion dollar enterprise. Most cat¬ fish production occurs in the central Mississippi Delta Region, but the industry has recently expanded into other states. Annual catfish production has risen from 12,500,000 kg in 1968 to an estimated 35,400,000 kg in 1972 (12). Cage culture is a production method that has re¬ cently received considerable attention. This method consists of rearing fish from fingerlings to marketable size in cages enclosed on all sides by wooden slats, hardware cloth, or netting that allows free circulation of water through the enclosure. Cage culture has a number of advantages over pond culture: (1) sev¬ eral types of aquatic environments may be used, such as lakes, rivers, reservoirs, irrigation canals, and estuaries; (2) different species can be cultured together, i.e. channel catfish in cages and largemouth bass and bluegill in open water; (3) feeding activity and general health of fish can be readily observed; (4) harvest is easily accomplished by removing Va J. Sci., 25, 141-146 Fall 1974 cages from the water; and (5) diseases and parasites can be efficiently treated. Disadvantages include: (1) the relatively high cost of cages; (2) the neces¬ sity of providing a nutritionally-complete feed; and (3) a greater susceptibility to fish to lower concen¬ trations of dissolved oxygen. There are many cage designs currently in use. The most common cage shape is rectangular. A wood or angle-iron frame is covered with nylon netting, plastic mesh, or galvanized mesh wire and floated by styrofoam blocks or metal drums. Cage size is limited because waste products must disperse rapidly to surrounding water, but the cage must be deep enough to prevent fish from fighting (14). Cage location affects catfish production. Cages that produce the best yield are usually those with a large surface area exposed to water currents. Water exchange in the cage must be sufficiently frequent to dilute waste products and replenish dissolved oxygen (16). To enhance water circulation further, cages should be placed at least 0.5 m from the bottom (10). Water temperature is one of the most important factors affecting fish growth. Temperature affects metabolic rate which influences both food conver¬ sion efficiency and growth rate. Optimum food conversion and maximum growth in channel catfish have been attained at temperatures between 29°C and 30°C (19, 2). Catfish production is poor when water temperature is below 20°C, and catfish usually cease feeding when water temperature is lower than 10°C (17, 5). Daily feeding rates of 2 to 5% of the body weight are acceptable (18). Inefficient food conversion rates are obtained at feeding rates in excess of 5%. Most efficient utilization of food occurs at rates between 2 to 4%. Growth rates decrease as feeding rates are reduced below 2%, and the time required to produce a marketable fish increases. In cases where feed has an exceptionally high protein con¬ tent, feeding at levels of 3% or more may be ineffi¬ cient (9). Catfish receiving one-half of their feed twice daily have more efficient food conversion rates than those fed once per day (6, 5). Estimations of the optimum stocking density 142 The Virginia Journal of Science (largest number of fish that can be efficiently reared to marketable size in a given volume of cage) vary due to differences in pond size and character¬ istics. Schmittou (16) recommended a stocking rate of 500 fish per cubic meter of cage, while Collins (5) indicated that the optimum stocking density ap¬ peared to be between 200 and 300 fish per cubic meter of cage. Schmittou worked with ponds varying from 0.5 to 4.2 ha in size while Collins conducted his research in a shallow bay, approximately 0.04 ha in area. Virginia does not have a commercial channel catfish industry. Of the 1500 farm ponds in Pitt¬ sylvania County, Virginia, an estimated 790 were found to be suitable for catfish culture (7). Use of these ponds could result in establishment of a limited catfish industry producing an estimated 860,000 kg of marketable fish per year. Research indicated that it is biologically feasible to raise channel catfish in at least some Pittsylvania County ponds (11), but due to the relatively short growing season a stocking size of at least 150 mm was recommended. In an attempt to refine cage culture techniques in Virginia, strains of channel catfish from different southeastern regions were grown in cages during the 1972 growing season. Cage culture was used be¬ cause most Virginia farm ponds cannot be easily drained or have irregular bottoms making conven¬ tional harvesting methods difficult. Specific objectives of this research were: ( 1 ) to determine if there was a difference in the yield of three strains of channel catfish, and (2) to evaluate the feasibility of growing channel catfish in cages moored in small farm ponds in Virginia. Study Areas Roher Pond, a 0.6 ha tobacco irrigation impound¬ ment, is located in northern Pittsylvania County and was selected because of a subjective determination that the pond was suitable for either cage or pond culture. Roher Pond has a mean depth of 1.0 m and a maximum depth of 3.0 m. The pond is located in a depression surrounded on two sides by wooded land, but has excellent wind exposure in the north- south direction. Runoff and springs are the only water sources. Salem Pond, located at the Veterans Administra¬ tion Hospital, Roanoke County, was also selected. This pond is larger and deeper than Roher Pond, having a surface area of 1.4 ha, and a mean and maximum depth of 1.3 m and 4.0 m, respectively. The pond is rectangular and was created by filling a “borrow pit” with water pumped from the Roanoke River. Other water sources include runoff and springs. Methods Three strains of channel catfish were acquired from commercial dealers in Arkansas (Leon Hill Catfish Hatchery, Lonoke), Kansas (Four Corners Fish Farm, Topeka), and North Carolina (Hunting Valley Fish Farm, Chapel Hill). Each strain was native to the state from which it was obtained. Eighteen cages, purchased from the Pockman Manufacturing Company, were modified so that 1.0 cubic meter of water was contained within each cage. Cages were covered by 12 x 25 mm mesh galvanized wire and had a styrofoam floatation collar. A 0.8 X 0.3 X 0.3 m, 6 mm mesh, galvanized wire feeding well was attached to the top-center of each cage to prevent feed from washing out of the cage. Two ropes (approximately 6 m apart) were stretched across each pond. Five cages were attached to one rope and four to the other so that they were spaced approximately 2 m apart. Fish were fed once daily six days per week at the rate of 3.0% body weight. The calculated amount of food for each cage was weighed and then placed in the feeding well to minimize food loss. Purina Floating Trout Chow (Developer 6) was used throughout the experiment. Records of water temperatures for each pond were maintained by suspending Ryan Recording Thermographs 0.75 m below the surface of the water. Monthly mean and range of water tempera¬ tures were later determined for both ponds. In May, test lots of 330 fish of each strain (Ar¬ kansas, Kansas, and North Carolina) were counted and randomly assigned to separate cages with three replicates in each pond. The Arkansas strain was considered to be the control because it originated from commercial brood stock currently used by many catfish farmers in the southeast. A sample of 200 fish was weighed during stocking to determine the mean weight of the fish in each cage. Sampling was not conducted during the grow¬ ing season as Holmes, Douglass, and Lackey (11) and W. M. Lewis (personal communication) indi¬ cated that this disturbance would cause the fish to stop feeding temporarily. At the end of the study, the fish in each cage were counted and weighed, and a sample of 50 fish was randomly selected to deter¬ mine a coefficient of condition for the fish in each cage. For each pond, analysis of variance was used to determine if there was a significant difference be¬ tween treatments (strains) in yield, survival, mean weight, food conversion, coefficient of condition, and percent marketable fish. Duncan’s new multiple- range test was used to make comparisons between treatment means. Roher Pond was selected for a financial analysis. The North Carolina strain was used to determine the cost of the fingerlings as the high shipping charge incurred in the purchase of the other two strains was unrealistic for a production operation. Costs and revenues were determined in a manner similar to that used by Douglass and Lackey (8). Results Feeding was initiated immediately after the May stocking and fish began to consume food within a few days. Feeding continued for 63 days in Salem Pond and 139 days in Roher Pond. During those periods, fish in Salem Pond were fed 485 kg of food while those in Roher Pond consumed 2,290 kg. Feeding activity appeared to be normal and con¬ tinued without interruption throughout the growing Cage Culture of Channel Catfish 143 season. The fish in each cage consumed their allot¬ ment of food within 15 minutes. Water temperatures during the study ranged from 18°C to 26°C (May 4 to July 15) in Salem Pond and 17°C to 27°C (May 4 to October 5) in Roher Pond (Table 1). Monthly mean temperatures in the ponds were not found to be significantly different. Water temperature remained above the point at which channel catfish have been observed to cease feeding (10°C). However, water temperatures never reached 29 °C, the optimum temperature for efficient food conversion and maximum growth rate. During June, an aquatic weed problem developed in Salem Pond. Southern naiad (Najas guadalupensis) was observed growing in the shallow half of the pond. Aerators were used continuously to prevent a sudden drop in the dissolved oxygen concentra¬ tion and Karmex (an aquatic weed toxicant) was applied at the rate of 1.0 mg/1 to the affected area of the pond. Unfortunately, the dissolved oxygen level near the cages dropped to less than 1.0 mg/1 (even with the aerators) during the early morning of July 13. The low dissolved oxygen concentration caused a complete fishkill in the cages. Channel catfish free in the pond were presumed to have moved to the more highly oxygenated half of the pond while those confined in cages could not escape and died. All necessary data were taken immediately after the fishkill. The caged fish in Roher Pond fed actively and seemed to behave normally throughout the growing season. However, on the morning of October 2 approximately 98% of the fish were found dead. No abnormal behavior was noted during the previous evening feeding. Temperature and oxygen readings taken at 10:00 A.M. on October 2 showed the pond to be stratified with 4.5 mg/1 of dissolved oxygen at a depth of one meter. Samples of fish tissue were taken to be analyzed for herbicides and pesticides and a complete water and sediment analysis was later conducted. Results did not indicate toxic levels of herbicides, pesticides, or heavy metals, and the water quality appeared to be normal. However, it is assumed that the fishkill in Roher Pond was also a result of reduced dissolved oxygen levels, occurring in early morning. The yield (total weight) of fish in each cage (replicate) was determined by weighing the fish in lots and summing the weights of each lot (Table 2). Analysis of variance showed a significant difference in the yield of the three strains in Salem and Roher Ponds (P < 0.01 and P < 0.001, respectively). Duncan’s new multiple-range test did not indicate a significant difference between the Arkansas and North Carolina strains, but the lower yield of the Kansas strain was found to be significantly different from the other two (P < 0.05 ) . Survival of the fish in each cage was determined on a percentage basis by dividing the number of survivors before the fishkills by the number of fish stocked (Table 3). Analysis of variance showed no significant difference in strain survival of either pond. The mean weight of the fish was calculated by dividing the yield by the number of survivors before TABLE 1 Monthly range and mean water temperatures for Salem and Roher Ponds Temperature (°C) Pond Month Low High Mean Salem May 21 23 21.2 June 18 25 22.7 July 22 26 23.9 Roher May 17 18 17.6 June 18 23 19.9 July 21 27 23.0 August 23 27 24.8 September 22 27 24.1 October 19 21 20.0 the fishkills (Table 4). Significant differences were found in the mean weight of the fish in both ponds (P < 0.05 Salem Pond; P < 0.01 Roher Pond). Duncan’s test again showed no significant differences between the Arkansas and North Carolina strains, but did indicate a significant difference (P < 0.05) with regard to the Kansas strain which had lower mean weight values. Food conversion (the efficiency of converting food to flesh) was determined by dividing the amount of food fed over the growing season by the weight gain per cage (Table 5). Analysis of variance showed a significant difference in the food conversion of the fish in Salem Pond (P < 0.05) and Roher Pond (P < 0.001). Duncan’s test showed no significant difference in food conversion in both ponds between Arkansas and North Carolina strains, but the Kansas strain which had a poor food conversion value was found to be significantly different (P < 0.05). Coefficient of condition, a statistic that indicates the relative robustness of a fish in numerical terms, was determined by the method of Lagler (13) with the exception that weight was multiplied by a factor TABLE 2 Yield of three strains of channel catfish in Salem and Roher Ponds Strain Cage Yield (kg) Mean Yield (kg) Salem Roher Salem Roher Arkansas 1 45.7 154.3 2 44.3 152.8 45.0“ 152.2* 3 44.9 149.6 Kansas 1 40.7 138.5 2 33.9 135.8 35.8 136.4 3 32.7 134.8 North Carolina 1 42.7 147.1 2 44.0 150.6 43.3“ 150. 2* 3 43.2 152.8 “ Values not significantly different from other strains in Salem Pond (a = 0.05). b Values not significantly different from other strains in Roher Pond ( a = 0.05). 144 The Virginia Journal of Science table 3 Survival of three strains of channel catfish in Salem and Roller Ponds Survival (%) Mean Survival (%) Strain Cage Salem Roher Salem Roher Arkansas 1 98 98 2 96 96 3 96 90 96.7“ 94. lb Kansas 1 98 100 2 97 98 3 82 100 92.3“ 99. 3* North Carolina 1 80 82 2 82 84 3 94 98 85.3“ 88. 0* ° Values not significantly different from other strains in Salem Pond (a = 0.05). 6 Values not significantly different from other strains in Roher Pond (a = 0.05). of 105 to bring the value of coefficient of condition (total length) near unity (4) (Table 6). Analysis of variance showed a significant difference between the strains in Salem Pond (P < 0.01) and Roher Pond (P < 0.01 ). Duncan’s test showed a significant (P < 0.05) difference between North Carolina and both Arkansas and Kansas strains in Salem Pond and a significant difference in all three strains in Roher Pond. In Salem Pond the North Carolina strain had the best coefficient of condition, but in Roher Pond the Kansas strain had the best coeffi¬ cient of condition. A sample of fish from each cage was separated TABLE 5 Food conversion of three strains of channel catfish in Salem and Roher Ponds Strain Cage Food Conversion Mean Food Conversion Salem Roher Salem Roher Arkansas 1 1.81 1.84 2 1.90 1.86 1.86“ 1.876 3 1.86 1.90 Kansas 1 2.17 2.07 2 3.01 2.12 2.80 2.11 3 3.22 2.14 North Carolina 1 2.01 1.94 2 1.92 1.89 1.97“ 1.906 3 1.98 1.86 “ Values not significantly different from other strains in Salem Pond (a = 0.05). b Values not significantly different from other strains in Roher Pond ( a = 0.05). into weight classes to estimate the percentage of marketable fish (Table 7). Mitchell and Usry (15) indicate that the minimum size acceptable for proc¬ essing is 340 g. The number of fish in the sample above this weight were designated as marketable. Due to the July fishkill in Salem Pond, none of the fish attained a marketable size. In Roher Pond analysis of variance showed a significant difference between strains (P < 0.05), and Duncan’s test indi¬ cated a significant difference between the Kansas strain and both the Arkansas and North Carolina strains (P < 0.05) which had a greater percentage of marketable fish. Financial analysis conducted for Roher Pond shows cage culture of channel catfish profitable if TABLE 4 Mean weight of three strains of channel catfish in Salem and Roher Ponds Strain Cage Mean Weight (g) Average Mean Weight (g) Salem Roher Salem Roher Arkansas 1 141 477 2 139 482 140“ 48 76 3 141 503 Kansas 1 126 419 2 105 420 117 416 3 121 408 North Carolina 1 161 542 2 162 537 154“ 517'- 3 139 473 “ Values not significantly different from other strains in Salem Pond (a = 0.05). b Values not significantly different from other strains in Roher Pond (a = 0.05). TABLE 6 Coefficient of condition of three strains of channel catfish in Salem and Roher Ponds Strain Cage Coefficient of Condition Mean Coefficient of Condition Salem Roher Salem Roher Arkansas 1 0.86 0.87 2 0.80 0.88 0.82“ 0.886 3 0.80 0.88 Kansas 1 0.88 0.95 2 0.91 0.97 0.86“ 0.96b 3 0.78 0.97 North Carolina 1 1.23 0.90 2 1.23 0.94 1.17 0.92b 3 1.06 0.90 ° Values not significantly different from other strains in Salem Pond ( a = 0.05). 6 Values not significantly different from other strains in Roher Pond (a = 0.05). Cage Culture of Channel Catfish 145 the fish can be sold for more than $.610 per kg ($. 277/lb.) (Table 8). Costs and revenues indicate that catfish farming can become an income supple¬ ment for small operations in at least the southern portion of Virginia, if a market exists. Discussion The following results should be considered in the evaluation of the three channel catfish strains: (1) statistical analysis indicates the Kansas strain was significantly different from the Arkansas and North Carolina strains in yield, mean weight, percent marketable fish, and food conversion; (2) the Kansas strain had lower mean values for every statistic with the exception of a higher coefficient of condition in Koher Pond; and (3) in this study, the North Carolina fish would have to be sold for more than $.610 per kg to make the operation profitable. Yield is dependent upon food supply, competition, survival, and food conversion which is basically temperature dependent. In the study the amount of food and the temperature remained constant between cages and the level of competition in the cages was assumed to be the same because the fish were of the same species and size. Usually with a low survival, a low yield can be expected. However, the Kansas strain had the best overall survival, but the yield was the lowest. This was due to the smaller size of the fish. Furthermore, the North Carolina strain had the lowest survival, but was not significantly different in yield from the Arkansas strain. Because survival does not seem to influence yield in this study directly, food conversion would most likely be the factor to affect yield. Yields obtained in the study do appear to follow this reasoning. The Arkansas strain had the lowest mean food conversion and produced the greatest yield while the Kansas strain had the highest food conversion and produced the lowest yield. Food conversion rates compare favorably with commer¬ cial catfish farming operations. Adrian and Mc¬ Coy (1) reported that the average food conversion for commercially grown channel catfish was approxi¬ mately 1.90, but Collins (5) obtained an average food conversion of 1.32 for caged channel catfish under research conditions. The overall survival of the strains was high in comparison to other work (11) when a mean sur¬ vival of 60.4% was obtained for caged fish, but was lower when compared to experimental cage culture where survival rates of approximately 97% were obtained (16). The number of survivors in each cage partially influenced the mean weight of the fish. If survival remains constant, fish producing a greater yield should have a greater mean weight, and conversely, fish producing lower yields should have low mean weights. The Arkansas and North Caro¬ lina strains produced essentially the same yield, but due to the lower survival of the North Carolina strain greater mean weight values were obtained. Formulas have been developed by relating length and weight to represent the relative plumpness of a fish in numerical terms. The coefficient of condition has been derived for this use; objective comparisons TABLE 7 Percent marketable fish oj three strains of channel catfish in Salem and Roller Ponds Marketable Mean Marketable Fish Fish (%) (%) Strain Cage Salem Roher Salem Roher Arkansas 1 0 96 2 0 96 0“ 97. 0b 3 0 98 Kansas 1 0 64 2 0 88 0“ 77.3 3 0 80 North Carolina 1 0 92 2 0 90 0° 92. 05 3 0 94 ° Values not significantly different from other strains in Salem Pond (a = 0.05). 6 Values not significantly different from other strains in Roher Pond (a = 0.05). can be made with this coefficient under different geographical or time situations (3). A robust fish will show a higher coefficient than a thin specimen and will usually yield more useable flesh after proc- TABLE 8 Financial analysis of channel catfish cage production in Roher Pond excluding pond construction costs Annual Expenses Fingerlings (2,000, 175 mm, @ $.075 each) $150.00 Food (308. 6 kg, @ $0.25 /kg) 77.15 Labor Daily checking and feeding (69.5 hrs @ $1. 65/hr) 114.66 Harvesting (3.0 hrs @ $1.65 /hr) 4.95 Equipment Cages (amortized at 8% for 3 years) (6 cages @ $52.00 each X 0.388) 121.05 Feed scale (amortized at 8% for 3 years) ($22.00 X 0.388) 8.54 Oxygen kit (amortized at 8% for 3 years) ($14.00 X 0.388) 5.43 Rope (amortized at 8% for 3 years) (550 m @ $12.00 X 0.388) 4.65 Interest on borrowed capital (fingerlings @8%) 12.00 (food and labor @ 4%) 7.89 Total $506.32 Returns (expected) 829 kg fish @ $0. 66/kg ($0.30/lb) 547. 14 @ $0.88/kg ($0.40 /lb) 728 . 52 Less expenses — 506 . 32 Net returns to land management and other fixed costs before taxes /year /0. 6 ha pond @ $0.66 /kg ($0.30 /lb) 40.82 @ $0.88/kg ($) .40/lb) 222.20 Breakeven Price* $0.610/kg ($0.277 /lb) * Transportation cost excluded, the breakeven price for the Arkansas and Kansas strains was $0.574/kg (0.260/lb) and $0,801 kg ($0.364 /lb), respectively. 146 The Virginia Journal of Science essing. Conflicting results were obtained with regard to the coefficient of condition of the strains. In Salem Pond the North Carolina strain had the highest coefficient, while in Roher Pond the Kansas strain had the highest. Possibly, a comparison of this nature cannot be validly made because coefficients of condition are known to vary with age and pond environments (13). Due to the July fishkill at Salem Pond, none of the fish reached a marketable size. The quantity of fish attaining a marketable size is an important consideration in catfish farming, as profits will be substantially diminished if only a small percentage of the yearly crop of fish is marketed. Approximately 89% of the fish in Roher Pond were of a market size (>340 g). Generally, Duncan’s new multiple- range test does not show any significant differences between the Arkansas and North Carolina strains. If shipping costs are not high, the Arkansas or North Carolina strains would appear to produce the great¬ est profit on a yearly basis. High shipping costs can be reduced by combining orders of fish so that they arrive on the same shipment; or the farmers could eventually establish a fingerling production facility. However, at the present time it would be more reasonable to utilize the North Carolina strain. The hatchery producing these fish is within a reasonable shipping distance from most locations in southern Virginia. Transportation costs, therefore, would be substantially reduced. With regard to the methodology of cage culture, some suggestions can be made as a result of the study. Emphasis should be placed on selecting a suitable pond, and the various physical and chemical parameters of the pond must be carefully consid¬ ered. The dissolved oxygen levels of the ponds utilized in this study appeared to have caused the major problems. Hatcher (10) recommends a dis¬ solved oxygen level of at least 5 mg/1. At levels lower than this the fish may not die but can be stressed. The resultant weakening of the fish makes them more susceptible to disease. Ponds used for cage culture should have most of their surface area exposed to wind action or receive adequate flushing to aerate the water and permit dilution of waste products. Rooted aquatic weeds should be kept to a minimum as respiration during the night and over¬ cast days will lower the dissolved oxygen level in the pond. The cages should be placed far enough apart and in positions relative to each other so that wind-induced water currents and water circulation will not be inhibited. Finally, cage culture in small ponds is not generally recommended for southern central Virginia as the chances of oxygen depletion are high during hot summer months when there is no facility for aeration. Acknowledgments — This study was financed by Pittsyl¬ vania County Community Action, Inc. through the Office of Economic Opportunity. Literature Cited 1. Adrian, J. L. and McCoy, E. W., Costs and returns of commercial catfish production in Alabama, Agricult. Exp. Station, Bulletin #421, Auburn, Univ., Auburn. 23 pp. 2. Avault, J. W., Fish Farming Industries, 2, 28 (1971). 3. Bennett, G. W., Management of lakes and ponds, Rein¬ hold Co., New York, 1971. 4. Carlander, K. D., Handbook of freshwater fishei-y biology, Iowa State Univ. Press, Ames, 1969. 5. Collins, R. A., Proc. Ann. Conf. S. E. Assoc. Game and Fish Commissioners, 24, 489 (1970). 6. Deyoe, C. W., Tiemeier, O. W., and Suppes, C., Progres¬ sive Fish-Culturist, 4, 187 (1968). 7. Douglass, V. M. and Lackey, R. T., Va J. Sci., 24, 89 (1973). 8. Douglas, V. M. and Lackey, R. T., Va. Agr. Econ., 249, 2 (1973). 9. Hastings, W. H., Channel catfish growth response to test feeds, Commercial Fish Farming Conf., Univ. of Georgia, Athens, 1969, pp. 23-25. 10. Hatcher, R. M., Catfish farming in Tennessee. Tennessee Game and Fish Commission, Knoxville, no date. 11. Holmes, D. W., Douglass, V. M. and Lackey, R. T., J. Tenn. Acad. Sci., 49, 74 (1974). 12. Jones, W. G., Market prospects for farm catfish produc¬ tion. Commercial Fish Farming Conf., Univ. of Georgia, Athens, pp. 26-29. 13. Lagler, K. F., Freshwater fishery biology, Wm. C. Brown Co., Dubuque, Iowa, 1956. 14. Lewis, W. M., The Catfish Farmer, 4, 5 (1969). 15. Mitchell, T. E., and Usry, M. I., Fish farming — a profit opportunity for Mississippians, Mississippi Research and Development Center, Jackson, 1967. 16. Schmittou, H. R., Proc. Ann. Conf. S. E. Assoc. Game and Fish Commissioners, 23, 226 (1969). 17. Simco, B. A., and Cross, F. B., Univ. Kans. Pubis. Mus. nat. Hist., 4, 191 (1966). 18. Swingle, H. S., Proc. Ann. Conf. S. E. Assoc. Game and Fish Commissioners, 12, 63 (1958). 19. West, B. W., Growth, food conversion, food consump¬ tion, and survival at various temperatures of the chan¬ nel catfish, Ictalurus punctatus ( Rafinesque ), M. S. Thesis, Univ. of Arkansas, Fayetteville (1966). Smoking and Multiple-Task Performance 147 T. R. Schorl and Barbara W. Jones Research Center Philip Morris U.S.A. Richmond, Va. 23261 Manuscript received February 20, 1974 Smoking and Multipie-Task Performance Abstract — Smokers, smokers-deprived, and nonsmokers performed a complex task, consisting of 5 subtasks, for an extended period of time at two levels of task com¬ plexity. Only on one subtask, on one of the 2 performance measures obtained, were differences as a function of smoking condition evident. Specifically, on that subtask, response latencies for nonsmokers were shorter than those for smokers and smokers-deprived at the high level of task complexity but longer at the lower level. Since performance differences were not more prevalent, it was concluded that for all practical purposes, smoking had no effect on per¬ formance. Consistent with earlier reports (13, 15), smokers ex¬ perienced fewer significant mood changes during the course of the testing session than did smokers-deprived and non- smokers. However, this was only true at the low level of task complexity. At the high level, smokers experienced more mood change. This suggests that the relationship between smoking and mood change may be dependent upon the nature of the situation involved. Introduction Numerous investigators have concerned them¬ selves with the effects of smoking on psychomotor performance. In studies by Frankenhaeuser and her associates (1, 2, 3), hand steadiness in smokers was found to be impaired following smoking, con¬ firming similar findings by Edwards (4). Thus, the conclusion reached by Carver in the 1920’s (5), that the immediate effect of smoking appears to be a decrease in accuracy of finely coordinated reac¬ tions, is apparently still quite appropriate. Some investigators (6, 3) have found simple reaction times to be faster in smokers than in smokers-deprived while other investigators (7, 8) have found no differences. Gotten, et ah (9) rel ported an increase in reaction times, in comparison to a pre-smoking base-line, for a short period follow¬ ing smoking. Unfortunately, although Gotten, et al. tested smokers under smoking and smoking-depriva¬ tion conditions, they did not indicate whether or not differences between groups had occurred. In choice reaction time tasks, Fay (7) reported smokers to have faster reaction times than smokers-deprived while Frankenhaeuser, et al. (2) and Myrsten, et al. (3) reported no differences. The tasks employed by these investigators fre- Va J. Sci., 25, 147-151 Fall 1974 quently occur as components of work situations. However, in the studies cited, the subject was only required to perform a single task at a time. In actual work situations, the human’s function is seldom so limited. Typically his task consists of a number of subtasks which he must perform simultaneously (10, 11). The effects of smoking upon performance in complex, multiple-task situations have not been thoroughly evaluated. And, as Smith, et ah (12) pointed out, multiple task performance is not neces¬ sarily predictable from a knowledge of single task performance. Heimstra, et ah (13), however, re¬ quired smokers, smokers-deprived, and nonsmokers to perform a simulated driving task which required divided attention among four subtasks. Although no differences were detected between smokers and non- smokers, both groups performed better than did smokers-deprived on two of the subtasks. From this, it would appear that depriving smokers of cigarettes may have a detrimental effect upon performance in a complex task situation. If so, would the effect become more pronounced in a still more complex task? In the present investigation, performance of smokers, smokers-deprived, and nonsmokers was compared in a multiple-task situation at two levels of task complexity, the lower level of complexity probably being roughly comparable in complexity to the task utilized by Heimstra, et al. (13). Methods A pparatus Subjects were required to perform a complex task consisting of three visual monitoring subtasks (meter, white-light, and red-light), an auditory monitoring subtask, and a mental arithmetic subtask, all of which were performed simultaneously. For the four monitoring subtasks, the subject monitored the appropriate displays for the occurrence of a brief signal (2 sec.) which consisted of a needle deflec¬ tion for the meter subtask, an illuminated lamp for the white and red-light subtasks, and white noise via head phones to either the left or right ear for the auditory subtask. The displays associated with the visual monitoring subtasks were located on a vertical display panel positioned in front of the subject (Figure 1). It can be seen from this figure 148 The Virginia Journal of Science that there were six meters, four white lights, and two red lights to be monitored in conjunction with the meter, white-light, and red-light subtasks. On a horizontal response panel in front of the subject, also shown in Figure 1, there was an array of buttons which corresponded to the displays for the visual monitoring subtasks. Near the subject’s feet were two foot buttons corresponding to the auditory subtask displays. When a signal occurred on any monitoring subtask, all of the response buttons were enabled. The subject was then to de¬ press the button corresponding to that display prior to the signal’s termination. Since depressing any button disabled all the buttons, the subject was un¬ able to make more than one response to a given signal. At the commencement of a signal a timer, utilized to accumulate response latencies for that particular subtask, was activated. It was deactivated when a button was depressed or when the signal terminated. Whenever a correct response occurred, a counter on the display panel incremented to provide the subject with feedback. For all the monitoring subtasks combined, only one signal was presented at a time. Thus, if a signal was presented on one dis¬ play, no other display would simultaneously present a signal. However, all of the displays had to be monitored continuously since the order of signals and time between them were randomized. Independent of, but concurrent with the other subtasks, the arithmetic subtask presented the sub¬ ject with arithmetic problems similar to this: 648 + 729 - 852 = A problem was rear-projected onto a translucent screen on the display panel. The subject was re¬ quired to solve it mentally and write down the solu¬ tion on an answer sheet. When a problem left the screen, it was immediately replaced by another. A counter located next to the screen indicated the current problem number. Two levels of task complexity were utilized. At the high level, 60 arithmetic problems and 165 sig¬ nals (69 for the meter, 48 for the white-light, and 24 each for the red-light and auditory subtasks) were presented each 30 minutes of the testing session. Problem and signal presentation rates for the lower level of complexity were one-fourth of that for the high. Procedures When a subject reported to the laboratory, he was seated in front of the display and response panel and was required to complete a Nowlis Mood Scale, a paper-and-pencil device which measures transient mood states (14). After standard instructions were read he was given a short practice session on the complex task. Then the actual testing session, con¬ sisting of six half-hour trials, began. After each trial, the subject was given a 5-minute rest period while the data for that trial were recorded. At the end of the last trial, the subject completed another Nowlis Mood Scale. Total time in the laboratory was slightly more than 3 Vi hours. Subjects Subjects were 120 college students (76 males and 44 females) ranging in age from 17 to 30 with a median age of 20. They were paid an hourly rate for their participation. In addition, to ensure active attention to all subtasks, bonus money was paid contingent upon performance. Specifically, bonus money was increased for correct signals on the monitoring subtasks and decreased for wrong or omitted solutions on the arithmetic subtask. In this fashion, the average subject earned a bonus of ap¬ proximately $1.50 per hour while working at the task. Forty subjects were assigned to each smoking condition: smoker, smoker-deprived, and nonsmoker. Half of those in each smoking condition performed at the lower level of task complexity while the other half performed at the high level. Those in the smoker and smoker-deprived groups had smoked 10 or more cigarettes per day for at least the past year. Nonsmokers had either never smoked or at least had not smoked for the past year. Only those in the smoker group were allowed to smoke during the testing session. Although they were required to smoke a cigarette at three specified times during the testing session, they were free to smoke as many additional ones as they desired (the mean number actually smoked was 5.7). Data Analysis The performance data were summed over trials to obtain a total responses-correct score for each subtask, i.e. total signals correct for the monitoring subtasks and total problems correct for the arith¬ metic subtask, and a total response latency score for each of the monitoring subtasks. These scores were then converted to percent correct and mean response latency scores. The resulting data were analyzed by separate three-way analyses of variance. In each analysis, complexity, smoking condition, and subtasks (repeated on subjects) were treated as inde¬ pendent variables. Smoking and Multiple-Task Performance 149 At each level of complexity, the ratios of males to females were nearly identical in the three smoking conditions. However, by chance, proportionately more females were tested at the low level of com¬ plexity than at the high. Because of the possibility that this may have influenced the results, the percent correct and response latency data were also analyzed by means of three-way analyses of covariance in which sex was treated as a covariate, and complexity, smoking condition, and subtasks (repeated on sub¬ jects) were treated as independent variables. The results of these analyses were no different from the conventional analyses, indicating that sex had not systematically affected the data; therefore, only the conventional analyses are reported here. In the Nowlis Mood Scale the subject is instructed to indicate how each of 24 adjectives (such as affec¬ tionate, angry, boastful) applies to himself at that moment by checking whether: 1 ) it definitely applies, 2) it slightly applies, 3) it is uncertain whether it applies, or 4) it does not apply. Afterwards, numeri¬ cal values (3, 2, 1, or 0) are assigned to the alterna¬ tives to indicate strength of response. In all, eight mood factors are measured, three adjectives making up each factor. The sum of the subject’s scores on the appropriate adjectives is considered his score on a factor. There are any number of ways in which these mood data can be analyzed. However, our primary interest was in determining whether or not smoking tended to reduce mood fluctuation or change. There¬ fore, following the approach taken by Heimstra (13, 15), t-tests were employed to determine whether mood changes, if any, from pre- to post-test were significant for the various experimental conditions. Results Performance Data In the analysis of variance of the percent re¬ sponses correct data, significant differences (P < .05) were detected as a function of complexity [F( 1/114) = 19.16], subtasks [F(4/456) = 163.25], and the complexity x subtasks interaction [F(4/456) = 59.39]. That the interaction was significant indi¬ cates that the effect of complexity depended upon the subtask being considered. No other effects were significant. In Figure 2 percent correct is shown plotted as a function of complexity and subtasks. Inspection of Figure 2 shows that, except for the arithmetic subtasks, differences as a function of task complexity were slight. On the arithmetic subtask, however, performance was considerably better at the low level of task complexity (81 vs. 50 percent correct). Furthermore, the white-light, red-light, and auditory subtasks all resulted in fairly comparable performance, which was considerably better than that associated with either the meter or the arithmetic subtasks. The analysis of the response latency data detected significant differences (P < .05) as a function of subtasks [F(3/342) = 178.14], the complexity X subtasks interaction [F(3/342) = 12.91], and the complexity x smoking condition X subtasks inter- loo r- o LU cr cr o o o cr £ METERS WHITE RED AUDITORY ARITHMETIC LIGHTS LIGHTS SUBTASKS Fig. 2 — Percent of responses correct as a function of complexity and subtasks. action [F(6/342) — 3.06], That the latter inter¬ action was significant indicates that the effect of smoking condition on response latency depends upon the complexity level and the subtask being considered. In Figure 3, response latency is shown plotted as a function of complexity, smoking con¬ dition, and subtasks. To determine the manner in which smoking con¬ dition had affected response latency, a two-way analysis of variance, in which complexity and smok¬ ing condition were treated as factors, was performed for each subtask. Only on the auditory subtask was a significant effect of smoking detected (P < .05), this was the complexity X smoking condition inter¬ action. Keeping in mind that smaller response laten¬ cies are associated with faster responding, inspection of Figure 3 shows that although nonsmokers were the slowest responders on the auditory subtask at the lower level of complexity, they responded most quickly at the high level. Furthermore, it can be seen that, in general, the meter subtask was asso¬ ciated with the slowest response latencies and the auditory subtask with the quickest. No one level of task complexity was associated with the quickest response latencies on each subtask. Mood Data The results of the f-tests for the mood data are summarized in Table 1. Table 1 indicates that whereas at the low level of task complexity, smokers had fewer significant mood changes than did nonsmokers and smokers-deprived. 150 The Virginia Journal of Science 0.90 METER WHITE RED AUDITORY LIGHTS LIGHTS SUBTASKS Fig. 3 — Mean response latency as a function of com¬ plexity, smoking condition, and subtasks. they had more significant changes at the high level of task complexity. Discussion The only discernible effect of smoking condition occurred on the auditory subtask for the response latency measure. The nature of this effect depended upon the level of complexity considered. Specifi¬ cally, at the high level of complexity nonsmokers responded more quickly than did smokers and smokers-dep rived; at the low level, they responded less quickly. Failure to find more substantial differ¬ ences suggests that, for all practical purposes, smoking had no effect on performance. This differs from the results of Heimstra, et al. (13) who found that smokers-deprived performed worse than smok¬ ers and nonsmokers on all four subtasks utilized and significantly so on two of them. Why, then, were not similar results found in the present investi¬ gation? The discrepancies may be due to the lengths of their respective testing sessions. Anticipation of over 6 hours without a cigarette, much longer than a smoker normally goes without a cigarette during waking hours, may have adversely affected the per¬ formance of the smokers-deprived in the Heimstra, et al. study, since they performed worse than smokers or nonsmokers from the beginning of the testing session. That the 3!4 hour anticipation associated with the present investigation had no similar effect on performance could be because 3Vz hours is not much longer than the periods of forced abstinence undergone by smokers in ordinary circumstances, e.g. when they go to the theatre. Another plausible explanation for the discrepan¬ cies between the two studies has to do with motiva¬ tion. It may simply be that if motivation is high enough, other factors which might influence the subject’s performance, e.g. smoking condition, may be overridden. In both studies, motivation to per¬ form well was probably fairly high since subjects generally view complex tasks, requiring time-sharing of attention among several subtasks, as intrinsically challenging. In the present study, overall motivation was probably somewhat higher due to the addition of an extrinsic motivator, the performance-contingent bonus money. Performance differences as a function of task com¬ plexity were slight, with one exception. This was TABLE 1 Mood Data Test Summary Table Pre vs Post Test Scores Task Complexity Mood Factor: Low High Smoker- Smoker- Nonsmoker Deprived Smoker Nonsmoker Deprived Smoker Aggression _ _ _ _ _ decrease Anxiety - - - decrease decrease decrease Surgency decrease - - decrease decrease decrease Concentration decrease decrease decrease decrease decrease decrease Social Affection decrease decrease - decrease decrease decrease Fatigue increase increase increase increase increase increase Sadness - - - - - decrease Egotism - decrease - - - - Note: Decrease or increase refers to statistically significant (p < .05) mood change from pre to post test in the direction indicated. Smoking and Multiple-Task Performance 151 especially interesting since the work load (signal and problem presentation rate) at the high level of com¬ plexity was four times that of the lower level. This may indicate that in some real world situations we could expect more from workers than we currently do, without losses in performance efficiency. On the arithmetic subtask, however, the percentage of cor¬ rect responses at the high level of complexity was considerably lower than at the low level. In numerous experimental situations (13, 15), smokers have been reported to experience fewer subjective mood changes than either smokers- deprived or nonsmokers. Although these data are somewhat tenuous, they have suggested that some¬ how smokers may be more stable, that is, less sub¬ ject to mood fluctuations, than are smokers-deprived and nonsmokers. In the present investigation, smok¬ ers also tended to be less subject to mood change than smokers-deprived and nonsmokers but only at the low level of task complexity. At the high level of complexity, smokers were more subject to mood change. This suggests that the relationship between smoking and mood change may be dependent upon the nature of the situation involved, a possibility that should be systematically investigated. Acknowledgments — Special thanks are due to Mr. Nick Fina, technical writer, Philip Morris U.S.A., for his edi¬ torial advice. Literature Cited 1. Frankenhaeuser, M., Myrsten, A., Waszak, M., Neri, A. and Post, B., Psychopharmacologia, 13, 311 (1968). 2. Frankenhaeuser, M., Myrsten, A. and Post, B., Scand. J. Psychol., 2, 237 (1970). 3. Myrsten, A., Post, B., Frankenhaeuser, M., and Johans¬ son, G., Psychopharmacologia, 27, 305 (1972). 4. Edward, A. S., /. Appl. Psychol., 32, 150 (1948). 5. Carver, D. J., J. comp. Psychol., 2, 279 (1922). 6. Frankenhaeuser, M., Myrsten, A., Post, B., and Johans¬ son, G., Psychopharmacologia, 22, 1 (1971). 7. Fay, P. J., J. exp. Psychol., 19, 592 (1936). 8. Johansson, G. and Jansson, G., Scand. J. Psychol., 5, 124 (1964). 9. Gotten, D. J., Thomas, J. R., and Stewart, D,, Percept. Mot. Skills, 33, 336 (1971). 10. Allusi, E. A., in E. A. Bilodeau (ed.) Principles of skill acquisition, Academic Press, New York, 1969, pp. 59-101. 11. Schori, T. R., Ergonomics, 16, 153 (1973). 12. Smith, S., Farrell, R. J. and Gonzalez, B. K., Percept. Mot. Skills, 20, 781 (1965). 13. Heimstra, N. W., Bancroft, N. R. and Dekock, A. R., Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci., 142, 295 (1967). 14. Nowlis, V., in S. S. Tomkins and C. E. Izard (eds.), Affect, cognition, and personality, Springer, New York, 1965, pp. 352-389. 15. Heimstra, N. W., in W. L. Dunn, Jr. (ed.) Smoking behavior: Motives and incentives, V. H. Winston, New York, 1973, pp. 197-207. 152 The Virginia Journal of Science Miles F. Johnson Department of Biology Virginia Commonwealth University Richmond, Virginia 23284 Manuscript received May 1, 1974 Cynareae (Asteraceae) in Virginia: Cirsium, Carduus, Onopordum Abstract — Cirsium (11 species) Carduus (3 species) and Onopordum (1 species) are treated floristically for Virginia. Keys to genera and species along with species descriptions, distribution maps, ecological and flowering and fruiting data are included. Cirsium carolinianum and Carduus crispus are reported new to the flora. This paper is a continuation of the series (1, 2, 3, 4, 5) treating the Asteraceae in the Virginia Flora. This study is based upon personal field work and collections found in herbaria of the following institutions: Gray Herbarium, Harvard University (GH), George Mason University, Fairfax, Va. (GMU), Longwood College, Farmville, Va. (LOC), Lynchburg College, Lynchburg, Va. (LYC), New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, New York (NY), University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, (UNC), United States National Museum, Washington, D. C. (US), Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Va. (VCU), Virginia Military Institute, Lexington, Va. (VMI), Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Va. (VPI), College of William and Mary, Williamsburg, Va. (WM), West Virginia University, Morgantown, W. Va. (WVA). I gratefully acknowledge the assistance given by the curator and/or director of the herbaria for allowing me to study the collection. Funds were provided by a grant from the Virginia Academy of Science and by Virginia Commonwealth University. Approximately 325 specimens have been examined and nearly all taxa have been observed in the field in Virginia or elsewhere. Nomenclature follows Gleason and Cronquist (6) and Fernald (7). A key to the genera in Cynareae is presented in a previous paper (5). Radford, et al. (8) have united Cirsium and Carduus under Carduus but I have treated them as separate, distinct genera. My decision follows that of G. B. Ownbey (numerous personal communications) of the University of Minnesota and long a student of the taxonomy of Cirsium. Taxonomic Treatment 1. Cirsium Mill. Thistle; Plumed Thistle. Biennial or perennial spiny herbs with sessile alternate, usually lobed or pinnatifid and prickly leaves. Heads many flowered, the flowers tubular and perfect (in ours), purplish, lavender, yellow to white. Involucre imbri¬ cated, the bracts usually apically spiny. Receptacle densely bristly. Achenes oblong, lacking ribs. Pappus of numerous plumose bristles. A large taxonomically complex genus, Cirsium is represented in the Virginia flora by the following species: A. Flowers dioecious in small heads (involucres to 2 cm high), perennials from creeping roots. . 1. C. arvense. AA. Flowers not dioecious; biennial or perennial from basal rosette . . . B. B. Stem bearing spiny wings formed from decurrent leaf bases. . . 2. C. vulgare. BB. Stem not winged . . . . . . ■ C. C. Head subtended by spiny false involucre ................................ 3. C. horridulum. CC. Heads not subtended by spiny false involucre. . . . . . . D. D. Leaves densely white tomentose beneath . . . . . . . . . . . E. E. Involucre bracts without spines . . . . . 9. C. muticum. EE. Involucre bracts with spines . . . . . F. F. Heads more than 2 cm broad at middle, spines on bracts 4 mm or more long. . . . . . . . . G. G. Leaves deeply lobed to dissected, spines on margin stout. 1 1. C. discolor. GG. Leaves not lobed or only shallowly so, marginal spines weak . ............................................ 10. C. altissimum. FF. Heads smaller, less than 2 cm broad, spines on bracts 3 mm or less long. .H. H. Leaves thick, firm, roots thickened ........ 6. C. virginianum . Va J. Sci., 25, 152-160 Fall 1974 Cynareae (Asteraceae) in Virginia 153 HH. Leaves thin, flexible, roots thin. . 7. C. carolinianum. DD. Leaves not densely white tomentose beneath. . . I. I. Heads small, involucre to 2 cm high. ...... .8. C. nuttallii. II. Heads larger, involucre 2.5-5 cm high. . . . J. J. Basal leaves not well developed, cauline leaves numerous and crowded, involucre 2.5-4 cm high, SE Virginia ................................... 5. C. repandum. JJ. Basal leaves well developed, cauline leaves not con¬ spicuously crowded; involucre 2.7-5 cm high; Piedmont . . . .4. C. pumilum. 1. Cirsium arvense (L.) Scop. Canada Thistle. Carduus arvensis (L.) Robson Colonial perennials from a creeping root, 3 — 18 dm tall, stems glabrous or nearly so; leaves numerous, lanceolate to oblanceolate, up to 2.5 cm long, to 8 cm wide, variously lobed to sub-entire, arachnose to gla- brate; heads dioecious, clustered, involucre 1.2 — 2 cm long, the bracts essentially lacking a spine or the spine ca. 1.2 mm long and weak, glutinous ridge present; corollas lavender to purplish, pappus dull white, achenes ca. 4 mm long, n = 17 (8) A noxious weed, C. arvense is widely scattered in western Virginia (Fig. 1), usually along roadsides, in abandoned fields and near abandoned buildings. The species is in flower from mid-June to mid-September and in fruit from late June through September. This Eurasian native has spread throughout much of the eastern United States and adjacent Canada, and west to Colorado (7, 9). Fernald (7) distinguishes var. mite Wimm. & Grab., var integrifolium Wimm. & Grab, and var. vestitum Wimm. & Grab., basing distinguishing characters on variability in leaf lobing and amount of tomentum. No attempt has been made to separate Virginia material into these varieties. Fig. 1 — Distribution of Cirsium arvense in Virginia. For symbols see Fig. 2. 2. Cirsium vulgare (Savi) Tenore Bull Thistle. Carduus lanceolatus L. Vigorous biennials 3 to 10 (—20+) dm tall; stems arachnoid, leafy nearly to the summit, conspicuously spiny winged by decurrent leaf bases; leaves pinnatifid, the upper surface rough scabrous, 14 — 40 cm long, 3 — 13.4 cm (spine tip to spine tip) wide, lobes narrow, acute, terminated by stout spine, hirtellous; heads solitary of few clustered, incolucre (2.5 — ) 3 — 2.8 (—4.0) cm high, spines of bracts 3 — 5 (—7) mm long, spread¬ ing, glutinous ridge prominent; corollas ca. 3.5 cm long, purple, pappus white, up to 3.2 cm long, achene pale tan, bearing fine purple longitudinal stripes and yellow apical ring, n = 34 (8) A widely distributed weed (Fig. 2) (in addition, observed in Caroline, Stafford, and Prince William Counties) common along roadsides, in pastures, and fields in Virginia and widely distributed through the United States. Massey (10) reports the species from Buckingham, Craig, Frederick, Nelson, Richmond and Rockbridge Counties. The Bull Thistle is in flower from late June through August and sporadically through mid-October; it is in fruit from July through August and sporadically into November. This species is best distinguished by the spiny leaf bases forming stem wings. 154 The Virginia Journal of Science Fig. 2 — Distribution of Cirsium vulgare in Virginia. Dots indicate exact locations of collections; triangles indicate a collection from that country or city without specific location data; open circles indicate collections cited in literature though the specimens have not been seen during this study. 3. Cirsium horridulum Michaux Yellow Thistle. Cardans spinosissimus Walter Biennial to perennial, 4 — 8 dm tall; arachnoid, simple or short branched apically; leaves oblanceolte to lanceolate, to 3 dm long, 10 cm wide, generally arachnoid on both surfaces, lobed to near the midrib, the lobes armed with stiff spines; heads single or 3 — 5 tightly clustered, subtended by false involucre of reduced spiny leaves slightly overtopping the head, involucre ca. 3 cm high, the bracts spineless, sparingly arachnose, marginally strigose; corolla, in ours, yellow, pappus white, achenes yellow-brown to light brown, lighter toward the apex, n = 17 (8) Common on the south Coastal Plain (Fig. 3) in sandy soil, open fields, roadsides, dunes, railroad ballast and waysides and disjunct (?) to Pittsylvania County in the western Piedmont. This apparent disjunct pattern is repeated in North Carolina (8). The species extends from southern Maine along the Coastal Plain to Florida and Texas (7). A purple flowered variant, forma elliottii (T. & G.) Fern., common elsewhere, (11) has not been seen in Virginia material. Cirsium horridulum and C. repandum have been artificially crossed, producing intermediate progeny (11). The rare C. repandum occurs in SE Virginia and thus hybridization in the field may be anticipated. Fig. 3 — Distribution of Cirsium horridulum in Virginia. For symbols see Fig. 2. Cynareae (Asteraceae) in Virginia 155 4. Cirsium pumilum (Nult.) Sprang. Pasture Thistle; Bull Thistle. Car duus pumilus Nutt. Cirsium odoratum (Muhl.) Petrak Stout, stocky biennials, 3.5 — 6 (—10) dm tall, arachnoid; leaves lanceolate to oblanceolate, 19 — 30 cm long, (3.5 — ) 4.0 — 10 cm wide, lobed ca. 1/2 way to midrib, lobes rounded to acute, terminated with stout spines; heads solitary to few, at times subtended by leafy bracts, involucre (2.7—) 3 — 4 (—5) cm high, spines of bracts 3 — 5 mm long, glutinous ridge along upper midrib; corollas 4 — 4.5 cm long, purple, pappus white, 3 — 4 cm long. 2n = 30(11, 12, 13, 14) Native to and relatively common in the Piedmont (Fig. 4), along roadsides, in fields and along railroad tracks. The species is distributed from central Maine to central Minnesota and Iowa in the north and through central Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, W. Virginia to North Carolina in the south (14). In Virginia, C. pumihun is in flower from mid-June through July and in fruit (June-) July through August. Fernald (7) distinguishes forma fultius Fern, as those plants bearing heads overtopped by leafy bracts. This forma is not distinct in Virginia as demonstrated on M. F. & W. R. Johnson 4616 (VCU) from Louisa County which has 1 head with bracts and 2 without. Cirsium pumilum and C. repandum form natural hybrids in Massachusetts (15) and hybridization in Virginia may be anticipated if the population of C. repandum increases in numbers. Fig. 4 — Distribution of Cirsium pumilum in Virginia. For symbols see Fig. 2. 5. Cirsium repandum Michaux Carduus repandus (Michaux) Persoon Biennial from a taproot, 2 — 6 dm tall, arachnose when young, hirsute with age, leafy to inflorescence; leaves numerous, thick, narrowly oblong, up to 10 cm long, 1.5 wide, shallowly lobed, numerous marginal spines; heads single involucre 2.5 — 3 cm high, arachnoid, spine of outer phyllaries 1 — 2 mm long, appressed, glutinous ridge poorly developed or wanting; corollas pale purple, 2. 5-3. 6 cm long, achene light brown with light yellow apical band. Based on description in Moore & Frankton (1 1). 2n = 30 (12) Rare in Virginia, known from a single collection: Southampton County: dry sandy open pine and oak woods 6-7 mi S of Franklin, June 19, 1938 (fl), Fernald & Long 8516 (US). The species extends on the Coastal Plain from SE Virginia to Florida (6, 7). Cirsium repandum resembles C. pumilum but is distinguished by smaller size, less pronounced leafiness and lack of persisting basal rosette in the former. 6. Cirsium virginianum (L.) Michaux Carduus virginianus L. Biennial, 7-10 dm tall, floccose-arachnoid; roots thickened; leaves firm, numerous, crowded, lanceolate, 9.5-15 cm long, 0.9-1. 1 cm wide, entire to shallowly lobed, marginal spines few, fine, 2-3 mm long, glabrous above, densely white tomentose below; heads solitary, involucre 1.8-2. 5 cm high, spines of bracts ca. 2 mm long, divergent, glutinous ridge prominent, marginally arachnoid; corolla purplish, 2. 3-2. 5 cm long, pappus ca. 2 cm long, achenes 3.25-3.75 mm long, dark brown with longitudinal purple stripes and bright yellow apical ring. 2n = 28 (12) 156 The Virginia Journal of Science Scattered over the western Coastal Plain (Fig. 5) in marshy habitats and clearings. The species extends from New Jersey to Florida on the Coastal Plain (11). In Virginia, C. virginianum is in flower from early August through September (-mid-October) and fruit from mid-August through October. Fernald (7) distinguishes those plants bearing cauline leaves 1.5-4 cm broad with revolute margins as forma revolution (Small) Fern. Specimens with these characters were not seen in Virginia. The type specimen was collected by John Clayton (11) and thus may have come from Virginia. Fig. 5 — Distribution of Cirsium virginianum in Virginia. For symbols see Fig. 2. 7. Cirsium carolinianwn (Walt.) Fern. & Schub. Carduus carolinianus Walter Similar to C. virginianum, differing in non-thickened roots, fewer, thinner and more flexible leaves which are remote from the involucres, and involucre bracts bearing spines 2-3 mm long, n = II (11, 16) Rare in Virginia, known from a single collection: Halifax County: oak-pine woods 1 mi S of Difficult Creek, Route 719, June 25, 1972 (fr), Harvill 25543 (LOC). The species range extends from southern Ohio, Indiana, Illinois and Missouri, south to Georgia and Texas and north to North Carolina (7) and Virginia. This species is reported in the state’s flora initially in this paper. 8. Cirsium nuttallii DC. Carduus nuttallii (DC.) Pollard Biennial, to 3.6 dm tall, glabrate, leafless toward inflorescences; leaves elliptic, thin, glabrous to lightly tomentose, lower 30 cm long, 10 cm wide, smaller upwards, deeply lobed; heads single, involucre ca. 2 cm high, generally glabrous to sparingly arachnoid, spine of bracts ca. 1 mm long, divergent, glutinous ridge prominent; corolla light purple, 1.9-2. 5 cm long, pappus dull white, achenes ca. 4 mm long, light tan, flecked with purple, apical band yellow. Based upon description in Moore & Frankton (11). 2n = 24; 2n — 28 (11) Rare in Virginia, known from two collections: Southampton County: sandy thickets N of Sycamore Bend, July 25, 1936 (fl, fr), Fernald & Long 6438 (US); exsiccated swampy woods about 1 mi SW of Branchville, Aug. 19, 1938 (fr), Fernald & Long 9224 (US). The species range extends from SE Virginia south to Florida and Louisiana on the Coastal Plain (7). 9. Cirsium muticum Michaux Swamp Thistle. Carduus muticus (Michaux) Persoon Biennial, to 3.5 dm tall, arachnoid to glabrous; leafy to near summit; leaves oblanceolate, deeply lobed, villous above, arachnose below; head solitary to clustered, involucre 2. 3-2. 5 cm high, densely arachnose, bracts spineless, midrib glutinous; corolla purple, ca. 2.3 mm long, pappus pale tawny, ca. 1.6 cm long, achenes 5 mm long, deep purple with a dull yellow stripe. 2n = 20 (17) Widely scattered in western Virginia (Fig. 6) in wet meadows, boggy marshes and low ground. The col¬ lection from Charlotte County ( Aides 61215 UNC) collected in 1965 may indicate that this weed is migrating eastward. The species is in flower and fruit from late August through September. The total species range extends from Newfoundland to Saskatchewan, south to northern Louisiana and on the East Coast to North Carolina (7, 8). Cynareae (Asteraceae) in Virginia 157 Cirsium muticum is distinguished from similar species, C. discolor and C. altissimum, primarily by its lack of involucral spines. Cirsium muticum is reported to hybridize with C. discolor in Wisconsin (18) and Minnesota (17). Hybrids appear morphologically intermediate between the suspected parents. Though these species are usually isolated ecologically, muticum in damp habitats and discolor in drier ones, they are known to grow in close proximity and to produce hybrids in a habitat disturbed during road construction (17). Fig. 6 — Distribution of Cirsium muticum in Virginia. For symbols see Fig. 2. 10. Cirsium altissimum (L.) Spreng. Carduus altissimum L. Similar to C. discolor, differing chiefly in growing taller and producing larger leaves which are less deeply lobed and have weak spines, n = 9, 10 (8) Rare and scattered in Virginia (Fig. 7) in damp wooded areas and in fields. The species extends from northern United States as far west as North Dakota, south to Florida and Texas (7). It is in flower and fruit from late September through October. Cirsium altissimum and C. discolor form a morphological continuum (6) and may not be distinct when viewed over their entire ranges. Hybridization also clouds the species limits (19). However, in Virginia, the degree of leaf lobing does serve to distinguish two populations. Fig. 7 — Distribution of Cirsium altissimum in Virginia. For symbols see Fig. 2. 158 The Virginia Journal of Science 11. Cirsium discolor (Muhl.) Spreng. Carduus discolor (Muhl. ex Willd.) Nuttall Vigorous biennials 8-20+ dm tall; leaves to 40 cm long, 14-21 cm wide, densely white tomentose beneath, scabrous above, deeply lobed, the lobes lanceolate, bearing short marginal spines; heads solitary or clustered into corymbs of 3 to many, subtended by reduced leaves, involucre campanulate, 2-3 cm high, spines of bracts (4—) 5-8 mm long, weak, sparsely arachnose; corollas 2.5-3 cm long, purple, less commonly white; pappus 2.2-3 cm long; achenes 4-5 mm long, light brown with bright yellow apical ring, n = 10 (7); 2n = 20 (17) Widely distributed in Virginia (Fig. 8) (also observed in Spotsylvania Co.), common along roadsides, in old fields and pastures, along fence rows, railroad tracks and waste ground. The species extends from SW Quebec to Maine and Manitoba and south to Georgia, Tennessee and Missouri (7). In Virginia, this species is in flower from mid-August through September (-October) and in fruit from late August through September (-October). Cirsium discolor is similar to Cirsium altissimum but is distinguished by the deeply lobed leaves. Those plants bearing white flowers are f. albiflorum (Britton) House and are known as follows: Giles Co.: Straley 347 (VPI); Henrico Co.: Johnson 4073 (UNC, VCU); James City Co.: Loetterle 469 (WM); Pitt¬ sylvania Co.: Hathaway 14281 (LYC); City of Newport News: Appier 295 (WM). Fig. 8 — Distribution of Cirsium discolor in Virginia. For symbols see Fig. 2. 2. Carduus L. Thistle; Plumeless Thistle. Similar to Cirsium, but differing in non-plumose pappus and spiny decurrent leaf bases. A very large genus in Eurasia and Africa, represented in the Virginia flora by 3 species distinguished by the following key: A. Heads large, involucre 2.5-4 cm high, solitary, nodding ............................ 1. C. nutans. AA. Heads smaller, involucre 1-2 (—2.4) cm high, usually clustered, upright . B. B. Leaves glabrous or long-villous along main veins, very spiny along decurrent leaf bases, stem strong . . . . . . 2. C. acanthoides. BB. Leaves arachnoid beneath, weakly spined along decurrent leaf bases, stem brittle. . . .3. C. crispus. 1. Carduus nutans L. Nodding Thistle; Musk Thistle. Robust biennial, to 20+ dm tall; leaves elliptic to lanceolate, to 3. 5-4.0 dm long, 1.5 dm wide, glabrous, lobed, margins bearing strong spines, bases decurrent, conspicuous, lobed, spiny; heads solitary, very showy, nodding on sparingly leafed stem apices; involucre hemispheric, (2.5 — ) 3-4 cm high, individual bracts 4-5 mm wide, glabrous; corollas purple, ca. 3 cm long, pappus white, achenes 4.5-5 mm long, mottled pale yellow and pale brown. 2n = 16 (20); n = 8 (8) Relatively common and locally abundant in northern and southwestern counties, rare in the Piedmont (Fig. 9), along roadsides, in old fields, in pastures and along fences. Collection dates indicate that this noxious, but beautiful, species was first seen in the southwest and is moving eastward (Fig. 9). It is in flower from mid- June to early August and in fruit from mid-June through September. The species is widely scattered in eastern United States (7). Moore and Mulligan (21) determined natural hybrids in Canada between C. nutans and C. acanthoides. A Cynareae (Asteraceae) in Virginia 159 hybrid, intermediate between the parents, is reported from Wisconsin (18), but none was observed in Virginia material. However, hybridization should be anticipated as the species are in close proximately and flower simultaneously, especially in southwest Virginia. Fig. 9 — Distribution of Carduus nutans in Virginia. For symbols see Fig. 2. Dates indicate the earliest known collection in that county. All dates in 1900’s. 2. Carduus acanthoides L. Biennial, 6-10 (—20) dm tall; leaves lanceolate, 1.4-3 dm long, 4-9 cm wide, lobed, margins spiny, loosely villous over midrib, bases decurrent, spiny, narrow; heads clustered or solitary, erect on spiny winged stem apices; involucres hemispheric, 1-2 (—2.4) cm high, individual bracts ca. 2 mm wide, arachnoid; corollas purple, or white (Highland Co.; Ludlam 18203, LYC), 1-2 cm long, pappus white, 1.2 cm long, achenes ca. 2.5 cm long, finely ribbed. 2n = 22 (20); n = 1 1 (8); 2n = 20 (22) Common and locally abundant in Western Virginia (Fig. 10) where it is a serious problem in pastures, fields and along roadsides. It is reported to have a density of 10,000 per acre in Rockingham County (personal communication, N. Bodkyn, Madison College). Dates of earliest collections in each county indicate that this troublesome weed entered Virginia in the SW and continues to move toward the east and north. The species is widely established in the U. S. (6, 7). In Virginia it is in flower from mid-June through August. Fig. 10 — Distribution of Carduus acanthoides in Virginia. For symbols see Fig. 2. Dates indicate the earliest known collection in: that county. All dates in 1900’s. 160 The Virginia Journal of Science 3. Carduus crispus L. Curled Thistle. Similar to C. acanthoides, differing in arachnose lower leaf surfaces, more closely compact inflorescences and weakly spined leaf bases. Known from a single collection: Newport News: May 30, 1921 (fr), Leonard & Killip 84 (US). It is also reported from Rockingham County (23) but specimens have not been seen in this study. Thus, the species is reported with certainty, for the state, initially in this paper. 3. Onopordum L. Resembling Cirsium, differing in the nearly glabrous honeycombed receptacle and flowers bearing a non- plumose pappus. A single species: 1. Onopordum acanthium L. Scotch Thistle. Coarse annuals or biennials to 30 dm tall, stems branching and widely winged, spiny; leaves tomentose, decurrent above, may be petioled toward base, spiny margined; heads large, to 4 cm high, borne singly or in corymbiform clusters, involucral bracts linear, firm, all spine tipped, flowers purple, achenes transversely wrinkled, flattened, pappus non-plumose. 2n = 34 (20) The Scotch Thistle is rare but widespread over much of the U. S. and southeastern Canada (6, 7) and is known in Virginia from two collections: Alexandria: sine leg., sine loc., 1880 (US); sine loc., June 15, 1896 (fl), C. L. Pollard s.n. (US). Massey (10) reports the species from Frederick County. Echinops sphaerocephalus L., the Globe Thistle, distinguished by 1 -flowered involucres aggregated into capitate clusters, is reported in Virginia (7) but no specimens were seen during this study. However, a single sheet, Nye s.n. (NY), from “along the Potomac toward Alexandria” has been attributed to Virginia but may have been collected in the District of Columbia as the collector resided there. The label data are not clear. Literature Cited 12. Ownbey, G. B., and Olson, W. A., Rhodora, 71, 285 (1969). 13. Ownbey, G. B. and Hsi, Yu-Tseng, Madrono, 20, 225 (1969). 14. Moore, R. J. and Frankton, C., Can. Jour. Bot., 45, 1733 (1967). 15. Moore, R. J. and Frankton, C., Can Jour. Bot., 42, 581 (1966). 16. Jones, S. B., Bull. Torr. Bot. Club, 95, 393 (1968). 17. Ownbey, G. B., Bull. Torr. Bot. Club., 78, 233 (1951). 18. Johnson, M. F., and litis, H. H., Transact. Wis. Acad. Set, Arts, Lett., 52, 255 (1963). 19. Davidson, R. A., Brittonia, 15, 222 (1963). 20. Darlington, C. D., and Wylie, A. P., Chromosome Atlas of Flowering Plants, Allen and Unwin, London, 1955. 21. Moore, R. J., and Mulligan, G. A., Can. Jour. Bot., 34, (1956). 22. Fritsch, R. M., Taxon, 22, 459 (1973). 23. Hensley, M. S., Va J. Sci., 24, 140 (1973). 1. Johnson, M. F., Castanea, 36, 137 (1971). 2. Johnson, M. F., Va J. Sci., 22, 38 (1971). 3. Johnson, M. F., Va J. Sci., 23, 48 (1972). 4. Johnson, M. F., Castanea, in press (1974). 5. Johnson, M. F., Castanea, in press (1974). 6. Gleason, H. A., and Cronquist, A., Manual of Vascular Plants of Northeastern United States and Adjacent Canada, D. Van Nostrand Company, Princeton, New Jersey, 1963. 7. Fernald, M. L., Gray’s Manual of Botany, Eighth (Cen¬ tennial) Edition, American Book Company, New York, 1950. 8. Radford, A. E., Ahles, H. E., and Bell, C. R., Manual of Vascular Flora of the Carolines, the University of North Carolina Press, 1968. 9. Harrington, H. D., Manual of the Plants of Colorado, Swallow Press, Chicago, 1954. 10. Massey, A. B., Virginia Agr. Sta. Tech. Bull. 155, Blacksburg, 1961. 11. Moore, R. J. and Frankton, C., Can. Jour. Bot. 47, 1257 (1969). Audio-Tutorial Introductory Biology Laboratory 161 Science Teachers Section Martin C. Mathes Department of Biology College of William and Mary Williamsburg, Virginia 23185 Manuscript received March 15, 1974 The Development and Evaluation of an Audio-Tutorial Approach in the Introductory Biology Laboratory Many standard laboratories are based entirely on “in lab” experiences. This period of approximately 14 weeks (semester system) is used to introduce factual material and expose students to various laboratory skills. It is hoped that in the alloted lab¬ oratory time the students will also gain an apprecia¬ tion of the scientific approach. Many students, how¬ ever, become “turned off” by the sustained and sometimes ineffective expenditure of time in the laboratory and as a result loose interest and en¬ thusiasm. An interesting question arises: Can stu¬ dents be efficiently exposed to laboratory methods, factual materials and the scientific approach in fewer than 14 sessions? Can this be accomplished in fewer than 10 sessions? To explore these questions we have employed slide-tape presentations which can be categorized as an audio-tutorial (AT) approach. Decreased space requirements and decreased staff committments of the audio-tutorial approach might be valid benefits in light of our current emphasis on justification and accountability; that is, it could be employed as a method to “handle” more students without sacrificing the quality of instruction. In many cases an AT approach is purchased from a commercial distributor. This has the obvious advantage of eliminating preparation effort and time but also requires that the course conform to the con¬ tent and emphasis of the materials as presented by the commercial producer. We feel that our labora¬ tory content and approach is unique because it is tailored to complement specific lectures as presented by our staff. A commercially available program can¬ not be entirely satisfactory because it will not “fit” as well as a program produced by the staff which is involved in the presentation of both the lecture and laboratory programs. We decided to seek funding from the College of William and Mary and produce an AT program which was designed to satisfy our specific demands. A total of $3200 was made avail¬ able from National Science Foundation funds and a program was developed to explore the effectiveness Va J. Sci., 25, 161-163 Fall 1974 of the AT approach when compared with a standard (S) laboratory. We purchased three self-contained free-standing carrels equipped with tape players and carousel projectors. This arrangement permitted student ac¬ cess on a 24-hour basis and yet equipment security was provided by a number of locking devices. A room, 12' X 12', containing two demonstration tables and the three carrels was used during the first year of our program. The production of slides and tapes involved coordination of the Department of Biology and the College’s Audio-visual center. Slides were produced using a 35mm Nikon camera equipped with a Micro-Nikkor Auto 55mm f3.5 lens. Photo¬ graphs of laboratory procedures were taken using a Honeywell auto-strobonar model 330 flash unit, while copy material, such as charts, graphs, etc., were produced using a copystand with two Honey¬ well Strobonar model 220 units. A graduate assistant and I produced the script for each exercise using the mimeographed laboratory manual (employed in the S labs and used as a reference in the AT lab) as a guide for content and emphasis. The materials were typed and given to the audio-visual section for the production of a master reel-to-reel tape and, cas¬ settes were then transcribed for use in the carrels. The script, master tape and a master 2x2 slide copy should be kept on file. Each of the carrels (AT- 100, free-standing, available from Deckmar Design Specialists) was equipped with a Kodak Ektagraphic carousel projector and a monaural tape player. The player was equipped with a backspace for repeating short segments of the tape. Slide num¬ bers were referred to on the tapes and individual slides were placed in clear cellophane jackets with press-on numbers. Our AT students perform 5 of our standard lab exercises which are designed to provide students with meaningful laboratory techniques and experi¬ ences. These labs were selected on the basis of content and their relative unsuitability for the prep¬ aration of AT materials. Certain labs, such as the 162 The Virginia Journal of Science exploration of enzyme activity, were included in this standard laboratory portion of the AT program, with a slide-tape presentation to complement and clarify the data obtained in the standard labs. Other labs, such as differentiation in the algae, were more amenable to the total AT approach and were elimi¬ nated from the standard lab portion for the AT group. The AT approach, therefore, contained a selection of exclusive slide-tape presentations, plus regular laboratories supplemented by slide-tape pre¬ sentations. Our objective was an improved program which combined standard laboratory exercises with tape- slide-demonstration presentations. An evaluation of the effectiveness of our AT program was of utmost concern. To obtain a representative, non-biased sample of students we selected two laboratory sec¬ tions for mandatory participation in the AT program. Exchanges in attendance between standard and AT laboratory sections were not permitted. Students in the AT group were free to attend the weekly AT lab presentations for 6 days each week with the seventh day reserved for setting up demonstrations, etc. for the next week. All students could voluntarily attend scheduled laboratory discussion groups. One of these discussion groups was set aside for attend¬ ance by the AT group only and each of these dis¬ cussions was taped. In the regular lab sections a total of 332 students were enrolled while 46 (12.1%) randomly selected students were required to enroll in the audio-tutorial section. The students were not given the opportunity to choose between the standard (S) and audio¬ tutorial (AT) approaches. This method provided for a relatively unbiased random sample but resulted in selection contrary to student preference in a few cases. At the end of the semester an evaluation sheet was completed by all students, after a brief explana¬ tion of the AT approach. The return from these evaluation sheets was 69.9% for the S sections and 78.3% for the AT group. The standard group was composed of 40.3% Biology majors, 24.1% science majors and 35.5% non-science majors with 75% in the freshman class. The AT group was composed of 47.2% Biology, 16.7% science majors and 30.6% non-science majors. The students were asked a number of multiple choice (4 choices per question) general questions concerning the value of their lab¬ oratory experience. In the S section, 57.2% recog¬ nized the standard laboratory approach as a neces¬ sary experience while 24.3% at the AT group felt the need for a standard laboratory. It should be noted that in our AT approach we have included 5 standard laboratory exercises. A large percent (58.5) of the students felt that the content of the laboratory was the best aspect of laboratory. The content of the S and AT sections was identical; only the approach was varied. Simi¬ larly the majority (60.6%) of the students listed the time required to complete the S laboratory exer¬ cises as the most undersirable aspect of the labora¬ tory. An objective of the AT approach was to reduce the amount of time spent in laboratory by increasing the efficiency of the learning process. Generally the AT group could complete and sometimes repeat the material in 1 to IV2 hours (Table 1). This required 216. to 3 hours in the standard laboratory. The graduate teaching assistant in each section of the S laboratory was recognized as valuable in 71.9% of the responses but the less formal arrange¬ ment of having a teaching assistant available 2 after¬ noons each week in the AT group resulted in a 61.1% opinion that the contact with the instructors was adequate. The possibility of arranging the laboratories according to majors was investigated. The results indicated that approximately half (43.9%) of the students preferred separate major and non-major sections. The S (77.6% ) and AT (92.1% ) students felt that the laboratory, as presented, had good to excellent effectiveness in the reinforcement and clarification of lecture topics. The overall rating of the laboratory experience was rated good to excel¬ lent by 78.2% of the S group and 91.9% of the AT group. The number of students who would select the AT approach, if given the option, was approximately half (51.5%) of the students enrolled in the S laboratories. Of the students in the mandatory AT group, 21.9% would have preferred the S approach. Certain information which concerned selected TABLE 1 The Use of Carrel Time Laboratory Subject Aver. Time/Student Carrel Equivalent (1) Chemical and Physical Prop¬ erties of the Living Structure 1 :40<2) 1.9(3) Biological Catalysts 1 :20 1.5 Some Intermediary Metabolic Processes of Plants 1 :30 1.7 Growth 1 :40 1.9 Transfer of Genetic Informa¬ tion-Reproduction 1 :00 1.1 Morphological Variation and Cell Specialization in the Algae 1 :15 1.4 Evolutionary Trends-Study of Plant Life Cycles 1 :30 1.7 Differentiation and Evolutionary Development I. Pattern of Growth and Differentiation in Higher Plants — Circadian Rhythm 1 :25 1.6 II. Comparative View of Transporting Systems in Plants 1:00 1.1 III. Comparative View of Photosynthetic Systems in Plants :55 1.0 (1> The number of carrels occupied — assuming 8 :00 a.m. to 5 :00 p.m. daily operation — 6 days each week (Total 54 hours/ week). (2) Total values which include time required for the current weeks lab and time spent reviewing previous labs and discussion sections. (3) A value of 1.9 means that 1.9 carrels were used 100% of the time (54 hours /week). Audio-Tutorial Introductory Biology Laboratory 163 aspects of the AT program was also obtained. Four percent of the students indicated that demonstra¬ tions, fresh materials, slides, etc., which were used in addition to the slide-tape demonstrations were required for comprehension while a majority (54.8%) felt that these materials were a good addition to the presentation. The students also indicated that, as a result of visual materials, i.e. slides, and the availability of discussion section tapes, the quality of the discussion group was above average (74.1%). Additional characteristics such as the open scheduling of the laboratory was indicated as desirable by 94.4% of the students while the ability to review previous labs was listed as very useful in 60% of the AT questionnaires. These fac¬ tors, in addition to the content of the AT exercises, resulted in 58.5% of the students listing the AT laboratory as satisfactorily replacing the S lab. Students indicated that, as a result of the AT pro¬ gram, their estimated grades in lab (43.2%) and lecture (29.7%) were higher than if they had en¬ rolled in the S lab. A significant number of students (37.8% lab, 54.1% lecture) stated that there was no significant influence of the laboratory approach on their expected grade. Approximately 20% of the students indicated that they experienced a detri¬ mental effect of the AT approach. The students recognized that the AT approach reduces the mastery of laboratory techniques but they felt that this factor and a de-emphasis of “regu¬ lar” laboratory experiences, was seldom to never detrimental to their understanding of biological systems (79.0% of the cases). Those students en¬ rolled in the AT program listed the basis for their interest as (1) a satisfactory substitute for regular lab —33.3%; (2) less work while covering the same material — 18.8% (3) less time while covering the same materials 39.6%. The AT approach was also evaluated on the basis of performance on 3 examinations which were ad¬ ministered to all students. The exams were primarily essay questions with approximately 25% dealing with laboratory materials. The per cent grade dis¬ tribution is shown in Fig. 1. The largest difference was noted in the failing grades. “A” and “B” grades occurred with a slightly greater frequency in the AT group. Student’s t test was used to compare the mean grades (differences in lab instructor grade assessment were miminized by the adjustment of all laboratory grades to a grand mean) in the S and AT sections. It was found that the difference in the average number of total points was between the 10 and 20% levels of significance. This does not fall within the range usually required to establish a Fig. 1 — Grade Distribution in the Audio-Tutorial group (bars) and Standard Laboratory Group (cross-hatching). significant difference between 2 sets of data but does suggest a trend which would indicate that the AT approach was slightly beneficial. I feel that a balanced combination of standard laboratory and slide-tape approaches offers the most desirable means of introductory biology laboratory instruction. The results of our study indicate that, with our emphasis, content, staff, facilities, and students, total “in lab” instruction can be reduced with a slight increase in student performance. This effectiveness coupled with flexible scheduling and the “review- ability” of materials have suggested that the audio¬ tutorial approach may significantly increase the enthusiasm and efficiency of the typical introduc¬ tory biology student. Acknowledgments — I would like to acknowledge the assistance provided by Mrs. F. Neiman, Office of Develop¬ ment, Mr. C. Reeder and Mr. G. Bartlett, Audio-Visual group and Dr. B. Coursen, and Dr. S. Ware, Department of Biology. Mr. M. Freadman also provided invaluable assistance in the preparation and administration of the program. 164 The Virginia Journal of Science News and Notes 1974-1975 Directory The Virginia Academy of Science Directory went out to all members of the Academy early in the summer. Because it was sent for the first time to the entire membership the information contained therein will not be published in its entirety in the Journal. Any member not receiving a copy of the Directory should get in touch with President E. L. Wisman, Poultry Science Department, V.P.I. & S.U., Blacks¬ burg, 24061. New Editor David A. West was elected Editor of the Virginia Journal of Science at the meeting of the Academy Council on March 16 and took over the job from retiring Editor Charles H. O’Neal at the May meet¬ ing of the Academy in Norfolk. Dr. West has been a member of the Department of Biology at V.P.I. & S.U. since 1962. He received B.A. and Ph.D. degrees from Cornell University and came to Vir¬ ginia after two years as a postdoctoral fellow in Genetics at Liverpool University. /I'H'DOBINS Making todays medicines with integrity... seeking tomorrows with persistence. A. H. Robins Company Richmond. Va. 23220 photograph by Ezra Stoller © ESTO. Philip Morris, a publicly-owned company incorporated in Virginia, proudly traces its heritage to a London tobacconist of a century ago. Quality and innovation have earned for the company a valued reputation: “Philip Morris . . . makers of America’s finest cigarettes.” By any professional measure, the Philip Morris Re¬ search and Development Center has become one of the most complete and fully- integrated facilities for scientific effort related to tobacco products. This eight story tower is our latest addition to the complex of Research and Development Center buildings. Write to: Administrative Manager P. O. Box 26583 Richmond, Virginia, 23261 VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE OFFICIAL PUBLICATION OF THE VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 50 5. ')3 '///' VOL. 25. NO. 4 WINTER 1974 IISTED BELOW are JReynoldsMetals locations in the State of Virginia. 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References in the text should follow the name- and-year format, for example: Rosenzweig and MacArthur (1963) or (Rosenzweig and MacArthur 1963). References in the section of Literature Cited (which should be so titled) should follow the Council of Biological Editors Style Manual, for example: Rosenzweig, M., and R. MacArthur. 1963. Graph¬ ical representation and stability conditions of predator-prey interactions. Am. Natur. 97:209-223. Harmon, H. H. 1960. Modern factor analysis. University of Chicago Press, Chicago. Colbert, Edwin H. 1958. Morphology and be¬ havior. Pages 27-47 in Anne Roe and George Gaylord Simpson, eds. Behavior and evolution. Y ale University Press, New Haven. Abbreviations of journal titles can be found in the 4th edition of the World List of Scientific Pub¬ lications (Butterworth, Inc., Washington, D. C. 1963) and supplements. References should be checked carefully. If in doubt give the complete title of the journal. Please note that the format of references is a change from past practice in the Journal. MEMBERSHIP The Academy membership is organized into sections representing various scientific disciplines. Addressograph plates of all members are coded by a section number. The First Number indicates the member’s major interest and enables Section Officers to more easily contact their members. 1. Agricultural Sciences 2. Astronomy, Mathematics & Physics 3. Microbiology (Bacteriology) 4. Biology 5. Chemistry 6. Materials Science 7. Engineering 8. Geology 9. Medical Sciences 10. Psychology 11. Education 12. Statistics 13. Space Science and Technology 14. Botany 15. Environmental Sciences Annual Membership Dues Approved March 18, 1973 Business . $100 Sustaining . 25* Contributing . . . 15 Regular . 10 Students . 3.50 * $25 or more CD U* . melanogaster to D. simulans is another point of conjecture. For example, Hoenigs- berg (1968) described a marked and sudden change in the relative frequencies of these two species which appeared related to the elimination of certain flora in an area following the construction of a road. Ecological and behavioral factors influencing their distributions have been reviewed recently by Mc¬ Donald and Parsons (1973); also, see Tantawy and Mallah ( 1961 ). We focused our attention on D. simulans rather than on the various other Drosophila species col¬ lected because D. simulans was the only species closely enough related to D. melanogaster to interact seriously with it in courtship. Such an interaction between two closely related partially sympatric species may provide a selective force which accel¬ erates divergence of intraspecific mating behavior over a given species range. These two sibling species do demonstrate certain quantitative differences in courtship behavior and the extent to which they actually interact in nature can only be surmised; for an excellent discussion of their mating behavior, see the review by Manning (1965). Literature Cited Andreson, W. W., and L. Ehrman. 1969. Mating choice in crosses between geographic populations of Drosophila melanogaster. Amer. Midland Natur. 81, 47-53. Coyne, J. A., and B. Grant. 1972. Disruptive selection on I-maze activity in Drosophila melanogaster. Genetics 71, 185-188. Dobzhansky, Th. 1940. Speciation as a stage in evolutionary divergence. Amer. Natur. 74, 312-321. Dobzhansky, Th., and O. Pavlovsky. 1973. Letter to the editor. Genetics 75, 577. Elens, A. A., and J. M. Wattiaux. 1964. Direct observation of sexual isolation. Drosoph. Inf. Serv. 39, 118-119. Grant, B., and L. E. Mettler. 1969. Disruptive and stabiliz¬ ing selection on the “escape” behavior of Drosophila melanogaster. Genetics 62, 625-637. Hoenigsburg, H. F. 1968. An ecological situation which produced a change in the proportion of Drosophila melanogaster to Drosophila simulans. Amer. Natur. 102, 389-390. Koopman, K. F. 1950. Natural selection for reproductive isolation between Drosophila preudoobscura and Dro¬ sophila persimilis. Evolution 4, 135-145. Littlejohn, M. J., and J. J. Loftus-FIills. 1968. An experi¬ mental evaluation of premating isolation in the Hyla ewingi complex (Anura: Hylidae). Evolution 22, 659- 663. 176 The Virginia Journal of Science Mainland, G. B. 1942. Genetic relationships in the Dro¬ sophila funebris group. Univ. Texas Publ. 4228, 74- 1 12. Manning, A. 1965. Drosophila and the evolution of be¬ havior. In Viewpoints in Biology (4). J. D. Carthy and C. L. Duddington, eds. Butterworths, London. McDonald, J., and P. A. Parsons. 1973. Dispersal activities of the sibling species Drosophila melanogaster and Dro¬ sophila simulans. Behav. Genet. 3, 293-301. Mettler, L. E., and J. J. Nagle. 1966. Corroboratory evi¬ dence for the concept of the sympatric origin of iso¬ lating mechanisms. Drosoph. Inf. Serv. 41, 76. Muller, H. J. 1939. Reversibility in evolution considered from the standpoint of genetics. Biol. Rev. 14, 261 — 280. - . 1942. Isolating mechanisms, evolution, and tem¬ perature. Biol. Symposia 6, 71-125. Murray, J. 1972. Genetic diversity and natural selection. Hafner, New York. Prakash, S. 1972. Origin of reproductive isolation in the absence of apparent genic differentiation in a geo¬ graphic isolate of Drosophila pseudoobscura. Genetics 72, 143-155. Schaffer, H. E. 1968. A measure of discrimination in mating. Evolution 22, 125-129. Sturtevant, A. H. 1920. Genetic studies on Drosophila simulans. I. Introduction. Hybrids with Drosophila melanogaster. Genetics 5, 488-500. Tantawy, A. O., and G. S. Mallah. 1961. Studies on natural populations of Drosophila. I. Heat resistance and geo¬ graphical variation in Drosophila melanogaster and Drosophila simulans. Evolution IS, 1-14. Wallace, B., and N. Felthousen. 1965. Mating interference: a new test of sexual isolation. Evolution 19, 522-555. Joseph P. Chinnici Department of Biology Virginia Commonwealth University Richmond, Virginia 23284 Manuscript received June 24, 1974 The Effect of Monosodium Glutamate on Crossing Over in the Distal Portion of the X Chromosome of Drosophila melanogaster Abstract — The effects on Drosophila melanogaster of continuous larval/pupal growth at 25°C on medium with or without monosodium glutamate (MSG, 10 percent weight per volume = 0.53 M) on larval/pupal viability, sex ratio of eclosing adults, fecundity of adult females and crossover frequencies for three intervals in the distal region of the X chromosome were studied. MSG signifi¬ cantly increases larval/pupal mortality and significantly reduces crossing over in females grown on MSG-medium. The effect of MSG on reducing crossing over is non- heritable. Possible modes of action of MSG on crossover modification are postulated. The effect on human health of the food additive monosodium glutamate (MSG) has been a topic of concern since 1968 when the “Chinese Restaurant Syndrome” was first described in man and associated with ingestion of the flavor enhancer MSG (See Schaumberg et al. 1968, 1969). Evidence presented by Ghadimi et al. (1971) indicates that the symp¬ toms of this syndrome (headache, sweating, nausea, weakness, thirst, flushing of the face, a sensation of burning or tightness, abdominal pain, and lacrima- tion) may be the result of “transient acetylcho- linosis”, since glutamic acid is readily converted to acetylcholine when excess sodium is present, the symptoms being due to the effect of the excess actylcholine on the parasympathetic nervous system. More serious concern about the effect of MSG on development has resulted from several reports that MSG causes lesions in the hypothalamus of the brain and/or degeneration of the retina of the eye of mice, rats, and rhesus monkeys (see, for example, Araujo and Mayer 1973; Arees and Mayer 1970; Burde et al. 1971; Lucas and Newhouse 1957; Olney 1971; Olney and Sharpe 1969). However, several other reports have failed to substantiate these findings (see, for example, Adamo and Ratner 1970; Oser et al. 1971; Reynolds et al. 1971; and Wen et al. 1973), so that no clear cut conclusions may be drawn. A possible contributing factor to the effect of MSG on brain development is the finding that MSG briefly but significantly depresses glucose uptake by mice brain cells (Creasey et al. 1971), but this interpretation has been questioned by Stegink et al. (1973). Va. J. Sci. 25, 177-181 Winter 1974 Research involving MSG mainly concerns the possible large scale debilitating effects MSG may have on bodily structures and/or development, and it appears that such effects do not occur in hu¬ mans ingesting “normal” dietary amounts of MSG (Ghadimi et al. 1972). However, no studies have been made of more subtle effects which MSG may have on normal animal functions; for instance the cellular events leading to the production of gametes. One such event is meiotic crossing over, the ex¬ change of genetic material between homologous chromosomes which pair during prophase of the first meiotic division. An organism well suited for a study of the effects of MSG on crossing over is Drosophila, since much is known about its genetics and the mutant genes necessary for determining rates of crossing over are available in abundance. In flies of the genus Drosophila, many non- genetic and genetic factors are known which can affect the rate of crossing over in females. Among the non-genetic factors are ( 1 ) irradiation by X rays or gamma rays (Chandley 1968; Hayashi and Suzuki 1968); (2) chemicals such as actinomycin-D (Hayashi and Suzuki 1968; Suzuki 1965a), calcium chloride (Levine 1955), ethylene diamine tetracetic acid (EDTA) (Kaufman et al. 1957), ethyl meth- anesulfonate (EMS) (Schewe et al. 1971; Valentin 1973), potassium chloride (Levine 1955), mito- mycin-C (Schewe et al. 1971; Suzuki 1965b), and RNase (Kaufmann et al. 1957); (3) humidity (Levine 1955); (4) temperature (Chandley 1968; Grell 1966, 1973; Plough 1917, 1921; Stern 1926); (5) larval nutrition (Neel 1941); (6) age of the female (Bridges 1927; Chinnici 1972; Kale 1969; Plough 1921; Rendel 1957) and (7) cis-trans ar¬ rangement of the genes (Parsons 1957). Among the genetic factors affecting the rate of crossing over in females are ( 1 ) “meiotic” mutants with relatively large scale effects such as c(3)G (Gowen 1922, 1933; Hall 1972; Hinton 1966) and others (Davis 1971; Parry 1973; Robbins 1971; Sandler et al. 1968; Valentin 1973a and b); (2) polygenic systems (Abdullah and Charlesworth 1974; Chinnici 1971a and b; Kale 1968, 1969; Kidwell 1972a and b; Lawrence 1962; Levine and Levine 1954, 1955; Palenzona and Zattoni 1970; 178 The Virginia Journal of Science Palenzona et al. 1972); (3) the intra and inter- chromosomal effects of chromosomal rearrange¬ ments such as inversions and translocations (Chil¬ dress 1973; Lucchesi and Suzuki 1968; Valentin 1972a and b) and (4) “mutator genes” (Woodruff 1972). The present report will describe the effect of monosodium glutamate on crossing over in the distal portion of the X chromosome of Drosophila melanogaster , and relate these findings to some of the work cited above. Methods and Materials Stocks — Two stocks of D. melanogaster were used in the experiments: a standard “wild type” laboratory stock of Oregon-R, and a “mutant” stock homozygous for four X chromosome recessive genes: scute bristles (sc, 1-0.0) crossveinless wings (cv, 1-13.7), singed bristles (sn3, 1-21.0), and miniature wings (m, 1-36.1). Gene symbols and map distances are from Lindsley and Grell (1968) which contains a full description of these mutant phenotypes. The mutant stock was constructed in early 1967 and has been maintained since by mass culture. Monosodium glutamate (MSG) — The MSG used was obtained from the J. T. Baker Chemical Com¬ pany (L-( + ) -glutamic acid, monosodium salt, FW 187.13, lot number 2-0721). The culture medium used is a standard yeast, dextrose, agar medium supplemented with several inorganic chemicals. The MSG-supplemented medium was prepared as fol¬ lows: after autoclaving non-supplemented medium, 10 grams of MSG were added for each 100 ml of culture medium. The medium was then poured into half pint bottles or 8 dram shell vials. This produced a 10 percent (weight per volume) or 0.53 M MSG- medium. All experiments described below used 10 percent MSG-medium. Temperature — All experiments were performed at 25 ± 1°C, maintained by means of a constant tem¬ perature incubator. Experiments and Results 1. Larval/Pupal Viability Studies. The effect of MSG on larval/pupal viability was studied as fol¬ lows. Mutant females were mated with wild type males and resultant young first instar larvae (3 to 6 hours after hatching on control medium) were col¬ lected. Twenty five larvae were placed in shell vials with either control medium (0 percent MSG) or MSG-medium (10 percent MSG) and allowed to complete larval and pupal development at 25 °C. The two treatments were replicated 25 times. The number and sex of eclosing adults produced in each vial also were scored. Table 1 summarizes these data. For the larvae grown on 10 percent MSG- medium: a. there is a significant reduction in the number of adults produced in relation to the control. b. there is a significant change in the percentage of males due to larval growth in MSG-medium. 2. Effects on Crossing Over. In the parental gen¬ eration, homozygous mutant females were mass mated with wild type males in half pint milk bottles TABLE 1 Effect of MSG on First Instar Larval to Adult Viability and Sex Ratio Number of Percent Male Adult Survivors Adult Survivors Treatment* X dr S x ± SE Control medium 20.36 ± 3.25 46.72 ± 2.18 10% MSG medium 15.00 d= 4.44 42.28 dh 1.09 P values for analysis of variance (control vs. 10% MSG) P < 0.001 0.05 < P < 0.10 * Each treatment vial initially received 25 larvae; each treatment is replicated 25 times containing MSG-medium and offspring were allowed to develop. Similar control matings were set up in half pint bottles containing unsupplemented me¬ dium. These bottles were kept at 25 °C in an in¬ cubator. From the offspring (Fx generation), 25 heterozygous females from each treatment bottle were mated separately in individual shell vials with mutant males which had been similarly treated. All of these Fx matings occurred on unsupplemented medium. Each Fx female was two days old when mated, and each was allowed to lay eggs for a single six day period, these offspring being allowed to de¬ velop at 25 °C. The offspring were then scored to determine ( 1 ) the rate of crossing over for the sc-cv, cv-sn3, and sn3-m intervals of the X chromo¬ some in the female parents. (2) fecundity of the female parents, and (3) percentage of male off¬ spring produced. These data are presented in Table 2. Crossover percentages were determined as dis¬ cussed by Chinnici (1971a). These facts emerge from the data: a. MSG has no effect in fecundity of females which successfully develop on MSG medium. b. The frequency of male offspring produced is not affected. c. MSG causes a significant reduction in crossing over in all three regions of the X chromosome studied, and in the total interval as well. d. The effect of MSG on suppressing crossing over appears to be polarized in the total por¬ tion of the X chromosome studied, showing a positive relationship between magnitude of crossover reduction and distance from the centromere. 3. Heritability of the Effect on Crossing Over. This experiment was performed to determine whether the change in crossover rate in female flies grown on MSG-medium was heritable. Phenotypically normal F2 female offspring (who were genetically heterozygous for the four sex-linked mutant genes) and mutant F2 male offspring were randomly col¬ lected from the MSG line used in the previous ex¬ periment. These F2 flies had developed on control medium but their parents had developed on MSG- medium. Control flies were collected in a similar manner. After the females (25 from the MSG line and 25 controls) were aged for two days, each was Effect of MSG on Crossing Over in Drosophila 179 TABLE 2 Effect of MSG on Fi Generation Female Crossing Over and Fecundity, and on the Sex Ratio oj Offspring Number of offspring Percent MSG in growth per Fi generation Percent male medium of Fi female* offspring Percent Crossing Over And 95 Percent Confidence Limits generation x ± s x ± SE sc-cv cv-sn 3 sn- 3m sc-m 0% MSG (control) 133.08 ± 21.84 47.60 ± 0.49 12.4 6.2 16.9 35.8 11.4-13.5 5. 3-7.1 15.5-18.4 33.5-38.2 10% MSG 119.16 ± 19.98 49.12 ± 0.77 8.1 4.7 13.0 26.1 7. 2-9.0 3. 8-5. 6 11.7-14.4 24.1-28.2 P values for analysis of variance (control vs. 10% MSG) 0. 10 < P < 0.25 0.10 < P < 0.25 P < 0.001 0.025 < P < 0.05 P < 0.001 P < 0.001 Rate of change in crossover frequency (10% MSG /control) 0.653 0.758 0.769 0.729 * 25 Females from each treatment were tested mated with mutant males of the same line in an individual shell vial, and allowed to lay eggs for a single six day period. These shell vials contained control medium in all cases and were kept at 25 °C. The offspring which developed were scored, as be¬ fore, to determine the rate of crossing over for the regions of the X chromosome under scrutiny. These data are presented in Table 3. The data indicate that the female offspring (F2 generation) of flies raised on MSG-medium (Fi generation) do not significantly differ from the controls in cross¬ over values even though the F] females themselves showed significant reduction in crossing over. This indicates that the effect of MSG on decreasing cross¬ ing over is not heritable and that flies show this effect only if directly grown as larvae on MSG- medium. Therefore, MSG does not cause permanent change in the genetic control mechanisms control¬ ling the rate of crossing over. Discussion It has been fairly well established that crossing over occurs by a breakage-reunion mechanism (see Clark 1974 and Radding 1974), and that endo¬ nuclease, exonuclease, polymerase and ligase en¬ zymes are involved in this process. Several molec¬ ular models for crossing over have been suggested (see Holliday 1968; Hotchkiss 1971; and White- house 1970, for examples). However, it is difficult to relate in a functional manner these mechanisms of crossing over with the various chemical and en¬ vironmental agents known to affect the rate of cross¬ ing over. Concerning MSG, recent isotope studies of MSG metabolism in the neonatal pig (Stegink et al. 1973) indicate that most of the MSG is converted into glucose, glutamine and lactate, and that no unusual metabolites form. No information concerning the fate of MSG ingested by Drosophila larvae is known, however. Despite the lack of biochemical informa¬ tion concerning the action of MSG on reducing crossing over, several general hypotheses may be put forth to explain the action of MSG: 1. Growth of a population of larvae on MSG- medium results in differential mortality some¬ how related to crossover potential. Those fe¬ male larvae/pupae with a lower crossover potential may survive at a higher rate than those with a higher crossover potential, perhaps due to some metabolic difference related to cross¬ ing over. However, the range of crossover values is approximately of equal magnitude among the offspring both of control and MSG treated females (see the 95 percent confidence limits in Table 2). This does not support the above stated hypothesis. 2. MSG may somehow cause differential viability among the progeny of females raised on MSG TABLE 3 Effect oj Growth on MSG-Medium oj F\ Generation Flies on Crossing Over in F-> Generation Flies: Heritability oj the Crossover Modijying Ejject oj MSG Treatment Percent Crossing Over and 95 Percent Confidence Limits in F2 Females* sc-cv cv-sn 3 stP-m sc-m Fi and F2 generation flies grown on 13.1 6.9 15.7 36.1 control medium 11.3-14.9 5.8-8. 1 14.2-17.1 32.8-39.5 F, generation flies grown on MSG-medium; 14.0 6.8 17.2 38.6 F2 generation flies grown on control medium 12.5-15.5 5. 7-7. 9 15.4-19.1 35.6-41.8 P values for analysis of variance (control vs. MSG treatments) 0.25 < P < 0.50 0.75 < P 0.10 < P < 0.25 0.25 < P < 0.50 * 25 Females from each treatment were tested 180 The Virginia Journal of Science medium, so that those progeny resulting from eggs carrying non-crossover chromosomes would have a better chance of completing development than those progeny resulting from eggs carrying chromosomes in which a crossover event had occurred. However, this effect would have to be small since the fertility of females raised on MSG is not significantly reduced. 3. MSG may exert a similar effect on all female larvae, reducing the potential for crossing over in all, perhaps by reducing the supply of cellular energy (Creasy and Malawista 1971; Landner 1971) or by some other means. The increased mortality of larvae/pupae may be an unrelated phenomenon. Results indicating that the effect of MSG is not heritable and that the offspring of MSG-fed flies have crossover values similar to untreated controls would seem to favor this possibility. 4. All or some combination of the above may occur to some extent. Literature Cited Abdullah, N. F., and B. Charlesworth. 1974. Selection for reduced crossing over in Drosophila melanogaster. Genetics 76, 447-451. Adamo, N. J., and A. Ratner. 1970. Monosodium gluta¬ mate: Lack of effects on brain and reproductive func¬ tion in rats. Science 169, 673-674. Araujo, P. E., and J. Mayer. 1973. 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Carnegie Institution of Washington Publication No. 627 . Effect of MSG on Crossing Over in Drosophila 181 Lucas, D. R., and J. P. Newhouse. 1957. The toxic effect of sodium L-glutamate on the inner layers of the retina. AMA Arch. Ophthalmol. 58, 193. Lucchesi, J. C., and D. T. Suzuki. 1968. The interchromo- somal control of recombination. Ann. Rev. Genetics 2, 53-86. Neel, J. V. 1941. A relation between larval nutrition and the frequency of crossing over in the third chromosome of Drosophila melanogaster. Genetics 26, 506-516. Olney, J. W. 1971. Glutamate — induced neuronal necrosis in the infant mouse hypothalamus, an electron micro¬ scopic study. J. Neuropath. Exp. Neurol. 30, 75-90. Olney, J. W., and L. G. Sharpe, 1969. Brain lesions in an infant rhesus monkey treated with monosodium glu¬ tamate Science 166, 386-388. Oser, B. L., S. Carson, E. E. Vogin, and G. E. Cox. 1971. Oral and subcutaneous administration of monosodium glutamate to infant rodents and dogs. Nature 229, 411-413. Palenzona, D. L., and A. Zattoni. 1970. Selection and recombination in Drosophila melanogaster. Theor. Appl. Genetics 40, 345-346. Palenzona, D. L., M. Mochi, and R. Alicchio. 1972. Recom¬ bination rate in selected lines of Drosophila melano¬ gaster. Monitore Zool. Ital. 6, 231-237. Parry, D. M. 1973. A meiotic mutant affecting recombina¬ tion in female Drosophila melanogaster. Genetics 73, 465-486. Parsons, P. A. 1957. An effect of gene arrangement on the recombination fraction in Drosophila melanogaster. Heredity 11, 117-127. Plough, H. H. 1917. The effect of temperature on crossing over in Drosophila J. Exp. Zool. 24, 147-210. Plough, H. H. 1921. Further studies on the effect of tem¬ perature on crossing over. J. Exp. Zool. 32, 187-202. Radding, C. M. 1974. Molecular mechanics in genetic re¬ combination. Ann. Rev. Genetics 7, 87-111. Rendel, J. M. 1957. The effect of age on the relationship between coincidence and crossing over in Drosophila melanogaster, Genetics 43, 207-214. Reynolds, W. A., N. Lemkey-Johnston, 1. J. Filer, and R. M. Pitkin, 1971. Monosodium glutamate: Absence of hypotalamic lesions after ingestion by newborn pri¬ mates. Science 172, 1342-1344. Robbins, L. G. 1971. Nonexchange alignment: A meiotic process revealed by a synthetic meiotic mutant of Drosophila melanogaster. Mol. gen. Genetics 101, 144- 166. Sandler, L., D. L. Lindsley, B. Nicoletti, and G. Trippa. 1968. Mutants affecting meiosis in natural populations of Drosophila melanogaster. Genetics 60, 525-558. Schaumberg, H. H., and R. Byck, 1968. Sin Cib-Syn: Ac¬ cent on glutamate. New England J. Med. 279, 105. Schaumberg, H. J., R. Byck, R. Gerstl, and J. H. Mashman. 1969. Monosodium L-glutamate: Its pharmocology and role in the Chinese Restaurant Syndrom. Science 163, 826-828. Schewe, M. J., D. T. Suzuki, and U. Erasmus. 1971. The genetic effects of mitomycin-c in Drosophila melano¬ gaster. Mutation Res. 12, 269-279. Stegink, L. D., M. C. Brummel, D. P. Boaz, and L. J. Filer, Jr. 1973. Moonsodium glutamate metabolism in the neonatal pig: Conversion of Administered Glutamate into other metabolites in vivo. J. Nutr. 103, 1146-1154. Stern, C. 1926. An effect of temperature and age on cross¬ ing over in the first chromosome of Drosophila melano¬ gaster. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. 12, 530-532. Suzuki, D. T. 1965a. Effects of Actinomycin-D on crossing over in Drosophila melanogaster. Genetics 51, 11-21. Suzuki, D. T. 1965b. Effects of mitomycin-c over in Drosophila melanogaster. Genetics 51, 635-640. Valentin, J. 1972a. Interchromosomal effects of autosomal inversions of Drosophila melanogaster. Hereditas 72, 243-254. Valentin, J. 1972b. The effect of the Curly inversions on meiosis in Drosophila melanogaster III. Interchromo¬ somal effect of homozygous inversions. Herditas 72, 255-260. Valentin, J. 1973a. Selection for altered recombination fre¬ quency in Drosophila melanogaster. Hereditas 74, 295-297. Valentin, J. 1973b. Characterization of a meiotic control gene affecting recombination in Drosophila melanogas¬ ter. Hereditas 75, 5-22. Wen, C., K. C. Haynes, and S. N. Gershoff. 1973. Effects of dietary supplementation of monosodium glutamate on infant monkeys, weanling rats, and suckling mice. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 26, 803-813. Whitehouse, H. L. K. 1970. The mechanism of genetic recombination. Biol. Rev. 45, 265-315. Woodruff, R. C. 1972. A new sex-linked mutator gene in Drosophila melanogaster. Drosoph. Inf. Serv. 49, 58. Gene B. Solomon Department of Pathobiology School of Veterinary Medicine University of Pennsylvania Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19174 Manuscript received September 19, 1974 Probable Role of the Timber Rattlesnake, Crotalus horridus, in the Release of Capillaria hepatica (Nematoda) Eggs From Small Mammals Abstract — The life cycle and possible mechanisms of egg release of Capillaria hepatica from the livers of in¬ fected hosts are reviewed. The presence of two kinds of Capillaria spp. eggs in the intestinal contents of two rattle¬ snakes killed in the vicinity of Mountain Lake, Virginia, is reported. One kind of egg is very similar, if not indistin¬ guishable, in size and structure to that of C. hepatica. The presence of C. hepatica- like eggs in the ophidian intestinal tract suggests that snakes are involved in the release and dispersal of the eggs of this species. Although Capillaria hepatica (Bancroft, 1893), a nematode of the Superfamily Trichuroidea and Fam¬ ily Trichocephalidae, is a ubiquitous mammalian parasite and in North America alone has been re¬ ported from the livers of 7 orders and 35 species of mammals (Freitas and Lent 1936; Lubinsky 1956; Freeman and Wright 1960; Solomon and Handley 1971), specific details of egg release and trans¬ mission remain an enigma. Following ingestion of embryonated infective eggs, first stage larvae hatch in the caecum (Wright 1961; Solomon, personal observation) and penetrate the portal system. Sub¬ sequent development to the adult stage occurs in the liver parenchyma and the female discharges eggs into the surrounding hepatic tissue. Adult worms die within a few weeks after egg deposition (Lutter- moser 1938) and, in order to embryonate beyond the 4-8 cell stage, the eggs must be liberated from the liver and reach the exterior. Embryonation to the infective stage occurs only under aerobic con¬ ditions. Ingestion of infected liver leads merely to the passage of unembryonated eggs in the feces. This communication concerns the mechanism of egg re¬ lease from infected hosts. There is general agreement that, in order for transmission of C. hepatica to occur under natural conditions, infected hosts are most frequently eaten and eggs embryonate after passing out in the feces. Thus, cannibalism, predation, and/or scavenging are considered to be the most important mechanisms of egg dissemination. Freeman and Wright (1960) concluded that cannibalism in communal winter Va. J. Sci. 25, 182—184 Winter 1974 burrows, rather than predation, was the chief source of eggs for infection of deermice, Peromyscus mani- culatus, in Algonquin Park, Canada. However, con¬ tact with feces of carnivores or those of P. mani- culatus was not ruled out as a source of infection for red-backed voles, Clethrionomys gapperi. On the other hand, Layne (1968) found no evidence supporting cannibalism as an important egg-releas¬ ing mechanism in Florida mammals. He suggested that insects which feed on dead rodents may play a key role in transmission. According to Momma (1930), C. hepatica eggs embryonate normally after passage through the intestine of flies. More recently, Mobedi and Arfaa (1971) reported that scaveng¬ ing by certain ground beetles may serve as a source of egg release or dissemination. Thus, it is likely that transmission of C. hepatica is facilitated by a complex of specific ecological conditions including appropriate habitats, the avail¬ ability of sufficient populations of potential hosts and transmitters such as predators and/or scav¬ engers. Furthermore, on the basis of development of eggs obtained from hosts in different regions of North America, Wright (1961) has suggested the possible existence of regional strains of C. hepatica. If this is so, then it seems likely that different geo¬ graphic areas would have different sets of hosts and conditions involved in C. hepatica transmission. Studies by Solomon and Handley (1971) at Mountain Lake, Virginia, in the Southern Appa¬ lachian Mountains, suggested the existence of pri¬ mary and secondary foci of infection, involving both host and habitat, in the maintenance of nat¬ ural infections. In 27 sites studied during each of 3 summers, omnivorous rodents trapped in cliff locations were more frequently positive than 1 ) those trapped in forest, field, or streambank and bog habitats, and 2) other small mammals trapped in any habitat. Further studies (Solomon, unpub¬ lished data) confirm these findings and continue to demonstrate the importance of habitat in main¬ tenance of C. hepatica infection under natural con¬ ditions. Capillaria hepatic: Egg Release from Infected Liver 183 TABLE 1 Comparison oj Capillaria spp. eggs Type Source Number Measured Range (/im) Mean ±SE 1 Rattlesnake 25 L 72.0-79.2 W 31.2-36.0 76.3 ± 0.57 34.3 ± 0.25 2 Rattlesnake 25 L 52.8-60.0 W 28.8-33.6 56.4 rb 0.39 31.5 ± 0.26 C. hepatica Laboratory Strain 25 L 52.8-60.0 W 28.8-36.0 56.5 ± 0.44 31.5 ± 0.33 During the summer of 1973, the intestinal con¬ tents of two timber rattlesnakes, Crotalus horridus, killed in the vicinity of heavily infected cliff sites near Mt. Lake, were examined for the presence of Capillaria eggs. No adult worms were found; however, two distinct populations of Capillaria eggs were recovered from the snakes (Table 1, Figs. 1 and 2). Small to moderate numbers of Type 1 eggs, recovered from both snakes were large, rela¬ tively thin-walled, and had a bile-colored tinge. These eggs were slightly assymetrical with promi¬ nent polar caps extending beyond the basic outline of the egg. Substantial numbers of Type 2 eggs were recovered from only one snake and were gen¬ erally symmetrical and within the size range of C. hepatica. Measurements of Type 2 eggs resemble those of the strain of C hepatica maintained in our laboratory (Table 1, Fig. 3). It is relevant that the intestines of each rattlesnake contained the remains of rodent carcasses and hair. C. O. Handley, Jr. (personal communication) has fre¬ quently observed P. maniculatus (up to 5 per snake) in C. horridus in the Mt. Lake area. Rattlesnakes in the Southern Appalachian Moun¬ tains are frequently found at higher elevations on rocky hillsides with ledges (Klauber 1972), such as at the cliff trap sites at Mt. Lake, which have a high prevalence of C. hepatica. Furthermore, the diet, behavior, and ecology of such predators would provide excellent opportunities for contact with rodent hosts in such habitats. Thus, the presence of C. hepatica-Uke eggs in the snake intestinal tract suggests that it may be involved, at least in part, in the mechanism of egg release. The only species of Capillaria reported in a rattle¬ snake (Yamaguti 1961) is Capillaria crotali (Rudolphi, 1819) from the intestine of Crotalus durissus, a South American rattlesnake. Travassos (1915) considered C. crotali to be a nomen nudum and Freitas and Lent (1935) listed it as a species inquirenda. Whether either kind of egg recovered in the present study represents C. crotali, some other rattlesnake capillarid, a capillarid of a dif¬ ferent host, or C. hepatica itself is not known. How¬ ever, in size and structure, the Type 2 egg is very similar to, if not indistinguishable from, that of C. hepatica (Table 1, Figs. 2 and 3). If Type 2 eggs were those of C. hepatica, their presence, in substantial numbers in the lower digestive tract, may represent a large proportion of the population derived from the livers of infected rodent hosts. Indeed, whether or not the eggs which were re¬ covered were those of C. hepatica is, in fact, rela¬ tively unimportant. Given the prevalence of infec- Figs. 1 , 2, 3 — Comparison of Capillaria eggs recovered from Crotalus horridus with an egg known to be C. hepatica. 1) Type 1 egg, Capillaria sp. from C. horridus 2) Type 2 egg, Capillaria sp. from C. horridus 3) Egg, Capillaria hepatica, Laboratory Strain 184 The Virginia Journal of Science tion in omnivorous rodents, their well-known role as prey for crotalids (and indeed other snakes), and the resistance of capillarid eggs to passage through the vertebrate gastrointestinal tract, it must be inferred that this mode of egg release and dispersal occurs in nature, wherever rodent-eating snakes abound. It is remarkable that this has not been suggested before in the literature on this para¬ site. Acknowledgments — The following students par¬ ticipated in this project: N. Ailes, A. Antczak, L. Frye, G. King, and L. Norford. Drs. C. O. Hand- ley, Jr. and G. A. Schad are gratefully acknowl¬ edged for their critical comments on the manu¬ script. Supported in part by U.S.P.H.S. Research Grant AI- 10898 and the Mountain Lake Biological Station of the University of Virginia. Literature Cited de Freitas, J. F. T. and H. Lent. 1935. Capillariinae de animals de sangue frio (Nematoda: Trichuroidea). Mems. Inst. Oswaldo Cruz 30, 241-284. de Freitas, J. F. T. and H. Lent. 1936. Estudo sobre os Capillariinae parasites de mammiferos. Mems. Inst. Oswaldo Cruz 31, 85-160. Freeman, R. S. and K. A. Wright. 1960. Factors concerned with the epizootiology of Capillaria hepatica (Bancroft, 1893) (Nematoda) in a population of Peromyscus maniculatus in Algonquin Park, Canada. J. Parasit. 46, 373-382. Klauber, L. 1972. Rattlesnakes. Vol. I and II. University of California Press, Berkeley. Layne, J. N. 1968. Host and ecological relationships of the parasitic helminth Capillaria hepatica in Florida mam¬ mals. Zoologica 53, 107-122. Lubinsky, G. 1956. On the probable presence of parasitic liver cirrhosis in Canada. Can. J. Comp. Med. 20, 457-465. Luttermoser, G. W. 1938. An experimental study of Capil¬ laria hepatica in the rat and the mouse. Am. J. Hyg. 27, 321-340. Mobedi, I. and F. Arfaa. 1971. Probable role of ground beetles in the transmission of Capillaria hepatica. J. Parasit. 57, 1144-1145. Momma, K. 1930. Notes on modes of rat infection with Hepaticola hepatica. Ann. Trop. Med. Parasit. 24, 109-113. Solomon, G. B. and C. O. Handley, Jr. 1971. Capillaria hepatica (Bancroft, 1893) in Appalachian mammals. J. Parasit. 57, 1142-1144. Travassos, L. 1915. Contribuicoes para o conhecimento da fauna helminthologica brasileira. V. Sobre as especies brasileiras do genero Capillaria Zeder, 1800. Mems. Inst. Oswaldo Cruz 7, 146-172. Wright, K. A. 1961. Observations on the life cycle of Capillaria hepatica (Bancroft, 1893) with a description of the adult. Can. J. Zool. 38, 167-182. Yamaguti, S. 1961. Systema Helminthum. Vol. III. The nematodes of vertebrates. Interscience Publishers, New York. News and Notes Awards Presented at the May 1974 Annual Meeting, Norfolk /. Shelton Horsley Research Award: Dr. Kuldip P. Chopra, Old Dominion University, for his paper “Atmospheric and ocean flow problems intro¬ duced by islands.” Ivey F. Lewis Award: Dr. Lynn DeForrest Abbott, Jr., Medical College of Virginia. New Fellows of the Academy: Dr. William T. Ham, Jr., Dr. Perry C. Holt, Dr. Leonard O. Morrow, Dr. Robert F. Smart. Errata, Volume 25, 1974 The genus Xironogiton Ellis, 1919 (Clitellata: Branchiobdellida), by Perry C. Holt. On page 6, second column, the third line from the bottom should read “distinct from Cronodrilus Holt, 1968b, and”. Paul R. Merriman’s Flora of Richmond and Vicin¬ ity: The first publication of the Committee on Virginia Flora, by Howard M. Smith. On pages 132 and 133, “Ivy Lewis” should be “Ivey Lewis”. 186 The Virginia Journal of Science Author Index to Volume 25, 1974 Abstracts of Papers, Fifty-second Annual Meeting of the Virginia Academy of Science, May 7-10, Norfolk . 48 Andersen, Arnold. Phenylketonuria . 32 Burnett, Karen and Bruce Grant. Clinal mating discrimination in Drosophila melanogaster. . . . . 173 Cain, Thomas D. Combined effects of changes in temperature and salinity on early stages of Rangia cuneata . . . . 30 Campbell, Ronald A. Some helminth parasites of dogs of Roanoke County, Virginia and a review of their clinical importance . 129 Chinnici, Joseph P. The effect of monosodium glutamate on crossing over in the distal portion of the X chromosome of Drosophila melanogaster . 177 Douglass, Vaughan M. and Robert T. Lackey. Experimental cage culture of channel catfish strains in Virginia . 141 Falls, Elsa Q. A taxonomic survey of freshwater oligochaetes from the Richmond, Virginia area with reference to commensal ciliates . 26 Fick, Deborah (see Samsel) Grant, Bruce (see Burnett) Hoehn, Robert C. (see Parker) Holt, Perry C. The genus Xironogiton Ellis, 1919 (Clitellata: Branchiobdellida) . 5 Jones, Barbara W. (see Schori) Johnson, Miles F. Cynareae (Asteraceae) in Virginia: Cirsium, Cardans , Onopordum . . . 152 Lackey, Robert T. (see Douglass) Llewellyn, Gerald C. (see Samsel) Mathes, Martin C. The development and evaluation of an audio-tutorial approach in the introductory biology laboratory ........ 161 Meyer, Edward R. Unionid mussels of the Wabash, White, and East Fork White Rivers, Indiana . 20 Parker, Bruce C., Jeffrey T. Whitehurst and Robert C. Hoehn. Observations of in situ concentrations and production of organic matter in an Antarctic meromictic lake . . . . . 136 Samsel, Gene L., Gerald C. Llewellyn and Deborah Fick. A preliminary study of the effects of gamma irradiation and oxygen stress on an aquatic microecosystem . . . 169 Schori, T. R. and Barbara W. Jones. Smoking and multiple-task performance . . 141 Smith, Howard M. Paul R. Merriman’s Flora oj Richmond and Vicinity: The first publication of the Committee on Virginia Flora. . 1 32 Solomon, Gene B. Probable role of the timber rattlesnake, Crotalus horridus, in the release of Capillaria hepatica (Nematoda) eggs from small mammals . 182 Virginia Academy of Science, Summaries of Council Meetings and Academy Conference, Fifty-second Annual Meeting, Norfolk, May 1974 . . . . . . . 41 Whitehurst, Jeffrey T. (see Parker) yWDOBINS Making todays medicines with integrity... seeking tomorrows with persistence. A. H. Robins Company Richmond. 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