The Virginia Journal of Science VOLUME I 350572 iLBRm'i Published by The Virginia Academy of Science Monthly, except June, July, August and September at Lexington, Virginia. CONTENTS PAGE Mixed Deciduous Forests of the Appalachians- — E. Lucy Braun . 1 Bryoph3rtic Succession on Boulders in the Mountain Lake Area, Giles County, Virginia— Paul M. Patterson . . . 5 “Iceland Moss”, Certraria islandica, in Virginia — A. Allard . 17 Ferns and Fern Allies of Amelia County, Virginia — J, B. Lewis and A, B. Massey...... . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 Pteridophyta of a Bog near “White Pine Lodge”, Giles] County, Vir¬ ginia — Samuel Lewis Meyer..... . 29 The Sullivant Moss Society’s 1939 Foray — ^Paul M. Patterson . 30 General Notes...... . 33 Snakes of the Alleghany Plateau of Virginia— Paul R. Burch . 35 Significance of Geological Features in Jackson’s Valley Campaign — Henry Donald Campbell... . . . . . . . . . . 40 Heavy Mineral Separation — Marcellus H. Stow . 45 The Faunal Zones of the Southern Appalachians — J. J. Murray . 53 Contributions of Virginians to the Geology of the State — Joseph K. Roberts . 68 Early Winter Food of Ruffed Grouse on the George Washington Na¬ tional Forest — Talbott E. Clarke . 78 Program, Eighteenth Annual Meeting. (No. 4, April. 28pp., not in¬ cluded in total.) Equalization of Educational Opportunities Among Virginia Coun¬ ties — Allen D. Edwards and Boyd Harshbarger . 85 A Study of Dielectric Absorption — ^J. W. Simmons, Jr., and F. B. Haynes . 93 Invisible Stars — Dirk Reuyl . 101 Notes on the Mid- Appalachian Species of Parony'chia — Earl L. Core ... 110 Members of the Genus Phacus Dujardin at Mountain Lake — Samuel Lewis Meyer..... . 117 General Notes . 119 Second Symposium on Organic Analytical Reagents — John H. Yoe . 121 A Summary Report of 500 Organic Compounds — ^W. J. Frierson . 123 Progress Report on Organic Analytical Research at Virginia Poly¬ technic Institute — F. H. Fish, J. R. Noell and B. H. Kemp . 125 A Study of the Reaction Between 2-Acetamino-6-aminobenzo-thiazole and Iridium — -J. R. Noell and F. H. Fish . 126 Solubility of the Alkaline Earth Salts of Some of the Higher Fatty Acids — B. H. Kemp and F. H. Fish . 127 A Summary Report on 100 Organic Compounds — Margaret B. Kel¬ ler, Eugenia S. Vance, Mary B. Pollock, Betty Bailey, Mary F. Cline, Ann Atwell, and William E. Trout, Jr . 130 7' ] ’■ 0 A Progress Report — A. R. Armstrong . 130 A Progress Report — William 0. Swan . 130 A Progress Report — Ira A. Updike, J. T. Ashworth, Jr., and B. M. Keys . 131 Summary Report of Progress— J. Robert Taylor . 131 Valence Theories Applied to Some Organo-Metallic Complex Com¬ pounds — James W. Cole . . . 132 The Relation of Some Chelating Reagents to the Periodic Arrange¬ ment of Metals — J. Robert Taylor . 145 Oximes in Analytical Chemistry — Alfred Burger . 150 The Application of a New Class of Organic Reagents to the Detection and Determination of Palladium — Lyle G. Overholser and John H. Yoe . 162 Proceedings, 1939-40: (No. 7, November) General Program . 172 Minutes of Council Meeting . 173 Minutes of Academy Conference . 174 Minutes of General Business Meeting . 194 Abstracts of Papers: Astronomy, Mathematics and Physics . 199 Biology . 206 Botany . 214 Zoology . 217 Chemistry . 223 Education . 231 Engineering . 236 Geology . 242 Medical Sciences . 250 Psychology . 253 List of Members . 257 Photography as a College Course — J. D. Schumacher . 273 Studies on the Turbellarian Fauna of the Norfolk Area. — V. Anatom¬ ical Notes on the American Representative of Maprostomum or- thostylum Braun 1885. — Frederick F. Ferguson and E. Ruffin Jones, Jr. . 281 Cobbles from the Pleistocene Terraces of the Lower York- James Penr insula — Ernest W. Sniffen . 285 Soil Types and their Significance in Agricultural Economy^ — S. S. Obenshain . 289' Studies of the Germination, Growth and Propagation of Seeds, Berries and Root Fragments of Berberis canadensis Mill — G. E. Matheny, R. S. Mullin and R. L. Shaver . 295 Editorial . 296 Index to Volume 1 . 298 The Virginia Journal of Science Vol. 1 JANUARY, 1940 No. 1 CONTENTS PAGE Mixed Deciduous Forests of the Appalachians — E. Lucy Braun . 1 Bryophytic Succession on Boulders in the Mountain Lake Area, Giles County Virginia — Paul M. Patterson . 5 ‘‘Iceland Moss”, Cetraria islandica, in Virginia — H. A. Allard . . 17 Ferns and Fern Allies of Amelia County, Virginia — J. B. Lewis and A. B. Massey . 26 Pteridophyta of a Bog near “White Pine Lodge”, Giles County, Virginia — Samuel Lewis Meyer... . . 29 The Sullivant Moss Society's 1939 Foray — Paul M. Patterson . 30 General Notes . 33 Published by The Virginia Academy of Science The Virginia Journal of Science Official journal of the VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE Ruskin S. Freer, President, Lynch^bung College, Lynchburg, Va. E. C. L. Miller, Secretary-Treasurer, Medical College of Virginia, Rich¬ mond, Va, COUNCIL Regular Members Robert F. Smart W. Catesby Jones Charles E. Myers Preston Edwards Marcellus H. Stow Ex-officio Members Harvey E. Jordan D. Maurice Allan Earle B. Norris Editor-in-Chief — ^Ruskin S. Freer. Managing Editor — Lt.-Col. Robert P. Carroll, Virginia Military Institute, Lexington, Va. Editorial Board — To be appointed. ANNOUNCEMENT With the first issue of the new Virginia Journal; of Science, Claytonia has ceased to exist. The last issue of Volume V ap- peared in April, 1939. It is now merged with the new Journal. At the annual meeting of The Virginia Academy of Science at Danviille last May, chiefly due to the efforts of Lt.-Coll Robert P. Carroll of The Virginia Military Institute, the Academy voted to start an official periodical publication, leaving to the incoming President the appointing of a committee with power to act. This committee, under the chairmanship of Dean Ivey F. Lewis of The University of Virginia, has been at work for some weeks, and has authorized the publication of the first number. It also selected the name of the new journal', and has requested Lt.-Col. Carroll and the undersigned to serve as Managing Editor and Editor-in-Chief, respectively, pending complete organization of the new staff. Claytonia was sponsored by the Committee on Virginia Flora of the Academy. Members of the Committee felt that, while its publication was continuing without a deficit, the purposes of the Committee in publishing Claytonia could be met as well in the Virginia Journal of Science, and the new publication would in addition serve much broader needs. It seems certain that there will be just as many pages on Virginia flora in a volume of the new publication as in a volume of Claytonia, The new journal will include papers from all sections of the Academy which wish to use it. An Editorial Board, including the Secretary of the Academy, Dr. E. C. L. Miller, and repre¬ sentatives of co-operating sections, will soon be formed. Two issues will be devoted annually to the Program and the Proceedings of the annual meetings of the Academy. The material in this issue is entirely botanical as it was nec¬ essary to use manuscripts on hand in order to start the Journal going promptly. Manuscripts are now urgently requested from workers in other scientific fields, as several sections have indi¬ cated they feel the need of such a publication as this, and should be represented in its pages. It is especially important that subscriptions be forwarded as soon as possible to Lt.-Col. Carroll, Virginia Military Institute, Lexington, Va. — Ruskin S. Freer. 'Ml^n.-UM. 't r-M-' - «'>»'«'^' V '■ ’ ^ ;,. -j iS'ii'/,-' ' ■ *» ’#1 ,!,?>■ M i'.' ■:/..■■ v'Ui'.K-r ..' ’ ' tv» :ill#:i'' 'ii ■■ 4 'Aj /'/ * 'VDyi'^^^K' .’"[('J'-'i V' ''\ ■ ! -■ nv.;.) /.V', : J] .^rtv' ' ;.• : - ■ V f •;■ : '•* ■• . • 4;^#*'!.; , .*) :;v,^. ., ■ ;r^ : , ■ ^ ■),■; , I-' . -;i‘lilMv /'^ ' ■^ ■.■:M&'.fi'--, -f'/'--’ ■ ,-vM )i.i’)jN >■ > - ,^' I 'K'v ■' .'.';:t;j:'\ )i\ y ', r '4<(_ y. I !(;?■ vt::';..J{.AVrni •. if'yr'. I n . Vt^’- ;■• , • ,'-,v r,.,!nv '■ W^Wt ' ^ " :‘ • ' ■•; '■ ' , " , ' • ,::.• ■ v^"'^ '"I 'f', . ■ ‘ " .. ; : . v; ''„!#■>':.■ y ,yjT}w4r’''-^.. ' ■' '' ’ ‘ ■■-■'^'■' ‘^’ *’^V^ ' i? '.• iiiU’A'j ?c& ./. * ..• ,y,. ', :.h;v < . Si'- ^ ' mwi;^ '■ . 4^t' ''■'R V si' J IV The Virginia Journal of Science VOL. 1 JANUARY, 1940 No. 1 Mixed Deciduous Forests of the Appalachians^ E. Lucy Braun Mixed deciduous forests occur throughout the imglaciated Appalachian upland and to some extent beyond it. However, only in certain parts, especially the Cumberland Mountains and southern Allegheny Mountains, and adjacent Cumberland and Allegheny Plateaus, does the mixed deciduous forest which we know as mixed mesophytic forest prevail. A knowledge of the mixed deciduous forests of the unglaciated Appalachian upland is essential to an understanding of the deciduous forest forma¬ tion as a whole. Here on the Appalachian upland is the key to the genetic development of our deciduous forests. Among students of plant distribution the importance of the Appalachian upland as a haven for ancient species, and for relic occurrences of species which have migrated to younger land areas, is generally accepted. Yet students of plant communities have been slow to look for a parallel in the genesis of our forests. Most ecologists are accustomed to thinking of successional devel- ^ opment, of the changes induced by vegotational reactions, by slow topographic changes, and by gradual climatic changes such as occurred during the Pleistocene. But succession alone cannot explain the complexities of the deciduous forest. In fact, on the ancient Appalachian upland, one finds little evidence in pri¬ mary stands of any successional development still in progress. Through the ages since Angiospermous trees arose, forests have occupied this area. The mixed forest of the Appalachians is a remnant of the undiiTerentiated forest of the Tertiary. The mixed mesophytic association, one of the four major associations of the deciduous forest, is best exemplified in this region, with its center or region of optimum development in the Cumberland and southern Allegheny Mountains and unglaciated Appalachian Plateaus. Let us think of the deciduous forest as a whole as represented by the accompanying diagram which suggests position and ge¬ netic relations of the deciduous forest associations. *Read before the Mountain Lake meeting of the Botanical Society of America, June 15, 1939, 1 B-M The mixed mesophytic occupies a central position; oak-hick¬ ory forest lies principally to the west; oak-cheistnut to the east and southeast; beech-maple to the north. Genetically, what does this represent? Because the undifferentiated mixed forest of the Tertiary once occupied a larger territory than is now occupied by its lineal descendant, the mixed mesophytic forest associa¬ tion, we cannot think only of migrations from this present center. Increasing aridity in the interior was unfavorable to certain species of the undifferentiated mixed forest, and their ranges were curtailed, involving then, a shrinkage in area or reces¬ sional migration of the western front of the mixed forest, leav¬ ing behind those species of lesser moisture requirements, and resulting in the formation of the oak-hickory association. In iso¬ lated spots in the Ozark region of Arkansas and Missouri, forest communities still exist which are closely similar to the mixed forests of the Appalachians, though the region as a whole is now oak-hickory forest. Glaciation curtailed the mixed forest on the north, and at its close, afforded a vast territory for invasion. Into this, trees moved from the south; the oak-hickory associa¬ tion came to occupy part of the western glaciated section, while some of the mesophytic species of the mixed forest moved northward from their Pleistocene haven. Thus arose the beech- maple forest so well represented in parts of Michigan, Indiana, Ohio, and western New York. The reasons for changes which appear to have taken place to the east and southeast of the pres¬ ent stronghold of the mixed mesophytic forest (i. e., the Cumber¬ land Mountains and adjacent area) are less apparent. In the southern Blue Ridge province (including the Great Smoky Moun- 2 tains) the mixed mesophytic forest is in area subordinate to the oak-chestnut forest. Farther to the east and southeast, the im¬ portance of oaks in what some will prefer to call a mixed forest is apparent. To the northeast, the “mixed transition forest” of the foresters appears g'enetically toi be a derivative of the mixed mesophytic forest. Briefly, let us review a few of the outstanding features of the mixed mesophytic forest, the mixed forest of the Appalachians. Vegetation ally, it is a mixed forest made up of about twenty or twenty-flve species ; a forest without definite dominants, or with several important species, rather than only one or two. The more important species in the area as a whole are beech, tulip, bass- wood, sugar maple, chestnut, buckeye, white oak and red oak. The limited time makes it imipossible to give specific data on forest composition. Climatically, the mixed mesophytic forest occupies a region of abundant rainfall fairly well distributed throughout the year. Throughout its extent, and also wherever represented by isolated areas within other forest associations, it is marked by the mull type of humus layer and generally gray-^brown soil. It occupies chiefly ancient land areas, but even within these appears to be more or less limited to the topograph¬ ically mature areas. The areal limits of the mixed mesophytic forest are indefinite, as is to be expected if we consider the long history of this associa¬ tion. Throughout the Cumberland Mountains and southern part of the Allegheny Mountains, the unglaciated Allegheny Plateau, and maturely dissected parts of the Cumberland Plateau, mixed mesophytic forest prevails. In these mountains, it is not con¬ fined to coves, as it is in the Southern Appalachians where the forester’s term, “cove hardwoods,” originated. Throughout this area it is remarkable in the complexity of its composition. Ge¬ netically, this is exceedingly important. Here was an undifferen¬ tiated forest. Through the ages, local and regional influences have been at work. No two species of the mixed f orest are exact¬ ly equivalent, physiologically; each reacts in slightly different fashion to environmental stress. Thus there arise a multitude of variations in the mixed forest, communities which I have termed association-segregates, because they arise by segregation of groups of species of the association and are definite and recog¬ nizable communities of equivalent ecological status. A great variety of association-segregates may be seen in the Cumberland Mountains, the optimum area of mixed mesophytic forest. Communities distinctly transitional to oak-chestnut for¬ est, and communities in which Chestnut oak and chestnut are the dominants are present, as well as the most mesophytic of forests, such as the sugar maple-basswood-buckeye type. The genetic relations of all, including' these small areas of oak-chestnut, are 3 so apparent that it becomes evident, in the region of prevailing mixed mesophytic forest, that all are segregates of this forest, i. e., association-segregates. The term, association-segregate, is not a synonym of lociation or of faciation, though it is true that some association-segregates might be termed lociations, that some have become faciations, and that some even have become associations. Here in an ancient forest area is a trying-out ground, so to speak, Avhere local varia¬ tions in environmental factors have resulted in a multiplicity of variations, of segregates, of the mixed forest. All, genetically, are equivalent, and to apply different terms to adjacent and eco¬ logically equivalent communities, is to obscure the basic and fundamental principles in the origin of deciduous forest com¬ munities. Going aw^ay from the center of the mixed mesophytic forest, the number of different association-segregates decreases. Finally, mixed mesophytic forest (in any form) becomes less prevalent. The great Appalachian Ridge and Valley province, with its wide expanses of uplifted peneplained valley fiats, lies to the east of the Cumberland and southern Allegheny Mountains and Appa¬ lachian Plateaus where mixed mesophytic forest prevails. Here the greater importance of oaks, especially white oak, is apparent. In the Blue Ridge, too, mixed forests with the aspect of those of the Cumberlands, are limited in extent. Instead, oaks are more important. Even the Great Smoky Mountains, an important sec¬ tion of our Appalachian upland, support oak-chestnut forest on most of the slopes, while mixed mesophytic forest is limited to the coves, with hemlock generally very important in the mixed forest of deeper ravines.'*' East of the Blue Ridge, even to the Atlantic Coast, isolated areas of mixed mesophytic forest occur. To the northeast, in the mountains of Pennsylvania and in parts of New England, a mixed triansition forest is seen. Westward on the Appalachian Plateaus, mixed mesophytic forest prevails except on undissected portions of the southern part of the Cum¬ berland Plateau. Farther to the west, mixed mesophytic forest occupies less and less of the area and becomes confined to the most favorabe situations. Only to the north, along the boundary of the latest (or Wisconsin) glaciation, is the boundary of the mixed mesophytic forest rather well defined. University of Cincinnati. *At altitudles favorable for deciduous forest. 4 Bryophytic Succession on Boulders in the Mountain Lake Area, Giles County, Virginia^ Paul M. Patterson The purpose of this study is to analyze the early successions on boulders in the Mountain Lake area with particular reference to the bryophytes. The following types of rocks are excluded from this study : rocks in creeks submerged or emerged ; stream beds periodically dry ; cliffs, and their crevices ; and boulders that, due to their fragmentation, relative positions, or overgrowth of roots mechanicalily colleot humus of non-bryophytic origin. The area investigated consists of approximately 15 square miles on Salt Pond, Big and Butt Mountains, together with the intervening valley. The tops of these ridges are capped by the resistant Clinch (Silurian) sandstone overlying the soft Martins- burg shale. The boulders studied are derived from the weathered strata at peak or ridge summits, or blocks of this sandstone lying at lower levels on Martinsburg shale. The altitude of the region studied lies between 2900 feet at the Cascades and 4363 feet at Bald Knob. The majority of the stations are above 3800 feet. The sandstone, (in places a fine conglomerate), presents a rough surface to which bryophytic rhizoids may easily become attached. Probably on this account, no correlation was noticed between moderate slopes of the tops of the boulders and the types of bryophytes growing on them. Vertical or near vertical slopes bear as a rule only the early bryophytic invaders. As variation in slopes up to about 30 degrees, had no observable effect on the types of bryophytes growing on the boulders, and as the upper surfaces of practically all boulders falls within this variation, slopes of the rocks are disregarded. The boulders investigated range from about 2-20 feet in longest dimension. The authorities for the plant names are omitted, the synonyms are those used by the following authors: lichens according to Fink (1935) ; hepatics, Evans and Nichols (1908) ; mosses. Grout (1928) in so far as that work has been issued, otherwise. Grout (1903) ; ferns, Small (1938) ; herbs and shrubs, Robinson and Fernald (1908) ; and trees, Coker and Totten (1934). Eleven stations were selected which present the various habi¬ tat differentiations consistent with the presence of boulders. Five of these are on or below weathered cliffs at ridge or peak summits. Differences in microclimates result from different directions of exposure and different degrees of protection. These stations are as follows : *An abstract of this ipaper was published in the American Journal of Botany 25, pp. 3-4 of the supplemient to Noi., 10, Dec., 1938. The work was done during- the summer of 1938 at the Mountain Lake Biological Station of the University of Virginia. 5 Golf Course, (#1). This station lies on an arm of Salt Pond Mountain in an oak-hickory forest, (chiefly Qnercus bore¬ alis maxima, Q. alba and Hicoria ovata) . The exposure is south¬ ern. Butt Mountain, (#2). Here a crumbling cliff at the west- by-south western end of the ridge has left a dense litter of rela¬ tively flat boulders in a hundred-yard belt where the slope is rather gentle. These boulders are shaded in part by Sorbus americana and Betula lenta. The boulders become scattered as the mountainside becomes abruptly steeper, and the Betula zone is succeeded by a Quercus borealis maxima-Q. alba forest. Bear Cliff, (#3) . This station is on the southeastern ridge of Salt Pond Mountain with a southeastern exposure. Massive strips of sandstone have slipped away from the body of the rock at the ridge summit forming roughly parallel fissures of varying width, depth and length, (mostly 10-30 feet wide and 10-40 feet deep). Loose boulders are scattered in these Assures and at the base of the cliff. Woody coverage over the cliffs and in the As¬ sures consists chiefly of Betula lenta and B. lutea, and to a small¬ er extent Quercus borealis maxima and Q, alba, together with such shrubby plants as Viburnum alnifolium, Rhododendron maximum, and Kalmia latifolia. Bald Knob, (#7). This is a peak on the southwestern end of Salt Pond Mountain. On its northern side is a crumbling cliff that has left a litter of boulders on a gently sloping terrain. Be¬ low the cliff the rocks are shaded by a 20-30 yard belt of Betula lenta chiefly, followed, where the rocks are largely covered with humus, by the usual Quercus forest. Castle Rock, (#10). This station is on the northwestern ridge of Big Mountain near its juncture with Salt Pond Moun¬ tain. A crumbling portion of the cliff together with boulders at its base was selected for study. A Quercus-Hicoria-Castanea forest surrounds the station, while the chief coverage over the boulders selected is Betula lenta, Sorbus americana, Quercus spp. Acer spicatum and Primus pennsylvanica. Road to Little Meadow, (#4). This station lies on the northwest side of the ridge on which station #1 is located. The coverage is a young secondary growth of Quercus spp., with a smaller mixture of Hicoria and partly dead Castanea, Mountain Lake, (#5) . At the northwest tip of the lake on Salt Pond Mountain, the terrain bordering the water is relatively flat and strewn with a few immense and a number of smaller boulders. The forest cover at this spot is largely Acer rubrum. 6 Betiila lutea, Tsuga canadensis, with smaller amounts of Qiiercus borealis maxima, Fagns grandifoUa andCastanea dentata. Cascades at Little Stony Creek, (#6). This station is an old rock slide on the southeast slope of a deep ravine formed by Little Stony Creek. The arborescent coverage at the base of the slide is Tsuga canadensis above which is a young forest of mixed hardwoods, (chiefly Quercus coccinea, Q. montana, Tilia neg- lecta, Acer rubrum. A, spicatum, Betula lenta and Robinia Pseudoacacia) . Laing Road, (#8). This istation is along a private road on Salt Pond Mountain in a Quercus-Castanea wood. It includes a group of boulders at Hogskin branch that is more mesophytic. This latter area is shaded by Betula lutea and Tsuga canadensis chiefly. The terrain slopes gently with a northeastern exposure. Twin Springs Trail, (#9). This station is on the gentle northern slope of Salt Pond Mountain, about a mile north of the Mountain Lake Biological Station in a second growth forest. The chief species in the forest cover are Quercus borealis maxima, Q. montana, Robinia Pseudoacacia and Sassafras variifolium. Hunter's Creek, (#11). This station is located on Salt Pond Mountain about a mile down the stream that drains Moun¬ tain Lake. It lies in a rich mesophytic forest consisting chiefly of Fagus grandifoUa, Acer rubrum and Betula lenta. A group of boulders was studied carefully at each station, making a total of 372. These were chosen in random groups or traverses to sample the most xeric as well as most mesic micro¬ habitats of the localities consistent with the presence of bryo- phytes. The principal lichens, (excepting crustose forms), and all of the bryophytes and vascular plants occurring on these boulders were determined, and their relative order of abundance on each boulder was noted. Since a number of bryophytes are separated speciflcally on microscopic characters, some of the larger and all of the smaller forms were brought to the laboratory for identiflcation or con¬ firmation of the identification made in the field. It is probable that some bryophytes were overlooked since a few were found as a minor constituent of a bryophytic mixture only after laboratory examination. A few occurrences of Hypnum were not positively identified because the plants were present in such small quanti¬ ties or were so poorly developed. The followting list gives the presence data for the species, the number of boulders on which they occurred and the number of stations where they grew on the sample of 372 boulders. They are listed in the decreasing frequency of boulder occurrence. 7 Four common large lichens occurred on these boulders. No attempt was made to list the crustose forms or the less frequent foliose and fruticose species. Further, only those vascular plants are included that are well developed : herbs in flower or capable of fruiting, and shrubs and trees that have obviiously lived longer than one year. Numerous recently germinated plants, chiefly Betula, were disregarded. 1. Lichens — Boulders Pa/rmelia caperata . 65 Cladonia rangiferina . 41 Gyrophora Dillemi . 37 Parmelia cetrata . 21 2. Bryophytes — Thuidium delicatulum . 187 Hedwigia albicans . 164 Dicranum fulvum . 151 Ulota americana . 151 Dicranum scoparium . 147 Hylocomium brevirostre . 75 Frullania Asagrayana . 44 Hypnum imponens . 38 Poly trichum ohioense . 22 Sematophyllum carolinianum . 19 Hylocomium proliferum . 17 Plagiothecium denticulatum . 17 Scapania nemorosa . 14 Climacium americanum . 11 Hypnum Crista-castrensis . 11 Leucobryum glaucum . 11 Bazzania trilobata . 10 Rhytidium rug o sum . 10 Hypnum spp. . 7 J amesoniella autumnalis . 7 Brachythecium salebrosum . 5 Mnium affine ciliary . 5 Hypnum reptile . 4 Brachythecium spp. . 3 Entodon cladorrhizans . 3 Eurhynchium serrulatum . 3 Grimmia pennsylvanica . 3 Rhodobryum roseum . 3 Brachythecium plumosum . 2 Brotherella delicatula . 2 Brotherella tenuirostris . 2 C&phalozia curvifolia . 2 Cephalozia lunulaefolia . 2 Hypnum fertile . 2 Deucolejeunea clypeata . 2 Lophocolea heterophylla . 2 Lophozia barbata . 2 Andreaea Rothii . 1 Blepharostoma trichophyllum . 1 Brachythecium oxycladon . 1 C oilier gonella Schreberi . 1 Campylium chrysophyllum . 1 Stations 9 8 9 7 10 10 11 10 11 7 7 7 6 6 7 5 6 4 5 5 5 4 4 4 3 5 3 3 2 2 1 2 2 2 2 1 2 2 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 8 Dicranum fiagellare . 1 1 Entodon brevisetus . 1 1 Entodon seductrix . 1 1 Mnium rostratum . 1 1 Plagiothecium striatellum... . . . 1 1 Flag io the cium sp. . 1 1 Ptilidium pidcherrimum . 1 1 Radula complanata . 1 1 Rhytidiadelphus triquetrus . 1 1 3. Vascular plants — Polypodium virginianum . 67 9 Aster acuminatus . 16 5 Oxalis Acetosella . 12 1 Viola blanda . 11 3 Dryopteris spinulosa . 10 4 Heuchera villosa . 10 4 Betula spp. . 9 4 Menziesia pilosa . 7 2 Ribes rotundifolium . 7 5 Unifolium canadense . . . 7 3 Dryopteris marginalis . 6 2 Car ex canescens . 5 3 Psedera quinque folia . 4 1 Arisaema tri2ohyllum . 3 2 Rubus alleghaniensis . 3 2 Saxifraga leucanthemifolia . 3 2 Sorbus americana . . 3 1 Tsuga canadensis . 3 1 Car ex communis . 2 2 Rhododendron maximum . 2 2 Scutella7‘ia pilosa . 2 1 Viburnum alnifolium . 2 1 Aster sp. . 1 1 Car ex aestivalis . 1 1 Carex sp . 1 1 Clintonia umbellata . 1 1 Deschampsia flexuosa . 1 1 Dicentra eximia . 1 1 Hieracium sp. . 1 1 Impatiens biflora . 1 1 Oakesia 2^'i^berula . 1 1 Pinus Strobus . 1 1 Solidago odor a . 1 1 Solidago sp . 1 1 Vaccinium sp. . 1 1 Many opportunities were present to observe the relation be¬ tween exposure of the boulders and the principal kinds of plants occupying them. This observation was made on a much larger number of boulders than those included in the sample. On the most exposed or xeric boulders in the region, crustose lichens were most abundant. As one passed in the same or different stations to more protected or mesic zones, characteristic species were found to dominate each one. The vascular plants are ex¬ ceptional in that they are more dependent upon the accumulation 9 of soil by the bryophytes than upon small variations in micro¬ climate. The characteristic boulder species of each zone, listed in order from extremely xeric to mesic environments, based on field ob¬ servations are ideally as follo’ws: I. Lichen stages a. Crustose forms b. Foliose forms Umbilicaria pustulata Gyrophora Dillenii Parmelia caperata II. Moss stages a. Xeric Ulota americana Hedwigia albicans and/or Dicranum fidvum b. Intermediate Dicranum scoparium c. Mesic Thuidium delicatidum and/or Hylocomium brevirostre III. Vascular plants a. Early invaders Polypodium virginianum The intermediate zone may be omitted at specific microhabi- tats, or telescoped into the mesic or xeric zones. It is important to see how a study of the boulder sample bears upon the above observations. In the first place, it is desirable to list all of the plants that are dominant on the Iboulders of the sample and note their relative boulder frequencies. Examination of the table below reveals that the dominant species are the same as those listed above by ob¬ servation : Number of Dominant Plants boulders I. Foliose lichens Umbilicaria pustidata, Gyrophora Dillenii and Par¬ melia ca^yerata, singly, and in combination . 44 II. Moss stage a. Ulota americana, Hedwigia albicans and Dicran¬ um fidvum, singly, and in combination . 72 Frullania Asagrayana . 6 Sematophyllum carolmianum . 1 b. Dicranum scoparium . 46 Polytrichum ohioense . 3 D. scoparium and P. ohioense . 2 c. Thuidium delicatulum . 86 Hylocomium brevirostre . 33 T. delicatulum and H, brevirostre . 10 Hylocomium proliferum . 7 Climacium americanum . 5 *No mention is made of the other plants occurring with the dominant species on their respective boulders unless present in equal amounts in re¬ gard to area covered. 10 Hypnum imponens . 5 TMiidium delicdtulum and Dicramum scoparium.. 3 Hypnum Crista-castrensis . 3 Rhytidium rugosum . 2 Bazzania trilohata . 2 Hypnum reptile . 1 III. Vascular plants Poly podium virginianum . 19 Oxalis Acetosella . . . . . 2 No dominance . 20 Total boulders . 372 In the second place, it is pertinent to ascertain whether the zonation order of bryophytes according to ascending degrees of mesic environments established by observation, may be, to a degree, confirmed. Since the order of abundance of each species on each boulder was secured, mutually comparable figures for the relative order of abundance may be obtained for the principal mosses dominant on the boulders. This was computed for the principal mosses in each zonal group, (a total of six, as indicated above) . The computation was made by dividing the average order of abundance of each of the principal mosses of the succession, in relation to all of the bryophytes occurring on their respective boulders at each station, into the percentages of boulders at the respective stations on which they did occur. Thuidium delica- tulum, which by observation, does not occur in xeric situations, but attains its best development under mesic ones, was used as the plant indicator for the degree of mesophytism of the station sampled. The stations are arranged in the ascending order of abundance of Thuidium delicatulum, stations numbers 1 to 11, and it is presumed that the average mesic habitat of the boulders chosen at each station are in a similar ascending order of meso¬ phytism. If the relative orders of abundance of the other five mosses are plotted against that of Thuidium delicatulum, it is seen that Ulota americana dominates the most xeric stations; Dicranum fulvum and Hedwigia albicans, situations less extreme; Dicranum scoparium attains its maximum coverage at an intermediate sta¬ tion; while Thuidium delicatulum has the greatest amount of coverage at the more mesic stations. This is graphically represented below. It is separated into two graphs with the Thuidium line repeated in each to prevent confusion resulting from a number of intercrossing lines. 11 70. Xhoi'dLiu.1^ cil I i ccti u. I u. D/c*-a.n u. >TO sc o pa. r '• o KTv D ic ro- rvv/C v>T f-iA.Ii'om. /Vy/oCorv^ium ij^'l-VlVOS’^Vi. Tfi u i.ci.1 u >-n ica.KS U^o^a. /^Hi£.r/CQ.n.Q Cionversely, if Ulota is used to indicate the degree of xeric environment of the stations instead of Thuidium, and the other species are plotted to it as a base line, the picture is changed considerably in detail, but the same order of zonation is illus¬ trated. Confirmatory again, is the seiiies of foliose lichens which conform in general to the Thuidium line in that they are most abundant at the xeric stations and decrease fairly regularly to zero at the mesic stationis except for a peak* at station #4. Thus the observatifon of the principal species dominant in the several zones, and their order of dependence upon different mesic degrees is confirmed by an analysis of the' boulder sample. The final moss stage in the Mountain Lake area on boulders, {Thuidium delicatulum and Hylocomium brevirostre) , corre¬ sponds more or less closely to the final moss stage on boulders in the climax forest of Isle Royale {Calliergon Schreberi, Hylo¬ comium proliferttm and Hypnum Crista-castrensis, Cooper (1912)]; in a ravine in Illinois, \Thuidium delicatulum, Taylor (1920)] ; and in the Great Smoky Mountains [Thuidium delica¬ tulum and Hylocomium brevirostre, Cain and Sharp (1938)]. In each case the above mosses represent common local mesic pleuro- carps. Braun’s Mnium cuspidatum, (1917), the moss dominant in moist spots on limestone' conglomerate near Cincinnati, is the only mesic acrocarpous form reported as the final moss stage on rock in this country. Corresponding with the mosses of the intermediate stage in the Mountain Lake area, {Dicranum scoparium and, to an unim¬ portant extent. Poly trichum ohioense) , are the dominants of the final moss series on rocks near Bloomington, Indiana, [Poly¬ trichum commune and Dicranum scoparium, Glenn and Welch (1931)]. Interesting sequences have been reported for xeric situations. The early rock shore succession on Isle Royale consists of a lichen sequence with mosses plajdng a secondary role, (Cooper 1912). The pioneer moss stage on a barefaced cliff in western North Carolina is succeeded later by lichen stages (Oosting and Ander¬ son 1937). In the Mountain Lake area, foliose and fruticose lichens, particularly Cladonia rangiferina, occasionally form small colo¬ nies on the bryophytes, especially Dicranum scoparium. C. rangi¬ ferina and related species were represented on 41 boulders sam¬ pled, but no indication was seen of a later lichen stage in zones dominated by bryophytes. In the same area, a number of vascular plants invaded mature moss mats. Rarely ajppearing on the early moss stage, and more frequently on the intermediate, (especially at station #6), the vascular plants invade mosses of the final stage typically. Be¬ low are given the types of bryophytes dominating boulders of the 13 station samples that are invaded by vascular plaatls along with the frequency of their invasion : Frequency of vascular invasion {Number of Bryophytes — boulders) Xeric zone Hedwigia albicans . 2 Hedwigia albicans and Dicranum fulvum . 1 Intermediate zone Dicranum scoparium . 21 Poly trichum ohioense . 1 Mesic zone Thuidium delicatulum . 28 Hylocomium brevirostre . 13 T. delicatulum and H. brevirostre . 2 Climacium americanum . 4 Hylocomium proliferum . 3 Hypnum Crista-castrensis . 2 Thuidium delicatulum and Dicranum scoparium . 2 Hypnum imponens . 1 Thuidium delicatulum and Bazzania trilobata . 1 Three or more mixed bryophytes . 2 Total nnmber of boulders . 83 In the case of the more mesic bryophytes, the ratio of the frequency of invasion of moss mats by vascular plants corre¬ sponds roughly to the frequency of the occurrence of these mosses on the boulders. Polypodium virginianum is the characteristic early vascular invader. The question arises whether the types of bryophytes char¬ acteristic of the successive zones are entirely static, or whether there is evidence of active succession. Costing and Anderson (1937) describe active moss and lichen successions in the formation of mats on a barefaced cliff in North Carolina. Richards (1938), in the Derrycunihy Wood, Kerry Co., Ire¬ land, lists the bryophytes characteristic of the ‘"Open Boulder Associule” and the “Closed Boulder Associule’". The former is the pioneer stage, and the latter, the associule climax. The suc¬ cession is interpreted as an active one, the larger climax bryo¬ phytes on relatively flat surfaces overgrow and shade out smaller pioneer competitors. Cooper (1928) has shown to what a small extent change takes place on xeric exposed rock : there being little or no change in numbers and sizes of lichen and moss colonies during a period of seventeen years on the early rock shore succession at Isle Royale. At Mountain Lake, it seems that given a relatively constant 14 degree of exposure, there is little if any active successional change. For example, exposed rock outcrops are dominated by lichens, while boulders in dry Quercus-Hicoria forests on south¬ ern mountainsides iprogress little farther than the lichen and early bryophytic stages. In selected microhabitats where changes in degree of xerophytism are relatively rapid, as in the develop¬ ment of young trees and shrubs over exposed boulders, or the increase in shade due to the secondary development of a forest after logging or fire, conditions charaGt'eristic of most of the stations selected, bryophytes are often found overgrowing neigh¬ boring colonies. Such cases vary from one form overrunning another without any apparent immediate injury to cases where a more compact mat has killed the forms it has overgrown. Such cases are looked upon as stages in active succession. Below is given a list of such cases observed in the area. Some of them were seen many times.* Species overgrowing I. Early invaders — Dicranum fulvum Frullania Asagrayana^ ^Hedwigia albicans ^Hedwigia albicans II. Final invaders — ^Thuidium delicatulum ^Thuidium delicatulum ^Thuidium delicatulum Thuidiufn delicatulum ^Hylocomium brevirostre ^Hylocomium brevirostre Hylocomium proliferum Hylocomium proliferum Climacium americanum Hypnum imponens Hypuum Crista-castrensis Hypnum Crista-castrensis Bazzania trilobata Rhytidium rugosum Species being overgrown Sematophyllum carolmianum Ulota americana Ulota americana Dicranum fulvum Hedwigia albicans Dicranum fulvum Dicranum scoparium Polytrichum ohioemse Dicranum fulvum Hedwigia albicans Dicranum fulvum Hedwigia albicans Dicranum scoparium Dicranum scoparium Dicranum fulvum Polytrichum ohioense Dicranum scoparium Dicranum scoparium No effective competition could be seen between bryophytes of similar sizes, growth forms and growth rates. Dicranum scoparium was not observed actively overrunning other bryophytes. This is probably accounted for by its growth form. By observation, however, all degrees of mat formation by D. scoparium have been observed from small separ'ate colonies to larger, anastomosing ones, to completed, homogeneous mats. From the above table, it would seem, for some microhabitats, that succession is in progress and that success is dependent upon rate and habit of growth. Tt is to be noted that the direction of the succession corresponds to the successive bryophytic zones; that is, the mesic species succeed the more xeric ones. When the habi- 15 tat is stable, there seems to be little evidence of succession, but when the microhabitat is in flux, opportunities are presented for observing successional potentialities. My hearty thanks are extended to Drs. Margaret Fulford and A. J. Grout for identifying several of my hepatic and moss speci¬ mens respectively; to Dr. John N. Wolfe for confirming the identification of several lichens; to Drs. John M. Fogg, Jr. and Ivey F. Lewis for the identification or ’confirmation of a number of the seed plants herein listed; and to Drs. A. J. Sharp and Stanley A. Cain for reading the manuscriipt and making helpful criticisms. Summary A total of 372 boulders of Clinch sandstone were studied in their entirety in random groups at eleven stations above 3000 feet elevation for the occurrence and relative abundance of bryo- phytes. General observations were made upon a much larger number. Cliffs, fissured rocks and boulders mechanically collect¬ ing humus were excluded. Although more than 50 bryophytes were found on this restricted substratum, only 6 mosses char¬ acterize the various zones between xeric and mesic habitats. The zones and characteristic plants on boulders are as follows: 1. Lichens ; a. crustose forms ; b. f oliose forms, Umhilicaria pustu- lata, Gyrophora Dillenii and Parmelia caper ata; 2. Moss stages ; a. xeric; Ulota americana, Hedwigia albicans and Dicranum ful- vitm; b. intermediate ; Dicranum scoparium; c. mesic ; Thuidium delicatulum and Hylocomium brevirostre; 3. Vascular plants. Polypodium virginianum. Some evidence for active bryophytic succession is presented. Hollins College, Va. Literature Cited Braun, E. Lucy, 1917. The Vegetation of Conglomerate Rocks of the Cin¬ cinnati Region, Plant World 20: 380-392. Cain, Stanley A. and Aaron J. Sharp, 1938. Bryophytic Unions of Certain Forest Types of the Great Smoky Mountains. Amer. Midi. Nat. 20: 249-301. Coker, W. C. and H. R. Totten, 1934. Trees of the Southeastern States. Chapel Hill, N. C. Cooper, W. S., 1912. The Ecological Succession of Mosses as illustrated upon Isle Royale, Lake Superior. Plant World 15: 197-213. - , 1928. Seventeen Years of Successional Change upon Isle Royale, Lake Superior. Ecology 9: 1-5. Evans, A. W. and G. E. Nichols, 1908. The Bryophytes of Connecticut. Conn. Geol. Nat. Hist. Surv. Bull. 11. Fink, Bruce and Joyce Hedtrick, 1935. The Lichen Flora of the, United States. Ann Arbor, Mich. 16 Gle/nn, Gail G. and Winona H. Welch, 1931. Ecological Relationships of the Most Commoni Mosseis in a Certain Vicinity near Bloomingtoni, Indiana. Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci. 40 : 87-101. Grout, A. J., 1903. Mosses with Handlens and Microscope. New York. - , 1928. Moss Flora of North America North of Mexico. Vol. 1-3, (not yet complete) . Newfane, Vt. Costing, Henry J. and Lewis E. Anderson, 1937. The Vegetation of a Barefaced Cliff in Western North Carolina. Ecology 18: 280-292. Richards, P. W., 1938. The Bryophytic Communities of a Killarney Oak- wood. Ann. Bryolog. XI: 108-130. Robinson, B. L. and M. L. Fernald, 1908. Gray’s New Manual of Botany. 7th. Ed. New York. Small, J. K., 1938. Ferns of the Southeastern States. Lanicaster, Pa. Taylor, Aravilla M., 1920. Ecological Succession of Mosses. Bot. Gaz. 69 : 449-491. ^^Iceland Moss’^ Cetraria islandica^ in Virginia H. A. Allard I. Introduction On July 19, 1937, while exploring the little travelled sections of the west side of Elliott Knob, in Augusta County, Va., for un¬ usual plants, the writer found an interesting lichen on the upper islope of the ridges, which was identified by William W. Diehl of the Division of Mycology and Disease Survey, U. S. Department of Agriculture, as ‘'Iceland Moss” Cetraria islandica (L.) Ach. The writer has also found this lichen in considerable abund¬ ance at two points in the Massanutten range, in Shenandoah County, Va. On August 15, 1937, a large and flourishing colony was found at the south end of Short Mountain just east of Mt. Jackson, and on September 18, 1938 small patches were found on the ishales of the west slope of Three Top Mountain about 3 miles north of Woodstock Gap. The largest colony by far which has been found up to the present is that on Short Mountain, which by actoal mapping by Mr. Diehl and the writer has been found to comprise about 2^2 acres. As there seems to be no previously published record of the occurrence of this lichen in Virginia, the present paper has been prepared. II. Ecology The ecology of this lichen as found in Virginia, in some re¬ spects, seems so strikingly unlike that of those regions of the arctic and alpine tundra, its more natural home, that some atten¬ tion was given to its habitat relations here. From the fact that this lichen is of widespread occurrence upon a great variety of terrains and geological formations in 17 both high mountain alpine and arctic regions, it is not probable that any particular rock formation as such in Virginia has much to do with its actual occurrence. However these specific rock formations by their association with others have produced a particular terrfain in Virginia due to differential weathering. This is true especially for the Martins- burg shales of Short Mountain which are capped by the resistant Clinton series of the Silurian Period. Here the resistant quartz¬ ites lying above the softer Martinsburg shales have served to protect the latter and these have formed ridges vdth very steep slopes. It is the dry and barren nature of these steep slopes, it would appear, which has affected directly the character of the vegetation cover, favoring indirectly the occurrence of Cetraria islancUca here over a rather extensive area. (a) Edaphic factors The wide range of ecological conditions under which this in¬ teresting lichen can thrive is rather remarkable, for there seems to be little in common between the environment of the arctic tundra, or the high, cold, mist-saturlated fell fields of Mt. Katah- din, and the hot, dry, sun-scorched shale barrens of Virginia. For the reason that this lichen has a rather restricted distribu¬ tion on the shales and sandstones wherever found in Virginia, a rather careful survey was made of these conditions which appear to favor it here. On Elliott Knob in Augusta County, and on South Mountain and Three Top Mountain in Shenandoah County where this lichen occurs, conditions are strikingly similar. In these three locali¬ ties, the lichen colonies grow upon shale barrens characterized by ,a thin open woodland in which pine trees are more or less abundant, including individuals of Pinus rigida, P. virginiana and P. pungens. On Elliott Knob the colonies appear to grow upon the red shales and sandistones of the Catskill formation of the Devonian Period at an elevation near 3500 feet. On Short Mountain and Three Toip Mountain in the Massanutten, they are associated with the steep, barren Martinsburg shales of the Ordovician Period, near the 1500-1700 foot contours. Wherever this lichen has occurred in the three Virginia locali¬ ties mentioned, the terrain has been characterized by isteep, more or less denuded slopes having a southern or western exposure. There are areas of great extent, on the shale barrens of the Massanutten ridges, however, which do not show a trace of Cetraria, but this will be explained later. A study of its habitat preferences reveals one important fact ; the lichen never occurs in heavy deciduous woods, and on the shales is sharply excluded from those areas having beds of duff 18 derived from deciidiious trees, which may have drifted into holes or become built up around logs and other obstacles. In places on the upper portion of the isteeper shale ridges where the contours have become rounded giving greater stability to the soil particles and a consequent deepening of the soil here, the woodland cover becomes well develoiped and forms a closed canopy. Due to the accumulation of soil and comminuted rock debris which has been carried downward from above by gravitational movements aided by rain, ice and snow, deep soils of the nature of talus miaterial have also developed at the foot of these ridges, and here too, a heavy closed forest canopy has developed. Between these two forest zones, where the shale rocks are mostly exposed or covered only with thin layers of the coarser shale debris, the trees do not form a closed canopy. There is little humus here, and conditions on the whole are very unfavor¬ able to plant growth. Those trying cnditions have favored a very specialized shale barren flora on those steep, dry slopes, and it is here that Trifolium virginicum thrives, a characteristic endemic of this particular habitat. Where the steepest shale slopes are found the Cetraria colo¬ nies are located invariably in the upper forested zone near the contact of this with th steeply pitching barren shale slopes, since here, the woodland cover becomes more open and a dense decid¬ uous duff does not lie upon the ground. These lichens have never been found in the forest zone below, since the forest cover tends to be very dense here, and the ac¬ cumulation of duff excessive. Other conditions of an unfavorable nature may obtain here also, to prevent its successful permanent colonization, since higher air humidities and temperatures, and heavier shade are encountered in this lower and better developed forest. On the gentler outlying slopes of Short Mountain where Cetraria islandica occurs in abundance, the dominant trees are pines, intermingled with thinly scattered deciduous trees, chiefly the Red Oak, the Chestnut Oak, Shad Bush (Amelanchier) , and a few depauperate Cedars. The overhead canopy of foliage is noticeably thin or broken with open spaces, quite unlike the heavy closed canopy of the well-developed and thriving decid¬ uous forest of adjacent mesic areas. The under shrubs and herb¬ age likewise are very scattered in their occurrence, and comprise a flora characteristic mainly of sterile, dry soils and open, fairly well-lighted habitats. Among the shrubs are New Jersey Tea (Ceanothus americanus), Vaccinium vacillans, Polycodium stamineum, Rhus canadensis, Rhus quercifoUa and Viburnum acerifolium. Among the more important herbs are Senecio an- 19 tennariifolius, Phlox brittonii, Aster linariifoluts, Viola pedata, Aiireolaria variegata, Aster laevis and Cheilanthes lanuginosa. It is interesting to note that where the conditions are most favorable on Short Mountain the lowermost ground layer is a dense lichen cover in -certain areas, including a luxuriant develop¬ ment of the ‘‘reindeer mosses” Cladonia rangiferina and Cladonia mitis, together with colonies of Cladonia verticillata as well as various others of this genus ; some species of moss also grow in scattered clumps here. While the Cetraria colonies in places may occur in almost pure growth, they usually intermingle freely with the two reindeer mosses mentioned, and sometimes appear to be growing through or over these. It is evident that excep¬ tionally favorable conditions have engendered a very severe com¬ petition between the reindeer mosses and Cetraria colonies. The Cetraria colonies are best developed where the slopes are not too steep, and appear to find conditions esipecially suitable around the base of the pine trees where there is afforded some shade, a better supply of moisture run-off from the trunk, and where rapid erosion and shifting of the soil is prevented by the larger, interlacing surface roots, sticks, leaf debris and entang¬ ling pine needles accumulated here. On the Short Mountain shales steepness of slope appears rigidly to delimit the areas of Cetraria and the associated species of Cladonia. A study of the distribution of these in relation to pitch of -slope would indicate that on these particular finely frag¬ mented shales, these lichens grow well on a slope not much steeper than 22° or 23°, but are excluded when the steepness has become an angle of 25° to 30°. The pitch of slope which seems to limit the occurrence of these lichens appears to be near the angle of rest for this comminuted shale debris. As this angle is ap¬ proached instability of the loose surface layers arises, and the lichens can gain no foothold toi establish themselves. While a thin, herbaceous flora may be present, the steeper slopes of the more unstable shales are almost entirely devoid of a lichen form. Wherever a fallen tree or limb has become lodged on the slope this acts as a dam to the sliding shale debris, which has accumu¬ lated and thereby decreased the slope over small areas ; on these the lichens, perhaps fragmented and falling from above have suc¬ ceeded in establishing themselves and building up their colonies. On the lower side of these obstructions, however, where erosional activity has continued to carry away the finely comminuted shale debris, the surface has remained entirely free from lichen growth. It is quite obvious that deciduous leaf duff does not afford suitable conditions for Cetraria. Furthermiore, the loose duff of deciduous woods burns freely and Cetraria and the asisociated reindeer mosses appear to be readily destroyed by fire, which has 20 been a frequent scourge of all wooded areas more especially since the advent of the white man. In Virginia where Cetraria has been observed, the colonies have usually been associated with thin pine duff, and it is obvious that this duff has not been detrimental to the development of this lichen or the reindeer mosses growing in association with it. Usually on these steep barren shale slopes the pine duff itself is sparse and discontinuous, and the dry fallen leafage of the scattered deciduous trees occupying these slopes is readily blown to lower levels, so that these shales remain either bare or with only thin coverings of pine needles here and there. When one removes and examines a specimen of reindeer moss or Cetraria from these situations, it is found to be bristling with pine needles, mostly the short, stout needles of the Knob cone pine {Pinus pungens). There is good reason to believe that these often act like pins to fasten the loosely-held lichen colonies to earth or to the thin humified layers below. It is quite apparent that on these barren shale slopes, there is little to support fire, and the protection they have found here has probably allowed these lichens to persist on these slopes, where they would have been destroyed elsewhere. While some of the reindeer mosses and other species of Cla~ donia may be found in pine woods, Cetraria has never been met with in these situations, not only because it may not be as tolerant of as heavy shade, but perhaps here it is more susceptible to fire which burns readily in thick pine duff. (b) Climatic factors The distribution of Cetraria. from these southern outliers of its range to the arctic tundra of the far north and the high alpine regions of cold mountain tops, would indicate that it has a very wide temperature adaptability. Even in summer this Imust range from actual freezing or even lower, in arctic and alpine regions to considerable over 100° F. on the exposed Massa- nutten shale barrens. As a matter of fact when the air tempera¬ tures at noon on a clear day gave readings of 75° to 76° F., the shale soils on which Cetraria grew at 1 cm. depth gave readings of 100° to 101°. These high temperatures and arid conditions are far removed from the cold or actually freezing temperatures experienced on Mt. Washington or Katahdin even in summer, where the soils are saturated most of the time and mist, rain, high winds and sometimes snow are prevailing features of the summer climate. In arctic and subalpine regions, which appear to be more favorable to the best development of Cetraria, its growth is prob¬ ably associated with the warmer summer months, for it is hardly 21 to be expected that temperatures ranging from 32° to 50° below zero F. such as it would often experience in winter here would be favorable to its metabolism and growth. In the hot Virginia climate its season of greatest activity may be the reverse of this. There is reason to believe that it is m^ostly quiescent during the hot summer months here, when periods of great heat and droug^ht prevail. Many of our lichens, perhaps more especially the species of Cladonia, give evidence of very active growth throughout the cooler weather which prevails from autumn to spring. At this season most conditions' are favorable to their growth and reproduction. There is better illumination in the fields and leafless woods, and a more abundant and uniform moisture supply in the soil and air. It is probable, also that the cooler temperatures of this period are distinctly more favor¬ able to the lichen association than are the intensely high tempera¬ tures that often prevail for long periods. Cetraria seems to be no exception in its response to these conditions. It has been thought of some interest to compare the climatic habitat of Cetraria growing on Mt. Washinfton, New Hamp¬ shire, with that of colonies in Virginia, and for this reason, the tables following have been presented, for the summer months. May to October, on Mt. Washington, and for the cool season from October to April in Virginia.^ iT^he writer wishes to' express his appreciation of the courtesy aecordeidi to him by Mr. F. N. Hibbard in charge of the Weather Bureau Office at Richmond, Va., who furnished the climatic data for the Woodstock area, and to Mr. J. B. Kincer, Chief of the Division of Climate and Crop Weather of the Weather Bureau at Washington, D. C., who furnished temperature records for Mt. Washington from 1873 to 1886 (Table II). The wind ve¬ locity data of Table III were obtained through the; courtesy of Mr. Irving I. Zellon, Meteorologist of the Mt. Washington Observatory, Gorham, N. H. TABLE I Weather Conditions at Woodstock, Shenandoah County, Virginia Altitude 875 ft., Temperature in degrees F. Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar. Mean Monthly Temperature . 56.1 44.8 35.2 33.9 34.4 44.1 Mean of Daily Maxima . 69.3 56.4 45.5 44.3 45.4 56.1 Mean of Daily Minima . 42.8 33.3 24.9 23.6 23.4 32.1 Absolute Maxima . 98 81 80 77 85 93 (1927) (1921) (1932) (1930) (1927) (1907) IVTinima 20 4 — 13 — 23 — 22 — 23 (1917) (1930) (1930) (1914) (1899) (1912) (1899) Average wind velocity (miles) 2 6.7 7.5 7.5 7.4 8.4 8.8 Maximum wind velocity (miles) 2 41(NW) 43CSW) 39(NW) 40 (NW) 47 (NW) 47 (NW) 2 Wind velocity data for Washington, D. C., this being the nearest available wind velocity readEngs. This probably exceeds the actual velocity experienced at Woodstock, Virginia. 22 TABLE II Weather Conditions on Mt. Washington, N. H. Altitude 6284 ft., Temperature in degree® F. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Mean Monthliy Temperature (1932^1937 inclusive) . 35.4 45.5 49.3 48.3 41.5 28.9 Absolute Maxima 62 71 72 72 65 58 (1873-1886 inclusive) . (1885) (1878) (1881) (1876) (1880) (1882) Absolute Maxima 63 71 67 70 65 55 (1933-1937 inclusive) . (1937) (1933) (1933) (1935) (1937) (1937) Absolute Minima —1 15 27 20 11 —3 (1873-1886 inclusive) . (1880) (1878) (1880) (1876) (1879) (1881) Absolute Minima (1885) 3 (1879) (1885) 30 26.5 (1886) 14 —2 (1933-1937 inclusive) . (1936) 21 (1936) (1934) (1936) (1936) (1936) TABLE III Average Wind Velocity Miles Per Hour May to October, and Maximum Velocity FOR Each Month (for 5 minute period) at Mt. Washington, N. H. Altitude 6284 ft. Year May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. 135 . 42.9 29.5 30.4 26.0 39.53 47.2 120-W; 1st 80-W; 11th 76-W; 12th 63-SW; 13th 95-SE; 4th 99-W; 23rd >36 . 42.1 27.9 28.7 25.4 25.33 42.63 95-WNW; 20th 78-SW; 18th 72-SW; 29th 72-W; 29th 75-W; 8th 87-N; 31st 137 . 30.7 28.5 20.2 20.1 27.8 32.5 94-NW; 20th 80-SW; 10th 66-W; 26th 60-W; 19 th 85-NW; 20th 81-S; 20th >38 . 34.1 22.2 24.8 25.7 33.0 34.9 116-E; 15fh 72-SW; 26th 54-W; 15th 60-NW; 24tb 88-NW; 24th 98-W; 25th verage. 37.4 26.7 26.0 24.3 31.4 39.3 ^Average for September 1935, based upon records of 566 hours. Average for September 1936, b^sed upon record of 594 hours. Average for October 1936, based upon record of 323 hours; remainder of record not available. 23 The climatic data presented in Tables I, II, and III would indi¬ cate that Cetraria growing in Virginia experiences a far more variable and trying climate in some respects than Mt. Washing¬ ton affords in the summer time. The mean temiperature for the period October to March inclusive at Woodstock, Virginia, is 41.3°, this is almost identical with the mean temperature on Mt. Washington, N. H., from May to October inclusive, with a mean of 41.2°. Hot waves are never experienced upon Mt. Washing¬ ton, the absolute maximum temperatures here ranging from 50° to 72°, for the above period, as compared with a range of 77° to 98° for the October: to March period at Woodstock, Va. The absolute minimum temperatures on Mt. Washington for the months considered range from — 3° to 27°, while at Woodstock, Va., for the months in question the labsolute minimum ranges from — 23° to 20°, the extreme lows having been recorded in January, February and March. In one respect the growing seasons of the two localities are strikingly different, since even in summer time, extremely high wind velocities prevail upon Mt. Washington, which would great¬ ly affect the evaporative capacity of the air, and favor dessica- tion, in spite of the higher humidities which may prevail here. Such great wind velocities^ are never exjperienced in Virginia where the Cetraria colonies have been found, since winds even as high as 40 miles per hour are only occasional, and this is often less than the average for Mt. Washington for some months. The distribution of Cetraria colonies on the Massanutten shales is unquestionably affected by the factor of light intensity, but variations in the temperature factor, the degree of humidity, mist, etc., must undoubtedly modify the light requirement in any region. In the far north or on alpine heights the prevailing low mean temperatures and the saturating mists appear to favor the growth of Cetraria islandica in full sunlight. On the hot, burn¬ ing Massanutten shales in Virginia, full sunlight is shunned and likewise heavy shade. It would thus appear that Cetraria islandica which in the southern mountains may represent survival remnants from the period of glaciation, has been /able to persist in the forested regions of the south only because it has found dry and barren habitats here, which can not support the closed forest, with its consequent shade, and where the accumulation of the duff is so slight or discontinuous as to prevent the spread of destructive ground fires into the area. Such conditions in a warm humid region where forest is the natural climax, can occur only on ledges or upon dry steep, barren slopes such as the Massanutten shales afford. It is probably not the dry conditions which favor ■^On April 12, 1934, a wind velocity of 231 miles was recordled. 24 ithe lichen, but the dry conditions which maintain an open, de- pauperiate forest, and a sparse undergrowth. It can not adapt itself to the forest because it is unable to establish itself on the loose leaf duff of the heavy deciduous forest, where each autumn new crops of dry leafage would fall upon and cover it. Shade, also, appears to be an unfavorable factor, and it probably cannot compete With crowding herbaceous forms. It is thus apparent that this lichen in its more southern habitats has a rather pre¬ carious existence, whereas on the treeless arctic or alpine tundra it is quite at home and far more secure from the hazards of fire. Here it aippears to be closely associated with the pioneer arctic and alpine successions, or sometimes seems to occupy the position of a persistent subclim'ax or preclimax at times, owing to the vigor of its development. In Virginia^ it is not a pioneer in the xerach series, but must accept a very subordinate role under a thin forest cover to sur¬ vive. Its associates Cladonia rangiferina and C. mitis in this area are far more general in their distribution and much more aggressive pioneer forms in the early stages of succession, occur¬ ring more or less generally even on fully exposed banks, often in labandoned cleared fields, and pastures in some instances. Raymond H. Torrey has reported the occurrence of vigorous Cetraria colonies in New Jersey in his paper '‘Cetraria islandica in Sussex County”, Torrey a, Vol. 37, No. 6, 1937, pp. 124-125. He found this lichen likewise growing on slanting ledges of sand¬ stone on the west side of a ridge near Montague, in association with Cladonm uncialis, C. sylvatica and C. rangiferina, as well as with grasses. He has suggested that the survival of these Ce¬ traria colonies, the only ones known in New Jersey, has been favored by their escape from ground fires which could not reach the ledges. Washington, D. C. 5 Cetraria material collected in Virginia is deposited in the collections of the United States National Herharinm under the writer’s collection num¬ bers as f ollows : 3276A Elliot Knob, Alleghenies . . July 19, 1937 3558 Short Mt., Massanutten Range, Va. . August 15, 1937 4475B Short Mt., Massanutten . April 24, 1938 4476 Short Mt., Massanutten . April 24 1938 4896 Short Mt., Massanutten . May 12, 1938 5054 Short Mt., Massanutten . . June 14, 1938 5576 Three Top Mt., Massanutten . September 18, 1938 25 Ferns and Fern Allies of Amelia County, Virginia J. B. Lewis and A. B. Massey Amelia County is in the outer Piedmont region of the State. Its geographical center is about 40 miles from the Fall Line sepa¬ rating the Piedmont and the Coastal Plain. The soil is largely clay with considerable admixture of sand. Siand deposits are frequent along the streams and heavy red clay soil and clay loam are common. The rock isi granite and granite gneiss. Outcrops appear along streams ; in places, especially around “Rock Stable’', large boulders and expanse of considerable bed rock appear. The forest is of pine and broadleaf types and mixtures of these. The topography is rolling, the greatest elevation being about 493 feet above sea level. The following ferns nnd fern allies have been collected during the seasons of 1937 and 1938 by Mr. Lewis. The specimens are deposited in the Herbarium of the Virginia Polytechnic Institute. Numbers in parenthesis refer to mounted specimens. Adiantum pedatum L. Maiden-Hair Fern. Locally common, mostly on rocky, wooded stream bluffs in an oak-beech-hickory association. ( 1 157 ) . Asplenium platyneuron (L.) Oakes. Ebony Spleenwort. Fairly common and generally distributed. Most common in oak-beech-hickory associations. (1466, 1603). Asplenium trichomanes L. Maiden-Hair Spleenwort. One station known. A few plants in crevices of rocks on wooded bluffs of Appomattox River, just above the bridge on Route 49, on north border of county. (1142) . Athyrium asplenioides (Michx.) Desv. Lady Fern. One of our most abundant ferns, growing in damp or wet woods all over the county, sometimes in open places. (882, 1145). Dennstaedtia punctilobula (Michx.) Moore. Hay-Scented Fern. One station known, on the wooded bank of the south branch of Smack’s Creek about 2 miles south of Amelia village. (302) . Dryopteris cristata (L.) a. Gray. Crested Shield-Fern. Very local, in deep, alluvial swamps, in woods. Large colonies are growing in the swamp on the west branch of Nibb’s Creek about 3 miles west of Amelia village, on the south side of Beaver Pond, 9 miles southeast of Amelia near Route 38, and on the west side of Rowlett’s Pond about 5^/4 miles east of Amelia. It is a tall, beautiful evergreen fern. (833, 928, 767, 1595). 26 Dryopteris hexagonoptera (Michx.) C. Chr. Broad Beech Fern. Locally common, mostly on rocky, wooded stream bluffs in an oak-beech-hickory association. (1158, 2056). Dryopteris marginalis (L.) A. Gray. Marginal Shield-Fern. One plant known. It formerly grew on a rich, wooded hill¬ side on Sheppard's dairy farm at Winterham. Miss Emily Dinwiddle, then of Ridhmond, and the writer collected speci¬ mens of it very carefully on October 18, 1932. The next sum¬ mer it died. Dryopteris noveboracensis (L.) A. Gray. New York Fern. Along woodland streams. (1671). Dryopteris spinulosa var. intermedia (Muhl.) Underwood. In woods near Winterham, Sheppard's farm. (743, 351, 907) . Dryopteris thelypteris (L.) A. Gray. Marsh Shield-Fern. Local, in swampy places, wooded or open. Not generally dis¬ tributed. (967, 1041). Onoclea sensibilis L. Sensitive Fern. Fairly common in wet soils in open woods and wet fields. (1228). Polypodium virginianum L. Common Polypody. Only three stations known. One on a rock outcrop on the bank of Flat Creek about a mile above the bridge on Route 636, near Grub Hill. Two groups about 200 yards apart at and above Weatherford's Glen, also known as ‘‘Lover's Leap", about 2 miles north of Maplewood on Route 639. (1156). POLYSTICHUM ACROSTICHOIDES (Michx.) Schott. Christmas Fern. Probably our most abundant fern, growing in well drained woods in almost all associations, all over the county. (1171). Pteridium latiusculum (Desv.) Hiero. Bracken. Abundant on well drained soils in many locations. Seems to prefer sandy soils in open wood. (971, 990). WOODSIA obtusa (Spreng.) Torr. Blunt-Lobed Woodsia. Local and not common. Found mostly on wet, rocky, wooded hillsides in oak-beech-hickory associations. A small colony is growing on one of the rocks near Rock Stable, where a spring seepage keeps the moss wet and a small cedar furnishes shade. (507,651, 689). WOODWARDIA areolata (L.) Moore. Net- Veined Chain-Fern. Very local. Common in a few deep, wooded swamps. The largest colony known is in such a swamp on the headwaters of Smack's Creek, just south of Amelia village, in what is known as Eggleston's woods. (1279) . 27 OSMUNDA CINNAMOMEA L. Cinnamon Fern. Locally common in rich, damp to wet woods, occasionally in open swamps. (467). OsMUNDA REGALIS VAR. SPECTABILIS (Willd.) A. Gray. Royal Fern. Locally common in damp to wet woods. Sometimes in open, swampy fields. (585). Botrychium dissectum VAR. OBLiQUUM (Muhl.) Clute. Grape Fern. Locally fairly common in low grounds along streams, in red mlaple-tulip-poplar associations, rarely on rich, damp hillsides higher up. (1127, 1239, 1256) . Botrychium virginianum (L.) Sw. Rattlesnake Fern. Fairly common on good soils in woods, in drier locations than the two preceding. Eiarliest of the group. May 20 through June. (85, 95, 293, 588, 1467) . Ophioglossum vulgatum L. Adder’s Tongue Fern. Rather rare, in rich, damp soils in open woods, preferring alluvium. Fairly common in a few restricted areas. (151, 744). Equisetum arvense L. Appomattox River near Goode Bridge. (1431). Equisetum prealtum Raf. Scouring Rush. Large colonies in a few places in alluvial low grounds, in woods or fields. Not generally distributed, even in low grounds. (368). Lycopodium complanatum var. flabelliforme Fern. Ground Pine. Abundant in rich, well drained woods. (1257). Lycopodium inundatum var. adpressum Chpm. Tom Lynch bog, bog near Winterham and at Otterburn. De¬ termined by Dr. Fernald. (2014, 2074, 2048, 2170, 1493, 1628, 1659, 1607, 1602, 1897). Lycopodium lucidulum Mich. Shining Club-Moss. In rich woods along a small stream, Sheppard’s dairy farm near Winterham. (1532, 1359, 1669). Also a large colony on the bank of a small stream in a large tract of woods on east end of Hindle farm about two miles west of Amelia village. Lycopodium obscurum L. Club Moss. Very local in rich, damp low grounds. Common north side of Smack’s Creek swamp, above ‘‘Butler Road”. (1242, 1996, 1682). Also a colony on south side of Barksdale Pond, Haw Branch section. 28 Selaginella apoda (L.) Fern. Creeping Selaginella. Abundant in wet woodiS and stream borders. (2039, 1471, 1650, 1587). Selaginella RUPESTRis (L.) Spring. Rock Selaginella. Known only from the rock near Rock Stable. (748, 1216, 1013). Wildlife Research Unit, Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Blacksburg, Va. Pteridophyta of a Bog near ‘‘White Pine Lodge/' Giles County, Virginia Samuel Lewis Meyer The bog in which this study was made is about a mile north¬ west of ‘‘White Pine Lodge”, summer resadence of Mr. John B. Laing, in Giles County, Virginia. It is approximately four miles northwest of Mountain Lake at an elevation of about 3100 feet. It lies in the same general basin as the “Cranberry Bog”, pre¬ viously studied, but is farther to the east. This basin lies in Romney Shale and is some three miles long by a mile wide. A study of the Pteridophyta in this bog was thought to be of interest because of its relatively inaccessible location and the fact that it had not been previously worked. The present paper is regarded as a further contribution to the knowledge of the Pteridophyte flora of the region. The nomenclature of Virginia ferns suggested by Weatherby^ has been followed. The first Pteridoiphytes one sees on approaching the bog from the east are the Cinnamon Fern (Osmunda cinnamomea L.), the Sensitive Fern {Onoclea sensibilis L.), the abundant New York Fern (Dryopteris noveboracensis (L.) A. Gray), some extremely handsome specimens of the Royal Fern {Osmunda regalis var. spectabilis (Willd.) A. Gray),, the Interrupted Fern {Osmunda Claytorifkma L.), together with a few scattered plants of the cosmopoMtan Lady Fern {Athyrium asplenioides (Michx). Desv.). An occasional Bracken {Pteridium latiusculum (Desv.) Hiero.) may be seen along the path. Of these, the Cinnamon Fern, the Interrupted or Clayton's Fern, and the Sensitive Fern occur abundantly throughout the bog. On moving into the bog in a westwardly direction, several clumps of the beautiful Boott's Shield-Fern {Dryopteris Boottii iWeatherby, C. A. Nomonclature of Virginia Ferns. Claytonia 2: 41- 45, 1936. 29 (Tuckerm.) Underw.) were located. A particularly fine speci¬ men was found on a sphagnum hummock in the vicinity of which were observed the handsome fronds of the Crested Shield-fern {Dryopteris cristata (L.) A. Gray) and Dryopteris spinulosa var. intermedia (Muhl.) Undw., an ideal situation. Isolated dry areas, some quite small, occur within the bog. On such drier patches, one finds the New York Fern (Dryopteris noveboracensis (L.) A. Gray) and the Ground Pine (Lycopod¬ ium ohscurum L.). As one proceeds toward the south to work out of the bog, numerous specimens of the Marsh Shield-fern (Dryopteris Thelypteris (L.) A. Gray) are located. Many of the species pre¬ viously seen are observed again while on reaching the woods on the margin of the bog, the Trailing Ground Pine (Lycopodium complanantumvar. flabelliforme Fernald) completes the Pterido- phyte list. This study was made during the second term of the summer session of 1938 at the Mountain Lake Biological Station of the University of Virginia, Giles County, Virginia, under the direc¬ tion of Lieutenant-Colonel Robert Patrick Carroll, Assistant Professor of Biology, Virginia Military Institute, to whom the writer expresses appreciation for many helpful suggestions dur¬ ing the investigation. Miller School of Biology, University of Virginia. The Sullivant Moss Society's 1939 Foray^ Paul M. Patterson The Sullivant Moss Society joined The Botanical Society of America, The American Society of Plant Taxonomists, The Amer¬ ican Fern Society and The Southern Appalachian Botanical Club on its annual foray, June 15-18. The Committee on Flora' of the Virginia Academy of Science arranged for the meetings and planned the field trips. Most of the group attending, a total of sixty-five persons, were comfortably housed at the Mountain Lake Biological Station of the University of Virginia, Giles County, Va., while a few stayed in Blacksburg, a few miles away. ^Reprinted from The Bryologist, XLII: 125-126, 1939. 30 Members of Sullivant Moss Society attending 1939 Foray. — From left to rig:lit: Fulford, Manley, Carroll, Sharp;, Blomqnist, Little, Patterson. Bryologists attending were Dr. H. L. Blomquist of Duke University, Lt.-Col. R. P. Carroll of the Virginia Military Insti¬ tute, Dr. Margaret Fulford and Miiss Margaret Manley of the Univerisity of Cincinnati, Dr. Elbert L. Little of the U. S. Forest Service, Tucson, Ariz., Dr. Aaron J. Sharp of the University of Tennessee, and the writer. Rev. Fred. W. Gray and his sons, Frank and James, of Philippi, W. Va. were with the party the night of the 15th but left the next morning. Field trips were planned for the 16th, 17th, and 18th, and evening programs for the 15th and 16th. The first evening Dr. Ivey F. Lewils of the University of Virginia presided at the program held at the Mountain Lake Biological Station. It con¬ sisted of the following papers : Mixed Deciduous Forests of the Appalachians — E. Lucy Braun, University of Cincinnati. The Bryophytes of the Southern Appalachians— Aaron J. Sharp, University of Tennessee. Ferns of the Southern Appalachians — H. L. Blomquist, Duke University. Trees and Shrubs of the Southern Appalachians — H. R. Totten, University of North Carolina. 31 The next morning the Sullivant Moss Society followed the trip planned for the w^hole group, who went over Big Mountain to the Big Stony Creek valley, on to Narrows, Va. for lunch, then back to Blacksburg via Eggleston for dinner. On Big Mountain, Leptodon trichomitrion in addition to the usual epiphytic flora was seen on the tree trunks. On rocky ledges, in addition to a profusion of more common forms, were Herberta tenuis and a tufted form of Dicranum montanum. The latter, noted by Dr. Sharp, reminds one in the field of Brothera leana. In a meadow along Big Stony Creek, Dr. Blomquist collected three Sphagna apparently unreported from the region. The evening conference for the ,16th was held at the Virginia Polytechnic Institute, where Prof. A. B. Massey of the Institute presided over the following program. Some Old Collections of Southeastern Plants — M. L. Fernald, Gray Herbarium, Harvard University. Plant Migrations and Vegetational History of the Mid- Appalachian Region — Earl L. Core, West Virginia University. Continental Displacement and the Origin of the Southern Appalachian Floras — W. H. Camp, New York Botan¬ ical Garden, On Saturday morning, the 17th, the bryologists and members of /the American Fern Society went on a trip of their own to Mountain Lake, down its drainage branch to the valley below. By afternoon, the society’s numbers were diminished by the de¬ parture of Drs. Sharp and Blomquist. The rest of the group went to the Cascades of Little Stony Creek. Here, in a profu¬ sion of hepatics and mosses, occur such forms as Catharinea crispa, Porotrichum alleghaniense, Hookeria acutifolia, Gym- nostomum calcareum, Mnium punctatum elatum and many mosses common to the region; as w^ell as Trichocolea tomentella, Re- boulia hemisphaerica and many other hepatics. Those attending enjoyed an unusually profitable and pleasant foray. The group dispersed on the morning of the 18th. Hollins College, Va. 32 GENERAL NOTES ISATis TiNCTORiA ALONG SKYLINE DRIVE. — Dr. M. A. Chrysler of Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New Jersey, writes that in company with Dr, W, E. Manning of Smith College, he found thils plant to be abundant along the edge of the Skyline Drive. He adds, ‘Trofessor Manning and I took specimens and submitted them to several, all of whom were as much puzzled as we were. Dr. M. L. Fernald however identified the plant as Isatis tinctoria L., a European plant belonging to the Cruciferae. Just how this plant got introduced I cannot say but at all events it is extreme¬ ly common along the edge of the roadway in the northern part of the Skyline Drive. The plant is now (June 21, 1939) almost en¬ tirely in fruit, but when I first drove along the road on the 28th of May, the plant was in full flower and exceedingly conspicuous.’^ Request for Galax material. — For use in a cytogeographic study of Galax, J. T. Baldwin, Jr., Department of Botany, Uni¬ versity of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, would greatly ap¬ preciate the receipt of three living plants of the genus from various locations throughout its range, together with definite information on the places of collection. Micheliella Briq. in Virginia. — On a wooded slope about three hundred yards from the Meherrin River and about one hundred yards from Route 1, in Brunswick County, Virginia, the writer, in company with Mr. Ellis Rucker of the Matthew Whaley High School, Williamsburg, Virginia, on May 20, 1939, collected flowering specimens of Micheliella verticillata (Baldw.) Briq. There was a colony of perhaps seventy-five plants. Sipecimens (Baldwin 252) were checked by Dr. M. L. Fernald, who wrote that they are ‘Very characteristic” of the species. The collection, therefore, extends- the range of Micheliella northward into Vir¬ ginia and, accordingly, into the area of Gray’s Manual. — J. T. Baldwin, Jr., University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan. The Virginia Academy of Science has no interest other than the advancement of science in Virginin;. It has long felt the need of a periodical to help it accomplish these ends. It is hoped that this Virginia Journal of Science may become the local organ of the various scientific groups in the State, and thus serve as an integrating influence on science in Virginia. It will also repre¬ sent Virginia science Wherever it goes, and if we all cooperate, it can be made a worthy representative of which we may all be proud. I bespeak your help.- — E. C. L. Miller, Secretary. 33 ‘ ' !i| ■^'' ' ■'’ ’! i'-/ '■ ^^' ’fm mt;} \f'liv'';;'v' i %p'00 Wk:MM'm000my 0m00m&'\0B0: il- :'',y'^i‘', '00> 1' i 0m0m '■ -ivi'i''' ■ li&i mh0' }'' ' J'i'! ;/>i.5,^' ri,. >'j . ‘'.It' 'm ,■/-'' r s >' 7-: ';v'>.^f-''vfv;,vi^': mm / > / ( -- mrnm'r'mmt ftiti '"’''‘’’''■''■'’"'’''''■’"''ll"' - - -,. ...■M,-. ,■ - i tiMmm:' i''-;' '?' ; mm i' mimmm . . timwk rnmkm 'm lym liiiliili^iis mspMmk&mm ills ilii 00^' m ill Ipfilii®; ' . < s ''>. f)\ l:PtKi||l|i' mmimsk 'Skm, Is'llp - H>‘ •^'( iii 00:0 iviii'f" iippg 00&B0 lif ifili; iiiiii:iiiiiiiiii SpSilil'"'- llWli i <'j,;iy'.y 'J*k '.; ■r',{|';’i,;''>~>''!'!«i:-' mW:0mS' mm tk'i'-'A' t li', ik' SiMiiiii.' The Virginia Journal of Science Voi. 1 FEBRUARY-MARCH Mo. 2 & 3 CONTENTS PAGE Snakes of the Mlegheny Plateau of Virginia — ^Paul R. Burch . 35 Significance of Geological Features in Jackson's Valley ■/ Campaign— Henry Donald Campbell. . . . . 40U Heavy Mineral Separation— Marcellus H. Stow...... . . 45 The Faunal Zones of the Southern Appalachians— J. J. Murray........................................................................... . 53 Contributions of Virginians to the Geology of the State— —Joseph K. Roberts............................................................ 68 Early Winter Food of Ruffed Grouse on the George Wash¬ ington National For est— Talbott E . Clarke . . 78 Published by The Virginia Academy of Science Monthly y except June, July, August and S'eptember at Charlottesville, Va. The Virginia Journal of Science Official journal of the VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE Ruskin S. Freer, President, Lyncbburig College, Lynohbua’g, Va. E. C. L. Miller, Secreta/ry-Treasurer, Medical College of Virginia, Rich¬ mond, Va. COUNCIL Regula/r Members Robert F. Smart Charles E. Myers Marcellus H. Stow Ex-officio Members Harvey E. Jordan D. Maurice Allan Earle B. Norris W. Catesby Jones Preston Edwards Editor-in-Chief — ^Ruskin S. Freer. Managing Editor— 'Ll. -Qoi.. Robert P. Carroll, Virginia Military Institute, Lexington, Va. Editorial Roarc?--( appointed by Academy Committee on Journal, to serve until the 1940 meeting of the Academy, when Sections will select their representatives) : Preston Edwards— -Astronomy, Mathematics and Physics. Paul R. Burch — Zoology Division, Biology Section. William G. Guy — Chemistry. John Alex. Rorer — Education and Psychology. Dan H. Pletta— -Engineering. Edward C. H. Lammers — Geology. Application for entry as second class matter at the post office at Lexing¬ ton, Virginia, is pending. Subscription— $1.00 per volume to members of the Virginia Academy of Science; $2.00 per volume to others. Published at Lexington, Virginia. The Virginia Journal of Science VOL.I FEBRUARY-MARCH, 1940 , Nos. 2 & 3 Snakes of the Allegheny Plateau of Virginia Paul R. Burch Snakes have been objects of perennial interest from time im¬ memorial, either through fear or curiosity. No subject seems to draw more attention and almost everyone has some pet snake story vouched for by some relative or friend who is claimed to have been an eye-witness of the events described. With the ex¬ ception of a few woodsmen and naturalists most people seem to be interested in snakes from some other part of the world such as they may have seen in a passing circus. They have seldom heard of more than a few kinds found in the woods and streams near them. For the most part these to them are just ‘‘snakes” and the “lowest form of life that lives”. Some have heard of “blacksnakes”, “water moccasins”, “rattlesnakes” or “spread- head moccasins”. Very few can distinguish them. An almost unreasoning fear seems to blind most of us when an actual snake appears. Many otherwise experienced woodsmen cannot dis¬ tinguish the harmless hognosed snake from the poisonous cop¬ perhead. Every year many curious stories appear in the daily press allegedly true but actually based on faulty observation, misinformation and imagination sometimes told with a desire for publicity. There are many excellent books dealing with snakes, such as “The Reptile Book” and “Snakes of the World” by Raymond Ditmars, “Snakes Alive” by Clifford Pope, and “Manual of the Vertebrates of the United States” by H. S. Pratt, as well as others, but they seem not to be very well known. The account here is given with the hope that those who live in the mountains of Virginia or who visit them in the summer will come to think of snakes as a normal part of the fauna of the State, take them as a matter of course, think of most of them as allies and the poisonous as relatively few in number, to be respected but not feared. A knowledge of one’s community should be considered incomplete without some definite knowledge of its snakes. Known snakes of the world total approximately 1800 species, of the United States, 111, of Virginia, 35 and of the Allegheny plateau, 18. The Common Garter Snake, Thamnophis sirtalis, is the most common snake and may be seen earlier in the spring and later 35. SEP 7 1M0 in the fall than any other. It is a harmless black and green striped snake which lives mainly on grasshoppers and other in¬ sects and earthworms. It will sometimes strike when cornered but is easily caught and the worst it does is to secrete an evil¬ smelling viscous yellow fluid from anal glands. It is messy but not harmful. A sub-species of this snake resembles it very much except that it has several rows of checker-board-like black and green squares on either side of the mid-dorsal line. It is known as the Spotted Garter Snake, Thamnophis sirtalis ordi- natns. It measures two to three feet in length at most. It is ovo-viviparous, that is, the eggs hatch in the oviducts and the young snakes are born alive. The Hognosed Snake, Heterodon contortrix, known as ''spreadhead moccasin'', ''puff-adder" or "blowing viper" is sec¬ ond in order of numbers seen. It varies in color from light yel¬ low to dark brown with irregular splotches of black and is often mistaken for the Copperhead Moccasin. A black species, Heter¬ odon contortrix niger, is occasionally found. Both flatten out and hiss when disturbed and are greatly feared. Their acting is bluffing but it makes them look most dangerous to the uninitiated. When their bluff is called they soon give up, pretend to be in agony, writhe, open the mouth, hide the head and finally turn over on the back, remain motionless and appear to be dead. Again the uninitiated are fooled but if the snake is turned right side up it immediately turns back and thus gives itself away. If left alone for a few minutes it will right itself and if the coast appears to be clear it will crawl quickly out of sight. If it can be induced to strike it hits the object with its snout and not with its teeth. It has no fangs. One of the stories told about this snake is that when teased it becomes so angry that it bites and kills itself and turns over on its back, dead. It averages less than three and one-half feet in length. The animals are ovi¬ parous, the eggs being laid. They hatch in late summer when the young snakes from six to ten inches in length may be found. The water snakes are more common along the rivers, creeks and branches and one of them, the Common Water Snake, Natrix sipedon, has a reputation almost as bad as Heterodon. It is known almost everywhere as the "Water Moccasin", even though it is not a moccasin at all. It is also called the "Dry-Land Moccasin". (The Water Moccasin, Agkistrodon piscivornSy is not found in Virginia except, possibly, in the Dismal Swamp.) The swelling which sometimes follows the bite of the water snake may be due to infection or to the snake's saliva, but not to venom for the snake produces none and is not considered a poisonous snake. On land the snake is a rusty brown with scarcely observable markings but in water and especially when young it has the var¬ iable black and white on brown patterns. It is a vicious oppon- 36 ent fout here is seldom longer than three and' one-half feet. It is ovo- viviparous. The other water snake, Matrix septemvittata, the Queen Snake, or Striped Water Snake, does not have the former's reputation for viciousness nor size. It can be recog¬ nized by the narrow black and yellow stripes on each side. Like the preceding it is ovo-viviparous and has keeled scales. Next in frequency are the ''blacksnakes" of which there are three species belonging to as many genera which are confused in actions and in identification to such an extent that the most naive tales are told about them, namely, that parents swallow their young when the latter are in danger, and that the common black- snake fights and kills rattlesnakes and copperheads, and that the common blacksnake entwines and strangles unprotected women and children. The Mountain Blacksnake or Pilot Snake, Elaphe obsoleta, is the largest of the snakes. It is black in color, its keeled scales give it a rough appearance when compared with the Common Blacksnake or Racer, Coluber constrictor (not a con¬ strictor at all) which has smooth satin-like scales and a very slender tail which vibrates rapidly when the snake is cornered or excited. Usually the latter moves so fast that one gets hardly more than a fleeting glimpse of it. The Black King Snake, Lampropeltis getulus nigra, has cross-bars which are almost in¬ visible, and therefore resembles the other blacksnakes super¬ ficially. It moves slowly and can be approached more easily than the others. Only the King Snake is powerful enough to cause discomfort by constricting some part of the body, unless that part be the neck, but this snake does not attack man. None of these snakes attack man except during the mating season or when at¬ tacked themselves. Then they have been known to follow an in¬ truder for twenty-five feet. The King Snake may attack any snake it meets, strangle it and swallow it whole. This action may be the basis for the stories about mother snakes swallowing their young to protect them when danger threatens. Snakes however, pay no more attention to their young than to any other snakes, even though they are found near each other. The in¬ terpretation is also probably supported from imagination and the finding of young in the oviducts of ovo-viviparous snakes like the water snakes, rattlers and copperheads, when one of these snakes has been cut open with a hoe or other sharp instrument. It is the King Snake which attacks the venomous rattler and copperhead and not any of the other '‘blacksnakes". It is im¬ mune to their venom and needs no “snakeweed" for the healing of its wounds. It strangles its victims and swallows them whole. Lampropeltis geji(tulus, the Common King Snake, or Chain Snake, is similar to the black species but has well defined white cross¬ bars connected in such a manner as to resemble a chain. Lam¬ propeltis triangulum, the so-called Milk Snake, is a king snake 37 with a brown chain on a tan background. Lampropeitis clericus, the so-called Red Milk Snake, has a black chain on a red back¬ ground, each link edged with white. These snakes do not milk cows. They do not have the proper mouth structure, and if they did, the farmer would not miss the small amount of milk one could secure. All the ''blacksnakes” attain lengths of from six to eight feet, the Common King Snake six feet, L. clericus one and one-half feet and L. triangulum, three feet. None of the snakes mentioned below is very common, partly on account of secretiveness, partly because they have been killed olf. The copperhead and the rattlesnake only are poisonous. The Ring-necked Snake, Diadophis punctatus, and the Worm Snake, Carphophis amoenus, are secretive, usually being found in or under rotten logs or in soft mossy banks (although four of the latter species crawled into my basement laboratory one morning and became martyrs to science.) The Ring-necked Snake attains a length of one and one-half feet, has a yellow band around the neck and an orange colored belly. It is harmless and liked as a pet by some. The Worm Snake is seldom over ten inches in length and the size of a lead pencil in diameter. It is a brownish grey in color, oviparous and dark-loving. The Green Whip Snake, Opheodrys aestivus, green in color, and therefore hard to find, with prominent scales which give it the appearance of a plaited whip, is greatly feared. However, it is harmless. In the thinking of many people green seems to be associated with poison. It attains a length of about two and one-half feet. The Corn Snake, Elaphe guttata, is a large snake resembling the mountain blacksnake except in color markings which are a light tan background with black and white patterns. This harm¬ less snake is usually confused with the poisonous copperhead but is probably one of the farmer’s best allies among the wild ani¬ mals for it is a first class mouser and is found in cornfields be¬ cause mice, its natural food, are found there in great numbers. Recently, another large harmless snake has been found in Craig and Giles counties, the Pine Snake, Pituophis melanoleucas. This snake has a large brown body with indistinct markings, a tail crossed with red bars and tipped with a spine and a blunt head. It is oviparous. All of the above named snakes are harmless and on account of the rodents they kill, even the large ones which eat some quail eggs are more helpful than harmful. The next and last two to be mentioned are the poisonous ones. The rattlesnake, Crotalus horrulus, the Banded or Mountain Rattlesnake, is limited to the mountains, having been almost exterminated elsewhere in Vir¬ ginia. The largest on record measured six feet in length but the largest I have seen, only four and one-half feet. Most are shorter. 38 They hibernate in ''dens’' in winter, entering by September 15th and leaving about May 15th. These dens are on rocky mountain sides with a southern exposure and are usually near the tops. Cracks between the rocks allow the snakes to crawl below the frost line. Here rattlers, copperheads and "blacksnakes” may be found together. Mating takes place before the snakes leave the den in spring and the young are born (not blacksnakes) during the late summer before or after the females return. The outer corneous layer of the skin is shed in early spring, in the fall, and if the snake has been prosperous, once in between— three castings of skin. Each time it sheds, a part of the skin remains as a "rattle”, making possible the addition of three rattles per year. The first is called the "button” and is on the end. After eight or ten rattles have been added some may be torn off as the snake crawls through the underbrush. When the snake is excited its tail vibrates and in so doing shakes the rattles which produce the characteristic whirring sound. This sound acts probably as an unintentional warning that the snake is ready to strike. It can strike without coiling. Coiled or not it can strike fairly accu¬ rately one-half its length forward, but two-thirds its length is its maximum striking distance. It does not leave the ground when it strikes and seldom plants its fangs higher than six inches above the ground. It strikes with its mouth wide open and its fangs directed forward. The hypodermic needle-like fangs are five- eighths inch long and connected to poison sacs in the head. These sacs are squeezed when the fangs make contact, thus introducing the venom into the wound made. The venom is used mainly to kill animals for food and after having been used requires some days for replacement. For this reason the sacs are only partly filled during most of the summer and the snake is correspondingly less dangerous. A person who has been bitten has four chances out of five to recover whether or not he has received medical at¬ tention. The use of the tourniquet, suction cup or antivenin, increases the chances of recovery. The use of alcohol may de¬ crease it. Relatively few people will ever see a poisonous snake out of captivity and less than one out of a hundred of these will be bitten. The author has roamed the mountains all of his life and has yet to find one himself although on two occasions within five years a member of his party has been successful. The most recent was found by Colonel Robert P. Carroll on the fauna foray of the Virginia Academy of Science in May, 1939 near Stuart. The copperhead, or Copperhead Moccasin, Agkistrodon moka- sen, although feared more than the rattlesnake by some, is less dangerous because its fangs are shorter and its poison sacs small¬ er. It seems to strike more quickly, and of course, without a warning like the former. It is less common in the mountains and more common in the lowlands. Its average length is less than 39 three feet and the longest recorded less than four feet. A specimen of each of the above mentioned snakes is pre¬ served in the Biology Museum of the State Teachers College, Radford, Virginia. A list of these follows : 1. Agkistrodon mokasen . 2. Carphophis amoenus . 3. Coluber constrictor . 4. Crotalus horridus . 5. Diadophis pitnctutus . 6. Elaphe guttata . 7. obsoleta . 8. Heterodon contortrix . 9. H. contortrix nigra . 10. Lampropeltis getulus . 11. L. clericus . 12. L. nigra . 13. L. triangulum . 14. Matrix septemvittata . 15. N. sipedon . 16. Pituophis m&lanoleucas . 17. Thamnophis sirtalis . 18. T. sirtalis ordinatus . State Teachers College, Radford, Virginia. .Copperhead Moccasin .Worm Snake -Blue Racer . Rattlesnake Ringnecked Snake .Corn Snake Mountain Blacksnake • HognO'Sed Snake .Hognosed Snake .Common King Snake Red Milk Snake Mountain King Snake Milk Snake .Queen Snake Common Water Snake .Pine Snake .Common Garter Snake .Spotted Garter Snake Significance of Geological Features In Jackson’s Valley Campaign by the late Henry Donald Campbell Foreword by Marcellus H. Stow It is appropriate that Volume One of the Virginia Journal OF Science contain a selection from the unpublished writings of one of Virginia's foremost students of Geology, the late Henry Donald Campbell, formerly Professor of Geology and Dean of Washington and Lee University. Many of the readers of this new periodical of Virginia science will be aware of the interest he would have shown in the future success of the Journal. Knowing that he would wish to contribute to the progress of scientific and cultural education in the South, part of a paper on "‘The Valley of Virginia", read before the Fortnightly Club of Lexington, Virginia, a few years before his death in 1934, has been revised somewhat for publication in the Journal. 40 The complete paper represented a study of the history of the settlement of the Valley; that part treating of the geological history of the region and the significance of certain geological features in the strategy of ‘‘StonewalF’ Jackson's Valley Cam¬ paign of the Civil War is herewith presented. Geology Department, Washington and Lee University. Geologically speaking the Valley of Virginia is of recent origin, but the Sculptor has been at work for millions of years in the carving of this landscape of exquisite beauty from a great featureless plateau. You will need to draw on your imagination while I attempt to tell the origin of the plateau from which the Valley and the river gorges and the windgaps have been chiseled. The marine fossils in the sandstones, shales and limestones of the Appalachian region tell us that these rocks were deposited as sediment in a sea which for long periods of time covered this area. After' the close of the Carboniferous period, the period during which the coal beds and associated sedimentary rocks of the Appalachians were deposited, this whole Appalachian region was subjected to enormous lateral pressure with the result that the horizontal sedimentary rocks, from the Allegheny Escarp¬ ment to the Blue Ridge and beyond, were oompressed into folded mountains whose crests ran northeast and southwest. So soon as these mountains were raised above the sea the agents of de¬ struction went to work on them. Sunshine and shadow, wind and rain, frost and dew, freezing and thawing, percolating water and the gases of the atmosphere, began to disintegrate the rocks and caused them to crumble into mantle rock and soil, and then, run¬ ning water, picking up the loose material, carried it down to the ocean. Some parts of the land surface were naturally worn away faster than others, but ultimately the whole area, except for a few remnants, was brought down to a gently undulating pene¬ plain, traversed by sluggish, meandering streams. After the crests of the folds had been truncated to the level of the peneplain the edges of the beds of sedimentary rock of vary¬ ing composition and hardness, which made up the limbs of the folds, appeared at the surface of the plain as bands running in the direction of the longitudinal axes of the folds, which was northeast-southwest. Now imagine this low lying peneplain to be uplifted several thousand feet and warped so that it sloped from what is now the top of the present Allegheny escarpment toward the Atlantic Ocean as well as westward and southward. The dormant forces of nature were again aroused. A new drainage system was in- 41 . augurated, and another cycle of erosion began. It was during this second cycle of erosion that our mountain gorges and wind- gaps were cut. If you will notice that Jump Mountain, Hog Back, House Mountain, Green Hill and many parts of the Blue Ridge have ap¬ proximately the same elevation you can visualize the surface of the old plateau. If you will follow the crests of the Blue Ridge and the Alleghenies toward the Potomac River, and note the skyline of the Massanutten as you go, you will see that the crests become gradually lower and that they are cut by numerous gaps. The peaks which here and there rise to greater elevation are sup¬ posed to be remnants of the peaks which stood above the old plateau. Imagine the Valley of Virginia, and the narrow valleys between the mountain ridges to the northwest, to be filled to the elevation of the mountain crests with beds of rocks such as have been disintegrated and carried away and you will have a mental picture of a plateau sloping from the crest of the present Alle¬ gheny mountain toward the Atlantic Ocean, as well as westward and southward. Down the even slope toward the Atlantic ran the Potomac, the James and the Roanoke Rivers and other streams across the edges of the underlying beds of rocks of vary¬ ing degrees of resistance. The speed with which the streams would lower their channels would be determined by the thick¬ ness and resistance of the beds they would encounter, and the velocity and volume of the streams, and the character of the abrasives that they carried along as corrosive agents. The ef¬ fective cutting tools of a stream are boulders, pebbles, and sand. The channels cut through hard, tilted, sandstone remain narrow, because their sides do not readily yield to the processes of solu¬ tion or decay ; but the banks of a stream that runs across lime¬ stone and shale gradually crumble and the channel is widened. Such hard sandstone ledges were soon encountered by the young streams as they cut their way through the soil, which must have accumulated to considerable depth over the surface of the old plain before it was uplifted. Heavy ledges of sandstone, tilted at steep angles, had their edges exposed from the Roanoke to the Potomac and beyond. Similar tilted ledges, sometimes in the position of arches which were the cores of old folds, still existed underground as broad belts running northeast-southwest. Be¬ tween these hard belts of sandstone were less resistant belts of limestone and shale. When the Potomac River was beginning to cut its notch across the hard sandstones at Harper's Ferry there was no Valley. A smaller stream to the southwest, having its source higher on the plateau, was running in the same direction and cutting a gap of its own, and continuing to the east of the gap in the channel of Beaverdam Creek. The Potomac was, however, a larger stream, 42 and was able to cut down its gap more rapidly than Beaverdam Creek. Upstream from the resistant ledges of sandstone water flowed into the Potomac, transverse to its course, cutting gullies and ravines as the weaker shales and limestones yielded more rapidly to weathering. Thus began the Shenandoah River. It gradually cut its way upstream and deepened its channel as the bed of the Potomac was lowered. After a while it cut back to Beaverdam Creek and diverted its head-waters to the Potomac, leaving Snicker’s Gap without a stream flowing from the west of the Blue Ridge. The geologists call this act piracy, and they say that Beaverdam Creek was beheaded by the Shenandoah River. A gap of this kind that was cut by a stream that was afterwards beheaded is called a Wind Gap as distinguished from a Water Gap. The Shenandoah, thus reinforced, continued its progress to the southwest and beheaded many more streams, leaving Ashby’s Gap, Manassas Gap, Thornton’s Gap, Brown’s Gap, Rockfish Gap, and possibly others as Wind Gaps to record the southwest progress of the Shenandoah. The north fork of the Shenandoah beheaded the stream that flowed east through New Market Gap in Massanutten Mountain. The weaker rocks along the course of the Shenandoah and its tributaries were thus carried away and the mountains’ harder rocks were left standing in bold relief. A similar story can be told of other streams in the Valley and in the narrower valleys between the mountain ridges of the Alleghenies. The process of downward cutting in the Valley finally came to a halt when a level had been reached where the velocity of the main streams was too slow to do the work. These streams were old and slug¬ gish and they swung from side to side, developing meanders in their course like those in the Mississippi River. The smaller streams finished the job of cutting down the minor elevations in the Valley, with the exception of a few hills. Thus the Valley was reduced to a peneplain and another cycle was ended. North River was meandering across a nearly level plain several hun¬ dred feet above its present bed. How long this quiescent period lasted we do not know, but after a while the region of the Appa¬ lachians was again slowly elevated and warped and the streams were rejuvenated, their velocity increased and they began to re¬ new their cutting, with the result that they are now entrenched several hundred feet deep in their old meandering courses. The topographical features, the origin of which I have at¬ tempted to outline, played a very important part in the strategy of Jackson’s Valley Campaign. He was fortunate in having on his staff as topographical engineer Major Jed Hotchkiss of Staunton, Virginia, who was very familiar with the Valley and the mountain gaps, and was an expert draftsman. Winchester was the key to communication with the north- 43 west. From Winchester two highways led westward to Romney and Moorefield ; four highways crossed the Blue Ridge to the east and southeast through Wind Gaps, viz., Snicker’s, Ashby’s, Ma¬ nassas, Chester’s. It was through Ashby’s Gap that the troops under Jackson marched from Winchester on July 18, 1861, to engage in the first battle of Manassas on July 21. Part of the Confederate troops under General Kirby Smith went by rail through Manassas Gap. During the spring of 1862 the Massanutten Mountains, which divided the Valley from Strasburg to Harrisonburg, gave great concern to General Banks of the Federal army, who feared that Jackson, who was retreating up the Valley, might go down the other fork of the river and attack him in the rear. So Banks went slowly and cautiously up the valley toward Harrisonburg. Seeing that Banks, having the road over New Market Gap in his possession, would move into Luray Valley and occupy the stra¬ tegic pass at Swift Run Gap, Jackson, by a forced march around the south end of Massanutten Mountain, making over fifty miles in three days, camped in Elk Run Valley at the foot of Swift Run Gap. When on April 26, 1862, Banks moved up to Harrison¬ burg, Ewell, who, although across the Blue Ridge, was prepared to unite with Jackson, was called up to Stanardsville, 12 miles southeast of Swift Run Gap. On April 29 Ashby made a demon¬ stration in force toward Harrisonburg. On the 30th he drove the Federal cavalry back upon their camp, and the same afternoon, leaving Elk Run Valley, which was immediately occupied by Ewell, Jackson started on his march by way of Port Republic to join General Edward Johnson, who was near Staunton, in an attack on Milroy, who was threatening to march on Staunton by way of Monterey. Instead, however, of crossing the Valley to¬ ward Staunton, Jackson crossed the Blue Ridge through Brown’s Gap, (a Wind Gap), to the railroad station at Mechum’s River and went by railroad over Rockfish Gap to Staunton, joined General Edward Johnson, marched through Jennings Gap to Mc¬ Dowell, seventy miles distant, defeated General Milroy, and re¬ turned to the Valley at Mount Solon on May 17th. Here he was met by General Ewell, who informed him that Banks had fallen back from Harrisonburg to Strasburg. While Jackson was at McDowell, Major Hotchkiss, with the aid of a squadron of Ashby’s cavalry, had blocked the passes by which Fremont could cross the Allegheny Mountains and support his colleague, Banks. “Bridges and culverts were destroyed, rocks rolled down, and in one instance, trees were felled along the road for nearly a mile.” The McDowell expedition had neutralized for the time being Fre¬ mont’s twenty thousand men. Ewell went back to Elk Run and marched down the east side of the Massanutten Mountain to Luray, and Jackson to New Market on the west side. Unexpected- 44 ly to his men, Jackson marched across New Market Gap to Luray and joined Ewell and they proceeded down the Shenandoah River to Front Royal, where they were met by Federal troops under Kenly, who was defeated and cut off from Banks at Strasburg and completely isolated. Banks was incredulous, astonished, and electrified, and beat a retreat to Winchester and beyond, fol¬ lowed by Jackson's army. Henderson says, ‘Trom the morning of May 19th to the night of June 1st, a period of fourteen days, the Army of the Valley had marched 170 miles, had routed a force of 12,500 men, had threatened the north with invasion, had drawn off McDowell from Fredericksburg, had seized the hospital and supply depots at Front Royal, Winchester, and Martinsburg, and finally, al¬ though surrounded on three sides by 60,000 men, had brought off a huge convoy without losing a single waggon. The loss of 613 officers and men was a small price to pay for such results." When Jackson had advanced as far as Harper’s Ferry, he learned that he was threatened in the rear by two armies, one coming from the west and one from the east. He made an order¬ ly retreat up the Valley turnpike, sending men across Massa- nutten Mountain at New Market Gap to burn bridges in front of the Federal troops, under General Shields, who were advancing up the Luray Valley. General Fremont was following Jackson up the west side of Massanutten Mountain. Jackson went around the south end of Massanutten Mountain, whence a good road led across Brown’s Gap into Albemarle, offering him a safe outlet in case of disaster, and a means of drawing supplies from that fertile country. Then followed the battles of Port Republic and Cross Keys and the retreat of two Federal armies. Jackson was then trans¬ ferred to eastern Virginia and his Valley Campaign was ended. It has not been my object to describe in any detail Jackson’s Valley Campaign and its results, but merely to illustrate the de¬ cisive part played by the wind gaps made by ancient rivers and by the old monadnock left standing on the Valley Peneplain, now called Massanutten Mountain. Heavy Mineral Separation Marcellus H. Stow Introduction Descriptions of the laboratory procedure for the preparation of samples of sediments for microscopic study* have been pub¬ lished from time to time ; most of these are published in volumes that may not be available to the individual wishing to make some 45 preliminary or elementary examinations of consolidated or un¬ consolidated sediments. There seems to be a demand for a short, concise description of a complete laboratory procedure that will enable the beg'inner in the study of sediments to make rapid separations of the heavy and light minerals without the neces¬ sity of consulting complete treatises that involve the more com¬ plex phases of mechanical and statistical analyses. Herewith is presented a technique that has been found to be rapid in execution and sufficiently accurate in results for any qualitative study of the heavy and light constituents of sedi¬ ments. The apparatus and materials used are simple and easily obtained, and can be compactly arranged for transportation or for use in the field. (Fig 1.) Collection of Samples It is beyond the scope of this summary to discuss the mathe¬ matics of sampling, either in the field or in the laboratory, hence, if quantitative results of high accuracy are desired it is essen¬ tial that the intricacies of sampling be thoroughly understood. However, it has been found that for ordinary qualitative studies it suffices to collect about a quart of unweathered chips from an area of several square yards of outcrop. Of course the num¬ ber of samples and distribution thereof will be determined by the type of problem under investigation. Heavy Kraft paper sugar bags of three pound size are con- Figure 1. Laboratory apparatus for the preparation of sediments for microscopic examination. 46 venient for field collecting; if used double these are strong enough for fragments of consolidated rocks as well as for sands. Field sample numbers should be written on the outside of the bag in about four places, with a soft pencil. If the bags are about half filled, the tops securely folded down, and the whole placed in an¬ other numbered paper bag, they will withstand transportation without damage when packed tightly in heavy cardboard cartons. Storage of Field Samples Upon arrival in the laboratory, each sample should be trans¬ ferred to a permanent container and numbered or labeled, on both top of lid and side of carton, to correspond with the field numbers. Cylindrical, waxed cardboard, ice cream containers, quart size, make adequate and cheap storage receptacles. Disintegration Various techniques for the disintegration of consolidated sediments have been devised and described; each of these is isuitable for a particular set of conditions. One that is rapid', convenient, and simple is crushing the sample in a steel mortar with a steel pestle. If available, a small jaw crusher can be used to advantage to break the larger fragments. Since the object of crushing is to reduce the consolidated rock to the original grain size of its constituents, a grinding motion of the pestle is to be avoided ; likewise, long-continued pounding on the same material should be avoided. During the crushing process, the material should be sieved on a 20-mesh screen at frequent intervals. Fragments coarser than this should be returned to the mortar for further crushing — if composed of aggregates of smaller grains. About one half of the chips of the original quart sample should be crushed. Pint ice cream containers numbered to correspond with the field samples are handy for storing the disintegrated material. Obviously, if samples of unconsolidated sediment have been collected, the crushing procedure is not applicable. Washing The crushed, or original unconsolidated, sample is reduced in volume to about 100 cc., either by simple quartering or by some apparatus such as the Jones sample splitter. This fraction is put into an 800 cc. beaker and water added with sufficient vigor to agitate the sediment thoroughly. When the depth of the water has reached 10 cm. the agitation is stopped and the sediment allowed to settle for one minute ; at the end of this time the water and suspended sediment are decanted. This preliminary washing 47 is repeated once or twice, thus removing much of the material too fine for convenient identification with the microscope. The sediment in the beaker is then covered to a depth of about 2 cm. with dilute (6N.) hydrochloric acid and boiled until all limonite stain has been dissolved, after which the washing process de¬ scribed above is repeated, with settling periods of 30 seconds in¬ stead of one minute, until the water is clear at the end of a 30 second interval. The sediment is next transferred to a large aluminum pie pan (conveniently done by washing from beaker to pan with a laboratory wash-flask). After drying (on hot¬ plate, or merely in room), the washed sediment may be stored conveniently in manila envelopes (size: 3 inches by 5l^ inches, end opening) labeled with original sample numbers. Sieving When ready to make the heavy mineral separ^ations, the washed acid-treated sample is sieved on a bolting cloth screen. Bolting cloth has the distinct advantage over wire screen in that it is readily cleaned between the fingers, thus eliminating danger of sample contamination. A short metal cylinder, about 8 cm. in diameter and 4 cm. deep, with a tight-fitting collar for holding the cloth is easily constructed. Bolting cloth with approxi¬ mately 58 meshes per inch is most suitable and can be obtained from any flour mill. Grains retained on this screen are too large for convenient study and, furthermore, few heavy minerals are ordinarily found in sand as coarse as this. Grains settling through a 10 cm. column of water in 30 seconds and passing through a bolting cloth screen of 58 meshes per inch are the most desirable size for microscopic study and identification. That portion of the sample passing through the bolting cloth should be reduced in volume to about 7 cc. before being separated into heavy and light fractions. This may be done by simple quartering, or more accurately by use of the Otto microsplit. Heavy Liquid Separation Separation into heavy and light fractions is speedily accom¬ plished by means of the heavy liquid, bromoform (CHBrs) . This liquid may be purchased in the practical grade, having a specific gravity of 2.6, from the Eastman Kodak Company. In order to increase the density to 2.8, about 150 cc. of bromoform are put in a large beaker or jar and ten times this volume of water added and agitated vigorously for a few minutes, allowed to stand for a few hours, or until the bromoform has settled and the water is not cloudy ; the water is poured off and the bromoform filtered through a coarse filter paper. The specific gravity of the bromo- 48 form may be determined exactly by means of a Westphal balance or approximately by some mineral with a density of about 2.8. Numerous devices have been described for the separatory apparatus ; of these, either of two simple ones are readily avail¬ able and are easily manipulated. The most desirable one con¬ sists of a separatory funnel about 8 cm. in diameter at the open top with a glass stop-cock at the bottom. If the walls of the funnel are too steep, a large volume of bromoform is necessary per unit of surface area ; if the walls are too flat, the heavy grains will come to rest on the sides before reaching the bottom of the funnel. Hence a funnel with an angle of slope of about 70° seems to be a good compromise. However, it is not a serious handicap if the exact type of funnel is not available. The simplest of all types of separatory apparatus consists of an ordinary laboratory funnel about 8 cm. in diameter at the top, which has had the stem cut off to about 2 cm. in length, with a 5 cm. length of rubber tubing attached to this short stem. Flow through the funnel is controlled by a spring pinch-cock. When operating this apparatus, care must be used to prevent the reten¬ tion of a few grains of the sample within the rubber tube, thus contaminating one sample with another. Either type of apparatus should be supported in a ring-stand, the stop-cock closed, and the funnel filled to within about an inch of the top with bromoform (Sp.G. 2.8+). The small fraction of sand resulting from the final quartering of the sieved sample should be sprinkled slowly on the surface of the bromoform; gentle stirring with a glass rod will hasten the separation of the heavy minerals from the light ones. The former will sink through the bromoform and the latter will float on the surface. After an occasional careful agitation of the floating grains, the residue at the bottom of the funnel should be drawn off onto a coarse filter paper, previously labeled, folded, and inserted in a funnel. The bromoform passing through is allowed to collect in an Erlenmeyer flask, or wide-mouth bottle, for use in the next separation. This flask, funnel, and filter paper are removed and a duplicate set placed under the separatory funnel, after which the remaining bromoform and light grains are allowed to drain onto this second filter paper. After the bromoform has drained through the filter and into the flask, this flask is removed and an empty one substituted. Alcohol (90% ethyl), if available at low cost, or acetone, is then used to wash adhering light grains from the sides of the separatory funnel and to dissolve the bromoform from the grains and filter paper in the funnel below. This washing process is applied likewise to the filter paper con¬ taining the heavy minerals. Great care must be used to prevent any of the alcohol (or acetone) from entering the flasks contain¬ ing the pure bromoform. The bromoform-alcohol (or bromo- 49 form-acetone) washings are collected in a large bottle for later purification. As bromoform is relatively expensive and both of the wash media are cheap, it is advantageous to wash funnels, filter papers, and sediments thoroughly. The washing process is best accomplished by the use of a laboratory wash-bottle con¬ taining the alcohol or acetone. The bromoform can be recovered from the accumulated wash¬ ings by the process previously described to raise the specific gravity of the commercial grade of bromoform. Because of its decomposition when exposed to light, the pure bromoform and bromoform washings should be stored in brown bottles. Storage of Separates The heavy and light separates are dried and carefully brushed from the filter papers into glass shell-vials to which have been glued small labels showing sample numbers. For sample sizes described herein, vials 7 mm., inside diameter, by 15 mm. in length, are convenient for the heavy separates and vials 12 mm. by 60 mm. for the light separates. These can be obtained, fitted with stoppers, from any laboratory supply company. They are easily filed, for future reference, in flat cardboard trays. Mounting of Separates Mounting of grains in Canada balsam requires some practice and careful technique. A few suggestions may be helpful to the beginner. The slides used should be the 25 mm. by 45 mm. size, the cover glasses round, 20 mm. in diameter, number 1 thickness. Several slides and cover glasses are placed on a moderately warm hot-plate and a small amount of liquid Canada balsam put in the center of each of two slides,-. By means of a tiny spatula a frac¬ tion of the heavy minerals of a sample is sprinkled uniformly over the surface of the balsam on one slide and a fraction of the light minerals over the balsam on the other. As volatilization of the balsam continues, the prongs of a pair of forceps should be inserted at intervals and the adhering balsam tested until it has a tacky consistency (not sirupy and not brittle) on the forceps. When this stage is reached, a warm cover glass should be grasped with another pair of forceps, the edge inserted at the edge of the balsam, and carefully lowered into place. The slide should be removed from the hot-plate immediately to prevent Bie forma¬ tion of bubbles in the balsam. Gentle pressure with the finger on the cover glass will squeeze out excess balsam and distribute the grains uniformly. It is important that the balsam on the hot¬ plate does not become so warm that bubbles are formed and it is essential that it be warmed long enough to bring it to the proper consistency, tacky. Practice alone can make the beginner adept at mounting grains properly. 50 After the cover glass has been placed on the balsam and pressed into position, the slide should be labeled with the original sample number and appropriately designated L. M. (light min¬ erals) or H. M. (heavy minerals). A diamond pencil is most satisfactory for this purpose. When thoroughly cooled, the surface of the slides can be cleaned by scraping off most of the balsam with a knife blade and removing the remainder with a cloth moistened with benzene. The slides are now ready for examination with the petro¬ graphic microscope. Selected Bibliography on Sedimentary Petrography (# contains extensive bibliography.) # Boswell, P. G. H. Mineralogy of Sedimentary Rocks. Cayeux, L. Introduction a L’Etude Petrographique des Roches Sedi- mentaires. Holmes, A. Petrographic Methods and Calculations. # Journal of Sedimentary Petrology. Krumbein, W. C. and Pettijohn, F. J. Manual of Sedimentary Petrog¬ raphy. # Milner, H. B. Sedimentary Petrography. Otto, G. H. Comparative Tests of Several Methods of Sampling Heavy Mineral Concentrates. Journ. Sed. Petrol., Vol. 3, No. 1, pp. 30-39, 1933. # Raeburn, C. and Milner, H. B. Alluvial Prospecting. Twenhofel, W. H. Principles of Sedimentation. Twenhofel, W. H. Treatise on Sedimentation. Washington and Lee University, Lexington, Virginia. 51 H*OW SHEET Field Sample crushed through •§■ stored for 20 mesh screen future reference Quartered Jv ounces Remainder stored Quartered out for future reference f - Boiled in dilute' HCl Washed hy decantation Dried Sieved on 58 mesh holting: cloth Passed through Retained on bolting cloth bolting^ cloth. Quartered Discarded or filed I I for future reference 7 cc. Remainder put in quartered out manila envelope and I filed for future reference Put in bromoform (Sp,0« 2,8) in jBeparatory funnel Light separate I/Iounted in Canada balsam Heavy Sepatate Mounted in Canada balsam The Faunal Zones of the Southern Appalachians^ J. J. Murray One fine June morning about ten years ago three bird enthusi¬ asts set out to climb Thunder Hill Mountain in the Blue Ridge of Rockbridge County, Virginia. We had two things in mind that early summer morning. In addition to the simple enjoyment of the multitude of mountain birds, with their appeal of color, song and moving grace, we proposed to make a survey of the changes in their distribution from the valley along the waters of the James to the rocky knob where at 4,000 feet Thunder Hill shoulders to the sky. This climb presents in five and a half miles of air line an amazing change in altitude of 3,250 feet. By the time the sun begins to show over Piney and High Cock we are well on our way, field glasses slung about our necks and note books ready for the first entries. Birds have been busy since four o’clock but the first slanting rays of sunlight put new vigor into the morning chorus. In the wet thickets along Arn¬ old’s Creek the Red-winged Blackbirds, as if knowing that there is no more striking combination than a touch of color on plain black, are flashing scarlet epaulettes for their sober mates and singing a sweet, gurgling ‘conkaree’. Cardinals, the bit of black on their faces heightening rather than dimming the brilliance of the rosy plumage, are chanting their hymns to the sun, while their females, dressed more quietly but no less attractively in ashes of roses, appreciatively watch them. From every thicket comes the lilt of a Song Sparrow, and from every brush pile the ringing ‘teakettle, teakettle, teakettle’ of a Carolina Wren. In a maple in a cabin yard a Yellow Warbler sings, ‘sweet, siveet, siveet, siveeter than the sweet’. On a dry hillside a Yellow- breasted Chat, clown of the bird world, is putting on a perform¬ ance of shrieks and groans and whistles and cat-calls. Time would fail to tell of all the birds of the open valley country — sober Robins with brick-red breasts. Wood Thrushes and Indigo Buntings, respectable Towhees in black and brown and white, and, along the creek, Acadian Flycatchers: and Louisiana Water- thrushes. We pass Camp Powhatan and turn into the woods and up the mountain. At this point the altitude is about 1,200 feet. At once there is a change in the bird life. Naturally we leave be¬ hind the Red-winged Blackbirds of the marshy glades and the Song Sparrows of the thickets. We are in the woods now, and *This paper, in its original form, was prepared for the Fortnightly Club of Lexington;, Virginia, which accounts for the Roekbridge County localiza¬ tions. Free use has been made of material from earlier papers on the same subject which have appeared in The Raven, journal of the Virginia Society of Ornithology. 53 those are birds of the open. Naturally, too, we meet the woods birds, the Red-eyed Vireo, the Hooded Warbler, the Black and White Warbler and others. We would have seen them down in Arnold’s Valley, if we had turned aside into the forest. But another factor seems also to operate. We are beginning to climb now ; and altitude seems to make a great difference. As we reach the 1,500 foot level the change is very noticeable. There are no Acadian Flycatchers or Louisiana Water-thrushes along the stream. We rarely see a Oardinal now. Some of our valley birds are still with us. Four of the most common — Indigo Bunt¬ ing, Towhee, Brown Thrasher, and Ovenbird — will stay with us all the way to the summit. Two other common friends- — Wood- Thrush and Red-eyed Vireo — will be with us nearly all the way. On still another, the Hooded Warbler, we can count for a thou¬ sand feet yet. To make up for our friends which do not have the stamina for this rough mountain country we now begin to make new acquaintances. As we step out into a little opening at the top of a cliff, where we can hear the tumbling stream far below and where we can smell the aromatic fragrance of the hem¬ locks, there comes from one of the evergreens a lazy, drawling song, 'zee, zee, zee, zu, zee\ It is a little Black-throated Green Warbler, with yellow head, black throat, and greenish-yellow back. Suddenly a movement catches our eyes. We look up, and there, balancing on the topmost twig of a hemlock tree, is one of the most vivid of all birds, a Scarlet Tanager. He begins to sing, a loud, rather sharp and somewhat monotonous warble. The sight of that bird, brilliant scarlet but for black wings and tail, singing in the bright sunlight at the top of the evergreen none of us will ever forget. Now we plunge into the cool, dark woods again. The trail, worn by many generations of mountaineer feet, is sunk deep between rocky, fern-covered banks. We turn aside for a few minutes to rest and to drink at Hunting Spring, where the cold water pours out from the roots of a giant dead chestnut and makes a pool almost big enough to bathe in. In places the trees thin out overhead to drop great blotches of sunlight on the trail. At such sunny spots birds are more common. At 2,000 feet we walk out into one of the loveliest spots in all this mountain coun¬ try. A little stream that has just come rushing down from Petite’s Gap is quieted here as it enters a level reach. There is just fall enough to make the water bubble about the big rocks and not too much for quiet pools where a pair of Wood Thrushes can bathe while they watch the nest in a nearby maple. Under the big hemlocks in the glade where a hundred men might camp there is a cathedral dimness and on the thick carpet of needles no footstep can be heard. The little stream plays a subdued air while a dozen different bird songs weave an obligato overhead. 54 New friends appear in the trees. Just overhead is the sharply inquiring but attractive warble of the Mountain Vireo, 'Yes; who are you; why are you here; ivhat do you want?* We are now at the place on this trail where the rhododendron begins to appear, and so we now hear the song of the Cairn's Warbler, the southern mountain race of the Black-throated Blue Warbler of the north. The song is energetic enough in the words of our translation, 'huzzzy-as-a-hee* , but its lazy quality denies the words. More beautiful still is the sight of a Blackburnian Warb¬ ler, black and white, with flaming orange throat and breast. He is perched on a high branch of a dead chestnut tree, and, like the Tanager below, in bright sunshine. We should like to spend the morning in this temple of the out-of-doors, but there is a long way to go and the hardest part of the trip is just before us. We climh the steep half-mile from the stream to Petite's Gap, turn to the right at the young white pine grove, and then begin the hard scramble through the brush to the shoulder of the big mountain. We have not left the gap before we add to our list the Rose-breasted Grosbeak, one of the finest of the mountain birds. The color combination is striking. Head, back and wings are black, but the spread black wings show large patches of white. Between the black head and the white lower breast is a rosy patch, from the center of which like drip¬ ping blood a streak of rose runs into the white below. The song is as notable as the plumage, a brilliant warble, intricate and beautiful and strong enough to be heard a quarter of a mile across a mountain hollow. Above here, probably because of the absence of evergreens, the Black-throated Green Warbler is scarce. The Hooded Warbler, too, is much less common now. The Cairn's and Blackburnian Warblers from here on are abundant. At 3,000 feet we stop again, not only because it is lunch time and we need a rest, but because we cannot resist the beauty that halts us at a turn in the trail. Here the trees are larger and the shade more dense. Here the trail widens and nature has paved it with flat stones. Here a tiny spring breaks from a pile of moss-covered rocks and spreads by the path into a pool where glints of blue sky are reflected when the branches above open in the breeze and where the little creatures of the forest come to drink. And here all about us the rose-colored rhododendron is now in full bloom. We forget that we are trying to make a scientific study, and for an hour we sit and eat and rest and enjoy the beauty of foliage and color and song. Directly, from a tangle of rhododendron we hear a new song, light, tinkling, very intricate, very sweet. We sit perfectly still, while a little Canada Warbler comes out to the spring to drink and to bathe. During migrations this bird can be seen almost anywhere, but in 55 June when all Canada Warblers are nesting it would never be found much below the altitude of this spring. Finally, a mile farther along the trail, a few hundred feet higher than the spring, and not long before we reach the top, we make the last two significant additions to our list, two birds of our highest mountain country. One is the Carolina Junco, or southern Snowbird. Some people think that the coming of the ‘'snowbird” means the coming of snow, but nests of young Caro¬ lina Juncos can be found in June on almost any of our moun¬ tains above 3,000 feet. The last bird is the Veery, or Wilson's Thrush, found in Rockbridge only near the tops of the very highest mountains. In Camping Ridge Gap, between Thunder Hill and Apple Orchard, is another alluring spring, more in the open than the little spring we have just left. Here under the scattered oak trees the ferns and the high grass furnish a bed to the tired hiker. Here, stretched out at his ease, he can hear in the oaks about him from a half-dozen birds at once that most haunting and most ethereal of all our bird songs, the song of the Veery. And now, to the point of all this — that is, in addition to the delight of a day in such places and with such birds — ^to the scientific point of all this. When we came to classify our notes for the day it became evident that Thunder Hill presents a very definite altitudinal succession of bird life. Some birds, such as the Indigo Bunting, Brown Thrasher, Ovenbird, and Towhee, are found in the valley and on the mountain top. Some, the Mockingbird and Cardinal, for example, are found only in the valley. The Acadian Flycatcher and Louisiana Water-thrush are found in the valley and on only the lower mountain reaches. The Hooded Warbler and the Redstart go from the valley about half-way up. The Wood Thrush and the Red-eyed Vireo go from the valley all or most of the way up. The Black-throated Green Warbler and the Scarlet Tanager begin on the lower reaches and continue most or all of the way up. Others, such as the Cairns's Warbler, Blackburnian Warbler, Mountain Vireo, and Rose¬ breasted Grosbeak, begin about half-way up and go then all of the way. Still others, particularly the Canada Warbler, Caro¬ lina Junco and the Veery, are found only near the top. This idea of an altitudinal succession in bird life became increasingly evident as during the succeeding years I took ai score or more of climbs to the tops of other high mountains, to Apple Orchard, Rocky Mountain and Mt. Pleasant in the Blue Ridge; and to House Mountain, White Rock, Dale, Hogback, Jump, North Mountain and Elliott's Knob in the Alleghanies. Later on other and still higher mountains in Highland County, in Southwest Virginia, and in western North Carolina were explored, until I became familiar with the external facts of this altitudinal succession. 56 The next question is as to the Why? of this succession. Why are certain birds found only at certain elevations ? The first and most obvious and in part correct answer is that as one climbs a mountain he passes through different kinds of territory- — marshy stream margins, scrubby fields, open pastures, and woods of var¬ ious types, conifers, hardwoods and low second growth. Ob¬ viously one does not find a Red-winged Blackbird on a dry wooded mountain shoulder; nor a Cardinal in primeval forest; nor Veeries in open pasture. One finds each bird in the habitat for which it is suited and which, therefore, it prefers. So true is this that it may be said that the number of birds which I can expect to find on any mountain trip, and the reason, for example, why I expect to find fewer birds on House Mountain than on Apple Orchard, was settled a million years ago in some paist geological era. But this answer from type of habitat, while obviously true, is not at all sufficient. If it were, why, to men¬ tion but a few out of a hundred possible objeotions, is the Yellow Warbler so common in yards and parks at the foot of the moun¬ tains and yet not found in similar spots at Camp Kewanzee at 3,600 feet on Apple Orchard; or why is the Veery not found in )the open type of oak woods which it loves when these woods occur down in the valley; or why is it that on Brushy Hill the two tanagers meet at a line drawn at about 1,500 feet, the Scar¬ let Tanager not straying far below that line and the Summer Tanager not venturing far above it, even though the type of woods which they both like are found on both sides of this in¬ visible barrier? This habitat explanation is very important within the zones, which we shall discuss in a moment, but alto¬ gether insufficient as an explanation of the fact that there are zones. If a man familiar with the facts in the altitudinal distri¬ bution of birds were taken blindfolded to any place on any of our mountains and left there, still blindfolded, for half an hour, he could, just by listening to the singing of the birds about him, come very close to giving you the altitude of the spot. It is further interesting to note that one can get this same succession of bird life by travelling northward as by travelling upward. Longer distances must be travelled, to be sure. In order to find the birds one would get here by climbing the 1,000 feet to Petite’s Gap, one must go to northern Pennsylvania ; and in order to see Juncos or to hear Veeries sing one must go into New York or New England. As one discovers how closely the north and south distribution of birds can be correlated with their up and down distribution, and as one remembers that the chief thing that changes as one travels altitudinally or latitudinally is temp¬ erature, one is forced to wonder whether temperature is not an important, possibly even the dominant factor, in the distribution of birds and other animals. 57 Fifty years ago a scientist in government service in Wash¬ ington was asking these same questions. And because his an¬ swers were so original, so comprehensive, so important, and yet at the same ltime so unsatisfactory in some respects a major sec¬ tion of this paper will be devoted to a discussion of his theories before coming back to Rockbridge County and the southern mountains. This man. Dr. Clinton Hart Merriam, was Chief of the Division of Ornithology and Mammalogy in the Depart¬ ment of Agriculture. Shortly afterwards, while he was still chief, this division became the Bureau of Biological Survey. In his field work in the mountains and particularly in the West he was impressed by this altitudinal stratification and determined to make a study of its nature and causes. In part his motive was practical, as it was felt that a knowledge of natural climatic areas, or zones, as they soon came to be called, would be of great assistance to farmers in planning their crops. Up to this time there had been great confusion in the minds of botanists and zoologists in regard to the biotic areas of North America. About 50 papers had been published, each one proposing its own zoo¬ geographic scheme. Merriam, in summarizing these, was able to find at least a rough agreement on the division of North America into four biotic provinces : a Boreal province, stretching across the northern part of the continent ; and three provinces reaching north to south, the Eastern, or Atlantic; the Central, from the eastern edge of the plains to the Sierra Nevada and Cascade Ranges ; and a Western, or Pacific. To his mind, this classifica¬ tion was altogether unsatisfactory, and he set to work to study the question anew. Merriam’s work went through three phases, exploration, de¬ scription, and theoretical explanation, although in a measure the three ran concurrently. The two classic papers for the study of this work are, first, '‘Results of a Biological Survey of the San Francisco Mountain Region in Arizona” (1890), an historic paper in the annals of North American zoogeography; and, second, ‘Life Zones and Crop Zones of the United States” (1898). Each of these booklets had a colored map of life zones, a com¬ parison of which is most interesting, both because of the develop¬ ment in the theory of life zones which is indicated and because of the curious fact that the first map, less under the influence of his idea of the transcontinental character of the zones, is more acceptable than the later to modern ecologists. (1). Exploration. In 1889 Merriam and his assistants made a thorough biological survey of the San Francisco Moun¬ tain and nearby territory in Arizona, not far from the Grand Canyon. This mountain was chosen because of its southern po¬ sition, isolation, great altitude, and proximity to an arid desert. Between the deserts of Arizona about its foot and its 12,794 foot 58 peak, covered most of the year with snow, are found all types pf climate and of animal and vegetable life known from the west. Specimens were collected, with the result that some twen¬ ty new species and subspecies of mammals and many new plants and reptiles were discovered. Listsi of all plants and animals found were carefully plotted according to altitude and type of locality. Seven distinct belts or zones were recognized on the mountain— an arid desert region, a pinon belt, a pine belt, a Douglas fir belt, an Engelmann’s spruce belt, a narrow zone of dwarf spruce, and the bare area around the summit. The fol¬ lowing year a much larger area of 20,000 square miles in Idaho was studied in similar fashion. In 1891 the so-called Death Valley Expedition surveyed an area of 100,000 square miles, which contained the lowest (Death Valley) and the highest (Mount Whitney) points in the United States. (2). Description. As a result of these studies Merriam came to certain conclusions about the distribution of plants and animals, (a). There are in the mountains of the West certain life zones like the zones long recognized in the eastern part of the country. Each zone is characterized by a group of plants and animals not found as a group, even though some of the indi¬ viduals might occur, in any other zone. (b). These zones are of transcontinental extent. This involved a radical change in the conception of the principles involved in faunal areas. Di¬ visions are properly made not as one goes from east to west but as one goes from south to north. This implies a basic value in the temperature factor in the origin of zones, (c). The faunas and floras of North America are properly divisible into only two primary grpups, and therefore into only two primary zoo- geographic regions, a northern or Boreal, and a southern or Austral, (d) . The final effort in the descriptive part of his work was the more accurate charting of the various life zones. In the paper of 1898 he made his final statement as to the limits and nomenclature of these zones. He recognized two primary re¬ gions, Boreal and Austral, each divided into three life zones, with an additional Tropical Zone covering only the tip of the Florida peninsula from Lake Okeechobee south. In the Boreal Region there are three zones — the Arctic- Alpine, the Hudsonian, and the Canadian, (a). The Arctic- Alpine Zone includes the country, both latitudinally and alti- tudinally, which is above the limit of tree growth, (b). The Hudsonian Zone covers the northern parts of the great trans¬ continental coniferous forest, from Labrador to Alaska, and small areas at the tops of the higher mountains of the West, (c). The Canadian Zone covers the southern or lower parts of the transcontinental coniferous forest, reaching as far south as northern Michigan, Vermont, New Hampshire and Maine, and 59 along- the summits of the higher Appalachians to the Great Smoky Park region. There are also extensive Canadian areas on the middle stretches of the western mountains. There are only traces of this zone in Virginia. This is the most northerly of the agricultural regions, where turnips, white potatoes and the hardiest cereals grow. Characteristic birds of this zone are the Brown Creeper, Golden-crowned Kinglet, Winter Wren, and Red-breasted Nuthatch; and in the north the White-throated Sparrow and Myrtle Warbler. The red squirrel is one of the characteristic mammals; and in the north the porcupine and the varying hare. The Austral or Southern Region also has three zones, and since they concern us more nearly they will be described in more detail. The nomenclature of the Austral Zones is somewhat com¬ plicated by the fact that each zone has a general name and also specific names for the eastern humid and the western arid sec¬ tions of the zone. (a). The Transition Zone, known in the east as the Alleghaniaii, covers the greater part of southern Michigan, Wisconsin, New York, New England, parts of Penn¬ sylvania, the territory south along the mountains into northern Georgia, and large sections of the lower slopes of the western mountains. Practically all of the strictly mountain territory in Virginia belongs in this zone. As its name indicates, it is a transition region where boreal and austral elements overlap but where, however, the austral predominate. Into this zone the oak, hickory, chestnut and walnut push from the south to meet the hardy maples, the beech, birch and hemlock of the north. Here the Oriole, Catbird and Wood Thrush meet the Veery, Mountain Vireo and Junco. Here the gray squirrel, the southern mole and the cottontail meet the red squirrel, the jumping mouse and the star-nosed mole. Here apples and cherries, white potatoes, barley, oats and hay crops are at their best. (b). The Upper Austral Zone is known in the West as the Upper Sonoran and in our section as the Carolinian Zone. It is the zone of the middle states outside the mountains, reaching from the mouth of Chesa¬ peake Bay to southern Connecticut, still farther north in the valleys of the Hudson and Connecticut Rivers, still farther south in the Piedmont country. Practically all of Virginia outside the mountains is in the Carolinian Zone; and it includes the floor of the larger mountain valleys. This is the country of the sassafras, the tulip tree (poplar), hackberry, and, away from the mountain influence, of the sweet gum. It is the country of the peach, apricot and quince, of tobacco and the sweet potato. Here the highest yielding varieties of corn and winter wheat flourish. Characteristic mammals are the opossum, gray fox and fox squirrel; while characteristic birds are the Cardinal, Carolina Wren, Titmouse, Gnatcatcher, and Yellow-breasted Chat. (c). 60 The last of these Austral zones is the Lower Austral, known in the west as the Lotver Sonoran, but with us as the Austroripar- ian. It covers the greater part of the South Atlantic and Gulf States. It is further subdivided into Louisianan and Floridian sections, the latter being peculiar to Florida. In Virginia only the extreme southeastern corner of the state, around Norfolk and the Dismal Swamp, comes within this zone. Here the long-leafed pine grows in the sandhills, the live oak fringes the lowland rivers, cypresses shade the deep swamps, and the magnolia blooms in the cabin yards. Here the singing of the Mocking¬ bird and the fragrance of the scuppernong on the heavy night air stir nostalgic longings in the heart of the expatriate who has come back for an autumn week. On the broad plantations flour¬ ish cotton, sugar cane, rice and peanuts. The Mockingbird, the Painted Bunting, the Red-cockaded Woodpecker, the Chuck- wilFs- widow, and the Prothonotary and Swainson^s Warblers are characteristic birds, (3). The last, and to his mind, most important part of Mer- riam’s work was the Theoretical Explanation. From the be¬ ginning he had felt that the factor of temperature was the critical one. Even in his first paper he could say that ‘Tempera¬ ture and humidity are the most important causes governing dis¬ tribution, and that temperature is more important than humid¬ ity” (Merriam, 1890). His later work served only to develop that theory. Earlier workers who had tried to work out the outlines of zones by use of the temperature factor had failed be¬ cause they studied the distribution of animals as if their spread had been in only one direction. The new element in Merriam 's researches was the recognition of the fact that certain boreal species have been dispersed from the north southward, while Austral species have been dispersed toward the north. From this he inferred that the southward and northward dispersals, and therefore the southern and northern limits of any zone, are governed by two different sets of temperature factors. He se¬ lected almost a priori two sets of temperature factors, and then proceeded to check them with the known facts of distribution. They checked out so well that he did not find it necessary to make any drastic revisions in his assumptions. This in itself should have struck him as a suspicious circumstance that might well have cast doubt on his whole method. To put his line of attack in his own words, “the temperature selected as probably fixing the limit of northward distribution is the sum of the effective heat for the entire period of growth and reproduction ... a minimum of 6° C. or 43° F. was assumed to represent the incep¬ tion of the period of physiological activity in spring. . . . Be¬ ginning at 43° F., all mean daily temperatures in excess of this were added together. . . . When the sums of the positive temp- 61 eratures for a large number of localities in the United States were plotted on a large scale map it was found that isotherms (lines showing an equal quantity of heat) could be drawn that corresponded almost exactly with the northern boundaries of the several zones’" (Merriam, 1895). In similar fashion in fix¬ ing the southern boundaries he assumed that the mean normal temperature of the hottest six consecutive weeks of summer was the critical temperature factor. From these assumptions, check¬ ed as best he could and platted with infinite pains, Merriam propounded his two Laws of Temperature Control of the Geo¬ graphic Distribution of Animals and Plants : First, “The north¬ ward distribution of terrestrial animals and plants is governed by the sum of the positive temperatures for the entire season of growth and reproduction.” Second, “The southward distribu¬ tion is governed by the mean temperature of a brief period dur¬ ing the hottest part of the year” (Merriam, 1894). For nearly fifty years these zone outlines and these tempera¬ ture laws have been all but accepted as final by field naturalists. When one realizes the importance of the subjects and the magni¬ tude of the assumptions involved, there is an amazing paucity of titles dealing directly with Merriam’s work. There were good reasons, to be sure, for letting his work go unchallenged. It was a great accomplishment, and whether perfect or not a major piece of biological theorizing. It was of very practical value in field work. It had the weight of government support behind it. Then, too, testing Merriam’s conclusions was made most difficult by the fact that he only gave the bare conclusions and nowhere published his computations. Although it is only within the present decade that definite attacks have been made upon his work, evidence was accumulating from many sources, pri¬ marily from the work of ecological botanists, to indicate that a reexamination of his conclusions was past due. For the purpose of such an examination we may arrange the details of his work into three groups : first, the temperature laws ; second, the trans¬ continental character of the zones; and, third, the significance, if any, of his zones. I am arranging these three groups in what seems to me the order of their vulnerability. The weakest part of Merriam’s work is probably to be found in his temperature laws. Prof. R exford F. Daubenmire of the University of Idaho (1938) has so well summed up the defects of this part of the work that we may quote some of his criticisms. “Neither field nor laboratory tests were made to substantiate the temperature hypotheses used as bases for the explanation of distribution. Inferences drawn from the very meager studies of a few organisms were assumed to hold true for all forms of life. The same threshold value (6° C.) was used for all species of plants and animals. . . . Each degree of temperature is assumed 62 to have ,the same significance. . . . The few detailed studies of temperature summation which have been made in recent years indicate that this idea is of no great significance in connection with plant growth.’’ Kendeigh (1932) has shown that most temperature data give isotherms which roughly parallel lati¬ tudinal or altitudinal lines, so that Merriam could probably have gotten his correlation with biotic zones from almost any set of temperature data he had chosen. It has become increasingly clear that these particular temperature laws have little meaning. Aside altogether from his specific temperature laws, the emphasis placed by Merriam upon the importance of tempera¬ ture in general as a factor in distribution has been sharply at¬ tacked. It seems to me clear that he gave too much place to temperature as a solely regulative factor in distribution. The ecological relationships of any biota are entirely too complex for any one factor to be determinative. As an example, on twin mountains like White Top and Mt. Rogers, only a few miles apart in Southwest Virginia, with almost exactly the same alti¬ tude and therefore with the same temperatures, the same birds would be expected. Yet in several trips to this region I have found only one of three characteristic Canadian Zone birds on White Top, while all three were present in abundance on Mt. Rogers. The explanation seems to be that Mt. Rogers holds its moisture, while White Top is dry. E. N. Transeau (1905) has shown that centers of distribution are correlated with variation in the precipitation/evaporation ratio. My experience in trying to delimit the Canadian Zone in the Virginia mountains would certainly bear that out. However true all this may be, I believe that, as is so often the case in criticism, the pendulum has swung too far in the other direction, and that modern ecologists are dis¬ posed to minimize unduly the part played by temperature in geo¬ graphical distribution. Temperature is clearly not the solely regu¬ lative factor. I still believe it to be a dominant factor. Another feature of Merriam’s work which has come in for a good deal of criticism is his insistence that these faunal zones are of transcontinental extent. This is undoubtedly true and easy to see as far as the Boreal zones are concerned, the Arctic- Alpine, Hudsonian and in lesser measure the Canadian. Is not that because these zones follow definite types of climatic climax vegetation ? In the case of the Austral zones the transcontinental character is not so obvious. When it comes to carrying these Austral zones across the flat country of the Plains and of the Mississippi Valley, we reach an unnatural situation. As Dauben- mire (1938) has pointed out, “if we compare the central grass¬ land province of North America (as mapped by Weaver and Clements, 1929) with Merriam’s map, we are immediately struck with the fact that this biotic entity is severed by Merriam into 63 three parts, each of which is linked up by him with one or more distinctly different types of climatic climax vegetation.” In short, the zone idea cannot be unduly pressed. Particularly in broad, level regions, it must be supplemented by the sociological con¬ ception of plant-animal communities of modern ecology. The last of Merriam^s work to be examined is the significance of the idea of zones and the reliability of the maps mad^ by him and his successors. None of the criticisms cited affect the prac¬ tical value of the zone concept. Its correctness and its useful¬ ness, particularly in mountain regions, is incontrovertible. Zonal maps, however, may call for considerable modification. Such maps are dependable only where they have been made on the basis of actual field work. It happens that this is the phase of faunal zone work of which I have most personal knowledge. Re¬ liance on the temperature factor and its attendant factor of alti¬ tude alone has tempted workers to draw hypothetical maps, and thus has brought about the danger of error. As an example, a few years ago (in 1929) an expert field naturalist, who was Merriam's assistant in the first work on the San Francisco mountain, came to Virginia to make a deer survey of Bath and Highland Counties for the Virginia Commission of Game and Inland Fisheries. In his' report he discussed the life zones of the two counties. He assigned about 75 per cent of the area to the Alleghanian Zone, as was quite correct. But he assigned the other 25 per cent to the Canadian Zone, as altitudes would lead one to expect, while he allowed only traces of the Carolinian. As a matter of fact any one who spends much time in these two counties will discover that the 25 per cent should have been assigned to the Carolinian Zone, while there is no Canadian at all in Bath and only a trace in Highland. All of these criticisms and all of these reservations do not touch the importance and value of Merriam’s work. He was a pioneer. His work, like the work of most pioneers, was faulty and premature in many respects. But it was a great, probably the greatest single contribution to zoogeography ever made in the United States. Where faulty it has stimulated other men to more thorough work. And, while his theoretical explanations have not stood the test of time, his descriptive work and his out¬ line of faunal zones still have significance for field workers in America. Some further discussion of these faunal zones as they affect Virginia and the southern Appalachians may have some interest. In Virginia and in the southern Appalachians generally the floor of the lower and broader valleys lies in the Carolinian Zone, which is the middle of the three zones of the Austral Region, In these valleys the Carolinian is not quite pure in character. Be¬ ing separated from the main territory of the Carolinian by the 64 Blue Ridge, some of the characteristic but less hardy Carolinian birds, such as the White-eyed Vireo and Blue Grosbeak, are miss¬ ing, as, of course, the many border-line Carolinian birds like the Prothonotary and Yellow-throated Warblers. It may be said roughly that the Carolinian Zone covers the valley floors up to 1,500 feet, and in open places sometimes rises to 2,000 feet, while in wooded ravines it may not extend higher than 1,200 feet. The upper boundary of this zone is tremendously affected by the density of vegetation and by the degree of the compass toward which the area faces. Along zonal boundaries the presence of any species of bird is much more dependent upon exposure and plant growth and upon the amount of sunlight received than upon altitude alone. The territory along the lower reaches of the mountains is a sort of no-man’s-land where almost any of the birds, except the most high-ranging Alleghanian species, may be met with. In fact, the boundary line of any zone in a region like the southern Appalachians is a saw-tooth line rather than a straight-edge line. This complexity seems to be due to two char¬ acteristics of our territory : on the one hand, the occurrence even high on the mountains of cleared and inhabited places where crop land, open fields and scrub attract the open-land Carolinian birds ; and, on the other hand, the occurrence of deep, dark, cool ravines, bordered by conifers, reaching down from the mountains to the borders of the larger lowland streams. As a consequence the boundary between the Carolinian and Alleghanian Zones is sometimes not so much a line as it is a cross-word puzzle. Roughly it may be said that the valley floor and the open country in Vir¬ ginia is Carolinian, while all the mountain country except a few high summits is Alleghanian. Theoretically, judging, that is, by the altitude at which this zone ends in some of the states to the north of us, the Alleghanian should not go much over 3,000 or 3,500 feet at our latitude; but actually it goes as high in the central part of the valley as Apple Orchard and Elliott’s Knob, which means close to 4,500 feet. For some years in studying the faunal zones of the Virginia mountains my preoccupation has been with the Canadian Zone. In part this is because of all the zones which touch the South this zone is in our territory the most limited in extent. Also, it is because more misconceptions have been held about this zone in the South and more errors made in the effort to outline its boundaries than is the case with any other zone. In part, it is because the difiiculties connected with studying this zone are greater. And, finally, it is because the wasteful activities of men have affected this zone more than any other. Virginia is in a particularly unfortunate position as regards a share in this interesting Canadian Zone. While there is a good deal of Canadian Zone territory on the high Alleghany plateau of West 65 Virginia, and a fair area of it on the great peaks of the Smokies along the North Carolina-Tennessee line, there is little or no territory in Virginia which can really be called pure Canadian. On White Top and Mt. Rogers, the two highest mountains of Virginia, which reach 5,519 and 5,720 feet respectively, and pos¬ sibly on a few other high mountains in Southwest Virginia, we have some small areas which are practically Canadian; and on Middle Mountain in Highland County we have some territory which approaches it. That is about all we can boast. The Canadian Zone, as seen in Virginia and in the southern Appalachians generally, is by no means a pure type of the Canadian. It should rather be recognized as a Southern or modified Canadian. It has often been pointed out that island spots or fingerdike extensions belonging to any faunal zone are rarely typical. It has not been sufficiently well recognized that this is true of the whole southward extension of the Canadian Zone and even of the Alleghanian Zone along the mountains through Maryland, West Virginia, Virginia and the states farther south. As an indication of the modified character of the southern Canadian it may be pointed out that of the twenty- seven birds named by Dr. Frank Chapman as characteristic of the Canadian Zone there are fifteen which do not occur as far south as the West Virginia plateau. Virginia once had considerably more Canadian Zone terri¬ tory than she now has. The presence of northern conifers of the spruce-fir type seems to be a limiting factor in the presence of this zone. Since man has appropriated almost all of the original spruce areas for purposes which seem to some of us of less im¬ portance than the production of Hermit Thrushes and Winter Wrens, we now have only spots of this zone where we once had wide areas. That process of diminution is evident in the contrast between conditions on White Top as reported for us by natural¬ ists who visited the mountain fifty years ago and the dryer, more open, and, therefore, less Canadian conditions to be found there now. On Middle Mountain the contrast is still more painfully evident between the magnificent spruce forest that stood there in 1900 and the pitiful remnants now to be seen. It may be noted that in the Southern mountains the influence of man, with his heavy foot and his sharp axe, is definitely to raise the altitude for both the Carolinian-Alleghanian and the Alle- ghanian-Canadian boundary lines, and thus definitely to lower the beauty content of our mountain country. As he clears the heavy forests on the mountain-sides and then burns the moun¬ tains over, he changes the character of the flora, reduces the ability of the soil to hold moisture, exposes the ground to the sun, and raises the average temperature; and all these changes together swing the pendulum from boreal toward austral condi¬ tions, and the more unfortunately not toward a natural austral 66 condition, which has its own characteristic beauty, but toward a crude and second-rate austral. Unhappily, man’s destructive power is greater when he blunders into Canadian territory than anywhere else. Winter Wren habitats, those dark, wet moss- banks and fern brakes under the spruce woods, can be destroyed in a few days. They cannot be recreated, if indeed they can be restored at all, short of generations. Happily the United States Forest Service is doing something now to weight the balance in the other direction. Happily, too, a new attitude toward nature is beginning to develop in America. We are getting a new ap¬ preciation of our natural beauties of mountain and forest, of swamp and marsh and water, and a new sense of the value of living things, plant and animal, not only as they bestow food for pur tables and clothing and shelter, not only as they furnish sport for our hunters and fishermen, but also as they provide color for those who have eyes to see, music for those who are sensitive to nature’s melody, and that beauty of nature which next to faith and kindness brings peace and healing to spirits too long harassed by the tensions of civilization. Lexington, Va. Bibliography Daubenmire, Rexford F.: 19'38 — Merriam’s life zones of North America. Quart. Rev. of Biology, Vol. 13, No. 3, pp. 327-332. Kendeigh, S. Charles: 1932 — A study of Merriam’s temperature laws. The Wilson Bulletin, Vol. XLIV, No. 3, pp. 129-143. Merriam, Clinton Hart: 1890 — Results of a biological survey of the San Francisco Mountain region in Arizona. N. A. Fauna No. 3, Washington. 1894 — Laws of temperature control of the geographic distribution of ter¬ restrial animals and plants. Nat. Geog. Magazine, Vol. VI, pp. 229-238. 1895 — The geographic distribution of animals and plants in North America. Yearbook [1894] Dept, of Agric., Wiashington, pp. 203-214. 1898 — Life zones and crop zones of the United States. Bull. No. 10, U. S. Dept, of Agriculture, Washington. Murray, J. J.: 193'6 — The land birds of Rockbridge County, Virginia. The Oologist, Vol. LIII, No. 3, pp. 26-35. 1936 — June birds of White Top. The Raven, Vol. VH, Nos. 5 and 6, pp. 3-4. 1937 — June birds of Virginia’s highest mountain. The Raven, Vol. VIII, Nos. 7 and 8, pp. 44-47. 1938 — ^Summer birds of Middle Mountain, Virginia. The Raven, Vol. IX, No. 8, pp. 59-65. 1939 — Some characteristics of the Canadian zone in the southern moun¬ tains. The Raven, Vol. X, No. 1, pp. 1-5. Shelford, Victor E.: 1932 — Life zones, modern ecology, and the failure of temperature sum¬ ming. The Wilson Bulletin, Vol. XLIV, No. 3, pp. 144-157. Transeau, E. N.: 1905 — Climatic centers and centers of plant dlistribution. Rept. Mich. Acad. Sc., Vol. 7, pp. 73-75. 67 Contributions of Virginians to the Geology of the State Joseph K, Roberts In this brief paper only the salient facts regarding native Vir¬ ginians who have helped to mold geological thought of their state will be lincluded, and contributions by those still living will be omitted. It is better to let some one at a future time report on the achievements of those who still live and work among us, for a complete record is essential for drawing proper retrospective and conclusion. It is best at the beginning to call to the atten¬ tion of the reader that the present status of geological thought in Virginia has an historical background of something like two centuries. During this time there has been a gradual change in ideas modified by field studies and a better understanding of natural processes. Geological progress has been slow and espe¬ cially so in the early years of America. It was impeded by many difficulties, and even today our opinions are not entirely purged of the doctrines of catastrophism and cataclysm. Many persons not native Virginians have made valuable contributions, surpass¬ ing some of our own geologists, but it is only possible to mention the names of a few of these without comments upon their achieve¬ ments. The progress made in geological thought in Virginia for the past two hundred years, as reflected by the literature, may be considered under four periods. The earliest of these periods may be well termed the Colonial period, which extends from the early days of the Virginia colony up to about 1835. The second is the Rogers period from 1835 to about 1880, the third is the Fontaine period from 1880 to about 1910, and the fourth is the Watson period from 1910 to the present. The discussion will not be concerned with the literature later than 1925. During the Colonial period the few opinions held by the better informed Vir¬ ginians were those commonly accepted in England and conti¬ nental Europe. Writers of this early period who have left us records are Col. William Byrd, Andrew Burnaby, Thomas Hutchins, Gen. Benjamin Lincoln, Marquis de Chastellux, Thomas Jefferson, James Greenway, Benjamin S. Barton, Henry Latrobe, Jonathan Williams, and Francis W. Gilmer. Among all the writers only two held anything like modern opinions as to the operation of natural processes; these were Latrobe and Gilmer. Thomas Jefferson who was a well-informed person of his time on geological thought is a fair exponent for study. His opinion as to the origin of the Natural Bridge of Rockbridge County clearly belongs to the age of catastrophism; he stated that this bridge was due to ‘‘convulsions of nature''. Two decades later Francis 68 William Gilmer* far in advance of his time, and at the age of twenty-six years, stated that this bridge was the result of solu¬ tion and erosion of underground waters, an lOipinion accepted to¬ day with some details added. In 1799 Latrobe explained the origin of the Aquia sandstone as being formed by somewhat the same process as the sand dunes at Cape Henry, and it was he who first stated that the strand line had been as far west as Rich¬ mond. With the exception of these two writers, the ideas on causation in this Colonial period were mediaeval; all surface features were accounted for by sudden and revolutionary changes, acts of divine providence, and any cause other than by natural forces. The year 1835 marks the turning point in geological progress not only in Virginia, but in America. In this year William Barton Rogers was chosen state geologist of Virginia, and accepted the appointment to the chair of Natural Philosophy at the University of Virginia. This unusual person directed geological investiga¬ tion and dominated geological thought in Virginia for almost the remainder of the 19th century. With his unparalleled field work, and many contributions, the period of 1835-1880 has been named in gratitude to him. His joint work with his brother, Henry Darwin Rogers, on the origin and structure of the Appalachian Mountains, geological nomenclature, and origin of the heat in Warm Springs, these alone would have entitled/ the use of his name for this interval of time in the geology of the state. Other prominent contributors of the Rogers period were John Lyle Campbell, Timothy A. Conrad, Edward D. Cope, Major Jed. Hotchkiss, Sir Charles Lyell, Benjamin Silliman, Sr., and Michael Tuomey. During this period rational geology based upon obser¬ vations gained the upperhand of catastrophic doctrines. From 1880 to 1910 geological thought made little progress even with the good foundation set by Professor Rogers. Just a short while prior to 1880 the U. S. Geological Survey was or¬ ganized, which was the turning point for the entire country. There were many contributors to the geology of Virginia during these thirty years, and to any one who has made a careful ex¬ amination of the literature of this time, there is little doubt but that the outstanding student of Virginia geology was William Morris Fontaine. His contributions in the unexplored field of paleobotany entitles his name to be used for this third period. He was the pioneer student of fossil plants in Virginia and the S'Outh, and one of the four in this country. His interests went far beyond the bounds of Virginia. Other contributors of the Fontaine period were Major Jed. Hotckiss, John Lyle Campbell, Henry Donald Campbell, Marius R. Campbell, Charles R. Boyd, Arthur Keith, John J. Stevenson, J. P. Lesley, N. S. Shaler, W. J. McGee, N. H. Darton, William B. Clark, and Thomas L. Watson. 69 The current period began about 1910 soon after the reor¬ ganization of the Virginia Geological Survey. Since the late Thomas L. Watson was so intimately connected with the reor¬ ganization of the geological survey, and the geological reports and progress of this time, it is fitting that he be remembered in the name of this period. Associated with him were Edward W. Berry, Charles Butts, Albert W. Giles, Roy J. Holden, Hein¬ rich Ries, Earl V. Shannon, George W. Stose, Stephen Taber, Francis B. Laney, and William B. Clark, the last two being de¬ ceased. No effort will be made to discuss the contributions later than 1925, though the present may be regarded as being a part of the Watson period. Since 1910 field methods have been ad¬ vanced, and problems have been approached in a more scientific manner than ever before that time. The achievements of the early Watson period will continue for many years to be the stimu¬ lus to geological progress. The advance in ideas will be spoken of again in the biographical notices which follow. Eight of the deceased Virginians have been selected for brief biographies. These are selected for noteworthy contributions as teachers and investigators. They have helped to pass along the ideas of one age to another, and with their observations they have handed the torch down with brighter light than they re¬ ceived it. Their labors are accepted with gratitude by all under¬ standing Virginians, and any errors they may have made are more than compensated for by their sincere efforts in trying to accomplish something, often in the face of adversity, and by the inspiration they aroused in their contemporaries and posterity. All eight are native born Virginians except Professor Rogers and Major Hotchkiss, but so many years were spent in Virginia by these two pioneers that they are regarded natives of their adopted state. William Barton Rogers, second of the four sons of Patrick Kerr Rogers and Hannah Blythe Rogers, was born in Philadel¬ phia, Pennsylvania, December 7, 1806. His family moved from Baltimore to Williamsburg in the year 1819 where the father accepted appointment to the chair of Natural Philosophy in William and Mary College. William completed his courses in the Williamsburg institution, and had gone to Baltimore to teach. Shortly after the father’s death in 1828, he was recalled to take his father’s teaching duties. Hq remained at William and Mary College until he accepted the chair of Natural Phi¬ losophy at the University of Virginia in 1835. In this .same year he was appointed state geologist of Virginia. His teaching posi¬ tion he held until 1853, but the geological survey organized in 1835 ended in 1841 as the state legislature did not appropriate funds for further investigation. While state geologist he and 70 his small but efficient corps of assistants traversed what is now Virginia and West Virginia, and he gathered the information which made his geological map and many reports of the Virginias possible. As teacher, investigator, and administrator he left his scholarly stamp on geological progress of Virginia, and especial¬ ly upon the Appalachian region. It was largely through his in¬ genuity that rational geology replaced the catastrophic doctrines, which had been introduced from Europe. His seven annual re¬ ports to the Virginia legislature for the years 1835-41 are mas¬ terpieces of their kind. Some of his major contributions have been mentioned above, and in addition to these are his studies on the downward increase of temperature in the earth, the Tri- assic coal fields near Richmond, “Infusorial Earth’’, and in all some forty papers. These without doubt set the pace for geo¬ logical investigation not only in the Virginias but throughout the Appalachian states. So well was the foundation for stratigraphy planned by the Rogers brothers that the principle is still secure. After leaving Virginia in 1853, most of his time was taken up with planning for a technological school in which interested students might have the opportunity to work with apparatus in a laboratory and not have to watch abbreviated experiments from the lecture desk. Finally his teaching and administrative genius made possible the establishment of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in which its founder was Professor of Physics and twice President. He served the Institute faithfully from its be¬ ginning to the day of his death which took place while deliver¬ ing the commencement address on May 30, 1882. For nearly half a century he wrote on problems he investigated 'in Virginia where he lived for thirty-one years. William Barton Rogers was an unusual person in many ways and his greatest teacher seems to have been himself. Without any special training his work in geology still remains of the highest type, and of the same char¬ acter were his powers in the class room and in administration. John Lyle Campbell was born near Lexington, Virginia on December 7, 1818, the second son of Robert Smith Campbell, and Isabella Paxton Campbell. The father with a family of eight children moved to Lexington in order to provide better educa¬ tional facilities for his children. After graduation at Washing¬ ton College John L. Campbell taught in Staunton, Virginia, and in Kentucky. In 1851 he was recalled to Washington College as Robinson Professor of Chemistry and Geology, which he held until his death on February 2, 1886. It was his good fortune while in Lexington to be associated with Generals Stonewall Jackson and Robert E. Lee. Professor Campbell was an inti¬ mate friend and co-worker with Professor William Barton Rog¬ ers of whom he wrote a splendid eulogy. Professor Campbell 71 published a fine textbook of agriculture in 1859 but this was pre¬ vented from merited use by the four years of conflict of 1861-65. He was interested in all phases of geology, and made important contributions in the fields of meteorology, economic geology, mineralogy, and stratigraphy. His principal contribution to Virginia was ‘The Geology and Mineral Resources of the James River Valley, Virginia''. During his life he published thirty papers bearing on geology of Virginia, and others on sections outside of the state. Professor Campbell was an excellent teacher, known for his ability, simplicity in the presentation of his sub¬ ject matter, kind but firm attitude towards his students, and his remarkable industry. He was familiar with the Valley, Appa¬ lachians, Blue Ridge, and the Piedmont. Like his contemporary. Professor Rogers, he had little training in geology, but what he learned in college, he learned well. For the opportunities he had while a student he really accomplished wonders. His busy life and modesty largely kept other naturalists from knowing him. He was interested in the training of young men and during the four years of the war between the states he and three of his col¬ leagues kept Washington College open to students. In all his teaching and administrative activities he managed to find time for investigations. He was succeeded by his son. Dr. Henry D. Campbell. William Henry Ruffner was born near Lexington, Virginia, on February 11, 1824, son of Rev. Henry Ruffner and Sara Lyle Ruffner. His father came to America from Switzerland. The son was graduated from Washington College with the class of 1842, and received his Master's degree three years later while his father was President of Washington College. William H. Ruffner was a person of many interests, a minister, teacher, geologist, and administrator. During his busy life he always found time to study and write about the natural resources of Virginia and other sections of country. Most of his geological reports were on sections of country outside Virginia. One long report in collaboration with Professor John L. Campbell was written on Georgia Pacific Railroad lines through Georgia, Ala¬ bama, and Mississippi. Another he prepared after considerable study on the Seattle and Eastern Railway in the state of Wash¬ ington. Dr. Ruffner was the pioneer in studying the cement resources of Virginia and was the first to realize the possibilities of water power. He wrote several prospectuses on mineral prop¬ erties of Virginia. On the basis of his accomplishments he was appointed State Superintendent of Public Instruction of Virginia in 1870, the first appointment to this newly-created office. Like his friend. Professor John L. Campbell, he took no part in petty politics and after twelve years he retired from public office. He 72 was appointed first president of the State Normal School at Farmville in 1884, and held this position until 1887 when he re¬ signed. Dr. Ruifner laid the educational plans for Virginia along broad and cultural lines. His thorough training gained while a young man is expressed in his philosophy of later years, 'fiearn a few things and learn them well’' ; this is a slogan we all might well return to at present. In his modest way he added to our sum total knowledge of geology; he was a clear thinker, and interpreted natural processes from what he observed going on in the field, and did not carry worn out ideas of two centuries back of his time merely for tradition’s sake. Dr. Ruffner died at the home of his son-in-law, Dr. Robert F. Campbell, in Asheville, North Carolina on November 24, 1908. The writer is grateful to Dr. Robert F. Campbell, Pastor Emeritus of the First Presby¬ terian Church of Asheville for much of the information on his father, Dr. John Lyle Campbell, his father-in-law. Dr. William Henry Ruffner, and his brother. Dr. Henry Donald Campbell, Major Jedekiah Hotchkiss was born at Windsor, New York, November 30, 1828, son of Samuel, and Lydia Beecher Hotchkiss. He died in Staunton on January 17, 1899. Major Hotchkiss came to Virginia in 1847, and spent the remainder of his life in his adopted state. He taught school in Augusta County up to 1861, and at the outbreak of hostilities he joined the cause of the Confederacy. In military service he soon became Chief Topographical Engineer on the staff of General Jackson, and after Chancellorsville he was attached to the staff of General Ewell, and later to General Early. His first friend he made in Virginia, Mr. Henry Forrer, owner and operator of an iron smelter near Luray, inspired in him an interest in Virginia’s mineral resources. After the close of the war between the states Major Hotchkiss returned to teaching, but in 1868 he opened an office in Staunton as consulting Topographical and Mining Engineer. His travels took him over much of Virginia and West Virginia, and in 1880 he began publishing a monthly magazine devoted to the promotion and development of the mineral resources under the title of The Virginias. This ran through six volumes, 1880 to 1885, and due to financial difficul¬ ties, it was merged with The Industrial South in Richmond in 1886. His first contribution, '‘Virginia: A Geographical and Political Summary . . . '” was published in 1876 by the Board of Immigration in Richmond. Major Hotchkiss was one of the leaders in the opening of the Pocahontas coal field. He published and edited many articles in The Virginias, which was a sound and dignified way of advertising the mineral wealth of Virginia. He was the moving spirit in bringing to Staunton the American Institute of Mining Engineers in 1881. He made several county 73 maps on a large scale, and many small maps of portions of the state showing the extent of mineral properties. He was the first to print the geological map of Virginia by Profesisor Rogers; this map was ready in 1842, but it never appeared until 1876 in the above mentioned contribution, and in its final form it never came out until 1884. For geological advice Major Hotchkiss depended largely upon Professor Rogers and John L. Campbell, and to them he was always careful in giving credit. No Vir¬ ginian has ever surpassed Major Hotchkiss in service to the state in encouraging the development of the mineral resources. He did this at a time when Virginia and the South were in the throes of reconstruction, and in some way he managed to avoid enmity of the readjustors. He was sent to England and to many expositions as commissioner to advertise the mineral resources of Virginia. Rogers-Campbell-Hotchkiss formed the great tri¬ umvirate of geology in Virginia in the 19th century. William Morris Fontaine, son of James Fontaine, and Juliet Morris Fontaine, was born in Louisa County, Virginia, on December 1, 1835. He was a lineal descendant of Jean de la Fontaine, a Huguenot martyr at La Mans, France, in 1561. Pro¬ fessor Fontaine was educated at the University of Virginia where he received his Master’s degree in 1859. After service in the Confederate Army, he attended Freiberg Mining Academy. Upon his return to America, he accepted a professorship in West Vir¬ ginia University where he taught from 1873 until called to the University of Virginia in 1879. He was retired on the Carnegie Foundation in September, 1911, and died at Charlottesville, April 30, 1913. Professor Fontaine published extensively on Virginia in the various fields of geology, and several papers on regions outside the state. He was one of the early workers in the field of fossil plants in America, and pioneer paleobotanist in Virginia and the South. In 1883 his first major contribution was published as Monograph VI by the U. S. Geological Survey; this was a description of the older Mesozoic fossil plants (Tri- assic). This was followed in 1889 by Monograph XV on the plants of the younger Mesozoic or Potomac Group (Lower Cre¬ taceous). In Monograph XV three hundred and sixty plants are described. He also contributed to mineralogy and stratigraphy as well as to economic geology. He was a person of prodigious energy, quiet, and retiring, and mentally honest as he was cap¬ able. To his storehouse of knowledge students and colleagues were always welcome, but it was not his desire or custom to ad¬ vance information. Some of his detailed work on the fossil plants has been modified, but in his major premises he was secure and much in advance of the thought of his time. He is the important link between the Rogers and Watson periods, and at the end of his 74 service geology was richer by his efforts, for he added to what he had received valuable facts, which removed American geology from the older ideas of the Colonial period. Charles Rufus Boyd, son of Thomas J., and Margaret A. Boyd, was born in Wytheville, Virginia, on October 31, 1841. Except for the time he spent in the Confederate Army, and at the University of Virginia, Captain Boyd lived in Wytheville all his life where he died in 1903. It was his good fortune to come in contact with Colonel Claudius Crozet from whom he received inspiration to become a civil engineer. He was proficient in his work at Charlottesville as stated in the Catalogue of the Univer¬ sity of Virginia of 1873-74. From 1874 to 1900 he was engaged in consulting work at Wytheville, and few areas in southwestern Virginia and western North Carolina were omitted in his travels. His territory was more restricted than that of most of his con¬ temporaries, but no one ever had the development of southwest¬ ern Virginia so much their concern as Captain Boyd. After in¬ tensive field work for which he hardly received a living wage, he prepared a manuscript, ‘‘Resources of South-west Virginia”, which was published by John Wiley & Sons, New York in 1881. This was concerned with all of the counties in southwestern Vir¬ ginia west of New River, with the Great Gossan Lead, and parts of North Carolina as far west as Cranberry. He was called upon often by the state departments to supply material on mineral re¬ sources, and to act as commissioner at expositions. He was one of the first to urge the reorganization of a geological survey, but did not live to see this done in 1908. Captain Boyd faithfully fol¬ lowed the stratigraphical scheme of the Rogers brothers to whom he gave due credit. His methods of mining promotion and devel¬ opment were sound, and his interest in southwestern Virginia meant much for this section as it came at a time when the need was urgent. He left many incomplete maps and unpublished re¬ ports, and is gratefully remembered as a modest scholar who only sought to learn, and promote the interests of his section of Vir¬ ginia, and not popularity of his day. vHenry Donald Campbell, one of the ten children of Dr. John Lyle Campbell, and Harriet (Peters) Bailey Campbell, was born July 29, 1862 on the campus of Washington College, Lex¬ ington, Virginia. Except for the time spent in Germany follow¬ ing his graduation at Washington and Lee University in 1885, his life was spent on the campus of his alma mater, until his death on April 10, 1934. Dr. Campbell grew up under the tute¬ lage of his father, and he stated that he became a geologist both by heredity and environment. Before his father’s death in 1886, the two had begun studies in the the Piedmont and Blue Ridge, 75 which led to the recognition of Cambrian rocks in the basal Paleozoic along the western foothills of the Blue Ridge, and for the first time in the Piedmont. Dr. Henry Campbell identified the Potsdam sandstone-quartzite in James River section from Scolithus linearis. With his father he was the first to identify the Cambrian in the Piedmont of Amherst County, which Rogers and Fontaine had regarded as Huronian. He was the first to be¬ gin breaking away from the older stratigraphical units in use in the Valley of Virginia, such as the Knox dolomite, Shenandoah limestone, etc. In 1905 he proposed the Liberty Hall and Murat limestones of Ordovician age and Buena Vista shale and Sher¬ wood limestone of Cambrian age. Few people have lived in the Great Valley who knew its resources and geology better. In his late years he was interested in the diabase and related dikes. From the time he succeeded his father in 1886 to the time of his death, forty-seven years, he taught many hundreds of students at Washington and Lee University, which institution he served as teacher in geology and biology from 1886 to 1920 ; geology, 1920 to 1934 ; Dean of the College, ,1912 to 1932, and Acting President for part of the year 1912. With the termination of his service ended the connections of the Campbell family of seven genera¬ tions with Washington and Lee University, and the fine service of two generations of this family to the geology of Virginia. John L. and Henry D. Campbell, father and son, geologists, teachers, and administrators occupy unique places in the annals of Vir¬ ginia Geology. They lie buried beside each other and near the last resting place of General Thomas J. Jackson in Lexington cemetery. Thomas Leonard Watson, the last character of these brief sketches, eldest son of six children of Fletcher B. Watson and Pattie Booker (Treadway) Watson, was born at Chatham, Vir¬ ginia, September 5, 1871. Except for the two years at Cornell University, three years on the Georgia Geological Survey, and three years teaching at Dennison University, his life was spent in his native state. He taught at his alma mater, the Virginia Polytechnic Institute, from 1904 to 1907, and came to the Uni¬ versity of Virginia in the fall of 1907 as professor of economic geology. In 1908 the Virginia Geological Survey was organized and he became state geologist; these two positions he occupied until his death on November ,11, 1924. Dr. Watson served sixteen years as state geologist, and twenty years as teacher in Virginia’s institutions. His final preparation in geology was done at Cornell University (1895-97), where he received his doctorate in June, 1897. He did a considerable amount of work in Georgia, and North Carolina. He began his studies in Virginia about 1900. During his tenure as state 76 geologist he projected the plans for and edited twenty-four re¬ ports and at the time of his death several others had been planned and field work well-near completed on some. Several -of these bulletins he prepared himself or collaborated on with others. In 1911 he published the second geological map and at the time of his death was planning to prepare a revised edition. His fields of interests were mineralogy, petrology, and economic geology. One of his best contributions was ‘‘Mineral Resources of Vir¬ ginia'’ of 1907, distributed at the Jamestown Exposition. This was a masterpiece of compilation with some of his observations and investigations of others. To organize a survey after a lapse of sixty-seven years, and gain the confidence of the legislature was no small adventure. It could not have been accomplished without the loyalty of an understanding commission, sympathetic members in the legislature, and an efficient office force. In his bibliography will be found eighty maps, some of which were adapted from topographic maps of the U. S. Geological Survey, and these were used to illustrate the papers he published. Up to 1910, Professor Watson published papers under thirty-one titles and since that time seventy papers, thus making a total of one hundred and one contributions. His papers cover the entire fields of geology ; least, however, was his interest in paleontology. The success of the Virginia Geologicar Survey was due to his wisdom in securing the services of well-trained geologists, faith¬ ful cooperation with the U. S. Geological Survey, and close super- ' vision of field work. He had advantages which were unknown in the days of Rogers. In 1908 some of Virginia had already been mapped on a scale of 1 : 125,000 and a few geologic folios had been completed. It was possible to get a better base map which was not available prior to 1900. By 1924 much of Virginia had been mapped on scales of 1:125,000 and 1:62,500 and the status of geological progress in this fourth period was left in an excel¬ lent condition with much yet to be done, but a better foundation on which to build. Dr. Watson's part in the progress of one hun¬ dred years of Virginia geology in the first quarter of the twen¬ tieth century merits recognition very close to that of the first state geologist of 1835-1841. Virginia will ever owe a debt of gratitude to the eight geologists mentioned above, and for years to come their labors and results will continue to inspire further and more extended studies upon the ever-expanding earth sciences. There are many others who have made valuable contri¬ butions toward the solution of problems in geology, but the above Virginians have earned the rank of exponents from their achievements. The people of Virginia have been brought to know something of the mineral resources and it remains for the 77 public to understand the historical events which have transpired during the making of this section of eastern North America. Nowhere in the domain of human endeavor is evolution of thought better illustrated than is reflected in the geological lit¬ erature of Virginia. Even though a century has passed we have not cleaned house sufficiently to rid it of all the mysticism of the Colonial period when causes were explained by catastrophes and cataclysms of nature and natural processes remained largely unexplored. Yet upon the survey of the past we are due to be grateful for the progress made and at the same time keep the torch of knowledge so oriented that it will illuminate the road ahead and not so much behind us, for half a century from the present holds problems we must prepare to approach even though we may know little or nothing of their nature now. University of Virginia. Early Winter Food of Rnffed Grouse on the George Washington National Forest^ A. L. Nelson, Talbott E. Clarke and W. W. Bailey This study embraces’ the findings of the first two years of a five-year study of the food habits of the ruffed grouse (Bonasa umbellas) on the George Washington National Forest (Virginia and West Virginia) , one of the largest and most important forest game areas in the eastern United States. Only the early part of the winter is covered in this report, since adequate material was available only for the months of November and December,, the period in which the birds were legally hunted in 1935 and 1936. Most of the crops and gizzards studied were taken from birds killed by hunters. The later winter months and other seasons of the year will be covered by subsequent investigations. Stomach material for the out-of¬ season period will be accumulated, more slowly, of course, as only a few birds will be obtained each month. This report is pre¬ sented in advance of completion of the project in order that what has now been learned may be made available and utilized in de¬ termining current forest game-management practices. Material Available Since the food habits of birds and most other animals are best determined by examining their stomach contents, this meth¬ od was followed in the present study. Complete food analyses were made of 184 crops and 107 gizzards of 185 ruffed grouse taken during November and December 1935 and 1936. Measure- *Cond!ensation of U. S, Department of Agriculture Circular No. 504. 78 ments of the volume of each item were then made, and on the 'basis of these figures comparative percentages were calculated to show what each contributed to the total. The material serv¬ ing as a basis for the study came from various! parts of the For¬ est, principally from the Shenandoah Mountain range. The col- liections were obtained by members of the Forest Service, from hunters through the use of Civilian Conservation Corps enrollees stationed during the hunting season near the main entrances of the Forest. Present Forest Conditions Approximately 91 per cent of the George Washington Na¬ tional Forest has been cut over during the past 100 years. The present composition may be divided according to age classes as follows : Open land, 0.5 per cent; 0 to 20 years, 26 ; 21 to 40 years, 49 ; 41 to 80 years, 12 ; 81 to 120 years, 3.5 ; 121 years or older, 9 per cent. The forest type is commonly known as Appalachian hardwood. The stand consists largely of deciduous species with occasional patches of conifers. The elevation of the ridges is from 1,500 to 4,500 feet above sea level. In many places there is little or no subsoil, the surface soil directly overlying bedrock. In some sections the slopes are cov¬ ered with boulders or rock slides, and in others with numerous rock outcroppings or ledges. The drier sites on the ridges are covered for the most part with bear oak and associated species, consisting of scarlet, black, red, and chestnut oaks, black locust, pitch, shortleaf and table mountain pines, and chinquapin. The dry slopes and flat ridges support mixed stands of hardwoods, composed chiefly of chestnut oak, black and scarlet oaks, black gum, black locust, and shagbark and mockernut hickories. The deep fertile soils, as found in coves on north slopes, sup¬ port mixed stands of northern hardwoods, typical species being sugar maple, red maple, yellow birch, red and white oaks, bass¬ wood, black cherry, hemlock, and white pine. The 20 Most Important Food Plants Although 98 foods are listed in Table 1 as being utilized by grouse, only about a fifth of these are important from the stand¬ point of the bulk they contributed. Since availability is a major factor influencing selection, however, and since any number of factors are constantly operating to alter food conditions from year to year, some of the foods listed below' the first 20 in Table 1 might become important to the ruffed grouse or even a major source of its food in some areas. 79 Food Volume in total food Stomachs in which found Parts used Greenbrier {Smilax spp.) . Per cent 16.29 Number 110 Leaves and fruit. Oak (Quercus spp.) . 10.62 56 Acorns and buds. Grape {Vitis spp.) . 9.00 29 Fruit. Mountain-laurel (Kalmia latifoUa) . 7.85 89 Leaves, buds, and flower Wintergreen (Gaultheria procumbens) . 6.11 71 capsules. Leaves and fruit. Sheep sorrel (Rumex acetosella) . 4.85 54 Leaves. Blueberry and huckleberry ( Vaccinium spp. 4.17 84 Buds and twigs. and Gaylussacia spp.) . Rose (Rosa spp.) . 3.85 74 Fruit. Fern (principally Polystichum acrosti- 3.54 46 Leaves. choides ) . Aster (Aster spp.) . 3.33 80 Do. Viburnum (Viburnum spp., chiefly V. 2.67 16 Fruit. prunifolium and V. acerifoUum) . Pussytoes (Antennaria sp.) . 2.32 54 Leaves. Partridgeberry (Mitchella repens) . 1.89 36 Fruit and leaves. Sumac (Rhus spp.) . 1.39 19 Fruit. Menziesia (Menziesia pUosa . 1.31 42 Buds. Hazelnut ( Corylus spp. ) . 1.22 17 Buds and catkins. Trailing-arbutus (Epigaea repens) . 1.19 24 Flowers, buds, and leaves. Serviceberry (Amelanchier canadensis) . 1.08 24 Buds. Hawthorn (Crataegus sp.) . 1.06 20 Fruit. Self heal (Prunella vulgaris) . .93 37 Leaves. Rhododendron (Rhododendron sp.) . .93 31 Buds. Birch (Betula spp.) . .92 21 Buds and catkins. Hophornbeam (Ostrya virginiana) . .85 7 Buds, catkins, and seeds. Avens ( Geum spp. ) . .80 23 Leaves and seeds. Stonecrop (Sedum spp.) . .78 26 Leaves. Hepatica (Hepatica spp.) . . .67 18 Do. Grass (Gramineae) . .49 55 Do. Corn (Zea mays) . .49 1 Seeds. Clover ( Trifolium spp. ) . .47 10 Leaves. Alumroot (Heuchera spp.) . .46 12 Do. Goldenrod (Solidago spp.) . . .44 22 Do. Cinquefoil (Potentilla spp.) . .43 55 Do. Bramble (Rubus spp.) . .41 22 Do. Buttercup (Ranunculus spp.) . .41 19 Do. Apple (Modus spp.) . .41 3 Buds. Barren Strawberry (Waldsteinia fraga- .34 4 Leaves. rioides ) . Witch-hazel (Hamamelis virginiana) . .32 41 Seeds, flowers, and buds. Polygala (Poly gala spp., chiefly paucifolia) .31 14 Leaves. St. Johnswort (Hypericum spp.) . .30 3 Do. Dogwood (Cornus spp.) . .28 40 Buds and seeds. Plantain (Plantago spp.) . .28 9 Leaves. Holly (Ilex), deciduous species . .28 4 Fruit. Bushclover (Lespedeza spp.) . .27 28 Seeds and leaves. Bedstraw (Galium spp.) . .24 16 Do. Foamflower ( Tiarella spp. ) . .23 8 Leaves. Vetch (Vida spp.) . .22 10 Do. Speedwell (Verorn'ca spp.) . .21 21 Do. Wild carrot (Daucus carota) . .21 14 Do. Maple (Acer spp.) . .19 25 Fruit and buds. Black Gum (Nyssa sylvatica) . .19 20 Do. Virginia creeper (Parthenocissus quin- .18 2 Fruit. Que folia) . Elm ( Ulmus spp. ) . .16 2 Buds. Dandelion (Taraxacum spp.) . .12 20 Leaves. Hawkweed (Hieracium spp.) . .11 22 Do. Saxifrage (Saxifraga virginiensis) .06 3 Do. Everlasting ( Gnaphalium sp. ) . .05 2 Do. Chokeberry (Pyrus spp.) . .05 2 Fruit. Wildginger (Asarum sp.) . .05 1 Leaves. Chickweed (Stellaria media) . .04 5 Do. Thistle (Cirsium sp.) . .04 4 Do. Table 1. — Early winter jjlant foods of ruffed grouse on the George Wash¬ ington National Forest, based on examination of crops and gizzards of 185 birds, showing volume, frequency with which taken, and part used 80 Food V olume in total food Stomachs in which found Parts used Heartleaf (Ampelopsis cor data) . Per cent .04 Number 1 Fruit. Spicebush ( Benzoin aestivale ) . .04 1 Buds and twigs Alder (Alnus sp.) . . . . . . . . .04 2 Buds and catkins. Strawberry {Frag aria sp. ) . .03 10 Leaves. Agrimony (Agrimonia sp.) . .03 2 Seeds. Tickclover {Desmodium sp.) . .03 2 ' Do. Willow (Saiix sp.) . .03 1 Leaves. Black snakeroot (Sanicula sp.) . .03 1 Seeds. Rhynchosia (Rhynchosia sp.) . .03 1 Do. Horsenettle (Solanum carolinense) . .03 1 Fruit. Bluet (Houstonia spp.) . .02 14 Leaves. Sedge (principally Carex spp.) . .02 7 Do. Evening-primrose {Oenothera sp.) . .02 6 Do. Zizia {Zizia cordata) . . . .02 3 Do. Meadowrue {Thalictrum sp.) . .02 2 Do. Violet {Viola sp.) . • .01 8 Leaves and seed capsules. Fleabane {Erigeron spp.) . .01 8 Leaves. Hickory {Carya spp.) . .01 4 Nuts. Meadow-parsnip {Thaspium' barhinode) . .01 3 Leaves. Pyrola {Pyrola sp.) . .01 2 Do. Cherry {Prunus spp.) . .01 2 Buds. Groundsel {Senecio spp.) . .01 2 Leaves. Chicory ( Cichorium intybus ) . .01 1 Do. Deadnettle {Lamium sp.) . (U 4 Do. Hornbeam {Carpinus caroliniana) (1) 3 Buds. Eupatorium {Eupatorium sp.) . (U 3 Leaves and seeds. Jersey -tea {Ceanothus americanus) . (U 2 Leaves. Angelica {Angelica villosa) . (U 2 Do. Beebalm {Monarda sp.) . (U 2 Do. Beech ( Fagus grandifolia ) . (U 1 Buds. Peppergrass {Lepidium virginicum) . (U 1 Leaves. Black locust {Robinia pseudoacacia) . (U 1 Seeds. Mock Pennyroyal {Hedeoma sp.) . (D 1 Do. Mint {Mentha sp.) . (U 1 Do. Cowwheat {Melampyrum sp.) . (U 1 Do. Japanese honeysuckle {Lonicera japonica) (U 1 Do. Goldenstar {Chrysoqonum virginianum) . (U 1 Leaves. Undetermined plants . 1.06 68 Do. Table 1. — Early winter plant foods of ruffed grouse on the George Wash¬ ington National Forest, based on examination of crops and gizzards of 185 birds, showing volume, frequency with which taken, and part used — Continued Habitats Productive of Food Plants Some indication of the types of situations in this forest that are the greatest producers of ruffed grouse foods may be gained by an analysis of the data in Table 1. Compilation of the per¬ centage figures shows that herbaceous plants constitute approxi¬ mately 33 per cent of the bulk of the early winter food ; shrubs, 25 ; vines, 26 ; and trees, 15 per cent. Although some of the herbs, shrubs, and vines utilized are tolerant of moderately dense shade, the majority are restricted by growth habit to the more open type of forest and to cleared spots within the forest proper. This is significant and empha¬ sizes the fact that wooded areas with open canopies and suf¬ ficiently productive soils for the growth of good stands of mixed shrubs and vine thickets are the best feeding grounds for grouse. 81 Food Variety In Individual Meals It is uncommon for a ruffed grouse to partake entirely of a single food at a meal — -frequently, on the contrary, as many as 20 to 30 different items are represented in one feeding. The aver¬ age number for the 185 meals here reported on 'was 10. The items are usually selected from a variety of food types, and a single meal may contain green -leaf material, considerable fruit, some buds, twigs, or catkins, a small fraction of mast, and a few dry seeds. No doubt, each of these classes of food contributes to some important dietary requirement of the species. The com¬ bination of fruits, leaves, and browse (buds, twigs, and catkins) is certainly an important one, since more than 65 per cent of the meals studied contained all three of these types. Greens appar¬ ently are seldom omitted from a meal, as 90 per cent of the stom¬ achs contained one or more representatives of such food ; fruit in some form occurred in 77 per cent of the stomachs; and buds, twigs, or catkins were present in 71 per cent. Quantity of Food Eaten Like other gallinaceous birds, the ruffed grouse has a rela¬ tively high food capacity. The crop is an expanding organ and will hold several times as much food as the gizzard. The maxi¬ mum volume of crop contents recorded in the present study was 118.5 cc, which is roughly equivalent to half the volume of an ordinary water glass. The maximum food volume recorded for gizzards was 20.5 cc, or approximately one-sixth of the largest crop volume. Extremely full crops and gizzards were infrequent. The average food volume of crops was 24 cc, and of gizzards 10.2 cc. As a rule, in the unusually well-filled crops fruit predomi¬ nated. Animal Food Adult grouse do not utilize insect or other animal food to any appreciable extent in winter. They do, however, take in small quantity a considerable variety of forms, including grasshoppers, crickets, bugs, flies, beetles, moths, small insect galls, spiders, centipedes, and earthworms. The contribution of these to the total food in this study was very slight, only 0.07 per cent. Gravel Consumption Gravel plays an important role in the digestive processes of the ruffed grouse just as it does in other gallinaceous birds. As a grinding ag'ent, to supplement the strong muscular movements of the gizzard, it helps reduce food material into finely divided particles preparatory to its passage into the intestine. How much gravel is needed for this function depends on a variety of 82 ■conditions, including the nature of the food eaten. In the 107 gizzards analyzed, 76 contained measurable quantities of pebbly nock material. The average per stomach was 0.8 cc, which is equivalent to about one-third of a teaspoon. In almost all cases the gravel was supplemented by hard, digestion-resisting seeds, many kinds of which no doubt are retained in the gizzard for their abrasive action until they are worn to fragments. The number of gizzards containing no gravel— 24 in all- — suggests that not infrequently hard seeds serve as the sole grind¬ ing agent. These 24 gizzards were well supplied with seeds of rose (in 18), smilax (in 17), sumac, dogwood, witch-hazel, or black gum, all of which were frequently noted to be in different stages of wear. Gizzards with less than the average quantity of gravel content — 0.8 cc — -showed a higher content of hard seeds than those that were above average in the supply of grit. Giz¬ zards with a gravel content of 0.8 to 4 cc contained, on the aver¬ age, 3.5 cc of hard seeds. In stomachs with a below-average con¬ tent of gravel — 0.1 to 0.8 cc — ^the average of such seeds was 5.5 cc. That gravel once taken into the gizzard may be retained over a lengthy period without having to be replenished daily is brought out quite clearly in the crop material examined. Only 8 of the 184 crops analyzed, contained gravel, and 6 of these had merely a trace. This would indicate that gravel is certainly not picked up regularly with each meal, at least not during the season when the birds normally consume a considerable percentage of hard-seeded fruits. Winter Feeding Few game birds are better equipped to endure severe winter conditions than ruffed grouse. Though snow holds no terror for them, it greatly restricts their choice of food. Snow, however, is not likely to cause Virginia or West Virginia birds much hard¬ ship under average winter conditions, providing there is an adequate variety and abundance of shrubs and trees from which they can obtain buds and catkins. Among the species that supply such food are blueberries and huckleberries, menziesia, hazelnut, serviceberry, rhododendron, birch, hophornbeam, and apple. Other important foods that enable the birds to survive the rav¬ ages of the winter elements are greenbrier, mountain-laurel, rose, and hawthorn. The weather conditions that the adult ruffed grouse find most difficult are prolonged sleet storms. Not only do such storms often have a directly injurious effect on the birds, but frequently they seriously restrict the availability of food. Heavy coatings of ice over food plants make feeding difficult and at times impos¬ sible. Such conditions extended over periods of several days may be disastrous to the birds. The southern and eastern slopes are 83 the first to thaw after ice storms^ and thus are most suitable for the grouse during severe winter weather. The nature of the food habits of ruffed grouse makes it difficult to supply food to them during emergency periods. They will ac¬ cept corn, as evidenced by the record obtained from stomach ex¬ amination, but are slow to become accustomed to it. As a rule, in satisfactory habitat they pull through the winter seiges unaided and without serious consequences. Emergency winter feeding is therefore neither so necessary nor so helpful to ruffed grouse as it is to quail, turkeys, and other upland game birds. Summary A preliminary economic study by the Bureau of Biological Survey to provide a scientific basis for forest-game management on the George Washington National Forest, Va. and W. Va., dis¬ closed that the first 20 plants in Table # 1 are outstanding sources of food for ruffed grouse early in winter. These plants furnished about 85 per cent of the contents of 185 stomachs col¬ lected, chiefly by hunters, in November and December of 1935 and 1936. Herbaceous plants supplied about a third of the food, shrubs and vines each about a fourth, and trees the remainder. The habitats of these 20 food plants also were studied. The re¬ sults show that wooded areas with open canopies and with soils sufficiently productive for the growth of mixed stands of shrubs and vine thickets furnish the best feeding grounds. Bureau of Biological Survey, Washington, D. C. U. S. Forest Service, Harrisonburg, Va. Virginia Commission of Game and Inland Fisheries, Rich¬ mond, Va. 84 m I The Virginia Journal of Science Vol. 1 APRIL, 1940 No. 4 Virginia Academy of Science S. 1. library from A. A« A« S. PROGRAM Eighteenth Annual Meeting LEXINGTON, VIRGINIA Tkursday, Friday and Saturday Alay 2nd, 3rd and 4t\ij 1940 The Virginia Journal of Science Official journal of the VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE Ruskin S. Freer, President ^ Lynchiburg College, Lynchibuirg, Va. E. C. L. Miller, Secretary-Treasurer, Medical College of Virginia, Rich¬ mond, Va. COUNCIL Regular Members Robert F. Smart W. Catesby Jones Charles E. Myers Preston Edwards Marcellus H. Stow Ex-officio Members Harvey E. Jordan D. Maurice Allan Earle B. Norris Editor-m-Chief — ^Ruskin S. Freer. Managing Editor — Lt.-Col. Robert P. Carroll, Virginia Military Institute, Lexington, Va. Editorial Board — (appointed by Academy Committee on Journal, to serve until the 1940 meeting of the Academy, when Sections will select their representatives) : Preston Edwards — ^Astronomy, Mathematics and Physics. Paul R. Burch — Zoology Division, Biology Section. William G. Guy — Chemistry. John Alex. Rorer — Education and Psychology. Dan H. Pletta — Engineering. Edward C. H. Lammers — Geology. Application for entry as second class matter at the post office at Lexing¬ ton, Virginia, is pending. Subscription — $1.00 per volume to members of the Virginia Academy of Science; $2.00 per volume to others. Published at Lexington, Virginia. The Virginia Journal of Science Vol. 1 APRIL, 1940 No. 4 Virginia Academy of Science PROGRAM S. I. LIBRARY FROM A. A. A. S. Eighteenth Annual Meeting LEXINGTON, VIRGINIA Tkursday, Friday and Saturday M.ay 2nd, 3rd an d 4tk, 1940 •i, I 1« I’i 4 'i' til i ,'f'i I Virginia Academy of Science OFFICERS Ruskin S. Freer, President Lynchburg College E. C. L. Miller, Secretary-Treasurer Medical College of Virginia MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL Regular — Robert F. Smart W. Catesby Jones Charles E. Myers Preston Edwards Marcellus H. Stow Ex-officio members — Harvey E. Jordan D. Maurice Allan Earle B. Norris WoRTLEY F. Rudd Ruskin S. Freer LOCAL COMMITTEE ON ARRANGEMENTS Chairman . Brig. Gen. J. A. Anderson Sub-Chairmen (Col. E. Steidtmann |Lt. Col. R. P. Carroll General Committee — Astronomy, Mathematics and Physics . . .Lt. Col. S. M. Heflin Biology . Lt. Col. R. P. Carroll Chemistry . , . CoL. W. 0. Swan Education . Lt. Col. W. F. Young Engineering . Maj. Walter Lowry Geology . Col. E. Steidtmann Medicine . Maj. B. B. Mallory Psychology . CoL. R. L. Bates Exhibits . E. IliTCHEY I Miss Nellie Gibbs Publicity . Lt. Col. H. M. Read Registration Traffic . (Col. W. E. Byrne I Major J. C. Hanes Captain J. P. Leary Please have all telephone calls made through Lexington 628. Due to the limited number of available rooms in Lexington it is suggested that all members notify the Committee on Local Arrangements well in advance so that rooms may be assigned. Please indicate if you will have an automobile with you. Lunch will be served in Crozet Hall Friday the 3rd at 50c per plate. Members of the Research Committee will meet privately in the Steward’s Mess. The Banquet will be held Friday night at 6 : 30 P. M. in Crozet Hall at $1.00 per plate. Displays and demonstrations will be located in the Biology Laboratory of Scott Shipp Hall. There will be a meeting of the Science Club Committee Sat¬ urday, May 4th at 12 :45 P. M. This will probably be a luncheon meeting, and tickets may be purchased at the Registration Desk. All interested in science club work are invited to meet with the Committee. Dr. Otis W. Caldwell, General Secretary of the A. A. A. S. will be present. He has had considerable experi¬ ence in this field and will be glad to answer questions and to discuss various aspects of science club work. General Program of the Eighteenth Annual Meeting Lexington Virginia 1940 VIRGINIA MILITARY INSTITUTE^HEADQUARTERS Thursday, May 2 4:30 P. M. Council Meeting. Alumni Hall. 7 :30 P. M, Academy Conference. Alumni Hall. Friday, May 3 8:30 A. M. a0:00 A. M. 1:00 P. M. 2:00 P, M. 4:00 P. M. 5:00 P, M. 6:30 P. M. 8:00 P. M. Registration. Anteroom, Jackson Memorial Hall. Section Meetings. Lunch. Crozet Hall. Tickets at Registration desk. 50c per plate. Section Meetings. Trip to Robert E. Lee Museum in the Lee Chapel at Washington and Lee University. Washington and Lee University invites all mem¬ bers and guests of the Academy to tea at the Student Union. Banquet. Crozet Hall. Tickets at Registration desk. $1.00 per plate. General Session. Jackson Memorial Hall. Address of Welcome. Major Gen. Charles E. Kilbourne. Response by President Ruskin S. Freer. Presentation of Annual Research Prize of the Academy and the Jefferson Prize by Dr. Frank A. Geldard. Address— "''A Winter in Oaxaca : Exploring for Plants in Southern Mexico’' by Dr. W. H. Camp, New York Botanical Garden. Saturday, May 4 9:00 A. M. Section Meetings. 12:00 Noon. General Business Meeting in Jackson Memorial Hall. may « “ IMO Section of Astronomy, Mathematics, and Physics A. N. Vyssotsky, Chairman F. B. Haynes, Secretary FRIDAY, MAY 3--~10:00 A. M. Room 18, Scott Shipp Hall 1. Photographic Determination of the Diameter of Mars. Dirk Reuyl ; Leander McCormick Observatory , University of Virginia. (10 min.) 2. General Perturbations of Planets of the Hecuba Group De¬ termined by Means of the Berkeley Tables. Claude M. Anderson, Jr.; Leander McCormick Observa¬ tory, University of Virginia. (10 min.) 3. Photovisual Sequences from 15° South to 75° North Decli¬ nation. C. A. Wirtanen; Leander McCormick Observatory, Uni- V ersity of V irginia. ( 1 0 min . ) 4. A Suggestion for Rational Musical Notation. Preston Edwards; Sweet Briar College. (10 min.) 5. Electrical Discharge Figures on the Surface of a Conduct¬ ing Fluid. A. J. Hodges and L. B. Snoddy; Rouss Physical Labora¬ tory, University of Virginia. (10 min.) 6. Graphical Evaluation of the Statistical Significance of Rate Differences. F. T. Holmes ; University of Virginia, and T. L. Montgom¬ ery, Jefferson Hospital, Philadelphia. (10 min.) 7. Spectrophotometric Observation of the Minimum of Zeta Aurigae. C. A. Wirtanen; Leander McCormick Observatory, Uni¬ versity of Virginia. (10 min.) 8. The System of Magnitudes of the Second McCormick Proper Motion Catalogue. E. R. Dyer, Jr.; Leander McCormick Observatory, Uni¬ versity of Virginia. (Introduced by A. N. Vyssotsky). (10 min.) 8 The VIRGINIA ACADEMY of SCIENCE FRIDAY, MAY 3—2:00 P. M. Room 18, Scott Shipp Hall 9. Business Meeting. 10. Concentration of Chlorine Isotopes by Centrifuging at Dry Ice Temperature. F. C. Armistead; Rouss Physical Laboratory, University of Virginia. (Introduced by J. 'W. Beams.) (10 min.) IT. Progressive Electrical Breakdown in a Conducting Liquid. Hugh F. Henry; Rouss Physical Laboratory, University of Virginia. (Introduced by L. B. Snoddy.) (10 min.) 12. Effective Rotation Temperatures of Two Identical Elec- trodeless Discharges in Different Gases. M. S. McCay; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. (10 min.) 13. Temperature Variation in the Specific Heat of Some Gases by a New Method. R. A. Weiss; Rouss Physical Laboratory, University of Virginia. (Introduced by L. G. Hoxton.) (10 min.) 14. Construction and Performance of a Twenty-One Foot Grat¬ ing Spectrograph. H. D. Ussery and E. S. Bishop; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. (10 min.) 15. The Solution of Differential Equations by Operational Cal¬ culus. Part I. A. Lee Smith, College of William and Mary-Virginia Poly¬ technic Institute, Norfolk Division. (20 min.) 16. Growth Curves as Applied in Predicting School Enrollment. Boyd Harshbarger; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. (10 min.) 17. A Sequence of Perspective Triangles whose Vertices are Determined by a Difference Equation. B. Z. Linfield; University of Virginia. (10 min.) SATURDAY, MAY 4—9:00 A. M. Room 18, Scott Shipp Hall 18. A Preliminary Survey of the Physical Properties of Micro¬ scope Contrast Filters and New Filter Materials. Lewis W. Webb, Jr. and Frederick F. Ferguson; College of William and Mary-Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Norfolk Division. (15 min.) PROGRAM, EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL MEETING 9 19. An Electronic Switch. J. R. Cosby; Virginia Polytechnic Institute and C. W. Lampson; University of Richmond. (15 min.) 20. A Simple Mercury Vapor Lamp, Operating on Direct Cur¬ rent. S. M. Heflin; Virginia Military Institute. (10 min.) 21. The Radiometer in an Enclosure at Uniform Temperature. L. G. Hoxton, Rouss Physical Laboratory , University of Virginia. (10 min.) 22. Dynamical Model for Gyroscopic Precession. Thomas Davis; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. (10 min.) 23. Several Improved Experiments for an Advanced Mechanics Laboratory. Herbert Trotter, Jr,; Washington and Lee University. (15 min.) 24. Some Lecture Demonstrations. Herbert Trotter, Jr.; Washington and Lee University. (15 min.) 10 The VIRGINIA ACADEMY of SCIENCE Section of Biology Bruce D. Reynolds, Chairman J. G. Harrar, Sub-Chairman Lena B. Henderson, Secretary FRIDAY, MAY 3—10:00 A. M. Auditorium, Nichols Engineering Hall 1. Notes on the Control of Fuller's Rose Weevil, Pantomorus godmani (Cotch) on Kale. Harry G. Walker and Lauren D. Anderson; Virginia Truck Experiment Station, Norfolk. (Lantern, 6 min.) 2. A Perennial Woody Gall on Hickory. Raymond L. Taylor and Alphonse F. Chestnut ; College of William and Mary. (Lantern, 15 min.) 3. Concerning the Structure and Movement of Flagella. Bruce D. Reynolds; University of Virginia. (Lantern, 15 min.) 4. Making Animated Biological Movie Diagrams. Lorus J. Milne; Randolph-Macon Woman's College. (Mov¬ ing pictures, 25 min.) 5. The Effect of Attrahents on Mosquitoes. K. B. M. Crooks; Hampton Institute. (To be read by title.) 6. Time and Rate of Plant Nutrient Absorption by Bright To¬ bacco. H. R. Davies and A. L. Grizzard; Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station. (15 min.) 7. The Relation of Timber Cutting to our Virginia Forest Types. W. L. Gooch; The Chesapeake Corporation, West Point, Va. (Lantern, 15 min.) 8. Some Foliar Characters for Peach Breeding. Fred W. Hofmann; Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station. (To be read by title.) 9. Some Fruit Bud Induction Observations. Fred W. Hofmann; Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station. (To be read by title.) PROGRAM, EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL MEETING 11 10. Phosphated Ammonia for Orchard Soil Fibre. Fred W. Hofmann; Virgmia Agricultural Experiment Station^. (To be read by title.) 11. A Report on the Prevalence of Helminth Parasites in Sheep in Southwestern Virginia, Together with Observations on Certain Anthelmintics Employed. W, L. Threlkeld; Virginia Agricultural Experiment Sta¬ tion. (Lantern, 15 min.) 12. Relative Efficiency of Several Sources of Phosphate Ferti¬ lizer in Improving the Yield, Quality and Chemical Compo¬ sition of Pasture Herbage. R. E. O'Brien and S. S. Obenshain ; Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station. (20 min.) 13. Green Algae in Salamander Eggs. A. M, Showalter and G. W. Chappelear; Madison College. (10 min.) 14. The Etiology of Beauveria Disease of Dendroctonus fron¬ talis. J. G. Harrar and J. G. Martland; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. (Lantern, 10 min.) 15. The Biology of a Species of Beauveria from the Southern Pine Bark Beetle. J. G. Harrar and Ruth P. Ellis ; Virginia Polytechnic In¬ stitute. (Lantern, 10 min.) FRIDAY, MAY 3—2:00 P. M. Auditorium, Nichols Engineering Hall 16. A Study of Avian Malaria. King A. Jamison; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. (10 min.) 17. Cold Resistance, Mutation and Geographical Distribution in Plants, Orland E. White; The Blandy Experimental Farm, Uni¬ versity of Virginia. (Lantern, 15 min.) 18. Miscellaneous Studies of Codling Moth Bands, A. M. Woodside; Staunton Field Labor atory, Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station. (Lantern, 15 min.) 19. Experimental Studies on the Cultivation of Excised Anthers in Nutrient Solution. Walton C. Gregory; The Blandy Experimental Farm, University of Virginia, (Lantern, 10 min.) 12 The VIRGINIA ACADEMY of SCIENCE 20. A Cytological and Morphological Study of the European Mesostoma ehrenbergii and a Closely Related American Form. Ladley Husted and Trenton K. Ruebush; University of Virginia and Yale University. (Lantern, 15 min.) 21. The Relationship between Boron and Thallium Toxicity of Tobacco. G. M. Shear and R. L. Schnell; Virginia Agricultural Ex¬ periment StoMon and Virginia Polytechnic Institute. (Lantern, 10 min.) 22. A Simple Method of Diagnosing Plant Deficiencies. G. M. Shear; Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station. (Lantern, 10 min.) 23. The Relative Importance of the Host Plants of the Tobacco Flea Beetle, Epitrix parvula F. E. H. Glass; Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station. (Lantern, 10 min.) JOINT MEETING OF BIOLOGY AND GEOLOGY FRIDAY, MAY 3—4:15 P. M. Continental Displacement and Its Relation to the Origin and Dis¬ persal of the American Floras. Dr. W. H. Camp; New York Botanical Garden. PROGRAM, EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL MEETING 13 Botany Division SATURDAY, MAY 4—9 :00 A. M. Biology Lecture Room, Scott Shipp Roll 1. Studies of the Germination, Growth and Propagation of Seeds, Berries and Root Fragments of Berberis canadensis Mill. G. E. Matheny and R. S. Mullin; Bureau of Entomology and plant Quarantine, U. S. Department of Agriculture. (Lantern, 15 min.) 2. Diploidy, Polyploidy and the Degree of Winter Hardiness in the Flowering Plants. Wray M. Bowden; The Blandy Experimental Farm, Uni¬ versity of Virginia. (Lantern, 15 min.) 3. Cytology and Phylogeny in the Ranunculaceae. Walton C. Gregory; The Blandy Experimental Farm, Uni¬ versity of Virginia. (Lantern, 10 min.) 4. The Nomenclature and Characteristics of Species of Rosa in Virginia. A. B. Massey; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. (Lantern, 10 min.) 5. The Identity of the Evergreen Rhododendrons of Virginia in the Dormant Condition. A. B. Massey; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. (Lantern, 10 min.) 6. Plants at the Edge of Their Ranges. Lena Artz, Arlington, Va. (^10 min.) 7. Corticolous Bryophyte Societies at Mountain Lake, Va. Paul M. Patterson; Hollins College... (Lantern, 15 min.) 8. Physiological Studies on Mosses. 11. The Viability of Old Spores. Samuel L. Meyer ; Miller School of Biology, University of Virginia. (Lantern, 15 min.) 9. Physiological Studies on Mosses. III. The Influence of the Moisture Factor on the Development of Leafy Moss Plants in Liquid Media. Samuel L. Meyer ; Miller School of Biology, University of Virginia. (Lantern, 15 min.) 10. Coprophilous Ascomycetes from Charlottesville and Vi¬ cinity. Edwin M. Betts and Samuel L. Meyer; Miller School of Biology, University of Virginia. (Lantern, 10 min.) 11. 'Three Unpublished Letters of Raffinesque to Jefferson.'' Edwin M. Betts ; Miller School of Biology, University of Virginia. (10 min.) 14 The VIRGINIA ACADEMY of SCIENCE Zoology Division SATURDAY, MAY 4—9 :00 A. M. Auditorium, Nichols Engineering Hall 1. Elk in Virginia. Roy Wood, Virginia Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit, Virginia Polytechnic Institute. (Introduced by C, 0. Handley.) (Lantern, 10 min.) 2. The Correlation of Bird Migration and Wind Direction. Ruskin S. Freer and John Mahan; Lynchburg College. (Lantern, 15 min.) 3. Some Observations on the Spadefoot Toad, Scaphiopus hoi- hrookii. Hazel Poff and Paul R. Burch; State Teachers College, Radford, Va. (15 min.) 4. The Heart of Cryptohranchus allegheniensis Daubin. William B. Atkinson; University of Virginia. (Intro¬ duced by Chauncey McL. Gilbert.) (Lantern, 10 min.) 5. A Description of the Venous System of Cryptohranchus alle¬ gheniensis Daubin. William Sangster, Jr.; University of Virginia. (Intro¬ duced by Chauncey McL. Gilbert.) (Lantern, 15 min.) 6. Banding Chimney Sv^ifts. C. 0. Handley ; U. S. Biological Survey and Virginia Poly¬ technic Institute. (Lantern, 10 min.) 7. A Synopsis of the Genus Mesostoma ehrenhergii 1837. Frederick F. Ferguson ; College of William and Mary-Vir- ginia Polytechnic Institute, Norfolk Division, and W. J. Hayes, Jr.; University of Wisconsin. (Te be read by title.) 8. Studies on the Turbellarian Fauna of the Norfolk Area. I. Macrostomum ruebushi var. kepneri new variety. Frederick F. Ferguson and E. Ruffin Jones, Jr.; College of William and Mary-Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Norfolk Division. (Lantern, 10 min.) 9. Studies on the Turbellarian Fauna of the Norfolk Area. II. Jensenia leivisi n.sp. E. Ruffin Jones, Jr. and Frederick F. Ferguson; College of William and Mary-Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Norfolk Division. (Lantern, 10 min.) PROGRAM, EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL MEETING 15 10. Studies on the Turbellarian Fauna of the Norfolk Area. III. Ecology and Distribution. Frederick F. Ferguson and E. Ruffin Jones, Jr.; College of William a7id Mary -Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Norfolk Division. (To be read by title.) ^11. Studies on the Turbellarian Fauna of the Norfolk Area. IV. Macrostomum norfolkensis n.sp. E. Ruffin Jones, Jr. and Frederick F. Ferguson; College of William and Mary-Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Norfolk Division. (Lantern, 10 min.) 12. A Synopsis of the American Turbellaria. Part I. American Acoela Rhabdocoela and Alloeocoela with Notes on Distribution and Ecology and a Diagnostic Key to Families and Genera. M. A. Stirewalt, F. F. Ferguson and W. J. Hayes, Jr.; Miller School of Biology, University of Virginia. (Dem¬ onstration. To be read by title.) 13. The Effect of High Frequency Radio Waves Upon Micro- stomum lineare (Mull.) 0. Schmidt 1848. W. A. Kepner, M. A. Stirewalt and L. I. Mails; Miller School of Biology, University of Virginia. (Lantern, 15 min.) 14. The Elaboration and Transportation of Yolk in Micro- stomum lineare (Mull.) 0. Schmidt 1848 (rhabdocoele Tur¬ bellarian) . M. A. Stirewalt; Miller School of Biology, University of Virginia. (To be read by title.) 15. A New Turbellarian Worm (Alloeocoele) from Beaufort, N. C. M. A. Stirewalt, W. A. Kepner and F. F. Ferguson ; Miller School of Biology, University of Virginia and U. S. B. F., Beaufort, N. C. (To be read by title.) 16. An Outline of the Development of the Ovum of Chlorohydra viridissima. William A. Kepner, Bruce Perry, W. B. Atkinson and J. R. Meyer; University of Virginia. (Lantern, 10 min.) 17. Morphology and Histogenesis of the Blood Meal Worm. (Tenebrio molitor, L.) Herbert William Jackson; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. (20 min.) 18. Origin of the Mid Gut in Tenebrio molitor L. Herbert William Jackson; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. (10 min.) 16 The VIRGINIA ACADEMY of SCIENCE Section of Chemistry W. J. Frierson, Chairman W. G. Guy, Secretary FRIDAY, MAY 3—10:00 A. M. Room 102, Maury Brooke Hall 1. The Influence of the Crystal Plane in the Electrodeposition of Copper on a Single Crystal of Copper. Allan T. Gwathmey; University of Virginia. (15 min.) 2. Rate of Xanthation of Soda Cellulose. P. C. Scherer, Jr. and L. C. Ikenberry ; Virginia Polytech¬ nic Institute. (10 min.) 3. Cellulose Containing Amino Nitrogen. P. C. Scherer, Jr. and J. M. Feild; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. (10 min.) 4. Sulfur Forms in Crude Viscose Rayon. P. C. Scherer, Jr. and J. R. Leonards; Virginia Polytech¬ nic Institute. (10 min.) 5. Temperature and Time Factors on Deterioration of Cellu¬ lose Acetate Crumb. G. Rubenstein, P. C. Scherer, Jr., and Frank C. Vilbrandt; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. (10 min.) 6. A Study of the Procedure for the Determination of Glyco¬ gen in Oysters. H. N. Calderwood, and Alfred R. Armstrong; Bureau of Fisheries, U. S. Department of the Interior, Virginia Commission of Fisheries, and the College of William and, Mary. (15 min.) 7. A Micro-Method for the Determination of Tissue Lipids. E. L, Outhouse, B. E. Leach and J. C. Forbes; Medical College of Virginia. (20 min.) 8. Physico-Chemical Studies of Soils. Howard Kincer, Beulah Wood and H. I. Johnson ; Roanoke College. (10 min.) 9. The Recovery of Gallium from a Nelson County Virginia Feldspar. W. S. Peterson and F. H. Fish ; Virginia Polytechnic Insti¬ tute. (10 min.) PROGRAM, EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL MEETING 17 FRIDAY, MAY 3^2:00 P. M* Room 102, MoMTy Brooke Hall 10. The Kolbe Synthesis with Alkyl-o-Phenylphenols, Sidney Harris and J. Stanton Pierce ; University of Rich¬ mond. (10 min.) 11. Separation of Fatty Acids and Rosin from Crude Tall Oil by Selective Chlorination. J. M. Crockin and Frank C, Vilbrandt; Virginia Polytech¬ nic Institute, (15 min.) 12. Refining of Crude Tall Oil with Sulfuric Acid, P. E. Chapman and Frank C. Vilbrandt; Virginia Poly¬ technic Institute. (10 min.) 13. Eka-Catalysis in Alkylation of Pipe Still Vapors. Harrison L. Kalbach and Frank C. Vilbrandt; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. (10 min.) 14. Alkylation of Benzene with Ethylene with Several Phos¬ phoric Acids as Eka-Catalysts. A, Rabinkoff and Frank C. Vilbrandt; Virginia Poly¬ technic Institute, (10 min.) 18 The VIRGINIA ACADEMY of SCIENCE Second Symposium on Organic Analytical Reagents For several years eight institutions in the state have been cooperating in an extensive research program on organic ana¬ lytical reagents under the direction of Dr. John H. Yoe. In October 1939, Tulane University of Louisiana joined the Virginia Group in this cooperative effort. The \vork at Tulane is under the direction of Dr. Thomas B. Grumpier. At the Danville meeting of the Academy last May, a sym¬ posium ivas held in which each cooperating institution partici¬ pated. So much interest was shown at this meeting that it seemed desirable to hold a second symposium for the purpose of presenting brief progress reports from the cooperating members and to discuss certain phases of the subject. The following papers (15-26) are included in this symposium. 15. Introduction. John H. Yoe; University of Virginia. 16. A Summary Report on 500 Organic Compounds. W. J. Frierson; Hampden-Sydney College. 17. Progress Report on Organic Analytical Reagents Research at Virginia Polytechnic Institute. J. R. Noell, B. H. Kemp and F. H. Fish; Virginia Poly¬ technic Institute. 18. The Solubility of the Alkali Earth Salts of the Higher Fatty Acids. B. H. Kemp and F. H. Fish; Virginia Polytechnic Insti¬ tute. 19. A Summary Report on 100 Organic Compounds. W. E. Trout, Jr. ; Mary Baldwin College. 20. A Summary Report on 100 Organic Compounds. A. R. Armstrong ; College of William and Mary. 21. A Progress Report. W. 0. Swan ; Virginia Military Institute. 5 22. A Progress Report. J. T. Ashworth, B. M. Keys and Ira A. Updike; Ran- dolph-Macon College. 23. Structure of Some Organo-Metallic Complexes. James W. Cole; University of Virginia. (20 min.) PROGRAM, EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL MEETING 19 24. Chelation in Relation to the Periodic Classification. J. R. Taylor; Washington and Lee University, (20 min.) 25. Structure of Metal Derivatives of Oximes. Alfred Burger; University of Virginia, (20 min.) 26. The Application of a New Class or Organic Reagents for the Detection and Determination of Palladium. Lyle G. Overholser and John H. Yoe; University of Vir¬ ginia, (20 min.) SATURDAY, MAY 4—9:00 A. M. Room 102, Maury Brooke Hall 27. Chemical Industry in Colonial Virginia. W. S. DeLoach; College of William and Mary-Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Norfolk Division, (10 min.) 28. Series Reactions in Organic Chemical Laboratory. J. B. Lucas and W. B. Downey; Virginia Polytechnic In¬ stitute, (12 min.) 29. The Action of Chloromethyl Ether on 4-Methyluracil. Margaret M. Endicott; Hollins College, (10 min.) 30. Petroleum Bases. Reactions of 2, 3, 8-Trimethyl Quinoline. Alfred Burger; University of Virginia, (10 min.) 31. The Halogenation of Salicylic Acid. L. H. Farinholt; Washington and Lee University, and A. P. Stuart, University of Delaware, (15 min.) 32. The Brominating Action of 1,2,-Diaroylbromo-ethanes. Monroe Couper and Robert E. Lutz; University of Vir¬ ginia, (15 min.) 33. An Improved Experimental Still for the Isolation of Vola¬ tile Oils from Logging Wastes. H. N. Calderwood;* University of Wisconsin, (15 min.) 34. A Chemistry Open House. R. C. Krug, T. S. Tutwiler and A. I. Whitenfish ; Univer¬ sity of Richmond, (15 min.) 35. Business Meeting and Election of Officers. *Present adldress: Box 2, Williamsburg, Va. 20 The VIRGINIA ACADEMY of SCIENCE Section of Education J. Alex. Rorer, Chairman Paul G. Hook, Secretary FRIDAY, MAY 3-.10:00 A. M. Room 16, Scott Shipp Hall 1. Evaluative Criteria of the Cooperative Study. W. R. Smithey; University of Virginia, 2. Photography as a College Course. J. D. Schumacher ; Roanoke College. 3. Developmental Reading. Eva Bond; College of William and Mary, Richmond Di¬ vision. 4. Physical Education Programs in Virginia Colleges. Clarence Hale; University of Virginia. FRIDAY, MAY 3— -2:00 P. M. Room 16, Scott Shipp Hall 5. Janitor Service in Rural Schools. W. H. Barrett; University of Virginia. 6. The Living Conditions of the White Teachers in Bedford County, Virginia. Samuel J. Coffey; University of Virginia. 7. Negro Education in Bedford County, Virginia. 0. T. Bonner ; University of Virginia. 8. Health Conditions and Activities in Negro Schools of Fau¬ quier County, Virginia. W. G. Coleman; University of Virginia. 9. Techniques of Research in Apprentice Teaching. Boyd Graves ; Mary Washington College. 10. Control of School Accounting Exercised by State Require¬ ments and Recommendations. Charles K. Martin, Jr. ; Mary Washington College. PROGRAM, EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL MEETING 21 Section of Engineering Albert H, Cooper, Chairman D. H. Pletta, Secretary FRIDAY, MAY 3^10:00 A. M, - Room 211, Nichols Engineering Hall 1. An Apple-Milk Confection for Partial Utilization of Surplus and Cull Apples, Frank C. Vilbrandt and Robert D. Sieg; Virginia Poly¬ technic Institute, (15 min.) 2. Heat Transfer Coefficients for Condensing Organic Vapors. Harvey E. Henderson and Albert H. Cooper; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. (15 min.) 3. Utilization of Saltville Wastes for Production of Chlorine. J. T. Gormally and Frank C. Vilbrandt; Virginia Poly¬ technic Institute. (10 min.) 4. Industrial Conversion of Nitrosyl Chloride to Chlorine. H. C. Shockey and Frank C. Vilbrandt; Virginia Poly¬ technic Institute. (10 min.) 5. The Use of Test Filtration Data in the Prediction of Filter Capacity. Ralph A. Troupe and Robert A. Fisher; Virginia Poly¬ technic Institute. (10 min.) 6. Design, Construction and Operation of a Carbon Dioxide Generator from Fuel Oil for Experimental Absorption Tow¬ er Studies. I. Resnick and Frank C. Vilbrandt; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. (15 min.) 7. Countercurrent Liquid— Liquid Extraction of Lubricating Oils in a Spray Column. Alfred S. King and Albert H. Cooper; Virgina Poly¬ technic Institute. (10 min.) 8. Drying Characteristics of Scherer Insulation. M. Singer, P. C. Scherer, Jr., and Frank C. Vilbrandt; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. (10 min.) 9. Mixing and Forming Characteristics of Scherer Insulation. S. C. Syman, P. C. Scherer, Jr., and Frank C. Vilbrandt; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. (10 min.) 22 The VIRGINIA ACADEMY of SCIENCE 10. Effect of Operation Variables on Individual Plate Efficien¬ cies of a Bubble-Cap Column. Stuart B. Row; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. (15 minn.) 11. Business Meeting, Appointment of Nominating Committee. (15 min.) FRIDAY, MAY 3—2:00 P. M. Room 211, Nichols Engineering Hall 12. Continuation of Business Meeting, Election of Officers, Re¬ ports, etc. (30 min.) 13. Gasoline Engine Exhaust Gas Analysis. J. L. Dilworth; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. (15 min.) 14. Accidents in Virginia Industries. W. B. Davis; Industrial Commission of Virginia. (20 min.) 15. Work Simplification Engineering. (Illustrated with motion pictures.) R. B. Davenport; Larus & Brother Co., Richmond, Va. (30 min.) 16. Miniature Camera Color Photobicrography Applied to Ce¬ ramic Technology. Paul S. Dear; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. (15 min.) 17. Development and Possibilities of Zoisitic Aplite as a Ceramic Raw Material. John W. Whittemore and Paul S. Dear; Virginia Poly¬ technic Institute. (15 min.) 18. Design Constants for Fixed-Ended Roof Trusses. J. E. Spagnuolo and D. H. Pletta; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. (15 min.) 19. The Behavior of Helical Springs. F. J. Maher and D. H. Pletta ; Virginia Polytechnic Insti¬ tute. (15 min.) PROGRAM, EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL MEETING 23 Section of Geology E. Ray Casto, Chairman E. C. H. Lammers, Vice-Chairman W. M. McGill, Secretary FRIDAY, MAY 3—10:00 A. M. Room 37, Scott Shipp Hall 1. Diatomite in the Petersburg Area, Virginia. William M. McGill; Virginia Geological Survey. (Slides, - 10 min.) 2. Problems of Coastal Plain Geology and Hydrology. D. J. Cederstrom; U. S. Geological Survey. (Introduced by Arthur Bevan.) (Slides, 15 min.) 3. Notes on Varvelike Clay at Buena Vista, Virginia. Robert 0. Bloomer; University of North Carolina. (Intro¬ duced by W. M. McGill.) (5 min.) 4. Map Showing Distribution of the Petersburg Granite in Southeastern Piedmont Virginia. Arthur A. Pegau; University of Virginia. (Map, 12 min.) 5. A Virginia Piedmont Paleozoic Limestone Belt. Arthur Bevan; Virginia Geological Survey. (Slides, 12 min.) 6. A Granite as a Thrust Fault Carrier East of the Blue Ridge in Virginia. Wilbur A. Nelson; University of Virginia. (Slides, 12 min.) 7. Application of Some Biogenic Laws to Stratigraphy. A. A. L. Mathews; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. (12 min.) 8. Some New Features of the Internal Structure of Receptacu- lites. John W. Harrington; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. (In¬ troduced by Roy J. Holden.) (5 min.) 9. Magmatic Carbonation. Roy J. Holden; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. (12 min.) 24 The VIRGINIA ACADEMY of SCIENCE 10. Geology in Soil Survey in Southwest Virginia. H. C. Porter; Virginia Agricultnral Experiment Station. (Maps, 15 min.) 11. Geological Study of Core from Chickamauga Dam. Cecil B. McGavock, Jr.; Tennessee Valley Authority, Chattanooga, Tenn. (Slides, 10 min.) FRIDAY, MAY 3—2:00 P. M. Room 37, Scott Shipp Hall 12. Lane Use Capability Classification for Farm Planning. T. C. Green; U. S, Department of Agriculture, Soil Con¬ servation Service, (Introduced by W. M. McGill.) (Slides, 20 min.) 13. The Role of the Tuscarora Sandstone in Little North Moun¬ tain, Virginia. Raymond S. Edmundson; Virginia Geological Survey. (Maps, 8 min.) 14. A Barite Vein Near Lexington, Virginia. Edward Steidtmann; Virginia Military Institute. (Maps, 12 min.) 15. Comments on the Geology of Northern Virginia. Charles Butts; Virginia Geological Survey. (Introduced by R. S. Edmundson.) (Map, 15 min.) 16. Problem Relating to the Appalachian Geosyncline. E. C. H. Lammers; Washington and Lee University. (15 min.) 17. Detailed Study of the Valley Peneplain in the Vicinity of Lexington, Virginia. Uriah F. Coulbourn; Washington and Lee University. (Slides, models, 10 min.) 18. Heavy Minerals of Some Silurian Sandstones in Virginia. James Bierer; Washington and Lee University. (Slides, 5 min.) 19. Detailed Stratigraphy of Three Silurian Sections in Vir¬ ginia. John S. Hunter; Washington and Lee University. (Maps, 5 min.) PROGRAM, EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL MEETING 25 20. Insoluble Residues of Some Silurian and Devonian Lime¬ stones in Virginia. Homer D. Jones, Jr.; Washington and Lee University, (Slides, 5 min.) Business Meeting. JOINT MEETING OF BIOLOGY AND GEOLOGY FRIDAY, MAY 3—4:15 P. M. Continental Displacement and Its Relation to the Origin and Dispersal of the American Floras. Dr. W. H. Camp; New York Botanical Garden, SATURDAY, MAY 4—8:00 A. M. Field Trip— Details of trip to be announced at the meeting, Fri¬ day. 26 The VIRGINIA ACADEMY of SCIENCE Section of Medicine C. C. Speidel, Chairman Guy W. Horsley, Secretary FRIDAY, MAY 3—10:00 A. M. Alumni Hall The Relation Between Birefringence and Contractile Pow^ er of Atrophied and of Hypertrophied Muscles. Ernst Fischer; Department of Physiology and Pharma¬ cology, Medical College of Virginia, (Lantern, 10 min.) 2. Effect of Food on the Serum Esterase of Rats. J. C. Forbes, E. L. Outhouse and B. E. Leach; Department of Biochemistry, Medical College of Virginia. (15 min.) 3. A Rapid and Accurate Method for the Determination of Total, Free and Ester Cholesterol of Blood and Serum. B. E. Leach, E. L. Outhouse and J. C. Forbes; Department of Biochemistry, Medical College of Virginia. (10 min.) 4. A Study of the Methods of Sterilization of Glasses and Eat¬ ing Utensils Used in Public Eating Establishments and a Solution to the Problem. A. F. Meyer, Jr. ; Sanitary Laboratory , Virginia Military Institute. (30 min.) 5. The Effect of Fresh Aloe Vera Jell in the Treatment of Third Degree X-Ray Reactions on White Rats. T. D. Rowe; Medical College of Virginia. (15 min.) 6. Sunlight, Skin Cancer and Cancer Immunity. Frank L. Apperly, Department of Pathology, Medical Col¬ lege of Virginia. PROGRAM, EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL MEETING 27 Symposium of Jaundice FRIDAY, MAY 3—2 :00 P. M. Alumni Hall 7. Hepatic Physiology. R. J. Main; Medical College of Virginia. (20 min.) 8. Pathological Anatomy of the Liver in Jaundice. James R. Cash; Department of Pathology, University of Virginia. (Lantern, 20 min.) 9. The Clinical Aspect of Jaundice. Walter B. Martin; Norfolk, Va. (30 min.) 10. Laboratory and Hematological Diagnosis of Jaundice. J. H. Scherer; Medical College of Virginia. (20 min.) 11. Surgical Treatment of Jaundice. Holcombe H. Hurt; Lynchburg, Va. (30 min.) 28 The VIRGINIA ACADEMY of SCIENCE Section of Psychology Richard H. Henneman, Chairman William M. Hinton, Secretary FRIDAY, MAY 3—10:00 A. M. Room 11 y Scott Shipp Hall 1. A Further Study of the Factors Determining Discrimination of Size by the White Rat. Robert M. Flory; University of Virginia. (15 min.) 2. Spontaneous Alternation of the White Rat in Running and Jumping Situations. M. M. Jackson; University of Virginia. (15 min.) 3. A Simple Apparatus for Pattern Learning Experiments. John M. McGinnis; Hollins College. (10 min.) 4. The Effects of Distraction Upon Reading Efficiency. Jeanette Hughes and Nancy Phillips; Randolph-Macon Woman's College. (10 min.) 5. Time Measures of Individual Differences in Vision. F. G. Tice; University of Virginia. (15 min.) 6. The Effect of Changing Skin Temper;ature on Vibratory Sensitivity. Joseph Weitz; University of Virginia. (15 min.) 7. Estimating Behavior and Interests from Photographs. Charles M. Harsh; Randolph-Macon Woman's College. (15 min.) 8. The Influence of Information on Changes in Racial Attitudes. Evelyn Raskin; Randolph-Macon Woman's College. (15 min.) 9. Isolated Children and the Fixity of Early Habits. Wayne Dennis; University of Virginia. (15 min.) FRIDAY, MAY 3—2:00 P. M. Room 11, Scott Shipp Hall 1. Looking Ahead in Social Psychology. Steuart H. Britt; George Washington University. 2. Informal discussion by members of the section of Dr. Britt’s address. All interested persons are urged to par- tipicate. 3. Business Meeting. m 4 U m ::-'l i m ,.\t, ■■■ ' ■’J'fl ' n '1% 7^ '/W The F'irginia Journal of Science Vol. 1 MAY, 1940 No. S CONTENTS [7 PAGE Equalization of Educational Opportunities Among Virginia Counties — Allen D. Edwards and Boyd Harshbarger. . 85 A Study of Dielectric Absorption — J. W. SpvIMONS, Jr. and F. B. Haynes . 93 Invisible Stars — Dirk Reuyl . . . 101 Notes on the Mid-Appalachian Species of Paronychia — Earl L. Core . . . 110 Members of the Genus Phacus Dujardin at Mountain Lake — Lewis Meyer..... . 117 General Notes . . . 119 Published by The Virginia Academy of Science IklO'nthly, except June, July, August and September at Lexington, Virginia. The Virginia Journal of Science Official journal of the VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE WoRTLEY F. Rudd, President, Medical College of Virginia,, Richmond, Va. E. C. L. Miller, Secretary-TYeasiurer, Medical College of Virginia, Rich¬ mond, Va. COUNCIL 1940-41 Regular Ex-Officio W. Catesby Jones . . . 1941 D. Maurice Allan . . 1941 Charles E. Myers . . . . 1942 Earle B. Norris................ . 1942 Preston Edwards . . 1943 Ruskin S. Freer . . ..1943 Marcellus H. Stow . . 1944 WoRTLEY F. Rudd... . . ...1944 H. H. Zimmerley . . 1945 George W. Jeffers . . . 1945 EDITORIAL BOARD Editor-in-Chief — Ruskin S. Freer, Lynchburg College, Lynchburg, Va. Managing Editor — Lt.-Col. Robert P. Carroll, Virginia Military Institute, Lexington, Va. S. A. Mitchell — Astronomy C. L. Albright — Physics G. W. S'EFFm.S— Biology John W. Watson — Chemistry John Alex. Rorer — Education Albert H. Cooper — Engineering Carl C. Speidel — Medicine R. S. Henneman — Psychology Application for entry as second-class matter at the post office at Lexing¬ ton, Virginia, is pending. Subscription — $1.00 per volume to members of the Virginia Academy of Science; $2.00 per volume to others. Published at Lexington, Va. The Virginia Journal of Science VoL. 1 MAY, 1940 No. 5 Equalization of Educational Opportunity Among Virginia Counties Allen D. Edwards and Boyd Harshbarger Great variation exists between Virginia counties with respect to the ratio of children to adults and in the amount of tax re¬ sources available to support public education. The cumulative effect of a high ratio of children and poor economic resources makes it almost impossible for some counties to provide adequate schools. In general, counties with the poorest schools are those with a relatively large proportion of their population of school age and meager resources with which to pay for education. State and Federal aid is essential if such communities are to provide education of the average quality provided in the Nation. Inequalities in Educational Opportunity Although Virginia has made rapid strides in improving the quality of education during recent years, striking inequalities still exist. This statement will come as no surprise to those close¬ ly associated with education in the State. The average salary of white teachers varies from under $500 in 3 counties to $500-$599 in 12 counties, $600-$699 in 29 counties, $700-$799 in 29 counties and over $800 in 27 counties (Fig. 1). Of the 97 counties with Negro teachers, the average salary is above $500 in 24 and be¬ low in 73; in 29 counties the average is less than $400 (Fig. 2). The lowest salaries for white teachers are found in lower South¬ west Virginia and Blue Ridge Mountain subregions (Table A). Salaries for Negro teachers are low in all parts of the State where Negroes are numerous except near the urban centers of Richmond and Norfolk. T]hey are higher in counties of South¬ west Virginia and Valley of Virginia where they are found in only small numbers. The distribution of other indices of quality of education is similar to that for teacher’s salary. Causes of Inequalities A primary purpose of this analysis has been to study the causes for poor schools in some counties and good schools in others. In order to obtain a more exact statement of the relation- 85 OGTll UMO ships involved, indices of quality of education in the counties of Virginia were correlated with specified social and economic in¬ dices. For example, the results show a high negative correla¬ tion between white population fertility and such indices of quality of schools as, average teacher’s salary, percent of total enrollment in high school, and per capita cost of instruction. The correlation is highest with percent of total white enrollment in high school (correlation coefficient — .74) (Table 1). Coun¬ ties with the highest population fertility have the most children in school placing a relatively heavy burden upon such areas. Un¬ less relatively greater tax resources are available to support schools in such areas the quality will inevitably suffer. Counties with relatively ample economic resources tend to maintain higher standard schools. Thus there is a significant positive correlation between assessed value per capita and aver¬ age salary of white teachers (.69), per capita cost of instruc¬ tion (.51), and percent of total enrollment in high school (.30). Similarly, gross farm income per capita of the rural-farm popu¬ lation is positively correlated with average salary of white teach- TABLE 1. — Correlation of Specified Indices of Quality of Instruction IN White Schools, 1936-37, with Selected Economic and Social Indices for Virginia Counties. item Average salary of white teachers Per capita cost of instruction ( white ) Percent of total white school enroll¬ ment in high school Replacement index (white) ^ . —.52 —.67 —.74 Per capita wealth (total) . .69 .51 .30 Gross farm income per capita (total).... Percent of white farm workers with .41 .25 —.032 marginal incomes . —.35 —.59 —.61 Percent Negro . .44 .68 .70 ^Based on ratio of children under 5 per 1000 women 20-44 years of age in 1930 census. ^Not significant. TABLE 2. — Correlation of Specified Indices of Quality of Instruction IN Negro Schools, 1936-37, with Selected Economic and Social Indices for Virginia Counties. ITEM Average salary of Negro teachers, 1936-1937 Percent of total Negro school enroll¬ ment in high school Replacement index ( Negro )i . —.54 —.46 Per capita, wealth (total) . .48 .182 Gross farm income per capita (total) . .24 .063 Percent of Negro farm workers with marginal incomes . .32 .34 Percent Negro . —.42 —.37 ^Based on ratio of children under 5 per 1000 women 20-44 years of age in 1930 census. “Doubtful significance. ^Not significant. 86 ers and white per capita cost of instruction (Table 1). On the other hand, counties with meager economic resources are unable to maintain as adequate schools even though they spend a larger proportion of their total taxes on education. Studies carried on by the Division of Rural Sociology of the Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station^ have demonstrated that low income and marginal status are frequently associated with low educational achievements. There is a significant nega¬ tive correlation between the percentage of white farm workers with marginal incomes and each of the indices of quality of in¬ struction in white schools. The highest negative correlation is with the percentage of total white school enrollment in high school (correlation coefficient of — ^.61) . These data indicate that the poorest opportunity for education is provided in the counties where the largest proportion of rural families have marginal incomes. This explains, to some extent, why it is so difficult for many of the marginal group to improve their economic and social status. Contrary to what might be expected, the best schools for white children and poorest schools for the Negroes tend to be found in counties with the largest Negro population. The per¬ cent Negro is positively correlated with the indices of quality of instruction in white schools (Tables 1 and 2). This is in part a reflection of the higher social status of whites in counties where there is a large Negro population. Fewer whites are found to be engaged in common labor as compared with areas which are pre¬ dominantly white. Similarly, relatively few Negroes obtain posi¬ tions in skilled, business and professional occupations in such areas. Since all groups expect most Negroes to engage in rela¬ tively unskilled work, high school training is not considered necessary. Similarly, in sections of the State where Negroes are relatively few in numbers a low social status is accepted for the poorer whites both by themselves and by social-economic groups higher in the scale. The quality of instruction for Negroes is influenced by social and economic factors somewhat differently than is the case for whites. However, counties with the highest fertility rate for Negroes and the lowest per capita wealth tend to have the poor¬ est schools. The fact that the counties with the highest propor¬ tion of Negro farm workers with marginal incomes do not have the poorest schools, indicates that other than economic factors are involved in determining the quality of education for that race. Leadership of both of the races and the social attitudes more adequate discussion of education as related to the problem of marginal people will appear in a forthcoming bulletin, “Virginia’s Marginal Population, A Study of Factors Associated with Rural Poverty and Re¬ lated Population Trends,” by the Division of Rural Sociology, Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station. 87 toward Negro education are involved as well as the financial ability to support schools. A growing realization of the inter¬ dependence of the two races and a more favorable attitude to¬ ward adequate education for Negroes is equally as important as economic resources in improving educational opportunities for that race. The yearly expenditure for education per child aged 5 to 17 years in Virginia is $28, or less than one-half the national aver¬ age of $58.“ This low expenditure for education is partly a re¬ sult of low tax resources. For example, Virginia has tax re¬ sources of only $73 per child as compared to $155 for all states according to Newcomer.^ But limited resources is not the only reason for the low expenditures in Virginia since it is estimated that at least 36 states expend a larger proportion of their tax resources on education than does Virginia.^ These facts would indicate that Virginia might well spend a greater amount on education but that Federal aid would be necessary if the educa¬ tional system is to be brought up to the average for the entire country. Significance of Educational Opportunity The fact that counties with the highest fertility rates and the largest proportion of white farm workers with marginal incomes tend to have the poorest white schools, constitutes a challenge to the people of the State. These counties also have relatively small economic resources, entirely inadequate to pro¬ vide schools of as good quality-as already exist in more favored areas. Thus, the existing inequalities in education cannot be eradicated through efforts of local units of government alone. Aid from State and Federal governments is necessary to estab¬ lish adequate schools in those counties of the State with the largest number of children of school age and the smallest re¬ sources with which to provide schools. Efforts to improve Negro schools appear to be most needed in areas where they are most concentrated. For Negroes, as for whites, education is needed to develop useful workers in our economac system. Incre'asing opportuniities for employment along with proper vocational training is an urgent problem if they are to remain self-supporting members of our society. ^The Problems of a Changing Population, National Resources Commit¬ tee, Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C., 1938. Page 218. ^Ihid., Page 218. Chism estimates $132 for Virginia as compared to $215 for the Nation as a whole. Thirty-nine states have tax resources greater than Virginia according to Newcomer; while according to Chism thirty-seven states have tax resources per child greater than Virginia. Page 218. This estimate is according to Newcomer. Chism esti¬ mates that forty-five states spend a larger proportion of their tax resources on education than does Virginia. 88 The justification of such aid, from the point of view of self interest, lies in the fact that it is those counties which most need help in educating their children, who will furnish the largest number of migrants to other parts of Virginia as well as to other states. Unless educational inequalities, now existing in the State, are equalized, education will tend to become an instrument for the creation of further inequalities, rather than a means of preserving the democratic ideal of equal opportunity for all. It is apparent from the facts presented above that not all children are given the essentials of training which will enable them to participate effectively in the culture in which they live. More¬ over, our high crime rate constitutes additional evidence that many children do not make a socially acceptable adjustment to their environment. The responsibility for remedying this situa¬ tion must rest in large measure upon our educational system. Large families, poor educational facilities and low standards of living constitute a vicious circle. Perhaps the most effective way to break this circle is to improve the educational facilities. TABLE A. — ^Indices of Quality of Instruction, 1936-37, and Specified Social and Economic Indices of Virginia Counties. Sub-Region and County Average teachers’ salary (U Pet. total enrollment in H, S. (U Replace¬ ment index (2) Pet. farm workers with marginal incomes (3) Assessed value per capita (U Pet. Negro (°) QJ o L M 0) 1 . i’it •1 ’ v’ ‘' ft ' '■ ' • ■•’‘■‘ 1 ■; ■ •/". . y, l^n^/ f ' W);.» ^v'fc ^ 1 . , .V'' t’ t •171 7. r kTfe-u^ i; A.1 1 ^ •5> 1-, • '■ ' ‘■ft '■■ ■ . '■'tr' V i r A ., . r N JVvrv'V'lj m::-. . iv:/., i ..■i',.. .:i ^.iSiW.''. ■ '•<. 1 f i Uffl , •...: r.'irk^mor^ u:." ..../■ ;■. r^‘ . .’*7 '4*'’ ,., .. . • -Vi. •n . .. . .-•;,«« At; •»;’ y-* '4’, .],. . . >'■ .7-; . ,..r*,;.V' ! l'T'i.."'/ T) .• : iff' .\'?)f|(01tf’M - ! .f 'ey ‘-■‘.v' ’ ; t, :' V '".i/J- . ., ', ^ ' c-. -• "•!>!, .'U; - !it*rr> ''. .,’■4 '❖/’I • iT. : ivvi ' ....... .■'►;!;U:r ,.• .f /i: -'Si!!?'’'' '• "■ .v .'^isV , vi5.o{rtrf'>\^‘'i' . , v,);}’- • r- ?: jr^*/ i *' •,%■ ■'" ,;...- '7 ^ *'A'4- .•V'^7 M c!'m V': .' % 2 The Virginia Journal of Science CONTENTS PAGE Second Symposium on Organic Analytical Reagents — John H. Yoe . 121 A Summary Report of 500 Organic Compounds^ — W. J. Frierson.... . 123 Progress Report on Organic Analytical Research at Virginia Poly¬ technic Institute— -F. H. Fish, J. R. Noell, and B. H. Kemp . . 125 A Study of the Reaction Between 2-Acetamino-6-aminobenzo-thiazole and Iridium — J. R. Noell and F. H. Fish.... . . . . . . . 126 Solubility of the Alkaline Earth Salts of Some of the Higher Fatty Acids — B. H. Kemp and F. H. Fish..... . . . . . . 127 A Summary Report on 100 Organic Compounds— -Margaret B. Keller, Eugenia S. Vance, Mary B. Pollock, Betty Bailey, Mary F. Cline, Ann Atwell, and William E. Trout, Jr. .. . . . 130 A Progress Report— A. R. Armstrong . . . . . 130 A Progress Report— William 0. Swan . . . . . 130 A Progress Report— Ira A. Updike, J. T. Ashworth, Jr., and B. M. Keys........... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 Summary Report of Progress— J. Robert Taylor . . . 131 Valence Theories Applied to Some Organic -Metallic Complex Com¬ pounds — ^James W. Cole...... . . . . . . . . . . 132 The Relation of Some Chelating Reagents to the Periodic Arrange¬ ment of Metals— J. Robert Taylor . . . . . . . . . 145 Oximes in Analytical Chemistry— Alfred Burger . . . 156 The Application of a New Class of Organic Reagents to the Detec¬ tion and Determination of Palladium— Lyle G. Oyerholser and John H. Yoe........ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162 Published by The Virginia Academy of Science Monthly, except June, July, August and September at Lexington, Virginia. The Virginia Journal of Science Official journal of the VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE WoRTLEY F. Rudd, President, Medical College of Virginia, Richmond, Va, E. C. L. Miller, Secretary-Treasurer, Medical College of Virginia, Rich¬ mond, Va. Sidney S. Negus, Assistant Secretary -Treasurer, Medical College of Vir¬ ginia, Richmond, Va. COUNCIL 1940-41 Regular Ex-Officio W. Catesby Jones . . . 1941 D. Maurice Allan . . . 1941 Charles E. Myers..... . . ...1942 Earle B. Norris................ ..........1942 Preston Edwards . . . 1948 Ruskin S. Freer . . . . .1943 Marcellus H. Stow . . 1944 WoRTLEY F. Rudd.... . . . 1944 H. H. Zimmerley..... . . 1945 George W. Jeffers.......... . 1945 EDITORIAL BOARD Editor-in-Chief — Ruskin S. Freer, Lynchburg College, Lynchburg, Va. Managing Editor — Lt.-Col. Robert P. Carroll, Virginia Military Institute, Lexington, Va. S. A. Mitchell— -A strowow^/ C. L. Albright— G. W. Jeffers — Biology John W. W -Chemistry John Alex. Rorer — Education Albert H. Cooper- — Engineering Edward C. H. Lammers — Geology Carl C. Medicine R. S. Henneman — Psychology Entered as second-class matter February 20, 1940, at the post office at Lexington, Virginia, under the Act of March 3, 1879. Subscription — $1.00 per volume to members of the Virginia Academy of Science; $2.00 per vol¬ ume to others. Published at Lexington, Virginia. The Virginia Journal of Science VoL. I OCTOBER, 1940 No. 6 Virginia Academy of Science Lexington, Virginia May 2-4, 1940 Second Symposium on Organic Analytical Reagents Introduction John H. Yoe According to the periodic classification there are ninety-two chemical elements ; the existence of about ninety of these is now well established. The chief object of the research worker in ana¬ lytical chemistry is the discovery and development of new and more highly sensitive methods for the detection and determina¬ tion of the chemical elements and their compounds. Such studies have important applications in chemistry and chemical industry, as well as in the various medical, biological, and geological sciences. By far the most promising field for new and better analytical reagents is among the vast number and variety of organic compounds. Much experimental work is needed to estab¬ lish the relationship between the molecular structure of organic compounds and their analytical reactions. When a new reaction is discovered it is then necessary to make an extensive investiga¬ tion to determine its nature, limits of accuracy, its sensitivity, optimum conditions for its use, the interference of various ions, etc. The chemical laboratory at the University of Virginia is especially well equipped with material suitable for research in analytical chemistry. Over a period of years, we have collected cornpounds of practically all the chemical elements, many of which are extremely rare and difficult to obtain in the high de¬ gree of purity required for research work. There are also avail¬ able in the University laboratory several thousand organic com¬ pounds, including many rare ones. Most of these have been sup¬ plied gratis by several chemical firms. Each organic compound selected as a possible new analytical reagent is studied by spot- plate reactions with standard solutions of ions of the various 121 elements under a variety of experimental conditions. About 160 separate tests are made with each organic compound, and to-date over 3000 have been studied, a number of which give promise of being useful as highly sensitive reagents for certain chemical elements. About two years ago several colleges in the state signified their interest in co-operating with the University in these analyti¬ cal chemistry investigations. A little later, other state institu¬ tions joined in the work. Those now co-operating are: Prof. W, J. Frierson, Hampden-Sydney College ; Prof. L. J. Desha and Mr. J. R. Taylor, Washington and Lee University ; Profs. J, W. Wat¬ son and F. H. Fish, Virginia Polytechnic Institute; Prof. I. A. Updike, Randolph-Macon College (Ashland) ; Prof. W. E. Trout, Mary Baldwin College; Prof. A. R. Armstrong, College of Wil¬ liam and Mary; and Col, W. 0. Swan, Virginia Military Institute. Last fall Tulane University joined our group and this spring the University of North Carolina was added. Investigations at Tulane are under the direction of Professor Thomas B. Crumpler ; those at North Carolina are under Professor Edwin C. Markham. The work of the various investigators is co-ordinated at the Univer¬ sity of Virginia under the direction of Professor Yoe. During the past two years he has been assisted with the experimental analytical work by Dr. Lyle G. Overholser, who received the Ph.D. degree in analytical chemistry at the University of Minne¬ sota in 1938. Dr. Alfred Burger, assistant professor of chem¬ istry at the University, is assisting in the preparation and study of certain organic compounds to be used in this work. Dr. James W. Cole, assistant professor of chemistry at the University, is interested in the reactions of these compounds from the stand¬ point of valence. Each co-operating institution is supplied by the University of Virginia with the organic compounds to be investigated. Since a micro-technic is employed, only small quantities are required. This opens up still another promising field of work, name¬ ly, the use of organic compounds as concentrating reagents for 'Trace elements’^ in spectrographic analysis and studies. Thus, by means of organic compounds that react selectively with cer¬ tain elements to form slightly soluble precipitates, it should be possible to extend greatly the range of the spectrograph. In this way it will be possible to detect and measure quantitatively ele¬ ments at concentrations far below the spectrographic limit, when analyses are made without previously concentrating selectively the constituent in question. This phase of the work has been taken up by Dr. Oskar Baudisch, Research Director at the New York State Research Institute, Saratoga Springs, N. Y. During the past year a new colorimetric method for palladium has been completed, which makes it possible to measure minute 122 amounts of this element down to 1 part in 300 million parts of -solution. There are satisfactory methods available for determin¬ ing relatively large amounts of palladium, but the accurate mea¬ surement of traces of this element presents a difficult problem to the analyst, and no satisfactory colorimetric method has been re¬ ported previously. Our new method will find application in analy¬ ses and studies of the platinum group metals and their alloys, and in other investigations requiring a highly sensitive and accu¬ rate method for traces of palladium. This afternoon Dr. Overholser will report upon the discovery of several additional new colorimetric reagents for palladium. Structurally, these organic compounds are similar to the one em¬ ployed in the new method, and in some respects they are better. Thus, these compounds form a new class of organic reagents that is specific for palladium under the experimental conditions of the procedure. At the Academy meeting in Danville last May our first sym¬ posium on organic analytical reagents was held. So successful was this that it seemed desirable to bring the co-operating group together for a second symposium during the Academy of Science meeting at Lexington. The purpose of these symposia are three¬ fold: (1) To offer an opportunity for the presentation and dis¬ cussion of progress reports from the co-operating institutions, (2) to present in some detail certain topics of special interest to workers in the field of organic analytical reagent research, and (3) to acquaint members of the chemistry section with recent trends and developments in the use of organic compounds in in¬ organic analysis. It is hoped that this co-operative effort will lead to a better knowledge of the relationship between the struc¬ ture of organic molecules and their reactivity as analytical re¬ agents, and that new specific and more highly sensitive reagents will be discovered. University of Virginia. A Summary Report on 500 Organic Compounds W. J. Frierson At Hampden-Sydney we have completed tests on five hundred organic compounds, three hundred of which were run this year and two hundred last year. A total of about eight hundred reac¬ tions were recorded with sixty-five of the seventy-seven ions tested. A majority of the reactions, however, were found to occur with a small number of the metallic ions. Among those reacting most frequently were: gold, 103 reactions; osmium, 90; ferric 123 iron, 77 ; copper, 67 ; vanadium, 50 ; silver, 46 ; and nickel, 34. Many of these reactions are oxidation-reductions. No attempt was made to select any particular type of organic compound for study, but those investigated included a number in each of several different types. The reactions obtained with, these compounds are as follows : Type Number Tested Number Reacting Napthalenes . 26 14 Toluenes . 14 3 Glycollic acids . 25 16 Benzanthrones . 15 1 Anthraquinones . 40 10 Benzoic acids . 18 3 Among the compounds reacting, the groups most frequently present were the amino, hydroxyl, and sulfonic acid. A number of sensitivity tests were made, but with the excep¬ tion of gold, only a few gave a sensitivity better than one part in a million. The following reactions seem promising and worth further investigation : (1) Dimethyl aniline bromide with gold gives a sky blue color, changing after a few minutes through a light green to tan. The reaction is sensitive to one part in fifteen million. (2) 2-Hydroxy-5-mercapto benzoic acid gives a purple color with iron (ic) ; sensitive to one part in a million; and a yellow color with palladium sensitive to one part in two millions. (3) 3,3'-Di-isopropyl benzidine gives a pink color with gold, sensitive to one part in fifteen millions. (4) 4-Amino-3-methyl phenyl morpholine gives a purple color with osmium, sensitive to one part in a million ; and a pink color with gold, sensitive to one part in thirty millions. This reagent also reacts with chromium, copper, iron, platinum, and silver; all except osmium giving about the same shade of pink which seemed to be due to an oxidation product of the compound. Only one other morpholine was tested, and it gave the same shade of pink with gold as that obtained with 4-amino-3-methyl phenyl morpholine, but the formier was much less sensitive. Hampden-Sydney College. 124 Progress Report on Organic Analytical Research at Virginia Polytechnic Institute F. H. Fish, J. R. Noell, and B. H. Kemp Of the two hundred organic compounds tested at the Virginia Polytechnic Institute, sixty-six gave colored solutions or precipi¬ tates. The majority of these reactions, however, are of little im¬ portance from the standpoint of Analytical Chemistry. Ferric iron was the most reactive of the seventy-six ions included in the test, but only one reaction with ferric ions warranted a more de¬ tailed investigation. The organic compounds investigated to-date, or will be in¬ vestigated later, are : 1. Oleic acid as a precipitant for calcium, barium, and stron¬ tium. A report of this work is given in the Symposium under title : 'The Solubility of the Alkaline Earth Salts of the Higher Fatty Acids''. 2. 2-Acetamino-6-aminobenzothiazole as a reagent for irid¬ ium. The report on this compound is given under the title: "A Study of the Reaction Between 2-Acetamino-6-laminobenzothia- zole and Iridium". 3. 2-Hydroxy-3-nitro-5-sulphobenzoic acid as a colorimetric reagent for ferric iron. This reaction was found to be less sensi¬ tive than several others already employed for ferric iron. 4. Mercapto benzothiazole as a reagent for palladium. This is sensitive to 1 part of palladium in 1 million parts of solution. Overholser and Yoe, however, have discovered several tests for palladium that are much more sensitive than this one. These tests are reported in this Symposium. 5. 4-4'-Diguanidino-3-3'-dimethoxy biphenyl di-hydrochloride as a qualitative reagent for iridium. This compound gives a pink color with iridium which fades almost immediately with the formation of a brown precipitate. No other element was found to react with this substance. A further study is being made. Virginia Polytechnic Institute. 125 A Study of the Reaction Between 2-Acetamino-6-amino- benzo-thiazole and Iridium J. R. Noell and F. H. Fish During the investigation of organic compounds as possible new reagents in inorganic analysis, B. H. Kemp of the Virginia Polytechnic Institute found that 2-acetamino-6-aminobenzothia- zole gave a purplish brown colored precipitate with a solution of chloroiridic acid. Due to the fact that iridium is very difficult to separate from the other members of the platinum group, and that methods of testing for iridium are usually long tedious pro¬ cedures, it was thought that this reaction was worthy of further study. After studying the reaction and the color produced by it, it was found that the iridium ion, so highly colored itself, interferes very seriously with the detection of a color change in dilute solu¬ tions of chloroiridic acid and reagent. There is a slight difference in the color of a solution containing 0.15 mg. of Ir+^ reagent per 100 ml. of solution and that of distilled water. This solution of iridium and reagent has the same color intensity as a 100 ml. solution containing 0.15 mg. of Ir+^. When the concentration of the iridium ion is increased by 0.1 mg. per 100 ml. of solution, no difference in color can be detected. There are three ions that react with the reagent other than iridium, namely, ferric iron, ruthenium, and palladium. Pal¬ ladium does not interfere with the color produced by iridium as the color of the former is a very pale yellow. Ferric iron and ruthenium give dark brown precipitates very similar to the pre¬ cipitate produced by iridium. Hence these ions must be removed before the test for iridium can be made. A method which proved successful in the separation of ruthenium consists in treating the solution of ruthenium and iridium chlorides with potassium car¬ bonate and potassium nitrite. The solution is taken to dryness and the residue is covered with alcohol. The alcohol dissolves the ruthenium but not the iridium. The residue is treated with HCl until acid and the organic reagent then added to test for iridium. Iridium must be present in as much as 0.02 mg. per ml. for a definite test. No method of separating ferric iron was successful. It could not be separated as the hydroxide, due to the fact that if a solu¬ tion of chloroiridic acid is made alkaline with NH4OH and then made acid with HCl no test for iridium could be obtained. Re¬ ducing agents could not be used since all that reduce ferric iron also reduce iridium, and trivalent iridium does not give a colored solution or precipitate with the organic reagent. Virginia Polytechnic Institute. 126 Solubility of the Alkaline Earth Salts of Some of the Higher Fatty Acids B. H. Kemp and F. H. Fish This investigation was made in connection with the search for new organic analytical reagents. During the course of our work, it was observed that the elements of the alkaline earth group gave precipitates with oleic acid, but only a very slight turbid suspension with stearic acid, when aqueous solutions of the chlo¬ ride of the metals were treated with 48 per cent alcoholic solu¬ tions of these acids. This suggested that there was a difference in the solubilities of the alkaline earth salts of the higher fatty acids, as well as a difference in the solubility of the salts of the same acid. The utility of such a difference should serve a very useful purpose in the quantitative separation and estimation of the fatty acids. Lewkowitsch states : “A systematic study of the metallic soaps and their solubilities in the ‘usual solvents is great¬ ly desired; and an investigation should well repay the time re¬ quired for it, as new methods of separating fatty acids could be elaborated’'.^ In spite of the many uses, both singly and in mixtures, there is a great lack of information on the pure compounds. The litera¬ ture contains discrepancies in some cases, while in others, no information whatever is available. The work herein reported was inaugurated to prepare the pure normal salts or soaps of the alkaline earth metals and to determine their solubilities. The only suitable method for the preparation of these salts was double decomposition from aqueous-alcoholic solution, using the chloride of the metal and an alkali salt of the fatty acid. The pure acids were obtained from A. Diagger & Co., and Eimer & Amend. The salts of the alkaline earth metals were Merck’s C. P. quality. The solvents were absolute alcohol, absolute ether^ commercial benzene, and distilled water. To determine the solubility, an excess of the metallic salt was added to the solvent in a 50 ml. wide mouth bottle, stoppered, and placed in a constant temperature bath, 25° C. ± 0.2°, for 24 hours. A measured volume of the saturated solution was with¬ drawn with a pipet, evaporated, dried, and weighed. The results are shown in the table. Table of Solubilities Solubilities of the calcium, strontium, and barium salts of stearic, oleic, linoleic, and linolenic acids expressed in grams per 100 ml. of solution at 25° C. iLewkowitsch, J. I., “Chemical Technology and Analysis of Oils, Fats, and Waxes”, Vol. 1, p. 140. Macmillan & Co., London, 1912. 127 Ethyl Metal Acid Water Alcohol Ether Benzene Stearic . . 0.0014 0.0112 0.0030 0.0180 Calcium Oleic . . 0.0657 0.0166 0.0444 0.0414 Linoleic . . 0.0348 0.0610 0.0122 0.0352 Linolenic . . 0.0386 0.0784 0.0244 0.0334 Stearic . . 0.0018 0.0116 0.0130 0.0170 Strontium Oleic . . 0.0268 0.0478 0.0268 0.0170 Linoleic . . 0.0164 0.0416 0.0112 0.0192 Linolenic . . 0.0268 0.0562 0.0544 0.0838 Stearic . . 0.0014 0.0084 0.0014 0.0078 Barium Oleic . . 0.0196 0.0688 0.0112 0.0274 Linoleic . . 0.0276 0.0494 0.0386 0.0296 Linolenic . . 0.0234 0.0230 0.0126 0.0182 Physical Properties of the Alkaline Earth Salts OF Certain Higher Fatty Acids Calcium Stearate — Fine, fluffy, talc-like powder, easily ground, and has no odor. Oleate — Girayish-white to a yellowish powder, slightly greasy to touch, and has odor of oleic acid. On standing, over calcium chloride, it changes to a semi-opaque, glassy, wax-like mass. Linolate — Yellowish-white powder, slightly waxy. It will not grind to a loose powder, but tends to lump. Odor of fatty acid. Linolenate — Fine, creamy-white powder, easily ground, and has a very slight odor. Strontium Stearate — Chalky- white, fluffy powder, smooth and talc-like to touch. No odor. Oleate — Fine, creamy-white powder, slippery to touch. On standing changes to a semi-plastic yellowish, waxy mass. Rancid odor. Linolate — Creamy- white, granular, and slippery to touch. Very slight fatty acid odor. Linolenate — Yellowish, granular powder. Tacky to the touch, and on grinding tends to lump slightly. Barium Stearate — White, fluffy, amorphous powder. Talc-like to the touch. Grinds easily and has no odor. 'Oleate — White, granular powder. Tends to lump slightly on grinding. Slight fatty acid odor. Linolate — Creamy-white, talc-like powder. Grinds easily and has very slight odor. Linolenate — White, granular powder. Slightly tacky. Tends to clump slightly on grinding. Very little odor. Discussion The solubility determinations were run in duplicate of 25 ml. The variation in the duplicate runs was of the order of 0.4 mg. to 2 mg. Only freshly prepared salts were used. 128 The instability of the salts of oleic acid is probably due either to its ease of hydrolysis or to some intermolecular change taking place. The latter seems to be the most logical, since these salts undergo a similar change even when moisture and atmospheric oxygen are excluded. The tacky and plastic nature of many of the salts seems to be associated with their water content. When the water content is completely removed, the salts lose, to a great degree, their plastic and waxy nature, especially the linolates. These properties, how¬ ever, do not seem to be associated with the degree of unsatura¬ tion of the fatty acid from which the salts were prepared. There is a gradual decrease in the solubility of the corre¬ sponding calcium, strontium, and barium salts of stearic, oleic, linoleic, and linolenic acids in the solvents, water, and absolute ethyl alcohol. A decrease in the solubility of the corresponding salts of these acds with an increase in molecular weight, from calcium to barium, is not as consistent in the case of absolute ether and benzene as solvents. The oleates of calcium, strontium, and barium are more solu¬ ble in water, ethyl alcohol, ether, and benzene than are the corre¬ sponding stearates, linolates, and linolenates. The stearates of calcium, barium, and strontium are the least soluble in water, ethyl alcohol, ether, and benzene. The alkaline earth salts of stearic, oleic, linoleic, and linolenic acids are more soluble in absolute ethyl alcohol than in absolute ether, benzene, or water. Summary It has been shown that there is very little difference in the solubilities of the alkaline earth salts of stearic, oleic, linoleic, and linolenic acids in the solvents, water, benzene, absolute ethyl alcohol, and absolute ether. The solubility of the alkaline earth salts of these acids increases slightly with unsaturation, but this increase is not entirely a function of the degree of unsaturation. Virginia Polytechnic Institute 129 A Summary Report on 100' Organic Compounds Margaret B. Keller, Eugenia S. Vance, Mary B, Pollock, Betty Bailey, Mary F. Cline, Ann Atwell, AND William E. Trout, Jr. The compounds investigated were selected by Dr. John H. Yoe from the stock of E. I. du Pont de Nemours and Company. No reactions of apparent significance in analysis are to be re¬ ported at this time. Acetoacetyl-p-anisidine produced a specific teal-blue precipitate with Fe+^. 2-(4-Aminobenzoyl-amino)-4- aminotoluene gave a pink precipitate with Ce+^. 2- (4- Amino- benzoyl )-m-phenylenediamine reacted with Ce+^ and Pt+^. Of eight substituted thioureas investigated, seven reacted with Ag+, six with Pd+2 and Hg2+^, and five with Pt+‘^ and Cu^^, None of these reactions was very sensitive. The investigation of 2,4-dihydroxybenzoic acid (^-resorcylic acid) as a colorimetric reagent for ferric iron is being continued. Mary Baldwin College. A Progress Report A. R. Armstrong The one hundred compounds run here appear to have no value as organic analytical reagents. Two show some promise as acid- base indicators. As the number of compounds studied is small, no attempt has been made to correlate the structure with the colors or precipi¬ tates observed. It is expected that student participation in the project during the coming year will greatly increase the number of compounds studied. College of William and Mary. A Progress Report William 0. Swan Most of the time devoted to Organic Analytical Reagent re¬ search during the past year at the Virginia Military Institute has been spent in the preparation of a set of standard test solu¬ tions of the various inorganic ions™-about eighty in number. These solutions are now prepared and work has been started on the testing of organic compounds, one hundred of which are on hand. Virginia Military Institute. 130 A Progress Report Ira a. Updike, J. T. Ashworth, Jr., and B. M. Keys Considerable time was consumed this year in preparing the standard ion-solutions and, in consequence, relatively few organic compounds were investigated. Two compounds, however, proved to be sufficiently reactive as to excite our interest and a further study of them is being made. The compounds are : (1) Para-anisidine sulfate which gave a deep purple color with auric ions that does not fade in several hours. (2) Dibromo-2-anilino benzanthrone sodium sulfonate which gave yellow colors or precipitates with the rare earths, iron, nickel, magnesium, and barium. Calcium and stron¬ tium do not give color reactions or precipitates and hence this compound may be useful as a qualitative test for barium. Randolph-Macon College. Summary Report of Progress J. Robert Taylor About 160 organic compounds have been tested by the regular procedure at Washington and Lee University. The results are tabulated below ; compounds are grouped according to the active function ; the number of compounds giving colors or precipitates with each ion is given : Compounds 19 Phenols . 4 Amino phenols.. 37 Amines . 52 Acids, esters, and quinones 17 Thiazoles . 15 Amides . 6 Thioureas . 4 Mercaptans . 3 P3n:’azoles . Specific reactions of considerable sensitivity were given by l-hydroxy-2-naphthoic acid, 3-methyl salicylate, diiodo-dihydroxy benzophenone sulfonic acid, and nitro-salicylic acid with ferric ion ; by 4,4'-diacetylamino s^m-diphenyl thiourea with palladium ; by p~amino-p'-ethoxy-diphenylamine-o-.sulfonic acid with plati¬ num; and by 4,4'-dimethyl 3,3'-dinitro si/m-diphenyl thiourea with copper and with ammoniacal silver. Washington and Lee University. 131 Valence Theories Applied to Some Organic-Metallic Complex Compounds James W. Cole The purpose of this paper is to review briefly some valence theories and to show applications of recent theories to several org^ano-metallic compounds oontaining- chelated rings. Aside from the value of compounds formed from metals and organic radicals as analytical and concentrating assistants, such com¬ pounds have been of increasing importance to the theoretical chemist. Knowledge of the nature of binding forces in these compounds will contribute much toward an ultimate understand¬ ing of the illusive subject of valence. In the middle of the nineteenth century, we find the belief that molecules were formed from atoms held together by hooks. Each atom was thought to have a definite number of hooks, which number Frankland called the valence of the atom. The rise of organic chemistry gave tremendous support to the hook concept which, in effect, graduated to the bond theory. Every atom was imagined to have a definite number of valence bonds and com¬ pounds were thought to result when all bonds were satisfied. Variable valences did not worry the organic investigators whose main desires were to make new compounds and to establish structural formulae which showed probable relationships among the atoms on the basis of the bond theory. During the latter part of the nineteenth century, a strong line of demarcation arose between the organic chemist and the inor¬ ganic chemist. The inorganic chemists found many compounds such as peroxides, alums, and complex amines which did not readily lend themselves to explanation on the basis of the valence bond theory. The term ‘'ordinary, or classical, valence'' appears to be connected with the concept of a valence bond in a definite direction without any explanation of what the bond might be composed. With the publication in 1893 by Alfred Werner (1) of the work on the complex amines of cobalt and platinum, we find some new terms applied to chemical binding. In speaking of the com¬ pound, hexammine cobaltic chloride [Co(NH3)6]Cl3, Werner stated that in addition to the “primary valence" of cobalt, i. e., the valence between cobalt and chlorine (ordinary valence) , there is a “secondary valence" of cobalt which causes six molecules of ammonia to combine to form the complex compound. Similarly, the terms “principal" and “auxiliary valence" have been applied to the two forms of combination. Werner also gave us the term “coordination number" to represent the number of groups at¬ tached by secondary valence. The term “coordinated valence 132 bond’’ was also applied to secondary valence and much use has been made of Werner’s coordination theory when dealing with complex compounds. With the establishment of the nuclear atomic theory by Lord Rutherford and others, it was natural for investigators to seek new explanations for valence in terms of nuclei and extra nuclei electrons. In 1916, G. N. Lewis (2) in America and W. Kossel (3) in Germany announced, almost simultaneously, valence the¬ ories which were remarkably similar. The essential idea in these theories (4) lies in the assumption that the extra nuclear elec¬ trons are responsible for chemical properties of the atoms. These investigators further postulated that the arrangement of elec¬ trons in the rare gases was peculiarly stable and that the atoms would gain, lose, or share electrons in order to- have the same number and arrangement of extra nuclear electrons as the near¬ est rare gas. Following the original work of Lewis and Kossel, Abegg, Langmuir, Sidgwick (5), and others took up the study of valence from the electronic standpoint. It became apparent that there were at least two different kinds of chemical combination based on electron arrangements. The terms polar and non-polar were loosely applied to cover two limiting types of binding. A polar bond (sometimes called hetereopolar) was said to result from electrostatic attraction between two charged ions. Such a condition is attained when one atom has one or more electrons which are relatively easily removed, while the other atom has a considerable tendency to add one or more electrons. The usual textbook example of this type of valence is sodium chloride. Many writers have called this type an ''ordinary valence bond”. This is not correct when one considers that x-ray studies (6), (7), (8) show that in the sodium chloride crystal no molecules exist, but only sodium ions, Na+, and chloride ions, Cl“. The natural elec¬ trostatic attraction between these ions apparently causes the formation of the well-known cubic crystal structure in which each ion is surrounded by six ions of opposite charge at unit distance. More recently, and more properly, compounds in which the units are ions and the forces purely electrostatic have been term¬ ed ionic compounds and the valence called ionic valence or electro- valence. The second general type of valence according to Lewis, Lang¬ muir, Sidgwick, and others (5a) arises when two atoms have nearly equal tendencies to lose or gain electrons. When two atoms of the same kind combine the situation is ideal. Lewis (2) in 1916, speaking of this type of valence bond, stated that a pair of electrons formed the valence bond and that the electrons ar¬ ranged themselves about the atomic nuclei in a stable arrange¬ ment, the stable arrangement being an octet similar to the rare gas nearest to the element in the periodic system. 133 Lewis and Sidgwick (5b) pointed out that an electron pair bond might arise in two ways. An electron might come from either atom as shown by H 4H. + -C - > H:C:H H or both electrons might come from the same atom, H H:N: + H+ — » H H H:N:H+ H (The dots represent elec¬ trons in the valence shell.) Jn the latter case, the nitrogen atom is said, by Sidgwick, to be the donor and the proton to be the acceptor. In the final analysis, it is immaterial from which atom or atoms the electrons come as long as the pair is the bonding means. Sidgwick further pointed out that in cases of certain ions, one of the electrons may have been furnished by an atom that is no longer present. A typical example would be an acid radical, e. g., :C1:, combining with a solid such as AgCl to form a complex ion. :C1: + Ag:Cl: The terms ‘‘homopolar’^ ''non-polar’^ and “covalent'’ have been applied to the case of bonding between two atoms when each atom contributes an electron to the pair. The terms “semi-polar'', “coordination", “coordinated covalent", and “dative" have been applied to the bond formed when one atom acts as a donor of the electron pair and the other acts as an acceptor. To eliminate illusive terminology the term “covalent" should be consistently applied to describe any bond resulting from a pair of shared electrons since after the bond is formed, the mechanism of forma¬ tion need not necessarily be shown in the formula for the com¬ pound. If it is desired to stress the fact that donation of a shared pair has taken place in the formation of a compound, the term “dative bond” may be used. Since much usage has been made of the arrow in the chemical literature, it appears desirable to show several methods of writ¬ ing the structural formula for a Werner complex compound (1). Using hexammine cobaltic chloride, we may write: (see next page) Formula I is sufficiently descriptive if we recognize that the 6 molecules of ammonia are attached by electron pairs donated to the cobaltic ion hy nitrogen. The parentheses simply indicate that this binding is covalent. On the other hand, the part in- 134 CoCNHs) I + + 4 ++4 NHs NH3 H3N 1 NHs H3N i NH3 \ / - \ ' / C13, Co 3 Cl, Co / \ / \ HsN t NH3 HsN 1 NH3 NH3 NH3 II III closed by brackets is a trivalent cation and the binding between it and the 3 chloride ions is caused by electrostatic forces, or ionic, or electrovalent forces. No increase in knowledge of the valence forces is gained in Formula II by employing arrows to indicate a donated pair of electrons. In III, where the dash rep¬ resents a shared pair, the value of such a formula lies in the representation of the octahedral grouping of the ammonia mole¬ cules about the central cobaltic ion. In II and III, the brackets inclose the cation and represent an ionic bond between the chlo¬ ride ions and the cation. The term ‘'coordination number” may be applied in these types of compounds to indicate the number of groups, atoms, or ions joined to the central ion, or atom, by covalent forces. Some further discussion of the terms “polar and non-polar” (9) appears desirable in view of considerable loose usage of the terms since they were suggested first by Bray and Branch in 1913 (10) and later elaborated by Lewis and others (4). These investigators attempted to classify many compounds according to the following properties : Polar Mobile High dielective Constant Reactive Association “Tautomer ism” Abnormal liquids Ionized High boiling point Ionizing solvents High melting point Immobile Inert Isomerism Not ionized NonrPolar Low dielectric Constant No association Normal liquids Low boiling point Not ionizing sol¬ vents Low melting point In considering these criteria, several points will at once be recognized. Each of these criteria cannot be applied in any given case. Every substance does not belong to one or other of the two 135 extreme types, and there will be many controversial compounds. Nevertheless, Lewis, Langmuir, Sidgwick, and others (4), (5) were able to roughly classify many inorganic and organic com¬ pounds as being either polar in which bonding is ionic, or non¬ polar in which bonding is covalent. It is probably in order to mention that recent usage (11) , (12) of the terms “polar molecules''^ and “non-polar molecules” has these terms applying to molecules possessing high and low dipole moments, respectively. Since the dipole moment is a measure of the net separation of positive and negative charges in a molecule, it is obvious that ionic bonding represents the extreme case of charge separation, while covalent bonding in a symmetrical mole¬ cule represents a case of no net separation of charges. The ex¬ istence of compounds with wide ranges in dipole moments indi¬ cates that the simple electronic theory of valence is by no means the final answer to valence. It is now necessary to consider briefly a different method of approach to the subject of valence. With the advent of the Bohr theory of energy levels in atoms and the application of quantum and wave mechanics to the treat¬ ment of the energy relationship in atoms and moleculeis, we find the beginning of an exact approach to the subject of valence. (12), (13), (14). Analysis of the spectra of many atoms and compounds has given the law of uniform atomic plan, and Pauli's Exclusion Prin¬ ciple (15) which designate each electron in terms of four quan¬ tum numbers. The discovery of the wave character of electrons by Davisson and Germer (16) gave experimental verification of the modern wave mechanics (17), which, from a broad point of view, treats the electrons as the most probable location of nega¬ tive charge. The energy associated with electrons may be handled by a wo.ve function. Each electron in an atom has its own wave function and when the wave functions of two electrons are prop¬ erly handled mathematically, probable locations of valence bonds may be determined. Such a treatment of the hydrogen molecule as a four body system (2 electrons and 2 nuclei) shows that the electron pair is a reasonably correct picture of a covalent bond. The term bond-eigenfunction has been applied to the combina¬ tion of individual electron wave function and the attainment of the so-called “proper eigenfunction” as a prediction of bond di¬ rection and stability may be considered to be a major triumph for the theoretical chemists. Following the original application of the quantum and wave mechanics to valency problems, we find several theories (18) ap¬ pearing with the idea of again giving a mechanical picture to a chemical bond. The essential thought among the recent theories is to relate the covalent bond with the energy relations among the electrons in the valence shell of an atom. 136 Following the system in which four quantum numbers are necessary to completely specify the energy of an electron, H'eitler and London in 1928 (18) proposed a theory which bears their name. The theory is based on the assumption that only electrons differing in the quantum number which designates the direction of electron spin can be paired to form a valence bond. In such a bond the electron spins are imagined to cancel each in order to act as a bond. The valence of an atom might, as a first approximation, be considered to be equal to the number of unpaired electrons in the valence shell, or to the number of electrons which might be unpaired without expenditure of too much energy. The so-called ''dative bond'' may be accounted for by assuming that electrons are promoted to high energy levels so that net pairing is the re¬ sult. This point of view, however, is speculative. Another recent theory of valence which has been useful in treatment of simple substances and promises to be more useful with complex compounds was proposed by Hund in 1928 and elaborated by Mulliken in 1931 and by Pauling (13), van Vleck, Sherman, Herzberg, Lenard- Jones, and others (19) over the period, 1930 to date. The general point of view is to consider the electronic orbits in the field of force produced by several centers of force and to lay stress upon the general electron con¬ figuration rather than the bonds between particular atoms. The terms bonding electrons and anti-bonding electrons are used ex¬ tensively by these investigators to describe valence electrons. As would be expected, the "field of force" theory requires consider¬ able mathematical support. When we consider the problems involved in the study of chemical bonding, even in the most simple substances, we ask ourselves what is valence anyway and what valence theory must I use? In attempting to answer these questions we must be rea¬ sonably certain with what we are dealing. This situation is, of course, complicated when we deal with solutions (20) , (21) , (22) because there is much evidence for solvation effects, especially in the case of aqueous solutions. The polar character of the water molecule qualitatively accounts for many of the so-called abnor¬ malities in aqueous solutions. This character apparently causes water to associate with most ions and in many cases definitely hydrated ions are formed. The charge or ionic valence number of a cation may not necessarily be the same in aqueous, solution as it is in a crystal. The existence of elementary ions with large positive charges (3 or more) is extremely doubtful when one considers the ionization potential necessary to remove 3 elec¬ trons. Other energy effects, however, such as lattice energies of ionic crystals, solvation energies, etc. must be considered. Just where the balance in energies lies is difficult to calculate in a simple manner. Nevertheless, the facts that hydration of cations 137 and polarization of anions increaseis with charge on the cation leads us to doubt qualitatively the existence of purely elementary ions in aqueous solutions with a charge greater than 1. It ap¬ pears then that before any sort of complete classification of spe¬ cific organic reagents for metallic ions can be deviised, a study and tabulation of ionic states is necessary. This is to be the sub¬ ject of a future publication. Recent work by Pauling (13), Brockway (23a), and others (23b) may help in the predictions of valence behavior of the atoms. These investigators have derived from a large amount of data obtained from x-ray, electron diffraction and dielectric ex¬ periments, values for the radii of atoms depending on whether they involve ionic bonding or covalent bonding. They also have derived values for bond angles. The usefulness of such data is somewhat limited at present but the data promise to be of in¬ creasing value when additional properties such as “degree of hydrolysis” and size of hydrated ions become established. For the present, however, the formation of covalent complex com¬ pounds from the interaction of “simple cations” with organic radicals or complex anions may be reasonably predicted by means of the electronic valence theories of Lewis and Sidgwick (9). It might be added that many apparent exceptions appearing in the studies of organic reagents in inorganic analysis may be clarified when the valence bond relations are more clearly understood. It appears to the writer that som'e very useful organic compounds may be neglected in these studies because of a lack of clear knowl¬ edge of the solvent effect upon the ions or diissolved substances. It is obvious that careful control of conditions is necessary. It is also desirable that the elements being tested should be in the form of simple ions (small charge) to minimize solvent action. In order to have consistent nomenclature in dealing with com¬ plex compounds some suggestions on valence will be offered. Justification for the suggested terminology should be obvious from the foregoing discussion. Bailar and coworkers (24) at the University of Illinois have recently re-investigated a number of the Werner complex com¬ pounds from the standpoint of proof of structure and stereo relationships. A study of a typical example such as diammino dichloro ethylenediamine cobaltic salts, [Co (NHs) 2 (Cl) 2 (NH2.CH0.CH0.NH0) ] X, lends strong support to the picture that nitrogen may donate a lone pair of electrons to a cation in the formation of a stable covalent linkage. An octahedral arrangement of covalent bond directions about the cobaltic ion as well as the existence of optical isomerism in some complex cations is clearly shown by the work of Bailar. In indicating structural formulae for these complex substances, the use of arrows to indicate donated electron pairs 138 is entirely superfluous. The formulae for cis dichloro cis diam- mino, ethylene diamine cobaltic ion may be represented by H2 NH3 HoC N 1 NH3 \ / Co / \ H2C--- 1 Cl H2 Cl IV The dash indicates a covalent bond formed from a pair of shared electrons. Many ortho disubstituted benzene derivatives have shown interesting properties both from theoretical and practical view¬ points (33). For example, o-nitro phenol is considerably less polar (10), (11) than the para and meta derivatives,^ This be¬ havior may, in part, be ascribed to a tendency to attain a sym¬ metrical molecular system as a result of intramolecular associa¬ tion and resonance. The classical formulae for o-nitrophenol are \ /' \/ V -NOi -OH / \_^N=0 or \ / \/ VI H (The arrow indicates the donation of an electron pair.) Use of the term resonance has been increasing during the last few years and its understanding promises to be of much importance in proposing reaction mechanisms. We may define resonance phenomena from a partial mechanical viewpoint. If two or more possible states, or arrangements' of atomic nuclei and electrons, exist with nearly equal potential energies, then it might be imagined that the system ''resonates'^ among the pos¬ sible states (25). Quantum and wave mechanical treatment thoroughly justify resonance and even predicts that the most probable arrangement of a system with the lowest energy may be in between the resonance forms or, as we might call them, “electronic isomers”. 139 Considering some resonance possibilities in o-nitrophenol we may write, 0 I N / \/ \ 0 H \ /\ / \/ 0 VII 0 0 I /\ N / \/ \ 0 H \ /\ / \/ 0 VIII 0 /\ N / \/ \ 0 H \ /\ / \/ 0 IX 0 /\ N / \/ \ 0 I H \ /\ / \/ 0 /\ N / \/ \ 0 H \ /\ / \/ 0 X XI The lines between atoms indicate covalent bonds formed by shared pairs of electrons. The negative charge near an oxygen atom indicates that this atom has in effect gained the valence electron from hydrogen. The existence of hydrogen bonds as indicated seems justified on the basis of the non-polar character of the substance and on the ground that hydrogen bonding (“divalent hydrogen"’) is well established (26). Showing oxygen as trivalent (in the classical sense) appears justified on the basis of established oxonium compounds (20), (21), (27). It may be objected that oxygen is never univalent and that nitrogen is not quadrivalent as indicated. These conditions may or may not be the case. The use of an arrow, however, to show a “dative bond” or to indicate a deviation from “classical valence” has no value in the above formulae. In justification of the structures given it must be remembered that the actual configuration of o-nitrophe- nol is most probably an “average” of the indicated structures. Calculations by Huggins (26b) on hydrogen bond energies and a consideration of atomic radii (23a) support the conclusion of the hydrogen bond between two oxygen atoms. Also, there are no lone electron pairs on the nitrogen to promote such a bond. It is readily seen that compounds with functional groups so located 140 that a potential hydrogen bond is present, should give rise to an ideal situation for chelated compounds involving metals. Chela¬ tion will occur provided that the proton is removable by action of the solvent medium or may be displaced by the metal. Feigl (28a) and Diehl (28b), in reviews of the experimental data on chelated compounds involving metals and organic groups, give a fairly complete list of functional groups that, when adjacent to each other in a molecule, give rise to stable compounds with metals. It must be remembered, when making predictions of forma¬ tions of chelated compounds, that the cation must not be too highly charged or easily hydrated (22). Further consideration in the future will be undertaken as to the effect of additional /sub¬ stituents to compounds with two functional groups. Such a study will include where possible the effect of the substituent on the available distance for a metal between the functional groups. From a consideration of properties of the cupric derivative of o-nitrophenol, we may write its structural formula as XII Each bond indicates a pair of shared electrons and the coordina¬ tion number of copper is four. In the classical manner the formula would have been written The arrows in XIII indicate that there is something funda¬ mentally different about four of the bonds which, of course, is not the case. A consideration of the resonance possibilities in 141 f ormulae VII, VIII, IX, X, XI do not clearly indicate which atom might be called the “donor”. Also, in view of the resonance pos¬ sibilities in many types of compounds that may form chelated rings, such an arbitrary distinction between “bonds” as shown in XIII is not justified and any such designation in the compound as two “ordinary valences” and two “coordinated valences” (28b) is not warranted. As an interesting and well-known compound we have the nickel derivative of cc dimethylgly oxime (diacetydioxime) . The chemical and physical properties of this compound and the evi¬ dence favoring the belief that the alpha form is also the anti form of dimethyl glyoxime are well covered by Diehl (28), (29) and by Burger (30) so we shall only show the possible formula¬ tion of the metallic derivative. Probable resonance forms may be indicated, CH3-C-C-CH3 II II N..N / • * \ H-0 0-H XIV anti form CHs-C-C-CHc N N-0 /\/- H-O H XV CH3-C-C-CH3 II II 0-N N H 0-H XVI Nitrone forms The presence of a hydrogen bond gives rise to an ideal situa¬ tion for formation of stable metal derivatives when the cation or metal is of the correct size. Apparently, dielectrovalent nickel is the ideal ion and the resulting compound is very stable. Follow¬ ing our proposed system of bond designation, we may write for the nickel derivative. CH3 - C- -CH, 0-N N-0 / \ / \ H Ni H \ / \ / 0_N N-0 CHc XVII -C - CH. The absence of cis-trans isomers led Brady (31) to propose the hydrogen bonds in order to attain further symmetry in the molecule. The absence of hydration in this compound and the perfect agreement of the wave mechanical treatment (32) of nickel with a coordination number of four support this formula¬ tion with the nickel atom and the four nitrogen atoms symmetri- 142 cally arranged in the same plane. From the evidence presented, it is readily seen that the formulation of nickel dimethyl glyox- ime in which arrows are employed is distinctly arbitrary, H.C- -CHc 0<-N N-0 H Ni H \ / \ / 0-N N-^0 HsC- XVIII ■CH. Summary A brief survey of the trends in thought on the subject of valence has been given with the idea of suggesting a more con¬ sistent terminology in dealing with complex organo-metallic com¬ pounds, especially those involving chelated rings. It is obvious now that association of a definite valence number to indicate in all cases the combining capacity of an atom is questionable. It is suggested that the terms ionic valence or electrovalence be consistently used in speaking of bonding in which ions or un- symmetrically charged groups are involved and the forces are purely electrostatic in nature. It is also suggested that the term covalent bond be employed whenever one or more electron pairs appear to be the binding force. The term ‘‘coordination numbeF' may also be used when the number of covalent bonds, about a given atom does not appear consistent with the “classical valence’' of a given element. Nickel, for example, in [Ni(NH3)4]'S04 and in nickel dimethylglyoxime may be isaid to have a coordination number of four. Use of the few well defined terms suggested will eliminate such illusive terms as “ordinary valence”, “auxiliary valence”, “secondary valence”, “residual valence”, “coordination”, etc., will make for a better understanding of the nature of the binding forces in complex compounds and will assist in the prediction of organic compounds useful in inorganic analysis. References 1. (a) Werner, Z. anorg. Chem., 3, 267 (1893). (b) Werner, “New Ideas on Inorganic Chemistry”, English tsrans., Longmans, Green and Company, New York, 1911. 2. Lewis, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 38, 762 (1916). 3. Kossel, Ann. Physik., Jf9, 229 (1916). 4. Lewis, “Valence and the Structure of Atoms and Molecules”, The Chemi¬ cal Catalog Company, Inc., New York, 1923. 5. (a) Sidgwick, ‘The Electronic Theory of Valency”, Oxford University Press, New York and Oxford, 1928. 143 (b) Sidgwick, “Some Physical Properties of the Covalent Link in Chem¬ istry”, Cornell University Press, Ithaca, New York, 1933. 6. Bragg and Bragg,, “The Crystalline State”, The Macmillan Company, New York, 1934. 7. Clark, “Applied X-Rays”, McGraw Hill Book Company, New York, 1932. 8. Stillwell, “Crystal Chemistry”, McGraw Hill Book Company, New York, 1932. 9. Speakman, “An Introduction to the Modern Theory of Valency”, Ed¬ ward Arnold and Company, London, 1939. 10. Bray and Branch, J. Am. Chem, Soc., 35, 1440 (1913). See also ref. 9, page 69 ff. 11. Debye, “Polar Molecules”, Reinhold Publishing Corp., New York, 1929. 12. Smyth, “Dielectric Constant and Molecular Structure”, The Chemical Catalog Company, Inc., New York, 1931. 13. (a) Pauling, “The Nature of the Chemical Bond”, Cornell University Press, Ithaca, New York, 1939. (b) Penney, “The Quantum Theory of Valency”, Methuen and Com¬ pany, Ltd., London, 1935. 14. Rice, “Electronic Structure and Chemical Binding”, McGraw Hill Book Company, New York, 1940. 15. Ref. 14, page 88. 16. See Thomson, “Wave Mechanics of Free Electrons”, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1930. 17. (a) Dushman, “Elements of Quantum Mechanics”, John Wiley, New York, 1938. (b) Pauling and Wilson, “Introduction to Quantum Mechanics, Mc¬ Graw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1935. 18. Ref. 14, page 154 ff. 19. Ref. 14, page 157 If. 20. Hammett, “Solutions of Electrolytes”, McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc.;, New York, 1929. 21. Gurney, “Ions in Solutions”, Cambridge University Press, London, 1936. 22. Ref. 14, Chapter XIX, p. 293 contains an excellent summary, with many references, of the problem of valence in aqueous solutions. 23. (a) Brockway, Rev. Mod. Phys., 8, 260 (1936). (b) Gregg et ah, Trans. Faraday Soc., 33, 856 (1937). 24. (a) Bailar, “The Coordinating Tendency of the Metallic Ions”, Chem. Rev., 23, 65 (1938). (b) Bailar, “Stereochemistry of Complex Inorganic Compounds”, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 62, 820 (1940). This paper contains also a number of references to earlier work by Bailar. 25. Ref. 14, p. 180. 26. (a) Gordy and Stanford, “Spectroscopic Evidence for Hydrogen Bonds”, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 62, 497 (1940). This paper contains references to other work. (b) Ref. 14, p. 364. 27. Alyea, J. Chem. Ed., 16, 535 (1939). 28. (a) Feigl, “Qualitative Analyse mit Hilfe von Tupfelreactionen”, Aka- demische Verlagsgesellschaft, Leipzig, 3rd Ed., 1938. (b) Diehl, “Chelation”, Chem. Rev., 21, 39 (1937). 29. Diehl, “The Applications of the Dioximes to Analytical Chemistry”, published by The G. Frederick Smith Chemical Company, Columbus, Ohio, 1940. 30. Burger, “Oximes in Analytical Chemistry”, forthcoming publication in this journal. 31. Brady and Muers, J. Chem. Soc., London, 1599 (1930). 32. (a) Tschudi et al.. Rev. Phys. Chem. Japan, XIII, 61 (1939). (b) Ref. 14, p. 274. 33. See also Pfeiffer, Ange. Chem., 53, 93 (1940). University of Virginia. 144 The Relation of Some Chelating Reagents to the Periodic Arrangement of Metals J. Robert Taylor ' In discussing the analytical behavior of the metals a periodic arrangement of the Lothar Meyer type is frequently of value, particularly in emphasizing the similar reaction of adjacent elements in a given period. For example, one of the best defined analytical groups is that of the “insoluble sulfides”. Metals an¬ alogously situated near the troughs of the ionic radius curve in each long period, form water-insoluble sulfides. The effect of dilute acid medium is to narrow the region of insolubility, ex¬ cluding, for example, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, In, Tl. In the field of organic reagents a number of structures have been found, which act preferentially on metals situated in analo¬ gous positions on a plot of the Lothar Meyer type. An urgent problem of the analyst is, of course, to find reagents specific for single elements ; but at present there is no sound method of pre¬ dicting specificity. It might be supposed that the sizes of the atoms entering into ring formation in chelated complexes would play a role in determining the strength of the coordinate bond¬ ing, and consequently the stability of the complex. Eventually this consideration may lead to accurate predictions; but at present there is great difficulty in assigning sizes to the atoms in chelated rings and in relating the ring-stability to ionic or atomic sizes calculated from independent data. In certain cases such re¬ lations can be recognized. Thus the phthalocyanines have been shown to form a macro-cycle with a “hollow” center of a definite size; the metals which yield the stablest complexes with phtha¬ locyanines are just those with radii which correspond to the available space in the cycle. An interesting case of a somewhat different nature was recently described by Jensen (1) . The 8-hy¬ droxy quinoline complex with nickel is a greenish, paramagnetic compound in which the two oxygen atoms appear to form a tetra¬ hedral angle with the central Ni-atom. But in the red, diamag¬ netic 8-mercapto quinoline analog, the larger sulfur atoms lie on opposite sides of the Ni and the two chelated rings are coplanar. Other cases are indicated below. While it is not possible to predict with certainty which metals will form stable chelated complexes with a particular organic ■structure, it is now possible to recognize organic groupings which show preferential reactivity in certain well defined region^ of the periodic curve. It is instructive to examine some of the more striking regularities that have been discovered in recent years. The sort of regularity referred to here is well illustrated by some familiar reactions of the tetrad of divalent metals at the 145 center of the first long period ; Fe, Co, Ni and Cu, which form one of the most persistent series of chelating metals. A number of reagents for this series are based on the same basic organic structure : R R 0 \ C— C / / \ OH in which the role of N and 0 may be interchanged, and sulfur in some compounds may replace oxygen. The dioximes of the 1,2- diketones form the long-familiar Ni-complexes. The substituent R- may be methyl, phenyl, furyl, etc. ; or may be joined together in the form of a saturated cyclohexadione ring (but an unsaturated ring, such as that of o-quinone dioxime, is no longer specific in action for Ni). Since one of the oxime groups appears to act only as an electron donor, it is not sur¬ prising that :N-OH may be replaced by :N-. If the state of oxidation of the reagent is lowered by one step, the reagent forms complexes with all four metals but shows specific activity for copper. 0 0 \ / :\ / i HO NO 0 0 i C— C i 0./ \ / i 1 II i Cu c- — c ! 0 N-0 ; /'\ / \ i \/ 1 HO OH HO NOH Cu I II III The copper complex has been formulated in various ways. Feigl (2) writes the wholly unsatisfactory formula II to account for the apparent coordinate saturation. Researches of Jennings seemed to indicate that the Cu is not coordinately saturated, while more recent work in Dubsky’s laboratory points to a ''diok' baisic salt structure III (3), which brings the complex into a form sim¬ ilar to that of the dioxime complexes. It should be noted that two metals situated at analogouis posi¬ tions in the next two long periods — Pt and Pd— form unusually stable complexes with the foregoing reagent types. If the hydroxyl group is enolic, the marked activity shifts to iron. The ferrous ‘'iron blue’' test of Whiteley is given by alpha- nitroso carbonyl compounds of the type : 146 R_C rr: C-R (in ilo r_C-CH-R d lio r_C-C-R NOH such as the highly sensitive dinitroso acetone of Kuras. There is considerable doubt about the structure of the complex, which may be represented as an oximino, or as an enolic derivative, or perhaps as a resonance hybrid. In either form the relation to the basic structure is obvious. The enol may be either aliphatic, or aromatic, as in the various nitroso phenols which give complexes with Fe, Co and Cu. In these aromatic enols there is less doubt as to structure, since enolization is forced, and oximation is im¬ probable. This brings us to the compounds showing preferential activity toward cobalt : the nitroso naphthols, and nitroso cam¬ phor and thiocamphor; the latter may react in the isonitroso (oxime) form. A final variation on the basic structure is the hydroxamic acid r_CH-N Ah a R-C=N I OH OH and nitroso-hydroxylamine type, such as “Cupferron”, r_N-N OHO The reactions of this list of reagents are by no means con¬ fined to the tetrad of metals discussed here. Most of the other metals with which they react occur at analogous periodic posi¬ tions, however. The basic structural group therefore affords a 'starting point from which to develop specific reagents for these metals. A most valuable procedure in developing specificity is to study systematically the effect of substituents on the basic struc¬ ture, as Baudisch studied the substituted ‘'Cupferrons'' (4). Bau- disch’s work was carried out over twenty-five years ago; but it is only within very recent years that similar systematic investi¬ gations have been made. A large number of specific and partly specific reagents have been proposed for metals lying in the middle of the several per¬ iods ; the metals lying near the crests of the periodic waves show a weaker tendency to form coordination complexes of useful sta¬ bility. Consequently the recent discovery of a series of com¬ pounds showing activity with the alkali metals is important. The essential structure appears to be the alpha-nitro enolic group \ / Cr=C / \ HO NO2. The very low solubility of the K-salt and o-nitro phenol was noted’ 147 as early as 1887 (5). In 1936 Fredholm (6) showed that dilturic acid (5-nitro barbituric acid) forms slightly soluble complexes with K, Cs, Rb, and NH4, which where recommended for gravi¬ metric determinations. Styphnic and chloro-picric acids also give insoluble complexes with these metals under some conditions ; but it seems that the enolic group in general, and not specifically a phenolic group, can participate in the complex formation, for dilituric and violuric acids- — enols of doubtful ‘‘aromaticity” yield stable complexes. From the analogy of -NH2 to -OH it might be expected that amines would react similarly, if the amino group could be rendered sufficiently acidic. Sheintsis (7) showed that this was possible. By loading the diphenyl amine molecule (itself practically non-basic) with nitro groups, “dipicr amide” is obtained. It forms insoluble complexes of K, Cs, Rb, NH4, and is suitable for separating these metals from sodium. Few characteristic reagents have been reported for the alka¬ line earth metals. Two useful ones have almoist identical struc¬ tures 0 and form colored, insoluble complexes containing 5-atom rings, with Ba and Sr; the Ca compound is unstable in water. But the dihydroxy anthraquinone of structure 0 OH aM \/\/\/\ OH 0 reacts specifically with Ca, forming a 6-atom ring, while the larger Ba and Sr do not give stable complexes. It is quite prob¬ able that a systematic study of- substituted hydroxy anthraqui- nones and quinones would yield other more useful reagents for the alkali earths. The Cu, Ag, Au, series, and certain adjacent metals, give characteristic reactions with a number of compounds containing the structure - — C— NH— . It has been shown (8) that the 148 structure 0 \ -Lnh-L H Rhodanine \ / \/ s which occurs in the rhodanines - NH I Thiobenzimid- /\ azolone \/ s N H \/ shows special reactivity toward silver, particularly the rhoda¬ nines condensed with certain aromatic aldehydes, in which color and insolubility are. increased. This structure occurs also in thio- benzimidazolone, which yields complexes of Cu, Ag, Au, and of divalent Hg and Pb, which lie close to gold on the periodic curve. The reaction is actually given by cupric ion, but there is evi¬ dence that the final product is a cuprous complex. Indeed the structures of all the complexes of copper with thio-imides need reexamination. They are apparently chelated compounds con¬ taining 4-atom rings. Recent work at Prague, on the rubeanic acid-Cu complex, usually written NH=C-C=NH I I S S \/ . Cu . indicates that the copper is first reduced by the reagent, so that the complex is actually an acid rubeanate of cuprouis copper. Diphenyl thiocarbazide (“dithizone”) , introduced by Helmuth Fischer, gives sensitive color and precipitation reactions with two definite series of metals, the Cu, Ag, and the Zn, Hg, Pb (ous) series. S Dithizone It is not clear what constitutes the essential structure in this class of reagents (which includes also diphenyl-carbazide and -carbazone). Feigl’s formulation of the metallic complex is un¬ satisfactory for steric reasons, while Fischer does not take ac¬ count of the salt forming property of the S or 0 atoms. The formulas of the latter suggest a relation to the metallic of the porphyrins and phthalocyanines ; but it is possible that the ring structures are not the same for the two series of metals. The trivalent cations of the ferric class yield the familiar 149 ''basic acetates’’ and carboxylates with certain other fatty acids. There is evidence that the complex actually formed has a poly¬ nuclear cyclic structure : CHs CHs-COO 0-C=0 \ / / Fe Fe . / / \ [ HO 0=C-0 J The tendency to precipitate these high molecular weight com¬ plexes is so strong that there is doubt as to the existence of normal carboxylates for these metals. No extended study of the behavior of fatty acids with Fe, Cr and A1 has been made, but the available evidence suggests that the formation of the poly¬ nuclear complexes is a specific property of the carboxyl group. With thiocarboxyl (-CSSH) the same metals give a very dif¬ ferent type of complex ion. It is significant that -CSSH acids form 4-atom chelated rings, which the -COOH acids seem in¬ capable of forming. The analogous sulfinic acids (-SOOH) have not been shown to give polynuclear complexes either, although they do yield insoluble ferric salts. The reagents described above are those for which the activity of metals is clearly related to the periodic positions of the metals. It is to be expected that the work of members of this symposium will disclose more regularities. Once the organic structure es¬ sential for reactivity with a particular series of elements has been found, the procedure for developing specificity within the series is obvious. It is well illustrated by the history of oxine, which can react with a variety of metals. By control of condi¬ tions, but more important, by variation of the substituents on the fundamental structure, several specific reactions have been de¬ vised. A classification of reagents, such as the one implied here, should be of some aid in simplifying the search for specific re¬ agents. References 1. Jensen, Z. anorg. allg. Chem. 229, 265 (1936). 2. Feigl, Mikrochem. 1, 76 (1923). 3. Dubsky, Mikrochem. 1937, 30. 4. Baudisch, Ber. J^9, 172 (1916); If2, 1689 (1909). 5. Teeter, Chem. Zeit. 11, 43 (1887). 6. Fredholm, Z. anal. Chem. 10 If, 400 (1936). 7. Sheintsls, Jour. Appl. Chem. U. S. S. R. 11, 1012 (1938). 8. Dubsky, Mikrochem. 25, 124 (1938). Washington and Lee University. 150 Oximes in Analytical Chemistry Alfred Burger Compounds containing oxime groups in addition to some other groups suitable for the establishment of chelated, or in some cases of heterocyclic rings, have been used extensively as reagents in organic analysis ever since Chugaev pointed out the specificity of diacetyldioxime (dimethyl glyoxime) (I) for Ni++ in 1905 (6). CHa-C— C-CHs I! I! HON NOH (I) Many oximes containing auxiliary groups capable of salt formation or of formation of covalent links will react rather in¬ discriminately with a large number of metallic ions, but ions of certain metals, especially those of Ni, Co, Fe, and Cu, will form insoluble and highly colored compounds with such oximes more frequently at a definite pH. Due to this observation, certain types of oximes have been designated as specific for certain metals. The specificity of the dioxime group HON=C — C=NOH for metals of the Ni group is the best-known example for this observation. 1,2-Dioximes may exist in three configurations : the anti-, or oc -dioxime form (II), the syn-, or ^-dioxime form (III), and the amphi-, or y-dioxime form (IV) R.C--C-R II II HO-N N-OH (II) R-C- N C-R I N OH HO (III) R_C— C-R II II HO-N N Hd' (IV) Meisenheimer proved that the Ni-specific oc -dioximes had the anti-configuration. It would be difficult to visualize formation of a chelated ring which should include one or both hydroxyl groups if their spatial relation is that expressed in formula III. Accord¬ ing to Pfeiffer, the salts of oximes are not derived from the tra- ditional hydroxyimino form (V) but from the resonant nitrone form (VI). „^c— — C— 1 < — ^ II NOH H— N— 0 (V) (VI) iln the cx - or anti-form the two groups are sterically opposite, while they are close to each other in the j3- or syn-dioximes. 151 In VI, the proton directly attached to the nitrone-nitrogen, is replaceable by cations; therefore, diacetyl dioxime could be ex¬ pressed by formula Vila which explains the absence of steric hindrance by the oxygen atom of the second oxime group in a satisfactory manner. It also demonstrates why the stereoisomeric yg-dioxime (VIII) cannot yield metal derivatives; the metal atom CH3 C C— CHs CH3 C C < II II II II 0— N N— OH H— N N \ / \ 1 Ni 0 HO 2 (Vila) (VIII) replacing the hydrogen atom which is linked directly to nitrogen could not be bonded in a ring.^ According to Sugden (14) (8) the four nitrogen atoms of the two molecules of an oc -dioxime linked to nickel lie in one plane. This theory would predict two stereoisomeric formulas for nickel diacetyl dioxime, VII b and VII c. No such geometrical isomerism has ever been observed, and this fact, together with the established inertness of the two hydroxyl groups, has led to the acceptance of formula Vlld for the nickel derivative (2). CH3— C C CH3 II II CH3 C C CH3 0— N N— OH HO— N N— 0 \ / \ / Ni Ni / \ / \ 0— N N— OH O^N N— OH II II II II CH3— C C CH3 II II CH3 C C CH3 (Vllb) (VIIc) In this formula, the hydrogen atoms of the' hydroxyl groups are bonded to the nitrone oxygen atoms. 2AU valences and ring structures in this article conform with modetrn valence theories as explained by Cole (8). The author is indebted to Prof. James W. Cole for many helpful critical suggestions. 152 CH3— — -C— CHg 0— N N— 0 / \ / \ H Ni H \ / \ / O—N N— 0 II CHh— c- ■C— CH, (VIM) The y-dioximes (IV) generally furnish amorphous metallic derivatives which differ from those derived from the oc-form. They are assumed to contain the metal atom in a six-membered heterocyclic ring (IX), and are converted to the isomeric oc- dioxime derivatives by the action of acids. R_C__C— R 0—^ N I , J metal — 0 (IX) Both diacetyl dioxime (I) and its nickel derivative (VII) are insoluble in water. However, the insolubility of the metal com¬ pound is not due to the insolubility of the metal-free dioxime. 1,2-cyclohexadione dioxime (X) CH2 NOH / \ / H2C C H2C C H \ / \ / C N H2 \ 0 (X) is readily soluble in water, while its Ni-salt resembles Ni-diacetyl dioxime, and can hardly be distinguished from the latter except by analysis. This behavior demonstrates the influence of the structure of the rest of the molecule on the essential chelating groups. Changes in the structure of apparently unessential por¬ tions of the molecule may also abolish the speciflcity of the oc- dioxime group towards Ni. Orthoquinone dioxime (XI) and 153 ^ \|=NOH ^ ^l=NOH \/ (XI) analogous compounds in the naphthalene series give brown pre¬ cipitates with many metals, in which the dioximes function as dibasic acids, e. g.. \ /\ \/ \/ (XII) 0 — Metal / \ N 0 II / /\ N \/ On the other hand, one of the two oxime groups may be replaced by certain other nitrogen-containing groups without loss of spe¬ cificity for Ni++-ions. Thus, the oximes XIII (7) and XIV (9) also furnish chelated nickel salts, similar to nickel diacetyl di¬ oxime: /\ / \ \ /\ \/ C— CHs N II H— N— 0 (XIII) / \/ C— CeHs N II H— N— 0 (XIV) The second oxime group does not seem to be necessary for the specific behavior of such compounds towards nickel, cobalt, and related metals. The essential condition to be fulfilled by Ni-spe- cific reagents seems to be the ability to form a five-membered ring in which the metal atom is linked to two nitrogens. The second N-atom cannot be replaced by other elements, such as oxygen, cc -Furfuraldoxime (XV), for example, gives no metal 154 derivatives comparable to those of diacetyl dioxime or other oc -dioximes. \ /\ 0 CH NOH (XV) The influence of various groups which would not be expected to have any bearing on the ability of the two N-atoms to estab¬ lish a chelated ring including a metal atom is observed in com¬ paring several aldoxim-es and ketoximes of the pyridine and quinoline series. Pyridyl-2-methylketoxime (XIII) forms metal salts which resemble those of other oc -dioximes in many respects. Similar metal derivatives are obtained from quinoline-2-aldoxime (XVI) (15). 6 7 5 4 /\ /\ / \/ \ \ /\ /\ \/ \/ CH « N II 1 H— N— O (XVI) Introduction of nuclear alkyl groups into positions 3 and 8 of the quinoline system changes the picture considerably (5). 3,8- Dimethylquinoline-2-aldoxime (XVII) still gives a green pre¬ cipitate with Ni++ in ammoniacal solution, /\ /\ CHs / \/ \/ \ \/ . \/ I N CHs /\ CH NOH (XVII) 156 iDut the corresponding 3,8-dimethylquinolyl-2-alkyl ketoximes (XVIII) do not show complex formation. It may be argued that the 8-methyl group, and perhaps even the methyl group in posi- /\ /\ CHs / \/ \/ \\ A /\ \/ X/' C-R 1 N II CHs NOH (XVIII) (R=CH3, C2H5) tion 3, exert a sterical hindrance on the cyclic N-atom, depriving it, at least partly, of its coordinative power. This argument could be supported by the inability of 2,3,8-trimethylquinoline to form quaternary salts (1) . On the other hand, the ability of the aldox- ime XVII and its 5-nitro derivative to give a large number of deeply colored or insoluble metal complex salts (5), seems to speak against the assumption of sterical hindrance. The configu¬ ration of the ketoximes XIX remains to be established ; if these oximes should prove to be of the ^S-type, their inertneste towards metallic ions v/ould be readily explained. It may also be well to consider the possibility of a distortion of the pyridine half in the quinoline system by the condensed aromatic nucleus. Such a dis¬ tortion might alter the -N = C- distance and, thereby, change the shape of chelated rings attached to these atoms. Indeed, this deformation may even prevent formation of a chelated ring. An interesting sidelight has been thrown recently upon this possi¬ bility (10), by comparing pyridyl-2-methyl ketoxime (XIII) with thiazolyl-4-methyl ketoxime (XIX). While the pyridine derivative (XIII) gives a red Ni-derivative, the analogous thia- zole derivative does not undergo any reactions with nickel ions. \ / -C— CHs NOH (a) / -C— CH< \/ N NOH (b) (XIX) According to Erlenmeyer's studies (10), pyridine and thiazole should be isosteric, and, therefore, ought to exhibit many very similar properties. The discrepancy in the chelating ability of 156 the ketoximes in the two series may be traced to a difference in the arrang-ement of the nuclear double bonds in the two sys¬ tems. The formation of oxime salts depends on the presence of the system -N=C— C=N-~. This arrangement may be found in XIII, but not in XlXa which features the traditional formula for thiazole. In order to establish a conjugated system, the thiazole derivative would have to be written in the resonating form XlXb. In this formula, however, the new linking of the S-atom to the adjacent C-atoms will distort the thiazole nucleus and thereby alter the length of the linkage between the heterocyclic N-atom and the oc -carbon atom. This could explain the disappearance of isosterism of the pyridyl and thiazolyl ketoximes, because equality of (Size and shape of the respective molecules is among the properties postulated for isosteric substances. It would also explain the inability of oxime XIX to furnish metal derivatives. The influence of unspecific portions of the molecule upon the specific chelating groups is observed also in compounds contain¬ ing the group ~CHOH-C=NOH. Such compounds react as di¬ basic acids in ammoniacal solution, furnishing specific insoluble Cu++-salts (XX) : R_CH - C— R' 0 N— 0 \ / Cu (XX) The radicals R and R' may be varied over a wide range without affecting the formation or the color of the Cu-salts, or their in¬ solubility in water. If these radicals are aliphatic, and not too large, the Cu-salts are soluble in ammonium hydroxide solution. If one, or both, of the radicals are aromatic or represent similar resonating ring systems, the solubility of the Cu-derivatives is lost. This has been explained by assuming that the aromatic system can link metal atoms (11) and thereby suppress the field of force of the metal which would otherwise be extended to the ammonia molecules. If the carbon atom carrying the alcoholic hydroxyl group is connected with two aromatic groups, as in XXI, ( Cells )2C - ^C— R 0 N—O (XXI) 157 the compound will be soluble in ammonium hydroxide solution. This phenomenon has been explained by an unsupported hypothe¬ sis which points out that the ''coordinative forces’’ of the aro¬ matic nuclei saturate one another, and only covalences are left for the linkage of the Cu-atom within the molecule. This explana¬ tion is contradicted by the observation that a few compounds containing the group RCHOHC(=NOH)R', in which R is a straight alkyl chain of four to eleven carbon atoms, may also yield Cu-salts which are very sparingly soluble in ammonium hydroxide solution. It would be rather far-fetched to claim che¬ lating ability for a butyl or amyl group, and therefore it has been postulated that the large size of molecules containing long alkyl chains probably is the cause of the low solubility of the respective metal compounds. However, some derivatives with higher molecu¬ lar weights are soluble in ammonium hydroxide solution, and this solubility is retained even when the -CHOH-C (=NOH)- group is part of a ring system, as in o-hydroxycydohexanone oxime (XXII). The Cu-salt of this compound is soluble in ammonium hydroxide solution since the alicyclic nucleus cannot offer an electron pair to the Cu-atom. H2 /\ 0 H2/ \ =N< H HoX / < \/ H2 (XXII) OH H If the salt forming groups are separated by a carbon atom, as in XXIII, no Cu-derivative can be obtained. This indicates that a five-membered covalent ring is necessary for the formation of Cu-salts. It is notable, however, that benzoin oxime can yield CH3CHCH2CCH3 I II OH NOH (XXIII) (XXIV) metal compounds also in acidic and in ammoniacal solution. In these derivatives, benzoin oxime functions as a monobasic acid (XXV). If the alcoholic hydroxyl and the oxime groups are cis 158 metal (XXV) in respect to each other, metal derivatives of different and, as yet, unexplained nature are obtained. The acidity of the weakly acidic alcoholic hydroxyl group is increased by the immediate vicinity of the oxime group, and this mutual influence makes possible covalent linking of weakly basic metallic atoms to the oxygen atom of the alcoholic hydroxyl group. If this oxygen atom belongs to a phenolic hydroxyl and thereby acquires a much more strongly pronounced ionic char¬ acter, it may be separated from the oxime group by an aromatic C-atom and yet retain its specificity for Cu, although at a dif¬ ferent pH. The typical representative of this series is sali- cylaldoxime (XXVI) which forms an insoluble Cu-derivative in dilute acetic acid solution (XXVII). The formula of this com- //\ CH / \/ \ NOH \ \/ OH (XXVI) H /\ c / \/ \ II N— OH I! I I! Cu/ \ /\ / /2 \/ 0 (XXVII) pound was established by converting N-methoxy-salicylaldoxime (XXVIII) into its Cu-salt (XXIX). The isomeric o-methoxy- benzaldoxime (XXX) gives no Cu-salt; the phenolic hydroxyl H /\ C OCH3 / \/ \ / N \ \/ OH (XXVHI) H /\ c / \/ \ N— OCH, Cvl/ \ /\ / /2 \/ o (XXIX) H /\ c / \/ \ \ NOH \/ OCH3 (XXX) group must bo the salt-forming, the oxime group the coordinating group. A long series of analogous compounds behaves in a simi¬ lar fashion; o-hydroxyacetophenone oxime (XXXI), 9-hydroxy- phenanthrene-lO-aldoxime (XXXII) (4) and its isomer, 3-hy- CHc I /\ C / \/ \ \ NOH \/ OH / / \ OH / N \ HO CH \ _ / / - \ \_ \ / \ _ / / \ / \ \ / \ / (XXXI) (XXXII) droxyphenanthrene-d-aldoxime (4), may serve as examples. The function of the phenolic hydroxyl as the salt-forming group in XXXII and its 3,4-isomer was proved by Burger (4) by blocking the phenolic group by esterification and etherification. The cor¬ responding methoxy- and acetoxyphenanthrene aldoximes ex¬ hibited no reaction with metallic ions. In some of these phenolic aldoximes and ketoximes both the oc - and /?- forms have been isolated. Only the phenolic oc -oximes give metal salts (XXVII) ; this explains the formation of six- membered rings in which the metal atom is coordinated to the N-atom. The hydroxyl group of the sterically opposite /5-oximes would prevent formation of such a ring. Compounds containing a carbonyl group oc to an oxime group, >CH-CO-C=NOH, frequently give a blue color with ferrous I i salts in a solution buffered by sodium acetate. The blue com- 160 plex compounds are soluble in benzene. cc-Benzil monoxime, CeHsCO'CCeHs, illustrates the behavior of such oximes. The i! NOH stereoisomeric ^-monoxime is completely inactive. Only the con¬ figuration of the oxime group seems to determine the reactivity of the compound towards Fe++-ions, The formula of the iron salt is expressed in XXXIII ; the metal atom appears coordinated to the carbonyl oxygen atom. CeHs— G d ~G— CeHs N \ / Fe/2 (XXXIII) Monoximes of cyclic 1,2-diketones are usually written in the tautomeric o-nitrosophenol form (XXXIV.) The o-nitrosophenols OH (XXXIV) give insoluble, deeply colored complex salts with almost all heavy metals and may react selectively with certain metallic ions under controlled conditions. The best-known examples are oc -nitroso-^- naphthol (13) and the isomeric ^-nitroso- oc -naphthol (12) which are specific reagents for Co+ ++-ions. The formula for one of these cobalt salts may be expressed as in XXXV. o-Nitrosophe- O—N— — Co/ II 1/3 /\ /\ 0 / \/ \/ \ /\ / \/ \/ (XXXV) 161 nols are easily synthesized now by the Baudisch reaction (3) in which phenols or even aromatic hydrocarbons are oxidized by the oxygen of the air in the presence of hydroxylamine and me¬ tallic salts. They are among the most promising newer organic analytical reagents. References This article follows in some respects the corresponding chapters (pp. 78-91) in FeigPs “Qualitative Analyse mit Hilfe von Ttipfelreaktionen”, Third Edition, Akademische Verlagsgesellschaft m. h. h., Leipzig, 1938. Many additional examples and references may be found there. An excellent discussion of “The Application of the Dioximes to Analytical Chemistry” by H. Diehl was published recently (1940) by the G. Frederick Smith Chemical Company, Columbus, Ohio. 1. Bailey and coworkers, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 52, 1239 (1930). 2. Brady and Muers, J. Chem. Soc., 1930, 1599. 3. Baudisch, Naturwiss., 27, 768 (1939). 4. Burger, unpublished results. 5. Burger and Modlin, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 62, 1079 (1940). 6. Chugaev, Z. anorg. allg. Chem., 4-6, 144 (1905); Ber., h-l, 2219 (1908). 7. Chugaev,, ibid., 39, 3382 (1906). 8. Cole, see his paper in this series. 9. Emmert and Diehl, Z. anorg. allg. Chem., 62, 1738 (1929). 10. Erlenmeyer and Ueberwasser, Helv. Chim. Acta, 23, 197 (1940). 11. Hofmann and Kiispert, Z. anorg. allg. Chem., 15, 204 (1897). 12. Hoffmann, Ber., 18, 46 (1885) ; Sarver, Ind. Eng. Chem., Anal. Ed., 10, 378 (1938). 13. Ilinski and Knorre, Ber., 18, 699 (1885). 14. Sugden, J. Chem. Soc., 1932, 246. ■^5, Taylor, Winckles and Marks, ibid., 1931, 2778. University of Virginia. The Application of a New Class of Organic Reagents to the Detection and Determination of Palladiiim^ Lyle G. Overholser and John H. Yoe The organic reagents studied include, in addition to p-nitroso- diphenylamine [I] which has been previously reported on, p- nitrosodimethylaniline [II] and p-nitrosodiethylaniline [III]. All three of these reagents contain the P-NOC6H4N- group which we believe to be responsible for their reactivity with palladous chloride to give the highly colored addition compounds of the type Pd[NOC6H4N-]2'Cl2. Compounds similar to [I], [II], and [III] with other groups as -NO3, -NH2 replacing the -NO group do not give the reactions, indicating the necessity for the pres- ^This is an abridgment of the paper that received the Jefferson Award of the Virginia Academy of Science on May 3, 1940. The paper in full is being submitted in competition for the Jefferson Gold Medal. The state academies of science competing for the Jefferson Medal are: Florida, Georgia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Virginia. 162 ence of the -NO group. We have not studied a sufficiently wide variety of these organic compounds to make a positive generali¬ zation as to the effect of the presence of other substituents, but we believe this group imparts the nearly specific reactivity with the palladous ion. This coordination or addition type of reaction with palladous chloride is given by many organic compounds, but it often re¬ quires some specal method for their isolation. The addition com¬ pounds of [I], [II], and [III] with palladous chloride, which will be called the phenyl, methyl, and ethyl compound, respectively, may be prepared by simply adding the reagent to a slightly acid solution of palladous chloride, filtering off, washing, and drying the precipitate at 110° C. The physical characteristics of these compounds are quite different. The methyl and ethyl compounds are red, slightly solu¬ ble in water, and insoluble in ethyl alcohol. The phenyl com¬ pound is dark purple, insoluble in water, but moderately soluble in alcohol. The colorimetric procedure, previously reported, using p- nitrosodiphenylamine is satisfactory if certain precautions are observed. The use of the methyl and ethyl reagents afforded cer¬ tain advantages which will be presented in this paper in com¬ parison with the phenyl method. The behavior of the methyl and ethyl reactions is so similar that results will be given for only the methyl reaction, but they are applicable to the ethyl reaction as v^il. The detailed technique used was essentially the same as in the phenyl method. Briefly, it consisted in adding the palladous chloride to the buffer in a 100 ml. volumetric flask, followed by the addition of the reagent, and diluting to the mark with water. The color matching was done in a roulette comparator using 100 ml. tubes and a suitable color filter. The color of the phenyl and methyl reagents, as well as that of the addition compounds, is affected by pH changes, requiring the use of buffers. A hydrochloric acid^ — sodium acetate buffer having a pH of 1.4 was used in the phenyl method. The maxi¬ mum sensitivity occurs at a higher pH, but the buffer, having a lower pH, had to be used to avoid the formation of turbid solu¬ tions. This turbidity was due to the formation of unstable col¬ loidal suspensions. The methyl compound which is slightly solu¬ ble in the buffer would be expected to give clear solutions over a wider pH range. Actually, clear solutions were obtained in all cases, making it possible to use the method at a pH of 4.8 which corresponds to the maximum sensitivity. The phenyl method requires about 30 minutes for the devel¬ opment of maximum color intensity. This compares with less 163 than 5 minutes for the methyl method. If the two reactions are carried out at the same pH, the rates are more nearly equal. The suspension of the phenyl compound is stable for only 1 to IV2 hours under the most favorable conditions and stable for less than this time at the higher palladium concentrations. This in combination with the slow reaction rate makes it necessary to add the phenyl reagent to all the solutions at as nearly the same time as possible. In the methyl method the color was found to be perfectly stable for 3 to 4 hours, and after 24 hours, the color intensity decreased by only 5 per cent, the shade of color was unchanged, and there was no evidence of precipitation. The phenyl compound precipitated after a day. The methyl compound is not sufficiently stable to permit the use of permanent stand¬ ards but they may be used for several hours. In this connection, it should be pointed out that palladous chloride must not stand in contact with the buffer of pH 4.8 for more than 10 minutes before adding the reagent. If allowed to stand, low results are obtained due either to a hydrolytic precipitation of the palladium or to an absorption of palladous ion on the glass surface. The reaction rate in the phenyl method is sensitive to temp¬ erature changes, increasing with a temperature rise; the stabil¬ ity of the color decreases. It is necessary to control the tempera¬ ture to within 5° €. The methyl reaction is but slightly affected by a temperature difference of 20° C. The interfering substances in the two methods are practically identical. Oxidizing agents destroy the reagents ; reducing agents interfere by reduction of the palladous ion. Of the me¬ tallic ions tested only ceric, auric, and silver ions, in addition to palladous ion, react with the reagent. These reactions' are not as sensitive as the palladium reaction. Gold when present in amounts exceeding 100 y interferes, but it can be removed by extracting with either ether or ethyl acetate. Silver ions do not react in acid solution but must be absent since a hydrochloric acid buffer is used. Of the other metals, only those yielding col¬ ored ions interfere when present in sufficient amount to impart an interfering color. Those metals that may be encountered in¬ clude cobalt, copper, iridium, iron, nickel, platinum, and rhodium. In the case of iron and copper, they interfere at lower concentra¬ tions in the methyl method than in the phenyl method because of the higher pH of the solution employed. For example, the limit¬ ing concentration of iron in the methyl method is^ 3 p.p.m. as compared to 30 p.p.m. in the phenyl method. The sensitivity of the two methods is of the same order, al¬ though it is to be remembered that the methyl method uses the pH giving the maximum sensitivity, while the phenyl does not. Actually, under the optimum conditions 1 part of Pd in 300,- 000,000 parts of solution can be detected by the phenyl reagent 164 in Nessler tubes, as compared to 1 :200,000,000 for the methyl reagent. Using the spot plate the concentrations are 1 : 10,000,000 and 1:8,000,000, respectively. In the colorimetric procedures used, 1:200,000,000 (or 0.5 y) can be detected by using either reagent. Both methods are applicable to quantities of palladium up to 50 y, although the best results are obtainable using less than 30 y. With the roulette comparator equipped with a suit¬ able filter, the results obtainable under the most favorable con¬ ditions are accurate to 5 per cent for 5 y of palladium and 2 to 3 per cent for 10-25 y. Spectrophometric studies were made on solutions of the re¬ agents and of the compounds using a photoelectric spectropho¬ tometer. The use of such an instrument is especially advantag¬ eous because the reagents themselves are colored. If white light is used, the absorption is the sum of that due to the compound and that of the excess reagent. By using monochromatic light, it is often possible to select some wave length, or wave band, which is not absorbed by the reagent but is by the compound, thus eliminating the effect of the color of the reagent. By plotting the relative absorption, i. e., the absorption referred to the maxi¬ mum as 100, against the wave length, curves known as relative absorption curves are obtained. By comparing the curves ob¬ tained for the reagent and for the compound, the relative ab¬ sorption of each will indicate at what wave length, if any, the absorption by the reagent is eliminated and yet the absorption by the compound is somewhere near its maximum. The relative absorption curve for the methyl reagent gave a maximum at 450 m/x; for the compound at 485 m/x. At 525 m/x the relative ab¬ sorption of the reagent w^as less than 1 ; that of the compound 80. By using the reagent as a standard, its effect could be entirely eliminated. For the phenyl reagent, the most favorable wave length was 550 m/x but at this wave length, the reagent interfered slightly and only 50 per cent of the maximum sensitivity was ob¬ tainable. Furthermore, the slow rate of development and limited stability of the phenyl compound does not make it suitable for spectrophometric studies. The methyl reaction can be satis¬ factorily used and is adaptable to quantitative determinations, especially since the solutions of the compound conform to Beer’s law up to a palladium content of 20y. Briefly comparing the reagents, it can be said that the methyl and ethyl reagents have the following advantages over the phenyl reagent : 1. The time required for development of the color is less than 5 minutes as compared to 30 minutes for the phenyl. 2. The stability of the color after formation is greater — 4 hours compared to 1-2 hours. Hence, it is not so important that the reagent be added within such a limited time. 165 3. The reaction is much less sensitive to temperature changes than is the phenyl. 4. And as just mentioned, the reagents are more suitable to spectrophometric studies because of the greater stability and the availability of a suitable wave length of light. The disadvantages of the methyl and ethyl reagents are : 1. They are more subject to the interference of certain ions, especially cupric and ferric ions. 2. Palladous chloride must not be allowed to remain in con¬ tact with the buffer for more than 10 minutes before add¬ ing the reagent. This is not a serious objection if one is aware of it. The sensitivity and accuracy are of the same order of magni¬ tude for all three reagents, and the effect of pH and of the elec¬ trolyte concentration is also comparable. The methyl and ethyl reagents can be used advantageously in determinations in which the interfering ions are known to be absent. The reactivity of these reagents is not limited to palladous chloride. All three react with palladous nitrate to give highly colored compounds similar to those obtained with palladous chloride. The phenyl compound may be precipitated and isolated without difficulty. The methyl and ethyl compounds are soluble and precipitate only after the solutions are evaporated to a small volume. The solids so obtained are probably contaminated with the reagent as evidenced by their color. The physical properties of the phenyl compound are similar to the corresponding chloride compound. An analysis of the compound failed to give any defi¬ nite indication of its structure, though it probably is an addition compound analogous to the chloride compound. The colorimetric determination of palladous chloride failed if silver was present. Turbidity resulted if the determination was carried out in its presence and if the silver was removed by precipitation as the chloride a part of the palladium was lost. The reaction of p-nitrosodiphenylamine was investigated to de¬ termine whether or not a direct determination of palladium in the presence of silver was possible. A method was developed which can be used for those special cases in which palladium and silver are present in solution or may be brought into solution by means of nitric acid. The character of the reaction is very similar to that with pal¬ ladous chloride and the general procedure is essentially the same. A nitric acid-sodium acetate buffer of pH 1,2 is used, and a standard palladous nitrate solution is employed for the stand¬ ards. The most important precaution to be observed is that all the reagents are chloride-free. In the presence of silver, tur- 166 bidity will result and even when silver is not present, the pre¬ caution must be taken since very small amounts of chloride markedly decrease the color intensity. The sensitivity is of the same order as for the palladous chloride determination. The rate of formation is about the same, though the stability is somewhat greater. * The effect of tempera¬ tures, of pH, and of electrolytes is comparable. The interference of metallic ions is the same with the exception of isilver which may be present to the extent of 20 mg. Larger amounts of silver cause a slight decrease in the color intensity, but this effect may be eliminated by adding approximately the same amount of silver to the standards. Thus, by such a procedure, it is possible to estimate 0.005 per cent of palladium in 100 mg. of silver with an accuracy of 10 per cent. The methyl and ethyl reagents may be used for the determi¬ nation of palladous nitrate by using a nitric-acid — -sodium acetate buffer of pH 4.6. No special advantages over the phenyl method are obtainable. The reaction is slow and only slightly more stable than the phenyl reaction. The temperature effect is less, but ferric and cupric ions interfere at a lower concentration. Silver ions have about the same effect as in the phenyl method. The reagents may also be used for the qualitative detection of palladous nitrate with the same sensitivity as with palladous chloride. These reagents because of their high sensitivity and nearly specific reaction with palladium provide valuable methods for the detection and determination of palladium. They are also inter¬ esting from a structural standpoint, and we hope to be able to make additional studies with other related compounds to sub¬ stantiate further our ideas in regard to the essential group re¬ quired. University of Virginia. 167 i The Virginia Journal of Science VoL 1 NOVEMBER, 1940 No. 7 Virginia Academy of Science Proceedings for tke Year 1939-40 jMinutes of tlie EigLteentli Annual JVleeting Virginia M.ilitary Institute Mav 2^4, 1940 The Virginia Journal of Science Official journal of the VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE WoRTLEY F. Rudd, President, Medical College of Virginia,, Richmond, Va. E. C. L. Miller, Secretary-Treasv/rer, Medical College of Virginia, Rich¬ mond, Va. Sidney S. Negus, Assistant Secretary-Treasurer, Medical College of Vir¬ ginia, Richmond, Va. COUNCIL 1940-41 Regular Ex-Offido W. Catesby Jones . . ...1941 D. Maurice Allan..... . . 1941 Charles E. Myers . . 1942 Earle B. Norris . . . . ..1942 Preston Edwards . . 1943 Ruskin S. Freer . . 1943 Marcellus H. Stow . . 1944 WoRTLEY F. Rudd . . ..1944 H. H. Zimmerley. . . . 1945 George W. Jeffers . . ...1945 EDITORIAL BOARD Editor^7b-Chi0f — Ruskin S. Freer, Lynchburg College, Lynchburg, Va. Managing Editor— Robert P. Carroll, Virginia Military Institute, Lexington, Va. S. A. Mitchell — Astronomy C. L. Albright— Pastes G. W. Jeffers^ — Biology John W. Watson — Chemistry John Alex. BGR^n—Education Albert H. Cooper — Engineering Edward C. H. Geology Carl C. Speidel — Medicine R. S. Henneman — Psychology Entered as second-class matter February 20, 1940, at the post ojfice at Lexington, Virginia, under the Act of March 3, 1879. Subscription — $1.00 per volume to members of the Virginia Academy of Science; $2.00 per vol¬ ume to others. Published at Lexington, Virginia. The Virginia Journal of Science VoL I NOVEMBER, 1940 No. 7 Virginia Academy of Science Proceedings for tlie Year 1939-40 Al-inutes of tke Eigkteentk Annual A4.eeting Virginia Aiilitary Institute May 2-4, 1940 Virginia Academy of Science Ruskin S. Freer, President Lynchburg College E. C. L. Miller, Secretary-Treasurer Medical College of Virginia Sidney S. Negus, Assistant Secretary-Treasurer Medical College of Virginia OTHER MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL Regular Members Robert F. Smart W. Catesby Jones Charles E. Myers Preston Edwards Marcellus H. Stow Ex-Officio Members Harvey E. Jordan D. Maurice Allan Earle B. Norris Ruskin S. Freer WoRTLEY F. Rudd CONTENTS General Program . 172 Minutes : Council Meeting . 173 Academy Conference . 174 General Business Meeting . 194 Sections : Astronomy, Mathematics and Physics . 199 Biology . . . 296 Botany . 214 Zoology . 217 Chemistry . 223 Education . 231 Engineering . 236 Geology . 242 Medical Sciences . 250 Psychology . . 253 List of Members: . 257 General Program of the Eighteenth Annual Meeting Lexington, Virginia 1940 VIRGINIA 4:30 P. M. 7:30 P. M. 8:30 A. M. 10:00 A. M. 1:00 P. M. 2:00 P. M. 4:00 P. M. 5:00 P. M. 6:30 P. M. 8:00 P. M. 9:00 A. M. 12:00 Noon. MILITARY INSTITUTE— HEADQUARTERS Thursday, May 2 Council Meeting. Alumni Hall. Academy Conference. Alumni Hall. Friday, May 3 Registration. Anteroom, Jackson Memorial Hall. Section Meetings. Lunch. Crozet Hall. Tickets at Registration desk. 50c per plate. Section Meetings. Trip to Robert E. Lee Museum in the Lee Chapel at Washington and Lee University. Washington and Lee University invites all mem¬ bers and guests of the Academy to tea at the Student Union. Banquet. Crozet Hall. Tickets at Registration desk. $1.00 per plate. General Session. Jackson Memorial Hall. Address of Welcome. Major Gen. Charles E. Kilbourne. Response by President Ruskin S. Freer. Presentation of Annual Research Prize of the Academy and the Jefferson Prize by Dr. Frank A. Geldard. Address — ''A Winter in Oaxaca : Exploring for Plants in Southern Mexico'’ by Dr. W. H. Camp, New York Botanical Garden. Saturday, May 4 Section Meetings. General Business Meeting in Jackson Memorial Hall. PROCEEDINGS 1940 173 Minutes of the Council Meeting The Council met in Alumni Hall of the Virginia Military In¬ stitute, Thursday, May 2 at 5:00 P. M. with the following pres¬ ent: D. Maurice Allan, Preston Edwards, Ruskin S. Freer, W. C. Jones, Co E. Myers, E. C. L. Miller, W. F. Rudd, R. F. Smart, and M. H. Stow. After considerable discussion of the future organization of the Virginia Journal of Science, Mr. Rudd moved, and it was carried that the Council recommend to the Academy : 1. That each section be authorized and requested to elect at least one member to represent its field of interest and that all these representatives constitute an editorial board for the Virginia Journal of Science. (See page 177) . 2. That an executive board of three members be constituted to be made up of the editor and managing editor to be elected by the Council and a chairman to be appointed by the incom¬ ing president. The Council at once reelected the present in¬ cumbents, Prof. Freer as editor and Col. Carroll as managing editor. The Council then added to the permanent officers of the Acad¬ emy by electing Dr. S. S. Negus as Assistant Secretary-Treasurer by a unanimous vote. (See page 194) . After a statement by Lt.-Col. Carroll concerning the financial status and prospects of the Journal, the Council adjourned to meet at 8 : 00 A. M. Friday. 8:00 A. M., Friday A number of matters were brought up, discussed and formu¬ lated for presentation to the Saturday noon business meeting. For the wording and action see page 194. E. C. L. Miller, Secretary. 174 The VIRGINIA ACADEMY of SCIENCE Minutes of the Academy Conference The Academy Conference met in Alumni Hall of the Virginia Military Institute, Thursday, May 2 at 8 P. M. with the follow¬ ing present: D. M. Allan, F. L. Apperly, A. R. Armstrong, J. T. Ashworth, R. C. Berry, G. R. Boyd, H. N. Calderwood, R. P. Carroll, Hunsdon Cary, A. F. Chestnut, W. E. Clark, R. B. Davenport, A. L. Delisle, P. H. Edwards, I. G. Foster, W. J. Frierson, T. H. Garber, F. A. Geldard, L. German, W. G. Guy, A. T. Gwathmey, J. G. Harrar, F. B. Haynes, S. M. Heflin, L. L. Hill, J. L. Howe, L. G. Hoxton, W. D. Hoyt, J. S. Jamison, Jr., G. W. Jeffers, W. C. Jones, B. M. Keys, E. C. H. Hammers, I. F. Lewis, John Mahan, A. B. Massey, W. M. McGill, L. L. Monta¬ gue, S. S. Negus, J. B. Newman, J. R. Nicholson, Jr., H. M. Read, B. D. Reynolds, H. E. Ritchey, J. B. Robb, R. G. Robb, F. L. Robeson, T. McN. Simpson, Jr., R. F. Smart, F. F. Smith, M. H. Stow, I. Taliaferro, R. L. Taylor, H. McC. Trout, W. E. Trout, Jr., I. A. Updike, Mrs. I. A. Updike, H. D. Ussery, I. D. Wilson, and W. F. Young. Report of the President The work of your President for the past year has consisted chiefly in attempting to keep up with routine duties. The larger projects for the year, adopted by the Council or Academy at the last meeting, have been carried out by two new committees, — the Committee on the Academy Periodical, and the Committee on ' Science Clubs. The other committees have carried out their usual functions, and they and the Academy Secretary, Doctor Miller, are responsible for the achievements of the year. : I have met with two committees during the year, the Re¬ search Committee and the Committee on the Academy Periodical. The latter served as an emergency committee on the place of ■ meeting for this year, when it suddenly became apparent a day or two before the committee met in Lynchburg that that city : would not be able to offer hotel accommodations for the Academy • meeting, due to May Day programs at Randolph-Macon Woman’s ; College and Sweet Briar College which occur on the same week- I end as our program. Because of the late date of this discovery i your Secretary and President decided to present the situation to i the Committee on Periodical, representing most of the sections I of the Academy, to facilitate a hasty solution of the difficulty. Secretary Miller found that the Virginia Military Institute was : glad to extend an invitation to our group, and on very ^hort notice, the host institution made preparations for this meeting. PROCEEDINGS 1940 175 It is very unfortunate that our meetings conflict with May Day celebrations in the women’s colleges of the State. Many faculty members and administrative officials who are members of the Academy are prevented from attending our meetings. The Apple Blossom Festival occurring at Winchester often provides an additional conflict. Not only do these conflicts prevent at¬ tendance of many at our meetings, but they preclude any meet¬ ings of the Academy at Lynchburg or Winchester. The question might be raised as to the advisability of changing the time of meeting. (See page 194). Another question that might be con¬ sidered is the advisability of an additional meeting of the Acad¬ emy, to be held in the autumn, as is done in several other state academies. An argument in favor of this suggestion is the full¬ ness of the programs of some of the sections of the Academy, with only one meeting a year. I wish also to suggest to the Academy the importance of con¬ tinuing the work of the Committee on the Place of Science in the Schools. At the Danville meeting a year ago. Dr. Donald W. Davis asked that he be relieved of the Chairmanship of this Com¬ mittee and suggested consideration of overlapping of functions of this and the Committee on Junior Membership and Science Clubs. It would appear that there is enough difference in the work of these committees and enough work for each of them to do, to continue as distinct committees. I did nothing about re¬ constituting the Committee on the Place of Science in the Schools because of the question raised in the Academy Conference last year as to the future of this Committee. (See page 194) . Attention has been called recently to a tendency toward de¬ creased emphasis upon the sciences in secondary school curricula. Courses in biology, chemistry and physics, as well as other sciences formerly taught in the high schools, are giving way to general science courses and various types of survey courses. The colleges, too, are affected by this move. On the other hand, there appears to be increasing interest in the inclusion of science material in work of the elementary grades. A number of teachers’ colleges in the State, as well as the University of Virginia, are offering a course usually called, 'The Teaching of Science in the Elementary Schools”, with em¬ phasis upon content rather than methods. There is a rapidly growing literature in this field. An Academy committee should continue the work of keeping abreast of this development, stand¬ ing ready to give aid of any sort that may be deemed advisable. Individual members of the Academy might interest themselves in this movement in their own localities. A survey of what is going on in the schools of the State might be made, and its results pre¬ sented to a future general meeting of the Academy. I strongly urge, therefore, the continuation of this Committee. I feel that it should be one of our major concerns. (See page 194). 176 The VIRGINIA ACADEMY of SCIENCE I wish to express my deep aippreciation to the Chairmen of the various Academy committees for their splendid cooperation through the year. Mr. L. C. Bird and Dr. Ivey F. Lewis, in par¬ ticular, have put much time, thought and labor into launching two new endeavors, the Science Clubs project, and the VIRGINIA Journal of Science, respectively. I cannot close my report without paying tribute to Doctor Miller. Thoroughly aware of all activities and details of Acad¬ emy work, alert and anticipatory with regard to new needs and opportunities, he seems never to sleep. I also apologize to him for my own short-comings during the year. I do not know whether to call him the spark plug or the dynamo of our organi¬ zation. Perhaps “dynamo"’ would have more dignified connota¬ tions. Ruskin S. Freer, President, Report of the Secretary 1939-40 The two outstanding events this year are the launching of the Virginia Journal of Science, and the initiation of science club work in the high schools of the State. Both promise to be highly important for the Academy and for science in Virginia, if they are properly supported. It has been clearly recognized for several years that a Vir¬ ginia Journal of Science would be very important and helpful if all fields of science would support it with articles and subscrip¬ tions. It would enable Virginia science to present a united front to the world and would be another influence binding Virginia science together. Now that it is started, let’s all cooperate in its support. At the Danville meeting a year ago, the incoming president was authorized to appoint a Committee on Science Club Work. Mr. Bird, as Chairman of that committee will report on the work done so far, but acknowledgment should be made at this time of the very cordial cooperation and support given this work by the State Board of Education, the Virginia Education Association, and the American Institute of the City of New York. Without this support, the new committee would have been greatly handi¬ capped. Acknowledgment should also be made of the excellent spirit shown by the Virginia Military Institute in offering to act as host to the Academy when it was discovered that we could not be accommodated in Lynchburg, owing to the simultaneous occur¬ rence of May Day exercises in the two large women’s colleges there, Randolph-Macon Woman’s College and Sweet Briar Col¬ lege and the resultant influx of visitors. PROCEEDINGS 1940 177 We started the year with 843 members, lost 121 and gained 101 new members, making the present membership 823. This is 20 fewer than were reported last year. This apparent loss is probably due to the constant fluctuation in the number of junior members and is not signiflcant. The Treasurer’s report also shows a somewhat similar con¬ dition, as our balance last year was $1576.38 and this year $1410.80. This shows a deficit of $165.58. However $300.00 has been advanced to the VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF Science, as partial payment for their printing of the Program and Proceedings. This amount normally would have been charged to the coming year, and then we would have shown a gain of $134.42. President Freer has made the following appointments to com¬ mittees : To New Committees Committee on Science Clubs: L. C. Bird, Chairman, J. T. Christopher, H. J. Davis, G. W. Jeffers, S. S. Negus, P. M. Patter¬ son, J. A. Reese, J. A. Rorer, W. E. Trout, and I. A. Updike. Committee on the Journal: I. F. Lewis, Chairman, and R. P. Carroll, Business Manager. Editorial Board for the Journai^ Astronomy, Mathematics and Physics: T. McN. Simpson, Jr. and Preston Edwards. Biology: Botany — Lena Artz, R. P. Carroll, R. S. Freer, I. F. Lewis, G. C. Mason, A. B. Massey, and R. F. Smart; Zoology: Paul R. Burch and Florence Hague. Chemistry: W. E. Trout, Jr. and John H. Yoe. Education: A. M. Jarman and C. E. Myers. Engineering : A. H. Cooper and D. H. Pletta. Geology: Ed. Steidtmann and J. K. Roberts. Medicine: J. E. Kindred and I. D. Wilson. Psychology: R. H. Henneman and Helen Peak. To Rotating Committees Nominating Committee: Dean Earle B. Norris, so that the committee now stands in order of rotation: H. E. Jordan, D. Maurice Allan, and Earle B. Norris. Place of Meeting: Preston Edwards, R. C. Sommerville, and Florence S. Hague. Research Committee: Gillie A. Larew, so that the committee now stands in order of rotation: C. C. Speidel, F. L. Apperly, F. A. Geldard, F. C. Vilbrandt, and Gillie A. Larew. 178 The VIRGINIA ACADEMY of SCIENCE To Standing Committees Committee on Junior Members: A. H. Cooper, so that the committee now stands: Paul R. Burch, A. H. Cooper, Helen Schultz, G. M. Shear, M. E. Taylor, and W. E. Trout, Jr., Chair¬ man. Conservation Committee: R. P. Carroll, so that the committee now stands: R. P. Carroll, Chairman, A. W. Drinkard, W. C. Hall, L. B. Henderson, W. D. Hoyt, W. M. McGill, J. E. Shillinger, A. M. Showalter, and T. W. Turner. Committees that carry over unchanged : Finance Committee: D. W. Davis, Garnett Ryland, and T. McN. Simpson, Jr., Chairman. Publicity Committee: William Clift, Douglas Freeman, L. G. Hoxton, W. M. McGill, S. S. Negus, W. F. Rudd, Chairman, Ellen Shenk, I. A. Updike, C. E. Wheeler, III, and I. D. Wilson. Flora Committee: Lena Artz, R. P. Carroll, R. S. Freer, I. F. Lewis, J. B. Lewis, G. C. Mason, A. B. Massey, Chairman, and R. F. Smart. Fauna Committee: L. D. Anderson, J. W. Bailey, Paul R. Burch, R. P. Carroll, Geo. W. Chappelear, J. R. Christie, G. Talbot French, Geo. W. Jeffers, E. Ruffin Jones, Jr., Chairman, W. A. Kepner, J. J. Murray, B. D. Reynolds, R. T. Taylor, W. L. Threlkeld, H. G. Walker, 1. D. Wilson. Museum Committee: Arthur Bevan, J. S. Bryan, W. E. Car- son, D. S. Freeman, W. C. Hall, G. W. Jeffers, Chairman, G. C. Mason, Helen McCormack, Stuart McGuire, J. M. Miller, Jr., W. T. Sanger, and Ida Sitler. E. C. L. Miller, Secretary, i PROCEEDINGS 1940 179 Report of the Treasurer Balance on hand, April 15, 1939........................... . . $1,576.38 Receipts From Dues; 646 Regular Members................................ $1,092.00 1 Regular Member.................................. 1.50 86 Junior Members.................................. 86.00 10 Sustaining Members.......................... 100.00 $1,279,50 From Interest.................................................... 20.69 From Gift.......................................................... 3.00 Total Miscellaneous............................... . . . . 23.69 Total receipts................................................................................ 1,303.19 Total to account for . . $2,879.57 For; Disbursements Printing and supplies............................. Labor . . . Stamps . . . . . Programs . . . . . Proceedings . . . Advance Virginia Journal of Science. Assistant Secretary.................... . . Secretary . . . . . . Auditor . . . . . . . Corporation Tax......... . . . A. A. A. S. Meeting................... . . Badges . . . . . . Dues Virginia Wildlife Association...., Deposit returned . . . . Transfer to Trust Fund.............. . Returned check......................................... Petty. Cash.................... . . . . Express ..................................................... $ 105.85 60.00 216.77 210.00 265.00 300.00 26.00 150.00 5.00 5.00 48.60 20.07 10.00 25.50 3.00 4.00 11.44 4.64 Total Disbursements..... . . . . . . . . 1,468.77 Balance on hand April 15, 1940..... . . . $1,410.80 In Morris Plan Bank................... . . $ 843,44 In First and Merchants National Bank . . 567.36 Total .............................................................. $1,410.80 Balance April 15, 1939...... $1,576,38 Balance April 15, 1940 1,410.80 ....... $ 165.58 E. C. L. Miller, Treasurer, Deficit 180 The VIRGINIA ACADEMY of SCIENCE Dr. E. C. L. Miller Virginia Academy of Science Richmond, Virginia Dear Doctor Miller Richmond, Virginia April 18, 1940 This is to certify that I have checked the books of the Virginia Academy of Science for the year ending April 16, 1940, and found the accounting system in good shape. Yours very truly, (Mrs.) Ola Darden Hellen. Report of the President-Elect I am fully aware that for the President-Elect to set forth his views about Academy affairs before he is inducted into office is a distinct innovation in this organization. I therefore hesitated to ask for this privilege. However, as I studied rather carefully the Academy’s history and potentialities on the one hand, and what seems to me to be a few of the major needs of the State for some sort of helpful cooperation by a more or less detached group of scientific workers on the other hand, I felt impelled to make a brief aippraisal of our assets in personnel, organization and vision, and over against this of the Academy’s obligations and opportunities. I am grateful to those of you who are responsible for giving me a brief period in wffiich to set forth a few conclu¬ sions based upon this appraisal. It is obvious, I think, to all who have followed the Academy through its formative years that it has now come to a measure of maturity rarely found in organizations so young in years, and having a membership so widely diversified. This maturity has come at such a period in the economic and social life of Virginia that it is now not only our privilege but, I believe, our inescapable duty to so relate this work of the Academy to those problems in the years just ahead of us, that our influence in the trends which we see all around us will be a strong determining factor in the direction these trends are going to take. With a membership of more than 800, drawn from practically every field of science, and with a fair number from industry also, we should be able to bring to the study of and an eventual solu¬ tion of some of our vital problems, a degree of competency, sin¬ cerity of purpose and detachment of judgment, that I believe may be found in no other single organization in the State. A profound study of many of these problems and their wise solution are of primary concern as they effect the material prog¬ ress which Virginia has now begun to make on a scale far greater than we have known before. All of us here tonight have lived through an almost meteoric change in both the economic PROCEEDINGS 1940 181 and social aspects of life among us. The latest figures available show that out of every dollar of income earned by people in Vir¬ ginia, practically one-fourth of it comes from sources that are dependent wholly upon industry that has its roots in some sort of scientific soil. Further, the indications are at present that the percentage of our income from such sources will show a defi¬ nite increase in the years immediately ahead of us if we may judge at all by what has happened during the past quarter of a century. Not forgetting for a moment the importance of an organiza¬ tion like ours in the cultural, educational and social aspects of our community life, I am deeply conscious of the obligations that we must assume for an even more fundamental part in all of these matters than it has been possible for us to assume during the early years of the Academy^s existence. I believe we must, with enthusiasm, set ourselves to the task of seeing how we may better relate the Academy to the kind of life we see around us on every hand. How to do this most effectively, and with the fullest coop¬ eration from all groups that must have a part in such an import¬ ant program, will require a long range study of the problems by the best minds that the Academy has in it. Further, this study must be a continuous one. It should be so organized and directed that the rank and file of our member¬ ship should know the objectives, and feel themselves a definite part of the machinery for bringing about their consummation. It has been my good fortune to have discussed these matters with many members of the Academy in the past few months. Al¬ most without exception they agree that we are now ready for a second step in Academy activities. There is unanimous agree¬ ment that although in the hand of Dr. Miller, and many others who have shared with him his hopes and efforts in bringing the organization to its present potentially strong position, neverthe¬ less, from now on we shall be on trial. It will not be sufficient that we meet once a year and have a wide variety of papers, however strong they may be, on a great variety of subjects. An organization like ours may content itself with that sort of ex¬ istence for the period of its youth, but will most certainly atrophy if it does not in its maturer years set itself resolutely to definitely constructive tasks that lie naturally within its sphere of influence. Most of the things I have said are self-evident. I asked for this opportunity to say them to you tonight because I wanted to ask you to give your approval of two or three things which I be¬ lieve the Academy should do at this time to make itself an even more vital force for good than it has been in the past. The pro¬ posals which I shall make have the hearty approval of our long time efficient secretary, and of Dr. Updike who, for several years, has worked with Dr. Miller as his assistant. The time has come, we believe, when our secretary needs an understudy. Such a man 182 The VIRGINIA ACADEMY of SCIENCE should be selected with great care for upon his shoulders will probably fall, ultimately, the ever-increasing responsibilities of directing the affairs of the Academy in the second phase of its history as Dr. Miller has done in its formative years. He should possess all of Dr. Miller’s unusual qualities of lead¬ ership, industry, and vision ; he should have time to devote to the work. That he should be so situated as to have available compe¬ tent stenographic help is imperative. He should be so located that during the next few years he may have the benefit of close per¬ sonal contact with Dr. Miller, that he may catch something of his devotion that has made the Academy what it is today. And per¬ haps most important of all, he should possess to a marked degree the ability to properly publicize the activities of the Academy throughout the State, and even across State lines if and when its accomplishments merit such publicity. (See page 173). It has long been my considered judgment that the future of the Academy should be so important to the welfare of the State that its policies should be mapped out years in advance. Such planning and its direction should be controlled, it seems to me, by a very carefully selected committee that might well be called '‘The Committee on Long Range Policy”. The Council has always functioned as more or less an administrative committee rather than as a policy making body. Further, its personnel changes too frequently for it to do the things that such a committee as I am recommending would be able to do. (See page 194). In the beginning we feel that the committee should be reason¬ ably large — probably ten members ; two of them to be appointed for two years, two for three years, three for four yeahs, and three for five years, their terms to be determined by lot. Feeling as I do about this, I am asking the Academy to give me the authority to appoint such a committee as soon after I am inducted into office as I find it possible to select the personnel for, perhaps, the most important work of the Academy has as yet undertaken. I can assure you that I shall consult freely with Dr. Miller and other leaders in the Academy in the selection of such a group. Realizing fully that it is not my duty to lay out for this new committee, should the Academy in its wisdom decide to provide for its appointment, any sort of program, I do, nevertheless, feel that it is not out of place for me to mention here tonight, very briefly, a few State-wide problems that it seems to me are just now pressing for some sort of non-partisan, intelligent solution. Despite the fact that although more rapidly than any one of us dreamed of a short time ago we are becoming a highly indus¬ trialized Commonwealth, almost no provision is being made on the secondary school level for training our boys and girls to fit into these new demands. We have our agricultural high schools for those who expect to go back to make our farm life better, but PROCEEDINGS 1940 183 no countenpart of them for the large group that must go into our factories, and mills, and power plants, etc. Only a few weeks ago you saw in the public press a statement from isome of our big industrialists. Said a spokesman for the duPont organization: “Although the Ampthill plant has approximately 16,000 applica¬ tions on the files in its employment office, it has been necessary to start an apprentice course because of lack of trained craftsmen. “There is no need to fear that vocational schools will train more people than can be absorbed by the vocation in the vicinity, he said. He cited the New England States where efficient vocational schools are being operated. “They actually create jobs in these vicinities, he said, since indus¬ tries are anxious to locate where skilled workmen are available. This tends to absorb not only the product of training schoolsi, but surplus as well, he added.” In a recent address by Dr. George F. Zook, president of the American Council on Education, occurred this most significant observation about this same problem : “The traditional curricula in high schools and junior colleges have proved entirely unsuited to a large proportion of the new mass of young people who have been driven, through force of circumstances, into our classrooms. The diverse character of modern industrial em¬ ployment with its large proportion of repetitive jobs requires a reor¬ ganization of our program of vocational education. Economic cir¬ cumstances and a natural desire to be of use in the world point clearly to the necessity of a combined program of work and study for a large proportion of youth, but so far only the Civilian Conservation Corps and the National Youth Administration see the vision.” A dangerous subject in Virginia, but nevertheless a most im¬ portant one, is the pollution of our streams. This subject has been for years, and still is a more or less political football. Indeed, we venture to assert that it always will be a political matter un¬ less and until some properly qualified and non-partisan group puts it on the proper scientific basis, and working in cooperation with the industrialists, the communities, and the lawmakers, sees it through to a satisfactory solution. In these, and many other just as important issues, the Academy might, it seems to me, exert a fine influence-— a sort of intelligent, and scientific, and moral suasion^ — -for a better way of doing things. It all adds up to make it a distinct challenge for higher en¬ deavor on the part of the Academy as it begins what I believe that all agree is its first years of real maturity. As is well known, the appointing of a Committee on Science Clubs a year ago was very definitely a step in the right direction. If you think the program I have outlined, or one similar to it, deserves a trial, won’t you see to it that it gets under way and then won’t you give it your full and enthusiastic support? Cer¬ tainly the office holders, however enthusiastic they may be, will not be able to solve any of these difficult problems without all the backing that the membership can possibly give them. W. F. Rudd. 184 The VIRGINIA ACADEMY of SCIENCE Report of the Committee on Science Clubs Part I Last year the Virginia Academy of Science authorized the ap- pointment of a committee on Science Clubs. The members of this Committee — as appointed by your President, Dr. Ruskin S. Freer — ^^are Dr. George W. Jeffers, Dr. I. A. Updike, Dr. Sidney S. Negus, J. T. Christopher, Hubert J. Davis, Dr. J. A. Reelse, and Dr. John A. Rorer. Some of the most valuable work was done by your Secretary, Dr. Miller. In preparing for this report, I found it most inter¬ esting to review the correspondence (voluminous in amount) pertaining to the activities of this committee. I am not going to give you much detail, but here are the highlights. The committee felt that it was most essential to ascertain the number of Science Clubs in existence in the State of Virginia. Therefore, a letter, accompanied by a questionnaire, was sent to all school principals in Virginia — ^about 700— over the signa¬ ture of Dr. Fred M. Alexander, State Department of Education, (this department, headed by Dr. Sidney B. Hall, has been most cooperative), Mr. Francis S. Chase, Executive Secretary of the Virginia Education Association, (Mr. Chase has also assisted to the fullest extent) , and L. C. Bird, Chairman of your committee. A copy of the letter and questionnaire which were sent are at¬ tached and become a ipart of the record. The number of responses was unusual. We found that there were more than fifty science clubs already in existence in the State, and approximately the same number were interested. (Please see map. Exhibit I, show¬ ing distribution of science clubs.) Simultaneous with the ending of the above mentioned letter to the principals of the secondary schools, a letter was sent out to all of the members of the Virginia Academy of Science, over the signature of your President, in which it was pointed out that the Virginia Academy of Science had determined to make the devel¬ opment of science clubs one of its major objectives, and asking for suggestions. A copy of this letter is attached and becomes a part of the record. The response was not as great as it should have been. The above mentioned letter to the secondary school principals contained the following paragraph: “The Virginia Academy of Science is providing a special speaker on this subject at the Thanksgiving meeting of the Virginia Educa¬ tion Association.” The speaker provided was Dr. H. H. Sheldon, Managing Trustee, The American Institute of the City of New York. Dr. Sheldon was introduced by Dr. William T. Sanger, President of the Medical College of Virginia. The audience was large and representative, and the interest was above expectations. Dr. PROCEEDINGS 1940 185 Sheldon also gave a radio broadcast with the able aid of Dr. Sidney S. Negus and Dr. George W. Jeffers, this being a part of the committee's plan to promote the science club idea. Also, there appeared in the November, 1939, number of the Virginia Journal of Education, an article by Dr. Jeffers, entitled ‘"Science Clubs in the Schools". In addition. Dr. Miller and the Chairman of your committee attended a district meeting of the Virginia Education Associa¬ tion in Danville on October 27, at which an interesting program on science club work was arranged. Dr. Miller was the principal speaker, and his address was on “Why A Science Club" ? An excerpt from a letter written by Dr. Miller to Dr. Sheldon of the American Institute, bearing on this meeting, is of interest. “Mr. Bird and I went to Danville, Va., last Friday to attend a meeting of District E of the Virginia Education Association. I en¬ close a copy of the program. We found that there are three rather successful science clubs in the Danville (the George Washington) high school. “Mr. Christopher, the principal of the school, had some of the students come in and tell something about their science club work. He had given them “carte blanche” to say anything they wished either favorable or unfavorable or both. These students all did very well. I was much interested, as I learned several things from them. The first one graduated from the high school last year and has now gone on into junior college and misses his science club work. After the meeting he asked me if it would be proper for him to organize one in his junior college. I told him to do so, of course, stating that there are science clubs in most of the colleges of Virginia. “The next one told of the difficulties caused by the lack of a suitl- able room for their science club work so that all of the equipment and supplies have to be taken down and put away each time. Because of this his club members have studied up on the periodic table of the elements and other advanced work rather than doing any experiments. The third boy was from a taxidermy club and called our attention to a glass case in the high school lobby filled with good work. A peacock, a crow, an alligator, pheasants, partridges, and numerous other ob¬ jects apparently very well mounted. He said the work was all done by the students rather than by the sponsor. “The fourth boy spoke for the biology club and' as he personally was interested chiefiy in natural history he brought in and told us all about a live opossum, a live green snake, a ripe pod of the milk weed with its seeds equipped with parachutes and a tortoise shell.” Following the meeting of the Virginia Education Association at which Dr. Sheldon spoke, there was a lull in our activities, during which we attempted to answer some of the questions which had been asked as a result of the above mentioned ques¬ tionnaire. The attitude of the committee is illustrated in two types of letter which were used. I. “I have before me the post card you recently returned to Dr. Fred M. Alexander of the State Board of Education, and I note that you do not have a science club at the present time, but have had one in the past. “A number of other high schools here in Virginia are in the same condition, and feel that it might be helpful to sort of pool our knowl- 186 The VIRGINIA ACADEMY of SCIENCE edge. This letter is accordingly being sent to each of these schools. Will you, therefore, please write me concerning the reasons why your science club is not now functioning, and make any other comments you may wish concerning the place and function of science clubs in high schools, and the conditions that tend to make them successful. “We may be able to use such information to the advantage of everyone concerned, in encouraging or discouraging other schools which are contemplating starting science clubs, and we know of forty-five that are consid^ering such action right now. “I can assure you that we shall be glad to pass on to other schools any information or suggestions you may send us,” II. “I have before me the post card that you recently returned to Dr. Fred M. Alexander of the State Board of Education, and am delighted that you have a science club. “As a partial response to your request for aid, I am able to pre¬ sent you with a year’s subscription to the Science Observer through the courtesy of the American Institute of the City of New York. I trust that you may find it helpful. “The Virginia Academy of Science is also collecting suggestions for work projects and programs from science club sponsors and others, in order that it, in turn, may relay them to clubs that need thenr. Will you, therefore, send me a list of activities that you have found interesting and suitable for science club work? We .can make avail¬ able to you speakers on special subjects. These will come mostly from the members of the Virginia Academy of Science. “If you think of any other way in which we can help you, please call on us.” Shortly thereafter, there appeared in our files the name of Mr. Hubert J. Davis, teacher of Science, Pocahontas, Virginia. He is now a member of the Virginia Academy of Science and has been appointed to your science club committee. The splendid work of this member from the secondary school group is grate¬ fully acknowledged. I should report at this point that as a result of a conversation between Dr. Jeffers and a representative from the Bausch and Lomb Optical Company, the Science Medal which has been made available by the company has been brought to the attention of science club sponsors by your committee. I have learned recently that some 1600 high schools throughout the country award this medal annually. (Data on this is presented as Exhibit II.) As a part of a radio series. Dr. Jeffers gave a broadcast over WRVA during the holiday season on science clubs. Reference to our files indicates that early in January, 1940, we were contacting the State Department of Education, pointing out through Dr. Sanger the value of science clubs as a method for informal instruction in education. As a result of that con¬ tact, a second letter went to the secondary schools in the State from the State Department, calling particular attention to the literature and assistance offered science clubs by the American Institute. A set of this literature is attached and becomes a part of the record. PROCEEDINGS 1940 187 As a result of this Science Club Committee, the Corning Glass Works sent to each science club sponsor copies of two booklets ; one on Dalton, and one on Priestly. Mr. Davis helped us meet the need for material to be supplied to science clubs by preparing an outline and suggestions for science club activities, a copy of which is attached and becomejs a part of this report. About 75 copies of this have been sent to science club sponsors. Mr. Davis also prepared an article on '‘How to Organize a Science Club’', which appears in the current issue of the Virginia Journal of Education. A question which has bothered some of us from the begin¬ ning concerning science clubs has been, how could their activi¬ ties be coordinated and their interest stimulated ? Mr. Davis, the active member from the secondary school group, proposed the formation of a Junior Academy of Science such as they have in other states. Mr. Davis wrote to the science club sponsors, in¬ quiring whether or not they would be interested in the formation of a Junior Academy. The response was splendid and there seemed to be a definite interest on the part of the secondary schools in the formation of a Junior Academy. This development led us to write to Dr. Otis W. Caldwell, whom most of you know, asking him to come to this meeting (the V. M. I. meeting of the Virginia Academy of Science) and discuss with us Science Clubs, the formation of a Junior Academy of Science, and related prob¬ lems. Dr. Caldwell will be here Saturday. We expect to have a meet¬ ing at 12 :45 p. m. at the Dutch Inn. We hope that as many mem¬ bers of the Academy will attend as possible. The formation of a Junior Academy of Science will raise some questions, particularly with reference to the relation be¬ tween the Senior Academy and the Junior Academy and the re¬ lation of both to the American Institute. Part II As indicated in the first part of this report. Dr. Otis W. Caldwell arrived at the meeting in Lexington Saturday morning. May 4, at 10:30. He met with some of the members of the Vir¬ ginia Academy of Science, a few sponsors of science clubs, and science club members. This meeting was very informal, but the interest in the formation of a Junior Academy of Science which would coordinate and cooperate on the science club work was manifest. Later, Dr. Caldwell talked briefly to the members of the Vir¬ ginia Academy of Science with particular reference to Junior Academy activities. At its business meeting, upon motion made by Dr. George Jeffers and duly seconded, the Virginia Academy of Science authorized the formation of a Junior Academy of Science, leaving the details to the incoming President of the Academy and the Council. 188 The VIRGINIA ACADEMY of SCIENCE Following the adjournment of the Virginia Academy of Science, some of its members, eleven science club sponsors, and fifty members of science clubs met with Dr. Caldwell again. These sponsors and club members -showed enthusiasm for the' Junior Academy of Science idea and indicated their desire to support such an organization. L. C. Bird, Chairman. Note: — The documents mentioned as forming a part of this report are in the Academy records, but cannot well be printed here. Report of the Committee on Research The Research Committee of the Virginia Academy of Science met in Charlottesville on November 18, 1939 for its regular Fall business meeting. Members peresent were : Drs. Apperly, Freer (ex officio), Geldard (Chairman), Larew, Miller (ex officio), and Vilbrandt. The chief business of the meeting was the consideration of applications for research grants for the year. Funds available for distribution, representing the income from the endowment fund of approximately $13,000 and including the sum of $125 from the A. A. A. S., amounted to $650.15. All eleven requests for aid w^ere considered carefully and grants were made as follows : 1. M. K. Cary, Medical College of Virginia, $75.00 to assist in a -study of the relation of alkalemia and acidemia to resistance to infection. 2. E. Ray Casto, Emory and Henry College, $50.00 for student assistance in tabulation, correlation and graphing of data on the influence of climate on agriculture and manufacturing. 3. F. F. Ferguson and E. Ruffin Jones, Jr., College of William and Mary, Norfolk Division, $25.00 for traveling expenses on collecting trips for Turbellaria in the Dismal Swamp and Norfolk areas. 4. F. H. Fish, Virginia Polytechnic Institute, $50.00 for the pur¬ chase of a colorimeter for use in the study of organic analyti¬ cal reagents. 5. C. C. Flora and W. C. Thacker, Virginia Polytechnic Insti¬ tute, $25.00 for the purchase of parts for the construction of a water bath for use in the study of fat digestion in homo¬ genized, boiled, and acidifled milk. 6. A. T. Gwathmey, University of Virginia, $105.00 for the purchase of a camera for the photomicrography of the sur¬ faces of single crystals of copper and other metals ; title to the equipment to remain with the Academy, 7. J. F. Hall and R. L. Simpson, Jr., Medical College of Virginia, $50.00 for the purchase of materials used in the construction of bridges, etc., placed in the mouths of experimental animals. PROCEEDINGS 1940 189 8. K. A. Jamison, Virginia Polytechnic Institute, $50.00 for the purchase of canaries for use in a teurvey of the incidence and characteristics of malarial parasites in wild birds. 9. A. F. Meyer, Jr., Virginia Military Institute, $35.00 for the purchase of supplies in a study of the sterilization of utensils in public eating places. Certain requests, containing too little information of a de¬ tailed nature to permit intelligent action by the Committee, were of necessity refused. Total grants ($465.00) thus fell short of the amount avail¬ able for distribution ($650.15). It is not felt that this) repre¬ sents any excessively conservative tendency on the part of the Committee. On the contrary, the Committee was disposed to make larger grants had the character of the applications war¬ ranted it. In one instance, indeed, it did increase the amount re¬ quested. It is strongly to be urged that a larger number of ap¬ plications and more varied ones be submitted. The Committee's resources do not permit the making of large grants but it is vital¬ ly interested in supporting in some measure any worthwhile re¬ search project in Virginia. The policy of keeping title to stable research equipment, a gradually evolving one in late year's, was reaffirmed by the pres¬ ent Committee. The files of the Secretary of the Academy now contain a very considerable list of research pieces, originally purchased from Research funds, the use of which may with all propriety be requested by Academy members as the apparatus becomes available for redistribution. There was at least one ex¬ change of this sort during the past year. Another matter of general importance came out of the Com¬ mittee's discussion at its Fall meeting. This concerns the laxity of some individuals in failing to submit reports of progress in connection with their grants. The Committee feels that it is more than a granting body, having been charged from its incep¬ tion with broadly encouraging research in Virginia. It retains an interest in a research project sponsored by it throughout the life of the study, and it is not manners alone that dictate that reports of progress should be made periodically to it. An event of special interest and importance during the year was the publication by Secretary Miller of his careful and search¬ ing analysis of the work of the Research Committee for the ten- year period from 1929 to 1938 inclusive. A printed pamphlet containing this review has been circulated to the entire member¬ ship of the Academy, to all Academies of Science in the Nation, to the members of the Executive Committee of the A. A. A. S., and to other interested individuals. In addition, a isomewhat briefer form of the report was published in the issue of Science for March 8, 1940, this at the urgent request of Dr. Otis W. 190 The VIRGINIA ACADEMY of SCIENCE Caldwell of the Boyce Thompson Institute and Dr. J. McKeen Cattell, editor of Science. The latter urged its publication as an example of ‘'how much can be done with so little’ ' and it is gratifying to the Research Committee to have this independent appraisal of its efforts. The report was many months in prepara¬ tion, involved a prodigious amount of sheer labor as well as critical insight on the part of Doctor Miller, and the entire Academy is in his debt for this splendid service. The review amply demonstrates the wisdom of having restricted grants to relatively small sums, distributed to a relatively large number of qualified researchers and should dictate a continuation in the future of the Committee’s present policy. The customary notice of the annual competition for the Acad¬ emy Award and Jefferson Gold Medal was sent out with the sec¬ tion meeting announcements. As is usual, a supplementary re¬ port will be made by the Committee concerning the annual awards following its Spring meeting. Committee on Research: C. C. Speidel, F. L. Apperly, F. C. ViLBRANDT, Gillie Larew, F. A. Geldard, Chairman. iK^!' Report of the Committee on Junior Members The following are the members of a committee-at-large who have been active for several years in securing junior members in the colleges and universities of the State : Dr. Thomas D. Brown, Roanoke College. Dr. W. E. Bullington, Randolph-Macon College. Dr. Paul R. Burch, Radford State Teachers College. Lieut.-Col. Robert P. Carroll, Virginia Military Institute. Dr. George W. Chappelear, Madison College. Dr. Donald W. Davis, College of William and Mary. Dr. Joseph Elder, Lynchburg College Miss Goldena Farnsworth, Hollins College. Dr. W. J. Frierson, Hampden-Sydney College. Dr. H. B. Haag, Medical College of Virginia. Dr. Florence Hague, Sweet Briar College. Miss Lena B. Henderson, Randolph-Macon Woman’s College. Dr. L. L. Hill, Washington and Lee University. Dr. Ralph Hostetter, Eastern Mennonite School. Dr. George W. Jeffers, Farmville State Teachers College. Dr. E. Ruffin Jones, College of William and Mary, Norfolk division. Dr. Leonidas R. Littleton, Emory and Henry College. Miss Alice McKee, Virginia-Intermont College. PROCEEDINGS 1940 191 Dr. Joseph K. Roberts, University of Virginia. Miss Helen H. Schultz, Mary Washington College. Dr. G. M. Shear, Virginia Polytechnic Institute. Dr. Robert F. Smart, University of Richmond. Dr. Mildred E. Taylor, Mary Baldwin College. Dr. Thomas W. Turner, Hampton Institute. Dr. Harry Weimer, Bridgewater College. All members of the Academy may consider themselves mem¬ bers of this committee, and many deserve mention whose names are omitted. I have the proof that these members have been ef¬ ficiently canvassing their students, and that any failure to secure members cannot be attributed to their indifference or idleness. Some unusual circumstances have arisen in certain cases that have reduced the number of memberships. In other instances the number of memberships shows an encouraging increase. Two questions arose that might be discussed further by the Academy Conference: (1) Some objection was expressed to ask¬ ing non-participants to join the Academy while some students who are not members are allowed to take part in the program. (2) Some students did not desire to become members, but wanted to pay a registration fee for the privilege of attending the meet¬ ings. The possibility of some special event for student members at each meeting was considered. Any suggestions concerning this work will be sincerely appreciated. Committee on J unior Members : Paul R. Burch, Albert H. Cooper, Helen M. Schultz, G. M. Shear, Mildred E. Taylor, Wm. E. Trout, Jr., Chairman, Report of the Committee on the Virginia Journal of Science The large committee set up in 1939 to consider the publication of an Academy journal held only one meeting, but exchanged views freely by mail. The twenty-five members rejpresented all sections of the Academy. The following decisions were arrived at. For 1940-41, the Editor elected is Ruskin S. Freer ; the Managing Editor, Robert P. Carroll. A temporary Editorial Board was set up to serve until the 1940 meeting of the Academy as follows: Preston H. Edwards-— Astronomy, Mathematics and Physics ; Paul R. Burch -—Biology; William G. Guy — Chemistry; John A. Rorer^ — Educa¬ tion; D. H. Pletta— Engineering ; E. C. H. Lammers— Geology ; E. C. L. Miller^ — ^ Academy at large. 192 The VIRGINIA ACADEMY of SCIENCE The subscription price of the Journal was set at $1.00 for Academy members, $2.00 for non-members. Non-subscribing Academy members will continue to receive the Program and Pro¬ ceedings without cost. The VIRGINIA JOURNAL OP Science was selected as the name. Numbers 1, 2-3, and 4 are the issues bring¬ ing publication to the date of the 1940 meeting of the Academy. Other numbers will appear during the year. The Committee realizes that the success of the Journal will depend entirely upon the support given by members of the Acad¬ emy, and urges upon all members hearty and generous coopera¬ tion so that the first year of the Journal may justify its contin¬ uance. Ivey F. Lewis, Chairman. Report of the Finance Committee An effort to reconstitute the Finance Committee failed and late in the year the President requested the present chairman to continue in office for this term. Only one matter of importance has come before the committee and that was submitted by mail by the secretary of the Academy and had to do with the financing of the Journal. At a special meeting of the Council, an agreement as to alloca¬ tion of funds was reached tentatively. As that will be reported by the secretary and come before the Academy for approval, no comment on the part of the Finance Committee is necessary. The committee will of course be ready to assist further, if further consideration of the matter is required. T. McN. Simpson, Jr., Chairman. Report of the Publicity Committee The Publicity Committee of the Academy was organized be¬ fore the Richmond meeting of the A. A. A. S. and functioned well in the accomplishment of the work it was intended to do. During the past year only routine publicity in connection with places of meeting, programs, etc., has been attempted. In consideration of the great amount of work that the Secre¬ tary— Dr. Miller — ^has had to do and upon his recommendation, an assistant secretary was named at the Lexington meeting. Dr. Miller and Dr. Negus will now be able to give the Academy^s activities the type of publicity that we have not enjoyed hereto¬ fore. W. F. Rudd, Chairman. PROCEEDINGS 1940 193 Report of the Flora Committee The development of the work of studying and recording data relating to the flora of Virginia is progressing. The job of cata¬ loging the authentic data and herbarium specimens is being pushed. The herbaria of the state are growing. The chairman was especially encouraged during a recent visit, the flrst in a number of years, to the Department of Biology of Randolph-Macon Woman's College, to find a well-organized her¬ barium stored in metal cases and housed in a modern building. This collection of 8700 sheets contains 1000 Virginia species and a considerable number of specimens from other states. During the year the herbarium at the Virginia Military Institute has been moved to a very satisfactory space in a modern fire-proof building. Claytonia, as a journal, has been discontinued in favor of the Academy journal, Virginia Journal of Science. The Commit¬ tee, or more specifically Professors Freer and Carroll, published this through five volumes, the journal being completely self- supporting through the period. Mimeographed reports of several families are ready for typing and should be available soon. A movement has been started recently by a number of bot¬ anists in Washington to prepare an enlarged revision of the Flora of the District of Columbia. The area covered will include a number of northern Virginia counties, hence will aid in our work on the flora of Virginia. The chairman of the Virginia Commit¬ tee was asked to join the group and expects to cooperate with the district movement as far as possible. A. B. Massey, Chairman, Under new business. Dr. Smart brought up the question of a permanent change in the time of meeting. This was referred to the Council for action. (See page — ) . Lt.-Col, Carroll made some announcements concerning places of meetings. President Freer announced the appointment of R. L. Taylor, D. M. Allan and J. G. Harrar as a Committee on Resolutions. The meeting adjourned at 10:00 P. M. E. C. L. Miller, Secretary, 194 The VIRGINIA ACADEMY of SCIENCE Minutes of the Saturday Noon Business Meeting The meeting was called to order Saturday, May 4 at 12 Noon in the Jackson Memorial Hall of the Virginia Military Institute. The Secretary presented the following report of the Council meeting which was adopted as a whole : 1. On motion of Dr. Stow the Council recommends that the Academy appropriate annually to the Virginia Journal op Science a sum not to exceed $500.00. This appropriation to continue for a period of two years, if necessary'. 2. On motion of Dr. Allan the Council recommends that the Editor and Managing Editor of the VIRGINIA Journal' op Science be elected for a three-year period by the Council. That these two offices, together with a chairman to be ap¬ pointed by the President, constitute a permanent committee on the Academy Periodical. 3. On motion of Dr. Myers the Council recommends that a stand¬ ing committee on teaching science in the public schools be appointed by the incoming president. (See page 175). 4. On motion of Dean Rudd the Council recommends that, if pos¬ sible, Dr. Miller should attend the Eighth American Scientific Congress in Washington next week, and that as many repre¬ sentatives of sections as possible should also go. 5. On motion of Dr. Jones the Council recommends that the in¬ coming president be empowered to appoint a Committee on Long Range Policy as recommended by the President-elect. (See page 182). 6. On motion of Dr. Myers the Council recommends that the Council elect an Assistant Secretary as a permanent officer of the Academy. (See page 173). 7. On motion of Dr. Smart the Council recommends that the in¬ coming president be authorized to appoint a committee to in¬ vestigate the most suitable date for the Academy to hold its annual meeting. This committee to report back to the Council with recommendation well before the time selected. (See page 175). 8. On motion of Dean Rudd the Council recommends that each section of the Academy be authorized and requested to elect at least one person to represent its field of science ; all of these persons to constitute an editorial board for the VIRGINIA Journal of Science. (See page 177). Dr. Otis W. Caldwell, General Secretary of the American As¬ sociation for the Advancement of Science, who was present, gave a short talk on the imiportance of science club work. PROCEEDINGS 1940 195 The President called for and received a list of the new officers of sections as follows : Astronomy, Mathematics & Physics Chairman, F. B. Haynes Secretary, Isabel Boggs Biology Chairman, E. DeWitt Miller Vice-Chairman, Lena Artz Secretary, R. F. Smart Chemistry Chairman, W. G. Guy Secretary, W. 0. Swan Ed/ncation Chairman, Paul G. Hook Secretary, Earl G. Broadwater Engineering Chairman, Dan H. Pletta Secretary, Paul S. Dear Geology Chairman, E, C. H. Lammers Vice-Chairman, R. S. Edmundson Secretary, Wm. M. McGill Medicine Chairman, R. J. Main Secretary, Guy W. Horsley Psychology Chairman, W. M. Hinton Secretary, Evelyn Raskin Editorial Board Astronomy, Mathematics & Physics S. A. Mitchell, Astronomy C. L. Albright, Physics Biology G. W. Jeffers Chemistry John W. Watson Education John Alex. Rorer Engineering Albert H. Cooper Geology E. C. H. Lammers Medicine Carl C. Speidel Psychology R. S. Henneman Report of the Research Committee At the spring meeting of the Research Committee held at the Virginia Military Institute, Friday, May 3, 1940 at noon, the following papers were in hand for consideration : The Effect of Attrahents on Mosquitoes. I. Report of Exploratory Observa¬ tions on Pour Common Species. By K. B. M. Crooks. Experimental and Phylogenetic Studies in Cytology. By W. C. Gregory. A Comparative Cytological and Morphological Study of Mesostoma ehren- bergii ehrenbergii and Mesostoma ehrenbergii wardii. By Ladley Rusted and T. K. Ruebush. The Formation of the Ovum of Chlorohydra viridissima. By W. A. Kepner, B. A. Perry, W. B. Atkinson, and J. R. Meyer. The Application of a New Class of Organic Reagent to the Detection and Determination of Palladium. By L. G. Overholser and John H. Yoe. The Effect of Changing Skin Temperature on Vibratory Sensitivity. By Joseph Weitz. The Solution of Differential Equations by Operational Calculus. Pt. 1. By A. Lee Smith. These papers had been submitted by their authors in compe¬ tition for the prizes and had been evaluated by Dean Stanton C. Crawford of the University of Pittsburgh and members of his faculty. On Dean Crawford’s recommendation, the Academy prize of fifty dollars was awarded to Walton C. Gregory, and the Jefferson prize of fifty dollars to L. G. Overholser and John H. 196 The VIRGINIA ACADEMY of SCIENCE Yoe. This latter paper now will compete with papers from the academies of science of North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia and Florida for the Jefferson gold medal. Committee on Research, C. C. Speidel, F. L. Apperly, F. C. VlLBRANDY, Gillie A. Larew, F. A. Geldard, Chairman, Report of the Resolutions Committee Dr. Raymond Taylor presented the following resolutions : WHEREAS, the Virginia Military Institute, for the second time in four years and on very short notice, due to the necessary cancellation of Llynch- burg as the place of meeting of the Academy, so generously and so coop¬ eratively has extended to us its hospitality, he it resolved that the Virginia Academy of Science express its heartiest gratitude to Major-General Kil- bourne, to Brigadier-General Anderson, to Colonel Steidtmann, to Lieut.- Colonel Carroll and to all of the members of the Local Committee on Ar^ rangements, whose kindly and efficient services have made this meeting of the Academy such a pleasant and memorable one; and also, he it resolved that the Academy express its warm appreciation to Washington and Lee University for its share in the fine hospitality extended to the members of the Academy. WHEREAS, the Virginia Academy of Science recognizes the signal serv¬ ices of President Ruskin S. Freer, Secretary-Treasurer E. C. L. Miller and the several committees of the Academy during this meeting and during the past year, he it resolved that the members of the Virginia Academy of Science and the Academy collectively extend a vote of thanks to all of these individuals for the devoted and efficient administration that has been givem; and, further, he it resolved that the Academy commend the work of those connected with the development of Science Clubs throughout the Common¬ wealth and that the Academy hereby endorse such work and go on record as desiring continued and intensive work on this project. WHEREAS, the Virginia Council on Public Administration has learned of our President-Elect’s proposal to develop a long range and comprehensive program for the improvement of certain conditions in Virginia, notably the stream pollution problem and the need for increased vocational training ; and whereas, an officer of the Virginia Council on Public Administration has offered, informally, full cooperation with the Virginia Academy of Science in working out such a program, he it resolved, that the Academy grate¬ fully acknowledge this kind offer and, he it resolved, also, that the Council of the Academy or any appropriate committee that may be appointed to develop this program, be instructed, in turn, to cooperate in all feasible ways with the Virginia Council on Public Administration and with any other organization that is working constructively along these lines. Resipectfully submitted, D. Maurice Allan, J. G. Harrar, Raymond L. Taylor, Chairman. These were adopted. The following resolution was presented by George W. Jeffers and Rodney C, Berry and was adopted : PROCEEDINGS 1940 197 RESOLVED, that the Senior Academy of Science sponsor a Junior Academy of Science, and that the incoming president be empowered to form a committee to work out details. Dr. Vyssotsky as Chairman of the Section on Astronomy, Mathematics and Physics reported the following action of his section : 1. On motion of Dr. Loving, it was recommended to the Council that dues be raised to $2.50, 50c of which goes to the Journal. 2. On motion of Dr. Simpson, it was recommended to the Council that in lieu of a regular editor for mathematics that the Edi¬ torial Board be instructed to call on some mathematician for aid when needed. This was referred to the Council for further consideration. The following resolution was presented from the floor at the Friday night meeting by Dr. Ivey F. Lewis and adopted. WHEREAS, the term of Doctor John Shelton Horsley, Sr., as Chairman of the Research Committee of the Virginia Academy of Science has come to a close during the past year, and WHEREAS, his genius has guided the activities of the Committee throughout the larger part of its existence, and WHEREAS, the endowment fund which has made possible the furthen- ing in a significant manner of scientific research in Virginia was established and has been augmented largely through his efforts and generosity, BE IT THEREFORE RESOLVED, that the Vir^nia Academy of Science, in general session assembled at Lexington, Virginia on May Si, 1940, express both its grateful appreciation to Doctor Horsley for these services and its profound satisfaction in the continuance of his unfailing interest in the affairs of the Academy. In the absence of the Chairman of the Committee on the Place of Meeting, Dr. Preston Edwards recommended that the Acad¬ emy meet in 1941 at the Medical College of Virginia. This was adopted. In the absence of the Chairman, Dr. T. McN. Simpson, Jr., reported for the Nominating Committee as follows: Dr. George W. Jeffers for President-Elect and Dr. H. H. Zimmerley as a Member of the Council. There being no nominations from the floor the report of the Committee was adopted. E. C. L. MillFr, Secretary. 198 The VIRGINIA ACADEMY of SCIENCE Tabulation of the registration cards at the close of the meet¬ ing gave the following table which shows the number of members and non-members that indicated preference for each section and the per cent of non-members formed of each section. Sections Members Non- Members Total % Non- Members Astronomy, Math, and Phy... 49 32 81 39.5 Biology . . . . . . 74 53 127 41.7 Chemistry . 60 27 86 31.4 Education . 19 1 20 5.0 Engineering . 10 12 22 54.5 Geology . 20 12 32 37.5 Medicine . 35 9 44 20.4 Psychology . . 19 8 27 29.6 Science Clubs . 3 5 8 62.5 Not indicated . 8 7 15 46.6 GROSS TOTAL . 297 166 463 35.9 Deduct for duplication . 26 10 36 TOTAL REGISTERED . 271 156 427 36.8 % of total registration . 63.5 36.5 100 PROCEEDINGS 1940 199 Minutes of the Section of Astronomy, Mathematics and Physics A. N. Vyssotsky, Chairman F. B. Haynes, Secretary FRIDAY, MAY 3—10:00 A. M. 1. Photographic Determination of the Diameter of Mars. Dirk Reuyl ; Leander McCormick Observatory, University of Virginia. Photographs in yellow light with the 26-inch visual refractor were ob¬ tained in the years 1934, ’35, ’37 and ’39, when the planet presented diam¬ eters respectively of less than 5", at greatest observable distance, 15", 18" and of 24", at opposition. Measurements of the diameter and density were made on 480 exposures of 25 plates. Corrections depending upon density and definition were applied to the measured diameter values. With the evaluation of a constant term, common to all measurements, the derived diameter of Mars at unit distance amounts to 9743 ±: 0706. / 2. General Perturbations of Planets of the Hecuba Group De¬ termined by Means of the Berkeley Tables. Claude M. Anderson, Jr.; Leander McCormick Observ¬ atory, University of Virginia. A discussion of the method used in computing the perturbations was followed by some examples of its application. 3. Photovisual Sequences from 15° South to 75° North Decli¬ nation. C. A. Wirtanen; Leander McCormick Observatory, Uni¬ versity of Virginia. These sequences constitute part of a larger program for the derivation of photovisual magnitudes as faint as 12^0 in any part of the sky between declinations —20° and -f-8'0°. They were obtained by direct polar com¬ parison, using the 10-inch Cooke triplet and will determine the zero point at the center of each of the 330 regions of the program. Two thirds of these have been measured involving about 2800 stars. A comparison of these magnitudes with those of the Harvard Observatory gives an independi- ent check on the zero point and scale of the McCormick magnitudes, and ■shows that systematic errors are small. The probable error of a single magnitude is believed to be not more than ±™07. 4. A Suggestion for Rational Musical Notation. Preston Edwards; Stveet Briar College. A system is described and illustratedi, which, besides a somewhat mod¬ ified staff, uses only one type of symbol, namely a heavy bar, whose posi¬ tion indicates the pitch of the notes, and its length their duration. Thus a multiplicity of signs and symbols is done away with. 200 The VIRGINIA ACADEMY of SCIENCE 5. Electrical Discharge Figures on the Surface of a Conduct¬ ing Fluid. A. J. Hodges and L. B. Snoddy; Roms Physical Lab- oratory, University of Virginia. The formation of electrical discharge figures on the surface of a CuSO* solution previously described^ has been studied as a function of pressure and applied voltage. The length of both positive and negative figures in¬ creases with decreasing pressure and increasing applied voltage. Brainch- ing of the positive figure disappears at low pressure. 6. Graphical Evaluation of the Statistical Significance of Rate Differences.^ F. T. Holmes ; University of Virginia, and T. L. Montgom¬ ery, Jefferson Hospital, Philadelphia. A multiple of the standard error of the difference in rate of occurrence of a given phenomenon as observed between two finite series of counted events can be used as a criterion of significance of the observed rate dif¬ ference. This multiple, e. g. 2(t, can be plotted as a function of other variables occurring in one of the equations for the standard error. The result is a family of curves which can be used to determine quickly the presence or absence of a significant contingency rate difference between two series of “counting data”. A single graph covering a usefully wide range of the parameters involved can be made with a small sacrifice in accuracy. ± 15% of 2a. Applications to many problems in medicine, industry, and the laboratory sciences are obvious. 7. Spectrophotometric Observation of the Minimum of Zeta Aurigae. C. A. Wirtanen; Leander McCormick Observatory, Uni¬ versity of Virginia. The variation in brightness of Zeta Aurigae during the recent eclipse has been observed photographically at eight different wave-lengths by means of a coarse grating and a low dispersion prism mounted simulta¬ neously in front of the objective of the 10-inch Cooke triplet. McCormick values for the loss of light in magnitudes agree with determinations made by others during previous eclipses. In the yellow the brightness decreases by about 0^2, while in the violet the decrease amounts to 2'T--2. 8. The System of Magnitudes of the Second McCormick Proper Motion Catalogue. E. R. Dyer, Jr.; Leander McCormick Observatory, Uni¬ versity of Virginia. (Introduced by A. N. Vyssotsky.) Photovisual magnitudes of 12,000 proper motion stars are being meas¬ ured by the objective grating method, with corrected Harvard magnitudes as standards. Independent checks show that the relation of the McCormick to the International system is: Ipv - 8«'20 = .968 (McC — 81!^ 20) but this correction may not be significant. The probable error of a single magnitude is .144 .015 iL. B. Snoddy and J. W. Beams, Phys. Rev. 55 (1939) : 663. 2F. T. Holmes, Phys. Rev. 56, 844 (1939). PROCEEDINGS 1940 201 FRIDAY, MAY 3—2:00 P. M. 9. Business Meeting. S. A. Mitchell and C. L. Albright were elected to serve as members of the Journal Committee to represent the section of Astronomy, Mathematics and Physics. A motion was passed to permit the Journal Committee to ask for assistance from a mathematician. The following officers were elected for the coming year : F. B. Haynes, Chairman; Miss Isabelle Boggs, Secretary. 10. Concentration of Chlorine Isotopes by Centrifuging at Dry Ice Temperature. F. C. Armistead; Rouss Physical Laboratory, University of Virginia, (Introduced by J. W. Beams.) The concentration of the chlorine isotopes obtained experimentally at room temperature (300° A.) by the evaporative centrifuge method has been ■shown previously to be in accord with the theory of Lindemann and Aston and Mulliken. In the present paper the same theory has been checked at dry ice temperature (approximately 200° A.). The centrifuge was of the air-driven vacuum type. The hollow rotor (8 cm effective inside diam¬ eter) was spun inside an evacuated enclosure maintained! at dry ice temw perature. The tubular shaft (gauge 15) was about 15 inches long and made of stainless steel, to insulate thermally the rotor. Standing vibra¬ tions in the shaft were prevented by guides mounted in Bakelite. After placing about I'O cc of liquid ethyl chloride in the rotor, it was spun to 1245 r. p. s. and evacuated through the shaft. The ethyl chloride vapor was drawn off very slowly through the shaft and a long “plug” in the end of the shaft with a small hole through it, so that approximate equilibrium could exist in the rotor. A spider shaped piece was placed inside the rotor bowl to keep seven segments completely separate from each other, and thus help establish the same equilibrium. The vapor was collected in small sam¬ ples in traps cooled by liquid air. The isotopic ratio measured by the mass spectrometer in the first and last samples differed by 14%, which is in fair accord with the theory. 11. Progressive Electrical Breakdown in a Conducting Liquid. Hugh F. Henry; Rouss Physical Laboratory, University of Virginia. (Introduced by L. B. Snoddy.) The discharge which takes place between Cu electrodes in a CUSO4 solu¬ tion is produced in a manner similar to that previously desjcribed!.^ The time lag in the appearance of luminosity at the electrode surfaces and) the maximum electrode separation for complete breakdown have been deter¬ mined under a variety of conditions. 3L. B. Snoddy and J. W. Beams, Phys. Rev. 55, 879 (1939). 202 The VIRGINIA ACADEMY of SCIENCE 12. Effective Rotation Temperatures of Two Identical Electrode¬ less Discharges in Different Gases. M. S. McCay; Virginia Polytechnic Institute, A comparison of the effective rotation temperatures of different gases in similar electrodeless discharges was undertaken. Temperatures were de¬ duced (1) by determining the maxima of intensity in the branches of emis¬ sion bands, and (2) by locating the points of equivalent intensity and fre¬ quency for pairs of branches of emission bands. The band spectra were photographed in the first order with the depart¬ ment’s 21-foot, concave grating under a dispersion of 2.60 A/mm. Line intensities were determined by means of a Bausich and Lomb microphotom¬ eter. The temperature values were found to be in rather close agreement with each other. 13. Temperature Variation in the Specific Heat of a Gas by a New Method. R. A. Weiss; Rouss Physical Laboratory^ University of Virginia, (Introduced by L. G. Hoxton). Results using the method of continuous flow calorimetry previously de- iscribed^ are presented. Application is made to gases in which the changes in Cp, under vary^- ing temperatures from 42 °C to 150 °C and approximately atmospheric pressure, are compared. The essential features of the calorimeter-design of Osborne, Stimson and Slight are incoirporated. This relative method is applicable to other ther¬ mal properties of fluids and to varying pressures. 14. Construction and Performance of a Twenty-One Foot Grat¬ ing Spectograph. H. D. Ussery and E. S. Bishop ; Virginia Polytechnic In¬ stitute, A grating spectograph, recently constructed in the Physics Department at Virginia Polytechnic Institute, was described. Lantern slides showing the instrument, and sample spectrograms were presented. The detracting element is a 21 ft. concave grating made by Professor R. W. Wood and has a ruling of 30,000 lines/inch over a 6 inch aluminized pyrex surface. A unique feature of the instrument is a dual mounting of the grating, that is, it may be used mounted in parallel light, or on a modified Pasichen mounting, the change being made from one mounting to the other without disturbing the focus adijustments. The plate dispersion in the first order for the mounting in parallel light, is 2.60 A/mm, and is constant to within a few thousandth part of an Angstrom/mm over the range of wavelengths between 2000 A and 4000 A. 15. The Solution of Differential Equations by Operational Cal¬ culus. Part I. A. Lee Smith; College of William and Mary-Virginia Poly¬ technic Institute, Norfolk Division, The following equation 00 f(P) m P J e - Pxh(x) dx, o is known as Carson’s Integral Equation, on the basis of which is deirived ^L. G. Hoxton, Virginia Academy of Science! Proceedings, p. 28 (1931-32). 6N. S. Osborne, H. F. Stimson, T. S. Sligh, Jr., B. S. J. R. 20, 119 (1925), I PROCEEDINGS 1940 203 our operational calculus. Vigorous mathematios has been used in the de¬ rivations of its theorems, which are then applied to linear diiferential equa¬ tions with constant coefficients, considering at the same time the initial conditions. Heaviside’s Expansion Theorem has been derived by means of a simple partial fraction rule. 16. Growth Curves as Applied in Predicting School Enrollment. Boyd Harshbarger; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. Many problems of biology and economics follow the curve y n:ar^. A table has been prepared enabling one to calculate the constants a and r where the number of x varieties is between 0 and 40. This curve has been used in predicting the school enrollment for both the state and the City of Lynchburg in the early years of growth. . Including the later years other functions must be used. These more complex func¬ tions are determined so as to be used for predicting the future trends of enrollment in Virginia and in Lynchburg. 17. A Sequence of Perspective Triangles whose Vertices are De- • termined by a Difference Equation. B. Z. Linfield; University of Virginia. The lines joining the vertices of any A avw to any point au -}- bv -h cw g = - , abc ^ 0, a -H b -f- c intersect the opposite sides in the vertices of A UiViWi. The same lines intersect the sides of A UiViWi in A U2V2Wi2, . . . aU tn -f- bv tn+l + cw tn+l where Un = - , . . . atn -j" (b -f- c) tn+l 2tn+2 — tn+l "1“ tn, to — 1, ti — 0. Solving the last difference equation : (2E2 _ E-l)tn = (2E + 1) (E-l)tn = 0, 2 tn 3 we get 3tn = - h Ij - = 14 - = f (n) ; (-2)n tn+l (_2)n_i au f(n) bv -j-cw Un = - = P“(u), . . . a f(n) -f b -h c And, the equations of the sides of A UnVnWn are U(z) V(z) W(z) f (— n) - - ! - - 1 - =r 0, . . . U(g) V(g) W(g) with immediate generalizations to 3-dimensional or n-dimensional space. ^See Proceedings Virginia Academy of Science 1932-33, pp. 27-28, for definition of the persp. transformations P(z) and P“(z). 204 The VIRGINIA ACADEMY of SCIENCE SATURDAY, MAY 4—9:00 A. M. 18. A Preliminary Survey of the Physical Properties of Micro¬ scope Contrast Filters and New Filter Materials. Lewis W. Webb, Jr. and Frederick F. Ferguson; College of William and Mary-Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Norfolk Division, Object: The development of a more ideal set of contrast filters of max¬ imum efficiency and minimum cost for use in photography andi microscopy. Method: A quantitative absorption spectrum has been obtained for 85 different light filters using the new Coleman Regional Spectrophotometeir. Other tests and microscopic value ratings were described. 19. An Electronic Switch. J. R. Cosby; Virginia Polytechnic Institute and C. W. Lampson; University of Richmond, An electronic switch suitable for use with the usual cathode ray oscillo¬ graph has been constructed. By use of such a device the study of relative phase angle between reactive elements can be accomplished as well as the direct comparison of frequencies and the study of thyratron control. Its use as a square wave generator is also facilitated. A demonstration of several of its uses was given. 20. A Simple Mercury Vapor Lamp, Operating on Direct Cur¬ rent. S. M. Heflin ; Virginia Military Institute, This lamp is not new, but is easy to start, will operate on a minimum of accessories, and will continue to operate for long periods of time without re-starting. 21. The Radiometer in an Enclosure at Uniform Temperature. L. G. Hoxton, Rouss Physical Laboratory, University of Virginia, Demonstration. 22. Dynamical Model for Gyroscopic Precession. Thomas Davis ; Virginia Polytechnic Institute, A model was described which by its motion demonstrates that the simul¬ taneous existence of two rotations with axes perpendicular gives rise to equal and opposite accelerations necessitating a torque with its axis mu¬ tually perpendicular to the other two in accordance with Newton’s Laws of motion. 23. Several Improved Experiments for an Advanced Mechanics Laboratory. Herbert Trotter, Jr. ; Washington and Lee University, Several improved experiments for an advanced mechanics laboratory. (1) Freely falling body. (2) Simple harmonic motion. (3) Coefficient of restitution of a golf ball. (4) A physical pendulum. PROCEEDINGS 1940 205 24. Some Lecture Demonstrations. Herbert Trotter, Jr. ; Washington and Lee University. 25. A Demonstration of Contrast Filters and Filter Material. Lewis W. Webb, Jr. and Frederick F. Ferguson, College of William and Mary-Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Norfolk Division. (Permanent Demonstration). The following microscopic light filters were displayed : “Cello- pane’’ — DuPont, “DifferentiaF’— Bausch and Lomb, “Duraline wedge”— Harrison and Harrison, “Plexiglas” — Rohm and Haas, “Plastacele” — ^DuPont, “Wratten” — Eastman. Methods of testing the filters and sample results were shown. Several simple devices have been constructed to facilitate the use of the filters in microscopic work. F. B. Haynes, Secretary. 206 The VIRGINIA ACADEMY of SCIENCE Minutes of the Section of Biology Bruce D. Reynolds, Chairman J. G. Harrar, Sub -Chairman Lena B. Henderson, Secretary FRIDAY, MAY 3—10:00 A. M. 1. Notes on the Control of the Fuller’s Rose Weevil, Panto- morus Godmani (Crotch) on Kale. Harry G. Walker and Lauren D. Anderson; Virginia Truck Experiment Station, Norfolk, (Lantern, 6 min.) This is a report of an experiment for the control of an outbreak of the Fuller’s rose weevil, Pantomorus Godmani (Crotch), in a field of kale at Norfolk, Virginia. In this test a derris-talc dust containing 0.75 per cent rotenone gave 26 per cent kill of the weevils. A pyrethrum-talc dust con¬ taining 0.2 per cent pyrethrins gave nearly 100 per cent knock down of the weevils within 30 minutes after the dust was applied. However, all but 23 per cent of them recovered and continued feeding on the treated plants. A dust containing about 40 per cent calcium arsenate, 10 per cent Paris Green and 50 per cent hydrated lime gave 85 per cent kill. An undiluted calcium arsenate dust gave 94 per cent kill. Statistically the differences in kill obtained with the two dusts containing calcium arsenate were not significant, but they were highly significant over those obtained with the derris and pyrethrum dusts. 2. A Perennial Woody Gall on Hickory. Raymond L. Taylor and Alphonse F. Chestnut; College of William and Mary, The apparently increasing abundance, in the vicinity of Williamsburg, of a perennial growth on the bitternutj Cary a Cordiformis (Wang.) K. Koch, has encouraged the beginning of a general study of the phenomenon. It has not been seen byi us on other hickories. It is uncertain at present whether the causative organism is Pseudomonas tumefaciens (S. & T.) Duggar, a bacterium with numerous hosts, or Phomopsis sp., an ascomycete. Lepidopterous and dipterous insects found in the periphery of some of the galls are regarded as not responsible for the formation of these growths. 3. Concerning the Structure and Movement of Flagella. Bruce D. Reynolds; University of Virginia, (Lantern, 15 min.) Three different structural types of flagella are described and these are discussed with reference to the effect of form on movement. One of these drives the cell body through the medium (pulsella) ; the other pulls it (tractella) ; while the third is either pulsella or tractella, depending on the speed of vibration. The first two possess axial filaments, the third does not. At the distal end of the first type there is a vesicle which acts as a dampejr on the waves travelling towards the tip. At the distal end of the second type there is a vesicle and a terminal filament where the waves of contlrac- tion originate and travel towards the base. In the third type waves travel from the base towards the tip where, no vesicle being present, they are (re¬ flected back. The combined action of these waves causes the flagella to vibrate rapidly, resulting in a movement forward! by sculling. PROCEEDINGS 1940 207 4. Making Animated Biological Movie Diagrams. Lorus J. Milne, Randolph-Macon Woman's College. (Mo¬ tion pictures, 25 min.) The techniques of the Disney studio modified to the qreation of teaching films illustrating biological processes through the use of animated diagram®. The steps in the procedure from the rough pencil drawings of successive stages, to a sample movie were demonstrated'. 5. The Effect of Attrahents on Mosquitoes. K. B. M. Crooks; Hampton Institute. (Read by title.) Four well known species of mosquitoes, Aedes aegypti, the yellow fever mosquito, Culex pipiens, the rain barrel or house mosquito, Culex quinque- fasciatus, the filarial mosquito, the Theobaldia melanura, a notorious nui¬ sance in the warmer parts of the U. S., were kept in culture for observation and experiments on the effects of environmental factors on them, particu¬ larly with respect to the effect of substance which attracted them-. The observations and experiments were grouped into two categories: the first included exploratory tests which attempted to determine suitable criteria and the most effective and consistent attractants for these mosqui¬ toes. The several factors used in these tests did not prove convincingly attractive to mosquitoes of both sexes under the experimental conditions, but as the egglaying response is believed an exact and uniform phenomenon, oviposition was selected as the criterion for response to attractants, and a second set of tests, oviposition tests, therefore grew out of the work with the first. These latter aimed to discover the substances or factors which attracted female mosquitoes to lay eggs. In the exploratory tests, our mosquitoes proved geo-negative, walked and flew with a gentle air current but turned to face a stronger current, moved towards warmth, and from light (though their phototropism was not well marked) and when given the choice came to rest in a temperature of 80 to 95 degrees Fahrenheit, and in the darkest available place. They pre¬ ferred blue and were unable to see red, and were adversely influenced by low humidities, being attracted to high humidities. The sexes apparently at¬ tracted each other by sound and by ordor, but the males were much more responsive than the females. Chemicals did not prove good attrahents for these mosquitoes. 6. Time and Rate of Plant Nutrient Absorption by Bright Tobacco. H. R. Davies and A. L. Grizzard; Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station. (15 min.) In the fertilization of a crop, like bright tobacco which uses a special and complicated fertilizer formula, some of the main questions to consider are: (1) How efficient is the crop in utilizing applied nutrients; and (2) At what stages during its growth do maximum absorption and utilization o'f nutrients occur? An experiment was designed in the spring of 1939 to answer these ques¬ tions for the bright tobacco plant. Chemical analyses of bright tobajeco plants were made at the following stages of growth : When the plants were ready for transplanting; 21 day® afteP transplanting; and at 14-day inter¬ vals thereafter until the plants reached maturity. The tobacco was grown at Chatham on Granville sandy loam soil, and was fertilized with 900 pounds per acre of a 3-10-6 fertilizer. Three weeks after transplanting, the plants had produced only 18.8 per cent of their total weight. It is important to note that 81.2 per cent of the total weight per acre was produced during the last 28 days of a 63-day growing period. 208 The VIRGINIA ACADEMY of SCIENCE Chemical analysis made on the plants at the end of each growing: period show that a total of 34.98 pounds per acre of nitrogen were absorbed during the nine weeks of growth. A maximum absorption of nitrogen occurred dur¬ ing the 6th and 7th weeks — 21.75 pounds or 61.7 per cent of the total was used in this period!. It appears that no nitrogen was absorbed after the 49th day. In fact, the data show a slight loss of nitrogen^ — 0..77 pounds per acre during the 8th and 9th week of growth. Fifty-five and one-half per cent of the total phosphoric acid utilized by the tobacco plants was absorbed during the 6th and 7th weeks of growth. During this same period of growth, tobacco utilized 61.3 per cent of the total potash absorbed; 61.2 per cent of the total magnesia; and 60;.7 per cent of the total calcium were absorbed during this same period. Tobacco was found to be 100 per cent efficient in utilizing each applied! nitrogen and potash. It used only 11.2 per cent of the applied phosphoric acid, 52.2 per cent of the calcium, and 55.6 per cent of the magnesia applied in the ferti¬ lizer. 7. The Relation of Timber Cutting to our Virginia Forest Types. W. L. Gooch, Forester ; The Chesapeake Corporation, West Point, Va. (Lantern, 15 min.) Today, Man through his use of the saw and axe is probably the greatest single factor influencing the type of tree cover on the forest lands of eastern Virginia. A generation ago commercial cutting of timber was spotted and con¬ fined only to the better quality stands. In the case of Pine only the largest trees in those days were profitable to cut. The smaller trees not cut were sufficient to maintain the pine restocking on land cut-over. In recent years saw mills have increased in great number and second growth pine is cut in these as well as in 64 stave mills and also for pulp wood and excelsior wood. The result is clean cutting of forest lands, leaving no opportunity for natural seeding of pine with results that thousands of acres of formerly pine producing areas are now reverting to hardwoods. These deciduous forest types formerly confined largely to the water courses are extending their range to upland areas and more and more restricting pine to abandoned farm soils. To remedy the ill effects of close cutting of pine timber, the Virginia General Assembly in 1940 adopted legislation requiring that in certain counties of eastern Virginia; namely, King William, Hanover and Caro¬ line, and optional with Boards of Supervisors in seven other counties; namesly, Essex, King and Queen, Richmond, Lancaster, Middlesex, Mat¬ thews and Gloucester, a certain number of cone or bur-bearing loblolly and shortleaf pines should be left standing for purposes of reseeding. 8. Some Foliar Characters for Peach Breeding^. Fred W. Hofmann; Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station. (Read by title.) About five years ago conspicuous olive yellow green spots on the older full grown leaves were observed. Samples were submitted to some dozen leading pathologists and mycologists but in no case was a clear explanation received. Numerous reciprocal grafts did not communicate this spotting from the spotted to the unspotted symbionts. It was, therefore, concluded that such spotting was uncommunicable, particularly when further tests made by numerous direct attempts to inoculate brought on no development of this character. It is believed by the author that this character is due to a factor some¬ thing like that which causes variegation in the chlorophyl pattern of the PROCEEDINGS 1940 209 leaves in Zea mays, Mirabilis, Althea or Antirrihinum. Further, this char¬ acter is inherited on a single factor mendelian basis. Although it behaves as a single mendelian factor there are dilferent degrees of dtevelopment of such leaf patterns in the different strains of peaches observed. In crosses between the large spotted pattern strains and no spot the first generation progeny shows an intermediate degree of spotting. Crosses be¬ tween the smaller pattern spot and no spot hardly show any spotting what¬ ever. Crosses between large-spotted and small-spotted patterns show up in an intermediate degree as is also the case between thickly spotted and sparsely spotted strains. Another very valuable association already reported in some phases but not in the special feature mentioned by the author, is in the color of the first etiolated leaves and fruit flesh color. If the color of such leaves is yellow to yellow ochre, the fruit that will be produced will be yellow fleshed ; if pale or light yellow the fruit will be white or at most cream. If the hypocotyl is reddish the fruit will be blushed, the more red the hypocotyl the heavier the blush as well as the red around the peach pit. 9. Some Fruit Bud Induction Observations. Fred W. Hofmann; Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station, (Read by title.) From the observations made over these past 12 years it is safe to con¬ clude that the chances are much higher for heavier fruit-bud formation during seasons of above average late spring and summer moisture. Termi¬ nal growths that developed in such seasons on heavy fruit prodticing ttrees were found in many instances with as many as 36 fruit buds. The avc/rage number of fruit buds on shoot growth made in such seasons was found to be as high as 12. Such development would not obtain under conditions of excessive moisture, but the point remains that in seasons of more than average precipitation over the summer months in Virginia the chances are much better for heavier fruit-bud formation. 10. Phosphated Ammonia for Orchard Soil Fibre. Fred W. Hofmann; Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station. (Read by title.) In an orchard rye cover crop experiment with soil of a high phosphorus content, yields were significantly higher if phosphatic applications were made along with Calcium Cyanamide. Yields of dry matter were as follows; 5337 pounds for 1000 pound per acre application of 10-10-5 with am¬ monium phosphate as source of N ; 4551 pound's for 1000 pound per acre application of 10-6-4 fertilizer with calcium cyanamide source of N; 4091 pounds for 1000 pound per acre application of 10-6-4 with sodium nitrate and urea sources of N ; 2'030 pounds where no fertilizer was used and 2030 pounds where only 475 pounds of calcium cyanamide on the equivalent N basis was used. With 504 pounds difference necessary for significance the value of phosphated ammonia is indicated. 11. A Report on the Prevalence of Helminth Parasites in Sheep in Southwestern Virginia, Together with Observations on Certain Anthelmintics Employed. W. L. Threlkeld; Virginia Agricultural Experiment Sta¬ tion (Lantern, 15 min.) This report is made in connection with a survey of the sheep parasite problem in Southwestern Virginia. 210 The VIRGINIA ACADEMY of SCIENCE The findings on autopsy of twenty-eight sheep raised in Southwest Vir¬ ginia show the frequency of the following parasites: Cooperia curticei . 20 Oesophagostomum columbianum . 18 Haemonchus contortus . 17 Nematodirus species . 17 Moneizid species . 16 Ostertagia circumcincta . 13 Trichostrongylus vitrinus . 11 Bunostomum trigonocephalum . 11 Trichuris ovis . 11 Trichostrongylus colubriformis . 7 Trichostrongylus extenuatus . . . 6 Cooperia oncophora . 5 Cooperia punctata . 4 Chabertia ovina . 3 Strongyloides papillosus . 1 The use of 2.5 to 3 cc of a ten per cent copper sulphate solution; for stimulating closure of the oesophageal valve for directing anthelmintics in capsules not larger than 20 mm x 16 mm to the abomasum is 68.4% effective, and has a percentage value of 46.2% advantage over capsules ad¬ ministered without preliminary treatment with the copper sulphate. Anthelmintics employed to date are copper sulphate, copper tartrate, copper arsenate, nemural, and phenothiazine. Comparative results based on autopsy of treated and untreated animals are reported. 12. The Relative Efficiency of Several Sources of Phosphate Fertilizer in Improving the Yield, Quality and Chemical Composition of Pasture Herbage. R. E. O’Brien an dS. S. Obenshain; Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station. (20 min.) In a large number of pastures in Virginia, soils that are capable of producing excellent herbage have been reduced to such a low state of fer¬ tility that good sods have been replaced by coarse, unpalatable grasses and weeds that are able to thrive under such conditions. Since good pastures are of primary importance in a balanced agriculture, it is of vital im¬ portance that they be given more careful attention than has been practiced in the past. In most Virginia soils, available phosphorous is the primary limiting factor in pasture production. An experiment was designed to determine the relative efficiency of six different phosphate fertilizers, used with and without lime, in improving the yield, quality and chemical composition of pasture herbage. Over a six-year period yields have been increased as much as 242 per cent. The vegetative population has been changed from undesirable native wild grasses and weeds to a good sod of Kentucky bluegrass and other desirable grasses and white dutch clover. Phosphorus applied as against no phosphorus has increased the seasonal average PiOs content as much as 66 per cent, re¬ sulting in herbage with an average P2O5 content of almost one per cent. Nitrogen content has also shown marked improvement resulting from phos-- phate fertilization. 13. A Green Alga in Salamander Eggs. A. M. Showalter; Madison College. (10 min.) Salamander eggs, collected in April 1939 from a mountain lagoon and taken to the laboratory for student observation, were found to have a non motile unicellular green alga inside of the gelatinous envelope. The alga increased rapidly and formed a considerable mass by the time the sala- PROCEEDINGS 1940 211 manders hatched. In one small lot which had been set aside for special observation the young salamanders were found, a few days after hatching, to have eaten the alga so completely that none remained visible in the water. The stomachs were distended with green masses and were clearly visible in the semi-transparent bodies of the young salamanders. The alga has been identified by Dr. G. M. Smith as Oophila amblystomatis, Lambert. Effort is being made to discover where and how the alga lives aside from the salamander eggs and how it gets into the eggs. 14. The Etiology of the Beauveria Disease of Dendroctonus frontalis. J. G. Harrar and J. G. Martland; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. (Lantern, 10 min.) Isolates of Beauveria sp. from the southern pine bark beetle were used in infection experiments on this host and a number of other insect larvae including the oriental fruit moth, the peach codling moth, a striped cut¬ worm and hysterids, in order to determine the host range of this species. Results indicate a wide range of parasitism. Histological studies of in*- fected larvae have served to demonstrate the mode of infection, action within the host and methods of fructification of the pathogen. 15. The Biology of a Species of Beauveria from the Southern Pine Bark Beetle. J. G. Harrar and Ruth P. Ellis ; Virginia Polytechnic In¬ stitute. (Lantern, 10 min.) A species of Beauveria was isolated from larvae of the Southern pine bark beetle, Dendroctonus frontalis, during the spring of 1939. This organ¬ ism was obtained in pure culture and its pathogenicity demonstrated on healthy Dentroctonus larvae. Subsequently growth characters, reproductive structures and nutritional requirements of the pathogen were studied in at¬ tempt to evaluate its potentialities as a biological control of the Southern pine bark beetle. FRIDAY, MAY 3—2:00 P. M. 16. A Study of Avian Malaria. King A. Jamison; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. (10 min.) A survey made by intravenous injection of blood from wild birds into test birds (canaries), shows malaria parasites to be present in 20% of the birds of some species, while other species possess a natural immunity to the parasites. Plasmodium relictum and P. cathemerium are the species of malaria parasites most frequently found in wild birds. 17. Cold Resistance, Mutation, and Geographical Distribution in Plants. Orland E. White; The Blandy Experimental Farm, Uni¬ versity of Virgiina. (Lantern, 15 min.) Plants vary by individuals, strains, clones, varieties, species, genera and families in their suspectibility to cold. In individuals, various parts of the plant react dift'erently to temperature changes. Colycinth or bitter watermelon fruits remain unfrozen at temperatures much below those at which the vines freeze. In certain groups of plants the young foliage is more cold-resistant or frost-proof than the old foliage; in other groups, the reverse is true. Some systematic plant groups, i. e., families and genera. 212 The VIRGINIA ACADEMY of SCIENCE are very susceptible; others are just the reverse; still others are mix¬ tures in various degrees. Cold susceptibility and resistance in plants have been experimentally demonstrated to be hereditary, hence subject to the “laws” of genetics. While gene-carried, they are subject to environmental modifications. On present genetic theories, new genes arise as non-adaptive, chance phenomena, due to mutation. Although mutations are thought to affect changes in all the characters of an organism, they are limited in certain respects, due to the total genic constitution of the organism. Since mutations are non-adaptive in origin, and since they are chance phenomena, affecting most any character, it would seem that mutations for increased cold resistance should take and have taken place in most plant families, whatever the geographical or climatic location of these families. Experi¬ mental and observational data indicate this to be true, and that floras such as those of the Southeastern states and southern Texas are made up of various diverse elements in respect to cold resistance. Some species or in¬ dividuals of species of these floras when transplanted to much colder regions survive; other elements seem to have reached the limit of their cold re¬ sistance. These data have a high practical significance to horticulture, forestry, and landscape gardening. 18. Miscellaneous Studies of Codling Moth Bands. A. M. Woodside; Staunton Field Laboratory, Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station. (Lantern, 15 min.) This is a second report on some phases of the study of chemically treated bands as an aid in controlling the codling moth. A report is made of re¬ sults of tests of the relative attractiveness of treated and untreated bands to larvae, relative numbers of larvae trapped by two bands on each treej, distribution of larvae on the trees, survival of larvae removed from treated and untreated bands, and codling moths hibernating on the ground. 19. Experimental Studies on the Cultivation of Excised Anthers in Nutrient Solution. Walton C. Gregory; The Blandy Experimental Farm, Uni¬ versity of Virginia. (Lantern, 10 min.) In a report made before the Virginia Academy of Science, May 1939, on the results of cultivation of excised anthers of Lilium longiflorum, it was shown that (1) the reaction of the anther in the nutrient solution depended on the stage of development the anther had reached when it was excised, (2) that normal sporogenesis did not occur in any of the material cultured, and (3) that the different reactions of anthers of different ages in the same solution suggested some control of sporogenesis other than that furnished by the sporogenous cells themselves and the balanced nutrient used. In the present work further results of culturing excised anthers of Lilium longiflorum, Lycopersicum esculentum, and Datura stramonium are reported. The separation from the parent plants and cultivation' in vitro of young anthers in Lilium and of anthers of all ages, in Lycopersicum and Datura led to meiotic failure in all three species. Meiosis proceeded normally in anthers of Lilium longiflorum excised and placed in solution as late as diplotene. These results together with certain preliminary experiments with cuttings and grafts of flowering stems of tomato indicate that the conclusion that the meiotic stimulus is not an inherent property of the sporo¬ genous tissue but is furnished to that tissue by more remote portions of the plant is correct. PROCEEDINGS 1940 213 20. A Cytological and Morphological Study of the European Mesostoma ehrenhergii and a Closely Related American Form. Ladley Husted and Trenton K. Ruebush; University of Virginia and Yale University, (Lantern, 15 min.) In most hermaphroditic organisms homologous chromosomes associate at meiotic prophase and remain paired as bivalents until anaphase. Univalents or unpaired chromosomes are exceptional and when they occur, as a result of environmental conditions or the genotype of the individual, their number is variable. Cells with all univalents, bivalents and univalents, or no uni¬ valents at all are found in the same individual. In an American form of the European Mesostoma ehrenhergii having 4 pairs of chromosomes, this situation is not the case. At metaphase in the primary spermatocytes of this animal the maximum number of bivalents present is 3. At least 2 univalents are always found. Because the 4 pairs are distinguishable from each other it is possible to say that the bivalents present are always formed by the same 3 pairs of chromosomes. In the European M. ehrenhergii, the body structures of which are compared with the American form, there are 5 pairs of chromosomes, one more pair than is found in the American form. Only one of these can be distinguished morphologically from the others. In this animal the maximum number of bivalents is likewise 3 but at least 4 univalents are found in every cell. By means of a change in the structure of one chromosome (An inversion involving the centromere), which occur¬ red spontaneously in one individual, it is possible to present evidence that the European and American animals, though they differ in the number and morphology of their chromosomes, show the same peculiar meiotic behavior. In both forms certain chromosomes are never found associated at metaphase I. A possible reason for this failure of pairing is proposed. 21. The Relationship between Boron and Thallium Toxicity of Tobacco. G. M. Shear and R. L. Schnell; Virginia Polytechnic In¬ stitute and Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station. It has been reported that arsenic toxicity to plants is a function of phosphate availability, rubidium toxicity of potassium availability, and strontium toxicity of calcium availability. These results all point to the basic assumption that the toxic effect of an element may be correlated with the availability of a chemically similar essential element. In view of these results, experiments were run to determine the effect of the essential element boron upon the closely related toxic element thallium. In this study tobacco seedlings were grown in dilute nutrient solution to which thallium in toxic amounts had been added and the boron content varied over a wide range of concentrations. Samples of these plants were analyzed for boron. 22. A Simple Method of Diagnosing Plant Deficiencies. G. M. Shear; Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station. Chlorosis of Black Birch (Betula nigra L.) diagnosed as iron deficiency by the Roach method. The practical advantages of the method will be explained. 23. The Relative Importance of the Host Plants of the Tobacco Flea Beetle, Epitrix parvula F. E. H. Glass; Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station. A study was made in Pittsylvania County, Virginia, during the season of 1939 of the host plants of the tobacco flea beetle, Epitrix pa/rvula F., in 214 The VIRGINIA ACADEMY of SCIENCE relation to their importance in maintaining the population of this insect. From field observations, population counts, and rearing experiments it was found that plants of the family Solanaceae, especially tobacco, potato, to¬ mato, jimson weed, horse nettle and nightshade, were the principal hosts of the adults and appeared to be the only hosts of the larvae. Tobacco in the plant bed and potato in the field were important in increasing the infestation of newly set tobacco. Tobacco was the principal host during the summer until the crop was harvested, at which time the beetles began mi¬ grating to numerous other hosts. Joint Meeting of Biology and Geology FRIDAY, MAY 3—4:00 P. M. Continental Displacement and its Relation to the Origin and Dispersal of American Floras. Dr. W. H. Camp; New York Botanical Garden. Botany Division SATURDAY, MAY 4—9 :00 A. M. 1. Studies of the Germination, Growth and Propagation of Seeds, Berries, and Root Fragments of Berheris canaden¬ sis Mill. G. E. Matheny and R. S. Mullin; Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine, United States Department of Agriculture. (Lantern, 15 min.) These studies were initiated for the purpose of studying the influence of various environmental factors on the propagation and distribution of the native American barberry in southwest Virginia. The plantings in this experiment were made in the counties of Montgomery, Pulaski, Carroll, Grayson, and Wythe, in each of the following exposures: in sunlight on a southern slope; in sunlight on a northern slope; in shade on a southern slope; and in shade on a northern slope. One-half of the seeds were selected from live bushes and one-half from bushes killed by salt after the berries were mature. Approximately equal numbers of seeds were planted as shelled seeds and as seeds in whole fruits. Twenty-five per cent of all plantings were protected by screen wire to prevent possible disturbance by mice, and burned limestone was added to one-fourth of all lots of seeds planted. Freshly dug root fragments were planted at each of the four exposures. Observations and readings were made on August 27, 1938 and May 3, 1939. It is planned to make other readings during the latter part of April, 1940. A report will then be made on the results to that time and an inter¬ pretation of the influence of the various environmental factors under study will be attempted. 2. Diploidy, Polyploidy, and the Degree of Winter Hardiness in the Flowering Plants. Wray M. Bowden ; The Blandy Experimental Farm, Uni¬ versity of Virginia. (Lantern, 15 min.) This paper summarizes the results of a two-year study of the relation¬ ships between winter hardiness, chromosome number and geographical dis¬ tribution in the flowering plants. PROCEEDINGS 1940 215 Since many species can be grown far north of their natural ranges, and since the geographical situation of a plant is not a measure of its ability to withstand low temperatures, it is important to establish an adequate scale of hardiness. From a survey of temperature, latitude, and elevation, in relation to vegetation, it is seen that latitude alone cannot be used to compare plants as to their degree of hardiness. The scale used in this investigation is based on data obtained by growing plants under experi¬ mentally controlled conditions. Much information on the hardiness of many species of plants has been obtained by plantsmen, arboreta, etc. By com¬ bining Rehder’s zones, and using the most recent weather bureau map of the lowest monthly mean temperature for January, the following scale has been established: very hardy — survives below Zero F. to 10°; hardy = 10°- 20°; fairly hardy 2'0°-25°; less hardy r:= 25°-35°; non-hardy freezes easily. From a study of the chromosome number lists of Gaiser and Tischler, and the current literature; and from my own determinations of the chromo¬ some numbers of more than 100 species of angiosperms, the following con¬ clusions can now be stated: (1) In most cases, the differences in the degree of winter hardiness of related species are not correlated with chromosome number differences, and the evidence indicates that the degree of winter hardiness is genotypically controlled. (2) The whole range of variation in the degree of winter hardiness is found within the diploid species of single genera. In other groups of diploid species, striking differences in the degree of hardiness are observed. (3) Several diploid species are the northernmost representatives of tropical families and are hardy. (4) The whole range of winter hardiness can be found within tetraploid species of single genera. (5) The tetraploids compared to related diploids, are either hardier, less hardy, or of the same degree of hardiness. (6) Within single genera, striking differences in the degree of hardiness can be found within both diploid and tetraploid groups of species. These conclusions do not support the assumption of Muntzing (1936) that “northern distribution means increased hardines”, nor his conclusion “that polyploids are on an average more hardy than diploids and hence better adapted to a northern or alpine distribution”. 3. Cytology and Phylogeny in the Ranunculaceae. Walton C. Gregory; The Blandy Experimental Farm, Uni¬ versity of Virginia. (Lantern, 10 min.) The chromosomes of 19 genera and 109 species and varieties of the Ranunculaceae have been studied cytologically from the standpoint of evo¬ lution and phyletic relationship within the family as well as from the taxo¬ nomic position of the Ranunculaceae in relation to the Monocotyledons and to other primitive Dicotyledons. The chromosome numbers of the follow¬ ing are herein reported: Aconitum reclinatum Gray, n-8, 2n-16; A. unci- natum L., n-8, 2n-16; Aqwilegia haikelensis, 2n-14; A. coccinea Small, n-7 ; A. dichroa Freyn, 2n-14; A. einseleama Fr. Schultz, 2n-14; A. glandulosa Fisch., 2n-14; A. hirsutissima, 2n-28; A. jucimda (glandulosa?), 2n-14; A. longissima Gray, 2n-14; A. skinneri Hook., n-7, 2n-14; Clematis addisonii Britton, n-8; C. armandi Franch., 2n-16; C. '‘Baron Veillard”, 2n-16; C. brevicaudata DC., 2n-16; C. crispa L., 2n-16; C. dioica L., 2n-16; C. doug- lasii Hook., 2n-16; C. fremontii Wats., 2n-16; C. globosa ( orient alis?), 2n- 16; C. ochroleuca Ait., 2n-16; C. scottii Porter, 2n-16; Delphinium bulley- anum Forrest, 2n-32; D. carolinianum (azureum?), 2n-32; D. caupasicum C. A. Mey., 2n-32; D. duhmbergii Huth, 2n-32; D. flexuosum Rafin,, 2n-32; D. formosum Boiss. & Huet., 2n-32; D. gayanium (ajacis?), 2n-16; D. grandiflorum L., n-8, (also, 2n-32) ; D. penardi Huth, n-8; D. peregrinum L., n-8; D. pictum (requienii?), 2n-16; D. scopulorum Gray, n-8; D. tricorne Michx., n-8; D, yunnanense Franch., n-8 (also, 2n-32?) ; D. "Wrexham hy¬ brids”, 2n-32; Helleborus abschaisicus, 2n-32; Ranunculus armeniacus (ane- 216 The VIRGINIA ACADEMY of SCIENCE monaefolius?), 2n-14; R. cassius Boiss., 2n-14; R. lomatocarpus Fisch & Mey., 2n-32; Thalictrum coriaceum (Britton) Small, 2n-70; Th, majus, 2n-28; Th. revolutum DC., 2n-ca.l33; Trollius yunnanensisy 2n-16. 4. The Nomenclature and Characteristics of Species of Rosa in Virginia. A. B. Massey; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. (Lantern, 10 min.) Four species of roses are recognized as native to Virginia. These are Rosa Carolina L. of 1753 {R. humilis Marsh in Gray’s Manual), R. palustris Marsh {R. Carolina L. (of 1762 not 1753) in Gray’s Manual), R. virginiana Mill, (as in Gray’s Manual) and R. setigera Michx. (as in Gray’s Manual). The nomenclature of these were discussed and their characteristics shown by slides. 5. The Identity of the Evergreen Rhododendrons of Virginia in the Dormant Conditions. A. B. Massey; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. (Lantern, 10 min.) When seen side by side the two evergreen species of Rhododendron {R. catawbiense and R. maximum) are easily distinguishable. When separate, however, they are readily confused. R. maximum. The leaves are oblong-obovate or oblong to lanceolate oblong, 4-8 inches long, acute or short-acuminate, dark green above paler beneath and with close thin, often tawny, tomentum, rarely glabrous, and arranged around the conspicuous flower buds in a loose rosette. Flower buds surrounded by narrow leaf -like bracts. Flowering season late June and July. R. catawbiense. The leaves are elliptic to oblong, 3-5 inches long, obtuse, rounded at base, lustrous above whitish beneath and glabrous, not in a rosette arrangement beneath the flower bud. Flower buds are not surrounded by leaf -like bracts. Flowering season late May and June. 6. Plants at the Edges of Their Ranges. Lena Artz; Arlington, Virginia. (10 min.) This consists of brief summaries of two papers which deal with the significance of plants at the edges of their ranges. These summaries are followed by reports on some northern plants, that, as far as is now known, reach their southern limits in Virginia. 7. Corticolous Bryophyte Societies at Mountain Lake, Virginia. Paul M. Patterson; Hollins College, Virginia. (Lantern, 15 min.) Nine well developed corticolous bryophyte societies are recognized at Mountain Lake. Their individual occurrence and distribution are found by analyses of their environments to depend upon different levels of evapo- rational stress and different moisture holding capacities of the bark sub¬ strata. 8. Physiological Studies on Mosses. II. The Viability of Old Spores. Samuel L. Meyer; Miller School of Biology, University of Virginia. (Lantern, 15 min.) The literature on the physiology of the Musci contains varied reports concerning the retention of viability by moss spores over a period of years. PROCEEDINGS 1940 217 Results of investigations with thirteen collections of spores of Ph'ifs\comi- trium turbinatum (Michx.) Brid., dating from 1868, and nineteen collec¬ tions of spores of Funaria hygrometrica (L,) Sibth., dating from 1828, are presented. A physiological basis for the retention of viability by moss spores under herbarium conditions is suggested. 9. Physiological Studies on Mosses. III. The Influence of the Moisture Factor on the Development of Leafy Moss Plants in Liquid Media. Samuel L. Meyer ; Miller School of Biology, University of Virginia. (Lantern, 15 min.) The development of leafy moss plants from primary protonemata sub¬ merged in water cultures is a complex process which may be influenced by such factors as light intensity, hydrogen ion concentration, concentration of the nutrient solution, and oxygen supply, as well as by the liquid medium. Results of investigations with liquid and solid substrate cultures of Physy comitrium turhinatum (Michx.) Brid. and Funaria hygrometrica (L.) Sibth. indicate that the moisture factor exerts a marked influence on both the rate of leafy plant differentiation and the number of plants formed while those morphological modifications observed in plants grown from protone¬ mata submerged in water cultures are due to the liquid medium in which the plants develop. 10. Coprophilous Ascomycetes from Charlottesville and Vicinity. Edwin M. Betts and Samuel L. Meyer; Miller School of Biology, University of Virginia, (Lantern, 10 min.) A preliminary list is given of the coprophilous Ascomycetes from Char¬ lottesville and vicinity, with special reference to the Ascobolaceae. 11. Three Unpublished Letters of Raffinesque to Jefferson. Edwin M. Betts ; Miller School of Biology, University of Virginia. (10 min.) These letters give additional information about Jefferson’s relations to a botanist of his time. Zoology Division SATURDAY, MAY 4—9:00 A. M. 1. Elk in Virginia. Roy Wood ; Virginia Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit, Virginia Polytechnic Institute. (Introduced by C. 0. Handley.) (Lantern, 10 min.) The presence of the American elk or wapiti {Cervis canadensis) in Vir¬ ginia was first recorded by Capt. George Weymouth in 1606 in his “Voyfage to Virginia”. The distribution and abundance of elk during the early days of colonization is commemorated by numerous old settlements and locations to be found in various parts of Virginia which still retain “elk” incorpo¬ rated within their name. Opening up the land for agriculture and relent¬ less hunting on the part of settlers exterminated the elk from Virginia, the last record of an elk that we possess is that of one killed in Clarke County, 1855. For 62 years the elk was extinct in this state until 1917,, when the 218 The VIRGINIA ACADEMY of SCIENCE Department of Game and Inland Fisheries imported 150 of these noble animals from the Yellowstone National Park and released them in various parts of the State. No preliminary study was made of those regions into which the elk were to be stocked, and failing to make an adjustment with their new environment, they were exterminated by 1926 in all but two areas, the range in Giles and Bland Counties, and one of lesser importance in Botetourt. In 1935 another shipment of elk was secured, 6 of which were introduced in the Botetourt Range, and the remainder in the Giles-Bland Range. A recent census in the Giles-Bland Area shows that there is a population of about 100 elk in this range. Since the first open season in 1922 they have offered considerable sport each year to over 250 hunters of big game from many parts of the country, but as the elk cause a great deal of damage to agricultural crops, their establishment in this State is questionable. How- ever, since their value to the State and to the sportsman cannot be evalu¬ ated in actual dollars and cents, we should strive to maintain these herds. The Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit at Blacksburg is studying the ‘‘Ecology of the Elk in Virginia” in an attempt to work out a satisfactory method of management that will cope with present and future problems. 2. The Correlation of Bird Migration and Wind Direction. Ruskin S. Freer and John Mahan; Lynchburg College. This paper is a report of an attempt at correlation between wind direo- tion and bird migration conducted at Lynchburg in the Spring and Fall of 1939 and the Spring of 1940. The belief back of the experiment is that birds pick a time for migration in which the wind blows in the direction in which the birds wish to travel. The report is as yet inconclusive but the correlation found has been high enough to justify the belief that wind direction is a factor in migration. 3. Some Observations on the Spadefoot Toad, Scaphiopus hal- brookii. Hazel Poff and Paul R. Burch; State Teachers College, Radford, Virginia. (5 min.) This is a brief report on the natural history of the spadefoot, a toad of nocturnal habits. 4. The Heart of Cryptobranchus allegheniensis Daubin. William B. Atkinson ; University of Virginia. (Introduced by Chauncey McLean Gilbert.) (Lantern, 10 min.) The morphology of the heart of Cryptobranchus has been reviewed, with notes on the histology added. The neuro-muscular atrio-ventricu'lar connection has been found and described. 5. A Description of the Venous System of Cryptobrlanchus allegheniensis Daubin. William Sangster, Jr.; University of Virginia. (Intro¬ duced by Chauncey McLean Gilbert.) (Lantern, 15 min.) This report is a description of the venous system of C. allegheniensis, with especial reference to the cutaneous system. A description of the veins within the cranium, the vertebral column, and the liver will be included. PROCEEDINGS 1940 219 6. Banding Chimney Swifts. C. 0. Handley; U. S. Biological Survey and Virginia Poly¬ technic Institute. (Lantern, 10 min.) The development of the funnel type chimney swift trap. Expe(rienices in banding some 14,000 chimney swifts. The distribution of chimney swifts as shown by returns from birds banded in Southern Georgia. 7. A Synopsis of the Genus Mesostoma Ehrenberg 1837. Frederick F. Ferguson; College of William and Mary- Virginia Polytechnic Institute^ Norfolk Division, and W. J. Hayes, Jr.; University of Wisconsin. (Read by title, ) This paper, nearing completion, is a taxonomic summary of the work upon Mesostoma. Stress is placed upon ecology, distribution, general anat¬ omy, diagnoses of valid species, species dubiae and an extensive bibliography. 8. Studies on the Turbellarian Fauna of the Norfolk Area. I. Macrostomum ruehushi var. kepneri new variety. Frederick F. Ferguson and E. Ruffin Jones, Jr. ; College of William and Mary-Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Norfolk Division. (Opaque projector, 10 min.) This paper describes the anatomy of a new flat-worm of the genus Macrostomum which attains an intense morphological variation in the east¬ ern United States. While it presents the general structure of a Macrosto¬ mum it has many unique features, the most singular of which being the absence of rhabdites in part of the epidermis and the presence of a male gonopore which is almost terminal in position. 9. Studies on the Turbellarian Fauna of the Norfolk Area. II. Jensenia lewisi n. sp. E. Ruffin Jones, Jr. and Frederick F. Ferguson; College of William and Mary-Virginia Polytechnic Institute,. Norfolk Division. (Opaque projector, 10 min.) This is a preliminary report on a new species of the genus Jensenia- (Dalyelliidae) . Only two species have previously been described and both of these are European. The present form, which has been collected in the vicinity of Norfolk, Virginia, differs in a number of ways from the European animals. 10. Studies on the Turbellarian Fauna of the Norfolk Area. III. Ecology and Distribution. Frederick F. Ferguson and E. Ruffin Jones, Jr.; College of William and Mary-Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Norfolk Division. (Read by title.) This paper gives a list of the Turbellarian species of the region,, thirty of which have been identified; many others await identification. Distribu¬ tion charts, ecological data, photographs, and drawings of representative forms are included in the work. 220 The VIRGINIA ACADEMY of SCIENCE 11. Studies on the Turbellarian Fauna of the Norfolk Area. IV. Macrostomum norfolkensis n. sp. E. Ruffin Jones, Jr. and Frederick F, Ferguson; College of William and Mary-Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Norfolk Division. (Opaque projector, 10 min.) This paper describes the morphology and ecology of a new species of Macrostomum (Rhabdocoela) which possesses several unique features of classifactory value. The anatomy of the excretory system is unusual. 12. A Synopsis of the American Turbellaria. Part I. American Acoela, Rhabdocoela and Alloeocoela with notes on Distribution and Ecology and a diagnostic key to families and genera. M. A. Stirewalt, F. F. Ferguson and W. J. Hayes, Jr.; Miller School of Biology, University of Virginia. (Dem¬ onstration.) (Read by title.) IL Table of Contents. III. Introduction. IV. Classification with characterizations of the families of the group and of the American genera. V. Alphabetical list of American genera with included species (82 ge¬ nera, 256 species) with ecological notes. VI. Key to families and American genera. VII. Distribution of American species by stations. Distribution map. VIII. Bibliography of 195 papers on American forms from 1821-1940,, IX. Index. 13. The Effect of High Frequency Radio Waves upon Micro- stomum linear e (Mull) 0. Schmidt 1848. W. A. Kepner, M. A. Stirewalt and C. I. Malis ; Miller School of Biology, University of Virginia. (Lantern, 15 min.) This is an investigation of a possible specific effect of short wave radia¬ tions upon animal tissue. The microstomas were irradiated at 9.5 meters (30,00 K. C.) in the condenser field of a 100 watt oscillator. A cooling method was used which made the heat effect of the waves extremely small, and reasonably accurately measurable. Gross and histological studies of the irradiated animals as compared with controls and heat treated animals indicate a definite specific effect of the irradiations. These histological and physiological effects were dis¬ cussed. 14. The Elaboration and Transportation of Yolk in Micro- stomum lineare (Mull.) 0. Schmidt 1848 (rhabdocoele Tur¬ bellarian) . M. A. Stirewalt; Miller School of Biology, University of Virginia. (To be read by title.) The yolk has been found to be produced in the assimilatory cells of the endoderm where it may be found in large globules after osmic acid fixation (medium Fleming’s). These yolk globules are broken into smaller bodies and passed through the basal membrane of the endoderm where they lie within the meshes of the parenchymal net. Here they are ingested by PROCEEDINGS 1940 221 amoebocytes similar to those concerned with the manipulation of metabolic wastes and nematocysts. Metabolic waste materials and nematocysts are carried to the epidermis to be eventually discharged. The yolk, on the other hand, is carried by these amoebocytes to the young oocytes in which it is deposited. Amoebocytes and their enclosed yolk may be considered, there¬ fore, to take part in the nutrition of the oocyte. 15. A New Turbellarian Worm (Alloeocoele) from Beaufort, N. C. M. A. Stirewalt, W. A. Kepner and F. F. Ferguson ; Miller School of Biology, University of Virginia, and TJ, S. B. F., Beaufort, N. C. (Read by title.) A third species is described for the genus Archiloa, to be named in honor of the late Dr. E. V. Wilson of the University of North Carolina who showed great interest in the biological developments at the U. S. B. F. at Beaufort. The new species differs from Beauchamp’s A. rivularis and' Maristo’s A. spinosa in not having a “vagina”; in body shape and size; in the structure of the statocyst; in the position of the mouth; in the size of the vesicula granulorum; and in the morphology and relationship of the ducts of the female reproductive system. An homology between the accessory male duct of Otoplancu intermedia, and the posterior region of the female genital canal of the new species may be indicated. Homologies between anatomical features of the new species and the triclads are also suggested. 16. An Outline of the Development of the Ovum of Chlorohydra viridissima. William A. Kepner, Bruce A. Perry, W. B. Atkinson and J. R. Meyer; University of Virginia, (Lantern, 10 min.) The oogonia develop through proliferation and growth of interstitial cells. Some of these surpass the others in growth and display synezesis in their nuclei. These represent incipient primary oocytes. One of the pri¬ mary oocytes grows at the expense of the other primary oocytes and oogonia, which later undergo cytolsis. This oocyte eventually becomes a very large amoeboid cell with an extensive area applied to the mesoglea. Yolk is next developed from material supplied by a locally enlarged endo- dermal epithelium. With the formation of yolk completed, the amoeboid cell retracts its pseudopods. As the last pseudopods disappear, the first and second meioses ensue. The chromosome number for this species is greater than x^:: 6 and 2x 12 which are recorded for Hydra grisea. Throughout the life of Hydra and especially during periods of viscissi- tude, many cells are sacrificed in the interests of the organism. Likewise during the first phase of the nutrition of the ovum of this polyp many cells are sacrificed, in cytolysis, in the interests of a new organism. An hydra may be defined, therefore, as an hierarchy of cells presided over by an effort to sustain an individual. 17. Morphology and Histogenesis of the Blood of the Mealworm (Tenebrio molitor L.) Herbert William Jackson; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. The blood of the mealworm, Tenehrio molitor L., consists of a fluid plasma, the hemolymph, and formed elements or cells, the hemocytes. Four types of hemocytes are found. Micronucleocytes arise in the midline from the upper layer of the inner cell mass and macronucleocytes from the lower layer, oenocytoides arise from cells on the neural crest. These cell types separate from the germ 222 The VIRGINIA ACADEMY of SCIENCE band at 30 to 36 hours of age and migrate throughout the yolk mass, return¬ ing to the germ band before the formation of the yolk membrane at 42 hours. They are found in the hemolymph throughout the rest of the life of the organism. The first two types comprise the bulk of all hemocytes. Spherule cells appear deep in the lateral regions of the mesoderm early in embryonic life. They never leave the germ band, but seem to penetrate tissues at will, including the hemolymph. They collect in certain tissues at the time of the completion of the heart when the blood begins to circu¬ late, and are there absorbed. Oenocytoides are colorless in early embryonic life, but after the blood begins to circulate, stain deeply. Numbers of hemocytes of all four classes are maintained and increased by means of mitotic division in the blood stream. Amitosis occurs rarely in senescent cells. Hemocytes do not lose their identity during metamorphosis. The hemolymph or plasma is clear and colorless in early embryonic life, but as circulation commences, becomes filled with stain absorbing materials. It thins out again only in senescent images. 18. Origin of the Midgut in Tenebrio molitor L. Herbert William Jackson; Virginia Polytechnic Institute, The endoderm rudiments in the mealworm, Tenebrio molitor, arise di¬ rectly from the germ band as large cell masses. Cells move cephalad from the posterior rudiment and caudad from the anterior rudiment in typical “endoderm ribbons”. They follow along the under side of the yolk membrane which is suspended between the mesoderm ridges like canvas between the two sides of a hammock. Hemocytes may play some part in the formation of these endoderm ribbons. The yolk membrane is entirely non-nucleate and is apparently a product of the fusion of ental membranes surrounding neighboring vitellophages. Lena B. Henderson, Secretary. PROCEEDINGS 1940 223 Minutes of the Section of Chemistry W. J. Frierson, Chairman W. G. Guy, Secretary FRIDAY, MAY 3—10:00 A. M. 1. The Influence of the Crystal Plane in the Electrodeposition of Copper on a Single Crystal of Copper. Allan T. Gwathmey; University of Virginia, (15 min.) The physical form, and therefore the chemical properties, of electrolyti- cally deposited metals are dependent on the crystal form of the individually deposited grains. A study of the forms of the electrodeposit on a single crystal of copper in the shape of a sphere, % in. in diameter, at varying rates of deposition, has been made. The sphere was given a high electrolytic polish in order to remove any strained or amorphous layer which might influence the deposit. Through the use of a sphere all possible crystal planes were present at some point in the surface. At a current density of about 2 ma. per sq. cm. the deposit retained the crystal orientation of the underlying single crystal. After 45‘0 hours the ^sphere was converted into a polyhedron due to the development of certain preferred planes, especially the (111) and (120) planes. At a current dens¬ ity of about 20 ma. per sq. cm. for about 5 hours on a freshly polished sphere, the deposit in the regions whose surfaces were approximately par¬ allel to the (100) planes was polycrystalline while the deposit in the re¬ maining areas largely followed the orientation of the underlying single crystal. With a current density of about 75 ma. per sq. cm. the deposit soon became polycrystalline over the entire surface of the sphere. Thus it is concluded that below a certain current density the rate of growth of the individual crystal and the rate of formation of new crystal nuclei are dependent on the crystal plane which is parallel to the surface. This effect should be of importance in an understanding of electroplating processes. 2. Rate of Xanthation of Soda Cellulose. P. C. Scherer and L. C. Ikenberry; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. (10 min.) In this investigation the study of the rate of xanthation was continued from the point of view of the effect of state of subdivision., Previously developed methods were improved and average values of the effect of “bulk number” obtained. 3. Cellulose Containing Amino Nitrogen. P. C. Scherer and J. M. Feild; Virginia Polytechnic In¬ stitute. (10 min.) The methods used to prepare cellulose amine derivatives in liquid am¬ monia were modified. A new nitrogen containing cellulose derivative was prepared and studied. 224 The VIRGINIA ACADEMY of SCIENCE 4. Sulfur Forms in Crude Viscose Rayon. P. C. Scherer and J. R. Leonards; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. (10 min.) An investigation of several types of viscose rayon has led to the identi¬ fication of the forms of sulfur present. New methods of extraction anid analysis were developed. 5. The Action of Chloromethyl Ether on 4-Methyluracil. Margaret M. Endicott; Hollins College. (10 min.) When 4-methyluracil and chloromethyl ether were heated together in glacial acetic acid, 5-acetox5rmethyl-4-methyl-uracil (65%) and bis-(4- methyl-2, 6-dioxypyrimidyl-5) -methane (35%) were formed. A study of the reaction revealed that the initial product was the 5-acetoxymethyl-4- methyluracil and that this condensed with unchanged 4-methyluracil to give the bis-(4-methyl-2, 6-dioxypyrimidyl-5) -methane. 5-Chloromethyluracil was the chief product obtained when 4-methylura¬ cil was heated with an excess of chloromethyl ether in a sealed tube at 1'00° C. The structure of this pyrimidine was established by its conversion to 5-acetoxymethyl-4-methyluracil. Its chemical behavior was also studied by application of a series of transformations leading to the formation of characteristic derivatives. 6. A Study of the Procedure for the Determination of Glyco¬ gen in Oysters. H. N. Calderwood and Alfred R. Armstrong; Bureau of Fisheries, United States Department of the Interior, Virginia Commission of Fisheries, and the College of William and Mary. (15 min.) A study was made of the alkaline disintegration of the ground whole carcass of the oyster {Ostrea virginica) to find how conditions of time, temperature and alkali concentration alter the properties, purity and quan¬ tity of the glycogen obtained. Experiments were made to ascertain the optimum conditions of acid concentration, temperature and time necessary for complete hydrolysis of the glycogen to glucose. A revised procedure is given for the quantitative estimation of the glycogen content of oysters. 7. A Micro-Method for the Determination of Tissue Lipids. E. L. Outhouse, B. E. Leach, and J. C. Forbes; Medical College of Virginia. (20 min.) A new method for determination of neutral fat, phospholipids; and free, total and ester cholesterol is described. The advantages and applications of this method are discussed. 8. Physico-Chemical Studies of Soils. Howard Kincer, Beulah Wood, and H. I. Johnson ; Roanoke College. (10 min.) In seeking to discover the properties that give soils a desirable nature for plants, methods were devised for determining the relative number of various sized particles. Their soluble, partially soluble, and insoluble com¬ ponents were followed by an electrophotometer. Shrinking and swelling phenomena were measured photographically. PROCEEDINGS 1940 225 9. The Recovery of Gallium from a Nelson County Virginia Feldspar. W. S. Peterson and F. H. Fish ; Virginia Polytechnic In¬ stitute, (10 min.) In 1939 it was discovered by means of the spectroscope that a feldspar found in Nelson County, Virginia contained an appreciable amount of gallium. Professor H. D. Ussery of the Physics Department of V. P. I. later found the gallium content of this feldspar to be approximately 0.2%. Since the procedures for separation of gallium given in the literature are based upon the acid decomposition of the ore, the separation of gallium from a feldspar presents a new problem. Various methods of extraction are used and the efficiency of each is dis¬ cussed. Concentrations were checked at intermediate points by means of the spectroscope. FRIDAY, MAY 3—2:00 P. M. 10. The Kolbe Synthesis with Alkyl-o-Phenylphenols. Sidney Harris and J. Stanton Pierce; University of Rich¬ mond, (10 min.) 5-Ethyl-2-hydroxydiphenyl, 5-n-propyl-2-hydroxydiphenyl, and 5-n-hexyl- -2-hydroxydiphenyl were carboxylated by heating to 225° in a sealed tube with potassium carbonate and carbon dioxide, introduced as dry ice. The products are germicidal but not so much so as the uncarboxylated alkyl-o- phenylphenols. 11. Separation of Fatty Acids and Rosin from Crude Tall Oil by Selective Chlorination. J. M. Crockin and Frank C. Vilbrandt; Virginia Poly¬ technic Institute. (15 min.) Tall oil is a mixture of rosin acids, fatty acids, and non-acids resulting from the acidification of the soaps separating out from the Kraft pulp pro¬ cess evaporator liquor. The present uses of tall oil center chiefly around its fatty acid content, but is limited for some purposes because of the rosin content. Separation of these constituents makes each available as such. The rosin, as crystal¬ line abietic acid, has specific potentialities as a raw material. Rosin and fatty acids are separated chiefly by distillation, although chemical means and extraction have been proposed to overcome objections such as corrosion and losses as pitch incurred in distillation. Chlorination is used as a step in the purification of tall oil, or to prodtice a sticky chlorinated oil, but no separation based on the use of chlorine appears to have been proposed. It was the purpose of this investigation to chlorinate the fatty acid double bonds in hopes that the properties of this product would be such as to permit of a separation. The effects of solvent, catalyst, light, and heat were studied to determine the optimum conditions for such a reaction, and the effect of chlorination upon the rosin and fatty acids, respectively, under specific conditions was determined. It was found that the use of CCI4 solvent and ultraviolet light accelerate chlorine consumption and promote the addition of chlorine, but do not en¬ tirely stiflle the substitution reaction. Rosin and fatty acid double bonds are attacked to about an equal extent under these conditions. The chlori¬ nated oil is entirely soluble in most common solvents at room tempe^ratures. Petroleum ether insolubles are increased slightly upon chlorination. 226 The VIRGINIA ACADEMY of SCIENCE It is recommended that the range of chlorination conditions be extended to a more complete knowledge of the possible results, and that other chem¬ ical attacks be investigated. 12. Separation of the Constituents of Tall Oil — The Selective Reaction of Sulfuric Acid, Paul E. Chapman and Frank C. Vilbrandt; Virginia Poly¬ technic Institute. (10 min.) In the Kraft process for the production of paper pulp, a dark colored, odorous oil consisting mainly of rosin and fatty acids is formed. In order to make this material available for commercial use, it has to be refined or refined and separated into its main constituents. In this investigation three methods were tried for refining the tall oil. The first was to remove those impurities insoluble in kerosene, gasoline, petroleum ether and toluene. The second was to oxidize the tall oil with atmospheric oxygen and then remove impurities insoluble in gasoline. None of the tall oil refined in these ways was much better in color and odor than the original material. Therefore, sulfuric acid was tried. The temperature and time of reac¬ tion and the quantity of 95 per cent sulfuric acid used were varied. It was found that for temperatures from 0° C. to 50° C. and for a time of reaction from 15 minutes to 3 hours, that practically all the color and odorous impurities were removed with two parts of acid per 100 parts of tall oil. Tall oil refined in this way was treated with from 20 to 200 per cent of the theoretical amount of sulfuric acid required to sulfonate or sulfate (28.3 grams of H2SO4 per 100 grams of tall oil calculating the fatty acids as lino- lenic) while the temperature of reaction was varied from —14° to +20° C., the time of reaction varied from 1 to 6 hours, and the concentration of acid varied from 50 to 95 per cent. It was found (1) that concentrations of acid below 90 per cent have little effect on the rosin and fatty acids; (2) that the temperature of reaction has little effect on the separation; (3) that the time for the reaction to be completed varied with the amount of acid used from less than 15 minutes up to about 3 hours when four and thirty parts respectively of 95 per cent acid are used; (4) that the amount of 95 per cent acid used has the greatest effect on the separation; and (5) that the best separation is obtained with about 28 or 30 parts of 95 per cent sulfuric acid. 13. Alkylation of Benzene with Ethylene by the Use of Several Phosphoric Acids as Eka-Catalysts. A. B. Rabinkoff and F. C. Vilbrandt; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. (10 min.) Alkylation of benzene with ethylene by the use of phosphoric acids as catalysts was studied under conditions of varying temperatures and react¬ ants used. No conclusive results were obtained. Results have been obtained at high pressures, but to date there has been no work reported in the literature for this reaction at low pressures. This fact and the fact that an adequate mechanism has not as yet been pro¬ posed prompted the investigation. The equipment used consisted of four distilling flasks in series imm^sed in an insulated oil bath and maintained at a desired constant temperature. These were equipped with agitators, reflux condensers, and sample take offs. PROCEEDINGS 1940 227 Analyses were made on the progress of alkylation and the nature of the product. A series of investigations using various activators in conjunction' with the phosphoric acid was then made. Various halides and oxides were used as promoters and the data recorded. Attempts were made to establish a better understanding of the eka-catalytic mechanism as proposed by Ipatieff, and the controlling factor for the reaction. Second Symposium on Organic Analytical Reagents (Papers #14 through #26 comprise the symposium.) For several years eight institutions in the state have been co¬ operating in an extensive research program on organic analytical reagents under the direction of Dr. John H. Yoe. Last fall Tulane University of Louisiana joined the group, and this spring the University of North Carolina was added. Investigations at Tulane are under the direction of Professor Thomas B. Grump¬ ier; those at North Carolina are under Professor Edwin C. Markham. Dr. Oskar Baudisch, Research Director of the New York State Research Institute, Saratoga Springs, New York, is cooperating with them in the application of organic compounds as concentrating reagents in the spectrographic analysis of trace elements. At the Danville meeting of the Academy last May, a sym¬ posium was held in which each cooperating institution partici¬ pated. So much interest was shown at this meeting that it seemed desirable to hold a second symposium for the purpose of presenting brief progress reports from the cooperating members and to discuss certain phases of the subject. The papers pre¬ sented in this symposium have been printed in the October 1940 issue of the Virginia Journal of Science. Their titles are given below: 14. Introduction. John H. Yoe; Unwersity of Virginia. 15. A Summary Report on 500 Organic Compounds. W. J. Frierson; Hampden-Sydney College. 16. Progress Report on Organic Analytical Reagents Research at V. P. 1. J. R. Noell, B. H. Kemp, and F. H. Fish; Virginia Poly¬ technic Institute. 17. A Study of the Reaction Between 2-Acetoamino-6-amino Benzo-thiazole and Iridium. J. R. Noell and F. H. Fish; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. 228 The VIRGINIA ACADEMY of SCIENCE 18. The Solubility of the Alkali Earth Salts of the Higher Fatty Acids. B. H. Kemp and F. H. Fish; Virginia Polytechnic Insti¬ tute. 19. A Summary Report on 100 Organic Compounds. W. E. Trout; Mary Baldwin College. 20. A Summary Report on 100 Organic Compounds. A. R. Armstrong; College of William and Mary. 21. A Progress Report. J, T. Ashworth, B. M. Keys, and Ira A. Updike; Rondolph- Macon College. 22. A Progress Report. W. 0. Swan ; Virginia Military Institute. 23. Structure of Some Organo-Metallic Complexes. James W. Cole; University of Virginia. 24. Chelation in Relation to the Periodic Classification. J. R. Taylor ; Washington and Lee University. 25. Structure of Metal Derivatives of Oximes. Alfred Burger; University of Virginia. 26. The Application of a New Class of Organic Reagents for the Detection and Determination of Palladium. Lyle G. Overholser and John H. Yoe; University of Vir¬ ginia. SATURDAY, MAY 4—9:00 A. M. 27. Chemical Industry in Colonial Virginia. W. S. DeLoach; College of William and Mary-Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Norfolk. (10 min.) Chemical industry in Virginia dates from the very beginning of the colony. Products of chemical industry were exported to England in 1608. The various industries occupied a significant, although not dominating, position throughout the colonial period. The attitude of England in giving: bounties and levying taxes greatly influenced the industries. 28. Series Reactions in Organic Chemical Laboratory. J. B. Lucas and W. B. Downey; Virginia Polytechnic In¬ stitute. (12 min.) Series reactions suitable for an organic chemical laboratory course were discussed. One series starts with benzene and goes through to methyl orange. Another starts with benzaldehyde and goes through to fluorene. A third starts with cyclohexanol and goes through to simple dicarboxylic acids. PROCEEDINGS 1940 229 29. Petroleum Bases. Reactions of 2, 3, S-Trimethyl Quinoline. Alfred Burger and Luther R. Modlin, Jr.; University of Virginia. (10 min.) A number of reactions of the kerosene base, 2, 3, 8-trimethyl quinoline, leading to substances which will serve as starting materials in the prepara¬ tion of products of pharmacological interest, is described. Among these reactions are nitrations, oxidations, and reductions involving mainly posi¬ tions 2 and 5 of the quinoline system. 30. The Halogenation of Salicylic Acid. L. H. Farinholt; Washington and Lee University and A. P. Stuart; University of Delaware. (15 min.) The mono- and disubstituted halogen derivatives of salicylic acid have been prepared by previous investigators, usually by the simple addition of the free halogen to a solution of salicylic acid in a suitable medium. The tri- and tetrahalogenated salicylic acids have not been reported in the litera¬ ture and numerous experiments were carried out with the preparation of these compounds in mind. Starting with 3, 5- diiodosalicylic acid, various methods were applied with the object of obtaining higher iodinated derivatives but with negative results in each case. With 3, 5-dichloro- and 3, 5-dibromosalicylic acids as starting materials, the usual methods resulted in either replacement of the carboxyl group by halogen or no reaction at all. Finally by carrying out the halogenation in fuming sulfuric acid, trichloro-, tribromo- and tetra- bromosalicylic acids were obtained in good yield. It was found necessary first to prepare the dihalogenosalicylic acids by known methods and use them as starting materials for further halogenations since attempts to start with unsubstituted salicylic acid jd elded only water-soluble products. No iodine •derivatives could be prepared by this method. The positions of the halogen atoms in the polyhalogenosalicylic acids were determined (a) by decarboxylation and identification of the resulting halogenated phenols and (b) by substitution of the carboxyl groups by bromine or chlorine and subsequent identification of the phenols. It was shown that the third halogen enters the position (6) adjacent to the car¬ boxyl group. 31. The Brominating Action of 1, 2-Diaroylbromo-ethanes. Monroe Couper and Robert E. Lutz; University of Vir¬ ginia. (15 min.) The bromine of 1,2-diaroylbromo-ethanes is activated by the oc -carbonyl group. We have found it to possess powerful brominating action in the presence of hydrogen bromide as catalyst, the products depending on the nature of the acceptors present. Hydrogen bromide in acetic acid reacts with trans-1, 2-dimethyl-l, 2- dibenzolethylene to give 1, 2-dlmethyl-l-(p-bromo-benzoyl)-2-benzoylethane in good yield. The saturated bromodiketone first formed has itself actei'd both as brominating agent, and as acceptor at the para position of the terminal aromatic nucleus. This orientation implies bromination of an intermediate enolic modification, which would be expected to be generated •continuously in the mixture through 1, 4- addition and elimination of hydrogen bromide to the diaroylethylene. Other unsaturated diketones reacted with hydrogen bromide analogously. The second pava position could be brominated, stepwise. When both were blocked, however, the solvent apparently became the bromide acceptor, for 230 The VIRGINIA ACADEMY of SCIENCE only the corresponding; saturated diketone was isolated. Brominating action was demonstrated here by the addition of /3-naphthol, and recovery of oc -bromo-/3-naphthol. Absence of the methyl groups decreased the brominating tendency, the molecule being stable except in the presence of /3-naphthol. The reported self-bromination in the aliphatic chain by di-(trimethylbenzoly)-bromo- ethane is now understandable, and was shown to be avoidable by the addition of the stronger acceptor, ,0-naphthol. The function of hydrogen bromide in catalyzing these brominations is discussed. 32. An Improved Experimental Still for the Isolation of Volatile Oils from Logging Wastes. H. N. Calderwood; University of Wisconsin, (15 min.) A description with illustrations of an improved apparatus used in study¬ ing the production of voltatile oils from spruce and balsam fir pulpwood logging wastes. This still holding from 500 to 800 pounds of chopped waste could be opened, discharged, recharged, closed and the next distillation started within thirty minutes by one man. By means of a simple constant-level device, the aqueous distillate was reused, which not only decreased the losses of volatile oil, but also made possible estimations of the heat requirements needed in the production of volatile oils from logging wastes of the species studied. This apparatus was constructed from materials easily obtainable, and was operated by the class of labor ordinarily available in logging camps. 33. A Chemistry Open House. R. C. Krug, T. S. Tutwiler, and A. I. Whitenfish; Univer¬ sity of Richmond. (15 min.) The exhibits at a recent science show given at the University of Rich¬ mond included examples of Chemiluminescence, Induction Period, and a low cost potentiometric titration assembly with Magic-Eye indicator suit¬ able for neutralization, oxidation-reduction, and precipitation reactions. Experiments were performed with explanations. Circuit diagrams for the potentiometer were given. At the conclusion of the papers the Section v^as called to order by the Chairman for a business meeting. The report of the nomi¬ nating committee 'was read by Dr. John H. Yoe and the following officers were unanimously elected : Chairman: Dr. W. G. Guy, Professor of Chemistry, College of William and Mary. Secretary: Col. W. 0. Swan, Professor of Chemistry, Vir¬ ginia Military Institute. Representative on the Board of the Virginia Journal of Science: Dr. J. W. Watson, Professor of Chemistry, Vir¬ ginia Polytechnic Institute. The business meeting was then adjourned. W. G. Guy, Secretary. PROCEEDINGS 1940 231 Minutes of the Section of Education J. Alex Rorer, Chairman Paul G. Hook, Secretary FRIDAY, MAY 3—10:00 A. M. 1. Evaluative Criteria of the Cooperative Study. William R. Smithey; University of Virginia. A Comparison of the Present Actions and Policies of the Four Regional Associations. An analysis of the official actions reveals that the Middle States Asso¬ ciation has adopted a program based upon the recommendations of the Co¬ operative Study of Secondary School Standards for the evaluation, accredi¬ tation, and improvement of its secondary schools; that the Northwest Association, North Central Association, and Southern Association have adopted programs for the use of the “Evaluative Criteria” of the Coop¬ erative Study for evaluation and stimulation purposes only; and that all four of these associations plan, at least tentatively, to have all schools evaluated by the Evaluative Criteria in four or five years. A careful analysis of the replies to the questionnaire indicates that thoughtful consideration was given to the questions proposed, that much uncertainty prevails in the Southern territory as to the use of the “Evalu¬ ative Criteria”, and that the plan now in operation needs further considera¬ tion. 2. Photography as a College Course. J. D. Shumacher ; Roanoke College. Photography is becoming more popular as a hobby and also as a scien¬ tific tool. Possible reasons for this increased popularity are cited. Should photography be included in the college curriculum? This ques¬ tion is aroused by interest and demand for photography on the part of the students. It is considered from two angles: (1) the position of the college; and (2) the standpoint of the student. The Position of the College. — A few colleges are offering students some experience in photography, but fundamental principles of chemistry and physics need to be included. Although the teaching staff of the average college is adequate for instruction in photography, a survey of Virginia colleges showed only a small per cent offering a course in photography. The cost of equipment is not prohibitive and the course may be altered to suit the needs of the institution. The Standpoint of the Student. — A suggested list of lecture and labora¬ tory topics shows the simplicity in organization of photography. A survey of Roanoke College graduates who took photography proves it is a practical course. Students display their interest by their eagerness to work in the dark room. It is concluded, then, that photography is adaptable as a college course, both from the standpoint of the college and the student. 232 The VIRGINIA ACADEMY of SCIENCE 3. A Differentiated Reading Attack. Eva Bond ; College of William and Mary, Richmond Divi¬ sion. Good readers read at different rates of speed different types of material. Some make a conscious effort to adjust their rate of reading to the diffii- culty and familiarity of the material and to the purpose for which they are reading. Others quite unconsciously increase or decrease their speed in accordance with their purpose and material. But less effective readers seem to have just one reading rate which they use all the time, regardless of what they are reading or why. One hundred students in the College of Education, University of Minne¬ sota, were given four types of material to read. The average rate at which they read the four types was as follows: simple story type,, 374 words per minute; Shakesperean material, 283 words; zoology textbook material, 265 words; World Almanac material, 248 words. As a second phase of the experiment, the students wrote what they remembered of each passage. Their statements about the simple story told, in a general way, what the passage was about. They showed that the students were reading to note the general significance of the passage. In writing about the Shakesperean material, the majority gave an interpre¬ tation, which showed that they were reading the material to draw inferences. Their discussion of the selection from the zoology text was concerned with an organized presentation of what they had read. The factual reports of the World Almanac passage indicated that the students had noted! details as they read. The effective reader, thus, adjusts his reading to meet the demands of his purpose and material. 4. Physical Education Programs in Virginia Colleges. Clarence Hale ; University of Virginia. The Status of Physical Education in Institutions of Higher Learning in Virginia is a questionnaire study which was made to try to determine the status of the service curriculums in physical education for men in the colleges and universities of the Commonwealth of Virginia. The thirteen schools included in the study were classified according to the male enroll¬ ment into seven classifications. Questionnaires were sent to three schools outside the state for each classification to be used for comparisons. Nine¬ teen questionnaires were filled out and returned. Items included in the questionnaire were (1) the extent of the programs in physical and health education; (2) length of the programs in health and physical education; (3) time allotment in health and physical education; (4) size of classes in physical education; (5) activities offered; (6) credit in physical educa¬ tion; (7) the extent and thoroughness of the medical examination; (8) method of handling absence excuses; (9) number of instructors and assist¬ ants; (10) teaching load of each instructor; (11) grading plan; (12) and equipment. The main standard of measurement, however, was The Physical Education Curriculum (A National Program) compiled by Wm. R. LaPorte. The opinions of one or more well known authorities were used as a standard of measurement for those items not specifically covered in The Physical Education Curriculum. The service curriculums, on the basis of the com¬ parison with the standard of measurement, were classified as very good, good, fair, or poor. The service curriculums were found to be very good in two of the thitrteen schools studied, good in six, fair in four, and poor in one. The service curriculums on the whole were good in the time allotment for both health and physical education, the length of the program in health education, having a physician give the medical examination, the thorough¬ ness of the medical examination, the teaching load, and the method of teach- PROCEEDINGS 1940 233 ing. They were fair in' the extent of the program for both health and physical education, the length of the program in physical education, the size of classes in physical education, granting credit in physical education, the extent of the program for the medical examination, the method' of handlinig the absence excuses, the number of instructors in physical education, the grading plan in physical education, and the provision of equipment. They were poor in the program of activities. FRIDAY, MAY 3—2:00 P. M. 5. The Living Conditions of the White Teachers in Bedford County, Virginia. Samuel J. Coffey; University of Virginia. From a questionnaire filled out by 130 teachers, statistics were gathered to give a picture of the real conditions under which teachers were living while attempting to carry out their teaching duties. The study reveals particularly the importance that teachers put on living conditions, the difficulty of obtaining desirable boarding places in rural areas, and the very great lack of opportunity for recreation. It is the purpose of this study to bring to the front a problem related to teacher efficiency which seems to have been overlooked. 6. Negro Education in Bedford County, Virginia. 0. T. Bonner; University of Virginia. A recent study of Negro ed'ucation in Bedford County revealed a number of interesting facts concerning distribution of population, population trends, interest in education shown by Negro patrons and teachers, qualifications of teachers, curriculum, teaching equipment and materials, etc. In this paper special emphasis is placed on equipment and materials in the Negro schools in Bedford County. The study shows that all schools need additional materials but the real problem is in getting personnel that know how to use materials after they are obtained and how to obtain local maj,- terials that are free and of most value to teaching. The study also shows that there is approximately equal treatment of Negroes and whites in the county even though the Negroes pay only a small percentage of the local taxes. 7. Health Conditions and Health Activities in Negro Schools of Fauquier County, Virginia. W. G. Coleman ; Principal, Marshall High School. As a part of a more comprehensive study of Negro education in Fauquier County, information concerning health conditions and health activities was obtained by inspection of the school plants and personal interviews with teachers. Among other things, the data revealed the following: toilets were in good condition; sources of water were far removed from the school and possibly contaminated; less than half of the school rooms had windows prop¬ erly placed; all buildings were heated with unjacketed stoves; all buildings depended on windows for ventilation ; such play equipment as was available had been provided through the efforts of pupils, teachers, and parents; the program of physical inspection was satisfactory; several schools were attempting to supplement pupil lunches with hot soup or cocoa. 234 The VIRGINIA ACADEMY of SCIENCE 8. Techniques of Research in Apprentice Teaching. Boyd Graves; Mary Washington College. At the December 1938 meeting of Section Q of the American Associa¬ tion for the Advancement of Science, held in Richmond, there was a pro¬ longed discussion of the methods currently used in educational research. The consensus was that research should be carried on for the value to the locality in which the study is made, as well as for the immediate benefit of the researcher. In guiding the research studies of the apprentice teachers from Mary Washington College, an attempt is being made to carry out this point of view. The principal of the school, the local elementary supervisor, the participating teacher, the apprentice and the director of apprentice teach¬ ing from the college confer and agree upon a local problem to be studied. Most of the studies by the apprentices are non-statistical in naturei. While they thereby lose some of the objectivity that is so desirable and possible in the more exact sciences, their usefulness in improving educational practices make them no less significant, especially since the more important areas of education lie at present outside the compass of scientific measure¬ ment. Although in process of refinement, this attempt to develop a program of educational research has at least removed the researcher from the ivory tower to the immediate school situation which expects and usually gets some direct benefit from the investigation. 9. Control of School Accounting Exercised by State Require¬ ments and Recommendations. Charles K. Martin, Jr. ; Mary Washington College. Problem This study answers the following questions: What general principles for state control of school financial accounting can' be established? What changes need to be made in present practices required! or recommended by the states? Purpose Proper control over school financial accounting is basic to the safeguard¬ ing of school funds, to the calculation of educational costs, and to the budget¬ ing of school expenditures. Lax state control, at present, has resulted in inefficient school accounting practice, and research in school financial ac¬ counting has been neglected more than research in any other phase of school finance. Because of the importance of fiscal accounting, the inefficiency of present practice, and the lack of research, this study is offered as a contri¬ bution to school finance. Procedure 1. The historical trends in the development of school financial accountr¬ ing were taken from the literature to give orientation and back¬ ground to the study. 2. The place of state control of school financial accounting was estab¬ lished through principles chosen for examination from the literature on the basis of frequency of mention, carefully defined to decrease ambiguity and to increase exactness of meaning, examined to insure completeness and prevent overlapping, and weighed by supporting evidence to eliminate those statements for which there is not sufficient evidence. From a jury composed of 144 experts, judgments concern¬ ing the validity of the principles were obtained. PROCEEDINGS 1940 235 3. The extent to which present practice, as defined in bulletins »and forms published by the state departments of education and! other agencies controlling accounting for public monies, agreed with the validated principles for state control of school accounting is reported. Conclusions Twenty principles were established, namely: uniformity, adequacy, edu¬ cational emphasis, control, accuracy, simplicity, flexibility, safety, timeli¬ ness, economy, reportability, utility, permanence, efficiency, legality, authori¬ zation, evaluation, availability, unity, local responsibility. An enormous lag was found to exist between theory of school financial accounting and the control of such school fiscal management by the forty-eight states of the union. The extent of this lag is reported. Steps are recommended to aid the states in bridging this gap between theory and practice. Suggestions are made for further study. Paul G. Hook, Secretary. 236 The VIRGINIA ACADEMY of SCIENCE Minutes of the Section of Engineering Albert H. Cooper, Chairman D. H. Pletta, Secretary FRIDAY, MAY 3—10:00 A. M. 1. An Apple-Milk Confection for Partial Utilization of Surplus and Cull Apples. Frank C. Vilbrandt and Robert D. Sieg; Virginia Poly¬ technic Institute. In the apple industry during a time of five years, an average of over three million bushels of apples a year were not harvested because of market conditions. There are around 120,000 tons of fruit culled out by the fruit packing plants of this country annually. In the dairy industry 53 billion pounds of skim milk are processed, and only 26 per cent finds economical utilization. The high nutritive value of both these foods indicates that an ideal food would result from their coagulation into one material. The higher mineral content of the milk and the higher carbohydrate value of the apple along with its regulative properties should blend together to a nutritive food. Apples were reduced to juice and pulp. Both of these materials were dried satisfactorily on a vacuum double-roll dryer. A mixture as high as 3 to 5 parts by weight of apples to milk was found to be applicable for confection products. Apple juice-milk mixtures dried under modified drying conditions to give a light-colored, pasty, con¬ fection-textured product with a slight tart taste. Apple pulp-milk mixtures dried under high d'rying conditions to give a dark-colored, chewy, flaky cereal-like confection base product. 2. Heat Transfer Coefficients for Condensing Organic Vapors. Harvey E. Henderson and Albert H. Cooper; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. An investigation was made to determine the film heat transfer coef¬ ficients of various members of homologous series of organic compounds during condensation. Studies were made on alcohols, esters, and azeotropic mixtures. A correlation between the actual film coefficients obtained and the theoretical Nusselt values was made. An attempt was made to correlate the heat transfer coefficients with the physical properties of the liquids used. 3. Utilization of Saltville Wastes for Production of Chlorine. J. T. Gormally and Frank C. Vilbrandt; Virginia Poly¬ technic Institute. The disposal of wastes from the ammonia distiller in the ammonia-soda process has been a source of trouble to this industry since it first began large scale operations. The waste, for purposes of this study, is essentially a solution of calcium and sodium chlorides. Other materials present are PROCEEDINGS 1940 237 small amounts of CaO, CaCOs, insolubles from the limestone (principally silicates), and traces of NH3. It is proposed to utilize this waste by a reaction with oxides of nitrogen to produce chlorine, with a mixed calcium and sodium nitrate as a by-pro¬ duct. The mixed nitrate can be used directly as a fertilizer or as a source of raw material for further purification. One volume of nitrosyl chloride is formed for each two volumes of chlorine. Optimum conditions were found for the reaction. 4. Industrial Conversion of Nitrosyl Chloride to Chlorine. H. C. Shockey and Frank C. Vilbrandt; Virginia Poly¬ technic Institute, Utilization of carbonate wastes from Solvay process for production of gaseous chlorine from the waste calcium chloride brine by conversion of nitrosyl chloride through hydrolysis and neutralization. 5. The Use of Test Filtration Data in the Prediction of Filter Capacity. Ralph A. Troupe and Robert A. Fisher; Virginia Poly¬ technic Institute, This work was undertaken for the purpose of evaluating the usefulness of equations that have been proposed for the calculation of the capacity of industrial filtration equipment. These equations are for compressible homogeneous slurries at constant pressure. 1. Ruth equation; (V -h Ve)2 = K(0 + 0e). 2. Lewis equation ; P0 r"vPs/i - - (V/A) -f pVP“. (V/A) 2 A large number of tests were made on a “Sperry” plate and frame filter press to determine the value of constants required in the equations. The equations with the experimentally found constants, were then used to calcu¬ late the expected capacity of a “Feinc” rotary continuous filter, after which tests were made on the “Feinc” filter to determine the degree of accuracy of the filter cloth, and type of solid in the slurry. 6. Design, Construction and Operation of a Carbon Dioxide Generator from Fuel Oil for Experimental Absorption Tow¬ er Studies. I. Resnick and Frank C. Vilbrandt; Virginia Polytechnic Institute, The design of a low capacity furnace for generation of carbon dioxide for experimental absorption tower studies and for municipal water plant carbonation required calculations of furnace capacity, two-step cooling of furnace gases, to reduce temperature of gases, first, by heat of vaporiza^ tion of spray water, and second, by condensation of vapors generated and reduction to absorbent liquor temperature. A D. F. C. oil furnace burner was used, with four double spray nozzle cooling units in series. Details of construction and operation are given. 238 The VIRGINIA ACADEMY of SCIENCE 7. Countercurrent Liquid — Liquid Extraction of Lubricating Oils in a Spray Column. Alfred S. King and Albert H. Cooper ; Virginia Polytech¬ nic Institute, The necessity, principles, and methods of solvent extraction as applied to lubricating oil refining have been reviewed with particular emphasis on the countercurrent method. The possibility of applying a basic transfer equation to the solvent extraction of lubricating oils by means of furfural in a spray column was investigated, and the transfer coefficients were calculated on the basis of a modified equilibrium diagram, rate of flow of solvent, and the area of contact. The effect of the area of contact and the ratio of the solvent to the oil on the transfer coefficients were also investigated and contrasted. 8. Drying and Warping Properties of Scherer Insulation. M. Singer, P. C. Scherer, Jr. and Frank C. Vilbrandt; Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Scherer insulation is produced by physically incorporating viscose, lime,, gypsum, and aluminum, awaiting subsequent chemical reaction for evolu¬ tion of gas. The colloidal nature of the mix offers the major difficulty to drying. The product shrinks considerably upon drying and forms a skin on the top immediately after forming which prevents the passage of water into the main air stream. If the rate of drying is not the same at all surfaces, caused by the skin formation' and by the excessive edge and corner drying, one or more of the surfaces dries out more rapidly than the others, thus shrinking more rapidly, causing cracking and warping. To prevent this skin formation, a plate was placed upon the top of the specimen after its formation in' the pans. To eliminate the warping during drying, it was found advisable to either steam the specimens after forming or to apply a dry heat treatment at the temperature of 150° F. on forming or the day after. 9. Mixing and Forming Characteristics of Scherer Insulation. S. C. Hyman, P. C. Scherer, Jr. and F. C. Vilbrandt; Vir¬ ginia Polytechnic Institute, Investigation was made on an insulation created by P. C. Scherer, con¬ sisting of viscose, lime, gypsum, and aluminum. The mixing problem con¬ sisted in the efficient dispersion in a very short time of the lime, gypsum, and aluminum powders throughout the high viscosity dough-like viscose. Because of the tacky and adhesive nature of the mixture, its forming pre¬ sented a problem. The processes of mixing and forming were limited to a very short time. Two procedures of mixing were considered: (1) the dispersion of the aluminum powder throughout the mixture of lime, gypsum, and viscose, and (2) the dispersion of a dry mixture of aluminum, lime, and' gypsum throughout the viscose. The second procedure was discarded in favor of the first. Two methods of forming were considered: (1) rolling, and (2) casting. Adherence of the material to the rolls made the first method impractical. The casting method was adopted. It was found that the physical properties of the dried material are in the range of commercial insulators. PROCEEDINGS 1940 239 10. Effect of Operating Variables on Individual Plate Efficien¬ cies of a Bubble-Cap Column. Stuart B. Row; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. The operation of a continuous bubble-cap column, especially of the lab¬ oratory size, is attended by much difficulty in regard to obtaining steady and uniform operation. Individual plate efficiencies are apparently subject to great variation and duplication of results is difficult. Very little experi¬ mental data are available in the literature on the effect of the various variables such as feed rate, feed temperature, reflux ratio and vapor velocity. The purpose of this investigation was to determine the range of accuracy and applicability of individual plate efficiencies and to determine the effect of some of the operating variables. The equipment consisted of a fifteen- plate, eight and one-half inch diameter bubble-cap column. Each plate contained one tangential opposed type bubble-cap, one plate being equipped with a glass section to permit visual observation of conditions existing on the plate. 11. Business Meeting, Appointment of Nominating Committee. The meeting was called to order by Dr. A. H. Cooper, Chair¬ man, at the conclusion of the presentation of the papers at the morning session. The minutes of the last meeting were read and approved. A nominating committee, consisting of Prof. S. B. Rowe and Maj. Walter Lowry, was then appointed to select officers for the com¬ ing year. The meeting was then adjourned until after lunch. FRIDAY, MAY 3—2:00 P. M. 12. Continuation of Business Meeting. At 2 : 00 P. M. the business meeting was again called to order. The nominating committee presented a slate of candidates as follows: Chairman, D. H. Pletta; Secretary, P. S. Dear; Asso¬ ciate Editor, A. H. Cooper. There were no further nominations from the floor and a unanimous ballot was cast for the nominees. The secretary then explained the limitations as to page lengths and cuts allowed without cost for Journal articles, asked for support of this publication and requested those wishing to submit articles for consideration or to amend their abstracts to do so in the near future. The meeting was concluded at 2 :20 P. M. with the resumption of the presentation of papers for the afternoon session. 13. Gasoline Engine Exhaust Gas Analysis. J. L. Dilworth ; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. For some time various types of instruments have been used to analyze the^ exhaust gases from gasoline engines in an attempt to determine the optimum air-fuel ratio. This practice is based on similar procedure which has been followed successfully in steam power plants for a number of years. 240 The VIRGINIA ACADEMY of SCIENCE Extensive research has shown that combustion in an engine cylinder is con¬ siderably different from that in a furnace, however, and this fact has led many engineers to question the accuracy of engine exhaust as an indicator of combustion efficiency. It is the purpose of this investigation to d'etermine the effect of important variables in engine design and operation on the relation between air-fuel ratio and analysis of the products of combustion. To this end, a number of different makes of analyzers representing each of the four common types were obtained and tested in order to observe the effect of numerous different conditions on their accuracy. 14. Accidents in Virginia Industries. W. B. Davis ; Indmtrial Commission of Virginia, This paper covers a discussion of accidents occurring among the indus¬ tries of Virginia, with statistics on accident frequency, accident costs, and the basic causes. The engineer’s part in accident prevention was also stressed. 15. Work Simplification Engineering. R. B. Davenport; Work Simplification Engineer, Larus & Bros, Co,, Richmond, Va, In recent years not only are many concerns facing the problem of higher manufacturing costs, but also customers are demanding a higher quality than ever before; therefore, the objective of every company should be a better product at a lower cost. Is Work Simplification the answer? Not only the answer, but years ago Frank Gilbreth, Industrial Consultant, said, ‘‘There is no waste of any kind in the world that equals the waste of needless, ill-directed, ineffective motions and the resulting unnecessary fatigue. Because this is true, there is no industrial opportunity that offers a richer return than the trans¬ formation of ill-directed and ineffective motions into efficient activity.” Increased productivity should come from the use of improved methods and the elimination of wasted energy — not by over-speeding the worker. This should be done by getting everyone in the organization from the janitor to the president thinking about his or her job and ways of improving it through the tools of Work Simplification (sometimes referred to as “Motion Economy”.) This is best accomplished by having a trained man in the organization hold a definite series of conferences with executives, foremen, mechanics, operators, etc., for the purpose of learning, discussing, and ex¬ changing ideas; all working together toward one objective — -to produce a better product at a lower cost. With this paper, motion pictures of actual operations, and old and new method's, were shown to bring out points of Work Simplification as developed at Larus & Brother Company. 16. Miniature Camera Color Photomicrography Applied to Ce¬ ramic Technology. Paul S. Dear ; Virginia Polytechnic Institute, The use of photomicrography in relation to many fields of industrial and scientific work is becoming increasingly important and beneficial. Photo¬ micrographs offer a convenient method of preserving records of structural and phase relations in the many kinds of ceramic products, not only during the manufacturing process but also after the exposure of the finished proi- ducts to service. A simplified, composite apparatus by means of which miniature cameras may be adapted to the work of petrographic photomicrography was de¬ scribed. An assembly drawing of the various component parts was in¬ cluded, and examples of the application of the apparatus to problems in PROCEEDINGS 1940 241 ceramic technology were given through the medium of color film-trans¬ parencies. 17. Development and Possibilities of Zoisitic Aplite as a Ceramic Raw Material. Paul S. Dear and John W. Whittemore; Virginia Poly¬ technic Institute. The chemical and mineralogical content, and the physical propertieis of zoisitic aplite rock, mined in Amherst County, Virginia, and milled in Nelson County, Virginia, were investigated. The possibilities of various ceramic uses of zoisitic aplite were discussed. 18. Design Constants for Fixed-End Roof Trusses. J. E. Spagnuolo and D. H. Pletta; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. This paper investigates the possibility of developing data concerning a simpler design analysis than has heretofore been advanced for framed bents in which the top or horizontal member is a truss having parallel or even parallel chords. The structurally indeterminate type of bent is attacked by the method of moment and thrust distribution which appears to be easily applicable to this particular type of frame with all its accompanying advantages of simpler analytical procedure. In accordance with the requirements of this method, the design constants (stiffness factors, carry-over factors and fixed-end moments) are determined in terms of the length and depth of the truss, area of members, loads, etc., so that almost any span and load condition can be easily and readily* ana¬ lyzed. 19. The Behavior of Helical Springs. F. J. Maher and D. H. Pletta; Virginia Polytechnic In¬ stitute. Ordinarily spring designers use torsional flexure (Ss = Tc/J) and de¬ formation (0 = TL(GJ) equations, as they apply to straight circular bars, for analysis of helical springs. As regards stress, bar curvature is now usually cared for by employing the Wahl correction factor. Recent tests reported on in this paper indicate, however, that the load on the spring is usually eccentric even when the spring is compressed between parallel planes; and the helix, in its deflected position, is no longer helical but as¬ sumes a warped shape, the individual coils closing most rapidly on the side nearest the eccentric load. Theoretically, zero eccentricity results only when the number of free coils is an integer plus 0.511 coils, but practical manufacturing technique precludes perfect concentricity of the individual coils. Hence a factor for load eccentricity should' always be included in stress analysis. Othex tests reported on indicate that the usual practice of cold-working springs after heat treatment affects their ultimate behavior. As strain hardening increases the stiffness of the spring decreases, the load-deflection curve changes from one that is concave upward to one that is concave downward, and the number of active coils tends to remain more nearly constant with increase in load mainly because progressive end-seating diminishes. D. H. Pletta, Secretary. 242 The VIRGINIA ACADEMY of SCIENCE Minutes of the Section of Geology Edward C. H. Lammers, Acting Chairman William M. McGill, Secretary FRIDAY, MAY 3—10:00 A. M. The Section of Geology met in the Geology Lecture Room of Professor Steidtmann in Maury-Brooke Hall, at the Virginia Military Institute, on Friday, May 3, 1940. Two session were held: one from 10:00 A. M. to 1:10 P. M., and the other from 2:00 to about 4:10 P. M. In the ablsence of Dr. E. R. Casto, Chairman, who was unable to attend because of illness, the Vice- Chairman, Dr. E. C. H. Lammers, presided at both sessions. As soon as the morning session wais called to order', a resolution offered by Mr. Sniffen was unanimously passed, extending to Dr. Casto the regret of the members of the Section for hiis recent illness and inability to attend and preside over the meeting, and expressing the hearty wishes of all for his complete and speedy recovery. A total of 42 people registered at the two sessions and several visitors, who did not register, but attended the presenta¬ tion of papers in which they were especially interested, aug¬ mented the attendance. Much interest was shown in the various papers. Discussions of each paper added to the success of the meeting. The following papers were presented : 1. Diatomite in the Petersburg Area, Virginia.* William M. McGill; Virginia Geological Survey. A brief discussion of the results of recent preliminary studies of diato¬ mite in the vicinity of Petersburg, Virginia. The occurrence of diatoms of a great variety of forms, apparently in beds of both marine and non-marine origin; the stratigraphic and topographic relations of the diatomite beds or zones to the enclosing Calvert formation; variations in thickness and char^- acter of relatively closely-spaced, apparently related exposures; together with characteristic and distinctive features of freshly exposed beds and long-exposed outcrops are described. Commercial possibilities are discussed. ^Published with the permission of the State Geologist of Virginia. 2. Problems of Coastal Plain Geology and Hydrology.* D. J. Cederstrom; 11. S. Geological Survey. (Introduced by Arthur Bevan.) (Slides, 15 min.) Present information regarding the Coastal Plain of southern Virginia has been obtained from outcrops of strata, well logs and geophysical investi¬ gations. Although these three sources offer incomplete information, data are at hand which bear on the following geologic problems: Configuration and origin of the bedrock surface; distribution of Upper Cretaceous marine PROCEEDINGS 1940 243 sediments; structure in the Cretaceous and Tertiary sediments, the origin of these structures and their relation to the granitic bedrock. Problems of hydrology to be considered are as follows: manner of re¬ charge of Cretaceous water-bearing formations; the chemistry of softening and origin of bicarbonate and fluoride content of Coastal Plain water; the relationship of fresh water to salt water; and problems concerning the amount of storage, the amount of recharge, and safe yield of wells. *Published with the permission of the Director of the U. S. Geological Survey, 3. Notes on Varvelike Clay at Buena Vista, Virginia.* Robert 0. Bloomer; University of North Carolina, (In¬ troduced by Wm. M. McGill.) (5 min.) On the northeastern outskirts of Buena Vista, Rockbridge County, Vir¬ ginia, a small patch of alternately dark brown and white, laminated, clay occurs on the eastern slope of a knoll in Rome shale and Shady dolomite. The dark colored layers in the clay contain numerous plant remains. A coarse boulder clay underlies about four feet of laminated! clay. The deposit occurs in a large cut in the side of the knoll made by the Dickerson Brick Company. Investigation has shown that the varved material originated from the waste of a wash plant which was located on top of the knoll some thirty years ago. The plant was used to prepare iron ore from the Blue Ridge Mountains. No evidence of this plant is now on the site. *Published with the permission of the State Geologist of Virginia. 4. Map Showing Distribution of the Petersburg Granite in Southeastern Piedmont Virginia.* Arthur A. Pegau ; University of Virginia, (Map, 12 min.) A presentation and brief discussion of a map showing the distribution of the Petersburg granite in southeastern Piedmont Virginia, prepared by the author as a result of field investigations made in the summers of 1931, 1937 and 1939, sponsored and' financed in part by the Virginia Geological Survey, and by a Grant-in-Aid from the Virginia Academy of Science. Shown on the map are (1) Pre-Cambrian undifferentiated schists and gneisses; (2) Pre-Cambrian Aporhyolite; (3) Paleozoic Petersburg granite; (4) undifferentiated sediments of Triassic age, and (5) undifferentiated Coastal Plain sediments of Cretaceous and Tertiary ages. As shown by detailed mapping the Petersburg granite in this area occurs not as a single body, but as three distinct units. The easternmost unit is covered' in large part by Coastal Plain sediments on the east and by Teritary sediments on the west. This body traverses from north to south parts of Hanover, Henrico, Chesterfield, Dinwiddle, and Sussex counties. The second unit or belt is confined largely to Brunswick and Greensville counties; whereas the third belt underlies parts of Dinwiddie, Nottoway, and Brunswick counties. Commercial workings have been confined almost entirely to the eastern belt, but a good grade of stone is found locally in both of the other belts. *Published with the permission of the State Geologist of Virginia. 5. A Virginia Piedmont Paleozoic Limestone Belt. Arthur Bevan; Virginia Geological Survey, (Presented by title.) As shown on the geologic map of Virginia, published in 1928, areas of limestone are found along the western part of the Piedtaont province from Potomac River southwestward into Pittsylvania County. Some of these bodies of limestone have been interpreted as pre-Cambrian whereas the limestone in the belt extending northeastward from Fluvanna County into 244 The VIRGINIA ACADEMY of SCIENCE Culpeper County has been interpreted as Ordovician. The problem under consideration involves the extent of these limestone bodies, the character¬ istics of the limestones, their geologic relations, evidence of their ages, and interpretations of paleogeography and geologic history based on their dis¬ tribution, character, and age. The problem remains in part unsolved and awaits further field and laboratory study. 6. A Granite as a Thrust Fault Carrier East of the Blue Ridge in Virginia. Wilbur A. Nelson; University of Virginia, (Slides, 12 min.) A major thrust fault carried by a granodiorite, named the Greenwood granodiorite, is mapped and described in detail where it traverses the Waynesboro and University quadrangles just to the east of the Blue Ridge. In places this pre-Cambrian granodiorite is thrust over basal Unicoi sand¬ stones and shales, in places over Catoctin greenstone, whereas in the White¬ hall region more than one mile of Unicoi sedimentary rocks lie west of the fault. The geologic column in this area shows no unconformity between the base of the Unicoi and the top of the Catoctin, the only unconformities be¬ ing 600 feet above the top of the Catoctin and at the base of the Catoctin; the Catoctin being several thousand feet thick. The Greenwood granodiorite lies below the Catoctin and is separated from it by about 200 feet of slate. The fault plane at elevations of 600 to 700 feet above sea level has a dip toward the southeast of approximately 15° to 20°, whereas at higher eleva¬ tions the plane of the fault steepens until at elevations of 1400 to 1500 feet above sea level the fault plane dips 50° to 55° to the southeast. Schistosity in the fault zone parallels the dip of the fault plane, and differs from the dip of the regional schistosity which averages 47? to the southeast. It is shown that thrust faulting of the Appalachian Valley type occurs in the Piedmont east of the Blue Ridge and that normal faulting of the Piedmont type with vertical displacements of hundreds of feet, occur in the Appalachian Valley. 7. Application of Some Biogenic Laws to Stratigraphy. A. A. L. Mathews; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. (12 min.) A close study of fossil faunas reveal biogenic laws to be as applicable to the living past as they are to the living present. Granted that fossil remains establish the type and character of the living organism, the problem of this thesis is to outline certain characters in reference to stratigraphic sequence, and apply biogenic laws to those organisms involved. This paper merely suggests the application of the thesis to practical use of any of the phyletic groups when properly analyzed and applied to strati¬ graphy. This point of view seems to be most important, since the great mass of field data for determining the age of strata contain only fragments of the included fossils. Therefore the approach to the study of stratigraphic paleontology should include this point of view for a clearer and more exact¬ ing training for useful after-years in the field. 8. Some New Features of the Internal Structure of Receptacu- lites. John W. Harrington; Virginia Polytechnic Institute, (In¬ troduced by Roy J, Holden.) (5 min.) Several specimens of Receptaculites have been found in Russell County, Virginia. Longitudinal sections show tubes which do not connect with the outside but are completely enclosed by what was once living tissue^ Tan- PROCEEDINGS 1940 245 gential sections disclose a change in tube shape from rhombic on the surface to roughly circular below. Just below the surface there are projections which nartially close the tubes in a regular manner. These characteristics confirm the generally accepted idea that Receptaculites is related to the sponges rather than to the corals. 9. Geological Study of Core from Chickamauga Dam, Tennes¬ see. Cecil B. McGavock, Jr. ; Tennessee Valley Authority, Chat¬ tanooga, Tenn. (Slides, 10 min.) Chickamauga Dam, on the Tennessee River in Southeastern Tennessee, is located on soluble Chickamauga limestone of upper Ordovician age. After completion of the earth embankments it was decided to grout, on a geometri¬ cally planned pattern, all known and suspected area of cavitation, in order to prevent slumping of the fills and formation of sinks. Since some of these holes penetrated cavities up to 10 feet or more in thickness, and accepted upwards of 30,000 cubic feet of clay-cement grout, it was thought advisable to explore a typical area with a large diameter drill hole. Such a hole would permit studies of the geological conditions inside as well as the effect of the grout and its relation to the geological conditions. The hole was drilled through a large and a small cavity. Valuable information was obtained in overburden, in rock, and in the cavities. Numerous ques¬ tions regarding the local geology and grout fillings were easily answered. Results of the test hole and studies of core obtained are discussed and illustrated by maps, charts, and slides. 10. A Barite Vein Near Lexington, Virginia. Edward Steidtmann; Virginia Military Institute, (Maps, 12 min.) A barite vein, cutting granite, outcrops in a road cut on Big Mary Creek in the northeastern part of Rockbridge County. The vein is nearly 18 inches wide. It is nearly vertical and has a northeasterly alignment. A few irregular fragments of granite are embedded in it. The color, specific gravity and other characteristics indicate that the vein is nearly pure barite. 11. Geology in Soil Survey Work in Southwest Virginia. H. C. Porter; Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station, (Maps, 15 min.) Soils, as natural bodies, are the result of the action of climatic forces on the geologic material from which the soil is formed. The degree to which properties are impressed on the soil by the geologic material or climatic forces is dependent upon the relative development of the soil. In southwest Virginia, due to steepness of topography and the resistance of certain rocks, the soils are all relatively young and the properties of the soil are in a large manner inherited from the parent geologic material. On the skeleton soils, it has been almost impossible to prepare a good field map or to formulate a satisfactory correlation of the soils as mapped in the dif¬ ferent areas, without very close study of underlying geologic material. This procedure was not clearly followed at the inauguration of our soil survey program in southwest Virginia. However, after sad experience it was found that use of the available geologic data was necessary for the satis¬ factory classification of these young soils. Among the most valuable sources of geologic data for this part of the state were Virginia Geological Survey Bulletin No. 42 — Geologic Map of the Appalachian Valley of Virginia with Explanatory Text by Charles Butts, and personal assistance from geologists in Virginia. 246 The VIRGINIA ACADEMY of SCIENCE FRIDAY, MAY 3—2:00 P. M. 12. Land Use Capability Classification for Farm Planning. T. C. Green ; TJ, S, Department of Agriculture, Soil Con- serration Service. (Introduced by Wm. M. McGill.) (Slides, 20 min.) A conservation survey is a comprehensive inventory of physical land features delineated on an aerial photograph base map. The survey shows soil type, kind, degree and extent of erosion, gradient of land' surface and present land use. The classification of these physical survey factors according to their use capability by a simple grouping of like factors within the classes will make possible a better interpretation and utilization of the conservation survey information, thereby providing a sound basis for farm planning. The arable lands within the Southeastern Region of the Soil Conservation Service will fall into one of five land use capability classes, the first thiree of which will be recognized as cultivation classes, and the remaining two classes as vegetative classes. The basic conservation survey will be photographically reproduced for planning purposes and a nation-wide color scheme of classification of land according to its use capability will be superimposed on the conservation survey. 13. Field Trip in the Buchanan-Cove Mountain- Jennings Creek Area, Virginia. R. J. Holden; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. (Maps, 15 min.) A brief description of the main features, high points and scheduled “stops” of the annual Geology Section field trip, made this year in the Buchanan-Cove Mountain- Jennings Creek area, Virginia. The area covered by the trip is underlain by igneous metamorphic and sedimentary rocks of Archean and Algonkian (pre-Cambrian), and early Cambrian ages and numerous good outcrops afford interesting, and in places striking, illustra^- tions or examples of the various formations, contacts, complicated and over¬ turned structures, and interesting structural, metamorphic, and petro¬ graphic characteristics and relations of the various formations and beds. A columnar section and brief explanations prepared by the author as a result of many years of detailed field and research investigations in this and other parts of Virginia together with a “route and scheduled stop” map provide additional information and serve as a guide to the interesting geological and complex structural features of the area. 14. Geology of Frederick and Clarke Counties, Virginia.*^ Charles Butts; Virginia Geological Survey. (Map, 15 min.) A geological survey of Frederick and Clarke Counties, Virginia, has been in progress for several field seasons, and a preliminary geologic map is exhibited to illustrate this discussion. The rock formations present ex¬ tend upward from the pre-Cambrian Catoctin schist of the Blue Ridge on the east to the top of the Devonian Hampshire (“Catskill”) formation at the West Virginia State line on the west. A little northeast of Gaines- boro, the south end of Sleepy Creek Mountain of West Virginia with rocks of Mississippian (Pocono) age on the summit just comes down to the State line. All the formations, belonging in ascending order to the pre-Cambrian, Cambrian, Ordovician, Silurian, and Devonian systems, are estimated to aggregate a thickness of 20,000 to 25,000 feet. PROCEEDINGS 1940 247 The rocks have been folded by lateral compression, and generally are steeply inclined. In places, as at the north end of Great North Mountain, they are intricately compressed into a series of minor interfinjgering folds. The major structures are the Massanutten Mountain Syncline just east of Winchester, a composite structure occupied by a thick body of Martins- burg shale, and the Great North Mountain Anticline, 10 miles west of Win¬ chester. Between these two main structures are the Little North Mountain overfolded anticline, the southeast limb of which is faulted out, and a con¬ spicuous syncline west of Little North Mountain carrying along its axis the Hampshire formation, the youngest and stratigraphically highest forma¬ tion of the region except the Pocono (Mississippian) rocks which occupy a very small area at the south end of Sleepy Creek Mountain. Following the southeast limb of Little North Mountain is the great North Mountain over thrust fault which brings the Cambrian, Elbrook, limestone up over the Martinsburg shale. *Published with the permission, of the State Geologist of Virginia. 15. The Role of the Tuscarora Sandstone in Little North Moun¬ tain, Virginia.* Raymond S. Edmundson; Virginia Geological Survey. (Slides, 10 min.) Little North Mountain in northern Virginia, which includes the ridge- making Tuscarora sandstone, is characterized topographically by a series of water and wind gaps. The interstream remnants, short linear ridges and isolated rounded hills, have an averge summit altitude of 1,200 feet. It is believed that the marked variation in thickness, and even absence of the Tuscarora sandstone at different localities along the ridge can be explained by assuming that the sandstone was deposited on an unstable belt of the sea floor subject to many oscillations. When compressional forces became active late in the Paleozoic, the area of the mountain, with its initial sedimentary irregularities, acted as a weakened zone which determined the locus of the structure. The role of the Tuscarora sandstone is also well shown by the water and wind gaps. These gaps occur at places where the sandstone is thin or absent, and the higher altitudes of Little North Mountain correspond to a thickening of the formation. ♦Published with the permissionj of the State Geologist of Virginia. 16. Problems Related to the Appalachian Geosyncline. Edward C. H. Lammers; Washington & Lee University. (15 min.) Stratigraphic, petrologic, and structural evidence was presented in support of the following conclusions: (1) The Blue Ridge arch was initially uplifted at the close of the Cambrian; (2) during the Ordovician there were two geosynclines in Virginia separated by the Blue Ridge geanticline; (3) the sediments in the eastern or Piedmont geosyncline were compressed into a folded mountain range during the Taconic Revolution; (4) this range was the source of the sediments deposited in the western geosyncline subse¬ quent to the Ordovician. 17. Detailed Study of the Valley Peneplain in the Vicinity of Lexington, Virginia. Uriah F. Coulbourn; Washington & Lee University. (Slides, models, 10 min.) The following conclusions were reached after a study of projected profiles and contour maps of summit elevations had been completed: (1) The Valley or Harrisburg surface was a surface of maturity and not a 248 The VIRGINIA ACADEMY of SCIENCE true peneplain'; (2) little or no warping has occurred in the region since the surface was first formed; (3) the Harrisburg drainage pattern is essentially the same as that of today. In such cases of piracy as were noted subsequent streams had been beheaded by either resequent or obse- quent streams. 18. Heavy Minerals of Some Silurian Sandstones in Virginia. James H. Bierer; Washington & Lee University, (Slides, 5 min.) This study was carried out in order that the heavy mineral content and variety in the Silurian sandstones at the Iron Gate anticline, Clifton Forge, Virginia, might be determined. Principal minerals found were tourmaline, zircon, ilmenite, leucoxene, rutile, and apatite. Several samples contained many specimens of detrital tourmaline with a secondary growth of authigenic tourmaline. These ap¬ peared only in samples devoid of iron. In none of the samples was there found any minerals of direct crystalline rock derivation. The species of minerals, together with their well-rounded shape, indicate that they were derived from a provenance of sedimentary rocks and represent material of at least a second cycle of sedimentation. Hence it follows that the source of material composing the Silurian sandstones under question was an ex¬ tensive area of sedimentary formations. These conclusions are further substantiated by similar studies of the Athens formation (Ordovician) made by M. H. Stow and J. C. Bierer in 1937. 19. Detailed Stratigraphy of Two Silurian Sections in Virginia. John S. Hunter, Jr. ; Washington & Lee University. (Maps, 5 min.) The lithology and stratigraphy of the Silurian sections exposed in Iron Gate Gorge and in the valley of Falling Springs were described in detail. Relative thicknesses of the various formations in the two sections were com¬ pared. There is a notable increase in the amount of shale in the exposures of the Falling Springs section over the amount exposed in a similar section at Clifton Forge which would be expected as the source of sediments was closer to the Iron Gate area and deposits there should be coarser. 20. Insoluble Residues of Some Silurian and Devonian Lime¬ stones in Virginia. Homer D. Jones, Jr.; Washington & Lee University, (Slides, 5 min.) Insoluble residues from upper Silurian and lower Devonian limestones in the Iron Gate Gorge, Clifton Forge, Virginia, were sufficiently different to be diagnostic of the stratigraphic units in which they were found. Immediately following the presentation of the last paper, a brief business session was held at which matters of interest to the members were discussed and, upon recommendation of the nominating committee composed of Messrs Stow, Pegau and Sniff en, the following officers were elected for the next year: Dr. E. C. H. Lammers, Chairman; Dr. R. S. Edmundson, Vice- Chairman, and Wm. M. McGill, Secretary. Dr. Lammers was elected as the representative of the Section on the Editorial Board of the Virginia Journal of Science. PROCEEDINGS 1940 249 Promptly at 4:10 P, M. the regular meeting of the Section was adjourned and the members and guests proceeded to the Auditorium of Nichols Engineering Hall, where at 4:15 P. M., a special talk on ''Continental Displacement and Its Relation to the Origin and Dispersal of the American Floras/' by Dr. W. H. Camp, of the New York Botanical Garden, arranged for a joint meeting of the Sections of Biology and Geology, proved one of the high-lights of the annual meeting. Dr. Camp's talk was con¬ cluded about 5 :30 o'clock. SATURDAY, MAY 4~-^8:30 A. M. On Saturday morning. May 4, 32 members and guests of the section assembled at the Limit Gates and left at 8 :30 A. M., in automobiles, for a geological field trip in the Buchanan-Cove Mountain- Jennings Creek area, under the leadership of Drs. Roy J. Holden and Edward Steidtmann. The trip was without ques¬ tion one of the most interesting field trips ever made by our group. An even dozen "stops" were made to permit membehs of the party to examine the excellent exposures of Cambrian and pre-Cambrian formations, contacts, structures, and the interest¬ ing structural, metamorphic and petrographic characteristics and relations of the various formations and beds expolsed in the area visited. A mimeographed outline of the trip prepared by the Field Trip Committee and a Columnar Section prepared by Dr. Holden, who, as Leader explained the features and points of interest at each "stop", contributed to the success of the trip, and permitted the trip and "stops" to be made on scheduled time. A picnic lunch at the Middle Creek Picnic Shelter was an en¬ joyable feature of the trip and offered opportunity for addi¬ tional discussion and comments on some of the "high spots" of the trip. After crossing New River on the Indian Rock Ferry the trip was concluded at the intersection of the Indian Rock Ferry road and the Lee Highway, about 4 P. M. William M. McGill, Secretary. 250 The VIRGINIA ACADEMY of SCIENCE Minutes of the Section of Medicine C. C. Speidel, Chairman Guy W. Horsley, Secretary FRIDAY, MAY 3—10:00 A. M. 1. The Relation Between Birefringence and Contractile Power of Atrophied and of Hypertrophied Muscles. Ernst Fischer ; Depart7nent of Physiology and Pharmacol¬ ogy, Medical College of Virginia, (Lantern, 10 min.) In denervated rat gastrocnemii, the loss in total contractile power cor¬ responds at first to the loss in weight, and only after about ten days the power loss starts to surpass distinctly the weight loss. However, through¬ out the whole course of atrophy the specific birefringence of the muscle fibers parallels the contractile power per weight unit. Appropriate elec¬ trical treatment of the denervated muscles can retard the weight loss, but the loss in birefringence and in contractile power per weight unit is not essentially affected by the treatment. Electrical training of normal rat gastrocnemii increases their weight and their total power, but does not alter their contractile power per weight unit or their specific birefringence. The importance of the integrity of the untramicroscopical structure of the muscle for its contractile mechanism is discussed. 2. Effect of Food on the Serum Esterase of Rats. J. C. Forbes, E. L. Outhouse and B. E. Leach; Department of Biochemistry, Medical College of Virginia, (15 min.) The oral administration of non-lipid foods (glycerol, sucrose, glucose and proteose-peptone) has no demonstrable effect on the serum esterase. The administration of neutral fat, oleic acid and palmitic acid leads to a marked rise in esterase activity which persists for several hours. 3. A Rapid and Accurate Method for the Determination of Total, Free and Ester Cholesterol of Blood and Serum. B. E. Leach, E, L. Outhouse and J. C. Forbes; Department of Biochemistry , Medical College of Virginia, (10 min.) Total cholesterol is determined colorimetrically by application of the Liebermann-Burchard reaction to the doucil-chloroform extract of the blood or serum. Ester cholesterol is determined by the same colorimetric pro¬ cedure after removal of the free cholesterol as the digitonide. Free choles¬ terol is obtained by difference. 4. A Study of the Methods of Sterilization of Glasses and Eat¬ ing Utensils Used in Public Eating Establishments, and a Solution to the Problem. A. F. Meyer, Jr.; Sanitary Laboratory, Virginia Military' Institute, (30 min.) A brief discussion of the history and importance of this prime public health problem is given, followed by the results of a summer’s intensive PROCEEDINGS 1940 251 field research in the city of Shreveport, La., with a brief resume of the .statistical data compiled thereat. (This portion of the paper will be for the most part the same as the author^s report to the Louisiana State Board of Health.) An intensive series of carefully planned laboratory tests have been run, on every phase of the problem. These have included investigation of the best number of glasses to be sampled by the inspector, the different types of sterilizing methods and' their efficiency, and the probability of contami¬ nation after sterilization. The best arrangement of sterilizing, cleaning .and rinsing .solutions in the three vat sink method has been determined. The use of ultra violet rays has been given consideration, and tests seem to indicate that they must be used with caution. Steam and boiling water also have been given consid¬ eration, and different chlorine compounds and cleaners have been used. A study of hand contamination of glasses during the sterilizing process also has been made. A new and somewhat radical departure in cleaning and sterilizing has been devised using hot water at 56 degrees Centigrade .and a .hypochlorite in a 200 ppm concentration, 5. The Effect of Fresh Aloe Vera Jell in the Treatment of Third Degree X-Ray Reactions on White Rats. T. D. Rowe; Medical College of Virginia, (15 min.) Aloe vera jell is a mucilaginous jellydike material found within fresh Aloe vera leaf. Since 1935 there have appeared several articles on its clinical use in treating X-Ray reactions. No reports have been made on controlled experimental work with the jell. This paper presents the procedure followed, and the results obtained in treating groups of white rats -with the fresh jell. The rats had previously been irradiated with sufficient X-Ray to produce third degree reactions. 6. Sunlight, skin cancer, and cancer immunity. Frank L. Apperly; Department of Pathology, Medical College of Virginia, The apparent discrepancy between those who claim that skin cancer and the general cancer rates very inversely when different localities are compared, and those who claim a direct relationship between these two forms of cancer is shown to be a matter of climate. In hot climates the relation is an inverse one, in cold climates a direct one. The total cancer mortalities of the various American states and Canadian provinces are shown to fall with increasing solar radiation and with the number of people exposed thereto, and is independent of the production of skin cancer. The fall of skin cancer with increased exposure in cool climates is merely one example of this general rule. In warmer climates, however, skin cancer may indeed rise in spite of the relatively increased general immunity, i. e., the production of skin cancer is not necessary for the appearance of general cancer immunity, as claimed by some observers, but is merely an occasional accompaniment. 252 The VIRGINIA ACADEMY of SCIENCE Symposium on Jaundice FRIDAY, MAY 3—2:00 P. M. 7. Hepatic Physiology. R. J. Main; Medical College of Virginia. (20 min.) The functions of the liver will be reviewed briefly, stressing those aspects which are involved in jaundiced patients. This will include the formation, excretion, and toxicity of bile pigments and salts, and the absorption of fats and lipoid-soluble vitamins. 8. Pathological Anatomy of the Liver in Jaundice. James R. Cash; Department of Pathology, University of Virginia. (Lantern, 20 min.) This will be a demonstration of the pathological anatomy of the liver in jaundice, illustrated by lantern slides and microphotographs. 9. The Clinical Aspect of Jaundice. Walter B. Martin; Norfolk, Virginia. (30 min.) Source of bilirubin in the blood. Normal and pathological levels. Clin¬ ical conditions associated with overproduction of bilirubin. Classifications of jaundice. Regurgitation of bile into the blood stream. Differentiation of obstructive lesions from intrahepatic injury. Relative value of history, physical examination, and laboratory procedures. Application of our present knowledge to the differential diagnosis of jaundice and its treat¬ ment. 10. Laboratory and Hematological Diagnosis of Jaundice. J. H. Scherer; Medical College of Virginia. (20 min.) Discussion of laboratory procedures used in the diagnosis of liver disease and jaundice, with special reference to recent work on the value of the study of the blood smear. 11. Surgical Treatment of Jaundice. Holcombe H. Hurt; Lynchburg, Virginia. (30 min.) Fifty per cent or more of the cases of jaundice encountered are bene¬ fited by surgery. .The pre-operative care in these cases is as important as the operative procedure. Post-operative care is a continuation of the pre¬ operation preparation. The main types of surgical jaundice with the operative procedures best designed to relieve that type are discussed. Guy W. Horsley, Secretary- PROCEEDINGS 1940 253 Minutes of the Section of Psychology Richard H. Henneman, Chairman William M. Hinton, Secretary FRIDAY, MAY 3—10:00 A. M. The Psychology Section held two sessions on Friday, May 3, in Room 11, Scott Shipp Hall. The morning session was con¬ sumed with the reading and discussion of the papers abstracted in the program below. The members of the Psychology Section were fortunate in having Dr. S. H. Britt of the Department of Psychology at George Washington University, deliver a stimu¬ lating address, ‘'Looking Ahead in Social Psychology^^ as the feature of the afternoon session. Attendance at both sessions was good, there being approximately thirty persons present for the reading of the papers in the morning and more than thirty for Dr. BritPs talk in the afternoon. At the business meeting a motion authorizing the chairman to appoint a committee to investigate the status of clinical psychol¬ ogy in Virginia, was made and passed. At the proposal of the nominating committee the following officers were elected for 1940-41 : Chairman, William M. Hinton, Secretary, Evelyn Raskin, Editorial Board Representative, Richard H. Henneman. 1. The Measurement of Optimistic and Pessimistic Attitudes. D. M. Allan and R. P. Barrell; Hampden-Sydney College. To test the hypothesis that optimism and pessimism are generalized mental sets or tendencies to take a favorable or unfavorable view of present and future situations, a series of experimental forms of the opinionaire type was developed. These yielded two revised forms A and B, each con¬ sisting of 60 statements about current trends in economic, political, social, educational, medico-physical and religious affairs to be marked (-}-) or ( — ) by the subjects according to their agreement or disagreement. These forms appear to be empirically diagnostic of two radically opposing attitudes of a fairly high degree of consistency. Form B gives a split-half reliability of .82±.024, when corrected by the Spearman-Brown prophecy formula and the two forms 3deld a correlation of .70±.032 with each other. The scores of 102 college upperclassmen show a double-J curve distribution. Optimistic scores give a negligible correlation of .003 with agreement scores and a positive correlation of .024±.055 with conservatism scores on the C-R Opinionaire. The optimistic quintile are less “neurotic”, more “self-sufficient”, more “extrovertive”, more “self-confident” and more “soci- 254 The VIRGINIA ACADEMY of SCIENCE able” than the corresponding pessimistic quintile. Of these differences, only those showing superior extroversion and sociability appear to be significant. There is evidence to support the view that what is measured here is “theon retical optimism” as opposed to “personal optimism” (optimism about one’s own affairs). 2. Spontaneous Alternation of the White Rat in Running and Jumping Situations. M. M. Jackson; University of Virginia. (15 min.) The phenomenon of spontaneous alteration in white rats has been in¬ vestigated by Dennis for a variety of maze situations. It was found that when rats were given two equidistant paths to food that on the second trial the rats tended to avoid the path previously taken. The present experiment was designed to see if this type of behavior was also shown in jumping situations. A group of rats trained in the Lashley Jumping apparatus were allowed to make two successive jumps. The distance from the jumping stool to either the right or left aperture of the apparatus was equal and the animal was rewarded with food regardless of the direction of the jump. Instead' of showing alternation between the second and first trials, position habits were established from the outset of training. To see if the same rats would show alternation when running they were tested on the hollow square maze used by Dennis. In this situation animals, given two consecutive trials, alternated well above chance expectation. Since these differences in behavior were so striking, a Y-type maze was arranged so that jumping and running could be observed on the same appa¬ ratus. In order to obtain jumping on the Y-apparatus, the arms were moved, maintaining the same angle, 15 cm. from the starting block. Both the running and jumping procedures were repeated for a long series of trials. It was found that all the animals immediately set up position habits in jumping. In running, although all the rats initially showed alternation, with the interposition of the jumping trials, the alternation behavior dropped to the chance level or below. 3. A Simple Apparatus for Pattern Learning Experiments. John M. McGinnis; Hollins College. (10 min.) The construction of the apparatus will be described and its use briefly demonstrated. It can be used for experiments involving the learning of any of a large number of different patterns and hence should have various uses in the laboratory. It has advantages over, and can be substituted for, the bolt head type maze; and is very convenient for experiments on the deduction of hidden patterns, or on memory for patterns. The apparatus is simple in principle and can be relatively easily and inexpensively constructed. Right and wrong responses are recorded as small and large perforations on sheets of paper. Patterns can be changed with a minimum of time and effort. More complicated modifications of the apparatus, which permit electrically controlled signals to accompany the right and wrong responses will also be described and demonstrated. 4. Time Measures of Individual Differences in Vision. F. G. Tice; University of Virginia. (15 min.) Under controlled experimental conditions wide individual differences in J fusion frequency often appear. The factors responsible for these differ- j ences are at present undetermined. The variation seems to be unrelated to differences in retinal sensitivity as measured by the absolute limen or by visual acuity. Nor does it seem to be consistently related to either of the ; co-variables which have been hypothesized : chronological age and persevera¬ tion as measured by ideo-motor tests. PROCEEDINGS 1940 255 A method for measuring the fusion frequencies of a large number of subjects is briefly described. Methods are presented by which measures of initial-lag and after-lag may be obtained from the same subjects. It is postulated that, should individuals having fusion frequencies above or below the average also show consistent deviations from the average with respect to either of the other measures, some light will be thrown on the factors responsible for individual' differences in fusion frequency. 5. The Effect of Changing Skin Temperature on Vibratory Sens¬ itivity. Joseph Weitz; University of Virginia, (15 min.) Intensity thresholds were taken on a number of “spots” using as a stimu¬ lus a vibrating needle. Warming the area by means of a radiant heat source and restimulating the same “spots” it was found that with increasing temperature there was a decrease in the intensity threshold up to a certain point beyond which there was a subsequent rise in vibratory thresholds. Repeating the procedure, but substituting “radiant cold” for the warming it was found that with increasing cold there was a concomitant rise in the vibratory thresholds. Temperature of the skin area in question was ob¬ tained by means of a thermocouple. An attempt is made to interpret the results on a basis of chemical mediation of sensation. 6. Estimating Behavior and Interests from Photographs. Charles M. Harsh; Randolph-Macon Woman's College. (15 min.) Evidence as to the value of estimates of personal characteristics from still photographs has not been conclusive, owing in part to lack of control of pose or clothing in photos, to the small number of categories rated, or to the use of vague trait names rather than recognizable behavior tendencies. Attempting to overcome these limitations the present investigation utilized twenty full-face photographs of Harvard College men, photographed for a year-book, with similar rapport and instructions to “look natural”. No collar or clothing showed. The photographed subjects were rated by their four closest friends (living in the same college hall) as to possession of twenty-one behavior tendencies, and' also as to their main vocational inter¬ ests. The judges, sixty-seven sophomore college women, were asked to estimate from the photographs the presence or absence of the same twenty- one behavior tendencies in each of the subjects. Later they guessed the vocational interests of the subjects. Ratings repeated three weeks later indicate the reliability of certain of the judgments. Several statistical measures are presented to estimate “chance” success, and to justify the distinction of good and poor judges. The possibility that consistent stereotypes might produce successful judgments is considered. Evidence as to social experience and familiarity with men is considered in attempting to explain the success of good judges. 7. The Influence of Information on Changes in Racial Attitudes. Evelyn Raskin; Randolph-Macon Woman's College, (15 min.) The degree to which factual information or knowledge affects changes in racial attitudes was determined by giving a modification of the Bogardus and Likert attitude scales to approximately 200 college freshmen before and after attendance at a scientific symposium on “race”. Changes in attitude test score for the experimental group will be com¬ pared with those for a control group who were not exposed to the symposium material. The results of personal interviews used to determine the factors which are related' to amount of attitude change shown will also be presented. 256 The VIRGINIA ACADEMY of SCIENCE 8. Isolated Children and the Fixity of Early Habits. Wayne Dennis; University of Virginia, (15 min.) So-called “wild children’’ have been reported for centuries. Within re¬ cent years new cases have been described by Squires, Kellogg, Foley and others. Some writers have cited the records of wild children as showing that if the individual is isolated from society for a certain critical period in early childhood, he shows permanent effects of this lack of early socializa¬ tion. This theory of the permanence of early social habits is examined with reference to the literature on wild children and other isolated children, with relation to information about individuals born both deaf and blind, and with regard to data concerning the fixity of early habits in persons of normal social experience. The conclusion is reached that habits formed in early childhood have no greater fixity than do habits formed in later periods. FRIDAY, MAY 3-— 2:00 P. M. 1. ‘'Looking Ahead in Social Psychology.” S. H. Britt; George Washington University, 2. Informal discussion of Dr. BritPs address by members of the Section. 3. Business Meeting. William M. Hinton, Secretary, PROCEEDINGS 1940 257 LIST OF MEMBERS Abbitt, Miss Mildred E . .....Victoria, Va. Abbott, Miss Elizabeth . . . Route 10, Richmond, Va. Acker, H. G . Box 1202, University, Va. Adams, Miss Ella S . . . . . Eclipse, Va. Adams, L. D . . . . . Bo.x 455, Radford, Va. Addington, L. F . Wise, Va. Addison, W. Meade. .. . ....2000 Monument Ave., Richmond, Va. Addlestone, Prof. J. A... . . . P. 0. Box 366, Blacksburg, Va. Albemarle Paper Manufacturing Co . . . . . Richmond, Va. Albright, Dr. C. Leonard . University of Richmond. Va. Alexand'er, Miss Elizabeth . . . . . . . . . Waverly Hall, Ga. Allan, Dr. D. Maurice . Hampden-Sydney, Va. Allen, Dr. Harriet Whitney................ . . . . . . . Hollins College, Va. Allen, Miss J. Frances . Alfred Belle Apts., Pulaski, Va. Allen, Dr. Paul, Jr. . . . . . . . Lynchburg College, Lynchburg, Va. Alpha Chapter, Chi Beta Phi . Randolph-Macon College, Ashland, Va. Alvey, Dr. Edward, Jr.... . Mary Washington College, Fredericksburg, Va. Ames, Dr. Adeline . Sweet Briar, Va. Andersen, Prof. Thanning W . Medical College of Virginia, Richmond, Va. Anderson, Dr. Claude M., Jr.....Leander McCormick Observ., University, Va. Anderson, Miss Dorothy I . Rustburg, Va. Anderson, Lauren D . . . . . Va. Truck Exp. Station, Norfolk, Va. Apperly, Dr. Frank L . Medical College of Virginia, Richmond, Va. Armstrong, A. R . Williamsburg, Va. Arnim, Dr. S. S . . . Medical College of Virginia, Richmond', Va. Arnold, Robert B . . . .....Box 726, Richmond, Va. Artz, Miss Lena . ....644 N. Jackson Street, Arlington, Va. Ash, Dr. Roy P, . . . . . Box 1066, Williamsburg, Va. Ashworth, Dr. O. 0 . Medical Arts Bldg., Richmond, Va. Aylor, Robert E........ . . . .Stephens City, Va. Baecher, John Joseph . . . Law Bldg., Norfolk, Va. Bailey, Prof. John W . Box 107, University of Richmond, Va. Bailey, Dr. Lee K . . . . . . . Lexington, Va. Baird, Miss Kathleen . . . . . Disputanta, Va. Baker, Percy H . . . Virginia State College, Ettrick, Va. Baldock, C. Russell . Rockefeller Hall,. Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. Baldwin, F. 0 . . . . . 5108 Belleau Road, Richmond, Va. Baldwin, J. T . . . .......College of William and Mary, Williamsburg, Va. Barclay, George C . 2912 Washington Avenue, Newport News, Va. Barcus, L. Franklin ... Columbia Univ., Dept, of Astronomj’’, New York, N. Y. Barkam, Miss Tharon . Madison College, Harrisonburg, Va. Barnwell, Allan M . . . . . ......531 Riverside Avenue, Covington, Va. Barrel!, Robert P..... . Buckingham, Va. Barrett, William H . ..Marshall District High School, Arvonia, Va. Bass, Miss Beatrice . . . Crewe, Va. Bates, Dr. Robert L . . . . . V. M. I., Lexington, Va. Baumeister, Miss Elizabeth M . 1016 A Street, Portsmouth, Va. Beams, Dr. Jesse W . Rouss Physics Laboratory, University, Va. Bear, Dr. Harry . Medical College of Virginia, Richmond, Va. Beard, Garnet C . . . . . Bluefield, Va. Beck, Dr. Regena C . . . 1103 W. Franklin Street, Richmond, Va. Becker, Miss Edna . . . Hollins College, Va. Beckner, Miss Bernice . . Madison College, Harrisonburg, Va. Bedell, Dr. Sullivan G . . . 1819 Perry Street, Jacksonville, Fla. Bell, Miss Helen.. . . . . . . . . . Route 1, Mt. Solon, Va. Bengtson, A. W . ....Catawba Sanatarium, Va. Bennett, Miss Ellen M....... . . . . . . . .........Covington, Va. 258 The VIRGINIA ACADEMY of SCIENCE Bennett, Miss Ercelle . Box 171, East Radford, Va. Benton, Prof. Arthur F . Cobb Chemical Lab., University, Va. Berne-Allen, Dr. A., Jr, . Box 369, Waynesboro, Va. Berry, R. C. . 1101 State Office Bldg., Richmond, Va. Betts, Edwin M . Box 1203, University, Va. Bevan, Dr. Arthur . . . Box 1428, University, Va. Bierer, James H . Washington & Lee University, Lexington, Va. Bierer, John M. . Morningside Heights, Lexington, Va. Bigger, Dr. I. A . Medical College of Virginia, Richmond, Va. Bird, Loyd C . 915 E. Cary Street, Richmond, Va. Blair, Miss Hazel E . Gretna, Va. Blakey, Miss Margarett E . Stanardsville, Va. Blank, Miss Grace J . , . Chandler Court, Williamsburg, Va. Blanton, Dr. Wyndham B. . 828 W. Franklin Street, Richmond, Va. Blincoe, Dr. J. W. . University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tenn. Blunt, Chas. P., Ill . Medical College of Virginia, Richmond, Va. Boggs, Prof. Isabel . . Box 235, R.-M. W. College, Lynchburg, Va. Bond, Dr. Eva . 901 W. Franklin Street, Richmond, Va. Bonner, O. T. . Liberty Academy, Bedford, Va. Bosman, Robert I. . School of Public Health, Baltimore, Md. Bowden, Wray M . Blandy Experimental Farm, Boyce, Va^ Bowen, Dr. Leroy E. . 1415 Main Street, Lynchburg, Va. Bowers, R. V. . Medical College of Virginia, Richmond, Va. Bowman, Miss Maria Miller . M. B. Star Route, Staunton, Va. Bowman, Paul W . . 2304 Wilson Blvd., Arlington, Va. Bowman, Dr. Raymond P. G . Route 1, Harrisonb^urg, Va. Boyd, John 0., Jr . Medical College of Virginia, Richmond, Va. Brackbill, M. T. . Eastern Mennonite School, Harrisonburg, Va. Brashear, Dr. Alton D . Medical College of Virginia, Richmond, Va. Brewbaker, J, J. . 422 Westover Avenue, Norfolk, Va. Bridgers, M. Warren . 3106 3rd Avenue, Richmond, Va. Britton, Dr. S. W . University, Va. Broadwater, E. B . Salem, Va. Brooke, G. D. . 3500 Terminal Tower, Cleveland, Ohio Brown, Miss Elizabeth . Victoria, Va. Brown, Dr. Frederick L . Box 1052, University, Va. Brown, Dr. J. R. C., Jr . Room 1005, 463 West Street, New York, N. Y. Brown, Dr. Sarah . 149 Carrollton Road, Norfolk, Va. Brown, Thomas D . 513 Ridge Street, Charlottesville, Va. Brown, Dr. William M . 12 Gainsborough Road, Scarsdale, N. Y. Brown, W. R. . 19 Frazier Street, Staunton, Va. Brown, Capt. W. W. . Staunton Military Academy, Staunton, Va. Brumback, Miss Ruth . Opequon, Va. Brumfield, Robert T. . 435 W. 119 Street, Apt. 10-G, New York, N. Y. Bryan, John Stewart . %News Leader, Richmond, Va. Bryant, Miss Mary Virginia . Dry Fork, Va. Buchanan, Miss Pauline E . . 505 Dickson Bldg., Norfolk, Va. Buck, Miss Bernardine . Madison College, Harrisonburg, Va. Bull, Fred W . : . V. P. L, Blacksburg, Va. Bullington, Dr. W. E . R. M. College, Ashland, Va. Burch, Dr. Paul R . State Teachers College, East Radford, Va. Burger, Dr. Alfred . Cobb Chemical Laboratory, University, Va. Burger, Miss Elizabeth . Box 367, Farmville, Va. Burkette, Miss Josephine L . Southern Seminary, Buena Vista, Va. Burruss, Dr. Julian A. . . . . . Blacksburg, Va. Burton, J. I. . Norton, Va. Burton, W. Page . . . . . 20 Oak Lane, Richmond, Va. Bussinger, C. M . Jackson Memorial High School, Austinville, Va. Byrne, Col. William E. . . . Box 836, Lexington, Va. Bywaters, Miss Georgia L . . . ... Opequon, Va. PROCEEDINGS 1940 259 Calderwood', Dr. H. N . Box 2, Williamsburg, Va. Caldwell, J. S. . . . Farmville, Va. Calhoun, John B . Northwestern University, Evanston, Ill. Calkins, Miss Eleanor . Chandler Court, Williamsburg, Va. Callahan, William H. . Franklin, N. J. Campbell, Leonard S. . 904 Hanover Street, Fredericksburg, Va. Campbell, Malcolm . 416 Monroe Lane, University, Va. Campbell, Dr. T. Wood . Box 12, Suffolk, Va. Cantor, Dr. H. . Medical Arts Bldg., Petersburg, Va. Carmichael, Omer . . . Supt. Public Schools, Lynchburg, Va. Carpenter, Prof. D. R. . Roanoke College, Salem, Va. Carrington, T. M. . 930 Park Ave., Richmond, Va. Carroll, Lieut.-Col. Robert P . 52 Washington Street, Lexington, Va. Carter, Miss Olivia . Rehobath Church, Va. Carter, Spencer L . 2338 Monument Avenue, Richmond, Va. Carver, Dr. Merton E. . . . University of Richmond, Va. Cary, Hunsdon . Mutual Bldg., Richmond, Va. Cary, Miss M. Katherine . Medical College of Virginia, Richmond, Va. Cash, Dr. J. R. . University Hospital, Charlottesville, Va. Cato, William H . 316 Fourteenth Street, Charlottesville, Va. Chappelear, Prof. Geo. W., Jr. . Madison College, Harrisonburg, Va. Chase, H. M. . 1002 Main Street, Danville, Va. Chelf, H. H. . Hargrave Miltary Academy, Chatham, Va. Chestnut, Alfonse . College of William and Mary, Williamsburg, Va. Chevalier, Dr. Paul L . 410 Professional Bldg., Richmond, Va. Chillis, Willard B . 31 Washington Street, East Orange, N. J. Chitwood, W. R. . Hampden-Sydney College, Hampden-Sydney, Va. Christopher, J. T . 944 Green Street, Danville, Va. Clark, J. B . Beaumont, Va. Clark, Shreve . Va. Dept, of Highways, Richmond, Va. Clarkson, Dr. Wright . 30 Franklin Street, Petersburg, Va. Clayton-Grimes Biology Club ...College of Wm. and Mary, Williamsburg, Va. Clemons, Harry . McCormick Road, University, Va. Clift, William . 915 E. Cary Street, Richmond, Va. Cline, Justus H. . Stuart’s Draft, Va. Clough, Dr. 0. W . 421 North Boulevard, Richmond, Va. Clower, Prof. James I . Box 575, Blacksburg, Va. Cocke, Prof. M. Estes . Hollins College, Va. Coffey, Samuel J . Moneta, Va. Coffman, Miss Janet V . Route 2, Box 13, Harrisonburg, Va. Cole, Miss Alize . College of William and Mary, Williamsburg, Va. Cole, James W., Jr . Cobb Chemical Laboratory, University, Va. Cole, Dr. Nancy . Sweet Briar, Va. Coleman, W. G. . Marshall High School, Marshall, Va. College of William and Mary . Williamsburg, Va. Collier, Miss Jean H . Back River Road, Hampton, Va. Conner, Miss Betty V . Box 206, Blacksburg, Va. Cook, Harold T . Box 267, Norfolk, Va. Cook, Dr. Roy S . Mary Washington College, Fredericksburg, Va. Cooper, Dr. Albert H. . Box 177, Blacksburg, Va. Copeland, Miss Isabelle L. . Route 2, Box 197, Norfolk, Va. Cornish, Miss Helen Rhoda . University of Richmond, Va. Cosby, J. Reginald . 2101 E. Marshall Street, Richmond, Va. Coulbourn, Uriah F . . . Suffolk, Va. Couper, Monroe . Cobb Chemical Laboratory, University, Va. Cowne, Miss Suzanne . Madison College, Harrisonburg, Va. Cox, Carroll E . University Club, Blacksburg, Va. Cox, Col. Edwin . Richmond Trust Bldg., Richmond, Va. Coyner, M. Boyd . Box 123, Farmville, Va. Crawley, Kenner T . Jefferson Hotel, Richmond, Va. 260 The VIRGINIA ACADEMY of SCIENCE Crim, Miss Samuella Hawes, Crocker, Michael P . Crockett, Dr. W. G . Crooks, K. B. M . Crowgey, John H. . Cruise, Miss Anita . Crump, Robert S . Custls, Miss Elizabeth . . . . Box 156, New Market, Va. . . . Bel Air, Md. .Medical College of Virginia, Richmond, Va. . Hampton Institute, Hampton, Va. . Court House, Wytheville, Va. . . . . . Willis, Va. . Box 1554, Richmond, Va. . Madison College, Harrisonburg, Va. Dabney, Virginius . . . 6005 Howard Road, Richmond, Va. Daffin, Prof. John B . Mary Baldwin College, Staunton, Va. Daniel, Robert W. . . . . . . . ...Brandon, Deal P.O., Va. Darner, Miss Daisy . Jefferson, Md. Davenport & Co. . . . .....1113 E. Main Street, Richmond', Va. Davenport, Roswell B . Saint Andrews Lane, Richmond, Va. Davidson, Miss Jamie . .....Madison College, Harrisonburg, Va. Davis, Collis H . Hampton Institute, Hampton, Va. Davis, Dr. Donald W . 349 W. Scotland Street, Williamsburg, Va. Davis, Hubert J . Pocahontas High School, Pocahontas, Va. Davis, Jackson...... % General Education Board, 49 W. 49 St., New York City Davis, Thomas . V. P. I., Blacksburg, Va. Davis, Major W. B.... . Room 418, State Office Bldg., Richmond, Va. Dear, Paul S . V. P. I., Blacksburg, Va. Decker, Miss Mary G . . . Alabama College, Montevallo, Ala. DeFrees, R. G. . . . Room 6325, I. C. C., Washington, D. C. DeHaven, Foy . . . . . Wytheville, Va. DeLaBarre, Prof. C. F . Blacksburg, Va. Delamar, C. D . . . . . V. P. L, Blacksburg, Va. Delisle, Dr. Albert L. . College of William and Mary, Williamsburg, Va. DeLoach, Dr. W. S . College of William and Mary, Norfolk, Va. Dennis, Prof. Wayne . Moorman’s River, Va. Derr, H. B. . . . R. F. D. 2, Fairfax, Va. Desha, Dr. L. J . Washington and Lee University, Lexington, Va. Dickerson, L. M . 71 E. Norman Avenue, Dayton, Ohio Dickinson, J. C., Jr . 1351 W. Arlington Street, Gainesville, Fla. Dicks, Robert S . Chapel Hill, N. C. Dieckman, Harry E . . . . . ....University Club, Blacksburg, Va. Dilworth, J. L . Box 687, Blacksburg, Va. Dinges, Harold R. . . . Box 926, Williamsburg, Va. Dinwiddie, Dr. J. G. . 620 Walnut Avenue, Waynesboro, Va. Divine, Dr. J. P. . ...1206 N. Quincy Street, Arlington, Va. Dobyns, Miss Ruth V. . Evington, Va. Dodson, Dr. A. I. . . . Professional Bldg., Richmond, Va. Donelson, Martin, Jr. . % The Medical School, University, Va. Dotson, Oscar W. . Emory & Henry College, Emory, Va. Drinkard, Dr. A. W., Jr . V. P. I., Blacksburg, Va. Duke, Miss Martha Walker . 721 Park Street, Charlottesville, Va. Duncan, Reid H. . . . 416 Lincoln Avenue, Roanoke, Va. Dunnington, Prof. F. P . University, Va. DuPont, Mrs. Alfred I. . Nemours, Wilmington, Del. Dyck, P. B . Blacksburg, Va. Eakin, Miss Tommy . S. T. C., Radford, Va. Eddy, C. Vernon . 430 Fairmont Ave., Winchester, Va. Edmundson, Dr. R. S . 1109 Wertland St., Charlottesville, Va. Edwards, John C. . 1014 W. Washington St., Petersburg, Va. Edwards, Dr. Preston . Sweet Briar, Va. Eheart, James F. . . . '.......V. P. I., Blacksburg, Va. Ehrman, Mrs. Evelyn A . 3503 Park Avenue, Richmond, Va. Elder, Joseph D . . . 302 Langhorne Lane, Lynchburg, Va. PROCEEDINGS 1940 261 Eller son, H. W . . . Ellett, Miss Louise..... . Ellett, Dr. W. B.... . . Elliott, Dr. Emmett R..,. Endicott, Miss Margaret. Estes, Dr. Robert F . Evans, T. W., II . Ewbank, Walter J . . . . . ....River Road, Richmond, Va. . . . . Jennings Ordinary, Va. . . Blacksburg, Va. . Hampden-Sydney, Va. . . Hollins College, Va. . Orange, Va. 1534 Henry Clay Street, New Orleans, La. . 116 W. High Street, Lawrenceburg, Ind. Fales, Dr. Doris E . . . . . 2400 Lakeview Avenue, Richmond, Va. Farinholt, Dr. L. H... . . . ...Washington & Lee University, Lexington, Va. Farnsworth, Miss Goldena.. . . . . . Hollins College, Va. Farquhar, Dr. B. S . . . 361 Maple Avenue, Waynesboro, Va. Farrar, George M . . . Clifton Forge, Va. Fentress, Walter L . . . 32 Roanoke Dock, Norfolk, Va. Ferguson, F. F . . . College of William and Mary, Norfolk, Va. Ferneyhough, Dr. Robert E . 810 Lee Street, Warrenton, Va. Fillinger, Miss Harriett H . . . Hollins College, Va. Fink, R. M . 26 E. 3rd Street, Frederick, Md. Finley, Mrs. J. N. G . Rugby Road, University, Va. Fischer, Dr. Ernst . Medical College of Virginia, Richmond, Va. Fish, Prof. F. H . . . . . . . Box 102, Blacksburg, Va. Fisher, Prof. Robert A . . . . . . . Blacksburg, Va. Fitzgerald, Miss Martha . Crewe, Va. Fitzhugh, Miss Virginia Lee . Roseville, Va, Fivecoat, Miss Doris E . 1915 High Street, Portsmouth, Va. Flannagan, Dr. Roy K . Traveler’s Bldg., Richmond, Va. Flemer, Capt. J. A. . Westmoreland County, Oak Grove, Va. Flippo, Miss Agnes B . . . Route 9, Richmond, Va. Flora, Dr. Carroll C . Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Blacksburg, Va. Florance, Miss Sue A. . . . Route 3, Alexandria, Va. Flores, Miss Lydia E..... . . . S. T. C., Radford, Va. Flory, Robert M . Dept, of Psychology, University, Va. Flory, Dr. W. S., Jr. . Division of Horticulture, College Station;, Texas Forbes, Dr. J. C. . Medical College of Virginia, Richmond, Va. Foster, Capt. I. G. . . . V. M. 1., Lexington, Va. Fox, Miss Lucile . . . 201 Oakridge Blvd., Lynchburg, Va. Fox, Russell E . Route 2, Box 61, Hampton, Va. Frayser, Miss Lois . University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, N. C. Freeman, Dr. Douglas S . % News Leader, Richmond, Va. Freer, Prof. Ruskin S . Lynchburg College, Lynchburg, Va. French, Dean C. Clement . . . . . R.-M. W. College, Lynchburg, Va,. French, G. Talbot . . . 1112 State Office Bldg., Richmond, Va. Freydeck, Max . Medical College of Virginia, Richmond, Va. Friedline, Dr. Cora L . . . . . R.-M. W. College, Lynchburg, Va. Frierson, Dr. W. J . . . . . Hampden-Sydney, Va. Furr, John B . . . Picayune, Miss. Furtsch, Dr. E. F . Blacksburg, Va. Gaines, Prof. Robert E, Galvin, W. Roland . Gant, Dr. James Q., Jr. Garber, Thomas H . . Garland, Floyd H . Garner, Miss Evelsm..., Garnett, Henry S., Jr.. Garrett, Dr. H. E... . Garrison, Dr. W. A . Geldard', Dr. Frank A... German, Dr. Leslie.. . . . . .....University of Richmond, Va. . 2416 Stuart Avenue, Richmond, Va. .U. S. Penitentiary, Fort Leavenworth, Kan. ......Larus & Brother Co., Inc., Richmond, Va. . . . . . . . . . South Hill,Va. . . . . . ....Amherst, Va. . . . .........Beaver Dam, Va. . 35 Claremont Avenue, New York, N. Y. . . . ...R. F. D. 3, Elmer, N. J. . Edgewood Lane, University, Va. . 430 Parade, V. M. I., Lexington, Va. 262 The VIRGINIA ACADEMY of SCIENCE Gibson, William C., Jr . Hampden-Sydney, Va. Gifford, Dr. W. J . 700 Ott Street, Harrisonburg, Va. Gilbert, Dr. Chauncey McL . . . Box 1453, University, Va. Gildersleeve, Benjamin . Tennessee Valley Authority, Knoxville, Tenn. Gillespie, Miss Elizabeth . 701 Botetourt Apts., Norfolk, Va. Gilliam, Miss Alice T . . . Prince George, Va. Gilliam, James R., Jr . Lynchburg Nat. Bank & Trust Co., Lynchburg, Va. Gilmer, Prof. Thomas E . . . . . . . ...Hampden-Sydney, Va. Glass, E. H . . . V. P. I., Blacksburg, Va. Glass, Miss Jewel J . U. S. Geological Survey, Washington, D. C. Glick, Prof. J. Paul . . . Blackstone College, Blackstone, Va. Goad, Dr. P. T . Medical Arts Bldg., Roanoke, Va. Gooch, Winslow L . The Chesapeake Corp., West Point, Va. Graham, Benj. T., Jr . Blacksburg, Va. Graham, Miss Helen . . . S. T. C., Radford, Va. Graves, E. Boyd . Mary Washington College, Fredericksburg, Va. Graybeal, Prof. H. C . State Teachers College, East Radford, Va. Grayson, James McDonald' . V. P. I., Blacksburg, Va. Greer, Dr. J. E . . . Greer Vet. Hospital, Pulaski, Va. Gregory, Charles D . 708 Richmond Road, Williamsburg, Va. Gregory, James B . Box 563, Roanoke, Va. Gregory, Dr. Walton C . Tennessee Polytechnic Institute, Cookeville, Tenn. Grille, George A., Jr. . 1704 37th Street, N. W., Washington, D. C. Grizzard Miss Alice E . . . . . ......Boykins, Va. Grizzard, A. L . Dept, of Agronomy, V. P. I., Blacksburg, Va. Groseclose, Prof. Henry C. . Blacksburg, Va. Grover, W. W. . Box 97, Lexington, Va. Groves, Dr. A. B . 1415 Greystone Terrace, Winchester, Va. Gudheim, Prof. H . V. P. I., Blacksburg, Va. Guy, Dr. Willian G . Williamsburg, Va. Gwathmey, Dr. Allan T . 508 16th Street, Charlottesville, Va. Haag, Dr. H. B . Medical College of Virginia, Richmond, Va. Hagan, H. J. . Hampden-Sydney College, Hampden-Sydney, Va. Hague, Dr. Florence S . Sweet Briar, Va. Haislip, Fred, Jr . Box 403, Hampden-Sydney, Va. Hale, Clarence . Box 1607, Charlottesville, Va. Haley, Dr. B. M . Box 1066, Warrenton, Va. Hall, Dr. J. Frank . Medical College of Virginia, Richmond, Va. Hall, Dr. James K. . 3011 Seminary Avenue, Richmond, Va. Hamaker, Dr. J. I. . . . R.-M. W. College, Lynchburg, Va. Hammock, Woodrow . Fork Union Military Academy, Fork Union, Va. Hampton Institute . Hampton, Va. Handley, C. 0 . . . . . Blacksburg, Va. Handy, Dr. E. S. Craighill . Fairfax, Va. Haney, Herschel H . 2904 Moss Side Avenue, Richmond, Va. Hanmer, H. Rupert... . 400 Petersburg Tpk., Richmond, Va. Hardie, A. L.. . Hampden-Sydney College, Hampden-Sydney, Va. Harlan, Dr. William R . . . 329 Greenway Lane, Richmond, Va. Harmon, Robert R. . P. O. Box 99, Charlottesville, Va. Harper, C. E . ........Hampden-Sydney College, Hampden-Sydney, Va. Harper, Dr. R. A . . . Route 5, Bedford, Va. Harrar, Dr. J. G. . Box 429, Blacksburg, Va. Harrington, John W . 1611 Laburnum Avenue, Richmond, Va. Harrington, Prof. W. F . Hampton Blvd. & Boeling Ave., Norfolk, Va. Harris, H. Hiter . . . P. 0. Box 6-R, Richmond, Va. Harris, Prof. Isabel . Westhampton College, University of Richmond, Va. Harrison, Dr. Guy R . . . Professional Bldg., Richmond', Va. Harshbarger, Boyd . . . . . . . . Box 424, Blacksburg, Va. Hatcher, Dr. T. W . . . . . . . .....Blacksburg, Va. PROCEEDINGS 1940 263 Hawley, Miss Margaret C . . . . . Madison College, Harrisonburg, Va. Haynes, Prof. F. B . . . Blacksburg, Va. Hazard, Allan W . Edgohill Road, Ansonia, Conn. Hazard, Miss Evelyn.. . . . 2717 5th Avenue, Richmond, Va. Heflin, Lt.-Col. S. M.... . ............................508 Highland Road, Lexington, Va. Henderson, Prof. Lena B... . .........Box 16, R.-M. W. C., Lynchburg, Va. Henderson, Myron E . Blacksburg, Va. Henderson, R. G.. . . . Blacksburg, Va. Henneman, Dr. Richard H . . . Box 643, Williamsburg, Va. Hershberger, Miss Anna L.. . . . . . ..Luray, Va. Hess, Prof. Margaret . . . . . .....Winthrop College, Rock Hill, S. C. Hibbard, Foy N..... . . . . . U. S. Weather Bureau, Richmond, Va. Hibbs, Dr. Henry H., Jr . 901 West Franklin Street, Richmond, Va. Hill, Dr. Emory . . . .....Professional Bldg., Richmond, Va. Hill, Prof. H. H.......... . . . . ....V, P. L, Blacksburg, Va. Hill, Julien H. . . . State Planters Bank & Trust Co., Richmond, Va. Hill, Prof. L. L...... . Washington & Lee University, Lexington, Va. Himmler, Lowell W . Box 737, Richmond, Va. Hinton, Dr. W. M . . . Box 398, Lexington, Va, Hodges, Dr. Fred M . . . 1000 W. Franklin Street, Richmond, Va. Hodges, Lt.-Col. LeRoy . 3505 Seminary Avenue, Richmond, Va. Hodgkin, Dr. W. N . . . Warrenton, Va. Hoffman, Dr. R. M . Box 605, Waynesboro, Va. Hofmann, Dr. Fred W.. . . . Blacksburg, Va. Hoke, Dr. K. J. . .....College of William & Mary, Williamsburg, Va. Holdaway, Prof. C. W . . . Box 85, Blacksburg, Va. Holden, Dr. R. J . . . V. P. I., Blacksburg, Va. Holland, Dr. C. G . . University of Virginia Hospital, University, Va. Hollins Curie Chemistry Society . Hollins College, Va. Holmes, Booker T . Va. Union University, Norfolk, Va. Holmes, Dr. F. T . Box 1068, University, Va. Holsinger, C. K . Henrico Court House, Richmond, Va. Holt, Yuille, Jr . 818 Pershing Square, Lynchburg, Va. Hood, Frank C . .....106 Madison Street, Lynchburg, Va. Hook, Paul G . . . . . . . Box 223, Clifton Forge, Va. Hootman, Dr. James A . Nat. Adv. Comm, for Aeronautics, Hampton, Va. Hoover, E. Carl . Box 38, Bassett, Va. Horsley, Dr. Guy W . 617 W. Grace Street, Richmond, Va. Horsley, Dr. J. Shelton . 617 W. Grace Street, Richmond, Va. Horsley, Dr. J. S., Jr . 617 W. Grace Street, Richmond, Va. Hostetter, Dr. Ralph . Eastern Mennonite School, Harrisonburg, Va. Hough, Dr. W. S.... . Winchester, Va. Howe, Dr. Jas. L . . . . . . . Lexington, Va. Hoxton, Dr. L. G... . . . . . . . . . University, Va. Hoyt, J. Southgate Y . Fernow Hall, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. Hoyt, Dr. William Dana . Washington & Lee University, Lexington, Va. Huddle, Charles R... . Ivanhoe, Va. Hudson, Miss Helen... . S. T. C., Radford, Va. Hudson, Robert L..... . Washington & Lee University, Lexington, Va. Hudson, R. Page . . . . . . . . . Box 31, Ashland, Va. Hummel, Mrs. R. B . Cameron Court Apts., Raleigh, N. C. Hunley, Col. Wm. M . V. M. I., Lexington, Va. Hunt, Harvey L. . 6132 Rolfe Avenue, Norfolk, Va. Hunter, John S., Jr . ..........15 Moreland Avenue, Newton Center, Mass. Hurt, Dr. Holcome H . 725 Church Street, Lynchburg, Va. Hurt, Nicholas H . . . . . 305 Brown Street, Martinsville, Va. Husted, Dr. Ladley . . . Biology Bldg., University, Va. Hutcheson, Prof. T. B . . . . . . . . V. P. I., Blacksburg, Va. 264 The VIRGINIA ACADEMY of SCIENCE litis, Dr. Hugo . . . . . 818 Marye Street, Fredericksburg, Va. Ingle, J. P. . . . . . . . . . ; . Pembroke, N. C. Ingles, Andrew L . Biological Laboratory, University, Va. Irby, Richard M . . . Supt. Rockbridge Co. Schools, Lexington, Va. Irwin, Carl . 401 Collicelle Street, Harrisonb^urg, Va. Ives, R. L. . . . . . ..503 W. Olney Road, Norfolk, Va. Jackson, Dr. H. W . Jackson, Minter Morgan.... Jackson, Dr. Perry Yates ... James, G. Watson, III . James, Maj. Harold C . Jamison, King A. . Jamison, Miss Margaret L,. Jarman, Dr. A. M . Jeffers, Dr. George W . Jennings, R. C . Johnson, Dr. E. P . Johnson, Dr. Harry I . Johnson, Henry S . Johnston, Charles W . Jones, A. L. . Jones, Miss Alice S . Jones, Dr. E. Ruffin, Jr . Jones, Homer D., Jr. . Jones, Prof. J. B . Jones, J. Claggett . Jones, Miss Margaret W . Jones, Miss Nancy R . Jones, P. Rixey . Jones, W. Catesby . Jones Biological Society . Jopson, Dr. Harry G. M . Jordan, Dr. H. E . Joyner, William H . . . . Box 527, Blacksburg, Va. . Dept, of Psychology, University, Va. . College of William and Mary, Norfolk, Va. . P. 0. Box 454, Lexington, Va. . . . Kable Station 62, Staunton, Va. . Dept, of Biol., V. P. L, Blacksburg, Va. . .. Air Point, Va. . Box 1056, University, Va. . . . State Teachers College, Farmville, Va. . Box 524, Waynesboro, Va. . Blacksburg, Va. . Roanoke College, Salem, Va. . 510 State Office Bldg., Richmond, Va. . 214 Broad Street, Portsmouth, Va. . Hampden-Sydney, Va. . S. T. C., Radford, Va. . College of William and Mary, Norfolk, Va. ...Washington & Lee University, Lexington, Va. . Box 205, Blacksburg, Va. . 1121 State Office Bldg., Richmond, Va. . Madison College, Harrisonburg, Va. . 301 Oakridge Blvd., Lynchburg, Va. County Representative, Chesterfield C. H.,Va. . 3817 Hawthorne Avenue, Richmond, Va. . College of William and Mary, Norfolk, Va. . Bridgewater College, Bridgewater, Va. . ; . University, Va. . 222 North Saratoga Street, Suffolk, Va. Keeble, .Prof. W. H . Keith, D. Y . Keller, Dean May L . Kelley, Miss Blanche E . Kelly. William E . Kennedy, Dr. C. P . Kent, Miss Hilda . Kepner, Dr. William A . Keyser, Dr. Linwood D . Kidd, Joel T . Kilbourne, Maj.-Gen. C. E. Kilby, Dr. C. M . . . Kindred, Dr. J. E . . . Kline, Dr. Linus W. . Kobs, Miss Edna . Krause, Heinrich . . . . R.-M. College, Ashland, Va. Hampden-Sydney College, Hampden-Sydney, Va. . . . . . University of Richmond, Va. . 717 Forbes St., Norfolk, Va. . 1853 Edgewood Lane, Charlottesville, Va. . Box 479, Fredericksburg, Va. . Madison College, Harrisonburg, Va. . University, Va. . .....Medical Arts Bldg., Roanoke, Va. . Red Hill,Va. . Virginia Military Institute, Lexington, Va. . R.-M. W. College, Lynchb^urg, Va, . . . .Box 1341, University, Va. . .Memory Lane, Route 2, Charlottesville, Va. . Box 221, R.-M. W. C., Lynchburg, Va. . 1318 S. Wood Street, Chicago, Ill. Lafayette, Norman W . ......920 North ansas Street, Arlington, Va. Lambert, Dean J. Wilfred.... College of William and Mary, Williamsburg, Va. Lammers, Dr. Edward C. H . 202 McDowell Street, Lexington, Va.| Lampson, Dr. Curtis W.. . Box 8, University of Richmond, Va. Lancaster, Dabney S . . . . . Box 436, Sweet Briar, Va. Lancaster, J. L . Box 65, Montross, Va. Langston, Dr. Henry J . . . Masonic Temple Bldg., Danville, Va. PROCEEDINGS 1940 265 Lapsley, Miss Mildred . . Larew, Dr. Gillie A . Law, Miss Georgie E. . Leach, Byron E . Leatherman, Miss Esther... Lee, Prof. Claudius.. . . . Lehman, Dr. Edwin P . Letterman, Miss Katie . Lewis, Dr. Ivey Foreman... Lewis, Jack . . . . . Lewis, John B,. . . . Lewis, M. G . Linfield, Dr. B. Z . Linke, Fritz W . Lippincott, S. W. . Lipscomb, Miss Martha H. Littleton, Dr. Leonidas R... Loth, Francis . Lovelace, Miss Sarah . Loving, Dr. R. E... . Lucas, Prof. James B . Lumsden, Miss Eloise . Lutz, Prof. Robert E . Lyons, Dr. Harry . .....................Mary Baldwin College, Staunton, Va. . . . . R.-M. W. College, Lynchburg, Va. . . . 88-28 202 St., Hollis, N. Y. . . ...Medical College of Virginia, Richmond, Va. . . . . . . Romney, W. Va. . . . . . . V. P. I., Blacksburg, Va. . . Box 1596, University, Va. . Madison College, Harrisonburg, Va. . University, Va. . . . . . . Route 2, Lynchburg, Va. . . . Seward Forest, Triplett, Va. . County Agent, Salem, Va. . University, Va. . Rouss Physical Laboratory, University, Va. Hampden-Sydney College, Hampden-Sydney, Va. . 1605 Grove Ave., Richmond, Va. . . Emory, Va. . Box 518, Waynesboro, Va. . Box 215, Radford, Va. . University of Richmond, Va. . Blacksburg, Va. . . . 312 Bath Street, Clifton Forge, Va. . Chemical Laboratory, University, Va. . . . Professional Bldg., Richmond, Va. Magill, Prof. EdPiund C . . . Blacksburg, Va. Magruder, E. W . F. S. Royster Guano Co., Norfolk, Va. Mahan, John . . . 512 Clay Street, Lynchburg, Va. Main, Dr. Rolland J . Medical College of Virginia, Richmond, Va. Mallory, Col. Francis . Box 845, Lexington, Va. Manahan, Dr. J. L . 33 University Place, University, Va. Mankin, W. Douglas . Herndon, Va. Manning, Leslie D . Roland Park, Baltimore, Md. Marcuse, I. J . 2213 Monument Avenue, Richmond, Va. Marsh, L. R . Green’s Hotel, Blacksburg, Va. Martin, Dr. Charles K., Jr . Mary Washington College, Fredericksburg, Va. Martin, Miss Haydee . S. T. C., Radford, Va. Martin, Dr. Jean M. . P. 0. Box 42, S. T. C., Farmville, Va. Martin, Dr. Walter B . 339 Boush Street, Norfolk, Va. Masi, Joseph F. . . . 16 S. Lexington Street, Arlington, Va. Mason, George C. . 1015 Blair Avenue, Hampton, Va. Mason, Dr. Ruth S . 431 W. Washington Street, Petersburg, Va. Mason, Dr. W. Roy, Jr . 33 Faculty Apts., University, Va. Massey, Prof. A. B . . . Blacksburg, Va. Matheny, Gallais E . . . .....Room 500, Agric. Hall, Blacksburg, Va. Mather, Chas. B . Lewistown, Montana Matthew Fontaine Maury Sci. Club. ...Mary Wash. Coll., Fredericksburg, Va. Matthews, A. A. L . Blacksburg, Va. Matthews, E. M. . . . . . . . Box 375, Chatham, Va. Mattox, Vernon R . . . . . Union Hall, Va. McBryde, Miss Mary C . . . Box 3, Blacksburg, Va. McCay, Dr. Myron S . Box 339, Blacksburg, Va. McConnell, H. K . Box 726, Richmond, Va. McCormack, Miss Helen Gardner . The Valentine Museum, Richmond, Va. McCormick, Miss Gwendolyn . Madison College, Harrisonburg, Va. McCrackan, Prof. Robert F . Medical College of Virginia, Richmond, Va. McCrackan, Mrs. Robert F. . 1005 W. Franklin Street, Richmond, Va. McCue, Miss Judith Moorman . . . Route 4, Staunton, Va. McDarment, Capt. Corley P . 1909 19th St., N. W., Washington, D. C. McDowell, Miss Margaret............ . . . . . Java, Va. 266 The VIRGINIA ACADEMY of SCIENCE McGavock, Alfred M . . . . . Box 42, Ivanhoe, Va. McGavock, Cecil B., Jr... . 2401 York Street, Chattanooga, Tenn. McGhee, Miss Georgia... . Gladys, Va. McGill, Wm. M. . . . 6 Wayside Place, Charlottesville, Va. McGinnis, Dr. John M . Hollins College, Va. McGuire, M. M . Mutual Bldg., Richmond, Va. McGuire, Dr. Stuart . 1008 W. Grace Street, Richmond, Va. McGurk, Frank C. J . 1001 E. Clay Street, Richmond, Va. Mclnteer, James F., Jr . . . . . . . Quantico, Va. McKillop, Dayton . Mattoax, Va. McNeal, Prof. M. J . Randolph-Macon College, Ashland, Va. McShane, E. J . Box 1636, University, Va. Meacham, Wm. S . % Times-Dispatch, Richmond, Va. Medical College of Virginia . Richmond, Va. Menzel, Winston . Virginia Fisheries Laboratory, Yorktowii, Va. Merrymon, Dr. Wm. Walter . . . P. 0. Box 816, Williamsburg, Va. Messer, Richard . State Dept, of Health, Richmond, Va. Meyer, Alvin F., Jr. . V. M. I., Lexington, Va. Meyers, Herbert H . V.-C. Chemical Corp., Richmond, Va. Michaux, Dr. Stuart . Stuart Circle Hospital, Richmond, Va. Miller, Dr. C. 0 . New Market, Va. Miller, Dr. Charles E . Strasburg, Va. Miller, Dr. E. C. L . Medical College of Virginia, Richmond, Va. Miller, Dr. E. DeWitt . Box 388, Madison College, Harrisonburg, Va. Miller, Dr. James S. . Box 34, Emory, Va. Miller, J. M., Jr . First & Merchants Nat. Bank, Richmond, Va. Miller, Lawrence I . Va. Agr. Exp. Station, Holland, Va. Milne, Dr. Lorus J. . Randolph-Macon Woman’s College, Lynchburg, Va. Minnix, Miss Christine . Madison College, Harrisonburg, Va. Mitchell, Dr. S. A . . . . . University, Va. Montgomery, Miss Margaret . Madison College, Harrisonburg, Va. Moore, Charles D. . 2819 Edgewood Ave., Richmond, Va. Moore, Dr. Ray A. . Box 357, Farmville, Va. Moorman, Miss Lucie E . Unionville, Va. Moran, Miss Sarepta A. . Charlottesville, Va. Morehead, F. F. . Salem, Va. Morenus, Dr. Eugenie M. . Sweet Briar, Va. Morris, John S., Jr. . Medical College of Virginia, Richmond, Va. Morrison, Robert H . 4121 Crestwood Road, Richmond, Va. Morrison, R. H., Jr. . Box 659, Blacksburg, Va. Mosby, Dr. C. V. . Mosby Publishing Co., St. Louis, Mo. Mulgannon, Frank P. . 1427 Eye Street, Washington, D. C. Mullin', Robert S . Box 63, Dublin, Va. Mundie, Dr. J. R. . King College, Bristol, Tenn. Murray, Dr. J. J. . . 6 White Street, Lexington, Va. Murray, Prof. W. A. . Box 2, Blacksburg, Va. Muse, Miss Marguerite E . Madison College, Harrisonburg, Va. Myers, Dr. C. E . 512 State Office Bldg., Richmond, Va. Myers, Dr. Hugh I . University of Richmond, Va. Neal, Miss Mildred Grey . Madison College, Harrisonburg, Va. Negus, Dr. Sidney S. . Medical College of Virginia, Richmond, Va. Nelson, Robert F. . . . R. F. D. 2, Glen Allen, Va. Nelson, Mrs. Rowland W . Davidson Park, Lexington, Va. Nelson, Prof. Wilbur A . University, Va. Newbill, Dr. Hugh Page . Louisiana State University, New Orleans, La. Newcombe, Prof. Curtis L . Williamsburg, Va. Newcomb, Dr. John Lloyd . ...University of Virginia, University, Va. Newman, Clarence W. . Va. State Chamber of Commerce, Richmond, Va. Newman, Lt. James B . Va. Military Institute, Lexington, Va. PROCEEDINGS 1940 267 Nicholson, J. R., Jr. . Washington & Lee University, Lexington, Va. Norris, Dean Earle B . . . Box 26, V. P. I., Blacksburg', Va. Nugent, T. J,.... . . . . . Box 267, Norfolk, Va. Obenshain, Dr. S. S.. . . . . . . . . . . ..........Blacksburg, Va. O’Brien, Dr. R. E . .Va. Experimental Station, Blacksburg, Va. Oglesby, Prof. E. J . . . . . University, Va. Oglesby, Miss Mary C . . . . . . . Draper, Va. Oliver, Miss Lois . Madison College, Harrisonburg, Va. Olivier, Dr. Chas. P . Flower Observatory, U. of Pa., Upper Darby, Pa. Olsson, Elis . . . The Chesapeake Corp., West Point, Va. Opie, Col. Hierome L . . . Leader Publishing Co., Staunton, Va. Orcutt, Dr. P. S . . . . . Box 496, Blacksburg, Va. Orgain, Clarence T . . . . . . . . . Alberta, Va. Orndorff, Miss Mary Frances . Madison College, Harrisonburg, Va. O’Shaughnessy, Dr. Louis . Box 177, Blacksburg, Va. Osterud, Dr. H. L . Medical College of Virginia, Richmond, Va. Outhouse, Prof. E. L . Medical College of Virginia, Richmond, Va. Overcash, H. B . . . Hampden-Sydney, Va. Overholser, Lyle G. . Cobb Chemical Laboratory, University, Va. Overton, Edward F. . 318 Fourteenth Street, University, Va. Owen, Dr. Benton . . . Yale University, New Haven, Conn. Pace, Dr. Nello . Medical College of Virginia, Richmond, Va. Pace, Mrs. Nello . 1218 Stanhope Avenue, Richmond, Va. Parkins, John H . 421 Westover Avenue, Norfolk, Va. Parrish, J. Scott . Amer. Nat. Bank Bldg., Richmond, Va. Patterson, Dr. Paul M. . Hollins College, Va. Peabody, Dr. William A . 2510 Hawthorne Avenue, Richmond, Va. Peak, Dr. Helen . R.-M. W. College, Lynchburg, Va. Peele, Miss Amanda E . Box 183, Hampton Institute, Hampton, Va. Peery, Prof. G. G. . Roanoke College, Salem, Va. Peery, L. C. . Box 423, Blacksburg, Va. Pegau, Dr. A. A. . Rugby Road, Rosser Lane, University, Va. Pierce, Alan S. . Box 126, Mary Wash. College, Fredericksburg, Va. Pence, Capt. J. Worth . Staunton Military Academy, Staunton, Va. Perrow, Dr. Mosby G . Lynchburg, Va. Peters, Walter J . 72 Sunset Drive, Hempsted, L. I., N. Y. Pettit, Miss Ruth V . Rustburg, Va. Phillips, Dr, Ruth L. . Madison College, Harrisonburg, Va. Phillips, Dr. W. J. . Box 225, Charlottesville, Va. Phipps, Morris . 915 E. Cary Street, Richmond, Va. Pickett, Dr. H. G . Madison College, Harrisonburg, Va. Pierce, Dr. J. Stanton . 813 Roseneath Road, Richmond, Va. Pierce, Miss Mary Elizabeth . Brooklyn Botanic Garden, Brooklyn, N. Y. Pillans, Miss Helen M. . Hollins College, Va. Pitt, Miss Lyndele A . 3215 Patterson Avenue, Richmond, Va. Pittman, Dr. M. A. . . . Madison College, Harrisonburg, Va. Pitts, Prof. Frank P. . Medical College of Virginia, Richmond Va. Pitts, Miss Marjorie Mary . Smoots, Va. Pletta, Prof. D. H . Box 417, Blacksburg, Va. Podtiaguine, Michael P. . 20 Elliewood Avenue, University, Va. Poff, Miss Hazel K . Copper Hill, Va. Poindexter, Miss Jean D . . . Phenix, Va. Pollard, Morris . . . Blacksburg, Va. Poos, Dr. Frederick W . Arlington, Exp. Farm, Arlington, Va. Porter, H. C. . Va. Agric. Exp. Station, Bland, Va. Porter, Dr. William B. . Medical College of Virginia, Richmond, Va. Powers & Anderson . 603 E. Main Street, Richmond, Va. Pratt, Prof. A. D . . . V. P. I., Blacksburg, Va. 268 The VIRGINIA ACADEMY of SCIENCE Pratt, Miss Dorothy I . . . Box 276, R.-M. W. College, Lynchburg, Va. Priest, John J. . . . 4227 Fauquier Avenue, Richmond, Va. Prince, Dean Wm. L . . . University of Richmond, Va^ Pulliam, Matthew . . . . . Leesburg, Va. Purdie, Lt.-Col. K. S . 313 Letcher Avenue, Lexington, Va. Purvis, Dr. E. R . Va. Truck Exper. Station, Norfolk, Va. Quinlan, Miss Edith P . 605 N. Green Street, Gainesville, Ga. Ralston, William . Box 726, Richmond, Va. Randolph-Macon Woman’s College.......... . ........Lynchburg, Va. Raskin, Dr. Evelyn . R.-M. W. College, Lynchburg, Va. Ratliff, J. M . 1005 E. Marshall St., Richmond, Va. Ray, Charles, Jr. . Miller School of Biology, University, Va. Raynor, Prof. C. H . . . Box 589, Salem, Va. Rector, Miss Helen V . Fairfax, Va. Reed, Mr, P. L, . . . 1418 Grove Avenue, Richmond, Va. Reed, W. D. . 17 N. Boulevard, Richmond, Va. Reuyl, Dr. Dirk . University, Va. Reveley, W. G . Cobb Chemical Laboratory, University, Va. Reynolds, Dr. Bruce D . University, Va. Rhoads, W. S. . 3418 Noble Avenue, Richmond, Va. Rice, Miss Alva W . 5941 S. 4th Street, Arlington, Va. Rickard, H. L. . . . Hasbrouck Heights, N. J. Riggin, Dr. I. C . . . State Office Bldg., Richmond, Va. Ritchey, Maj. H. E.. . 303 Jackson Avenue, Lexington, Va. Ritter, Eugene K . ‘ . 421 N. Boulevard, Richmond, Va. Rivera, Miss Nadine . S. T. C., Radford, Va. Robb, J. Bernard . 213 E. Broad Street, Richmond, Va. Robb, Dr. Robert G . College of William and Mary, Williamsburg, Va. Roberts, D. B. . Route 3, Box 144A, Norfolk, Va. Roberts, Eldon, Jr. . Medical College of Virginia, Richmond, Va. Roberts, Miss Ethel M . S. T. C., East Radford, Va. Roberts, Dr. Joseph K . Box 471, University, Va. Robeson, Dr. F. L. . V. P. I., Blacksburg, Va. Rodman, Prof. Walter S . Box 1476, University, Va. Rogers, D. A . The Solvay Process Co., Hopewell, Va. Rohde, George . 1324 Eye Street, N. W., Washington, D. C. Rorer, Prof. John Alex . Extension Division, University, Va.. Rosenthal, Macey N. . Lynchburg College, Lynchburg, Va. Rosser, Dr. Charles M . 1606 Franklin Street, Fredericksburg, Va. Rosser, Shirley E. . . 1714 Floyd Street, Lynchburg, Va. Row, Stuart B. . Box 561, Blacksburg, Va. Rowe, T. D. . Medical College of Virginia, Richmond, Va. Royster, Dr. Lawrence T . University, Va. Rucker, Ellis, Jr . . . Williamsburg, Va. Rudd, Dean Wortley F. . Medical College of Virginia, Richmond, Va. Rush, Ralph A. . P. 0. Box 1224, University, Va. Russell, Edgar V., Jr . . . . . Blacksburg, Va. Russell, Miss Ella G . . . . . Box 295, Blacksburg, Va. Ryland, Dr. Garnett . . . ......University of Richmond, Va. Ryman, Jacob F . Box 147, Blacksburg, Va. Sampson, Miss Esther Foote. Sampson, Miss Ressie E . Samuel, Boyd L. . . . Sanders, H. W. . Sandholzer, Dr. Leslie A . Sanger, Dr. Wm. T. . Sarver, L. A. . . . . Gordonsville, Va.. . . . S. T. C., Radford, Va. . 1121 State Office Bldg., Richmond, Va. . Box 79, Blacksburg, Va. . . . . .......Box 1834, Norfolk, Va. Medical College of Virginia, Richmond, Va. ...1141 Second Avenue, S. W., Roanoke, Va. PROCEEDINGS 1940 269 Schaaf, George J . . . . . . . . . ..Box 767, Blacksburg, Va. Schaller, Miss Caroline . . . 2704 13th Street, N. E., Washington, D. C. Scherer, Dr. J. H . ..Medical College of Virginia, Richmond, Va. Scherer, Dr. Philip C., Jr . . . Box 209, Blacksburg, Va. Schoen, Dr. Z. J . ..Charlottesville, Va. Schoenbaum, Alexander W . . . 4209 Grove Avenue, Richmond, Va. Schoene, Dr. Wm. J............... . . . . . . . . . . . ...Blacksburg, Va. Schultz, Miss Helen H . Box 1'05, Mary Wash. College, Fredericksiburg, Va. Schumacher, Prof. J. D. . . . . . Roanoke College, Salem, Va. Scott, Dr. Ernest G . 725 Church Street, Lynchburg, Va. Scribner, A. Kenneth . 201 Park Road, Glenshcallah, Portsmouth, Va. Sears, C. E., Jr . . . . . . . Salem, Va. Sears, D. S. . . . . . . . ...Box 301, Hampden-Sydney,Va. Sette, Prof. F. J... . Apt. 507, 4701 Conn. Ave., N. W., Washington, D; C. Seward, Miss Anne . College of William and Mary, Williamsburg, Va. Shackleford, Miss Julia . 307 Stafford Street, Lynchburg, Va. Shadwell, Lemuel R....... . 2800 W. Broad' Street, Richmond, Va. Shannon, A. E . . . . . Blacksburg, V a. Sharpe, Miss Grace A... . . . Madison College, Harrisonburg, Va. Shear, Dr. G. M . . . ..Box 112, Blacksburg, Va. Shelburne, C. C . . . Christiansburg, Va. Shelburne, L. F . . . . . Box 359, Staunton, Va. Shepard, Miss Laura..... . . . . . Chase City, Va. Sherwood, C. S., III..... . . . . . Ill West Road, Portsmouth, Va. Showalter, Dr. A. M . Madison College, Harrisonburg, Va. Shulkcum, Edward..... . Va. Agric. Exp. Station, Blacksburg, Va. Simmons, J. W., Jr . . . V. P. I., Blacksburg, Va. Simms, Dr. Reuben F . 211 W. Grace St, Richmond, Va. Simpson, Miss Harriett L . 527 Kensington Avenue, Roanoke, Va. Simpson, John C . . . Stratford College, Danville, Va. Simpson, Prof. Palmer M . . . Hampden-Sydney, Va. Simpson, Dr. R. L., Jr . Medical College of Virginia, Richmond, Va. Simpson, Dr. T. McN., Jr. . Ashland, Va. Sitler, Prof. Ida . . . Hollins College, Va. Sjogren, Roibert W . Box 125, Blacksburg, Va. Smart, Prof. Robert F,.... . . . Box 108, University of Richmond, Va. Smith, A. Lee . . . . 619 W. 28th Street, Norfolk, Va. Smith, Ben W . . . N. C. State College, Dept. Agron., Raleigh, N. C. Smith, Dr. D. C . P. 0. Box 1516, University, Va. Smith, Miss Elizabeth.. . . . Rich Creek, Va. Smith, Foley F . . . A. B. C. Board, Richmond, Va. Smith, Miss Frances C . . . 304 George St, Fredericksburg, Va. Smith, Dr. Harold H... . Arlington Exp. Farm, Arlington, Va. Smith, Dr. James H . 1008 W. Grace Street, Richmond', Va. Smith, LeRoy H . . . . . Viscose Corp. of Va., Roanoke, Va. Smithey, Dr. William R . 40 University Place, University, Va. Sniffen, Ernest W . . . ...3111 Chesapeake Avenue, Hampton, Va. Snoddy, Leland B . . . . . . . . . University, Va. Sommer, Philipp . Rouss Physical Laboratory, University, Va. Sommerville, Dr. R. C . 307 Vernon St, Lynchburg, Va. Sowder, Prof. W. J.... . S. T. C., East Radford, Va. Spagnuolo, Joseph E . Box 169, Blacksburg, Va. Sparrow, Dr, C. M......... . . . . . . . University, Va. Spealman, Dr. C. R . . . ...Medical College of Virginia, Richmond, Va. The Specs Club . Lynchburg College, Lynchburg, Va. Speese, Miss Bernice M . 805 Carter Rd., Raleigh Ct, Roanoke, Va. Speidel, Dr. Carl C. . . . . . University, Va. Spencer, Dr. Hugh M....... . Cobb Chemical Laboratory, University, Va. Squires, Miss Minnie M... . . . ....Madison College, Harrisonburg, Va. Steidtmann, Dr. Edward . 410 V. M. I. Parade, Lexington, Va. 270 The VIRGINIA ACADEMY of SCIENCE Stetson, Dr. John M . Stetson, Mrs. J. M. . Stevens, Dr. Edith . Stevens, J. E. . Stigall, Dr. John J., Jr. . Stirewalt, Miss Amelia . Stiriz, Charles H . Stone, Charles A . Stow, Dr, Marcellus H. . Straus, Aubrey H. . Strauss, Lewis . Strickland, John C . Strong, W. 0. . Strudwick, Edmund, Jr. .... Sublett, Miss Ruth . Sutherland, Col. LeRoy L. Sutton, Dr. Lee E., Jr . Swan, Col. William 0. . Sweeney, William T. . Sweet Briar College . Swem, Dr. Earl G . . Jamestown Road, Williamsburg, Va. . 232 Jamestown Road, Williamsburg, Va. . Box 309, S. T. C., Farmville, Va. . Box 171, Blacksburg, Va. . 707 Professional Bldg., Richmond, Va. . Miller School of Biology, University, Va. . 2'06 E. Freemason Street, Norfolk, Va. . 90 Broad' Street, New York City Washington & Lee University, Lexington, Va. . 3805 Seminary Avenue, Richmond, Va. . 52 William Street, New York City . University, Va. . Box 248, Onley, Va. . 1536 Park Avenue, Richmond, Va. . 108 S. 3rd Street, Richmond, Va. . 321 Sherwood Avenue, Staunton, Va. . Medical College of Virginia, Richmond, Va. . Louisiana College, Alexandria, La. . 4701 37th Street, N., Arlington, Va. . Sweet Briar, Va. . Williamsburg, Va. Taliaferro, Miss Isabel . Medical College of Virginia, Richmond, Va. Tau Kappa Iota . Washington & Lee University, Lexington, Va. Taylor, J. R . Cobb Chemical Laboratory, University, Va. Taylor, Miss Lucy Ann . 3105 North Avenue, Richmond, Va. Taylor, Dr. Mildred E. . Mary Baldwin College, Staunton, Va. Taylor, 0. B . 2606 The Plaza, Richmond, Va. Taylor, Dr. Raymond L. . 119 Texas Avenue, Williamsburg, Va. Teats, Miss Jean E . Blackstone College, Blackstone, Va. Thalhimer, Morton G . 3202 Monument Avenue, Richmond, Va. Thomas, Dr. M. W. . . . . . S. T. C., East Radford, Va. Thompson, Dr. L. T. E . Dahlgren, Va. Thompson, Miss Sarah F . . . . . . . . . ..Pearisburg, Va. Thomsen, Dr. Lillian . Mary Baldwin College, Staunton, Va. Thornton, Dr. Nan V . Box 292, R.-M. W. C., Lynchburg, Va. Thornton, Dr. S. F . % F. S. Royster Guano Co., Norfolk, Va. Threlkeld, Prof. W. L . . . Blacksburg, Va. Tice, F. G. . . . 504 Rugby Road, Charlottesville, Va. Timberlake, Miss Elizabeth . Oceana, Va. Tolley, Charles D. . ..... .R. F. D. 5, Lexington, Va. Tomlinson, Miss Ella Margaret . Box 223, East Radford, Va. Tonelson, A. Rufus . 315 W. 17th Street, Norfolk, Va. Towers, A. Robert . Hampton Hills Lane, Westhampton, Va. Trattner, Dr. Sidney . 1210 Confederate Avenue, Richmond, Va. Trevililian, Miss Margaret . Gloucester, Va. Tripos Club . Sweet Briar College, Sweet Briar, Va. Trotter, Dr. Herbert . Washington & Lee University, Lexington^ Va. Trout, Dr. William E., Jr. . Mary Baldwin College, Staunton, Va. Truehart, Miss Elizabeth C . . . ...Brandon, Va. Tucker, Miss Alice . Madison College, Harrisonburg, Va. Tucker, Dr. Beverley R. . 212 W. Franklin Street, Richmond, Va. Tufts, Charles G . . . Room 3201, 61 Broadway, New York City Turman, Dr. A. E. . 20 W. Grace Street, Richmond, Va. Turman, Miss Leiroma . R. F. D. 85, Madison Heights, Va. Turner, Harold T . 328 W. 17th Street, Norfolk, Va. Turner, Dr. Thomas W . Hampton Institute, Hampton, Va. The University of Richmond . University of Richmond, Va. PROCEEDINGS 1940 271 Underhill, Dr. T. A . . . . . 301 E. Franklin Street, Richmond, Va. University of Richmond . . . University of Richmond, Va. University of Virginia.... . . . . . . . University, Va. Updike, Dr. I. A. .. . . . . . . . . . P. 0. Box 355, Ashland, Va. Updike, Mrs. I. A . . . . . Box 355, Ashland, Va. Ussery, Hugh D. . . . . Box 187, Blacksburg, Va. Utgaard, Miss Mary E . . . ..Leesburg, Va. Valentine, C. Braxton . . . . . . . Hillcrest, Richmond, Va. Valentine, Granville G . 12 E. Franklin Street, Richmond, Va. Vaughan, James C. . ......329 St. Andrew Street, Petersburg, Va. Vaughan, Dr. Warren T. . 201 W. Franklin Street, Richmond, Va. Vawter, Miss Nancy Rose . . . North Tazewell, Va. Vernon, J. J . V. P. I., Blacksburg, Va. Vilbrandt, Dr. Frank C . . . Blacksburg, Va. Vincent, Miss Annie C... . . . . . Midlothian, Va. Virginia Military Institute . Lexington, Va. V. M. I. Chapter, Va. Academy of Science . Lexington, Va. Virginia Polytechnic Institute . Blacksburg, Va. Virginia Wild Life Federation . . . Blacksburg, Va, von Elbe, Dr. Gunther . Carnegie Institute of Technology, Pittsburgh, Pa. Vyssotsky, Dr. Alexander N . Box 1535, University, Va. Vyssotsky, Mrs. A. N . Box 1535, University, Va. Waddell, Dr. J. A. . . . University, Va. Walker, Bradford H. . . . 911 E. Broad Street, Richmond', Va. Walker, Dr. Harry G...... . Box 267, Norfolk, Va. Walker, Miss Mabelle S . 1774 Chuckatuck Avenue, Petersburg, Va. Walker, R. J. . 2901 West Avenue, Newport Newsi, Va. Wallerstein, Dr. Emanuel U . Professional Bldg., Richmond, Va. Walton, Benjamin F . Lawrenceville, Va. Walton, Dr. Leon J . 713 Shenandoah Life Bldg., Roanoke, Va. Wampler, Dr. Fred J . Medical College of Virginia, Richmond, Va. Ware, Macon . Falls Church, Va. Warren, Miss Catherine . Madison College, Harrisonburg, Va. Warthen, Dr. H. J. . 707 Medical Arts Bldg., Richmond, Va. Warwick, Linwood H. . Virginia Geological Survey, University, Va. Wash, Dr. A. M. . Medical Arts Bldg., Richmond, Va. Watkins, Selden H. . 202 Pennsylvania Avenue, Salem, Va. Watson, Dr. D. F . Greer Vet. Hospital, Pulaski, Va. Watson, George C. . . . Miller School, Va. Watson, Dr. John W . . . Box 75, Blacksburg, Va. Weatherby, Dr. J. H . Medical College of Virginia, Richmond', Va. Weaver, Maj. R. C . . . 420 Parade, Lexington, Va. Weaver, Dr. W. P . . . . . Box 281, Roanoke,, Va. Webb, Lewis W., Jr . . . 5234 Edgewater Drive, Norfolk, Va. Weddell, Alexander W . “Virginia House”, Richmond, Va. Weeks, Dr. Helen F . . . . . ........Chandler Court, Williamsburg, Va. Weiss, Richard A . . . Rouss Thysical Laboratory, University, Va. Weitz, Joseph. .. . Minor Ct. Apts., University Station, Charlottesville, Va. Wheeler, Dr. Charles H., Ill . University of Richmond, Va. Whitaker, Dr. L. D . Box 298, Farmville, Va. White, Edward . . . 1330 Buckingham Avenue, Norfolk, Va. White, Dr. 0. E . . . ..Blandy Experimental Farm, University, Va. White, W. B,.... . . Hampden-Sydney College, Hampden-Sydney, Va. Whitenfish, Dr. A. 1 . 900 Mosby Street, Richmond, Va. Whittemore, L. J . R. F. D. 1, Richmond, Va. Whyburn, Prof. G. T . . . . . . . University, Va. Wilkinson, Gude A . . . . . Westover Apts., Newport News, Va. Willett, H. I . . . . . . . . . ...Staunton, Va. 272 The VIRGINIA ACADEMY of SCIENCE Williams, Dr. Geo. A . 273 Newman Ave., Harrisonburg, Va. Williams, Dr. George Zur . Medical College of Virginia, Richmond, Va. Williams, Dr. J. E . Blacksburg, Va. Williams, Dr. J. Richard . 1510 Floyd Ave., Richmond, Va. Williams, Lewis C . . . Amer. Nat. Bank Bldg., Richmond, Va. Williams, L. D. . Box 585, Lexington, Va. Williams, Prof. Marvin Glenn . . Bluefield College, Bluefield, Va. Williams, Dr. Pauline . 1527 West Avenue, Richmond, Va. Williamson, Miss Pauline B . Metropolitan Life Ins. Co., New York, N. Y. Willis, Edward J . . . .119 Mutual Bldg., Richmond, Va. Wilson, Dr. David C . . . . . . . . . University, Va. Wilson, Dr. I. D . . . V. P. I., Blacksburg, Va. Wilson, J. W . Hampden-Sydney College, Hampden-Sydney, Va. Wiltshire, Mrs. James W., Jr . R,-M. W. C., Lynchburg, Va. Wing, W. G . Hampden-Sydney College, Hampden-Sydney, Va. Wingo, Alfred L . . . ...R, F. D. #8, Richmond, Va. Winne, A. L. I . . . 400 Travelers Bldg., Richmond, Va. Winston, Dr. J. H. C. . Hampden-Sydney, Va. Wirtanen, C. A. . Box 1547, University, Va. Wise, Col. Jennings C.... . University, Va. Wolesensky, Dr. Edward . 1005 N. Edgewood Street, Arlington, Va. Wonson, Maj. Roy W . Staunton Military Academy, Staunton, Va. Woodside, A, M . 916 N. Augusta Street, Staunton. Va. Worsham, Charles Henry . Route 3, Amherst, Va. Wright, H. E., Jr . 1803 Powhatan Avenue, Petersburg, Va. Wright, James Logan . . . 360 14th Street, Charlottesville, Va. Yoe, Dr. J. H . . . University, Va. Young, Dr. Charles A . 409 Medical Artsi Bldg., Roanoket, Va. Young, Dr. R. C . Williamsburg, Va, Young, Miss Rachel . Madison College, Harrisonburg, Va. Young, Whiting F. . . . . . V. M. I., Lexington, Va. Zebedee, Miss Margaret M. Zimmerley, H. H . . . Zimmermann, H. D . . . . Radford, Va, . Box 267, Norfolk, Va. 2410 Lakeview Avenue, Richmond, Va. » j): 7 3 7 8/ The Virginia Journal of Science CONTENTS PAGE Photography as a College Course^ — -J. D. Shumacher............ 273 ’ Studies on the Turbellarian Fauna of the Norfolk Area. V. Anatomical Notes on the American Representative of Macrostomum orthostylum Braun 1885.— Frederick F. Ferguson and E. Ruffin Jones, Jr................................... 281 Cobbles from the Pleistocene Terraces of the Lower York- James Peninsula— Ernest W. Sniffen. ................ ........... 285 Soil Types and their Significance in Agricultural Economy — S. S. Obenshain... ..................................................... ........ 289 Studies of the Germination, Growth and Propagation of -Seeds, Berries and Root Fragments of Berberis cana¬ densis Mill— G. E« Matheny, R. S. Mullin and R. L. Shaver ................................................................... ...... ............ 296 Editorial ........................................................................................ 296 Index to Volume I........................................................................ 298 Published by The Virginia Academy of Science Monthly, except June, July, August and September at Lexington, Virginia. E The Virginia Journal of Science Official journal of the VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE WoRTLEY F. Rudd, President, Medical College of Virginia, Richmond, Va. E. C. L. Miller, Secretmry-TVeasti/rer, Medical College of Virginia, Richr mond, Va. Sidney S. Negus, Assistant Secretary-Treasurer, Medical College of Vir¬ ginia, Richmond, Va. COUNCIL 1940-41 Regular Ex-Offido W. Catesby Jones..... . . 1941 D, Maurice Allan. . . . ...1941 Charles E. Myers . . . . 1942 Earle B. Norris... . ..........1942 Preston Edwards. . . 1943 Ruskin S. Freer . . . ..... ...1943 Marcellus H. Stow . . . 1944 Wortley F. Rudd. . . . 1944 H. H. Zimmerley. . . . 1945 George W. Jeffers.......... . . 1946 EDITORIAL BOARD Editor-in^Chief — RuSKiN S. Freer, Lynchburg Colley, L3mchburg, Va. Managing Editor — Lt.-Col. Robert P. Carroll, Virginia Military Institute, Lexington, Va. S. A. Mitchell— -A sirowom^ C. L. Albright-— G. W. Jeffers — Biology John W. Watson— C/iemistri/ John Alex. ’RoiR'EB.— -Education Albert H. Cooler— Engineering Edward C. H. 'LAM.MER^—Geology Carl C. Speidel— Medicitie R. S. Henneman— Entered as second-class matter February 20, 1940, at the post office at Lexington, Virginia, under the Act of March 3, 1879. Subscription— $1.00 per volume to members of the Virginia Academy of Science; $2.00 per vol¬ ume to others. Published at Lexington, Virginia. The Virginia Journal of Science VoL. 1 DECEMBER, 1940 No. 8 Photography As A College Course J. D. Schumacher Introduction Photography, literally defined — to draw by light, and so named by Sir John Herschel many years ago, is now an im¬ portant tool in science and industry not to mention its usefulness as a hobby. This ever increasing popularity in photography has opened up new fields of thought and study and leads one to ask the question. Should photography be included as a course in the college curriculum? No one will deny that recent years have brought added in¬ terest and enthusiasm for photography from amateur and pro¬ fessional alike. In England, it is estimated that there are more people using cameras than there are driving automobiles, that one person in every eight of the King’s subjects uses a camera of some kind.^ In this country, the increased consumption of photo¬ graphic materials shows that we are also becoming camera con¬ scious. Every enthusiastic photographer will have his own explana¬ tion for this increased popularity in the art of photography, but only a few such reasons need be mentioned here. First, and fore¬ most in the mind of the average person, is the fact that photog¬ raphy is utilized to a greater extent today by all forms of the press than ever before. Newspaper accounts and magazine ar¬ ticles are accompanied by many pictures for the sake of illustra¬ tion. Some readers may even say these photos are so numerous as to be distracting. Be that as it may, photography is taking a definite place in the journalism of today. Secondly, the enthusi¬ asm for photography has grown because of an improvement in photographic technique. The cumbersome photographic opera¬ tions of fifteen or ten years ago have been replaced by shorter and less troublesome steps. And it should be added further, the goal in photographic workmanship is far from being reached, for new methods and ideas are rapidly being formulated and are coming into popular usage. As a third stimulus for added in¬ terest, photographic equipment and materials have been greatly improved to keep step with the modern photographic technique already mentioned. Camera styles have been changed to match 273 the speed and streamlining^ of other modern equipment. The ap¬ pearance of the miniature camera has served to enlarge the photographic field of equipment. Modern films are finer grained and faster than ever before. Color films and prints in color are added attractions for the photo-enthusiast, but one must admit that they necessitate greater financial resources. The movie in¬ dustry has grown and has demanded photographic equipment unheard of a few years ago. And finally, the possibilities of photography in other fields of science and learning have helped to make it more prominent. Visual and audio-visual methods used in modern education are only two applications that might be mentioned here. For these and other reasons, we must pre¬ pare the w^ay for further accomplishments of photography in the future. Should we as educators include photography as a subject to be taught in a curriculum already crowded? In answering this question, we should consider the problem from the standpoint of the College, and also from the viewpoint of the student taking such a course as a part of his college education. The Position of the CollSige The teaching of photography in the college or university has been practiced by a few institutions for some time.^ Several very fine articles have appeared in the literature dealing with the organization of such a course.'"^ A brief course in photography has also been included in some high schools as an elective study for juniors and seniors.^ In many cases, although photography is not offered as a credit course, the student has an opportunity for photographic work through the agency of a school camera club. This serves very well in many instances since few students intend to follow photography as a vocation. In some schools, the student is introduced to photography by taking pictures for the school yearbook or paper. A few colleges and universities main¬ tain their own publicity departments and do not rely on news¬ paper photographers for their publicity pictures.® Regardless of the method used in educating the student photo¬ graphically, certain questions will arise in his mind concerning various fundamental photographic problems. These questions in¬ variably lead back to an understanding of physics or chemistry, since photography is based on the former science to produce the image, and the latter science to retain the image in a permanent way. The student should, then, have some knowledge of : 1. The phenomena of light as studied in elementary physics, and 2. Basic chemical information concerning photographic pro¬ cesses. It is advisable, therefore, that a course in photography be taught 274 in either the department of chemistry or the department of phys¬ ics. If that is not possible, instructors in these departments should at least assist in the teaching of the subject. ^ By way of caution, it should be pointed out that if the course is taught in the department of physics, the instructor is very apt to empha¬ size the importance of his particular field in photography. Sim¬ ilarly, the instructor in chemistry will have the tendency to stress the chemistry of photography. Consequently, certain reserva¬ tions should be kept in mind by the instructor regardless of his chosen field. Some educators have even suggested that a course in photography should really be taught in three college depart¬ ments, i. e., chemistry, physics, and fine arts. However, the average chemist has had enough training in the physics of light to be able to instruct the student thoroughly in the practical side of photography. And many chemists are artistic enough to provide the necessary instruction in photo¬ graphic composition and lighting. In other words, the teaching staff of the average college already has the necessary man power for instruction in photography. Nevertheless, very few colleges are including photography in their curriculums. In 1930, E. W. Maphis writing in American Photography estimated that there were only four colleges in the United States offering courses in photography that could compare with similar courses as pre¬ sented in the better trade schools.® The number has undoubtedly increased since that time, but no definite figures can be given by the New York office of the Association of American Colleges as to the number of colleges teaching photography at the present time. Since a survey of all institutions of higher learning in the country was practically impossible, the writer decided to make a survey of all colleges located in one state. The results show that in the twenty colleges in the state of Virginia, only five, or 25%', offered a course in photography in 1939. One other college plan¬ ned to start such a course this year, but even so, the percentage remains unquestionably low. However, eleven of these same col¬ leges, or over 50%, acknowledged that they did have some sort of dark room facilities available. The results of similar surveys in other states may or may not lead to the same conclusion as illustrated by the state of Virginia. Many college administrators, when confronted with the ques¬ tion of including photography in their curriculums, will put the issue aside, stating that the expense involved is too great. Ac¬ tually, photography may be expensive as a hobby, or it may be practiced in such a way as to fit any pocketbook. Similarly, a one-semester course in photography can be run economically in the college budget, or it may be lavishly expounded. The dark room is not coniplicated in its construction and requires no skilled labor for its erection. The equipment can be purchased 275 or it may be put together in the college workshop, depending on the needs and the funds available for this purpose. The follow¬ ing diagrams, Figures 1, 2, and 3, suggest several dark room ar¬ rangements utilizing different floor areas and equipment. For the most part, the dark room can be equipped from year to year, thereby distributing the burden of expense. The student fee for the purpose takes care of the films, chemicals, depreciation, etc. The content of the course in photography may be altered ac¬ cording to the needs of the college or of the department in which it is given. In the survey of Virginia colleges already mentioned, photography was offered by the departments of biology, physics and chemistry, art, architecture, and journalism in as many different institutions. Fortunately, photography is flexible and adaptable enough to be changed to fit the needs desired in any of these fields of learning. This fact makes photography even more attractive to the small college. The Position of the Student Lfet us now consider the student’s viewpoint relative to the question. Should photography be included in the college cur¬ riculum? The student himself will probably ask. Is photography an interesting subject to study? Will photography prove to be of any practical value to me after I have studied it? And finally. Is the study of photography very hard ? To answer the last question first, the study of photography like that of any other subject, can be made difficult or it can be presented in a simple way. A comprehenisive and detailed treat¬ ise on photography will present study problems similar to those in any other science. However, a one-semester course in photog¬ raphy must be brief because of the time element, and therefore LECTURE SUBJECT MATTER IN PHOTOGRAPHY 1. General Subject Material 4. Processing the Film History of Photography Darkroom Equipment Practical Applications Chemistry of Development Photo. Laws & Customs Chemistry of Fixation 2. Optics in Photography 5. Photographic Printing Light Types of Printing Paper Types of Lenses Contact Printing The Camera Projection Printing 3. Photographic Films 6. Misc. Photographic Material Types of Emulsions Composition & Lighting Exposure Color Photography Orthochromatics Movies 276 7 feet f IGUR€ !• FI6UR€3* 277 simplicity must be practiced in organizing the subject material. The following lists suggest typical lecture topics and laboratory experiments for a one-semester course : LABORATORY EXPERIMENTS IN PHOTOGRAPHY 1. The Pinhole Camera. 2. Lenses — Focal Length. 3. Check Student Cameras. 4. Prepare Solutions. 5. Exposure Latitude. 6. Film Processing. 7. Contact Printing. 8. Projection Printing. 9. Reduction : Intensification 10. Copying. 11. Lantern Slides. 12. Composition. 13. Lighting: Portraits. 14. Color Photography. 15. Individual Projects. 16. Individual Projects. Both lecture and laboratory material should be kept fundamental and some instructors feel that if the student can successfully carry out the operations of photographic developing and print¬ ing, he has derived sufficient benefit from the course. At any rate, the primary emphasis should be on the fundamental photo¬ graphic processes, and then, if time permits, a study of some of the side lights may be included. There is a good selection of textbooks and references in pho¬ tography, and the proper text may be chosen to satisfy the needs of the individual institution. The larger publishing houses usually have at least one such book to offer, and a complete list of photographic books is given by Miles J. Martin in The Amer¬ ican Physics Teacher for April 1939. There are also a number of photographic periodicals suitable for student reference work. Several new photographic journals have started publication dur¬ ing the past few months, and one of these. Collegiate Photog¬ rapher, first issued in November, 1939, is designed especially for the college student in photography. Another new periodical is technical enough in content to be used as a reference in advanced work. Perhaps the best answer to the second question. Does photog¬ raphy have any practical value for the student, will come from college graduates who have taken the course themselves. The results of a survey of our students who studied photography during the four-year period from 1935 to 1938 inclusive, are as follows : Twenty-eight students registered for photography dur¬ ing this period, and of this number, seven are utilizing photog¬ raphy to gain all or a part of their remuneration. This means that 25% of the students taking photography during these four years have found practical value from the course in a material and financial way. Four of these graduates are staff newspaper photographers, one is working for a commercial photographer. another graduate takes pictures of filling stations for an oil company, and one graduate has started a department selling photographic equipment and supplies in a store. Twenty of these graduates said they had received benefit from their course in photography as a hobby. The following quotations show a few of the comments made by some of these students regarding pho¬ tography : ^ “I find that it is of definite value and one of the really useful things that one can use after graduation.’’ “Am planning to advance my Photographic Course by studying further at New York Institute of Photography.” “The course furnished me a worthwhile and interesting hobby.” “Your photography course started me on my life’s work. Every journalism student should take this course.” “Although not originally employed as photographer, that phase of the work has marked my progress. Am now staff photographer for the Roanoke Times” “This was one of my few college courses from which I derived; an immediate tangible benefit.” When one stops to realize that each of the students mentioned worked only one semester in photography, and that he was really majoring in some other department, the results are even more surprising. Little need be said regarding the last question, as to the in¬ terest aroused by photography in the minds of the students. Their willingness and eagerness to take pictures and to see their finished products is testimonial enough. At the beginning of the course, we usually have some difficulty in keeping students out of the dark room before they have had the necessary training, as they are eager to develop and print their own pictures. One reason for this interest unquestionably lies in the fact that the student can see an immediate result from his study and work in the dark room. It may be some time before he will actually utilize the data derived from some of his college courses, but in photography the results are forthcoming at once. The college course in photography can be made more inter¬ esting by including individual student projects near the end of the course as suggested in the listing of the various laboratory experiments. This method has been found successful in several colleges offering short courses in photography.'^ The student majoring in biology will be interested in a project on photo¬ micrography, the student of chemistry may desire to record pho¬ tographically the results of certain experiments, and the physics or pre-medical student may want to try his hand at X-r'ay pho¬ tography. The suggestion of an exhibit of prints or a print salon 279 may also serve to stimulate added interest in the course. The problem of student interest is not a serious one in photography, and the instructor will find his charges ready for library reading and other outside assignments in addition to the routine study required. Summary By way of summary, a course in photography is adaptable to the average college curriculum : 1. First, from the standpoint of the college a. Because the average instructor in chemistry or physics is qualified to teach photography, b. Because the expense is no greater than that of other laboratory sciences, c. And because photography may be taught in such a way as to fit the requirements of the institution. 2. And secondly, it is adaptable from the viewpoint of the student a. Because photography makes an interesting subject for study, b. And because photography has been found to be of defi¬ nite practical value. Literature Cited 1. The Modern Encyclopedia of Photography — American Photographic Pub¬ lishing Co. (1938). 2. A College of Photographic Technology — Neblette. Am. Phot. 21, 430, (1927). 3. Organizing a College Credit Course in Photography — Martin. American Physics Teacher 7, 116, (1939). 4. A High School Course in Photography — Persing. J. Chem. Education 8, 1587, (1931). 5. The College Photographic Laboratory — Biggs. Am. Phot, 604, (1937). 6. Who Is To Train Them? — Maphis. Am. Phot. 2Jf, 90, (1930). 7. Photography As a Problem In Science — Mohler. Am. Phot. 31, 60C, (1937). Roanoke College. 280 Studies on the Turbellarian Fauna of the Norfolk Area. V. Anatomical Notes on the American Representative of Macrostomum orthostylum Braun 1885 Frederick F. Ferguson and E. Ruffin Jones, Jr. Macrostomum orthostylum was first taken from the flowing fresh waters of Dorpat (Tartu) Estonia by Braun in 1885. Meixner (1915) also reports its occurrence in the fresh water lakes of the eastern Alpine country. It is now reported from fresh water pools in Williamsburg, Virginia and from flowing fresh water streams in the Norfolk area. It is associated with green algae, copepods, protozoans, and other Turbellaria. A cotype of this species is deposited in the U. S. National Museum as No. 22684. All anatomical measurements used are average figures. Description^— tidies, of the slender dorsoventrally compressed body (Figure 1) subparallel for the great part of the length of the animal, no lateral indentations, caudal region without spatu- lation, delimited by slight gradual depressions ; body colorless ex¬ cept for black eyes and enteric inclusions; total length up to 1.1 mm. Epidermis of flat, roughly pentagonal cells bearing an even coat of cilia (5 /x long). Rhabdites (Figure 2) in packets of 7 to 10 fairly numerous on dorsum, relatively sparse on ventrum, pos¬ terior caudal rim of rhabdites prominent; “Rhamitten’’ sparse, no ^'Rhabditenstrassen” ; closely packed ovoidal ''Stabchen’' in floor of female genital atrium radial to female gonopore (Fig¬ ure 1, fgp). No ‘‘Haftpapillen’'. Sensory hairs (Figure 1, sh) very long postero-laterally (82 /x), frequently single laterally, arranged in short tufts anteriorly (Figure 1, at), no epidermal spines. “Brain’" (Figure 1, hr) crescentic, lacking median inden¬ tation at commissure, longitudinal nerve cords readily observable anteriorly. Eyes paired (15 ^ in diameter), closely attached (Figure 4) at dorso-posterior part of “brain”; pigment material of eye extremely small and amorphic. Mouth median ventral (Figure 1, m) limited by ciliated lips. Pharyngeal glands (Fig¬ ure 1, pg) weakly developed but extensive in latero-posterior direction. Enteron dorsal (Figure 1, en) saclike, laterally in¬ dented, ciliated, extending almost to female gonopore. Excre¬ tory system (Figure 1, pn) of paired latero-ventral main-stems extending almost from one end of body to the other, no commis¬ sures observable, but with extensive lateral branching in cephalic lA part of the expenses entailed in the collection of this material was met by a grant from the Virginia Academy of Science. 281 282 region (Figure 1), external openings paired, dorsal and variable in nature near and median to testes (Figure 1, ep). Testes com¬ pact (Figure 1, roughly obovate, smooth walled, located later o- ventrally and only slightly posterior to anterior end of enteron. Vasa deferentia (Figure 1, vd) extend latero-posteriorly from each testis to posterior end of enteron, there uniting to produce ductus seminalis (Figure 5, ds) , “False” vesicula seminalis not observed. Vesicula seminalis (Figure 5, vs) a contractile spheroidal organ of small volume (20 fx diameter). Entrance from vesicula granulorum to vesicula seminalis guarded by a sphincter. Proximal portion of vesicula granulorum ciliated (Figure 5, c), distal portion and genital canal of penis^stilette usually filled with ovoidal packets of granular material (Figure 5, gr) ; vesicula granulorum is relatively thin walled. Penis- stilette (Figure 5, p) entirely straight, thin walled, terminus sharply pointed, opening terminal, length 57 jn. Male gonopore (Figure 1, mgp) relatively distant from posterior tip of body. Mature sperm cells (Figure 6) highly mobile, 28 fx long unex- tended, divided into tail, body, and feeler regions with highly re¬ fractive unit in body region, without “Nebengeisseln”. Female genital system typical for genus with exception of extreme pos¬ terior position of female gonopore in ventral floor of female genital atrium (Figure 1, fgp). Species Diagnosis. — Body slender, color white to gold, various gradations in rhaboids, with or without “Haftpapillen” in tail region, penis-stilette elongate straight funnel shaped (length up to 142 /x), opening oval at very sharp terminus, mature sperm cell without “Nebengeisseln”, ovaries heavily indented, body length up to 2.4 mm, distribution fresh waters of Estonia, Switz¬ erland, and United States, cotype U. S. N. M. No. 22684. Remarks. — This paper records the occurrence of Macrosto- mum ortho stylum Braun in the United States for the first time. An advantage was taken of this opportunity to contribute anato¬ mical notes upon the form and especially to present information and a drawing upon the gross anatomy. The morphology of the penis^stilettes of the American and European forms is practically identical, while there is a marked difference in size. Legend to Text-figures 1. Macrostomum ortho stylum. in optical section, x 137. at- — anterior tufts of sensory hairs br — “brain"” c — cilia cod^ — common oviduct e — ^eye Dorsal aspect of gross anatomy m — ^mouth mgp — male gonopore od — oviduct ov — ovary p — penis stilette Pg” — pharyngeal glands 283 eg — egg ” pn — protonephridia en — enteron sh — sensory hairs ep — excretory pore — ^testis fga — female genital atrium vd — vas deferens fgp — female gonopore vg — vesicula granulorum 2. Macrostomum ortho styhim. Packet of rhabdites. x 222. 3. Macrostomum ortho stylum. Parenchymatous, concrement bearing cell, x 1000. cr — concrement n — nucleus 4. Macrostomum orthostylum. Diagram showing relation of eye to ‘‘brain”, x 295. e — eye br — “brain” 5. Macrostomum orthostylum. Male sex apparatus, x 895. c — cilia vd — vas deferens ds — ductus seminalis vg — vesicule granulorum gr — packets of granules vs—vesicula seminalis p — penis stilette Bibliography (Chronologically arranged) Braun. M., Die rhabdocoeliden Turbellarian Livlands. Ein Beitrag zur Anatomie, Systematik und geographischen Verbreitung dieser Thiere. Archiv, f. d. Naturk. Liv., Ehst — und Kurlands ser. 2. Bd. 10, p. 138, taf. 2, fig. 1. Lief 2 Dorpat 1885. Luther, A., Zur Kenntnis der Gattung Macrostoma. Festscher. Palmen, Bd. 25, pp. 28-37. 1905. Graff, L. v., in: Brauer’s Susswasser. Bd. 19, p. 77, fig. 158. 1909. Hofsten, N. v., Neue Beobachtungen iiber die Rhabdocolen und Alloocolen der Schweiz. Zool. bidrag, Uppsala, Bd. 1, p. 18, fig. 1. 1911. Hofsten, N. v.. Revision der Schweizerischen Rhabdocolen and Alloocolen. Revue suisse de Zoologie. Vol. 20. Nos. 12-13, pp. 563, 577, 606, 608. Dec. 1912. Graff, L. v., Turbellaria II. Rhabdocoelida. Das Tierreich. p. 52, fig. 56. 1913. Meixner, J., Zur Turbellarienfauna der Ost-Alpen, insonderheit des Lunzer Seengebietes. Zool. Jahrb. Bd. 38, pp. 463, 468-470, 471-478, taf. 30, figs. 5, 6, 7, and 8. 1915. Steinbock, 0., and E. Reisinger., Ergebnisse einer von/ E. Reisinger un:I O. .Steinbock mit Hilfe des Rask — Orsted Fonds durchgefuhrten zoolo- gischen Reise im Gronland 1926. Vidensk medd. fra. Dansk. Naturh. Forening. Bd. 90, pp. 210, 211, 212, 254, 255, u. 258. 1930-31. Reisinger, E., Turbellaria der Deutschen limnologischen Sundra-Expedition. Arch. Hydrobiol. Stuttgart. Suppl. 12, p. 241. 1933. Ferguson, F. F., A monograph of the Genus Macrostomum 0. Schmidt 1848. Part V. Zool. Anz. vol. 128. 11/12. pp. 280-283. 1939. College of William & Mary-Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Norfolk Division. 284 Cobbles from the Pleistocene Terraces of the Lower York- James Peninsula Ernest W. Snipfen The abundance of material ranging from pebbles to boulders, among which those classed as cobbles are especially conspicuous, that is encountered along the beach of Chesapeake Bay in Eliza¬ beth City County, Virginia, prompted the preliminary study, here outlined, of the types of rock and of the localities represented. The illustration, which shows the beach near the abandoned Back River Lighthouse, north of Grandview, gives an idea of the conditions at this point. The area studied falls within the lowest Pleistocene terrace designated as the Princess Anne by Wentworth,^ the Talbot by Clark and Miller,^ and the Pamlico by Stephenson.^ Figure 1 There is little doubt that these cobbles have the adjacent terrace as their immediate source. All rivers in the lower part of the Coastal Plain of Virginia are sluggish tidal estuaries, not competent at the present time to transport any but the finest sediments. Shallow dredging in the Recent terrace, on bars and in stream beds, brings up little but mud and sand. On the other hand, coarse material is present in varying amounts through¬ out the Princess Anne terrace, and the rock types correspond to those found on the shore. Naturally the cobbles are exposed in greater quantity in the vicinity of streams, where feeble erosion has revealed them by the removal of finer sediments. They are especially large and abundant in certain sections, as in the area 285 between the two main branches of Back River. A pipe trench recently dug along the Back River Road west of Langley Field revealed the Pleistocene resting directly on the Miocene at about six feet below the surface, which here is at about the ten foot contour line. At the base of the Pleistocene is a band of num¬ erous large cobbles up to a foot in diameter. Most of these are well rounded but some are decidedly angular. One quartzite boulder preserved a typical slickensided surface. Subangular forms are common, but no definite glacial-type striations were observed. The abundance of the cobbles on the beach near Grandview is accounted for as concentration by wave action during the encroachment by the sea on the land. In the illustration the rapidity of this shore erosion is shown by the tree stumps stand¬ ing below normal high water mark. The extensive flats off shore at this point, known as the Horseshoe, appear to represent form¬ er land planed off by wave action.^ The prevalence of certain types of rock represented by the cobbles is conspicuous. Naturally they are chiefly the harder and more resistant rocks. However plentiful limestones, shales and similar rocks may have been originally, they could not survive the extensive reworking to which the formations have been sub¬ jected. The table is a classification of the rocks most frequently en¬ countered. The proportional quantities given are merely based on a rough estimate, and more detailed study would doubtless result in considerable revision. Tabulation of Cobbles Est. % Probable Item Rock of all System Formation Province locality 1 Quartzite 75 Lower Largely Blue Ridge Rockbridge ( Scolithus tubes Cambrian Erwin (Valley County common ) side) 2 Quartz 10 Not distinctive 3 Greenstone 2 Pre-Cambrian Catoctin Blue Ridge Madison (conspicuous amygdules of quartz and epidote) County 4 Chert 2 Cambrian Shady dolomite Valley Rockbridge or Watauga shale County 5 Arkosic 2 Triassic Manassas Piedmont sandstone (Newark) 6 Quartz with chlorite- 1 Pre-Cambrian Piedmont sericite schist 7 Fossiliferous Rare Devonian Oriskany VaUey Botetourt sandstone Ridges County 8 Anorthosite with blue Rare Pre-Cambrian Intrusive in Piedmont Nelson quartz and rutile Lovingston granite gneiss County 9 Limestones and shales 0 Absent 10 All others 8 Sandstones and conglomerates ; feldspathic ; and mica- ceous rocks (much altered) ; some hornblende schist and basalt 286 The table indicates the predominance of quartzite and quartz as would be expected. The quartz, and much of the quartzite, is not sufficiently distinctive in type to permit of assigning the source even approximately. Considerable of the quartzite, how¬ ever, is a hard light colored rock with numerous scolithus tubes like much of the Erwin.^ Megascopically it is exactly like the Erwin at the point where the James cuts through the Blue Ridge at Balcony Falls and this general locality would be a probable source. The quantity of Item 3 may appear greater than is actually the case, as its color m.akes it conspicuous. The greater part of it bears so striking a resemblance to the greenstone along the Skyline Drive in Madison County as to make that general region the probable source. It is very resistant rock even against the action of seawater. The chert. Item 4, was probably derived from the Cambrian dolomites of the Valley Ridges, though some may be from lower Ordovician rocks. Items 5 and 6 are doubtless Piedmont rocks but their source is otherwise indefinite. The Devonian fossils and other characteristics of the two specimens of Item 7 which have been found place them in the Oriskany, as confirmed by Dr. R. S. Edmondson. The only other fossils found are Miocene from the Yorktown, and undoubtedly of recent transportation. Item 8 is rare, but three or four specimens have been found. Its distinctive type seemed to place it at once, and Dr. Clarence S. Ross, after examining a thin section, stated that not only could he identify it as coming from the Nelson County rutile-anortho¬ site, but he would almost be willing to localize it even more defi¬ nitely. The feldspars in the specimens of this rock are quite fresh, which would suggest late transportation, perhaps Pleisto¬ cene ice-rafting as mentioned below. There are some feldspathic cobbles, chiefiy it would seem derived from Piedmont rocks, but they are usually much altered and difficult of identification. The contrast in size between these beach cobbles and the pre¬ vailing fine materials of the Coastal Plain arouses speculation as to whether or not the former have a different history than the balance of the sediments. That this is true of a portion of them is believed by those who have supported the theory of ice-rafted boulders of glacial type deposited erratically from Sunderland to Dismal Swamp time.^>^ These are not as readily recognized along the shore as in the stream valleys near the Fall Line, since the best criterion, that of glacial striae, would be lost in compara¬ tively brief milling by wave action. However, other indications are not lacking, such as exceptional size and faceted subangular forms, and to these characteristics might be added the unusual freshness of the feldspars in a few specimens. 287 Ice-rafting has doubtless played a part in the transportation of the cobbles, but to what extent is conjectural. It is probable that the great bulk of the coarse material has gradually moved across the Coastal Plain as the formations were worked and re¬ worked, and their considerable size bears witness to the trans¬ porting capacity of even v/eak rivers working together with wave action. As to the part played by the different rivers, the major role of the James is evident. The James had its course across the Piedmont and out onto the edge of the Coastal Plain establijshed in the Cretaceous, and early in Pleistocene time followed approxi¬ mately its present course across the Coastal Plain, though evi¬ dently not to its mouth.^ The other rivers of Tidewater Virginia are, in part or entirely, consequent streams resulting from uplift after Chowan time, or in the case of the smaller streams, even after the Dismal Swamp terrace was formed.^ It would follow that these streams probably played a lesser part in the trans¬ portation of the cobbles than others which are now non-existent. If, as it appears, the finer sediments of the Coastal Plain ter¬ races are composed mostly of the wreckage of the crystalline rocks of the Piedmont, and the coarser sediments are chiefly from the Blue Ridge and beyond, then most of the coarse materials have had a longer journey to their present resting place than has the bulk of the fine materials. Hampton, Va. References 1. Wentworth, C. K. (1930) — Sand and Gravel Resources of the Coastal Plain of Virginia. Virginia Geological Survey Bulletin 32. 2. Clark, W. B. and Miller, B. L. (1912) — Physiography and Geology of the Coastal Plain of Virginia. Virginia Geological Survey Bulletin No. IV. 3. Stephenson, L. W. (1912) — The Coastal Plain of North Carolina. North Carolina Geological Survey Bulletin 3. 4. Stephenson, L. W. — Fort Monroe, Langley Field and the Adjacent Country. On reverse of United States Geological Survey Langley Field (Hampton) Quadrangle. 5. Stose, G. W. and others (1919) — Manganese Deposits of the West Foot of the Blue Ridge, Va. Virginia Geological Survey Bulletin XVII. 6. Sanford, S. (1913) — The underground Water Resources of the Coastal Plain Province of Virginia. Virginia Geological Survey Bulletin V. 7. Roberts, Joseph Kent (1932) — The Lower York-James Peninsula. Vir¬ ginia Geological Survey Bulletin No. 37. 288 Soil Types and Their Significance in Agricultural Economy^ S. S. Obenshain Although soils have been classified under some system or another since earliest times (1),^ the system of classification as we have it today, has been developed during the past 40 years. In the early stages of its development the men assigned to the task of mapping soils and studying their relationships were trained geologists. It was, therefore, only natural that geology and the relation of geologic material to the soils was given major emphasis and that geologic nomenclature was largely used. In many cases, the soil maps and the geologic maps were almost identical. The geologic nomenclature has been so thoroughly stamped into the minds of soils men that it has been very diffi¬ cult to get soil scientists to ‘‘cease and desist’’ using such terms as granite soils, limestone soils, etc. With continued study and the development of soil classifica¬ tion, it became evident that soils which had developed over and from the same geologic materials were exceedingly different in many important characteristics. It was, therefore, evident that environmental factors were important influences in soil develop¬ ment. This new school of thought grew and ripened under the influence of certain soil scientists who were taking stock of the development of the field of soil classification in Russia where soil development seemed to be distinctly related to climatic influences. In fact some seemed to become over-zealous for the new school of thought, and began to minimize the influence of geologic material from which the soil is formed. As papers appeared in which the climate was over-emphasized, the geologist began to feel that soil scientists were becoming infected with a new malady which was influencing their clear thinking. At present, it is rather generally agreed that the soil as a natural body is the result of the action of certain environmenttal factors on the geologic or parent material from which the soil is formed. The most important environmental factors responsi¬ ble for soil formation are temperature, rainfall, topography, drainage or lack of drainage, natural vegetation and soil organ¬ isms. The extent to which the environmental factors have im¬ pressed themselves on the properties of the soil are dependent upon the relative development or age of the soil. Thus, a mature soil, or one in equilibrium with its environment, will have proper¬ ties impressed upon it dominantly by environmental factors; while a young soil, or one still rapidly adjusting itself to environ¬ mental factors, has properties dominantly impressed upon it by iPaper presented before Section E, A. A. A. S., Dec. 29, 1938. ^Figures in parentheses refer to “Literature Cited”, p. 294. 289 parent geologic material. Mature soils are formed only on gently sloping topography where environmental factors are permitted to exert their maximum effect. In Virginia, due to steepness of to¬ pography in certain areas, to restricted drainage under other conditions and in many other cases to resistance of geologic ma¬ terials to weathering forces, the soils in general are cloisely re¬ lated to geologic material. ^ Environmental factors affecting the development of mature soils place Virginia under the Gray Brown Podsolic great soil group which is common to states north of Virginia, and the red and yellow Podsolic great soil group which is common to states south of Virginia. Parent material, which exerts dominant in¬ fluence on young soils, divides Virginia into the following physio¬ graphic divisions which are common to states north, south and west of Virginia: Coastal Plain, Piedmont Plateau, Blue Ridge Mountains, Limestone Valley and Upland, and Appalachian Pla¬ teau. Each of these large physiographic groups of soils has a wide adaptation to certain types of Agricultural Economy based on a wide or average adaptation of the soils and climate. Specific adaptations to different crops and management must be worked out for individual farms as well as field units on the farm. For the purpose of this discussion, a soil type is considered as '‘a group of soils having similar differentiating chanacteristics, including texture and arrangement in the soil profile and devel¬ oped from a particular type of parent material’'. The soil type is the unit of mapping which is given geographic expression when areas are definitely located on a soil map. The sbil type is the unit of mapping and classification to which all agronomic data and technical soil studies are related. Within any of the different physiographic divisions of the state a large portion of the soils have common characteristics which make the area suitable for certain types of farming. Also, the specific adaptations to definite soil types are the important things to the individual farmer who must make a livelihood from the soil. The Coastal Plain Province of Virginia, for instance, is characterized by a predominance of sandy soils. These soils, when one also considers the climate, are especially suited to the production of peanuts, cotton, vegetable crops and crops associ¬ ated in their rotation. However, within this Coastal Plain area, there are larger areas of soils which are not suited to the above crops than there are of those which can be successfully used in their production. For instance, in the Coastal Plain province, the soil develop¬ ment and resultant characteristics are dominated by internal drainage of the soil. The internal drainage is governed by the physical nature of the soil material and also by nearness of the water table to the surface. All of the crops mentioned above are 290 successfully grown only on soils which are naturally well drained or soils which have a coarse texture and are susceptible to arti¬ ficial drainage. Where artificial drainage is necessary, the crop grown must have sufficient value to take care of the added ex¬ pense. Only a comparatively small area is represented by the soil types which fall into the well-drained group, and a smaller area by the types falling into the group which are susceptible to artificial drainage. If land is not suited to the most common money crops listed above, what is the farmers’ alternative? It should be to use the land for other purposes^ to which it is better suited. For instance, peanuts will produce best quality on Nor¬ folk fine sandy loam and related soils. It has been found that peanuts produced on Lenoir and Bladen fine sandy loam give even higher yields, but the quality is far inferior. For the good of the individual farmer, as well as for the peanut industry, the land not suited for its use should be put into other crops. The Bladen and Lenoir, although not adapted to peanuts, vegetables and cotton, are far more fertile than the soils suited to these crops, and are much better adapted to the production of pasture, hay and corn if properly drained. Taking the adaptation of soils to different uses as a founda¬ tion for a sound soil management program, the county agricul¬ tural agents in the Coastal Plain are now putting on a vigorous campaign to get the areas of different soil types into their proper use. Specific rotations of crops suited to different groups of soils have been worked out so that the farmer can have a sequence of crops on any of the important soils which are suited to crop production. Agricultural men, including farmers, realize that the founda¬ tion of an economically sound agricultural farm program must be based on using the soil for the purpose to which it is best suited. Nevertheless it is almost impossible for a farmer to re¬ sist the temptation of going into the same type of farming or producing the same crops as a neighbor, who is unusually suc¬ cessful, even though his soils foundation is entirely different. However, adapting our land to its proper use is not the only way in which soil type plays an important part in our agricul¬ tural economy. It has been clearly shown over and over again, that land suited to the production of the same crops has entirely different soil management problems. With increased competi¬ tion, it is necessary that individual rigid economy be enforced in the production of any crop. Previous to our concept of soil types and their differences, it was the practice to make general management recommendations with the hope that they would cover all soil conditions, and then to disregard the loss from ap¬ plying unnecessary fertilizing material to soils on which it was not needed. To emphasize this picture of soil type differences 291 requires a few specific illustrations. Hester (2) has shown that the plant food and reaction requirements for various coastal plain soils are decidedly different. He has shown, in contrasting three important coastal plain soils for the production of certain vegetable crops, that satisfactory yields of spinach could be ob¬ tained on Portsmouth loamy fine sand at pH of 5.0; while on Norfolk find sandy loam, the pH must be up to pH 6. For beets, the contrast was pH 5.4 for Portsmouth and 6.2 for Norfolk. If this difference in soil type requirement were not considered, it would mean a great loss either in the use of excess lime on Ports¬ mouth or crop failure on Norfolk. The addition of extra lime to Portsmouth in order to bring it up to a pH of 6 would require approximately 7000 pounds or 3% tons of a good quality of ground limestone per acre. Differences in plant food require¬ ments are just as striking. In the Piedmont plateau, the soils are essentially derived from crystalline rocks. The southern portion of the Piedmont is known as the bright tobacco belt of the state. In spite of the fact that the area is devoted principally to production of bright tobacco, there is a much larger area of soils not suited to the production of bright tobacco than of those which are so adapted. In Pittsylvania and Halifax Counties, the two leading bright tobacco counties in Virginia, the areas of good bright tobacco soils are approximately 17.7 and 11.7% respectively. However, this acreage is ample. The trouble comes from the fact that large areas of the soil types suitable to the production of high quality bright tobacco are used for purposes to which they are thor¬ oughly unsuited, while large areas of soil types wholly unadapted to the production of bright tobacco are used for that purpose. Underwood (3), in some economic studies on tobacco farms in Pittsylvania County, Virginia, found some very significant facts in regard to proper use of soil types in the production of bright tobacco. He found an average of $78.00 more profit per acre on Appling sandy loam than on Madison fine sandy loam, or rather for 1933, the year of the survey, it was $78.00 less net loss. The same year the average sale price per pound of the tobacco was 15.9c per pound for that produced on the Appling soils and 8.34c per pound for that produced on the Madison soils. The return per hour of labor was approximately 20c per hour against 2c and the labor income on the farm on Appling was $244.00 per year more than on the Madison soils, where the annual labor income was $92.00 per year. These contrasts may seem extreme, but those who are familiar with the soils in question will recall that there are quite a number of soils in the same region which would rate below Madison for bright tobacco. The above figures should clearly indicate that growing bright tobacco on soils other than those to which it is suited is not a sound economic procedure. 292 The results of the use of commercial fertilizers on the same tobacco farms should be just as convincing. Underwood found that the use of commercial fertilizers in correct analysis and amounts tended to increase the labor incomes on the better soils, but this was not true on the poorer soils. In other words, com¬ mercial fertilizers would not overcome the handicap of a soil un- adapted to its use. In the realm of soil management, the following analyses (4) of some southern Piedmont soils should be of interest: Lbs. per acre (based on 2,000,000 soil) Lime Magnesium Potash Cecil Fine Sandy Loam — Topsoil . 4,200 9,600 22,800 Subsoil . . 2,600 14,600 31,800 Iredell Loam- Topsoil . 98,600 51,600 5,080 Subsoil . 57,400 47,400 3,640 Experimental work in the field and greenhouse indicate that the problems on these soils are as different as the above analyses would indicate. The Limestone Valley and Upland Province of the state is especially well suited to general farming and grazing. The silt loam soils developed over limestone are inherently fertile and produce blue grass and other palatable and nutritious pasture plants. Specific adaptation to smaller areas is governed by both soil conditions and topography of land. Large areas of soil types which would be suited to production of corn, small grain and hay, if on smooth relief, are relegated to pasture because of steep slope. In many other instances the adaptation is due to soil dif¬ ferences and not to slope. The following yields show clearly the difference in value of two soils for the same crops : Corn Wheat Clover Berks Silt Loam . . 31.28bu. (52%)* 17.04 bu. (70%) * 3,440 lbs. (70%)* Dunmore Silt Loam 60.29 bu. 24.51 bu. 4,840 lbs. These yields are from long-time rotation experiments on the two soil types. It is evident that with Berks producing on the average of only 50 % as much corn as the Dunmore, one cannot afford to use the former soil for the production of corn. On the other hand, the Berks produces 70% as much wheat or hay as the Dunmore soil. Many other examples just as striking can be cited, but these few should suffice to clearly stress the importance of considering *Per cent of yield on Dunmore Silt Loam. 293 soil type differences in trying to work out an economically sound farm enterprise. It is the collective economy of the individual units which make up the economic soundness of a community, county or state. Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station, Blacksburg, Va. Literature Cited 1. International Cong. Soil. Sci. Oxford, Eng., 1935. Trans. Vol. 3, pp. 136-137. 2. Va. Truck Exp. Station Bulletin # 84. 3. Va. Farni Economics # 39. 4. Halifax County Soil Survey Report. 294 Studies of the Germination, Growth, and Propagation of Seeds, Berries, and Root Fragments of Berberis canadensis Mill. G. E. Matheny, R. S. Mullin and R. L. Shaver Studies were initiated for the purpose of determining the in¬ fluence that various environmental factors have on the propaga¬ tion and distribution of the native American barberry (Berberis canadensis Mill.) in southwestern Virginia. The native barberry is indigenous to the Appalachian region of the Southeastern States, where it serves as the alternate host of the black stem rust fungus (Puccinia graminis Pers.), which is often rdsponsi- ble for severe damage to the wheat, oats, rye, and barley crops as well as to several susceptible wild and cultivated grasses. The plantings in this experiment were made in Montgomery, Pulaski, Carroll, Grayson, and Wythe Counties, in each of the following exposures: In sunlight on a southern slope, in sunlight on a northern slope, in shade on a southern slope, and in shade on a northern slope. One-half of the seeds were selected from live bushes and one-half from bushes killed by salt after the berries were mature. Approximately equal numbers of seeds were planted as shelled seeds and as seeds in whole fruits. Tw^enty-five per cent of all plantings were protected by screen wire to prevent possible dis¬ turbance by rodents, and burned limestone was added to one- half of all lots of seeds and berries planted. One hundred freshly- dug root-fragments were planted at each of the four exposures. These plantings were made on February 17, 18, and March 1, 1938. Observations and readings were made on August 27, 1938, May 3 and 12, 1939, and April 24, 25, and 30, 1940. A brief preliminary analysis of these data seems to indicate that germination and survival of seedlings are greater in the shade on a southern exposure, whereas the tendency jseems to be the opposite in the case of the growth and survival of sprout¬ ing bushes from root-fragments. The second-best condition for germination of seeds was shade on a northern exposure, followed by sunlight on a southern exposure. Germination was lowest in sunlight on a northern exposure. Approximately 10 per cent germination has been recorded to date from both shelled seeds and those planted in the pulp. No significant difference can be noted to date between lots to which limestone was added and those to which it was not. Seeds from bushes that had been killed by salt soon after the fruit appeared mature gave higher germination than normally matured seeds collected from live bushes in February. Not only did a greater number of root fragments produce growth in the sunlight on both exposures, but the percentage of 295 winter survival of the small sprouting bushes was also greater in the sunlight on both slopes. It is proposed to continue observations on these plantings un¬ til the earliest date of fruiting of surviving bushes has been de¬ termined under the conditions of the experiment. Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine, United States Department of Agriculture. EDITORIAL The Virginia Journal of Science concludes the first year with this issue. An appraisal of the work of the year is there¬ fore appropriate. There have been many suggestions from mem¬ bers of the Academy through the year, and for these we are grateful. We wish to have more through the coming year. What is especially needed, however, is the sort of interest which is manifest in a large subscription list. The Journal should be self-supporting. It is not now. The Editors greatly appreciate the generous support ac¬ corded the Journal in the number of manuscripts submitted for publication. As yet there has never been any concern over this matter. The Journal has many enthusiastic supporters. The ex¬ pressions of interest in the fate of the new publication have been frequent and cordial. Naturally these have been gratifying and encouraging to the management. On the other hand there have been many criticisms of the methods or policies relating to the Journal, which, although they ruffle editorial composure, will probably, in the long run, do the Journal more good than en¬ tirely favorable comment. They may be examples of the discon¬ tent with things-as-they-are which usually leads to improvement. There have been two principal objections to Journal policies. The first is the suggestion that papers should have more popular appeal. It seems to be a trait of scientists that they dearly love to write the results of their researches in highly technical form, but are contemptuous of technical papers in fields other than their own. How do you feel about this matter? Is the chief function of our Journal to provide an outlet for technical publi¬ cations on research in Virginia? Or should a paper by a chemist be so phrased that it provides thrilling reading for a worker in the field of education? Should the geologist “write down’' for the biologist without special training in the field of geology? Should we all prepare our papers in a form which will be read and enjoyed by high school students interested in science? Is the Journal a propaganda organ for science, for the education of 296 the general public in scientific matters, to represent Virginia science to scientific workers in other parts of the nation and the world ? Or is it possible to serve several of these functions, with¬ out confining ourselves to any one, solely? The Editor-in-chief welcomes expressions from Academy members and subscribers to the Journal on the proper functions of a state science publi¬ cation. A second suggestion frequently offered which calls for a change in Academy policies for the Journal is that the Academy dues be increased to three dollars, making every member a sub¬ scriber arbitrarily. This would insure the financial security of the Journal, provided it did not have the effect of reducing the number of members seriously. There would be the question of an adjustment of dues for the junior membership to consider also. Opinions of members on this question are also desired. They should go to the Managing Editor. It is of interest to note the distribution of papers which have appeared in Volume I, among the Academy sections. The follow¬ ing table shows the number of papers and total pages used by the various sections. One paper (Agriculture) does not clearly be¬ long to any one section. The Engineering, Medical Sciences and Psychology sections have contributed no papers. Number of papers Pages Agriculture Astronomy Botany . Chemistry . Education . Geology . Physics . Zoology . 1 1 9 14 2 4 1 4 5 81/2 42 47 16 25 8 30 Finally, are there other uses to which the Journal may be put, for the good of readers, for the interests of science, or the Academy? Should its pages be open to the officers, so that they may present certain matters to the membership between annual meetings? If this is desirable and is to be effective, all members should be subscribers. Would a feature such as the column on Science Notes, contributed by Dr. Sidney S. Negus to The Com¬ monwealth, organ of the State Chamber of Commerce, be de¬ sirable? Do we want news notes of persons and events of scien¬ tific interest in the State? Would it not be helpful if readers sub¬ mitted notes on papers originating in the State but which are published elsewhere than in the Journal? Let us have your opinion, please.-— R. S. F. 297 INDEX TO VOLUME 1 (The program number of the Journal (No. 4, April) is not included in this index nor is its pagination (28pp.) included in the total for Vol¬ ume I.) Academy Abstracts of papers at annual meeting . 199 Committee reports . 184 Conference . 174 Council meeting . 173 General business meeting . 194 General program, annual meeting, Lexington . 172 Membership list . 257 Places of meeting . 119 President-elect’s report . 180 Presidents of the Academy . 119 President’s report . 174 Secretary’s report . 176 Treasurer’s report . 179 Agriculture Soil Types and their Significance in Agricultural Economy . 289 Astronomy Invisible Stars . 101 Authors Allard, H. A . 17 Armstrong, A. R . 130 Ashworth, J. T., Jr . 131 Atwell, Ann . 130 Bailey, Betty . 130 Baldwin, J. T., Jr . 33 Braun, E. Lucy . 1 Burch, Paul R. . 35 Burger, Alfred . . 156 Campbell, Henry Donald . 40 Chrysler, M. A . 33 Clarke, Talbott E . 78 Cline, Mary F . 130 Cole, James W. . 132 Core, Earl L . 110 Edwards, Allen D . 85 Ferguson, Frederick F. . 281 Fish, F. H . 125, 126, 127 Freer, Ruskin S . 296 Frierson, W. J. . 123 Harshbarger, Boyd . 85 Haynes, F. B. . 93 Hough, W. S . 119 Jones, E. Ruffin, Jr . 281 Keller, Margaret B. . 130 Kemp, B. H . 125, 127 Keys, B. M . 131 Lewis, J. B . 26 Massey, A. B. . 26 Matheny, G. E . 295 298 Meyer, Samuel Lewis..... . . . . . . 29, 117 Mullin, R. S . 295 Murray, J. J . 53 Noell, J. R . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125, 126 Obenshain, S. S . . . . . . . . . 289 Overholser, Lyle G . . . . . . . 162 Patterson, Paul M . 5, 30 Pollock, Mary B . 130 Reuyl, Dirk . . . 101 Roberts, Joseph K . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 Schumacher, J. D . 273 Shaver, R. L . 295 Simmons, J. W., Jr . . . . . 93 Sniff en, Ernest W . 285 Stow, Marcellus H . 40, 45 Swan, William 0 . 130 Taylor, J. Robert . 131, 145 Trout, William E., Jr . 130 Vance, Eugenia S . 130 Updike, Ira A . . . . . . . . . . . 131 Yoe, John H . 121, 162 Botany Allium alleghaniense . 119 Berberis canadensis . 295 Bryonhytic Succession on Boulders in the Mt. Lake Area, Giles County, Va . 5 Ferns and Fern Allies of Amelia County, Va . 26 Galax . 33 “Iceland Moss”, Cetraria islandica, in Virginia . 17 Isatis tinctoria . 133, 119 Members of the Genus Phacus Dujardin at Mt. Lake . 117 Micheliella verticillata . 33 Mixed Deciduous Forests of the Appalachians . 1 Notes on the Mid- Appalachian Species of Paronychia . 110 Paronychia . 110 Phacus . 117 Pteridophyta of a Bog near “White Pine Lodge”, Giles County, Va . 29 Studies of the Germination, Growth and Propagation of Seeds, Ber¬ ries and Root Fragments of Berberis canadensis Mill. . 295 Sullivant Moss Society’s 1939 Foray . 30 Chemistry Application of a New Class of Organic Reagents to the Detection and Determination of Palladium, The . 162 Oximes in Analytical Chemistry . 156 Progress Report, A (Armstrong) . 130 Progress Report, A (Swan) . 130 Progress Report, A (Updike, Ashworth, Keys) . . 131 Progress Report on Organic Analytical Research at Virginia Poly¬ technic Institute (Fish, Noell, Kemp) . 125 Relation of Some Chelating Reagents to the Periodic Arrangement of Metals, The . 145 Second Symposium on Organic Analytical Reagents . 121 Solubility of the Alkaline Earth Salts of Some of the Higher Fatty Acids . 127 Study of the Reaction Between 2-Acetamino-6-aminobenzo-thiazole and Iridium, A . . . 126 299 Summary Report of 500 Organic Compounds, A (Frierson)..... . 123 Summary Report of Progress (Taylor) . 131 Summary Report on 100 Organic Compounds, A (Keller, Vance, Pol¬ lock, Bailey, Cline, Atwell, Trout) . 130 Valence Theories Applied to Some Organo^Metallic Complex Com¬ pounds . 132 Editorial . 296 Education Equalization of Educational Opportunities Among Virginia Counties 85 Photography as a College Course . . . 273 General Notes . 33, 119 Geology j Cobbles from the Pleistocene Terraces of the Lower York-James Peninsula . 285 Contributions of Virginians to the Geology of the State . 68 Heavy Mineral Separation . 45 Significance of Geological Features in Jackson’s Valley Campaign . 40 Physics Dielectric Absorption, A Study of . 93 Zoology Early Winter Food of Ruffed Grouse on the George Washington National Forest . 78 Faunal Zones of the Southern Appalachians . 53 Macrostomum orthostylum . 281 Snakes of the Alleghany Plateau of Virginia . 35 Studies on the Turbellarian Fauna of the Norfolk Area. — ^V. Anat¬ omical Notes on the American Representative of Macrostomum orthostylum . 281 Turbellaria . 281 300 ' . ■■■■^'''■; . '■ ^ " '-rv V ^ .V;' 'V / astwned by Department A\ The Virginia of Science VOLUME II Published by The Virginia Academy of Science Monthly, except June, July, August and September at Lexington, Virginia. CONTENTS PAGE Observations on the Conservation of the Chesapeake Blue Crab, Calli- nectes sapidus Rathbun — ^Curtis L. Newcombe and Ellen H. Gray . 1 A Thoracopagus Twin' Chick Embryo — ^Chauncey McLean Gilbert AND Milton Silverman . 11 Chemistry at William and Mary, 1693-1860 — Robert G. Robb . 23 Notes on Copulation of Certain Nematodes — W. L. Threlkeld . 31 A Simple, Sturdy, Precise Glass Thermoregulator with a Rapid Ad¬ justment for Different Temperatures — H. N. Calderwood and F. W. Koerker . 35 A Simple Aerator — Herbert William Jackson . 39 Biology at William and Mary Before the War Between the States — Donald W. Davis . 41 SoUdago bicolor a Rather Puzzling Assemblage in Northern Virginia — H. A. Allard . 53 The Junior Academy Movement — Hubert J. Davis . . 57 Colonel William Fleming’s Scientific Observations in Western Vir¬ ginia — W. D. Hoyt, Jr . 63 Distribution of Galax aphylla in Virginia — J. T. Baldwin, Jr . 68 General Notes . 70 Program, Nineteenth Annual Meeting. (No. 4, April, pp. 73-102.) As It Appears to the Cavalier — Thomas Lomax Hunter . 103 Observations on Virginia Plants, Part I — F. R. Fosberg . 106 Industrial Waste Survey in Virginia — Dudley Thompson and Robert A. Fisher . 112 Some Plants Found in Northern Virginia and West Virginia — H. A. Allard . 116 Recent Fossil Discoveries in Burkes Garden, Virginia — ^G. G. Peery . 120 A Checklist of the Cicadellidae at Chatham, Virginia, with Thirteen New Records for the State — George Wene and C. B. Dominick ... 122 Proceedings, 1940-41. (No. 6, October, pp. 127-254.) General Program . 130 Minutes: Council Meeting . 131, 133 Academy Conference . 134, 163 General Business Meeting . 164 Abstracts of Papers: Astronomy, Mathematics and Physics . 167 Biology . 172 Botany . 179 Zoology . 184 Chemistry . 189 Education . 198 Engineering . 200 Forestry . 208 Geology . 210 Medical Sciences . 219 Psychology . 228 List of Members . 237 An Analysis of the Contrast Values and Biological Application of Microscope Filters, and New Filter Materials — Lewis W. Webb, Jr. and Frederick F. Ferguson . 255 Mineralogy of Sands from Tributaries of South Fork of Shenandoah River, Virginia — C. L. Sartor and R. W. Root . 261 PAGE Observations on Some Virginia and West Virginia Plants — A. Allard . 263 A Forest Fire Prevention and Suppression Program for Virginia, I. — F. C. Pederson.... . 265 Source of Sediment of the Tuscarora Sandstone in Massanutten Mountains, Virginia — Egmont Horn and Henry W. Woods . 270 Native Grapes of Virginia — A. B. Massey . 272 Further Genetical and Cytological Studies on a Seaside Ecotype of Aster multifiorus Ait. — Albert L. Delisle and Mary Rebecca Old . 275 Distribution and Duration of Meristematic Activity in Leaves of Smilax — Bernice M. Speese . 280 Observations on Virginia Plants, II. — F. R. Fosberg . 284 General Notes . 289 INDEX TO VOLUME II (The program number of the Journal (No. 4, April) is not included in this index, nor are titles and authors from the Proceedings (No. 6, October.) PAGE Academy Abstracts of papers at annual meeting . 167 Academy Conference . 134 Business Meeting (Saturday) at annual meeting . 164 Committee Appointments . 138 Committee reports . 141 Council meeting . . . . . . . 131, 133 General program, annual meeting . 130 Junior Academy Movement, The . 57 Membership list.. . . . 237 Secretary’s report . 137 Treasurer’s report . 140 Virginia Junior Academy of Science, Meeting of the . 149 Virginia Academy of Science Organized . 70 Authors Allard, H. A . 53, 116, 263 Baldwin, J. T., Jr . . . . . 68, 71 Calderwood, H. N. . 35 Davis, Donald W . 4 Davis, Hubert J . . . 57, 70 Delisle, Albert L . 275 Dominick, C. B . . . 122 Ferguson, Frederick F . 255 Fisher, Robert A . 112 Fosberg, F. R.. . . . . . 106, 284 Gilbert, Chauncey McLean . 11 Gray, Ellen H . 1 Horn, Egmont.. . . . 270 Hoyt, W. D., Jr . . . , . 63 Hunter, Thomas Lomax . 103 Jackson, Herbert William . 39 Koerker, F. W . 35 Massey, A. B . 272 Newcombe, Curtis L . 1 Old, Mary Rebecca . 275 Pederson, F. C . 265 Peery, G. G . 120 Robb, Robert G . 23 Root, R. W . 261 Sartor, C. L . 261 Silverman, Milton... . 11 Speese, Bernice M . 280 Thompson, Dudley . .' . 112 Threlkeld, W. L . . . 31 Webb, Lewis W., Jr. . 255 Wene, George . 122 Wherry, Edgar T,... . 289 Woods, Henry H . .' . 270 Biology Analysis of the Contrast Values and Biological Application of Microscope Filters and New Filter Materials . 255 Biology at William and Mary Before the War Between the States.... 41 PAGE Botany Chromosomes of Cruciferae: a Project and a Request . 71 Distribution and Duration of Meristematic Activity in Leaves of Smilax . 280 Distribution of Galax aphylla in Virginia . 68 Further Genetical and Cytological Studies on a Seaside Ecotype of Aster multiflorus Ait. . 275 Native Grapes of Virginia . 272 Observations on Some Virginia and West Virginia Plants . 263 Observations on Virginia Plants . 106, 284 Solidago bicolor a Rather Puzzling Assemblage in Northern Vir¬ ginia . 53 Some Plants Found in Northern Virginia and West Virginia . 116 Two Virginia Fern Records . 289 Chemistry Chemistry at William and Mary, 1693-1860 . 23 Simple, Sturdy, Precise Glass Thermoregulator with a Rapid Adjustment for Dift’erent Temperatures, A . 35 Engineering Industrial Waste Survey in Virginia . 112 Forestry Forest Fire Prevention and Suppression Program for Virginia, I... 265 General As It Appears to the Cavalier . 103 Colonel William Fleming’s Scientific Observations in Western Virginia . 63 General Notes . 70, 289 Geology Mineralogy of Sands from Tributaries of South Fork of Shenan¬ doah River, Virginia . 261 Recent Fossil Discoveries in Burkes Garden, Virginia . 120 Source of Sediment of the Tuscarora Sandstone in Massanutten Mountains, Virginia . 270 Zoology Checklist of the Cicadellidae at Chatham, Virginia, with Thirteen New Records for the State . 122 Notes on Copulation of Certain Nematodes . 31 Observations on the Conservation of the Chesapeake Blue Crab, Callinectes sapidus Rathbun . 1 Simple Aerator, A . 39 Thoracopagus Twin Chick Embryo, A . 11 i The Vimnia m o S’ f Journal of Science ■ Observations on the Conservation of the Chesapeake Blue Crab, Callinectes sapidus Rathbun — Curtis L. ? Newcombe and Ellen H. Gray . 1 Crab, Callinectes sapidus Rathbun — Curtis L. I Newcombe and Ellen H. Gray . 1 ■ A Thoracopagus Twin Chick Embryo — Chauncey ' McLean Gilbert and Milton Silverman . 11 Chemistry at William and Mary, 1693-1860 — Robert G. Robb . 23 ^ Notes on Copulation of Certain Nematodes — W. L. ;; Threlkeld . 31 (■ ■ A Simple, Sturdy, Precise Glass Thermoregulator with a ! Rapid Adjustment for Different Temperatures — H. N. Calderwood and F. W. Koerker . 35 i A Simple Aerator — Herbert William Jackson. . 39 ^ Published by The Virginia Academy of Science Monthly, except June, July, August and September 'Ji; at Lexington, Virginia. The Virginia Journal of Science Official journal of the VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE WoRTLEY F. Rudd, President, Medical College of Virginia, Richmond, Va. E. C. L. Miller, Secretary-Treasurer, Medical College of Virginia, Richr mond, Va. Sidney S. Negus, Assistant Secretary-Treasurer, Medical College of Vir¬ ginia, Richmond, Va. COUNCIL 1940-41 Regular Ex-Offido W. Catesby Jones . . 1941 D. Maurice Allan . . . 1941 Charles E. Myers . . 1942 Earle B. Norris . . 1942 Preston Edwards . . 1943 Ruskin S. Freer . . 1943 Marcellus H. Stow . . 1944 WoRTLEY F. Rudd . . 1944 H. H. Zimmerley . . 1945 George W ■ J effers . . 1946 EDITORIAL BOARD Editoir-in^Chief — RusKiN S. Freer, Lynchburg College, Lynchburg, Va. Maruiging Editor — Lt.-Col. Robert P. Carroll, Virginia Military Institute, Lexington, Va. S. A. Mitchell — Astronomy C. L. Albright — Physics G. W. Jeffers — Biology John W. Watson — Chemistry John Alex. Rorer — Education Albert H. Cooper — Engineering Edward C. H. Lammers — Geology Carl C. Speidel — Medicine R. S. Henneman — Psychology Entered as second-class matter February 20, 1940, at the post office at Lexington, Virginia, under the Act of March 3, 1879. Subscription — $1.00 per volume to members of the Virginia Academy of Science; $2.00 per vol¬ ume to others. Published at Lexington, Virginia. The Virginia Journal of Science VOL. II JANUARY, 1941 No. 1 Observations on the Conservation of the Chesapeake Blue Crab, Callinectes sapidus Rathbun^ Curtis L. Newcombe and Ellen H. Gray It is a matter of common knowledge among conservationists that the blue crab supply of the Chesapeake is rapidly declining, being reduced from a level of about 17 millions in 1931 to that of about 10 million crabs in 1937. (Md. Kept. 1937). Numerous ex¬ planations have been advanced to account for this decline. One outstanding reason is the taking of such large numbers of ''sponge’’ (berried) crabs and mated female crabs, a practice which undoubtedly reduces the potential supply of young crabs for the ensuing year. Another menace to the survival of the blue crab lies in the way in which "soft crabs” are handled in the industry. The cur¬ rent methods of transporting and holding crabs on shedding floats are responsible for the loss of a very significant percentage of the total numbers taken. From a standpoint of practical con¬ servation, no single one of our Chesapeake commercial fisheries merits more immediate attention than the blue crab fishery. This paper embodies the results of observations made on the current practices followed by the industry in handling crabs, and the effect of these practices on survival rate from a conservation viewpoint. Field experiments have been conducted to show the extent of loss resulting from faulty methods and, furthermore, by careful observations made on crabs in commercial and experi¬ mental floats, it has been possible to give reasons for modifying certain industrial practices. Those applied phases of the study pertaining to moulting and growth are briefly described, the more theoretical aspects of the data having been treated elsewhere (Gray and Newcombe, 1938 and 1939). Emphasis is placed on the lines of study that need to be pursued and the current prac¬ tices which should be modified in order to preserve the crab fishery (Compare Settee and Fiedler, 1925). Materials The Chesapeake Bay is the main center of the soft crab fishery even though the blue crab ranges as far north as Cape Cod, IJoint contribution from the Biological Laboratories of the University of Maryland; and from the Virginia Fisheries Laboratory and the Department of Biology of the College of William and Mary (Contribution No. 2). 1 Massachusetts and south to the Gulf of Mexico. Specimens used in this study were collected near Solomons Island and maintained on typical as well as especially constructed floats. Additional ob¬ servations were made on the commercial floats at Solomons Island and at Crisfield, Maryland. Crabs were kept in specially constructed crab floats con¬ taining several compartments. The linear dimensions considered are as follows — ividth, '‘W”, referring to the shortest distance between the ends of the lateral spines of the carapace; length, meaning the perpendicular distance across the carapace from a point immediately posterior to the rostrum to a point just above the first segment of the apron ; eye-to-spine, ‘‘E'’, implying the distance from the first anterior lateral serration posterior to the eye and the tip of the right lateral carapace spine (Fig. 1). Measurements were made with a vernier caliper reading to a tenth of a millimeter. Male and female specimens were compared in respect to their growth characteristics. Instead of following the growth of individual specimens through the several stages, a method of grouping was used, the width interval being 10 mm. By means of the average growth ratios obtained by this procedure, it has been possible to estab¬ lish certain dimensional and moulting characteristics of the spe¬ cies, age differences and, in particular, differences between male and female crabs. These facts are helpful in any regulatory efforts aiming to preserve the crab supply. Results Individual observations of over 500 crabs in floats have indi¬ cated that there is a high death rate among ''peelers’’ (crabs ready to cast their shells) kept on commercial floats. The lethal effect is due to a variety of causes. Polluted water surrounding the float constitutes one limiting factor in crab moulting. Efforts should be made to keep the floats in clean water, away from all refuse. The idea that a crab is a scavenged and normally con- sumes miscellaneous organic debris is a misconception. Although crabs do devour dead animals before decomposition begins, they avoid those that are in the later stages of disintegration. In an aquarium, the slightest morsel of decomposing material may subsequently prove fatal to the crab. Another factor limiting survival in the floats is found in the common practice of breaking the claws. This breaking causes the soft membranes inside of the shell to swell, and hence, pre¬ vents the tissues from being readily pulled through the narrow joints (Hay, 1905). This produces either death or a legless con¬ dition (buffalo crabs). The claws are broken by the crabber in order to facilitate handling as well as to prevent cannibalism. 2 Figure 1. Outline drawing of the blue crab showing the dimensions mea¬ sured. W width; L length; E = distance from eye-to-spine ; and C = length of the propodite of the chaela. A third factor that causes high mortality is the holding of '‘green line” crabs^ on the floats. While these crabs are in the initial stages of moulting, a period of a week or more is fre¬ quently required before actual shedding takes place, hence they must have food to assure normal survival. Since they are not given food when on the floats, a large percentage (at least 25%) die of starvation. "Pink line” crabs are so close to moulting that food is not required until the process is completed. If only "red line” and "pink line” crabs, which do not eat, were kept on the floats, these last two causes of mortality would be automati¬ cally eliminated. In the study of over 500 crabs that were care¬ fully handled on floats under favorable weather conditions, a 63% loss in the "green” crab moultings was observed and 27% loss in the "white line” crabs, as compared with 4% in the "pink 2“Qj.een line” crabs are those with a green line in the back “fin” (fifth pereiopods ) , in¬ dicating the commencement of moulting. Subsequent stages in moulting are designated “white line”, “pink line”, and “red line”. The “red line” stage immediately precedes the actual shedding process ; actual moulting crabs are known as “busters”. Other designations are also used. 3 line'' and 9% in the '‘red line" crabs. The increase in mortality of "red line" crabs over those in the "pink line" stage is due to the fact that "red line" crabs being more delicate are to a greater extent subject to injury. Crab dealers recognize the fallacy of holding "green" crabs on the floats but are obliged to do so for a practical reason, namely, the crabber demands the acceptance of his entire catch regardless of the stages represented. A fourth factor causing high mortality results from the use of faulty methods by the crabber in transporting his catch to the commercial floats. "Buster" crabs are frequently carried in the bottom of his boat. This exposes them to the air and produces a so-called "blister" between the two carapaces which prevents moulting. Furthermore, "red line" crabs are especially subject to injury by careless handling. In many instances, tin buckets instead of wooden vessels are employed to convey crabs from their point of catch to the floats. It is well known that this tends to weaken the crab at a time when it requires maximum strength. Size is used as a criterion for selecting marketable soft crabs. Legal sized small individuals, having an initial width range of about 75 to 85 mm., moult with greater facility and, if handled properly, have a lower death rate than those larger than 90 mm. in width. This may be attributed to the fact that the time required for moulting is shorter in small crabs and fewer structurial changes take place. Because of the highetr mortality among large crabs during moulting, it might seem to be more economical to use the slightly smaller ones, which are, according to many tests, just as palatable. It is. recognized that the number of small crabs — 75 to 85 mm. group — required to meet the soft crab de¬ mand would be greater than the number of large specimens. However, the increase is not likely to be particularly significant on account of the known higher mortality of the mature moulting crab. These and related points pertinent to the crab fishery are being given further study at the Virginia Fisheries Laboratory at Yorktown. Biometrical studies of moulting crabs have shown that fe¬ males having an initial width of over 90 mm. will usually mature at their next moulting. It is also easy to distinguish this point by physical characteristics. "Virgin" females require a longer time for shedding at this moult than at any other, evidently because of the excessive modifications of the exoskeleton, whereby the tri¬ angular apron becomes rounded, the spines straightened and lengthened and the body excessively thickened. The corresponding point of sexual maturity cannot be so readily recognized in male specimens, because the external modi¬ fications are not as conspicuous. At this point, there is, however, a slight modification in the exoskeletal structure, since the spines tend to curve anteriorly. This observation substantiates the find- 4 INITIAL WIDTH - MILLIMETERS Figure 2. Showing the moulting increments of width in the blue crab. Con¬ tinuous line = females; dashed line = males. Range of initial widths — males, 16.3 to 139.8 mm. and females, 13.0 to 119.4 mm. Observe the change in moulting characteristics of males at an initial width of 90 mm. ings based on the following statistical data obtained during the period 1933-38 (Table 1). It has been found that two distinct growth ratios, each repre¬ senting a straight line relationship, prevail during the life of the male crab. The point of intersection, being at the initial width of about 90 mm., is evidently the result of physiological change in the organism that modifies the relative growth increments during moulting (Fig. 2) . Identical conclusions may be reached by using 5 Table I Moulting Increments of C. sapidus 6 -a c ■J] o 55 w o 55 6 ;2: -u > '73 Sh C-00M'^m50rH,-lt-t-«>05O loiaorH-'toiooojt-ioj'^i-ieo 05 oi oj CD W -rj^’ lO lO 05 'jj eo o t-’ L003THr-IOCOt>C£)OOOC“0 C5t«'^OC5C5 03 03 r-Hi0C5*^l0 03* CO 00 05 rH CO 03* T-I r4 O O iri T-1 tH tH r-i rH •• f-' rH o 00 C>-t>C003^ 03 00COC0030000 CO CO 03 C5 CO CO 03 03 CO CO rH 05 O l00^03*o6lOO^*t^rH'^Ot^ i-l03 03COCO'^lOlOin)C©<£>t-t- lO 0(M'ct CO 00 05 t'; O 03 >-< N LO L73 c4 CD o’ 00 CO t> tH CD 03 eo o ,-4 rHTHC tH CD 05 tH 00 00 so CO CD t- ID 00 o 03 ID lO ID IC t-’ Cd' •^’ oj O 03 t> 00 00 CM(N(M-lt-i 00 ot-cDeooeoOi-i(M'ctit-oo 1—i ■'t ID CD 00* 05' O ,-H o' O o’ CD (m' (>i T— li— IrHrHT-li— Ir^l— 1 o OCD05eOOQOlDODCDCD 00 CO OOOOOOi-HCO'^OCDCDlDOt* i-H 'cl< ID ID 05 1-1 i-H Cd 0 CD t- CO 'cJ* t- 05' oi CM CM t>’ ID i-H t4 CdCdCdCdcocococdcdoacdi-HOJ 03 LO Ot-t>>Dt-05t-Cdr-ICDl>00 '7t05 03 ®005CD':t-i’-i(MCdcoo)oacdCdCdCO o eoooocD03t-oot-eoiDt-oo -CDt'--^05THCDO0Je0^_Cd5D':i; o 03 ID 05 CO 00' oi CD Co’ Co’ oi ID 0 Tj(lDCD00O5r-ICdCO':l'lDCDL-~O5 1— It— li— (1— ll— li— Hi— li— 1 03 CO eoi-ieoi-i5DOOT-HiDoao30oo CdOO-nJHOOOS-rJHOOojCD-ilHT-iCd t-H CO -iJh' ■'tJh -ciH t^h' -rf ID -tJh ID eo co' 05 Co' C0'*lDCDt.-00 03O,-iedC0^lD lOOt^fOlCiH'^t-'MlCOseOOO.. t-H N eo (M I-H rH rH rH i-H >“1 0505050^0505050505050505050503 071 05 05 05<3i050505050505050505050505 lH(M^-n‘l0l«0t.-CX)05O.-IC S3, % rt ~¥p,aUf ■ - Kfs,rt 'El 93, 9, if fiCjrtJ ■ dr / V 'V? ' "‘ti ' 't s 1 I > I "'"i Jii l||i^l|||llll|iip^ lipfi|#llilii^^fcip " ^ ri *■ ‘''N '-J ltepS:^iSSfe«|34»«IK4tf ,: - iil|i®f«f|il3SlS||p^ 4 3-"-' : Sit m-i .1# ;454#i»PS:3S'-iv::'isSi*fe H *- jv p.:’ V • •’‘ '-^ '■ f \' . H' r< . If ,f •' ■•3* ^k\-' ¥ ,',yy ':k -! ^"-7 3 The Virginia Journal of Science VoL !i FEBRUARY-MARCH, 1941 Nos. 2 & 3 CONTENTS PAGE Biology at William and Mary Before the War Between the States — Donald W. Davis . . . . . . 41 Solidago bicolor a Rather Puzzling Assemblage in Northern Virginia — H. A. Allard . . . . . . . 53 The Junior Academy Movement — Hubert J. Davis . 57 Colonel William Fleming’s Scientific Observations in Western Virginia^ — W. D. Hoyt, Jr . . . . . 63 Distribution of Galax aphylla in Virginia — J. T. Baldwin, Jr... . . . . . . 68 General Notes . 70 Published by The Virginia Academy of Science Monthly, except June, July, August and September at Lexington, Virginia. E The Virginia Journal of Science Official journal of the VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE WoRTLEY F. Rudd, President^ Medical College of Virginia,, Richmond, Va. E. C. L. Miller, Se(yr^tary-Tre(t8wrerj Medical College of Virginia, Richr mond, Va. Sidney S. Negus, Assistant Secretary-Treasurer, Medical College of Vir¬ ginia, Richmond, Va. COUNCIL 1940-41 Regular Ex-Officio W. Catesby Jones . . . . .1941 D. Maurice Allan . . . . 1941 Charles E. Myers . . 1942 Earle B. Norris. .. . . ........1942 Preston Edwards . ... . . .1943 Ruskin S. Freer . . . 1943 Marcellus H. Stow . . 1944 WoRTLEY F. Rudd . . . . . 1944 H. H. Zimmerley . . .1945 George W. Jeffers . . . . .1946 EDITORIAL BOARD Eddtor4n-Chn0f — Ruskin S. Freer, Lynchburg College, Lynchburg, Va. Managing Lt.-Col. Robert P. Carroll, Virginia Military Institute, Lexington, Va. S. A. Mitchell — Astronomy C. L. Albright — Physics G. W. Jeffers— John W. Watson— C/iemtstri/ John Alex. Rorer — Education Albert H. CooFER—Engineering Edward C. H. Lammers— GeoZo^r^ Carl C. Speidel— Medtcme R. S. Henneman — Psychology Entered as second-class matter February 20, 1940, at the post office at Lexington, Virginia, undter the Act of March 3, 1879. Subscription — $1.00 per volume to members of the Virginia Academy of Science; $2.00 per vol¬ ume to others. Published at Lexington, Virginia. The Virginia Journal of Science VOL. II FEBRUARY-MARCH, 1941 Nos. 2 & 3 Biology at William and Mary Before the War Between the States Donald W. Davis Like nearly all of the current subjects of instruction at the College of William and Mary, Biology naturally traces back into departments under other names. Meager as must have been the teaching during the early years in any of the fields specifically mentioned in the Charter granted in 1693 by the British sover¬ eigns, certainly some matter within our present field was con¬ templated in the listing of objects mentioned in the preamble of the Charter : “ . . . to the end . . . that the youth may be piously educated in good letters and manners ... to make, found and establish a certain place of universal study, or perpetual College of Divinity, Philosophy, Languages and other good Arts and Sciences . . It is safe to say that none of those subjects in the conception of Commissary Blair, who doubtless prescribed them, would have been defined in terms that would at all fit with the boundaries of present departments. For any fair view of the teachings of those days, one must go back of the titles of the chairs established and of the courses that may be listed, remem¬ bering that the terms. Natural Philosophy, Natural Science, and Chemistry were by no means so restricted in meaning as they have since become, and that Science signified knowledge or learn¬ ing rather than the particular body of knowledge that the word means today. A letter, illuminating on the point, was written in 1802 by “an inhabitant of Williamsburg’' to the Editor of the Slew York Evening Post to protest errors contained in “two short paragraphs (of that paper) respecting the College of William and Mary.” One item of the correspondent’s indictment is as follows : “9. Instead of the desertion of science, in the College of William and Mary, it is submitted, whether mathematics, nat¬ ural philosophy, astronomy, ethics, law of nations, politics, civil law, deserve to be ranked, in the estimation of the learned editor, among the sciences.” We must not allow unaccustomed' terms to lead us to neglect any indications of biological elements in the courses of study of the early days. In the Philosophical School, which with the Grammar School and the Divinity School made up the early College, the first chair was that of Natural Philosophy and Mathematics. Established in 1712, it is from this chair that any instruction in sciences should be expected. Its first six occupants have left little record of the 41 scope of their teachings or of the fields of their activity. It should be remembered, however, that the half century covered by their service immediately followed a period of brilliant progress in biology marked by the work in microscopy of the Englishmen, Hooke and Grew, of the Italian Malpighi, and of the Dutchmen, Swammerdam and Leeuwenhoek. The English preceptors and former associates of our academic predecessors were quite famil¬ iar with the work of these men. Of those named, not themselves English, Malpighi had many brief papers published by the Royal Society of London which honored him with election to member¬ ship and preserved the portrait he presented ; and the letters in which Leeuwenhoek recorded his observations were largely ad¬ dressed to the Royal Society which, also, received from him a gift of twenty-six microscopes each fitted to an object for examina¬ tion. The years preceding the opening of our Philosophical School also saw important work on classification of plants and animals by the founder of modern natural history, John Ray, whose ‘‘The Wisdom of God manifested in the Works of Creation’' could scarcely have been unknown to the philosophical and reverend occupants of William and Mary’s Chair of Natural Philosophy and Mathematics. Thus, it is reasonable to suppose that some of the biological science of their day was included in the teaching of these men. The seventh occupant of our chair, 1758-64, was William Small, the first notable scientist of the faculty, of whom his pupil Thomas Jefferson wrote “ ... he fixed the destinies of my life.” Small came at the time of the rise of the great Swedish naturalist, Linnaeus, who already had achieved wide recogni¬ tion. Twenty years earlier, Linnaeus, arriving in Paris and going unannounced to the Garden of Plants, attended a demonstration by Bernard de Jussieu. Observing the demonstrator to be puzzled over a particular plant, the stranger remarked, “It has the ap¬ pearance of an American Plant.” Whereupon de Jussieu ex¬ claimed, “You are Linnaeus.” Fifteen years later, Linnaeus pub¬ lished his “Species Plantarum” and, in the very year of Small’s appointment, his “Systema Naturae.” Contacts between Vir¬ ginia’s naturalists and Linnaeus or his associates had been established even before the publication of these notable land¬ marks in the orderly classification of plants and animals. It may well be, therefore, that Small influenced the young Jefferson specifically toward the botanical studies which constituted no small part of his repertoire of intellectual and practical interests. We have the testimony referred to above as to the greatness of Small’s teaching and we have reason to believe that he intro¬ duced the lecture system into American education, but as to the subject matter with which he dealt we know little. Isaac A. Coles, writing in 1779 to Henry St, George Tucker, says: “The study of 42 the natural sciences and experimental philosophy was introduced at William and Mary by Dr. Small of Birmingham, England. Gov. Fauquier was an ardent devotee and in his will left his body for scientific purposes. Jefferson was brought up under his in¬ fluence, and even James Madison, the Bishop, imbibed the spirit. Natural Philosophy was his favorite study. Notable in the record of Small’s service is the list of apparatus purchased for the College after his return to England in 1764. The day was not one of extensive equipment for biological studies but this list includes at least one item whose chief service, then as now, has been biological, ‘‘a best double microscope etc.” Indicative of such use is one of its earliest names, “vitrum pulicare” or '‘flea- glass.” Similar instruments are still used in a demonstration which doubtless has had a very long, if devious, history, the flea circus of our fairs. Coles’ reference to Dr. Small of Birmingham, Eng., calls attention to the fact that in his later years our erst¬ while professor was a famous Birmingham physician and close friend of the physician and philosophical naturalist, Erasmus Darwin, and of the inventor of the steam engine, James Watt. In the absence of definite records of the subjects taught at the College under Small and his immediate successors, we must fall back on the interest of the times which, indeed, were not sterile. Dr. John Mitchell, physician and naturalist, living at Urbanna, Middlesex Co., was a fellow of the Royal Society of London and a contributor to its Transactions. He sent data on the American Flora to Linnaeus. He wrote various papers on natural history, an “Essay on the Causes of Different Colors of People in Differ¬ ent Climates” (1744) and “Yellow Fever in Virginia in 1737- 42.” John Clayton, for over fifty years Clerk of Gloucester County, called by the English botanist, Peter Collinson, “My friend the great botanist of America,” corresponded with Lin¬ naeus, Gronovius and other naturalists of Europe and America. Gronovius’ “Flora Virginica” which was based largely on speci¬ mens sent him by Clayton was printed, in parts, in 1739 and 1743 and in a revised edition in 1762. Two volumes of an illustrated natural history of Virginia, painstakingly accumulated by Clay¬ ton and ready for printing, were lost by fire during the Revolu¬ tion. While we know of no direct associations of Clayton with the College, the John Clayton listed among the Visitors of 1723 being more probably his father, the Attorney-General, a strong sug¬ gestion of indirect contacts is found in the fact that, in May, 1773, when the Virginia Society for the Promotion of Useful Knowledge was organized in Williamsburg, John Clayton, then about eighty-eight years old, was elected president. The atmos¬ phere surrounding the College in the last half of the eighteenth Century was not heedless of the scientific, and more specifically of the biological, knowledge of the time. 43 We have more definite indications that, after Dr. Small, the next Professor of Natural Philosophy of whom we have a note¬ worthy record introduced some biological subjects in his aca¬ demic instruction. This was the Reverend James Madison, a graduate of the College, who was appointed in 1773, made Presi¬ dent in 1777 and who was also, after 1790, first Episcopal Bishop of Virginia. A sample of his sermons reveals Madison as a broad minded cleric which is, perhaps, another way of saying what one of his pupils wrote of him : “The priest is buried in the philosopher.’’ On June 15, 1774, at the first meeting of the VSPUK (the modern alphabetical type of designation is con¬ venient, if not elegant) following Madison’s appointment to the faculty, John Clayton having died, John Page, the vice-president, was made president, George Wythe vice-president and Madison secretary and curator. Madison’s interests, largely scientific ac¬ cording to our present classification, certainly did not exclude biological topics. In 1780 President Madison wrote to President Ezra Stiles of Yale College in response to the latter’s request for “any of yr own compositions and printed Theses or Academic Exercises” : “I have nothing that I think worthy of your Attention by me at present. We have as yet published no Exercises under the new Estab¬ lishment, tho’ we have some young men of real Genius, who promise to become Ornaments of their country. Whenever we do, I will take the Liberty of transmitting them to you. “As to myself, I have some thoughts of publishing a Course of Lectures upon that Part of Natural History wc relates to Quadrupeds, some Time the ensuing Winter or Spring. — If I shd, I will send them to you, tho’ I fear they will be far from deserving your Esteem. “Shd you think it worth while to continue a Correspondence, which you have so obligingly commenced, — I shd be glad to have some Acct of the Cold the last Winter at your Residence.: As it was probably the severest ever experienced, since the settlement of America — ^and also your usual Summer Heat, together with the Quantity of Rain that falls annually and the most prevailing Winds. Also your Lati¬ tude and Longitude — together with the Variation of the Needle. — Facts of this kind will serve to throw great Light upon the Natural History of America.” I am Sir with great Respect, Your Most Obedt Servt J. Madison. A number of items in Madison’s letters to Thomas Jefferson testify to interest in varied current problems. In 1785 “We have rec’d a Present of some valuable Books from the King of France. Among others Buffon in duo complete.” On March 27, 1786, “In the continuance of the meridan line wch bounds the western extremity of Pennsylvania, marine shells were found on the highest ground between the Ohio and Lake Erie. I have written to Mr. Ellicott, who was concerned in running the line, in order to procure some of them, which I mean to forward to you. I 44 shall be happy to send them to you, as they will afford you some useful Data, & wd. no doubt be a particular gratification to those who are capable like Buffon of penetrating into ages past/' On December 28, 1786, ‘‘Having just heard of Mons. Quesnay's De¬ parture for France I have requested the Favr. of him to take charge of the Shells mentioned in a former letter, I thought they wd probably be acceptable to you, especially whilst in Paris where the science of Natural History has so many able Votaries. Mons. Buffon in his celebrated Epoques speaks of shells found in the highest parts of this country, & so do you in your Notes. I will not pretend to controvert the Method you suggest of accounting for their existence, but I have designedly sent a small collection of similar shells, taken from the immense bed wh. you know lies within the vicinity of this place, and indeed traverses the whole country. You will then be enabled to compare them to¬ gether and see whether their Similarity, or other Properties do not point out an identity of cause in their formation. At all Events you will probably consider them of some Importance in the History of the Earth." In 1789, “I sh’d be much obliged, if in your next letter wch. you may favour me with, you wd. be so good as to inform me, of the best Treatise on Conchology. I wish to see the Nat. Histy of this lower country somewhat inquired into." In connection with certain bones found in North Carolina he proposes (1800) that “the Philos. Society depute one of its members sufficiently interested in Natural History and Chem¬ istry to examine the [Wall?] in North Carolina, of which no doubt, you have often heard." In 1805 he reports the finding of bones and stomach of a “Mammoth" and the conclusion that these animals were vegetable feeders. A further token of President Madison’s respect for natural history in education is given in his letter written in 1811 to C. S. Todd, a former student at William and Mary then attending a famous law school in Litchfield, Connecticut, and later (1841) Minister to Russia: “I hope you do not confine yourself to law, but take a wide range in belles lettres, history, and the best writers in natural law. There are some excellent natural phi¬ losophers, most probably, in your vicinity. Chemistry and natural history should form a principal portion of the study of young men of capacity." In view of the relations between the two men it was natural that, in 1777, Madison, newly made president, should have enter¬ ed sympathetically into the plans of Jefferson, then Governor of the State and a member of the Board of Visitors, to transform the College into a university. The story of the reordering of the academic functions has often been told. Jefferson contemplated considerable expansion. Relative to scientific fields he explains, “In natural philosophy I mean to include chemistry and agri- 45 culture, and in natural history to include Botany, as well as other branches of those Departments/' The chief changes actually instituted in these fields seem to have been the formal addition of Natural History to the scope of the chair of Natural Phi¬ losophy, occupied by the President, and the institution of a chair of Anatomy, Medicine and Chemistry. To the latter chair was appointed a physician then practicing in Williamsburg, Dr. James McClurg. Son of a wealthy physician of Elizabeth County who served as surgeon in the Virginia State Navy in the Revolution, Mc¬ Clurg had studied at William and Mary, had gone to the Uni¬ versity of Edinburgh where he studied medicine and had re¬ turned to settle down in the capital of Virginia. His name was carried on the Masonic Roll in Williamsburg beginning in 1774. In 1776 he had sought Jefferson's infiuence to secure an ‘‘ap¬ pointment as Physician to Continental Troops in this colony." He occupied his chair, the second chair of medicine in the United States, from 1779 to 1784, but of his teaching and of his pupils we have little definite knowledge. Though Jefferson recognized Botany as a division of Natural History, certain phases of it, generally associated with Materia Medica in the medical studies, were doubtless included in the scope of the chair of medicine. Leaving the college in 1784 to take up medical practice at the new seat of government in the growing city of Richmond, McClurg was an outstanding physician there for forty years. He was sent as a delegate to the Constitutional Convention in 1787 but did not sign the document the Convention adopted. In that same year, when John Page wrote to Jefferson urging him to accept the presidency of the VSPUK, the latter replied that he “should feel himself out of his true place to stand before McClurg." Sev¬ eral papers, including an “Essay on the Human Bile," said to be “so original and instructive that it was translated into the language of every European nation," were published by McClurg. The 1820 volume of the Philadelphia Journal of Medical and Physical Sciences was dedicated to “The Elegant Scholar and Accomplished Physician, Dr. McClurg." The inscription on his tombstone in St. John's Churchyard, Richmond, accords him the highest rank in his profession. In the earliest years of the nineteenth century the biological teachings of President Madison were, very appropriately, ex¬ tended by an amateur naturalist. Dr. Louis Hue Girardin, who occupied the Chair of Modern Languages but who conducted a class in Natural History. The Richmond Enquirer of October 24, 1806, under the date at Williamsburg, October 21, carried this notice : “During the present term at Wm. and Mary College, Pro¬ fessor Girardin will continue to lecture on Natural history. . . . The want of a museum naturae. Botanic garden, etc. has been ob- 46 jected to by some. Unquestionably such splendid institutions are in a high degree subservient to the diffusion and progress of natural knowledge. ... A succedaneum not entirely inadequate may be found in plates, herbals, etc. and, (which is better than artificial assistance of description), the immense book of nature is everywhere, and at all times, open before the eyes of the in¬ quisitive. For the study of animal and vegetable anatomy and physiology, and, in general, of what is termed “the Philosophy of Natural History,’’ indigenous specimens are fully sufficient. Within a few miles, plants may be found to illustrate not only all Classes of the Linnaean system, and most of the orders, but also many interesting, elegant, and useful genera, with some of their most valuable species. In the number, beauty, and useful¬ ness of her vegetable productions, Virginia yields to few tracts of country of the same extent. Of this a single glance over the joint labors of Clayton and Gronovius, the pages of Michaux, Barton, etc., or a few rambles through our woods, fields and meadows, may convince any person in the least degree acquainted with the subject.” Michaux, a pupil of Bernard de Jussieu, had been sent by the French Government to study the forest trees of North America, to report on their utility in naval construction and their suitability for introduction into France. He arrived in New York in 1785, was in Charleston, S. C., in 1787 and in 1796 and, meanwhile, had explored widely. He is said to have shipped 60,000 trees to France. His son, born in 1770, was also a traveller and silviculturist but it is probably the father to whom Girardin refers. Benjamin Smith Barton was a physician and naturalist of Pennsylvania who studied medicine in Phila¬ delphia, London and Goettingen and later practiced and taught medicine in Philadelphia. The references to these naturalists and to Clayton and Gronovius testify to Girardin’s familiarity with botanical work both here and abroad, and his interest in the local flora is apparent from his advertisement. Contemporary recognition of Girardin’s concern with Natural History is given by Joseph C. Cabell, a graduate of the College who had spent the years 1803-6 in Europe and, in the course of his stay, had at¬ tended lectures by noted men in the Natural Sciences and had made some collections of objects of scientific interest. He wrote to Thomas Jefferson under the date of July 23, 1810, as follows: “Since my return, I have become involved in the usual pursuits of Virginians, and my mind has been totally abstracted from Nat¬ ural History . . . not wishing to act the part of the dog in the manger, I lent my cabinet of minerals to William and Mary Col¬ lege, and my herbarium to Mr. Girardin, not long after I got back to Virginia.” A copy in oils made by a graduate of the College from a portrait of Girardin is now a prized possession of the Department of Biology. 47 The next teacher, notable in our records for his teaching in the sciences, was Patrick Kerr Rogers who occupied the chair of Natural Philosophy and Chemistry from 1819 to 1828. A grad¬ uate of medicine from the University of Pennsylvania in 1802, an accomplished scholar, author during his service at the College of ^‘An Introduction to the Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy’' and a popular and impressive teacher, his greatest success was in the raising of four illustrious sons all of whom became eminent college and university teachers, and all except William Barton served at one time or another at the University of Pennsylvania as their father had done before coming to William and Mary. One, Henry Darwin Rogers, was finally called from a professorship at the University of Pennsylvania to a sim¬ ilar post at the University of Glasgow. There is abundant evi¬ dence that it was not solely by inheritance that the father in- fiuenced his sons and that his other pupils shared in the profit of his instruction. Of the topics covered in the teachings of Dr. Patrick Kerr Rogers rather little is known, but one may assume that he would not have neglected entirely those phases of science with which, as a medical man of the day, he must have been familiar. His academic successor was his son and pupil, William Barton Rogers, whose sole experience as a college or university student appears to have been at William and Mary during his father’s professorship. William Barton Rogers was of the type of individual that, once initiated into the scholarly life, finds its own means of developing that life to its utmost. Patrick Kerr Rogers and his associates at William and Mary surely provided for him that initiation. Unseeking of personal renown, academic advancement or honors, William Barton Rogers had conferred upon him the degree of LL.D. by Hampden-Sydney College in 1848, by his Alma Mater in 1857 and by Harvard in 1866. As Professor of Natural Philosophy, the younger Rogers included in the junior chemical course (catalog of 1829-30) the ‘'Elements of Botany.” With his intense and abiding interest in Physical Geography and Geology, he surely must have interested himself and his pupils in the abundant fossils of the Peninsula and in their interpretation. A letter written by Rogers at Boston, April 4, 1859, is of such historical significance from both a sentimental and biological point of view that extracts may fittingly be cited: "... With him [Littleton Waller] and his lady friends I made a good col¬ lection at his fine marl bank the next (Sunday) morning, and after dinner was driven in a buggy to dear old Williamsburg. To my great delight I found all along the road proofs of prosperous and improved agriculture. The old “Burnt-ornery”, as the ne¬ groes used to call the ruinous charred inn, is now replaced by a hamlet of neat white houses, and on all sides I saw evidences of 48 neatness and thrift* But sad was the sight when about sundown I came in view of the college, as I approached by the road leading past the president's house. Many of the old trees on the road¬ side greeted me as familiar friends, but I missed the sharp, many windowed roof of the college, and found as I drew near, that al¬ though the solid walls had for the most part, defied the assault of the fire, the whole interior of the wings, as well as main struc¬ ture, had been turned to ashes. drove past, with a tearful eye, noting that the mossy coat of old Botetourt was unscathed, that the dial kept its place, that the president's house and our home, the Brafferton, had not been injured, and that one of those noble live-oaks at the gate was dead.” The reference by Rogers to improved agriculture on the Peninsula reflects the work of Edmund Ruffin who was educated at the College within the first two decades of the century and who was, at least between 1833 and 1845, a member of the Board of Visitors. He is recorded as Rector of the Board in 1836-37. By his study of scientific farming and his stirring editorship of the Farmer's Register, Ruffin so encouraged extensive use of marl in counteracting soil acidity, drainage of excessively moist lands, rotation of crops and the introduction of legumes into the crop cycle that from a period of decline of agriculture and depop¬ ulation on the Peninsula in the first third of the century there resulted in the years from 1835 to the War Between the States the marked improvement that Rogers joyously recognized. The alert scientists and engineers of the college faculty in these years could not have been oblivious to such changes or unconcerned with them in their teaching of chemistry or natural history. Nor could such change have gone unrecognized by the man who followed in 1836, after Rogers had accepted the director¬ ship of the incipient Geological Survey of Virginia and the Pro¬ fessorship of Natural Philosophy and Geology at the University of Virginia. This was John Millington, M.D., who had lectured for many years at the Royal Institution and, as professor of chemistry, at Guy^s Hospital in London. He had served as super¬ intendent of some British mines and of a mint in Mexico. Before coming to William and Mary he conducted an instrument shop fn Philadelphia, an early example of the great American supply houses which now offer scientific equipment in such abundant variety to those who may be able to buy. This last experience must have contributed to his dissatisfaction with the remnants of the ancient equipment purchased in 1764 by William Small and of the improvisations of William Barton Rogers, which he found upon his arrival at Williamsburg ; and the same experience ; it is to be hoped, made it possible for him to indulge a very gen¬ eral inclination among teachers of sciences in adding $36,000 of 49 his own to the meager appropriations of the College for scientific apparatus. Millington made for the College a collection including geological specimens (fossils?) and materia medica. According to the College Catalogs, Millington offered extend¬ ed instruction in medical sciences at least from 1840 to 1846. As specifically laid out in the catalogs of the early 1840’s the subjects treated were “anatomy, physiology, materia medica, anatomy of the nerves and organs of sense, pathology, and therapeutics, op¬ erations of surgery.’' The announcement of the courses makes clear that this was not planned as the equivalent of a course in a school of medicine but rather a substitute for the period of ap¬ prenticeship that commonly occupied a portion of the period of medical training. Tyler, in his study of “The Medical Men of Virginia,” points out that, from a state of dependence in early colonial times upon apprenticeship as the sole form of medical training, “The number of University graduates increased till, by the time the American Revolution was fairly under way, the tone of the profession was largely dominated by them.” Still, in a Virginia statue of 1736, it was enacted that no surgeon or apothe¬ cary who had served an apprenticeship to those trades should charge more than certain prescribed rates whereas those who had taken a medical degree at a university might collect double the aforesaid charges. In the Catalog of 1845-6 private instruction only was offered in the medical subjects previously described without that limi¬ tation. It is difficult to judge whether this signifies a change in policy or a mere clarification as to a practice already in vogue. The registers of students in 1843-4 and 1844-5 specify the courses of the registrants as “Junior,” “Senior,” “Junior & Senior,” “Senior, Med.,” “Chem.,” “Math,” “Private Law,” “Law & Gov. History,” “Entire Junior,” “Chemical and Medical,” “Senior & Law,” “all the Classics,” “Regular Senior,” “Prep L. & Gr. & S. P.” Five men are thus listed as being under medical instruction in 1843-4 and four in 1844-5. In any case the boundary between private and official instruction was far less precise than one might suppose. Indeed the fee paid to an instructor by each regular scholar was two-thirds of that paid by a private student. The limitation of medical instruction to private arrangement does not denote any antagonism to the subject. Law was also offered privately and advertised in the Catalog to the extent of five hours a day five days a week ! It is difficult to imagine how, with any such program, Millington could carry on classes in chemistry, natural philosophy and engineering; but perhaps his text book of seven hundred pages in the last-named subject, published in 1839, may have relieved somewhat the burden of preparing lec¬ tures and freed some time for a return to topics of his early studies. 50 In 1849 Dr. Millington declined the customary annual reelec¬ tion to accept an appointment as professor of chemistry in the University of Mississippi. In the previous year Benjamin Stod- dert Ewell had been appointed to the Professorship of Natural Philosophy and Mathematics and now William F. Hopkins was chosen to succeed Millington as Professor of Natural Philosophy and Chemistry. It seems that during Hopkins’ short stay he taught chemistry and divided Natural Philosophy with Ewell who probably con¬ tinued the instruction in engineering introduced by Millington. Ewell was a graduate of the United States Military Academy and had been an instructor there, had seen service as a railroad engineer and had been professor of mathematics at Hampden- Sydney College and professor of mathematics and military science at Washington College (Washington and Lee Univer¬ sity). From 1849 to 1861, except for the brief period of Hopkins’ occupancy of the Chair of Chemistry, he was the only embodi¬ ment on the faculty of any interest in scientific matters. In 1848 and from 1854 until the outbreak of the War Between the States, he was not only professor but president as well. Under these circumstances it is not to be supposed that he would foster any of the biological interest that may have been stirred by Milling¬ ton, Rogers and their predecessors, but the scanty records of the College in these years give little basis for a judgment. The burn¬ ing of the Wren Building in 1859, already alluded to, may have destroyed some evidence of activities that would interest us in this connection as well as much that would have thrown light on earlier periods. Recorded recollections of the students of that day have dealt more with personalities and places than with the subjects of study. The events of the strenuous following years left in the minds of the pupils little specific impression of the studies they pursued. It would probably be a mistake to conclude from this history either that there had been little of biological matter presented to the students at William and Mary in its first one hundred and fifty years or that the instruction offered was pedantic and ineffectual. Our records are pitifully meager. Of only a few of the men known to have taught scientific subjects have we any dependable information. We find these to be observant and thoughtful men in touch with the past and with their own times. That little is known of the others may not be due to any de¬ ficiency in their knowledge of the biology current in their day or to any lack of vitality in their teaching. To them may be fittingly applicable the famous peroration of Henry Van Dyke at the dedi¬ cation of the Phi Beta Kappa Memorial Building at the College on November 27, 1926 : 51 “I Sing the Praise of the Unknown Teacher.” “Great generals win campaigns, but it is the Unknown Soldier who wins the war. “Famous educators plan new systems of pedagogy, but it is the Unknown Teacher who delivers and guides the young. He lives in obscurity and contends with hardship. For him no trumpets blare, no chariots wait, no golden decorations are decreed. He keeps the watch along the borders of darkness and leads the attack on the trenches of ignorance and folly. Patient in his daily duty, he strives to conquer the evil powers which are the enemies of youth. He awakens sleeping spirits. He quickens the indo¬ lent, encourages the eager, and steadies the unstable. He communicates his own' joy in learning and shares with boys and girls the best treasures of his mind. He lights many candles which in later years will shine back to cheer him. This is his reward. “Knowledge may be gained from books; but the love of knowledge is transmitted only by personal contact. No one has deserved better of the Republic than the Unknown Teacher. No one is more worth to be enrolled in a democratic aristocracy — “King of himself and servant of mankind.” Note: — Material for this article has been secured almost entirely from the rich archives of the Library of the College of William and Mary. The labor of becoming acquainted with much of this material has been greatly lightened by the indices prepared by the Librarian of the College^ Earl G. Swem. These include the Virginia Historical Index and An Analysis of Buffings Farmers^ Register (Bull, of the Virginia State Library XI 3,4; July, October, 1918). Galen W. Ewing’s Early Science Teaching at William and Mm'y (Journal of Chemical Education XV 1, January, 1938) has pro¬ vided a most helpful outline. College of William and Mary, Williamsburg, Va. 52 Solidago bicolor A Rather Puzzling Assemblage in Northern Virginia H. A. Allard Introduction Owing to its distinctive flower color, the rays being white or cream-colored rather than the usual yellow color of other golden- rods, Solidago bicolor L, should be a fairly distinctive assemblage, and this seems to be the case, at least in the New England area of its range. In various localities of northern Virginia, however, its status is not so clearly defined, and in some localities the population may embrace yellow-rayed as well as white-rayed forms which show no other distinguishing characters. Hybrid Population On Big Cobbler In 1939, the writer reported a yellow-rayed form of bicolor on Big Cobbler Mountain in Fauquier County, Virginia.^ In a continuation of length-of-day studies with our native goldenrods, seeds of two white-rayed plants typical of Solidago bicolor, selected from the Big Cobbler assemblage of this species were planted. The progenies of these two plants revealed both white-rayed and yellow-rayed forms, but there were no other obvious differences to be seen among these, the bicolor type of leaf, roughness and pubescence appearing in all. Since it was evident that we were dealing with a genetic heterozygous condition for ray color in these lines, a large num¬ ber of plants were grown in the field at Arlington Farm, Va., in 1940 from seed of both white-rayed and yellow-rayed parents which had appeared in these progenies. An analysis of these progenies with respect to ray color is presented in Table 1. It is obvious from the behavior of this progeny that white ray color is dominant over yellow ray color ; several of the white- rayed plants breeding true to white ray color, appear to repre¬ sent the homozygous dominant condition, while others, more especially the progeny represented by 72 plants, were heterozy¬ gous. The rather close approach to a 50 per cent occurrence of each ray color here may indicate a chance back cross of the hybrid involving two simple contrasting unit characters, white and yellow ray, with the recessive yellow. The yellow-rayed parent gave a practically pure progeny for yellow ray, indicating a homozygous recessive condition for yel- i‘'A Yellow-rayed Form of Solidago bicolor on Big Cobbler Mountain, Fauquier County, Virginia.” Claytonia V, No. 8, pp. 28-80. 53 Table 1. Occurrence of White-Rayed and Yellow-Rayed Plants in Progenies of Solidago bicolor. Raiy color of parent, number of plants in progeny, and occurrence of white- and yellow-rayed plants. Ray color of — Parent Progeny Number White Yellow White . 39 33 72 White . 35 0 35 White . 45 0 45 White . 20 1 21 White . 23 0 23 White . 34 0 34 White . 67 9 76 White . 87 7 94 yellow . 1 35 36 low in this instance. The single white plant found in this progeny may indicate a chance cross by bees or other insects, since the goldenrod is a insect-pollinated plant. This data is sufficient to indicate that the Big Cobbler assem¬ blage is complicated with a hybrid constitution, which renders difficult its delimitations as a solely white-rayed species here. Subsequent examination of the wild population on Big Cobbler, revealed both yellow- and white-rayed forms in abundance which were separable only on the basis of ray-color. Glabrous and Glabrate Forms of S. hicolor Solidago bicolor, together with several other species is abund¬ ant on the shale barrens of the Massanutten ridges. It would appear that the open forest growth and the lack of ground litter and a closed herbaceous cover, make these barrens a favorable habitat for many goldenrods and asters that can withstand the thin, dry shale soils. On the extensive barrens east of Mr. Burner’s home at the terminus of the public highway at Pugh’s Run, Shenandoah County, Virginia, both Solidago erecta Pursh and Solidago hi¬ color are very abundant. The Solidago bicolor assemblage here as well as elsewhere on the many barrens of the Massanutten reveals great variation in the condition of hairiness which is characteristic of the more 54 typical plant. Some forms are extremely hairy throughout as is characteristic of the typical representatives of the species, while others show a greatly reduced pubescence, or become entirely glabrous or glabrate, the latter condition being regarded as rarely occurring in hicolor. In other respects than ray color these glabrous or glabrate forms are not distinguishable from yellow-rayed erecta plants everywhere intermingled with the hicolor assemblage on the bar¬ rens. For this reason one might be led to regard these as white- rayed form of erecta, on the one hand, or as extremely glabrous variants of hicolor on the other. These resemblances between erecta and hicolor, aside from ray color may indicate close affini¬ ties in these two species. Solidago hicolor does not seem to be a very distinctive species aside from its white rays. Conclusions Deam^ is of the opinion that Solidago hicolor is not worthy of specific rank and chooses to regard it as an albino form of his- pida, although for the present he follows other authors in main¬ taining its status as a species. He has not been able to separate hicolor from hispida on the basis of any characters used by other authors. It is obvious that the hicolor assemblage is not clearly defined in its morphological characters and may approach both erecta and hispida Muhl. in its resemblances. It approaches the former in the absence of the pubescence in glabrous or glabrate forms, and is not distinguishable from hispida, according to Beam, by any specific characters, other than ray color. It is obvious also, that a heterozygous condition may arise involving both white and yellow rays, as the Big Cobbler assem¬ blage has shown. This brings us to the question of the origin of the white-rayed hicolor form. Since the fundamental color of all our goldenrods is yellow, white ray probably represents some mutational genetic change which, from its rare occurrence in the goldenrod assem¬ blage, generally, does not often occur or persist. Strangely enough the hicolor from has persisted to become a permanent and widespread plant in our flora, A second question arises relative to the yellow-rayed forms found on Big Cobbler. Does this material which has shown a hybrid behavior represent an actual cross with some yellow- flowered species occurring here, or has some recombination or mutation of genes taken place which has given a reversion to an original yellow condition of the rays in this population? 2“Flora of Indiana”, by Charles C. Beam, 1940. 55 This cannot be definitely answered. Solidago hispida does not appear on Big Cobbler, but S, erecta may, although it is not abundant. Hybrids with this species might well give a wide range of variability in such morphological characters as leaf- shape, pubescence, etc., and by continued intercrossing would completely confuse the typical features of both species ultimately. That yellow-rayed forms typical of bicolor in all other re¬ spects, occur more or less frequently in Virginia, and perhaps elsewhere, cannot be doubted. In the collections of the U. S. National Herbarium, two yellow-rayed plants have been deposited by Mr. E. S. Steele, both collected on shales in the Alleghenies, one near Millboro, Bath County, in 1906, the other near Augusta Springs, Augusta County, in 1908. These in all other respects are typical of bicolor. Unfortunately ray color in the fresh ma¬ terial has been indicated on practically none of the herbarium sheets, with the exception of this material collected by Mr. Steele. It is evident then, from these considerations, that the bicolor assemblage in some localities of northern Virginia, at least, is not always clearly defined in its morphological characters, nor even in its genetic condition with respect to ray color. U. S. Department op Agriculture, Washington, D. C. 56 The Junior Academy Movement Hubert J. Davis, Chairman Virginia Junior Academy of Science Committee The science youth movement in America has begun. There is nothing parallel to this movement in the history of science. It is unique in its sponsorship, rapidity of growth, and opportunities for creative expression. Through the Junior Academy organiza¬ tions youth offers a united effort to wrest from nature the solu¬ tions to problems which have puzzled mature scientists of our past and present generations. The Junior Academy movement, though slow in getting start¬ ed, is the logical development growing out of the change in our school system. The shift from literary societies, spelling matches, and other school-imposed, teacher-dominated activities in our schools to the free creative activities of the clubs, home-rooms and socialized assemblies have given incentive for the Junior Academy organizations. State and national organizations for the high school journalistic, literary, honor, and athletic meets provided patterns for the Junior Academies. Before reviewing this movement in the nation as a whole let us turn briefly to the rapid development within our own state. In 1939 the Virginia Academy of Science appointed a science club committee with the authority to inquire into the status of science clubs. This committee conducted a survey of the state just before the annual meeting of the Virginia Education Asso¬ ciation in November. Sixty clubs scattered throughout the state answered the questionniaire. Dr. H. H. Sheldon, a nationally known authority on science clubs, was secured as principal speaker for the Virginia Educa¬ tion Association meeting. Dr. Sheldon's speech, along with a radio address by Dr. G. W. Jeffers during the Christmas week over WRVA, aroused interest in science clubs throughout the state. This enthusiasm was revealed by the responses to a more thorough survey of the clubs conducted in January 1940. The Science Club Committee sponsored the publication and distribution of a pamphlet on science clubs in March. The spon¬ sors and delegates of fifty-five clubs were invited to attend the meeting of the Virginia Academy of Science in Lexington. Fifty delegates and eleven sponsors representing fifteen clubs attended this meeting. Dr. Otis W. Caldwell, general secretary of the American As¬ sociation for the Advancement of Science attended this meeting and presented the request of the science club delegation for the authority to orgianize a Junior Academy of Science. This author¬ ity was granted. 57 In June the executive council selected the personnel of the two committees necessary for the functioning of the Junior Academy of Science as authorized by the Academy at the Lex¬ ington meeting. The council selected a committee of ten science club sponsors and a committee of ten from the senior Academy. The Junior Academy committee selected was Miss J. Frances Allen, Radford; J. T. Christopher, Danville; C. G. Gibbs, Floyd; Miss Elizabeth Gillespie, Norfolk; Wm. T. Hall, Clarksville, Mr. H. S. Holmes, Petersburg; Miss Martha Lipscomb, Richmond; W. I. Nickels, Jr., Charlottesville; W. W. Noffsinger, Roanoke, vice-chairman, and Hubert J. Davis, Williamsburg, chairman. The sponsoring committee selected was L. F. Addington, Wise; L. C. Bird, Richmond; Francis S. Chase, Richmond; Dr. I. A. Updike, Ashland; William M. McGill, Charlottesville; George W. Jeffers, Farmville, vice-chairman, and J. A. Rorer, Charlottesville, chairman. At the close of the school yeiar available information revealed ninety-two science clubs in Virginia. These clubs represented fifty-seven counties and seven cities, and embraced all the educa¬ tional districts. Their interests represent research, photography, exhibits, collections, museums, hydroponics, nature study, mod¬ eling, taxidermy, etc. Assuming that each club bias an average membership of twenty, these clubs represent nearly two thousand of the best future scientists from all parts of the state. The present national status of the academies with twenty- three jactive organizations composed of from fifteen to twenty thousand members is far removed in size from the Danville, Illinois club which has the distinction of being the first to affiliate with the Illinois Junior Academy in 1919. The real movement began, however, more than a decade later. At the St. Louis meet¬ ing of the American Association for the Advancement of Science Mr. Louis Astell presented a paper entitled^ “How State Acade¬ mies of Science May Encourage Scientific Endeavor Among High School Pupils’". At the Cleveland meeting in 1930 a Junior Academy Com¬ mittee was appointed. It was composed of Dr. Otis W. Caldwell, chairman, Mr. Louis Astell and Carl Oesterlin. This committee adopted a plan to sponsor the Junior Academies on a national scale. It prepared and distributed a paper containing suggestions for the organization of Junior Academies along with other help¬ ful data. This committee has vigorously promoted this work up to the present time. The promotion work of the A. A. A. S.. has been ably sup¬ plemented by the American Institute of Science and Engineering Clubs. This organization was established in 1928 for the encour¬ agement of all phases of science and industry. In 1928 it initiated ^Science 1930, Vol. XXXI, p. 445-449. 58 the Children’s Science Pair, an annual exhibit of scientific work among high school pupils of the science clubs in New York City and environs. It broadened its activities in 1938 to national scope, and provided field workers for organization and consulta¬ tion service to member clubs. A third factor in the rapid development of this movement was the sponsorship provided by the state Academies of Science. A survey conducted by Dr. Otis W. CaldwelP in 1938 showed that fifteen junior academies had been organized under the sponsor¬ ship of the senior academies. More recent data indicated that there are between twenty and twenty-five Junior Academies. The following data from Dr. CaldwelFs survey along with other data reveal the rapidity of this development. Year of Organization States 1919-1928 . Illinois 1930 . Indiana, Kansas 1931 . Iowa 1933 . Kentucky, Pennsylvania 1934 . Alabama, West Virginia 1935 . Oklahoma, Texas 1936 . Missouri, St. Louis 1937 . Minnesota 1939 . Florida 1940 . Virginia, Ohio Other academies on which information is lacking are Nebraska, Michigan, New Jersey, Maryland, and Oregon. Most of these have been organized within the past two or three years. A factor which is lending much encouragement to this move¬ ment is the large number of radio programs which are now being devoted entirely to science. Along with this we have had the in¬ creased circulation of periodicals such as Current Science, Popu¬ lar Science Monthly, Popular Mechanics, and Hobbies. These publications either have a section devoted to science clubs or provide useful materials for such work. Progressive high school administrators are now making a determined effort to forestall the high school fraternities and sororities. The science club with its state and national affiliations offer an excellent substitute with worthwhile activities. Clubs have displaced the literary societies in many schools. The state organization provides the incentive and competition similar to that heretofore given by the state literary meet. The problems to be solved in the promotion of the Junior Academies are so great that the movement could not be kept alive even by the stimulation of the sponsoring organizations were it not for the nature of the work done by these clubs and the normal interests of the participants. ^Caldwell, Otis W. Supplement to Dr, Oerlin’s paper American Science Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Jan. 1940, p, 54-56. 59 Youth is imitative, egoistic, and keenly alert to the possibili¬ ties of the Junior Academy work. The quest for solutions to their scientific problems, the keen competition with other clubs in science congresses, exhibits, etc., and the associations with real scientists is fascinating. They fire the entire spirit with an in¬ domitable urge to discover and to create. The annual meetings are held jointly with the senior acade¬ mies. This permits the high school pupils to associate with real scientists in bone and flesh. The shaggy-haired, absent-minded recluse of the boy’s imagination becomes a real individual, a hero to the boy. Dr. Oerlin^ tells of an incident which illustrates this hero worship. “. . . Because of injury in transit, the project which one of my boys was to present on the Junior program failed to work. Franti¬ cally he worked on it. After all, bringing a gadget a hundred miles and then not being able to show it is a tragedy. One of the senior scientists from the host institution offered assistance. . . By using several parts borrowed from the laboratory of the institution and the help of this senior scientist the project was ready when called. That scientist doesnT know what a hero he is in the eyes of that boy. For there is no end to the admiration my boy expressed for him. . . .” The Junior Academy is composed largely of those represent¬ ing the upper bracket of intelligence. It provides a natural outlet for adolescent enthusiasm and gang spirit. Properly directed it gives these adolescents experiences which may stimulate them to serious thinking and planning for their future leisure hours and profitable, wholesome vocational activities. Youth believes in itself, and seeks opportunities to display its abilities. Much of the work of the academy members is worthy of serious consideration. Dr. Otis W. CaldwelP says, “It is aston¬ ishing to see the quality and seriousness of some of the work that is done by the younger scientists.” Science News Letter^ reports school science club members experimenting with the effect of alcohol, strichnine, and aspirin on the action of a frog’s muscle ; a girl who requested samples of blood from her parents at inter¬ vals so that she might experiment with the effect of fatigue, food, and excitement on the blood; another boy who made a stroboscope from scraps of wood, metal and glass. A club in Texas^ completed a check list of two hundred fif¬ teen birds as to the dates of their arrival, summer or winter residents, etc., and sold enough copies to finance the club activi- sOerlein, Karl F. Junior Academies of Science. American Science Teachers Association. Jan., 1940, p. 52. ^Deffenbaugh, W. S. Junior Academies. U. S. School Life. June, 1937, p. 47. ^Science News Letter. Aug. 7, 1937. ®Tarter, D. G., Walker, E. B. Texas Ornithology Club. Texas Outlook. July, 1939. 60 ties throughout the year. In another project they invented a new bird trap. With this they caught and banded ninety birds. Other activities include research, publications, and exhibits. The Kentucky Junior Academy offers an annual award of ten dollars for research. The West Virginia Academy publishes six issues of the Junior Academy Science News Letter annually. Each issue is prepared and edited by a different staff composed entirely of high school pupils. Highlights of the A. A. A. S. meetings in Richmond in 1938, and Columbus in 1939 were the exhibits of the Junior Academies. At the annual meeting of the Missouri Academy of Science in March, 1940, several sections of the Senior Academy gave place on their programs to meritor¬ ious papers by the members of the Junior Academies. Such worthwhile activities could be enumerated almost ad infinitum. These young scientists actually perform research, construct practical machines, realize the application of scientific princi¬ ples to everyday events, and come to understand the social sig¬ nificance of the implications of science in the development of modern society. The Junior Academy is governed by the student officers and sponsored by the Senior Academies. The work is carried on by enthusiastic club sponsors in cooperation with the members of the Senior Academies. Their annual meetings consist of talks, prepared papers, movies, demonstrations, exhibits, and reports on research activities. These activities carry the pupils beyond the classroom routine into educational activities which are of great value to them, be¬ cause they are tinted by their own enthusiasm and experience. They afford training in leadership. The outcomes of such co¬ operative participation in scientific pursuits are discovery of special talents; opportunity for recreation and fun; aid to the pupil in finding himself, and in the discovery of a hobby which helps him to enjoy profitably his leisure hours; increased self- reliance; guidance in making vocational decisions; activities in the interpretation of scientific principles; practice of coopera¬ tion in the execution of the programs; and widening the scope and multiplicity of youthful interests. They provide an esprit de corps by participation in the program and seeing the Senior Academy members in action. Along with these desirable outcomes, we may well formulate the main objectives of the Junior Academy of Science. 1. To train in citizenship and cooperative enterprises. 2. To spread ideas, promote friendships between club members and schools, and to distribute helpful project materials. 3. To provide a real incentive for creative work in science throug'h keen competition afforded by exhibits, congresses, research, and reports. 4. To stimulate the discovery of human talent and to begin its develop¬ ment at an early age. 61 5. To provide opportunities for friendships and associations with the leaders in the field of science. 6. To provide training in planning, and executing their own annual pro¬ grams and meetings. 7. To provide fun and recreation through the development of scientific hobbies. 8. To provide the sponsors of the clubs with worthy motivation for sponsoring their clubs. 9. To familiarize the future scientists with the organization and work of the scientific societies and thereby boost future adult membership. 10. To acquaint senior scientists with the work of the junior scientists, and enlist their support for worthy scientific pursuits. The course of this movement is not easy, nor is its progress assured. The high school extra-curricular programs are crowded. Continuity of membership is difficult because of the constant changes in sponsorship. Source materials for scientific projects on the junior level are scarce. There is a dearth of teacher-spon¬ sors who have been trained for leadership. Most clubs are spon¬ sored by teachers who already are burdened by heavy teaching loads. Many of the science teachers have more training in meth¬ ods than in content. Possibly the most serious handicap which faces the Junior Academy movement is the failure of school administrators to realize that these activities are as important as competitive athletics, bands, etc. The movement is too young to have established its worth to those less acquainted with the nature of its work. There is some evidence, however, that the enthusi¬ asm of the few qualified teacher-sponsors, along with the equally enthusiastic academy members may eventually solve most of the difficulties. The future of our present civilization depends not on regi¬ mented labor, nor conscripted military training, but upon the discovery and development of our science reserves which con¬ stitutes our greatest national resource. Youth calls for help. If this call is properly heeded, youth of today who are leaders of to¬ morrow may be guided to achieve a merited place for America as the true world leader in science. Will the scientists of tomorrow be destroyers or creators through science? It is the creative power that reveals the human race at its best, and gives the great¬ est satisfaction to life. The Junior Academies of Science may hold the answer to this question. Williamsburg, Va. 62 Colonel William Fleming's Scientific Observations in Western Virginia William D. Hoyt, Jr. Observations made by early travellers along the seacoast and in the river valleys to the west of the mountains have been printed, but nowhere is there an account of things seen and re¬ corded by an intelligent observer in the middle region which was once all part of Virginia. Such a man was Colonel William Fleming (1729-1795), Scots physician, who landed in Norfolk in 1755, immediately went to the frontier to fight Indians, and after the campaigns were over settled first at Staunton and then in Botetourt County. He became an important figure in the Valley, led one division of the colonial forces at the Battle of Point Pleasant in 1774, and during the Revolution had charge of an entire section of the western defense. In 1779 he was the head of the Commission to Settle Land Titles in the Kentucky district, and three years later, after service in the Council and as acting Governor of Virginia, he returned there as chairman of the Commission to Examine and Settle the Public Accounts in the Western Country. The trips to and from the settlements in the backwoods pro¬ vided many opportunities for observation, and Fleming often jotted down in his journal comments on the nature of the land he traversed, the kinds of trees he saw, and the details of activi¬ ties which were new to him. Ordinarily, one would not expect to find an Indian fighter and frontier leader interested in science, unless some matter connected with his crops, his livestock, or the weather attracted his attention momentarily. Fleming’s deeper concern was explained by his background and training, which was distinctly above the average for the time and the place. He was a graduate of the University of Edinburgh, he had served as a surgeon’s mate in the British navy, and he had practiced professionally while living in Staunton. His home, “Belmont,” located at the Fording of Tinker’s Creek in Bote¬ tourt County, contained a library which was of sufficient size and quality to be regarded as one of the finest in Virginia. Among the many volumes were works on medicine, surgery, chemistry, astronomy, mathematics, philosophy, and agriculture, besides many others of a literary nature. A man who would take the trouble to gather such a collection in that distant place must have read the books and known their contents from cover to cover. With this knowledge gained from the printed word there doubtless was mixed a genuine curiosity concerning the region to the westward. A proclamation in 1763 promised grants of land to soldiers who had served in the French and Indian War, and 63 since Fleming was eligible, he probably looked around for likely locations as he rode through the unsettled countryside. Fleming’s first observations were made during Dunmore’s War, 1774, while the army was marching from the place of assembly. Camp Union, now the location of Lewisburg, West Virginia, to Point Pleasant on the Ohio River, where was fought the important battle with the Indians. The entries in the Orderly Book gave an excellent idea of the type of country, including numerous items about the soil, the trees, and the water. Fleming was particular, too, to note the distances covered each day, and it has been remarked (by Virgil A. Lewis) that he was surpris¬ ingly accurate in his computations. The first few days the army passed through meadow lands, then it marched “over two smart hills to a Savannah, or Meaddow ground,” and after that the way seemed to be mostly “steep little ridges,” “broken ridges, chiefly Chestnut,” and sharp declivities. As the Alleghany Mountains were approached and crossed, there were “sudden & frequent Showers of Rain as is usual near these Mountains.” The Gauley River was one which could not be avoided, though it had “a stony ugly foarding,” and “the Banks that have been washed by the floods discover not above a foot [of] soil, & then a white or reddish sand & Clay or grity earth.” As the progress continued, “the mountains begun then to fall away, and the bottom to Open, these Creeks in the bottom [are] stock [ed] with Sugar, Papa [pawpaw] trees, & beech, flowing Poplar, & leather wood, some peavine & buffaloe grass.” Fleming found pieces of coal which had been washed out of the ground and which burned very well ; and there were “two curious Springs, the Vapour of which kindles quick as Gunpowder & burns with a surprising force,” though the water “tasted unctious.'” Fleming was severely wounded in the encounter with the redmen and for a while it was thought he would not survive. Two balls struck his left arm below the elbow and broke both bones, and a third ball entered his chest and pierced the lungs. His description of the treatment was graphic: “when I came to be drest, I found my Lungs forced through the wound in my breast, as long as one of my fingars.. Watkins Attempted to reduce them ineffectually, he got some part returned but not the whole, being in considerable pain, some time afterwards, I got the whole Returned by the Assistance of one of my Own Attend¬ ants. since which I thank the Almighty I have been in a sur¬ prizing state of ease. Nor did I ever know such daingerous wounds. Attended with so little inconvenience.” The damage was sufficient, however, to keep Fleming from active service in the Revolutionary army, and he spent three years as County Lieutenant of Botetourt, entrusted with the defense of his part of the frontier. His next trip west took place 64 when he went out to direct the settlement of the disputes over land titles. No longer was the country a complete wilderness, but there were large areas which were unoccupied and unculti¬ vated, and the Indians still hovered on the outskirts ready to strike whenever and wherever an opening appeared. As in the campaign of Dunmore's War, Fleming took time to notice the terrain, its products and natural phenomena, the people, the towns, and the conditions of health. The entire journey was featured by the extraordinarily bad weather. Snow fell on November 28, and then came several days of “excessive cold.'’ A “storm of snow” fell on December 5 and the rivers rose so that the Kentucky was impassable. Variety was provided on the 12th by lightning and thunder during the evening, and after that the frost became so severe that every¬ body suffered greatly. Fleming heard of a family named Davis whose camp fire was put out by the rising waters of a creek, the father drowned attempting to swim across for more fire, and those left behind perished from the cold. On January 3 there was a twelve inch snow, and for the next several weeks the tempera¬ ture was so low that the Kentucky was frozen two feet thick. Even after the worst was past in February, the alternate thaw¬ ing created untold difficulties. By March 20 ‘‘the effects of the severe winter was now sensible felt, the earth for so long a time being covered with snow and the water entirely froze, the Cane almost kiled, the Hogs that were in the Country suffered greatly, being frozen to death, in their beds, the deer like¬ wise not being able to get either water or food, were found dead in great numbers, tirkies dropt dead of[f] their roosts and even the Buffaloes died starved to death” Fleming tried to explain such unusual weather by the move¬ ments of winds and clouds in relation to the parallel ranges of mountains. He was told by hunters that the storms and foul weather came from the north and the clear dry weather from the east, which was contrary to the situation in the region east of the Alleghanies. The land through which Fleming passed on his way to and from sessions of the Commission was varied. Nowhere was this better seen than between Harrodsburg and the Falls of the Ohio, a route taken twice within a month in November and December, 1779. Near Harrodsburg there were short broken hills, and then came a path along a ridge dividing two streams, the banks of which consisted of very good upland. The country became rough¬ er again, with rich bottoms and level flats set between high steep rocks and connected by “a sidling pass.” This changed to a wide plain with ponds here and there, until the Falls itself provided a series of perpendicular drops which could not be passed in boats unless the river was full. The return journey was made over the same ground, the elevations near Harrodsburg attract¬ ing attention as “steep short brushy hills and short knobs and 65 very brushy/' Fleming commented on the structure of the country, '‘as to its risings, sinkings, and levels [which] is entire¬ ly formed by the rock below the Surface which every where ex¬ tends through this Country at the depth of from one to twelve or more feet and never above 18 or 20 but in general to the surface 3 or 4 feet deep frequently the rock appears above the Surface." The soil was rich on top with a greasy clay of different colors beneath, often surprisingly shallow where shaly rocks split off in flags of various sizes. Everywhere there were creeks, islands, and ridges, with rough trails or roads connecting the settlements and the isolated cabins. Fleming noted in the ground the presence of minerals, includ¬ ing coal, iron, and flint. He was observant enough to see the effect of such natural products on the foliage of the trees. In one place on the way out in the autumn he saw the leaves turned yellow while those around retained their verdure, and on the way home in the spring the same trees were in full foliage while those nearby had only small leaves. Different sorts of trees were pres¬ ent in Kentucky, too. Those which caused remark were the pines on the tops of the hills, a larch sixty or seventy feet high with bark like cherry, grain like mahogany, and leaves containing pods of “a sweet acrimonious visid Juice," and the sugar trees. The latter reacted according to the weather and were tapped for sap, and when in blossom had a yellow cup-like flower. Animals were plentiful, and on many occasions buffalo were killed. Fleming was interested in the hump, “that remarkable rising on the shoulders" which was formed by spines of different sizes. Once an elk was shot, but it was so poor it could not be used for food. There were numbers of “Paroquitos" flying around Boonesborough, and near St. Asaph's Fleming saw what he called a peacock woodpecker. The towns of Kentucky came in for only passing comment by Fleming. Boonesborough he said had thirty houses which stood in a bottom surrounded by hills so that enemies might do execution from all sides. Bryant's Station, on the other hand, was “an exceeding fine tract of land and a happy situation," with fifty families, all except four newly arrived. The water supply at Harrodsburg came in for the most picturesque description in all of Fleming's account of his trip. “The Spring at this place,” he wrote, “is below the Fort and fed by ponds above the Fort so that the whole dirt and filth of the Fort, putrified flesh, dead dogs, horse, cow, hog excrements and human odour all wash into the spring with the Ashes and sweepings of filthy Cabbins, the dirtiness of the people, steeping skins to dress and wash¬ ing every sort of filthy rags and cloths in the spring perfectly poisons the water and makes the most filthy nauseous potation of thei water imaginable and will certainly contribute to render the inhabitants of this place sickly.” Indeed the health of the people was not so good. Fleming blamed the water at the Falls for the general sickliness there, with 66 fever, ague, and biliousness causing several deaths while he was there. There were many ill with colds at Bryant’s Station in January, but the severe weather was said to be the cause since the settlers were accustomed to warmer climates. Fleming was much interested in the industries of Kentucky. He spent some time watching the making of salt at Bullitt’s Lick in November, and he described the process by which 3,000 gal¬ lons of water was boiled down to three or four bushels of salt every twenty-four hours. Again, in March, he visited Colonel Bowman’s place near Harrodsburg and saw the people employed making sugar and molasses. He thought they produced sugar equal to Muscovedo, and from the juice they made beer and vinegar and might with careful management make spirits. On another occasion Fleming inquired about the cane itself, whose roots would continue in the earth for years if the soil was neither too wet nor too dry. Fleming’s third opportunity for remarking on aspects of the western country came while he was with the group which ex¬ amined and adjusted the accounts of the officials there. The journey out was uneventful except that several times the party stopped in places where the water was “excessive bad” because it was “tinclusd” with coal. The business of the commission went slowly and during the intervals between sessions Fleming rode from station to station viewing the country he had not seen be¬ fore. On one occasion he noted that the hills of the Kentucky district were “vastly steep, Rocky & bad beyond conception.” As the winter advanced, bad weather made travel on horseback difficult, and more than once Fleming was forced to swim his animals through the swift currents of the rivers. On December 29, he was unable to cross at all and so “lodged at the foot of a rock cold & rainy.” A week later he found no place to stay the night, and “encampd in an old field, the day & night very cold.” But in spite of these hardships, and indeed at the very times when it was snowing worst, Fleming stopped to gather some petrified cockle shells in a spring. He remarked that what he found were “sea cockles, some wholly petrified, others half petri¬ fied sorne single shells, others the whole cockles, some few of the Clam kind, some shoels seemed broke and dented in by the pres¬ sure of foreign bodies from above, and cemented by the petrify¬ ing matter, they seemed either to be real Antedeluvians, or to have lain there since that part of the country was possessed by the sea, as these was real marine shells.” This is, perhaps, the most complete case of scientific observation in Fleming’s journals, and one needs only to remember the time, the place, and the oc¬ casion to realize that under other conditions William Fleming might have played an important role in early American scien¬ tific history. The Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland. 67 Distribution of Galax aphylla in Virginia J. T. Baldwin, Jr. Galax aphylla L. (Fig. 1) is the only species of the genus. It consists of two chromosome races : 2n = 12 (Fig. 2) and 2n = 24 (Fig. 3). Comparative occurrence of the two races throughout their ranges has been mapped (Baldwin, 1941). Distribution in Virginia of the species and of its races is given in Fig. 4. The cytogeographic evidence lends weight to the opinion of Fernald (1937) that G. aphylla has moved from the upland into the coastal plain. That the migrational history of the plant may be more fully analyzed, it is important that additional collections of the species be made. Literature Cited Baldwin, J. T., Jr. 1941. Galax: The Genus and Its Chromosomes. Jour. Heredity 32: in press. Fernald, M. L. 1937. Local Plants of the Inner Coastal Plain of South- eastern Virginia, Part III. Rhodora 39: 465-491. Department of Botany, University of Michigan. 68 Figure 1. Galax as photographed, June 23, 1934, in the Great Smoky Mountains National Park, bty Carlos C. Campbell. 3 X Metaphase chromosomes of Galax: Fig. 2, 2n = 12 and Fig. 3, 2n — 24. Drawn ca. 2000 X from leaf smears, and reduced one-half. Stations for Galax in Virginia: circles for diploid plants, solid squares for tetraploid, and perforated squares for stations known only by herbarium record. 69 GENERAL NOTES Virginia Junior Academy of Science Organized — ^The Vir¬ ginia Junior Academy of Science was organized during the meet¬ ing of the Virginia Education Association in Richmond during Thanksgiving week. A joint meeting of the Virginia Academy of Science sponsoring committee and the Junior Academy com¬ mittee was held in the John Marshall High School. John Alex Rorer, Chairman of the sponsoring committee presided. The committee worked out a temporary constitution for the Junior Academy, set up membership requirements for science clubs, appointed committees, and established other necessary machinery for the proper functioning of the organization. The work of these committees is subject to the approval of the execu¬ tive committee of the Virginia Academy of Science and the stu¬ dent representatives from the science clubs which will consider these matters at their first annual meeting. Hubert J. Davis, Matthew Whaley High School, Williamsburg was selected temporary chairman, Miss J. Francis Allen, Pulaski High School, secretary, and Dr. E. C. L. Miller, Secretary and treasurer of the Virginia Academy of Science was selected as treasurer of the Junior Academy. The first annual meeting of the delegates of the science clubs will be held in Richmond May 1, 2, 3, along with the Virginia Academy of Science’s annual meeting. At this time student officers will be chosen, the constitution ratified, and plans for es¬ tablishing a monthly publication considered. The Junior Acad¬ emy will also attempt to sponsor a science congress, a science exhibit, and a program similar to the one held by the senior Academy. A special feature of the Virginia Academy of Science annual meeting will be the exhibit of the General Electric HOUSE OF MAGIC. The senior Academy is cooperating in working out a tour of the places of scientific interest in Richmond for the dele¬ gates. It is also expected that some of the papers prepared by the Senior Academy members will be worked out especially for the junior members. An outstanding speaker for the meeting will be selected partly on his ability to interest the junior members, and will probably be a scientist who has won the Nobel prize. The Junior Academy is now a reality. More than twenty clubs have filed application for membership, and are being ad¬ mitted as rapidly as it is possible to review their qualifications. The charters are being printed and will be ready for distribution soon. A sixty-page project kit has been prepared for distribu¬ tion which will supply materials for club activities and for the selection of moving picture films for club use. — Hubert J. Davis, Matthew Whaley High School, Williamsburg, Virginia. 70 Chromosomes of Cruciferae : A Project and a Request — The chromosome numbers of some species of plants vary, and intraspecific chromosome races may, thereby, become established. How often this has happened, and whether or not certain regions more than others harbor such chromosome-differing races, will be revealed by routine cytological surveys of many species throughout their geographic and ecologic ranges. The same broad comparative cytological approach will give an insight into the dispersal paths of certain species and into the signifi¬ cance of polyploidy, and, likewise, will allow the recognition of trends in the evolution of floraS; and will, to some extent, clarify systematic and phyletic relationships. Adequate prosecution of this project can only result from the work and cooperation of many individuals over a long period of years. The writer has initiated such a study of the Cruciferae and, accordingly, would greatly appreciate, at any time, the receipt of seed and herbarium specimens of any crucifer collected from any place by any person, amateur or professional. It is not neces¬ sary that the specimens be named: critical identification will come later. But it is important that the date and place of collec¬ tion and name of collector be recorded with the seeds and her¬ barium materials. For this investigation all crucifers from all places are of interest: the common and the rare, the introduced and the native ; for example : the plan is to examine cytologically several hundred collections of Capsella Buma-^astoris. — J. T. Baldwin, Jr., Department of Botany, University of Michigan. A CORRECTION — The cut on page 36 of the last issue (Vol. 2, No. 1, January, 1941) was inadvertently placed upside down by the printer. It appeared in the paper, “A Simple, Sturdy, Precise Glass Thermoregulator with a Rapid Adjustment for Different Temperatures,’' by H. N. Calderwood and F. W. Koerker, to whom we apologize. — Ed. 71 i, ■ • v.,:". ': ■' hi ' ■ ■ ■ ■■4- y; - .’■ 'te-.' ' I \ . J v^.Vr* ' ■* , ;r, .■j'f ♦ '■ t- T \ •-’'v'' , . f*- , ■ i i ., ■^. . , ’ti ■ • ■■■ f . 'MXVi, .. i ! .•Vi*' ' \ ,. & ■ ■* w/ £ti •iT- ' " ''V ■‘m (: j ( .<■ -1. / . . .;m '^^•01. ; J’f ■ 4 V«*' ^ FROM The Virginia Journal of Science APRIL, 1941 VGNORANTm^ SVPREMVS ^TVmNNVSj PROGRAM iaiam ^Pa#ftt«Ste=|;^E sai'. A Mr^fe.'V; ■ '/'.‘f:’;' . ' ’Sm VOL. II Virginia Academy of Science Nineteenth Annual Meeting Aledical College of Virginia Ricli mond, Virginia Tkursday, Friday and Saturday Aiay 1st, 2nd and 3rd, 1941 The Virginia Journal of Science Official journal of the , VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE EDITORIAL BOARD Ruskin S. Freer, Lynchburg College, Lynchburg, Va. Managing Editor — Lt.-Col. Robert P. Carroll, Virginia Military Institute, Lexington, Va. S. A. Mitchell-— Asiro?io'?w2/ C. L. Albright — Physics G. W. J^FFBRS— Biology John W. Watson— John Alex. BobeBt— Education Albert H. COOFER—Engmeering Edward C. H. Lammers — Geology Carl C, SfeibeIj— Medicine R. S. Henneman— Entered as second-class matter February 20, 1940, at the post office at Lexington, Virginia, under the Act of March 3, 1879. Subscription — $1.00 per volume to members of the Virginia Academy of Science; $2.00 per vol¬ ume to others. Published at Lexington, Virginia. The Virginia Journal of Science VOL. II APRIL, 1941 S. I. libmary FROM A* A* 3« No. 4 Virginia Academy of Science PROGRAM Nineteenth Annual Meeting JViedical College of V irginia RicLmonJ, Virginia Tkursday, Friday and Saturday May 1st, 2nd and 3rd, 1941 Virginia Academy of Science OFFICERS WORTLEY F. Rudd, President Medical College of Virginia E. C. L. Miller, Secretary -Treasurer Medical College of Virginia Sidney S. Negus, Assistant Secretary Medical College of Virginia OTHER MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL Regidar — W. Catesby Jones Charles E. Myers Preston Edwards Marcellus H. Stow H. H. ZiMMERLEY Ex-officio Members — D. Maurice Allan Earle B. Norris Ruskin S. Freer George W. Jeffers Personnel of Local Committee on Arrangements Richmond Meeting, Virginia Academy of Science, 19Jfl 1. Chairman . H. B. Haag Medical College of Virginia Sub-Chairman . Foley Sm^^" A. B. C. Board, Chemical Laboratory 2. Committee on Exhibits . Rodney C. Berry, Chairman State Department of Agriculture 3. Committee on Publicity . W. R. Galvin, Chairman Thomas Jefferson High School 4. Committee on Friday Night Dinner . L. E,. Jarrett, Chairman Medical College of Virginia 5. Committee on Registration and Information . F. J. Wampler, Chairman Medical College of Virginia 6. Committee on Meeting Rooms, Lanterns and Operators R. F. McCRACKANy Chairman Medical College of Virginia 7. Committee on Housing . F. L. Apperly, Chairman Medical College of Virginia PROGRAM, NINETEENTH ANNUAL MEETING 75 8. Committee on Finance . Catesby Jones, Chairman 1128 State Office Building 9. Ladies Committee . Miss Gertrude Drinker, Chairman Dairy Council 10. Committee on Radio . George W. Jeffers, Chairman State Teachers College, Farmville, Virginia 11. Section Hosts : Astronomy, Mathematics and Physics . C. H. Wheeler University of Richmond J. M. Bailey, University of Richmond E-lnJomi ) ROSCOE HUGHES, . Medical College of Virginia R. M. Smart, University of Richmond Chemistry J. C. Forbes, Medical College of Virginia W. R. Harlan, Research Dept., Am. Tob. Co. Braxton Valentine, Valentine* s Meat Juice Co. Education . . C. E. Meyers State Office Building Engineering . R. B. Davenport Larus Brothers Geology . John E. Elder State Department of Agriculture fjAMEs H. Smith, J 1000 West Grace Street 1 Harry Bear, [ Medical College of Virginia . Robert C. Astrop University of Richmond Medicine ... Psychology 76 The VIRGINIA ACADEMY of SCIENCE NOTICES AND INFORMATION Please have all calls made through 7-1800, extension 368. Because our meetings take place at a time when Garden Week will be in progress, it is suggested that all members who have not reserved rooms directly, communicate with Dr. F. L. Apperly, chairman, Committee on Housing, Medical College of Virginia, Richmond, who will be glad to make room reservations. Displays and demonstrations will be located in the physiology and pharmacology laboratory on the fourth floor of McGuire Hall. Botanical forays will be held Saturday afternoon and Sun¬ day, May 3 and 4, visiting the bogs near Petersburg under the leadership of Dr. Robert F. Smart and Seward Forest, Brunswick County, under the leadership of Mr. J. B. Lewis. Registration should be made as early as possible with Prof. A. B. Massey, Blacksburg. A one-day trip to the Dismal Swamp, entering it from the Suffolk side is being planned. For details write Dr. John W. Bailey, of the University of Richmond. General Program of the Nineteenth Annual Meeting Richmond, Virginia 1941 MEDICAL COLLEGE OF VIRGINIA— HEADQUARTERS 7:30 P. M. Thursday, May 1 Academj^ Conference. Simon Baruch Auditorium (Egyptian Building). 8:30 A. M. Friday, May 2 Registration. Library Building. 9:30 A. M. Section Meetings. 12:30 P. M. Lunch. 2:00 P. M. Section Meetings. 5:00 P. M. Tea. 7:15 P. M. Banquet. Hotel John Marshall. Address of Welcome. Dr. William T. Sanger. Response by President Wortley F. Rudd. Presentation of Annual Research Prize of the Academy, the Jefferson Prize and the Inter- Academy Award, by Dr. Frank A. Geldard. Address— Austin H. Clark, Curator, Division of Echinoderms, U. S. National Museum, and President of the Washington Academy of Sciences. 8:30 P. M. House of Magic. Hotel John Marshall Auditorium. (Virginia Room). Saturday, May 3 9:00 A. M. Section Meetings. 12:00 Noon. General Business Meeting in Simon Baruch Audi¬ torium. r (j di lo ;-.f £T;n'c ... '"a V '^"iV * ‘ r/: U' .aA?V:-.-AT’‘:ro:M^v iU'''^'u\'.':A) i\ yu ^ ;• A T '■>''■ ’.'i»^:»tii;s.’jA ■■ • '[ -■' ' .' V ’ : ' ' V (:4>| . I.'. ■ »-r,’ ' itcvt iW) I-' 1 ' \ m ^ '• !eAj\ ' ' , ,■ ^ .j r' i’»' ' I , ' . r -uX'. d'"* ';-u ' ., ■ ^■'' ‘ ■\:‘ ■ ■ ^ . ;Vi> -U^yibh^. > )’. V, ■'• A-' *■'■ ^7 '■' rhiirA^irl W':' i- ■,;,d^-is*‘(m(Kv-. !' .r-4 V; .* '‘.J,: .\ri -irfjK^, ■ • /. ' r ■i . -, ,»';. '■ 1- fi ■■ Section of Astronomy, Mathematics, and Physics F. B. Haynes, Chairman Isabel Boggs, Secretary j FRIDAY, MAY 2—10:00 A. M. Room 602, Old Virginia Hospital 1. A Study of the Internal Resistance of Dry Cells. W. R. Greer and J. F. Ryman ; Virginia Polytechnic Insti¬ tute. 2. A Semi-automatic Spectrographic Exposure Control. J. R. Cosby, F. B. Haynes, and H. D. Ussery; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. 3. Orbital Motion of Wolf 424. Dirk Reuyl; Leander McCormick Observatory , University of Virginia. 4. Two Recent Naked-eye Comets. Claude M. Anderson, Jr.; Leander McCormick Observa¬ tory, University of Virginia. ■, 5. Spectral Classification of Reference Stars used in the Deri¬ vation of Cepheid Motions. C. A. Wirtanen; Leander McCormick Observatory, Uni¬ versity of Virginia. 6. Intercomparison of Various Spectral Classifications of Faint Stars. A. N. Vyssotsky; Leander McCormick Observatory, Uni¬ versity of Virginia. 7. Quantity or Quality in School Science. Preston H. Edwards; Siveet Briar College. FRIDAY, MAY 2—2:00 P. M. Room 602,. Old Virginia Hosj)ital 8. Business Meeting. 9. A Back Reflection X-Ray Camera of Simple Design. W. Richardson ; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. 10. Vector Operations in Plane Geometry. B. Z. Linfield; University of Virginia. 80 The VIRGINIA ACADEMY of SCIENCE 11. Rotational Analysis of the (0, 4) Angstrom Band of CO for High Rotational Energies. Myron S. McCay ; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. 12. The Use Made of Scientific Films in the General Course in Physics at the Virginia Military Institute. S. M. Heflin ; Virginia Military Institute. 13. Demonstration of Equipment for Projecting Sound Motion Pictures. R. C. Weaver; Virginia Military Institute. SATURDAY, MAY 3—9:00 A. M. Room 602 Old Virginia Hospital 14. The Solution of Differential Equations by Operational Cal¬ culus, Part II. A. Lee Smith; College of William and Mary-Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Norfolk Division. 15. Some Simple Lecture Demonstrations from the A. A. P. T. Manual. Joseph D. Elder; Lynchburg College. 16. Trip to the X-ray Department, Medical College of Virginia. PROGRAM, NINETEENTH ANNUAL MEETING 81 Section of Biology E. DeWitt Miller, Chairman Lena Artz, Vice-Chairman R. F. Smart, Secretary FRIDAY, MAY 2^9 :30 A. M, Simon Baruch Auditorium, Egyptian Building 1. Spermatogenesis and oogenesis in Haemonchus contortus, a Nematode Worm Parasitic in the Fourth Stomach of Rumi¬ nant Animals. William Logan Threlkeld and Myron Eugene Henderson; Virginia Polytechnic Institute and Roanoke College. (Lantern, 10 min.) 2. Helminth Parasites of Sheep. William L. Threlkeld; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. (Lantern, 15 min.) 3. Chromosome Number and Winter Hardiness Relationships in the Higher Plants. Wray M, Bowden ; The Blandy Experimental Farm, Uni¬ versity of Virginia. (Lantern, 15 min.) 4. Genetic Studies on Wild and Cultivated Watermelons (Cit- rullus ) . Orlando E. White; The Blandy Experimental Farm, Uni¬ versity of Virginia. (Lantern, 15 min.) 5. Time and Rate of Nutrient Absorption by Bright Tobacco. L. R. Kangas and A. L. Grizzard; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. (15 min.) 6. Time and Rate of Nutrient Absorption by PeanutsL John Strauss and A. L. Grizzard; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. (15 min.) 7. Results of a Three Year Study on the Control of Cercospora Leaf Spot of Peanuts. Lawrence I. Miller; Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station, Holland, Va. (Lantern, 15 min.) 8. Feeding a Perfect Human Diet to Rats. Joseph Z. Schneider; Madison College. 82 The VIRGINIA ACADEMY of SCIENCE 9. Schools of Training for National Park Service Work. Dr. Carl P. Russell ; Supervisor of Research and Interpre¬ tation, United States Department of the Interior Na¬ tional Park Service, Washington, D. C. (Colored slides and motion pictures.) By Invitation. Introduced by Robert F. Smart. FRIDAY, MAY 2—2:00 P. M. Simon Baruch Auditorium, Egyptian Building 10. Further Observations on a Perennial Woody Gall on Hickory. Alphonse F. Chestnut; College of William and Mary, (Lantern, 15 min.) 11. Observations on the Spectroscopic Properties of Leaf Green Solutions. Lewis W. Webb, Jr. and Frederick F. Ferguson; College of William and Mary-Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Norfolk Division and U. S. P, H, S., Craney Island, (Lantern, 10 min.) 12. Response of Aquatic Micro-organisms to Sulfanilamide, Sul- fathiazole, and Sulfapyridine. Jane R. Holmes and Frederick F. Ferguson; College of William, and Mary-Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Norfolk Division and U, S. P. H. S., Craney Island. (10 min.) 13. A Preliminary Survey of the Flora and Fauna of the Pol¬ luted Waters of the Norfolk Area. E. Ruffin Jones, Jr. and Frederick F. Ferguson; College of William and Mary-Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Norfolk Division and U. S. P. H. S., Craney Island. (To be read by title.) 14. Notes on the Anatomy of a Rare Archiannelid Dinophilus sp. from the Norfolk Area. E. Ruffin Jones, Jr. and Frederick F. Ferguson; College of William and Mary-Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Norfolk Division and U. S. P. H. S-, Craney Island. (To be read by title.) 15. The Biological Control of the Mealy-Bug. J. G. Harrar and J. J. McKelvey, Jr. ; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. (Lantern, 15 min.) 16. Physiologic Studies of Some Entomogenous Fungi. J. G. Harrar and J. W. Showalter; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. (Lantern, 12 min.) PROGRAM, NINETEENTH ANNUAL MEETING 83 17. Some Effects of Theelin on the Mucus in the Genital Tract of the Guinea Pig. Roy Talmage; University of Richmond. (Lantern, 15 min.) (Introduced by H. L Myers.) 18. Notes on the Sclerotium of Fuligo septica. W. T. Allman; University of Richmond. (Lantern, 10 min.) (Introduced by Robert F. Smart.) 19. Research in Progress at the Virginia Fisheries Laboratory. Curtis L. Newcombe; Virginia Fisheries Laboratory and College of William and Mary. (Lantern, 15 min.) 20. Growing Oysters in the York River. J. W. Bailey; University of Richmond. (Motion pictures, 20 min.) 21. Utilization of Apple Products in Lowering the Curd Tension of Milk for Infant Feeding. C. C. Flora and C. W. Holdaway; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. (15 min.) 84 The VIRGINIA ACADEMY of SCIENCE Botany Division SATURDAY, MAY 3—9 :00 A. M. Room SOU, Egyptian Building 1. Native Grapes of Virginia. A. B. Massey; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. (Lantern, 12 min.) 2. Some Notes on Buckley a distichophylla. J. R. Mundie; King College. (Lantern, 5 min.) 3. Moisture Content of Bryophytes at Different Levels of Humidity. Paul M. Patterson; Hollins College. (Lantern, 10 min.) 4. A Preliminary List of the Mosses at Mountain Lake, Vir¬ ginia. Paul M. Patterson; Hollins College. (10 min.) 5. Further Genetical and Cytological Studies on a Sea-side Ecotype of Aster mailtiflmus Ait. A. L. Delisle and Mary R. Old; College of William and Mary. (Lantern, 10 min.) 6. The Genes for Floral Colors in Im.patiens halsamina and a Correlation with those Reported by other Investigators. Lucy Ann Taylor and Donald W. Davis ; J. A. C. Chandler High School and College of William and Mary. (Lan¬ tern, 15 min.) 7. Seven-Year Experiment in Cotton Breeding at Hampton In¬ stitute. Thomas W. Turner ; Hampton Institute. (Lantern 8 min.) 8. Further Work on the Effect of Indole-acetic Acid on the Vegetative Propagation of Castanea, Albizzia and some Ornamental Gymnosperms. Albert L. Delisle ; College of William and Mary. (Lantern, 40 min.) 9. Books on Botany, Gardening, and Agriculture in the Library of Thomas Jefferson. Edwin M. Betts; University of Virginia. (10 min.) 10. Developing a Wilt Resistant Spinach Variety for Virginia. T. J. Nugent and Harold T. Cook; Virginia Truck Experi¬ ment Station. (Lantern, 10 min.) 11. Developing Wilt Resistant Watermelons for Virginia. Harold T. Cook and T. J. Nugent; Virginia Truck Experi¬ ment Station. (Lantern, 10 min.) 12. Cytology and Genetics in the flax genus, Linum. Charles Ray, Jr. ; The Blaiidy Experimental Farm, Uni¬ versity of Virginia. (Lantern, 15 min.) PROGRAM, NINETEENTH ANNUAL MEETING 85 Zoology Division SATURDAY, MAY 3—9 ;00 A. M. Simon Barncli Auditorium, Egyptian Building 1. Further Notes on the Control of the Pea Aphid. Harry G. Walker and L. D. Anderson; Virginia Truck Experiment Station. (Lantern, 15 min.) 2. Coloration Studies on Melanoplus hivittatus Say. James McDonald Grayson; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. (Lantern, 20 min.) 3. Ecological Observations on the Ribbed Mussel, Volsella de- missus. J. H. Lochhead ; Virginia Fisheries Laboratory and Col¬ lege of William and Mary. (Lantern, 15 min.) 4. Recent Fossil Discoveries in Burkes Garde, Virginia. George Gose Peery; Roanoke College. (Lantern, 5 min.) 5. A Study of the Brown Thrasher, Torostoma rufum. Edna E. Becker; Hollins College. (Lantern, 15 min.) 6. On the Biology of Male Mosquitoes. Kenneth B. M. Crooks; Hampton Institute. (Lantern, 10 min.) 7. A New Hymenolepid Cestode from the Shrew. Arthur W. Jones; University of Virginia. (Lantern, 10 min.) 8. Preliminary Cytological Observation in Trematodes. H. Grady Britt; University of Virginia. (Introduced by B. D. Reynolds.) (10 min.) 9. A Study of Abdominal Hernia in the Frog, Rana cateshei- ana. Thomas G. Hurdle; Roanoke College. (Introduced by Myron E. Henderson.) (Lantern, 5 min.) 10. A Transitory Membrane in the Formation of Midgut in the Cockroach, Blattella germanica. Lincoln C. Pettit; Washington and Lee University. (Lan¬ tern, 15 min.) 86 The VIRGINIA ACADEMY of SCIENCE 11. Haptophyra plethodonis, a New Species of Astomous Ciliate Found in the Intestinal Tract and Gall Bladder of Plethodon cinereus Green and Pletodon glutinosus Green. Martha H. Lipscomb ; Thomas Jefferson High School and The Mountain Lake Biological Station. (Lantern, 10 min.) 12. Plagiostomum dahlgreni n. sp. William A. Kepner, M. A. Stirewalt, and F. F. Ferguson; University of Virginia and Flora McDonald Norfolk Branch of the College of William and Mary. (Lantern, 10 min.) 13. The Butterflies of Roanoke and Montgomery Counties. Carroll E. Wood, Jr. and Carl W. Gottschalk; Roanoke College. (Introduced by Myron E. Henderson.) (Lan¬ tern, 10 min.) 14. The Embryology of Crepis capillaris. Ladley Husted ; Miller School of Biology and Blandy Ex¬ perimental Farm, University of Virginia. (Lantern, 10 min.) PROGRAM, NINETEENTH ANNUAL MEETING 87 „ A W 1. 2. 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8. 9, 10. 11, Section of Chemistry W. G. Guy, Chairman F. H. Fish, Secretary % FRIDAY, MAY 2™9:30 A. M. , : j Room 209, McGuire Hall The Chemist in War. Leonidas R. Littleton; Emory and Henry College. (15 min.) Vapor Phase Catalytic Hydrolysis of Halogenated Hydro¬ carbons. James W. Cole and Lester Van Middlesworth ; University of Virginia. (10 min.) The Straus Reaction on Hydroxycodeinone. Harris W. Bradley and Robert E. Lutz; University of Vir¬ ginia. (10 min.) Lantern Slides of Crystals. Warren W. Williamson and Harriett H. Fillinger; Hollins College. (15 min.) Application of Physico-chemical Methods of Analysis to the Chesapeake Bay Waters. A, R. Armstrong; College of William and Mary and Vir-- ginia Fisheries Laboratory. (20 min.) ^ The Determination of Glycogen in Oysters. ' A. R. Armstrong; College of William and Mary and Vir¬ ginia Fisheries Laboratory. (10 min.) New Quinoline Derivatives in Chemotherapy, Alfred Burger, Luther R. Modlin, Jr., Stanley E. Krahler and Kenneth Bass, Jr,; University of Virginia. (15 min.) The Synthesis of Some lodinated Aromatic Compounds. Louis Long, Jr, and Alfred Burger; University of Vir¬ ginia. (10 min.) The Effect of Cold Rolling on the Acid Corrosion of Certain Alloys. J. A. Addlestone and M. W. Duke; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. (10 min.) Mono and Dienol Acetates of 1,2,4 Trimesitylbutanedione— 1,4. Vernon R. Mattox and Robert E. Lutz; University of Vir¬ ginia. (15 min.) Applied Science, the Financial System, and Democracy. Allan T. Gwathmey; University of Virginia. (20 min.) 88 The VIRGINIA ACADEMY of SCIENCE Third Symposium on Organic Analytical Reagents FRIDAY, MAY 2—2 :00 P. M. Room 209, McGwire Hall 12. Introduction. John H. Yoe; University of Virginia. (10 min.) 13. A Summary Report on 250 Organic Compounds. W. J. Frierson and P. M. Simpson ; Hampden-Sydney CoU lege. (5 min.) 14. A Report. W. H. Wrenn and F. H. Fish ; Virginia Pohjtechnic Insti¬ tute. (10 min.) 15. A Progress Report. Jean L. Lamer and Wm. E. Trout, Jr. ; Mary Baldwin Col¬ lege. (5 min.) 16. A Progress Report. Edwin C. Markham; University of North Carolina. (5 min.) 17. The Salogenic Organic Compounds. L. A. Sarver; American Viscose Corporation. (20 min.) 18. A Progress Report. 0. W. Clark, Jr., R. M. Irby, Jr. and Ira A. Updike; Ran- dolph-Macon College. (5 min.) 19. A Progress Report. J. R. Taylor; Washington and Lee University. (5 min.) 20. Some Complex Compounds of Copper, Silver and Mercury with Ethanolamines. J. W. Cole and M. Brook Shreaves ; University of Virginia. (15 min.) 21. A Progress Report. E. Louise Wallace and A. R. Armstrong; College of Wil¬ liam and Mary. (5 min.) 22. A Progress Report. Thomas B. Crumpler and Earl B. Claiborne; Tulane Uni¬ versity. (15 min.) 23. A Progress Report. W. E. Clark and L. R. Stallings; Virginia Military Insti- . tute. (5 min.) PROGRAM, NINETEENTH ANNUAL MEETING 89 SATURDAY, MAY 2~--9:00 A. M. Room 209, McGuire Hall 24. /3-Monoalkylaminoethyl Alkoxybenzoates as Local Anesthet¬ ics. J. Stanton Pierce, J. M. Salsbury, and J. M, Fredericksen ; University of Richmond. (15 min.) 25. The Electrolytic Preparation of Bromoform and Iodoform. J. B. Lucas and Irving Gray; Virginia Polytechnic Insti¬ tute. (10 min.) 26. Structural Models of Cortin Compounds. I. 1,6-Disubsti- tuted Hydronaphthalenes. Louis Long, Jr. and Alfred Burger; University of Vir¬ ginia. (10 min.) 27. The Effect of PH on the Drying of a Sulfonated Product. R. A. Fisher and N. H. Nix; Virginia Polytechnic Insti¬ tute. (10 min.) 28. Factors Influencing the Composition of Cigaret Smoke. 0. L, Hillsman; American Tobacco Company. (20 min.) 29. Cis-^-Aroyl Acrylic Acids and Related Compounds. G. W. Scott and Robert E. Lutz; University of Virginia. (10 min.) 30. The Ring-Chain Tautomerism of Hydroxyfuranones Con¬ tain Alkyl Groups. Ralph C. Downing and Robert E. Lutz; University of Vir¬ ginia. (10 min.) 31. The /?-Hydroxyfurans and Hydroxyfuranones with Particu¬ lar Reference to the 2,5-Dimesityl Derivatives. C. Edward McGinn and Robert E. Lutz; University of Virginia. (10 min.) 32. Business Meeting and Election of Officers. 90 The VIRGINIA ACADEMY of SCIENCE Section of Education Paul G. Hook, Chairman E. B. Broadwater, Secretary FRIDAY, MAY 2—10:00 A. M. Room 600 f Old Virginia Hospital 1. The Life and Work of Joseph Dupuy Eggleston. E. F. Overton ; University of Virginia. 2. Higher Education for Women in Virginia. W, Hall Cato; University of Virginia. 3. A History of the Constitutional Provisions for Education in Virginia. R. A. Meade ; University of Virginia. FRIDAY, MAY 2—2:00 P. M, Room 600, Old Virginia Hospital 4. Negro Education in Virginia. Fred M. Alexander ; State Board of Education. 5. Ability of Virginia Counties to Support Schools. R. F. Williams; Supt. of Smythe County Public Schools, Marion^ Va. 6. The Content for a Course in Social Mathematics for the Sen¬ ior High School. Francis G. Lankford; Univer^sity of Virginia. 7. Vocational and Educational Counseling with Adults. John A. Mapp; State Board of Education. PROGRAM, NINETEENTH ANNUAL MEETING 91 Section of Engineering D* H, Pletta, Chairman P. S* Dear^ Secretary FRIDAY, MAY 2—9:30 A, M. Room 30A, Egyptian Building 1. Factors Controlling Commercial Utilization of Industrial Casein from Soybean Meal. Leland M. Reed and Frank C. Vilbrandt; Virginia Poly¬ technic Institute. (Lantern, 15 min.) 2. Preliminary Studies in the Design of a Commercial Plant for the Purification of Tall Oil. Jerome M. Crockin and Frank C. Vilbrandt; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. (Lantern, 15 min.) 3. Esterification for Development of Drying Characteristics of Tall Oil Charles F. Eck and Frank C. Vilbrandt; Virginia Poly¬ technic Institute. (Lantern, 15 min.) 4. Factors Affecting the Corrosion Rates of Metals in Tallol. I. M. Markwood and R. A. Fisher; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. (Lantern, 15 min.) 5. Cross-connection Pollution Hazards, and Method of Detec¬ tion. Alvin F. Meyer, Jr.; Virginia Military Institute. (Lan¬ tern, 10 min.) 6. Roanoke River Stream Pollution Survey. H. F. Eich and P. H. McGaughey; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. (Lantern, 15 min.) 7. Utilization of Rosin and Waste Fatty Acids for the Produc¬ tion of Adipic and Sebacic Acids. William R. Keller and Frank C. Vilbrandt; Virginia Poly¬ technic Institute. (Lantern, 15 min.) 8. The Industrial Utilization of Carbide Generator Lime Wastes. Robert L. Teeter and Frank C. Vilbrandt; Virginia Poly¬ technic Institute. (Lantern, 10 min.) 92 The VIRGINIA ACADEMY of SCIENCE 9. Industrial Waste Survey in Virginia. Dudley Thompson and Robert A. Fisher; Virginia Poly¬ technic Institute, (Lantern, 15 min.) 10. The Utilization of Paper Mill Wastes in the Flotation of Manganese Ores. Hugh F. Smith and Frank C. Vilbrandt; Virginia Poly¬ technic Institute. (Lantern, 10 min.) 11. A New Extensometer. H. R. Puckett and D. H. Pletta ; Virginia Polytechnic Insti¬ tute. (Lantern, 15 min.) 12. Business Meeting, Appointment of Nominating Committee. FRIDAY, MAY 2—2:00 P. M. Room SOU, Egyptian Building 13. Continuation of Business Meeting. 14. Barium Carbonate as a Material for Adjusting “Glaze-FiP’ on Talc Bodies. Fred W. Bull; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. (Lantern, 15 min.) 15. Problems Encountered in Utilization of Red Cedar. E. H. Lane, Jr.; The Lane Co., Altavista, Va. (Lantern, 30 min.) 16. Clarification of Wool Scouring Liquors Containing Sulfated Higher Alcohols. Louis J. Sitomer and Frank C. Vilbrandt; Virginia Poly¬ technic Institute. (Lantern, 15 min.) 17. The Relationships Between Nozzles and Solvent-Solute Char¬ acteristics in Solvent Extraction. Edward L. Bragg and Frank C. Vilbrandt; Virginia Poly¬ technic Institute. (Lantern, 15 min.) 18. The Effect of Hot Plate Surfaces on Thermal Conductivi¬ ties. R. M. Johnston and C. B. Ruehr; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. (Lantern, 15 min.) 19. Design of Non-Diaphragm Calcium Chlorate Cell. Frank W, Tober and Frank C. Vilbrandt; Virginia Poly¬ technic Institute. (Lantern, 15 min.) 20. The Torsional Properties of Round Edged Flat Bars. D. H. Pletta and F. J. Maher ; Virginia Polytechnic Insti¬ tute. (Lantern, 15 min.) PROGRAM, NINETEENTH ANNUAL MEETING 93 Section of Foresty John W. McNair, Presiding FRIDAY, MAY 2—10:00 A. M. Room 301, McGuire Hall 1. The State Forestry Department. F. C. Pederson; State Forester. (20 min.) 2. The Work of the Assistant State Forester. George W. Dean; Assistant State Forester. (10 min.) 3. District State Forestry Work in Southwestern Virginia. G. H. Hodge; District Forester. (5 min.) 4. District State Forestry Work in the Piedmont Area. Berlin Eye; District Forester. (5 min.) 5. District State Forestry Work in the Tidewater Area. Brantley Henderson, Jr.; District Forester. (5 min.) 6. Work of the Extension Service in Forestry. Wilbur O’Byrne; Extension Forester. (10 min.) 7. Work of the Extension Service in Forestry (Cont.) Conner; Assistant Extension Forester. (5 min.) 8. Work of the Forestry Department at V. P. I. J. B. Grantham; Professor of Forestry. (10 min.) 9. The Forestry Department at the U. of Va. Chapin Jones; Professor of Forestry. (10 min.) 10. Forest Entomology Work of the Virginia Agricultural Ex¬ periment Station. L. A. Hetrick. FRIDAY, MAY 2—2:00 P. M. Room 301, McGuire Hall Chapin Jones, Presiding 11. Federal Viewpoint on Private Forestry. E. I. Kotok ; Assistant Chief, U. S. Forest Service. 12. The Jefferson National Forest. John W. McNair; Forest Supervisor, Jefferson National Forest. (15 min.) 94 The VIRGINIA ACADEMY of SCIENCE 13. Forestry Work in the Northern Va. Area of the S. C. S. Lawrence T. Small; Area Forester. (10 min.) 14. The Virginia Farm Forestry Project. A. B. Lyon; Project Forester. (10 min.) 15. Forestry Work in the Rockbridge County Conservation Dis¬ trict. Carl B. Liveley. (5 min.) 16. S. C. S. Forestry Work in the Tidewater District. W. A. Phillips; Soil Conservation Service. (5 min.) 17. The Work of the Forestry Department of Johns-Manville, Jarrat, Va. Ray F. Bower. (10 min.) 18. Education Work in Forestry of the Chesapeake Corporation. J. H. Johnson; Assistant Forester. (5 min.) 19. Work of the Forestry Department of the Chesapeake Corpo¬ ration. W. L. Gooch; Forester. (With Slides.) (15 min.) 20. Work of the Forestry Department of the Chesapeake-Camp Corporation. T. N. Barron; Forester. (10 min.) 21. Discussion. There will be a field trip into the surrounding area Saturday, the details of which will be announced at the Friday Meeting. PROGRAM, NINETEENTH ANNUAL MEETING 95 Section of Geology E. C. H. Lammers, Chairman R. S. Edmundson,, Vice-Chairman Wm. M. McGill',. Secretary FRIDAY, MAY 2—9 :45 A. M. Auditormm, Hunton Hall 1. Some Stratigraphic Variations in Northern Virginia. R, S. Edmundson; Virginia Geological Survey. (Slides, charts, 10 min.) 2. Mineralogy of Some Atlantic Coast Beach Sands. R. 0. Wilbur and J. B. Snobble; Washington and Lee Uni¬ versity. (Slides, 10 min.) 3. Mineralogy of Sands from Tributaries of South Fork of Shenandoah River, Virginia. C, L. Sartor and R. W. Root; Washington and Lee Uni¬ versity. (Slides, 10 min.) 4. Source of Sediment of Tuscarora Sandstone in Massanutten Mountain, Virginia. H. W. Woods, Jr., and Egmont Horn; Washington and Lee University. (Slides, 10 min.) 5. A Method of Tracing the Flow of Underground Streams. M. H. Stow; Washington and Lee University. (5 min.) 6. Outlines of the Geology of Smyth County, Virginia. J. K. Roberts; University of Virginia. (Slides, 15 min.) 7. Virginia's Stone Industry. Arthur Bevan; Virginia Geological Survey. (Slides, 15 min.) 8. Gemology— "the Infant Branch of Science. G. C. Barclay; Certified Gemologist, Newport News^ Va. Introduced by Wm. M. McGill.) U5 min.) 9. A Chemical Study of the Profile of Certain Limestone Valley Soils in Virginia. C. G. Morgan and S. S. Obenshain; Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station. (Slides, charts, 15 min.) 10. Three Items of Virginia Geology. R, J. Holden; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. (10 min.) 96 The VIRGINIA ACADEMY of SCIENCE FRIDAY, MAY 2—2:00 P. M. Auditorium, Hunton Hall 11. Geophysical Investigations in Virginia. George Woolard; Princeton, Neiv Jersey- (Introduced by E. C. H. Lammers.) (Maps, slides, 20 min.) 12. Mineral Composition of Rocks in the Hudson Highlands of Southeastern New York. J. D. Bates; University of Virginia, (Introduced by J. K. Roberts.) (Slides, 10 min.) 13. Age Relationships of Certain Metamorphic Rocks in the Vicinity of Lynchburg, Virginia. Wm. R. Brown, Cornell University. (Slides, 10 min.) 14. An Occurrence of Amethyst in Prince Edward County, Vir¬ ginia. E. W. Sniffen; Hampton, Va. (Slides, specimens, 10 min.) 15. Diabase Minerals of the Virginia Triassic, Illustrated by Kodachrome. W. C. Overstreet; University of Virginia. (Introduced by A. A. Pegau.) (Slides, 10 min.) 16. Possible Unicoi Tuffs in the Central Blue Ridge of Virginia. R. R. Bloomer; University of Virginia. (Slides, 10 min.) 17. Progressive Down Dip Changes in Quality of Ground Water in the Virginia Coastal Plain. D. J. Cederstrom ; U. S. Geological Survey. (Slides, charts, 15 min.) 18. The Occurrence of Ground Water along the Fall Zone in Virginia. Wm. M. McGill; Virginia Geological Survey. (Maps, charts, 10 min.) 19. Granite Contacts in Southeastern Piedmont Virginia. A. A. Pegau; University of Virginia. (Slides 10 min.) BUSINESS MEETING Reports of Committees. Election of Officers. SATURDAY, MAY 3—8:00 A. M. Field Trip — Place of assembly and details of trip to be announced at the meeting Friday. PROGRAM, NINETEENTH ANNUAL MEETING 97 Section of Medical Sciences Holland J. Main, Chairman Guy W. Horsley, Secretary FRIDAY, MAY 2—9:30 A. M. Room U2Sf Clinic Building 1. Studies on Fat Metabolism and Susceptibility to Carbon Tet¬ rachloride. J. C. Forbes, B. E. Leach, and E. L. Outhouse; Depart¬ ment of Biochemistry, Medical College of Virginia. (15 min.) 2. The Synchronization of Cerebro-Cortical Potentials. C. (1. Holland ; Departments of Physiology and Neuropsy¬ chiatry, University of Virginia. (Lantern, 15 min.) 3. Study of a Case of Osteosclerosis with Myeloid Leukemia, with Special Reference to the Extensive Extramedullary Blood Formation. H. E. Jordan and J. K. Scott; Department of Anatomy, University of Virginia. (Lantern, 15 min.) 4. Structure and Function of the Brain of the New-born Bear. Walther Riese; Department of Neuropsychiatry, Medical College of Virginia. (Lantern, 15 min.) 5. The Efficacy of Bacteriophage and Other Bacterial Prepara¬ tions in the Control of Experimental Friedlander B Infection in Mice. Leslie A. Sandholzer ; U. S. Public Health Service, Craney Island Laboratory, Norfolk, Virginia. (Lantern, 10 min.) 6. A Study of the Antagonistic and Synergistic Relationships Between Members of the Pseudomonas and Escherichia Ge¬ nera. Mary V. Ferguson and Leslie A. Sandholzer ; U. S. Public Health Service, Craney Island Laboratory, Norfolk, Vir¬ ginia. (Lantern, 10 min.) 7. Autopassive Local Sensitization and Desensitization. Oscar Swineford, Jr., and W. Roy Mason, Jr. ; Department of Internal Medicine, University of Virginia. (Lantern, 20 min.) 98 The VIRGINIA ACADEMY of SCIENCE 8. The Methylene Blue Lactose Broth Test for Sterility of Glasses and Eating Utensils. A, F, Meyer, Jr.; Sanitary Laboratory, Virginia Military Institute. (10 min.) FRIDAY, MAY 2—2 :00 P. M. Room U2S^ Clinic Building 9. Business Session: a. Discussion of advisability of combining Section of Zoology and Section of Medical Sciences. b. Election of Officers. 10. Preliminary Studies : Effect of X-ray on Normal and Injured Liver Cells in Rats. G, Z. Williams; Department of Pathology, Medical Col¬ lege of Virginia. (Lantern, 10 min.) PROGRAM, NINETEENTH ANNUAL MEETING 99 Symposium of Sulfonamide Drugs 11. Chemistry of Sulfonamide Drugs. Alfred Chanutin ; Department of Biochemistry, University of Virginia, 12. Pharmacology of Sulfonamide Drugs. Harvey B. Haag; Department of Pharmacology, Medical College of Virginia, 13. Sulfanilamide and its Derivatives in Medical Practice. Ernest G. Scott; Lynchburg, Virginia, 14. Sulfanilamide and its Derivatives in Surgery. I. A. Bigger; Medical College of Virginia, SATURDAY, MAY 3—9 :30 A. M. Room Clinic Building 15. The Relation of Solar Radiation to Cancer Mortality in North America. Frank L. Apperly ; Department of Pathology, Medical Col¬ lege of Virginia, (Lantern, 10 min.) 16. The Relation of Arterial Pulse-Pressure to the Arterio- Venous Oxygen Difference in the Blood. M. Katharine Cary and Frank L. Apperly; Department of Pathology, Medical College of Virginia, (Lantern, 10 min.) 17. Heparin and Peritoneal Adhesions. Floyd Boys; Department of Surgery,. University of Vir¬ ginia, (20 min.) 18. The Mechanism of Shock in Intestinal Strangulation. Everett I. Evans ; Department of Surgery, Medical College of Virginia. (15 min.) 19. Alcohol Absorption from the Skin. R. V. Bowers and J. F. Blades ; Departments of Chemistry and Surgery, Medical College of Virginia, (10 min.) 20. High Altitude Exposure and Drug Susceptibility (Morphine and Sulfanilamide). Ernst Fischer; Department of Physiology and Pharmacol¬ ogy, Medical College of Virginia, (Lantern, 15 min.) 100 The VIRGINIA ACADEMY of SCIENCE 21. An Analysis of Hormonal Influences on Fliud Balance. S. W. Britton and E. L. Corey; Physiological Laboratory, University of Virginia, (Lantern, 20 min. 22. Alcaptonuria in a Negro Family. Lynn D. Abbott; Department of Biochemistry, Medical College of Virginia, (15 min.) SCIENTIFIC EXHIBIT Third Floor, Egyptian Building Pathogenic Fungi Demonstration. Open for the duration of the meeting. Department of Bacteriology, Medical College of Virginia. PROGRAM, NINETEENTH ANNUAL MEETING 101 Section of Psychology FRIDAY, MAY 2—9:30 A. M. Room 500, Old Virginia Hospital 1. Intensity as a Determinant of the Simple Visual Reaction. V. Coucheron Jarl; University of Virginia, (Slides, 15 min.) 2. The Attentional Range as a Function of After-Stimulation. Frank Mas; University of Virginia, (15 min.) 3. Individual Differences in Visual Fusion Frequencies. F. Gordon Tice; University of Virginia, (15 min.) 4. The Duration of Sleep Movements. M. Morgan Jackson; University of Virginia, (Slides, 15 min.) 5. A Projection Technique for the Laboratory Demonstration of Color Mixing. Huntington W. Curtis; College of William and Mary, (10 min.) 6. Anesthetization of Albino Rats during the Delay Interval of a Delayed Alternation Habit. Gloria Ladieu ; University of Virginia, (15 min.) 7. An Attempt to Condition the Galvanic Skin Response to a Subvocal Stimulus. Elliot Mitchell; College of William and Mary, (10 min.) 8. Some Factors Determining Acquisition of Verbal Expecta¬ tions. Jeannette Hughes and Nancy Phillips; Randolph-Macon Woman's College, (15 min.) 9. Dominance Behavior in Monkeys. James H. Elder; University of Virginia, (10 min.) FRIDAY, MAY 2—2:00 P. M. Room 500, Old Virginia Hospital 10. Round Table Discussion. Speaker : Professor Clark L. Hull ; Yale University, “The Problem of Primary and Secondary Motivation.” 11. Business Meeting. 102 The VIRGINIA ACADEMY of SCIENCE SATURDAY, MAY 3—9:00 A. M. Room 500, Old Virginia Hospital 12. Behavior of Children in Puberty Praecox. Martin R. D. Singer; University of Virginia, (15 min.) 13. The Role of Hysterical Fugues in Systematized Amnesia. D. Maurice Allan; Hampden-Sydney College. (15 min.) 14. A Critical Analysis of Sub-Tests in the Terman-Merrill Re¬ vised Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale. Cora L. Friedline; Randolph-Macon Woman's College. (15 min.) 15. An Experimental Evaluation of Two Non-Cultural Intelli¬ gence Tests. R. H. Henneman; College of William and Mary. (Slides, 10 min.) 16. An Investigation of the Relation between “Verbal Facility” and “Success” in College. D. D. McKinney; College of William and Mary. (10 min.) 17. A Study of Sisters in College. M. B. Coyner ; Farmville State Teachers College. (15 min.) 18. A Comparison of Freshmen and Seniors in a Liberal Arts College in Respect to Their Understanding of Social Issues. Helen K. Mull and Evelyn Cantey; Siveet Briar College. (10 min.) 19. Student Belief on Certain Selected Social Issues. William M. Hinton and John G. Martire; Washington and Lee University. (15 min.) 20. The Development of Stereotypes Concerning Negro-White Differences. Robert Blake; University of Virginia. (15 min.) The Virginia Journal of Science t i I Vol U MAY, 1941 No. 5 CONTENTS PAGE As It Appears to the Cavalier — Thomas Lomax Hunter. .. 103 Observations on Virginia Plants, Part I — F. R. Fosberg .... 106 Industrial Waste Survey in Virginia — Dudley Thompson AND Robert A. Fisher . . . . . . 112 Some Plants Found in Northern Virginia and West Vir¬ ginia — ^H. A. Allard . . . . . . . . . . 116 Recent Fossil Discoveries in Burkes Garden, Virginia — G. G. Peery . . . . . . . . . 120 A Checklist of the Cicadellidae at Chatham, Virginia, with Thirteen New Records for the State — George Wene AND C. B. Dominick... . . . . . . 122 Published by The Virginia Academy of Science Monthly, except June, July, August and September at Lexington, Virginia. The Virginia Journal of Science Official journal of the VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE George W. Jeffers, President, State Teachers College, Farmville, Va. E. C. L. Miliar, Secretary ^Treasurer, Medical College of Virginia, Rich¬ mond, Va, Sidney S. Negus, Assistant Secretary-Treasurer, Medical College of Vir¬ ginia, Richmond, Va. COUNCIL 1941-42 Charles E. Myers. . . . 1942 Earle B. Norris............... . 1942 Preston Edwards. .. . . . ..1948 Ruskin S. Freer............... . . 1943 Marcellus H. Stow . . 1944 WoRTLEY F. Rudd.. . . . 1944 H. H. ZiMMERLEY . . . . 1945 George W. Jeffers. . . .... .....1945 H. B. Haag . . . . 1946 Marcellus H. Stow. . . . 1946 EDITORIAL BOARD Editor-in-Chief — Ruskin S. Freer, Lynchburg College, Lsmchburg, Va. Managing Editor— hT.-Coh. Robert P. Carroll, Virginia Military Institute, Lexington, Va. S. A. Mitchell — -Astronomy C. L. ALBRlGHT-™F%sics Robert F. Smab.^— Biology J. Stanton Pierce— Chemistry John Alex. Pcreb— Education Robert A. Engineering Chapin 3 ouee— Forestry Edward C. H. Lammers— Carl C. Speidel — Medicine R. S. Henneman — Psychology Entered as second-class matter February 20, 1940, at the post oflSce at Lexington, Virginia, under the Act of March 3, 1879. Subsand file of men and women of our day even in the most enlight¬ ened countries, in their thinking and in their motivation, are nearly as untouched by the spirit of science, and as innocent of the understanding of science as the Peking man of a million years ago. The modern man adjusts to an environment greatly modifled by the scientiflc efforts of the few. The Peking man, we may as¬ sume, adjusted himself as best he could to nature in the raw. A span of about a million years separate the two. And yet the two are about equally innocent of science in the sense of the spirit and method of science as a part of their way of life, for science is more than inventions, more than gadgets, however useful and important they may be. Science is even more than the discovery of, and correlation of new facts, new laws of nature. The great¬ est thing in science is the scientific method, controlled and re¬ checked observations and experiments objectively recorded with absolute honesty, and without fear or favor. Science in this sense has as yet scarcely touched the common man or his leaders. The character of human society in any age is determined by a man's thinking, motivation and behavior, rather than external gadgets. . . . For we must assume that sooner or later reason, based on understanding, will modify human behavior." My purpose in quoting so liberally from this address must be apparent to you all. The road to any sort of scientific thinking and living is truly a long, hard road. I am wondering if this very fact isn't the sort of challenge that organizations like ours must accept as a part of their obligation to the future. PROCEEDINGS 1941 157 Why do we meet annually? And have literally hundl-eds of papers discussed ? Is it only that we may bring some little credit to ourselves as individuals? Is it not rather that somewhere in us— and every scientist is a sort of missionary — there is a pro¬ found conviction that working together as we do in state acad¬ emies, we are hoping that in such united effort here and in other •state academies, and in the great number of scientific organiza¬ tions of all sorts, our combined efforts may have at least some small part in spreading, slowly it may be, almost imperceptibly so sometimes, the spirit of science described so ably by Dr. Carl¬ son. To the end that as generations come and go, it may not be said of those in the centuries ahead of us, “The rank and file of people of that day, in their thinking and in their motivation, are as nearly untouched by the spirit of science, and as innocent of the understanding of science, as the Peking man of a million years ago.’’ This is an objective wholly worthy of all the energy, and in¬ telligence, and faith that you and I and all like minded folk can put into one of the most important obligations that has ever fallen upon the shoulders of privileged people. May we have the courage, and the wisdom, and the devotion to our share of the job in our day and so impress those who are to follow us that there may be no faltering. The Virginia Academy of Science will always have, we believe, its proper place in such a hope and effort for the future of the State. W. F. Rudd, President. Report of the Secretary 1940 - 1941 This has been an unusually busy and active year. Most of the activity has centered around the appointment and organization of a Long Range Planning Committee and the organization of the Junior Academy of Science. Last year, President-Elect Rudd, at his own request was authorized to appoint a committee on long range planning, or in other words to find some activity for the Academy commensurate with its importance in the state and with the possibilities latent in its 900 members. This committee has been chosen with great care, has held two meetings and has manifested a realization of the magnitude of its task and of its possible significance for Vir¬ ginia and for science. Mr. L. C. Bird, the chairman, will report shortly for this committee. The committee was selected as fol¬ lows: the President addressed a personal communication to a score or more of the members of the Academy who have been active from the beginning, including the past presidents. In this letter, he outlined the plans for the appointment of a long range 138 The VIRGINIA ACADEMY of SCIENCE planning committee. He asked that each of those addressed sub¬ mit a list of some five or more men and women who possesised the qualities of initiative and leadership that would fit them for work in such an important organization. This resulted in about 100 nominations, and from these the 20 members of the com¬ mittee were named by the President, after conferring with the permanent officers of the Academy. The organization of the junior academy work has gone for¬ ward under the able leadership of Mr. Hubert J. Davis. He will report shortly on the work of the year. It is difficult at this time to grasp the possibilities that may grow out of either of these lines of work. I would urge that ea o -p c: 0 > *S[) 0 0 tU) s •H ■P 0 0 0 0 -C E-* Those filters with contrast values of A and B grade were checked with the Coleman Regional Spectrophotometer to gain a more accurate transmission spectrogram or percentage of light transmission for the visible color bands. This instrument has a 257 spectral range of from 340m/x to 1000 rrifi. For example of the graphs obtained from the machine, see Figures No. 2, 3, and 4. From experience derived in using and testing many filters of various types the following criteria will be useful when selecting filters. No discredit to any filter manufacturer is intended or implied in this criticism; it being the unbiased opinion of the authors. The “Cellophane” filters were improved by mounting them between two pieces of optically ground glass in a transparent cementing medium (balsam). This removes the wrinkles in the wavy surface which are objectionable. When properly mounted, “Cellophane”, obtained from any 5 and 10 cent store, makes a fairly good filter. The plastic materials, “Plastacele”, “Plexiglas”, “Pyralin”, and others can be readily cut to fit any size holder. They scratch rather easily but if properly handled, this will not be objection¬ able. These filters are relatively inexpensive, yet effective. One of the best sets of filters tested was the Harrison and Harrison “Wedge” type. These filters are made by laminating two pieces of optically fiat glass together with a dyed cementing medium which is hardened under heat and pressure. The filters were in. thick, IY2 in. wide, and 12 in. long. Due to the wedge formation, the medium varies in density from one end to the other. By sliding a filter of the desired color under the condenser of the microscope, varying intensities of the color can be ob¬ tained. The well known “Wratten” filters are very good if of the proper color. Keep in mind that all companies make filters that are of no value in microscopic contrast work. Select those filters which are fairly close to the specifications given (Figures 2, 3 and 4). “Wratten” filters have defects which need to be given consideration by microscopists. First, their size and shape make them awkward to handle; second, they tend to form bubbles around the edges as they age, third, they have a low resistance to heat. After careful study of the various materials, the following conclusions were drawn : 1. Colored plastics and gelatin are not inferior as filter materials if used in front of the condenser. 2. Although the plastics tend to scratch easily, surface scratches cause no appreciable distortion. These scratches can be removed in most cases by application of “Simonize” cleaner. 3. Filters of purple, brown, orange, smoke, and various shades are of little if any value in contrast development when used with the common stains. 4. Filters of amber or yellow shades have slight contrast value in some cases but are not recommended. They are consid¬ ered of value when used with crystal violet. 258 5. Red filters give good contrast with a few stains but their use will not be frequent. 6. An effective green filter will be used oftener and give the best contrast with the majority of stains. 7. A good blue filter will also find wide application and is of definite value. Therefore, for the average microscopist, a good green and a good blue filter are all that is essential for improved microscopic contrast work. The following specifications are given for an effective green, blue and red filter. A green filter should not transmit over 20 % of any band be¬ low 450m/x. The maximum transmission should be near 70% at 520m/A and should drop to 20% or below at 620m/4. There should be no appreciable rise in the region beyond 620m/>i. Figure 2 Transmission spectrogram of a light green filter (“Plastacele” No. C 10075-10). A blue filter should transmit at least 20% of the 380miu band, increase to a maximum of about 50% at 450m/>i and de¬ crease to about 20% at 580m/A, It should not rise above 20% for bands from 580m/>t to 720 m/x. (80 /o Figure 3 Transmission .spectrogram of a light blue filter (‘‘Wratten” No. 38A). A red filter should be a flame red. Transmission should begin at 560m/x and rise abruptly to a constant value of about 80% at 600mu. 259 Transmission spectrogram of a flame red filter. (Harrison and Harrison. “Wedge”). Our general knowledge of color contrast would be enhanced by a study of the correlation of the transmission maxima of microscope filters with the absorption maxima of dyes. These maxima have been obtained for the simple analine dyes in plain aqueous or alcoholic solutions. They cannot be given definitely for natural dyes like hematoxylin and carmine, nor for com¬ pound stains like Wright’s, because of the amount of variation or the indefinite nature of the figures obtainable. Another paper is planned, giving several methods and simple devices which can be constructed to facilitate handling these filters. Norfolk College of William and Mary-Virginia Pol'ytech- Nic Institute. Literature Belling, J. 1930. The Use of the Microscope. McGraw-Hill Puiblishing Com¬ pany. Gibson, K. S., E. P. T. Tyndall, and H. J. McNicholsom 1920. The Ultra- Violet and Visible Transmission of Various Colored Glasses. Techno¬ logic Papers No. 148, U. S. Bureau of Standards, 27pp. Washington. “Glass Color Filters”— Pamphlet No. C-206-9-39. Corning Glass Works, Corning, N. Y. Harrison, W. H. 1939. The Mystery of Filters., 1st Ed. 2nd Printing. Hollywood, California. “Wratten” Filters. Eastman Kodak Co., Rochester, N. Y. 194'0. 260 Mineralogy of Sands from Tributaries of South Fork of Shenandoah River, Virginia^ C. L. Sartor and R. W. Root Recently we had reference to an unpublished Master’s thesis by Mr. R. D. Rogers, Jr., of Cornell University, in which the re¬ sults of a petrographic study of some Silurian sandstones of Pennsylvania were recorded. In this paper Mr. Rogers reported the presence of minerals of igneous and metamorphic rock deri¬ vation. It was suggested that a comparable study of some Silurian rocks in Virginia be made^ and that this study be correlated with an examination of some stream sands derived from areas of known rock types in order to determine how accurately these sands reflect the petrography of their parent rocks. Samples of stream sand were obtained from every stream flowing down the western slope of the Blue Ridge in the South Fork of the Shenandoah River between Luray and Front Royal, Virginia. No attempt was made to take mathematically accurate samples, but care was taken to secure material which would be reasonably representative of the sediment being transported by the stream. After collection the samples were first washed in water to remove organic material and other foreign matter and then boiled in dilute hydrochloric acid to remove calcite and limonite from the sand to facilitate identification. The sands were then sieved through fine meshed bolting cloth to eliminate those grains too large for microscopic study. A bromoform separation di¬ vided the remainder into two fractions ; a light fraction consist¬ ing of minerals of specific gravity below 2.8, and a heavy frac¬ tion of minerals with a specific gravity greater than 2.8. Both light and heavy separates were mounted in Canada Balsam on regular petrographic slides. Mineral identifications were made from these slides. Examining the minerals identified from the stream sands as a group, we find ilmenite and magnetite range from common to flood in relative frequency. In general, they may be considered abundant. Zircon and epidote were present in all samples, rang¬ ing from rare to abundant, and may be considered essentially common. Chlorite and chloritic material occurred in much the same fashion. Garnet was absent in some samples* only to appear abundant in others. It too may be considered as common to the sediments. Hypersthene was found in most samples but in rela¬ tively small amounts. Tourmaline occurred in the same manner. ^Presented before the Geology Section of the Virginia Academy of Science, May 2, 1941. ^See Horn and Woods, Source of Sedhnent of the Tuscarora Sandstone in Massanutten Mountain, Virginia, this issue Virginia Journal op Science. 261 being relatively rare. Biotite occurred in about half the samples and v^as considered relatively rare. Its absence is probably ac¬ counted for by its lack of resistance to weathering. Apatite was found in two samples despite the fact that they were all boiled in acid. Muscovite and rutile occurred as a few grains and brookite was identified in one sample. In the light separate quartz appeared in flood proportions with varying amounts of feldspar. Of the latter both plagioclase and orthoclase were distinguished. This suite of minerals is doubtless derived from igneous rocks and not from metamorphic ones. No minerals of direct meta- morphic rock derivation were found in any streams in this area. Doubtless much of the zircon, tourmaline and possibly garnet represent second cycle material although some may be of im¬ mediate crystalline derivation. If a geologic map of the area drained by these streams is consulted it will be seen that the rock types within the area consist of the Hypersthene Granodio- rite and the Catoctin Greenstone of pre-Cambrian age and a group of lower Cambrian basal quartzites and conglomerates. From these rocks feldspar, hypersthene, quartz, epidote, biotite, apatite, magnetite, ilmenite, zircon, titanite, pyrite and rutile have been reported, thus establishing a direct relationship be¬ tween the sediments examined and their possible source. From this study of modern stream sands derived from source rocks of known mineralogic composition, it has been demon¬ strated that the minerals of the stream sands definitely reflect the petrography of the provenance from which they were de¬ rived. Washington and Lee University, Lexington, Va. 262 Observations on Some Virginia and West Virginia Plants H. A. Allard In extensive collecting, the following plants have been found in Virginia and West Virginia, constituting records new for these States, and in some instances greatly extending the previously known range of several far northern species into the high south¬ ern mountain areas. Specimens have been deposited in the U. S. National Herbarium and some in the Herbarium of the National Arboretum. An examination of the collections of the U. S. Na¬ tional Herbarium revealed no material from Virginia or West Virginia. The Cyperaceae listed were identified by Dr. F. J. Hermann of the United States Department of Agriculture. Virginia Dianthus prolifer L. Abundant in an open pasture on the west slope of the Pond Mountain area just south of Highway 55 at Thorofare Gap. No material from Virginia in the collections of the U. S. National Herbarium., Allard, June 8, 1941, 8889. Nat¬ uralized from Europe. Filipendula rubra (Hill) Robinson. In swale west of wooded slope of Pond Mountain, just south of Highway 55 at Thorofare Gap. No material in the collections of the U. S. National Her¬ barium from Virginia. Allard, June 29, 1941, 8995. Sphenopholis filifomiis (Chapm.) Vasey. The writer found this growing in moist, rich woods near Halfway, Fauquier Co., Vir¬ ginia, in the Bull Run Mountain area. It is chiefly confined to the drier soils of the Coastal Plain from North Carolina to Florida, Tennessee and eastern Texas. This grass has not previously been recorded from Virginia. Allard, May 30, 1939, 6650. West Virginia Caa-ex leptonervia Fern. The following collections of this Carex have been made by the writer: 6895, July 2, 1939, Big Cove in the Canaan Valley, Tucker Co., in dense woods on the east slope of Brown Mountain about 10 miles east of Davis ; 8733, May 30, 1941, in low swamp thicket on Little Blackwater River in Big Cove at 3200 feet; 6895, July 2, 1939, on the west slope of a knob of the Cabin Mountain range east of Glade Run in the deep shade of a maple-beech wood near 3300-3400 feet. This species has not before been reported from West Virginia. Scirpus rubrotinctus Fern. The writer has made two collections of this species in the Canaan Valley as follows: 906 J^, July 8, 1941, on or near Glade Run, Tucker Co., near the west slope of Cabin Mountain, east of Davis about 10 miles; 922Jf, July 15^ 263 1941, along a brook flowing into Glade Run, near its> confluence with Little Blackwater River. These records are far south of the known range given as Newfoundland to Assiniboia, south to Connecticut, New York and the Great Lakes. However, owing to the high altitude of the Canaan Valley, and the more or less northern affinities of its distinctive flora, such range extensions are probably to be ex¬ pected. Scirpus atrocmctus Fernald. The writer made two collections of this species in the Canaan Valley, West Virginia as follows: 9159^ July 11, 1941, on the highest point of a knob of Cabin Mountain just east of Glade Run, among sandstone conglomerate boulders, at 3700 feet; 919Jf, July 12, 1941, in a bog on Glade Run just east of Cabin Mountain at 3200 feet. This, too, is a northern Scirpus, ranging from Hudson Bay, Newfoundland and Saskatchewan south to Connecticut, Pennsylvania, Michigan and Iowa, and the writer’s finds constitute a rather interesting record for West Virginia. This interesting region has almost the facies and atmos¬ phere of far nothern Maine. In the swamps the veery sings everywhere, and in the cool, dark rock maple-beech second growth woodland, or in remnants of the primeval forest of rock maple, beech, yellow birch, and hemlock, which still survives in Big Cove, the tranquil song of the hermit touches one’s moods with a profound loneliness. It is in this far northern atmosphere, amidst the ghosts of spruce and fir, Abies halsamea (L.) Mill., represented only by huge decaying stumps and logs, that one finds abundant Pole- monium Van-bruntiae Britton, Almus incana (L.) Moench., Caltha palustris L., Carex leptonervia, Scirpus rubrotinctus, Scirpus atrocinctus, and Arisaema steivardsonii Britton. The writer has found the last named plant locally abundant in certain swamps on the Little Blackwater River, and it is to be remem¬ bered as one of the most beautiful and distinctive jack-in-the- pulpits, with prominent bright green and pure white longitudi¬ nal stripings of the slender, strongly fluted spathes. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. 264 A Forest Fire Prevention and Suppression Program for Virginia Part 1 F. C. Pederson, State Forester of Virginia Virginia has about fifteen and one-quarter million acres of forest land which is subject to recurring periods of high forest fire hazard during the spring and fall of each year, and in the drier years also to some extent during the summer months. A reasonable degree of protection against fire during these hazard¬ ous periods is absolutely essential if this vast forest and poten¬ tial forest area is to be productively managed and if its recrea¬ tional and economic potentialities are to be developed to the full¬ est extent. As a matter of fact, adequate forest fire control is basic and fundamental to any sound program of forest land use, whether the object of management is timber or pulpwood produc¬ tion, the prevention of erosion, the reduction of flood levels, the conservation of game and wildlife, or scenic and recreational developments. Adequate forest fire control has been aptly and correctly expressed as the common denominator of all conserva¬ tion activities. Leadership by the State is Necessary Experience, past and present, clearly indicates that organized effort is necessary to secure any real control of forest fires which will safeguard the interests of the private owners and of the pub¬ lic. In order to formulate and carry out a definite, comprehensive and well outlined policy of forest fire protection, and in order to maintain the necessary machinery for impartial, equitable and yet vigorous law enforcement, it is essential that the State assume the leadership and responsibility for the conduct of the work. It should also be recognized that the land owners are responsible for only a small percentage of the fires which occur on their properties; they are largely caused by carelessness on the part of brush burners, smokers, campers and the general public, and it certainly becomes a public duty and function to prevent, as far as possible, the occurrence of such fires and to extinguish them after inception. Again, it is proved by experience in Vir¬ ginia that State leadership stimulates activity by private owners of timberland. The activity is manifested by four Timberland Owners’ Forest Fire Protective Associations which are now or¬ ganized in the State. By far the greatest part of the acreage in Virginia in need of protection from fire is privately owned, less than eleven per cent belonging to the Federal Government and the State. In size 265 these private holdings range all the way from a few acres in the case of farm woods to tracts of about 75,000 or more in the case of certain corporations. Altogether there are probably at least 350,000 individual and corporate timberland owners in the State. This diversity of ownership, and the consequent diversity of the interests represented, seriously complicates the problem of pro¬ tection. It also precludes the possibility of successful private effort except in the case of small isolated tracts or of large com¬ pact holdings in the hands of interested corporations or indi¬ viduals. For this reason, therefore, as well as from the stand¬ point of public interest in the protection of the State’s present and potential forest resources. State effort is essential to make protection from forest fires effective. The Administrative Organization As It Is The fact that periods of great fire danger in Virginia are usually of relatively short duration within the spring and fall months makes it necessary that the fire control organization be a flexible one and that the personnel who are charged primarily with the suppression of fires be employed on an hourly basis. At the same time, it is of the utmost importance that the skeleton organization so created be sufficiently permanent to insure prompt action when the need arises. In view of these considera¬ tions, the Virginia Forest Service has gradually developed the following plan of organization, which is varied slightly when necessary to meet local conditions. At the present time the organized territory in the State is divided into five administrative units, each in charge of a district forester, who, in addition to the conduct of other forestry work in his assigned territory, has general supervision and control of the forest fire organization within his district. Funds available for forest fire protection from the State, federal government and private owners jointly are entirely insufficient to protect all the forest land in the State where the need of protection is urgent and is recognized. It has, therefore, been the policy of the State Forest Service to carry on systematic work only in the counties where substantial cooperation, financially and other¬ wise, can be secured. For this reason the fire control organiza¬ tion in Virginia has been subdivided into county units, the ob¬ ject being to make each unit thus established complete in itself, and competent in itself, except in cases of extreme emergency. In each organized county a chief forest warden is placed in charge of all the fire prevention and suppression work. He selects local forest wardens upon whom dependence is placed for leadership in the actual suppression of fires. The chief warden also posts notices, inspects land-clearing operations before actual brush burning takes place, examines sawmill sites and railroad 266 rights-of-way, visits schools, and takes every practical means in the short time allotted to him for such work to mobilize all the forces in the various communities which are capable of assist¬ ing in the prevention and suppression of forest fires. In addition to this warden organization, which by the first of the year com¬ prised a total personnel of 1,640 men, registered or lis,ted fire fighting crews, who work under the direction and supervision of the local wardens, have been organized in the counties in which provision has been made for the employment of fire fighters. Only 79 out of 100 Counties are Protected The spring season of 1941 closed with seventy-nine of the one hundred counties in Virginia organized for forest fire control by the State Forest Service in cooperation with county officers in accordance with the provisions of Section 541 of the Virginia Code, and with the Federal Government under the terms of Sec¬ tion 2 of the Clarke-McNary Act. Within these counties protec¬ tion is afforded to 10,922,500 acres of privately-owned timber- land. In addition, intensive protection is given, by the U. S. Forest Service or by the National Park Service, as the case may be, to about 1,557,500 acres of forest lands that are federally owned. Thus on about 12,480,000 acres, or approximately 82 per cent of the forest land in the State which it is recognized needs protection, provision has been made for systematic fire control work. Such protection, however, aside from that given to the federal lands, is not as intensive as the values at stake demand or as more liberal State appropriations and federal allotments would make possible. The remaining 2,727,000 acres of forest land in Virginia receive no organized forest fire protection whatsoever except as individuals may have occasionally arranged for extinguishing fires on their own properties. Organization and Expenditures Called For IN Recently Proposed Budget At the present time no one can say positively what organiza¬ tion will insure adequate forest fire control in Virginia on a State-wide basis or just what it will cost. By adequate protec¬ tion I have in mind a reduction of the fire loss to such an extent that the average annual burned acreage will not exceed one- fourth of one per cent of the total area protected, or will be so small that insurance companies will ordinarily insure at a rate which the forest owners can afford to pay. However, based on experience with the problem in Virginia and the results secured in other states,, a detailed budget has been carefully prepared which calls for an annual expenditure of approximately $450,- 000.00, and which represents the estimated cost of adequately 267 protecting all the State-owned and privately owned forest lands in the State. The outstanding features of this budget are pro¬ visions for : 1. Employment of an assistant forester to plan, direct and coordinate forest fire control work on a State-wide basis. 2. A protective organization of about 3,000 forest wardens, adequately equipped to handle the normal fire situation and to organize and direct protection work effectively during emergency periods. 3. A state- wide detection system of 140 steel towers with sufficient telephone construction so that information on fires may be promptly relayed to the fire fighting personnel. 4. An adequate fund for the employment of fire fighters and emergency patrolmen as needed during critical periods. 5. The establishment of thirteen fully organized and equip¬ ped administrative or protective districts, each in charge of a district forester. 6. The employment of chief forest wardens on a monthly basis for an average of about five or six months in the year. Division of Costs Between Different Agencies Virginia is not yet spending one-fourth of the estimated amount needed for a thorough job. During the fiscal year end¬ ing June 30, 1941, a total of $125,216, exclusive of payments made for the maintenance of CCC improvements, was expended on the fire control project. Of this amount the State provided 58 per cent; the federal government, 27 per cent; the counties organized for fire control, 13 per cent; and the balanfee, 2 per cent, was paid out of private funds. To find means for a State-wide fire control system on approxi¬ mately the scale outlined, with financial and other responsibili¬ ties assumed by all beneficiaries— owners, county. State and nation — is the primary forest problem. Because of the large number of forest owners in Virginia and the fact that the bulk of the forest land in the State is in relatively small holdings, it is believed that the individual landowners’ responsibility for financial support of the fire control program can be most effect¬ ively met by payment of small percentage of the total costs in¬ volved being paid for by the counties out of the general property tax fund. Where land ownership is in relatively large units con¬ tiguously located, it is feasible and desirable from the stand¬ point of more intensive protection to form protective associa¬ tions in which the cooperating members voluntarily pay for the cost of necessary improvements and for special protection work. With the smaller holdings, however, it is not feasible from an administrative standpoint to attempt to consolidate them into association units. 268 Dollars and Cents Unsatisfactory as a Gauge of Damage From a financial standpoint, damage is the proper basis for judging the seriousness of the fire situation. Unfortunately, damage figures are the least satisfactory and the least depend¬ able of all fire statistics, due to the lack of uniformity in the method of estimating damage and to the marked difference of opinion as to damage done. What the losses from woods fires in Virginia were prior to organized protection in the State no one can say, and it would be useless to estimate. But what they are today is a matter of vital concern to each and every one of us for it represents a preventable loss and an economic waste for which the present generation and posterity will suffer. The best avail¬ able estimates, based on reports submitted over a period of years by forest wardens in the counties organized for forest fire con¬ trol, indicate that the direct tangible property loss caused by forest fires in Virginia averages at the present time between one- half and one million dollars a year. This, however, represents an ultra-conservative estimate, as the forest wardens’ appraisal of damage makes no pretension of taking into consideration such intangible losses as the destruction of reproduction, substitution of less valuable for more valuable species of forest trees, reduc¬ tion of the productive power of the forests, adverse effects upon stream flow, stimulation of soil erosion, killing of game animals and other wildlife, and destruction of recreational and scenic values. Moreover, as a rule, the wardens’ appraisals give little, if any, weight to the potential value of young growth. If all these losses could be accurately gauged and converted into terms of dollars and cents, it is probable that the average annual fire bill for Virginia would run into several million dollars. Causes of Forest Fires Forest fires in Virginia are more than ninety-nine per cent man-caused. They are, therefore, largely preventable. Fires from lightning or other natural causes are extremely rare — practically all are due to carelessness, indifference or ignorance. Among the classified causes, as reported by the forest wardens for the past five-year period (1936-1940), smokers lead with a total of 658 fires per year on the average, or 33 per cent of the total number. Brush burning operations accounted for the origin of 25 per cent, 9 per cent were of incendiary origin, railroads were responsible for 6 per cent, campfires for 5 per cent, and lumbering operations 2 per cent, while 5 per cent were due to miscellaneous causes and 15 per cent were of unknown origin. (To be concluded in a later issue.) 269 Source of Sediment of the Tuscarora Sandstone In Massanutten Mountains, Virginia^ Egmont Horn and Henry H. Woods A petrographic study was made of the Massanutten Sand¬ stone near Passage Creek at the north end of Massanutten Moun¬ tain in Shenandoah County, Virginia. The purpose was to de¬ termine the source of the sediments and thus to shed light on some phases of the paleogeography of early Silurian time and the extent and effects of the Taconic Revolution. The Massanutten Sandstone lies at the base of the Silurian. It is a pink siliceous quartzitic sandstone, fine grained to con¬ glomeratic, and is about 800 feet in thickness, thoroughly indu¬ rated and very resistant to weathering. Fifteen samples were collected at intervals of 75 feet from a moderately dipping outcrop. These samples represent the lower 400 feet of the formation. About 2 pounds of each sample were chipped from points within a 5-foot radius of each sampling station. In the laboratory the preparation of the samples fol¬ lowed the usual procedure of sedimentary petrology. The following minerals were found : Quartz was the only mineral found in the light separates. Although a few grains were rounded, most were sub-angular. Zircon was by far the most abundant heavy mineral. Euhed- ral crystals were more prevalent than rounded grains. This min¬ eral may be of either igneous or sedimentary derivation. In general it was “abundant’'. Leucoxene was white or stained brown or yellow. The grains were irregular or rounded in shape. It probably is derived chiefly from decomposition of ilmenite. It frequently was in “flood” proportions and always at least “common”. Tourmaline was present, in various colors, as rounded grains. Ilmenite was recognized by its sub-metallic luster and deep purplish-black color. It was usually present, but “rare”. Basic or ultrabasic igneous rocks are the chief sources of derivation. Magnetite was usually “rare”, but persistent. Basic and ultra- basic rocks are the main sources of derivation. Hematite was “rare” in the many samples in which it was found. Rutile was found as rounded and sub-angular grains of dark yellow-brown color. It was present in most samples but was “rare” in frequency. It is often derived from the decomposition of ilmenite, however all of these grains probably are detrital. One grain of Augite was found in each of three slides'. Its presence indicates a crystalline rock source. ^Presented before the Geology Section of the Virginia Academy of Science, May 2, 1941. 270 A few irregular and sub-rounded grains of pink and colorless Garnet were found in two samples. Pyrite was in “flood” proportions in one slide, but was not observed in any others. It is doubtless of authigenic origin. Muscovite was found in one sample ; it may be derived from many rock types. The soarse clastic material of this formation indicates a source topography of considerable elevation. The mineral suite just described shows no indication of derivation of the sediment from metamorphic rocks. It consists predominantly of grains derived from pre-existing sedimentary formations, and as indi¬ cated by euhedral zircon and augite, from some igneous rocks. Rogers^ found minerals of metamorphic rock derivation in the same stratigraphic position as the basal Massanutten Sand¬ stone (Tuscarora Sandstone) in Pennsylvania. This indicates that some of the Tuscarora Sandstone in Pennsylvania probably came from Appalachia, far to the east. Hence this would be a source quite different than that of the sediment at Massanutten Mountain, Virginia. The latter did not come from metamorphic rocks of Appalachia, but was derived from Cambrian sandstones and igneous rocks probably located in the Blue Ridge area. Thus we have another unit in the accumulating evidence that the Blue Ridge was elevated before early Silurian time and acted as an effective barrier against the westward transportation of sedi¬ ment derived from Appalachia. Washington and Lee University, Lexington, Va. ^Unpublished Master’s Thesis at Cornell University, “A Petrographic Study of the Bald Eagle, Juniata, and Tuscarora Formations in Central Pennsylvania”, 1939. 271 Native Grapes of Virginia A. B. Massey Few genera of our native plants have yielded the wealth of economic varieties and hybrids as have certain species of the genus Vitis — the grapes. Of the 30 species native to North America the greater part of the cultivated American grapes have come from the fox grape Vitis labrusca. This species occurs naturally from New England to Georgia and west to southern Indiana. Such familiar varieties as Isabella, Catawba, Concord, Champion, etc. have been developed by selection or hybridiza¬ tion from the fox grape. At least eight of the North American species of grapes are native in Virginia. These differ markedly in their habit of growth, leaf shape and texture, the date of ripening of their berries, and the value of the berries for culinary purposes. Cer¬ tain species make excellent jelly and beverages. The muscadine and its varieties, the scuppernong, Thomas, etc., are favored fall fruits in the south. The fruit of all are valuable food for birds and other forms of wildlife, hence, are valuable food and cover plants for wildlife refuges and for use on the farm to encourage farm game. They thrive along fence rows, field borders, stream banks, and out of the way places, hence occupying those areas the farmer rarely uses. It is not uncommon to find native grapes which do not bear fruit. This is due to the fact that the vines are functionally male or female. An examination of the flowers of the grape will re¬ veal the fact that both stamens (male) and pistils (female) are present. The flowers on some plants have erect robust stamens which produce pollen in abundance and a diminutive functionless pistil. On other vines the characters of the flowers are reversed. The stamens are small and turned down while the pistil is fully developed and potent. The pollenization of the latter results in the formation of berries. In the first type, since the pistil is functionless, no fruit is formed. Hence the vines with pistils and reflexed stamens are ‘‘female vines’" and bear fruit if the flowers are pollenized from vines having erect stamens. All of the grapes native to Virginia are either male or female hence we cannot expect fruit from a vine growing alone unless it is a “female” vine which receives pollen from others vines in the surrounding country. When propagating native grapes by cutting or grafts it is essential to give attention to the type of plant which is propagated so that both male and female vines, with a pre¬ dominance of the female, occur in plantings. The situation is different with the cultivated varieties and hybrids as the major¬ ity of these have functional male and female flowers on the same plant. However, the scuppernong and other cultivated varieties 272 of the muscadines are unisexual. Hence, wild male vines of mus¬ cadines must be present in the neighborhood in order to have fruit on scuppernong, James, Flowers, or Thomas varieties. All of these have been developed from the wild muscadine — Vitis rotundi folia. The recognition of native plants is commonly based upon flower characteristics and to a less extent upon the characteristics of the other parts of the plant. The species of grapes, however, are recognized primarily upon fruit, leaf, young shoot, stem and tendrils characteristics. It is, therefore, important to give thought to the type of material taken when collecting specimens for identification. Information as to the distribution of grapes in Virginia is incomplete. The writer would be glad to receive specimens from all sections of the state. Duplicates are desired so that one may be retained and the second returned if the col¬ lector desires.^ Virginia Species The summer grape — Vitis aestivalis Michx. occurs naturally from New York to Missouri, Florida and Mississippi. It grows vigorously in moist but well drained soil in sunny situations in thickets and hedge rows. The fruit is available through the fall and is relished by various birds. The vine is browsed extensively by deer. Blue leaf grape^ — V. aestivalis var. argentifolia (Munson) Fernald. Rhodora 38:428 {V. hicolor, LeConte in Gray’s Manual 7 Ed.). Distributed from New England and Illinois to North Carolina and western Texas. In Virginia it is more frequent in the mountain province. It is a vigorous high climbing vine in sunny or partially shaded situations. The lower side of the older leaves are glaucous giving them a bluish appearance, hence the common name. The lower leaf surface is much less pubescent than is the species. The petiole is usually glabrous. The small fruit ripens in September and hangs on the vine into late fall. Tossum grape— Baileyana Muns. (With V. cordifolia Michx. in Gray’s Manual 7th Ed.). This is a species of limited distribution occurring in West Virginia, Virginia, North Caro¬ lina to Tennessee and Georgia. It is a slender, climbing, much branched vine. It is distinguished from V. vulpina by the pubes¬ cent petiole and lower leaf surface, especially along the veinsL The berry cluster is compact due to the short pedicel fruits. The species was first described by Munson from plants received from Eoanoke County, Virginia. The fruit ripens in August and Sep¬ tember. Frost grape— vulpina L. {V. cordifolia Michx., in ^The writer is planning to extend the study of the grapes to include the southern Appa¬ lachian region. Herbarium material fully labeled, and preferably unmounted, will be gladly ■checked or labeled. Duplicates will be appreciated where possible. 273 Frost grape— vulpina L. {V. cordifolia Michx., in Pennsylvania to Florida, eastern Kansas and Texas. In Virginia it is frequent over the state especially in the mountains and Pied¬ mont. It is a large, vigorous, high climbing vine. The leaves are thin bright green on both surfaces and rather glossy. The fruit ripens in October though it is sometimes available earlier, espe¬ cially to v^ildlife. It grows on limestone on sandy soil and is tol¬ erant to very low temperatures. Fox GRAPE^ — Vitis labrusca L. Occurs from New England to Georgia, Tennessee and southern Indiana. In Virginia it is well distributed over the state but more frequent in the Blue Ridge mountains and Piedmont provinces. It is conspicuously infre¬ quent in the Alleghany Area. Leaves are thick dark green above, heavy tomentose underneath. Berries large in small clusters. Fox GRAPE — Vitis labrusca var. subedentata, Fernald {Rhq^ dora 42:462-463, pi. 637. 1940). “ . var. subedentata has the margins of leaves accompanying inflorescences with only obsolescent teeth, the subuli at the ends of the stronger veins relatively short, the shoulders usually poorly developed and rounded or broad and subhorizontal, and the dense felt of the lower surface very close and fine, its component hairs scarcely discernible under slight magnification (Plate 657, Fig. 3). In fact the lower surface glistens as if varnished ....'' Distribu¬ tion, southeastern New York to Virginia. Sand grape — Vitis rupestris Scheele. This species is a low form often appearing to be more of a bush than a vine. It is not recorded as being frequent anywhere in Virginia, but more in the west. The name, sand grape, has been applied to it since it is found in sandy ravines and hillsides, especially near streams. Frost grape — Vitis raparia Michx. (V. vulpina L. in Gray’s Manual, 7th Ed.). The most widespread of the native North American species. It occurs along woodland borders, in fields, along roadsides, along river banks. New Brunswick and Quebec to Manitoba south to Tennessee, Texas and Colorado. In Vir¬ ginia it is not as frequent as some of the other species. Ashy leaved Winter grape — Vitis cinerea Engelm. This is a Coastal Plain species which reaches its known northern limit in southeastern Virginia. It is not so abundantly distributed in Virginia as is the variety. Rusty Winter grape — Vitis cinerea var. floridana Munson. Frequent in rich low grounds in southeastern Coastal Plain. Differs from the species in the rusty color of the tomentum. Muscadine — Vitis rotundifolia Michx. A very vigorous vine climbing high in trees, along fences and over thickets. Common in the Piedmont and the Coastal Plain. The scuppernong is a variety of this. This species is easily distinguished from others. The bark is tight not shredded, tendrils are not branched, the berries, which form small clusters, are large, thick skinned and the pith is continuous through the nodes. Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Blacksburg, Va. 274 Further Genetical and Cytological Studies on a Sea-side Ecotype of Aster multiflorus Ait. Albert E. Delisle and Mary Rebecca Old Introduction Since the summer of 1937, the senior author has been con¬ ducting some genetical observations on a sea-side ecotype of the widespread A. multiflorus.^ This specimen was collected at Mon- tauk, (Plate 2), Long Island, in June, 1937, from a large group of similar plants growing in that vicinity. The location of these plants was at a distance from the shore, well within thq line of demarcation separating the vegetation from the shore sand. A few plants, however, were found growing on the shore sand and these were not different in growth habit from the others. From Table I, and Figures 1 and 2, Plate 1, it will be noticed that the most conspicuous difference between the type specimen and the variety is found in the mode of branching. The type species is very much branched (Delisle, 1937) and bushy and its branches are ascending or spreading. The variety, however, though much branched and bushy, has very stiff and wiry, de¬ scending lateral branches. There are minor differences also, in habitat, form of involucral bracts, and in size of achenes. In the variety, the involucral bracts have thick herbaceous tips (not whitish and squarrose as in the type) and are rather mucronate at the top. Breeding experiments conducted on A. multiflorus and A. multiflorus var. depressa over a period of two years have shown them to be self-sterile. Repeated controlled pollinations^ from the same plant have consistently failed to produce achenes. However, cross-pollination is effected easily and results in good sets of seeds. For comparison with the type species. Aster multiflorus, specimens of which have been grown for 5 or 6 generations and are very constant in their morphological characteristic, the Mon- tauk variety, depressa, was grown from seed obtained under con¬ trolled pollination, for 2 consecutive years. The resulting plants were planted side by side with the original stock of the variety, depressa. 1. The name A. multiflorus is used here because of its occurrence in Gray’s Manual, 7th. edition, and other floras, instead of A. eri- coides, which, according to Mackenzie, antedates it and under which the original description was made. (Mackenzie 1926; Blake 1930). In Small’s Manual of the South Eastern Flora, A. multi¬ florus Ait., is described as A. ericoides L. 2. The same pollination technique was again followed as was used and reported in an earlier paper (Wetmore and Delisle, 1939). 275 Table 1 Comparison op Some Vegetative Characters in Aster wmltiflorus and A. multifiorus var. depressa.^ Characters A. multifiorus A. multifiorus var. depressa Stem Pale or hoary, slender with min¬ ute, close to hirsute pubescence. Usually low ( 0.3-1. Om.). Hoary, with minute, close to hir¬ sute pubescence. Low, close to ground. Branches w;ith Very marked tendency to spread. Tendency to root at nodes. Degree of Branching Very much branched and bushy. Branches ascending or spread¬ ing. Very much branched and bushy. Branches very stiff and wiry. Branches descending. Heads on upper side. Bran chiefs Conspicuously pubescent with ap- pressed hairs, pale or hoary, wiry. Conspicuously pubescent with op¬ pressed hairs, pale or hoary, very wiry. Rhizome Perennial and spreading. Perennial and spreading. Habitat Dry sandy soil. Dry, sea-side beach sand. Time of Flowering August to October. August to October. Heads Very crowded, small, racemose. Very crowded, small, racemose. Involucre Imbricated, outer part bristly cili- ate, not glandular. Imbricated, outer part bristly cili- ate, not glandular. Involucral Bracts Herbaceous tips whitish, squar- rose or spreading, 2.7-2. 9mm., gj-adually passing into leaves on branchlets bearing the heads. Herbaceous tips thickish, deep green, mucronate, 2.7-2. 9mm., gradually passing into leavqs, on branchlets bearing the heads. Corolla Ray florets Length Breadth Number White. 4.0-4.4mm. 0.65mm. 10 to 20 (13) White. 4. 0-4. 4mm. 0.65mm. 10 to 20 (13) Disc florets Length Breadth Number 3.5mm. 0.6mm. 9 to 10 9 to 10 Pappus Single, uniform. Single, uniform. Achenes Form Length Breadth Weight Flattened, ribbed, weakly pubes¬ cent with short hairs. 1.3-1. 6mm. 0.58-0. 61mm. 2.0mg. 1.3-1. 6mm (based on 60 seeds). 0.35-0. 45mm. (based on 60 seeds). 1.0-1.6mg. (based on 60 seeds). *A11 measurements except height of plants and achene size are based on data obtained from samples of 100 or more. For cytological studies, heads of the proper stage of develop¬ ment were fixed in acetic-alcohol — ^3 parts glacial acetic acid and 7 parts absolute alcohol — -and transferred to 85 per cent alcohol, there to remain until examined. Because of the small size of the chromosomes, smearing tech¬ niques were found not too satisfactory. The capitula were, there¬ fore, embedded and sectioned in celloidin (Jeffrey, 1928) accord¬ ing to the technique and schedule outlined by Wetmore (1932) . 276 Plate 1 ^ Fig. 1. Mature plant of A. multiflorus v. depressa, grown from seeds ob¬ tained from plants similar to that in Fig. 3. Fig. 2. Normal, type speci¬ men of A. multifloms. Fig. 3. Original plant collected at Montauk, L. I., (later planted in the field and indistinguishable from specimen shown in Fig. 1). Fig. 4. Second generation plant from original Montauk stock. Figs. 5 and 6. Details of branches from plants in Figs. 1 and 2, respectively. 277 DISTRIBUTION or A. UKSWifLonm ^ mn. pmmTRAm » Plate 2 Map showing distribution of A. multi fioriis, from specimens examined at the Gray Herbarium. Arrow indicates location of the variety, d&pressa, when found. y > » « ► ASTER MULTIFLORUS ^ ^ r •til ASTER MUUTIFLORUS VAR PROSTRATA Plate 3 Fig. 1. Late anaphase, showing 5 chromosomes at ea,ch pole. Fig. 2. Each pair of chromosomes in relative size. Fig. 3. Diakinesis. Figs. 1, 2 and 3, A. midtifloTUs. Figs. 4 and 6. Two views of diakinesis. Fig. 5. Each pair of chromosomes in relative size. Fig. 4, 5 and 6, A. multifiorus v. de'pressa. Note chromosome size differences between the type and the variety. 278 Observations a. Genetical. The specimens of the Montauk variety, depressa, transferred to the field and growing alongside A. multiflorus, have retained their peculiar branching. In fact, the wiry, stiff, descending char¬ acteristic branches of the variety have become accentuated under cultivation. It will be apparent from Figures 1, 3 and 4, that the Montauk variety has retained its characteristic branching even under cultivation over a period of 4 years. The first and second generation offspring, obtained by con¬ trolled pollination, show no marked difference from the original mature Montauk, L. I. stock of the variety, depressa^ of A. multi- dorus. Plants of the second generation have not as yet been brought to maturity, however. They exhibit the same character¬ istic of wiry, descending lateral branches as their parents. No developmental nor anatomical study of the seedlings have as yet been completed, though work of that nature is now in progress. It is felt from preliminary evidence that the morphological variation from the type specimen, as reported in the Montauk variety of A. multiflorus, is probably in the nature of a mutation. Present evidence seems to indicate that it will breed true. Further genetical work is contemplated, especially, in studying the results of pollinating the variety with pollen from the type species. b. Cytological. The chromosomes of A. midtiflorus, as previously reported, (Wetmore and Delisle, 1939), show much regularity in the be¬ havior of all five pairs. Fig. 3, pi. 3 shows a view at diakinesis. One chromosome pair, as seen in Figure 2, is considerably larger than the rest. In addition to the large chromosome pair, there are two medium-sized, and two smaller pairs. The size ratio between the largest and the smallest pair at diakinesis, is ap¬ proximately 2.5:1. The somatic chromosome number is 10. In the Montauk variety, the meiotic chromosome number is also 5, (see Figures 4 and 6). There is no apparent difference in chromosome morphology between the type species and the va¬ riety. In Figure 5, the five pairs of meiotic chromosomes, at diakinesis, are drawn side by side to illustrate their morphology and relative sizes, for comparison with a similar arrangement in the type species. (See Figure 2.) College of William and Mary, Williamsburg, Va. Literature Cited Blake, S. F. 1930. The names Aster ericoides and A. rmdtifloruss. Rhodora 32:136-140. Delisle, A. L. 1937. The influence of auxin on secondary branching in two species of Aster. Amer. Jour. Bot., 24:159-167. Jeffrey, E. C. 1928. Technical contributions. Bot. Gaz., 86:456-467. Mackenzie, K. K. 1926. Aster ericoides. Rhodora 28:65. Wetmore, R. H. 1932. The use of celloidin in botanical technic. Stain Tech¬ nology 7:37-62. Wetmore, R. H. and A. L. Delisle. 1939. The Aster novde-angliae, Aster amethystimis, Aster multiflorus complex. Rhodora 41:190-192. 279 Distribution and Duration of Meristematic Activity in Leaves of Smilax Bernice M. Speese Introduction. — This is a brief report on the distribution and duration of meristematic activity, as determined by a study of mitotic frequencies, in leaves of Smilax L. The leaf-sampling method described in the first paper (Speese, 1939) of this series ■was used. The approach is direct and mathematical. Meristematic Distribution.— species of Smilax were in¬ vestigated with regard to comparative spatial occurrence of leaf mitoses. The species are listed in Table 1 ; specimens have been deposited in the United States National Herbarium. From leaves of the sizes in figures 1-6, at levels A, B, and C, one-millimeterS- in-diameter samples were punched dorsiventrad from beside the midrib and from along the margin, and the number ofi dividing nuclei (arbitrary limits of mitosis were established) counted in each sample when smeared in iron-aceto-carmine. It is clear that six samples were taken from each leaf. (Figs. 1-6.) Since the six Table 1 Species op Smilax Investigated and the Number of Mitoses Counted in Samples from along the Margins and from beside the Midribs of Leaves Outlined in Figures 1-6; all the Leaves were fixed at 4:00 p. M. Fig. Mitoses Mitoses Collection and at at No. Species Geographic Source Level Margin Midrib 134 S. glauca Walt. Keysville, lA 55 18 var. leucophylla Charlotte Co., IB 207 61 Blake Virginia 1C 264 83 133 S. laurifolia L. Wilmington, 2A 84 85 New Hanover Co., 2B 164 146 North Carolina 2C 236 225 119 lanceolata L. Wrightsville Beach, 3A 108 53 New Hanover Co., 3B 284 173 North Carolina 3C 360 210 135 S. Bona-nox L. Myrtle Beach, 4A 631 640 Horry Co., 4B 912 882 South Carolina 4C 1532 889 114 S. rotundifolia L. Clarke Co., 5A 722 556 Virginia 5B 977 940 5C 1289 1064 110 S. hispida Muhl. Clarke Co., 6A 523 607 Virginia 6B 1136 1198 6C 1321 1226 280 Table 2 Number of Mitoses in Marginal Samples from Four Levels of Leaves of S. Bona~nox and of S. lanceolata; Both Leaves fixed at 10:00 A. m. In S. Bona-nox A Decrease in Meristematic Activity is Corre¬ lated WITH Sinus Formation; in S. lanceolate, with the Development of a Tapering Leaf Base. Collection No. Species Geographic Source Fig. and Level Mitoses at Margin 135 S. Bona-nox L. Myrtle Beach, lA 55 Horry Co., 7B 80 South Carolina 7C 68 7D 121 119 S. lanceolata L. Wrightsville Beach, 8A 19 New Hanover Co., 8B 142 North Carolina 8C 200 8D 127 Table 3 Number of Mitoses in Samples from the Mid-Point of the Greatest Longitudinal Axis of Leaves of Different Sizes OF A Clone of S. rotnndifolm. Leaf Size Length Width Number of Mitoses 12mm 5mm 1998 14mm 7mm 1703 22mm 10mm 1609 35mm 22mm 475 46mm 31mm 56 55mm 43mm 38 68mm 62mm 4 82mm 65mm 0 species are consistent in their indications, it may be considered that the observations are replicative. The results, presented in Table 1, show in these leaves a basipetal cessation of mitosis and a longer-continuing meristematic activity at the laminal margin than toward its center. (Table 1.) A compensatory reduction in mitotic frequency occurs near the leaf margin where a sinus is formed— as in S. Bona-nox L., and where the leaf base tapers —as in S. lanceolata L. (Figures 7 and 8 ; Table 2) . The observa¬ tions reported here are in accord with Avery's (1933) interpre¬ tation of leaf development of tobacco and with Myers’ (1940) of Coleus. (Table 2.) Meristematic Duration. — To discover the relative mitotic frequencies at various developmental stages of a leaf, nuclear 281 Figures 1-6. — Natural size outlines of the Smilax leaves investigated and the levels designated at which samples were taken from along the margins and from beside the midribs. Data in Table 1. Figures 7-8. — Natural size outlines of leaves of Bona-nox and S, lanceolata with levels designated at which marginal samples were taken. Data in Tablfe 2. 282 divisions were counted in samples from beside the midrib and at the mid-point of the greatest longitudinal axis in leaves of differ¬ ent ages. Eight leaves were so studied; they were fixed at 4:00 p. m., each being the fifth leaf above the base of a shoot from a clone of S. rotundifolia L. (Speese No. 95). The data for those leaves are recorded in Table 3. The division rate regularly les¬ sens with increase in leaf size, and, therefore, in age, until, in the central area of the leaf of this plant, mitosis will have ceased when the length-width relation of the leaf is 82:66mm. Divisions continue near the margin until a greater leaf size is attained. Summary,— determined for six species of Smilax^ there is a basipetal gradient for the mitotic rate in leaves, and divisions cease earlier in the central part of the leaf than at the margin. Increase in size, and accordingly in age, of a given leaf area is regularly correlated with decrease in mitotic frequency, until di¬ visions cease. Acknowledgments.— The author expresses her appreciation to Dr. 0. E. White for the hospitality of The Blandy Experi¬ mental Farm, to Dr. J. T. Baldwin, Jr., for criticisms and for assistance in writing this report, and to Dr. C. V. Morton for identifying the plants investigated. The Blandy Experimental Farm, Boyce, Va. Literature Cited Avery, G. S., Jr., Amer. Jour. Bot., 20:565-592 (1933). Myers, R. M., Bot. Gaz., 102:323-338 (1940). Speese, B. M., Amer. Jour. Bot., 26:852-855 (1939). 283 Observations On Virginia Plants, Part 11 F. R. Fosberg II. On Certain Phytogeographically Significant Species Fernald has remarked (conversation 1938) that the Piedmont region of Virginia does not contain much of sufficient interest to justify botanical exploration. The types of significant distribu¬ tion outlined and illustrated by maps in his paper on the Inner Coastal Plain (Rhod. 39:321-366, 379-415, 433-459, 465-491, 1937) are all characterized by absence of the species in the Pied¬ mont, at least from southern Virginia northward. Even a short collecting trip in the Piedmont region in southern Virginia in 1938, during which conditions for collecting were unfavorable due to fioods and bad weather turned up a number of stations for some of these plants that are said to be absent from the Pied¬ mont. More critical study of the grasses and sedges of the region might well yield many more. These species from the Piedmont are listed below with several others of those mentioned by Fernald whose ranges are extended into the blank areas characterizing his types of distribution. They are arranged in the classes suggested bv Fernald (1. c. 475- 484). la. Hedyotis nuttailiana Fosberg (Hotcstonia tenuifolia Nutt.). Clarksville, Mecklenburg Co. Fosberg 15UU1 (UP, USNA) is definitely a Piedmont station for this species. Ila. Coreopsis verticillata L. Fosberg 15578 (UP) from 1 mile south of Zion, Louisa Co., and Fosberg 15518 (UP) from 2 miles north of Wylliesburg, Charlotte Co., Va., as well as a number of collections in the New York Botanical Garden Herbarium, and several cited in Sheriff’s monograph are from the Piedmont and break down the discontinuity between the Coastal Plain and Appalachian Upland areas of distribution for this species. IV. Elephantopus nudatus Gray. A single Piedmont locality for this species is 12 miles east of Danville, Halifax Co., Va., Fos¬ berg 15393 (UP). Group IV is in Virginia supposed to occur on the “Sea-Island Half of the Atlantic Coastal Plain.” V. Several species of this group, supposedly occurring, in the Atlantic States, only on the Sea-Island half of the Coastal Plain, actually occur in the Piedmont or Piedmont and Uplands. Pinus echinata Mill. A good stand of this species occurs on a slope along Hyco Creek, north of Prospect Hill, North Carolina, in a typical Pied¬ mont locality. Fosberg 1763U, 17636 (USNA). Munns (U. S. D. A. Misc. Pub. 287 :26, map 22. 1938) indicates the range of this species as including the entire Piedmont, from southern New York south, and a large part of the Appalachian region. I have recently collected it in the Piedmont near Falls Church, Virginia. Fosberg 18611 (USNA). 284 AmkntMiim muscaetoxicimi (Walt.) Gray. ^ Found throughout the Appalachians from at least northern Pennsylvania, where I have seen it growing and where it has been collected (Herb. U. P.), to Lookout Mountain, Ga. {Ruth 186 (US)). It is plentiful in the Blue Ridge of Virginia. Col¬ lections from Shenandoah Park are to be cited in a paper on the Park flora. Various specimens from the mountains are in the herbarium of the U. S. 'National Arboretum and in the U. S. Na¬ tional Herbarium. (See also R. S. Freer, Claytonia 4:49. 1938.) Dioscorea quaternata (Walt.) Gmel. var. flauca (MuM.) Fern. This variety is abundant in the Shenandoah National Park in the Blue Ridge of Virginia as is -shown by numerous specimens that I am citing in a paper on that region. This seelms to be the common Dioscorea there. Numerous collections are in the U. S. National Herbarium and the U. S. National Arboretum from the Appalachians, from North Carolina {Standley 564^5, Standley & Bollman 9963, 10125, Toivnsend in 1897, etc, (US) as far north as southern Pennsylvania (Tidestrom 7315, 7386, Rose & Painter 8123 (US) ) and western Maryland (/, Donnell Smith in 1878 (US) ), and from the Blue Ridge on the east as far west as the Cumberland Plateau in Tennessee {Weatherhy 6260 (US)), and West Virginia (Steele & Steele in 1893 (US) ). On the Piedmont there are a number of collections from at least the outer edge, as in the vicinity of Baltimore and Washington in Maryland and Virginia and near Durham, N, C. Quctcus pheOos L. Observed to be fairly common north of Clarksville, Mecklen¬ burg Co., Va., in 1938, but being sterile, was not collected. Also found near Falls Church, Fairfax County, Posher g 18605 (USNA). Chionanthus virginicus L. Common at Plummers Island and found at several other Pied¬ mont localities in the Potomac Valley, in Virginia and Maryland, There are many collections of it in the U, S. National Herbarium from the Appalachian region from Alabama to southern Pennsyl¬ vania. ScuteDaria integrifolia L. I found this in two Piedmont stations in southern Virginia, 6 miles north of Clarksville, Mecklenburg Co. Posher g 15499 (UP), and 12 miles east of Danville, Halifax Co., Posherg 15638 (UP). Numerous other collections from the Piedmont of Vir¬ ginia, Maryland, Pennsylvania and New Jersey may be found in the herbarium of the University of Pennsylvania and the U. S. National Herbarium, Epling has annotated most of those in the National Herbarium as ssp. tyyica. Sal¥ia lyrata L, Also occurs at the locality 12 miles east of Danville. Posherg 285 1535 (UP). Other Piedmont collections from Virginia, Mary¬ land, Pennsylvania, and New Jersey are represented in the U. S. National Herbarium and at the University of Pennsylvania and New York Botanical Garden. There are also collections from the mountains of North Carolina (Vasey in 1878 (US), Standley 5612 (US)) and West Virginia (Martin 531 (USNA)). Diodia virginiana L. This species seemed fairly common in rather disturbed ground along Lawson Creek, southwest of South Boston, Halifax Co., Va. Fosberg 15515 (UP) and 6 miles north of Clarksville, Mecklen¬ burg Co., Va., Fosberg 15579 (UP). It has also been collected in the Piedmont near Monroe, Union Co., N. C., McQuilkm 55 (USNA). Va. Of this class, supposedly absent from the Piedmont re¬ gion, the following eleven species have been collected in the Piedmont. Castanea pumila (L.) Mill. The chinquapin has been found in at least two localities in the Virginia Piedmont: 1 mile south of Zion, Louisa Co., Fosberg 15572 (UP); Palmyra, Fluvanna Co., Eggleston 17757 (US). Also, two in Chester Co., Pa.; Nottingham, Pennell 2260 (US, UP) ; West Town Farm, Maris 135 (US), Smedley 139 (US). Quercus marilandica (L.) Muench. From the Piedmont in Virginia, Mecklenburg Co., 6 miles north of Clarksville, Fosberg 15503 (UP), and various collec¬ tions from the Piedmont of southeastern Pennsylvania. (UP). It has also been observed to be not uncommon in the Piedmont of Maryland. Ui^us alata Michx. Fernald’s map (No. 54) shows the distribution of this species, in Virginia, to be strictly limited to the Coastal Plain. It was seen in some abundance in several localities in the southern Pied¬ mont counties of Virginia. One collection was made 6 kniles north of Clarksville, Mecklenburg Co., Fosberg 15559 (UP). This seems merely a northern extension of its Piedmont occur¬ rences further south in North Carolina. Phoradendron flavescens Nutt. Allard has collected this species in the Bull Run Mts. in the Virginia Piedmont (No. 8306 (US)) and I have seen several clumps along the highway between Washington and Charlottes¬ ville. Clitoiria mariana L. Fernald’s map (No. 55) shows this species in Virginia to be common on the Coastal Plain and more rare in the mountains of the southwestern part of the State, but absent from the Pied¬ mont. It is present, but rare, in Halifax Co., 12 miles east of Danville, east of the Dan River, Fosberg 15500 (UP). 286 Rhus quercifolia (Michx.) Steud. Barkley's map (Ann. Mo. Bot. Gard. 24:421. 1937) shows this species absent from the Piedmont. I found it in two Pied¬ mont localities, in neither of which it was common. Louisa Co., 1 mile south of Zion, Posher g 15575 (UP) ; Prince Edward Co., near Kingville, 5 miles south of Farmville, Fosberg 155Ji.l (UP). These collections seem fairly distinct from the common R. toxi¬ codendron in their erect habit and hairy, cut leaflets. Obolaria virginica L. This has been found in the Piedmont 1 mile northeast of Birchrunville, Chester Co., Pa., Fosberg 162U (UP), and on the Virginia side of the Potomac River above Georgetown, Palmer & Morris 129 (US). Campsis radicans (L.) Seem. On the Virginia Piedmont along Lawson Creek, southwest of South Boston, Halifax Co., Fosberg 15U25 (UP). I have also seen it on Plummers Island, Montgomery Co., Md., in the Potomac. Diodia teres Walt. This has been found on the Virginia Piedmont along the Pigg River, Pittsylvania Co., Fosberg 17595 (USNA), and in Pennsyl¬ vania at Easton, Porter in 1895 (US) . Elephantopus carolinianus Willd. Extends into the Piedmont along the Potomac at least as far as Great Falls, Fairfax Co., Va., Fosberg 16665 (USNA), and Great Falls, Montgomery Co., Md., Hermann 9861 (USNA). Chrysopsis mariana (L.) Nutt. Also found extending into the Piedmont along the Potomac above Georgetown on the Maryland side, /. D. Smith in 1880 (US). It is also in the Virginia Piedmont along the Pigg River 8 miles west of Gretna, Pittsylvania Co., Fosberg 17617 (USNA) . VI. Members of this category are supposed to be absent from both the Piedmont and the Appalachian Upland, though found on the Coastal Plain and in the interior of the Continent. Iresine rhizomatosa Standi. The type locality of this species is Plummers Island, Md., in the Potomac above Washington, D. C. This island is a large mass of rock, typically Piedmont. I do not know of the species from elsewhere east of the lower Mississippi drainage. Magnolia tripetala L. This species is found scattered along the eastern side of the Appalachian system. Virginia: Bedford Co., Curtiss (US); Rockingham Co., Swift Run Gap, Fosberg 182U5 (USNA) ; Madison Co., near Nethers, seen but not collected. Pennsylvania: York Furnace, York Co., Crawford 6192 (US). West Virginia: In at least two places— Perry ville, McDowell Co., Morris 1131 (US) , and Procius, Clay Co., Palmer 35528 (US) . 287 Gillenia trifoliata (L.) Moench. This species is common throughout the Appalachians from Canada to North Carolina, and this is evidently its main area of distribution. Judging from material in the National Herbarium it is absent, or practically so, from the interior of the continent west of the Appalachian system. Cephalanthus occidentaHs L. var. pubescens Raf. This form is represented from the Virginia Piedmont by one specimen from Prince Edward Co., J. D. Smith in 1880 (US). Triosteiim angustifoliiim L. Two collections of this may be recorded, one from the Pied¬ mont at Ellicott City, Howard Co., Md,, Arsene 703 (US), and one from the Blue Ridge of Virginia on Trayfoot Mountain, Rockingham Co., Fosberg (USNA). It has recently been reported from West Virginia by Gilbert (Castanea 3:83. 1938). VII. Symphoricarpos orbiculatus Moench. In the Virginia Piedmont along Lawson Creek, southwest of South Boston, Halifax Co., Fosberg 15Jfl9 (UP), and along the Pigg River 8 miles west of Gretna, Pittsylvania Co., Fosberg 17267 (USNA). There are also various collections of this in the U. S. National Herbarium from the Piedmont and mountains of Virginia, North Carolina, West Virginia and Tennessee. It is frequently a component of the existing vegetation, seemingly quite at home, but I would certainly hesitate to say where its natural range ends and where it has been introduced since Euro¬ pean settlement. Conclusion It seems likely that, in many of these cases of broken ranges, at least two other factors besides the physiographic history of the region are of importance. First is the lack of detailed knowledge of the actual extent of their occurrence in the blank places on the distribution maps; and second, the presence or absence of suit¬ able habitats. This, of course, is related to the history of the region, both physiographic and human. When the likely habitats are examined in the intervening regions, many more of these plants may be found where they are not now known. Also, exami¬ nation of material already in various herbaria may fill out some of the gaps. It seems altogether likely, in a continental area with no serious barriers to the spread of plants, that any species may be found wherever the proper combination of environmental factors permit it to become established. What these conditions are, however, is scarcely known for most species of plants, ex¬ cepting one or two factors such as acidity and temperature. Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. 288 GENERAL NOTES Two Virginia Fern Records. — While the Netvein Chainfern, Lorinseria areolata (L.) Presl, is common on the Coastal Plain, it is rare in the uplands. On May 23, 1940, an extensive colony of it was discovered in a swamp along U. S. Highway #15 about S miles southwest of Fork Union, or a mile north of the new bridge near Bremo Bluff, in Fluvanna County. The Daisy-leaf Grapefern, Botrychium matricariae folium A. Br. ex Koch, has never been definitely recorded south of Mary¬ land. On May 28, 1941, G. R. Fessenden, F. R. Fosberg, and the writer were collecting plants along the brook which runs northwest from Swift Run Gap, opposite the Spotswood Wayside Spring, in Rockingham County. Quite unexpectedly, Fessenden discovered a plant of this fern, and our combined search disclosed a colony of 10 individuals, on a wooded slope. In the interest of scientific record, five of these were collected for distribution to as many herbaria. — Edgar T. Wherry, University of Pennsyl¬ vania. 289 CAROLINA CULTURES L 1 Giant Amoeba proteus (standard for laboratory study) eeW\ Class of 25 (including container and postage) . $2.00 Class of 50 “ “ “ “ 3.50 Class of 100 “ “ “ “ 6.00 Same price as above: Paramecium caudatum, Stentor, Vorticella, Peranema, Volvox, Mixed Protozoa, Anguillula or ^‘Vinegar L 60 Hydra, Green or Brown (state preference desired) Class of 25 (including container and postage) . $1.50 . Class of 50 “ “ “ “ 2.50 Class of 75 “ “ “ “ 3.25 Class of 100 ‘‘ ‘‘ “ “ 4.00 Same price as Hydra: Paramecium multimicronucleata (giant form , of paramecia, excellent for laboratory study), Euglena, Ar- cella, Chilomonas, Daphnia, Copepods, Spirogyra, Nitella, Elodea, Cabomba, Myriphyllum. L 220 Planaria maculata or dorotocephala (the former or light colored is generally preferred) Class of 25 (including container and postage) . ,$1.75 Class of 50 “ “ “ “ 3.00 Class of 75 “ “ “ “ 4.00 Class of 100 “ “ “ “ 5.00 For Drosophila cultures, Tenebrio or “Meal-Worms”, Aquarium Sets or Assortments, living Frogs, Turtles, Rats, Mice, etc., see our regular catalogue. We have a complete line of Preserved Specimens, Microscopic Slides, Dissecting Instruments, etc. Our publications — Carolina Tips and general catalogue will be sent free upon application. Carolina Biological Supply Company Elon College, North Carolina THE QUESTION? Where is the most conven¬ ient place for me to purchase my physiology apparatus? THE ANSWER! From Phipps & Bird, Inc., of Richmond, Virginia. THE REASON!! Phipps & Bird has long spe¬ cialized in the development and manufacture of better apparatus for physiology, pharmacology and psychology. All apparatus is designed to be simple and sturdy, to meet the requirements of student use. Yet, manufacture is to tolerances well within the re¬ quirements for the most ex¬ acting research. . Phipps and Bird are pioneers in this field. First to intro¬ duce an inexpensive, electrically-driven Kymograph, illus¬ trated above, they have also made available, ink-writing levers of all types to aid in eliminating tedious smoking and shellacking. For modern, efficient, dependable kymographs, heart and muscle levers, pneumographs, ergographs and other physi¬ ology equipment, IT IS Phipps and Bird, Inc. Southern Center for Laboratory Apparatus and Chemicals RICHMOND, VIRGINIA ■^■1 60 I I