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I 5

SPRING 1990

VOL. 41, No.l

VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

OFFICIAL PUBLICATION OF THE VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCONCE

THE VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

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For instructions to authors, see inside of back cover

VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

OFFICIAL PUBLICATION OF THE VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

Vol.41 No. 1 Spring 1990

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ARTICLES PAGE

Monotone and Convex Quadratic Spline Interpolation. Maria

H. Lam. 3

Springs of Virginia Revisited:A Comparative Analysis of the
Current and Historical Water-Quality Data. L. A. Helfiich, D.

L. Weigmann, K W. Nutt and R. M. Sterrett. 14

Dependence of Leachable Lead in Glazed Ceramics on Pre¬
vious Treatment :Detcrmination by an Improved Dithizone Ex¬
traction Method. Karl A. Schellenberg. 28

NEWS AND NOTES

Prestige and Impact vs. Usefulness in Biological Journals or Am
I Just a Regional Kind of Guy? Stewart Ware (Reprinted from
ASB Bulletin) 33

NECROLOGY- Eugene M. Wright , Jr 41

MAY i 4 1990

RAWE5*

Virginia Journal of Science
Volume 41, Number 1
Spring 1990

Monotone and Convex Quadratic Spline Interpolation

Maria H. Lam

Department of Computer Science
Hampton University, Hampton, VA 23668

ABSTRACT

A method for producing interpolants that preserve the monotonicity and
convexity of discrete data is described. It utilizes the quadratic spline
proposed by Larry Schumaker which was subsequently characterized by
Ronald DeVore and Zheng Yan. The selection of first order derivatives
at the given data points is essential to this spline. We generalize an
observation made by DeVore and Yan and propose an improved method
to select these derivatives. The resulting spline is completely local, effi¬
cient, and simple to implement.

Keywords: Discrete data, quadratic splines, shape-preserving interpola¬
tion.

INTRODUCTION

We are concerned with the numerical solution of the following interpolation
problem: Given a set of data points {(xi, yi)} i = 1, . ., n where xi < X2 < . . . < xn,
find f such that

f(xj) - yi, i = 1, . . ., n

and f preserves the monotonicity and/or convexity of the given data. That is: f is
monotone increasing or decreasing in those intervals li = [xj, xi + 1] where the data
is monotone increasing or decreasing. Similarly, f is convex or concave in Ij where
the data exhibits such a trend.

Several methods to solve this problem have appeared. Some use geometric
construction to obtain f as in McAllister & Roulier, 1981,1978 and McLaughlin,
1983, while others use piecewise cubic Hermite polynomials (Fritsch & Carlson,
1980 and Fritsch & Rutland, 1984), quadratic splines (DeVore & Yan, 1986;
Schumaker, 1983), some sort of splines under tension (Foley, 1988; Irvine, Marin
& Smith, 1986) and other means. The purpose of this paper is to give a method for
the selection of first order derivatives at the data points {(xi, yi)}i = i, . . n that will
lead to the generation of shape-preserving quadratic splines solving this problem.

A general method proposed by Schumaker (Schumaker, 1983) for solving this
problem by quadratic spline is examined in the next section. His method relies on
proper selection of fust order derivatives at the given data points. He computed
the derivative si at an interior data point Pi(xj,yi) as a weighted average of two
neighboring slopes connecting Pi_i to Pi and Pi to Pi+i. The weights are taken to
be the lengths of the longest lines containing the chords in Ii-i and li. si and sn are
computed as an average of a slope and S2, a slope and sn-i respectively. This
approach produces an algorithm that is global in the sense that changing one data
point will modify the shape of the curve from this point on. We compute the
derivatives as a harmonic weighted average of the two slopes provided they are not
zero. The weights are constant. Our method is local and less cumbersome. It is

4

VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

described in the section after the next. Results and discussions are given in the last
two sections.

SHAPE-PRESERVING QUADRATIC SPLINES
McAllister and Roulier (McAllister & Roulier, 1981) introduced an algorithm
to compute a shape-preserving quadratic spline in 1981. They used rather involved
geometric constructions in their method. The properties of monotonicity and
convexity of f are related to the first order derivative. If the derivatives {si}i = i, . .
. .,n at each data point can be estimated such that the monotonicity and the
convexity of the given data remain intact, then the problem is reduced to finding f
such that

(1)

Rxi) = yi,

f ’(xi) = si, i=i, . . .,n.

In general, f will be a piecewise function consisting of the collection {fi}i = i,. .
.,n-i of functions such that fi is defined on ft, and fi and fi’ interpolate yi, yj + 1 and Si,
Si + 1. We choose f as a quadratic spline. The problem becomes a simple two-point
Hermite interpolation problem: Find a quadratic polynomial fi over fi such that

(2) fi(xk) = yk,

fi’(xk) = 8k, k=i, i+1.

Schumaker proved that there exists a unique quadratic polynomial fi solving this
problem if and only if

(3)

gj+si+i - yi+i-yi
2 xi+l*xi

and fi is given as

fi(x>=yi+si(x-xi) + (s^~Si)(x^i)2

When condition (3) fails, he showed that corresponding to every u in (xi,xi + 1),
there exists a unique quadratic spline over fi having u as a knot that satisfies
condition (2) . This spline is obtained by assigning a derivative s* at u such that
condition (3) is satisfied on both [xj,u] and [u,xj + 1]. Let y* and s* (which are
dependent upon yi, yi +i, Si, si+l and the location of u) be the functional value and
the first order derivative at u. In particular,

QUADRATIC SPLINE INTERPOLATION

5

(4) f-M- I A|+B l(X‘Xi) + Cl(x-Xi)2
I Az+B^X-u) + C^X-uf

Xi<X<U, |

u<x<xi+i, j

with

Ai=yi, Ci={s*-Sj)/2a

As^Ai+Bia+Cja2, B2=s*, C2=(sh.i-s*) /2p
where

(5) s*=fi'(u)

_ ^yj+i-yj) - (asj+ftsi+i)

Xi+l-Xj

a = u-x,

P = Xi+l-U.

If SiSi + i> 0, this spline is monotone on I* if and only if sis* > 0. If Si < Si + i, it is
convex on li if and only if Si< s*< si + i. Similarly, if si > si + 1, then it is concave if
and only if si>s*>si + i.

Hence this problem is solved provided that the si’s and the u’s can be chosen
such that these conditions are met. Schumaker also formalized the selection of u
that will lead to the preservation of the convexity of the data. The open question
now lies on the selection of the derivatives, si, such that the monotone property can
also be fulfilled.

As noted previously in the introduction, the computation used by Schumaker
to obtain his derivatives has the potential difficulty of adjusting to changes in data
points. The effect of changing a data point will propagate all the way to the end of
the curve which may not be desirable. It is observed by DeVore and Yan that if si
is defined as the harmonic mean of the two slopes and different weights are used
to compute si and sn» Schumaker’s spline becomes the quadratic spline proposed
by McAllister and Roulier. The cost (in terms of the number of computations and
data storage requirement) to compute the harmonic mean is low when compared
to that of Schumaker’s. Hence we choose to follow the harmonic mean approach
and generalize it to provide a greater variety of shapes.

DERIVATIVE SELECTIONS

Our effort is focused around the selection of the derivatives si’s. We wish to
devise a method to calculate the si’s that is easier to use than Schumaker’s. This

6

VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

can be achieved if the chosen si’s automatically fulfill some sufficient condition for
monotonicity. The convexity/concavity of the data is preserved through
Schumaker’s knot insertion scheme.

As a result of the continuity conditions on the functional values and the first
order derivatives of Schumaker’s quadratic polynomial spline, for every u in the
open internal (xi,xi + i), the corresponding s* and y* are given as follows:

Let

Xi+1-Xi ’

U-Xj

Xi+l-Xi *

p* = 1-a*

= *i±l^L

Xi+l-Xi *

Condition (5) can be expressed as

s* = 2M.

Xi+l'Xj

JHLu-attv,

Xi+l-Xi Xi+j-Xj

= 28i-a*Si-p*Si+i

~ 2Sj - (cc Si + P Si+i)
Condition (4) provides

y* = yi+sj(x-xj) + —

2(u-

Schumaker devised a criterion to select a u in the interval (xj,xi + 1) such that the
resulting quadratic spline is convex/concave as required. This u determines the y*
and s* associated with it. It can be proved that if

(6) |Si|<2|8,| and |si+i|<2|8i|

then the spline is also monotone (see DeVore & Yan, 1986). This is a sufficient
condition but not necessary for monotonicity.

For i 2, . . .,n-l, if si is chosen as the harmonic mean of and <5i_i when c5i, 6\.\
are both positive or negative, i.e.

QUADRATIC SPLINE INTERPOLATION

7

_ 8i-iSi _

0.58j.i+0.55i

0

(7) si=| 28*2

(8) ^v,‘Sn-1

if 6j-i5i>0 I

otherwise

if 6i(26i-s2)>0 \
otherwise j

if Sn-l(25n_i -Sn_i)>0 |
otherwise I

where

_ yi-yi-i

" Xi-Xi.i *

_ yi-fi-yi

Xi+l-Xi *

This automatically fulfills the sufficient condition (6) for monotonicity. Conse¬
quently the quadratic spline produced by these si’s, together with Schumaker’s knot
insertion conserves the shape of the data.

Following along this line, we decide to try other convex combinations and set

Sj-iSj

if 8i_i8i>0

0 otherwise

where 0<f, rj <1 and f + rj = 1. From this we derive a condition imposed upon
J and rj that will guarantee the fulfillment of condition (6) by Si-i and Si. This leads
us to define Si at an interior point (xi,yi) as

Si =

(9)

if Si-AX), J«n|-|8iD(|^5)iO
fl8i.1|-|8i|)(^-0.5)<0

0 otherwise

8

VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

si and sn are defined by (7) and (8).

For every fixed (£, rj), the set of derivatives {si}i = i, . . .,n generated from (9)
always satisfies the condition (6) because when<3i-i<5i > 0, | <5i-i | > | \ , and £ > 0.5,
we have

|Si|= _ frl5! _

1*1

S2(8i|

and

N =

M

Oi

Z,+T\

=|8nl

S2|8h|.

If <3i-i<5i >0, |<5i-i | > |<Si | , and £ < 0.5, then

M=

|8i.i8j|

|ri8i.i+^8i|

18j|

<

N

n

<2j8i|

QUADRATIC SPLINE INTERPOLATION

9

and

|Sil =

n^-+5

Oi

<IM

=|5i-,|

<2j8i.,| .

The remaining cases are either obvious or can be proved similarly.

RESULTS AND EXAMPLES

When si is defined by (7), (8), (9) with £ = rj =0.5 produces visually pleasing,
shape-preserving quadratic splines proposed by McAllister and Roulier. Figures
1-2 display two such splines. The curves may show too much curvature around the
areas where the convexity of the curve changes eventhough the shape of the data is
still preserved. This is evident in Figure 2 between the 9th and the 10th data points.
The midpoint of this interval is chosen as a knot. The curve changes from concave
to convex at this knot with the monotonicity of the curve remaining unchanged.

Next, we experiment with different values for £, rj . We apply them to the same
data set and observe the change in the shape of the spline. As £ and rj deviate away
from the value of 0.5, the curve becomes stiff. Figures 3 and 4 show the effect of
different values of (£, rj ) being applied to the same data set used in Figure 2. Notice
that the curve has tightened up between the 9th and the 10th data points resulting
in a smoother transition from concave to convex. At the same time, the curve has
tightened up between the 7th and the 8th points also producing a slightly "cornered"
shape at the 8th point. One may use more than one set of (£, rj) to a data set,
applying one of them to an interval [xi, xi + 1] according to some criterion. Figure 5
shows the result of using two sets of (£, rj ). £ = rj =0.5 is used throughout except
at the 9th interval where the second divided difference changes sign, £ = 0.3 and
rj = 0.7 values are used. Notice the improvement over Figure 2 between the 9th
and 10th data points without sacrificing the smoothness between the 7th and 8th
data points.

The two data sets used in Figures 1 and 2 are standard. The first one was
introduced by Pruess and the second by Akima (see Pruess, 1978 and Akima, 1970).

Pruess* data:

12345678 9 10 11

X01234567 89 10

y 0 0.5 3.35 3.3 1.65 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 0.6 0

10

VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

FIGURE 1. Schumaker’s quadratic spline interpolating Pruess’ data. The si’s are defined by (7), (8),
and (9) with ^=TJ = 0.5.

QUADRATIC SPLINE INTERPOLATION

11

FIGURE 3. Schumaker’s quadratic spline interpolating Akima’s data. The si’s are defined by (7), (8),
and (9) with f = 0.4, T] = 0.6.

12

VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

Akima’s data:

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

X 0

2

3

5

6

8

9

11

12

14

15

y 10

10

10

10

10

10

10.5

15

50

60

85

DISCUSSION

In Schumaker’s algorithm, after the derivatives si,si + 1 have been calculated, a
knot in (xi,xi + 1) will be chosen if needed such that the convexity or concavity of the
data is conserved. The monotone property of the data may have been violated by
this process. When this happens, the values of si, si + i and the location of the knot
will have to be adjusted. Our method of defining the si’s requires no adjustment.
They always satisfy condition (6) for monotonicity.

Our method reduces to McAllister and Roulier’s method when | and rj are set
to 0.5. This is like a McAllister and Roulier’s method with an additional tension
parameter that may be built into the method or set by the users to produce the kind
of shapes that suit their applications.

Like most methods of this nature, our method is local. Each piece of the
quadratic polynomials generated depends on three consecutive data points only.
In an interactive computing environment, as soon as three data points have been

QUADRATIC SPLINE INTERPOLATION

13

received by the program implementing this method, pieces of curve can be calcu¬
lated and displayed on a monitor screen. As a result, the amount of computer
memory used is rather small. As was pointed out by Schumaker, even when the
curve generation phase is delayed until all the data points are in and all the
calculations are done, the basic storage requirement will be the space to store the
data, the knots, and the coefficients { Ai}i, {Bj}i, and {Q}i of the quadratic
polynomials. Since derivatives are matched at the data points, the curve is C1 for
one or more sets of (f, rj) used in this investigation.

Besides calculating the slopes <5i’s, it takes ten computations (one is a square
root) to calculate a Schumaker’s si. Our method involves equal number of com¬
putations but without the square root computation. These attributes combined
make our method a good alternative to other shape-preserving quadratic splines.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I wish to thank Dr. Alkesh Punjabi of Hampton University for useful discussion
and for reading the manuscript. This work is supported by the National
Aeronautics and Space Administration under an HBCU grant.

LITERATURE CITED

Akima, H. 1970. A New Method of Interpolation and Smooth Curve Fitting Based
on Local Procedures. J. ACM. 17:589-602.

DeVore, R.A. and Z. Yan. 1986. Error Analysis for Piecewise Quadratic Curve
Fitting Algorithms. Computer Aided Geometric Design. 3:205-215.

Foley, T.A. 1988. A Shape Preserving Interpolant with Tension Controls. Com¬
puter Aided Geometric Design. 5:105-118.

Fritsch, F.N. and J. Butland. 1984. A Method for Constructing Local Monotone
Piecewise Cubic Interpolants. SIAM J. Sci. Stat. Comput. 5:300-304.

Fritsch, F.N. and R.E. Carlson. 1980. Monotone Piecewise Cubic Interpolation.
SIAM J. Numer. Anal. 17:238-246.

Irvine, L.D., S.P. Marin and P.W. Smith. 1986. Constrained Interpolation and
Smoothing. J. Construct. Approx. 2:129-151.

McAllister, D.F. and J.A. Roulier. 1978. Interpolation by Convex Quadratic-
Splines. Math. Comp. 32:1154-1162.

McAllister, D.F. and J.A. Roulier. 1981. An Algorithm for Computing a Shape-
Preserving Oscillatory Quadratic Spline. ACM Trans, on Math. Software
7:331-347.

McLaughlin, H.W. 1983. Shape-Preserving Planar Interpolation: An Algo-
rithm.IEEE Comp. Graphics and Appl. 3:58-67.

Pruess, S. 1978. An Algorithm for Computing Smooth Splines in Tension. Com¬
puting. 19:365-373.

Schumaker, L.L. 1983. On Shape Preserving Quadratic Spline Interpoltion. SIAM

J. Numer. Anal. 20:854-864.

Virginia Journal of Science
Volume 41, Number 1
Spring 1990

Springs of Virginia Revisited: A Comparative Analysis
of the Current and Historical Water-Quality Data

L. A Helfrich*, Department of Fisheries and Wildlife Sciences,
Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg,
VA 24061-0321, D. L. Weigmann, Water Resources Research
Center, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Black¬
sburg, VA 24060-3397, K. W. Nutt, Department of Fisheries and
Wildlife Sciences, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State
UniversityBlacksburg, VA 24061-0321, and R. M. Sterrett, Vir¬
ginia Water Control Board, Valley Regional Office, Bridgewater,

VA 22812

ABSTRACT

Physicochemical analyses of 31 springs in Virginia, previously sampled in
1928, were compared with current (post- 1952) data collected at identical
sites. This study examined the potential long-term trends in the physical
and chemical constituents of spring waters. Water-quality variability
(within- spring variation), expressed as the percent coefficient of variation
(% CV), over the study period was relatively high for nitrate, sodium,
sulfate, and chloride ions, averaging 70, 57, 42, and 40% CV respectively,
but moderate for calcium, hardness, bicarbonate, and dissolved solids,
averaging 22, 19, 18, and 15% CV, respectively. Variation in water
temperatures was minor, averaging less than three percent CV. Spring
discharge fluctuated considerably, ranging from three to 95% CV and
averaging 37% CV. Although the chemical content of most springs ex¬
amined has remained relatively consistent for more than 60 years, increas¬
ing concentrations of nitrate, chloride, and total dissolved solids in some
springs indicated a modest degree of pollution, perhaps resulting from
surface contaminant infiltration. No notable trend in sodium and sulfate
concentrations (pollution) was evident.

INTRODUCTION

Springs are immensely important aquatic resources because they afford a
reliable source of high quality ground water at a relatively constant temperature
and flow. As the public need for water escalates, springs represent a dependable
and increasingly valuable supply of water, particularly during drought conditions.
Springs are being tapped for domestic (drinking, bathing, and cleaning), commer¬
cial (brewing, distilleries, and bottled mineral water), agricultural (crop irrigation,
livestock watering, and fish hatcheries), industrial (mining, manufacturing, and
hydropower), and recreational purposes (fishing, swimming, and boating). Springs

*Send Correspondence to: Louis A. Helfrich, Department of Fisheries and Wildlife Sciences, Virginia
Polytechnic Institute and State University, 152 Cheatham Hall, Blacksburg, VA 24061-0321

WATER-QUALITY OF VIRGINIA’S SPRINGS

15

FIGURE 1. Locations of Virginia springs (n = 31) used for water quality comparisons between the
1928 survey and more recent (post-1952) surveys.

often provide the only flow (base flow) to rivers and streams during periods of
extreme drought.

Although surface water supplies more than half of the 5.6 billion gallons used
daily by Virginians, ground water supplies the water needs of 41 percent of
Virginia’s 5.3 million residents, and public water-supply systems in 64 of the 95
counties rely on aquifers to provide more than half of their domestic drinking water
needs (Weigmann and Kroehler, 1988). Nearly one-third of the average 27 million
gallons of water used per day for irrigation of Virginia’s crops is ground water
(USGS, 1985).

Despite its multiple benefits, groundwater in Virginia is increasingly threatened
by a variety of chemical and biological pollutants (Weigmann and Kroehler, 1988).
Toxic waste in the form of pesticides, heavy metals, acids, petroleum products
(gasoline, motor oil, diesel fuel), fertilizers, and a multitude of other familiar, but
harmful, chemicals leach from underground storage tanks, mining sites, industrial
waste lagoons and dumps, and municipal landfills daily. Pathogenic bacteria,
viruses, and nutrients from livestock wastes, human sewage, and decaying animals
seep into spring and ground water as drainage from barnyards, feedlots, outhouses,
and septic systems.

A major pathway by which surface contaminants reach ground water is through
sinkholes. These crater-like depressions are characteristic of areas underlain by
limestone such as the Valley and Ridge Province of Virginia. Each sinkhole is a
potential, direct channel for polluted water to infiltrate into the aquifer. The
traditional but mindless use of sinkholes as rural dumps and disposal sites for dead
livestock, domestic waste, household cleaning supplies, pesticide containers, old
painting materials, and other hazardous chemicals and refuse intensifies the prob¬
lem and increases the probability of ground-water degradation. S lifer (1987)

16

VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

TABLE 1. Location of Virginia springs monitored by Collins et al. (1930) and used for comparative
trend analysis in this study.

Spring Location

No. Latitude Longitude

Spring

Name

County

Topographic

Map

(USGS 7.5 minute)

21

36,38,25

82,06,06

Percy Preston

Washington

Wyndale

50

36,46,27

81,25,05

Kessling

Smyth

Atkins

52

36,51,27

81,25,05

Arnold

Smyth

Atkins

53

36,51,33

81,23,55

Atkins

Smyth

Atkins

86

37,09,00

81,10,30

Walker

Bland

Rocky Gap

99

36,48,00

81,10,57

Seven

Wythe

Speedwell

95

36,52,03

81,16,15

Neff-Kutz

Wythe

Cedar Springs

107

36,55,58

80,54,06

Harkrader-West

Wythe

Max Meadows

109

36,55,50

80,53,47

Harkrader

Wythe

Max Meadows

120

37,15,42

80,41,21

T.B. Francis

Giles

Pearisburg

287

37,52,09

79,55,59

Falling

Alleghany

Covington

320

37,35,54

79,40,46

Karnes

Botetourt

Buchanan

400

37,50,53

79,28,37

Big

Rockbridge

Lexington

405

38,00,027

9,31,49

Warm

Rockbridge

Green Valley

466

38,21,46

79,37,48

Mackey

Highland

Mustoe

478

38,20,15

79,26,04

Stuart

Highland

McDowell

494

38,06,33

79,18,39

Augusta White

Augusta

Augusta Springs

496

38,04,18

79,14,57

Cochran

Augusta

Greenville

499

38,12,20

79,10,03

Cave

Augusta

Churchville

501

38,05,33

79,10,45

JJ. Bowman

Augusta

Greenville

504

38,20,40

79,05,02

Blue Hole

Augusta

Parnassus

508

38,12,24

79,02,12

Berry Farm

Augusta

Staunton

521

37,59,29

79,12,20

Broadhead

Augusta

Vesuvius

529

38,16,49

78,59,18

Seawright

Augusta

Mount Sidney

531

38,18,25

78,55,23

Weyers Cave

Augusta

Mount Sidney

533

38,03,14

78,55,54

Koiner #1

Augusta

Waynesboro West

538

38,03,32

78,53,35

Baker

Augusta

Waynesboro West

543

38,24,30

79,02,57

Patterson

Rockingham

Briery Branch

551

38,24,02

78,50,12

Massanetta

Rockingham

Harrisonburg

554

38,32,33

78,45,54

Lacey

Rockingham

Broadway

555

38,26,09

79,37,13

Bear Lithia

Rockingham

ElktonEast

identified 73 illegal dumps, many in limestone sinkholes interconnected to ground
water, in Rockbridge County, Virginia, where wells and springs supply water for
half of the 16,000 residents. This problem is pervasive throughout Virginia, par¬
ticularly in the limestone valleys where sinkholes offer convenient pits for solid-
and liquid-waste disposal.

The physical and chemical characteristics of spring waters reflect the quality
of ground water and mirror chemical conditions in aquifers feeding the rivers and
streams in the Commonwealth. They provide a convenient window through which

WATER-QUALITY OF VIRGINIA’S SPRINGS

17

to examine long-term trends in ground water quality. An early survey in 1928
(Collins et al.9 1930) provided the location and some water-quality conditions for
566 springs in Virginia. This early account afforded a unique 60-year historical
benchmark for a comparative analysis of physical and chemical conditions in
selected springs in the Commonwealth. This paper summarizes alterations in
physicochemical conditions for 31 selected springs for which sufficient historical
and current water-quality data were available.

METHODS

Water quality data from the 31 Virginia springs (Figure 1) in the current
(post- 1952) analysis were collected from the unpublished records of the Virginia
Water Control Board (VWCB), Virginia Department of Health (VDH), Virginia
Department of Game and Inland Fisheries (VDGIF), U.S. Geological Survey
(USGS), U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), Virginia Tech Depart¬
ment of Fisheries, Virginia Cooperative Extension Service, and private owners (see
Table 1). Recent physicochemical data (Table 2) were compared directly to that
collected in a 1928 survey (Collins et al, 1930).

The data in Table 2 represent values measured over a time period of 60 years,
during which analytical procedures, sampling protocol, and sample preservation
techniques varied significantly. No attempts have been made to compare the field
or laboratory methods employed, some of which are unknown. The current data
undoubtedly are more accurate than the earlier measurements because of advan¬
cements in analytical technology since 1928. Because seasonal variation in spring
discharge and water quality generally was minor, comparisons among years of data
collected at identical sites was assumed valid for trend analysis.

Much of the recent data on springs in the Shenandoah Valley of Virginia were
collected as part of a spring monitoring program instituted by the Valley Regional
Office (Sterrett, 1989 personal communication). This monitoring effort consists
of semi-annual collections of 16 selected springs (six of which correspond to those
measured by Collins et al ., 1930). Field measurements of discharge, water tempera¬
ture, and pH were made on site; chemical analyses were conducted by the Virginia
Division of Consolidated Laboratories in Richmond, Virginia, using standard
methods. All available existing data were compiled and compared with that
collected in 1928 by Collins et al ., (1930). For many other springs surveyed by
Collins et al. (1930) recent, comparable water-quality samples have not been
collected or analyzed to date. We have, however, initiated a more comprehensive
survey to locate and collect water samples from other springs located by Collins et
al. (1930) in order to expand our comparative analysis beyond the 31 springs
described herein. Variability of current physicochemical measurements within
springs was expressed as the coefficient of variation (100 x standard devia¬
tion/mean). These estimates include temporal and seasonal variability and that
variability resulting from measurement error within springs through time.

The major chemical parameters considered were calcium, bicarbonate,
chloride, sulfate, sodium, hardness, and nitrate-nitrogen concentrations. Minor
elements such as iron and fluoride, though monitored, generally were present in
trace or undetectable concentrations, too low for valid comparisons. Total dis¬
solved solids, one of the most important parameters used to measure water quality

18

VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

deterioration (Sherrard et al ., 1988), served as a useful general index of the mineral
content (salinity) of springs. Physical variables included spring discharge and water
temperatures.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Physical Measurements

Discharges of the 31 Virginia springs (160 observations) ranged from 0.1 to 15.6
cubic feet second (cfs) or 50 to 7,000 gallons per minute (gpm); the majority (67
percent) of the springs discharged over 1,000 gpm (Table 2). Comparisons between
historic and current data indicated a general pattern of decrease in discharge rates
for most (68 percent) of the springs examined. Variability in discharge within-
springs over the study period (comparison of historic and current records) ex¬
pressed as percent coefficient of variation (% CV), was high, ranging from 3 to 95%
CV, and averaging 37% CV. Maximum fluctuation in discharge recorded for a
single spring over the study period was 9.6 cfs (4,283 gpm) for spring 320.

Collins et al. (1930) reported the largest spring in Virginia was Wool wine Spring.
Located four miles east of Newbern, Pulaski County, near the New River, this spring
flow (the only measurement available) was recorded at 23 cfs (10,300 gpm) in 1928
(Table 3). Unfortunately, this spring was submerged by the construction of Claytor
Lake reservoir in 1938. More recent surveys (Sterrett, 1988, personal communica¬
tion) have identified and characterized other equally large-volume springs in
Northwestern Virginia such as Coursey Springs (11.8 to 25.9 cfs) and Mackey
Spring (4.3 to 28.6 cfs), neither of which were sampled in the early survey by Collins
et al. (1928). Single flow measurements, sometimes estimates, were reported for
each spring by Collins et al. (1930). The relatively high coefficient of variation
calculated for many of the springs examined and the limited number of long-term
flow observations per spring suggest that significantly lower or higher flows than
those reported may occur.

Meinzer (1923) classified springs according to their average discharge from a
magnitude 1 for flows over 44,900 gpm (100 cfs) to a magnitude 8 for those less
than 0.25 gpm. Based on this scale, Virginia has no known first magnitude springs,
but does contain at least 13 springs of the second magnitude. The size of the
surface opening and that of the underground aquifer, and the associated water
pressure largely determine the amount of discharge, which can range from a small
trickle to that of a large stream. Most springs flow at a relatively constant rate
throughout the year, but those at high elevations with limited aquifers or those
receiving surface-water inflows can display wide-ranging flow regimes. Intermit¬
tent springs (impermanent, temporary ones) flow only during periods of high
rainfall when the water table rises to intersect the land surface or when a spring
receives all of its recharge from direct surface infiltration. A wide variety of other
factors, notably geological characteristics, recharge area, average annual precipita¬
tion, and topography, are important determinants of spring flows.

Most spring waters have a relatively uniform temperature regime, varying only
a few degrees throughout the year. The temperature of the 31 Virginia springs
monitored in this study ranged from 10 to 19 C, and averaged 12.7 C (Table 2),
which approximates the mean annual air temperature in Virginia. Thermal
variability within springs through time was relatively minor, averaging less than 3%

WATER-QUALITY OF VIRGINIA’S SPRINGS

19

CV, about 1 C. Small, shallow springs or those subject to surface-water inflows can
exhibit widely fluctuating water temperatures. Maximum within-spring variation
over the study period was 8 C recorded for spring 287. Spring water from deep
aquifers tends to have higher water temperatures because of geothermal heating.
In general the rate of temperature increase with depth is 1 C per 30.5 m (Reeves,
1935). None of the 31 springs examined in this study were designated as thermal
(warm or hot) springs.

Chemical Constituents

The calcium content of the 31 Virginia springs (160 analyses) ranged from 1
to 138 mg/1; the majority (65 percent) had concentrations below 50 mg/1 (Table 2).
Mean within-spring variability in calcium levels between historical and current
records was moderate, averaging 22% CV or less than 10 mg/1 for the majority (71
percent) of springs. The highest within spring variation in mean calcium con¬
centration was 38 mg/1 for spring number 287. The proportion of springs exhibiting
a decrease in calcium levels (48 percent) was similar to that showing an increase
(58 percent).

Calcium is one of the most abundant elements in the soil, a major constituent
in ground water, and a primary contributor of water hardness. Calcium concentra¬
tions in ground water generally range from 10 to 100 mg/1 (Davis and DeWiest,
1966; Weigmann and Kroehler, 1988). Collins etal. (1930) reported minimum-max¬
imum calcium concentrations for 566 Virginia springs as 1 and 400 mg/1 for Spout
Spring and Sweet Chalybeate Spring, Alleghany County, respectively (Table 3). In
adjacent states, levels ranged from 0 to 943 mg/1 in 130 West Virginia springs
(McColloch, 1986) and from 0 to 119 mg/1 in 196 Pennsylvania springs (Flippo,
1974).

Sodium concentrations ranged from 0 to 27 mg/1 for the 31 Virginia springs
monitored (Table 2). Variability in sodium levels within-springs over sampling
dates was substantial, averaging 57 percent. Nearly one-half of the springs studied
exhibited CV values of 50 percent or greater. With the exception of nitrate, sodium
showed the greatest within-spring variation of all elements considered. Maximum
within-spring fluctuation of sodium was 24 mg/1 for spring number 287. No sig¬
nificant long term trend in sodium levels was apparent; 32 percent of the springs
exhibited decreased levels and 19 percent showed increased levels through time.
In the 1928 survey by Collins et al. (1930) minimum-maximum sodium levels for 566
Virginia springs were 3 and 206 mg/1 for Hall Spring, Lee County and Mineral
Spring, Botetourt County, respectively (Collins et al , 1930). Prior to development
of reliable flame spectrochemical methods used today for sodium determinations,
concentrations frequently were estimated by ionic balance to avoid complex and
costly analysis (Hem, 1970). It appears likely that sodium levels estimated in the
early 1928 survey may not be representative (overestimated) or comparable to those
of later studies that were determined using more sophisticated procedures.

Sodium levels in ground waters in the United States can range from 1 to 1,000
mg/1 (Fortescue, 1980). The sodium content of 161 analyses of West Virginia
spring water ranged from 0.2 to 2,402 mg/1 (McColloch, 1986) and from 0 to 40 mg/1
in a survey of Pennsylvania springs (Flippo, 1974). The Virginia Ground Water
Standard for sodium is 270 mg/1 (Virginia Water Control Board, 1986).

TABLE 2. Comparative physicochemical analyses of spring water in Virginia collected during the 1928 survey (Collins et al., 1930) and periodically between 1952
and 1989. Mean values and coefficient of variation (CV) are presented for multiple sampling dates (N); all chemical analyses are expressed in mg/1.

20

VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

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VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

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WATER-QUALITY OF VIRGINIA’S SPRINGS

23

TABLE 3. Maximum values for chemical constituents in Virginia springs monitored in 1928 by Collins

etal. (1930).

Maximum

Parameter (mg/1)

Spring

number

Spring

Name

County

Ca

400

258

Sweet Chalybeate

Alleghany

HC03

111

258

Sweet Chalybeate

Alleghany

Na

206

311

Mineral

Botetourt

Cl

106

316

Daggers

Botetourt

804

2500

208

Alleghany

Montgomery

N03-N

20

148

Vaughan

Pulaski

Hardness

1886

314

Blue Ridge

Botetourt

TDS

2541

314

Blue Ridge

Botetourt

Sulfate (SO4) concentrations in this study ranged from 1 to 239 mg/1 (Table 2).
One particular spring, Falling Spring, Alleghany County, showed very high values,
but the majority (94 percent) had total levels less than 10 mg/1. Sulfate levels varied
considerably through time, averaging 42% CV. Nearly one-half of the springs
monitored displayed CVs greater than 50 percent. No distinct long-term trend in
sulfate concentrations was evident; 29 percent of the springs examined reflected
small increases between dates and 35 percent showed decreasing levels. Collins et
al. (1930) found sulfate levels in Virginia springs from 1 to 2,500 mg/1 for spring
numbers 379 and 208 (Reagon Spring, Rockbridge County; Alleghany Spring,
Montgomery County, respectively). The sulfate content from 199 analyses of West
Virginia spring waters ranged from 1.2 to 4,377 mg/1 (McColloch, 1986), and that
of Pennsylvania springs was 0.8 to 1,764 mg/1 (Flippo, 1974).

Sulfate, a major constituent of ground water in the United States, is found at
levels ranging from 0.2 to 100,000 mg/1 (Davis and DeWiest, 1966). High sulfate
concentrations may arise from erosion of iron-sulfide associated with deposits of
coal and shale. The recommended EPA maximum safe limit for sulfate in drinking
water is 250 mg/1 nationwide (Viessman and Hammer, 1985). Although no sulfate
standard has been established for ground water in Virginia (Sterrett, 1989, personal
communication), the Virginia Secondary Maximum Contaminant Level (SMCL)
for sulfate in drinking water is 250 mg/1. Hydrogen sulfide gas is very toxic to aquatic
life; the EPA chronic criterion for the protection of aquatic life is 2/*g/l of hydrogen
sulfide. Ground water low in sulfate generally contains little or no sulfide (Hem,
1970).

Nitrate concentrations ranged from 0 to 8.0 mg/1. Nitrate exhibited the greatest
within- spring variability over the study period of any of the chemical constituents
examined, averaging 70% CV. The maximum fluctuation was 5.6 mg/1 nitrate-
nitrogen. A clear pattern of increasing concentrations through time was apparent
for many (39 percent) of the springs; 12 percent showed decreases, and the rest
remained unchanged when the 1929 and current measurements were compared.
Increasing nitrate levels in springs suggest possible contamination of ground water
from the soil percolation of agricultural fertilizers, livestock wastes, and leakage
from septic systems.

24

VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

Nitrate is a secondary constituent of ground water in the U.S. and typically
ranges in concentration from 0.01 to 10 mg/1. Collins et al. (1930) found nitrate
levels in Virginia springs ranged from 0 to 20 mg/1. The nitrate content of 194
analyses of West Virginia spring water ranged from 0 to 171 mg/1 (McColloch,
1986), and that of Pennsylvania springs from 0.3 to 48 mg/1 (Flippo, 1974).

Nitrate- nitrogen results from the oxidation of organic compounds (amino
acids, proteins). The presence of nitrate in spring water may indicate pollution
from fertilizers, animal wastes, septic systems, and other organic matter. Nitrate is
a fertilizer that stimulates the growth of noxious algae that can cause undesirable
taste and odor problems in drinking-water supplies. The Maximum Contaminant
Level (MCL) approved for health by the EPA is 10 mg/1 nitrate-nitrogen (Viessman
and Hammer, 1985), which is also the MCL for drinking water in Virginia (Virginia
Health Department, 1982). The standard for nitrate in ground water in Virginia is
variable and dependent on the physiographic province. In the Coastal Plain,
Piedmont, Blue Ridge, and Valley and Ridge provinces the standard is 5 mg/1
NO3-N, whereas it is 0.5 mg/1 NO3-N in the Cumberland Plateau (Virginia Water
Control Board, 1986). Values in excess of the MCL may result in
methemoglobinemia in infants. Non-ionized ammonia (NTI3) and nitrite con¬
centrations at low pH levels can be toxic to fish life.

Chloride levels ranged from 0 to 10 mg/1, and a majority of the springs (58
percent) exhibited elevated levels in the recent monitoring when compared to the
historic data (Table 2). Variability in chloride levels within-springs through time
was substantial, averaging 40% CV.

Chloride typically is present in ground water at low concentrations, usually less
than 30 mg/1 (Davis and DeWiest, 1966). Collins et al. (1930) found chloride levels
for Virginia springs to be between 0.1 and 105 mg/1 for Scott spring (number 45),
Smyth County, and Daggers Spring (number 316), Botetourt County, respectively.
Chloride content of 387 analyses of West Virginia spring water revealed levels
ranging from 0 to 4,017 mg/1 (McColloch, 1986), and that of Pennsylvania springs
from 0 to 87 mg/1 (Flippo, 1974). High chloride levels occur in marine shales or
evaporite deposits, though anthropogenic sources such as highway-department
applications or storage piles of road salt can contaminate ground water (Mc¬
Colloch, 1986). The Secondary Maximum Contaminant Level for chloride in
drinking water in Virginia is 250 mg/1 (Virginia Department of Health 1982).

Bicarbonate alkalinities in this study ranged from 24 to 342 mg/1 (Table 2).
Alkalinities generally were lower in recent (post- 1952) sampling in a majority (68
percent) of the springs examined. Variability of bicarbonate alkalinity within-
springs during the study period was low, averaging only 15% CV. The maximum
fluctuation in alkalinity for a single spring was 149 mg/1.

Primary sources of bicarbonate and carbonate ions in ground water are from
the solution of carbonate rocks and carbon dioxide in the soil and atmosphere.
Water temperature and pH relationships largely regulate the concentrations in
solution in ground water. The bicarbonate content of ground water frequently
ranges between 10 and 800 mg/1 (Davis and DeWiest, 1966). Collins et al. (1930)
reported bicarbonate alkalinity values for Virginia springs from 2 to 777 mg/1
(Spout Spring, Alleghany County; Sweet Chalybeate Spring, Alleghany County,
respectively). Bicarbonate alkalinity content of 143 analyses of West Virginia spring

WATER-QUALITY OF VIRGINIA’S SPRINGS

25

water ranged from 0 to 715 mg/1 (McColloch, 1986), while that of 175 Pennsylvania
springs ranged from 14 to 348 mg/1 (Flippo, 1974). Bicarbonate and carbonate
alkalinity significantly contribute to the buffering capacity of ground and surface
waters.

Hardness values ranged from 21 to 339 mg/1 (Table 2). Hardness values
generally increased through time in the majority (77 percent) of the springs
examined. Variability in water hardness within-springs over time was relatively
minor, averaging 19% CV. Maximum fluctuation in hardness over the study period
for a spring was 93 mg/1.

Although calcium and magnesium ions are the principal contributors to
hardness, other metal cations including iron, manganese, copper, and barium are
included in this measure. Classification of water on the basis of hardness values is
as follows: soft waters, 0-60 mg/1; moderately hard, 61-120 mg/1; hard, 121-180 mg/1;
very hard, greater than 180 mg/1 (Hem, 1970). According to this model, Virginia
spring water in this study ranged from soft to very hard; 29 percent were very hard,
48 percent were moderately hard, and 12 percent were soft. Total calcium and
magnesium hardness values above 100 mg/1 generally are objectionable for domes¬
tic uses. In spring waters, calcium-magnesium hardness is often a function of the
turnover time of ground water and, therefore, is inversely related to discharge
(Flippo, 1974). This relationship was not apparent in the present study, perhaps
because our sample size of 31 springs was too limited. Collins et al. (1930) reported
that hardness values in Virginia spring water between 1.8 and 1,886 mg/1 (Dodge
Spring, Augusta County; Blue Ridge Spring, Botetourt County, respectively).
McColloch (1986) found total hardness levels in 306 analyses of West Virginia
springs to range from 3 to 923 mg/1.

Total dissolved solids (TDS) ranged from 24 to 386 mg/1. TDS levels increased
through time in the majority (81 percent) of the springs surveyed. Variability in
TDS within-springs through time was low, averaging 18% CV. Maximum fluctua¬
tion in TDS values for any spring observed during the study was 104 mg/1, although
variability for most springs generally was less than 20 mg/1.

TDS, includes all solid substances in solution, but excludes suspended sedi¬
ments, colloids, and dissolved gasses (Davis and DeWiest, 1966; Sherrard et al. ,
1988). TDS levels are calculated by gravimetric measurement of the residue
following evaporation of a specific quantity of water at 130 C or 180 C (APHA,
1985) or by calculation of the major ionic concentrations. The maximum recom¬
mended TDS concentration in drinking water is 500 mg/1 (Viesmann and Hammer,
1985). The Secondary Maximum Contaminant Level for TDS in Virginia is 500
mg/1 (Virginia Department of Health, 1982). Values from the 1928 survey were
estimated by ionic balance calculations, whereas current (post- 1952) measure¬
ments were by the gravimetric method. Standard classification of water by USGS
on the basis of total dissolved solid levels is as follows: slightly saline, 1,000-3,000
mg/1; moderately saline, 3,000-10,000 mg/1; very saline, 10,000-35,000 mg/1; and
briny, >35,000 mg/1 ( Hem, 1970). According to this scale, all Virginia springs
exhibited relatively low TDS and salinity levels. In comparison, total dissolved solids
of 135 analyses of West Virginia spring waters ranged from 14 to 4,585 mg/1
(McColloch, 1986) and from 10 to 2,565 mg/1 in Pennsylvania spring waters (Flippo,
1974).

26

VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

Low iron content ( < 0.1 mg/1), typical of most springs sampled, is a desirable
drinking water characteristic. Water from certain areas in Virginia, particularly in
the southwest where acidic water may promote the solution and transport of high
levels of iron which is distasteful and undesirable. The high carbonate conditions
evident in spring waters promote the precipitation of ferrous carbonate resulting
in low iron levels. Water containing iron concentrations greater than 0.3 mg/1 may
stain laundry or plumbing fixtures and impart an unpleasant taste. On exposure
to air, water containing higher levels than 1 mg/1 becomes turbid with reddish ferric
compounds via oxidation. Collins et al. (1930) used air exposure to visually test for
iron. A concentration of 0.3 mg/1 is the federal MCL approved for drinking water
and ground water (Viessman and Hammer, 1985) and a Virginia Ground Water
Standard (Virginia Water Control Board, 1986).

CONCLUSION

It is important to emphasize that the physical and chemical values reported for
springs in the 1928 survey (Collins et al., 1930) and in recent monitoring programs
were single-point measurements, sometimes estimates, in time (daily, seasonally)
and space (spring location). They may or may not have been representative of mean
annual conditions of a spring or aquifer. Although springs generally exhibit a
uniformity in physicochemical conditions throughout the year, we have no evidence
to document stability within years for any springs monitored.

The physical and chemical constituents of spring water reflect a general trend
in the quality of ground water in the Valley and Ridge Province of Virginia.
Comparisons of historical water-quality data with current measurements offer a
unique window through which to view long-term trends of water quality in the
aquifer area. This method provides a relatively convenient and economic method
for identifying potential contamination of ground water, and springs can serve as
additional monitoring sites to supplement data from test wells. Water quality
variability (within-spring variation), expressed as the percent coefficient of varia¬
tion (% CV), over the study period was relatively high for nitrate, sodium, sulfate,
and chloride ions, averaging 70, 57, 42, and 40% CV respectively, but moderate for
calcium, hardness, bicarbonate, and dissolved solids, averaging 22, 19, 18, and 15%
CV, respectively. Variation in water temperatures was minor, averaging less than
three percent CV. Spring discharge fluctuated considerably, ranging from three to
95% CV and averaging 37% CV. Although the chemical content of most springs
examined has remained relatively consistent for more than 60 years, increasing
concentrations of nitrate, chloride, and total dissolved solids in some springs
indicated a modest degree of pollution, perhaps resulting from surface con¬
taminant infiltration. Distinguishing local surface water contamination of a spring
from pervasive pollution of the entire aquifer is one problem associated with the
use of springs or wells as water-quality monitoring sites.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We gratefully appreciate comments of the referees who have significantly
contributed to the overall clarity and quality of this article.

WATER-QUALITY OF VIRGINIA’S SPRINGS

27

LITERATURE CITED

Collins, W. D., M. D. Foster, F. Reeves, and R. P. Meacham. 1930. Springs of
Virginia. 55 pages. Virginia Commission on Conservation and Development,
Water Resources and Power Division, Bulletin No. 1, University of Virginia,
Charlottesville, Virginia.

Davis, S. N., and R. J. M. DeWiest, 1966. Hydrogeology. 463 pages. John Wiley
& Sons, Inc., New York.

Flippo, H. N., Jr. 1974. Springs of Pennsylvania. 46 pages. U.S. Geological
Survey, Water Resources Bulletin No. 10, Harrisburg, Pennsylvania.

Fortescue, J. A. C. 1980. Environmental Geochemistry. 347 pages. Springer-
Verlag, New York.

Hem J. D. 1970. Study and Interpretation of the Chemical Characteristics of
Natural Water. 363 pages. U.S.G.S. Water Supply Paper 1473. Washington,
DC.

McColloch, J. S. 1986. Springs of West Virginia. 493 pages. West Virginia
Geological and Economic Survey. Mont Chateau Research Center, Morgan¬
town, West Virginia.

Meinzer, O. E. 1923. Outline of Ground-Water Hydrology. 71 pages. U.S.
Geological Survey Water Supply Paper 494. U.S.G.S., Washington, DC.

Reeves, F. 1932. Thermal Springs of Virginia. 56 pages. Virginia Commission
on Conservation and Development, Virginia Geological Survey, Bulletin 35.
Charlottesville, Virginia.

Sherrard, J. H., D. R. Moore, and T. A. Dillaha. 1987. Total Dissolved Solids:
Determination, Sources, Effects, and Removal. J. of Environmental Ed.
18:19-24.

Slifer, D. 1987. Rockbridge’s Illegal Dumps. 9 pages. Focus on Water. No 2.
Virginia Water Resources Research Center, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Vir¬
ginia.

U.S. Geological Survey. 1985. National Water Summary 1984 - Hydrologic
Events, Selected Water Quality Trends and Ground Water Resources. 467
pages. U.S.G.S. Water Supply Paper 2275, Government Printing Office,
Washington, DC.

U.S. Public Health Association. 1985. Standard Methods for the Examination of
Water and Wastewater. American Public Health Association, Washington,
DC. 1268 pages.

Viessman W., Jr., and M. J. Hammer. 1985. Water Supply and Pollution control.
797 pages. Harper and Row Publishers, New York.

Virginia Water Control Board. 1986. Water Quality Standards. 129 pages. Vir¬
ginia Water Control Board, Publication No. RB-2-86. Richmond, Virginia.

Virginia Department of Health. 1982. Waterworks Regulations. Virginia Depart¬
ment of Health, Richmond, Virginia.

Weigmann, D. L. and C. J. KroehJer. 1988. Threats to Virginia’s Groundwater.
45 pages. Virginia Water Resources Research Center, Virginia Tech, Black¬
sburg, Virginia.

Virginia Journal of Science
Volume 41, Number 1
Spring 1990

Dependence of Leachable Lead in Glazed Ceramics on
Previous Treatment: Determination by an Improved
Dithizone Extraction Method

Karl A. Schellenberg

Department of Biochemistry, Eastern Virginia Medical School
Norfolk, VA 23501

ABSTRACT

Fifty six samples of glazed ceramic ware (pottery, porcelain or china cups,
plates, bowls, or pitchers) were analyzed for lead by the standard method
of allowing the lead to leach into 4% acetic acid over a period of 24 hours
at room temperature. The concentration of lead in the acid was deter¬
mined spectrophotometrically following extraction from an alkaline
cyanide solution into a toluene solution of dithizone. Five pieces (9%)
were found to leach 7 or more parts per million, and an additional 14 pieces
(25%) leached 1 or more parts per million. Analysis of several pieces
showed that the amount of lead leached into acid was reduced by as much
as three fold when immediately repeated, but the amount reached the
original level if the piece was allowed to "rest” for several days before
repeat determinations. This phenomenon was studied further, and the
results indicated that leachable lead in glazed pottery was increased by
time, temperature, and exposure to alkaline solution. Thus the repeated
use of a dishwasher may cause dinnerware that had been previously "lead
free" to leach lead on subsequent use with food. The effect of time of acid
elution was also studied, indicating that the majority of lead is dissolved
within one minute of addition of acid, with very slow increase over 24 hours.

INTRODUCTION

The ingestion of lead from glazed pottery can cause serious illness or death
(Klein et al , 1970; Natelson and Fred, 1976; Bird, Wallace, and Labbe, 1982), and
despite recent publicity it remains a problem, particularly in imported items
(Burros, 1988). The standard method for determination of lead involves leaching
the piece with 4% acetic acid for 24 hours (Spielholtz and Kaplan, 1980). My
laboratory discovered several years ago that some imported children’s juice cups
that were purchased in the United States were capable of leaching dangerous
quantities of lead into fruit juice.

The dithizone method for lead determination was modified for use in testing
coffee mugs, cereal bowls, china, etc. that students and others have brought in over
the past few years. In the course of repeated testing, it was found that if the piece
was tested at least several days apart, similar quantities of lead were obtained, but
if the piece was retested immediately, the quantity of lead leached was significantly
less the second time. Further studies delineated some of the factors affecting the
release of lead from glazed pottery.

LEAD IN CERAMICS

29

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The acetic acid, ammonium hydroxide, potassium cyanide, dithizone, lead
acetate trihydrate, hydrochloric acid, and toluene were reagent grade. The Be¬
ckman Acta CII spectrophotometer was used for absorbance determinations, with
0.25 mL microcuvettes and adapters. A Labconco constant temperature drying
oven was used to heat the ceramic piece.

The analytical method was modified from Wilkinson (1970), which involved
treating a neutralized acid digest of blood or urine with a buffer containing
ammonium hydroxide, ammonium citrate, potassium cyanide, and sodium sulfite,
extraction with a chloroform solution of dithizone, removal of the aqueous phase,
washing the chloroform with an ammonium hydroxide-potassium cyanide solution,
removing the aqueous phase, and determining the absorbance of the chloroform
solution. Wilkinson’s method was simplified by replacing the highly toxic
chloroform with toluene, which yielded the color in the upper layer, and extracting
directly from an ammonium hydroxide-potassium cyanide solution without wash¬
ing.

For the determination of lead in ceramics the following procedure was used:
Ten to twenty mL of 4% acetic acid was placed into the clean container to be tested,
covered with aluminum foil to prevent evaporation, and allowed to stand for 24
hours at room temperature. 0.5 mL of the acetic acid eluate or blank solution of
4% acetic acid, 0.5 mL of standard solution containing 0, 1, 3, or 10 parts per million
of lead in 0.1 M hydrochloric acid, and 0.5 mL of potassium cyanide-ammonium
hydroxide (A) were successively added to 12x75 mm test tubes. The solutions were
mixed with a Vortex mixer for 10 seconds. 0.5 ML of dithizone-toluene (B) was
added, mixed with the Vortex mixer, let stand 5 to 30 minutes. 0.3 mL of the upper
toluene layer was placed into a microcuvette, and the absorbance at 520 nM was
recorded. Blanks without lead gave an absorbance of about 0.014 with freshly
prepared dithizone, and about 0.06 with day-old reagent. The presence of lead gave
an increased absorbance at 520 nM, with a molar extinction coefficient of 47120.
For screening purposes the color of the upper layer was compared with standards
containing 0, 1, 3, or 10 ppm lead. Zero lead gave a pale green color, 1 ppm pale
pink, 3 ppm medium pink, and 10 or more deep pink. Samples were always analyzed
twice, without and with 3 ppm added lead to ascertain that other substances leached
by acid did not interfere with the color produced by lead.

The reagents were prepared as follows: A. 1 gram potassium cyanide was
dissolved in a mixture of 50 mL concentrated (15 M) ammonium hydroxide and 50
mL distilled water. B. Dithizone, 3 milligrams was dissolved in 100 mL of toluene.
4% Acetic acid was prepared by dilution of glacial acetic acid with distilled water.
0.1 M hydrochloric acid was prepared by dilution of 85 mL concentrated (11.7 M)
hydrochloric acid to 1 liter with distilled water. Lead standards; 100 parts per
million (ppm, milligrams per liter) lead was prepared by dissolving 183 milligrams
of lead acetate trihydrate in 1 liter of 0.1 M hydrochloric acid. This was diluted with
0.1 M hydrochloric acid 1:9 for 10 ppm, 3:97 for 3 ppm, and 1:99 for 1 ppm lead
standards.

30

VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

TABLE 1. Effect of Elution Time on Quantity of Lead. The cup was eluted with 0.1M HC1. Twenty
ml of HC1 were placed in the cup, and aliquots of 1 mL were removed at the times indicated and analyzed
for lead as described in the text. The pitcher was successively eluted with water, 4% acetic acid (HAc),
0.1M HC1, and HAc. The items were gently swirled during the elution in the studies of 10 minutes or
less, and were left still in longer elutions.

Item

Eluent

Time

Pb (ppm)

Cup

HCl

1 min

3.3

ii

11

5 min

3.6

ii

11

10 min

4.0

n

"

200 min

4.3

H

II

1400 min

4.9

Pitcher

water

1 min

0.7

ii

H

10 min

0.7

ii

HAc

1 min

12.3

ii

ii

10 min

12.3

n

HCl

1 min

4.0

n

f!

10 min

4.2

it

HAc

1 min

0.6

ii

it

2 min

1.1

n

H

10 min

1.3

RESULTS

Of the 56 ceramic items screened to date, 37 eluted less than 1 ppm lead, 14
eluted from 1 to less than 7 ppm, 4 eluted from 7 to less than 20 ppm, and one eluted
over 20 ppm lead. Positive samples were distributed among domestic and imported
products. No relationship between lead and appearance or color was noted, and
in some cases two pieces of identical pattern contained widely varying lead. Thus
a significant percentage of domestic, imported, and handcrafted ceramics con¬
tained potentially dangerous lead levels.

The effect of time of elution with dilute acid was studied, with key results shown
in Table 1. An imported children’s juice cup, and a handcrafted ceramic pitcher,
both containing lead, were used in the study. Most of the lead is leached within the
first minute of addition of acid. Successive elutions of the pitcher with water, acetic
acid, HC1, and acetic acid indicated that water was ineffective, and that repeated
elution gave smaller quantities of lead, regardless of eluent.

Repeated twenty four hour elution of several imported pieces showed that the
second elution always gave much lower lead levels than the first. Further studies
were carried out to determine the causes of the variation and to develop a
procedure that would give reliable results in general screening. The same hand¬
crafted ceramic pitcher used in the study of Table 1 was used for the study
summarized in Table 2. In all of the experiments the pitcher was rinsed with
deionized water, then the lead was eluted with 4% acetic acid for 1 minute. The
studies were done serially according to the numbers in Table 2. After the initial
test (No. 1), repetitions at least 24 hours apart gave comparable values (No. 2, 7,
11), but immediate repetitions of the elution gave much lower values (No. 3, 5, 8,

LEAD IN CERAMICS

31

TABLE 2. Effect of prior treatment on quantity of lead. The pitcher was treated as noted, rinsed with
deionized water, and lead then eluted with 4% acetic acid for 1 min. Experiments were done serially
as numbered. When the absorbance was 2 the samples were diluted 10-fold and reanalyzed.

Number

Treatment

Pb (ppm)

1

none, initial analysis

12.3

2

none, 24 hr later

5.7

3

none, immediately reanalyzed

1.9

4

dishwasher detergent 30 min 46°

2.7

5

none, immediately reanalyzed

1.0

6

1M HC1 1 min 25°

0.4

7

none, 48 hr later

5.5

8

none, immediately reanalyzed

1.3

9

0.1M NaOH 10 min 25°

2.2

10

none, immediately reanalyzed

0.5

11

none, 48 hr later

5.4

12

none, immediately reanalyzed

2.1

13

none, immediately reanalyzed

1.4

14

none, immediately reanalyzed

1.5

15

157° C 24 hr

13.9

16

157° C 48 hr

20.3

17

none, immediately reanalyzed

3.9

18

none, immediately reanalyzed

3.0

10, 12-14, 17-18). Immediate treatment with dishwashing liquid (No. 4), or sodium
hydroxide (No. 9), caused an increase in lead. The greatest increase in lead,
however, followed heating in a constant temperature oven at 157 °C for 24 or 48
hours (No. 15 and 16).

DISCUSSION

A simplified method for screening of ceramics for lead is described, based on
the method of Wilkinson (1970). The toxic chloroform was replaced by toluene,
and the number of extractions was reduced to one. The method described here has
been used for several years to screen domestic and imported ceramic ware brought
in by students and other interested parties. Of the 56 samples of ceramics ex¬
amined, 5 (9%) were found to leach 7 or more ppm lead, indicating the continued
appearance of dangerous products. At present the action level of the Food and
Drug Administration for detaining imports is 2.5 ppm for large hollowware, 5.0
ppm for small holloware, and 7.0 ppm for flatware (Food and Drug Administration
Compliance Policy Guides, 1980), but a much lower level (0.1 ppm) has been
proposed (Federal Register, 1989).

Analysis of several pieces showed that the amount of lead leached into acid was
reduced by as much as three fold when immediately repeated, but the amount
reached the original level if the piece was allowed to "rest" for several days before
repeat determinations. This phenomenon was studied further, and the results

32

VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

indicated that leachable lead in glazed pottery was increased by time, temperature,
and exposure to alkaline solution. Thus the repeated use of a dishwasher may cause
dinnerware that had been previously "lead free" to leach lead on subsequent use
with food. The effect of time of acid elution was also studied, indicating that the
majority of lead is dissolved within one minute of addition of acid, with very slow
increase over 24 hours. A cup or pitcher may thus elute dangerous quantities of
lead even if it is used for a very short time to contain acidic fruit juice.

Spielholtz and Kaplan have shown that the quantity of lead that is leached from
glazed ceramic was critically dependent on the temperature of firing (heating
process leading to vitrification of the surface). Thus a change in firing temperature
of a given glaze formulation from 850° to 1250° C resulted in over a thousand fold
decrease in leachable lead (Spielholtz and Kaplan, 1980). We had found that
different china pieces of the same pattern eluted widely different quantities of lead;
presumably they were made at the same factory but fired at different temperatures.

Our studies indicated that only a small quantity of lead in the glaze was leachable
at a given time, and after a period of days, or treatment with heat or alkali, an
additional quantity of lead in the bulk of the glaze became available for leaching.
Previous studies have shown that the combined heat and alkali from mechanical
dishwashing increased the leachable lead (Natelson and Fred, 1976). The greatest
quantity of lead was obtained by heating the ceramic ware for 24 hours at 157° C,
before elution with dilute acid. The time of elution by acid is not critical, since the
quantity of lead eluted in one minute is comparable with that eluted in 24 hours.

The method described here has also been used to analyze pewter ware. Very
high levels of lead have been found in some pewter, but in other cases ions were
eluted that interfered with the chelation of lead ion with dithizone. The interfering
ions in pewter were not explored further, and the method requires modification for
use with pewter.

REFERENCES

Food and Drug Administration Compliance Policy Guides. 1980. Guide 7117.07.
Ch 17. 10/01 pp. 1-3.

Federal Register. 1989. Proposed Rules. 54:23485-23489.

Burros, M. 1988. Ceramic ware lead levels are still under fire. The Virginian-Pilot
newspaper July 31, 1988, p. HI.

Bird, T. D., Wallace, D. M., and Labbe, R. F. 1982. The porphyria, plumbism,
pottery puzzle. J. Am. Med. Assn. 247:813-4.

Klein, M, Namer, R., Harpur, E., and Corbin, R. 1970. Earthenware containers as
a source of fatal lead poisoning. New Eng. J. Med. 283:669-672.

Natelson, E. A., and Fred, H. L. 1976. Lead poisoning from cocktail glasses. J. Am.
Med. Assn. 236:2527.

Spielholtz, G. L, and Kaplan, F. S. 1980. The problem of lead in Mexican pottery.
Talanta. 27:997-1000.

Wilkinson, J. H., in F. W. S underman and F. W. Sunderman, Jr., Ed., Laboratory
Diagnosis of Diseases Caused by Toxic Agents, Green, St. Louis, 1970, pp.
356-359.

The following article by a Past President of the Virginia Academy of Science
was published by The Association of Southeastern Biologists (ASB). It explores a
subject which has been discussed for many years and is a source of continuning
concern for many within and outside of the Academy. It is reprinted here with the
permission of the author and the editor of ASB Bulletin.

Ware, Stewart. 1990. ASB Bulletin 37(1): 22-28.

PRESTIGE AND IMPACT VS. USEFULNESS IN
BIOLOGICAL JOURNALS

OR

Am I Just a Regional Kind of Guy?

Stewart Ware
Department of Biology
College of William and Mary
Williamsburg, VA 23185

ABSTRACT

The impact factor and citation half-life for scientific journals, as calculated
by Science Citation Index, is used by some college administrators and
department chairs to indicate the prestige of a journal, and thus the
"significance" of articles published in these journals by faculty members.
Regional journals, published by associations or societies interested in the
botany or natural history of specific geographical areas, are likely to have
lower impact factors and thus lower prestige than journals with national
or international geographical coverage. Evidence is presented that from
the standpoint that the journals (a) regularly have articles pertinent to
one’s research, (b) are likely to be cited in one’s articles, (c) are likely to
cite one’s articles, and (d) are seen by a readership interested in one’s
research, regional journals may be as useful or even more useful to field
biologists than some far more prestigious journals. Administrators and
department chairs who are not aware of this need to be enlightened.

The merit review policy at the College of William and Mary has long required
that faculty members show "evidence of continuing contribution to scholarship"
through publication in peer-reviewed journals. Most of the Department of Biology
faculty have been quite happily complying with that requirement, publishing from
time to time in various journals, both alone and jointly with graduate or under¬
graduate students. Several years ago, all faculty members received a request from
the Dean that they provide him with a ranking "in order of prestige" of the journals
in their research area. The implication was clear. "Evidence of continuing contribu-

34

VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

tion to scholarship" would no longer be meritorious in itself; one would now have
to make this contribution through "prestigious" journals.

Difficulties arose immediately in trying to provide a ranking of journals in my
field, for there is often a difference between the defined content of a journal and
the usual content of its issues. The American Journal of Botany and Botanical
Gazette are both prestigious general botanical journals covering many botanical
subject areas. There are, however, relatively few articles in either dealing with forest
vegetation (my primary area of interest) . This is not because either refuses to accept
vegetation papers, for excellent vegetation papers do appear (at long intervals) in
both of them. However, custom and readership interest have directed their usual
contents away from the vegetation area. Therefore, both in terms of finding articles
directly pertinent to one’s research and in terms of being assured of a readership
particularly interested in vegetation ecology, these two journals would be less useful
to a vegetation scientist than the general botanical journals Bulletin of the Torrey
Botanical Club , Castanea (in the east) and Madrono (in the west), or the natural
history journal American Midland Naturalist. These four journals are quite likely
to have articles on vegetation in each issue, and on the assumption that this means
an interested readership will see the article, vegetation ecologists may be more
likely to submit their manuscripts to one of these four journals than to the first two.

Should the Dean be told that the American Journal of Botany is perhaps the
most prestigious general botanical journal, but that I never submit vegetation
articles there, thus perhaps giving him the impression that I don’t think my work is
of prestige quality? Should he be told that this is the most prestigious general
botanical journal, but that it rarely publishes articles on vegetation, perhaps giving
him the impression that my entire field is unprestigious? Should he be provided
with an explanation of the difference between prestige and usefulness, even though
this may be perceived as making lame excuses for my failure to even submit
manuscripts to perhaps the most prestigious journal in my general academic area?
None of these options is very attractive.

There are similar situations in other fields. Ecology would certainly be con¬
sidered by any Dean as a prestigious outlet for any ecologist on his faculty. However,
articles in the field of physiological plant ecology are far more likely to be published
in general purpose botanical journals (like Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club ,
Botanical Gazette , or American Journal of Botany) than in Ecology. In fact, one very
productive physiological plant ecologist whom I know has even discontinued
receiving Ecology an d Ecological Monographs because he feels they are so unuseful
in his research area. Yet, a Dean might consider a specialty journal like Ecology
more prestigious than general journals like these three botanical ones, and one
would be hard-pressed, without invoking the usefulness argument, to explain why
one’s publications, however numerous, were rarely in Ecology.

A few years ago a committee charged with interviewing candidates for our Arts
and Sciences deanship was told by one candidate, already an associate dean of a
major southern state university, "We don’t just look at the publication list of a
faculty member. We look up how often the publications are cited in Science Citation
Index , and that tells us how significant the publications are." Under that system, the

PRESTIGE vs. USEFULNESS
-Reprint from ASB Bulletin-

35

prestige of the journal in which the article appears is not so critical; what matters
is how often other workers cite it.

While my students are frequently sent to Science Citation Index (SCI) to locate
articles for their term papers or thesis research topics, we had not been using it as
a mechanism to see whether work was "significant." The next day I stopped by the
library to see how my work had fared. SCI did list some citations of articles I had
authored or co-authored, but fewer than expected, and several citations I knew
about were not listed. Further investigation revealed that those citations of my
articles did not show up in SCI because they had been cited in the botanical journal
Castanea, a journal SCI does not cover.

Inquiry to SCI revealed why Castanea isn’t covered: its "impact" is to low.
"Impact" or "impact factor" is the ratio of the number of citations of articles from a
journal during the most recent two years to the number of articles published in the
journal during that two years (SCI 1987). It is an attempt to measure the likelihood
that articles in the journal will be cited by other researchers. A journal with a high
impact factor is providing articles that other researchers feel a need to cite in their
writing, so it clearly is useful to a large number of researchers. In fact, "impact" as
measured by SCI is sometimes used as a means of determining prestige among
journals. Numerical value of the impact factor for a given journal varies from year
to year, and thus the journal’s rank based on impact may vary also. For instance,
American Journal of Botany had a higher impact factor in 1987 than New
Phytologist, but in 1986 these were reversed ; and in 1987 the Bulletin of the Torrey
Botanical Club had a higher impact factor than Botanical Gazette , while in 1986 the
reverse was true (SCI 1986, 1987). However, if over a period of years a journal’s
impact factor is so low that SCI doesn’t even include the journal in its coverage,
then that journal is unlikely to be called "prestigious," and is probably not very useful
either- or so one might think. Castanea is not alone in falling into this low impact
category. Other journals used by field botanists, such as Sida, Madrono >, South¬
western Naturalist , the long important systematics journal Brittonia , and even the
venerable botanical journal Rhodora are likewise omitted from SCI’s coverage
because of their lack of "impact." Citation of one’s work in articles published in
these or other such (largely regional) journals will therefore not be picked up by
SCI.

It should be noted that there is a time element in the calculation of the impact
factor; cited articles more than two years old do not enter into the calculation. For
convenience I will refer to this element as "quickness," related to how soon after
publication articles are cited. On reflection, one would hardly expect a lot of
"quickness" in journals in which the primary subject matter is field and museum or
herbarium systematics or field ecology. It takes a long time to gather data in studies
of this type, and such studies don’t lend themselves to periodic progress report
articles. Thus, when an article is ultimately published, it is unlikely to cite previously
published progress reports of the just preceding years. Therefore, even if a newly
published article inspires a researcher to start a related study, it will likely be more
than two years before the second study is completed, written up, and shepherded
through the review process to publication. By this time, citation of the first, initiating
article is too late to count toward the impact factor for the journal in which it was

36

VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

published. Field biology journals thus might be expected to have lower impact
factors.

On the other hand, the data published in field, herbarium, and museum studies
does not quickly become obsolete, so an article may be worthy of citation many
years, and even decades, after the original publication. Thus, even if an article is
rarely cited in the first two years after publication, this does not mean it is
unimportant or lacking in significance, for other articles in which it will ultimately
be cited it may still be years away from publication. The lag in "quickness" in
systematics and field ecology studies may well be compensated for by long-time
worth in articles in those disciplines.

The New Phytologist, trying in its advertising circular to persuade botanists to
subscribe, reports that it has the "most favorable half-life" of broad-spectrum
botanical journals. Half-life in this case refers to the median number of years since
publication of the articles cited in the journal (SCI 1987). A short half-life would
presumably mean that the authors publishing in that journal are keeping up on the
very latest literature and cite mostly very recent articles. No doubt this is the point
the editors of The New Phytologists had in mind. The other side of this, however, is
that a short half-life may mean that in the fields covered by a journal, the informa¬
tion in articles more than a few years old is usually so outmoded that there is no
reason to cite those articles. Such early obsolescence is not often the case in field
biology studies. Therefore, journals which regularly publish articles on systematics
or field ecology would be expected to show frequent citation of older articles, and
thus a long half-life.

In the 12 papers I have authored or co-authored in this decade, 34 out of 173
entries in the "Literature Cited" were less than five years old at the time of citation.
However, more than half the entries were more than 15 yr old when cited, and
almost a quarter (22.5%) were over 30 yr old. The half-life of cited articles is greater
than 15 yr, well beyond the > 10 yr cutoff for "unfavorable" half-life of SCI. In
contrast, the median half-life for all CSI citations is 6 yr, and less than 5% of the
citations are older than 30 yr (CSI 1988). In my articles older entries were cited not
because of unfamiliarity with more recent work, but because, despite the passage
of years, the information in the older articles was still pertinent to the studies being
done. Is a long half-life "unfavorable" in this case? Probably not.

No matter what its prestige or impact to other parts of the biological research
community, a journal is useful to the individual researcher only if it regularly
publishes articles which help that researcher keep up with the latest developments
in his or her specialized field. There are, for instance, certain journals of which I
have chosen to receive personal copies (by becoming a member of the professional
societies which publish them). I want my own copies of those journals because any
issue is likely to contain articles pertinent to my research and teaching. Other
journals which may, from time to time (but not regularly), contain articles pertinent
to my research I generally choose not to subscribe to. Rather, I depend upon
occasional examination of the copies in the University library to keep up with any
articles in my research field published in those journals. Interestingly, many of the
journals I choose to receive, because they are most useful to my research, are not
high impact journals. Prestige as measured by SCFs impact figure does not neces-

PRESTIGE vs. USEFULNESS
•Reprint from ASB Bulletin-

37

TABLE 1. Sources of articles cited in twelve articles authored or coauthored by S. Ware 1980-1989
(journal citations only; books, theses, documents excluded). An asterisk means the journal is not
covered by SCI.

Scientific journal (N = 21)

Number of times cited
(N = 116)

Ecology

23

Ecological Monographs

19

*Castanea

15

Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club

14

American Midland Naturalist

12

* Virginia J. of Science

7

* J. Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society

4

*Jeffersonia

3

Vegetatio

3

American Naturalist

2

* ASB Bulletin

2

J. Forestry

2

*Rhodora

2

8 others, each

1

sarily coincide with usefulness as I have judged it in selecting which journals to
receive.

In an effort to get some quantitative measure of which journals have been most
useful in my research, frequency of citation of various journals in the 12 papers of
mine mentioned earlier were examined (Table 1 ). While Ecological Monographs
and Ecology are high impact journals by SCPs measurement, the third most
frequently cited journal is one with such low impact that SCI doesn’t even cover it
and this is also true of the sixth and seventh journals. In contrast, the prestigious
(higher impact) botanical journals American Journal of Botany and Botanical
Gazette and such prestigious European ecological journals as Oecologia, Oikos , and
Journal of Ecology did not make my list. There was not a single citation from any of
those five journals. This of course does not mean that these journals are not useful
to me. I consult all of them regularly, and even receive a personal copy oi American
Journal of Botany . Still, there clearly is not a good correlation between SCFs
"impact" in botany or ecology as a whole and usefulness as measured by citation in
my published research.

The sample on which Table 1 is based is very biased, since 11 of the 12 papers
dealt with forest vegetation. The remaining article dealt with the other area of plant
ecology in which I do research, rock outcrop ecology. To get a view of what the
most useful journals might be in that research area, the sources of literature cited
in a recent review chapter (Baskin and Baskin 1985) dealing with autecology of rock
outcrop plants were examined (Table 2). The greater representation oi American
Journal of Botany, Botanical Gazette , and Canadian Journal of Botany in their cited
literature, and the relatively lower representation of Ecology and Ecological
Monographs than in Table 1 is consistent with the earlier suggestion that articles on

38

VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

TABLE 2. Sources of articles cited in a review chapter on rock outcrop plant ecology by Baskin and
Baskin (1985).

Scientific Journal (N = 36)

Number of times cited
(N = 89)

Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club

12

Ecology

7

American Midland Naturalist

5

Evolution

5

J. Ecology (British)

5

American J. of Botany

4

Botanical Gazette

4

Canadian J. of Botany

4

Castanea

4

J. Agriculture Research

4

J. Tennessee Academy of Science

4

Contributions of the Gray Herbarium

3

New Phytologist (British)

3

Oecologia

2

Weed Research

2

Ecological Monographs

1

Science

1

19 others, each

1

physiological plant ecology are more likely to appear in one of the general purpose
botanical journals than in these two ecological journals. In this case also, usefulness
as measured by frequency of citation and impact as measured by SCI do not
correlate well. Only two journals are cited more often than American Midland
Naturalist , which has only a moderate SCI impact factor. The regional journal
Castanea is cited as often as American Journal of Botany; the Journal of the
Tennessee Academy of Science is cited as often as Botanical Gazette. Science ,
regarded by many as the most prestigious American journal, provided only one
citation.

Journals are useful not just for the information they provide a researcher, but
also for the interested readership they provide for the researcher’s writings. Now
that almost all researchers have easy access to a photocopying machine, it is
probable that a smaller percentage of biologists request reprints than was once the
case. Still, if the number of reprint requests per article is any indication of the size
of the interested readership, then Castanea (a low impact journal), Bulletin of the
Torrey Botanical Club (intermediate impact), and Ecology (high impact) are of
approximately equal usefulness in providing interested readers for my work.

Perhaps a better indication that a journal provides an interested readership is
the more frequent citation of one’s articles in that journal. If this is true, Bulletin of
the Torrey Botanical Club and Castanea (in that order) are providing the best
readership for my work, American Midland Naturalist is third, and Ecology and
Virginia Journal of Science are competing for fourth.

PRESTIGE vs. USEFULNESS
-Reprint from ASB Bulletin-

Two years ago I underwent a periodic (six-year) re-evaluation, which is required
of all tenured faculty in my department. The evaluation committee (composed of
five of my colleagues) decided my performance merited by continuance and they
even gave me some mild praise for my "continuing contribution to scholarship. "
They commented, however, that too many of my publications were in regional
journals. The implication was, of course, that however meritorious my "continuing
contribution" was, it would be even more so if more of it were in national and
international (read "more prestigious") journals. It was no false accusation that I
had been publishing in regional journals. The journals published in most often are
Castanea (6), Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club (5), Virginia Journal of Science
(5) and Ecology (3). Castanea plainly states that it invites articles relating to the
flora and vegetation of the southern Appalachians and the southeastern United
States, because that is the field of interest of its readership. The Virginia Journal of
Science has no stated geographical limitations on its subject matter, but in practice
its content, like that of most state academy journals, is heavily weighed toward the
field biology and field geology of that state.

Why publish so often in these regional journals? I have long been interested in
the distribution, abundance, and phytosociology of vascular plants (particularly of
forest trees) and in the environmental factors which control these. Climate, geology,
topography, and their interactions usually control the distribution and phytosociol¬
ogy of forest trees. Since climate, geology, and topography all vary from region to
region, vegetation also varies from region to region. While certain general prin¬
ciples are applicable everywhere, the details of relative abundance and
phytosociological relationship among species are often only valid for a given region.
It is risky to extrapolate findings in one region to another region where the levels
of the controlling factors are different. Thus, vegetation studies, like studies of flora
and fauna, tend to be regional in extent and in applicability, at least at the level of
detail, and that is why almost all vegetation, floristic, and faunistic studies have a
geographical term in their titles. The most interested readership for such studies
will usually be other field biologists in that general region. This is in fact the very
reason for the existence and usefulness of regional journals like Castanea, South -
western Naturalist, Prairie Naturalist, Great Basin Naturalist, Madrono, Northwest
Science, and most state academy journals.

If a vegetation ecologist were reporting on the existence of a new plant com¬
munity process, or a major geographical extension of a vegetation type, then this
might well be of great enough interest to readers on a national scale to be published
in Ecology or Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club. If it is the first modern detailed
study of the vegetation of a large portion of a physiographic province or of a major
disjunct outlier of a widespread vegetation type, perhaps Bulletin of the Torrey
Botanical Club or American Midland Naturalist would be the journals of choice. If
the study is of the differences between two different portions of the same
physiographic province in the southeastern U.S., then one might send it to Cas¬
tanea. If the research involves the comparison of relative abundances of certain
tree species above and below the scarp of a Coastal Plain terrace, then the
appropriate choice might be a state Academy of Science journal, such as Journal
of the Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society (North Carolina). While it makes sense to

40

VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

publish in the most prestigious journal one can, the choice of the journal should be
determined in large part by where the interested readership is to be found.

For workers in research areas such as molecular biology or plant or animal
physiology, there is no geographic constraint on applicability of the results. For
them, publication in a state academy journal might be regarded as "invisible," in the
sense that it will almost certainly be overlooked by other workers in their specialty.
Because of the regional nature of so many vegetational, floristic, and faunistic
studies, the appropriate state academy journals are routinely consulted by most
field biologists, and thus these journals are not as "invisible” as they are in other
subdisciplines. Because of an interest in the ecology of limestone outcrop plants, I
routinely consult the Journal of the Tennessee Academy of Science, where pertinent
articles occur from time to time (Table 2). Apparently other field ecologists also
consult such state journals, for three titles my students and I published in the
Virginia Journal of Science have since been cited in books, and none of the three
citing authors were from Virginia.

SCI doesn’t regard some of the regional journals in which I publish as very
prestigious, because they have low impact factors. A Dean who counts SCI
citations will perhaps underestimate the significance of my work, for he will never
know my work was cited in these journals, since they are not covered by SCI. My
departmental colleagues may not esteem sufficiently the work I publish in these
journals, because they are merely regional. Yet, when one considers which journals
(a) regularly have articles pertinent to my research, (b) are most likely to be cited
in my articles, (c) are most likely to cite my articles, and (d) seem to have a
readership likely to be interested in my research, then these regional journals rank
right up along with ones of broader geographic coverage like Ecology and Bulletin
of the Torrey Botanical Club. Given the geographical distribution of the plant
communities I find particularly interesting, regional journals are likely to remain
useful to me as both a reader and a contributor, despite any lack of prestige, impact,
or esteem from some of my colleages outside of field biology. I guess I’m just a
regional kind of guy.

LITERATURE CITED

Baskin, J. M. and C. C. Baskin. 1985. Life cycle ecology of annual plant species of
cedar glades of southeastern United States, pp. 37 1-398. In J. White (ed.).
The Population Structure of Vegetation. Dr. W. Junk Publishers, Dordrecht,
Netherlands.

SCI. 1986. SCI Journal Citation Reports. 1986 Annual, Vol 19. Institute for Scien¬
tific Information, Inc. Philadelphia. 1518 p.

SCI. 1987. SCI Journal Citation Reports. 1987 Annual, Vol. 19. Institute for
Scientific Information, Inc., Philadelphia. 1497 p.

SCI. 1988. SCI Journal Citation Index 1988 Guide. Institute for Scientific Informa¬
tion, Inc., Philadelphia. 132 p.

NEWS AND NOTES

41

NECROLOGY

EUGENE M. WRIGHT, JR., D.V.M.

Dr. Eugene M. Wright, Jr., 50, professor and vice-chairman of the Department
of Comparative Medicine at the University of Virginia, died suddenly on August
15, 1989.

Dr. Wright was a native of Bowling Green, Virginia and a graduate of Caroline
County High School. He graduated from Virginia Polytechnic Institute in 1961 with
a B.S. in Animal Husbandry, enlisted in the Air Force in 1962, and served as a
laboratory animal technician in the School of Aerospace Medicine at Brooks Air
Force Base, Texas. His primary duties there were to care for and train the NASA
primates that were used in the initial space flight programs.

After serving his tour of duty in the Air Force, Dr. Wright entered Texas A &
M University and graduated as a Doctor of Veterinary Medicine in 1970. He
continued at Texas A & M through 1972 serving as a research associate and
veterinarian-in-charge of Vivarium III while studying for his M.S. in Laboratory
Animal Medicine, which he completed in 1973. He then accepted the position of
research associate and clinical veterinarian at the University of North Carolina at
Chapel Hill.

In 1974, he was offered and accepted a faculty position as assistant professor of
Surgery and assistant director of the Vivarium at the University of Virginia, and
later attained the rank of professor and vice-chairman of the Department of
Comparative Medicine.

Dr. Wright’s accomplishments at the University of Virginia were many, a few
of which included refinement of the animal care and use program, development of
the research protocol system, establishment of the department’s clinical laboratory,
development of a continuing education program, and the creation of a new course
entitled, The Introduction to Research Surgery 901.

Dr. Wright was an active contributor to many research projects as well as
conducting independent research. He was advisor, teacher, technical contributor,
veterinary expert, and co-worker on most of the research involving animals at the
University of Virginia. The highlight of his accomplishments may well have come
in 1985 with the publication o f Animal Pain : Evaluation and Control , Co-authored
with K.L. Marcella and J.F. Woodson, which gained international attention. He
made presentations on this subject to the American Veterinary Medical Associa¬
tion, American and Canadian Associations of Laboratory Animal Science, and
numerous other scientific groups.

He is survived by his wife, Eleanor (Sue), daughter, Tracy and son, Shane. He
will be deeply missed by all who knew and worked with him.

A memorial fund has be created in Dr. Wright’s memory; please send your gift
to the Eugene M. Wright, Jr. Memorial Fund, c/o Health Sciences Development
Office, Box 435, Charlottesville, VA 22908.

NOTES

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MER 1990

VOL. 41, No. 2

VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

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VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

OFFICIAL PUBLICATION OF THE VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACTS OF PAPERS, Sbcty-eitghth Annual Meeting of the
Virginia Academy of Science, May 23 - 26, 1990, George Mason
University, Fairfax, VA

Aeronautical and Aerospace Science .................. 45

Agricultural Science ........................... 46

Astronomy, Mathematics and Physics ................. 46

Biology . 49

Botany . 63

Chemistry ................................. 73

Education ................................. 79

Engineering ................................ 81

Environmental Science .......................... 85

Geology . 89

Materials Science ............................. 97

Medical Science ............................ .103

Microbiology .............................. .113

Psychology ................................ .116

Statistics ................................. .123

IVEY F. LEWIS DISTINGUISHED SERVICE AWARD ...... .124

ACADEMY FELLOW . . . . . 126

MINUTES . . .127

JUNIOR ACADEMY AWARDS ................... .139

AUTHOR INDEX

. . . .149

.

Abstracts of Papers Presented at the
Sixty-eigth Annual Meeting, Virginia Academy of Science
May 23-26, 1990, George Mason University, Fairfax, VA

Aeronautical and Aerospace Sciences

SUPERSONIC AERODYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF A HIGH-SPEED CIVIL TRANSPORT
CONFIGURATION. Jeffrey D. Flamm, Peter F. Coveil, Gloria Hernandez,

Applied Aerodynamics Division, NASA Langley Research Center, Hampton,

VA 23665, and 0. J. Rose, Lockheed Corporation, Hampton, VA 23665. Wind-
tunnel tests were conducted to determine the supersonic aerodynamic
characteristics of a High-Speed Civil Transport (HSCT) configuration in
the Langley Unitary Plan Wind Tunnel (UPWT). An attempt was also made to
determine the effect which laminar flow would have on the aerodynamics, even
though this particular concept is a fully turbulent design. The tests were
conducted at Mach numbers from 2.4 to 3.6 and over a Reynolds number range of
0.75 to 5.0 x 10®/ft. Angle of attack varied from -4° to 10°. Preliminary
analysis of the test results indicates that the cruise performance is slightly
below initial estimates. The pitching-moment characteristics exhibited an
unstable trend at low angle of attack which increased at higher angles. The
effect of laminar flow was to increase the (L/°)max by 5.2 percent and to
decrease zero lift drag by 6.5 percent.

APPLICATION OF LOW BOOM CONSTRAINTS TO AIRCRAFT DESIGN. Robert J. Mack.
NASA Langley Res. Ctr., Hampton, Va. 23665-5225. Aircraft cruising at supersonic speeds
produce shock wave filled flow fields around their flight path. On the ground, we experience
these distance-attenuated shock waves as a noise called “sonic boom.” The annoyance caused by
this sonic boom could keep aircraft companies from building airplanes and airlines from offering
supersonic air service. This obstacle to the introduction of supersonic cruise aircraft might be
overcome if aircraft design procedures would incorporate low sonic boom characteristics along
with high aerodynamic, engine cycle, and structural efficiency criteria to permit safe, comfortable,
affordable, and profitable operation. Aircraft features which could reduce the sonic boom
annoyance on the ground are described in this paper. Their impact on the overall design is
illustrated in two 3-view drawings of conceptual “low boom" aircraft which would cruise at Mach
2.0 and at Mach 3.0,

IMPROVING COMPUTER-AIDED CONCEPTUAL DESIGN OF AIRCRAFT - ACSYNT. A. Myklebust*
& S. Jayaram*, Mechanical Engineering Dept. Va. Polytechnic Inst. & State
Univ. , Va. 24061. This presentation describes the enhancement of a well-known
aircraft conceptual design code called ACSYNT (AirCraft SYNThesis) . An inter¬
active, graphical CAD interface for ACSYNT has been created at Virginia Tech in
cooperation with NASA-Ames. This interface permits the execution and control
of the design process via interactive graphics menus and, by visual inspection
of data and aircraft model shaded images, allows rapid evaluation of design
configurations. This interactive CAD version of ACSYNT was coded entirely with
the international 3-D graphics standard, PHIGS, and is designed to be used on
the new generation of high-speed imaging workstations. Current research
activities include the improvement of existing geometric modeling techniques to
automatically calculate intersections between aircraft components, automatic
generation of parametric aircraft models using non-uniform B-Spline surfaces
and automatic creation of curvature continuous fillets. This presentation also
describes the formation of the "ACSYNT Institute", which is a joint research
and development program between Virginia Tech, NASA and other government
agencies and the aerospace industry for the development and use of this
transportable, computer-aided aircraft conceptual design program.

46

THE VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

THE GROWTH OF AVIATION TECHNOLOGY. M. Leroy Spearman, NASA Langley Research
Center, Hampton, Virginia 23665-5225. The growth of aviation technology during
this century has been somewhat remarkable. The airplane has changed from what
was once thought of as a vehicle for sport to a vehicle for many uses that
includes sport, transportation, warfare, and exploration. This growth has
occurred in many countries and has been fostered by the native talent of
individuals as well as the exchange of information between countries and the
import and export of hardware. The use of the airplane as an instrument of
war has been an important factor in the growth of aviation technology. Periods
following wars were also periods of growth as captured equipment, facilities,
and scientists were exploited in order to improve airplanes. In addition, as
the commercial air transportation market developed, the need for improved air
transports also added to the growth of aviation technology. Although the
growth in aviation technology has been phenomenal, there is no indication that
it has come to an end. The spirit of competition in the commercial market and
the quest for military security indicate that the technologies related to
aviation will continue to grow.

Agricultural Sciences (No Abstracts Submitted )

Astronomy, Mathematics, and Physics

CEBAF HIGH MOMENTUM SPECTROMETER DRIFT CHAMBERS.

O.K. Baker1. R. Carlini2*, S. Christo*, C. Cuevas*, S. Majewski*, A. McCauley1 *, J. Napolitano2*,.
and R. Raney1*, Continuous Electron Beam Accelerator Facility, 12000 Jefferson Ave, Newport
News, VA 23606

1 And Dept, of Physics, Hampton University, Hampton, VA 23668

2 And Dept, of Physics, College of William and Mary, Williamsburg, VA 23185

The Physics Program in Hall C of the Continuous Electron Beam Accelerator Facility (CE¬
BAF) will include an exciting variety of experiments in nuclear and particle physics. A key element
of the initial compliment of equipment planned for Hall C is the High Momentum Spectrometer
(HMS). The HMS will be a moderate resolution spectrometer with large solid angle capable of
detecting hadrons with momenta up to 6 GeV/c, and electrons with energies above 4 GeV in a
modest r~ background. The detector package planned for the HMS will have standard focal plane
instrumentation: Drift chambers (XYUV), scintillation and gas Cerenkov counters, and shower
counters. Particular emphasis at the meeting will be placed upon presentation of the prototype
drift chamber work going on presently, as well as design calculations and plans for the full array
of HMS drift chambers.

THE EFFECTS OF REPEATED LIQUID NITROGEN TO AMBIENT TEMPERATURE CYCLING ON HIGH
Tc SUPERCONDUCTORS*. Joseph Beaufait, Randall Caton, and Raouf Selim, Department of Applied Physics
and Computer Science, Christopher Newport College, Newport News, VA 23606.

In order to test the suitability of high transition temperature (Tc) superconductors and silver bead contacts for long
term applications we developed a computer driven mechanical system that cycles high T£ samples into an LN2 bath.
Data acquisition was automated using an Apple He and a multichannel A/D converter with instrumentation
amplifiers set at a gain of one thousand to boost the low level signals. Data were taken of overall sample resistance
and silver bead contact resistance at LN2 and ambient temperature. Data were recorded on disk and plotted for a visual
check of the experiment’s progress. Resistance data were taken using a dc four probe technique. The test current of
.03 amps was reversed twenty times at each point and the resultant signals were averaged to eliminate thermal
voltages and external noise. The process was repeated thousands of times to simulate years of use in the field. The
sample's Tc and critical current were tested before and after the procedure to further evaluate the overall effects of
cycling.

* Work supported by NASA grant NAG- 1-1042.

THE VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

47

OPTIMIZATION OF HARD-CORE FLASHLAMP FOR PUMPING BLUE-GREEN DYE
LASER.1 Jaeho Choi*. In H. Hwang*, Kwang S. Han*, Dept, of Physics,
Hampton Univ, Hampton, Va. 23668. A blue-green dye laser output was
greatly increased by improving the hard-core flash la mpz(HCF) structure. A
short light pu!se(~2 psec) produced on the alumina insulator surface of the
HCF efficiently pumped the laser dye. The maximum output of the HCF
pumped ID-490 dye laser was 127 mJ with Ar as the active gas. When the
active gas was changed into Xe, the output increased to 160 mJ and the
laser efficiency was over 0.1% which is comparable to that of the
conventional linear Xe flash lamp. The advantages of the HCF and optimum
conditions for LD-490 blue-green dye laser are described.

1. Work is supported by ONR grant No. N00014-89-J-1653

2. K. S. Han, et al, ILS-V coni Bull. APS. M 1657 (1989)

ON THE NATURE OF TACHYONS AND TARDYONS IN QUANTUM MECHANICS.

Kenneth C. Jacobs., Dept, of Physics* Box 9661* Hollins Col.s Roanoke* Va.

24020. It seems a truism to state that 'mathematics is the language of science1;
and it has long been known that there are an infinite number of equivalent
mathematical representations of quantum mechanics. Nevertheless* this paper
points out that when Special Relativity is taken into account - especially in
quantum mechanics - our physical intuition is severely constrained by the types
of mathematics which we use. A critical case-in-point is tachyons* particles
of imaginary "rest-mass" which supposedly travel faster than the speed of
light (c); such particles are believed by many to exist* and they have been
sought experimentally. This paper conjectures that tachyons are merely arti¬
facts of the wrong mathematics* and proposes a new mathematical framework for
both Special Relativity and quantum mechanics - wherein one has a one-to-one
mathematical mapping from tachyons to tardyons (and vice-versa). In essence,
the exterior of the light-cone js_ its interior, the speed of light is a natural
upper limit, and space and time are Interchangeable and completely equivalent.
Some consequences of this new approach are discussed. (Research partially
supported by Faculty Awards Grants from Hollins College.)

HORIZONS OF KNOWLEDGE IN COSMOLOGY. Menas Kafatos. Dept, of Physics. George Mason
Univ. , Fairfax. VA 22030. Unlike the usual situation with theoretical physics which is testable
in the laboratory, in cosmological theories of the universe one faces the following problems:
the observer is part of the system, the universe, and this system cannot be altered to test
physical theory. Even though one can in principle consider any part of the observable universe
as separate from the acts of observation, the very hypothesis of big bang implies that In the
distant past, space-time regions containing current observers were part of the same system.
One, therefore, faces a situation where the observer has to be considered as inherently a part of
the entire system. The existence of horizons of knowledge in any cosmological view of the
universe is then tantamount to inherent observational limits imposed by acts of observation
and theory itself. For example, in the big bang cosmology the universe becomes opaque to
radiation early on, and the images of extended distant galaxies merge for redshifts, z, of the
order of a few. Moreover, in order to measure the distance of a remote galaxy to test any
cosmological theory, one has to disperse its light to form a spectrum which would cause
confusion with other background galaxies. Since the early universe would be described in
quantum terms, it follows that the same problems regarding quantum reality and the role of
the observer apply to the universe as a whole. One of the most fundamental properties of
quantum theory, non-locality, may then apply equally well to the universe. Some of the
problems facing big bang cosmology, like the horizon and flatness problems, may not then be
preconditions on theoretical models but may instead by the manifestations of the quantum
nature of the universe.

48

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OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF I-III-VI2 SEMICONDUCTORS. Yeongkwan Kim
and Calvin W. Lowe, Dept, of Physics, Hampton University, Hampton, VA 23668.
We have measured the reflectance of LiInSe2 and NaInSe2 between 0.689 eV and
3.543 eV. The band gaps of LiInSe2 and NaInSe2 are located at approximately
1.65 eV and 1.78 eV, respectively. We observed doublet structure at 0.9 eV
associated with stoichiometric deficiencies in the group III and VI elements. We
also make the first report of energy levels just below the middle of the bandgap
which are associated with the alkali metal in NaInSe2.

ORBIT-TRACKING USING THE FIRST HERMITE APPROXIMATION POLYNOMIAL
Timothy J. McDevitt* and Joseph W. Rudmin, Physics Dept., James
Madison Univ. , Harrisonburg, VA 22807. During the past year, the
use of osculating polynomials to integrate the equations of motion
of the solar system has been studied. Results include the
discovery of large oscillations in the second osculating
polynomial, and of apparent errors which grow exponentially with
number of steps in the first polynomial (Hermite approximation
polynomial) . Such growth would, in some cases, be prohibited by
conservation laws which the solar system obeys. The next approach
will be to force these laws into the numerical integration
algorithm. Results of the past year's work will be presented, and
approaches to forcing the conservation laws will be discussed.

IMPROVED SINTERING PROCESS OF SUPERCONDUCTING YBa2Cu3Ox. Robert W. McKitrick, Jr.*,
Raouf Selim and Randy Caton, Dept, of Applied Physics and Computer Science, Christopher
Newport Col., Newport News, Va 23606. YBa2Cu30x has a superconducting transition
temperature, Tc, of 90K. However, practical applications also require high transport critical
current density, Jc, at liquid nitrogen temperature (77K). Two computer programs were
written to automate the data acquisition necessary to develop a sintering process to improve the
critical current in YBa2Cu30x. The first program measures the transport current density at
77K by incrementing the source current at fixed time intervals and recording the voltage across
a section of the sample at each current setting. The second program monitors the resistance of
the sample during the sintering process (20-900°C). The program controls the oven
temperature, ramp rate and dwell period for several temperature settings. Refinements in the
sintering process were then made from analysis of the graphs of resistance vs time, and
resistance vs temperature. Utilizing these programs, preliminary results show an increase in
the transport current density by tailoring the sintering process. (Supported by NASA grant
NAG-1-1042.)

IMAGES OF COSMOLOGY IN MODERN FICTION. lane Q. Webb and Jennifer W.

Vincent, Dept, of Phys. & Computer Science, Christopher Newport Col., Newport News,

Va. 23606. Major 17th and 18th century writers such as Donne, Pope, and Milton
wrestled with the scientific model of the cosmos, where contemporary writers of non¬
science fiction only infrequently take account of the new cosmology. Even those works
purporting to deal with time and space do so on a shallow surface level or use cosmology
only as metaphor. Mary Barnard's book of poetry Time and the White Tigress, Margaret
Atwood's novel Cat's Eye and Douglas Adams' The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy
support the contention that serious focus on cosmology is unimportant to contemporary
authors. Webb and Vincent conclude that while the heliocentric universe mattered greatly
to the self-perception of human beings, the new models of space-time developing in
modem physics and popularized by physicists such as Sagan and Hawking have no real
impact on the image of man in the universe.

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49

IODOPERFLUOROHEXANE AS A SUITABLE IASANT FOR IODINE LASERS. CAPT.
CLARENCE L. WELLS ,* Dept, of Physics, Flampton Univ., Flampton, Va.

23668. A comparative analysis is made of iodoperfluorohexane, C6F13I to
iodoperfluoropropane, C3F7I when used as the gain medium in an iodine
laser system. Parameters for this comparison are the absorption cross
section in the pumpband 250 to 290 namometers, laser output energy, and
the production of l2, the major quenching by-product of iodine laser
reactions. This study confirms CeF^I to have an absorption cross section
equal to C3F7I and laser output energy almost 2 times greater. The
amount of l2 produced is less for CeFial due to a recombination process
that is yet to be fully understood.

MACINTOSH COMPUTERS IN THE INTRODUCTORY PHYSICS LAB. Donald A.
Whitnev. Loretta Lamson and Donica Allen, Dept, of Physics, Hampton
University, Hampton, VA 23668. The implementation of Macintosh
microcomputers in the introductory physics laboratory is described. These
were placed into service part way through the spring semester and made an
immediate and positive impact upon each student's laboratory experience.
Each computer is currently configured with a graphics package, a drawing
and paint utility, a word processor, a file server and electronic mail while
a mathematics and spread sheet application and SciMaTech interface are to
be added soon. Each computer is linked to the others in the departments of
chemistry, computer science and physics. The emphasis of the
presentation is on student response to this sudden addition to the
laboratory and the effect upon the student's laboratory skills. (Supported
by the Office of Naval Research, SEMS Program, N-00014-89-J-3238)

Biology

THE EFFECT OF 6-METHOXYBENZOXAZOLINONE ON REPRODUCTIVE
CONDITION IN THE HISPID COTTON RAT, SIGMODON HISPID US. Vera L. Adams and
Robert K. Rose, Dept. Biol. Sci., Old Dominion Univ., Norfolk, VA 23529-0266. A non-
estrogenic hormone, 6-methoxybenzoxazolinone (6-MBOA), found in young growing grasses,
has been shown to be a reproductive initiator in several herbivorous rodents. However, the
mechanism by which 6-MBOA initiates reproduction has not been determined. Many believe
that 6-MBOA represents a reliable cue that the vegetative growing season has begun, but it
is unknown whether this hormone is a primary cueing mechanism or if it works in conjunction
with other environmental factors. Therefore, a controlled laboratory experiment was conducted
using Sigmodon hispidus, the cotton rat, to determine whether different dosages of 6-MBOA
(4/xg, 40^g, and 400ju,g/liter of a 4:1 petroleum ether and ethanol solution coated on lab chow)
had an effect on the reproductive condition of this species after three weeks. Results showed
that there was no significant effect of 6-MBOA on the reproductive condition of either sex,
based on testes, seminal vesicle, and uterine weights. Possible effects of 6-MBOA on body
growth or rate of food consumption remain to be evaluated.

50

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AN ANALYSIS OF FACTORS AFFECTING REPRODUCTIVE SUCCESS IN A CRAB
SPIDER. Michael W. Beck. Dept, of Environmental Sciences, Univ. of Va., Charlot-
tessville, Va. 22903. Fecundity and growth rate of adult female crab spiders, Misumenoides
formosipes, are examined. Carapace width, a linear size measure of the cephalothorax exos¬
keleton, is significantly related to both fecundity and growth rate. The size of the carapace
changes only during molts, and consequently adult carapace size is a trait derived in earlier
life history stages. In M. formosipes adult carapace size is influenced primarily by weight
gain in the penultimate instar. Foraging decisions during this instar therefore have impor¬
tant consequences on fitness.

It is recognized that earlier life history stages can have important effects upon fitness,
but these stages rarely are studied in arthropods. Early instars of arthropods are often dif¬
ficult subjects to examine because of their size and vagility. Linear size measures of adults
provide a means for assessing the effects of previous life history stages upon fecundity.

PATTERNS OF WATER LOSS IN A DORMANT IAND SNAIL. G.F. Birchard. M.C.
Barnhart* & J.M. Kidwell.* Dept, of Biol., George Mason Univ., Fairfax,
VA. 22030 and Dept, of Bio. , San Diego State Univ. , San Diego, CA 92110.
Daring periods of reduced food and water avaiXablility pulmonate land
snails use dormancy as a means of survival. This study examined the
patterns of water loss of the snail Otala lactea during dormancy. Water
loss was measured as mass loss over Drierite on a recording electrobalance
in 11 undisturbed snails (mass = 6.07 ± 1.38 g) for periods of 7 or more
days. Total water loss was 3.23 + 1.97 mg'd . Water loss showed a
discontinuous pattern; periods of high rates of water loss (bursts)
alternating with periods of very lew rates of water loss (interburst) .
Burst frequency was .07 ± 0.8 h 1 and interburst duration was 15.00 ±

8.65 h. Interburst water loss rate was .141 ± .290 mg*h . The burst
water loss rate was variable. The average maximum rate was 1.293 + .489
mg*h . The majority of water loss in Otala appears to be associated
with periodic respiratory activity.

USE OF SPACE AND HABITATS BY INDIVIDUALS AND POPULATIONS.
Michael A. Bowers, Dept, of Environmental Sciences & Blandy
Experimental Farm, Univ. of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia
22903. A spatially explicit model of habitat selection is
presented for central place foragers (i.e. , where patches differ
in accessibility) . Computer simulations examined to what extent
habitat selection varied within and among individuals according
to: i) difference in the intrinsic quality and abundance of two
patch types; ii) difference in traveling costs; and iii)
increases in the density of foragers. The basic habitat
selection model was then incorporated into a modified form of
the logistic equation where the per capita reproductive rate
varied as a function of the quality of habitat patches
selected, and the costs associated with selecting these.
Computer simulations showed population growth rates were highest
when habitat selection was most pronounced: i.e., when traveling
cost and densities were relatively low, and the better quality
patch was more abundant.

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51

R SURREY OF THE FISH FRUNR OF THE UPPER MRTTRPONI RIUER BRSIN.

Melissa A. Browning and W. Wieland, Dept, of Biological Sciences, Mary
Washington College, Fredericksburg, VA 22401. Eleven localities on the
Matta, Po, and Ni rivers were sampled using a seine and a backpack
electroshocker. Thirty species from ten families and 20 genera were
found. Lampetra appendix was the only species taken which had not been
collected previously in the Mattaponi River basin. The most abundant
species were Notropis procne and Etheostoma olmstedi. The most common
species in these streams were Lepomis auritus, L. macrochirus, E. olmstedi ,
and Esox niger. The greatest diversity for a single collection site occurred
in the Matta River, however, 23 species were taken from all collection sites
in the Po River.

GENETIC COMPOSITION AND SHELL VARIABILITY OF THE CLAM, DONAX
VARIABILIS, IN THE CAPE HATTERAS AREA. Nancy E. Budd & Laura
Adamkewicz , Department of Biology, George Mason University,
Fairfax, VA 22030. An investigation of four subpopulations of
Don ax variabilis in the Cape Hatteras area indicates the existence
of one homogeneous population. Alloenzyme genotype and allele
frequencies do not differ significantly among samples, and only one
gene, LAP, deviates from Hardy-Weinberg expectations. LAP shows
the deficiency of heterozygotes typical of bivalves.

The frequencies of certain shell characteristics vary among
sites, as does mean shell length. Shell length is associated with
the position of the clam on the beach: the further from the water,
the smaller the clam. Some shell characteristics are also asso¬
ciated with significant differences in shell length, but no allo¬
enzyme genotype shows this association.

A PRELIMINARY INVESTIGATION OF AMPHIBIAN POPULATION DYNAMICS OF A SHENANDOAH
VALLEY SINKHOLE POND COMMUNITY. Kurt A. Buhlmann. *VA Dept, of Conserv. & Rec.,
Div. of Natural Heritage, 203 Governor Street, Suite 402, Richmond, VA 23219,

^J. C. Mitchell, Dept, of Biology, University of Richmond, VA 23173, and ^C. A.
Pague. A community of natural, ephemeral woodland ponds was sampled
periodically for amphibians, 1987-90. Ten species (4 salamanders and 6 anurans)
utilized these ponds for breeding. The total number of species able to breed
at a given pond varies between years and is related to water availability. Dry
conditions during winter and early spring 1989 prohibited most breeding of
Amby stoma maculatum, A . tigrinum, and Rana sylvatica. The spring larval body
size of the fall breeding A^_ opacum was related to fall and winter water levels
and determined whether the larvae were predator or prey in their relationship
with Aj_ tigrinum. Spring breeding amphibians that utilized ponds that dried
prior to July 1987 suffered 100% larval mortality. These ponds were unsuitable
for 3 summer breeding species of Rana. Ponds that retain some water all year
establish populations of Notophthalmus viridescens which are predators on
Amby stoma eggs and small larvae. The complexity of the interspecific interac¬
tions and variable hydrology suggests that protection of the entire pond commu¬
nity and associated terrestrial habitat is necessary to maintain the amphibian diversity.

52

THE VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

PRESENCE OF SIDEROPHORES IN LICHEN MYCOBIONT ISOLATES FROM DIFFERENT
SUBSTRATES. Michele R, Carter. Eugene V. Gourley, and Judy H. Niehaus1 , Dept, of
Biol., Radford Univ., Radford, VA 24142. Lichens represent a symbiotic relationship
between an alga and fungus, in which the phycobiont provides photosynthate to the
mycobiont. The contribution of the mycobiont is less clear, but it is widely presumed
that it contributes water and dissolved minerals, such as iron. Some fungi, under iron-
limiting conditions, produce low-molecular weight compounds called siderophores
which solubilize iron and return it to the fungus. We proposed to look for siderophore
production by the fungal components of lichens. A total of 90 lichens were collected
from three different substrates. Thirteen mycobionts were purified from the Tuscarora
Sandstone, 15 from the Rosehill Sandstone, and 18 from concrete. The mycobionts were
grown in pure culture and tested for siderophore production in iron limited media. None
of the fungi produced siderophores on Grimm-Alien medium, probably because growth
was poor. On Hagem's medium supplemented with thiamine, however, one of the Rosehill
Sandstone isolates was positive for siderophore production, and a control sample of
Cladonia cristatella (ATCC #18271) was also positive. Thus, at least some fungal
components of lichens produce siderophores. 1 (Supported in part by a grant from the
Radford University Foundation to Judy H. Niehaus)

REPEATED SEQUENCES IN CODING AND NON-CODING REGIONS OF MAIZE UBIQUITIN GENE
UBI-2. Alan H. Christensen, Dept, of Biol., George Mason University, Fairfax,

VA 22030. A genomic clone encoding the highly conserved protein ubiquitin was
isolated from a maize genomic library. The UBI-2 gene encodes a transcript of
2.1 kb as determined by Northern blot analysis. A 5.2 kb transcript is also
detected by a gene-specific probe in RNA from plants subjected to thermal
stress. This transcript represents the 2.1 kb mature transcript plus a 3.1
kb intron which is inefficiently processed following thermal stress. Sequence
analysis indicates that the protein coding region consists of seven direct 228
bp repeats encoding the 76 amino acid ubiquitin protein. The nucleotide
sequence of coding-region repeats may vary by 17.1%; however, all seven repeats
encode the identical protein sequence. The UBI-2 intron also contains a
repeated sequence. The sequence is about 136 bp in length and is repeated at
least 11 times in tandem, but is present at low copy number in the maize
genome.

PARASITISM OF ORANGESTRIPED OAKWORM, ANISOTA SENATORIA (J. E.
SMITH) (LEPIDOPTERA: SATURNI IDAE) , LIFESTAGES IN THE URBAN
LANDSCAPE. M. A. Coffelt and P. B. Schultz, Dept, of Entomology,
Va. Polytech. Inst, and State Univ., Hampton Roads Ag. Exp. Stn. ,
Virginia Beach, Va. 23455. Identification and effectiveness of
native parasites attacking A. senatoria populations is necessary
for developing a biological control program. Egg parasitism by
Tet rastichus spp. averaged 0.8% (1988-89), and Trichoaramma
minutum (Riley) 0.01%. Larval parasitism by Hyposoter fuaitivus
(Say) averaged 9.8% (1987-89), and a partial second senatoria
generation in 1989 averaged 15.7% parasitism. Brachymeria ovata
(Say) parasitized 1.1% of A. senatoria larvae in 1987-88.
Hyperparasitism of &. fuaitivus by Ceratosmicra meteori (Burks)
averaged 20% (1988-89), and 0.65% (1989) by Gelis tenellus (Say).
Per ilampus hval inus (Say) , a hyperparasite of H. fuaitivus.
emerged from 0.22% of host pupae (1986-88). Pupal parasitism by
the tachinid fly Lespesia anisotae (Webber) averaged 11.7% (1986-
89). Collections of Tetrastichus spp., &. oy&ta, and C. m&tsexl
from A. senatoria eggs and larvae represent new host records.

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53

DEMOGRAPHIC PATTERNS OF A FRESHWATER FISH (GAMBUSIA MANN I ) IN A VARIETY OF
ENVIRONMENTS: PRELIMINARY ANALYSES FROM ANDROS ISLAND, BAHAMAS. Sheilah Pols
and Luther Brown, Dept, of Biol., George Mason Univ. Fairfax, VA 22030.

Recent studies suggest that male mosquitofish (Gambusia manni) vary their life
history patterns in response to the structure of their local population. For
example, laboratory analyses indicate that juvenile males are capable of
delaying maturity until they are larger than the adult males that they
encounter. Females do not show such a pattern. Our studies are designed to
examine this effect in wild populations and reveal ecological correlates of
the life history patterns of different populations. Andros Island has diverse
freshwater bodies that support mosquitofish. These range from large volume,
very deep, environmentally stable Blueholes to low volume, very shallow,
highly unstable ponds and ditches. We sampled the fish populations in five
habitats of each type in January, 1990. Sex ratios were always strongly
skewed, with a great excess of females and juvenile fish, but Bluehole
populations always had a greater proportion of males than did ponds and
ditches. Both sexes were significantly larger in Blueholes than in ponds and
ditches. Possible interpretations of these patterns are discussed.

ACUTE HISTOPLASMOSIS IN A VIRGINIA, BIOLOGIST FOLLOWING WORK IN A BAT CAVE IN
BELIZE. Ralph P. Eckerlin, Natural Sciences Div. , Northern Virginia Cmnty. Col.
Annandale, Va. 22003. Histoplasmosis is caused by inhalation of spores (conidia)
of Histoplasma capsulatum, a fungus which thrives in soils enriched by the
feces of birds or bats. One week after returning home from Belize in Central
America where he visited caves inhabited by bats, a Virginia biologist began to
experience symptoms of lower respiratory disease. Symptoms included cough, chest
pain, fever, headache, extreme fatigue and myalgia. When symptoms persisted for
a week, a physician was seen. No diagnosis was made initially but a chest x-ray
was taken and a course of tetracycline begun. Symptoms persisted. The x-ray
showed numerous nodules in the lungs. Physical examination, blood, and urine
tests were unremarkable. A presumptive diagnosis of histoplasmosis was made
based on the patient's recent history of being in a bat cave and the nodular
nature of the pulmonary lesions. Diagnosis was confirmed by a positive immuno¬
diffusion gel test for Histoplasma capsulatum. Follow-up at 3 and 6 months
indicated no residual symptoms and a regression, but not disappearance of the
lung nodules. Total cost of this episode was $1371.44.

THE PARASITE CAPILLARIA C0NT0RTA (NEMATODA: CAP ILLARI IDAE ) A SOURCE OF WINTER
MORTALITY IN BLUE JAY POPULATIONS. Ralph P. Eckerlin, Natural Sciences Div.,
Northern Virginia Cmnty. Col., Annandale, Va. 22003. During 1967-1969 an
epizootic in blue jays, Cyanocitta cristata, occurred in Connecticut associated
with infection with the nematode, Capillaria contorta. The birds exhibited
gaping, swallowing difficulties, weight loss, weak flight and apathy. Sixty
sick, dying and dead birds had a 100% prevalence of infection with CL contorta.
The mean intensity of infection was 16 worms per infected bird. Twelve
randomly collected blue jays had a prevalence of 93% and a mean intensity of
6 worms. The nematodes were primarily localized in the buccal cavity mucosa
or in the buccal and esophagus mucosa. A white, caseous diphtheritic membrane
was associated with the presence of the worms. Peak mortality occurred during
January, February and March, the colder months of the year. It is believed
that the nematode interferes with feeding. When stressed by cold and reduced
food supplies in the winter, many blue jays died. Capillaria contorta has
now been found in blue jays in Virginia where 5 of 7 birds were infected.

Two of the blue jays died of their Capillaria infections.

54

THE VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

THE EFFECT OF IMMIGRATION ON ISLAND COLONIZATION AND POPULATION
PERSISTENCE OF ORYZOMYS PALUSTRIS ON THE BARRIER ISLANDS OF
VIRGINIA. Elizabeth A. Forvs & Raymond D. Dueser, Dept, of
Environmental Science, The Univ. of VA, Charlottesville, VA
22903. Immigration is hypothesized to be an important mechanism
for island colonization and population persistence. Immigration
rates were estimated for Orvzomvs palustris . the semiaquatic
marsh ricerat, on three adjacent islands, in the Virginia Coast
Reserve. During a mark-recapture program conducted from May to
August, 1989, only 11 of 101 island residents permanently
migrated to the other islands. Water provided an important
barrier in O.. palustris movement patterns. The sex ratio and age
structure of emigrants were statistically indistinguishable from
the resident population. All immigrations proceeded from an
island of high density, to islands of lower density. The
population on the high density island exhibited significantly
smaller home ranges, male biased sex ratios, and increased
habitation of sub-optimal habitat.

CELL MONOLAYER FORMATION IN SHEAR FIELDS. Stephen Gallik. Dept, of
Biol. Sci., Mary Washington College, Fredericksburg, VA. 22401. Because shear
stress has been shown to affect various biochemical and behavioral parameters of
endothelial cells, such as prostacyclin synthesis, cell permeability and cell shape,
shear stress is generally regarded as an important feature of the environment in
which endothelial cells function in vivo. A parallel-plate type of flow channel has
been developed to investigate the dynamics of cell monolayer formation in the
presence of shear stress in vitro. The flow channel is a rectangular glass
capillary tube with an aspect ratio of 0.05. Custom-designed manifolds are used to
connect the channel to a recirculating perfusion system. Experiments
demonstrate that the pressure-flow relationship of the channel is linear through
a shear stress of at least 75 dyn/cm2, suggesting a laminar flow at these flow
rates. Balb/3T3 cell monolayers have been successfully grown under both
stagnant and low-flow conditions, demonstrating the suitability of the channel for
cell growth.

THE EFFECTS OF GHL ON RAS p21 PROTEIN EXPRESSION IN MORRIS HEPATOMA
7777 CELLS. D. W. Hankley* and R. Barra. Dept, of Biological
Sciences, Mary Washington College, Fredricksburg, VA 22401.

Activated ras oncogenes have been detected in Morris hepatoma
7777 cells by the presence of its characteristic 21 kD protein
product, p21 . The techniques that were used to verify the presence
of p21 in cell samples included immunoblot and ELISA. Polyclonal
antibodies specific for the p21 were used in conjunction with
alkaline phosphatase labeled IgG and the appropriate substrate to
give a positive identification of the p2X band. Similarly, the
polyclonal antibodies were used in the ELISA assay in conjunction
with peroxidase labeled IgG and its appropriate substrate to give
a color reaction that could be analyzed spectrophotometrically .

Glycyl-histidyl-lysine (GHL) has been shown to have growth
stimulatory effects on a number of different cell types, including
hepatocytes and hepatoma cells. In this study, the effect of GHL
on p21 was investigated. The results indicate that incubation of
Morris hepatoma 7777 cells with 2 ng/ml GHL increased the p21
present in the cells.

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55

SURVIVAL AND GROWTH RATES OF TWO INTERTIDAL SNAILS (Tectaruis muricatus
and EcMninus Nodtilosusl ON CALABASH BAY, BAHAMAS. Mercedes Huffiman and
Luther Brown, Dept. Biol., George Mason Univ. , Fairfax, VA 22030. The
survival and growth of false prickly winkles (E. nodulosus) and knobby
periwinkles (T. muricatus) were investigated by capturing, measuring,
marking and releasing all snails in a 36m2 area of rocky intertidal
zone. One year later, the snails were recaptured and measured. Size
specific survivorship declined uniformly for all sizes of E. nodulosus.

T, muricatus had higher survivorship at smaller sizes, and rapidly
decreasing values for larger snails. Mortality rates for both species
were minimal for medium sized snails. Individuals of both species varied
greatly in their annual growth rates, but the tendency was for
intermediate sized E. nodulosus and the smallest T. muricatus to show the
greatest annual growth. Estimates based on the maximum and minimum median
annual growth give ranges in the age of the largest E. nodulosus of 16-32
years, and the largest T. muricatus of 10-156 years.

EFFECTS OF MATERNAL AGE, MATERNAL PARITY, AND PATERNAL GENOTYPE ON REPRODUCTIVE
SUCCESS IN CBA FEMALE MICE. JL h Jong and A. F. Conway, Dept, of Biol.,
Randolph-Macon Col., and C. M. Conway, Dept, of Biol., Va. Commonwealth U. ,
Richmond, Va. 23284. Litter size at birth, number of offspring surviving to
weaning, and percent of offspring surviving to weaning were measured In female
CBA/J mice at ages of 2, 4, or 6 months, during first, second, or third
pregnancy, and following mating with CBA/J or DBA/2J males. Litter size and
postnatal survival were significantly reduced in females over 4 months of age.
Litter size and postnatal survival Increased with maternal parity In 6 month
old females. Matings with CBA/J or DBA/2J males produced similar litter sizes
except during first pregnancies in a month old females, In which DBA/2J matings
produced significantly smaller litters than CBA/J matings. Offspring of
DBA/2J-mated females had significantly higher survival to weaning than
offspring of CBA/J-mated females. Offspring of a CBA/J-mated female had
significantly higher survival to weaning If the preceding pregnancy In that
female had been produced by a DBA/2 J mating. In general, maternal age and
parity most strongly affected litter size at birth while paternal strain most
strongly affected postnatal survival of offspring, (partially supported by a
Chenery Research Professorship to A. Conway)

EFFECTS OF PARITY ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF MATERNAL IMMUNOGLOBULIN A IN THE
PREGNANT MOUSE UTERUS. Kathleen M. Kennedy, H. Carl Palmer, Jr.#, and Carolyn
M. Conway, Dept, of Biol., Va. Commonwealth Univ., Richmond, VA.

Immunoperoxidase staining was used to localize immunoglobulins (igs) G, A, or M
in 12.5 day implantation sites of CD-I mice of equivalent age (8 months) but
different parity levels (1st, 2nd, 3rd pregnancy). Staining for all three Igs
was observed in both maternal areas (myometrium, decidualized myometrium,
decidua basalis, decidua capsularis, uterine epithelium, uterine lumen) and
extraembryonic structures (Reichert's membrane, inner and outer yolk sacs,
placenta). Significant parity-related increases in IgA+ staining patterns were
found in the decidualized myometrium, decidua basalis, decidua capsularis, and
inner yolk sac. In addition both the average number of trophoblastic giant
cells present at the placenta-decidua basalis junction and the average number of
these cells which contained small numbers of IgA+ granules increased
significantly with parity. These parity-related increases in IgA+ staining at
or near maternal-fetal barriers are correlated with a previously demonstrated
parity-related increase in reproductive success in older females. (Supported by
the Undergraduate Research Grant Program of VCU)

56

THE VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

HABITAT UTILIZATION IN AN INSULAR POPULATION OF DELMARVA FOX
SQUIRRELS ( SCIURUS NIGER CINEREUS) . Bonnie J. Larson . Dept, of
Envi. Sci . , Univ. of Va. , Charlottesville, Va. 22903, & R. D.
Dueser, Dept, of Envi. Sci., Univ. of Va. , Charlottesville, Va.
22903. The relationship between plant (food) resource availa¬
bility, forest structure and relative abundance of the endangered
Delmarva fox squirrel was investigated on Chincoteague National
Wildlife Refuge to evaluate the importance of habitat quality on
fox squirrel distribution. Fox squirrel abundance was positively
correlated with larger overstory trees, higher densities of
soft-mast producing hardwoods and higher plant species diver¬
sity. Estimated home range areas were small (1.4 - 12.8 ha) com¬
pared to reports for other eastern subspecies of fox squirrel
(9 - 20 ha) , particularly in areas with highest relative abun¬
dance. This result may be a consequence of high food resource
availability and high squirrel density. These results suggest
that the genetic consequences of limited movement may be the most
important immediate concern in evaluating the long-term viability
of this insular population.

AN ANALYSIS OF EXTERNAL FEATURES AS PREDICTORS OF REPRODUCTIVE
STATUS IN SMALL MAMMALS. Kenneth W. McCravv and Robert K. Rose, Dept. Biol.
Sci., Old Dominion Univ., Norfolk, VA 23529-0266. Predictions of true reproductive
condition of specimens of nine populations of seven species of rodents based on condition
of external reproductive features (nipple size, condition of pubic symphysis, vaginal
condition, and testis position in males) were compared with the determination of true
reproductive condition based on results of necropsy of the same animals. Accuracy of
predictions of true reproductive status of females ranged from 58-85% correct, while that
of males ranged from 87-94% correct. Overall, nipple size was the best of the three
predictors among females. Predictive equations generated with logistic multiple regression
analysis, using combinations of external features and body measurements, produced
substantial improvement in accuracy of predictions of true reproductive status in females
of three species from Manitoba, Canada. Results indicate that external features are more
reliable indicators of true reproductive status in males than in females, and that, in females,
the inclusion of body weight in a predictive equation may significantly improve predictive
usefulness, especially in females of small-bodied, seasonally breeding species.

INTERRELATIONSHIPS OF MAST CROPS, WHITE-TAILED DEER, AND OTHER MAST CONSUMERS.
William J. McShea* , Department of Conservation, National Zoological Park,
Conservation and Research Center, Front Royal, VA. 22630. Since 1986 we have
measured, within a 340 ha study area at the Conservation Center, the
production of mast, the movements and behavior of white-tailed deer relative
to the mast crop, and the distribution and survival of small mammals within
mast-producing areas. The mast crop has been variable, with the largest mast
crop in 1989 and the smallest in 1987. With the exception of 1987, the 10-12
white-t ailed deer radiot racked each year increased their home ranges during
the mast fall. Significantly more deer fecal pellet groups were located within
oak stands during the mast fall, and the number of fecal groups seen was
positively correlated with the amount of acorns on the ground. Observations
of deer show that 50% of the foraging during September and October involved
acorns. The average consumption rate during the mast-fall was 0.75
acorns/minute of searching. This resulted in approximately 1 kg
acorns/deer/day consumption of the mast crop, and 25-45% of the yearly acorn
crop on the ground being consumed by deer. Bumper mast crops did not result
in increased mast on the ground in November, only increased foraging on mast
by deer during October.

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57

MDVE3VENT PATTERNS OF TWO SPECIES OF FRESHWATER TURTLES IN AN URBAN VIRGINIA LAKE.
Joseph C. Mitchell , Dept, of Biology, University of Richmond, Richmond, VA 23173
Sexual differences in seasonal activity and movement were studied in syntopic
populations of the painted turtle, Chrysemys picta, and the stinkpot, Stemother-
us odoratus 1979-1981 in Laurel Lake, Henrico Co. and Grassy Swamp Lake, Hanover
Co., VA. Males of both species were demonstrably more active in spring and fall
but fatales were more active during the nesting season in summer. Distances
moved by male painted turtles averaged longer in spring (64.4+12.5 m) but shorter
in fall (70.3+18.9 m) than that moved by females (S: 50. 8+7. 9 m; F: 75.0^18.9 m) .
The differences were insignificant, however. Male stinkpots moved significantly
greater distances in spring (31.3+10.8 m) than females (zero movement). The
differences between males (41 .2+13.9 m) and females (30.0+8.9 m) in the fall
were insignificant. Female painted turtles moved significantly greater distan¬
ces than males during the nesting season, whereas the reverse was true for
stinkpots. These results are applied to the predictions of a model relating
movement and activity patterns to life history patterns in freshwater turtles.

(Supported by grants from T. Roosevelt Mem. Fund, Sigma Xi, SSAR, VA Acad. Sci.)

EFFECTS OF BARRIERS TO GENE FLOW ON THE POPULATION GENETICS OF
MAMMALS. Nancy D.. Mono rief . Virginia Museum of Natural History,
1001 Douglas Avenue, Martinsville, VA 24112. Migration and gene
flow are thought to be the processes that prevent genetic
divergence among populations. As dispersal among populations
increases, variation among populations decreases, and genetic
homogeneity increases. Bodies of water, such as major rivers and
back-island bays, are thought to serve as barriers to gene flow
in some mammals, resulting in greater genetic variation among
populations separated by the water barrier. Biochemical
techniques were used to assess genetic variability in several
rodent species that are predicted to have different abilities to
disperse across bodies of water. Empirical results will be
reported for 1) populations of tree squirrels that are separated
by the Mississippi River and 2) populations of rice rats and
white-footed mice that occur on the barrier islands and the
adjacent mainland of Virginia’s Eastern Shore. In both cases,
patterns of genetic variation were found that support predictions
about the relative dispersal ability of these species.

DEMOGRAPHIC FEATURES OF SHREWS IN TWO CONTRASTING HABITATS. John F. Pagels &
Sandra Y.- Erdle, Dept, of Biol., Va. Commonwealth Univ., Richmond, VA 23284, &
Joseph. C. Mitchell, Dept, of Biol., Univ. of Richmond, Richmond , VA 23173. One
hundred and sixty three shrews were captured in oldf ield/clearcut (CCH) and
forest habitats (FH). Cryptotis parva and Sorex longirostris were captured in
greatest numbers in the CCH, 92 percent of 77 captures, and 74 percent of 31
captures, respectively. Captures of Blarina brevicauda, 36, and Sorex hoyi, 19,
were approximately the same for each habitat. Numbers of male S_. hoyi and S_.
longirostris were greater than numbers of females captured, but the captures of
each sex by habitat were not different from the expected for any of the four
species. Age of specimens taken in each habitat did not differ from the expec¬
ted for any of the species. <3. parva, _S. longirostris and 13 . brevicauda were
not captured in the FH in coldest winter months. In the mid-Atlantic Piedmont,
forest fragmentation and man-made edge and field situations do not negatively
impact these species providing that suitable microhabitat is available.

58

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SPECIES COMPOSITION AND SEASONAL SURFACE ACTIVITY OF TERRESTRIAL VERTEBRATES IN
FIVE NORTHERN VIRGINIA PIEDMONT NATURAL COMMUNITIES. Christopher A. Pague, 2J.
C. Mitchell, ^D. A. Young, and C. A. Buhlmann, Cept. Conserv. & Rec.,Div. of
Natural Heritage, 203 Governor Street, Suite 402, Richmond, VA 23219, 2Dept. of
Biology, University of Richmond, VA 23173, ^POB 1278, Cape Coral, FL 33910.
Collections of terrestrial vertebrates for 13 months from five representative
plant communities in Prince William Forest Park resulted in 1,109 captures. 81%
of the captures were of 15 amphibian species; 5% of the captures were of 7
reptile species; and 14% of the captures were of 8 small mammal species. The
seasonal movements of salamander species were spring/fall, spring, or fall.
Reptile movements were either late spring/summer or spring/fall. Small mammal
movements were generally year round, especially for shrews, with peaks during
the spring and fall. We observed species-specific differences in captures
among sites with smaller numbers in the more xeric sites, particularly the
Virginia pine association. The vertebrate fauna is judged to be depauperate,
though possibly recovering, from past human land use patterns.

PROGRESS REPORT ON ESTABLISHMENT OF A BASELINE SIPHONAPTERAN
INVENTORY FOR VIRGINIA. Harry F. Painter and Ralph P. Eckerlin,
Nat. Sci . Div . , Northern Virginia Cmty. Col., Annandale, VA 22003.
By 1982, 28 species were known from Virginia. Unpublished records
added Corrodopsy 1 1 a hami 1 toni , Euhopl opsy 1 lus gl acial is af finis ,
Peromyscopsy 1 1 a scotti and Pol yqenis gwyni . We have previously
reported 3, and herein report 7 new state records: Catal 1 agi a
boreal is , Ceratophy 1 1 us vison , Megabothris asio asio . M_. auirini .
Nearctopsy 1 1 a qenal is qehal is , Peromyscopsy 1 1 a catatina and
Tamiophi 1 a qrandis . There are 3 other species that may be in the
state, but have not been collected to date. Extirpations and
introductions will assuredly occur as habitats change. At least 3
now on the list have not been found for from 20 to 50 years. An
introduced flea from the mid-west, E. g,. af finis . is included
although it might not be established in the state. The baseline
inventory for the state of Virginia now includes a total cf 42
species. Supported in part by a grant from the Virginia Academy of
Science .

IgG CONCENTRATIONS IN MATERNAL SERUM AND AMNI0TIC FLUID FROM CBA FEMALE MICE
MATED WITH CBA OR DBA/2 MALES. C. E. Phillips and A^ F\ Conway. Dept, of
Biol., Randolph-Macon Col., Ashland, Va. 23005 and C. M. Conway, Dept, of
Biol., Va. Commonwealth U. , Richmond, Va. 23284. The relationship between
prenatal immunoglobulin transfer from mother to fetus and early postnatal
survival of offspring was evaluated using CBA/J female mice mated with either
CBA/J or DBA/2J males. Offspring of CBA/J-mated females have significantly
lower early postnatal survival than offspring of DBA/2J-mated females. The IgG
concentration in maternal serum and amniotic fluid was determined by ELISA. No
significant difference in mean serum IgG concentration was found between CBA/J-
and DBA/2J-mated females. Mean amniotic fluid IgG concentration in CBA/J-mated
females was significantly higher than in DBA/2 J-mated females. The amniotic
fluid IgG concentrations in CBA/J-mated versus DBA/2 J-mated females were the
reverse of those predicted by the hypothesis that early postnatal survival in
mice depends on IgG transferred from mother to fetus during late gestation.

The observed difference in amniotic fluid IgG concentrations may have resulted
from removal of some IgG molecules by binding with alloantigens on placental or
yolk sac cells during transfer from maternal serum to the fetus in DBA/2J-mated
females, (partially supported by a Chenery Research Professorship to A. Conway)

THE VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

59

EFFECT OF GASTROPOD SHELL EXCHANGES , EXCHANGE POSITION, AND EX¬
CHANGE CHAIN PARTICIPATION ON GROWTH RATE OF A LAND HERMIT CRAB.
Alice Anne Potts and Elsa Q. Falls, Dept, of Biol., Randolph-Macon
Col., Ashland, VA 23005. An investigation was conducted with the
land hermit crab, Coenobita clvpeatus. to determine whether
vacancy chain principles could be applied to this species. Eighty
specimens were housed in environmental chambers for four months
in groups of four and eight and individually, some with extra
Cittarium pica shells and some with no extra shells. Crabs in
chains of four with larger shells available increased the most in
weight and length while crabs without access to larger shells
decreased in weight and length, as did individual crabs with extra
shells. Changes in length and weight were affected by shell
change possibility, chain length, chain position, total body
length, and body weight.

MICROTUS PENNSYLVANICUS AND M. PINETORUH DENSITIES AND DIFFERENTIAL RESPONSIVE¬
NESS TO A TERRESTRIAL PREDATOR MODEL. Carla Ritzier-Old* and Terry L.

Derting, Dept, of Biol. , Hollins Col. , Roanoke, VA 24020. Distinct differences
exist in the multi-year density cycles of M. pinetorum (pine vole) and M.
pennsylvanicus (meadow vole). This may be partially due to differential
predation pressure and/or predator avoidance abilities of these tvo species.
Wild populations of pine voles have relatively stable densities in comparison
to those of meadov voles, suggesting that pine vole populations may be less
affected by predators. We examined the behavioral responsiveness of
individuals of these species to a terrestrial predator model, hypothesizing
that pine voles vould be less affected by the model than would be meadov voles.
Individuals of both species exhibited freezing behavior in response to movement
of the model. Hovever, meadow voles remained immobile for shorter periods of
time, and exhibited fever behavior modifications after exposure to the model,
than did pine voles. These results suggest that meadov voles are less
responsive to a terrestrial predatory threat than are pine voles.

Consequently, meadov voles may be more vulnerable to terrestrial predators and,
their population dynamics more affected by predatory influences, than those of
pine voles.

THE FATE OF INTACT ABSCISED FRUITS OF THE FLOWERING DOGWOOD, COR¬
NU S FLORIDA. Christopher F. Sacchi. Dept, of Environmental
Sciences, Univ. of Va. and Blandy Experimental Farm, Boyce, VA
22620. I experimentally studied the fate of both intact abscised
fruits and dispersed seeds without their fruits of the flowering
dogwood, Cornus f lorida . Experiments were designed to test the
effects of factors influencing seed predation and the survival of
seeds on the forest floor. I examined the response of small
mammals including chipmunks or white footed mice to differing
densities of fruits, to the presence or absence of the fruit on
the seed, and to the presence or absence of leaf litter where
seeds rested. Seed predation by small mammals was high from week
to week regardless of treatment. The response of seed predators
to different seed densities was not strong. Leaf litter on the
forest floor played an important role in protecting seeds from
predators .

60

THE VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

IN VITRO STIMULATIN OF VITELLOGENESIS IN THE IXODID TICK, HYALOMMA
DROMEDAR1I. Martin E. Schriefer and Daniel E. Sonenshine, Biomedical Sciences,
Old Dominion University, Norfolk, Va. 23508. Antibody against egg yolk protein,
vitellin (VN) has been utilized in western blot and ELISA systems to quantitatively and
qualitatively assess tissue vitellin and vitellogenin (VG). Virgin tissues displayed trace
levels of VG or VN. Levels of VG and VN increase in ovary, hemolymph and fat body
as a function of mating and preovipositional development in adult females. In vitro
incorporation of radio-labeled amino acids into immunopre-cipitable protein was
monitored to assess de novo synthesis. Of the above tissues, only fat body displays in
vitro VG or VN synthesis. Extracts of synganglion from mated females stimulated VG
synthesis in cultured virgin fat body 35 fold as compared to control cultures. 20-OH
Ecdysone and Juvenile Hormone III did not stimulate in vitro VG synthesis by virgin fat
body under tested conditions.

SPATIAL PATTERNS IN SNAKES - BEHAVIORALLY DETERMINED OR RESOURCE
DRIVEN? Terry D. Schwaner, Virginia Museum of Natural History, Martinsville, Va. 24112. Spatial
patterns of individuals were studied in four island populations of tiger snakes (Notechis ater: Elapidae)
in southern Australia. Within islands snakes were usually aggregated in areas of high densities of prey
and/or cover. Differences in the dispersion patterns of snakes between islands were correlated with
differences in the spatial distributions of critical resources. When one resource was "saturating" snakes
were more highly associated with another that was "limiting." Random dispersion and enhanced
displacement was observed on one island where the saturating resource provided both food and shelter
and was also randomly distributed. The evidence was consistent with a hypothesis that resource
densities were important determinants of dispersion and contributed to evolutionary divergences in
these island populations. Interspecific, and inter or intra-sexual social, interactions probably played
only a minor role in determining these spatial patterns.

PRODUCTION OF SIDEROPHORES BY MYCORRHIZAL FUNGI. Ann Shoosmith and Judy H.
Niehaus, Dept, of Biology, Radford Univ., Radford, VA 24142. In environments where
iron is limited or in the oxidized Fe+3 form, thus not accessible to organisms, various
mycorrhizal fungi obtain iron through low molecular weight, iron solubilizing
molecules called siderophores. Forty mycorrhizal fungi were grown in low iron Hagem's
and Grimm-Alien media and tested for siderophores with 5mM ferric chloride. When
iron binds to siderophores, a red color results. Positive samples were Ustilago
sphaerogena, Boletus edulis, Cladonia cristatella, Cladosporium sp., Rhodotorula sp.,
Lentinellus omphalodes, Suillus variegatus, Fusarium oxysporum, Aspergillus nidulans,
A. leporis, A. oryzae, A. tamorii, and A. sojae . Samples of Suillus variegatus (obtained
from Kenneth Soderhall, University of Uppsala, Sweden) and Cladonia cristatella (ACTT
#18271) were further analyzed after filtration and lyophilization. When UV-visible
spectrometry was used, Cladonia cristatella showed a peak at 430 nm. Suillus
variegatus showed two peaks at 463 nm and 405 nm. Thin-layer chromatography was
used to further analyze the siderophores produced by Suillus variegatus by dissolving
the siderophores in chloroform and using a buffer of 1 -butanol: acetic acid: water
(5:1:4). The two Rf values of .267 and .981 obtained may be due to protonated and
unprotonated forms of the same siderophore or to two different siderophores. (Supported
by a grant from the Radford University Foundation to Judy H. Niehaus.)

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61

EFFECTS OF HANDLING AND PAIR MANAGEMENT ON JAPANESE QUAIL REPRODUCTION. Joseph
P. Sullivan, Keith A. Grasman. and Patrick F. Scanlon, Dept. Fish. Wildl. Sci.,
VP I & SU, Blacksburg, VA 24061. Three experiments studied the effects of handling
stress, pair bonding, and frequency of mating on reproduction in Japanese quail
(Coturnix coturnix) when sexes were caged separately except during 90 min mating
periods. In Experiments 1 and 2, 48 females and 48 males were randomized among
four treatments: paired continuously (PC); daily with the same male (SP1D); daily
with a different male (DP1D) ; and every third day with the same male (SP3D) . In
Experiment 3, 44 males and 44 females used in Experiments 1 and 2 were
re-randomized among four treatments: PC; SP3D; paired continuously but handled
as in SP3D (PCH) ; and every third day with a different male (DP3D) . In Experiments
1 and 3, females were introduced into males' cages. Males were introduced in
Experiment 2. In Experiments 1 and 2, the SP1D group laid fewer eggs. The SP1D
and SP3D groups had fewer eggs with embryonic development. More eggs hatched from
PC females than from other groups in both experiments. In Experiment 2, SP3D eggs
had reduced hatchability compared to SP1D and DP1D. In Experiment 3, the SP3D
group had fewer eggs laid, developing, or hatching. In conclusion, when sexes
need to be housed separately, it is better to introduce females to males' cages
on a daily basis and to rotate males among females.

FEMALE INDUCED REPRODUCTIVE INHIBITION OF FEMALE WHITE-FOOTED MICE (PEROMYSCUS
LEUCOPUS NOVEBORACENSIS): VARIABILITY OF RESPONSE BY VIRGINIA MICE. C. R.
Terman, Lab. of End. and Pop. Ecology, Biol. Dept., College of William and Mary,
Williamsburg, Virginia 23185. Previous studies have shown that less than 3% of
female IL L* L* born in a laboratory colony founded by mice trapped near East
Lansing, Michigan, give birth by 150 days of age if, in addition to the male,
an adult female is present. I examined this phenomenon in three experiments
utilizing an outbred laboratory colony founded by adults captured near
Williamsburg, Virginia. These experiments demonstrate that: (1) At least 22%
of females reared from weaning in the presence of an adult bisexual pair re¬
produced by 90 days of age; (2) Females housed for 21-90 days of age with their
parents or with stranger bisexual pairs and the housed with different bisexual
pairs from 90-150 days of age had a significantly (P<0.05) higher parity rate
than those housed with the same pairs (parents or not); (3) Rearing young
females from 21-Q0 days of age with individual adult females resulted in a
significantly (PO.Ql) higher rate of reproduction after pairing with adult
males than if reared alone. (Supported by the Thomas F. and Kate Miller
Jeffress Memorial Trust.

COMPARISON OF ALCIAN BLUE AND COLLOIDAL IRON STAINING OF GLYC0SAMIN0GLYCANS
(GAGs)2IN CHICK EMBRYO LIMBS. 1 Suzanne R. Thornton', Mark Graves# , Arthur F.
Conway , and Carolyn M. Conway , Dept, of Biol., Va. Commonwealth Univ.,
Richmond, VA, and Dept, of Biology, Randolph-Macon Col., Ashland, VA. Eight
day old chick embryo hindlimbs were fixed with buffered paraformaldehyde-
glutaraldehyde with or without Cetylpyridinium Chloride (CPC), dehydrated in
ethanol, and embedded in glycol methacrylate. Sections (2.5 u) were stuined
with either Alcian Blue (for 24 hrs) or Colloidal Iron (for 1 hr) at pH 4.0 for
detection of GAGs. Some sections were pretreated with 0.1% trypsin prior to
staining to determine if protein removal would enhance staining of GAGs. The
ectoderm, basement membrane, mesenchyme, and cartilage extracellular matrix
(ECM) and lacunae were evaluated for intensity of staining. Darker staining of
the cartilage ECM and outer lacunae was obtained with Alcian Blue than with
Colloidal Iron for limbs fixed in the presence of CPC. Trypsin pretreatment of
sections of CPC-fixed material resulted in decreased staining of cartilage ECM
and lacunae while slightly enhancing the staining of the ectoderm, basement
membrane, and mesenchyme. Overall, Alcian Blue produced darker staining of the
ECM whereas Collodial Iron produced more distinct staining of cellular
structures.

62

THE VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

INSULIN HYPOGLYCEMIA RAPIDLY INCREASES PHENYL-ETHANOLAMINE-N-METHYL
TRANSFERASE (PNMT) IN THE RAT BRAIN. S.A. Wagers, T.D. Gbadebo*, J.K.
Stewart*. Dept, of Biology, Virginia Commonwealth Univ., Richmond, Va 23284
Oscillation and immobilization stress, hypertension, and diabetes are
associated with increased PNMT activity in the medulla/pons but not in the
hypothalamus. In this study, male Sprague Dawley rats were sacrificed 4 hours
after a single injection of saline or insulin (10 U/kg body wt., s.c.).

Insulin significantly elevated PNMT activity in the medulla/pons and in the

TISSUE

SALINE

INSULIN

PS

Medulla/pons

0.62 ± 0.08(7)

1.11 ± 0.16(7)

0.05

Hypothalamus

4.3 ± 0.41(9)

7.9 ± 0.64(5)

0.001

Values = mean

± S.E.M. pmol/ (60 min

x mg protein)

The number of

animals is in parentheses.

These findings suggest that insulin hypoglycemia is a potent and rapid
stimulator of PNMT activity in the hypothalamus as well as the medulla/pons.

A METHOD FOR MEASURING RELATIVE INTRACELLULAR AND EXTRACELLULAR ORGANO-
FHJORINES IN CELL CULTURE BY NMR SPECTROSCOPY. G. Clifford Walton. Anne Land,
and Paul H. Mueller, Depts. of Biology and Chemistry, Hampden-Sydney College,
Hampden-Sydney, VA 23943. Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy using 19F
organic compounds has recently been used to determine membrane potentials of
human red blood cells. In this work, the organofluorine trifluoroacetamide,
was used with yeast cells ( Saccharomvces cerevisiae) and mammalian L-929 cells
in culture. Spectra were taken of medium and trifluoroacetamide alone and of
medium, trifluoroacetamide, and cells at various times from time 0 to 40 hours
of both cell types. Dial peaks were observed that are attributed to intra and
extracellular environments of the 19F nuclei in both cell systems, with the
clearer resolution with the yeast cells. An apparatus was devised for growing
the mammalian cells directly in the NMR tube.

PRELIMINARY RESULTS ON THE USE OF THE HORN SHARK AS A TEST ANIMAL IN
CHEMICAL CARCINOGENESIS STUDIES. A.G. Wilson*, P.A. Couvillion*, D.C. Abel, and R.
Barra. Dept, of Biological Sciences, Mary Washington College, Fredericksburg, VA 22401 .
Elasmobranch fishes apparently exhibit a very low incidence of neoplasia compared to both
bony fishes and other, higher vertebrates. Using the horn shark ( Heterodontus francisci)
maintained in a small recirculating seawater system, we tested the tumor protection
hypothesis. We made intraperitoneal injections of either the known hepatocarcinogen
methylmethane sulfonate (MMS; 100 mg kg-1 body wt.) or saline (sham) bi-weekly for up to 6
months. Serum gamma glutamyl transferase (GGT) and alkaline phosphatase (AP) levels
obtained from monthly samples were not significantly different among the experimental
groups and controls. Histological examination of the liver showed uniform parenchymal cells
with distinct nuclei and clear cytoplasm containing large amounts of lipid in a control
whereas the liver of an MMS-treated animal exhibited areas of apparent degeneration with
an infiltration of macrophages and decreased quantities of lipid material. This difference may
involve a toxic rather than carcinogenic effect. Although there are no clear indications of a
carcinogenic effect after 6 months, the results indicate that longer exposure studies at less
toxic levels should be performed. (Supported by the Horsely Cancer Research Fund of the
VAS and Mary Washington College student and faculty development grants.)

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63

Botany

HIGH ELEVATION CONIFEROUS FORESTS IN VIRGINIA. H . S . Adams . Arts and
Sciences, D. S. Lancaster Cmnty. Col., Clifton Forge, VA 24422, & S. L.
Stephenson, Dept, of Biol., Fairmont State Col., Fairmont, WV 26554. Red
spruce ( Picea rubens) , the most characteristic species of the subalpine
coniferous forests which occupy higher peaks and ridges of the Appalachian
system from Maine to Tennessee and North Carolina, has a rather restricted
distribution in the mountains of central and southwestern Virginia. The
approximate lower limit for red spruce in Virginia is 975 m, although well-
developed spruce communities generally do not occur at elevations below 1200
m. Indigenous communities of red spruce exist at no more than about a dozen
localities, and at only two of these (Mount Rogers and White top Mountain) is
the species relatively abundant. Balsam fir ( Abies bal same a ) , commonly
present as a codominant species with red spruce in the northern Appalachians,
reaches its southernmost limit in the Blue Ridge of northern Virginia,
whereas Fraser fir {A. fraseri) , which has a comparable ecological role in
the southern Appalachians, reaches its northernmost limit on Mount Rogers.
Values of basal area and density (stems ^10 cm DBH) reported for these
communities range from 36 to 56 m2/ha and from 390 to 1320 stems per ha,
respectively.

SPATIAL PHYTOPLANKTON RELATIONSHIPS IN THE LOWER JAMES RIVER. Nancy Bland
and Harold G. Marshall, Dept, of Biological Sci . , Old Dominion Univ. , Norfolk,
Va. 23529-0266. Results of a three year study below the fall line indicated
two major regions that were characterized by phytoplankton composition. These
were an oligohaline region dominated by fresh water diatoms and chlorophytes and
a downstream oligo-mesohaline region dominated by estuarine species. There was
a transition downstream of Skeletonema potamos and Cyclotella striata to Skele-
tonema costatum and Cyclotella caspia as dominant flora. Moving downstream
there was a decrease in nutrient levels and phytoplankton abundance, with great¬
est development of seasonal blooms just below the fall line. The picoplankton ,
composed of mainly cyanobacteria, also decreased in abundance downstream.
(Supported by the Virginia State Water Control Board and EPA. )

AN ANALYSIS OF THE SEEPAGE SWAMP COMMUNITIES AT ELKO, WITH COMMENTS
ON SEVERAL RARE PLANTS. Christopher A. Clampitt. Michael L.
Lipford, & J. Christopher Ludwig, Virginia Department of
Conservation and Recreation, Division of Natural Heritage,
Richmond, VA 23219. The Elko area of Eastern Henrico County has
been of interest to botanists for decades because of the assemblage
of mountain/coastal plain disjuncts that occurs in the seepage
swamps. The Commonwealth of Virginia owns 2400 acres in this area,
and over the past few years has been developing a Master Plan for
the tract. As part of preliminary work, Natural Heritage
scientists conducted a study to locate rare species and unique or
exemplary natural communities on the Elko tract in 1989.
Quantitative data were collected on three of the seepage swamps,
with presence data noted for a fourth. Three of the seeps were
acidic, while a fourth was circumneutral . Seven species of rare
plants were identified during the study, six of which inhabit
seepage areas. Of these, three occur within the acidic seepage
swamps, but none grow within the circumneutral one.

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THE UPLAND PLANT COMMUNITIES OF SEASHORE STATE PARK. Christopher
A. Clampitt. Virginia Department of Conservation and Recreation,
Division of Natural Heritage, Richmond, VA 23219. Seashore State
Park is a 2000-acre island of natural habitat surrounded by the
urban portion of Virginia Beach. During 1989, quantitative data
were collected on the plant communities of Seashore. Multivariate
analysis of these data identified eight upland community types:
Foredune ( Ammophila brevilicrulata - Cakile edentula) , Dune
Grassland (Panicum amarulum - Iva imbricaria) , Maritime Grassland
(tJniola paniculata - Panicum amarulum) , Maritime Forest ( Pinus
taeda / Ouercus virginiana) , Mesic Forest ( Pinus taeda / Acer
rub rum / Persea borbonia) , Dune Forest ( Carva spp. - Pinus taeda
/ Svmplocos tinctqria) , Dune Woodland (Pinus taeda / Ouercus nigra
/ Sassafras albidum) , and Dune (Hudsonia tomentosa - Cvperus
gravi) . Several of these community types are rare in the
Commonwealth. The structure, composition, environmental setting
and interrelationships of these communities will be discussed.

ADDITIONS TO THE FLORA OF THE COLLEGE LOODS, COL. OF WILLIAM AND MARY, JAMES
CITY CO., VA. Virginia E. Crouch* & Donna M. E. Ware, Dept, of Biol, Col. of
William and Mary, Williamsburg, Va. 23185. A floristic study of the undevel¬
oped properties of the Col. of William and Mary was conducted in 1989 - 90 to
supplement a previous floristic study of the College Woods completed in 1969.
Approximately 600 species were collected, representing 330 species of which
120 are species newly discovered in the study area. When these are integrated
with the existing list, the total number of species known from the undeveloped
College properties is 672. Sixteen of the newly discovered species are here
first reported for James City Co. , and two are new to the Peninsula. Addi¬
tions to the College Woods flora include Hexalectris spicata, a rare orchid;
Panax quinquefolius , a species listed as threatened in Virginia; and Isotria
medeoloides . an orchid listed federally and by the State of Virginia as en-
dangered. Vegetation was analyzed for 12 stands representing six general for¬
est types in the study area. Four discrete stands having beech as a major
canopy dominant were described, as were representatives of the remaining im¬
portant types of plant communities on the College properties.

WOOD ANATOMY OF FLUEGGEA SUFFRUTICOSA ( EUPHORBIACEAE ) . Jeffrey
Dupree and W. John Hayden, Dept, of Biol., Univ. of Richmond,
Richmond, Va . 23173. Flueggea suf f ruticosa is a species of
understory shrubs widely distributed in temperate eastern Asia
and classified in sect. Flueggea subsect. Geblera . Wood of _F.
suf f rut icosa is characterized by: distinct growth rings; pores
mostly solitary and circular; moderately short vessel elements
with simple perforation plates, moderately inclined end walls,
and alternate intervascular pits; fiber dimorphism, including
many septate libriform fibers with gelatinous walls and scattered
patches of non-septate f iber-tracheids with lignified walls;
homocellular square to erect uniseriate rays; heterocellular
multiseriate and polymerous rays; and axial parenchyma restricted
to a few scanty paratracheal cells. Wood _F . suf f ruticosa differs
from that of F. neowawraea and F . f lexuosa (both of subsect.
Flueggea ) in having more solitary pores, dimorphic fibers, and
strictly circular vessel-ray pits, thus supporting their
classification in separate subsections of the genus.

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65

The Current Status of American Chestnut Research. John Rush Elkins, Chemistry
Department, Concord College, Athens, WV 24701 and Gary J. Griffin, Department
of Plant Pathology, Physiology, and Weed Science, Virginia Polytechnic
Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA 24061.

in its natural setting. The large, surviving trees are probably living
because of a low level of blight resistance which allows time for dsRNA-based
hypovirulence to debilitate the blight fungus. We are attempting to increase
the blight resistance by crossing trees from various locations. We are also
pursuing a biochemical screen for resistance based on the utilization of the
tannins from American chestnut bark as a nutrient source by the blight fungus.

American chestnuts are generally stable as a shrub in the forest
understory but are being lost as they are released in forest clearcuts as a
result of high blight incidence, hardwood competition, and intense animal
browsing. We are evaluating the hypothesis that managing the clearcuts may
lead to an increase in hypovirulence and chestnut survival.

CHANGES IN LAND-USE AND VEGETATION, HAMPDEN-SYDNEY , VIRGINIA. Stanley R.
Gemborvs. Dept, of Biol., Hampden-Sydney Col, Hampden-Sydney, VA 23943. The
land located where Hampden-Sydney College now stands and the surrounding area
has been subject to environmental manipulation since at least before 1776, the
founding date of the College. Since then, the human population of the area
has expanded dramatically and the uses to which the land has been put have
also changed significantly. These changes in population and land-use have led
to the development of plant communities that demonstrate a wide variety of
success ional stages and physiognomy. In order to evaluate the recent changes
that have taken place in these plant communities, I used aerial photographs
supplied by the Soil Conservation Service of the United States Department of
Agriculture. These photos were flown in 1937, 1949, 1972, and 1980. Through
the process of photo- interpretation, I transferred plant community information
on the photographs to an adaptation of a Prince Edward County Tax Map. Among
other findings is that the percentage of open land has decreased from sixty
percent to five percent since 1937.

PHYTOPLANKTON COMPOSITION AND SEASONAL GROWTH PATTERNS IN LAKE DRUMMOND, DISMAL
SWAMP, VA. Christine Gregory-Phi I 1 ips and Harold G. Marshall, Dept, of Biolog¬
ical Sci., Old Dominion Univ. , Norfolk, Va. 23529-0266. A twelve month study
was conducted on the phytoplankton of Lake Drummond with 75 phytoplankton forms
identified. Numerous seasonal pulses occurred throughout the year, with high¬
est cell concentrations occurring during the late fall and winter months. The
pH ranged during this study between 3.5 and 5.0. The most abundant component
was the pico-nanoplankton representing 837o of the total phytoplankton concen¬
trations. This group included primarily cyanobacteria (<3nm) which reached peak
development in November. Asterionella formosa was the most abundant diatom
accounting for 6 % of the total phytoplankton. The Chlorophyceae and Chry-
sophyceae displayed a bimodal pattern of development, with peaks occurring in
the winter and summer months. The Cryptophyceae and cyanobacteria expressed
intense late summer, early fall developmental periods.

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COMPETITIVE "WEED FUNGI" IN SHIITAKE MUSHROOM PRODUCTION IN VIRGINIA. Gonzalo
Guevara and R. Jay Stipes, Dept. Plant Pathol., Physiol. & Weed Sci., Virginia
Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061.

Crop production in VA is in a state of flux, with tobacco production, for ex¬
ample, on a decline in the last decade; therefore, agricultural alternatives
are always desired to fill these gaps, and shiitake (Japanese forest) mushroom
(Lentinus edodes) culture is one of them; mushrooms are grown on artificially
inoculated deciduous hardwood (primarily oak) logs from small woodlots. Some
growers have encountered seriously diminished fruiting life of their logs, and
we are investigating this problem. Our data thus far strongly support our hypo
thesis that shiitake logs cut from weak, suppressed, understory trees and/or
from those on stressful growing sites, or from those growing under droughty
conditions, are already or very quickly colonized by Ascomycetous white rotters
and have very short fruiting life (1-2 yrs) ; those cut from healthy, dominant,
rapidly growing trees on good sites may produce mushroom crops for many years.
Eutypa spvnosa and Graphostroma platystoma have been identified as the most
common "weed fungi" on these logs in the VA Highlands. We therefore recommend
that shiitake farmers use their best and most vigorous trees in mushroom pro¬
duction. (We thank Drs. Dean Glawe, Lois Tiffany and Jack Rogers for counsel)

RAPID MICROPROPAGATION OF BIRCH- Joressia A. Jamison and Michael H.
Renfroe, Department of Biology, James Madison Univ., Harrisonburg, VA 22807.

Birch is an economically important forest tree that is both fast growing and demonstrates a
high tolerance to external stresses such as air pollution. There is a need to propagate those
trees that grow straight, rapidly, are well-formed, and have superior wood quality for
industry. Methods that provide rapid propagation of superior trees are invaluable to the
forest industry in tree improvement programs for birch. Micropropagation could permit
rapid clonal propagation of trees with desirable traits in a smaller amount of space and time.
Nodal explants of European white birch (Betula pendula Roth.) were placed on a
chemically-defined medium supplemented with pM concentrations of several cytokinins.
Bud break occurred after three days of culture and was complete by the eighth day. The
cytokinin requirement for optimum bud break was different than the cytokinin requirement
for optimum shoot elongation. Any culture that produced callus was discarded. Shoots
were excised from the nodes and rooted directly in an artificial soil mix. Up to 100% of the
shoots produced by a given treatment could be rooted. No treatment yielded less than 50%
rooting. Across all treatments, 92% of the nodal explants produced shoots that were
subsequently rooted. Micropropagation using shoot-tip cultures has proved to be an
effective way to clonally propagate selected birch trees.

Euthamia and Solidago: Goldenrods in Virginia. Miles F. Johnson, Dept, of Biol
Va. Commonwealth Univ., Richmond, VA 23284-2012. There are 2 species and 1
variety of Euthamia arid 30 species and 17 subspecific entities of Solidago
making a total of 50 taxa in this treatment of goldenrods in Virginia. Changes
in nomenclature reported in the literature and followed in this study involve
Eh hirtipes, j>. elliottii, SL canadensis, S. curtissii, J3 . boottii, randii
and erecta. Solidago altissimum, based on the work of Uttal, is recognized
as a separate species. New keys to identification and maps of distribution
which reflect changes in nomenclature are included in the study. (Supported by
the VAS Flora Committee and by the Biology Department, Va. Commonwealth Univ.)

ENVIRONMENTAL THREATS TO THE HEALTH OF MONTANE FORESTS IN
NORTHWESTERN VIRGINIA. David M. Lawrence . Graduate Program
in Geographic and Cartographic Sciences, George Mason Univ. ,
Fairfax, Va. 22030. Recent studies of forest decline have
raised the question of how environmental stressors interact
to affect the health of forest ecosystems. I provide an
overview of the major environmental stressors on the health
of montane forests in nortwestern Virginia, and suggest that
additional information on factors affecting forest health
would enhance future studies of forest ecology.

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67

THE VEGETATION OF THE GREAT DISMAL SWAMP. Gerald F. Levy, Dept, of Biological
Sciences, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, Virginia 23529. The vegetation
of the Great Dismal Swamp is recovering from 200 years of anthropogenic dis¬
turbance which included numerous fires, repeated logging operations and pri¬
marily during this century, the construction of over 100 miles of drainage
ditches, many with parallel roads. Most plant communitites consist of second-
or third-growth forest and dense shrub dominated communities that represent a
variety of serai stages. The storied cypress-tupe lo gum swamps, are represent¬
ed by remanents and the extensive Atlantic White Cedar stands have been deci¬
mated. The once common "lights" composed of reeds and aquatic grasses, have
succeeded to red maple dominated communities. In fact, red maple dominates or
is an important component of most community types which can be delimited.

ON THE TRAIL OF FERNALD I. THE SANDHILLS OF THE NOTTOWAY. J.
Christopher Ludwig . Department of Conservation and Recreation,
Division of Natural Heritage, 203 Governor Street, Suite 402,
Richmond, Va. 23219. During the late 1930's and early 1940's,
eminent Botanist, Merritt Lyndon Fernald explored the flora of
Virginia's southeastern corner, looking for new, unusual, and rare
plant species. During these explorations, he described a number
of xeric, sandy areas referred to as sandhills. While much
attention has been given to those areas along the Blackwater River,
little subsequent work had been done along the Nottoway River where
three of these areas were described. Results of exploration into
the Nottoway sandhills flora is presented emphasizing the
occurrence and status of the region's rare plant species.

ANATOMICAL COMPARISON OF WOODY TISSUES OF CHAMAESYCE NUTANS AND
C. HYP ERIC I FOLIA ( EUPHORBIACEAE ) . William McGuire and W. John
Hayden, Dept, of Biol., Univ. of Richmond, Richmond, Va. 23173.
The temperate Chamaesyce nutans and the closely related tropical
C. hypericif ol ia are herbaceous weeds with C^ photosynthesis.
Woody stem bases of both species reveal: pores in radial
alignment; simple perforation plates; fibers with gelatinous
walls; homocellular erect uniseriate, mult iseriate , and
polymerous rays; and the absence of axial parenchyma. The
numerous narrow pores of both species suggest a xylem
construction capable of withstanding xeric conditions, an
observation consistent with their C^ mode of photosynthesis.
Chamaesyce nutans differs from C . hyper icifol ia in terms of
somewhat greater pore density, more variable intervascular pits,
shorter vessel elements, simple (as opposed to bordered) pits on
fibers, and absence of laticifers in rays. Several wood features
suggest paedomorphos is sensu Carlquist, which is consistent with
the hypothesized herbaceous phylogeny of the genus.

PHYTOPLANKTON ASSOCIATIONS IN THE PYCN0CLINE LAYER OF THE LOWER CHESAPEAKE BAY.
Sean Morrison and Harold G. Marshall, Dept, of Biological Sci., Old Dominion
Univ., Norfolk, Va . 23529-0266. During the 1989 summer the phytoplankton com¬

position within the pycnocline layer at two stations in the central region of
the Chesapeake Bay was studied. Comparisons were also made to the abundance
and composition of phytoplankton assemblages above and below the pycnocline.

A distinct pycnocline formed in the lower Chesapeake Bay between April and
August. During this period highest concentrations of the total phytoplankton
occurred in waters above the pycnocline and within the pycnocline. Diatoms,
dinof lage 1 lates , cyanobacteria, chlorophytes , cryptophytes , pras inophy tes ,
euglenophytes , prymesiophytes and the picoplankton tended to be concentrated
either at the pycnocline or in the surface waters. Silicof lagellates and
chrysophytes had varied vertical seasonal distribution patterns.

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PLANT COMMUNITIES OF THE SHENANDOAH NATIONAL PARK. Thomas J.
Rawinski . J. Christopher Ludwig, Div. of Natural Heritage, 203
Governor St., Suite 402, Richmond, VA 23219, and Gary P. Fleming
220 Park Ave., Takoma Park, MD 20912. Shenandoah National Park
provides abundant opportunities for community study due to diverse
vegetation and habitat, and a variety of successional vegetative
conditions. An on-going inventory of the Park's natural heritage
resources has generated new information on rare species occurrences
and plant communities. Plant communities are ideal units of
classification, inventory, and management that not only have
intrinsic value, but also support species too cryptic or poorly
known to be inventoried separately. Thus, community classification
and inventory is an effective "coarse filter" approach to
biological conservation. Communities within the Park can be
classified to a general level using a new hierarchical
classification. Seven Ecological Systems, eight Major Vegetation
Types, and numerous Classes are identified. Input from the
scientific community is sought in refining this classification.

CRY OPRESER V ATION OF PINE ZYGOTIC EMBRYOS. Michael H. Renfroe. Catherine A.
Boyd, Joressia A. Jamison, and D. Kim Kennedy. Dept, of Biology, James Madison Univ.,
Harrisonburg, VA 22807. Conservation and maintenance of wild-type elite germplasm is an
increasingly important issue. Methods need to be found that will preserve selected genotypes for
species preservation or use in plant improvement programs based on selective breeding.
Cryopreservation is a low-maintenance, relatively-inexpensive technique that holds much promise
for germplasm conservation. Zygotic embryos of loblolly pine fPinus taeda L.) were removed
from mature pine seeds and treated with various cryoprotectants alone or in combination.
Cryoprotected embryos were then rapidly frozen by immersion in liquid nitrogen or slowly frozen
by cooling at a controlled rate to -30 C before being transferred to liquid nitrogen. Frozen
embryos were rapidly thawed in a warm water bath and transferred to a sterile culture medium.
Growth of these embryos was compared with growth of embryos which had been treated with
cryoprotectant but not frozen and also with growth of embryos which had not been frozen or
treated with cryoprotectant. Treatment of embryos with cryoprotectant did not adversely affect
growth and development of pines. Cryoprotectants allowed embryos to survive freezing to
-196 C, although some loss of viability was observed. Additional research on cryoprotectant
composition, freezing rates and thawing rates should improve survival of embryos.
Cryopreservation appears to provide a promising method for preserving selected pine germplasm.
(Supported by a JMU Faculty Assistance Grant and VAS Small Project Research Grant.)

WOOD ANATOMY OF ARGYTHAMNIA BLODGETTI I ( EUPHORBIACEAE ) . Trudy
Rickman and W. John Hayden, Dept, of Biol., Univ. of Richmond,
Richmond, Va., 23173. Secondary xylem is described from woody
stem bases of Argy thamnia blodgetti i , an herbaceous perennial
endemic to hammocks and pinelands of tropical Florida. Three
specimens collected on Big Pine Key yield the following wood
structures: growth rings present; porosity diffuse; pores mostly

solitary, circular, and narrow; vessel elements moderately short,
with simple perforations, alternate intervascular pits, and
moderately inclined end walls; f iber-tracheids non-septate, often
with gelatinous walls in latewood; rays homocellular square and
erect, uni- or biseriate, and bearing circular alternate pits to
vessels; axial parenchyma restricted to a few scanty paratracheal
cells. Ecologically, wood of Argythamnia most closely approaches
that of desert shrubs, however, its vessel elements are somewhat
longer and pore density somewhat less than reported average
values for desert shrubs.

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69

Reexamination of the fossil fern Dryopterites . Judith E. Skog, Department
of Biology, George Mason University, Fairfax, VA 22030, and Ronald J.

Li twin, U.S. Geological Survey, MS 970, Reston, VA 22092.

The fossil fern genus Dryopterites was established by Berry in 1911 for
ferns that had been described by Fontaine under the genus Aspidium. These
fossils are from the Lower Cretaceous Patuxent Formation (Potomac Group) of
Virginia. Both Fontaine and Berry indicated that these fossils were related
to the fern family Polypodiaceae , on the basis of gross morphological
characters. Reexamination of these fossils by epoxy casting and SEM reveals
soral, sporangial, and spore characteristics that suggest a systematic
position closer to more primitive fern families. Of the six species
assigned to Dryopterites by Berry, one (D. dentata ) clearly belongs to the
Schizaeaceae . The taxonomic assignments of the other five are less certain,
but several should be reassigned to the Matoniaceae.

UPLAND OAK FORESTS OF THE RIDGE AND VALLEY PROVINCE IN SOUTHWESTERN VIRGINIA.
S. L. Stephenson, Dept, of Biology, Fairmont State Col., Fairmont, WV 26554
and H. S. Adams, D. S. Lancaster Cmnty. Col., Clifton Forge, VA 24422.

Upland forest communities of the Ridge and Valley Province in southwestern
Virginia are usually dominated by various species of oak, of which chestnut
oak (Quercus prinus) and northern red oak (Q. rubra) are the most important.
American chestnut (Castanea dentata), formerly a codominant species in the
tree stratum of these communities, was almost completely eliminated during
the first half of this century by the chestnut blight. Although both chest¬
nut oak and red oak sometimes occur in nearly pure stands, the more common
expression is for an admixture of various other species, including red maple
(Acer rubrum) , hickory (Carya spp.), black oak (Quercus velutina) and white
oak (Q. alba), to be represented in the tree stratum. Throughout the region,
mixed mesophytic communities occur in sheltered ravines and coves, and red
spruce (Picea rub ens) -hemlock (Tsuga canadensis) communities occupy a few
of the most mesic high-elevation sites.

NEW AND UNREPORTED DISEASES OF Betula uber , ROUND LEAF BIRCH (RLB), IN THE MOUNT
ROGERS, VA PROPAGATION PLOTS. R. Jay Stipes, Daniel J. Schweitzer and Marshall
W. Trammell, Jr., Dept. Plant Pathol., Physiol, and Weed Sci., Va Tech, and
Va. Dept. Agriculture and Consumer Services, Richmond, VA.

Two or perhaps three new diseases have been observed on Betula uber , round leaf
birch (RLB) in the Mount Rogers, VA propagation plots* The first is a main
leader (crown) dieback observed in concert with Botrypsphaeria dothidea cankers;
we suspect that cold injury predisposed the tissues to invasion and colonization
This pathogen attacks many woody plants and causes white rot of apple. The sec¬
ond disease is anthracnose that produces tan/brown foliar lesions from which we
isolated Glomerella ctngulata, the cause of anthracnose of Acer platanoides and
bitter rot of apple. The third disease is possibly viral, in which the leaves
exhibit a rugose, crinkled appearance; viral inclusions and Koch ! s postulates
remain to be confirmed by clinical examination and experimentation. All plots
are being indexed for disease, and correlated if possible with environmental
factors. We are also attempting to manage the fungal diseases with fungicides.

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THE NEW DOGWOOD ANTHRACNOSE: IS IT ALL THAT BAD? R. Jay Stipes, Dept. Plant
Pathol., Physiol, and Weed Sci . , Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, V A 24061 .

Dogwood ( Covnus flovida) , as all living organisms, is afflicted with biotic and
abiotic stressors; among the former is the common and mildly (?) debilitating
"spot anthracnose" (Etsinoe oovni) . "Dogwood anthracnose," (="lower branch
dieback") or DA, caused by Biscula sp. , is a lethal and putatively new disease
whose origin is unknown. Its "metastasizing" lesions affect bracts, leaves,
petioles, twigs, branches and ultimately girdle the trunks (boles), unlike any
other known pathogen of dogwood. DA is now known in 19 counties in VA (pri¬
marily in the highlands, with one outlier, Westmoreland Co.); and the disease
appears to flourish at higher elevations characterized by lower temperatures
and higher humidities. Current prognostications are bleak, and DA may well be
as bad as most plant pathologists now perceive it to be. Highly effective dis¬
ease management procedures are now extant, so that individual or small plant¬
ings of trees , (arboreta, cities, homeowners) can be protected adequately with
sanitation and fungicides. We are conducting extensive surveys in VA to de¬
termine both the incidence and severity of DA. Various aspects of disease
biology and management strategies are also being addressed in our laboratory.

SECONDARY XYLEM OF EUPHORBIA LEUCONEURA ( EUPHORBIACEAE ) : WOODY
STEM BASES AND THE TRANSITION TO SUCCULENCE Kyriakos Tarasidis
and W. John Hayden, Dept, of Biol., Univ. of Richmond, Richmond,
Va 23173. Euphorbia leuconeura , native to Madagascar, is often
cultivated for its striking growth habit; slender seedlings
gradually develop a thick 5-sided succulent stem with stipular
fringes along the angles and an apical cluster of leaves. Wood
structure was studied from the terete hypocotyl and compared with
secondary xylem in the transitional and succulent regions. The
wood is diffuse porous; perforation plates are simple;
intervascular pits are mostly transitional; fibers are non-
septate f iber-tracheids ; rays include homocellular and
heterocellular types; most rays are uniseriate; some multiseriate
rays bear laticifers; axial parenchyma is abundant. Transition
from the woody stem base to the succulent region shows a
progressive increase in pore density, slight increase in pore
diameter, and decrease in total xylem area. Despite its
succulent stem, wood structure shows characteristics of desert
shrubs .

DEMOGRAPHIC STUDIES OF THE SMALL WHORLED POGONIA, ISOTRIA
MEDEOLOIDES , IN VIRGINIA. Donna M . EL Ware. Dept, of Biol., Col.
of William and Mary, Williamsburg, VA 23185. Five colonies of
Isotria medeoloides have been monitored for four to seven years.
Two of these appear to be stable, with the number of newly
appearing stems largely offsetting the number of stems failing to
reappear and with flowering stems contining to predominate.

Three other colonies have declined radically in numbers, two
gradually, and one abruptly. The number of stems failing to
reappear in the largest colony has risen gradually from one-third
(49) in 1986 to three-fifths (144) in 1989. Vegetative plants
have continued to predominate in that colony (six years). A
colony with only ten stems in 1986 has dwindled to three stems.
The third colony with diminished numbers took an abrupt nosedive
in 1989 when only 35.3% (6) of the known stems emerged, in con¬
trast to 87.5% (14) in 1988. Three other subpopulations nearby,
which were not closely monitored, also showed similar radical
decreases. In all colonies combined, 14 stems have reappeared
after one year of dormancy and two after two years.

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71

A COMPARISON BETWEEN PIEDMONT AND COASTAL PLAIN UPLAND HARDWOOD
FORESTS IN VIRGINIA. Stewart Ware. Dept, of Biology, Coll, of
William and Mary, Williamsburg, VA 23185.

Both the Piedmont and Coastal Plain of Virginia have usually
been treated as part of the Oak-(Pine)-Hickory Forest Region. A
detrended correspondence analysis ordination was constructed using
51 southern, central, and northern Piedmont and 22 central Coastal
Plain upland hardwood forest stands. While white oak Importance
Value (I.V) exceeded 10% in 88% of stands in both regions, stands
fell into three groups. Coastal Plain stands usually had beech
and/or southern red oak I.V. >10%. Most Piedmont stands (non-
Triassic substrates) had chestnut oak and/or scarlet oak I.V. >10%,
but (northern) Triassic Piedmont sites had hickory I.V. >18% and
little chestnut and scarlet oak. Black oak and northern red oak
were unimportant outside the Piedmont. Upland Coastal Plain
forests have more in common with the Southern Mixed Hardwood
Forests of further south than with the Piedmont hardwood forests.

SPATIAL PHYTOPLANKTON RELATIONSHIPS IN THE LOWER CHESAPEAKE BAY. Traycie West
and Harold G. Marshall, Dept, of Biological Sci., Old Dominion Univ. , Norfolk,
Va. 23529-0266. In a four year study, spatial patterns determined by multi¬
variate data analysis characterized the lower Chesapeake Bay on the basis of the
phytoplankton composition into three regions: 1. a western region that includ¬
ed river estuarine sites, 2. the Bay entrance and eastern bay region, and 3.
the central main stem of the bay. The sub-pycnoc 1 ine waters contained generally
higher and less variable concentrations of cells. There was a decrease in cell
abundance and nutrient concentration west to east in the bay, and along its
north to south axis. Major periods of development were in fall and late winter
to early spring, with the picoplankters , composed mainly of cyanobacteria,
having a major unimodal peak in summer. The dominant flora were ubiquitous,
with seasonal periods of greater concentrations. (Supported by the Virginia
State Water Control Board and EPA. )

RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN THE PETERS MOUNTAIN MALLOW RECOVERY PROGRAM.

Thomas F. Wieboldt , Dept, of Biology, Va. Polytechnic Inst. & State Univ.,
Blacksburg, Va. 24061. Peters Mountain Mallow (Iliamna corei) , a member of the
family Malvaceae, was listed as a federal Endangered Species on June 11, 1986.
The single known wild population of the species has contained only three
plants from 1986 to the present. The population was caged to protect plants
from browsing and monitored during 1986 and 1987. In 1987 seeds were retrieved
from the leaf litter and used to establish an experimental garden on the univer¬
sity campus. These plants produced an estimated 35,000 seeds in 1988 most of
which were used in seed germination experiments. In 1989 the work was further
expanded to include seedling survival, resource allocation, and breeding system
experiments. These are described and illustrated. The species has been deter¬
mined to be an obligate outcrosser. Asynchrony of flowering among the few
individuals in the Peters Mountain population is believed to be the reason for
the lack of seed production. Seed germination requirements (being studied by
Baskin and Baskin at Univ. of Kentucky) and seedling survival studies at VPI
will help to explain the lack of recruitment to the population and to formulate
a longterm management plan for the species.

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THE HABITAT AND DISTRIBUTION OF SWEETBAY ( Magnolia virqiniana L. ) IN
THE CENTRAL VIRGINIA PIEDMONT. Robert A. S. Wriqhtf Central Va.
Biological Research Consortium, 5204 Riverside Drive, Richmond, Va.
23225.

Magnolia springheads are unquestionably the most diverse and in¬
teresting wetland plant communities in the relatively barren cen¬
tral piedmont of Virginia. Known piedmont populations of Magnolia
virqiniana have been located, and their county-by-county distribu¬
tion have been mapped through herbarium studies and exhaustive
field work.

Magnolia virqiniana is very localized in central Virginia and popula¬
tions are confined to wooded, small-tributary headwater seepage
swales, sluggish watercourses and swampy banks and wet, poorly-
drained Triassic basin sediments. The relationship of localized
sweetbay populations in the central piedmont to stream drainage
direction may suggest important clues to the ancient plant mi¬
gration patterns that have fashioned Virginia's current floristic
composition .

FLORISTICS AND ASSOCIATED GEOMORPHIC ORIGINS OF A RELICT COASTAL
PLAIN SPRINGHEAD AT ROBIOUS, NORTHERN CHESTERFIELD COUNTY,
VIRGINIA. Robert A. S. Wright , Central Va. Biological Research
Consortium, 5204 Riverside Drive, Richmond, Virginia 23225.

At the drainage head of Spring Creek in northern Chesterfield
County near the community of Robious is found a most intriguing
cold-water magnolia swamp containing a highly diverse wetland
plant association which includes a number of chiefly coastal
plain elements. This springhead "bog" is situated on an ancient
stream terrace deposit known as the "Bon Air Gravel", and is sev¬
eral miles west of the "Fall Line". With the help of geologist
colleagues, an effort to estimate the age of the deposit is made
here, and this is correlated to the approximate age of the relict
vegetation found at the station. Interesting floristic elements
include Dryopteris celsa (historically), Lycopodium lucidulum,
Smilax laurifolia, Smilax walteri, Maianthemum canadense, Lilium
superbum, Hypericum walteri and a number of other species.

THE HOWERTON BOG, AN EXEMPLARY SPHAGNOUS MAGNOLIA SWAMP COMPLEX IN
ESSEX COUNTY, VIRGINIA. Robert A. S. Wright, Central Va . Biological
Research Consortium, 5204 Riverside Drive, Richmond, Va. 23225.

At the headwaters of a short, sluggish tributary of Dragon Run
near the community of Howertons in Essex County Virginia is an
exceptional example of a sphagnum bog community on the coastal
plain. A pristine quaking bog and associated magnolia swamp of
this quality are exceedingly rare on Virginia's landscape, and an
effort to study and inventory its flora have been made. The rare
and local flora found thus far include Carex collinsii , Carex lep-
talea, Eleocharis tortilis, Eriophorum virginicum. Aster novi-
belgii, Habenaria cristata, Drosera rotundifolia, and Sarracenia
purpurea . Conspicuously missing is Smilax laurifolia. Natural
Resource Managers are encouraged to explore the acquisition po¬
tential of the site, and researchers and educators are encouraged
to continue the study of this wonderful sphagnum bog.

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73

Chemistry

METHODS FOR DETERMINING FUEL INSTABILITY. Erna J. Beal* and Dennis R. Hardy*,
Code 6181, Navy Technology Center for Safety and Survivability, Naval Research
Lab., Washington, D.C. 20375-5000. As available petroleum crudes continue to
decrease in quality and the amount of catalytically cracked stock used in middle -
distillate fuels increases, fuel instability is becoming a greater problem. Fuel
instability is usually defined by the formation of insoluble sediments and gums.
Gravimetric stability tests conducted at lower temperatures are generally the
best indicators of storage stability of a particular fuel but require storage at
43 °C for up to 24 weeks. The widely used higher temperature test, 16 hr. stress
at 90°C with oxygen bubbling through the fuel, is not a good predictor of
stability of freshly refined fuels. Also the total amount of sediment formed is
very low and is hard to quantify. A new method, utilizing an oxygen
overpressure of 100 psig for a 16 hr stress period at 90°C, has been developed
at the Naval Research Lab. This method is predictive for up to three years of
ambient storage, and is rapid and very precise. Results obtained using this new
oxygen overpressure method will be presented, along with comparison results from
the other standard tests.

HIGH HEATING RATE PYROLYSIS KINETICS 0F__A CARBON FIBER REINFORCED
PHENOLIC RESIN. M. E. Boyle* Chem. Div., Naval Res. Lab.,
Washington, DC 20375, R. F. Cozzens, Chem. Div., Naval Res. Lab.,
Washington, DC 20375, and Dept, of Chem., George Mason Univ.,
Fairfax, VA 22030, & J. A. McPherson* SFA, Inc., Landover, MD
20785. Recent increases in the use of high performance composite
materials under harsh thermal conditions have generated interest
in the degradation processes which occur when these materials are
heated at high heating rates (> 10,000 K/sec). The pyrolysis
kinetics of a carbon fiber reinforced phenolic resin composite have
been investigated as a function of heating rate (from 0.167 K/sec
to 30,000 K/sec). Kinetic modeling parameters derived from these
investigations have been used to accurately reconstruct sample
thermograms. The unique high heating rate instrument which was
constructed for this study will also be described.

"CAP" (GpppN) ANALOGS AS SUBSTRATES OR INHIBITORS FOR (GUANINE-7)-METHYL-
TRANSFERASE. Mark A. Brundeae and Thomas O. Sitz, Dept, of Biochemistry, Virginia Tech,
Blacksburg, VA 24061-0308. Most eucaryotic mRNAs must be capped and methylated to
function properly in processing and translation. One position that is methylated is at the 7-
position on the guanine in the cap structure (7mGpppN— ). When the enzyme that modifies
this position, the (guanine-7)-methyltransferase is incubated with various cap analogs, GpppG
was found to be a substrate. Another analog, GpppA, was not a substrate but could activate the
enzyme when incubated together with GpppG as a substrate. RNA fragments such as oligomers of
cytidylic acid were also found to be activators when GpppG was used as a substrate. Fragments
of RNA such as CpCpCpCpCp and the cap analog GpppA appear to bind in the RNA domain of the
enzyme and allow the enzyme to bind the substrate GpppG with a lower Km.

THE FLEXIBILITY OF A-DNA. Holly H. Chen*, Dept, of Chem., George Mason Univ.,
Fairfax, Va. 22030. The flexibility of random sequence A-DNA has been inves¬
tigated by the technique of transient electric birefringence. Rotational re¬
laxation times which are very sensitive to changes in the end-to-end length of
polymers are determined from the field free birefringence decay curves of
three defined fragments. They contain 370, 460, and 676 base pairs. The A-DNA
conformation was induced in these fragments by 85$ trifluoroethanol. Measure¬
ments were made at salt conditions, ranging from 0.2 mM Na+ to 2 mM Na+, at
20°C. The relaxation time was found to be independent of the salt concentra¬
tions studied. From the birefringence relaxation times of the three fragments
of DNA , the persistence length was found to be around 900A, using the method
described by Hagerman and Zimm [Biopolymers 29, 1481-1502 (1982)]. This im¬
plies that the A-form of DNA is twice as rigid as the B-form under the same
conditions of ionic strength and temperature. A-form DNA, if present during
biological functioning, would considerably inhibit bending and therefore pro¬
vide strange signals for reproductive events.

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THE VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

SOLVENT AND ELECTROLYTE EFFECTS IN ELECTRON TRANSFER REACTIONS OF BI S ( PYRI DYL ) -
DITHIAETHER-COPPER(II) COMPLEXES. Keith M. Davies*and K. H. Whyte*, Dept, of
Chemistry, George Mason University, Fairfax, Va., 22030. Electron Transfer
reactions of bis(2-pyridyl )-dithiaether copper(II) complexes have been studied
m acetonitrile, methanol, acetone, DMSO, and water with ferrocene as reduct
ant. Rate effects are examined in terms of the association of donor solvents
with the Cu(II) center. Specific anion rate dependencies observed in acetonit¬
rile with CF-^CCL’ and BF." as electrolytes are discussed in terms of inner-
sphere association and outer-sphere ion-pairing interactions respectively.
Equilibrium constants for the redox chahge have been determined electrochem-
ically m' the different solvent and electrolyte media, and Cu ( I )-Cu (II)
self-exchange electron transfer rate constants have been estimated for the
different paths.

MAQUIROSIDES B AND C, CARDENOLIDES FROM MAQUIRA CALOPHYLLA. Kenneth E. Davis. Joan M.
Rovinski, Gregory L. Tewalt, and Albert T. Sneden, Department of Chemistry, Virginia
Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA 23284-2006.

In 1987, the activity-guided fractionation of Maquira calophylla (Moraceae), a plant from Peru,
led to the isolation and characterization of maquiroside A, a novel cardenolide. The sugar portion of
this cardenolide was identified as D-cymarose, an unusual 2,6-dideoxy sugar. The aglycone moiety
was identified as cannogenol, a relatively rare aglycone. Two additional cardenolides, maquirosides
B and C, have now been isolated from M. calophylla. The structures of these cardenolides were
elucidated through the use of 1H and 2-D homonuclear correlation (COSY) NMR spectra. The
carbohydrate moiety was again determined to be D-cymarose, but the aglycone of both compounds
was found to be cannogenin. The difference between the two compounds is found in the
stereochemistry of the anomeric carbon in the carbohydrate moiety. From this data, maquiroside B
was determined to be apocannoside, a cardenolide more commonly found in certain plants of the
Apocynaceae family. Maquiroside C, however, appears to be a new cardenolide. In addition to these
two cardenolides, the aglycone of maquiroside A, cannogenol, was also isolated and shown to be a
natural product, not an artifact of the isolation procedure.

(Supported by a grant from the Jeffress Trust.)

THE METHANOL-HELIUM INTERMOLECULAR POTENTIAL, Stephen L. Davis* and William R.
Entley*, Chemistry Department, George Mason University, Fairfax, Va. 22030.

An interaction potential for the methanol-He system was calculated, consisting
of an SCF part joined to a long-range dispersion contribution. The SCF part
was computed at separations between 4 and 8 bohrs on a grid of 112 or 202
values of the angular coordinates, depending on the methanol conformation.

The methanol geometry was taken from Lees and Baker. The basis was a double
zeta set augmented with one set of polarization functions on each atom. The
superposition error was treated using the ghost orbital method. The conforma¬
tion dependence was handled using a phase shift approximation which was found
to give good agreement with computed SCF interaction energies. For a given R
and conformation, the angular dependence was fitted to an expansion in spheri¬
cal harmonics in which the coefficients are in general complex. Inclusion of
all terms through 1=12 gives an excellent fit, with m=0 or 3 terms dominating.
The conformation dependence was then fitted to a Fourier series in three-fold
multiples of the internal rotation angle. It is found that only the m=3 coef¬
ficients have appreciable conformation dependence. A comparison with the site-
site interaction potential of Billings shows substantial differences in the
anisotropy.

THE VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

75

NMR STUDIES OF THE INTERACTION OF PARAMAGNETIC LANTHANIDE(III)
MACROCYCLES WITH LEWIS BASES. K. K. Fonda and L. M. Vallarino,
Department of Chemistry, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia
23284.

The interaction of uncharged N-donor ligands with macrocyclic complexes of formula
ML(CH3COO)^Cl- n(I^O), where M is a lanthanide(III) ion and L is the macrocyclic
ligand C^H^Ng, has been investigated in solution by nuclear magnetic resonance
spectroscopy and luminescence titration studies. Both experiments, conducted in
methanol, indicate little or no interaction of the nitrogen ligand with the metal center
of the macrocyclic complex. Attempts to isolate a 1,10-phenanthroline complex of the
Eu-macrocycle produced instead the carbonato-bridged species ([(CH3COO)EuL[,(/z-
C03)f, which incorporated atmospheric carbon dioxide. The crystal structure of this
species showed a bis-chelating carbonato group linking the two Eu macrocycles, which
were folded in a butterfly configuration toward the external bidentate chelating acetates.
Ionic hydroxides and clathrated water completed the structure.

ENHANCED PRECONCENTRATION TECHNIQUES USED TO STUDY THE GEOCHEMICAL
FATE OF PESTICIDES IN SURFACE WATERS. Gregory D. Foster, Dept, of Chem., George
Mason Univ., Fairfax, VA 22030, & Paul M. Gates, U.S. Geological Survey, Arvada, CO
80002. Information on water quality and the environmental fate pathways of pesticides
in riverine systems is often based on the results of GC/MS analysis. Because detection
limits are not low enough in the most routine analytical methods, enhanced
preconcentration techniques such as continuous-flow lquid-liquid extraction (CFLLE) and
high capacity solid-phase extraction (HCSPE) were developed for the purpose of
measuring pesticides in stream waters. Recoveries of 37 pesticides were compared by
using both CFLLE and HCSPE upon fortification of 10-L stream water samples with 10
ng/L of each pesticide. Mean recoveries using CFLLE were 85% for the organochlorines,
101% for the organophosphates, and 87% for the triazines; corresponding recoveries
using HCSPE were 88%, 89%, and 83%, respectively. Precision in recovery results could
be related to preconcentration technique and matrix-related effects.

MODIFICATIONS OF POLYHYDROXY POLYMERS FOR DRUG DELIVERY, L. Mark
Hodges. Raphael M. Ottenbrite, Dept, of Chem,. Va. Commonwealth
Univ., Richmond, Va. 23284. Present topical applications of drugs
to the eye are unsatisfactory for of opthalmic therapy. Eye drops
and ointment administrations are rapidly diluted and removed from
the absorption surface by reflex blinking, tearing, and tear-
turnover. Consequently, pharmaceutical laboratories are currently
looking at modified polymers for use in drug controlled release
studies. The objective of this study is to modify polymers such
as hydroxyethyl cellulose and polyvinyl alcohol with hydrocarbon
chains of various lengths by means of ester linkages. Acetate,
hexanoate, and stearate ester groups were attached to both polymer
systems by reacting the respective acid chlorides with the polymer.
The polymers were purified by repeated precipitations from CHC13
with divinyl ether. The degree of loading of these ester groups,
which ranged from 1-30%, was determined with a 300 MHz 1H NMR
spectrometer.

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THE VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

VAPOR / LIQUID EQUILIBRIA OF MICROEMULSIONS. Abul Hussam* and Mark Hixon\

Dept, of Chemistry, George Mason Univ. , Fairfax, VA 22030.

A computer controlled headspace gas chromatograph (HSGC) was developed to
study the thermodynamics of microemulsion formation. The sampling precision of
the HSGC was found to be <0.5% relative standard deviation for a solute
concentration of >20 pmole fraction in most solvents and microemulsions.
Activity, Henry’s constant (K), and activity coefficient (^r) of octane,
decane, and toluene were measured in microemulisons containing either CTAB or
C18DMB as the surfactant, n-butanol as the cosurfactant, and NaBr as the
electrolyte. The activity data were used to define the critical microemulsion
concentration. The activity of decane in CisDMB microemulsions as a function
of volume fraction of decane showed two phase transition points. The
nonlinearity of K values as a function of volume fraction of toluene in CTAB
microemulsions was explained in terms of oil partitioning in bulk water, the
interface, and the droplet core. A relatively high y values ( > 10 ) of octane
suggests that the droplet core is somewhat polar. The size of the droplets in
CisDMB microemulsions was found to be a linear function of the activity of
decane over a limited decane volume fraction. (Supported by a ACS-PRF grant
from the American Chemical Society).

PREPARATION AND EVALUATION OF PRODRUGS. Kivoshi Iwamoto . Raphael
M. Ottenbrite, Bart vant Riet, Stanley R. Webb, Dept, of Chem. , Va.
Commonwealth Univ., Richmond, Va. 23284. Didox(3 , 4 -dihydroxy -
benzohydroxamic acid) , a new anticancer drug, recently entered
human clinical trials. The data from phase I study indicated that
the half-life of the drug in serum was less than 20 minutes. The
goal of this project is to enhance the therapeutic efficacy by
preparing pro-drugs of didox which would generate didox in vitro
in a sustained mode by bio-transformation within the body. In this
study, we have prepared several precursor compounds of didox with
low molecular weight groups attached (acetyl, isobutyl, and
pivaloyl groups) and a didox-polymer conjugate (a polymeric
prodrug) . The biological assays using mice with the L1210 leukemia
indicated that the precursor compounds as well as the polymeric
prodrug provided significant antitumor activity.

FORMATION OF SULFIDIC LAYERS ON COPPER SURFACES WHEN EXPOSED TO
HYDROCARBONS CONTAINING ELEMENTAL SULFUR. Eerik Maandi* and John
Schreifels*, George Mason University, Fairfax, VA 22030 and Jerry
Weers* , Petrolite Co., 369 Marshall Ave. , St. Louis, MO 63119.

The general mechanism of corrosion and growth of films on copper
surfaces, when exposed to hydrocarbon fuels containing elemental
sulfur, was studied in terms of composition, thickness and rate
of growth. The time dependent growth of these films was studied
using Auger electron spectroscopy along with standard ion
sputtering techniques. It was found that the thickness of the
films increased rapidly with increasing exposure to the corrosive
fuel for short exposures, while for long exposures the thickness
increased slowly. This behavior was shown to obey the parabolic law
that is used to describe oxide film growth in air. The relative
amount of sulfur in a layer directly beneath a thin hydrocarbon
overlayer was found to increase with time.

ALUMINOSILICATE STABILITIES UNDER BLOOD PLASMA CONDITIONS. R. Bruce Martin,
Chemistry Dept., Univ. of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22903. Up to 20%
each of aluminum and silicon co-reside as aluminosilicates in the cores of
senile plaques found extracellulary in the victims of Alzheimer's disease.

This paper shows that under conditions prevailing in the blood plasma, the
free AU+ concentrations permitted by six aluminosilicates (6-lOOxlO"1 4M) are
competitive with those from citrate and transferrin at 10 yM or greater total
aluminium concentrations. With equilibria in a competitive range, kinetic
effects play a significant role. Aluminosilicates probably form at bound A1 +
sites bathed in a silicic acid-containing fluid.

THE VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

77

A miBOM SUBSTITUTED LADDER POLYMER AND ITS ERECURSOR. J.S» Mee & Robert
V. Honeydhudk, Dept, of Chan. , George Ffason Univ. , Fairfax, VA 22030. Two
new polymeric materials have been synthesized via the condensation of
2 , 5-ditihloro-3 , 6-djjneteoxybenzoquinone and 1,2,4,5-tetraamiixbenzene. The
first is a soluble polymer vSiidh is thought to be linear in nature. The
second is an insoluble material which my have a ladder structure. The
infrared and nuclear magnetic resonance spectra of these materials will be
discussed, as will their use in degenerate four wave mixing. Fabrication
of these substances into forms amenable to the third order nonlinear
optical measurements will be presented. [Research supported by the
ONT/DEW Hardened Ifeterials Block FTogram at Naval Research Laboratory,
Washington, D.C. ]

SYNTHESIS OF THE N - GLUCURONIDE CONJUGATES OF BARBITAL AND PHENOBARBITAL. S. E .
Mongraln* and W. H. Seine, Dept. of Med. Chem. , Va. Commonwealth Univ.,
Richmond, Va. 23298. In man, N»glucose conjugation has been proven to be a
significant pathway for the metabolism of barbiturates following oral
administration. To determine if N-glucuronide conjugation is also a metabolic
pathway for barbiturates, it was desirable to have synthetic conjugates for use
in metabolite identification and as analytical standards. Two approaches to
the synthesis of the barbiturate-/3-D-glucuronides were evaluated: oxidation

of the barbiturate glucoside to the glucuronide, and direct conjugation of the
barbiturate to glucuronic acid. The selective protection and deprotection of
the glycoside necessary for oxidation to the glucuronide were unsuccessful.
Direct condensation of the persilylated barbiturate with methyl-1, 2 , 3 ,4-tetra-
0- acetyl -/i-D-gXucuronate using trimethylsilyl triflate gave the protected
barbiturate N-glucuronide in excellent yield. The conjugates were subjected to
alkaline hydrolysis with sodium methoxide in methanol to give the barbiturate -
/LD -methyl glucuronates . (Supported by NIH grant GM 34507.)

'THE CHEMISTRY OF SHALE DERIVED FUELS. George W. Mushrush and Gregory D.
Lacy, Department of Chemistry, George Mason University, Fairfax, VA.
22030. There are many obstacles to the use of middle distillate fuels
derived from western oil shale crudes. One of the significant and
undesirable changes noted in shale-derived middle distillate fuels is the
formation of solids with increasing time in storage. Deposit formation in
fuels is triggered by autoxidation reactions and can be related to the
concentration of active oxygen species i.e. J hydroperoxides. Chemical
characterization of these deposits indicated that they are not simple
polymers, but are formed by interactive reactions involving many of the
trace heteroatom components present in these unstable fuels. This paper
will examine the interactive effects of various polar nitrogen hetero-
cycles with hydroperoxides.

SYNTHESIS OF p - ALKOXY YINYLPHOSPHONIUM SALTS; A STUDY OF THEIR REACTIVITY IN MICHAEL-
TYPE REACTIONS. Bradley K. Norwood and Suzanne M. Ruder, Department of Chemistry, Virginia
Commonwealth University, Box 2006, Richmond, Virginia, 23284.

As part of a study directed towards construction of cyclopropyl triphenylphosphonium salts,
compounds of the general structure 1 have been synthesized. We have explored the use of these p-
alkoxy vinylphosphonium salts as potential Michael acceptors under a variety of conditions.

+ Br ~

0

+

EtBr

1

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THE VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

M ETHYLATION INHIBITORS: IMPACT ON "CAP" M ETHYLATION AND TUMOR CELL GROWTH. Keith
A. Oxenrider and Thomas O. Sitz, Dept, of Biochemistry, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061-
0308. Most eucaryotic mRNAs must be modified prior to processing and translation. One of
these modifications is the addition of a 5'-cap structure (GpppN— ). This cap structure is
further modified by methylation of the guanine, producing 7mGpppN— . Most of the mRNA
isolated from normal rat kidney (NRK) cells grown in culture contains this modified structure.
RNA isolated from the post-polysomal supernate of NRK cells treated with the adenosine analog
neplanocin A (a possible antitumor agent) was found to be a substrate for the (guanine-7-)-
methyltransferase. The RNA from treated cultures had three times the methyl-accepting
capacity of RNA isolated from control cultures. Another analog, 3-deazaneplanocin A showed
identical results. The (guanine-7-)-methyltransferase has a low Ki value for the product, S-
adenosylhomocysteine (SAH). These adenosine analogs inhibit the SAH-hydrolase enzyme and
cause SAH to be elevated in the treated cells. Therefore, contrary to other reports, neplanocin A
does inhibit cap methylation in tissue culture cells.

SYNIHESIS AND PYROLYSIS OF ALKYLPYRIDINES DERIVED FROM FOSSIL FUEL SOURCES.
Wavne M. Stalick. Shadan Shirkhodai and Farahnaz Malek-Gilani, Department of
Chemistry, George Mason University, Fairfax, VA 22030. An important current
goal in chemistry is to develop a better understanding of the decomposition
pathways of alternate fuel sources such as oil shale and coal. Recently a
number of studies have been made demonstrating that studies of model compounds
can give good extrapolations to the natural product. Alkylpyridines have been
identified as major constituents of oil shale and lower rank bituminous and
lignite coals, however, no comprehensive study of the thermal properties of
these compounds has been made. The project goal is to determine the breakdown
parameters of these models and to elucidate the mechanism of free radical
cleavage under typical pyrolytic conditions, thus establishing correlations
to the liquefaction of certain coals and oil shale. The current study reports
on the progress of the synthesis of model alkylheteroaromatic compounds and
the initial pyrolysis results of the pure compounds under delayed coking condi¬
tions. The synthesis of a number of alkylpyridines has been achieved using a
modified Brown and Murphey synthesis and characterization accomplished by ir,
nmr, and GC/MS.

ADHESION - RELATED SURFACE CHEMISTRY FEATURES OF SOLID SUBSTRATES. Laura
Sporakowski & J. P. Wightman, Dept, of Chem. , Va. Polytechnic Inst. & State
Univ., Blacksburg, VA 24061. Adhesion is an interdisciplinary phenomenon which
includes synthetic polymer chemistry, polymer characterization and surface or
interfacial chemistry. Adhesive bonding is being increasingly used in a number
of industries including the construction of aircraft and buildings. The
objective of the present work was to characterize the surfaces of several
materials having application in adhesive bonding. Samples of marble, polyester,
carbon fiber/polymer matrix composite and Ferrotype plates were used as
substrates. The sample surfaces were pretreated in several different ways and
analyzed by contact angle and x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). The
wettability of composite, polyester, and Ferrotype plate, as determined from
contact angle measurements, significantly increased after a 1 minute exposure to
an oxygen plasma. Plasma treatment of marble removes a hydrocarbon-like
contamination layer resulting in a shift in the C Is XPS photopeaks and a
reduction in the carbon content of the marble surface. [Research supported by
the Adhesive and Sealant Council and the NSF S&T Center]

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79

NEW BISMALEIMIDES FOR THERMALLY-STABLE POLYIMIDES, Fang Sun. Joseph
Smith, Jr., Raphael Ottenbrite, Dept, of Chem. , Va. Commonwealth
Univ. , Richmond, Va. 23284. Polyimides are one of the most
important engineering materials available and are referred to as
"high-performance materials" because of their excellent stability
in high temperature-related applications. Synthetically, there are
several routes to prepare these polymers. In our laboratory, we
have been developing polyimides, via Diels Alder type condensation
polymerization, with the combined advantages of high thermostabil¬
ity and facile melt-processibility without elution of volatile by¬
products . We have designed and prepared a series of different
bisdienes, as well as prepared polymers with commercially available
bismaleimides. We have also successfully synthesized several new
kinds of bismaleimides with good mechanical properties which are
being evaluated.

THE PREPARATION OF POTENTIAL POLYMERIC DRUG CARRIERS. Stephen C.
Thompson. Raphael M. Ottenbrite, Dept, of Chem., Va. Commonwealth
Univ., Richmond, Va. 23284. Over the past twenty years there has
been a great deal of research devoted towards the development of
polymeric drug carriers. In this work, copolymers of maleic
anhydride and activated esters of acrylic acid derivatives were
synthesized to be evaluated as potential drug carriers. The maleic
anhydride monomer functionalizes the polymer backbone so as to give
control over the solubility. The activated ester groups serve as
a site for the attachment of compounds pendant to the polymer chain
such as drugs, targeting groups and labeling moieties. The N-
hydroxysuccinimide ester of N-acryloyl-4-aminobutyric acid provided
a 1:1 copolymer with maleic anhydride. The molecular weight was
controlled by changing the initiator and monomer concentrations.
A molecular weight series ranging from 9,000-40,000 was developed.
Fluorescein amine was used as a fluorescent tag and attached to the
polymer chain at the succinimide ester site. A pentapeptide was
attached to the polymer and is being evaluated as a potential cell
binding moiety.

Education

LANGUAGE-ORIENTED LEARNING CYCLE: A FRAMEWORK FOR SCIENCE LEARNING.
George E. Glasson & Rosary V. Lalik*, Va. Polytechnic Inst. & State Univ., Blacksburg, Va.
24061-0313. The language-oriented learning cycle is an instructional model that involves
students in constructing science knowledge through concept exploration, clarification and
elaboration activities. This model was developed as part of the Reading to Learn in Science
Education (RTL/SE) Project funded by the Virginia Department of Education. During the past
two years, we worked with six teacher associates and two teacher journalists as they reflected
on their instructional beliefs and analyzed their teaching while working to apply this hands-on
approach to science teaching. Data from teacher and student reponses were collected
throughout the duration of the project and analyzed to understand conceptual development.
During the spring of 1990, four of the teacher associates conducted workshops using the
language-oriented learning cycle as a framewok for science teaching with 13 new teacher
participants. During June of 1990, the project staff will host a RTL/SE Leadership Conference
for teachers from school divisions in southwest Virginia. Conference particiapnts will attend
presentations, workshops and discussions about this method of teaching.

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FACTORS AFFECTING THE ALTERNATIVE SCIENCE CONCEPTS OF
SECONDARY STUDENTS. Edgar D. Morris*. Thomas G. Teates, & George E.
Glasson, Va. Polytechnic Inst. & State Univ., Blacksburg, Va. 24061—0313.

The purposes of this study were to characterize the physical science
conceptions held by students in two kinds of school populations and to
determine what variables might predict these students' knowledge of physical
science concepts. The predictor variables assessed included formal reasoning
ability, prior knowledge of science, grade level, experience in science courses
and gender. The results of the study revealed noted differences between
sample means of the two populations. A regression analysis of each sample
population indicated those independent variables that made significant
contributions to predicting these students' knowledge of physical science
concepts. In the rural sample, science achievement, gender and formal
reasoning ability were the statistically significant independent variables. In the
governor school sample, formal reasoning ability and grade were the
statistically significant independent variables.

TEACHING AND LEARNING THROUGH BAHAMIAN FIELD EXPERIENCES. Verma H. Rivers,

Dept, of Biol., Lynchburg College, Lynchburg, Va. 24501. Field experiences
are claimed to be one of the better means of learning for students. Students
were taught Coral Reef biology in the Bahamas. They spent from 8:30 A.M. till
4:30 P.M. in the water observing the life of the reefs. Students could
snorkle- or scuba dive. They studied the ecology of the reef, plants,
geology of the Island, and the caves on the Island. In the evenings from
7:00 P.M. till 10:00P.M., they wrote their journals, keyed out the organisms
into genius and species, and attended lectures in the field station lab. The
finality of the course on the island after 10 days was a lab practical.

The students return to campus on mainland and are given time to write their
journals, which are turned in within two weeks. From this intensive,
concentrated study of coral reef environments students learned 95% of the
material covered. The culmination of the course is a Bahamian party at the
Professors home to share slides, pictures, and relive the stay in San Salvador.

CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CLASSROOM - WHAT IS THE COST OF EMPOWERMENT?

THOMAS G. TEATES, Div. of Curriculum and Instruction, Va. Polytechnic Institute
and State Univ., Blacksburg, VA 24061. With increasing frequency the empowerment
of teachers is being reported in the literature as a desirable outcome best
approached through a shift from a positivist epistomology to one characterized
as radical constructivist. Work reported by theorists and researchers such as
von Glasersfeld, Tobin and Wheatley suggests that this shift in the basic
framework from which teachers view their professional responsibilities and
structure their curriculum and instructional activities will require serious,
honest, and thorough rethinking of their roles.

A PROTOTYPE COMPUTER NETWORK FOR USE WITH LARGE CLASSES.
Frederick Hartline & George R. Webb. Dept, of Physics and Computer Science,
Christopher Newport College, Newport News, VA 23606. A prototype asymmetric
computer network for use in large classes has been developed and tested in a joint effort by
COMTEK and Christopher Newport College. This network and its attendant software,
together called CLASSTALK, have had a profound effect, changing the usually passive
atmosphere in large classes to one in which participation and active learning are
predominant. Studies conducted over a three-semester period in an introductory physics
course show that to 80% of the students the use of CLASSTALK increased then-
understanding of the subject.

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81

MICROCOMPUTER-BASED DIAGNOSIS AND REMEDIATION OF SIMPLE ARISTOTELIAN
ALTERNATIVE CONCEPTIONS OF FORCE AND MOTION. Herman G. Weller*. Div. of Curriculum
and Instruction, Col. of Education, Virginia Tech., Blacksburg, Va. 24061. Science students often bring
naive models of the natural world to the classroom which can be resistant to traditional methods of
teaching. If both the teacher and the student are unable to detect and change these conceptions, the
ability of the student to learn may be seriously impeded. A solution to this instructional dilemma would
be to devise a method which a teacher could use to determine whether such naive models, or altermtive
conceptions , are held by a student and, if so, help the student to develop a plausible conception more in
line with the scientific viewpoint to replace each alternative conception. The author is investigating
such a method: A microcomputer-based system for the diagnosis and remediation of Aristotelian alterna¬
tive conceptions held by 8th-grade physical science students. First, three conceptions have been chosen
which follow directly from Aristotle's Physica. Second, structured interviews, similar to R. J. Osborne’s
"Interviews about Instances", have been conducted with a small sample of students. The interview data
indicated that 8th-grade science students, weak as well as strong learners, are likely to possess one or
more of these conceptions. Third, several weeks after they had covered force and motion in their science
class, over 85% of the 8th grade students tested at a suburban middle school were diagnosed by the micro¬
computer program as possessing one or more alternative conceptions. Of the students with the alternative
conceptions, the ones who worked through the two microcomputer simulations were found afterward to
have a significantly lower number of the alternative conceptions than the students who did not.

Engineering

NON-LINEAR ANALYSIS OF THE INTERACTION OF A BUNCHED ELECTRON BEAM
AND THE FIELDS OF A REENTRANT CAVITY IN A HIGH POWER MICROWAVE
AMPLIFIER. Raef Alkhayat * , ECE Dept., George Mason University,
Fairfax, Va. 22030. An experiment is being carried out at GMU to
study a new concept of microwave generation that uses transverse
modulation instead of the conventional longitudinal modulation.
This paper involves a non-linear analysis of the interaction of a
bunched beam and the fields of a reentrant cavity. Starting with
Maxwell* s Equations, an expression for the wave equation in the
cavity is obtained. The electric field in the cavity is chosen to
be time, radial and axial position dependent. The orthogonality
properties of the field are used to develop the expressions
describing the nonlinear evolution of the f ield * s amplitude and
frequency as a function of time. The expressions involve a source
function related to the nature of the beam. The expression for the
source is being developped in order to provide a mean for
predicting the rf output in terms of the beam parameters. (In
collaboration with FM Technologies. Supported by C.I.T and D.O.E)

INTEGRATED INTELLIGENT SYSTEMS FOR CONTROL DESIGN. Guy 0. Beale *, and Francisco
J .Arteaga *, Dept, of Electrical and Computer Engineering, George Mason Univ. ,
Fairfax, Va.

The objective of this research is to develop the capability of designing con¬
trol systems for complex processes where the rigorous techniques of modern con¬
trol and estimation theory are coupled with the experience and skills of prac¬
ticing control engineers to produce a "superior" control scheme. This capabil¬
ity will be implemented through a set of intelligent computer systems which
will integrate the analytic and heuristic knowledge needed to design a control
system for a complex process such that user-specified performance requirements
are satisfied. The ability to translate performance specifications stated in
the language used by the applications engineer into parameters required by the
design algorithms and to determine which design algorithm is most suitable for
the application will characterize the intelligent systems. The ability to
evaluate a particular design relative to the performance objectives and modify
that design if necessary will also be a capability of the intelligent systems.

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INVESTIGATION OF DEEP LEVELS IN GaAs: Si AND SI GaAs BY DLTS AND PICTS
METHODS. Gordhan R. Barevadia. Vishnu K. Lakdawala, and Karl H. Schoenbach, Dept, of
Elect, and Comp. Eng., Old Dominion Univ., Norfolk, Va. 23529. The study of deep levels in
semiconductor has gained increased interest because of their role in the performance of
semiconductor devices. Basic information about deep level parameters such as activation energy,
concentration, and capture cross section for electrons/holes of the traps is necessary to predict the
device behavior. We have used Deep level Transient Spectroscopy (DLTS) technique to
characterize LEC grown Si doped n-type GaAs (p~0.055 n-cm). Two impurity levels of activation
energy 0.83 eV (EL2) and 0.41 eV (EL5) have been identified. This method requires a well
behaved Schottky or pn junction which is difficult to achieve for very high resistivity material such
as SI GaAs. Therefore, we have developed a Photo-Induced Current Transient Spectroscopy
(PICTS) set up for characterization of the high resistivity material. By employing rate window
method on the current transient, we have investigated three deep levels with activation energies of
0.38 eV, 0.67 eV and 0.78 eV in semiinsulating gallium arsenide (p~108 n-cm). (This work is
supported by the SDIO/IST and managed by ONR)

CASCADE, A DYNAMIC VISUAL ENVIRONMENT FOR THE DESIGN OF COMPUTERS. David E.
Britton* . Dept, of Electronic and Computer Engineering, George Mason Univ.,
Fairfax, Va . 22030. A dynamic environment for the description, simulation, and
analysis of digital computer systems and system components has been developed
by the author. This environment is called CASCADE, a Computer Aided System and
Component Architecture Design Environment . CASCADE is built upon the Schemata
Method which includes the specification of operation precedence, the control
structure, and the data path. The critical components of CASCADE have been
prototyped to verify its correctness, and to show that it is a practical method
for the design of hardware systems . Simulation is based on an underlying Petri
Net simulator (for control flow) , a small generic set of control modules, and
operator constructs . CASCADE can be integrated with existing design environ¬
ments that use Hardware Definition Languages and Architecture Languages .

THE DESIGN OF A CUSTOM MICROELECTRONICS CHIP FOR USE IN PYRAMID STRUCTURES.

Vichai Chanthashivakul*. Dept, of Electrical and Computer Engineering, George Mason Univ.,
Fairfax, Va. 22030. Pyramid structured computers have proven to be very efficient in
image processing. The GAM2 pyramid at George Mason Univ. has also been used for image
processing, and for digital simulation utilizing numerical integration. All of the existing
processing elements were designed for image processing with simple ALU. A new processing
element is designed primarily for matrix manipulation. In this PE, the ALU is capable of
adding at one time four 1-bit inputs from children on the lower level, or from the four nearest
neighbors. Each PE has its own memory, and there is local addressing allowing different PE’s
to access different memory locations at the same time. This provides for denormalization of
the children PE’s in parallel, and that improves the floating-point addition of the operands in
children PE’s memories by a factor of more than three. Adding of all PE’s on the bottom
level requires only n-1 adding times, where n is the number of levels in the pyramid.

STUDY OF CATHODO LUMINESCENCE FROM AN ELECTRON-BEAM CONTROLLED GaAs
SWITCH. Mandakini Kale. V.K. Lakdawala, K.H. Schoenbach, Dept, of
electrical and computer engineering, Old Dominion University
Norfolk, VA 23508. Theoretical and experimental studies of
cathodoluminescence on electron beam controlled gallium arsenide is
under progress. The experimental setup to measure spatially
resolved cathodoluminescence in zinc doped region in bulk
semiinsulating material and the penetration depth of light in bulk
semiconductor is discussed. It is seen from previous work that
zinc doped cathodoluminescent layer in semiinsulating gallium
arsenide decreases the switch resistance by more than four orders
of magnitude. (Sponsored by ARO and AFOSR. )

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83

A GAS HYDRATE THERMAL ENERGY STORAGE SYSTEM.

Professor Lembit U. Lilleleht, Ph. D. and Steven Charles Hunt,

M. S. , Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Virginia,
Charlottesville, VA 22903.

A Gas Hydrate Thermal Energy Storage System was developed from an
existing 8100 BTU air conditioning unit. A three-component mixture
of Refrigerant 142b, water and a heat transfer oil were emulsified
and cooled within a sealed shell-arid- tube heat exchanger. A data
acquisition system was used to measure and record the temperatures
and pressure within the system, and to control a series of pumps,
compressor and blowers. The gas hydrate formed from the emulsion
is a medium which may be used within a phase change material (PCM)
latent heat cool storage system. The system examined offers
economic and environmental advantages over its conventional counter¬
parts .

PERFORMANCE EVALUATION AND ARCHITECTURAL ALTERNATIVES FOR SIGNALING SYSTEM NO.
7. Lynn M. Patterson* and Dr. B. Jabbari*,Dept . of Electrical and Computer
Engineering, Fairfax, Va. 22030. Signaling System No. 7 (SS7) is a relatively
new out-of-band signaling protocol. It is currently being implemented by many
telecommunication companies to provide basic call signaling. This research
proposes that the SS7 protocol be used to transport the other areas of
telecommunication traffic, such as intelligent network services, billing and
network management. The architectural issues and the key performance measures
associated with using the SS7 network and protocol for these other areas of
traffic are examined. The SS7 protocol is robust enough to handle these other
areas of traffic. Also, an integrated SS7 network would be more reliable and
more cost effective than traditional methods of transporting this traffic.
Lastly, the call setup time for intelligent network calls can be reduced by
using the SS7 protocol. Therefore, based on these reasons, the recommendation
of this research effort is that the SS7 protocol and network be used to
carry all types of telecommunication traffic. (Support received in part from
MCI Corporation) .

STUDY OF L0CK-0N EFFECT IN A LASER CONTROLLED GaAs:Si:Cu SWITCH. Randy
Roush , K.H. Schoenbach , and V.K. Lakdawala, Electical and Computer Eng., Old
Dominion Univ. , Norfolk, Va. 23529. Silicon doped, copper compensated,
gallium arsenide has been used as an optically controlled switch at low
electric fields. Photoionization of electrons from deep copper centers into
the conduction band provides the photocarriers which are able to drift under
the influence of an electric field. The lifetime of the photocurrent is
generally on the order of microseconds. At high electric fields, the lifetime
of the photocurrent persists for extremely long times compared to the low
field decay times. This is known as the lock-on effect. Current-voltage
characteristics display an Ohmic region at low fields and a rapid increase in
current at higher fields. This effect may be attributed to double injection
at the contacts. Double injection, in conjunction with the characteristics of
the deep levels in the bandgap, may lead to a theoretical description of the
lock-on effect in gallium arsenide. (This work is supported by the SDIO/IST
and managed by ONR) .

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A NOVEL HEARING AID DEVICE , BASED ON SACCULAR DECODING OF SUPER¬
SONIC BONE CONDUCTION STIMULI. Ruth A. Skellett* & A. M. Clarke,

Ph . D . , Div. of Biomedical Engineering; M. L. Lenhardt, Ph . D . * ,
Dept, of Otolaryngology, Va. Commonwealth Univ. , Richmond, Va.
23298. Humans can hear frequencies above 20 kHz, but only by bone
conduction, that form of hearing which results from direct
vibratory stimulation of the skull and ear. This form of "super¬
sonic" hearing can be exploited in terms of a novel form of hearing
aid. Speech frequencies are amplitude modulated using a 40 kHz
carrier and demodulated by the inner ear such that the resulting
stimulation is perceived as speech. Preliminary discrimination
scores were found to be 85% correct. A double sideband circuit
(suppressed carrier) has been developed that will also support
speech perception. Two deaf subjects have been tested and both can
hear tones in the supersonic range and can detect the presence of
speech. Since these individuals have little measurable high
frequency hearing, we postulate it is the acceleration detectors
in the saccule that are responding to the bone conduction signals.

ANALYSIS OF SYSTEMS USED FOR DATA ACQUISITION AND MANAGEMENT DURING CPR IN THE
EMERGENCY DEPT., THE POTENTIAL FOR THE ADDITION OF AN ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE
SHELL. P . L. Thery, N. Patel, A.M.L. Conner, J.P. Ornato , A.M. Clarke, Div. of
Biomedical Engineering and Dept, of Medicine, MCV-VCU, Richmond, VA. 23298. Two
data acquisition and management systems have been developed to improve the
documentation system existing in the cardiac emergency care units. Both systems
allow simple and rapid menu-driven entry of important events occuring during a
cardiac emergency. Included in the documentation are drug administrations, heart
rhythm observations, vital signs, and numerous other procedures commonly taking
place during cardiac trauma. The systems include real-time signal displays of
several analog electrocardiogram channels, serial data acquisition and upon
request, storage of up to 6 seconds of data. After completion of the emergency,
a standardized report sheet is printed and a display of the recorded data is
available. Both systems were written to comply with the American Heart Associa¬
tion recommendations. A C language version has been written for maximum portabi¬
lity between systems while a Prolog version has been written as a potential
shell for an Artificial Intelligence system.

MID AND LOW LEVEL VISION TASKS FOR THE HERMES STRUCTURE. HALEH VAFAIE*, Dept, of
Electrical and Computer Engineering, George Mason University, Fairfax, Va. 22030
Computer vision is an active research field with open problems in areas
related to machine learning and knowledge representation. This research proposes
the combined use of the HERMES structure and machine learning techniques
in order to perform simple through more complex object recognition, i.e. low
to mid level vision tasks, in a given image.

There are two major paradigms in machine learning: symbolic and non-symbolic .
Upon observing both paradigms it is apparent that development of a
multi-strategic system could overcome some of the existing weaknesses and
bottlenecks, as well as taking advantage of their strong points. A visual
language which combines vision processing tasks in a multi-strategic manner
is proposed as the means to accomplish our goal.

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85

THE DESIGN OF A DEFLECTION AND OUTPUT CAVITIES FOR A HIGH POWER
MICROWAVE AMPLIFIER. Jose E. Velazco, ECE Dept. George Mason Uni v . ,
Fairfax, Va. 22030. Analysis and design parameters of deflection
and output cavities for a novel concept of microwave generation
that uses transverse modulation instead of conventional longitudi¬
nal modulation is presented. The design considerations of a rec¬
tangular resonator to generate the transverse modulation of an
electron beam is included. A cylindrical resonator in the TMqjq mode
is designed to convert the energy of a bunched beam into RF power.
Conversion of transverse deflection energy into longitudinal bun¬
ching is obtained in a small bending magnet by means of the path
length difference. The solution of the wave equations for the the
fields inside of the deflection cavity is derived, including field
perturbations. Study of the interaction between an electron beam
and electromagnetic fields in the TM«in mode that will generate
deflection is presented. Analysis of the loop-coupled cavity is
conducted, including the input impedance of the cavity, the cou¬
pling factor and the matching considerations .( In collaboration with
FM Tech., supported by C.I.T., D.O.E.)

Environmental Science

EARLY DEVELOPMENT OF A CONSTRUCTED FRESHWATER TIDAL MARSH ADJACENT
TO THE CHESAPEAKE BAY. Candy C. Bartoldus* & Francis D. Heliotis*,
Dept, of Biol., George Mason Univ. , Fairfax, Va. 22030. Eight
productivity methods were used to estimate the accumulation of
aboveground biomass by planted species Scirpus punqens and
Peltandra virainica and 2 dominant invading species Tvoha
anqustifolia and T. latifolia. The aboveground estimates for S.
punqens . ranging from a low of 348 g/m2/yr (Peak Live) to a high of
1404 g/nr/yr (Hopkinson et al. method) demonstrate the extreme
results from different computational methods. By incorporating
measurements of shoot height, mass, growth, mortality, and density
to calculate NAPP, phenometric methods (Williams-Murdoch, Hopkinson
et al., Whigham et al . , Sum-Density, & Sum-Interval) provided the
most accurate estimates. For all species, phenometric NAPP
estimates ranged 1. 4-4.0 time higher than annual production
estimates from harvest methods (Peak Live, Peak Total, & Smalley) .
Total production of the constructed marsh was determined by taking
the most accurate estimate for each species and adjusting for
measures of density and coverage.

REPRODUCTION OF ANADROMOUS STRIPED BASS IN TIDAL FRESHWATERS OF NORTH
AMERICA. James H. Cowan. Jr*.. Edward D. Houde* and Edward Rutherford*, Univ. of MD System,
Chesapeake Biological Lab., Solomons, MD 20688. The effects of river discharge on recruitment
variability in striped bass populations in the Potomac River, MD and in the Sacramento-San Joaquin
River system, CA were compared. Results from published studies, particularly those that contained
regression models of recruitment on environmental variables, consistently suggested a positive
relationship between river flow and strong year classes in both populations. However, striped bass
populations in both areas have declined since the 1970's and the predictive capabilities of the
regression models eroded in post-decline years. Furthermore, recent studies in the Potomac River
indicate that episodic high mortalities of striped bass eggs and larvae are sometimes associated with
high river discharge events. In contrast, in the highly water-managed Sacramento-San Joaquin
system, strong year classes are still associated with high flow years but regression relationships
developed there predict recruitments much higher than those actually observed in the years since the
population decline. Although it is likely that fresh water discharge and associated environmental
variables still interact to modify year class strength in both populations, low and exploited adult
populations and their consequent low reproductive output probably amplifies the potential for natural
or man-induced changes in the spawning environment to result in year class failure.

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PHYSIOLOGICAL ECOLOGY OF BLUE CRABS IN TIDAL FRESH WATER. Peter L.
deFur. Environmental Defense Fund, 1108 E. Main St., Richmond, VA 23219.

Blue crabs, Callinectes sapid us release their eggs in the ocean and larvae
settle out of the plankton in mesohaline areas (ca. 15-20 ppt). Thus, crabs
in freshwater habitats have migrated through temperature, salinity and
probably oxygen gradients. Crabs acclimated to fresh water in the lab, or
collected from freshwater have a higher blood pH and maintain a blood to water
ionic gradient of about 650 mOsm. The respiratory pigment, hemocyanin, has a
different subunit composition and greater oxygen affinity in crabs acclimated
to low salinity or low oxygen, indicating that complex metabolic adjustments
are associated with the migration. Crabs in fresh water or low salinity
areas prefer shallow water and smaller creeks over larger water bodies, one
explanation being the need for a suitable molting site. Blue crabs molting in
freshwater gain two additional benefits. First, the weight gain at the molt
is greater, perhaps by 100%, resulting in fewer molts needed to achieve a
given size. Second, the changes in blood chemistry are lesser than in crabs
molting in high salinity. Blue crabs inhabiting freshwater expend
considerable muscular and metabolic energy to gain the advantage.

EUTROPHICATION OF TIDAL FRESHWATER ECOSYSTEMS: MITIGATION BY
BENTHOS AND HYDRODYNAMICS? Jeroen Gerritsen. Anna T. Shaughnessy, J. Ananda
Ranasinghe, & A. Fred Holland, Versar, Inc. 9200 Rumsey Rd., Columbia, MD 21045. The
physical characteristics of tidal freshwater ecosystems allow for the dominance of suspension
feeding bivalves in the trophic dynamics of these systems. Tidal freshwater systems are
shallow, well-mixed, and do not typically stratify as do many deeper estuaries and lakes. This
allows the continual circulation of phytoplankton through the water column and enhances
capture of phytoplankton by suspension feeding benthos. Shallow, well-mixed estuarine
regions are known to develop large populations of suspension feeding bivalves, which can
control phytoplankton to a degree not possible in deeper regions. We demonstrate this with a
model of benthic suspension feeding applied to several regions of Chesapeake Bay. A majority
of primary production is consumed by suspension feeders in shallow, well-mixed zones where
large populations of bivalves have developed, but in deep regions or in shallow regions without
sizable populations of benthic suspension feeders, large fractions of primary production are not
consumed.

EFFECTS OF SUMMER STORMS ON THE PHYTOPLANKTON OF A TIDAL POTOMAC
RIVER EMBAYMENT. Jackson D. Harper. Dept, of Biol., George Mason
Univ., Fairfax, VA. 22030. The role of hydrometeorological factors
in controlling phytoplankton in a freshwater tidal ecosystem was
investigated and digitally simulated. The study site was Gunston
Cove, an embayment of the Potomac River near Washington, D.C.,
which was subject to urban runoff and nutrient loading from a
sewage treatment plant. Measurements were taken daily for 108 days
during the summer of 1986. Cold fronts which occurred on average
every 4.7 days were associated with 10 storm flows which brought
silt loads with adsorbed phosphorus to the cove and caused
phytoplankton flushing. The Gunston Cove Ecosystem Model (GEM) was
written in Turbo Pascal for microcomputers. Algal growth was found
to be sensitive to light, water temperature, phosphorus, algal
growth rate, respiration, and algal sink rate. It was less
sensitive to zooplankton grazing, mean tide, and floating-leaved
vegetation. Simulation exercises suggested a positive feedback
relationship between algal growth and sedimentary phosphorus
release .

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87

SPATIAL, SEASONAL, AND INTERANNUAL VARIATIONS IN THE PHYTOPLANKTON OF A TIDAL
FRESHWATER EMBAYMENT. R. Christian Jones and Claire Buchanan, George Mason
Univ. , Fairfax, VA 22030. Phytoplankton populations have been monitored on a
biweekly to monthly basis at 12 stations in the tidal freshwater Potomac River
since 1984. Stations were located in two shallow embayments (Gunston Cove and
Dogue Creek) and in the mainstem channel area. Summer chlorophyll levels were
consistently greater in Gunston Cove than in the mainstem areas. Cell density
generally reflected chlorophyll dynamics. Blue-greens dominated phytoplankton
assemblages at all sites particularly in summer. Microcystis aeroainsa was
important in the late summer phytoplankton in the cove in most years, while it
was found in large numbers in the river only in 1985. Microcystis dominance was
related pH values high enough to enhance sediment phosphorus release. Years with
lower phytoplankton densities were characterized by multiple frontal passages
during the summer and lack of long sustained hot, dry periods.

SEASONAL AND INTERANNUAL PATTERNS OF FISH POPULATIONS IN. A PORTION OF THE TIDAL
FRESHWATER POTOMAC RIVER. Donald P. Kelso and Sue Touart, Dept, of Biol., George
Mason Univ., Fairfax, Va. 22030. From 1984 through 1989 fish collections with a
15 ft. otter trawl have been made at one station in the Potomac River, one
station in Dogue Creek embayment, and three stations in Gunston Cove embayment.
The 371 trawls were made monthly or more frequently from Mar. to Dec. and caught
34,386 fishes in 34 species. Five species accounted for 87 to 94% of each
year's total: 1. white perch 2. bay anchovy 3. brown bullhead 4. gizzard shad
5. blueback herring. Mean catch per trawl was 129.4 in 1984, 73.5 in 1985, 84.2
in 1986, 113.6 in 1987, 67.7 in 1988, and 63.5 in 1989. Declines in white perch
catch in 1988 and 1989 parallel increases in blueback herring in 1987, 1988, and
1989 and gizzard shad in 1989. The seasonal abundance of the total catch is bell
shaped, with low numbers in the early spring and late fall and peak numbers in
the summer, due to newly metamorphosed juveniles. White perch increase in June,
followed by gizzard shad and blueback herring in July and bay anchovy in August.
Brown bullhead numbers fluctuate less from month to month. Year classes are
evident each year in white perch and blueback herring and in most years in brown
bullhead and gizzard shad. Bay anchovy year classes are less obvious, perhaps
due to extended spawning periods or immigration of different cohorts.

SEASONAL PHYTOPLANKTON DYNAMICS WITHIN TIDAL FRESHWATER RIVER SYSTEMS OF THE
LOWER CHESAPEAKE BAY. Harold G. Marsha 1 1 and Lewis Affronti. Dept, of Bio—
logical Sciences, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, Va . 23529-0266. Results

of a four year monitoring study of phytoplankton in the lower James, York and
Rappahannock Rivers indicated distinct assemblages in the oligohaline and
mesohaline regions, with a transitional oligo-mesohaline region that will vary
seasonally and annually in its extent. Five to six seasonal assemblages formed
a seasonal successional pattern where the timing and duration of the spring
bloom was influenced by the seasonal rains. Cell concentrations generally
increased into the mesohaline sections, then decreased downstream into the
Chesapeake Bay. The greatest abundance of cells was in the James River which
also contained the highest concentrations of nutrients. In each river the
nutrient levels decreased downstream. The diatoms had spring and late summer -
early fall growth peaks, with ainof lage 1 lates most abundant in late winter and
summer. Cryptomonads, chlorophytes , euglenoids and cyanobacteria were common,
with the picoplankton most abundant during summer. Sub-pycnoc 1 ine waters
moving upstream provided a conduit for estuarine and mesohaline species to
enter the river systems. Supported by the Virginia State Water Control Board.

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BENTHIC-TIDAL FRESHWATER ECOSYSTEM INTERACTION: THE WASHINGTON EXPERIENCE
Harriette L. Phelps Dept, of Biol., Univ. of the District of Columbia,
Washington, D.C. 201)08. The exotic clam, Corbicula fluminea, is estimated to
have been introduced in the freshwater tlda I PotomaC rTVer estuary near
Washington, D.C. in 1976. The population increased rapidly and in 1981 a
tripling of water clarity was reported in the region of the clam beds. In 1983
there was a sudden reappearance of submerged aquatic vegetation in the same
portion of the estuary, growing to 50% of the river by 1986 with dramatic
increases in fish and wildfowl. In September 1986 an extensive clam population
survey at 102 sites on five transects found significant populations in all
areas except the dredged channel. Calculations estimated the July 1986
population could have filtered 33% to 100% of the water in a 5-km region. The
action of clam filtration and increased vegetation on sediment and nutrient
precipitation may have been responsible for the restoration of the Potomac to
the conditions of 50 years ago in only 5 years. The Potomac may be a tidal
freshwater ecosystem having two metastable states governed by water clarity,
with transition facilitated by the establishment of large populations of an
exotic filter-feeding bivalve. It is considered an outstanding ecological
success in the Chesapeake Bay region. Funded by D.C Environmental Services.

CLIMATE, WATER CLARITY AND SUBMERSED MACROPHYTE POPULATION DYNAMICS IN THE
TIDAL POTOMAC RIVER. N.B. Rvbicki and V.P. Carter, USGS , Res ton, VA 22092.

The role of climatic variation in the population dynamics of submersed aquatic
macrophytes may be as important as that of anthropogenic affects . Following a
resurgence of submersed macrophytes in the upper tidal Potomac River in 1983,
population density increased steadily and plants spread down river into the
lower tidal river. However, in 1989, there was a 60 percent decrease in
macrophyte area in the upper tidal river, mostly as a result of loss of the
dominant species, Hydrilla verticillata , whereas the plant population in the
lower tidal river continued to increase. We attribute the decrease in plants
to a cold, wet and cloudy growing season. Low spring water temperatures
caused delayed sprouting and stunted growth of Hydrilla . There was a reversal
in water clarity between the upper and lower tidal rivers, largely as a result
of higher than normal discharge which remained high through August. Summer
Secchi depths at Piscataway Creek (upper tidal river) averaged 0.4 m whereas
summer Secchi depths at Quantico (lower tidal river) averaged 1.0 m. In
addition, available sunshine was 15-20 percent below average during June-
September. These factors had a severe effect on the Hydrilla , a tropical
exotic, but did not have any apparent effect on the other dominant species.

SPAWNING AND YOUNG-OF-THE-YEAR RECRUITMENT OF STRIPED BASS, MORONE SAXATILIS
IN THE POTOMAC RIVER: THE ROLE OF NUMBERS VS. THE ENVIRONMENT.

Eileen M. Setzler-Hamilton* , Chesapeake Biol. Lab., Univ. MD System, CEES,
Solomons, MD 20688.

We assessed stocks of larval striped bass in the Potomac Estuary during
the years 1974-1977, 1980-1982, and 1986-1987. Abundances of striped bass
eggs and early larval stages are not correlated to subsequent recruitment
as measured by the Maryland Juvenile Seining Index. The best correlation
of mean density of larvae from Maryland Point to £heridan Point, river
km 102-158, occurs during the second week of May; T uv. Ind = 2.6582 +

0.0036 x density, r^ = .61. However large sample variability results in
little confidence in the predictive ability of the equation. Environmental
variables, particularly water temperature and river flow, with its subse¬
quent influence on both distribution and abundance of zooplankton prey
populations, and on distribution of larvae, are the major factors controlling
yearclass success.

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ANNUAL VARIATIONS IN BIOMASS PRODUCTION: A COMPARISON OF TIDAL
FRESHWATER AND TIDAL BRACKISH WETLANDS. Dennis Whigham, Smithsonian
Environmental Research Center, Edgewater, MD 21037 and Robert L. Simpson, William
Paterson College, Wayne, NJ 07470.

Previous comparisons between tidal freshwater and other types of wetlands have
not given consideration to potentially important annual differences in biomass production.
Using the few longer-term data sets that are available, we will test the hypothesis that
annual variations in biomass production are minimal in tidal freshwater wetlands due to
the lack of moisture and salt stress. Annual variation in biomass production should be
greatest in tidal wetlands that experience differences in growing season salinity and in
non-tidal freshwater wetlands that experience annual differences in moisture availability.
Variations in biomass production should be low in salt marsh habitats which are regularly
flooded.

FISH PREDATION ON LITTORAL MICROCRUSTACEA ASSOCIATED WITH WATER CHESTNUT ( Trapa
Natans ) IN TIVOLI SOUTH BAY, A HUDSON RIVER TIDAL FRESHWATER WETLAND. David J. Yozzo
and William E. Odum, Dept, of Env. Sci., Univ. of Va., Charlottesville, Va. 22903. The littoral microcrustacean
fauna of Tivoli South Bay was studied from June to September, 1989, with emphasis on the Ostracoda. The effects
of fish predation on microcrustacean densities were tested by means of a short term predator exclusion experiment.
Fish were excluded from Trapa natans plots in four screened exclosures. An equal number of open cages allowed
foraging. Fish predation did not have a significant effect on densities of ostracods or other microcrustaceans.
Ostracod densities increased throughout the experimental period, whereas cladoceran and copepod densities decreased
in both treatments. Analysis of fish stomach contents revealed that ostracods were frequently selected for as a
dominant food item by fish utilizing T. natans as a feeding area and refuge. These results suggest that the
productivity of ostracods in aquatic systems may have been previously underestimated. The value of T. natans as
habitat for forage fish is significant, and may serve to enhance total fish production in the Hudson River Estuary.

Geology

IDENTIFICATION OF HIGH RADON ROCK UNITS IN NORTHERN VIRGINIA. Charles E.
Chrosniak. Douglas G. Mose and George W. Mushrush, Center of Basic and
Applied Science, George Mason University, Fairfax, Va. 22030. Rock units in
northern Virginia comprise 3 physiographic provinces, within which radon
represents very different levels of environmental hazard. Rock units in the
Coastal Plain province exhibit generally low soil radon and indoor radon,
and less than 20% of the homes exceed the U.S. EPA's "Action Level" of 4
pCi/1 (level above which home repairs should be considered to lower indoor
radon) . Rock units in the Culpeper Basin show greater variation, but most
have a low percentage of homes above 4 pCi/1. The greatest hazard is within
the Piedmont province, where some rock units have an average soil radon and
average well water radon above 3000 pCi/1, and an annual indoor radon level
in excess of 4 pCi/1 (approximately 50% of the homes above 4 pCi/1) . Studies
indicate that total gamma aeroradioactivity can predict which rock units
constitute the greatest radon hazard.

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A STUDY OF POINT BAR DEPOSITION WITH REGARD TO FINING-UPWARD
SEQUENCE AT PEMBROKE, VIRGINIA. Warren T. Dean* & Kimbell L. Knight*, Dept, of
Geol., Radford Univ., Radford, Va. 24142. A study of point bar deposition on the New River near
Pembroke in western Va. showed a deviation from the normal fluvial point bar fining-upward
sequence, suggesting an aeolian influence. A perpendicular transect of the point bar was made
with one surface and one subsurface sample collected from each of 1 1 stations. Using traditional
methods of sieving and analysis, mean grain size, median grain size, and sorting were
determined for each sample. Plots of median grain size vs. station number showed the normal
fining-upward sequence for stations 1-5 but showed an abnormal coarsening-upward sequence
for stations 6-11. Three lines of evidence suggest that aeolian influence modified normal fluvial
processes affecting the surface samples: 11 Topography suggests that wind is tunneled over the
point bar and vegetation traps the wind-blown sediments, 2) Median grain size plotted against
station number shows the surface samples to have a very uniform size away from the river
which is consistent with aeolian transport and inconsistent with normal fluvial deposition, and
3) Sorting of the surface samples was much geater than was sorting for the subsurface samples,
which is also more consistent with aeolian transport.

GEOVIDEOS FOR TEACHER TRAINING AND FIELD TRIP PLANNING. Ruth G. Deike*,

US Geological Survey, Reston, VA 22092. A video record of any geological
field trip can be made easily and with relatively inexpensive equipment. The
video can be designed for a wide variety of uses, for example, teaching
(both teachers and students); to prepare students for taking the field trip;
to refresh leaders before another trip; and, continued study of the field
trip site. Raw footage of the trip is obtained with a good camcorder
(videocamera/VCR, $1500). Footage should reflect the intended use of the
video, i.e. the photographer identifies with the intended audience. Be
generous with close-ups, and on-site explanations from the trip leader.
Appropriate maps and illustrations are taped, then the footage is
catalogued, and the final master tape is edited using a second VCR with

audio-dub capability ($1000). The master version is constructed from

beginning to end using report-writing principles: Determine the intended
audience; What action do you want audience to take; Keep points simple and

made quickly; Use a clever beginning and ending. Narration and/or music is

added last to pull the story together.

EFFECT OF SUB SLAB VENTIIATION ON THE REDUCTION OF INDOOR RADON. Paul
DiBenedetto. Douglas Mose and George Mushrush, Center of Basic and Applied
Science, George Mason University, Fairfax, Va. 22030. Indoor radon levels
above 4 pCi/1 are estimated by the U.S. EPA to constitute an unreasonable
risk that can be reduced by a reasonable expenditure. Several methods can
be use to reduce the inward movement of soil-derived radon through
soil-facing floors and walls. The most common remedial method is the
installation of a vacuum system, which pulls soil air from below the home.
To determine if this method works for an extended period of time (1 year)
after installation, and to determine the relationship between pre-remed¬
iation indoor radon and the willingness of the homeowner to expend @ $1000
for the system installation, a population of § 1500 homeowners with indoor
radon were offered the system. Approximately 10% of this group requested
sub-slab ventilation, but the request group had an average indoor radon
that was only slightly higher than the indoor radon of the entire group.
The implication is that some people with essentially no risk from indoor
radon install remediation systems, and some people with an obvious need
elect to not install a remediation system.

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91

IMPLICATIONS OF SEGMENTED ALLUVIAL FANS, STUARTS DRAFT, VIRGINIA. Debra F.
Duffy and G. Richard Whittecar, Department of Geological Sciences, Old
Dominion University, Norfolk, VA 23529

Alluvial fan complexes along the western flank of the Blue Ridge
mountains in Augusta County, Virginia consist of very coarse quartzite gravels
deposited during at least three different periods. Each alluvial unit is
topographically distinct and displays different degrees of clast weathering
and soil development. The oldest units are characterized by totally
incompetent ghosts of quartzite clasts and reddish (2. SYR) argillic soils more
than 2 m thick. Old remnant surfaces cluster along the toe of the fan complex;
the youngest lie close to the fan apexes. In tectonically active areas this
map pattern often indicates relatively rapid uplift of the source area.
Although uplift can not be dismissed, two other factors may have influenced
the distribution of fan surfaces in the study area. 1) Solutional lowering of
remnant surfaces overlying the Shady Dolomite probably destroyed many
relatively old features close to the mountain front. 2) Pleistocene climate
changes may have controlled the timing of both the production of talus by
periglacial frost shattering and the delivery of sediment to the youngest fans
by massive rainfall events.

RADON IN THE SEDIMENTS OF THE CENTRAL VIRGINIA COASTAL PLAIN. Bruce K. Goodwin.
C.R. Berquist, Jr., Tracey E. Whitesell, Col. of William and Mary, Wil¬
liamsburg, V a. 23185, & Jennifer M. Cooper, Dept, of Geology, James Madison
Univ. , Harrisonburg, Va. 22807. Radon 222 concentrations were measured in in¬
terstitial gas from unconsolidated sediments of five coastal plain formations
(the Eastover, Yorktown, Bacons Castle, Windsor and Shirley formations) at
three study areas: York River State Park, The College of William and Mary
Woods, and Chippokes State Park. The Yorktown was sampled at all three study
areas, the Eastover and Bacons Castle were each sampled at two study areas, and
the Windsor and Shirley were sampled at only one study area. Sampling was done
by suspending charcoal cannisters in auger holes. At the York River State Park
canisters were in place from July 3-10, 1989; at the other sites they were in
place from January 11-18, 1990. Of thirty six holes tested, eighteen in the
Yorktown Formation had an average radon concentration of 1050 pCi/1, and eigh¬
teen in the other units had an average radon concentration of 200 pCi/1 . The
results suggest that over a distance of 20 miles much higher radon values are
found in the Yorktown Formation than in the other units. The gamma ray scin¬
tillometer shows highest radioactivity to be around fossilized whale bones in
the Yorktown Formation, although this may not be the only source of radon.

INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF THE COAL BEARING PORTION OF THE CUMBERLAND OVERTHRUST
BLOCK: W. S. Henika Va. Div. of Mineral Resources, Blacksburg, VA 24061-
0411. Most of Southwest Virginia's remaining coal resources occur- within the
Cumberland block (Wentworth, 1921) which is now recognized to extend
southwestwards from the Canebrake fault in Tazewell Co., Va. for almost 250
km. to the Jacksboro fault in Campbell Co., Tn. The southwest end of the
block was moved at least 21 km. to the northwest along the Pine Mtn. thrust
by a clockwise rotation about a pivot in northeast Buchanan Co. Va. during
the Alleghanian orogeny. This mass movement involved uplift and rotation of
the block across a series of intersecting tectonic ramps producing opposing
uplifts at the southwest and the northeast ends. At least 6 major transverse
faults developed across the block during rotation. Subthrust duplication and
uplift in the Powell Valley area and imbrication along the southeast block
boundary faults may have reactivated the crossfaults producing local
inversion and apparent lateral displacements. Copyright 1990, Commonwealth
of Virginia.

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A GUIDE TO THE ENGINEERING AND GEOLOGIC CHARACTERISTICS OF THE MAPPED ROCK
UNITS OF VIRGINIA. David A. Hubbard, Jr.*, Virginia Div. of Mineral Resources,
P.0. Box 3667, Charlottesville, VA 22903. Specialization within the disci¬
plines of architecture, civil engineering, and geology has increased the tech¬
nical terminology and jargon used within each discipline. The terminology and
jargon of one discipline may be an obstacle to a practitioner of another disci¬
pline who seeks data or the interpretations of professionals working in the
other discipline. Data and interpretations presented on geologic maps may not
be readily understood by the architect or civil engineer involved in the design
of landscape modifications or structures. Detailed physical site evaluations
can and do miss important geologic information. A guide, in which rock char¬
acteristics and test data are compiled for each mapped rock unit, is under de¬
velopment at the Virginia Division of Mineral Resources. Parameters discussed
include: Lithologic Description; Bedding; Fracturing and Cleavage; Topographic
Expression; Weathering -Karstification; Soil Development -Shrink-Swell Poten¬
tial, -USDA Soil Survey Percolation Limitations; Drainage; Porosity and Permea¬
bility; Groundwater; Rock Failure Mechanisms; Mineral Resources; Construction
Materials; Rock Test Data. Copyright 1990, Commonwealth of Virginia

QUARTZ CHARACTERISTICS AND PROVENANCE OF LOWER PALEOZOIC ARENITES
OF NORTHERN VIRGINIA. Elizabeth Larsen* and Richard J. Diecchio,
Dept, of Geology, George Mason Univ. , Fairfax, VA 22030. The
petrologic characteristics of quartz grains in Lower Paleozoic
arenites were investigated to determine possible provenance of
successive sandstone units. Quartz grains in the Eocambrian Swift
Run Formation have similar characteristics (crystallinity,
extinction, and rutile inclusions) to those in the underlying
Precambrian Pedlar Formation. The craton-derived Chilhowee Group
(Eocambrian (?) to Cambrian) differs from the Swift Run and Pedlar
in that there is an absence of grains with straight extinction, a
presence of polycrystalline grains, and abundant grains with rutile
inclusions. Unlike the lower arenites, the Silurian Massanutten
Sandstone has abundant polycrystalline and straight extinction
quartz grains, very few undulose grains, and very few rutile
inclusions. It is possible that the Massanutten could have been
partially derived from the Lower Paleozoic rocks, but there is
evidence of some other source.

TIDE SPRING VIRGINIA- -A LOOK AT THE UNDERGROUND. James D.
Lehman , Dept, of Physics, James Madison Univ., Harr isonburg ,

Va. 22807. The overall ebb and flow performance of Tide Spring
was documented during the 1982-87 survey. The underground
spring body was noted to be quite extensive, and the drawdown
at flow's end is considered to be the action of a hydraulic
jump. A serious attempt was made to locate the reservoir
using audio techniques during normal cycling. A noise pocket
was discovered 55 meters south of the spring opening. A
buried microphone at two meters monitored this action. Efforts
to correlate this bubbly noise to a breaking siphon is
complicated by the time of occurrence. Current work continues
in an attempt to verify the nature of this pocket as well as
to refine the location of the holding reservoir.

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93

WORKING WITH TEACHERS TO ENHANCE INTEREST AND PUBLIC EDUCATION IN THE
GEOSCIENCES. Stephen W. Lenhart & Chester F. Watts, Dept, of Geol., Radford Univ., Radford,
Va., 24142; and Karen Fisher, Pulaski Co. H. S., Dublin, Va., 24084. Teachers Researching
Interesting Places for Science (T.R.I.P.S.) is a newly created organization administered by, and
for, public school Earth Science teachers of southwestern Virginia to enhance their learning
experience, and subsequently their teaching effectiveness, through educational and enjoyable
field-oriented activities. T.R.I.P.S. was formed by the Radford University Department of Geology
by (1) distributing an interest survey to public school Earth Science teachers, (2) convening an
organizational meeting for those teachers indicating an interest in such an organization, and (3)
offering continued support by suggesting ideas for field trips and by providing, when asked, field
trip leaders. T.R.I.P.S. has been a successful attempt to contribute to public awareness and
education pertaining to geology and the environment, and the extension of this organization into
other locales for the benefit of other public school Earth Science teachers is encouraged.

FAUNAL ASSOCIATIONS IN LATE ORDOVICIAN-AGE CENTRAL APPALACHIAN FAUNAS . Jack E.
Nolde . Virginia Division Mineral Resources, Box 3667, Charlottesville, Va 22903.

A census of 36 faunal species in 75 samples from the Late Ordovician-age
Reedsville Formation collected from Pennsylvania to Tennessee have been re¬
examined using R-mode cluster analysis and polar ordination. R-mode cluster
analysis grouped the 36 species into four faunal associations: 1) Ambonychia
praecursa-Modiolopsis modiolaris . 2) Ambonychia cul trata-Pterinea demissa . 3)
Lvrodesma poststriatum-Praenucula levata . and 4) Loxoplocus abbreviata-
Loxoplocus ventricosta . Polar ordination illustrated the interrelationships
among the clusters and the gradational nature of the faunas, this led to an
interpretation of two faunal gradients: 1) a transition from dominance of
infaunal, bivalves to dominance of epifaunal brachiopods and gastropods, and 2)
a low-diversity community, primarily of r-strategists , which characterized the
unstable intertidal zone, while a more stable subtidal zone supported moderately
diverse communities with both r- and K-strategists .

Copyright 1990, Commonwealth of Virginia.

BIOFACIES ANALYSIS OF LATE ORDOVICIAN-AGE CENTRAL APPALACHIAN FAUNAS . Jack E.
Nolde . Virginia Division Mineral Resources, Box 3667, Charlottesville, Va 22903.

Seventy-five samples containing 36 faunal species from the Late Ordovician-
age Reedsville Formation collected from Pennsylvania to Tennessee have been re¬
examined using Q-mode cluster analysis and polar ordination. Q-mode cluster
analysis grouped the samples into six biofacies that are reflected across the
area by the temporal and geographic development of four recognizable
environments: 1) Lingula-Tancrediopsis-Plectonotus . 2) Lingu la -Ambonychia -
Plectonotus . and 3) Plectonotus . intertidal; 4) Orthorhynchula-Raf inesquina-
crinoid, upper subtidal; 5) Hebertella-Zygospira . upper to lower subtidal; and
6) Dalmane 11a -Sower by ella . lower subtidal. Polar ordination illustrated the
gradational nature of the samples that led to interpretation of two
environmental gradients: 1) fossil diversity was highest in the intertidal zone
and decreased into the upper subtidal zone, and 2) hydrodynamic energy was low
in the intertidal and lower subtidal zones and increased from both directions
toward the upper subtidal zone.

Copyright 1990, Commonwealth of Virginia.

BUILDING STONES FROM NORTHERN VIRGINIA. James V. O'Connor, Dept, of
Env. Sci., Univ. of DC, 4200 Conn. Ave . NW, Washington , DC 20008.
Building stones are special urban landscapes. Local stones reflect
regional mining districts in nearby geomorphic sub-provinces.
Investigations on classifying rock types and their internal features
also lead to an examination of weathering and artistic processes.
Trade names may be different from the geologic formation names.

Among the common native stones from Northern Virginia are
Alexandria bricks, Potomac cobblestones, Virginia Freestone,

Seneca Red or brownstone, Potomac Marble, Potomac Bluestone,

Occoquan granite, Trap (diabase), Weverton quartzite , and Catoctin
greenstone. Buildings constructed from each regional stone provide
a ready-made field trip for tracking both examples of stone use and
quarry source for each dimension stone.

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SCENIC LANDFORMS OF NORTHERN VIRGINIA. James V. O'Connor, Dept, of
Env. Sci., Univ. of DC, Washington, DC 20008 & Ruth Deike, MS-432,
USGS , National Center, Reston, Va . 22092. VIRGINIA MINERALS, (v.34
#3, Aug. 1988) highlighted scenic landforms of Virginia using topo¬
graphic maps. Our investigation of local topographic maps indicated
much more scenery than the two scenic landforms listed for Northern
Virginia. Our select sites occur on USGS topographic maps; high¬
light different scenic geomorphic vocabulary; and are on accessible
public property. Among the landforms chosen are: runs, falls, neck,
point, marsh, terraces and scarps, spring, meadow, mouth/delta, and
drainage divide. Map documentation and field trip potential for
eleven scenic sites developed into a short preview video. The
select scenic landforms on the video are a simple model for a
variety of geoeducat ional opportunities associated with using the
natural resources in your backyard. Local scenic landf ormsst imulate
an inguiry into the dynamics of earth cycles and evolutionary
processes. The rare occurrence of natural landforms in the urban
environment must be used to foster enjoyment and investigation
of the world around us.

NITROGEN IN GROUNDWATER OF THE NORTH RIVER BASIN. Natalie Prince* & W. C. Sher¬
wood, Dept, of Geol. and Geog. , James Madison Univ., Harrisonburg, Va. 22807.
Nitrogen concentrations from dissolved nitrates in groundwater were investigated
in the North River Basin in Rockingham and Augusta Counties, Va. A total of 147
well water samples were collected at the intersections of a one mile grid super¬
imposed over a map of the basin. Nitrate analysis was carried out using ion
chromatography . Concentrations ranged from 0 to 28 mg/L of nitrate nitrogen with
a mean value of 5.7 mg/L. The present limit for safe drinking water in Virginia
is 10 mg/L. While the average concentration of 5.7 mg/L is significantly below
the safe 10 mg/L limit, approximately 18% of the samples exceeded 10 mg/L of
nitrogen. Two areas in the basin contained the highest nitrogen concentrations:
1) the Dayton - Dale Enterprise area in Rockingham County, and 2) the Mount Solon
area of Augusta County. Attempts were made to correlate nitrate concentrations
with bedrock and soil types. Neither were successful. Two anthropogenic sources
were also examined; effluent from septic systems and nitrates from agriculture.
The correlation between nitrate in groundwater and the intensity of agricultural
operations appears to be significant. More work is needed to determine specific
nitrate sources, nitrate movements in groundwater, and seasonal variations in
nitrogen concentrations.

ANALYSIS OF A SIGNIFICANT GAS-BEARING STRUCTURE IN THE MID-ATLANTIC
OUTER CONTINENTAL SHELF. Grant A. Richardson. Bionetics Corp. ,

Vint Hill Farms Station, Warrenton, VA 22186, & Fredrick Keer,
Minerals Management Service, 381 Elden St., Herndon, VA 22070. The
deepest horizon of the most significant hydrocarbon discovery (gas
and minor oil) lying 80 miles east of the New Jersey coastline was
analyzed to predict the location of a high geopressured gas zone
within Jurassic age strata. The discovery, ranging from 12,000 to
18,000 feet below the seafloor, lies within a high-angle growth
fault-bounded anticline possibly resulting from movements of a
deeply buried crustal block. Interpretations were derived from ten
seismic lines and well drilling data collected by private
exploration conducted during the early 1980's. Fault-plane
analyses were used to assemble computer-generated structure-contour
maps of the Bathonian horizon (middle Jurassic) from the seismic
lines. The position of the high geopressured gas zone, predicted
by the computer structure modeling, coicides with the drilling
depth at which the zone was encountered.

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95

SOIL RADON, SOIL PEJMEABILTTY AND THE PREDICTABILITY OF INDOOR RADON.
Mohamed Santur . Douglas G. Mose and George W. Mushrush, Center of Basic
and Applied Science, George Mason University, Fairfax, Va. 22030. Several
studies have shown that indoor radon can be directly related to soil
parameters, such as soil uranium, soil permeability and/or porosity, soil
thickness, depth to water table, inclination of surface, and other
factors. To determine if indoor radon could be predicted by easily
measured criteria that are understandable to a typical homeowner, a
comparison was made between indoor radon, soil radon concentration, and
soil permeability. The study showed that although soil radon alone or soil
permeability alone could not predict indoor radon, a reasonably high
percentage of hones have an indoor radon level which can be predicted if
soil radon and soil permeability are both measured. This predictive method
is important in an area where new hemes are to be constructed, in cases
where a hone currently has an indoor radon problem, or in cases where the
homeowner wants to anticipate potential problems which could arise as the
basement walls and floor develop post-construction cracks.

AVAILABLE COAL RESOURCES OF WISE 7.5-MINUTE QUADRANGLE, SOUTHWEST VIRGINIA.
Roy S. Sites*, Va. Div. of Mineral Resources, Charlottesville, VA 22903.
Evaluation of 18 Pennsylvanian age coalbeds, for a more realistic determi¬
nation of coal available for mining, involved examining the impact of various
land-use and technologic restrictions applied to remaining coal resources.
From coalbed outcrops, mined areas, coal thicknesses, and defined restrictions
to mining, original, remaining, and available coal resources for each coalbed
were calculated using U.S.G.S. computer-based geostatistical programs. Results
show only 4 percent of the coal has been mined leaving 771-million short tons
(mst) of remaining coal resources. Specific restrictions applied affected 33
percent of the remaining coal resources, thereby showing 67 percent, or 520
mst, of the remaining coal resources to be available for mining. Nearly 90
percent of the affect of total restrictions applied were technologic. This
study reveals current remaining coal resources for this one quadrangle to be
nearly half the amount as previously presented for the entire county. Applied
restrictions to mining can significantly affect the remaining coal resources
and provide a more realistic available coal resource estimate.

THE RADFORD UNIVERSITY SUMMER GEOLOGY FIELD SCHOOL FOR TEACHERS.
Jonathan L, Tso and Chester F. Watts, Dept, of Geology, Radford Univ., Radford, Va. 24142.

The Summer Field School for Teachers is a 6-credit course designed for middle school physical
science and secondary school earth science teachers from Virginia. The course provides teachers
with basic first-hand experience in geologic mapping, data collection and the geology of Virginia.
The course is divided into two parts: a correspondence course beginning in late spring, and an inten¬
sive on-campus 3 week class that begins in mid-summer. A basic review of rocks and minerals,
historical geology, stratigraphy, and the geology of Virginia is accomplished through classroom
instruction. Numerous one-day trips in die Valley and Ridge and Blue Ridge of southwest Virginia
provide experience in field identification and description of specimens, observation and measurement
of geologic structures, and exposure to nearly the entire Precambrian to Paleozoic stratigraphic sec¬
tion in the region. During a three-day field mapping project in the local Radford area, the teachers
are responsible for identifying formations, mapping contacts on a topographic base map, measuring
orientations, drawing a geologic map, and providing a complete lithologic write-up and geologic
history. A 4-day field trip takes the class around the state from Radford to Virginia Beach to Nor¬
thern Virginia back to Radford. During the course, the teachers visit all the geologic provinces of
Virginia and have numerous opportunities to collect samples, take photographs, and create teaching
materials for use in their own classroom teaching.

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LOCATING A GROUNDWATER SUPPLY IN COLLUVIAL DEPOSITS FOR INGRAM VILLAGE, GILES
COUNTY, VIRGINIA. Chester F. Watts and Ernst H. Kastning, Institute for Engineering Geosciences,
Dept, of Geology, Radford University, Radford, Va. 24142. Located in the Valley and Ridge Province
of Virginia, much of Giles County is underlain by limestone of Middle Ordovician age containing a well-
developed karst landscape. Mountain ridges of the county, such as Pearis Mountain, consist of resistant
sandstones of Silurian and Ordovician age. Illegal sinkhole dumping has resulted in groundwater
pollution in some of the karst areas. When the community of Ingram Village experienced contamination
of its spring water and occasional cessation of water flow, the immediate concern for engineers was
whether or not identifying the recharge area would be difficult owing to the complex nature of water
movement in karst. Flowever, the geologic map of Giles County, published in 1986, led the authors to
believe that the springs were fed by a clean, perched water table in a valley underlain by low
permeability sedimentary rocks and filled with colluvium from the Ordovician and Silurian sandstone
formations from the ridge above the community. Field investigation confirmed this hypothesis and made
identification of the recharge area straightforward. Also, alluvial fans filling two adjacent valleys were
identified as large perched water table aquifers with water volumes more than adequate for the needs
of the Ingram Village community. Indeed, it would appear that many such clean, perched aquifers exist
in the county and that they may well be the answer to some of the water supply problems of the small
communities. The study also clearly illustrates the value of published geologic maps to municipalities
and land use planners.

EVIDENCE FOR THE JAMES RIVER HEADWATERS LYING WEST OF THE BLUE
RIDGE BY LATE MIOCENE TIME. Robert E. Weems, MS 928, U.S.
Geological Survey, Reston, VA 22092

Well rounded, green-stained granite and quartzite cobbles occur
occasionally at about 85 feet elevation Just north of 18th and
Coalter streets in Shockoe Valley, Richmond, Virginia, along the
contact between the middle Miocene Choptank Formation and upper
Miocene Eastover Formation (Claremont Manor Member). One 14-cm-
long quartzite cobble (USNM 449125) with abundant straight,
parallel tubes of Skolithos , probably came from the Lower
Cambrian Erwin Quarzite. The Silurian Keefer and Tuscarora
quartzites are less likely source lithologies that also contain
Skolithos . All of these units only occur west of the Blue Ridge
in central Virginia, so the presence of this large cobble in
Richmond suggests that the ancestral James River had established
essentially its present course across the Piedmont by 10 million
years ago (late Miocene time) and was draining areas west of the
present Blue Ridge much earlier than previously known.

GEOSCIENCES EDUCATION: CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES IN THE 90' S. Robert C. Whi sonant, Dept, of Geol.,
Radford University, Radford VA 24142. A great paradox presently confronts geoscience educators.

Even as alarmingly low numbers of students continue to choose geology as a major field of study,
public and student awareness of environmental problems (toward the mitigation of which geology makes
significant contributions) has perhaps never been higher. The Geology Department at Radford
University has modified the undergraduate curriculum and intensified efforts toward public education
to meet the challenges and opportunities of tne 90 's presented by this paradox. Anong the changes
in the geology curriculum are addition of a Specialty in Engineering Geosciences, a new second
semester introductory Environmental Geology course, an interdisciplinary "Professional Development
in the Sciences" course, and an innovative Sumner Field School designed for secondary science
teachers. Strategies to affect more directly public education include (l)teaching of Continuing
Education courses; (2 Cooperation with science museums to teach courses and develop exhibits and
educational materials; and (3) strong involvement with secondary school personnel concerning projects
such as a special field trip organization for science teachers. These efforts have a double
"pay off" in that not only is geoscience education advanced but also the Geology Department enjoys
an activist image that enhances recruiting and the competition for University resources.

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GEOMORPHOLOGY AND LATE QUATERNARY HISTORY OF A BLUE RIDGE HILLS LOPE , SHERANDO ,
VIRGINIA, G. Richard Whlttecar and Derek W. Ry ter* , Department of Geological
Sciences, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, VA 23529

Hillslopes underlain by Catoctin metabasalts consist of bedrock cliffs,
talus slopes, boulder streams, colluvial slopes, residual knobs, and debris
fans. Soils on upper fans are relatively red (2. SYR) with high iron and clay
contents, and contain clasts with relatively thick weathering rinds. Lower fan
soils are more brown (7. SYR to SYR) with significantly less iron and clay in
the subsoil and thinner weathering rinds. Boulder streams extend downhill from
talus slopes and choke drainages immediately uphill of the upper debris fans .
Geomorphic relationships suggest that these boulder streams moved by
solifluction and associated creep and probably grew during the Pleistocene
under episodic periglacial climates. Debris fans result from catastrophic
rainfall events that probably occur most often during interglacial periods .
Upper debris fans ceased to accrete either when boulder streams halted the
delivery of fine grained sediments by blocking drainages or when marginal
streams pirated debris flows. Surfaces of upper fans may be Sangamonian age or
older. Lower fans formed when Back Creek increased slopes of its tributaries
by widening its valley; these fan surfaces may still be accreting.

Materials Science

Stress-Corrosion Cracking Study in Natural Seawater, R. A. Bayles and
P. F. Slebodnick, Code 6327 and E. Dail Thomas, Code 6370.1, Naval Research
Laboratory, Washington DC 20375-5000. Stress-corrosion cracking (SCC) is a
phenomenon in which a susceptible material exposed to the conjoint action of
stress and a specific environment experiences catastrophic failure following an
incubation period and subcritical crack growth. Such cracks are often undetected
until they reach a depth at which the geometry is such that fast, overload fracture
occurs causing failure of a component. Cathodic polarization of steel suppresses
general anodic corrosion of the surface by transferring the site of the corrosion
reaction to another material. Deep within the crack, however, the corrosion
reaction may not be completely suppressed and, additionally, hydrogen which is
produced by the cathodic polarization at cathodic sites in the neighborhood of the
crack may be absorbed at the crack tip and accelerate the cracking process. To
determine what level of electrochemical polarization for cathodic protection is safe
over the long term, experiments are underway at the Marine Corrosion Facility of
the Naval Research Laboratory in Key West, Florida. Testing of fracture mechanics
specimens of a 5% Ni steel exposed to flowing natural seawater and cathodic
polarization provides a quantitative measure of susceptibility to SCC.

MODELING OF GaAs MOCVD IN A HORIZONTAL REACTOR WITH COMPARISON TO GROWTH
EXPERIMENTS L.R. Black1 and I.O. Clark, NASA Langley Research Center, Hampton, VA 23665-5225,
B.A. Fox and W.A. Jesser, Department of Materials Science, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA
22903-2442. Metalorganic chemical vapor deposition (MOCVD) of GaAs in a horizontal reactor was
performed and the process mathematically modeled in order to test the ability of the model to accurately
predict the effects of the various deposition parameters on the growth rate. A reactor with a rectangular
cross-section and a tilted susceptor was used in this study. The mass flow rates of the reactants,
trimethylgallium (TMG) and arsine, were held constant in all runs. Growth experiments were performed
at both one atmosphere and 0.1 atmosphere using hydrogen as the carrier gas. The deposition process
conditions were modeled with an advanced computational fluid dynamics code enhanced for flows with
complex multiphase chemical reactions. Densities were calculated from the ideal gas law, and heats of
reaction were obtained from the enthalpies of formations of the individual species. The influence of a
single surface reaction Ga(CH3)3 + AsH3 -* GaAs(s) + 3CH4 was also tested in the model. Film thickness
profiles were predicted by the model for comparison with those of the experimentally produced GaAs thin
films. The model and data are in good agreement for low pressure growth runs and for the leading edges
of the atmospheric pressure runs. Work is in progress to refine the model in order to improve agreement
at the trailing edges of the GaAs thin films grown at atmospheric pressure.

University of Virginia Graduate Student

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CORROSION BEHAVIOR OF AN AL-FE-GD METALLIC GLASS IN AQUEOUS
ENVIRONMENTS R.G. Buchheit. G.E. Stoner and G.J. Shiflet,
Department of Materials Science, Thornton Hall, University of
Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia 22903. Anodic polarization in
aqueous C104”/C1“ environments of various pH were used to assess
the baseline corrosion behavior of an Alg0Fe5Gd5 metallic glass.
Compared to the crystalline version of the same alloy, the glass
exhibited a higher breakaway potential due to lack of
microstructural heterogeneity but an increased dissolution rate
in the passive region due to lattice disorder. The corrosion rate
of the glass is lower than expected in alkaline solutions due to
the enrichment of oxidized iron in the surface film. In neutral
solutions, degradation in corrosion resistance in mitigated by
the formation of an iron enriched film in pits associated with
second phase particles.

Fractography of Graphite Reinforced Epoxy Composites, K.W. Campbell.
Geo-Centers, Inc., Ft. Washington, MD 20744, D.A. Meyn* and C. D.
Beachem*, Materials Science and Technology Division, Naval Research
Laboratory, Washington, DC 20375-5000. As the amount of composite
materials in use grows, the need for a thorough understanding of the
mechanisms involved in their failure becomes increasingly important. In
this work the failure of graphite reinforced epoxy composites is
investigated fractographically under conditions of both static and
dynamic loading. Fracture surfaces of failed specimens are studied over
a range of magnifications using a field emission scanning electron
microscope. Microstructural features such as hackles, scallops and river
marks are identified and their relation to the failure mode and loading
conditions is discussed. The benefit of viewing stereographic pairs of
micrographs and precision matching of areas from both fracture surfaces
using stereofractography is described and demonstrated.

CONCRETE BRIDGE PROTECTION AND REHABILITATION: EVALUATION OF
CHEMICAL TECHNIQUES TO INHIBIT THE CORROSION OF REINFORCING STEEL
IN CONCRETE. William D. Collins and Robert E. Swanson, Dept, of
Materials Engr. , Va. Polytechnic Inst, and State Univ. , Blacksburg,
Va. 24061. Reinforced concrete is one of the most widely used and
accepted materials of construction. However, the rapidly growing
use of de-icing salts on roadways has contributed to the severe
deterioration of reinforced concrete bridge decks and other
structures. Several chemical approaches were pursued and are being
considered in an attempt to retard the chloride-induced corrosion
of reinforcing steel, including inhibitors, a scavenger, and
polymer coatings. The corrosion behavior of embedded reinforcing
bars was evaluated before and after chemical treatment using
corrosion potential measurements and electrochemical impedance
spectroscopy. In addition, a novel means of protection through the
removal of chloride contaminated concrete was formulated for future
evaluation.

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SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIALS’ RESEARCH FOR INFRARED DETECTOR APPLICATIONS. J. H.
DINAN.* US Army CECOM Center for Night Vision & Electro-Optics, Fort Belvoir, VA 22060.

Imaging radiation sensors are required for a variety of military and commercial applications. Thermal imagers
sensitive to radiation in the 3-5 and 8-12 micron atmospheric windows are especially suited for strategic and
tactical military systems. For the past decade, the DOD has sponsored an intensive research program
aimed at identifying and developing semiconductor materials, device structures, and processing tech¬
niques which result in efficient detection and imaging in these spectral regions. Mercury cadmium telluride,
a semiconductor alloy whose bandgap can be adjusted by adjusting the alloy composition, has emerged
as the material of choice. Liquid phase epitaxy and several forms of vapor phase epitaxy are being devel¬
oped to provide a reliable material deposition technique. Conventional wet-chemical processing tech¬
niques are used to form the two-dimensional arrays which make up the detector portion of an infrared focal
plane. A brief review is given of the DOD involvement in this technology. The state of the art in materials’
growth and processing is presented. Barrier problems and proposed solutions involving either alternate
semiconductor materials or non-conventional growth and processing techniques are discussed.

DIAMOND GROWTH BY MODIFIED HOT FI LAMENT- ASSISTED CHEMICAL VAPOR DEPOSITION
F. P. Doty and W. A. Jesser, Dept, of Materials Science, Univ. of Va,
Charlottesville, VA. 22901. The low pressure growth of diamond thin films is
well known, and has been accomplished by activating hydrocarbon/hydrogen
mixtures near a heated substrate by means of a hot filament, DC glow
discharge, etc. Many researchers have reported that externally applied
voltages strongly affect the chemical vapor deposition (CVD) process, and this
has been attributed to electron bombardment effects. For this work, a
filament-assisted CVD reactor was modified by placing a charged aperture
between the filament and the substrate, enabling independent control of the
substrate voltage and the filament to substrate current. Growth experiments
under various conditions indicate that negatively charged species participate
in the growth mechanism, and that the reaction rate depends on the substrate
potential. The growth rate becomes negligible when the substrate is held at
negative potential, even in the presence of a large current, which calls into
question the electron bombardment explanation of growth rate dependence on
electrical bias. These results suggest that diamond may form at low pressure
by an electrochemical reaction. The results also suggest that patterning of
the deposited film may be accomplished by using electrostatic fields.

{110} GROWTH TWINS IN TiAl : C. R. Feng*. D. J. Michel* and C. R.
Crowe*, Materials Science and Technolgy Division, Naval Research
Laboratory, Washington, D.C. 20375-5000. The microstructure of a
XD™ processed and cast Ti-45Al/TiB2 composite was investigated by
TEM Methods. The microstructure was found to exhibit a TiAl/Ti3Al
two-phase lamellar structure. The orientation relationships
between TiAl and Ti3Al were {lll}TiA1 // (0001) Ti3Ai and <110>TiA1 //
<1120>Ti3Ai. Differently oriented TiAl areas were observed to
coexist within the same TiAl lamella. The atomic arrangements
corresponding to the the orientations of these areas before and
after a sixty (60) degree tilt suggested that these areas were
{110} twins. Since all { 111 }<110>TiA1 orientations parallel to the
(0001) <1120>Ti3Ai orientations were equivalent with respect to the
Ti3Al , differently oriented {111 }TiAi could nucleate at the same
(0001) Ti3A1 and grow in different <110>TiAi at the same time. From
these suggestions, the results have indicated that these {110}
twins were growth twins .

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THE STRUCTURE OF THE CELLULAR GROWTH FRONT IN Cu-3%Ti. Richard W.
Fonda* and Gary J. Shiflet*, Dept, of Materials Science, Univ. of Va., Charlottesville, Va.
22903. The cellular (or discontinuous) precipitation reaction has long been considered to
proceed by the advancement of a disordered, incoherent growth front. However,
transmission electron microscopy studies of this reaction in Cu-3wt%Ti have revealed
structures at the growth front that do not conform to this conception. At low undercoolings
the growth interface between the lamellar CU4T precipitate phase and the supersaturated
matrix is highly structured and maintains a particular facet direction along the growth front,
indicating the presence of a crystallographic habit plane between the two phases. This habit
plane is maintained through small deviations in growth front direction away from the
orientation of the habit plane. If the precipitate growth interface is a very low energy habit
plane then the facet direction may be maintained even with large deviations between the
habit plane and the local grain boundary orientation. However, larger deviations are usually
associated with the adoption of a different habit plane that is better aligned with the local
grain boundary direction. This behavior indicates a significant influence of crystallography
on cellular precipitation in this alloy. With larger undercoolings the influence of the
increased driving force due to a more negative Gibbs free energy gradually overwhelms the
predominance of crystallography, leading to a roughening of the growth front that conforms
more closely to the classical morphology.

THE EFFECT OF ION NITRIDING ON THE ABRASION RESISTANCE OF WEAR
RESISTANT MATERIALS. William G. Halley. Robert E. Swanson,
and Norman S. Eiss, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State
University, Blacksburg, VA. 24061

Ion nitriding has been evaluated as a means of improving
the abrasive wear resistance, measured by dry sand rubber
wheel abrasion tests, of several materials. Samples of a
medium carbon low alloy steel, a chromium ferritic stainless
steel, and a chrome-vanadium powder metallurgy tool steel were
tested . All samples received the same nitriding treatment.
The effect on wear resistance varied from a 45% decrease in
wear volume loss to a 44.1% increase in volume loss. Tests
run for shorter intervals showed that once the nitrided layer
was broached, the wear rate increased with the exposed
substrate area, finally approaching the untreated wear rate.

Results are presented in the form of volume loss, SEM
micrographs of the wear tracks, optical photomicrographs of
microstructures, and microhardness depth profiles.

THE APPLICATION OF TRANSMISSION ELECTRON MICROSCOPY AS A TOOL TO
INVESTIGATE THE LOCALIZED CORROSION PROCESSES IN AN ALUMINUM-
LITHIUM ALLOY. Raymond J. Kilmer and Glenn E. Stoner, Dept, of

Materials Science, University of Virginia, 22901. Transmission
Electron Microscopy (TEM) was employed to investigate the

localized corrosion processes in alloy 2090, an Al-Li-Cu alloy.

It was demonstrated through correlation of Scanning Electron
Microscopy (SEM) and TEM of foils that were freely corroded in
3.5 w/o NaCl that the electrochemical properties of the foil
mirrored that of the bulk alloy. This technique hence allowed
for examination of the corrosion event at a point relatively
close to initiation and more easily allowed for the correlation
of the role microstructure in the corrosion event. The localized
corrosion phenomena examined included constituent particle
pitting, preferential subgranular boundary attack and the
formation of an unusual passive film.

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101

EFFECT OF MICROSTRUCTURE, YIELD STRENGTH AND FREQUENCY ON HYDROGEN ENHANCED
FATIGUE OF STEELS, R. Krishnamurthv and R.P. Gangloff. Department of Materials Science, University of
Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22903. Constant stress intensity experiments were conducted with C-Mn A537

under cathodic polarization in 3.5% NaCl. The steel microstructure and yield strength (400 to 1000 MPa) were
varied by changing the tempering levels, and da/dN increased as the tempering temperature was decreased.
Either yield strength or microstructure, or both these could be causes for the differences in corrosion fatigue
crack growth rate. At a constant AK of 23 MPa/m, the plot of da/dN vs. frequency exhibits three regimes: high
frequencies (f > 1 Hz) da/dN is independent of frequency, intermediate frequencies (f between 0.1 and 1 Hz)
da/dN increases with frequency and finally da/dN is independent of frequency at saturation frequencies (f<
0.1 Hz). The diffusion based corrosion fatigue model predicts a square root relationship between da/dN and
frequency. This relationship is exhibited by the various microstructures of A537 in the intermediate frequency
range. The model also predicts that da/dN is inversely proportional to yield strength in the saturation frequency
regime, and directly proportional to yield strength in the intermediate frequency regime. The martensitic and
pearlitic A537 conform with the model prediction, whereas spheroidized A537 and the Cu precipitation
hardened A710 steel have rates which are not consistent with model prediction. This inconsistency suggests a
strong microstructural effect on hydrogen fatigue which should be factored into the model. These results provide
a glimpse of the complicated relationship between frequency, yield strength and microstructure.

MICROSTRUCTURAL PROPERTIES AND ELECTROCATALYTIC BEHAVIOR OF
PLATINUM AND PLATINUM-CHROMIUM DISPERSED CATALYSTS. Charles F.
Kroen and Glenn E. Stoner, Center for Electrochemical Sciences and Engineering, De¬
partment of Materials Science, Univ. of VA, Charlottesville, VA 22903. The current out¬
put at constant applied potential and the catalyst size, structure, and composition of plati¬
num and platinum-chromium alloy dispersed catalyst electrodes were examined. Compar¬
isons of the microstructures of the "as-received" electrodes and those after operation re¬
vealed a significant increase in the average catalyst diameter for both the platinum and
platinum-chromium electrodes. The measured platinum catalyst size increase, which is
approximately linear with time, is not consistent with the relationship predicted by clas¬
sical (LSW) coarsening models or by the nucleation inhibited mechanisms previously
found operating on platinum particles on alumina substrates at elevated temperature. En¬
ergy dispersive spectroscopy revealed that a nearly complete loss of chromium occurred in
the platmum-chromium alloy catalyst as a result of electrode operation and the inclusion
of phosphorus in the catalyst particles for both the platinum and platinum-chromium elec¬
trodes. These factors suggest that a dissolution-deposition mechanism may be responsible
for the catalyst coarsening observed as a result of electrode operation.

OBSERVATIONS AND ELECTROCHEMISTRY OF THE FIBER/EPOXY
INTERFACE OF CARBON FIBER REINFORCED PLASTICS (CFRP). U
Mangiacapre. Dept, of Materials Science, Univ. of Va., Charlottesville, Va. 22903. The
purpose of this research was to determine if moisture ingress down the fiber/epoxy
interface of a CFRP could be detected as an increase in the double layer capacitance CL.
To do this, the specific double layer capacitance C was determined for individual pitch
fibers having an average diameter of 10/zm and was found to have an average value of
82.7 ± 9.4 /zF/cm2. Individual fibers were then electrically connected to a wire and set
vertically in Epon 828 epoxy to form a modeled composite. These samples were then cured
and polished to 1/zrn alumina to expose the cross section of the fiber flush with the surface
of the epoxy. Samples were then placed in an oven at 90°C for 10 minutes (causing the
interface to debond) and immediately placed in solution for Cdl measurements using an
Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS) technique. Upon cooling in solution, air
within the interface contracts and draws solution down into the interface. An increase in
th®,cd. was measured over a period of one hour for three samples. By dividing the values
of the Cdl by the C an increase in exposed area, and therefore penetration distance, could
be determined. A Tinal penetration distance of approximately 20/zm was found for the
three samples.

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THERMAL PROFILES IN VERTICAL BRIDGMAN FURNACES. W. Rosch. W. Jesser,
D. Knuteson, Materials Science Department, University of Virginia,
Charlottesville, Va 22903, and A. Fripp, W. Debnam, NASA Langley
Research Center, Hampton, Va 23665. Comparison of experiments
conducted with two vertical Bridgman furnaces configured to have
isothermal hot and cold zones showed unexpected differences. With
the furnace set to the same control temperatures, identical
instrumented fused silica samples were inserted in order to
determine temperature profiles. It was found that one furnace gave
thermal profiles that were extremely sensitive to the sample
position, while the other furnace did not. Research done to date
indicates that a difference in furnace emissivity is at least
partially responsible for this discrepancy.

THE NON-DESTRUCTIVE EVALUATION OF ALUMINUM-POLYMER
LAMINATES USING ELECTROCHEMICAL IMPEDANCE SPECTROSCOPY.
Gayle R. T. Schueller and S. Ray Taylor, Materials Science Department, The University of
Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22903. Aluminum-polymer laminates have a wide variety of
structural applications. Catastrophic failure in these materials occurs either cohesively,
within the polymer, or adhesively, by interfacial disbonding at the metal/polymer
interface. Since cohesive failure is relatively well understood, non-destructive detection of
adhesive failure is essential to the evaluation of laminate strength. Electrochemical
impedance spectroscopy (EIS) is proposed as a possible new technique for non-
destructively evaluating metal/polymer disbonding. Natural oxides of aluminum in borate
buffer were analyzed by electrochemical impedance spectroscopy. Flat samples were used
to characterize the general capacitance-time behavior and general electrochemical
impedance response. Crevice geometries were then considered, resulting in an increase in
distributed element effect and an increase in stabilized capacitance with increasing crevice
area. These results show the sensitivity of EIS to the size and shape of defects in pseudo¬
laminates and offer encouragement for the application of EIS as a non-destructive test for
delamination in aluminum-polymer laminates.

ELECTROCHEMICAL MEASUREMENTS FOR THE DETERMINATION OF DYNAMIC STATES IN
THE BRIDGMAN CRYSTAL GROWTH CONFIGURATION. Brian R. Sears*. T.J. Anderson*, R.
Narayanan*, Dept, of Chemical Engineering, Univ. of Florida, Gainesville, FI. 32611, and A.L. Fripp,
G. Woodell* , WJ. Debnam*, NASA Langley Research Center, Hampton, Va. 23665. A solid-state
electrochemical technique is used to measure the binary diffusion coefficient of dilute oxygen in liquid
tin. The diffusion coefficient is presented as a function of reciprocal temperature. The experimental
design is considered to be superior to previous designs used for oxygen diffusion measurements in
liquid metals due to improved isothermal character of the melt. Electrochemical cell designs to
simulate vertical Bridgman crystal growth are also presented and are used for measurement of
effective diffusivities of oxygen across thermally unstable tin melts. A dynamic transition from a
stagnant melt to steady flow is evidenced in the plot of effective diffusivity versus thermal Rayleigh
number for an aspect ratio (H/R) of 1. Likewise, a dynamic transition from steady flow to oscillatory
flow is evidenced as a discontinuity in the plot of effective diffusivity versus thermal Rayleigh number
for aspect ratio 5. A final electrochemical cell design is proposed for determination of flow
orientations, e.g. roll cell structure and flow direction, as well as for characterization of oscillatory flow
patterns in Bridgman crystal growth simulations.

SOME SCALING STUDIES ON COMPOSITE MATERIAL SYSTEMS. Kuen Tat Teh*. & John Morton,
National Science Foundation Science and Technology Center for High Performance Polymeric
Adhesives and Composites, Engineering Science & Mechanics Dept., Va. Polytechnic Inst. & State
Univ., Blacksburg, Va. 24061. General aspects of scaling of composite materials are outlined.
An approach based on similarity is presented in order to highlight sources of scaling effects.
Experimental results from ply-level scaling studies on graphite-epoxy composites show that
the uniaxial tensile strength decreases by scaling up the laminate. The problems associated with
ply-level scaling are discussed. Future studies on simply supported sublaminate-level scaling
composites subjected to transverse normal impact are outlined. The preliminary studies on
quasi-static three point bend test are presented. The results are used as the basis for selecting
the correct parameters to scale the impact input energy and for comparing the impact test
results in the future. (Supported by the National Science Foundation Science and Technology
Center at Va. Polytechnic Inst. & State Univ.)

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PERFORMANCE OF METAL OXIDE COATINGS FOR TITANIUM ALLOYS IN HOT
CORROSION ENVIRONMENTS Patrick J. Taylor*. Karl E. Wiedemann, Analytical Ser¬
vices and Materials Inc., 107 Research Drive, Hampton, Va. 23666. Titanium alloys and
specifically titanium aluminides are attractive materials for aerospace applications because
of their high-temperature specific strength. A great concern, however, is the embrittlement
from high-temperature hot corrosion of these materials. Several oxide systems were inves¬
tigated as potential hot corrosion resistant coating materials for these titanium alloys.
Relative performance of the oxide systems was determined from normalized weight gain
data taken at 982 C (1800 F.) Results are presented from the systematic investigation of
these oxide systems. Regions of optimal performance were discovered via a mathematical
response surface analysis of the empirical data.

FACTORS AFFECTING THE DURABILITY OF Ti~6Al-4V/EPOXY BONDS. Jennifer A. Filbey,
Hoechst-Celanese , Charlotte, NC 28232 & J. P. Wiqhtman, Dept, of Chem., Va.
Polytechnic Inst. & State Univ. , Blacksburg, VA 24061. The use of adhesives for
structural applications provides uniform stress distribution throughout the bond
line, weight savings and corrosion resistance. It is therefore desirable to
make not only strong but durable adhesive bonds. The chemical pretreatment
given to Ti-6-4 surfaces can greatly affect the durability of the adhesive
bonds. The Ti-6-4 surfaces were chemically or electrochemically pretreated by
chromic acid anodization (CAA) or by a phosphate fluoride (P/F) acidic etch.

The pretreated surfaces were characterized by chemical composition and
topography. The pretreated surfaces were adhesively bonded with FM-300 in two
configurations - the lap shear and the wedge. Strength to break measurements
with the lap shear bonds indicate there is no dependence of the surface
pretreatment on initial lap shear strength. The wedge test however shows a
marked dependence on the surface pretreatment used. In addition to the surface
pretreatment, aluminum alkoxide coatings enhanced the durability of P/F treated
surfaces. [Research supported by Office of Naval Research].

Medical Sciences

SYNTHESIS AND TESTING OF POTENTIAL INHIBITORS OF ARACHIDONIC ACID 5 -LIPOXYGENASE
IN A MOUSE MODEL. S. T. Allen, L. T. Alty, M. C. Sackett, D. A. Brown, C. D.
Eckman, R. A. Sances , W. E. Allen, S. T. Bienert, G. K. Duwel, E. F. Mutz ,
Department of Chemistry, Washington & Lee University, Lexington, VA 24450;

J. F. Stubbins, Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Va. Commonwealth Univ.,
Richmond, VA 23298. Structural analogs of N,N-diethyl-4-methyl-l-
piperazinecarboxamide (diethylcarbamazine , DEC) a known inhibitor of arachidonic
acid 5 -lipoxygenase (5-LO), were synthesized to determine the structural
components necessary for biological activity. A good inhibitor of this enzyme
would have potential uses in treating asthma, rheumatoid arthritis, and
inflammatory bowel disease. Current agents used in treating these diseases all
have undesirable side effects which could be eliminated by using a more specific
agent, such as a 5-LO inhibitor. The arachidonic acid- induced inflammation of
the mouse ear is being used to test the anti-inflammatory potency of these
compounds. Testing for five analogs and DEC is complete. Three of the analogs
are less potent than DEC (IC30 = 0.25 mg/ear, maximum inhibition of swelling =
40%) . A fourth analog is at least tenfold more potent with a slightly higher
level of inhibition while the fifth analog is as potent as DEC and it inhibits
swelling 100%.

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NOVEL l-SPIROPIPERIDINE-l,2,3,4-TETRAHYDRO-BETA-CARBOLINES OF
POTENTIAL BIOLOGICAL INTEREST. P. Bartvzel*. Dept, of Medicinal
Chemistry MCV/VCU, Richmond, VA 23298 and S. Misztal*, E. Tatar-
czynska* E. Chojnacka-Wojcik* Institute of Pharmacology Polish
Academy of Sciences, Krakow, Poland. A series of novel N-aminoalkyl
derivatives of 1-spiro- (N-benzylpiperidine) -1 , 2 , 3 , 4-tetrahydro-
beta-carbolines were synthesized and examined in preliminary
pharmacological screening in comparison to diazepam and buspirone.
2- [ 2- ( 1 -Phenyl -4 -piperazinyl) -ethyl ] -1 , 2 , 3 , 4-tetrahydro-beta-
carboline-l-spiro-4 ' -N' -benzylpiperidine , administered intra-
peritoneally but not intragastrically showed anxiolytic properties
in the four-plate test in mice and in the conflict test in rats.
The anxiolytic effect appears at doses 100 times lower than the
dose disturbing locomotor coordination, and ca. 200 times lower
than the toxic dose. This compound is devoid of anticonvulsant
properties in the pentylenetetrazole convulsions test and therefore
it distinctly differs from diazepam in its profile of action which,
apart from the anxiolytic effect, shows anticonvulsant and
neurotoxic properties. Its activity resembles that of buspirone,
but in contrast to buspirone it is active in the four-plate test.

B LYMPHOCYTE DIFFERENTIATION, A PROBABLE SITE OF ACTION FOR ANTI-AIDS DRUG,
DIDEOXYADENOSINE. W. Cao *, M. L. Stern* and A. E. Munson. Dept of Pharmacol,

and Toxicol., MCV/ VCU, Richmond, VA 23298. Previous studies showed that the B cell is
targeted by 2',3’-dideoxyadenosine (ddA), an anti AIDS drug. The purpose of this study was to
determine the sensitive stage(s) in antibody forming cell (AFC) production affected by ddA.
Spleen cells from B6C3F1 female mice treated as with up to 350 mg/kg ddA for 30 days
showed no difference in percentage or in absolute numbers of B cell (surface IgM positive), T
cell (Thyl.2 positive), T helper cell precursor (L3T4 positive) or precursor of T suppressor
cell and cytotoxicity T cell (Lyt-2 positive) as compared to vehicle-treated mice.
Proliferative ability of splenic B cell driven by B cell mitogen, Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) or
F(ab')2 fragment of anti-mlgM plus IL-4 were unchanged in ddA-treated mice. However, the
IgM AFC responses to sheep erythrocytes (SRBC), LPS and DNP-Ficoll were inhibited in ddA-
treated mice. Since the percentage and absolute number and the proliferative ability of B cell
are not affected by ddA and antigen processing capability of adherent cells is intact along with
intact T accessory cell function, the reduction of IgM AFC response may be caused by a selective
action on B cell differentiation. (Supported by NIHES 55094 and training grant NIHES
07087.)

SALMONELLA CONTAMINATION DETECTION IN FOOD PRODUCTS. Germille Colmano.
Dept. Biomed. Sci.s, VMRCVM, VPI & SU, Blacksburg, VA 24061. First experiment:
gave evident separation of filtrates and controls at 24 hrs incubation,
comparing 50 cells/ml of Salmonella tvphimurium. S. arizona. Escherichia
coli, or a combination of them, inoculated into Lactose Broth (LB) or
Lactose Broth with chicken. Second experiment (repeated detection at time
zero) : in inoculated, immediately filtered samples, the growth medium use
by bacteria was detectable at time zero. Third experiment (field sampling
duplication) : separated distilled water washes from 6 whole raw chickens,
compared with a water wash spiked with bacteria and read against sterile
distilled water. Fourth experiment (above water washes cultured in broth
and read against broth, at time 0, 4, 8, and 24 hours): noticeable large
differences, not only in the 24 hr cultures, but also on the zero time
cultures. Conclusion: S. tvphimurium differentiation from S. arizona. E.
coli and a combination of all three, with detection in samples immediately
after collection time, offers a novel, rapid and simple way to test for
differentiation of pathogenic bacteria in food products.

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STRUCTURE -ACTIVITY STUDIES ON SOME NOVEL 5-HT3 LIGANDS.

A. Damodaran* . R . A. Glennon* , Dept. of Medicinal Chemistry,
MCV/VCU, Richmond, Va 23298. Quipazine is a non-selective
serotonin (5-HT) ligand that binds with high affinity (K^ = 1.5
nM) at 5-HT3 receptors. Because little is known regarding the
binding of structurally-related arylpiperazines at 5-HT3
receptors, and in order to develop a more selective ligand, we
undertook a structure-affinity relationship (SAFIR) study of
quipazine analogs. Taking advantage of some of our early
findings (i.e., that tertiary amines bind at these sites, and
that the entire quinoline nucleus of quipazine is unnecessary
for binding) , we prepared and evaluated a small series of mono-
and bi-cyclic aryl piperazine derivatives. Several of these
compounds (e.g. NMQ) bind at 5-HT3 receptors with a greater
selectivity than quipazine. (Supported in part by PHS Grant NS
23523) .

BEHAVIORAL RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN 5-HT1a AND 5-HT2 RECEPTORS. N.A,
DARMANI*. B.R. MARTIN, U. PANDEY* AND R.A. GLENNON*. DEPTS OF
PHARMACOL/TOXICOL. AND MED. CHEM., MCV-VCU, RICHMOND, VA 23298.
Radioligand binding studies have identified several types of central 5-HT binding sites (5-HTi, 5-
HT2, 5-HT3 & 5-HT4). The 5-HTi site appears to consist of several subtypes of which the 5-
HTia sites are best studied. Recent literature indicate that there may be functional interactions
among 5-HT receptors. One of the most often used models of 5-HT2 receptor function is the head-
twitch response (HTR) in rodents. In the present study the selective 5-HT2 receptor agonist DOI
was used to induce HTR in mice. The hallucinogen, DOI (0.06 -5.0 mg/kg, i.p.), induced HTR in
a dose-dependent manner. For drug interaction studies a dose of 2.5 mg/kg DOI was used to
induce HTR and the induced behavior was observed for 30 minutes post-injection. Pretreatment
with a nonselective 5-HT agonist (5-MeO DMT, 2-8 mg/kg, i.p.), a selective 5-HTia agonist (8-
OH DPAT, 0.5-2.5 mg/kg, i.p.) and the 5-HT2 selective antagonists (ketanserin, 0.063-1.0
mg/kg, i.p., and spiperone 0.03-0.5 mg/kg, s.c.) dose dependently reduced the DOI-induced
HTR. Pretreatment with the 5-HTib/5-HTic agonist TFMPP (0.3 -1.25 mg/kg, i.p.) or the 5-
HTib agonist RU 24969 (1.25 mg/kg, i.p.) did not affect the DOI-induced HTR. These results
suggest that simultaneous co-stimulation of 5-HTia receptors modulate the 5-HT2 receptor-
induced HTR. Supported by NIDA grants DA-05274 and DA-01642.

SIMULTANEOUS HPLC DETERMINATION OF CAROTENOIDS AND RETINOIDS. B. P. Dezzutti.
P. Carcaise-Edinboro and R.B. Brandt. Dept, of Biochem. & Dept, of Oral Path.,
Med. Col. of Va., Va. Commonwealth Univ. , Richmond, Va. 23298. Previous studies
by others have suggested that vitamin A (retinol) or retinoids such as retinyl
esters have a role in the prevention of carcinogenesis. Recently £ -carotene, the
plant precursor of the retinol has been implicated in lowering the risk of some
types of cancer. In this report a method is described for the simultaneous
determination of carotenoids and retinoids in serum using high performance liquid
chromatography (HPLC) . Human serum (250/fL) that had been protected from direct
light was added to 750/il of 1% sodium ascorbate (w/v) and to 2.0 ml of absolute
ethanol and extracted with 5.0 ml of N-hexane. After centrifugation a 4.0 ml of
aliquot was evaporated using a nitrogen stream. The residue was dissolved in 1.0
ml of 80:20 methanol: toluene (mobile phase) and 200/fL was injected for HPLC using
a Supelcosil LC-18 25 cm column. A flew rate of 1.5 ml/min with a Waters 490
programmable detector at 325 nm for the retinoids and 454 nm for the carotenoids.
Standards of retinol, retinyl esters and -carotene were analyzed spectrophoto-
metrically. Retention time (sec) for retinol (145) , retinyl palmitate (537) and
/3-carotene (519) . Valuer for a normal human population are included. Supported
by the Smokeless Tobacco Research Council.

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EVALUATION OF HALOGEN-CONTAINING A8-THC ANALOGS. F.L, Friend. D.R.
Compton, and B.R. Martin, Dept. Pharm. & Tox., MCV-VCU, Richmond, Va. 23298.
A limited number of cannabinoid analogs exist which contain a halogen ( fluoro- or
chloro-) substituent. Few of these analogs have been reported active and only one (Abbott
41988) has been evaluated in humans. Previously, we reported that both 5'-bromo-
A8THC and -A9-THC were potent and efficacious in mouse tests. Therefore, halogenated
analogs of A8-THC were synthesized and evaluated in male ICR mice for effects on
locomotion, temperature, tail-flick latency and ring-immobility following an intravenous
injection. The analogs evaluated were 2-iodo-, 5'-bromo-, 5'-iodo-, S'-trifluoro-, 11-
fluoro-A8-THC. Average ED50 values (mg/kg) over all four test of the multiple evaluation
procedure for the 2-iodo-, 5'-bromo-, 5'-iodo-, 5'-trifluoro- and 11-fluoro- analogs were
3.6, 0.3, 0.5, 1.0 and 6.3, respectively. The 2-iodo analog produced the greatest
separation of effects. It was 12 and 29 times more effective in producing antinociception
than depressing locomotor activity or temperatue, respectively. Halogenated substitutions
at the 5' side chain (bromo, iodo, trifluoro) produced analogs potent in all measures,
however, the 11-fluoro analog failed to suppress locomotor activity and was weakly active
in the other measures. (Supported by NIDA grant DA-03672, and the Commonwealth of
Virginia Center on Drug Abuse).

EFFECTS OF PHARMACOLOGICAL DOSES OF ESTROGEN ON SOLUBLE PROTEINS OF THE MOUSE
ANTERIOR PROSTATE. Andrew D. Grove and Roman J. Miller, Dept, of Biology,
Eastern Mennonite Col., Harrisonburg, VA 22801. Swiss Webster mice were
injected with estrogen to determine its effect on soluble proteins of the
anterior prostate. Five treatment groups received three injections per week
for a four week period: OIL (peanut oil 100 ul/inj ection, control); EA (0.01
mg beta-estradiol/kg body weight); EB (0.1 mg/kg); EC (1.0 mg/kg); ED (10.0
mg/kg). After treatment, anterior prostates were removed, pooled by group and
homogenized. Protein aliquots from the groups were separated by polyacrylamide
gel electrophoresis and quantified by densitometry. Based on their responses
to exogenous estrogen, five protein classes were found. Protein type A was
present in all treatment groups but showed a linear reduction with increasing
estrogen doses. Protein type B was found only in EC and ED, but not in OIL.
Protein type C was present in all groups and showed little response to exo¬
genous estrogen. Protein type D was evident only in EB, EC, and ED. Protein
type E was present in all groups but was reduced with low doses of estrogen and
showed increased amounts with high doses. Increasing estrogen doses profoundly
affected protein quantities ranging from ten-fold increases to nine-fold
decreases from control levels.

VASCULAR ACTIONS OF REACTIVE OXYGEN INTERMEDIATES IN PREGNANT AND NONPREGNANT
RATS. Jayne Hart and William Freas. Biol. Dept. George Mason Univ., Fairfax, VA
and Uniformed Services Univ. of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, MD.

Hematoporphyrin (HPD)-treated blood vessels that are exposed to laser light
(photodynamic therapy) develop long-lasting contractions that appear to be in¬
itiated by reactive oxygen intermediates (ROIs). In order to determine if there
are pregnancy- induced changes in these vascular responses, vessels (aorta, mesen¬
teric, carotid and caudal arteries) from nonpregnant (NPG) and 21 day pregnant
(PG) rats were suspended between platinum electrodes in 37°C, Krebs-filled oxy¬
genated tissue baths and isometric tension recorded. Responses of the NPG and
PG vessels to norepinephrine, activation of sympathetic nerves by transmural
stimulation and laser light (633 nm) after HPD (3 ug/ml) were compared. All
vessels studied responded with sustained contractions to a 20 min laser exposure
after HPD treatment. The magnitudes and durations of these contractions were
similar in NPG and PG vessels, as were responses to NE and electrical stimula¬
tion before and after laser treatment. Thus, pregnancy does not modify the vas¬
cular responses to photodynamic generation of ROIs in isolated blood vessels.
(Supported by USUHS Grants R08006 and GM8027.)

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BIODISPOSITION OF 3H-SOMAN IN GUINEA PIGS AFTER INHALATION EXPOSURE AND
INTRAVENOUS ADMINISTRATION. W.T. Hawkins and B. R. Martin. Dept, of Pharm/Tox.
MCV-VCU. Richmond, Va. 23298.

The biological fate of soman has not been previously investigated in guinea pigs despite their
extreme sensitivity to organophosphates. Male guinea pigs (6/group) were exposed to the
volatilization of 238 jig of 3H- soman (4.65 jig/(iCi) at 65 °C for 10 min. for the inhalation route and
15 jig/kg (4.65 jiCi/ kg) for the intravenous route of administration. The exposed animals were
decapitated at each time point, dissected, and total radioactivity was measured in tissue homogenates
of blood, brain, heart, lung, liver, diaphragm, kidney, trachea, testicular fat and carcass, with urine
and feces assayed at the 4, 8 and 24 hr time points. Tissue homogenates were subjected to an
extraction scheme for the quantitation of free soman, the inactive hydrolysis product (PMPA),
phosphorylated tissue (bound PMPA), and residual metabolite (MPA). 3H-Soman penetrated all
tissues rapidly with maximum concentrations of soman and metabolites found within 5 min. The
following rank order of tissue concentrations of soman and metabolites were: lung> trachea> kidney
for the inhalation route and blood> kidney> lung for the intravenous administration route. The highest
concentrations of free soman were found between the 5 and 15 min. time points. Bound PMPA
tissue concentrations were highest at the 5 and 15 min. time points except for the kidney, liver, and
blood which were highest at 15 and 30 min. time points. (Supported by USAMRDC, Contract
#DAMD 17-88-C-8075).

INVESTIGATIONS INTO THE MODE OF BINDING OF^ KETANSERIN AT 5-HT2
RECEPTORS. J. L. Herndon* and R. A. Glennon*, Dept, of Medicinal
Chemistry, MCV/VCU, Richmond, VA 23298-0581. Ketanserin (1) is a
potent and "selective" 5-HT2 antagonist. Comparison of its
molecular structure with that of structurally rigid lysergic acid
diethylamide (LSD) , another potent 5-HT2 ligand, suggests several
possible modes of binding for ketanserin at this common binding
site. Molecular modeling (distance geometry and systematic
conformational searches) confirm that several overlaps between LSD
and ketanserin are energetically favorable. Based on these
possibilities, a series of compounds (2 and 3) incorporating the
different potential pharmacophoric groups were designed,
synthesized and evaluated to deduce the mode of binding of
ketanserin at 5-HT2 receptors. (Supported in part by PHS Grant NS

23523) .

0

AN ASSESSMENT OF POTENTIAL CONTAMINATION AND EXPOSURE DURING LARGE SCALE
PRODUCTION AND PURIFICATION OF HIV-1. Jolanda N. Janczewski, K. K. Oates,
George Mason Univ., Fairfax, VA 22030, & E. B. Sansone, NCI-FCRF, Frederick,

MD, 21701. The epidemic of the Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome has led to
intense concern among health care workers about the risks they may face in the
work environment. A subpopulation of health care workers, laboratory personnel
(specifically those involved in large scale production and purification of
HIV-1) was the focus of this project. The objective of this study was to
evaluate the potential for environmental contamination and worker exposure to
HIV-1 during the production and purification process. Specifically, a chemical
tracer was substituted for the virus, in order to identify and quantitate the
potential environmental contamination and/or worker exposure resulting from
any errors in design, engineering controls, or work practices during large
scale production runs. (Research supported in part by the National Cancer
Institute, under Contract No. NOl-CO-74102, with Program Resources, Inc.)

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ORIGIN OF FOLLICULAR DENDRITIC CELL (FDC) IN CB17 MICE WITH SEVERE COMBINED
IMMUNODEFICIENCY (SCID) . Zoher F. Kapasi*. L.D. Shultz*, G.F. Burton*, M.H. Kosco*,
J.G. Tew & A.K. Szakal*. Depts . of Anatomy /Microbiology , MCV/VCU, Richmond, VA
23298, Jackson Lab., Ma., Basel Inst, for Immunol., Sw. FDCs appear to play an
important role in the regulation and maintenance of secondary antibody response.
Antigen is trapped and retained by FDCs which form a three dimensional network in
lymphoid follicles, the FDC -reticulum. CB17 SCID mice lacking functional B and T
cells, unlike athymic nudes, lacked functional FDCs. To reconstitute the SCID mouse
FDC-reticulum, 107 Lewis rat or CB17 bone marrow or nude splenic B cells and/or CB17
T cells were injected i.v. Using the histochemically detectable antigen horseradish
peroxidase, passively immunized reconstituted CB17 SCID mice were examined for FDC-
reticulum development 24 hrs after footpad challenge. Although B cells induced
cortical development in draining lymph nodes, FDC-reticulum development occurred
only in SCIDs receiving Lewis rat or CB17 bone marrow or B plus T cells. One FDC-
reticulum site in a SCID mouse reconstituted with Lewis rat bone marrow was
positive for KiM4R, a rat FDC specific monoclonal antibody; however, this
observation is insufficient to conclude a bone marrow derivation of FDCs. The
demonstrated B and T cell requirement for development of functional FDCs suggests
a need for T and/or B cell lymphokine production. Support: AI 17142-07 & CA 20408.

INTRATHECAL ADMINISTRATION OF CANNABIOIDS PRODUCES ANTINOCICEPTION IN RATS.
A.H. Lichtman & B.R. Martin. Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Virginia Commonwealth
University, Richmond, VA 23298

The antinociceptive effect of intrathecally (i.t.) administered levonantradol (40 fig), CP 55,940 (10, 30,
60, or 100 pg), A9-THC (100, 300, or 1,000 fig), and the DMSO vehicle was investigated. Antinociception
was assessed in the tail-flick test at various time points after drug or vehicle administration. All 3
cannabinoids produced significant antinociception compared to the vehicle-treated controls which did not
differ from baseline. At 30 min, the percent maximum effect (MPE) for the levonantradol-treated animals
was 74 ±12 and for each respective A^-THC-treated group the MPEs were 33 ±14, 58 ±15, and 43 ±20. The
CP-5 5, 940- treated animals exhibited peak antinociception at 60 min. At this time the MPE produced by each
respective drug dose was 0 ±4, 35 ±12, 39 ±12, and 56 ±14. Finally, the antinocieptive effect of i.t.
levonantradol (40 p.g), CP-55,940 (30 or 100 pg), and the DMSO vehicle was investigated in spinally
transected rats. Each drug significantly elevated tail-flick latencies compared to the vehicle control animals.
At 30 min, the MPE produced by levonantradol was 78 ±16. The MPE produced by each respective dose of
CP-55,940 was 18 ±2 and 36 ±11. These results indicate that cannabinoids can produce antinociception
through a direct spinal mechanism, although they do not preclude the possibility of supraspinal contribution.
This work is supported by NIDA grant DA 03672 and the Commonwealth of Virginia Center on Drug
Abuse Research.

EFFECT OF CD4 AND CD8 POSITIVE T LYMPHOCYTE DEPLETION ON GERMINAL CENTER
DEVELOPMENT. Andrea M. Lister*. J.G. Tew & A.K. Szakal*. Depts. of Anatomy /Mi -
crobiology, MCV/VCU, Richmond, VA 23298. Antigen that is transported to lymph node
follicles is processed and presented by follicular B cells to T cells. Although T
cells are present in follicles, their role in the germinal center response is not
clear. B cell presention of the antigen to T cells in vitro results in the release
of T cell lymphokines believed to be needed for germinal center development. After
administration of an anti-CD4 / anti- CD8 cocktail to deplete mouse T cells, the
spleen and lymph nodes were excised seven days after footpad challenge and examined
for the development of germinal centers. Significant suppression in germinal center
numbers and germinal center compartment size suggested that in the absence of
alpha/beta T cells, gamma/delta T cells are not adequate to provide the T cell
help. Support: AI 17142-07.

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109

THE STIMULUS PROPERTIES OF MELANOTROPIN RELEASE-INHIBITING FACTOR
(MIF) AND THEIR ASSOCIATION WITH MORPHINE. Colleen R. McLaughlin. Aron H.
Lichtman, Dept, of Pharm/Tox., VA Commonwealth Univ., Richmond, VA 23298, Dept, of
Psychol., Dartmouth Col., Hanover, NH 03755, and Michael S. Fanselow, Dept, of Psychol.,
UCLA, Los Angeles, CA 90024. Reports in the literature indicate that MIF may interfere with
the formation of tolerance to morphine. Therefore, the direct effect of MIF on morphine-induced
antinociception and its effect on the acquisition of tolerance were examined. Administration of
MIF prior to morphine sulphate did not attenuate morphine-induced antinociception or the
acquisition of tolerance to morphine-induced antinociception, as measured by the latency to
hindpaw lick in the hotplate test of nociception. Morphine-tolerant animals tested 72 hr. later
without the MIF pretreatment displayed longer pawlick latencies indicative of a loss of tolerance.
These data suggest that MIF may act as a conditioned stimulus in the acquisition of morphine
tolerance and that its removal may interfere with the performance of tolerance to the
antinociceptive properties of morphine.

STIMULUS PROPERTIES OF A NEW DESIGNER DRUG: 4-METHYLAMINOREX ( "U4Euh" ) . B.R.
Misenheimer, R. A. Glennon, Department of Medicinal Chemistry, MCV/VCU, Richmond,
VA 23298. 4 -Methylaminorex is a central stimulant like other phenylisopropyl-
artiine derivatives. The cis isomer of 4 -methylaminorex ("U4Euh") has appeared on
the clandestine market as a novel designer drug and was recently classified as
a Schedule I substance. This study investigated the stimulus properties of
racemic cis, racemic trans, and all four optical isomers of 4 -methylaminorex in
rats trained to discriminate 1 mg/kg of S (+) amphetamine sulfate from saline. The
S (+) amphetamine stimulus generalized to all of these agents, and consistent with
established structure-activity relationships, the trans (4S,5S) isomer
(ED50-0 . 25mg/kg) is more potent than the cis isomers, (cis 4S,5S ED50 =1.2 and
cis 4R, 5S, ED50 = 1 . 5mg/kg) which are more potent than the trans (4R, 5R) isomer.
The trans (4R,5R) isomer did not completely substitute for S (+) amphetamine
unless a longer (i.e., 60 -min) presession injection interval was used,
suggesting that it has a longer duration of onset than the other isomers of 4-
methylaminorex. The results demonstrate that the trans (4S,5S) isomer is similar
in potency to S (+) amphetamine (ED50 values=l . 4 and 1.7 mmoles/kg, respectively)
in drug discrimination studies and suggest that the trans racemate (which has
not been scheduled) might also be an amphetamine like agent subject to abuse.
The pharmacology of this compound, particularly its human pharmacology, needs
to be examined in greater detail. (Supported in part by USPHS grant DA01642) .

THE EFFECTS OF CHRONIC ADMINISTRATION OF A-9 THC ON FREE INTRACELLULAR CALCIUM
AND ADENYLATE CYCLASE IN MOUSE WHOLE BRAIN SYNAPTOSOMES. K. G. Olson. P. P. Bass, S.

P. Welch, and B. R. Martin, Dept of Pharmacology, MCV-VCU, Richmond, VA 23298.

B6C3F1 mice were treated daily, 5 days per week, for 8 or 67 weeks with orally-administered com oil (vehicle) or
250 mg/kg or 500 mg/kg A-9 tetrahydrocannabinol (THC). Synapto somes from whole brain were evaluated for
changes in intracellular calcium [Ca++]i levels and adenylate cyclase activity. Those mice treated with chronic (67
week) A-9 THC at 500 mg/kg had significantly (P<0.05, Dunnett's test) higher levels of basal [Ca++]j when
compared to vehicle-treated mice (445 versus 275 nM), but this effect was not seen in the chronic (8 week)
treatment However, changes in [Ca++]j upon administration of KC1 (50m M) did not differ between the vehicle and
the A-9 THC - treated mice. Chronic (67 week) treatment with A-9 THC at 250 mg/kg did not significantly alter basal
cAMP levels, but chronic (8 week) treatment with 500 mg/kg A-9 THC doubled basal cAMP in the vehicle and
tripled basal cAMP in the 500 mg/kg A-9 THC group. Forskolin (1 |iM) significantly increased cAMP levels in
both the vehicle and the chronic (8 and 67 week) A-9 THC groups. A-9 THC (1 |iM) did not alter cAMP levels in
the vehicle-treated mice but produced a 50% increase in cAMP levels in the A-9 THC (67 week) mice. These data
indicate that adenylate cyclase is activated and/or that intracellular calcium levels are altered following chronic (8 or 67
week) A-9 THC treatment The mechanisms for such changes are yet to be determined. [Supported by NIDA grants
DA03672, DA06031, and the Commonwealth of Virginia Center on Drug Abuse Research.]

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ROLE OF NEWLY SYNTHESIZED STEROID HORMONE ANTAGONISTS ON GLUCOCORTICOID- AND
MINERALOCORTICOID- INDUCED HYPERTENSION IN RATS. Justicla Qpoku and *Mohammed
Kalimi, Dept, of Physiol., Medical Col. of Va. , Richmond, Va. 23298. Excess
adrenocorticosteroid hormones such as glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids is
well known to induce hypertension in several animal species as well as in
humans. Therefore, the development of potent and specific glucocorticoid and
mineralocorticoids antagonists with antihypertensive effects is clinically
necessary. Recently, two new exciting adrenocorticosteroid hormone antagonists
have been synthesized. RU 486 as a potent glucocorticoid antagonist and
mespirenone, as a mineralocorticoid antagonist. We have studied the
antihypertensive effect of RU 486 and mespirenone in rats with dexamethasone -
or aldosterone/DOCA- salt- induced hypertension. We report that RU 486
administered simultaneously with dexamethasone prevented the hypertension
induced by dexamethasone treatment. The administration of the
antimineralocorticoid mespirenone, in combination with aldosterone success¬
fully prevented aldosterone- induced hypertension but not dexamethasone- induced
hypertension. In conclusion we have shown here for the first time that RU 486
has a clinical potential use in the treatment of Cushing's Syndrome and
mespirenone in the treatment of mineralocorticoid-excess diseases.

EFFECT OF OXIDATION OF C is -UNSATURATED FATTY ACIDS ON THEIR
INHIBITION OF PHOSPHOLIPASE A2 ACTIVITY. Ramesh Raahupathi* and R.
Franson*, Dept, of Biochem. and Mol. Biophys . , Va. Commonwealth
Univ. , Richmond VA 23298. Cis-unsaturated but not trans-unsaturated
and saturated fatty acids inihibit phospholipase A2 (PLA2) activity
in vitro and may function as endogenous suppressors of lipolysis.
The 12-hydroxyl analog of oleic acid, ricinoleic acid, was not as
inhibitory with an IC5(? 10-fold lower than that of oleate. To
further probe the importance of the environment of the cis-double
bond, arachidonic acid was oxidized by exposure to a) air at 37°C,
and b) free radicals generated by the Fe -ascorbate system. Both
autoxidation and peroxidation drastically decreased the inhibitory
potency of arachidonic acid. Thus, arachldonate exposed to air for
24 hrs. (pH 6.0) lost 84% of its inihibitory potency; a similar loss
(85%) was observed in 60 min. in the presence of 100 /xM FeS04 + 100
/xM ascorbate (pH 7.0). In contrast, peroxide(s) of linoleic acid
were more potent inhibitors of PLA2 activity than the unmodified
fatty acid. These data, while stressing the importance of the
environment of the cis-double bond of the fatty acids, illustrate
the diverse role of lipid peroxidation in the regulation of PLA2
activity in vivo.

DEVELOPMENT OF POTENT 5 -H^l A- SELECTIVE AGENTS. R. Raahupathi , M.
Titeler , R. A. Glennon , Dept, of Medicinal Chemistry, MCV/VCU,
Richmond, VA 23298; #Albany Medical College, Albany, N.Y. 4- (2-
Methoxyphenyl) -1- [^4- (2 -phthalimido) butyl] piperazine, (NAN-190) , an
agent developed in our laboratory as a nigh affinity 5-HT1A
serotonin antagonist (Ki = 0.6 nM) , lacks selectivity ny being
almost equipotent at a-1 adrenergic receptors (Ki = 0.8 nM) . A
series of analogs was designed, synthesized and tested in order to
explore the influence of structural features on 5-HT1A and a-1
affinities and thereby improve selectivity for 5-HT1A sites.
Modification of the phthalimido end of NAN-190 has led to the
following observations: (a) the phthalimido portion can be replaced
by benzamide (aromatic) groups with widely varying substituents
with retention of 5-HT1A affinity, but no enhancement of
selectivity, (b) replacement by aliphatic amide moieties enhances
selectivity for 5-HT1A sites, (c) replacement by aliphatic amide
groups branched at the a position greatly enhances selectivity, (d)
analogs with bulky aliphatic substituents not only retain high
affinity at 5-HT1A sites, but confer a vastly improved selectivity
for 5-HT1A over a-1 sites. Thus, beginning from a lead compound
showing no selectivity, we have introduced modifications that
result in a > 100-fold selectivity for 5-HT1A over a-1 sites.
(Supported in part by PHS Grant NS 23523.)

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111

THE EFFECTS OF TRAUMATIC BRAIN INJURY ON MOTOR AND SPATIAL MEMORY TASKS. Amrita
K. Sinaha. D. White, Hamm, R. Dixon, C. and Hayes, Depts. Neurosurgery, Rehab. Medicine,
and Psychology, Va. Commonwealth Univ., Richmond Va. 23298. Cognitive and motor deficits
are prominent sequelae of human traumatic brain injury (TBI). The purpose of this study was
to investigate the nature of motor and cognitive deficits following experimental TBI to rodents
employing a cortical contusion model. Rats were injured at a moderate level (6 m/sec, 2.0 mm
compression, n=8) or underwent sham-injury procedures (n=8). Following surgery,
animals were assessed for motor and cognitive deficits using beam walk, beam balance, and
Morris water maze. The beam walk and beam balance tests for motor impariments where the
latency of the animal to walk or balance on the beam is measured. The Morris water maze
measures spatial memory deficits indicated by the latency of the rat to locate a hidden platform.
Results of this experiment indicate that injured animals exhibited significant deficits (p<.05)
on the beam walk and beam balance for 1 day post-injury. In addition, injured rats also
showed significant spatial memory deficits (pc.05) up to 30 days post-injury in the absence of
motor deficits. Thus, it appears that deficits seen in this cortical contusion model produces
motor impairment along with long-term cognitive distruption similar to that observed
following human head injury.

DOPAMINERGIC TERMINAL D-2 AND POSSIBLY D-l AUTORECEPTORS REGULATE
DOPAMINE SYNTHESIS IN THE RAT. F.L. Smith. Dept, of Pharm./Tox., MCV-VCU,
Richmond, VA 23298, & W.H. Lyness*, Dept, of Pharmacol., Texas Tech Univ., Health Sci.
Ctr., Lubbock, TX 79430. The gamma butyrolactone (GBL) induced in vivo presynaptic terminal
model (GBL (750 mg/kg s.c.) + NSD 1015 (100 mg/kg i.p.)) was used to determine the presence
of D-l and D-2 autoreceptors, and whether they interact to affect dopamine (DA) synthesis. Alone,
GBL and d-amphetamine (AM PH) (0.5 mg/kg) independently increase 3 ,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine
(DOPA) accumulation in the striatum (STR), while quinpirole (QUIN) (0.5 mg/kg) reduces DA
synthesis in the STR and nucleus accumbens septi (NAS). SKF 38393 (7.0 mg/kg) and SCH
23390 (0.05 mg/kg) are without effect in any region. QUIN (0.5 mg/kg) combined with AMPH
(0.5 mg/kg) significantly reduces DOPA accumulation from GBL controls and AMPH values in all
three regions. SKF 38393 (7.0 mg/kg) combined with AMPH (0.5 mg/kg) significantly reduces
DA synthesis from AMPH values only in the prefrontal cortex (PCX). SCH 23390 (0.05 mg/kg
combined with AMPH (0.05 mg/kg) is without effect in any region. In other experiments, SKF
38393 (7.0 mg/kg) or SCH 23390 (0.05 mg/kg) combined with QUIN (0.5 mg/kg) fails to alter DA
synthesis from QUIN values in any region. These data indicate the presence of D-2 synthesis
modulating autoreceptors in the STR and NAS, and possibly release modulating autoreceptors in
the PCX. D-l autoreceptors may exist in the PCX, although their role is yet undetermined.

EFFECT OF DELTA-9-TETRAHYDDROCANNABINOL ON MACROPHAGE PROTEIN EXPRESSION. Amy
Stinnett*. Guy Cabral**, John Bailey*, and William Slikker, Jr*. Microbiology/Immunology Dept.*, Med. Col. of
VA/VCU, Richmond, VA 23298 and Div. of Reproductive and Developmental Toxicology, Nat. Ctr for
Toxicological Res., Jefferson, Arkansas, 72079. Delta-9-Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), the major psychoactive
.component of marijuana, decreases host resistance to infection. THC also alters the function of macrophages.
These cells play a critical role in host resistance, during which they undergo activation, each stage marked by
defined functions and expression of specific proteins. The purpose of this study was to assess the effect of
THC on macrophage protein expression following jn vjvo chronic exposure to marijuana smoke. Marijuana (MJ)
cigarettes (2.6% THC) were provided by the National Institute on Drug Abuse. Male rhesus monkeys were
assigned to 4 groups (n= 6/group): High dose animals (HI) were exposed 7 days/week to the smoke of 1 MJ
cigarette /day; low dose animals (LO) were exposed on 2 weekend days to the smoke of 1 MJ cigarette /day
placebo animals (EM) were exposed to the smoke of 1 ethanol extracted MJ cigarette/day for 7 days/week
sham animals (SH) were exposed to sham smoking conditions 7 days/week. Following 1 year exposure and
a 7 month rest period, purified lung macrophages, cultured in the presence or absence of LPS, were processed
for analytical PAGE. Protein profiles of macrophages from EM, LO, and HI animals showed marked differences
when compared to those of SH animals. A restructuring of SH macrophage proteins was observed following
jn vitro "activation" with LPS. Similar restructuring was not seen for LPS treated macrophages of LO and HI
animals. These results indicate that chronic THC exposure induces alterations in protein expression and
consequently may modify the capacity of macrophages to respond to external stimuli.

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INVESTIGATION OF THE ROLE OF LIPOPHILICITY IN CANNABINOID QUANTITATIVE STRUCTURE-
ACTIVITY RELATIONSHIPS. Brian F. Thomas and Billy R. Martin, Dept, of Pharmacology and
Toxicology, Med. Col. of Va./Va. Commonwealth Univ., Richmond, Va. 23298-0613.
Quantitative structure- activity relationships were derived by partial least squares analysis of
electrostatic, steric, and lipophilic structural parameters and biological data in the form of log ED50
values in four behavioral assays, and in-vitro binding affinities (log IC50) of 15 cannabinoid
compounds. Comparative molecular field analysis (Tripos Associates, Inc., St Louis, Mo.) was used
in order to obtain the electrostatic and steric fields of each cannabinoid compound whose molecular
geometries were minimized with respect to energy and aligned with respect to the phenol carbons.
The results of this analysis indicate that lipophilicity does not contribute significantly to the model’s
ability to predict the potency of these compounds in producing: 1) decreases in spontaneous activity;
2) decreases in body temperature; 3) increases in tail-flick latency, or; 4) increased catalepsy (ring
immobility); nor did lipophilicity appear to contribute to binding affinities. Electrostatic properties
contributed approximately 8 % to the model’s ability to predict activity and affinity, whereas steric
factors were heavily weighted (> 90%) in all equations. The r-squared values for the equations
predicting biological activity were all above 0.90. Expansion of the model to include more
cannabinoid compounds is ongoing in order to minimize the potential for erroneous dependence of the
model on the presence of one compound. Supported by DA 03672, DA 07027, the Commonwealth
of Va. Center on Drug Abuse.

A COMPARISON OF THE DECOMPOSITION OF PHENOBARBITAL AND AMOBARBITAL N-GLUCO-
SIDES. F.B, Vest*. W.H. Soine, and R.B. Westkaemper, Dept. Med. Chem. , Va.
Commonwealth Univ., Richmond, Va. 23298. Phenobarbital N-glucosides (PBG-R and
PBG-S) and amobarbital N-glucosides (AMG-R and AMG-S) are urinary excretion
products of phenobarbital (PB) and amobarbital (AM), respectively. It was
observed that PBG-R and PBG-S decompose via ring opening under conditions in
which no decomposition of PB occurs. The pH-rate profile (pH 6-13) was deter¬
mined for both PB and AM N-glucosides and indicated hydroxide- ion- catalyzed
degradation of unionized and ionized glucosides. The observed rate constants of
decomposition at pH 7.4 (37°C) were 4.1 x 10"-* s'^ and 3.4 x 10'-* s'^ for PBG-R
and PBG-S, respectively, and 3.1 x 10 s'^ and 3.0 x 10 s'-*- for AMG-R and
AMG-S, respectively. The values for the PB N-glucosides are 580 times that of
PB and 13 times that of the AM N-glucosides under comparable conditions. Ring
opening of the AM N-glucosides and the PB N-glucosides in both cases occurs at
C-6 of the barbiturate ring. The rapid breakdown of the PB N-glucosides sug¬
gests their decomposition could be occurring in the plasma and urine, whereas
decomposition of AMG-R and AMG-S does not appear to occur to a significant
extent under these conditions. (Supported by NIH grant GM 34507.)

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN HYPOGLYCEMIC RESPONSES INDUCED BY INTRATHECAL
MORPHINE AND INSULIN. C.R. WARD. DA. ERASE AND W.L. DEWEY, DEPT. OF
PHARM/TOX., MCV-VCU, RICHMOND VA 23298.

During studies of the hypoglycemic effect of morphine given to unanesthetized mice by the lumbar i.L route
(JPET 245: 187, 1988; 249: 688, 1988), it was found that i.L insulin (0.02-0.08 U/mouse) also produced a
dose-related hypoglycemia. In the present study, the effects of various antagonists on hypoglycemia induced by
morphine (40 ug/kg, i.L) and insulin (0.08 U, i.L) were compared, and the distribution of Ll and s.c. [*25 q insulin
to blood was determined. Pretreatment with atropine (2 rag/kg. i-p.), mecamylamine (2 mg/kg, i.p.) or
methysergide (2mg/kg, Lp.) failed to antagonize either morphine or insulin. Mecamylamine itself caused a moderate
hypoglycemia which tended to be additive to that of morphine, but not insulin. Naloxone (20 mg/kg, i.p.)
pretreatment inhibited hypoglycemia caused by morohine, but not insulin. Serial Wood samples (54-72 ul) taken
from the retro-orbital sinus 15-180 min. after s.c. l]insulin administration contained 473-2419 cpm (mean of
1.76-2.64% of administered ^5 but after i.L administration, they contained <8 cpm (mean of <0.009% of
administered *25 i/nil). It is concluded that i.L morphine-induced hypoglycemia involves an opioid mechanism,
whereas i.L insulin induced hypoglycemia does not involve opioid, cholinergic or serotonergic mechanisms and is
not due to systemic absorption of i.L insulin. (Supported in part by a Commonwealth of Virginia Center Grant for
Drug Abuse Research, and by USPHS grants DA-00490 and DA-01647.)

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THE FATE OF INTRAVENOUS 14C-GLUCOSE AFTER INTRATHECAL MORPHINE
INJECTION IN MICE. C. W. White. D.A. Erase, C.R. Ward and W.L Dewey, Dept, of
Pharmacology & Toxicology, Virginia Commonwealth University/Medical College of
Virginia, VA 23298.

Morphine injected intrathecally into mice has been shown to cause precipitous
lowering of blood sugar. Preliminary experiments are underway to find the fate of the
glucose. In experiments trapping expired CO2, as much as 25% of the 14C injected as
glucose into the tail veins of mice is found converted to CO2. There is a tendency for
less CO2 to be found in morphine-treated than in control mice. Tissues were
solubilized and assayed for radioactivity. There were not enough differences to
account for the hypoglycemia observed. Lactic acid levels were also measured in
blood and other tissues. There was no correlation between blood glucose and blood
lactic acid levels. Other laboratories have shown a connection between stress and the
appearance of lactic acid in the brain and blood. Consistent and non-stressful
handling of the mice appears to be crucial in such metabolic experiments. (This work
supported by the Virginia Commonwealth Center for Drug Abuse).

Microbiology

CHEMOTACTIC AND CHEMOKINETIC RESPONSE OF NAEGLERIA FOWLERI TO B-1 03 NEUROBLASTOMA
CELLS. C. Brinkley* and F. Marciano-Cabral, Dept, of Micro./lmmunol., Va. Commonwealth Univ., Richmond,
VA 23298-0678. Naealeria fowleri. a free-living amoeba, causes a rapidly fatal central nervous system
disease. Amoebic trophozoites enter the nasal passages, migrate through the olfactory neuroepithelium and
spread to more distant regions of the brain. Directed cell motility or chemotaxis is important in pathogenesis
because it may enable organisms to accumulate in particular host tissues. The chemotactic and
chemokinetic responses of Naealeria amoebae were studied using two alternative techniques. A method
using 3 H-uridine labeled amoebae was developed to assess the migratory response of amoebae to B-1 03
cells. The radiolabel assay or the leading front method using light microscopy were compared to measure
cell migration. Highly pathogenic and weakly pathogenic strains of N. fowleri were compared for their
locomotory response to nerve cells in vitro. Nerve cell extract, the putative chemoattractant was placed in
the lower well, the upper well or in both wells of the Boyden chamber. A double filter system was used to
separate the upper and lower compartments of the chamber: an upper polycarbonate filter (UF) with pore
size 5 or 8 /zm; and a lower nitrocellulose filter (LF) with pore size of 5 /zm. Radiolabled amoebae were
placed on the upper polycarbonate filter and allowed to migrate to the lower filter for 1 .5 h at 37°C. Following
incubation, the counts per minute (cpm) were determined and the percent of amoebae migrating toward the
putative chemoattractant was calculated. The motile response of highly pathogenic N. fowleri to nerve cells
was chemotactic while the response of weakly pathogenic N. fowleri was chemokinetic. Chemical cues from
the brain possibly facilitate the invasion of the central nervous system by these amoebae. (Supported by the
Virginia Power Co.)

THE IDENTIFICATION OF NEW MHC CLASS II-LIKE GENES LINKED TO THE LA
REGION. S. Cho*. M. Attaya and J. J. Monaco, Dept, of Micro, and Immunology, Va.
Commonwealth Univ., Richmond, Va 23298. The genes encoding key proteins for immune
function are tightly linked as a cluster in the major histocompatibility complex (MHC).
Recently, the genes for the Low Molecular weight Polypeptide (LMP) antigens have been
mapped in the region between the murine MHC Ae3 and AB2 genes. In an attempt to clone
cDNAs representing LMP antigens, we have analyzed four overlapping genomic cosmids
spanning this region and identified eight transcribed sequences. The sizes of mRNAs are
between 1.5 and 3.7 Kb. One cDNA clone ( 5.22-C ), corresponding to a 1.5 Kb transcript,
has been isolated from a WEHI-3 cDNA library and sequenced. One long open reading
frame encoding 261 amino acids was defined from the translated sequences of 5.22-C. The
predicted protein sequence of 5.22-C shares homology with the membrane proximal domain
of MHC antigens, and to immunoglobulin molecules, suggesting that 5.22-C is a member of
the immunoglobulin gene superfamily. The most significant homology is observed with B2
domains of MHC class II antigens. The hypothetical domain structure of 5.22-C encoded
protein and its comparison with other MHC class II antigens will be reported.

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OXIDATIVE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE MEMBRANES OF GLUCONOBACTER OXYDANS.
DEBORAH E. EDWARDS and G. W. CLAUS. Dept, of Biol. VA Polytechnic Inst, and St. Univ.,
Blacksburg, VA 24061. Gluconobacter species rapidly oxidize a wide variety of substrates by removing two
hydrogens and releasing the product into the medium. Membrane-bound dehydrogenases (MBDHs) are
thought to be primarily responsible. We wish to learn the number and type of substrates oxidized by the
constitutive MBDHs of these bacteria and, ultimately, to study the substrate specificity and regulation of
these enzymes. To begin this study, G. oxydans ATCC 621 cells were grown on glycerol, harvested by cen¬
trifugation, and broken with a French-pressure cell. Unbroken cells were removed by centrifuging at 40,000
x g, and a crude membrane fraction was prepared from the resulting supernatant fluid by centrifuging at
272,700 x g and washing once with buffer. The ability of the MBDHs in this membrane fraction to oxidize
each substrate was measured spectrophotometrically at 301 nm by coupling it to the reduction of the artificial
electron acceptor potassium ferricyanide [K3Fe(CN)6]. To date, we have tested 34 substrates selected from
six categories (aliphatic monoalcohols, aliphatic diols, aliphatic polyalcohols, monosaccharides, disaccharides,
and aldehydes), and only nine of these were not oxidized. Of the 25 substrates oxidized, there appears to
be no correlation with substrate category, rates of oxidation, or number of carbons in the substrate. Glycerol
(the growth substrate) was oxidized at a rate of 55 ^moles/min/mg protein. Seven compounds were oxidized
at rates higher than glycerol; for example, D,L-l,3-butanediol and acetaldehyde demonstrated oxidation rates
of 76 and 73 ^moles/min/mg protein, respectively. Fifteen substrates showed lower oxidation rates than
glycerol; for example, D( + )mannose and isobutyraldehyde were oxidized at rates of 20 and 21
jumoles/min/mg protein. To date, our evidence suggests that this bacterium either constitutively synthesizes
many different substrate-specific MBDHs or a few MBDHs that can oxidize many different substrates.

CHANGES IN SPECTRAL ABSORBANCES OF BLOOD PIASMA IN DOGS INFECTED WITH
STAFHYLOOOCCUS INTERMEDIUS. Lyle Evans, J. Melia, and G. Colmano (Sponsor) ,
Dept. Biomed. Scis , VMRCVM, VPI & SU, Blacksburg, VA 24061. Blood plasma
samples were taken from 7 dogs before surgery, which involved intramedullary
infection in all tibiae with 1.8 x 107 colony forming units ( C.F.U.) of
Staphylococcus intermedius. After five days, during which a febrile infectious
state was evident, blood plasma samples were again taken. The spectral
absorbances of blood plasma were measured in the UV-Visible between 190.2 nm
and 650nm at 0.2 nm intervals. The measurements were performed over 3 ranges,
with samples diluted with distilled water, so that the absorbance did not
exceeded 1.2 Absorbance. The difference between pre and post infection samples
showed a number of changes including a number of very narrow bandwidth (>2
nm) peaks in the 250-290 nm range. The precise interpretation of these peaks
is not known. Other changes included increased absorbtion at 413 nm (in the
Soret band of Hemoglobin) and in the 2QQ-240nm region.

PHYSIOLOGICAL STUDIES OF COPPER BINDING PROTEIN PRODUCTION IN
VIBRIO ALGINOLYTICUS. Valerie Harwood-Sears and A. S. Gordon, Dept, of Biological
Sciences, Old Dominion University, Norfolk VA 23529. Micromolar levels of copper added
to batch cultures of Vibrio alginolyticus cause a lag in growth. During the copper-induced
lag phase, supernatant proteins which complex and detoxify copper are produced. The
dominant proteins in immobilized metal ion affinity chromatography (IMAC) fractions from
copper-challenged culture supernatants are a 21 kD (CuBPl) and a 19 kD (CuBP2) protein.
CuBPl is also a major protein in supernatants of copper-challenged chemostat cultures, and
is barely detectable in controls. A 14 kD protein is also amplified in supernatants of
copper-challenged chemostat cultures. Preliminary data suggest that the yield in chemostat
cultures decreases in proportion to the concentration of added copper. This strain of Vibrio
alginolyticus carries a ca. 30 kb plasmid which may encode copper-inducible proteins with
affinity for copper.

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115

CHARACTERIZATION OF A PUTATIVE SECOND HUMAN C-MYB PROMOTER. Sarah M- Jacobs. Karen
Gorse, Eric Westin, Division of Hematology/Oncology, Medical College of Virginia, Richmond, VA 23228

An alternatively spliced human c-mvb cDNA has recently been characterized and has been found to
contain unique 5’ end sequences consistent with usage of an alternative promoter. These unique sequences
were mapped by restriction analysis to intron 1 . Primer extension studies map the potential transcription start
site downstream of exon 1 , indicating that this unique transcript is not an artifact of cloning. This start site
may therefore reflect the utilization of a second promoter which is downstream from transcription pausing
sites identified previously in intron 1 of the murine c-mvb gene.

Preliminary sequence analysis of human c-mvb intron 1 reveals that the unique 5’ region is located directly
adjacent to exon 2. In addition, comparison of human and murine sequences shows a high degree of
homology directly upstream of exon 2 in the putative promoter site. Included within these upstream
sequences is a potential jun/API binding site and CAAT promoter sequences. Further sequence analysis
and comparison with mouse intron 1 is underway. Functional characterization of the putative promoter
region using chloramphenicol acetyl transferase assays is in progress.

Therefore, primer extension data, analysis of genomic c-mvb clones and sequence comparison between
man and mouse indicates the presence of a possible functional promoter within intron 1 of the human c-mvb
gene downstream of the transcriptional pause sites identified in the mouse.

A Fibroblast Factor Induces Mast Cell Proliferation and Differentiation
JJ.Ryan, D.L. Jarboe, Ana Kukolja, R.I. Ashman, J.A. Leftwich, and T.F. Huff.

Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia 23298

The mast cell committed progenitor (MCCP) is a nongranulated cell which can be isolated
from the mesenteric lymph node of mice infected with Nippostrongylus brasiliensis (Nb). We
have shown that MCCP can be stimulated to proliferate and differentiate into mature,
connective tissue type mast cells in the presence of a fibroblast derived factor. We have
demonstrated the production of this factor by several fibroblast lines. The activity of the
factor cannot be duplicated by any known growth factors, although recent evidence indicates
phorbol esters can mimic the activity of the factor. The fibroblast factor has also been
shown to be active on mast cell progenitors in the naive peritoneal cavity; thus the MCCP
may be present not only in Nb-infected mice, but may play a role in normal mast cell
development.

RESISTANCE OF HIGHLY PATHOGENIC NAEGLERIA FOWLERI AMOEBAE TO COMPLEMENT-MEDIATED
LYSIS. Denise M. Tonev & Francine M. Cabral, Dept, of Micro./lmmuno., Va. Comm. Univ./Med. Col. of Va.,
Richmond, VA 23298. Naegleria fowleri, an opportunistic pathogen, is the causative agent of Primary
Amoebic Meningoencephalitis. A highly pathogenic strain of N. fowleri, LEEmp, activates the alternative
complement pathway but is resistant to complement-mediated lysis. In contrast, nonpathogenic Naegleria
amoebae are complement sensitive. Treatment of highly pathogenic N. fowleri, LEEmp, with papain or
trypsin renders the amoebae susceptible to complement-mediated lysis. Resistance is restored after
treatment with papain if the amoebae are allowed to incubate in assay medium prior to addition of
complement. Treatment with phosphoinositol-specific phospholipase C (PIPLC) also increases susceptibility
to complement. However, resistance to complement after PIPLC treatment is not restored if the amoebae
are allowed to incubate in media prior to complement addition. To characterize surface components or
mechanisms which play a role in resistance of N. fowleri to complement-mediated lysis, we have subjected
the amoebae to several experimental regimens. Treatment of N. fowleri amoebae with the nonionic
detergent Nonidet P40, increases the ability of these amoebae to resist complement lysis, but has no effect
on complement lysis of the nonpathogenic amoeba, N. gruberi. We have determined also, that N. fowleri
amoebae are more resistant to complement-mediated lysis when grown in enriched growth medium when
compared to amoebae grown in a minimal medium. Although enzymatic treatment, detergent treatment,
and variations in growth medium alter susceptibility of amoebae to complement, resistance is not abolished
completely by any one of these factors alone. These results indicate that in addition to complement
regulatory proteins, additional mechanisms play a role in N. fowleri resistance to complement-mediated lysis,
(supported by The Virginia Power Co. and NIAID grant 25111)

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PURIFICATION AND PARTIAL CHARACTERIZATION OF SORBITOL DEHYDROGENASE
FROM THE PLASMA MEMBRANE OF GLUCONOBACTER OXYDANS. IAN VAN LARE and G.
W. CLAUS. Dept, of Biol. VA Polytechnic Inst, and St. Univ., Blacksburg, VA. 24061. G. oxydans is
an obligate aerobe that derives its energy from the single-step oxidation of over 80 polyols catalyzed by
[NAD(P)-independent] dehydrogenases located in the plasma membrane. The two hydrogens removed from
the polyol are passed through the electron transport chain, producing a proton gradient, and the oxidation
product is released into the medium. Knowledge of the structure and function of these enzymes and pros¬
thetic groups involved in the catalysis of these oxidations are thus of eminent importance for the under¬
standing of the energy metabolism of the gluconobacters. This report summarizes the data obtained from
the purification of the membrane-bound sorbitol dehydrogenase (mSDH) from ATCC strain 621. Crude
cell-free extracts of sorbitol-grown cells exhibited a mSDI I specific activity of 1,300 (/zmoles sorbose formed
min-1 mg protein'-1). The particulate fraction obtained by ultracentrifugation contained 100% of the
mSDII activity and had a specific activity of 2,547. Treatment of the particulate fraction with 1.5% octyl-
glucoside resulted in the complete solubilization of mSDII, and this solubilized fraction had a specific activity
of 6,997. When the solubilized proteins were separated by 5% native polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis
(PAGE) then subjected to an activity stain, only one of approximately 14 bands was stained. When this
active band was eluted from the native gel and subjected to SDS-PAGE, three bands were formed of which
only one exhibited mSDII activity. All three bands had apparent molecular weights between 60 and 70 kdal.
To date, it appears that the mSDII of G. oxydans exists in the membrane as part of an aggregate containing
two other proteins. We are attempting to isolate larger quantities of these proteins so that all three may be
characterized.

Psychology

COPING WITH STRESS DURING A VISIT WITH A CHRONIC MENTALLY ILL FAM¬
ILY MEMBER. Gina L. Bankes & B. A. Winstead, Dept, of Psychology,
Old Dominion Univ. , Norfolk, Va, 23529- Coping techniques and per¬
ceived amounts of stress were examined in eight parents surrounding
a visit with their mentally ill son or daughter. The Lazarus Ways
of Coping scale was completed within five days prior to the visit,
and the Multiple Affect Adjective Checklist, a Visit Appraisal
Scale, and a general appraisal scale were completed within five
days following the visit. Correlations were computed for four of
the eight scales on the Lazarus Ways of Coping scale, two repre¬
senting emotion- focused coping (EFC ) and two representing problem-
focused coping (PFC ) with appraisal and affect. The EFC scale en¬
titled Escape/Avoidance was positively related to overall situa¬
tional distress, whereas the two PFC scales entitled Confrontive
Coping and Planful Problem Solving were negatively related to hos¬
tility and depression respectively.

INCREASING SAFETY BELT USE IN COMMUNITY SETTINGS: AN EXAMINATION OF
DIFFERENT INTERVENTION STRATEGIES. Kimberly S. Bergholz. John Wangler, Russell
Fleenor,* Tim Ludwig,* Dept of Pyschology., Virginia Polytechnic Institute., Blacksburg, Va
24060. Two different interventions-feedback and competition were used to determine their
effectiveness in increasing safety belt use. Over the course of an eleven week reversal design,
safety belt use increased significantly during the overt observation phase, and then remained
slightly above the initial baseline throughout the rest of the experiment. Feedback and
competition had no significant effects in increasing belt use after the second baseline period.

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117

EXPECTATIONS OF RESIDENTIAL INDEPENDENCE AS A PREDICTOR OF
FAMILY DISCORD. Glenn A. Callahan , Dept, of Psych., Old
Dominion Univ. , Norfolk, VA. 23508. The degree of correla¬
tion between attitudes of student's and their parent's on the
topic of the student moving into his or her own domocile
before marriage, or premarital residential independence, was
examined. It was hypothesized that students who came from
homes of greater socioeconomic and/or urban background , tfohose
that were first-born, and male children would demonstrate
differences amoung generations about the acceptability of
leaving home before marrying. Results of surveys on the sub¬
ject show that socioeconomic backround and subject sex were,
indeed, significant indicators of premarital residential in¬
dependence ; however , birth order and family backround were not.

LIFE CHANGE AND ILLNESS IN TRADITIONAL AND NON -TRADITIONAL COLLEGE STUDENTS.
William N, Campbell , Dept, of Psychology, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, VA
23508. Sixty undergraduate students from Old Dominion University and Tidewater
Community College took part in a study to compare the relationship between life
change, perceived social support, and illness among traditional (18-23 years of
age) and non-traditional (26 years or older) college students. Subjects were
administered the Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS) to measure "life change
stress", the Interpersonal Support Evaluation List (ISEL) to reflect the
perceived availability of social support, and the Seriousness of Illness Rating
Scale (SIRS) to quantify the incidence and severity of illness experienced.
Results revealed that males reported significantly less illness during the
preceding 12 months than did females . It was further revealed that no signifi¬
cant differences were found between the traditional and non-traditional students
with respect to their scores on any of the three dependent measures used.

There was no interaction between sex and traditional or non-traditional status.
These results were discussed in terms of factors that may help explain the
main effect found for sex and the absence of significant differences between
the traditional and non-traditional groups on the scales administered.

EFFECTS OF NUTRITIVE EXPECTANCY VERSUS GASTRIC DISTENTION ON INTAKE SUPPRESSION
BY CCK. Rodger B. Cook. Dept, of Psychology, Washington & Lee University, Kenneth
L. Marcella and T. L. Davidson, Dept, of Psychology, Va. Military Institute,
Lexington, VA 24450. It has been suggested that intake suppression by cholecy-
stokinin (CCK) is mediated by nutritive expectancies. Alternatively, it has also
been proposed that gastric distention induced by CCK in combination with feeding
is the basis for CCK’s suppressive effect. The present experiment directly
compared these two hypotheses. Food deprived rats were given six presentations
each of noncaloric, unsweetened, grape or orange flavored solutions. The flavor
presented alternated daily. One flavor was always mixed in a 5% ethanol solution
(to establish a nutritive expectancy) while the other was not mixed with ethanol.
The flavor mixed with ethanol was counterbalanced. A two-bottle choice test
sliced that the rats preferred the flavor previously paired with ethanol. Next,
capacity of CCK (2 ug/kg) to suppress intake of each flavor was tested following
a 20 ml/kg gastric loading by gavage (to produce stomach distention) of a 0.9%
saline solution or following gavage without gastric loading. The results
indicated that both nutritive expectancy and stomach distention produced stronger
suppression of intake by CCK. However, gastric distention appeared to produce
more suppression than did nutritive expectancy.

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VESTIGIAL BODY IMAGE: A MULTIVARIATE COMPARISON AMONG NORMAL
WEIGHT, OVERWEIGHT, AND FORMERLY OVERWEIGHT WOMEN. Charlie B.
Finch, Jr. and Thomas F. Cash, Old Dominion Univ., Norfolk, VA 23508. The
purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between body weight and
body image in terms of Stunkard's hypothesis of vestigial body image (that a
successful return to normal weight among overweight women may not fully restore
a satisfying body experience). College women completed multiple, standardized
measures of their fear of fat and attitudinal body image. Based on their current
weight and information from a structured weight history questionnaire, three groups
were constructed: normal-weight women without an overweight history (NW, n =
34), normal-weight women with a formerly overweight history (FOW, n = 8), and
women who were currently overweight (OW, n = 9). Group comparisons revealed,
as expected, that OW women reported more weight related anxieties and more
negative body experiences relative to the NW women. Contrary to Stunkard's
original hypothesis, group comparisons did not reveal any significant differences
between the NW and the FOW women. Possible implications are discussed.

CORRELATES OF NUMBER OF RESPONSES TO SOUTHWESTERN VIRGINIA FEMALE
PERSONAL ADS: WHAT SELLS? Chet H. Fischer . Dept. of Psy.,

Radford University., Radford, Va . 24142. There are 63 million

single adults in the U.S. Of considerable interest to this group
is how to meet other appropriate singles. Accumulating evidence
suggests that personal ads are a useful method for connecting
with potential partners. Given that the ads have utility, the

next step involves determining which ad variables produce the

greatest number of replies. All women who placed personal ads in
two issues of Roanoke r magazine were sent questionnaires which
assessed the personal characteristics of the advertiser and the
results of the ad. Correlational and multiple regression

analysis were used to determine the relationship between the

number of replies an ad produced and fourteen ad content

variables. The results suggest that none of the content

variables was significantly related to the number of replies.

However, specifying age, physical characteristics, occupation and
placing a long ad tended toward producing more replies.

HELP-SEEKING BY MALES: EFFECTS OF INTERNAL VS. EXTERNAL LOCUS
OF NEED ATTRIBUTION ON HELPER CHOSEN. Michael Freeman, Dept, of
Psyc., Old Dominion Univ., Norfolk, Va. 23529. The masculine stereotype may
have an effect on how males react to situations that require them to seek help,
depending on the problem's locus and on reciprocity. Thirty-three male subjects
received the Bern Sex Role Inventory (BSRI) along with three help-seeking
scenarios; one consisted of a problem with an internal locus, one with an external
locus, and one dealt with reciprocity. All of the problems required subjects to
choose one of four specific people from whom to receive help, a male or female
friend or a male or female stranger. The subject's BSRI masculine sub-scale score
was used to divide the subjects into high and low masculinity groups. For each
problem, the two groups were compared by which person the subjects said they
would ask for help. The subjects consistently reported preferring help from a
friend over a stranger. In addition, a significant negative correlation was found
between the masculine sub-scale scores (higher are more masculine) and the
frequency of reciprocal help-seeking the subjects said they would show. The lack
of significant effects regarding problem locus indicates that it may not be a strong
factor for self-predicted behavior.

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119

ATTRIBUTIONS OF INTRAMURAL TEAM ATHLETES: THE EFFECTS OF
PERCEIVED ABILITY AND GENDER DIFFERENCES. Catherine Q. Greenwald,
Dept, of Psych., Old Dominion Univ., Norfolk, Va., 23508. Attributions of
intramural basketball team athletes were measured using the Wingate Sports
Achievement Responsibility Scale (WSARS). Subjects were 13 male and 9 female
athletes from 21 randomly selected intramural basketball teams at Old Dominion
University, between 18 and 25 years old. Subjects who agreed to participate
received two questionnaires. The first questionnaire measured their basketball
team experience and their perceived abilities for their own playing performance
(high and low ability) as measured on a seven point scale. The second, the
WSARS, measured the athletes' locus of causality with their score on a five point
scale for 10 positive events and 10 negative events. A 2 x 2 analysis of variance
found no significant main effects for perceived ability and gender. Low return rate
of the packets and possible biases of the questionnaires contributed to the lack of
significant findings. Better controlled attribution research with intramural athletes
could point to new directions in research with college varsity athletes.

IS HANDWRITING A RELIABLE INDEX OF ALCOHOL IMPAIRMENT? Sharon Hall*, Johann
Lee*, & Kent Glindemann*, Dept, of Psyc. , Va. Polytechnic Inst. & S.U.,
Blacksburg, Va. 24061. Sponsor: E. Scott Geller . The use of writing samples
as indices of alcohol impairment was explored. Students at a campus fraternity
party (n - 74) wrote a sentence before and after consuming alcohol (in beer and
mixed drinks). [Subject's BACs ranged from .000 to .205]. Before subjects
wrote the post-party stimulus sentence, one half of the subjects were told that
the writing sample would be compared to the writing sample they had provided
upon entering the party in an attempt to discern their levels of intoxication.
Later, undergraduate and graduate students (n - 20) attempted to discriminate
between pre- and post-party handwriting samples, and then classified the
presumed post-party samples into three categories of increasing blood alcohol
concentration (BAG). Results indicated that the raters were fairly good at
discriminating between pre- and post-party handwriting samples of the partiers,
but were not very adept at discerning the level of intoxication of the
partiers. The experimental manipulation had a marginal effect on the data.
Implications of these findings for reducing DWI-risk are discussed.

NEW STRATEGIES FOR ASSESSING INTOXICATION IN THE FIELD. Craig Schumpert*,
Maria Lugo*, & Kent Glindemann*, Dept, of Psyc., Va. Polytechnic Inst. & S.U.,
Blacksburg, Va. 24061. Sponsor: E. Scott Geller. A computerized critical
tracking task (CTT) was developed to assess drinkers' blood alcohol
concentration (BAG). Combinations of five parameters were investigated.
Dependent measures included response time and error rate. Data were obtained
in naturalistic settings from subjects (n = 232) who reached a wide range of
BACs. Subjects were of legal drinking age. Subjects' performance was
consequently correlated with their BAG. With CTT performance, mean response
time and mean error rate were both reliable indicators of intoxication, and
results stood up fairly well under a signal-detection approach to the data
analysis. The CTT proved most effective at identifying subjects whose BACs
were at or above a level of .120. Implications for use of the instrument in
real-world settings are discussed.

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CHOLECYSTOKININ AND SUBSTANCE ABUSE: TURNING OFF THE CENTRAL REWARD SYSTEM.
Stephen E. Imel. Christopher K. Bish, Dept, of Biology, and T. L. Davidson,
Dept, of Psychology, Va. Military Institute, Lexington, VA 24450. Cholecys-
tokinin (CCK) is a gut peptide reported to reduce the rewarding effects of
feeding. The present experiment investigated whether or not CCK administered
by injection or endogenous CCK released by feeding would reduce the rewarding
effects of cocaine. Three groups of 17 hr food and water deprived rats (N=6)

were given IP injections of CCK (2 ug/kg) or saline (0.9% NaCl), or 12 gms of

food plus saline, 10 min prior to a 40 min presentation of an unsweetened,
noncaloric, orange or grape flavored drink. One flavor was followed by an IP
injection of 5 mg/kg of cocaine hydrochloride, the other by injection of
saline. Injections were counterbalanced with respect to flavor. The rats were
given orange on days 1 and 3 and grape on days 2 and 4. All rats were then

given a preference test. Although rats injected with CCK consumed less of the

flavor paired with cocaine, so did saline controls. Hence, there was no
evidence that CCK reduced the rewarding effects of cocaine. However, rats
prefed prior to cocaine administration developed a very strong preference for
the cocaine-paired flavor. This result suggests that feeding may serve to
prime the reward system for the reinforcing effects of cocaine.

CHOICE REACTION TIME TO POSITIVE STIMULI IN A TASK COMBINING B AND
C REACTION TIME. Barbara M. Keiser and Raymond H. Kirby, Old
Dominion Univ. , Norfolk, VA, 23508. Choice reaction time (CRT)
studies have concluded that the size of the positive set of
stimuli presented to a subject increases CRT; however size of the
negative set has not seen as much research addressed to it. The
current study used a task that combined b and c-reaction time, and
thus permitted variation of the number of stimuli in the positive
and negative sets. Sixty female undergraduate students from Old
Dominion University participated in this study. The subjects
were presented a CRT task in a 2(positive set size) x 3 (negative
set size) factorial between-group design. The dependent variable
was the CRT for each trial. A significant main effect for size
of. the positive set was found, F ( 1 , 54 ) =8 . 46 , p4.CU, with the
faster times in the smaller set. No significant effect was found
for size of the negative set, F ( 2 , 54 ) =3 . 02 , p^.05, nor was there
a significant interaction effect F ( 2 , 54 ) =2 . 52 , p>.05. Since a
trend toward a signifcant effect was found for size of the
negative set, further research increasing set size is warranted.

LEARNING ABOUT INTEROCEPTIVE AND EXTEROCEPTIVE STIMULI WHEN BOTH ARE CONCURRENT
DISCRIMINATIVE SIGNALS FOR SHOCK. Paul B. Kubin. Dept, of Biol., Va. Military
Institute (VMI), Leonard E. Jarrard, Dept, of Psych., Washington & Lee
University, & T. L. Davidson, Dept, of Psych., VMI, Lexington, VA. 24450. The
relative salience of internal and external cues were compared using blocking and
overshadowing procedures. Two groups of rats (n=8) were placed on an alternat¬
ing 0-hr and 24-hr food deprivation schedule. In Phase 1, rats in Group I
were trained for 6 days to use cues arising their deprivation state as signals
for mild shock. Half the rats were shocked under 0-hr and not under 24-hr
food deprivation--the remaining Group I rats had a reversed deprivation level -
shock contingency. The second group (Group E) received no Phase 1 training.

In Phase 2, both groups received an external cue and a deprivation cue as
compound signal for shock (i.e., 0-hr/tone, 24-hr/cl icker) . When training was
completed fear of external cues was compared to that of internal cues in both
groups. Videotaped observation (absence of skeletal muscle movement) served
as the index of conditioned fear. The results showed (1) learning that
internal cues signaled shock was not overshadowed by concurrently relevant
external cues; (2) prior training with internal cues can block learning that
external cues are signals for shock.

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121

THE EFFECTS OF TEMPERATURE ON READING COMPREHENSION. Carlo E. Orlando, Dept, of
Psych., Old Dominion University, Norfolk, Va. , 23508. Human ability to adapt to
the environment is rarely questioned. Yet the cost, in terms of performance,
needs further study, as does the issue of gender differences in human perfor¬
mance. To this end, an experiment using 8 male and 12 female college students
was conducted to determine the effect of increased ambient temperature (either
70 F or 85 F) on reading comprehension. Performance decrements associated with
increased tenperature were not found. As expected, there were no gender diff¬
erences. Finally, the interaction between the temperature variable and the
gender variable was not significant. Directions for future study are suggested.

A STUDY OF THE EFFECTS OF NEED FOR DOMINANCE ON SELF DISCLOSURE
RECIPROCITY. Scott H. Peterson, Department of Psychology, Old
Domminion University, Norfolk, VA 23517. The effects of sub¬
jects' need for dominance on self disclosure intimacy and self
disclosure reciprocity were investigated. The subjects used
were 13 female and 12 male students at Old Dominion Univer¬
sity. They were administered the Social Accessibility Scale to
test for self disclosure intimacy, and the Edwards Personal
Preference Scale to test need for dominance. Each subject took
the self disclosure scale a second time to measure differences
resulting from his or her reciprocating disclosure. Subjects were
seperated into two groups according to their tested need for
dominance. The results of these measures were analyzed using a
t-test to determine experimental effects. The results of this
statistical analysis were not significant. One possible explana¬
tion for this finding is the low number of subjects.

RECOGNITION MEMORY FOR COMPLEX SPATIAL LOCATIONS. Timothy Place.
Beth Stutzmann* , Tom Thompson. Cathy Hunt*, Heather Logan*, J. B.
Thompson*, and D. G. Elmes, Dept, of Psychol., Washington and Lee
Univ. , Lexington, VA 24450. Subjects participated in a "spy
school" game in which they played the role of a secret agent who
was to report back to his or her government those cities of a
fictional country that were to be bombed. There were two groups
of special interest: The name and places group (N and P) first
learned a list of names and a group of locations on a grid map.
The names in places (N in P) group learned the same names and
locations, but the names appeared in the locations. Prior to a
recognition test, the subjects saw either a list or a map of a
subset of the cities that were to be bombed. Targets were
presented once, or they were presented twice under conditions of
either massed or distributed practice. During original learning,
the N and P group learned all the map locations faster than the N
and P group. However during recognition of the target places, the
N and P group did much better. Both city names and city locations
were remembered better under massed than distributed practice.

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LIFESTYLE AND RISKY BEHAVIOR: DIFFERENCES BETWEEN STUDENT LEADERS AND THE
GENERAL STUDENT BODY. Bryan E. Porter*. James. E. Healy*, & William F. Lawless*, Sponsor:

Dr. E. Scott Geller, Dept, of Psychology, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061-0436. This study
attempted to determine whether or not student leaders at a large southeast university differed from
the general student body along certain dimensions of risky behavior, social support, and lifestyle.
Leaders were hypothesized to have more positive social support structures, to engage in fewer risky
behaviors, and to have a more conservative lifestyle. 109 Introductory Psychology students and 6 of the
top student leaders representing organizations involved with student programming, governance, and
Greek life participated. However, because the small sample size of the leader sample lends suspicion
to any result, 14 of the Introductory pool were identified as leaders from a question in the questionnaire
employed. These 14 and the original 6 were combined into a group termed "officers" and were compared
with the remaining 95 students. The data were provided by a questionnaire containing selected items
from established risky behavior and social support scales, plus two complete sub-scales of leadership
behavior. After indentifying 9 factors through factor analyses, a MANOVA was performed which
significantly showed that officers and non-officers indeed differed. However, after closer inspection of
the factors, no differences existed in risky behavior and social support between the two groups.

Officers, though, did show a more conservative lifestyle in that they scored lower on sensation seeking.
Further, two factor scores for controlling others and leadership were higher for the officers.

ACQUISITION OF CONDITIONAL DISCRIMINATIONS IN THE RAT: ENTORHINAL VERSUS
HIPPOCAMPAL FORMATION LESIONS. Matthew C. Pross. Dept, of Psych., Washington &
Lee University (W & L), T. L. Davidson, Dept, of Psych. Va. Military In¬
stitute, Leonard E. Jarrard, Dept, of Psych., W & L, Lexington, VA, 24450.

Rats with aspiration lesions of the hippocampal formation or ibotenate lesions
of the entorhinal cortex were trained on two concurrent Pavlovian conditional
discriminations. In both discriminations, a visual stimulus (a diffuse steady
or a flashing light) signaled when an auditory stimulus (a tone or clicker)
would be followed by food reinforcement. The discriminations differed in that
one had a 5-sec trace period between light offset and auditory stimulus onset,
whereas in the other the light preceded, overlapped, and coterminated with the
auditory cue. Hence, the trace problem required the rat the remember the
visual stimulus whereas the other problem did not. Headjerk performance of
rats with hippocampal formation lesions did not differ from controls on either
discrimination problem. However, rats with damage to entorhinal cortex were
impaired on the trace problem relative to both control and hippocampal rats.
These results suggest that (1) neither hippocampus or entorhinal cortex are
necessary to solve Pavlovian conditional discriminations; (2) the entorhinal
cortex may be involved the retention -of information over short intervals.

APPETITIVE PAVLOVIAN CONDITIONED INHIBITION IN THE RAT. Robert J. Roberton,
Andrew B. Manson, Dept, of Psych., Washington & Lee University (W & L), T. L.
Davidson, Dept, of Psych. Va. Military Institute, Leonard E. Jarrard, Dept, of
Psych., W & L, Lexington, VA, 24450. Rats (N = 8) were trained to solve a Pav¬
lovian discrimination problem of the form T2+, L1T2- in which an auditory
stimulus (T2) was followed by food (+) when presented alone but not when
presented in simultaneous compound with a diffuse light (LI). The rats were
also given trials in which a different auditory stimulus (T1) was always
presented alone and followed by food. Six presentations of each of these
trials types were given on each of seven training days. The videotaped
behavior of each rat during each trial was scored for incidence of headjerking
(short, rapid movements of the head), which served as the index of learning.
The rats solved the discrimination in that they headjerked more on T1+ and T2+
trials than on L1T2- trials. The conditioned inhibitory power of LI was then
assessed. Conditioned inhibition was indicated in that (1) LI reduced head-
jerking to T 1 when both were presented in simultaneous compound; (2) acquisi¬
tion of headjerking to LI was retarded relative to a novel light stimulus (L2)
when each was made a signal for food. The results show that conditioned
inhibition can be obtained with rats in appetitive Pavlovian conditioning.

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123

ODOR AND COGNITIVE ALTERATION OF THE CONTINGENT NEGATIVE
VARIATION. Melissa Roberts and Tyler S. Loria. Department of
Psychology, Washington and Lee University, Lexington, VA 24450
Amplitude of the contingent negative variation component of
the EEG was asssesed in 18 subjects exposed to several odor
conditions. Three primary odors were used as well as a
mixture of the primary odors. Subjects were led to believe
that the odor mixture was actually three different odors which
were low concentrations of each of the primary odors . CNV
amplitude changed as a function of subjects' expectations
about this mixed odor rather than the direct physiological
effects of the odor stimulus. These results suggest that EEG
changes to odors may be the result of cognitive mediation
rather than direct CNS changes induced by the odors. And
further indicate that interpretation of EEG findings in odor
experiments is highly problematic.

EXTRAVERSION , CIRCADIAN RHYTHM, AND MENTAL ARITHMETIC EFFECTS ON CARDIOVASCULAR
REACTIVITY. Patrick M. Ulmen, Dept, of Psychology, Old Dominion Univ. , Norfolk
VA. 23508, F. G. Freeman, Dept, of Psychology, Old Dominion Univ., Norfolk, VA.
23508. The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between extr¬
aversion, circadian rhythms, and cardiovascular reactivity to a mental arithme¬
tic task. Eight extraverts and eight introverts, as assessed using the Eysenck
Personality Questionaire, were asked to perform a moderately difficult mental
arithmetic task at two different times of day: either at 8 AM or at 8 PM. In
addition subjects were administered the Activation-Deactivation Adjective Check
-list to assess their subject state of arousal. Following a 10 minute relaxati¬
on period, heart rate was monitored during a three minute baseline and during
the two minutes of task performance. Analyses of variance were performed on the
difference scores between baseline and task heart rate, on the activation check
-list scores and on performance of the mental arithmetic task. Heart rate diff¬
erence scores were found to be significantly greater for subjects run in the
morning. In addition there was a strong trend for performance to be differenti¬
ally affected by time of day and whether the subject was an introvert or extra-
vert.

Statistics (No Abstracts Submitted )

124

VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

Ivey F. Lewis

Distinguished Service Award

DALE V. ULRICH

DISTINGUISHED SERVICE AWARD

125

Distinguished educator, academic administrator and Fellow of the Virginia
Academy of Science, Dale Ulrich is an excellent choice to be honored with the Ivey
F. Lewis Distinguished Service Award of the Academy. His unselfish devotion to
Bridgwater College, to the Commonwealth of Virginia, to the Academy, and to
teacher education provides us with an example of dedicated service to science,
education, and the welfare of mankind.

Dr. Ulrich is recognized as a distinguished educator and academic ad¬
ministrator. He serves as Chair of the Committee on Teacher Education of the
Council of Independent Colleges in Virginia, and he is a member of the Virginia
State Department of Education Teacher Education Advisory Board. He also has
served the Virginia State Department of Education on numereous Visitation
Committees. He is Provost and Professor of Physics at Bridgwater College where
he has diligently served his institution and held previous positions as Dean of the
College and Chairman of the Physics Department.

Dr. Ulrich has actively served in community and religious organizations. He
has been active in Rotary International since 1968 and a member of the Church of
the Brethren since 1946. He has chaired the Rotary International Service Commit¬
tee and the Rotary Foundation Promotion Sub-committee of District 757. He was
president of Bridgewater Rotary Club from 1977 to 1978. As a member of the
Church of the Brethren, he served from 1982 to 1985 as President of the On Earth
Peace Assembly and from 1981 to the present as Secretary of Brethren En¬
cyclopedia, Inc. These are examples of his dedicated service to the welfare of
mankind.

Since joining the Academy in 1958 as a member of the Astronomy, Mathematics,
and Physics Section, Dr. Ulrich has been a major contributor to the success of the
Virginia Academy of Science. He has served on the Long Range Planning Com¬
mittee, which he chaired from 1969 to 1972, directed the Visiting Scientists Program
from 1973 to 1978, served on the Site Selection Committee from 1979 to 1980, served
on the Nomination and Election Committee in 1982, and the Awards Committee
in 1985. He was Treasurer of the Academy from 1976 to 1977. His service to the
Academy was recognized by the membership in 1977 when he was elected to be
President of the Academy for 1978-79. From 1986 to 1989, he meticulously served
on the Trust Committee, which he chaired in 1988 and 1989. His selfless dedication
to the Academy is an example of service for all to emulate.

The Virginia Academy of Science is pleased to honor Dale Ulrich with the Ivey
F. Lewis Distinguished Service Award.

126

VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

ACADEMY FELLOW

James H. Martin

The Virginia Academy of Science has bestowed it highest honor to James H.
Martin by electing him a Fellow of the Academy. Dr. Martin is Professor of Biology
and Laboratory Sciences Program Head at J. S. Reynolds Community College.

He received his B. A. degree from The University of Virginia, M. S. from The
University of Richmond and Ph. D. from The University of Tennessee. After Post
Doctoral work At the Medical College of Virginia, Virginia Commonwealth
University, he became a charter faculty member of J. S. Reynolds Community
College. His research and publications have included many subjects such as
sodium transport, muscle biophysics, reptilian physiology, and in recent years, the
long tern effects of nuclear disasters.

Dr. Martin, a 20 year member of the Academy, was applauded for his service
as business manager and editor of the Journal.

MINUTES

127

VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
COUNCIL MEETING

SUMMARY MINUTES PREPARED BY VAS SECRETARY

May 26, 1989 Virginia Commonwealth University

The meeting was called to order by President M. Bass.

Members present were M. Bass (President), R. G. Bass (Past-President), R.
B. Brandt (President-Elect), R. D. Decker (VJAS Director), E. Thompson (AAAS
Representative), A. Conway (Biology Section Representative), W. L. Banks (Past-
President), B. Bruner (Executive-Secretary/Treasurer), C. Blair (Environmental
Sciences Section representative), T. Sitz (Research Committee), S. Ware (Past-
President), J. Martin (Editor, VJS), T. Haas (LAC), F. Leftwich (Constitution &
By-Laws Committee), G. R. Taylor, Jr. (Secretary)

President M. Bass presented his report.

1. We need to increase membership in the Academy. Everyone on the Council
is an ex-officio member of the membership committee. Need to contact Dean and
President of your universities about the Academy.

2. We need industrial participation in the Academy at every level. The Business
Relations Committee (ad hoc) has this duty. President Bass said that he will
activate this committee.

3.Site Selection Committee must to aim for 4 or 5 years in advance. Every year
before the annual meeting, the scheduled universities will be reminded that we are
coming.

A discussion followed. The site selection committee (as per Art Burke’s
proposal) is President, President-Elect, the two most recent past presidents and
the Director of VJAS. The president is the chair. S. Ware stated that the council
should remind the president each year to maintain a four-year schedule of future
hosting institutions.

D. Decker presented VJAS Report. The Francis and Sidney Lewis Scholarship
has been awarded five times (all to women). Those recipients, who are in college,
are doing well. The VJAS meeting has gone well. A motion was made by G. Bass,
seconded by Banks; "All winners, the prize name and their schools be published
in the Va. J. Sci. in the proceedings issue and this information be immediately
provided to the Publication Committee. A discussion followed. Motion passed
unanimously.

D. Decker reported that Bethel representatives showed up to present the Bethel
Scholarship award; however, it had previously been announced that it would not
be given. Some concern was shown, but they understand that in future the award
will be given. No action required.

Tom Haas (Local arrangements) presented a preliminary report. Attendance
at VJAS is about 1000 100 and VAS, 500 100. Meeting has gone well. Don
Mikulecky did an outstanding job arranging exhibitors. D. Decker said he heard
good comments about posters being interdispersed with the exhibitors. D. Brandt
commented that since Haas has done such a marvelous job, would he help with next
year’s meeting? Haas agreed. M. Bass thought posters were a positive thing.
Discussion occurred. The total number of papers were down this year. About 272

128

VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

papers and 45 posters for 317 presentations. Biology had only one session and
Agriculture did not meet. M. Brandt said fewer papers from VPI due to laboratory
moves requiring aid of their graduate students. Tom Haas and his committee was
congratulated by M. Bass and Council members.

Constitution and Bylaws Report - No report.

Research Report - Tom Sitz reported that a formal report will be sent. The
small project grants budget increased to $6000. The Horsley Award was given for
$500. The maximum small project grant is $1000. Fourteen applications from nine
institutions for seven grants ranging from $650 to $900 were awarded. Motion was
made by S. Ware, seconded by W. Banks, that research awards, small project grants,
project title, participants and the universities involved be printed in the VAS
Journal. This is to include the Cancer Awards. The motion was approved unani¬
mously. Discussion continued. Motion made by Banks (seconded by Brandt) that
awards from sections with names, title and affiliation be published in the VAS
journal. Approved unanimously.

President Bass asked that Harold Bell be reconfirmed as Visiting Scientist
Program Director. Motion made by Thompson, seconded by Decker. Unani¬
mously approved. Also, Blanton Bruner was reconfirmed as Executive
Secretary/Treasurer of the VAS. Motion made by Decker, seconded by
Thompson. Unanimously approved.

W. L. Banks moved, seconded by S. Ware, that E. Thompson be reconfirmed
as the AAAS representative. Passed unanimously.

Art Conway will present a report at the November meeting about student
members who are not presenting papers but wish to attend the annual meeting, not
having to pay a registration fee. Conway will send this to President Bass and it will
be on the agenda of the November meeting.

M. Bass reported that the composition of Trust Committee is not firm; however,
it can function.

D. Decker received a call from the principal at Bethel High School about the
Bethel scholarship. They want the awards made. The Eastman bond investment
proposal that was presented in the report Wednesday should be implemented.
After much discussion, Motion by Banks, seconded by Brandt, that Council direct
the Trust Committee to complete acquisition of the bond for the Bethel Scholarship
at the earliest opportunity and not later than June 30, 1989, and so notify the Bethel
people. Discussion followed. Motion passed unanimously.

No other committee reports were presented.

New Business

Motion by Banks, seconded by Decker, that J. Martin be reappointed as editor
of Virginia Journal of Science (3 years). The motion passed unanimously.

Blair said that to increase our membership we should get new members from
various state government organization such as Marine Resource Commission,
which is needed for the Environmental Section. Others suggested State Water
Control, Fish and Game, etc. We must get the directors of these agencies involved-
-Corporate memberships perhaps. Decker said that we could start by sending
membership brochures to each of those departments. Blair said that he will
volunteer to handle Marine Resources, and do we have contacts with the others?

MINUTES

129

Bass said he knew someone at the State Water Control. Blair offered to draft a
letter for Bass that would apply to all agencies. General approval by Council.

Banks asked if we were to have a new section on Computer Sciences. Blair said
that ODU had shown interest. Decker thought VCU might also be interested. Bass
asked what is the mechanism for setting up a new section? Thompson: They must
plan and conduct one annual section meeting and an annual meeting; then it is up
to Council to approve the addition of a new section. Many undergraduate
programs of computer sciences are closely associated with math departments
(Bass-Ware). M. Bass said he would look into this.

Decker pointed out that Agriculture section didn’t meet this year. After two
years they will be phased out. Bass said members wanted the section, it was listed
for presentations, but some problems occurred around the VJAS award paper
presentation time. Ware pointed out that the president-elect should get the list of
all the officers of the sections and find out their future plans.

Meeting adjourned.

Minutes recorded by R. Brant and respectfully submitted by:

Gerald R. Taylor, Secretary
Virginia Academy of Sciences

130

VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE MEETING
SUMMARY MINUTES PREPARED BY VAS SECRETARY

November 12, 1989 University of Virginia

The meeting was called to order by President M. Bass.

Members present were M. Bass (President), R. Brandt (President-Elect), D.
Decker (VJAS Director), E. Thompson (AAAS representative), B. Bruner (Ex¬
ecutive-Secretary/Treasurer), S. Ware (Past-President), J. Martin (Editor, VJS),
A. Burke (Finance Committee Chair), E. Falls (Treasurer), and G. Taylor
(Secretary).

Motion by D. Decker, seconded by S. Ware that the minutes of the Executive
Committee be approved and that an edited summary be submitted to the Journal.
Motion passed.

President M. Bass presented his report.

1.1 expect the directory will be completed next week.

2. D. Decker has appointed a subcommittee to study regionalization of the
Junior Academy.

3. The Annual Meeting at Virginia Commonwealth University was successful.
One of the best meetings we have had is what I hear from most people.

4. The computer science people seem to be very much in favor of forming a
section in the Virginia Academy. This would give them another outlet to give
papers and present student’s projects.

5. The status of the Agricultural Science Section future is still uncertain. Since
they didn’t meet last year, they did not elect new officers. Discussion followed. M.
Bass, I think the Agricultural Science Section is an important science right now
especially when you talk about world hunger and population. There should be a
place for this type of research to be reported in the Virginia Academy.

6. Vera Remsburg said she thought the representative to the Science Museum
ought to be an official member of the Council. B. Bruner states, if I remember
correctly, the Law reads one trustee should be a member of the Academy of
Science. M. Bass asked if we can recommend that our representative to the Science
Museum, as listed in the Directory, also be an official representative on Council?
D. Decker comments, That may require a by-law change, because I think the bylaws
spell out who are the Council members. M. Bass states he will check with F.
Leftwich, Chair of Constitution and By-Laws Committee. The Executive Commit¬
tee approves of this move with no reservation.

7. Roy Taylor will present Fund Raising Committee report at Council. D.
Decker states that Fund Raising Committee has decided to employ the services of
Mary Ellen Stumpf.

President-Elect’s Report by Dick Brandt.

Bass, Decker, Ware and I met at George Mason on November 7 with George
Umberger, Assistant Dean for Administration and Outreach, and Chair of Local
Arrangements for the VAS meeting May 9, 1990. He is in close contact with Tom
Haas. D. Decker spent most of the meeting going over the Junior Academy. I was

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131

very impressed with how organized they are at George Mason. M. Bass stated he
had a meeting in June with Clara Lovett, Provost at GMU.

M. Bass stated that G. Umberger seemed to be aggressive as far as his exhibitors.
He wanted to know why we would not invite more people other than what we have
had in the past, and we said there is no reason why we shouldn’t, as long as there is
room for them.

M. Bass comments about future meeting sites. D. Decker states, I’m not sure
that we move in a particular pattern around the state but I think we were in
84-Richmond, 85-W&M, 86-JMU, 87-ODU, 88-UVA, and 89-VCU. M. Bass
noted that VCU said they would like to have us back in 94 or 95? D. Brandt suggest
in 92, the University of Richmond and JMU in 93. Discussion followed.

Past President’s Report by Stewart Ware.

Since I am on the nominations committee, do you have any suggestions? You
will know, with your involvement with Council, who might be particular good at
serving as officer. Who would you suggest and for what position would you suggest
them? That is all I have. Discussion about the Schedule of Responsibilities
followed.

Executive Secretary-Treasurer Report by Blanton Bruner.

I’m sure you will be glad to hear that the invoices for 1990 are due in May. We
use the expenses of the meeting to cover program costs, mailing, banquet cost, and
many other incidental expenses of the meeting in the area of $5000. This year, we
received a settlement from Tom Hayes, in which the Senior Academy will receive
about $3800 and the Junior Academy will do considerably better. We have usually
presented to the local arrangements people the fact that we would like to know up
front all expected expenditures; that we are not very happy with surprises. In the
settlement of this past meeting there are two items I think we should discuss: 1) the
wine cooler (tasting) which cost us about $1700 (and there were no provisions in
the income of the meeting to pay for this, so it comes out of the total income of
registrations) and 2) the fact that for the banquet we sold 64 tickets at $20 each for
$1280 and we paid for 98 tickets, so we have almost 50% free banquet tickets
($700-$800). I think we have to consider these things before we find them in the
financial statement. Discussion followed.

A. Burke, reporting from the Finance Committee, states that Council or Ex¬
ecutive Committee needs to establish some guidelines on local arrangements for
all time and not have any surprises. It wasn’t too many years ago that the banquet
speaker and the president and provost, or vice president, of the particular host
institution and their wives were invited and there were no more than a half a dozen
free tickets given out. Exhibitors get two tickets; that’s good if we expect to get
more exhibits by giving away two tickets to the exhibitors. I think Executive
Committee, Council, or Long Range Planning Committee should give considera¬
tion to what the Academy ought should do with respect to these incurred expenses.
Discussion followed.

A. Burke states that a decision should be made that there should be no more
that 10%, 12% or 20% free banquet tickets.

M. Bass states he thinks we can solve this by setting up a recommended upper
percentile, not to exceed 20%. The Executive Committee that meets with Local

132

VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

Arrangements Committee should keep this percentage as their upper limit and
have Local Arrangements work out details.

M. Bass notes that the wine tasting is new and has been a drawing card, getting
larger at each meeting. The wine tasting was positive because it was held next to
the exhibits and next to the poster section. D. Brandt recalls that the letter that
went to the exhibitors told them that there was going to be wine tasting and it was
kind of advertising for them. The cost was partially offset by the increased number
of exhibitors that we had at $200.00 each. Discussion followed.

Virginia Junior Academy Report by Director Dean Decker.

There is not going to be a conference fee this year, because George Mason
officially invited us and the meeting is being run internally, not through their
conference center. Last Friday and Saturday, I went to the State Science Teachers
meeting with the Junior Academy booth and put Proceedings and Handbooks in
the hands of the people who are not actively involved with the Junior Academy.
This is a good use of our resources, because it puts us out there in front of the people
who are not participating and maybe we can do something about that.

This summer I appointed two sub-committees. One to deal with looking at the
future of the Junior Academy. We met and reaffirmed the number one objective
of the Virginia Junior Academy, as spelled out in handbook, is to encourage the
secondary school students to become involved in science. The committee came to
the conclusion that regionalization is the most logical way to go (as far as solving
the problems of size and meeting space); we approved that. Discussion followed.

A. Burke states that as the Academy has an operating surplus, there is no better
way of spending it, a few $1000, than in a rational way subsidizing this effort of
regionalization. D. Decker continues to report that we ought to have a general plan
worked out that, assuming Junior Academy approval, will come before Council for
approval at March meeting. Discussion followed.

M. Bass. Thank you very much for your report, Dean.

Jim Martin’s Report on Journal. After I turned in the budget, I found out that
prices went up in January. I’m experiencing an interesting problem of getting more
papers promised than received. We are rejecting about 50% of papers received. I
would like to see papers other than biological papers submitted. I do have one
math paper, and I have one ground water paper that still needs to be edited by the
author, but everything else seems to be biologically oriented. Discussion followed.
J. Martin reports that O’Brian wrote a letter suggesting a series of maybe three
articles on the Junior Academy of Science, the past, the present and the future. It
would primarily keep the membership well informed, particularly to help support
fund raising. Additional discussion followed. J. Martin continues to report. About
30% of the people who fill out abstract forms for papers, do not read the directions.
I am going to totally reject those this next time. If they do not adhere to the format,
they are going right back and they are probably going to miss the deadline.
Discussion followed. S. Ware asked, if I sent you a paper on the 1st of November,
how long would it take to get it reviewed? (J. Martin) If it is accepted, and most
have to be partially revised, it has been running between 60 and 75 days.

D. Decker states that he was pleased to see list of Junior Academy Winners in
the Journal. A. Burke asked if the winners get a copy of that issue? How much

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133

would it cost if the student or the sponsor of that club got a copy? Discussion
followed. M. Bass suggest we send that copy of Journal to all the schools who are
members (about 100). A. Burke notes that the really key person in any school
system is the science coordinator. So can we send that issue of the Journal to the
science coordinator?

M. Bass How many journals are we using here, we have 500 and we have sent
out 100 already; we want to sent out 90 more? That is fine with me. J. Martin states,
Lets do that. M. Bass reiterates, I think that the executive committee suggests that
this be carried out. Do we need a motion to that effect? I don’t think so.

Meeting adjourned.

Respectfully submitted by:

Gerald R. Taylor, Jr., Secretary
Virginia Academy of Science

134

VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
COUNCIL MEETING

SUMMARY MINUTES PREPARED BY VAS SECRETARY

November 12, 1989 University of Virginia

The meeting was called to order by President M. Bass.

Members present were Michael Bass (President), Richard Brandt (President-
Elect), Dean Decker (VJAS Director), Ertle Thompson (AAAS representative),
Blanton Bruner (Executive-Secretary/Treasurer), Carvel Blair (Environmental
Sciences Section Representative), Stewart Ware (Past-President), James Martin
(Editor, VJS), Arthur Burke (Finance Committee Chair), Jim Murray (Past-past-
past President), Roy Taylor (Fund Raising Chair), Keneth Lawless (Long Range
Planning Committee Chair), Elsa Falls (Treasurer)), Dale Ulrich (Trust Commit¬
tee), and Gerald Taylor (Secretary).

A. Burke moved, seconded by J. Martin, that the minutes of the May 25, 1989,
meeting be approved as retyped. Motion passed.

President’s Report by M. Bass.

1. The Directory is not finished; committee Chairs are in place.

2. Regionalization of the Virginia Junior Academy was discussed in Executive
Committee. At their July meeting this summer, I asked Dean Decker to appoint a
sub-committee of the VJAS committee to study regionalization. They have been
working.

3. There was a request for setting up a Computer Science Section of the Virginia
Academy. I have contacted the American Computer Machinery Group, Associa¬
tion of Computer Machinery, and the Capital Region Representative. Hopefully,
at the annual meeting at George Mason, we will have an organized Computer
Science Section presenting papers.

4. The Agricultural Section did not present papers this past session, even though
papers were submitted and titled. I am still in contact with these people to make
sure that they want to dissolve their section. I think the Agricultural Section is still
a good section to have in the Academy.

5 . At the Executive Committee meeting, we discussed the fact that we should
summarize some of the discussion that was recorded in the minutes at the last
couple of Council Meetings because of the problems we had in establishing a
meeting place. If there is no objection, the minutes as listed will be in the Archives,
but an edited version, summary, will go in the Journal.

President-Elect Report by R. Brandt.

M. Bass, D. Decker and I met with the Local Arrangements Chair, George
Umberger, his executive secretary, and a university representative, who is one of
the planners of meetings taking place at George Mason. Dean presented in detail
the previous meeting. We are meeting with them again in January.

No Treasurer’s Report or Secretary’s Report.

Past President’s Report presented by S. Ware.

MINUTES

135

The call for suggestions to the nominating committee for nominees for officers
for next year has been completed.

Executive Secretary Report by B. Bruner.

Tom Haas has reported the results of the VCU meeting. The meeting was
planned and well done. The financial report is in great detail. The Senior Academy
was low on budget, that is printing cost and so forth, but the Junior Academy did
very well.

Executive Committee Report presented by M. Bass.

The Executive Committee discussed the budget on the banquet tickets. There
were a few more guest at the banquet than we thought there were going to be.
Another item discussed was the expense of the wine tasting.

Junior Academy Report by Director D. Decker.

We had a summer meeting at Grave’s Mountain Lodge. Two sub-committees
were appointed, one to look at qualifying some of the regulations on writing papers,
the other committee is on the organization of the future of the Junior Academy.
Two things have been approved so far, the reaffirm the objective of the Junior
Academy which is to encourage science among the secondary school students, and
the second was to essentially approve the idea of regionalization. Our plan is to
have a workable solution to regionalization by the time the Junior Academy meets
in January, get that approved by the Junior Academy Committee and bring it to
Council in March.

I attended the State Science Teachers meeting in November at Tysons Corner.
I had the Virginia Academy display set up. The American Junior Academy meeting
is in New Orleans in February, a week before Mardi Gras. We selected four people
to go to that meeting. This last issue of the Journal published a list of winners from
Annual Meeting. I thank Jim Martin for doing that.

Editor of the Journal Report by J. Martin .

Printing cost are going up, so the cost of the Journal is going up a little, nothing
significant. At present, it cost us about $2.00 an issue. Very few papers are
submitted that are not biological in origin, I would like more papers from other
disciplines. We have about a 50% rejection of papers; there is close to 100%
rejection of statistical papers.

Visiting Scientist Program Report.

Harold Bell, Director of the Visiting Scientist Program, has sent out Visiting
Scientist Program to the colleges and high schools.

AAAS Report by Representative E. Thompson.

If you are planning to go to the AAAS Meeting in February, get your reserva¬
tions in early because that meeting just precedes Mardi Gras, and space will be
limited.

Archives Report, Martha Roane, Chair.

M. Bass stated that Martha Roane reports everything is on track.

Awards Committee Report presented by G. Taylor. No action has been taken
by the Committee since meeting in May.

136

VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

Constitution and Bylaws Report.

M. Bass reported that F. Leftwitch did not have anything to bring to the Council
at this time. The Executive Committee has something for Constitution and Bylaws
Committee: Making the Virginia Academy of Science official representative to the
Virginia Science Museum a member of Council. Motion by A. Burke, seconded by
R. Taylor: That the member of Virginia Academy of Science who is proposed by
Virginia Academy of Science and who is appointed by the Governor to be a Trustee
of the Science Museum of Virginia be a member of Council. Motion passed. (Art
Burke restates that the intent of the motion is that the person who is appointed by
the Governor as a Trustee of the Science Museum of Virginia and who is an
Academy member, however he got there, becomes a member of Council.)

Science Education Committee Report by E. Thompson.

The major function of the Science Education Committee in past years has been
to support the State Department of Education Science Teachers Conference in the
Fall and more recently to support the Virginia Association of Science Teachers in
the Spring. This meeting in Northern Virginia was the first time the State Depart¬
ment of Education has held their meeting north of Fredricksburg. It turned out to
be in attendance the largest meeting ever, more than 800 teachers registered. These
two meetings are opportune times to distribute information directly to the teachers,
the Visiting Scientists information plus any other information that members of the
Academy wish to get into the hands of science teachers. We look forward to
continuing that relationship with both the State Department of Education and the
Science Teachers Association.

Finance and Endowment Committee Report by A. Burke.

A. Burke presented a report on the proposed 1990 budget which was prepared
by Blanton Bruner. In terms of receipts, we are in the range of $90,000. I suggest
we infuse another $200 or $300 into the Visiting Scientists Program and that would
mean $1630 in disbursements. (J. Martin) Probably need $200 more for publication
cost for Journal. (A. Burke) We come to VJAS reserve for reorganization plans
and that was voted by Council. There is an item in the VAS for $1000 for computer
purchase and computer purchase as a line item of $2000 in 1990, a total $3000 for
a computer. So total from Senior Academy in terms of disbursements is (change
the $50,500) $50,900, which is up from 1989. The Junior Academy is a little bit down
except for computer item. We added $400 so we have $87,240 in dispersement.
The total for Junior and Senior Academy in dispersement is $87,240. We have
$3,100 reserved which probably is a marginal reserve. A. Burke, Chair of Finance
and Endowment, moves, "I propose this budget". Seconded by G. Taylor. The
motion passed.

Fund Raising Committee Report by Roy Taylor.

Council approved beginning work on the trust with an endowment fund feasible
study. The Committee selected proposal by Mary Ellen Stumph. The fund has
been set in motion by an anonymous gift of $1000. The trust will be the VAS/VJAS
Endowment Trust, because the VJAS has no tax exempt status apart from the VAS.

(D. Ulrich) In the trust committee work, the VAS would be the vehicle for
maintaining management of the fund. We run into problem calling it a trust and

MINUTES

137

decided to change it to fund, as far as investment goes, and there should be one to
one in fund raising and what it is called. (A. Burke) Calling it a trust mandates
certain structural attributes for all these people who are responsible or appointed
or elected or otherwise volunteered to personally be on the line for it. R. Taylor
states, It will be called the VAS/VJAS Endowment Fund. Discussion followed.
The feasibility study is to whether or not we can raise enough money to sustain the
Junior Academy. The study is projected to take six months. Discussion followed.

S. Ware asked if at the end of this feasibility study, the Committee will be able
to report back to Council whether we should go ahead or look for other means of
getting a new Directory to replace the retiring Directory. When are we going to
know whether or not we are going to have money to pay a full-time salary? We
need to know that if we are not asking for another volunteer. (M. Bass) Will
progress reports allow us to make some decisions at the time of the Spring Meeting?
(R. Taylor) Everything will be reported next Fall. The Fund Raising Committee is
not only looking at this particular approach. (S. Ware) In terms of President and
President-Elect, what kind of reality and time frames are they going to be facing?
(D. Decker) Possibly everything not coming into place until a month after the May,
1991, meeting. (B. Bruner) Not until you know if the fund drive is successful.
Discussion continued. D. Decker notes that this has two direct impacts on the
Academy. The VJAS will be self-supporting and the VJAS Director may also be
the Executive Secretary of Senior Academy. Discussion continued.

Long Range Planing Committee Report presented by K. Lawless.

No report, but we need to be concerned with scheduling meetings.

Membership Committee. No report.

Research Committee Report M. Bass relayed report from T. Sitz.

Science Advisory Committee. No report

Trust Committee Report by D. Ulrich .

The Committee is handling the Academy’s investments of approximately
$140,000 through Dominic & Dominic, Inc. Decker asked if information about
Bethel High School Fund been sent to Bethel. (Ulrich) We have had informal
conversation and a letter will be mailed.

Virginia Flora Committee Report by M. Bass for M. Roane.

Martha has been working on taxonomic grasses in Virginia. She has published
some material in the Jeffersonian and has sent information to the Journal Editor.

Environmental Science Section Report by C. Blair.

A report was presented on Chesapeake Bay Environmental Research Reserve
System, administered by Virginia Institute for Marine Science, and the Advisory
Committee which will help decide how to distribute federal funds for work in these
reserves. C. Blair was recommended by M. Bass, President of the Academy, to
serve as a representative from the Academy on that committee. Dr. Jones at
George Mason wants to set up a symposium titled Fresh Water Ecosystems at next
year’s meeting.

138

VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

(M. Bass) Carvel Blair has drafted a letter to be sent to state agencies like the
State Water Control Board and Virginia Game & Inland Fishery recruiting mem¬
bership for the Academy. I have approved the distribution of that letter which will
be sent out on Academy letterhead.

Medical Science Section Report .

R. Brandt reports that everything is alive and well.

Old Business

S. Ware notes that some section representatives have never been to a Council
meeting. Section representatives should attend the meetings. Discussion followed.
(Art Burke) The President-Elect should make a point of visiting each section
during their paper session. Discussion followed.

New Business

The March meeting of Council will be on March 3, 1990, at George Mason
University. A general discussion on teacher education, State Certification of
Teachers, and textbook selection followed.

Respectfully submitted by:

Gerald R. Taylor, Jr., Secretary
Virginia Academy of Science

JUNIOR ACADEMY AWARDS

139

AWARDS PRESENTED DURING THE VIRGINIA JUNIOR
ACADEMY OF SCIENCE MEETING

MAJOR W. CATESBY JONES AWARD
for the STS winner displaying the greatest science potential.

2nd Runner-up

1st Runner-up:
Winner:

Jeffrey King
Howard Lu
Steven Kim
Todd Dampier

Thomas Jefferson H. S. for
Science & Tech.

Thomas Jefferson H. S. for
Science & Tech.

Thomas Jefferson H. S. for
Science & Tech.

Thomas Jefferson H.S. for
Science & Tech.

AGRICULTURAL AND ANIMAL SCIENCE

Honorable Mention:

Third Place:
Second Place:
First Place:

Mitzi G. Mcdougle
Robert E. Hoffler, Jr.
Gina L. Carney
J. Cary Thompson
Rebecca A. Mcghee
Lisa M. Baird

Lee-Davis High School
Prince George High School
Liberty Junior High School
The Collegiate Schools
Lee-Davis High School
Meadowbrook High School

ANIMAL BEHAVIOR (ETHOLOGY)

Honorable Mention:

Third Place:

Second Place:
First Place:

Maryam Nowroozi
Matthew D. Schrag

Yvonne A. Burke
Norma M. Radvany
Kimberly M. Costello
Rachel C. Holsinger

Norfolk Academy
Stonewall Jackson Junior
High School
Hermitage High School
John Rolfe Middle School
Williamsburg Intermediate School
Douglas S. Freeman High School

BOTANY ’A’

Honorable Mention:

Third Place:
Second Place:
First Place:

Hassan I. Huq
Thomas C. Harder

Christopher P. Bohn
Craig S. Gill
Richard C. Brooks
John L. Harrington

Monacan High School
Magnet School for the Sciences
and Health Professions
Patrick Henry High School
Lloyd C. Bird High School
Yorktown High School
Menchville High School

140

VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

Honorable Mention:

Third Place:

Second Place:

First Place:

Honorable Mention:

Third Place:

Second Place:

First Place:

Honorable Mention:

Third Place:

Second Place:

First Place:

Honorable Mention:

Third Place:

Second Place:

First Place:

BOTANY ’B’

Thomas G. Lane
Melissa O’Brien
Karen C. May
Margery A. Koeckert

Daniel A. Kopp
Jason Leonard

Patrick Henry High School
Patrick Henry High School
Patrick Henry High School
Thomas Jefferson Intermediate
School

Yorktown High School
Stonewall Jackson Junior High
School

BOTANY >C*

Heather J. Waters
David H. Zimmerman
Amy L. Wright
M. Stuart Waltz, Jr.
Sheri L. Thompson
Catherine R. Sheane

Menchville High School
Patrick Henry High School
Patrick Henry High School
Clover Hill High School
Menchville High School
Kenmore Intermediate School

CHEMISTRY ’A’

George W. Braun

Abdul G. Khan

Anne C. Christenson
Stephen G. Kim

Ochida Iep

Helena M. Day

Thomas Jefferson High School
for Science and Technology
Thomas Jefferson High School
for Science and Technology
Yorktown High School
Thomas Jefferson High School
for Science and Technology
Thomas Jefferson High School
for Science and Technology
Thomas Jefferson High School
for Science and Technology

CHEMISTRY ’B’

Dean K. Park

Michael A. Tolin

Jonathan E. McDunn

Jason T. Yustein

Michael P. Richardson
Mina K. Yu

Thomas Jefferson High School
for Science and Technology
Thomas Jefferson High School
for Science and Technology
Thomas Jefferson High School
for Science and Technology
Thomas Jefferson High School
for Science and Technology
Heritage High School
Thomas Jefferson High School
for Science and Technology

JUNIOR ACADEMY AWARDS

141

Honorable Mention:

Third Place:
Second Place:

First Place:

Honorable Mention:

Third Place:
Second Place:
First Place:

Honorable Mention:

Third Place:
Second Place:
First Place:

Honorable Mention:
Third Place:

Second Place:

First Place:

Honorable Mention:

Third Place:
Second Place:
First Place:

COMPUTER SCIENCE

Brian S. Mason

Truongson B. Huynh

Tony F. Deboueck

Kimberly B. Gordon
Kristie L. Seymore
Andrea I. Kellum

Monacan High School
Thomas Jefferson Intermediate
School

Bishop Denis J. O’Connell
High School

Homer L. Hines Middle School
Tabb High School
Patrick Henry High School

CONSUMER SCIENCE ’A’

Jennifer J. Hall
Barbara A. Farley
Katrina N. Bacalis

Dgoc T. Dao
David R. Dahlquist
Michael G. Eliasek

Patrick Henry High School
Monacan High School
Roanoke Valley Governor’s
School for Science and
Technology

Meadowbrook High School
Midlothian High School
Monacan High School

CONSUMER SCIENCE ’B’

Tommie S. Johnson
Kimberly M. Irby
Nicole E. Johnson
Jeffrey J. Hanten
Jacob D. Kauffman
Le L. Lam

Patrick Henry High School
Liberty Junior High School
Lee-Davis High School
Lee-Davis High School
Menchville High School
Meadowbrook High School

CONSUMER SCIENCE ’C’

Cynthia Squires
Kimberly R. Saunders
Trang D. Ta
Stephanie D. Powell

Cave Spring High School
Meadowbrook High School
Meadowbrook High School
Lee-Davis High School

EARTH SCIENCE

Sharon L. Davis Menchville High School

Catherine A. Holbrook Central Virginia Governor’s School
Phillip W. Check Hampton High School

Christine L. Tarkenton Hermitage High School
Kristin B. Miller Meadowbrook High School

E. Carter Paulson Gildersleeve Middle School

142

VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

Honorable Mention:

Third Place:
Second Place:
First Place:

Honorable Mention:

Third Place:
Second Place:
First Place:

Honorable Mention:

Third Place:
Second Place:
First Place:

Honorable Mention:

Third Place:
Second Place:

First Place:

Honorable Mention:

Third Place:
Second Place:
First Place:

ENGINEERING ’A’

David J. Baker Menchville High School

Richard M. Boothe Cave Spring High School
Jason J. Bradford Wakefield High School

Jennifer P. Brooks Bethel High School
Brendon L. Cornwell Ferguson High School
David Derkits Yorktown High School

ENGINEERING 'B'

Mark P. Schwartzbard Yorktown High School
Thaddeus C. Parker Kecoughtan High School
Christopher L. Johnson Yorktown High School
Dan Zafros Yorktown High School

Joanna C. Staton Tabb High School

Timothy O. Jarrett New Horizons Governor's School
for Science and Technology

ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE 'A'

Ann M. Dorsey
Kelly M. Butler
Edgar M. Cockrell
Ton C. Carter
Jeffrey D. Brown
Amjali Dahiya

Maury High School
Lee-Davis High School
Patrick Henry High School
Midlothian High School
Yorktown High School
Norfolk Academy

ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE 'B'

Timmerie F. Lester
Mark C. Joyn
Daria J. Farassat
Diana C. Hicks
Amy R. Frazier

Unchu Ko

Patrick Henry High School
Maury High School
Menchville High School
Warwick High School
Roanoke Valley Governor's School
for Science and Technology
New Horizons Governor's School
for Science and Technology

ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE 'C

Lawrence A. Morrison Wakefield High School
Kristen M. Mansfield Dinwiddle County High School
Ly-Cheng Lim Washington-Lee High School

Robert T. Neuner Yorktown High School

Julie K. Petho Williamsburg Intermediate School

Lori J. Martin Central Virginia Governor’s School

JUNIOR ACADEMY AWARDS

143

ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE 'D'

Honorable Mention: Catherine L. Winfrey Homer L. Hines Middle School
Kimberly A. Strafalace Lloyd C. Bird High School
Jesse H. Spencer Dozier Middle School

Third Place: Andrew P. Sherrod Patrick Henry High School

Second Place: Catherine M. Wattendorf Washington-Lee High School

First Place: E. Lanier Watkins Roanoke Valley Governor's School

for Science and Technology

GENETICS AND CELLULAR BIOLOGY

Honorable Mention:

Third Place:

Second Place:

First Place:

Adam L. Ginsburg
F. Bruce Furrow
Talia L. Carter
Mark R, Flory

Jennifer E. Stevens

Williamsburg Intermediate School
Evangel Christian School
Meadowbrook High School
Roanoke Valley Governor's School
for Science and Technology
Yorktown High School

MATHEMATICS AND STATISTICS

Honorable Mention:

Third Place:

Second Place:

First Place:

Matthew L. Carswell
Keun- Young Kim
Thomas A. Earles
Charles W. Strickland
David R. Heinen

Woodberry Forest School
Woodberry Forest School
Woodberry Forest School
Woodberry Forest School
Yorktown High School

MEDICINE AND HEALTH 'A'

Honorable Mention:

Third Place:
Second Place:
First Place:

Eric R. Crouch
Marissa C. Galicia

Nicole S. Crain
Lora M. Clarke
Kym L. Edwards

Norfolk Academy
Magnet School for the
Sciences and Health Professions
Wakefield High School
Homer L. Hines Middle School
Yorktown High School

MEDICINE AND HEALTH 'B'

Honorable Mention:

Third Place:

Second Place:
First Place:

Elizabeth A. Mader
Aga J. Lewelt
Sandhya Khanna

Catherine D. Nguyen

Melissa A. Noel
Heather M. Higgins

Maury High School
Monacan High School
Thomas Jefferson High School
for Science and Technology
Thomas Jefferson High School
for Science and Technology
Lee-Davis High School
Magnet School for the
Sciences and Health Professions

144

VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

Honorable Mention:

Third Place:

Second Place:
First Place:

Honorable Mention:

Third Place:

Second Place:
First Place:

Honorable Mention:

Third Place:
Second Place:
First Place:

Honorable Mention:

Third Place:

Second Place:

First Place:

Honorable Mention:

Third Place:
Second Place:
First Place:

MEDICINE AND HEALTH ’C

Canstance M. Yuan
Asha N. Powell

Edward K. Song
Michelle R. Stevens

Kristy L. Stephens
Griffin M. Weber

Maury High School
Magnet School for the Sciences
and Health Professions
E. C. Glass High School
Roanoke Valley Governor’s
School for Science andT echnology
Meadowbrook High School
Dozier Middle School

MICROBIOLOGY

Louise L. Chang Tabb High School

Thomas H. Huff Harry F. Byrd Middle School

Sarah K. Hickling Wakefield High School

Margaret E. Courdeaux Roanoke Valley Governor’s School
for Science and Technology

Michael D. Giglio Douglas S. Freeman High School

Alexander W. Cheney Dozier Middle School

PHYSICS ’A’

Sara C. Coggins
Michelle L. Crouch
Matthew P. Carter
Jesse S. Chawla
Erik T. Brandsberg
Bert K. Chan

PHYSICS ’B’

Kamaria J. Meekins
Adrienne L. Misheloff
Andrew T. Haug
Marialina L. Krum
Rex K. Min

PHYSICS ’C

Clark A. Schweers
Arthur J. Redfern
Lauren M. Seikaly
Brian T. Whitley
Lloyd A. Taylor
Mark T. Wieczorek

Dozier Middle School
Midlothian High School
H. B. Woodlawn
Gildersleeve Middle School
Central Virginia Governor’s School
St. Christopher’s School

Meadowbrook High School
Yorktown High School
Yorktown High School
Williamsburg Intermediate School
Homer L. Hines Middle School

Swanson Intermediate School
Meadowbrook High School
Williamsburg Intermediate School
Liberty Junior High School
Radford High School
Denbigh High School

JUNIOR ACADEMY AWARDS

145

PSYCHOLOGY - GENERAL ’A’

Honorable Mention:

Third Place:

Second Place:
First Place:

Michael B. Fredericks
Brooke A. Cunningham

Matthew D. Jones
April S. Freeman
Sharon L. Chesher

Norfolk Academy
Richmond Communit
High School

Meadowbrook High School
Meadowbrook High School
Meadowbrook High School

Honorable Mention:

Third Place:
Second Place:

First Place:

PSYCHOLOGY - GENERAL ’B’

Amy B. Wolfson Norfolk Academy

Kristin L. Wilhelm Roanoke Valley Governor’s

School for Science and Technology
Kelsy Peterson Williamsburg Intermediate School

Marlena G. Middlebrook Norview High School
Cheryl L. Witt Roanoke Valley Governor’s

School for Science and Technology
Mai Q. Trong Meadowbrook High School

PSYCHOLOGY - LEARNING AND PERCEPTION ’A’

Honorable Mention: Richard A. Esterbrook Harry F. Byrd Middle School
Carol A. Cocker Yorktown High School

Meredith A. Akers Clover Hill High School
Third Place: Felix H. Cheung Gildersleeve Middle School

Second Place: Sarah A. Bailey Norfolk Academy

First Place: John R. Barbour Warwick High School

PSYCHOLOGY - LEARNING AND PERCEPTION ’B’

Honorable Mention:

Third Place:
Second Place:
First Place:

Heidi M. Hanser
Lale D. Gokbudak

Markus J. Namesny
Anne R. Nester
Jack J. Levenson

Meadowbrook High School
Roanoke Valley Governor’s
School for Science and Technology
Monacan High School
Williamsburg Intermediate School
Thomas Jefferson High School
for Science and Technology

PSYCHOLOGY - LEARNING AND PERCEPTION ’C’

Honorable Mention:

Third Place:
Second Place:
First Place:

Ardath A. White
Tammy R. Samuels
Christiana L. Smith
Dianne B. Scheinberg
Catherine W. Young
James M. Turner, III

Yorktown High School
Patrick Henry High School
John Handley High School
Yorktown High School
Midlothian High School
Roanoke Valley Governor’s
School for Science and Technology

146

VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

PSYCHOLOGY - SOCIAL

Honorable Mention:

Third Place:
Second Place:
First Place:

Diane E. Blantz
Kristen E. Burnett
Kristi L. Lewis
Robin L. Ickes
Mary Lynn F. Jones
Linda C. Hughes

Patrick Henry High School

Norfolk Academy

Prince George High School

Meadowbrook High School

Yorktown High School

Central Virginia Governor's School

SPACE SCIENCE

Honorable Mention:

Third Place:

Second Place:

First Place:

Heather M. Massie

Gail P. Dave
Heather L. Stevens
Kevin B. Jones

Roanoke Valley Governor's
School for Science and Technology
Mills E. Godwin High School
Yorktown High School
Washington-Lee High School

ZOOLOGY

Honorable Mention:

Third Place:

Second Place:

First Place:

David T. Wang

Wendy A. Lee
Billy J. Creech
Wendy G. Dillard

Phillip T. Korman
Susan R. Busic

Magnet School for the Sciences
and Health Professions
Gildersleeve Middle School
Patrick Henry High School
Roanoke Valley Governor’s School
for Science and Technology
Mills E. Godwin High School
Patrick Henry High School

SPECIAL AWARDS

Roscoe Hughes Award for the best paper in the field of Genetics ($50.00)
F. Bruce Furrow
Evangel Christian School

Botany Section Award, given by the Botany Section of the VAS, to the best
paper on a botanical subject.($25.00)

John L. Harrington
Menchville High School

JUNIOR ACADEMY AWARDS

147

VJAS Neuroscience Awards supported by the Auxiliary of the Virginia
Neurological Society are given to four outstanding papers in the field of
neurosience. ($50.00 each).

Jack C. Levenson - Thomas Jefferson High School for Science and Technology
Kristy L. Stephens - Meadowbrook High School
Kym L. Edwards - Yorktown High School
Lora M. Clarke - Homer L. Hines Middle School

Richmond Area Speleological Society - ($50.00)

E. Carter Paulson - Gildersleeve Middle School

Mathematics Award for the paper that evidences the most significant contribu¬
tion in the field of Mathematics.($50.00)

Andrea M. Kellum - Patrick Henry High School

Rodney C. Berry Chemistry Award for the paper that evidences the most sig¬
nificant contribution in the field of chemistry.($50.00)

Helena M. Day - Thomas Jefferson High School for Science and Technology

Russell J. Rowlett Award for the Best Research Paper of the Year.($50.00)
Helena Day - Thomas Jefferson High School for Science and Technology

Trip to AJAS - AAAS Meeting for two students and two alternates
for presenting outstanding papers

John L. Harrington - Menchville High School
Griffin Weber - Dozier Middle School
alternate: Jennifer Stevens - Yorktown High School
alternate: Heather Higgins - Magnet School for the Sciences
and Health Profesions

Honorary Membership - AAAS given to two students.
Brian Hubbard - Lee-Davis High School
David Sawyer - Denbigh High School

148

VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

Honorary Membership - VAS given to one student.

Andrea Wenger - Maury High School

E.C.L. Miller Club Award to the VJAS club having the most outstanding pro¬
gram for the year. ($50. (X))

Homer L. Ferguson High School Science-Ecology Club

Bethel High School Scholarship

This $1,000 Scholarship Award comes from the interest earned from a $10,000
endowment contributed by the students of Bethel High School, Hampton, Va., over
a two year period. Accompanying this scholarship is a rotating plaque to be
displayed in the student’s school for the next year. This award is based on both the
students presentation and paper.

Mark Wieczorek - Denbigh High School

Frances and Sydney Lewis Environmental Scholarship

An $11,000 scholarship ($2,750 per year for four years) for the best effort by a
student grades 9 to 12 in the field of environmental science. This scholarship is in
the name of Frances and Sydney Lewis and is given by the Virginia Environmental
Endowment

E. Lanier Watkins

Roanoke Valley Governor’s School for Science and Technology

VAS Science Teacher Award given to an outstanding science teacher. ($100.00)

Mrs. Janet Yauch
Williamsburg Intermediate School

AUTHOR INDEX 149

Abel, D. C . 62

Adamkewicz, Laura ....... 51

Adams, Vera L . 49

Adams, H. S . . 63

Adams, H. S . 69

Affronti, Lewis .......... 87

Alkhayaat, Raef ......... 81

Allen, W.E. ........... 103

Allen, Donica .......... 49

Allen, S.T . 103

Alty, L. T. . . 103

Anderson, T.J . . 102

Arteaga, Francisco I. ...... 81

Ashman, R. 1 . 115

Attaya, M. ............ 113

Bailey, John . Ill

Baker, O. K . 46

Bankes, Gina L. . 116

Barevadia, Gordhan R . 82

Barnhart, M. C . 50

Barra, R. . . 62

Barra, R. . 54

Bartoldus, Candy C. ...... . 85

Bartyzel, P. . . 104

Bass, P. P . 109

Bayles, R. A. ........... 97

Beachem, C. D . 98

Beal, ErnaJ. ........... 73

Beale, Guy O. . . . 81

Beaufait, Joseph . 46

Beck, Michael W. . . . 50

Bergholz, Kimberly S . 116

Berquist, C. R., Jr . 91

Bienert, S. T. . . 103

Birchard, G.F . 50

Bish, Christopher K. ...... . 120

Bland, Nancy L . 63

Bowers, Michael A . 50

Boyd, Catherine A. . . . 68

Boyle, M. E. . . 73

Brandt, R. B . 105

Brase, D. A. . . 112

Erase, D. A. ........... 113

Brinkley, C . 113

Britton, David E . 82

Brown, Luther . . 53

Brown, Luther .......... 55

Brown, D. A . 103

Browning, Melissa A . 51

Brundege, Mark A . 73

Buchanan, Claire ........ 87

Buchheit, R. G. ......... 98

Budd, Nancy E. . . 51

Buhlmann, Kurt A . 51

Buhlmann, K. A. . 58

Burton, G.F. .......... 108

Cabral, Francine M . 115

Cabral, Guy . Ill

Callahan, Glenn A . 117

Campbell, K. W . 98

Campbell, William N . 117

Cao, W . . 104

Carcaise-Edinboro, P. . 105

Carlini, R. . . . 46

Carter, Michele R. ....... 52

Carter, V. P. ........... 88

Cash, Thomas F. . . . 118

Caton, Randy .......... 48

Caton, Randall ......... 46

Chanthashivakul. Vichai .... 82

Chen, Holly H . 73

Cho, S. . . 113

Choi, Jaeho . . . 47

Chojnacka-Wojcik, E . 104

Christensen, Alan H . 52

Christo, S . . 46

Chrosniak, Charles E . 89

Cl;ack, L. R. . . 97

Clampitt, Christopher A . 63

Clampitt, Christopher A. . . . . 64

Clark, I. 0 . 97

Clarke, A. M . . 84

Clarke, A. M . 84

Claus, G. W. . 114

Claus, G.W . 116

Coffelt, .A. ........... 52

Collins, William D. ....... 98

Colmano, Germille ....... 104

Colmano, G . 114

Compton, D. R. . . . 106

Conner, A. M. L. . . 84

Conway, Carolyn M. . 55

Conway, Carolyn M . 61

Conway, C. M. . . 55

150

VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

Conway, C. M . . .

Conway, Arthur F .

Conway, A. F .

Conway, A. F . .

Cook, Rodger B .

Cooper, Jennifer M. .......

Couvillion, P. A .

Coveil, Peter F. . .

Cowan, James H., Jr. ......

Cozzens, R. F . .

Crouch, Virginia E . .

Crowe, C. R .

Cuevas, C .

Damodaran, A . .

Darmani, N. A. ......... .

Davidson, T. L. ......... .

Davidson, T. L .

Davidson, T. L. . . .

Davidson, T. L. ..........

Davidson, T. L .

Davies, Keith M .

Davis, Stephen L. ........

Davis, Kenneth E . .

Dean, Warren T .

Debnam, W. J. . . . .

Debnam, W. . . .

deFur, Peter L. . .

Deike, Ruth G . . . . .

Deike, Ruth . .

Derting, Terry L .

Dewey, W. L . . ,

Dewey, W. L .

Dezzuti, B. P . . . . .

DiBenedetto, Paul . . .

Diecchio, Richard J .

Dinan, J. H .

Dixon, R . .

Dols, Sheilah ...........

Doty, E. P. . . . . . .

Dtipes, R. Jay ..........

Dueser, Raymond D. ......

Dueser, R. D. ..........

Duffy, Debra F .

Dupree, Jeffrey .........

Duwel, G. K . .

Eckerlin, Ralph P. . .

Eckerlin, Ralph P . . . . .

Eckerlin, Ralph P . 53

Eckman, C. D. . . . 103

Edwards, Deborah E. . 114

Eiss, Norman S. . . 100

Elkins, John Rush ........ 65

Elmes, D. G. . . 121

Entley, William R . 74

Erdle, Sandy Y . 57

Evans, Lyle . 114

Falls, Elsa Q. . . . 59

Fanselow, Michael S . 109

Feng, C. R . 99

Filbey, Jennifer A. . . . 103

Finch, Charlie B., Jr . 118

Fischer, Chet H . 118

Fisher, Karen . 93

Flamm, Jeffrey D. ........ 45

Fleenor, Russell . . 116

Fleming, Gary P . 68

Fonda, Richard W . 100

Fonda, K. K . 75

Foryes, Elizabeth A . 54

Foster, Gregory D. ....... 75

Fox, B. A. ............ 97

Franson, R. . . 110

Freas, William . 106

Freeman, Michael . 118

Freeman, F. G. . . . 123

Friend, F. L . 016

Fripp, A. L . 102

Fripp, A . 102

Gallik, Stephen . 54

Gangloff, R. P . 101

Gates, Paul M. . . 75

Gbadebo, T. D . 62

Geller, E. Scott ......... 119

Geller, E. Scott ......... 119

Geller, E. Scott . 122

Gemborys, Stanley R . 65

Gerritsen, Jeroen ........ 86

Glasson, George E . 79

Glasson, George E . 80

Glennon, R. A . 107

Glennon, R. A . 110

Glennon, R. A . 105

Glennon, R. A . 105

Glennon, R. A . 109

58

61

58

55

117

91

62

45

85

73

64

99

46

105

105

120

122

122

117

120

74

74

74

90

102

102

86

90

94

59

112

113

015

90

92

99

111

53

99

69

54

56

91

64

103

53

58

AUTHOR INDEX 151

Glindemann, Kent ........ 119

Glindemann, Kent . 119

Goodwin, Bruce K . 91

Gordon, A. S . 114

Gorse, Karen . . 115

Gourley, Eugene V . . . 52

Grasman, Keith A. ....... . 61

Graves, Mark . 61

Greenwald, Catherine Q. .... 119
Gregory-Phillips, Christine ... 65

Griffen, Gary J. ......... 65

Grove, Andrew D . 106

Guevara, Gonzalo . . 66

Hall, Sharon . . 119

Halley, William G. . . . 100

Hamm . . Ill

Han, KwangS . 47

Hankley, D. W. . 54

Hardy, Dennis R . 73

Harper, Jackson D. ....... 86

Hart, Jayne . 106

Hartline, Frederick . 80

Harwood-Sear s, Valerie .... 114

Hawkins, W.T . . 107

Hayden, W. John ........ 68

Hayden, W. John . 64

Hayden, W. John ........ 67

Hayden, W. John ........ 70

Hayes . Ill

Healy, James E. ......... 122

Heliotis, Francis D. ....... 85

Henika, W. S. ........... 91

Hernandez, Gloria ........ 45

Herndon, J. L. .......... 107

Hixon, Mark . . 76

Hodger, L. Mark . 75

Holland, A. Fred . . 86

Honeychuck, Robert V . 77

Houde, Edward D. ....... 85

Hubbard, David A . 92

Huff, T. F. . . 115

Huffman, Mercedes . . . 55

Hunt, Steven Charles . 83

Hunt, Cathy . . 121

Hussam, Abul . 76

Hwang, H . 47

Imel, Stephen E . . 120

Iwamoto, Kiyoshi . 76

Jabbari, B . 83

Jacobs, Sarah M . 115

Jacobs, Kenneth C. ....... 47

Jamison, Joressia A. . 66

Jamison, Joressia A. ...... 68

Janczewski, Jolanda N. ..... 107

Jarboe, D. L. .......... 115

Jarrard, Leonard E. . . 120

Jarrard, Leonard E. ...... 122

Jarrard, Leonard E. . . 122

Jayaram, S. ........... 45

Jesser, W. A. . . 99

Jesser, W . 102

Jesswr, W. A . 97

Johnson, Miles F. . 66

Jones, R. Christian ....... 87

Jong, M. J . 55

Kafatos, Menas ......... 47

Kale, Mandakini ........ 82

Kalimi, Mohammed . 110

Kapasi, Zoher F . 108

Kastning, Ernst H . 96

Keer, Frederick ......... 94

Keiser, Barbara M. . . 120

Kelso, Donald F. ........ 87

Kennedy, Kathleen M . 55

Kennedy, D. Kim ........ 68

Kidwell, J. M. .......... 50

Kilmer, Raymond J. ...... 100

Kim, Yeongkwan . . 48

Kirby, Raymond H . 120

Knight, Kimbell L. . 90

Knuteson, D . 102

Kosco, M. H. . . 108

Krishnamurthy, R . 101

Kroen, Charles F . 101

Kubin, Paul B. . 120

Kukolja, Ana . 115

Lacy, Gregory D. . 77

Lakdawala, Vishnu K. ..... 82

Lakdawala, V. K . 82

Lakdawala, V. K . 83

Lalik, Rosary V . 79

Lare, Ivan Van . 116

Larsen, Elizabeth ....... 92

Larson, Bonnie J. ....... . 56

VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

152

Lawless, William F. . .
Lawrence, David M. . .
Lee, Johann ......

Leftwich, J. A . .

Lehman, James D. . . .

Lenhardt, M. L .

Lenhart, Stephen W. .

Levy. Gera;d F .

Lichtman, Aron H. . .

Lichtman, A. H .

Lilleleht, Lembit U. . .
Lipford, Michael L. . .
Lister, Andrea M. . . .
Litwin, Ronald J. . . . .
Logan, Heather . . . .

Lorig, Tyler S .

Lowe, Calvin W .

Ludwig, Tim . .

Ludwig, J. Christopher
Ludwig, J. Christopher
Ludwig, J. Christopher

Lugo, Maria .

Lund, Anne .

Lyness, W. H. .

Maandi, Eerik . . . . .
Maarciano-Cabral, F. .

Mack, Robert J .

Majewski, S .

Malek-Gilani, Farahnaz
Mangiacapre, T. . . . .
Manson, Andrew B. . .
Marcella, Keneth L. . .
Marshall, Harold G. . .
Marshall, Harold G. . .
Marshall, Harold G. . .
Marshall, Harold G. . .
Marshall, Harold G. . .
Martin, R. Bruce . . . .

Martin, Billy R .

Martin, B. R .

Martin, B. R. ......

Martin, B. R. ......

Martin, B. R .

Martin, B. R. ......

McCauley, A. ......

McCravy, Kenneth W. .
McDivitt, Timothy J. .

McGuire, William . 67

McKitrick, Robert W., Jr. ... 48

McLaughlin, Colleen R. .... 109

McPherson, J. A. ........ 73

McShea, William J . 56

Mee, J. S . . 77

Melia, J. ............. 114

Meyn, D. A. ........... 98

Michel, D. J. ........... 99

Miller, Roman J . . 106

Misenheimer, B. R . 109

Misztal, S. . . 104

Mitchell, Joseph C . 57

Mitchell, Joseph C . . 57

Mitchell, J. C. .......... 58

Mitchell, J. C . . 51

Monaco, J. J. .......... 113

Moncrief, Nancy D. ...... . 57

Mongrain, S. E . 77

Morris, Edgar D. ........ 80

Morrison, Sean ......... 67

Morton, John . 102

Mose, Douglas G. ........ 89

Mose, Douglas G . 95

Mose, Douglas . 90

Mueller, Paul H. . . . 62

Munson, A. E. .......... 104

Mushrush, George W. ..... 89

Mushrush, George W . 95

Mushrush, George W . 77

Mushrush, George ....... 90

Mutz, E. F. . 103

Myklebust, A. .......... 45

Napolitano, J . 46

Narayanan, R . 102

Niehaus, Judy H. . . . 60

Niehaus, Judy H. ........ 52

Nolde, Jack E . 93

Nolde, Jack E . 93

Norwood, Bradley K . 77

O’Connor, James V . 93

O’Connor, James V . 94

Oates, K. K . 107

Odum, William E . 89

Olson, K.G. . . 109

Opoku, Justicia . . 110

Orlando, Carlo E. . . 121

122

66

119

115

92

84

93

67

109

108

83

63

108

69

121

123

48

116

67

68

63

119

62

111

76

113

45

46

78

101

122

117

65

87

67

71

63

76

112

107

109

108

106

105

46

56

48

AUTHOR INDEX

Ornato, J. P. . . . . .
Ottenbrite, Raphael M.
Ottenbrite, Raphael M.
Ottenbrite, Raphael M,
Oxenrider, Keith A. .
Pagels, John F. ....
Pague, Christopher A.
Painter, Harry F. . . .
Palmer, H. Carl, Jr. .

Pandey, U .

Patel, N. ........

Patterson, Lynn M. .
Peterson, Scott H. . .
Phelps, Harriette L. .
Phillips, C. E. . . . . .
Place, Timothy . . . .
Porter, Bryan E. . . .
Potts, Alice Anne . .
Prince, Natalie ....

Pross, Matthew C. . .
Raghupathi, Ramesh

Raghupathi, R .

Ranasinghe, Ananda
Raney, R. .......

Rawinski, Thomas J. .
Renfroe, Michael H. .
Renfroe, Michael H. .
Richardson, Grant A.
Rickman, Trudy . . .
Riet, Bart vant . . . .
Ritzier-Old, Carla . .
Rivers, Verma H. . .
Roberton, Robert J. .
Roberts, Melissa . . .
Rosch, W. .......

Rose, Robert K. . . .
Rose, Robert K. . . .
Rose, O. J. ......

Roush, Randy . . . .
Rovinski, Joan M. . .
Ruder, Suzanne M. .
Rudmin, Joseph W. .
Rutherford, Edward .
Ryan, J. J. .......

Rybicki, N. B .

Ryter, Derek W. . . .
Sacchi, Christopher F.

153

Sackett, M. C. . . 103

Sanaone, E. B . 107

Sances, R. A . 103

Santur, Mohamed ........ 95

Scanlon, Patrick F. . . . 61

Schoenbach, Karl H. ...... 82

Schoenbach, K. H . 82

Schoenbach, K. H . 83

Schreifels, John ......... 76

Schriefer, Martin E. ...... 60

Schueller, Gayle R. T. ..... 102

Schultz, P. B. . . 52

Schumpert, Craig . . 119

Schwaner, Terry D . 60

Schweitzer, Daniel J . 69

Sears, Brian R. . 102

Selim, Raouf . . 46

Selim, Raouf . 48

Setzler-Hamilton, Eileen M. . . 88

Shaughnessy, Anna T. ..... 86

Sherwood, W. C . 94

Shifler, Gary J . 100

Shiflet, G. J. ........... 98

Shirkhodai, Shadan . 78

Shoosmith, Ann . 60

Shultz, L. D . 108

Simpson, Robert L . . 89

Singha, Amrita K. ........ Ill

Sites, Roy S. ........... 95

Sitz, Thomas O. . . . . 73

Sitz, Thomas O . . 78

Skellett, Ruth A . 84

Skog, Judith E. . . 69

Slebodnick, P. F . 97

Slikker, William, Jr. ....... Ill

Smith, F. L . Ill

Smith, Joseph, Jr . 79

Sneden, Albert T . 74

Soine, W. H. . . 112

Soine, W. H. ........... 77

Sonenshine, Daniel E. ..... 60

Spearman, M. Leroy . 46

Sporakowski, Laura . 78

Stalick, Wayne M. . 78

Stephenson, S. L. ........ 69

Stephenson, S. L . . 63

Stern, M. L. ........... 104

84

79

75

76

78

57

58

58

55

105

84

83

121

88

58

121

122

59

94

122

110

110

86

46

68

66

68

94

68

76

59

80

122

123

102

56

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Stewart, J. K. . . .

Stinnett, Amy .

Stipes, R. Jay .

Stipes, R. Jay .

Stoner, Glenn E. . . .

Stoner, Glenn E .

Stoner, G. E .

Stubbins, J. F . .

Stutzmann, Beth .

Sullivan, Joseph P. ........

Sun, Fang . . . . .

Swanson, Robert E . . .

Swanson, Robert E .

Szakal, A. K . .

Szakal, A. K. ...........

Tarasidis, Kyriakos .......

Tatarczynska, E. .........

Taylor, S. Ray . .

Taylor, Patrick J .

Teates, Thomas G. ........

Teates, Thomas G .

Teh, Kuen Tat ..........

Ter man, C. R. . .

Tew, J. G .

Tew, J. G. . .

Tewalt, Gregory L .

Thery, P. L. ............

Thomas, E. Dail .

Thomas, Brian F .

Thompson, Tom .

Thompson, J. B .

Thornton, Suzanne R. ......

Titeler, M. . .

Toney, Denise M . . . .

Touart, Sue . . .

Trammell, Marshall W., Jr. . . .

Tso, Jonathan L . . . . . .

Ulmen, Patrick M .

Vafaie, Haleh . .

Vallarino, L. M. . . .

Velazco, Jose E. .........

Vest, F. B .

Vincent, Jennifer W .

Wagers, S. A. . .

Walton, G. Clifford . 62

Wangler, John . 116

Ward, C. R. . . . 113

Ward, C. R. ........... 112

Ware, Stewart . . 71

Ware, Donna M. E . . 64

Ware, Donna M. E. . . . 70

Watts, Chester F. . . 93

Watts, Chester F . 95

Watts, Chester F. ........ %

Webb, Stanley .......... 76

Webb, Jane C. .......... 48

Webb, George R. ....... . 80

Weems, Robert E . 96

Weers, Jerry . . 76

Welch, S.P . 109

Weller, Herman G . 81

Wells, Clarence L. ....... 49

West, Traycie . 71

Westin, Eric . . 115

Westkaemper, R. B. . 112

Whigham, Dennis . 89

Whisonant, Robert C. . 96

White, D. . . Ill

White, C.W. . . . 113

Whitesell, Tracey E . . 91

Whitney, Loretta Lamson ... 49

Whittecar, Richard G. ..... 91

Whittecar, G. Richard ..... 97

Whyte, K, H. . . 74

Wieboldt, Thomas F . 71

Wiedemann, Karl E . 103

Wieland, W . 51

Wightman, J. P. . . 103

Wightman, J. P. . . 78

Wilson, A. G. . . 62

Winstead, B. A . 116

Woodel, G . 102

Wright, Robert A. S. ...... 72

Wright, Robert A. S. ...... 72

Wright, Robert A. S . 72

Young, A . 58

Yozzo, David J . 89

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VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

OFFICIAL PUBLICATION OF THE VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

Vol.41 No. 3 Fall 1990

TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE

OLD DOMINION UNIVERSITY-1SKAEL
SCIENCE CONFERENCE

Introduction, Joseph C. Daniel

Ecological and Epidemiological Studies on Mediterranean
Spotted Fever in the Negev Desert of Israel, K. Y. Mumcuoglu ,
K Frish, R. Galun , B. Sarov , E. Manor and E. Gross

Detection of a High Risk Rural Site of Morbidity Due to Spotted
Fever Group Rickettsia (Sfgr) in Southern Israel, Batia Sarov,
Israel Sarov, Aharon Galil, Emanuel Sikuler and Pablo Yagupsky

The Effect of R. conorii and Israeli Spotted Fever on Secretion
O + Factors from Macrophages, Ester Manor and Israel Sarov

Ecology of Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever in Virginia and
Maryland, Daniel E. Sonenshine

American Business, Public Policy and the Older Worker,
Judith C. Hushbeck

The Utilization of the Older Workers in Israel, Gila Noam and
Judah Matras

Work and Retirement Decisions in Israel: Demographic Back¬
ground, Scientific Perspectives and Social Issues, Dan Jacobson

Retirement and Reentry Decision-Making, Seth Zimmer and
Albert S. Glickman

National Science Policy, Collaborative Research and the
Advancement of Science, David Johnson

ARTICLES

157

159

161

163

167

169

182

200

213

228

Enteric Bacteria in Natural Populations of Freshwater Turtles in
Virginia, Joseph G Mitchell and Brian V. McAvoy

233

NOTES

Feeding in the Pigweed Flea Beetle, Disonycha glabrata Fab.
(Coleoptera:Chrysomelidae), on Amaranthus retroflexus ,

Anne Marie Tisler 243

An Atwood Machine with a Variable Mass Distribution,

James N. Boyd 246

Rediscovery of Pseudotremia cavern arum Cope in Virginia,

Donald W. Linzey 249

AAAS RESOLUTION 251

LATE ABSTRACTS 253

Old Dominion University-Israel Science Conference
March 5-7, 1990

INTRODUCTION

Joseph C. Daniel, Jr.

Dean, College of Sciences
Old Dominion University
Norfolk, VA 23529-0163

It is my great pleasure to welcome you to the Old Dominion University-Israel
Science Conference. The convening of this conference signals the recognition that
both groups of scientists subscribe to the conviction of mutual dependence and the
value of regular communication in the pursuit of scientific knowledge.

The objective of this meeting is to bring scholars together to share information,
to interact professionally and to overcome any type of physical, political or cultural
isolation that may impede that process. In addition to informal interaction, the
meeting is expected to promote formal cooperation agreements leading to research
collaboration, student training, faculty exchanges, and shared use of special
facilities and resources. It can also foster more extensive conferences in the future
and link scientists with policy makers, funding agencies and professional organiza¬
tions that share their goals. Of no less importance is the nurturing of friendship
between individuals and between countries.

Any two countries may experience impediments to communication because of
differences in language, culture, ideology or even geographic location. The com¬
mon language of science, with its established methods of logic, dependence on
universal natural laws, and application potential, can be a powerful force in
overcoming such impediments.

As one of Virginia's institutions of higher learning, Old Dominion University
has established a high priority in regard to its international involvements. It seeks
to expand its global interaction in every possible way as it matures rapidly into a
major, sophisticated, world-visioned university.

The history of this conference dates back to the summer of 1988 when the
Virginia-Israel Commission sent a delegation of science representatives, under the
leadership of Dr. Gordon Davies, Director of the State Council for Higher Educa¬
tion in Virginia, to Israel to become informed about the major science initiatives
there and to explore possibilities for interaction. Among the results of that visit
was the proposal to conduct periodic symposia on topics of mutual interest to
Virginian and Israeli scientists. The first of these was held in Israel in November
of 1989 as a workshop on Water Resources Research.

Upon receiving the report of the science delegation, Dr. Sanford Lefcoe, a
member of the Virginia Commission from the southeastern region of the state,
along with Robert Cast, Harold Saks and later Gary Rubin of the United Jewish
Federation of Tidewater, encouraged officials at Old Dominion University to

158

develop similar conferences of a more local focus. They foresaw the value of such
symposia to discuss topics that represented scientific disciplines where good
communications and collaborations already existed, or were highly desirable, and
potentially applicable to this region. This one on which we now embark is the result
of their vision and we anticipate that it will set the standard and format for others
to come that will expand the concept to include many different countries and highly
diverse topics.

Through their solicitation, funding for this conference has been provided by the
Virginia-Israel Commission, the Tidewater Jewish Foundation of the United
Jewish Federation, the American Friends of Tel Aviv University and from Old
Dominion University through the Office of Research and Graduate Studies of the
Vice President for Academic Affairs.

The Conference emphasizes two topics, Vector Borne Rickettsial Diseases on
Monday and Organizational Adaptation to Older Workers on Wednesday. For the
intervening Tuesday, the plenary session will be held, with special addresses from
Dr. Meier Yogev, Science Consul of the Israel Embassy and Dr. David Johnson,
Executive Director, Federation of Behavioral, Psychological and Cognitive Scien¬
ces. The Conference Luncheon-Banquet will also be held on Tuesday with special
tours planned in the afternoon for ODU research laboratories, the National
Aeronautical and Space Administration facilities and Williamsburg Colonial Park.

Special appreciation is expressed to Mr. William Spong, President, and Dr.
Myron Henry, Vice President for Academic Affairs at Old Dominion University,
for their encouraging support, Drs. Albert Glickman and Daniel Sonenshine for
organizing and chairing the two major sessions and to Professor Thomas Dunham
and Ms. Gail Stenberg for arranging and managing the conference.

Almost three hundred years ago John Donne told us that "No man is an island."
This conference is expected to substantiate this truth as we exercise our mutual
dependence in our pursuit of wisdom.

Thank you.

The Virginia Journal of Science
Volume 41, Number 3
Fall 1990

Ecological and Epidemiological Studies on Mediter¬
ranean Spotted Fever in the Negev Desert of Israel

K. Y. Mumcuoglu, K. Frish, R. Galun
Department of Parasitology, The Kuvin Center
Hebrew University-Hadassah Medical School, Jerusalem, Israel

B. Sarov, Epidemiology Unit
Soroka Medical Center, Beer Sheva, Israel

E. Manor, Virology Department
Soroka Medical Center, Beer Sheva, Israel

E. Gross, Ministry of Health
Beer Sheva District, Israel

In order to examine the epidemiology of Spotted Fever Group Rickettsiae
(SFGR) and the ecology of their tick vectors in Israel, two settlements in the
northern Negev were chosen. In one community (Ze’elim), a relatively high rate
of morbidity to SFGR had been observed and was chosen as the study site. A
matched control site with no detected morbidity was selected at Kibbutz Re’im
(Sarov et al. 1990). The species, seasonality, hosts and biotopes of the ticks were
studied during monthly visits in each settlement for 11 months starting from April
1989. Free-living ticks were caught by flagging and C02-trapping. Both methods
revealed that in the study area ticks were prevalent during the whole year but
specially abundant from April to October. In the control site ticks were found
mainly from April to July. They were seldom seen during August and September
and absent from November to January. Free-living ticks inside the settlements were
found around the dog kennels, on grass surrounding the living quarters and around
the hay stacks. Outside the settlements ticks were seen along the rows of trees, on
grass 10-20 cm high or on the ground hiding under small stones, pieces of wood or
other small objects. Approximately 9 times more ticks were collected in the study
site than in the control site. Rhipicephalus sanguineus sen.str. was the dominant
species in the study site, whereas in the control site R. sanguineus sen. str. and R.
turanicus were equally prevalent. All developmental stages of the ticks were
abundant inside and outside the study settlement, compared with the control area
where larval and nymph al stages of the ticks were practically absent inside, and very
rare outside the settlement. In the study area 50-80% of the dogs were infested
with ticks during the whole year whereas in the control area approximately 50% of
the dogs were infested from April to July and the percentage then fell gradually.
From October to January no ticks could be detected. Most of the dogs were
infested with 1-10 adult ticks which were found mainly on the ears, head, neck and
between the toes. Dogs heavily infested with all active stages of the ticks were found
only in the study settlement. Wild cats living inside the settlements were infested
with small numbers of adult ticks. Hedgehogs were found only in the study area
and all of them were heavily infested with all stages of the ticks. Other wild animals

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VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

caught inside and outside the settlements which were infested with ticks included:
Mus musculus (9.4%), Rattus rattus (7.7%), Meriones crassus (42.4%) and
Crocidura russula (12.5%). In the study area animals were mainly infested with R.
sanguineus sen. str. In the control site R. sanguineus sen. str. and R. turanicus were
equally present. Using the hemolymph test (Burgdorfer, 1970) it was found that
3.6% (N - 137) of the parasitic ticks and 6.8% (N = 722) of the free-living ticks
were positive for SFGR. Antibodies to SFGR were detected in sera of the following
animals: dogs (97%), cats (13.3%), M. musculus (4.7%) and R. rattus (44.5%).

It appears that people in the study area have more frequent contact with ticks
and their chances to acquire MSF is also much higher than those in the control
area.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Burgdorfer, W. 1970. Hemolymph test. A technique for detection of rickettsiae
in ticks. Am. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. 19:1010-1014.

Sarov, B., A. Galil, E. Sikuler, P. Yakupsky, S. Saah, A. Gilad, L. Naggan & I. Sarov.
1990. Prospective study on symptomatic versus asymptomatic infections and
serological response to spotted fever Rickettsiae (SFGR) in two rural sites in
the Negev (Southern Israel). Ann. N. York Acad. Sciences (in publication).

The Virginia Journal of Science
Volume 41, Number 3
Fall 1990

Detection of a High Risk Rural Site of Morbidity
Due to Spotted Fever Group Rickettsia (Sfgr)
in Southern Israel

Batia Sarov, Epidemiology Unit
Ben-Gurion University of the Negev
P.O. Box 653, Beer Sheva 84105, Israel

Israel Sarov, Virology Department
Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer Sheva, Israel

Aharon Galil, Emanuel Sikuler, and Pablo Yagupsky

Soroka Medical Center, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev
Beer Sheva, Israel

Spotted fever (SF) was described for the first time in Israel in 1946, in the fertile
northern coastal plain (Valero, 1949). The disease is characterized by an acute
febrile and exanthematic picture, but it usually foUows a milder clinical course than
Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever. Local spotted fever clinical episodes seem to
differ from other rickettsial spotted fevers of the eastern hemisphere in that a "tache
noire" (at site of the tick bite) is seldom, if ever reported in cases acquired in the
country (Gross and Yagupsky, 1987). Strains of rickettsiae, different by the im-
munofluorescent method from other members of the SF group, have been isolated,
but the epidemiology of the disease in Israel is incompletely understood
(Goldwasser et al ., 1974).

During 1984-1986 an outbreak of morbidity due to SFGR was observed in a
kibbutz community in southern Israel. Thirteen clinical laboratory verified cases
were diagnosed during that period comprising an annual average rate of 1.3%
which is 21-fold higher than the expected rate (6.2/100,000) in the country. Mor¬
bidity occurred mainly in the summer (84%) when hot and dry weather prevails in
the area; was higher among children than in adults (6% vs 2% respectively); and
77% of cases clustered in the marginal area of residency, facing the desert environ¬
ment; This suggested that in endemic areas, the inhabitants of the interface between
man’s habitat and wild ecological niches have a higher risk of acquiring spotted
fever. SFGR IgG type antibodies (by MIF technique) were present in 29 cases
(9%) out of 326 inhabitants tested, indicating a relatively high clinical/ subclinical
ratio. At a cut-off titer of 1/40, crossovers with Rickettsia typhi were detected in 2
cases (0.6%) which might be explained also by double infections (Yagupsky et al .,
1989).

In 1985, epidemiological and ecological investigations were initiated. The
entire population agreed to undergo annual follow-up tests and interviews regard¬
ing relevant information. During the follow-up, 2 additional clinical cases were
observed in 1988 and 2 seroconverted during 1989 but did not demonstrate typical
symptoms and signs of a clinical case of SFGR. These observations suggest
continuous activity of SFGR agents in the study site. In 1989, IgG type antibodies

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VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

specific to SFGR were detected in 5% of the population at a cut-off of 1/80 by
immunoperoxidase assay (IP A) (Gilad et at., 1988). IgG type antibodies to SFGR
were detected in 78%, 75%, 56%, 60% of the 15 clinical cases after 1-4 years
respectively. In 6 out of 8 asymptomatic seropositives, with at least 2 sequential
annual follow-ups available, IgG antibodies persisted over time at a relatively high
level. The follow-up revealed the persistence of IgG antibodies to SFGR in
symptomatic and asymptomatic infections in a high site of morbidity due to Spotted
Fever in Southern Israel (Sarov et al., 1989).

A neighboring kibbutz with no reported morbidity has been enrolled as a control
site. Out of 357 inhabitants interviewed and tested 11 (3% by IP A) were seroposi¬
tive. All seropositives were adults and none of them recalled a clinical episode with
detectable clinical symptoms typical to SFGR.

The nature of asymptomatic infections of SFGR needs to be further investigated
in both communities. These could represent mild non-typical infections of Spotted
Fever or might result from an asymptomatic infection due to non- pathogenic strains
of SFGR. Class specific antibodies to the structural polypeptides or rickettsiae in
symptomatic and asymptomatic infections by immunoblotting and im-
munoprecipitation assays should be examined.

Taking into account the close proximity of the 2 study sites and their similarity
in environmental and sociological characteristics, further investigation may reveal
some epidemiological-ecological explanation for the differences observed between
the 2 sites and indicate a promising area for intervention.

LITERATURE CITED

Gilad, A., E. Manor, I. Sarov. 1988. An immunoperoxidase assay (IPA) for
determination of IgG antibodies to Spotted Fever Group Rickettsia.
Presented at the ASRRD 7th National Conference, April 1988. Santa Fe, New
Mexico, U.S.A.

Goldwasser, R.A., Y. Steiman, M. A. Klinberg, T. A. Swartz and W. Klinberg. 1974.
The isolation of strains of rickettsiae of the spotted fever group in Israel and
their differentiation from other members of the group by immunofluorescent
methods. Scand. J. Infect. Dis. 6:53-62.

Gross, E. M. and P. Yagupsky. 1987. Israeli rickettsial spotted fever in children.
Act. Trop. 44:91-96.

Sarov, B., A. Galil, E. Sikuler, P. Yagupsky, A. Saah, A. Gilad, L. Naggan and I.
Sarov. 1990. Prospective study on symptomatic versus asymptomatic and
serological response to spotted fever group Rickettsiae in two rural sites in the
Negev (Southern Israel). Ann. NY Acad. Sci. 342-345 (In press). Proceeding
of the ASPRD 8th Sesqui Annual Meeting, Diamond Point, New York, Sep¬
tember 22-26, 1989.

Valero, A. 1949. The Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever in Palestine. Harefuah
36:99-101.

Yagupsky, P., B. Sarov and I. Sarov. 1989. A cluster of cases of spotted fever in a
kibbutz in southern Israel. Scand. J. Infect. Dis. 21:155-160.

Dedicated to the memory of Professor Israel Sarov who initiated and conducted
this study. This study is supported by NIH-NIAID contract no: A 1680 10.

Virginia Journal of Science
Volume 41, Number 3
Fall 1990

The Effect of R. conorii and Israeli Spotted Fever
on Secretion O + Factors from Macrophages

Esther Manor and Israel Sarov
Virology Unit, Faculty for Health Sciences
Ben-Gurion University of the Negev
POB 653, Beer Sheva 84105, Israel

The Mononuclear phagocytes act as effective microbicidal host defense cells
against many pathogenic microorganisms. They have been implicated in regulating
the functions of lymphoid and hematopoietic cells, and, in most cases, these effects
are mediated by soluble factors such as prostaglandin E2 (PGE2), tumor necrosis
factor (TNF) and interleukin- 1 (IL-1), produced by circulating monocytes and
tissue macrophages (Nathan, 1987) . In this study we examined in an in vitro system
PGE2 and TNF production by MdM infected with Rickettsia conorii (RC,
Casablanca strain), or Israeli spotted fever (ISF, G-212 strain). We also examined
the effect of dexamethasone on A. rickettsial yield in MdM and B. PGE2 and TNF
production by MdM rickettsiae infected MdM.

RC and ISF were found to induce human MdM to produce TNF alpha, which
increased when a higher multiplicity of infection of rickettsiae was used. The
capability of rickettsiae to induce TNF production from macrophases is not unique
to rickettsiae, but has recently been demonstrated in a wide range of intracellular
pathogens such as viruses (Aderka et al ., 1985, ), bacteria (Blanchard et al., 1987;
Havell, 1987; Leist et al ., 1988), eucaryotic parasites (Bate et al ., 1988) and fungi
(Djeu et al , 1988). Various molecules have also been found to be able to induce
TNF in macrophages, such as bacterial lipopolysaccharides and endotoxin com¬
ponent responsible for the induction of TNF alpha in human macrophages.

Recently we have shown that TNF alpha inhibits rickettsial growth in HEp-2
cells; the inhibition is enhanced by gamma-interferon (Manor and Sarov, 1990).
This suggests that in vivo, early in the rickettsial infection, TNF may play a
protective role. However, it is also possible that TNF might cause some of the
pathological effects seen later in the course of rickettsial infection (Beutler and
Cerami, 1988).

RC and ISF also induced human MdM to produce PGE2. The level of PGE2
increased when a higher multiplicity of infection of rickettsiae was used. PGE2 has
been shown to be produced by macrophages infected with viruses (Laegreid et al .,
1989; Laegreid et al ., 1989b), bacteria (Molvig et al, 1988; Nichols et al., 1988;
Nichols et al., 1987), and intracellular parasites (Clark and Hunt, 1986;Reiner et
al., 1988), and may cause profound metabolic and functional changes in these cells
(Chouaib and Bertoglio, 1988).

It has been found that in ascites from mice lethally infected with R. tsut-
sugamushi the levels of PGE2 increased, and that inflammatory macrophages from
lethally infected mice produced from two to five times more PGE2 than an
equivalent number of cells from resistent mice. The former macrophages failed to
express la antigen even after treatment with gamma interferon . Incubation of

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VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

macrophages from susceptible animals with indomethacin resulted in partial, but
not complete, restoration of la antigen expression (Jerrells, 1988). Experiments
are in progress to examine the effect of RC and ISF rickettsiae infection on la
antigen expression in human macrophages.

Dexamethasone inhibited TNF and PGE2 production. These results are in
agreement with those described by Beutler et al ., 1996 and Danon et al., 1978,
respectively, who have shown that dexamethasone inhibits TNF and PGE2 at the
transcriptional level.

Both RC and ISF were found to replicate in MdM. Treatment of the cells with
dexamethasone enhanced the yield of infectious rickettsial particles in these cells.
These results cannot be simply explained by the dexamethasone inhibition of TNF
production from rickettsial infected MdM. This conclusion is based on the findings
that addition of an excess of PGE2, which inhibits TNF production, or in¬
domethacin, which enhances TNF production, did not affect the rickettsial yield in
MdM. The mechanism by which dexamethasone enhances rickettsial yield in MdM
needs further investigation. Corticosteroids have been found to enhance replica¬
tion of viruses (Tanaka et al., 1984), and the intracellular parasites (Bushell and
Hobson, 1978; Yang et a/., 1983; Woodman et al ., 1979).

The level of TNF detected in the medium of the RC or ISF infected MdM
reached a maximum at 24 hpi and then declined. When the infected MdM were
washed daily, the TNF level remained high throughout the entire experimental
period. A possible explanation is that the high level of PGE2 depressed TNF
production, and that washing of the cells eliminated the interference of PGE2.
Kunkel et al., (1988) have shown that PGE2 regulates macrophage derived TNF
gene expression. These observations support the suggestion that TNF and PGE2
regulates macrophage derived TNF gene expression. These observations support
the suggestion that TNF and PGE2 may affect each other’s production (Dayer et
al., 1985; Lehmmann et al., 1988). TNF produced by activated macrophages may
be responsible for increased synthesis of PGE2, which, in turn, limits macrophage
activation in an autoregulatory manner (Laegreid et al ., 1989a; Laegreid et al.,
1989b). A delicate balance between TNF and PGE2 produced by macrophages
might play a major role in the outcome and severity of rickettsial infection in vivo.
This study was supported by NIH-NIAID Contract No. Al 68010.

Dedicated to the memory of Professor Israel Sarov, an exemplary scientist and
teacher.

LITERATURE CITED

Aderka, D., H. Holtmann, L. Toker, T. Hahn, and D. Wallach. 1985. Tumor
necrosis factor induction by Sendai virus. J. Immunol. 136:2938-2942.

Bate, C.A.W., J. Taverne, J.H.L. Playfair. 1988. Malarial parasites induce TNF
production by macrophages. Immun. 64:227-231.

Beutler, B., N. Krochin, I.W. Milsark, C. Luedke, A. Cerami. 1986. Control of
cachectin (tumor necrosis factor) synthesis: mechanisms of endotoxin resis¬
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Beutler, B. and A. Cerami. 1988. Cachectin (Tumor Necrosis Factor): A macro¬
phage hormone governing cellular metabolism and inflammatory response
more than a tumor necrosis factor. Endocr. Rev. 9:57-66.

Blanchard, D.K., J.Y. Djeu, T.W. Klein, H. Friedman, and W.E. Stewart II. 1987.
Induction of tumor necrosis factor by Legionella pneumophilia , Infect. Immun.
55:433-437.

Bushell, C.A., D. Hobson. 1978. Effect of cortisol on the growth of chlamydia
trachomatis in McCoy cells. Infect. Immun. 21:946-953.

Chouaib, S., and J.H. Bertoglio. 1988. Prostaglandine E as modulators of the
immune response. Lymphokine Res. 7:237-245.

Clark, I.A., N.H. Hunt. 1986. Increased production of arachidonate metabolites
by peritoneal cells of mice infected with Plasmodium vinckei vinckei. Aust. J.
Exp. Biol. Med. Sci. 64:415-418.

Danon A. and G. Assouline. 1978. Inhibition of prostaglandin biosynthesis by
corticosteroids requires RNA and protein synthesis. Nature. 273:552-554.
Dayer, J.M., B. Beutler, A. Cerami. 1985. Cachectin/tumor necrosis factor stimu¬
lates collagenase and prostaglandin E2 production by human synovial cells and
dermal fibroblasts. J. Exp. Med. 162:2163-21 68.

Djeu, J.Y., D.K. Blanchard, A.L. Richards, and H. Friedman. 1988. Tumor
necrosis factor induction by Candida albicans from human natural killer cells
and monocytes. J. Immunol. 141:4047-4052.

Havell, E.A. 1987. Production of tumor necrosis factor during murine listeriosis.
J. Immunol. 139:4225-4231.

Izumi, S., O. Hirai, K. Kayashi, H. Acki Kohsaka and Y. Yamamura. 1987.
Induction of a tumor necrosis factor-like activity by Nocardia rubra cell wall
skeleton. Cancer Res. 47:1785-1792.

Jerrells, T.R. 1988. IFN gamma as an effector molecule in antirickettsial immunity.
In: Interferon and nonviral pathogens. G.I. Byrne and J. Turco, Eds. 117-129,
Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York and Basel,
lupin, C., S. Anderson, C. Damais, J.E. Alouf, and M. Parant. 1988. Toxic Shock
syndrome toxin 1 as an inducer of human tumor necrosis factors and gamma
interferon. J. Exp. Med. 167:752-761.

Kunkel, S.L., M. Spengler, M.A. May, R. Spengler, J. Larrick, D. Remick. 1988.
Prostaglandin E2 Regulates Macrophage-derived Tumor Necrosis, J. of Biol.
Chem. 263:5380-5384.

Laegreid, W.W., S.M. Taylor, R.W. Leid, R.M. Silflow, J.R. Evermann, R.C.
Breeze, H.D. Liggitt. 1989a. Virus-induced enhancement of arachidonate
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45:283-292.

Laegreid, W.W., H.D. Liggitt, R.M. Silfow, J.R. Evermann, S.M. Taylor, R.W. Leid.
1989b. Reversal of virus-induced alveolar macrophage bactericidal dysfunc¬
tion by cyclooxygenase inhibition in vitro. J. of Leukoc. Biol. 45:293-300.
Lehmmann, V., B. Benninghoff, W. Droge. 1988. Tumor necrosis factor-induced
activation of peritoneal macrophages is regulated by prostaglandin E2 and
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Leist, T.P., K. Frei, S. Kam-Hansen, R.M. Zinkernagel, and A. Fontana. 1988.
Tumor necrosis factor alpha in cerebrospinal fluid during bacterial, but not
viral, meningitis. J. Exp. Med. 167:1743-1748.

Manor, E. and I. Sarov. 1990. Inhibition of Rickettsia conorii growth by recom¬
binant tumor necrosis factor (TNF): Enhancement of the inhibitory effect by
gamma interferon. Infect. Immun. (in press).

Molvig J., L. Baek, P. Christensen, K.R. Manogue, H. Vlassara, P. Platz, L.S.
Nielsen, A. Svejgaard, J. Nerup, 1988. Endotoxin-Stimulated Human
Monocyte Secretion of Interleukin 1, Tumour Necrosis Factor Alpha, and
Prostaglandin E2 Shows Stable Interindividual Differences. Scand. J. Im¬
munol. 17:705-716.

Nathan, C.F. 1987. Secretory Products of Macrophages, J. Clin. Invest. 79:319-
326.

Nichols, F.C., S.W. Garrison, H.W. Davis. 1988. Prostaglandin E2 and throm¬
boxane B2 release from human monocytes treated with bacterial lipopolysac-
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Nichols, F.C., H.A. Schenkein, R. B. Rutherford. 1987. Prostaglandin E2, pros¬
taglandin El and thromboxane B2 release from human monocytes treated with
Cab or bacterial lipopolysaccharide. Biochim. Biophys. Acta. 927:149-157.

Reiner, N.E., L.A. Schultz, C J. Malemud. 1988. Eicosanoid metabolism by Leish-
mania donovani -infected macrophages: mouse strain responses in prostanoid
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Tanaka, J., T. Ogura, S. Kamiya, H. Sato, T. Yoshie, Y. Yabudi, M. Hatano. 1984.
Enhanced replication of human cytomegalovirus in human fibroblasts treated
with dexamethasone. J. Gen. Virol. 65:1759-1767.

Woodman, D.R., W.W. Schultz, K.L. Woodman, E. Weiss. 1979. Growth of
Rickettsia typhi in irradiated L cells enhanced by lysosomal stabilization.
Infect. Immun. 23:61-67.

Yang, Y.S., C.C. Kuo, WJ. Chen. 1983. Reactivation of chlamydia trachomatis
lung infection in mice by cortisone. Infect. Immun. 39:655-658.

Virginia Journal of Science
Volume 41, Number 3
Fall 1990

Ecology of Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever in Virginia
and Maryland

Daniel E. Sonenshine, Department of Biological Sciences
Old Dominion University, Norfolk, Virginia 23508-0163

Rocky Mountain spotted fever is a severe, life threatening typhus-like rickettsial
disease transmitted by ticks. It is endemic in the eastern United States, especially
in the southeast. Approximately 700-800 cases are reported annually and probably
represent a significant underestimate of the true incidence of this disease. RMSF
is a zoonotic infection that circulates enzootically among ticks and wild mammals.
The major tick vector in the eastern U.S. is the American dog tick, Dermacentor
variabilis. Although most wild mammals are susceptible to infection, a very small
number of species play a significant role as hosts for this tick and the disease. In
the spring, larval ticks emerge from their winter diapause and infest small mammals,
especially white footed mice ( Peromyscus leucopus) and meadow voles ( Microtus
pennsylvannicus) . Reproduction among these small mammals also occurs at this
time, providing a rapidly expanding host population at the same time that the ticks
commence their attack. Rickettsemic animals provide opportunities for rapid
spread of the infection from infected to uninfected ticks sharing the same feeding
pool, amplifying the infection within the tick population. Subsequent attacks by
nymphal ticks molted from the fed larvae further amplifies the infection, and a high
proportion of the mammal hosts have serum antibodies to RMSF. Man biting adult
ticks emerge from this population in the late spring, reaching a peak in June or July.
The seasonal incidence of RMSF reflects this pattern, with the peak in human
illness following soon after the peak in adult tick numbers. Estimates of the
incidence of RMSF infection in ticks in Virginia, based on inoculation of tick
extracts into susceptible laboratory hosts, was approximately 5% over a three year
period. In nearby southeastern states, estimates of the incidence of infection in
ticks exceeded 10% in some areas. Dogs also play a significant role in the main¬
tenance and spread of RMSF infected ticks as shown by serosurveys. The role of
dogs in the spread of RMSF to man should be quantified. In Maryland, estimates
of infection in ticks based on direct FA assay of tick hemolymph were as high as
19% in some populations. However, these higher estimates may include other
rickettsial species which are not known to cause RMSF. Although ticks tend to be
more abundant in the old field - forest ecotone and adjacent woodlands, most of
the infected larvae were associated with the old field and ecotonal communities.
Studies in northern Virginia (Fairfax County), a locality close to the highly ur¬
banized Washington-Baltimore metropolitan complex, suggest that the highest risk
of exposure to this disease is in the suburban and rural communities. Tick abun¬
dance was highest in the less populated southern and western parts of the country.
Most cases of RMSF occurred in these same localities. Some residents of the more
urbanized areas of the county are believed to have acquired their exposure in these
same highly tick infested regions. Tests of ticks collected from representative
regions throughout the county for infection with RMSF done by personnel of the
Bureau of Biologies, U.S. Public Health Service, Bethesda, Maryland, revealed

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infection in 8 of 69 pools assayed by inoculation of the pools into susceptible
laboratory hosts (Bozeman, F.M., pers. comm.). New methods using monoclonal
antibodies and other advanced microbiological techniques may facilitate ecological
and epidemiological studies in the future and provide more accurate estimates of
the risk of infection to man.

Virginia Journal of Science
Volume 41, Number 3
Fall 1990

American Business, Public Policy
and the Older Worker

Judith C. Hushbeck, Public Policy Institute
American Association of Retired Persons
1909 K. Street, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20049

ABSTRACT

Public policies and employer practices affecting older workers are in
conflict with implications of projected demographic and labor force
trends. The pool of entry-level workers is shrinking rapidly, yet employers
and government polices continue to provide incentives for early labor
force exit. Few organizations have begun to adapt to emerging work force
realities. Human resource managers express admiration for older
workers’ attributes, but most make little attempt to accommodate them.
Employers who have restructured jobs have found it worthwhile, but such
efforts typically apply only to an occupational elite comprising scientists,
skilled machinists and craftsmen. Shortages of younger workers does not
automatically mean job opportunities for older workers. Numerous in¬
stitutional obstacles must be overcome before the playing field is leveled
for older workers, including: addressing rapidly rising health care costs;
improving older workers’ access to training programs; developing ways of
minimizing the extent to which older Americans are penalized for work
disruptions beyond their control; promoting greater flexibility in time and
place of work; and repudiating the notion that promoting "McJobs" for
older workers is going to solve the coming work force crunch.

INTRODUCTION

Advocates for older Americans are proclaiming the 1990s as the decade of the
older worker. This reflects a pragmatic anticipation of demographic trends that
are already well underway, as well, perhaps, as a renewed commitment to integrat¬
ing into the labor market nexus people who in the past have often been only marginal
to it. The pre-eminent employment issue facing most developed countries today is
getting people with the right skills to fill the growing number of jobs requiring
special skills. Where older workers are concerned, that requires shedding some of
our ingrained notions of work and retirement.

This paper begins with a brief overview of the function of retirement in the
United States, focusing on recent trends toward ever-earlier retirement; then
describes the present state of the labor market in the U.S. with respect to older
workers; follows up with a discussion of who are the older workers and what we
know about how their traits and characteristics can mesh with what employers are
looking for. The paper then examines a few examples of "best practice" with respect
to accommodating older employees, and concludes with a discussion of some
continuing concerns, potential pitfalls, and likely future directions.

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A BRIEF HISTORY OF RETIREMENT
Retirement as a Break in Accustomed Activities

Many people are unaware of the relative newness of the concept of retirement,
at least as a discrete stage of life. Until well into the twentieth century, in fact,
retirement was an unaffordable luxury for all but the wealthy few; people worked
until they died or were so debilitated that work was no longer possible. "Retire¬
ment" meant something quite different: a temporary cessation of usual behavior,
such as a farmer retiring from his labor in the fields during the winter months, a
scholar retiring from his studies during holiday periods, and so forth. In a world
defined by much greater scarcity than now exists in the world’s rich countries, to
retire from the world of work was to die.

Retirement as a Response to Waning Physical Powers

Many of the labor force policies and institutions that dominate American
practice today were created during the first half of the twentieth century, when the
nation’s economic base was shifting from predominantly rural, self-employed
agriculture to urban manufacturing. Work was guided by tradition and by the
technology of production. It was expected to be physically demanding, and tasks
were divided according to the dictates of the assembly line— narrowly compartmen¬
talized, with very limited scope for flexibility or individual choice.

Also, the U.S. developed a unique degree of capital-intensiveness in its produc¬
tion processes. A large continent with vast resources and few people predisposed
firms and farms to use capital in place of expensive labor wherever possible.
Furthermore, from the middle of the nineteenth century until about 1920, work
force policies responded to the pressure of a seemingly endless supply of workers
from Europe and elsewhere. Immigration was primarily an act of young people
eager to work at North American wages and better able to withstand the rigors of
heavy industry than middle aged and older workers.

Hence, in addition to the bias toward capital-intensive production methods,
another bias became embedded in the American social and economic fabric: that
youth can do the job better than age. Advertisements for employees from early
twentieth-century newspapers unabashedly stipulated that those over 40 need not
apply; for women, who were for the most part employed in the mills and domestic
service, the cutoff age frequently was 30 or even younger.

Retirement as a Response to Macroeconomic Failure

The recurring failure of the laissez-faire U.S. economy to generate enough jobs
for all who were willing and able to work had been noted repeatedly since early
nationhood. The experience of the Great Depression of the 1930s seemed only to
confirm the system’s bias toward unemployment. The Social Security Act of 1935,
America’s premier social insurance legislation, was not only a humane response to
suffering, it was an explicit attempt to reduce labor market competition by making
it possible for older workers to withdraw without facing destitution.

Thus, the impetus for Americans’ withdrawal from work had shifted from being
seasonal and age-neutral in early nationhood; to emphasizing the individual’s loss
of vigor in the nineteenth century; to being a response to macroeconomic and social
circumstances in the twentieth century.

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171

Retirement in the Postwar Growth Era, 1945-1973

The years between the end of World War Two and the appearance of global
stagflation in the early 1970s was the era of American corporate paternalism and
the heyday of U.S. -style unionism. For most people, or most men at any rate,
permanent, full-time, year-round employment began at the end of schooling (which
often did not include completion of high school) and extended to retirement at a
fairly advanced age relative to average longevity.

Workers continued to be viewed as having a "progressive deficiency" with
increasing age, perhaps justifiably under the employment conditions of basic
manufacturing. Salaries and benefits peaked near the end of work life; workers
with seniority were the last to be laid off in recessions; and end-of-career transfers
to less demanding positions were common in the nation’s dominant industries and
largest firms. Thirty or forty years of employment in such industries was often
associated with failing health, so that continued work was not possible even if it was
desired.

By about the middle of the twentieth century, longevity had increased to 67 years
from just over 43 years at the beginning of the century. In this environment, early
retirement came to be a symbol of social progress and prosperity, particularly when
it offered release with dignity from many years of harsh working conditions.

GROWING RELIANCE ON EARLY RETIREMENT
INCENTIVE PROGRAMS

The Corporate Need to Downsize

In retrospect, the beginnings of stagflation in the early 1970s improved the
fortunes of today’s older working and retired populations relative to younger age
groups. As firms shut down lines of business and streamlined their work forces,
they offered sweetened benefits packages-particularly pensions-to qualified
workers willing to retire earlier than anticipated.1

Such programs have had as their ostensible goal the coaxing out of the work
force of more expensive, typically older employees, without triggering labor dis¬
putes or otherwise undermining worker morale. Over time, these programs have
come to affect younger and younger older workers. Initially available to workers
in their sixties and near retirement, it is not unusual for them to apply today to
employees in their mid-to-late fifties.

The trend has continued despite the pundits’ predictions in the past couple of
years that early retirement incentive programs are yesterday’s game, inappropriate
to an economy characterized by pending labor shortages. But a practice that began
in an era of plenty is now an accompaniment of mergers, downsizing, and general
employment insecurity. There continues to be pressure on corporations to perform

1 Meanwhile, U.S. per capita income growth has been stalled for nearly two decades. The people
most affected, the baby boom, are the older workers of 15 years from now, and they often have
not had the opportunity to accumulate the home ownership, pension credits, and personal savings
that will enable them to retire as early as their parents.

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more efficiently and change ever more rapidly-in response to increasing global
competition, hostile takeovers and leveraged buyouts, and rapid technological and
organizational change.

Early retirement incentive programs were initially viewed as stop-gap policies
to reduce staffing rapidly and humanely while avoiding layoffs and labor disputes.
But they have become institutionalized in the U.S., and they are forestalling more
serious attempts to achieve superior and more lasting alternatives. The bias is clear
and pronounced: about 65 percent of American corporations offer early retire¬
ment, while only about four percent offer inducement for workers to stay on beyond
normal retirement age.

The Problems Presented by Early Retirement Incentives

What’s wrong with early retirement incentive programs? After all, they are a
humane way to cut staff, their provisions are often quite generous, and the evidence
suggests that workers want to take advantage of them.

First, while such programs are presumably voluntary, they often appear to the
affected workers to be obligatory. Workers frequently perceive that the firm’s offer
will be withdrawn, and that those who decide not to take it will be let go anyway,
empty-handed except for any severance pay or unemployment compensation.

Second, many early retirement incentive programs in the U.S. provide only a
limited window period-as little as two months-in which the employee may take
the firm up on its offer. Such a decision has long-term implications, particularly
for a relatively young person facing possibly three decades in retirement. Two
months, or even six months or a year, may not be enough time to make so important
a decision when it hadn’t been planned for.

Third, the presumption underlying most early retirement programs is that older
workers as a category are more dispensable than younger workers. They thus do a
lot to promote the notion that older workers contribute less than younger ones.
Early retirement programs can also be a source of demotivation for somewhat
younger workers, showing them what they can look forward to and possibly instilling
attitudes inimical to best performance.

But perhaps the most serious problem represented by early retirement incentive
programs, especially for the longer run, is that they enable American firms, and by
extension American society, to continue in persistent disregard of the problems
presented by an aging work force. In fact, early retirement as a human resource
management tool creates a situation that is in direct contradiction with good policy.
Early retirement reinforces the growing imbalances among the aging of the work
force, increasing life expectancy in good health status, developing strains on public
and private retirement systems, and more rigorous global competition that calls for
the best possible use of our human resource assets.

LABOR MARKET TRENDS AND PROSPECTS
FOR OLDER WORKERS

It is estimated that over the next 10 years, some 18-20 million new jobs will be
created in the U.S. economy, the vast majority of them in the service sector. Thus
the country has rather decisively entered the post-industrial era, and is poised at
an awkward juncture in its attitudes and stance toward older members of the labor

AMERICAN BUSINESS/PUBLIC POLICY

173

force. Although we are already into a period of needing the talents and experience
of our older citizens, we haven’t given up some old ways of thinking.

Perhaps part of our uncertainty with respect to how to make the best use of
older workers arises from the fact that what is best for the American economy
overall may not appear to be in the best interests of individual workers, as they
themselves rate their preferences. An anonymous commentator has noted that
"Everyone is in favor of keeping older people in the labor force except the unions,
government, business, and older people." [cited in Schulz, 1988] Surveys and
behavior consistently reveal that Americans prefer early retirement, generally as
early as possible, it seems.

This does not mean that the majority of Americans have a real choice about
whether to continue working. Those who receive early retirement incentive offers,
for example, are among the "pension elite," whereas early retirement, or any kind
of planned retirement, is not an option for large numbers of Americans. Many are
retired prematurely by mergers, bankruptcies and plant closings. This issue will be
increasingly important for the U.S. economy as the baby boom generation enters
its retirement years and is supported by a working cohort that not only is much
smaller, but that present trends suggest will be ill-prepared to fill the high-technol¬
ogy jobs the economy is creating.

Certainly, the days of companies’ creaming the country’s labor poor for the very
best candidates, and being able freely to pick and choose, are over. And it seems
clear that companies are going to have to spend more time and money training the
workers they do hire.

Who Are the Older Workers?

An "older worker" can be someone 74 or someone 47-just three years older
than the senior members of the baby boom. One need be only 40 years old to be
protected by the 1967 Age Discrimination in Employment Act (ADEA), while
impressionistic evidence suggests that 45 (for women) and 50 (for men) are the
approximate ages where perceptions of discrimination set in. These are the ages
when careers typically plateau, and when the search period lengthens perceptibly
for job seekers.

Included in older worker definitions are groups as diverse as displaced
homemakers; people reentering the work force after being retired for a number of
years; mid-life career changers; workers dislocated by plant closings; workers in
post-career jobs; people employed part-time or temporarily, by choice or necessity;
workers who may or may not be collecting Social Security or pensions; and so forth.

People in these groups are motivated by quite different aspects of employment.
The variability among older workers is probably at least as great as that between
older and younger workers. At any age, the factors involved in meaningful work
include the following: paths to advancement, reward systems that are perceived as
equitable, some degree of job security, task design and job responsibility that
accord with remuneration, access to training, and employee benefits that allow
workers to look after their families and other non-work aspects of their lives.
Individuals will have differing preferences and will emphasize some of these factors
over others, but age is largely irrelevant.

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There are, however, some broad differences that can be drawn between older
and younger workers on average. Older workers may require or appreciate some
accommodations to physical limitations-although with health status improving
markedly over time, this is less likely than in decades past. Job restructuring might
be necessary or desirable to allow part-time work, job-sharing, flextime, home work,
or phased retirement. Older workers may need training programs adapted in
method, style, and instructional tools to their particular needs; and may require
human resource personnel to be knowledgeable about their special concerns-such
as the effect of earnings on receipt of Social Security benefits.

Non-traditional job structures do present some problems. Managements are
typically unsure how to manage non-traditional workers such as part-time and
part-year employees, job sharers, etc. In addition, union leaders have expressed
reservations about any but full-time, year-round workers because they fear such
groups could dilute the power of organized labor. And part-time workers them¬
selves have found they lack clout and responsibility in their jobs.

SOME EXAMPLES OF BEST PRACTICE

Some companies are beginning to make changes in their employment policies
to meet the needs of older and non-traditional workers, perhaps prodded by the
increasing tide of federal and state legislation with anti-discrimination intent.
Among some examples of accommodations to older employees are the following:

o Varian Associates, a California electronics company, has a Retirement Tran¬
sition Program that allows employees to prepare for retirement by gradually
reducing their workweeks beginning three years before their retirement date. Any
schedule variation of at least 20 hours per week is permissible.

o Massachusetts-based Polaroid offers prospective retirees several options that
are explained in pre-retirement planning and counseling sessions. Workers may
gradually reduce their time on the job by hours per day, days per week, or weeks
per month. Pay and pension credits are prorated, while medical benefits are paid
in full. Polaroid is also experimenting with a program in which employees may take
up to six months unpaid leave, paying their own premiums to continue group
insurance coverage.

o Kollmorgen Corporation in Massachusetts offers employees who are one year
away from retirement the option of working reduced hours in a rehearsal retirement
program. Employees are free to devote an increasing number of days per week at
volunteer community service (which must be non-political, non-profit, non¬
religious, and approved by the Industrial Relations Office). Full pay and benefits
continue for eligible full-time employees, who must be 62 and have 10 years of
service.

o Teledyne Wisconsin Motor, a manufacturer of heavy-duty engines, faced both
a shortage of skilled labor and the prospect of a pension fund squeeze, so to induce
employees to remain with the firm they developed the "Golden Bridge” policy. The
program allowed for gradual increases in vacation time, pension benefits, insurance
and survivor benefits based on age and years of service for each year a worker
participates. Unfortunately, according to company spokespersons, their
employees were so ingrained in their view of retirement that they rejected the bait

AMERICAN BUSINESS/PUBLIC POLICY

175

and continued to treat age 62 as the "magic age" for exiting the labor force. The
phased-in retirement program was dropped last year.

o Grumann Corp, a defense contractor in Bethpage, New York, has had more
success in staggering retirement to help retain older workers too precious to lose.
By cutting their workweek, employees are being helped to prepare emotionally and
financially for retirement, while giving the company a transition period to find and
train replacements.

o Aerospace Corp in El Segundo, California, allows its retirees to reclaim old
jobs or take new ones with the company, full-time or part-time, with no interruption
in pension and other benefits.

o Wells Fargo Bank of California has since 1977 offered a sabbatical program
called "personal growth leave." Employees with at least 10 years of service can take
up to three months fully paid to pursue a project of their choice.

A growing number of firms are rehiring their retirees as consultants, undertak¬
ing job redesign to de-emphasize physical labor, offering phased retirement, even
awarding new job titles with higher pay.

Such examples, unfortunately, are the exception. The Conference Board es¬
timates that only one company in a hundred is doing anything substantial to
accommodate older employees. Surveys reveal that American employers value the
dependability and loyalty of older workers, but most do little to recruit or retrain
them or to help them use new technologies. For example, 55 percent of those
surveyed in an AARP poll conducted by The Daniel Yankelovich Group, Inc.,
[AARP, 1989] believe that retraining is effective for older workers, but only 29
percent offer them such training. Overall there appears to have been a decline in
senior management’s formal commitment to utilizing older workers since a similar
study was conducted in 1985.

Additionally, most of the options that are being made available are open only
to an occupational elite: scientists, engineers, skilled craftsmen and machinists,
and so forth. Companies are willing to make special accommodations for these
groups because such actions are cost-effective, resulting in lower turnover, reduced
training costs, and increased employee loyalty and commitment.

There is a potential downside to having many senior employees, say human
resource managers. Ambitious younger workers may become frustrated; managers
may feel uncomfortable directing subordinates far older than themselves; and,
because of the difficulty of fine-tuning such programs, weaker older performers are
encouraged to stay on along with the rest.

PUBLIC POLICIES THAT INFLUENCE
THE WORK-RETIREMENT DECISION

With fifty percent of Americans completely out of the work force before the age
of 65, and in light of projected shortages in a broad range of critical skills and
occupations, the nation’s economic health hinges on effective adaptations to new
labor market realities. A wide range of public policies affect both the decisions of
employers to offer the kinds of job opportunities older workers seek and the
decisions older workers make about labor force attachment. Changing
demographics, tightening labor markets, anticipated skill shortages, and looming

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public and private pension liabilities are forcing a reexamination of public policies
to see whether they enhance or inhibit older workers’ labor force participation.
Among the public policies that merit revisiting are the following:
o Age for receipt of Social Security. Clearly, the age of qualifying to receive full
social insurance benefits affects the timing of retirement. Since 1977, reduced
benefits have been available at age 62, yet many retire before that age. The 1983
amendments scheduled a gradual rise to 67 in the age for full benefits, beginning
in 2003 for people born in 1938 and later; but under present law the age for reduced
benefits remains 62. The evidence suggests that Social Security does not cause large
drops in the retirement age but causes significant clustering of labor force
withdrawal around the age cut-offs, currently 62 and 65.

In light of substantial gains in longevity in the 55 years since age 65 was
established, many believe that further increases in the full-benefit retirement age
are in order; and that the age for reduced benefits should be raised beyond 62.
These changes would be manageable for most, but they could penalize some of
society’s most vulnerable members. It is imperative that any changes protect people
whose health has deteriorated beyond the point of holding gainful employment,
people whose worklives have rendered them disabled in one way or another, and
people who have always had difficulty finding employment at decent wages.

o The Social Security earnings (retirement) test. There is considerable debate
about the impact of the Social Security earnings limit on labor supply, but certainly
it poses some disincentive. Some workers are under the impression that they are
not allowed to earn any more than the limit; and older workers who prefer part-time
work have an incentive to work up to the limit and then stop for the year.

Although such work disincentives undeniably interfere with smoothly function¬
ing labor markets, substantially raising the limit or eliminating it altogether turns
Social Security into a prize for turning 65. The major beneficiaries would be
doctors, lawyers, consultants, and others of the labor elite. And, of course, liberaliz¬
ing the test means lower federal revenues, at least in the short run.

o Pension coverage. Some private pensions have a much stronger influence on
the work/retirement decision than Social Security does. Defined benefit plans, in
which the employer guarantees an annual retirement payment, offer very strong
incentives to work to a certain age and retire at a certain age, whereas defined
contribution plans are neutral with respect to retirement incentives. Research
indicates that in defined benefit plans, the total inflation-adjusted value of the
pension reaches a maximum value well before normal retirement age and thus
encourages early labor force exit.

Pension incentives to retire early are widespread and can be extremely large.
In a case study of one firm, it was found that the addition to pension wealth for
remaining with the firm one extra year was $72,527 for 54-year-old managers with
25 years of service, but a minus-$14,936 for their counterparts aged 65 and with 30
years service [Kotlikoff and Wise, 1987]. People who start jobs at age 25 who are
covered by defined benefit pension plans suffer a penalty, in the form of foregone
pension wealth, on average equal to at least one-quarter of their wages, if they
continue to work past age 65 [Gustman and Steinmeier, 1987].

Such anomalous circumstances occur because the value of a defined benefit
pension accrues most rapidly near retirement and is not actuarially adjusted for

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177

work after the normal retirement age. Nothing prevents employers from actuarially
increasing the benefits paid for work after the normal retirement age. As older
workers are made more valuable by the changing demographics of the work force,
the incentive structure of pension plans can no doubt be expected to change to
counteract earlier retirement trends.

Federal laws requiring such adjustments have a superficial appeal, but because
private pensions in the U.S. are voluntary arrangements, greater federal oversight
could jeopardize employers' willingness to sponsor pension plans. Indeed, there
is evidence that this is already happening; the burden of complying with federal
pension laws and regulations is onerous and growing worse, especially for smaller
employers, which no doubt accounts in part for the trend away from defined benefit
plans.

o Unemployment insurance. Because of the meager size and duration of
unemployment compensation in the U.S., the role of the joint federal/state Un¬
employment Insurance system in the work/retirement decision is smaller than it is
in most industrialized countries. The federal tax on employers is uniform, but the
states establish the tax rates to be paid based on employers' experience rating.
Relatively little is known about the extent to which employers attempt to reduce
their tax cost by controlling labor turnover, and whether the cost is significant
enough to have adverse effects on employer decisions regarding older workers.

In all but six states, applicants for unemployment compensation are disqualified
if they seek only part-time work, and part-time workers represent the most rapidly
increasing group of older American workers. According to the Department of
Labor, those 55 and over now make up 18.2 percent of the American part-time
labor force, up from 17.7 percent in 1983, and about half the workers aged 65 and
over are part-timers.

An issue that has received greater attention is the requirement that states
include in their unemployment insurance laws a provision that will reduce an
individual's weekly unemployment benefit amount by the amount of any pension,
retirement pay, annuity, or other payment the claimant receives based on previous
work. Retirees complain about losing this dual source of benefits, but adjusting the
pension offset could introduce a new disincentive for employers to hire older
workers. It is possible that elimination of the offset would harm the employment
prospects of pensioned retirees by raising the unemployment insurance charges to
the employer in the event of a layoff.

2 An additional reason for the apparent shift toward defined contribution plans and away from
defined benefit plans in the U.S. relates to the types of jobs the economy has been creating. These
have primarily been in the small business and service sectors, where defined contribution pension
plans predominate.

A further problem posed by defined benefit pension plans relates to portability. Such plans are
generous to long-tenured workers, but workers who change jobs frequently without becoming
vested in any plan are at risk of inadequate retirement income. Defined contribution plans, on
the other hand, place the investment risk on the individual worker, but can accompany the worker

as s/he changes jobs.

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o Health insurance. Large numbers of current retirees are covered by the health
insurance plans of their former employers. The availability of post-retirement
health benefits is clearly a factor in the decision to retire before age 65 when
Medicare becomes available. As people are retiring earlier and living longer, firms
are cutting back on their coverage or terminating their post-retirement health
benefit plans altogether. Future retirees will be confronted with bearing these costs
themselves, so many may be induced to delay retirement.

SOME CONTINUING CONCERNS

Americans’ approach to the older worker and retirement issues currently
mirrors the short-term focus that has become the hallmark of business and
governmental approaches to a whole range of vital but non-emergency issues:
Tinker to achieve the best surface appearance at the next election or stockholders’
meeting; issue reassuring statements that the issue is being studied; and leave the
tough decisions for later, and if possible for others to make. Delaying is neither
wise nor necessary. Fortunately, a critical mass of attention is beginning to be
focused on the coming work force crunch.

It should be kept in mind, however, that a shortage of younger workers does not
automatically mean there will be jobs for older workers. A variety of cultural and
institutional obstacles must be overcome for older workers to be placed on a level
playing field.

First, we need to realize that a two-tier economy is becoming more pronounced
in the U.S. We have a preponderance of high-paying and low-paying jobs, but
mid-level jobs are becoming relatively more rare. Older workers could be caught
in the squeeze caused by competition for jobs in this mid-level entry range.

Second, while the likely trend will be toward increasing flexibility in the use of
the labor force, there is the risk that such flexibility-which is in part due to the
relative decline in the influence of organized labor-can tend to marginalize older
workers and make it even easier to weed them out. Although American unions
have never been particularly pro-older worker (quite the contrary, some would
allege), they have made it possible for the rank and file to retire in some degree of
comfort. Workers negotiating on their own account often do not fare as well.

Third, employers’ apprehensions about the increasing cost of providing health
benefits to older workers are being used as a reason for not hiring them. Business
executives tend to believe that older workers are likely to increase their health care
costs more than younger workers.

Certainly people on average require more medical services as they age, but there
is impressionistic evidence that continuing to be productive at work can give
workers feelings of satisfaction that actually contribute to improved health status.
Furthermore, older workers’ health costs usually do not include providing medical
care for families, as is typical for younger workers. Nevertheless, older workers’
employment prospects will be given a boost to the extent that the U.S. is able to
make any significant headway against rapidly escalating health care costs.

It also would help to eliminate the requirement that Medicare be the secondary
payer of insurance claims for older workers in firms offering health insurance.
Employers claimed at the time this policy was implemented in 1986 that it would
bias them against hiring older workers because insurance costs would rise for those

AMERICAN BUSINESS/PUBLIC POLICY

179

aged 65 and over. The primary purpose of the policy was to reduce federal
Medicare expenditures without shifting the cost onto beneficiaries. However, if
the provision discourages the employment of older workers, the net effect to society
could be negative: The ratio of retirees to active workers would be higher than
otherwise, and Medicare costs could rise anyway. This is another area where
federal policy seems to be at cross purposes, where sensible, long-run social policy
takes a back seat to short-term concerns about budget deficits.

Fourth, training is a key element in the successful integration of older workers
into the labor force. The bottom line for older workers is that their once highly-
valued skills are often obsolete or rapidly becoming so. The rapid pace of intro¬
duction of new technologies and productive innovations requires a radical
reorientation by employers and workers of all ages toward the concept of lifetime
education and skill upgrading.

Because older workers today are typically further removed from formal train¬
ing, they are perceived as presenting some special problems in the training arena.
However, older people can learn as effectively as younger people, but they don’t
learn in the same way. For example, many older workers find formal classroom
settings uncomfortable, having been out of school for many years; hands-on ap¬
proaches work better for them than lecture formats.

Training programs tailored to older employees are most effective if they are
offered as part of general training open to workers of all ages, thus removing any
possible stigma by not singling out older employees. Also, companies need to get
input from employees to build training programs that meet their needs. As lifetime
education and continual skill upgrading become the norm over time, there will
doubtless be less "fear of training" on the part of employees as they age.

Because training can potentially entail considerable costs, while providing
social as well as individual benefits, there is a role for the government at a minimum
to provide research and make available to employers information on "what works"
and "how to" provide training to older workers. The Department of Labor’s
Apprenticeship 2000 initiative in the Bureau of Apprenticeship and Training is just
beginning to address some of the critical issues pertaining to older workers.

Fifth, it is likely that the rate of corporate downsizing will level off from its 1980s’
peak, in the wake of some of the overreaching that has occurred in U.S. financial
markets. But for most American workers, the employment security associated with
the 1950s and 1960s is a thing of the past. Yet employment stability is most
Americans’ source of financial stability, providing not only current income, but
retirement security, access to health care, and self-esteem. Government must work
with employers to develop innovative policies that minimize the extent to which
older workers and reluctant retirees are penalized for work disruptions beyond
their control.

Sixth, we must get beyond our current infatuation with "McJobs" for older
workers. There is currently in the U.S. a condescending attitude that masquerades
as sensitivity toward older individuals’ circumstances. It is typified by the
phenomenon of companies such as McDonalds getting widespread favorable
publicity for hiring older workers to do menial jobs. There can, of course, be
benefits to both sides from such arrangements, but we shortchange our older
workers when we expect them to look for the kinds of work they did as teenagers.

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Entry-level jobs in food service, hotels, and retailing are simply not what many older
job-seekers have in mind, particularly if they hold advanced degrees. Companies
need to be encouraged to find legitimate ways to use older workers to their
potential.

Seventh, ways need to be found that allow workers the option of greater
flexibility. Both the aging of the work force and the growing work force participa¬
tion rates of women with children make this essential. Few American workers
appear to be able to reduce the intensity of their work commitment while remaining
on their career jobs, but we only vaguely understand why this is so. And we don’t
really know whether this inflexibility might contribute to a more rapid ultimate
withdrawal from the labor force.

Finally, much more needs to be learned about how work/retirement preferen¬
ces are influenced by, and the relative importance of, such variables as changes in
pensions and Social Security, family patterns, the availability and tax treatment of
employee benefits, regulations, and so forth. As a general matter, it is known that
high wages and meaningful work are associated with continuing labor force par¬
ticipation, whether full-time or part-time; and that wealth, including pension
wealth, is inversely correlated with staying on the job. Beyond that, we are only
beginning to probe the issue in a systematic way as we confront a seemingly
inevitable decline in the quantity (and quality, too, it seems) of the labor force.

CONCLUSION

It is premature to declare the 1990s as "the decade of the older worker." For
the most part, demographics do not drive actions until there is a painful situation
or some kind of crisis. It took decades for American companies to realize women
were entering the work force and would dramatically change it. They did not act
until they were forced to do so. So perhaps it will take the actual retirement of the
older members of the baby boom for employers to begin to adapt.

While it has been clear for some time that America’s work force is aging, most
American organizations have not begun to respond. For example, a survey in late
1989 [Reliable Corp, 1989] found considerable small business concern about the
availability of qualified labor for skilled, technical positions, yet small business
executives seem unconcerned about the graying of the American work force. Some
60 percent say they expect employees in the future to be the same age as their 1980s
counterparts. Such unrealistic thinking is troubling, given that small businesses
employ more than 60 percent of the labor force and contribute half the goods and
services produced in the U.S.

Furthermore, there continues to be a wall of prejudice and myth about older
workers— that they’re inflexible, hard to train, resistant to change, and prone to
accidents and poor health. The record attests to the opposite, yet older workers
continue to experience difficulty finding jobs that use their skills, and to complain
of being squeezed out or shuffled from visible, decision-making jobs into dead-end
positions. Older Americans are taking more age discrimination cases to court,
particularly men aged 55 and over, and they are winning more cases than ever
before.

As Helen Dennis of the Andrus Gerontology Center at the University of
Southern California has noted, Willy Loman becomes hopelessly out-of-date be-

AMERICAN BUSINESS/PUBLIC POLICY

181

cause corporations often encourage that process. Businesses have been content to
let workers go stale in peace and then turn to younger people. But the pool of
younger workers is drying up, and the U.S. can no longer afford to allow the vital
resources older workers can offer to go untapped. Solutions are at hand, but it will
take more than employers' paying lip service to older workers' skills and aptitudes.
Until they begin acting on these assessments, the labor force crunch will only get
worse.

LITERATURE CITED

American Association of Retired Persons. December 1989. Business and Older
Workers: Current Perceptions and New Directions for the 1990s. Washington,
D. C.

Gustman, A. and G. Steinmeier. 1987. An Analysis of Pension Benefit Formulas,
Pension Wealth, and Incentives from Pensions. Mimeograph. Dartmouth Col¬
lege, Hanover, NIL

Kotlikoff, L. and D. Wise. 1987. Employee Retirement and a Firm's Pension Plan.
Working Paper #2323. National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge,
MA.

Reliable Corporation. December 1989. 1990 Small Business Outlook Survey. Small
Businesses Optimistic About 1990s: Survey Reflects Attitudes About Business
and Social Trends.

Schulz, J. 1988. The Economics of Aging. Fourth Edition. 302 pages. Andover
House Publishing Company, Andover, MA.

Virginia Journal of Science
Volume 41, Number 3
Fall 1990

The Utilization of the Older Workers in Israel

Gila Noam and Judah Matras
JDC-Brookdale Institute of Gerontology
and Adult Human Development
Jerusalem 91130, Israel

ABSTRACT

Questions of employer practices and policies towards older workers have
only recently become part of the public agenda in Israel, and research in
this area is at its beginning. In this paper we present some background data
on late middle-aged and older persons in Israel and their patterns of labor
force participation, and cite data on their attitudes towards employment.
Work arrangements for older workers in the kibbutzim are described and
their innovative nature noted, while raising the question of their ap¬
plicability to the non-kibbutz sector. These topics serve as a back drop for
the discussion of various aspects of employer attitudes, practices, and
policies vis-a-vis older workers. The discussion is based on relatively
scarce empirical materials from studies conducted in the past in Israel and
on some preliminary findings from a current research project in this area.
Informality seems to be the dominant feature of the way the Israeli
workplace deals with older workers. There seem to be few - if any - formal
programs for encouraging continued employment after the accepted
retirement age or for returning retirees to paid employment. Arrange¬
ments which do exist seem to be informal and ad-hoc. Economic exigen¬
cies linked to the nature of Israel’s economy were often cited by employers
as rendering early retirement, reduced working hours, job sharing, etc. as
"luxuries" which the economy cannot afford and which the Israeli worker
does not desire.

INTRODUCTION

Despite the fact that only very recently have questions of employer policies and
practices towards older workers become part of the public agenda in Israel, initial
efforts have been made in researching the various dimensions of this issue.

It has been remarked that the issue of employment of older workers seems to
be an ambivalent one, subject to conflicting forces regardless of the specific social
setting (Schrank & Waring 1989). Conflicting forces are evident in almost all the
significant contexts implicated in this issue - that of social and macro-economic
conditions, employer attitudes and policies, technological progress and innovation,
and the personal characteristics and attitudes of the older workers themselves.

With regard to macro-economic and labor market conditions, on the one hand,
unemployment generates pressure for early retirement of older workers. On the
other hand, in countries in which a labor shortage is developing (for example, in
the United Kingdom and in Eastern Europe), an extension of work life seems to be
called for.

OLDER WORKERS IN ISRAEL

183

Employer attitudes and employer policies towards older workers also seem to
be somewhat paradoxical. While employers often express their need and desire for
trained and experienced personnel, in light of the sometimes urgent need to
streamline their work forces and cut expenses, they often adopt a tactic of dismiss¬
ing seemingly costly older workers. For the same purpose, employers may offer
generous retirement conditions for early retirement but often express the difficul¬
ties they face in financing these benefits.

Innovation and technological progress in the workplace may also have con¬
tradictory implications for the older worker, often rendering work physically easier
and at the same time, leading to skill obsolescence.

At least in the Israeli context changes in the personal characteristics of older
workers may also be associated with conflicting trends. Relative to the past, more
and more older workers are characterized by better education and better health
and by having had accumulated work seniority in Israel, these being factors con¬
tributing to continued employment. At the same time, the growing number of
workers eligible for work pensions contributes to the likelihood of earlier retire¬
ment.

Finally, research on attitudes towards retirement and the implications of retire¬
ment for the individual points in different directions, some studies focusing on the
crisis quality of retirement and others - indicating a smooth and easy adjustment to
this transition and a lack of interest in returning to work among retirees.

The purpose of this paper is to focus on the employment of older workers in the
Israeli setting, specifically, on employer attitudes, practices, and policies on such
issues as the hiring of older workers, the extension of the work life of older
employees by means of innovative adaptation and modifications of work arrange¬
ments and by retraining programs, in the context of the ambivalence characterizing
the various aspects of employment of older workers. This is an area of concern
somewhat new to the Israeli labor market and very new to the Israeli public and
research agenda, for reasons we will note later on.

In the paper we present some background material on older persons in Israel,
the patterns of their labor force participation, and the empirical evidence available
on their attitudes towards employment. These topics serve as a backdrop for the
discussion of employer attitudes, policies and practices towards older workers
based on relatively scarce empirical materials collected over the years in Israel and
on some first and preliminary findings from a current research endeavor in this
area.

THE OLDER ISRAELI POPULATION

Understanding the issue of employer practices and policies towards older
workers necessitates some acquaintance with the socio-demographic charac¬
teristics of the older population in Israel in general.

Israel has been characterized by a rapid growth of the older Jewish population.
At the time the State of Israel was established, the elderly (65 + ) constituted about
4% of the total Jewish population. In the sixties and seventies the population of
elderly rose considerably, and since the early eighties has stabilized at around 10%.

The process of population aging in the Jewish population has been very different
than the demographic processes characterizing non- Jews. Among the latter, the

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proportion of elderly in the total non- Jewish population has not grown in this
period, is currently about 4% and is expected to grow only in several decades
(Noam & Sicron, forthcoming).

Older Israeli Jews are in overwhelming numbers immigrants. Only about 4%
of the elderly Jewish population (age 65 4- ) are Israeli born; about three-quarters
(72%) of the elderly were born in Europe or America and almost a quarter were
born in the traditional societies of Asia and Africa. The characteristics of the late
middle-aged population (aged 55-64) hint at the changes we can expect in future
elderly populations. While the percentage of Israeli-born in this younger age group
is still small (about 8%), it has risen considerably over time, and in the future, we
can expect a more and more "native" population. The fact that such large propor¬
tions of older Israelis were born abroad implies that their educational attainments
very often reflect the opportunity structures of their countries of origin. Thus, for
example, 1983 Census data indicate that about 12% of Jewish men age 65 and over
and about 22% of Jewish women of this age group have had no formal schooling
whatsoever. While percentages of those with no schooling are lower among those
in late middle age (55-64), 9% and 18% respectively, they still imply that a
considerable number of older workers bring to the labor market quite modest
educational resources.

With regard to the older population’s economic status it should be noted that
the Israeli pension system is comprised of two tiers - (1) the old age and survivors’
pension paid to eligible insured persons or their survivors on a statutory basis by
the National Insurance Institute and which provide flat-rate minimum income
benefits regardless of work histories or previous income levels; and (2) pensions
based on collective agreements and paid to employees after retirement or
withdrawal from employment. The latter are intended to provide retired workers
with income support related in a stable way to the income levels they had when
employed (Habib & Matras 1987). About 45% of the elderly qualify for the
National Insurance Institute’s low income supplement and thus must make do with
incomes at 25% of the mean income level in Israel (if they are single-person
households) or 38% of the mean income level (for elderly couples). A major factor
leading to the high proportion of elderly qualifying for this supplement is the fact
that even today, no more than one third of retirees receive employment-based
pensions from their places of work (Zipkin & Morgenstein 1989) and many of these
have only minimal pension rights.

THE LABOR FORCE PARTICIPATION OF OLDER PERSONS

The discussion of employment at later ages relates to employment conditions,
retirement age, pension entitlements, current levels of labor force participation,
trends in such participation over time, the functional ability of older workers
(particularly as perceived by potential employers) the attitudes and desires of older
workers themselves towards continuation of employment, and the needs of society
and constraints of the economy.

In Israel an additional perspective assumes particular significance as a back¬
drop for both employment trends and attitudes on this issue - that is, the ideological
component referring to both the general emphasis of Zionism on the intrinsic value
of work and productivity and to the commitment to absorption of immigration. In

OLDER WORKERS IN ISRAEL

185

this context and with particular reference to older workers, we may note that about
15% of the population age 55-64 immigrated to Israel after 1964. In other words,
they have immigrated at relatively older ages and so have accumulated only limited
pension rights, so that withdrawal from employment for this group implies par¬
ticular economic difficulties (King 1989).

Rates of labor force participation of Israeli men - both late middle-aged (55-64)
and elderly (65 + ) and both Jewish and non- Jewish have been higher than cor¬
responding rates in industrialized countries, but have declined in the last two
decades. While in 1964 the labor force participation rate for late middle-aged
(55-64) Jewish men was about 92%, by 1986 it had declined to 75%, and during that
time the labor force participation rate of elderly (65 and over) in the labor force
declined from 44% to 24%. Moreover, an increasing percentage of these older
workers were employed in part time jobs only - 16% of those age 55-64 and 59%
of those 65 and over (Israel CBS, Labor Force Survey 1988). Nevertheless, the labor
force participation rate for older Jewish males (55-64) remains higher than that for
males those ages in the United States and in most Western European countries.
The labor force participation rate for elderly Israeli Jewish males is higher than the
rates in any of the western industrialized countries except for Japan (OECD 1979).

There has not been a systematic analysis of the causes of the decline in labor
force participation but it would seem to be related to a basic shift in Government
policy with respect to the subsidization and protection of employment. In turn, this
may create a change in the social contract, such that workers who had not con¬
sidered the possibility of job insecurity may be experiencing increased anxiety in
this regard or actually may be finding themselves unemployed.

LABOR FORCE PARTICIPATION AMONG
POPULATION SUBGROUPS

Within the major age groupings (55-64 and 65 + ) there is a dramatic and
positive relationship between levels of educational attainment and rates of labor
force participation. Thus, among late middle-aged men, less than two-thirds of
those with no or with very little formal schooling, but more than 85% of those with
post-secondary level schooling, were in the labor force in 1986. Similarly, among
the elderly men, only 11% of those with 0-4 school years, and 20% of those with 5-8
school years, were in the labor force in 1986, compared to more than one-fourth in
the labor force among those with at least some post-primary (9 years or more)
schooling (Israel CBS, Labor Force Survey 1988).

Geo-cultural origin differences in labor force participation are also consider¬
able. At each age the participation rates of men born in western countries (Europe
or America) or born in Israel are very substantially higher than those of men born
in Asia or Africa. These geo-cultural origin differences are evident within each age
and educational attainment subgroup as well, so that even controlling for differen¬
ces in educational attainment and for differences in period of immigration or
duration of residence in Israel, those born in Asia or Africa have much lower
participation rates.

For non -Jewish men, labor force participation rates are considerably lower than
for any subgroup in the Jewish population. In 1983, 60% of non- Jewish males (as

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compared with 83% of Jewish males) ages 55-64, and 15% of non- Jewish males (as
compared with 34% of Jewish males) ages 65 and over were employed.

Recent decades have been characterized by a dramatic increase in the labor
force participation of Israeli women. In 1955 just over one-fourth (26.5%) of Israeli
women aged 14 and over were in the labor force, and by 1988 this percentage
increased to 40%. The increase in labor force participation of married women has
been even more dramatic: For example, among married women aged 35-54, the
percent in the labor force increased from 25% in 1955 to 54% in 1987, while at ages
55-64 the percentage increased somewhat less spectacularly from 17% to 26%
(Israel CBS 1988, 1989a).

In 1986 some 16% of Israeli women aged 55 and over were in the labor force.
These were almost exclusively Jewish women, since the rate of labor force participa¬
tion among non-Jewish women in this age group was only 1%. As among men,
among Jewish women the participation rate differs sharply by age and by ethnic
origin. More than one-third (34.2%) of Jewish women aged 55-59 were in the labor
force, compared to 16.2% of those aged 60-64 and to less than 8% at older ages.
Labor force participation at all age levels after age 55 is less than half as frequent
among the Asian- or African-born women than among the others.

ATTITUDES TOWARDS EMPLOYMENT AMONG OLDER
PERSONS IN ISRAEL

Policies and practices with regard to employment of older workers clearly
should take into account the attitudes and preferences of persons in the relevant
age categories - whether employed or not.

A large-scale Israeli study in 1982 based on a national sample of male workers
ages 25-60 examined changes over the life cycle in the perceived quality of employ¬
ment and changes in strategies adopted by workers to improve their employment
conditions (Habib and Spilerman 1982). In this study, a distinction was drawn
between dissatisfaction with the present work situation accompanied by optimism
about the possibilities for change and dissatisfaction accompanied by a sense that
few prospects exist for change. The former type of dissatisfaction does not appear
to change with age, while the latter increases significantly. Workers were also
questioned as to whether they thought their jobs suitable for a person aged 60, and
about a third of the workers aged 55-60 viewed their jobs as unsuitable.

Compared to younger workers, those aged 55-60 more often reported con¬
siderations of physical conditions and of pressure and fatigue as important aspects
of the work situation, and less often reported considerations of interest in the job,
independence, wages, job security, and advancement opportunities as important.

Another finding of the Habib and Spilerman study indicated that older workers
less frequently reported recent vocational training than did younger workers,
although relatively large percentages of high level personnel did report such
training. More than a third of the older workers (37%) aged 55-60 had nevertheless
participated in vocational training at some point in time. Older workers expressed
lower levels of expectations of acquiring new training, claimed to have fewer
opportunities to do so, and in general, were less concerned with the issue of training
opportunities on the job than younger workers.

OLDER WORKERS IN ISRAEL

187

With regard to mobility on the job, older workers were much more likely than
younger workers to view issues such as pension rights, difficulties in findings alter¬
native employment, and absence of needed training as obstacles to job changes.
Nevertheless even among workers ages 55 and over, 30% of white collar workers
and 42% of blue collar workers expressed their desire to change jobs.

A more recent study surveyed men and women employees in ten work places
in Jerusalem who were within five years of retirement (Biber 1990). About two-
thirds favored postponing their retirement beyond the mandatory or conventional
retirement age (60 for women and 65 for men at the time of the study), and many
of these expressed their desire to continue working "as long as I am healthy" without
denoting a desired retirement age. On the other hand, about 17% of the employees
were generally in favor of retirement earlier than the mandatory age. About two-
thirds of the respondents expressed their desire for employment after retirement,
and interestingly, no differences between men and women were found in this
regard, but rather, differences between white and blue collar workers, indicating
the greater prevalence of the desire to work among the former. No evidence of a
more favorable attitude towards retirement among women was indicated in the
study’s findings, in contrast with the findings of various studies (Blau, 1973; Price-
Bonham & Johnson, 1982) and consistent with the findings of others (Streib &
Schneider, 1971; Szinovacz, 1987). Biber concludes that the majority of older
employees, regardless of their sex, are in favor of continuing work beyond the
mandatory retirement age, and that the major factor affecting this desire is that of
education.

In a larger-scale national survey of persons aged 60 and over conducted in 1985
by the Israel Central Bureau of Statistics, those not employed at the time of the
survey were asked if they would accept appropriate employment if it were offered
them "now." About 7% were so favorably inclined towards such a possibility that
they responded without any qualifications, i.e., they responded, "Yes, in all instan¬
ces." An additional 15% responded affirmatively but qualified this somewhat by
stating that they would accept employment "under certain conditions." More than
one-fourth (28%) indicated that they would not be interested or prepared at all to
accept employment; and half (50%) of those not currently employed responded
that they are "unable to work." Of those expressing interest in employment, virtually
all (94%) indicated a preference for part-time employment.

Analyses were conducted on the desire to return to work according to whether
retirement was voluntary or not. Only a small minority (16%) of those who retired
voluntarily report that they would accept employment if offered. More surprising¬
ly, even among those whose last employment was terminated involuntarily, only a
minority (44%) indicated that they would accept appropriate employment if of¬
fered now; and of those two-thirds would accept employment "under certain
conditions." The majority of those retiring or terminating previous employment
involuntarily report that they would not accept appropriate employment now
(14%) or that they are unable to work (43%).

Such findings should be interpreted cautiously. On the one hand, we do not
know the extent to which expressed desire for employment would ultimately be
expressed in actual behavior. On the other hand, at least some of those responding
that they do not wish to work, have been out of the labor force for a considerable

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period, and may be skeptical about their chances of finding work and thus respond
negatively. However, their reactions might be different if presented with a concrete
opportunity for employment.

Among the 60-74 age group those employed or interested in employment are a
substantial and important minority, and their needs, preferences, quality of life, etc.
must be addressed. But among those not currently employed, we have not yet
identified any characteristic clearly associated with desire for return to employ¬
ment, nor any subgroup so characterized. We do not yet know in any systematic
way just who is waiting at the door for employment opportunities we wish to
generate or promote.

EMPLOYER ATTITUDES, POLICIES, AND PRACTICES
WITH REGARD TO OLDER WORKERS

Although employment in later life is more frequent in Israel than in Western
Europe and North America, work among Israelis at mid- and later life has been
studied, besides in the kibbutz context, only in the general context of the ongoing
description of the labor force in Israel carried out by agencies such as the Israel
Central Bureau of Statistics, the Ministry of Labor and Social Welfare, the General
Federation of Labor (Histadrut) and other public bodies. While, as noted above,
some data exist on employer attitudes with regard to older workers, little systematic
attention or empirical research has been addressed to the study of actual policies
and practices of Israeli employers with respect to the employment and working
conditions of older workers.

One Israeli study (Shnit & Eran 1981) used content analysis of "help wanted"
advertisements in order to focus on possible age discrimination in recruitment of
workers and found that in about one-third of these advertisements, candidates aged
45 and over were ruled out; in a fifth, candidates aged 50 and over, and in about a
tenth, candidates aged 55 and over.

By contrast, in an earlier study carried out for the Ministry of Labor and Social
Welfare, Lieber and Cohen (1978) surveyed more than 200 employers in relatively
large firms in private, manufacturing, and service sectors and found high levels of
willingness to employ older persons, both in continuation of their previous employ¬
ment beyond retirement ages or as new employees. Indeed, almost three-quarters
of the firms studied were actually employing elderly persons.

Hendels (1982) interviewed industrial plant managers on their perceptions of
the work performance of the older workers he studied in the same plants. He found
that high percentages of the managers reported that, compared to younger workers,
older workers produced higher quality output (56%), are better able to fill positions
of responsibility (62%), have lower absenteeism (63%), have fewer work accidents
(54%), have greater work responsibility (84%) and greater work commitment
(73%), and are better able to get along with supervisors (56%). On the other hand,
older workers are perceived as less able to perform physical activity (76%), less
able to work at a rapid pace (59%), less able to adjust to work changes (61%), and
less able to learn new skills (66%).

In interviews of personnel managers, social workers and members of workers’
committees in ten Jerusalem workplaces, Biber (1990) collected data both on
attitudes towards the quality of the work of older workers and on the retirement

OLDER WORKERS IN ISRAEL

189

policies characteristic of these places of employment. She notes that such data
reflect the social climate of the various workplaces with regard to older workers
and, as such, may have an impact on older workers’ desire to continue their work
in these contexts. With regard to almost every indicator of work quality, more than
three-fourths of the respondents expressed their belief that older workers’ perfor¬
mance is as good as that of younger workers. In certain specific areas, the
respondents rated the performance of older workers as even superior to that of
their younger counterparts, for example, as having less absenteeism (73%), greater
work commitment (69%), better ability to fill positions of responsibility (53%).
However, in three-fourths of the interviews, older workers were perceived as
having less ability to learn new skills in the work setting. While in response to a
general question on the quality of older workers’ performance, an overwhelming
majority (95%) responded by rating it on the same level as that of younger workers,
almost half (45%) noted that there are specific problems which arise in the
employment of older workers, particularly, health problems, feelings of being
unjustly treated with regard to their status in the workplace and difficulty in
adjusting to new conditions. Low productivity and low motivation of older workers
were noted only by about 22% of the respondents.

With regard to attitudes on retirement policy, over 60% opposed a fixed
retirement age. Of the 40% who did favor such a policy, about 60% viewed 65 as
the appropriate age, 13%, older ages, and 27%, ages below 65. The personnel
interviewed were also questioned on their attitudes towards the dismissal of older
workers at times when cutbacks are called for. A bit less than half (43%) support
such a policy, but about 22% felt that the unemployment problems should not be
resolved "on the backs" of older workers.

A survey conducted by Bergman (1979) of 248 firms and organizations specifi¬
cally focused on retirement policies rather than only on attitudes. Three general
types of retirement policies were delineated in this study:

i. Firms and organizations with rigid retirement policies: These comprised
some 23% of the total of the organizations analyzed, characterized by compulsory
retirement at a fixed age, with no exceptions entertained or allowed.

ii. Firms and organizations with flexible retirement policies: These comprised
some 73% of the total, and they included organizations with compulsory retirement
at specified ages but with exceptions allowed (55% of the total); organizations in
which workers could continue in employment as long as they are able, and retire
thereafter(15% of the total); and organizations in which some groups or categories
of workers could continue in employment at their choice or discretion while others
are obliged to retire at fixed ages (about 3% of the total).

iii. Firms and organizations with no clear retirement policies at all, comprising
about 4% of the total of the organizations analyzed and including mostly quite small
organizations.

Unfortunately, the 248 employing firms and organizations surveyed comprise
less than one-third of the 788 firms initially approached, and there is no analysis of
the possible bias introduced by the selectivity of the responses.

In summarizing actual policies and practices towards older workers, we may
note that, with the exception of some provisions for extra holidays, the employment
conditions of older workers in Israel are neither specifically regulated by law nor

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governed by collective agreement but, rather, are generally subject to the discretion
of employers. In a pioneering study of problems of employment after retirement
age, Avineri (1974) pointed out the absence in Israel of any law regulating employ¬
ment of the elderly or retired and the fact that collective agreements in Israel do
not cover, for the most part, the employment of retired workers. At this writing,
this is still the case in Israel (Ori 1988). Moreover, retired persons usually cease to
be members of their trade unions upon retirement; their rights, entitlements, and
conditions of employment or re-employment are often not protected in collective
agreements; and they and their interests are not represented by the trade unions.

On the other hand, retirement age and pension entitlements are determined by
law for workers in the public service and covered elsewhere by industry-wide and
sometimes nation-wide collective agreements or compacts. Civil servants are
required to retire at age 65, except insofar as the Civil Service Commissioner, with
the agreement of the Civil Service Commission and of the employee, may extend
employment beyond that age (Shnit 1980). There are also legally mandated retire¬
ment ages for military personnel. In most collective agreements, and consistent
with the arrangements of the largest pension funds, the mandatory retirement ages
which previously were 60 and 65 for women and men respectively are now 65 for
both sexes, though women have the option of receiving a pension as early as age 60
(Avineri 1974; Habib & Matras 1987). Pension entitlements of public servants,
which are financed by general revenues, are "retirement-tested," i.e. reduced if the
beneficiaries are re-employed and earn more than specified amounts of income. If
the employee continues to work part time beyond the conventional retirement age,
his or her pension is calculated on the proportion of the job that was pensioned
(Nachman 1988). Pension entitlements of other employees financed by the employ¬
ment-based funds or by fully-funded private pension schemes may or may not be
retirement-tested. Retirement benefits paid by the National Insurance Institute to
women are retirement-tested until age 65, and those paid to men are retirement-
tested until age 70. For workers whose wage income is less than 50% of the national
average wage, payment of National Insurance Institute pensions begins at age 65
to men and at age 60 to women; those earning higher income qualify for Nil
pensions only at age 70 or 65, for men and women respectively. Persons with
property income amounting to, but not more than, 100% of the national average
wage are entitled to Nil pensions at ages 65 (men) or to 60 (women) respectively
(Nachman 1988).

POLICIES ON THE UTILIZATION OF OLDER WORKERS
IN THE KIBBUTZ

One sector in Israeli society which is conspicuously unique with regard to
attitudes and policies towards older workers and their employment conditions is
the kibbutz. While clearly the Israeli kibbutz - a form of communal settlement to
be described below - differs in many ways from large industrial societies, it seems
that the policies and programs adopted within this social setting towards older
workers may be instructive for other social contexts, as well both in terms of
organizational planning and adaptation and in terms of the light they shed on the
potential contribution of the older worker and even of the very elderly.

OLDER WORKERS IN ISRAEL

191

Kibbutzim are ideologically-oriented communal settlements, ranging in size
from several dozen members in the newest kibbutzim to about 2000 in the largest
veteran settlements. They are committed to communal ownership of all means of
production and all property, to communal decision-making on various aspects of
kibbutz life including the determination of priorities for the use of resources. A
basic guiding principle is equality both in need fulfillment and in the sharing of
effort, i.e.y to each according to his needs from each according to his capabilities.
Economically, the kibbutz is based on both industry and agriculture, and, as a
'’self-contained" society, assumes collective responsibility for its members' welfare.

The demographic history of the settlement of the kibbutzim is such that aging
within them is a relatively new phenomenon to be dealt with. The veteran kibbutzim
were founded by groups of "pioneering” youth over 50 years ago, these youth being
today’s elderly. Thus today in veteran kibbutzim often more than 25% of the
members are age 65 and over. In the past the ideological emphasis on youth and
productivity also relegated aging and the aged to a secondary position in terms of
social concerns. Nevertheless, the kibbutz has made serious efforts to develop
services for the elderly. The sphere of work is a conspicuous example of innovative
thinking and planning geared to maintaining older persons as integral parts of
kibbutz society. Work in old age is acknowledged to be a right rather than an
obligation. There is no mandatory retirement, and indeed almost 90% of elderly
kibbutz members are working (Matras, forthcoming).

Several alternative paths for the continuation of work have been developed.
First, there is a policy of gradual reduction of work hours from age 50 for women
and age 55 for men, whereby the work-day is reduced by an hour daily every five
years until reaching a four hour work-day. Second, what may be termed "adapted
workplaces" have been developed for the older population. Some have been
established as subdivisions within existing industrial plants while others function
as separate and new facilities in which the elderly engage in the assembly, finishing,
and packaging of products. Others have been integrated into the central produc¬
tion lines in existing industrial plants or within various service branches of the
kibbutz. In addition, even a considerable proportion of the impaired elderly are
engaged in work, and for them sheltered workshops have been developed in which
most work is either in handicrafts or in the provision of assistance in various tasks
to the kibbutz industry.

It should be noted that in many ways the organizational features of these
sheltered workshops resemble those characteristic of a "regular" workplace: For
example, in 70% there is a process of inspection of finished products, in 60% there
are fixed work procedures, and in 55% - fixed work hours (Atar 1987).

In a recent study of aging on the kibbutz (Bergman et al. 1988) it was found that
of those elderly with at least two ADL impairments who were working, 45% did so
within a sheltered workshop or industry subdivisions, while the others were working
in the regular branches of kibbutz work -26% in services, 16% by having work
brought to their homes, 7% in administrative and clerical work, and 6% in other
types of work. A particularly striking finding indicated that even among the
disabled elderly, very considerable percentages were at work - 70% of those with
3-4 ADL impairments, 60% of those with 5-6 impairments, and 45% of those with
some level of cognitive impairment.

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It should be noted that the innovativeness and openness to adaptation charac¬
teristic of kibbutz policies on older workers are not surprising, since in a sense they
are in the spirit of the broader norms governing work in the kibbutz. These include
the encouragement of job changes over the worklife, with the aim being to achieve
an optimal fit between job demands and the individual’s changing skills and
capacities. By age 65 the average kibbutz member will have worked in four or five
different occupations (Leviatan 1983) and thus both the individual and the social
system are probably more receptive to further adaptations in later life than might
be the case in other social settings. Another kibbutz norm is that older workers
voluntarily step down from managerial and leadership positions in favor of younger
members. This is another way in which the kibbutz setting facilitates continued
employment, since such employment is not necessarily associated with maintaining
a particular job and permits a form of phased retirement in which both job
responsibilities and time spent at work are reduced.

Work at older ages in the kibbutz is viewed as a right rather than an obligation.
While some kibbutzim have institutionalized work as optional beginning at age 70,
only few older persons indeed choose this option. The commitment of older
workers in the kibbutz is evident from data both on their work hours and on the
place which work plays in their lives. Approximately 56% of the older workers work
more hours than stipulated according to the norm of reduction of work hours.
Almost 90% view the domain of work as very significant in their lives -more so than
family (79%) and leisure (73%) spheres. About 42% of the kibbutz elderly oppose
work becoming optional, some because of their belief in work as a cherished value
whether in and of itself or as a central feature of kibbutz, Zionist, or Socialist
ideologies. Others note that working is essential to anyone who wishes to be
involved and active in the kibbutz community.

Lest we conclude that the kibbutz has arrived at all the answers with regard to
the employment of older workers, Leviatan (1983) notes that while the jobs offered
older workers seem appropriate in light of their reduced physical demands, they
do not utilize the intellectual resources or the work experience of the older worker.
Indeed Leviatan presents data showing that to some extent the elderly resent
existing arrangements. He is critical of the way the kibbutz has organized itself
vis-a-vis the older worker, noting that the founding generation which has worked
mostly in agriculture (the men) and education (the women) has not been given the
opportunity to acquire those skills or technologies needed by the industries to which
most of them are ultimately transferred. Leviatan believes that the timing of this
transfer occurs too late in the work life and should be pushed up to age 45-55, thus
still allowing for the learning of new skills.

THE CURRENT STUDY OF ISRAELI EMPLOYERS

In the context of the Brookdale Institute’s interest in the social roles of the older
population, a research agenda is being developed on various aspects of the employ¬
ment of older persons. In this context, a study of employer practices and policies
is being designed and the interview questionnaire which serves as the basis for the
study is being pretested. Since the research is in such an early stage, for purposes
of today’s discussion, we are able to cite only some very preliminary impressions
and findings.

OLDER WORKERS IN ISRAEL

193

The study entails interviewing owners or personnel managers in a sample of
approximately one hundred firms and organizations, varying in size and economic
sector. Informants are interviewed concerning policies, practices, training and
advancement opportunities, and midlife job options in their own firms, as well as
on their knowledge about or familiarity with policies, practices, or options in place
or proposed elsewhere, and on attitudes and predispositions to innovations in these
areas.

The interview covers a wide range of issues related to the hiring, placement, and
treatment of older workers. Many of the questions are left open, in an attempt to
discover the various types of arrangements which exist in Israeli workplaces or
whether employers would consider implementing them. The questionnaire con¬
centrates on the following questions:

1. Where are older workers concentrated in the workplace and where are
they excluded?

Questions are included on the jobs which as a matter of policy are filled
primarily, or not filled at all, by older workers. Previous studies have found that
older workers, especially women, are often in unskilled and entry-level jobs requir¬
ing minimal training, and are often excluded from jobs that require a high level of
technical expertise (Lieber & Cohen 1978).

2. What is the employer’s policy on retirement and work after the official
retirement age?

These questions (adapted from Bergman 1979) focus on retirement policy and
policy for continued work after the retirement age, in order to determine the firm’s
degree of flexibility vis-a-vis retirement, and its general procedure for employing
workers who have passed the retirement age.

3. How are new older employees hired?

This group contains questions on methods of recruiting new employees, the
total number of people hired in the last year, the number of men and women over
50 hired in the last year, and the firm’s policy for hiring older workers: Are they
hired on special contracts with different terms or given the same treatment as
younger hired persons.

4. What kind of retirement preparation does the employer provide?

Questions (adapted from King 1987) are included on the existence of retirement

preparation programs, their format and duration, eligibility requirements, and
whether programs are scheduled during work hours. Pre-retirement programs may
be seen as an indication of employer sensitivity and may provide an opening for
introducing job alternatives for older workers.

5. What types of early retirement arrangements exist?

This section includes questions on recent layoffs, financing of early retirement
benefits, and the workers who actually retire early. The goal is to see if early
retirement is offered as an option, and is dependent on eligibility requirements such
as age and seniority, or if it is primarily a method for making personnel cuts.

6. Could older workers be placed in "hard to fill" positions?

These are questions on the existence of "difficult to fill" positions in the firm and
the feasibility of placing older workers in them.

7. How aware are employers of alternative options for older workers, which
ones do they provide, and what are the terms?

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This group contains 10 eight-part questions: five on alternative work options
job redesign, transfer from night to day shifts, transfer from shift work to regular
hours, flextime, and transfer to lighter work; four on hours reduction schemes such
as direct cuts in work hours, transfer to part time work, job sharing, and phased
retirement; and one question on retraining to update the skills of older workers.
Employers are asked whether they are familiar with each option, whether they
provide it, and if so which workers may participate, how many workers do par¬
ticipate, how workers are informed of the option, and if so, what are the advantages
and disadvantages involved to the company. Those employers who do not provide
the option are asked if it sounds feasible and whether they are interested in trying
it.

In addition to the above, the questionnaire includes open questions on issues
such as: How the existence of alternative work arrangements affect the atmosphere
and productivity of the workplace; whether any of the above-mentioned arrange¬
ments were offered previously, and if so why they were terminated; whether the
workplace maintains different policies for older men and women with respect to
hiring terms, work conditions and/or retirement terms; and whether the respondent
thinks any special problems arise in the employment of older workers.

As noted above, we are in the very preliminary stages of pretesting the interview
questionnaire with an eye to obtaining some first feedback on the degree to which
Israeli employers are sensitive to the situation of older workers, and are aware of -
and indeed make use of - various adaptive strategies in order to extend the worklife
or are open to the possibility of using them in the future. We have interviewed the
personnel managers of two major banks, a large municipality, a major shipping
company, a private pharmaceutical firm, a defense industry plant, a national utilities
company, a national fuel company, and a major university. These constitute only a
very limited sample so far, but the public and private sectors, industry and services
are included in this group. At this point, the findings with regard to the seven major
areas included in the questionnaire can be summarized as follows: In response to
our attempt to map out the location of older workers in the workplace, we may note
that most employers claimed that older workers are concentrated on both ends of
the occupational continuum-either in high-level managerial or in relatively lowlevel
positions. Employers strongly resisted the notion that older workers might be
systematically excluded from certain positions, and claimed that the fact that they
fulfill or do not fulfill certain jobs is "natural," rather than the result of policy.

Employer policies on retirement seem to be primarily expressed in a fixed
retirement age but with some exceptions made. Usually, if a worker reaching
retirement age continues to be employed, it is for a relatively short period of time
and usually with a change of status, mostly as an independent contractor.

The ways in which new older workers are employed are quite mixed. A minority
of the firms report that new older workers are employed under the same conditions
as younger ones, but the majority reported that the conditions differ and that the
major factor differentiating between older and younger workers was that the former
cannot receive tenure.

Most retirement-preparation programs are quite short-term, conducted during
several workdays and during work hours. The emphasis in these programs seems
to be on adjustment to retirement in the sense of use of leisure time, family

OLDER WORKERS IN ISRAEL

195

relationships, etc. The introduction of job alternatives or the provision of informa¬
tion on re-training programs seems to be conspicuously absent from these
programs.

Older workers were not generally viewed as a possible manpower reservoir for
hard-to-fiH positions. According to the employers, these are generally physically
strenuous jobs for which older workers would not be suitable, and, in any case,
contracting out such jobs seems a cheaper way to solve the problem.

Optional early retirement was not viewed by the employers as a viable option.
Overwhelmingly, employers are convinced that workers do not and would not
choose to retire early because of the reduction in pension that this would entail.
They claim that in the Israeli context the economic consideration prevails over all
others, and that the Israeli worker is not willing or able to make a trade-off of
economic benefits for those implied by increased leisure. The employers also noted
that trade unions and workers' committees oppose such a tactic for personnel
reduction on the part of employers and thus exert pressure for granting improved
conditions and benefits to the early retiree beyond what he rightfully deserves.
Thus, the employer must weigh these costs against those incurred in the continued
employment of an inefficient employee. Indeed any intervention such as reduction
of work hours for the older worker was deemed unrealistic in the Israeli setting
because of the economic losses to the worker.

We find that there are arrangements for the continued employment of certain
public employees who wish to delay their retirement or return to work in the public
service after retirement, while relinquishing part of their pensions. Usually such
arrangements allow workers to continue working in the jobs they held before
reaching retirement age, although often on a part-time basis.

Except for the above and the arrangements made in the kibbutz sector for the
employment of older persons, in other sectors there seem to be no formal organized
programs for encouraging continued employment after the accepted retirement
age or for returning retirees to paid employment. In this connection, it is easy to
understand why retirement preparation programs focus almost exclusively on the
psychological difficulties attributed to retirement, and make almost no mention of
continued employment and opportunities for second careers. Arrangements with
regard to continued employment beyond retirement age seem to be informal,
ad-personna, and ad-hoc. Furthermore, within government institutions there do
not seem to be any special agencies for dealing with this problem. There do not
seem to be training programs designed for workers of older ages and virtually no
government intervention on this matter.

Of all the firms, the defense industry stands out as the most developed with
regard to the actual utilization of various job adaptation strategies such as skill
updating, flextime, and job redesign and by the greatest familiarity with others.
However, the personnel manager at the defense industry claimed that such adap¬
tations were utilized not specifically with regard to older workers, but rather
whenever the direct supervisor of an individual worker - regardless of his age - felt
that this would improve productivity or increase the effectiveness of his
subordinate's performance.

Some of our findings at this point may be distinctive of the Israeli social and
economic milieu. For example, virtually all respondents stressed that the economic

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exigencies which Israelis face both limit the options which employers can offer and
often render such options unattractive to workers who can not afford to avail them
selves of such "luxuries" as early retirement or reduced working hours inasmuch as
these imply reduction in economic benefits. One employer told us that in his firm,
the workday is reduced by one half hour, from age 57 for women and age 63 for
men. However, the overwhelming majority of employees in this age category
nevertheless choose to work this half hour and receive overtime pay for it.

A second possibly peculiarly Israeli feature of the employment of older workers
is the preferential treatment which army retirees are accorded in recruitment to
civilian jobs. Generally at about age 45 standing army officers retire from military
service and despite the Israeli media’s focus on the difficulties they are reported to
face in absorption into the civilian labor market, the employers we interviewed often
noted that army retirees constitute a manpower pool favored by potential
employers. No employer reported the existence of any special formal arrangement
for the hiring of army veterans, but rather noted that often these veterans’ personal
"connections" increased their chances of being hired.

Another context in which the military was mentioned was that of reserve duty.
It was often noted that a major advantage in employing older workers is that they
are exempt from reserve duty and so have better attendance records than their
younger counterparts. Israel’s security situation and the public’s sensitivity to it
find yet another expression with regard to older workers - parents who have lost a
son in military service are permitted to work until age 70 in the public service.

Finally, informality is a very prominent feature of Israeli society possibly as a
result of its small scale. This informality was repeatedly stressed and praised as a
virtue, with regard to the treatment of older workers. Employers claim that on the
one hand they, and the direct supervisors of older workers, are very much aware of
and sensitive to the latter’s needs and try - whenever possible - to respond to them.
On the other hand, the employers strongly oppose the development of a formal
system of labor agreements on this matter and perceive such a system as having
only disadvantages. They feel that it might create a large-scale demand for special
treatment to which employers will not be able to respond because of economic
constraints. In addition, overwhelmingly the employers felt that such formal agree¬
ments would have the effect of stigmatizing older workers as a group, and so would
ultimately be to their disadvantage. In this, these laymen are consistent with recent
professional or "scientific "opposition (see for example Schrank & Waring 1989) to
policies specifying interventions on behalf of older workers per se, indicating that
they are "probably neither necessary nor wise." Furthermore, such a stance is also
consistent with the generally positive attitudes towards older workers found in the
earlier studies we have cited. Such opposition is based both on the danger of
reinforcement or even creation of stereotypes of older workers - a danger to which
our respondents are sensitive - and on the evidence that chronological age alone is
not a reliable indicator of physical or intellectual capacities, and certainly that
"there is no uniformity of deficit with age."

On the one hand, our interviews indicate that the Israeli workplace possibly lags
its European or North American counterparts in the sense that interventions and
adaptations specifically on behalf of older workers, are - at least in the formal sense
- only very rarely part of the organizational structure. However, at least according

OLDER WORKERS IN ISRAEL

197

to the reports of the personnel managers we interviewed, the work place is charac¬
terized by sensitivity to the needs of the individual worker, regardless of his age and
attempts as much as possible to effectively respond to them. The Israeli employer’s
reluctance to organize such responses formally and his fear of stigmatizing the older
worker may actually represent a progressive age-neutral stance and may be inter¬
preted as recognition of the need to enhance the quality of worklife for all workers
regardless of their age. Clearly, we are only at the beginning of studying these
questions both from employer and employee vantage points. As these questions
become more and more a part of the public agenda we can hope for a greater and
more in-depth understanding of this complex issue and its manifold implications -
for employers, for older and other employees, and for the labor market and society
as a whole.

LITERATURE CITED

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36-37:50-59 (in Hebrew).

Avineri, D. 1974. Concerning the Problems of Employment after Retirement Age.
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Bergman, S. 1979. Attitudes of Employers to their Workers’ Retirement and
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Bergman, S., Y. King and D. Holmes. 1988. The System of Services and Care for
Disabled Elderly in Kibbutz Society: A Summary of Findings. Brookdale
Institute, Jerusalem.

Biber, A. 1990. Gender Differences in Attitudes Towards Work and Retirement
and in Various Aspects of the Quality of Life at Older Ages. Summary Report.
Brookdale Institute, Jerusalem.

Blau, Z.S. 1973. Old Age in a Changing Society. Viewpoint, New York.

Habib, J. 1984. Population Aging and Israeli Society. Paper presented to the
Conference on Societal Aging in the United States and Europe, Bellagio, Italy.
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and C.L. Cooper (eds.) Retirement in Industrialized Societies.

Habib, J. and N. Steigman. 1984. Social Gerontology in Israel, in: A. Amann (ed.)
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Habib, J. and S. Spilerman et al. 1982. The Aging Worker and the Quality of
Work-Life in Israel. Brookdale Institute, Discussion Paper D-76-82, Jerusalem
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Habib, J. et al. 1989. Employment of the Elderly: Future Directions and Areas with
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Israel Central Bureau of Statistics. 1988. Labor Force Surveys. 1986. Special Series
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Israel Central Bureau of Statistics. 1989b. Survey of Persons Aged 60 and Over -
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Jacobson, D. 1987. Optional Early Retirement as an Alternative to Involuntary
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tolgyB(l): 100-104.

King, J. 1987. Retirement Preparation Programs in Israel. Publication of Pensions
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King, J. 1989, Early Retirement - Scope, Trends and Implications for the Individual
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Leviatan, U. 1983. Work and Aging in the Kibbutz: Some Relevancies for the Larger
Society. Journal of Aging and Work 6(3):215-226.

Lieber, N. and E. Cohen. 1978. Survey on Employment of the Aged. Ministry of
Labor and Social Welfare, Occupational Analysis Section, Jerusalem (in
Hebrew).

Matras, J., G. Noam and I. Bar-Haim 1979. Patterns of Employment and Retire¬
ment of Middle-Aged and Aged Jewish Males in Israel. 1969-79. Brookdale
Institute, Discussion Paper D-41-79, Jerusalem.

Matras, J. 1989. Proposals, Programs and Policies for Extending Employment in
Middle and Late Life D-177-89. Brookdale Institute. Jerusalem.

Matras, J. Forthcoming. Factors in Employment and Employment Transitions
Among Israelis in Middle and Later Life. Brookdale Institute, Jerusalem.

Nachman, J. 1988. Laws, Rules, and Regulations on Early Retirement in Israel, in:
S. Bergman etal. (eds.) Early Retirement: Approaches and Variations. Kessler
Gerontologische Schuften 3, and Brookdale Institute, Jerusalem.

National Council on the Aging. 1981. Aging in the Eighties: America in Transition.
A Survey by Louis Harris and Associates, Inc. The National Council on the
Aging, Inc., Washington D.C.

Noam, G. and M. Sicron. Forthcoming. Socio-Demographic Trends among the
Elderly Population in Israel: 1961-1983, Analysis of Census Data. Brookdale
Institute, Jerusalem.

OECD. 1979. Demographic Trends, 1950-1990. Paris.

Ori, N. 1988. Personal Communications.

Parnes, H.S. et al. 1985. Retirement among American Men. D.C. Heath and Co.,
Lexington, Mass.

Price-Bonham, S.P. and C.K. Johnson 1982. Attitudes Toward Retirement: A
Comparison of Professional and Non-Professional Married Women, in: M.
Szinovacz (ed.) Women’s Retirement Policy: Implications of Recent Research.
Sage Publications.

Schrank, H.T. and J.M. Waring. 1989. Older Workers: Ambivalence and Interven¬
tions. The Annuals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science.
503: 113-127.

Shnit, D. (ed.). 1980. Rights of the Elderly in Israeli Law. Ministry of Labor and
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vShnit, D and M. It ran. 1981, Age Discrimination against Job Seekers. General
Federation of Labor , and University of Tel Aviv, Institute for Social and
Economic Research, Tel Aviv (in Hebrew).

Streib, G.F. and C J. Schneider. 1971. Retirement in American Society: Impact and
Process. Cornell University Press, Ithaca.

Szinovacz, M. 1987. Preferred Retirement Timing and Retirement Satisfaction in
Women. International Journal of Aging and Human Development 24(4):
301-317.

Zipkin, A. and B. Morgenstein. 1989. Income Patterns among the Elderly in Israel.
National Insurance Institute Survey, No, 63, Jerusalem.

Virginia Journal of Science
Volume 41, Number 3
Fall 1990

Work and Retirement Decisions in Israel:
Demographic Background, Scientific Perspectives and
Social Issues

Dan Jacobson, Department of Labor Studies
Tel-Aviv University, Tel- Aviv, Israel

ABSTRACT

The inconsistency between individual preferences with regard to work and
retirement and diminishing employment opportunities may be even more
profound in Israel than in other countries as a result of residual work-
centered values. Following a brief description of the Israeli scene, some
of the antecedent social and demographic factors that affect labor-force
participation of older age groups in Israel are reviewed. The paper’s focus
then moves to the empirical evidence relating to prevalent attitudes toward
retirement and the determinants thereof. Some of the methodological
difficulties in assessing these attitudes are indicated. While not accepting
the inevitability of reduced paid-employment opportunities for the elderly,
the paper concludes with a call for broad-based structural changes that
will enable society to accommodate the emerging demands of the new age
structure.

DISCUSSION

The question of employment of older workers (generally people approaching
the normatively accepted retirement age or already past it) is usually framed around
two competing sets of interests: the need to maintain a balance in the workforce
under conditions of relatively high unemployment by replacing older workers with
younger ones, and the need to provide more employment opportunities for older
persons who want to continue working. The extent to which one of these sets of
interests becomes the major influence on public and private policy at a specific
period is determined by an interplay of often conflicting demographic, economic,
sociological and psychological realities. However, for any given country, a better
understanding of these realities requires that consideration be given first to the
historical, cultural and socio-political background which contributed to the overall
framework. In more than one way Israel is a somewhat special case in that respect.
We therefore begin our survey of work and retirement decisions in Israel with a
brief description of that background. We then touch upon some of the antecedent
social and demographic factors. Next we focus on some of the "immediate" factors
which help to explain individual variation in attitudes toward work and retirement
in this country. This is followed by a few methodological comments relating to
validity of the measures generally used. Finally, in the concluding section, we
consider some general implications of these viewed trends.

This report will be relatively eclectic and atheoretical. The most important
reason for this is that there is no single, well-articulated, logically organized,
comprehensive theory of the work versus retirement decision-making process

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201

which is sufficiently compelling to force an organization and interpretation of the
evidence in relation to it. Certainly, insofar as the relevant Israeli evidence is
concerned, I have not come across any empirical findings which can be only
interpreted in conjunction with a particular theoretical position which generated
them. Since the process under review here cuts across many disciplines, the
approach that was adopted is essentially multi-disciplinary and the primary concern
is with brief inferences from several socially significant viewpoints.

THE MACRO ENVIRONMENT

Jewish culture is an important factor to consider in the study of older Israelis’
decision to work or to retire. Work and work ethics have been the focus of concern
since the beginnings of Jewish history and tradition. Early Jewish philosophers
dealt with issues which continue to be relevant today, e.g.y "What is work?” "What
is the contribution of work to a society and its people?" The perceived functions of
work in early Jewish society, which have been classified as social, moral-personal
and ideological (Alon, 1967), are summed up in epigrams such as, "He who does
not teach his son a craft teaches him brigandage" (Talmud, Kiddushim, 29a).

For the founders of the Jewish labor movement and the modern State of Israel,
too, work had a special meaning. Work values are still being transmitted to the
younger generation through both formal and informal education (e.g., in youth
movements), and are thus well integrated into the Israeli socialization process. In
more practical terms, this also explains why Israel had, by and large, been com¬
mitted until as recently as the mid-1980s to the maintenance of high, nearly full,
employment. This commitment was based on a widespread consensus and became
both a major problem of the economy and a major strength of the society (on this
point, see, for example, Fishelson, 1987 and Jacobson, 1990). The full employment
policy was achieved largely through the country’s willingness and ability to effec¬
tively subsidize employment on a large scale aided by massive economic support
from abroad and at the expense of a runaway inflation and a national debt which
grew at an alarming pace. As indicated, this policy had strong historical roots.
Prior to independence, in 1948, work, and especially hard, physical labor, was
viewed as a crucial ideological component in the struggle of the "state in the
making." The Zionist-Socialist parties which have formed the ruling elite of the
Jewish community’s political system followed a future-oriented collectivistic ideol¬
ogy which glorified youth and its pioneering spirit (Horowitz and Lissak, 1985).
This ideology emphasized the return to productive labor of Jews immigrating to
Israel and stressed the need to provide employment as a necessary means for
encouraging them to make Israel their home. It envisaged work as the basis for
national and social renaissance; economic objectives, such as growth, attained
prominence only after the country’s independence.

The creation and maintenance of employment opportunities took on even
greater urgency in the process of absorption of the mass Jewish immigration into
Israel during the first generations of statehood. Indeed, to this date it is a declared,
albeit not always realized, cornerstone of institutional policy and activity. Given the
continuous threat to its security and the numerous conflict areas within Israeli
society, economic and class tensions due to a lack of employment opportunities

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have traditionally been seen as dangerous additional burdens that Israeli society
just can not bear (Jacobson, 1987).

It is against this background of the central position afforded to work, the near
glorification of youth and the strong orientation toward the future that the resis¬
tance of many members of Israel’s founding generation to retirement can be
understood. For them, retirement means relinquishing not only their work role,
but often very central positions in society. However, a degree of caution is called
for at this point on the basis of some of the empirical evidence surveyed below.
Although the commitment to work and the centrality of work apparently still
constitute an important element of the work ethic of many older Israelis, its
presence does not necessarily presuppose that of the second component of a work
ethic - namely the motivation to perform well on a specific job, or the readiness to
exert effort at work. Furthermore, the massive numbers of immigrants who arrived
in Israel in the wake of the establishment of the State and thereafter were often
forced into new and unfamiliar work, not by choice or ideology, but by the need to
meet the demands of the absorbing society and to survive economically. Many
older immigrants never fully integrated into the economy. Even those who did were
hampered to different degrees by the need to cope with a new language and perhaps
even more significantly, new and complex values. Their late entry into the
workforce, the traumas suffered, all have considerable repercussions on the resour¬
ces available to them in old age.

While the need to maintain an economic regime of close to full employment is
still widely accepted, policies which encouraged subsidization of employment
creation activities have changed dramatically in Israel since the summer of 1985 in
direct consequence of the government’s drastic anti-inflationary moves. These
policies resulted in substantial cutbacks, a widespread trend toward retrenchment
and a growing number of closures in most economic branches both in public and
private sectors as well as in the large trade-union owned sector. During the second
half of 1989, unemployment figures rose to an unprecedented 9.8% of the civilian
workforce. Under these dire economic circumstances, the continued integration
into the workforce of the elderly and retired population who desire it, and for whom
it is likely to be a central factor in their personal and social well-being, is probably
not perceived by policy makers as a priority, and certainly not within the realm of
the practicable. Early retirement, rather than extended labor-force participation,
has come to be recognized as a preferred means of lowering payroll costs. For
instance, in Biber’s (1988) study of retirement patterns in ten large Jerusalem
organizations both in the public and the private sectors, the majority of managers
at different hierarchical levels, while objecting, in principle, to a rigid retirement-
age policy, favored compulsory retirement for older workers as a workforce reduc¬
tion strategy in times of growing unemployment. Likewise, as pointed out by
Jacobson (1987), the use of optional early retirement (OER) programs is presently
winning popularity among many Israeli employers as an employment buffering
strategy which has marked advantages over involuntary layoffs and dismissals. In
fact, in the last few years, retirement for all at a set age is, to a degree, something
of the past, the still comparatively high labor-force participation figures (see below)
notwithstanding. In the national consciousness, although still less so than in some
other countries (see, for example, Gaullier,1988), career exit is beginning to be

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spread over a 10 year period between the ages of 55 to 65 and is coupled with a
variety of statuses sharing diverse implications. To name but a few: early retire¬
ment, unemployment, "discouraged worker," etc. In sum, in contemporary Israel
the older worker problem is not generally perceived as one of authorizing employ¬
ment after retirement, but rather to have a job and to hold on to it, if possible up
to retirement age.

DEMOGRAPHICS AND THE OLDER WORKER'S
LABOR-FORCE PARTICIPATION

The Impact of Immigration and The Aging of Society.

First and foremost among the demographic and social trends that have to be
taken into account when considering work and retirement patterns in Israel is the
phenomenon of mass immigration. As has already been mentioned, this
phenomenon had some far-reaching effects. Among them, since the establishment
of the State, have been the dramatic changes in the age structure of the population;
particularly, an unusually rapid increase in the number and in the proportion of
older people. Both because early immigration was selective toward the young, and
because later immigration "imported" large numbers of middle-aged and older
people, the population currently reaching retirement age is exceptionally large in
comparison to the past. Thus, while in the pre-State period of 1928-1948 only 3.1
percent of Jewish immigrants were aged 65 and over, while 64.3 percent of the
immigrants were under 30 years of age, in the 1970s, for example, no fewer than
19.6 percent of the immigrants were aged 45-64, and 10.1 percent were aged 65 or
over (Habib and Matras, 1987). This shift has greatly affected the overall increase
of those aged 65 + , from approximately 4 percent in 1948 to above 10 percent of
the total population recently. Obviously, other influences not necessarily unique to
Israel (such as increased longevity and a declining fertility rate) have also greatly
influenced the rapid aging of the Israeli society (for a recent review of these trends,
see Matras and Noam, 1989).

These growing numbers of older Israelis constitute the first large-scale genera¬
tions faced with retirement in an institutionalized manner, that is according to more
or less definite rules or norms. Previously, Israel has had relatively little experience
with the retirement process, either on the societal or the individual level. Few
members of the older cohorts have been exposed to a process of "anticipatory
socialization" (Merton, 1968) to advanced-age role expectations. Many have no
"role models" to emulate -- either because, as immigrants, they came on their own
and grew up without the nearness of an older generation, or because the past
ideological emphasis on youth (see above) has made existing models irrelevant.

Overall Participation of the Elderly in the Labor-Force

Sicron (1986) has shown that employment of elderly (65 + ) and late middle-
aged (55-64) men has been more widespread in Israel in the recent past than in
other highly industrialized countries, but has declined in the last two decades.
Similarly, Kop (1987) reports that by 1983 (the year the last National Census was
taken) the rate of labor-force participation of Jewish men in Israel aged 55-64
declined to 80 percent (compared to 91.5 percent in 1964) and the percentage of
men aged 65 or over in the labor-force was down to 38 percent (compared to 44

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percent in 1964). A further breakdown reveals that the latter figure is an average
of a 43.5 percent participation rate among men aged 65-74, and 18 percent among
those aged 75 and above (Kop, 1987). According to recent figures published by the
Israel Central Bureau of Statistics (Israel-CBS,1989), labor-force participation in
the age groups under consideration here has declined further in 1988, probably as
a concomitant of rising unemployment, (to 71.5 percent among males aged 55-64
and to 36.0 percent in the 65-69 group). Among women, labor-force participation
in 1988 was 51.3 percent in the 45-54 age group, 37.8 percent in the 55-59 group,
18.4 in the 60-64 group and a mere 9.3 percent in the 65-69 age group (Israel-CBS,
1989). Moreover, these figures may exaggerate the actual extent to which older
people work, since they include those working part-time. Nearly half of the men
aged 65 and over who were active members of the labor-force, and almost two-
thirds of the "active" women aged 60 and over, generally worked less than 35 hours
per week (compared to 16 percent of working men aged 60-64 and 36 percent of
women aged 55-60).

Nonetheless, Habib and Matras (1987) have shown that the labor-force par¬
ticipation rate for Israeli Jewish males within the 55-64 age group remains higher
than that for males in that group in the US and most Western countries with the
exception of the UK and Japan. As for males aged 65 and over, the only Western
industrialized country with a labor-force participation rate higher than that in Israel
is Japan. It stands to reason, as argued by Habib (1984), that the relatively low level
of unemployment in Israel until the mid 1980s and the lack, until fairly recently, of
ready access to adequate pensions and income support systems, or the incom¬
patibility between them and the aging workers’ material expectations, have all
worked in the direction of these comparatively high rates of labor force participa¬
tion.

Intra-Group Differences in Labor-Force Participation

A number of reports point to a considerable differentiation in labor-force
participation among the elderly by education, geo-cultural origin, marital status,
and occupational group. Citing several studies, Griffel (1984) shows higher par¬
ticipation rates among the better-educated, those of European- American origin,
those who are relative old-timers in Israel, and among married men and non-mar-
ried women. Statistical evidence presented by Habib and Matras (1987) clearly
suggests a dramatic and positive relationship between levels of educational attain¬
ment and rates of participation. Among men aged 55-64, less than two-thirds of
those with no or with very little formal schooling, but more than nine-tenths of those
with post-secondary level schooling, were in the labor-force in the early 1980s.
Similarly, among those aged 65 and over, only 11 percent of those with 0-4 school
years, and less than 24 percent of those with 5-8 school years, were in the labor-
force, compared to more than one-third in the labor-force among those with at least
some post-primary (9 years or more) schooling. Likewise among women, in 1988,
the labor-force participation rate in the 55-59 age group was 10.8 percent of those
with 0-4 school years and 19.5 percent of those with 5-8 school years, compared to
39.1 percent in the labor force among those with 9 years or more of schooling (54.9
percent and 67.9 percent for women with 13-15 and 16+ years of schooling
respectively). Among women above the conventional retirement age (the 60-64 age

WORK AND RETIREMENT IN ISRAEL

205

group), only about 2 percent of women with little or no schooling participated in
the labor-force, compared to approximately 15 percent of the women with more
than 13 years of schooling (Israel-CBS, 1989).

The overwhelming majority (about 93 percent) of Israeli Jewish males aged 55
and over are still men who had been born abroad and immigrated to Israel. While
it is possible to foresee a gradual increase in the proportion of Israeli born elderly,
the recent immigration wave from the Soviet Union on the one hand, and diverse
countries such as Argentina and Ethiopia on the other, guarantees a continued
impact of geo-cultural background factors for years to come. Indeed, according to
Habib and Matras (1987), labor force participation rates of men in that age category
who were born in Western countries (Europe and America) or in Israel is substan¬
tially higher than those born in Asia or Africa. The same geo-cultural origin
variation exists among elderly Israeli women (for recent figures, see Israel-CBS,
1989). These differences remain evident even when controlling for other
demographic factors such as differences in age subgroup, educational attainment,
occupational group, and differences in period of immigration or duration of
residence in Israel. In all subgroups, late middle-aged and elderly men and women
born in Asian or African countries have lower labor-force participation rates than
do those born in Europe, America or Israel itself, though the differences are
smallest among those who immigrated prior to 1948.

As in other countries, occupational differentiation appears to be another
important determinant of labor-force participation in Israel. In their analysis of
data from a National Mobility Survey carried out as part of the Labor Force Survey
in 1974, Matras, Noam and Bar-Haim (1979) found that the percentages retiring
among men under 60 in unskilled manual or service occupations were somewhat
higher than in other occupations. But among those aged 60-64 the occupational
differences in the percentages retiring became much more pronounced, with those
employed in service and unskilled occupations withdrawing from the labor-force
in substantially greater percentages than others in that age-group. Similar occupa¬
tional differentiation in the rate of retirement from the labor-force was found for
the 65-69-year-old men. The differential retirement rates among different occupa¬
tional groups have been replicated and updated in large measure in a more recent
investigation (Israel-CBS, 1984). On the whole, then, continued labor-force par¬
ticipation beyond normal retirement age in Israel, as in most Western countries, is
characteristic of those with higher educational and occupational status (particular¬
ly managers and professionals), farmers (including in large numbers members of
Kibbutzim), and self-employed individuals. The latter are more likely to continue
working since they are not restricted by mandatory retirement rules and are more
easily able to adjust their work-role to their needs. Scientists and scholars, whether
or not they are officially listed as being in the labor-force, tend to continue engaging
in professional activities after retirement age. On the other hand, those employed
in service and unskilled occupations are the least likely to remain in the labor force.

Confirmation of these trends is received in studies of smaller samples of elderly
target-populations in specific settings. Generally, these studies show greater par¬
ticipation in the labor-force for men who immigrated from Western countries, with
a higher level of education, and especially for those who were married and had
positive self-evaluations of their health ( e.g ., Griffel, 1984). The tendency to

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continue work among members of these groups is often attributed to a relatively
high degree of work centrality and commitment, the intrinsic satisfaction derived
from their line of work, the nonphysical nature of their jobs, as well as the greater
demand for their skills in the labor-market (Mannheim and Rein, 1981). Profes¬
sionals who are not subjected to rigid retirement rules, such as physicians, are
particularly unlikely to retire (Jacobson and Eran, 1980). However, these studies
also show a sizable group who continue to work mainly to supplement inadequate
income. The majority of this group consists of relative newcomers to the country
who did not accumulate sufficient pension rights and possess no alternative sources
of income. The financially motivated comprised 45 percent of those working in
Bergman’s (1981) sample of clerical and administrative older workers, and 31
percent of workers studied by Kremer and Weiner (1977). These tended to be men
of Asian- African origin who were employed on a part-time and irregular basis on
blue-collar or low-level service jobs.

FACTORS AFFECTING THE DECISION TO CONTINUE
WORKING OR TO RETIRE

The Empirical Evidence

The decision to leave the labor force is an important life cycle choice that affects
a person’s well-being for the remainder of his/her life. This section briefly describes
variables related to this decision and reports some of the evidence accumulated in
Israel on their significance. It must be pointed out, however, that most of this
evidence comes from studies that have been devoted to correlational or causal
analyses of individual variation in attitudes toward work and retirement. Relatively
few studies have focused specifically on the retirement "decision" per se or on the
timing of retirement. The reason for that is that for most employed Israelis
retirement at a given age is mandatory and not conditional on the individual’s own
decision. Furthermore, all of the relevant Israeli studies that came to our attention
dealt with, as yet, employed respondents in the "young-old" age groups (55-68 and
50-63 for men and women respectively). None was carried out on already retired
respondents.

Kasl (1980) cites a number of American studies which demonstrate that the
norms and values that both directly and indirectly affect the decision to retire have
undergone a change in the United States in the last 40 years. He points to two major
reasons for this: (1) changing attitudes toward work, and (2) increased availability
of adequate pensions which supply the financial security which enable the person
to retire. In Israel, as noted earlier, the emerging Zeitgeist also puts less emphasis
on work in comparison to earlier periods. However, this decline in the subjective
centrality of work is much more typical among younger age-groups than among
older ones (Mannheim and Rein, 1981). Proof for the relatively higher work
centrality among older workers has been provided by Harpaz (1988). This inves¬
tigator compared response structures in the early 1970s to those in 1981 using the
hypothetical "lottery question" methodology involving intentions to continue work¬
ing given an adequate alternative source of income. Harpaz’s (1988) analysis
revealed an increase of 150 percent (from 6.3 percent to 15.4 percent) in young
people’s desire to stop working between the two points of time that were compared.

WORK AND RETIREMENT IN ISRAEL

207

Conversely, among older respondents (aged 60 and over) a decline of more than
100 percent was actually observed (26.5 percent to 12.9 percent) in the desire to
stop working in the absence of economic needs. The persistence of older workers’
work orientation and their lack of awareness of alternative social roles has also been
reported in other studies (e.g., Kremer and Harpaz,1982).

As for the second underlying determinant of a more positive predisposition
toward retirement in the US pointed out by Kasl (1980), that of the increased
availability of adequate retirement income, this too fails to emerge as such in Israeli
studies. Most of these studies (see reviews in Bergman, 1980; Griffel, 1984) point
to financial anxieties and pressures as major factors affecting the preference not to
give up work, particularly among blue-collar and low level white-collar older
workers. Pensions are perceived as semi-adequate at best, and their direct in¬
fluence in supplying the financial means that facilitate a more positive retirement
predisposition is limited (Avner, 1975). Rather, they may be thought of as having
an indirect influence in serving to legitimize the status of the retired, especially for
those who are not forced to retire because of poor health and whose formative years
have imbued them with the collectivistic work orientation of earlier times discussed
above.

Most of the data on retirement intentions and on preretirement attitudes and
their correlates in Israel come from studies conducted in the 1970s in specific
industrial settings (for instance, Eran and Jacobson, 1976; Han deles, 1982; Kremer
and Wiener, 1977; Mannheim and Jacobson, 1972). These studies suggest that
those older workers who prefer to retire (usually less than 50 percent of the
investigated samples) are primarily in jobs with low substantive complexity and low
social skills. Frequently these are dull, routine jobs involving mechanized line
operations. They are also likely to be heavy, physically demanding and fatigue-
producing jobs. Not surprisingly, therefore, perceptions of declining health and
reduced ability to keep up with job demands are also involved. For example, in
Jacobson’s (1972) study of semi-skilled factory operatives, jobs were classified into
three levels of strain (light, moderate and heavy) on the basis of objective job
analysis indicators. The direction of the retirement predisposition among the
respondents in that study has been shown to covary with other variables. Thus,
older workers on heavy jobs not only opted for as early a retirement age as possible;
they also were more likely to view themselves as elderly or old, to appraise their
health as poor, and to believe that retirement would have a positive effect on their
health. At the same time, retirement retained an external attribution in the sense
that it was normatively acceptable in a situation manipulated by forces beyond the
individual’s control. The major conclusion emerging from this and Jacobson’s
other earlier studies was that the decision to retire among industrial workers
reflected, first and foremost, an attempt to seek a legitimate release from a negative
reality involving fatigue, psychological or physical strain, and interpersonal conflict.
In other words, the demands of a stressful work environment encouraged retire¬
ment. Only relatively rarely was retirement perceived as intrinsically attractive in
its own right. The situation is not dramatically different among lower skilled
industrial workers who preferred to continue work. Usually their attachment to
their specific job (as opposed to their general commitment to the work-role) was
found to be rather tenuous as well. As reported by Mannheim and Jacobson (1972),

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they would continue working either due to financial needs and the negative image
of retirement, or because society has not provided any meaningful alternatives, not
because of any intrinsic satisfaction in work. These workers tended to "accept the
necessity of work but expected little fulfillment from their specific job" (Mannheim
and Jacobson, 1972, p. 261).

Given that pre-retirement planning courses are relatively new on the Israeli
scene, the literature has not reported a consistent relationship between retirement
planning and an effective decrease in the psychological resistance to retirement
(Harpaz and Kremer, 1981; Kremer and Harpaz, 1982). It is as yet unclear whether
or not such a causal relationship exists. In fact, Kremer and Harpaz (1982) suggest
on the basis of their study that the relative strong work orientation among older
Israeli workers, and the desire of many to continue working after their formal
retirement, is reflected in their reluctance to plan for alternatives for work and to
appreciate the importance of counselling.

Analyses of sex differences in Israeli studies reveal that poor health is the most
important predictor of a positive retirement attitude for men, while marital status
is for women; women who have never been married are particularly less likely to
want to retire. The majority of female respondents aged 55 + in Biber’s (1988)
study objected to the practice of an earlier retirement age for women than for men.
Only a third of the former, and less than a half of the latter were inclined to retire
at the conventional retirement age. Two-thirds of the 348 men and women alike in
Biber’s (1988) study expressed interest in employment after retirement. However,
this tendency was particularly marked among respondents in white collar occupa¬
tions and considerably less so among men and women in blue-collar occupations.
Biber’s (1988) results support Mannheim and Jacobson’s (1974) study of industrial
workers in their 50’s and 60’s in which women were significantly less favorably
oriented toward retirement than men. While elderly men in that study were
exceedingly worried about economic deprivation in retirement, among women the
location of highly valued interpersonal relationships within the workplace emerged
as the predominant concomitant of the wish to remain employed past the pen¬
sionable age. In interpreting these findings, Jacobson (1974) suggests that they
reflect a re-assessment of middle-aged and elderly roles, both in their own eyes and
on the normative and institutional level. Finally, for both men and women there is
some evidence regarding the influence of psychographic variables on the retire¬
ment predisposition. Specifically, locus of control and death anxiety (i.e., the belief
that retirement signals death) have been reported to have some influence, but much
less so than the income and health variables.

The overall picture emerging from these studies, then, is of financial and health
considerations being paramount, with attitudes toward leisure activities coming in
as a distant third influence on retirement attitudes. Job satisfaction or, alternatively,
factors relating directly to the nature of the retirement situation have relatively little
bearing on these attitudes. Still, it is important to note that this general conclusion
is based on studies of subjects from middle and lower occupational strata.
Evidence on subjects specifically from upper occupational strata does challenge
that conclusion somewhat. A case in point, for example, is Eden and Jacobson’s
(1976) study of 179 older (55 + ) senior executives, all men, in 13 leading Israeli
organizations. This study suggested that the decision to withdraw from work

WORK AND RETIREMENT IN ISRAEL

209

tended to be influenced by the executive's acceptance of retirement as an ap¬
propriate stage in his life cycle, his perception of retirement as an opportunity for
self-fulfillment in other fields or, significantly, by his loyalty to the norms of his
organization which obligated him to facilitate the advancement of younger col¬
leagues by his own withdrawal. Of course, the latter factor may have expressed
some degree of internalized peer pressure. Paradoxically, therefore, among the
executives studied, even if themselves not bound by a mandatory retirement age,
high job satisfaction and organizational commitment were often linked to a
declared intention to retire once they reached the compulsory age normally stipu¬
lated by their organizations. Similarly, in a study of 317 older physicians employed
in public clinics in which no compulsory retirement was imposed, the decision to
retire or to continue working past the normal retirement age depended, first and
foremost, on the perceived instrumentalities of continued employment, and of
retirement, for the attainment of professionally desired outcomes (Jacobson and
Eran, 1980).

Some Methodological Considerations and Refinements

In summarizing the relevant studies it must be realized that apparently similar
measures of dependent variables can actually represent different constructs, which
in turn may have different correlates or determinants. For example, preference or
desire to retire is not necessarily the same as plans or intentions for retirement; the
former represents a desire or wish which may be unrelated to financial considera¬
tions, while the latter may be heavily influenced by adequacy of prospective
post-retirement income. Similarly, anticipatory attitudes toward retirement may
tap different processes depending on whether they reflect attitudes toward the
giving up of one's work-role or the anticipated quality of life in retirement. Persons
in poor subjective health prior to retirement tend to have negative anticipatory
attitudes toward retirement, the same as persons in good health and strong job
involvement (Biber, 1988). But since two different processes are being tapped, one
may find that negative attitudes are related to a preference for early retirement in
the first group and for delayed retirement in the second.

To overcome this potential conceptual and methodological confusion, an at¬
tempt has been made to integrate the variables involved in the work versus retire¬
ment decision making process into an articulated formulation of the original
(Vroom, 1964) expectancy theory framework. The validity of this formulation was
empirically tested in a series of Israeli studies based on samples of blue-collar
industrial workers (Eran and Jacobson, 1976), executives (Eden and Jacobson,
1976) and physicians (Jacobson and Eran, 1980). The samples included older
workers who did have a measure of control over the timing of their withdrawal from
their respective employing organizations, that is workers who were in position to
determine their actual behavior in the light of their cognitive decisions. The results
of these studies suggested that the choice between continued employment or
retirement was indeed guided, in part at least, by a cognitive calculus conducted by
the individual who was faced with the choice. This calculus involved the subjective
valence of each life-situation feature that could be affected by the choice, and the
subjective probability of enhancing (or losing) that feature. In other words, the
individual's decision tended to reflect the degree to which either continued employ-

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ment or retirement was perceived as potentially enhancing or harming his/her
chances for achieving, obtaining, or maintaining important values, resources or
objectives.

Symbolically: VE = F{ » [VK(IEk - IRk)]}
where VE = the valence of continued employment
VK = the valence of outcome K
IEK = cognized instrumentality of employment for
the attainment of outcome K
IRK - cognized instrumentality of retirement for
the attainment of outcome K

CONCLUDING REMARKS

The striking phenomenon which emerged from most of the relevant Israeli
studies is the reluctance of a majority of respondents to relinquish their role as
workers. By and large, even workers who accepted the necessity of ceasing to work
failed to possess a positive image of retirement. However, the desire to continue
working after the formal retirement age, which is also reflected in the comparatively
large proportions of older people who are still active in the labor-force, is clearly
inconsistent with the current social and economic realities prevailing in Israel, as
in many other countries in Europe and North America. Not only is retirement in
this country mandatory for most employees at a given age, but in the future, if the
labor market retains its present structure, there are likely to be fewer opportunities
for retirees to obtain suitable employment. Several factors contribute to this
situation: The absence of agencies whose task it is to find alternative employment
for retirees; the lack of special training, professional updating and career counsell¬
ing facilities for older people; the reluctance of organizations to re-employ their
retirees on a part-time basis; and, of course, the growing general rate of unemploy¬
ment. In addition, common stereotypes about the old, held by both the old and the
young, are excluding many older people from society. Income maintenance at a
sufficient level, it is often argued, should be guaranteed for the elderly since then-
potential contribution to society has ended. At best, both public and private
policies reflect the goals of the past — a secure retirement, free from work. By
implication older people are thus seen as unproductive, dependent, and not needed
for maintaining a functioning society.

For many older Israelis this situation has all the makings of a conflict between
the individual’s wishes or needs which, among old-timers, are often backed up by
a work-centered value system, and society’s expectations concerning the post¬
retirement period. While policies reflecting this conflict may be prevalent today,
they will hardly be acceptable in Israel (and other countries) when 13-15 percent
of the population are aged 65 and older. The problem confronting us may be even
more social than economic. Clearly many older people would prefer a more flexible
system that permits more choice about when and how they will retire. If progress
is to be made, we must begin to think about how older people can be better
integrated into social and economic life through such means as alternative employ¬
ment, volunteer work, education, self-help and public service. This challenge is as
great as that of the more usual problems of improving and expending social and
health services, increasing pension levels, and seeking ways to allow more older

WORK AND RETIREMENT IN ISRAEL

211

people to remain in their own homes. The challenge before us, then, is to alter the

social objectives related to retirement and to promote public policies that will be

adjusted to reflect these changing social goals.

LITERATURE CITED

Alon, G. 1967. Studies in Jewish History (Hebrew). Hakibbutz Hameuchad, Tel-
Aviv.

Avner, U. 1975. Factors of Change in the Patterns of Work and Retirement among
the Israeli Jewish Elderly. Paper presented to the 10th International Congress
of Gerontology, Jerusalem.

Bergman, S. 1980. Israel. In E. Patmore (Ed.), The International Handbook of
Aging. Greenwood Press, Westport, CN pp. 208-233.

Bergman, S. 1981. Preparation for Retirement as an Aspect of Adaptability to
Aging, Adaptability and Aging (CIGS), 2:273-279.

Biber, A. 1988, Differences between Men and Women in Attitudes toward Work
and Retirement and in Various Quality of Life Aspects in Advanced Age
(Hebrew). Research Report, Brookdale Institute of Gerontology, Jerusalem,

Eden, D. and D. Jacobson. 1976. Propensity to Retire among Older Executives. J.
Voc. Behav. 8: 145-154.

Enin, M. and D. Jacobson. 1976. Expectancy Theory Prediction of the Preference
to Remain Employed or to Retire. J. Gerontol. 31(5): 605-610.

Fishelson, G. 1987. Unemployment in Israel - An Overview. Paper presented at the
Sapir Institute Conference on Unemployment, Tel- Aviv.

Gaullier, X, 1988. La Deuxieme Carriere. Editions Du Seuil, Paris. Griff el. A, 1984.
Work and Retirement. In S. Bergman and I. Margolec (Eds.), Selected Topics
In Gerontology (Hebrew). Am Oved Publishers Ltd., Tel- Aviv.

Habib, J. 1984. Population Aging and Israeli Society. Paper presented to the
Conference on Societal Aging in the United States and Europe. Bellagio, Italy.

Habib, J. and J. Matras. 1987. On Trends in Retirement in Israel In K.S. Markides
and C.L. Cooper (Eds.), Retirement in Industrialized Societies. John Wiley &
Sons, Inc., London.

Handeles, 1. 1982. The Older Worker in Industry (Hebrew). Institute for Economic
and Social Research. The General Federation of Labor, Tel- Aviv.

Harpaz, I. 1988. Variables Affecting Non 'Financial Employment Commitment.
Applied Psychology: An International Review. 37(3): 235-248.

Harpaz, I, and Y. Kremer. 1981. Determinants of Continued and Discontinued
Participation in Pre-Retirement Training: An Israeli Case Study. J. Occup.
PsycoL, 54: 213-220.

Horowitz, D, and M. Lissak. 1985. Ideological Dimensions. In E. Krausz (Ed.),
Politics and Society in Israel. Transaction Books, New Brunswick.

Israel Central Bureau of Statistics - CBS. 1984. Labor Mobility Survey, 1980. Special
Series No. 749, Jerusalem,

Israel CBS, 1989. Statistical Abstract of Israel 1989. No. 40, Jerusalem.

Jacobson, D. 1972. Fatigue-Producing Factors in Industrial Work and Pre-Retire¬
ment Attitudes. Occup. Psychol, 46: 193-200.

Jacobson, D. 1974. Rejection of the Retiree Role: A Study of Female Industrial
Workers in Their 50’s. Hum. Relat, 27(5):477-92.

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Jacobson, D. 1987. A Personological Study of the Job Insecurity Experience. Soc.
Behavior, 2(3): 143-55.

Jacobson, D. 1987. Optional Early Retirement as an Alternative to Involuntary
Layoffs: Some Observations on the Israeli Experience. Compr. Gerontol. B.,
1: 100-4.

Jacobson, D. 1990. Worklessness: An Integrative Review of Research Findings in
Israel. In A. Globerson, A. Galin and E. Rosenstein (Eds.), New Horizons in
Industrial Relations and the Management of Human Resources in Israel
(Hebrew). Ramot Publishing Co., Tel- Aviv University, Tel- Aviv.

Jacobson, D. and M. Eran. 1980. Expectancy Theory Components and Non-Expec¬
tancy Moderators as Predictors of Physicians Preference for Retirement. J.
Occup. Psychol., 53: 11-26.

Kasl, S. V. 1980. The impact of Retirement. In C. L. Cooper & R. Payne (Eds.), Current
Concerns in Occupational Stress. John Wiley & Sons Inc., Chicester, England.

Kop, Y. 1987. The Graying Sabra: A Demographic View of the Elderly Population.
Social Security, 30: 40-53 (Hebrew).

Kremer, Y. and I. Harpaz. 1982. Attitudes toward Pre-Retirement Counselling: A
Path Model. J. Occup. Behav., 3: 205-213.

Kremer, Y. and E. Weiner. 1977. Final Report of Three Surveys among Older
Industrial and Service Workers (Hebrew). The Retirement Planning Society,
Haifa.

Mannheim, B. and D. Jacobson. 1972. Attitudes of Older Industrial Workers
toward Retirement. In L. Miller (Ed.), Mental Health in Rapid Social Change.
Jewish Academic Press, Jerusalem, pp. 253-264.

Mannheim, B. and J. Rein. 1981. Work Centrality in Different Age Groups and the
Wish to Discontinue Work. Int. J. Aging and Hum. Devel., 13: 221-232.

Matras, J. and G. Noam. 1989. Work, Parenting, and their Alternatives among the
Elderly: Patterns and Issues in Israel. Paper presented at the Conference on
Aging and the Jewish World, Jerusalem.

Matras, J., G. Noam and I. Bar-Haim. 1979. Patterns of Employment and Retire¬
ment of Middle-Aged and Aged Jewish Males in Israel. Discussion Paper
D-41-79. Brookdale Institute of Gerontology, Jerusalem.

Merton, R.K. 1968. Social Theory and Social Structure. Free Press, New York.

Sicron, M. 1986. Employment and Retirement of the Elderly in Israel. Hierosylel-
mitana, The Hebrew University, Jerusalem.

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Virginia Journal of Science
Volume 41, Number 3
Fall 1990

Retirement and Reentry Decision-Making

Seth Zimmer, Personnel Research
Southwestern Bell Telephone Company
St. Louis, MO 63101

Albert S. Gllckman, Eminent Professor of Psychology
Department of Psychology, Old Dominion University
Norfolk, VA 23529

ABSTRACT

Universities are faced with an aging workforce and threatened with deficits
in number and quality of replacements for retirees. Decisions about when
to retire and whether to reenter the workforce confront all faculty. What
enters into those decisions? Usable questionnaires were returned by 186
out of the 361 full-time tenured faculty at one university. Data consisted
of self-report measures of work values, nonwork values, work needs,
nonwork needs, perception of financial security, and organizational affilia¬
tions, plus demographic items. Respondents did Q-sorts with 25 items
measuring the six psychological factors. Cluster analysis of Q-sort data
generated four groups of faculty distinguishable by the similarity of their
response patterns. Analyses of demographic items were used to further
describe and distinguish the four clusters. Implications of findings are
discussed for improving strategic planning by administrators and decision¬
making and adjustment of professors before and after they draw their
pensions.

INTRODUCTION

In 1981, the Psychology Department of Old Dominion University was the host
for a scientist-practitioner conference on "The Changing Composition of the
Workforce," the proceedings of which have been published (Glickman, 1982). The
colloquium in which we are now engaged is a manifestation of continuing interest
in related Issues. The preceding papers demonstrate that the relevance of these
issues is universal and studies of them are particularly timely. The demographic
picture has already been painted for you: fewer people are being born, while those
already born are living longer, and all our people, institutions and organizations
must adapt accordingly. Earlier discussions have already given us a number of
examples. Now we want to deal with retirement and reentry in particular.

Some of the relevant issues have been addressed at Old Dominion University
in the past 5 years by two doctoral dissertations in organizational psychology. One
dissertation, by Gerald Gamache (1986) focused on the effects of environmental
stress on financial planning for retirement. The other dissertation by Seth Zimmer
(1990) is focused on the retirement and reentry decision-making process in a
sample of university faculty. That is the one that we are going to consider here.

The change in supply and demand of faculty provides another example of the
kinds of crucial problems confronting us. This university has just completed an

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academic affairs strategic plan. In that document notice is taken of the grave crisis
arising from the impending shortage of scholars and scientists to replace losses in
the faculty ranks. We are not alone. A recent news item reports that the University
of California at Berkeley will have half of its faculty coming up for retirement in the
1990’s.

Reentry has received little attention by researchers because it is a fairly recent
manifestation (AARP, 1987). It is now a meaningful alternative for many people.
So we confront more questions about what factors enter into the decision-making
process affecting retirement and reentry options and the interaction thereof. In
the Zimmer (1990) study, an effort has been made to identify the differences in
psychological variables (attitudes, beliefs, and needs) that exist among university
faculty members and to determine how these differences affect decisions to stay in,
leave, or reenter the labor force. Also included in the study are differences in
individual, environmental, and institutional characteristics (Kimmel, Price, and
Walker, 1978). We are talking about the need to draw a better cognitive map of
the space where decision-making demands and adjustments to retirement come
together. Many of the variables we included derive from a model of "life ethos"
presented by Glickman, Reick, Nieva, and Romanczuk (1979) as part of a study of
factors affecting labor force participation conducted for the Social Security Ad¬
ministration. "Life ethos" represents a complex set of beliefs, attitudes, values,
needs and activities (behaviors) which underlie and define an individual’s life style
and adjustment in work and nonwork contexts. The nonwork domain contains
those elements that lie outside of the work time and work place setting.

Starting with such a conceptual model, a strategy was developed for making
predictions of the behavior of distinguishable groups of employees, rather than on
an individual basis, in order to provide a frame of reference appropriate for use by
policy makers in organizations, labor groups and government in obtaining a better
understanding of changes that are occurring at present, and a means for reducing
uncertainty in plans for accommodating forecasted changes.

In simplest terms, reentry means returning to the workforce after retirement.
The reasons for this action are many. For example, a retiree may find that though
financial obligations are being met, there is insufficient disposable income to really
enjoy life. For another person, his perceived quality of life declines when he is not
part of the workforce. Or, someone else may reenter the workforce because she is
at a point in her life when she can do what she wants to do even if it is a risky venture.
If the choice proves to be a mistake, the downside risk is low.

There is not one but many ways that people retire. For the purposes of this
study, retirement refers to the degree of deliberate reduction in participation in
university employment that is accompanied by the receipt of pension income. The
target group deliberately excludes those individuals who retire due to poor health,
those whose pre-retirement employment is in part-time positions, and faculty who
do not have tenure. These individuals either are not in the position to receive a
university pension or, in the case of health, are forced to retire. That is, there is no
decision to be made. Reentry is regarded as a deliberate act, subsequent to
retirement, to increase paid participation in the work force. It should be obvious
that we do not treat retirement as an all-or-nothing condition.

RETIREMENT AND REENTRY

215

University faculty are different. Unlike most people found in the workforce,
they are afforded certain options that are quite unique. Their training, experience,
and socialization often enables them to engage concurrently or consecutively in
both academic and non-academic roles. There are many facets to the decision to
enter or remain in a faculty position. For example, policies formulated by the
governing bodies and administrative officials at universities can have marked
effects on the appeal of an academic career in the beginning, and upon the length
of time and qualities of these retained. Sound estimates of the future composition
of the faculty workforce are crucial for long range strategic planning.

The existence of several employment options adds to the difficulty in attempting
to predict retirement and reentry decisions by faculty. A particular option found
among faculty and not as often among the general workforce is mid-career change
(Trow, 1975). This may involve a faculty member’s shift from academic to non-
academic employment or vice-versa. Freeman (1971) found that 25% of in¬
dividuals made such a shift at least once, and Trow (1975) noted that 68% of all
faculty had worked outside of the academic profession since obtaining then-
degrees. The flexibility in employment options also results in a number of financial
options, many of which are not available to the general workforce. Many faculty
also work for pay outside of the university. Earnings may result from publications,
inventions, sales of art works, and fees for consulting, research, and other profes¬
sional services.

Now let us look at the variables and dimensions incorporated in this study and
the rationales behind them.

A MODEL OF RETIREMENT AND REENTRY DECISION-MAKING

Overview. Based on the literature referred to earlier, six major dimensions are
considered to be most prominent when a faulty member confronts a decision to
retire and whether or not to reenter the workforce: work values, nonwork values,
financial security, institutional affiliation, work needs, and nonwork needs.

Before further explanation, a couple of cautionary notes. First, as in all research
projects, the proposed dimensions do not exist independently of other "life-ex¬
perience" variables not directly measured. Secondly, we are dealing with the
relationships that are dynamic, and affected by changing personal and environmen¬
tal conditions accompanying passage of time. The process can be radically altered
in a matter of hours (by inheriting a million dollars, for example) or over a period
of many years (as by the development of new interests).

Work Values. This dimension is intended to measure the traditional work ethic;
that is, hard work is a virtue and success and satisfaction is attributed to work.
Representative items included "doing one’s best no matter how much it is disliked"
and the "importance of trying to succeed in one’s work." The ability to control what
they do and when they do it enables professors to establish perceptual links between
effort and performance that may be more salient than for those engaged in most
other occupations.

Nonwork Values. The nonwork values can include recreational activities as well
as such things as writing and volunteering. They are activities for which pay is not
received. Paralleling the work values dimension, the "nonwork ethic" also involves
"working (or playing) hard" and "keeping busy." Only the context is different.

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The rationale for including both components is that there may be a change in
the relative strength of the two forces over time. As the point of retirement draws
nearer, there is a supposed transformation in motivational prominence; a shift from
the work ethic to the nonwork ethic as controlling (Ekerdt, 1986). For example, as
a person ages, it is acceptable to work less hard and increase one’s participation in
nonwork activities. This shift does not necessarily imply that society expects less
from the individual. Indeed, the range of expected contributions may be
broadened. For example, community service is expected to continue, albeit with a
possible change in the content of the activities. The experience, skills, and more-
than-average range of "outside" activities of professors make them popular targets
as providers of community services.

The next two dimensions, institutional affiliation and financial security, are
environmental dimensions that are less stable over time than the work ethic and
nonwork ethic dimensions because they are more influenced by transient states.
During periods of high inflation, for example, financial security will likely have a
different meaning than during times of low inflation.

Institutional Affiliation. This dimension reflects an individual’s identification
with fellow workers and workplace. As used here, affiliation refers to the organiza¬
tion rather than the profession. It is important to note that one makes the decision
to retire from an organization, not necessarily from the profession. The reentry
decision may or may not involve continued affiliation with the profession. For
example, reentry may consist of taking a teaching position in a private school. The
individual has disaffiliated from the university as a place of employment, but
remains affiliated with the teaching profession. Examples of items reflecting
affiliation include "being part of an academic family," "receiving recognition for
work done," and "satisfaction with the way things have been done at the university."
An individual has fewer reasons to leave or retire from an organization providing
satisfactions. On the other hand, as March and Simon (1958) found, unless
acceptable alternatives are available, a dissatisfied individual often will not leave.
Outside activities, as well as retirement, are sources of such options for faculty
people.

Financial Security. This dimension reflects faculty members’ perceptions of
what their financial condition will be upon retirement from the university. It takes
into account that financial security might mean that there is no change in the amount
of income being earned. To others, financial security might be perceived to be
adequate even if income declines by some amount. That is, the individual could
live in a satisfying lifestyle and participate in activities desired without being overly
concerned about his or her financial situation.

The last two dimensions, work needs and nonwork needs, are situation specific
dimensions. They can differ depending upon the relevant environmental condi¬
tions. Often, faculty have the opportunity and ability to fmd "professional" satisfac¬
tion from several sources.

Work Needs. Work needs can encompass dimensions such as job enrichment,
job advancement, and personal power (Glickman et al. , 1979). For the purposes
of this study, only the dimension of job enrichment was incorporated. Job enrich¬
ment includes items such as "my job allows me to do new or original things at work,"
"my job is full of variety," and "my job gives me the chance to do some independent

RETIREMENT AND REENTRY

217

thinking.” It is expected that the more personally enriching work is perceived to
be, the later the faculty member will retire. Examples include the ability or
requirement to participate in research, ongoing involvement in several different
types of activities (e.g., teaching and research), and the emphasis on creativity.

Professors have a certain degree of autonomy built into their positions that
allows them to impact the degree of enrichment they achieve. For example, once
they have earned tenure and the relief of some of the attendant external pressures
to "produce," they have more freedom to engage in activities of special interest to
themselves. This autonomous control is not as common in the general workforce.
It has been said that the university is the last bastion of individual enterprise.

Nonwork Needs. Nonwork needs operate in a fashion similar to work needs.
If a professor’s nonwork needs are greater than his or her work needs, there is an
increased likelihood that he or she will elect to retire. The nonwork enrichment
dimension parallels the job enrichment work needs dimension, and includes items
tapping opportunity to find variety, independence, activity, and intellectual stimula¬
tion in nonwork settings. The difference between work and nonwork needs lies in
where and how fulfillment is being sought. Together, job enrichment and nonwork
enrichment can be thought of as life enrichment.

As a final note, it is important to realize that although the dimensions in the
model are presented separately, the individual weighs each dimension against other
dimensions during the process of reaching a decision, and that whether and when
given options are exercised depends upon the situation.

PROPOSITIONS

The importance ascribed by faculty members to each of the dimensions in the
proposed model, and the relationship of the dimensions to the intended age of
retirement and other descriptive variables, can offer guidelines to university ad¬
ministrators in policy formulation and in long-term strategic planing affecting the
faculty workforce. With this in mind the analyses conducted in the study were
guided by these propositions, rooted in the rationales presented.

Proposition 1.

Responses to work value and nonwork value items will differ among the clusters
of faculty types generated. For example, there will be a cluster characterized by
high work ethic and another cluster characterized by a high nonwork ethic. Where
there is a high work ethic and low nonwork ethic, the age of the faculty will be lower
and the expected age of retirement higher than in the reverse condition (low work
ethic, high nonwork ethic).

Rationale.

Values are global, thus less situationally bound. They are not likely to change
rapidly or extensively in short periods of time. Their stability makes them useful
determinants of behavior. For this reason, work and nonwork values are expected
to strongly characterize the generated clusters. Age is a factor inasmuch as younger
faculty often feel the push to produce so that they can continue to advance within
the profession.

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Proposition 2.

In clusters manifesting perception of strong institutional affiliation, the ex¬
pected age of retirement will be higher than in clusters where institutional affiliation
is lower.

Rationale.

Institutional affiliation reflects a faculty member’s perception of belonging with
the university. This perception is generally satisfying, so it is predicted that profes¬
sors experiencing high institutional affiliation would retire at a later age. However,
the type and number of other options, both work and nonwork, available to the
faculty member could decrease the influence of institutional affiliation on the
expected age of retirement.

Proposition 3.

Clusters characterized by faculty indicating high financial security and high
nonwork needs will show an expectation to retire earlier than faculty reporting low
financial security and low nonwork needs.

Rationale.

These two dimensions are related inasmuch as a perception of financial security
could make possible the realization of nonwork needs. In addition, if a faculty
member can enjoy a desired lifestyle without the income from full-time university
work, there exists one less motivator to continue working. Similarly, for nonwork
needs, a professor might be able to fulfill enrichment needs through means other
than university employment. Looking forward to a new repertoire of activities may
prove more enriching than work activities which, after many years, might begin to
become somewhat routine.

Proposition 4.

Clusters containing faculty who agreed with the work needs items (i.e., high
work needs) will be characterized by a higher expected age of retirement.
Rationale.

Certain characteristics of the profession, such as autonomy and job variety,
serve to satisfy a set of needs and to provide enrichment for professors. In fact,
these may be some of the reasons for entering the profession. To the extent that
continued university employment results in the fulfillment of a faculty member’s
work needs, their expected age of retirement will be higher.

Proposition 5.

Clusters populated by faculty responding with high work values and high work
needs will exhibit a higher probability of reentering the workforce and find their
work activities generally satisfying.

Rationale.

These professors enjoy work. Because of their strong adherence to the work
ethic (value), they might suffer discomfort if they were to retire and not reenter the
workforce. These people might also be tired of some of the activities and respon¬
sibilities associated with being a professor, and so decide to retire from the
university in order to pursue their interests elsewhere.

RETIREMENT AND REENTRY

219

Proposition 6.

Faculty perceiving a high financial security condition will be less likely to reenter
the workforce.

Rationale.

Work is a means of achieving financial security. For those who can maintain
financial security without university employment and who find their nonwork
activities satisfying, the probability that they will reenter the workforce is
diminished.

METHOD

In the primary data collection effort, forms were sent out in campus mail to
full-time tenured faculty at Old Dominion University. Each person had two tasks.
The first task was to complete the Information Form. That form contained basic
demographic questions, as well as questions about satisfaction with work and
nonwork activities, the way work and nonwork time was spent, plans for retirement
and reentry, and financial situation. Lastly, the people were asked to write out a
list of work and nonwork options if they were to retire now, and another list for the
time of expected retirement.

The second task consisted of a O-sort exercise. This was the technique used to
obtain the respondent’s perceptions of the six dimensions presented. Each dimen¬
sion was represented by a set of items that the respondents were instructed to sort
into five categories ranging from "strongly agree" to "strongly disagree." All respon¬
ses were anonymous.

The faculty were given two weeks to complete and return the forms. To provide
incentive, faculty were asked to return, separately from the survey material, a card
with their name and department. These cards were to be entries in a drawing for
two tickets for a dinner and harbor cruise. At the end of the two-week period,
follow-up forms were sent to those who had not returned cards. The prize was
increased to a check for $175, the cost of a 1989-1990 faculty parking tag.

RESULTS

The return rate for the forms was an encouraging 51.5%. Out of the 361 total
sample, 186 faculty members correctly completed and returned the forms.
Information Form

A description of the sample of faculty respondents is provided by the items of
data that follow:

o 49.5 years was the mean age
o 82.2% were male

o 78.0% were married

o 76.3% had doctorates

o 19 years ago they received that degree, on the average
o 17.5 years had been spent as a college professor, on the average
o 14.8 years, on the average, at Old Dominion University

o 73.7% had never worked full-time outside of the university
o 64.9 years was the mean expected age of retirement
o 93.0% knew of no health reason to cause them to reduce their workload

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VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

TEACH ADMIN UNFUND OUT FUNDED OUT SERVICE OTHER

RES FUNOINQ RES CONSULT

FIGURE 1. Distribution of work time activities

FIGURE 2. Satisfaction work work, nonwork and life

o 94.1% knew of no health reason that would limit their retirement activities
o 29.3% anticipated working full-time after retirement from the university
o 62.9% indicated no chance of this
o 78.0% indicated they might return to work part-time
The typical distribution of current work time to teaching, administration,
unfunded research, outside funded research, funded research, outside consulting,
service and other activities is shown in Figure 1. The profile of means for present
work, nonwork and satisfaction on a five point scale is shown in Figure 2. The
distribution of responses to the question regarding time spent planning for retire¬
ment appears in Figure 3.

VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

221

FIGURE 3. Time spent planning for retirement.

Factor Analysis

It was important to find out whether or not the respondents perceived the items
to reside in the same dimensions as the researchers did. So, the items were
submitted to a principal-axis factor analysis. Since six dimensions had been stipu¬
lated to begin with, a limit of six factors was placed on the procedure. The results
were very encouraging. Table 1 presents the factors with their item loadings.

These results from the factor analysis lent support to the items chosen for the
O-sort. The items selected to measure a particular factor did indeed reside in that
factor. This made interpretation of the analysis easier because the frame of
reference used in development of the research propositions was the same as that
used by those who responded. Taken together with the life ethos study (Glickman,
et. al., 1979) cited earlier, these results indicate the generality across time and
samples of the factor structure and their utility for measurement and research
purposes.

Analysis of the Q-sort Data

Predicting behavior for a large group is quite difficult when the predictions are
being made on the basis of a multitude of individuals’ attitudes, beliefs, and needs.
In the present instance, participants were asked to do a Q-sort of 25 items so that
the people could be placed in groups by cluster analysis based upon similarities of
their patterns of response on the six dimensions. The cluster analysis resulted in
four groups, composed of 41, 56, 48, and 41 faculty members. The rationale for
beginning with clusters of people, rather than with clusters of items, was that
organizational policies and administrative procedures are defined to fit groups of
people to whom they are to be applied; that is, distinguishable types of people rather
than individuals.

After the four groups were generated, the Q-sort dimensions were analyzed to
find out which of the dimensions could be used to discriminate among groups, or
how did the profiles of the four groups differ on the six dimensions (Brown, 1980;
Stephenson, 1953). In order to do this, a multiple analysis of variance (MANOVA)

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TABLE 1. Factor loading

Item

Loading

Text

Factor One: Work Needs (18.7% of variance)

14.

.81

I have the chance to do creative work.

12.

.80

I have the chance to do some independent thinking at work.

8.

.79

I have the chance to do new or original things at work.

13.

.58

I can find new ways to carry out my duties at work.

9.

.58

I have a job with variety.

10.

.58

I have a lot going on at work to get involved in.

11.

.36

I have plenty of work to do most of the time.

Factor Two: Institutional Affiliation (9.0% of variance)

16.

.77

Overall, I am satisfied with the way things have gone at
the university.

18.

-.72

I feel isolated and powerless at the university.

15.

.66

I feel part of an academic family here.

17.

.60

I receive appropriate recognition for the work I do.

Factor Three:

Nonwork Needs (7.2% of variance)

4.

.70

I can be creative in my nonwork activities.

6.

.70

I experience a satisfying amount of personal growth from my
nonwork activities.

3.

.61

I am able to learn new things in my nonwork time.

7.

.60

I have lots of different things that I could get involved in
my nonwork time.

5.

.52

I usually have something to do in my nonwork time.

Factor Four: Work Values (6.0% of variance)

20.

.82

I think that one of the most important things in life is to keep
trying to succeed in your work.

22.

.52

It is very important to me to see the results of my work in my job.

21.

.48

I think that work is great for character building.

23.

.45

To me, being respected by family, friends, and/or colleagues
is a very important reward of succeeding in a job.

19.

.41

No matter how much I dislike it, I should always do my best
at work.

Factor Five: Nonwork Values (5.0% of variance)

24.

.87

Many of my free time activities are similar to those things

I do at work.

25.

.86

Many of my free time activities are job related.

Factor Six: Financial Security (3.3% of variance)

2.

-.70

I have enough money to do the things I want.

1.

.64

I have many financial concerns.

RETIREMENT AND REENTRY

223

was completed to determine which dimensions discriminated statistically between
the groups. Five of the six dimensions discriminated between one or more groups;
one at the 0.007 confidence level, four beyond the 0.0001 level. The work values
dimension was the one exception.

Financial Security
Nonwork Needs
Work Needs
Institutional Affiliation
Nonwork Values

F(6,364) - 3.00, p< 0.007

F( 15,540) - 6.16, p< 0.0001

F(21,534) = 3.92, p< 0.0001

F(12,543) = 12.43, p< 0.0001
F( 6,364) - 24.14, p< 0.0001
A similar procedure was followed using univariate analysis of variance and
Chi-squared goodness of fit tests for the items on the Information Form. However,
in order to present the differences in a meaningful way, the differences will not be
discussed individually. Rather, they will be discussed in the framework of group
descriptions. The group descriptions, which follow, provide a summary of all of
the significant differences across the groups.

Following the group descriptions, the data will be related to the propositions
previously stated.

DISCUSSION

A sample of the comparisons made of the four groups is offered to illustrate the
utility of the approach. First the retirement picture.

Retirement

Group 1, which had the highest expected age of retirement was distinguished
from other groups by significantly low nonwork needs and nonwork values scores.
While they appeared not to value nonwork activities very highly, they did value their
work. Their responses on work needs and work values were high. Faculty in this
group found their work very satisfying; more satisfying than nonwork alternatives.

People in this group were the most likely to continue working part-time even if
they had adequate financial resources. This group had the highest financial stand¬
ing; both in pay and total income. They spent the least time teaching and the most
time in administrative activities, and had high institutional affiliation scores. Final¬
ly, this group had a preponderance of College of Science faculty.

What does this say about their retirement decision-making?

First, there is the indication that the relative standing of nonwork needs and
values influences the decision process. Specifically, when the time comes to think
about retirement, these faculty may see themselves still as young enough to con¬
tribute to society and, since the nonwork activities are not terribly appealing, they
might as well go on working. Related to this is the fact that since many from this
group are Science faculty, the nature of their research often involves long-term
commitment. When they are finished with a project, as many questions may be
generated as are answered.

Now, there is the issue of rewards. They are among the highest paid people in
the university. They bring in a large share of the research funds. Salancik & Pfeffer
(1974) have shown that power accrues to those bringing money into the university.
This might explain the perception of high institutional affiliation (they are rewarded
for their efforts) and the relatively large proportion of time spent on administrative
duties (perhaps tied to their grant and contract supported projects).

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The profile of low nonwork needs and values, high work needs and values, high
institutional affiliation, and high financial security relates to retirement decision¬
making in that these variables interact to postpone a withdrawal from the
workforce.

At the other end of the retirement spectrum are faculty in Group 4. This group
had the lowest expected age of retirement. Their sense of institutional affiliation
was lowest, as were their sense of financial security and strength of work activity
needs. Their nonwork needs and nonwork values were significantly higher than
faculty in Group 1. Further contrasts with Group 1 include having lowest satisfac¬
tion with their work activities and being least likely to return to work even if they
had sufficient financial resources. The faculty in this group reported the lowest
university salary and total household income. This may, in some measure, be due
to the disproportionate number of College of Education faculty in this group. This
membership may also account for how their work time was spent. Group 4 faculty
members spent significantly more time teaching and less time on administrative
duties than Group 1.

Again, what do these characteristics tell us about retirement decision-making?
One answer is rather obvious. Based upon the responses to items in the nonwork
and work needs and values dimensions, it appears that nonwork experiences are
more attractive to this group. Work does not have the same meaning as it does for
Group 1 faculty. Perhaps those in Group 4 typically work simply because it is the
way to make money, while those in Group 1 work for the money but also for the
sense of achievement they derive. The importance of the strength of nonwork needs
and values has to be noticed because it seems to overwhelm the fact that this group’s
estimate of financial security is the lowest. Even though this group feels more need
for money, they do not want to continue teaching to earn it.

A second important difference is the significantly lower level of institutional
affiliation. The relationship of this variable to the retirement decision is straightfor¬
ward. There is a lack of a strong bond between Group 4 faculty and the university.
While this alone may not be enough to induce retirement, when coupled with high
nonwork needs and values, it appears to figure prominently in the retirement
decision.

Together, the differences between Groups 1 and 4 indicate the influence that
socio-psychological variables can have on the retirement decision process. It is
clear that the decision to retire is based on more than just financial condition or
health. Faculty in this sample were generally secure financially and healthy overall.
Even the group lowest on financial security was not very low. Despite this, differen¬
ces were found. Future research is needed to gain additional insight into other
intangible aspects of the retirement and reentry decision-making process.

Identifying what is distinctive about Groups 2 and 3 is more difficult because
the two groups are quite similar. The expected age of retirement was 64.7 for Group
2 and 64.6 for Group 3. The only significant difference among the dimensions was
Group 2’s low nonwork values and Group 3’s high nonwork values. The significant
demographic differences were current age (Group 2, M = 50.9; Group 3, M = 45.7)
and college membership (Group 2, more than expected A&L faculty, Group 3,
more than expected Business faculty). Despite the similarities, it appears that
nonwork values played a role in the retirement decision process. Although the

RETIREMENT AND REENTRY

225

outcome was the same, the high and low responses reflected the ways in which
different faculty perceived the same dimensions. For example, the high nonwork
needs and low nonwork values of Group 2 were not contradictory in light of the
fact that Arts and Letters faculty reported that many of their nonwork activities
were similar to their work activities. This resulted in low nonwork values. That is,
their low scores were a function of the way the dimension was measured.

Group 3 had high nonwork values because their nonwork activities were dif¬
ferent from their work activities. This reflects two things. First, some of the work
activities Art and Letters faculty participate in, such as playing a musical instru¬
ment, are for them also appropriate nonwork activities, but for staff of the College
of Business, work activities, such as cost accounting, are far from traditional
nonwork activities. Second, given their business orientation and relatively young
age, these faculty are closest to the "yuppie" stereotype. They are considered to be
hard workers and hard players.

Thus, for these two groups, the retirement decision appears to be a function of
all six dimensions, with special attention given to nonwork values. These data give
a clear example of how the wording of a set of items and, perhaps, a somewhat
different perceptual outlook, can influence a set of responses.

This section has discussed the significant differences found across the four
groups of faculty. In addition, the question "what does this tell us about retirement
decision-making?" has been addressed. Specifically, it has been shown that a single
decision-making process does not exist. What can be said, and has been shown, is
that groups of faculty with certain characteristics give weight to some dimensions
more than to others. This supports the contention that the decision involves more
than just finances and health. It supports the inclusion of sociopsychological
variables in analysis of the decision process. Information like this can be used by
university administrators to gain a better handle on what the workforce may look
like 5, 10, or 15 years from now. This will be necessary if universities are to keep
quality workforces in light of the shrinking supply of Ph.D.s.

Reentry

The attempt to identify influences on the probability of returning to work was
less successful. While different probabilities were found, none of them proved to
be statistically significant. This was disappointing, yet there are possible explana¬
tions for the findings.

To begin with, even for the prospectively youngest group of retirees (Group 4),
their mean expected age of retirement was 64 years. Although! this is not old in
terms of the present life span, it is old in terms of working age. More advanced
years, coupled with a strong affinity toward nonwork activities, do not provide an
atmosphere conducive to reentry. The older retirees (Group 1) may expect to be
tired of working by the time they finally opt out, and just want to do other things.
They are more likely to be in the position financially to do those things.

A further possibility is that before they reach the moment of truth, reentry is
not a salient factor in the careers of professors. Then again, this empirical outcome
may be a concommitant of the fact, revealed in Figure 3, that not many of these
faculty members have given a great deal of thought to retirement planning. It would
be interesting to monitor these factors in the future because, as the labor market

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VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

becomes tighter, more retired faculty may be needed to teach on a part-time basis
and engage in other professional roles.

Proposition Support

Finally, let us look at how well our original propositions have been supported
by our data.

Proposition 1: Faculty responses to work value and nonwork value items will
differ among clusters. It was proposed that, for example, there would be a cluster
characterized by high work ethic and another cluster characterized by a high
nonwork ethic. Where there was a high work ethic and low nonwork ethic, the age
of faculty would be lower than in the reverse condition (low work ethic, high
nonwork ethic).

Proposition 1 was partially supported. There were no differences found be¬
tween the groups on the work ethic (value) dimension. On the other hand,
significant differences were found on the nonwork ethic (value) dimension, with
Group 1 indicating a moderate nonwork ethic, Group 2 a low nonwork ethic, and
Groups 3 and 4 a high nonwork ethic. The expected age difference was the reverse
of what was expected.

Proposition 2: In a cluster where a strong institutional affiliation existed, the
forecast was that expected age of retirement would be higher than in clusters where
institutional affiliation is lower.

Proposition 2 was supported by the data. The faculty group high in institutional
affiliation (Group 1) had an expected age of retirement over 2 years later than the
group low in institutional affiliation (Group 4), a statistically significant difference.

Proposition 3: Clusters characterized by faculty responses of high financial
security and high nonwork needs will show an expectation to retire earlier than
faculty reporting low financial security and low nonwork needs.

This proposition was not unequivocally supported. The tendencies leaned in
the right direction, but between - group differences in expected age of retirement
were not statistically significant. Furthermore, comparisons with faculty with low
financial security and low nonwork needs could not be made because such a group
did not exist.

Proposition 4: It was stated that faculty clusters with high work needs would
expect to retire later. This was supported. Groups 1, 2, and 3, were characterized
by higher work needs and higher expected ages of retirement than Group 4 even
though only the expected age of retirement of Group 1 was significantly different.

Proposition 5: Clusters characterized by faculty responding with high work
values and high work needs would exhibit a higher probability of reentering the
workforce and find their work activities generally satisfying. Again, support for
Proposition 5 was found in tendencies but not in tests of significance.

Proposition 6: Faculty perceiving a high financial security condition would be
less likely to reenter the workforce.

Exactly the opposite result was found. Faculty with high financial security were
more likely to say that they would reenter the workforce. It is worth noting that
these faculty also were found to have higher work needs. Apparently, the positive
valence of the work activities and the history of successful achievement were
stronger influences on the decision-making process.

RETIREMENT AND REENTRY

227

CONCLUSION

The major contribution of this study is that it helped to diminish the stereotype
that not much enters the decision to retire and reenter the workforce after finances
and health are taken into account. These are important factors, but they are not
the only factors. In this sample of tenured university faculty, the influences of
institutional affiliation, work needs, nonwork needs, and nonwork values were also
found to be significant. As professionals continue to want more out of life, and the
general trend continues of retirement at an earlier age, more information is needed
to explain why people retire when they do. Before a person can be influenced to
alter their behavior, researchers must be able to determine what those influences
are. These results are a step in that direction.

LITERATURE CITED

American Association of Retired Persons. 1987. Workers Over 50: Old Myths and
New Realities. Washington, D.C.

Brown, S. R. 1980. Political Subjectivity: Applications of Q Methodology in Political
Science. Yale University Press, New Haven, CT.

Ekerdt, D. J. 1986. The Busy Ethic:Moral Continuity between Work and retire¬
ment. The Gerontologist 26:239-244.

Freeman, R. B. 1971. The Market for College Trained Manpower: A Study in the
Economics of Career Choices. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA.
Gamache, G. L. 1986. The Effects of Environmental Stress on Financial Planning for
Retirement. Old Dominion University, Norfolk, VA. Unpublished dissertation.
Glickman, A. S. (ed.) 1982. Changing Composition of the Workforce: Implications
for Future Research and Its Applications . Plenum Publishing Corporation, New
York.

Glickman, A. S., A. M. Reick, V. F. Nieva and A. P. Romanczuk. 1979. Social
Psychological Determinants of Labor Force Participation. Advanced Research
Resources Organization. Washington, D.C.

Kimmel, D. C., K. F. Price and J. W. Walker. 1978. Retirement choice and
retirement satisfaction. Journal of Gerontology 33: 575-585.

March, J. G. and H. A. Simon. 1958. Organizations. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New
York.

Salancik, G. R. and J. Pfeffer. 1974. The Bases and Use of Power in Organizational
Decision-making.the Case of a University. Administrative Science Quarterly
19:453-473.

Stephenson, W. 1953. The Study of Behavior: Q Technique and its Methodology.

University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL.

Trow, M. 1975. Teachers and Students. McGraw Hill, New York.

Zimmer, S. 1990. Retirement and Reentry Decision-Making: A Faculty Perspec¬
tive. Old Dominion University, Norfolk, VA. Unpublished dissertation.

Virginia Journal of Science
Volume 41, Number 3
Fall 1990

National Science Policy, Collaborative Research and the
Advancement of Science

David Johnson, Ph.D., Executive Director
Federation of Behavioral, Psychological and Cognitive Sciences
1200 17th Street, NW. Suite 518, Washington, D.C. 20036

ABSTRACT

The climate for collaboration between U.S. scientists and their counter¬
parts in other countries has improved because of changes in national
science policy and a new recognition by policy makers that international
cooperation is needed. Today, advances in science are bringing scientists
from many disciplines together. Previously, landmark discoveries
spawned new subdisciplines. Policy makers are using many devices to
facilitate collaborative efforts-funding problem rather than discipline
centered initiatives, devoting more resources to research centers, guaran¬
teeing stable funding over longer time periods, changing anti-trust laws,
and encouraging collaborative research training. At the same time,
economic necessity is causing the U.S. to look abroad for help in support¬
ing the expense of science. Moreover, policy makers have begun to
recognize that some of the problems they want to see scientists solve are
of their nature international in scope and, therefore, require international
collaboration if they are to be adequately addressed.

For the past ten years, I have been involved with the formation of U.S. science
policy, first as science advisor to a member of the Science, Space and Technology
Committee of the U.S. House of Representatives and most recently as the
Washington representative for fifteen scientific societies and nearly half of the
graduate departments of psychology in the United States. My work has allowed
me to be both a participant in and an observer of changes in U.S. science policy,
and it is those experiences I will use as the bases for my comments. I want to set
the growth of interest in international scientific collaboration in the context of key
changes in U.S. national science policy.

The past ten years have seen important changes both in the way science is
carried out in this country and in the ways that U.S. scientists have been encouraged
to interact with their counterparts in other countries. Each of these sets of changes
has a bearing on the future of international cooperative efforts.

Changes in the practice of science in the United States in recent years have been
driven largely by the successes of science. Across many disciplines, it is a common
occurrence to hear scientists remarking in wonder about the progress of science.
The field of psychology these days, for example, is being heavily influenced by
research that once was confined to the subdiscipline of cognitive psychology. The
breakthroughs in cognitive psychology came in part as the result of contact between
cognitive psychologists and neural scientists. Their interaction has been making it
possible to map cognition onto physiology. More and more, it is becoming possible

NATIONAL SCIENCE POLICY

229

to study the brain and behavior together. The black box that just a few years ago
psychologists thought they could study only indirectly by means of stimulus and
response they are now peering into directly. That new found ability is affecting
everything from the design of computers to our understanding of the relation
between changes in brain chemistry and behavior across the life span. The mind-
body dualism that has been problematic for scientists since the time of Aristotle
and Plato may in our lifetimes begin to be resolved. And psychology is just one of
many sciences experiencing this kind of rapid progress.

For science policy, what is significant about many of these spectacular advances
is not so much that they are happening but how they are happening. Whether one
listens to scientists at the National Science Foundation, the National Institutes of
Health, or the Defense Department, the story is the same. When they reflect on
their work, they note that as a subdiscipline advances, scientists within the subdis¬
cipline eventually reach a point where their own paradigms, protocols, even equip¬
ment fail them. They reach a point where they know that the next advance in their
subdiscipline can come only by reaching beyond that subdiscipline to areas of
science, and, often, areas of engineering that are outside their own training. Sharing
of information across disciplinary boundaries and outright collaboration across
disciplines becomes not just an interesting concept, but an absolute necessity in
order to continue to advance. This impact of new discoveries on the practice of
science is a change from the previous era. Science went through a long period of
differentiation when significant discoveries spawned new scientific disciplines.
Now discoveries at the cutting edges of the sciences are drawing the sciences
together rather than breaking them apart.

Those who make U.S. science policy have been well aware of this change in the
relationship between new discoveries and the nature of scientific practice. They
have been striving to find ways to stimulate broad scientific collaboration. Out of
that effort have come a number of innovations in national science policy.

Until the 1980s, antitrust laws originally designed to keep companies from
forming monopolies also had the effect of discouraging collaborations among the
research divisions of the nation’s corporations and between industry and the
university. Those laws were relaxed in a series of legislative reforms in the 1980s.
As a result, U.S. companies, most notably in the semiconductor industry, have
formed research and development consortia. At about the same time as the
changes were being made in antitrust law, the Small Business Innovation and
Research Grants were put into place in most of the science-related agencies of the
Federal government. These grants have begun to make university faculty partners
with their academic institutions in research and development. A number of univer¬
sities have formed venture capital arms to further encourage such joint efforts.

Perhaps the most important policy change, however, has been the movement
toward funding a more balanced mix of individual investigator initiated research
and research conducted through research centers. The growth of centers as a
means for funding research has been a direct result of the desire on the part of
policy makers to create institutional settings that encourage scientific collaboration
across disciplines. The only center proposals at the National Science Foundation
that move beyond in-house examination to peer review in the Science and Tech¬
nology Research Centers competition are those that propose innovative ways to

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VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

bring a diversity of scientists together around a problem. It is also a requirement
that the proposal contain a strong training component. It is significant that the peer
review panel for the centers contains scientists of every stripe from geologists to
social scientists. The nature of science is changing and governmental mechanisms
are changing to accommodate and stimulate the evolution.

That training is a central part of the Centers program is also significant. Policy
makers understand that the new science requires new scientists. There has been
anxiety both among policy makers and among scientists in the cutting edge sciences
that the classic division of universities into departments and of departments into
subdisciplinary groups will be inadequate for training scientists to be skilled
collaborators. That is why the Centers device is being used as a new mode of
training. It is often said that the best way to train a scientist is to involve the person
in scientific research. Policy makers have merely extended that axiom to say that
the best way to train a scientist to collaborate is to train him or her in a collaborative
research setting.

By design, the Centers competition requires scientists to organize around a
problem. The government by degrees is shifting itself away from supporting
disciplines of science for their own sake. It is shifting toward supporting science as
a problem solving tool. The government is trying to break down the walls between
disciplines by forcing scientists with a diversity of training to come together to solve
problems. If one looks at the areas of the Federal science budget that have received
the greatest increases, they are more and more often not related strictly to favored
disciplines but rather to practical initiatives that involve many sciences. The AIDS
initiative, for example, involves the whole of the Public Health Service from those
branches that deal with delivery of services to most Institutes within NIH to all the
Institutes of the Alcohol, Drug Abuse and Mental Health Administration. The
complexity of the initiative is such that not only has it brought together many kinds
of scientists and service providers, it has also required the creation of an interagency
coordinating body to try to achieve an effective integration of the various efforts.

Other adjustments policy makers are instituting to encourage collaborative,
problem focused science include multi-year science authorizations to allow the
stability that building joint research programs requires. The movement toward
multi-year program authorizations is being accompanied by greater stability in
funding of those programs. While the appropriations process remains an annual
activity, agencies are being permitted to make multi-year funding commitments for
certain activities such as centers so as to guarantee those involved in the collabora¬
tion sufficient time to develop a strong research program.

So at the national level, we see policy makers conceiving of the new practice of
science as being one that will advance through collaborative efforts. Those efforts
will routinely require scientists to cross disciplinary boundaries both in their own
training and in their research associations. This new science will be one organized
around problems or initiatives rather than disciplines. More of it will be conducted
in group research settings. It will require greater attention than has been the case
since the end of World War II to establishing and maintaining a continuum from
basic research to development to testing to evaluation and finally to application.

All of these changes can be and are being implemented domestically. But they,
along with two other aspects of changing national science policy, also are playing a

NATIONAL SCIENCE POLICY

231

strong role in creating a climate in the U.S. that is favorable to international
cooperation in research. The first of these two other aspects is the growing
recognition that the United States cannot be the leader in every field of science.
The second is that many of the most significant problems the United States would
like to call on scientists to help solve are global in their scope. Their very nature
precludes a solely domestic solution.

I should say that these two developments have been very recent events. Begin¬
ning in the Carter years and continuing through most of the Reagan years there was
a great deal of concern in Washington that other countries were taking advantage
of our research* particularly our classified and our proprietary research. There
were efforts to censor papers that were to be presented in conferences. There were
restrictions on classes that foreign nationals could attend at some universities. The
United States withdrew its support of UNESCO, Scientific exchange agreements
were negated as ways of showing displeasure with policies of other countries. And
the Congress drastically reduced Federal funds available for scientists to attend
international meetings and to work with scientists from other countries.

The change to a more favorable attitude, as I say, is recent, and it has occurred
for not particularly noble reasons. The idea that the United States cannot be first
in all sciences was thrust upon policy makers by economic reality. The cost of
scientific research is rising rapidly and is taxing the ability of the Federal govern¬
ment to pay the bill. As a result, the United States is becoming much more
interested in sharing the costs of research with other countries. This is especially
true of large ticket items like construction and maintenance of the space platform,
the search for a cure for AIDS, and perhaps even maintenance of the Supercon¬
ducting Supercollider. Even though the motivation may, at base, be economical,
the change in attitude nevertheless is again making U.S. scientific collaboration
with other countries a favored rather than a suspect activity.

While it is becoming economically prudent for the United States to share in the
strong research and the research resources of other countries, the recognition that
many of our most challenging research problems are global in scope and, therefore,
require global collaboration was harder for the U.S. to accept. While European
leaders had become deeply concerned about the need to understand global changes
some years ago, the United States was late to join in this interest. Our conduct with
respect to Canada over the acid rain issue suggests the source of our reluctance. It
is likely that the United States is a significant part of the problem of global change,
and, therefore, its participation in finding ways to moderate dangerous global
changes is likely to carry with it very significant costs. That possibility notwithstand¬
ing, President Bush has now acknowledged that the U.S. must participate in
research on problems of global import. Three years ago one would be hard pressed
to find in the U.S. science budget any substantial amount of money for research on
issues of global import. This year the President's request for such research amounts
to half a billion dollars and requires the participation of seven science related
Federal agencies. In that interagency collaboration we again see the theme of
sciences being brought together by the government to address a common problem.

Normally Federal agencies develop their budgets and initiatives internally then
present them to the Office of Management and Budget for review and modification.
The Global Change Initiative is different. The Office of Management and Budget

232

VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

served as the coordinator and organizer of the Global Change Initiative budget
rather than as its judge. That is a significant change from business as usual, and it
indicates the special place that is being given to promoting the participation of U.S.
scientists in the addressing of research issues of multinational interest.

You will no doubt agree that I haven’t told you a thing about the two themes of
your meeting, namely rickettsial disease vectors and organizational psychology and
the older worker. I hope what I have done is to paint in the background against
which international collaboration in such research will be taking place. You are
fortunate to be exploring these opportunities at a time when U.S. policy makers
have begun to turn away from an isolationist attitude that had slowed U.S. research
collaboration with other countries for nearly fifteen years. At the same time, you
are fortunate to be cultivating this cooperative endeavor as U.S. science itself is
becoming a more intentionally collaborative and problem focused endeavor than
it has been in decades. Because of these changes in our national science policy and
in our practice of science, there is every reason for Israel and our other international
partners in research to believe the U.S. is entering a time when it will be not only a
willing partner but an able one as well.

Virginia Journal of Science
Volume 41, Number 3
Fall 1990

Enteric Bacteria in Natural Populations of Freshwater
Turtles in Virginia

Joseph C. Mitchell and Brian V. McAvoy
Department of Biology
University of Richmond
Richmond, Virginia 23173

ABSTRACT

We examined 174 freshwater turtles of seven species in six natural popula¬
tions in central and southeastern Virginia for enteric bacteria. Five species
were identified: Arizona spp., Hafnia alvei, Citrob actor freundii, Es¬
cherichia coli, and Serratia liquefaciens . No Salmonella was found. The
total number of enteric bacteria genera now known for Virginia’s fresh¬
water turtles is eight. All have been found in Chrysemys picta, whereas six
or fewer are known for the other five species studied. The low incidence
of Arizona spp. and the lack of Salmonella in studies so far suggest that
these pathogenic bacteria are uncommonly found in natural populations
of freshwater turtles in Virginia. There appears to be little to no threat of
turtle- associated bacterial pathogenecity, except when wild-caught turtles
are placed under stressful conditions in captivity. We found Salmonella
enteritidis (8 turtles), S.java (1), and S. newport (2), and Arizona henshawii
(18) in a sample of 43 commercially obtained western painted turtles,
Chrysemys picta bellii, used for classroom physiology studies. Because of
the pathogenic threat and the decimation of turtle populations in the
Midwest, we suggest that caution be taken when handling commercially
sold turtles and that other models be sought to demonstrate physiological
processes for which turtles are often used.

Key words: Salmonella, Bacteria, Turtles, Testudines, Epidemiology
INTRODUCTION

Some members of the bacterial family Enterobacteriaceae, particularly the
genera Salmonella and Arizona, are human pathogens causing a variety of
gastrointestinal and other symptomatic diseases. Their occurrence in reptiles is
well-documented (Hinshaw and McNeil, 1947; Hoff and White, 1977; Marcus, 1980).
Some reptilian species have also been found to be potential vectors of these
pathogens (Oboegbulen and Isoghohimhen, 1985; Marcus, 1980; Chiodini and
Sundberg, 1981). Turtles in particular were found to host these bacteria without
apparent adverse affects (Boycott, 1962; Kaufmann, et al, 1967; Marcus, 1980).
Turtle-associated salmonellosis was first reported in the United States human
population in 1963 (Chiodini and Sundberg, 1981). Results of numerous
epidemiological studies that followed (e.g., Kaufmann and Morrison, 1966; Lamm
et al , 1972; Altman et al, 1972; Kaufmann et al, 1972) led to the 1975 ban in the United
States on sales of turtle eggs and live turtles less than 10.2 cm (4 inches) carapace

234

VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

length that were not certified Salmonella-free (Chiodini and Sundberg, 1981; Hardy,
1988).

Few studies have surveyed for Salmonella and other bacteria in natural turtle
populations. Baker et al. (1972) mentioned that three Salmonella serotypes were
found in three wild-caught turtles in New Jersey and Behler (1973) noted that no
Salmonella or Arizona were found in 60 turtles collected in the northeastern United
States. However, neither provided data on turtle species, incidence of other
bacteria, or methodology. Because so few published data are available on this
subject, we examined turtles in six natural populations in Virginia for the presence
of Salmonella and other enteric bacteria. For comparison, a group of turtles
purchased for classroom study from a midwestern commercial dealer was ex¬
amined. Our objective was to determine if potentially harmful bacteria occurred
naturally in Virginia’s freshwater turtles and if such bacteria were found in com¬
mercial turtles handled by students.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Study Sites. - Freshwater turtles were captured in 1980 and 1981 from six sites
in central and southeastern Virginia: (1) In Back Bay National Wildlife Refuge, 5
mi. S Sandbridge, Virginia Beach, turtles inhabited freshwater canals at the margins
of migratory waterfowl management impoundments. These canals are 300-400 m
east of the Atlantic Ocean and as close as 25 m to Back Bay. From these canals,
29 turtles of four species were sampled. (2) Seashore State Park, at the northern
end of Virginia Beach, embodies several interdunal freshwater ponds. All ponds
contain darkly stained water and deep organic sediments. Bald-cypress
( Taxiodium distichum) dominate the vegetation in the ponds and oak ( Quercus
spp.) and alder ( Alnus serrulata) line the dune slopes. Thirty turtles of six species
were sampled at this site. (3) Grassy Swamp Lake, 5 mi. SW of Ashland, Hanover
County, is a freshwater impoundment surrounded by a mixed hardwood-pine
forest. It contains abundant aquatic and emergent vegetation. This lake is
described in Mitchell (1985). Here we sampled bacteria from four turtles of two
species. (4) Laurel Lake, 0.5 mi. W Laurel, Henrico County, is a warm polymictic
urban impoundment supporting abundant emergent vegetation but little sub¬
merged aquatic vegetation. It is located in a former golf course and is described in
Mitchell (1988). At Laurel Lake we sampled 47 turtles of five species. (5) Bryan
Park Lake, in northern Richmond, is a shallow freshwater reservoir in an urban
park. It contains abundant emergent vegetation but little submerged aquatic
vegetation. The water is turbid and the substrate is clay covered with silt and other
organic debris. Scattered hardwood occur on the surrounding slopes, along with
several paved roads. Here we sampled 34 turtles of five species. (6) Westhampton
Lake, on the University of Richmond campus, is an old urban reservoir with little
aquatic vegetation of any sort. Most of the substrate is clay and silt and the water
is always turbid. The western slope has a stand of mixed hardwood and pine trees
but buildings and roads line all other slopes. We sampled 34 turtles of three species
in this lake.

Field Methods.- Turtles were captured with one inch mesh, chicken wire funnel
traps (Iverson, 1979) baited with canned sardines or chicken scraps. Traps were
set in shallow water so that turtles were allowed to reach air and avoid drowning.

BACTERIA IN FRESHSATER TURTLES

235

At sites where tampering with the traps by the public seemed likely, they were
concealed with vegetation. Traps were checked each morning and evening, and all
turtles caught were removed, processed and released.

Each specimen was marked for future identification by filing notches in the
carapacial margin following Mitchell (1988). Straightline carapace length (CL,
nearest mm), plastron length (PL), and weight (nearest gram) were taken on each
turtle. The turtle’s sex and any injuries or abnormalities were also noted. Turtles
collected at Seashore State Park, Back Bay National Wildlife Refuge, and Laurel
Lake were sampled, processed, and released at the site, whereas those collected at
other sites were processed in the laboratory and released the following day.

We sampled for bacteria in all cases by gently inserting a sterile swab from a
Cepti-Seal Culturette into the cloaca about 2.5-4.0 cm, rotating it gently, and then
placing the swab into the Culturette. To keep the swab viable up to 72 h, the ampule
containing 0.5 ml Modified Stewarts Bacterial Transport Media was crushed,
releasing the media. For small specimens, a smaller, sterile swab made with a 2-3
mm dowel and roll cotton was used with the Culturette.

Commercial Turtle Samples- Forty three adult Chrysemys picta bellii , the
western subspecies of the painted turtle, were obtained from commercial dealers
in the midwestern United States in the fall of 1981. These were kept in laboratory
sinks at the University of Richmond and fed lettuce ad libitum for about one week
before being sacrificed. Upon sacrifice, the small intestine, upper and lower large
intestine, and cloaca of each were swabbed as above for bacteria.

Laboratory Methods.- Within 72 h, exposed swabs were placed in 16 x 150 mm
labeled, capped, sterile test tubes containing 10 ml Gibco Selenite Broth enrichment
media and incubated at 37 C for 18 to 24 h. During incubation, caps on the test
tubes were loosened to prevent gas build-up. Following incubation, a 2 mm
nichrome innoculating loop was immersed in the enrichment media and streaked
across a sterile disposable petri dish containing 5 ml Gibco Xylose-Lysine-
Deoxycholate Agar (XLD), flaming the loop between samples. These labeled
plates were incubated at 37 C for 18 to 24 h.

Colonies were identified with a Roache Diagnostics Enterotube II. The in¬
noculating needle was pulled through the Enterotube II, partially reinserted,
broken off and the unit capped, labeled, and incubated at 37 C for 18 to 24 h. Two
subcultures of each suspect colony were made by touching an innoculating needle
to them and stabbing and streaking the needle in Plain Nutrient Agar slants. These
slants were incubated with the Enterotube IIs for 18 to 24 h.

The Enterotube II has 12 compartments with the following media: glucose,
lysine-decarboxylase, ornithine-decarboxylase, an H2S sensitive media, adonitol,
lactose, arabinose, sorbitol, Voges-Proskauer media, dulcitol-phenylalanine-
deaminase, urea, and citrate. In addition to reactions with these compounds, gas
production is indicated by the separation of a wax overlay on the glucose media.
Indole positive reactions are indicated by injecting 2 drops of Kovacs’ reagent into
the H2S compartment. With each group of enrichment tubes, plates, and
Enterotubes IIs, two control samples were tested, one sterile and one pure Sal¬
monella spp. (from the Virginia State Laboratory). All culturing was done under
a decontamination hood using Amway germicidal spray and ultraviolet radiation
for asepsis before and after each group of cultures.

236

VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

Colonies were identified by scoring the reactions in the Enterotube II scorecard,
adding these numbers to obtain a five digit identification code. The code numbers
were matched to bacteria genus and species in the Enterotube II computer Code
Guide. If Salmonella spp. or Arizona spp. were indicated for a colony, their
subcultures were sent to the Virginia State Laboratory-Enteric Section for positive
identification. After the colonies were identified, all culturettes, swabs, enrichment
tubes, plates, Enterotube IIs, and subcultures were destroyed by autoclaving.

RESULTS

Field Samples- A total of 174 freshwater turtles of eight species and sub¬
species were captured in the six locations studied (Table 1). The most abundant
species and the only one captured at all sites was the eastern painted turtle,
Chrysemys picta picta. This species, as well as red-bellied turtles ( Pseudemys
rubriventris ), yellow-bellied sliders ( Trachemys scripta scripta ), and red-eared
sliders ( Trachemys scripta elegans) are basking turtles often seen on logs or banks.
The latter subspecies has been introduced in many Virginia ponds and lakes by
people who purchased them as juveniles at pet stores. It is found naturally in the
Mississippi River drainage of central North America (Conant, 1975) and
predominated in the sample from Westhampton Lake. The remaining four species,
snapping turtle ( Chelydra serpentina ), striped mud turtle ( Kinostemon baurii ),
eastern mud turtle (Kinostemon sub rub rum), and stinkpot ( Stemotherus odoratus ),
are all bottom-walkers (Berry and Shine, 1980) and bask less frequently than the
turtles in the previous group. These species spend most of their lives on the bottom
of shallow waters in contact with the substrate. Kinostemon subrubrum and K
baurii are the most terrestrial of the group and often spend considerable time in
shallow burrows on land (Ernst and Barbour, 1972; Gibbons, 1983). The striped
mud turtle has only recently been confirmed as a member of the Virginia her-
petofauna (Lamb and Lovich, 1990). The majority of the turtles captured were
adults, although juvenile T. scripta elegans comprised the largest fraction of the
Westhampton Lake sample (Table 1).

No Salmonella spp. was found in any of the wild turtles, however, the closely
related Arizona spp. and four other enteric bacterial genera were identified in our
samples. Three genera were found at all six study sites, whereas Serratia and
Arizona were found in three each.

The painted turtle, Chrysemys picta , contained the greatest diversity of bacteria
identified (Table 2). Three turtles from three locations contained Arizona spp.

The sample of the slider turtle native to southeastern Virginia, Trachemys scripta
scripta , all from the Back Bay site, contained four species of bacteria - Hafnia alvei
(1 turtle), Citrobacter freundii (2), Escherichia coli (1), and Serratia liquefaciens (1).
The introduced subspecies, Trachemys scripta elegans , found in three of the loca¬
tions studied, contained three species of bacteria, Citrobacter freundii - one turtle
each from Bryan Park Lake and Seashore State Park and 5 turtles from Wes¬
thampton Lake, Escherichia coli - three turtles from Westhampton Lake, and
Arizona spp. - one juvenile from Westhampton Lake.

Pseudemys rubriventris contained two species of bacteria, Hafnia alvei - one
turtle each from Bryan Park and Laurel Lake, and Citrobacter freundii - two turtles
each from Bryan Park Lake and Laurel Lake.

BACTERIA IN FRESHSATER TURTLES

237

TABLE 1. Composition of freshwater turtle samples in six freshwater lakes and ponds in Virginia. In
each sample, the number of adults is the first number and the number of juveniles is the second.
Abbreviations: BB - Back Bay National Wildlife Refuge, SSP - Seashore State Park, GSL = Grassy

Species

BB

SSP

GSL

LL

BP

WL

Chrysemys picta

13/2

16/0

3/0

20/15

20/3

4/4

Chelydra serpentina

VO

1/1

VO

4/0

Kinostemon baurii

8/0

Kinostemon submbrum

5/0

1/0

Pseudemys mbriventris

0/1

0/3

3/0

Stemotherus odoratus

3/0

3/0

6/0

Trachemys scripta scripta

3/6

Trachemys scripta elegans

1/0

4/17

TABLE 2. Distribution of enteric bacteria in Virginia populations of Chrysemys picta. Abbreviations

for sampling locations are in Table 1. The

number represents number of turtles.

BB

SSP

GSL

LL

BP

WL

Arizona spp.

1

1

1

Hafnia alvei

2

1

2

1

Citrobacter fruendii

2

6

1

10

5

3

Esherichia coli

2

2

2

3

1

Serratia liquefaciens

1

1

2

1

In the sample of Chelydra serpentina, Hafnia alvei was found in an immature
female from Westhampton Lake and Arizona spp. occurred in an immature female
from Bryan Park Lake. Three species of bacteria were documented from three
populations of Stemotherus odoratus: Hafnia alvei - one turtle each from Seashore
State Park and Laurel Lake, Citrobacter freundii - one turtle from Seashore State
Park and two from Bryan Park Lake, and Serratia liquefaciens - one turtle from
Laurel Lake. Two species of bacteria were found in two populations oi Kinostemon
subrubrum : Hafnia alvei - one turtle each from Back Bay and Grassy Swamp Lake
and Citrobacter freundii - two turtles from Back Bay. Kinostemon baurii contained
three species of bacteria, all from Seashore State Park: Citrobacter freundii (2
turtles), Escherichia coli (2), and Hafnia alvei (1).

Laboratory Samples.- Of the 43 adult Chrysemys picta bellii in the two com¬
mercial samples, 11 (26%) contained Salmonella. Salmonella enteritidis was iso¬
lated from eight turtles, S. java from one, and S. newport from two. Eighteen
individuals contained Arizona hinshawii , ten contained Citrobacter freundii, one
contained Enterobacter cloacae, four had Escherichia coli , one had Hafnia alvei , and

238

VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

two turtles contained Serratia liquefaciens. The eleven turtles that contained
Salmonella also harbored Arizona.

Bacterial distribution in the large (upper and lower) and small intestine and in
the cloaca revealed no consistent patterns. Arizona henshawii, Citrobactor, and
Salmonella enteritidis were found in all anatomical locations. Salmonella newport
occurred only in the lower large intestine, whereas S. java was found in all locations
except the small intestine.

DISCUSSION

Salmonella and its close relative Arizona henshawii have been isolated from
numerous wild animals under captive and natural conditions (e.g., Morse and
Duncan, 1974; Everard et ah , 1979). These bacteria have been found in over 275
species of reptiles, including 44 species of turtles (Hoff and White, 1977). Several
of the serotypes commonly causing human health problems are among those listed,
including S. enteritidis and S. newport (Altman et al. , 1972; Chiodini and Sundberg,
1981). Despite their occurrence in a variety of reptilian species, high incidence of
human health problems in the United States has been linked only to the commer¬
cially sold red-eared turtle (T. scripta elegans). Although the 1975 ban may have
significantly reduced the incidence of salmonellosis in humans from this source
(Cohen et al ., 1980), the incidence of Salmonella in pet store and other captive
reptiles remains high (Chiodini and Sundberg, 1981). These authors suggest,
however, that knowledge of the potential health hazards and proper sanitation are
sufficient to minimize human contamination.

How prevalent is Salmonella and Arizona henshawii in natural populations of
freshwater turtles? The answer to this question is of interest because wild turtles
are often caught and kept as pets by children and turtles of all sizes continue to be
sold in pet stores (pers. obs.). We found only three published accounts on the
incidence of Salmonella in natural populations. Baker et al. (1972) mentioned that
a New Jersey study of 150 turtles revealed S. newport in one individual, S. manchester
from a second, and S. give from a third. Behler (1973) reported that no Salmonella
or Arizona were found in 60 + individuals of eight species from the northeastern
United States. In neither of these papers were the species of turtles listed. Jackson
et al. (1969) found the following bacteria in wild-caught turtles in Mississippi:
Salmonella miami in Stemotherus minor. ; S. inf antis in Chelydra serpentina ; Ed-
wardsiella tarda in Chrysemys picta and Trachemys scripta scripta ; and Citrobactor
spp. in Kinostemon subrubrum and Pseudemys floridana. The number of turtles
infected was not given. Our study of 174 individuals of eight species and subspecies
also revealed no Salmonella in their bacterial flora. We did, however, find Arizona
spp. in Chrysemys picta , Chelydra serpentina , and Trachemys scripta elegans. Be¬
cause the Arizona was not identified to species in these samples, we do not know if
the pathogenic A henshawii serotype was among them.

In an unpublished master’s thesis, Gapp (1970) examined 16 adult freshwater
turtles in an unpolluted Virginia lake (Chesterfield County) and 19 turtles in one
contaminated with human wastes (James City County). He found six genera of
enteric bacteria in five species of turtles, but no Salmonella, Arizona , or Shigella.
The only qualitative difference between the two lakes was the absence of Citrobactor
in the polluted system. In addition, turtles from the lake with the higher coliform

BACTERIA IN FRESHSATER TURTLES

239

TABLE 3. Summary of occurrence of enteric bacteria in eight species and subspecies of freshwater
turtles in Virginia. Data are from Gapp (1970) and this study. Abbreviations: CP = Chrysemys picta,
CS = Chelydra serpentina, KB — Kinostemon baurii, KS ~ Kinostemum subrubrum, PR ----- Pseudemys
rubnventris, SO = Sternotherus odor at us, TSE - Trachemys scripta elegans , and TSS - Trachemys
scripta scripta. A plus sign represents a known occurrence and a negative sign indicates that the genus

CP

CS

KB

KS

PR

SO

TSE

TSS

Arizona

+

+

+

Citrobacter

+

-

+

+

+

+

+

+

Enterobacter

+

+

-

+

+

+

-

-

Escherichia

+

-

+

+

-

-

+

+

Hafnia

+

+

+

+

+

+

-

+

Klebsiella

+

+

-

+

+

+

-

-

Proteus

+

-

-

+

+

+

-

-

Providence

+

-

-

+

-

+

-

-

Serratia

+

-

-

-

-

+

-

+

counts had fewer enteric bacteria than turtles in the lake with the lower coliform
counts. Thus, the contamination level of the lake may not reflect the contamination
level of the adult turtle (Kaufmann and Morrison, 1966). In turtles from the
polluted lake, > 50% of the isolates were Escherichia , Enterobacter, and Klebsiella ,
genera associated with human fecal contamination. These genera comprised only
15% of the enterics isolated in the unpolluted lake. Gapp concluded that the
enteric flora of freshwater turtles is usually comprised of intermediate biochemical
types reflecting the bacterial nature of the water and surrounding soil. Human fecal
pollution alters the biochemical types but not the floral composition (Gapp, 1970).

Comparison of our study with Gapp (1970) is difficult because we did not score
our samples for biochemical types. Of the three bacterial genera noted by Gapp
(1970) to be commonly isolated with human pollution, only Escherichia coli was
found in our study. It occurred in all of our study sites and in three species of turtles.
Our study and that of Gapp (1970) provide the only list of bacterial flora for
Virginia’s freshwater turtles (Table 3). The low incidence of Arizona spp. (2.9%)
and the lack of Salmonella in our studies suggests that bacteria pathogenic to
humans are uncommonly found in natural populations of freshwater turtles in
Virginia.

Given the diversity of bacterial flora in Virginia’s turtles, do these bacteria pose
health threats to these animals? Citrobacter fruendii is a Gram-negative rod nor¬
mally found in soil and water and may cause septicemic cutaneous ulcerative
disease (SCUD) in turtles (Kaplan, 1957). Serratia may cause clinical features
similar to SCUD (Marcus, 1980). Salmonella is probably a saprophytic organism
in reptiles causing diarrhea, anorexia, and listlessness (Chiodini and Sundberg,
1981) but individuals carrying these bacteria are usually asymptomatic (Marcus,
1980). One of us (JCM) has captured several thousand freshwater turtles in a
variety of aquatic habitats in Virginia and fewer than five showed external signs of

240

VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

disease, e.g ., emaciation. We are aware, however, that turtles brought into captivity
frequently show signs of disease after a period of time unless all aspects of
husbandry are properly controlled. Thus, stress may allow an otherwise
asymptomatic turtle to exhibit pathogenic symptoms (DuPonte et al.r 1978).

The identification of Salmonella enteritidis , S. java , S. newport, and Arizona
henshawii in commercial painted turtles (C picta) used for classroom physiology
studies clearly warrents concern about handling and captive maintenance. None
of these turtles showed obvious signs of disease, so they may have been
asymptomatic prior to collection. The stress of shipment and being maintained on
nutrient poor lettuce in a sink with only dripping water may have caused the bacteria
to become active. We recommend that instructors and students be made aware of
the potential for contamination and that they use proper sanitation procedures
when handling and caring for classroom turtles. Because the number of wild turtles
collected for commercial purposes has seriously reduced natural populations
(Warwick, 1986; Warwick and Steedman, 1988), we suggest that other models be
sought for the physiological processes usually demonstrated in the classroom with
these animals.

Although we found no Salmonella in our samples, we cannot say conclusively
that this bacterial genus does not exist in natural populations in Virginia. All of our
turtles and those sampled by Gapp (1970) were examined by swabbing the cloaca
only once. Because excretion rates vary within and among individuals, carrier
identification is sometimes difficult (Chiodini and Sundberg, 1981). Studies of
domestic animals indicate that 3-4 separate cultures taken from several grams of
feces at different times must be taken to declare an animal Salmonella-free (Carter,
1986). A turtle that is a heavy shedder at one time may later have a negative stool
culture (Kaufmann et al ., 1967). Thus, our study sets the stage for future research.
Given that Arizona , Enterobacter , Klebsiella , Citrobacter , Serratia , and Proteus
(Table 3), all potentially pathogenic to humans (McCoy and Seidler, 1973), have
been found in Virginia’s turtles, additional study of the bacterial flora of these
animals, and perhaps certain captive reptiles as well, is clearly warranted.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We thank W. R. Tenney for providing the use of his laboratory and the Biology
Department of the University of Richmond for helping to defray some of the lab
costs. We thank the Division of Consolidated Laboratory Services of the state of
Virginia for confirming our identifications for several of our samples. Christopher
A. Pague helped with some of the field work. Scott J. Stahl kindly provided a key
reference.

Back Bay National Wildlife Refuge, Virginia Division of Parks and Recreation,
and the County of Henrico issued research permits. M. Weinstein allowed us to
work at Laurel Lake and E. C. Robins, Jr. granted permission to work in Grassy
Swamp Lake. The Virginia Department of Game and Inland Fisheries provided a
trapping permit.

The cloacal samples were taken during field studies supported by the Theodore
Roosevelt Memorial Fund of The American Museum of Natural History, a Grants-
in-Herpetology Award from The Society for the Study of Amphibians and Reptiles,
a Grant-in- Aid of Research from Sigma Xi, and The Virginia Academy of Science.

BACTERIA IN FRESHSATER TURTLES

241

LITERATURE CITED

Altman, R., J. C. Gorman, L. L. Bernhardt, and M. Goldfield. 1972. Turtle- as¬
sociated salmonellosis II. The relationship of pet turtles to salmonellosis in
children in New Jersey. Am. J. Epidemiol. 95:518-520.

Baker, E.F., Jr., H. W. Anderson, and J. Allard. 1972. Epidemiological aspects of
turtle-associated salmonellosis. Arch. Environ. Health 24:1-9.

Behler, J. L. 1973. Salmonella, turtles and the law: A review. Consol. Proc. 1973
Regional AAZPA Conf., pp. 167-171.

Berry, J. F. and R. Shine. 1980. Sexual size dimorphism and sexual selection in
turtles (Order Testudines). Oecologia 44:185-191.

Boycott, J. T. 1962. Salmonella species in turtles. Science 137:761-762.

Carter, G.R. 1986. Veterinarian’s Guide to Laboratory Diagnosis of Infectious
Diseases. Vet. Med. Publish. Co., Lenexa, Kansas.

Chiodini, R. J., and J. P. Sundberg. 1981. Salmonellosis in reptiles: A review. Am.
J. Epidemiol 113:494-499.

Cohen, M.L., M. Potter, R. Pollard. 1980. Turtle-associated salmonellosis in the
United States. Effect of public health action, 1970-1976. J. Amer. Med. Assoc.
243:1247-1249.

Conant, R. 1975. A Field Guide to Reptiles and Amphibians of Eastern and
Central North America. Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston, MA. 429 pp.

DuPonte, M. W., R. M. Nakanura, and E. M. L. Chang. 1978. Activation of latent
Salmonella and Arizona organisms by dehydration in red-eared turtles,
Pseudemys scripta-elegans. Am. J. Vet. Res. 39:529-530.

Ernst, C.H., and R.W. Barbour. 1972. Turtles of the United States. University of
Kentucky Press, Lexington, KY. 347 pp.

Everard, C.O.R., B. Tota, D. Bassett, and C. Ali. 1979. Salmonella in wildlife from
Trinidad and Grenada, W.I. J. Wildl. Diseases 15:213-219.

Gapp, D. A. 1970. Enteric bacteria in turtles. Unpublished Master’s Thesis,
College of William and Mary, Williamsburg. 28 pp.

Gibbons, J. W. 1983. Reproductive characteristics and ecology of the mud turtle,
Kinostemon subrubrum (Lacepede). Herpetologica 39:254-271.

Hardy, T. 1988. The tortoise and the scare. Bioscience 38:76-79.

Hinshaw, W. R., and E. McNeil. 1947. Lizard as carriers of salmonella and
paracolon bacteria. J. Bacteriol. 53:715-718.

Hoff, G. L., and F. H. White. 1977. Salmonella in reptiles: isolation from free-rang¬
ing lizards (Reptilia, Lacertilia) in Florida. J. Herpetol. 11:123-129.

Iverson, J. B. 1979. An inexpensive turtle trap. Herpetol. Rev. 10:55.

Jackson, M.M., M. Fulton, and C.G. Jackson. 1969. A survey of the enteric bacteria
(Enterobacteriaceae) of chelonians: Preliminary findings. ASB Bull. 16:55
(abstract).

Kaufmann, A. F., M. D. Fox, G. K. Morris, B. T. Wood, J. C. Feeley, and M. K.
Frix. 1972. Turtle-associatedsalmonellosis III. The effects of environmental
salmonellae in commercial turtle breeding ponds. Am. J. Epidemiol. 95:521-
528.

_ _ J.C. Feeley, and W.E. DeWitt. 1967. Salmonella excretion by turtles. Public

Health Rep. 82:840-842.

242

VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

and Z. L. Morrison. 1966. An epidemiologic study of salmonellosis in turtles.
Am. J. Epidemiol. 84:364-370.

Kaplan, H.M. 1957. Septicemic, cutaneous ulcerative disease in turtles. Proc.
Animal Care Panel 7:273-277.

Lamb, T., and J. Lovich. Morphometric validation of the striped mud turtle
(Kinostemon baurii) in the Carolinas and Virginia. Copeia 1990:613-618.

Lamm, S. M., A. Taylor, Jr., E. J. Gangarosa, H. W. Anderson, W. Young, M. H.
Clark, and A. R. Bruce. 1972. Turtle-associated salmonellosis I. An estima¬
tion of the magnitude of the problem in the United States, 1970-1971. Am. J.
Epidemiol. 95:511-517.

Marcus, L. C. 1980. Bacterial infections in reptiles, pp. 211-221, In J. B. Murphy and
J. T. Collins (eds.) Reproductive Biology and Diseases of Captive Reptiles. Soc.
for the Study of Amph. Rept., Contrib. to Herpetology, No. 1.

McCoy, R.H., and R.J. Seidler. 1973. Potential pathogens in the environment:
isolation, enumeration, and identification of seven genera of intestinal bacteria
associated with small green pet turtles. Appl. Microbiol. 25:534-538.

Mitchell, J. C. 1985. Variation in the male reproductive cycle in a population of
painted turtles, Chrysemys picta , from Virginia. Herpetologica 41:45-51.

_ . 1988. Population ecology and life histories of the freshwater turtles

Chrysemys picta and Stemotherus odoratus in an urban lake. Herpetol.
Monogr. 2:40-61.

Morse, E.V., and M.A. Duncan. 1974. Salmonellosis - An environmental health
problem. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 165:1015-1019.

Oboegbulem, S. I., and A. U. Iseghohimheu. 1985. Wall geckos (Geckonidae) as
reservoirs of salmonellae in Nigeria: problems for epidemiology and public
health. Int. J. Zoon. 12:228-232.

Warwick, C. 1986. Red-eared terrapin farms and conservation. Orynx 20:237-240.

_ ., and C. Steedman. 1988. Report on the use of red-eared turtles ( Trachemys

scripta elegans ) as a food source utilised by man. Report to the Peoples Trust
for Endangered Species, Surry, UK. 18 pp.

NOTE ADDED IN PROOF: Results in a new paper by D’Aoust et al. (1990,
Am J. Epidemiology 132:233-238) found Salmonella in fertile eggs, packaging moss,
and hatchlings in shipments of red-eared sliders from Louisiana. Their confirma¬
tion of antibiotic-resistant strains of bacteria demonstrate that the sale of red-eared
sliders continues to pose a serious human health risk. Their results strengthen our
argument that extreme caution should be taken when using live turtles for
laboratory exercises.

Virginia Journal of Science
Volume 41, Number 3
Fall 1990

Feeding in the Pigweed Flea Beetle, Disonycha glabrata
Fab. (Coleoptera:Chrysomelidae),
on Amaranthus retroflexus

Anne Marie Tisler, Department of Entomology
Eastern Shore Agricultural Experiment Station
Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University
Painter, VA 23420

Disonycha glabrata (Fabr.) is a foliage feedingChrysomelid beetle (subfamily:
Aitkin ae) characterized byenlarged hind coxa, black and yellow striped elytra
with blackouter margins, and spots on the prothorax (Garman, 1892). D. glabrata
is widely distributed throughout the Americas and has been reported in Colorado,
Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, NewYork, south to Florida and west to Arizona. Addition¬
ally, it is found in Central and South America and in the West Indies from Jamaica
to Trinidad (Blake, 1955). D. glabrata feeds almost exclusively on Amaranthus and
is most frequently reported on A. retroflexus (pigweed) (Blake, 1933, 1955).

Little is known about D. glabrata beyond taxonomic descriptions and limited
life history information. Adult andlarval feeding is characterized by small round
holes chewed in the leaves of Amaranthus. Eggs are laid in clusters at the base of
the plant and on the underside of leaves. Three or more generations occur per
year. Developmental time averaged 28.1 days at 30 °C (Hemenway and Whitcomb,
1968). Opposition is terminated when A. retroflexus matures and forms seed. D.
glabrata overwinter in the adult stage in leaf litter.

Garman (1892) suggested D. glabrata may be important as a biological control
agent because it attacks pigweed, a common weed pest of many agricultural crops.
However, before D. glabrata can be considered as a biological control agent,
feeding must be quantified and investigated.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Disonycha glabrata were hand collected from Amaranthus retroflexus on 26
September and 3 October, 1989, at the Whitethorne Research Farm in
Montgomery County, Virginia and returned to the laboratory. Beetles were al¬
lowed to feed on fresh foliage for 24 hours and only viable individuals were selected
for feeding studies. Amaranthus retroflexus and Datura stramonium (jimsonweed)
were also collected from the Whitethorne Research Farm, wrapped in damp paper
towels, plastic and kept refrigerated at 15 °C until needed. Leaf disks (14 mm in
diameter) were cut from foliage, weighed, and placed in Petri dishes containing
moist filter paper.

Mean 24 Hour Feeding Consumption: Eight beetles were selected from field
collected specimens. Each beetle was placed in a petri dish containing three
weighed A retroflexus leaf disks. Petri dishes were held in a growth chamber type
box at 25 °C, 16:8 (L:D) and beetles were allowed to feed for 24 hours. After 24
hours, remaining leaf fragments were removed and weighed. The experiment was
repeated for three consecutive days using the same beetles.

244

VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

TABLE 1. Mean 24 hour foliage consumption of Disonycha glabrata on Amaranthus retro flexus.

Individual

beetle

Mean SEM
(in mg)*

1

15.5

± 5.0

2

21.5

± 3.6

3

18.3

± 3.8

4

21.6

± 4.0

5

25.3

± 11.9

6

30.4

± 4.3

7

12.5

± 2.7

8

28.8

± 3.8

* Means are not significant at the a = 0.05 level

Feeding Consumption Under Three Densities: Differing densities of beetles
(1 beetle per disk, 2 beetles per disk and 3 beetles per disk) were placed in petri
dishes containing moist filter paper and three weighed A.retroflexus or D.
stramonium leaf disks . Beetles were held as described above and allowed to feed
for 24 hours. After 24 hours, remaining leaf fragments were removed and weighed.
The experiment was replicated four times.

Petri dishes containing leaf disks and no beetles were used to measure leaf
shrinkage over a 24 hour period. Final leaf weights were corrected for shrinkage.
Means and standard errors were calculated. Analysis of variance and Duncan’s
multiple range test were used to determine significant differences at the a = 0.05
level.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

No significant differences were detected in feeding rates of individual D.
glabrata (Table 1). Mean 24 hour foliage consumption of individual D. glabrata
ranged from 12.5 ± 2.7 to 30.4 ± 4.3 mg per beetle on A. retroflexus. No feeding
occurred when D. glabrata was placed on D. stramonium. Mean mg foliage
consumed decreased significantly as density increased from one D. glabrata per
leaf disk to three D. glabrata per leaf disk (Table 2). Mean feeding rates decreased
by 31.8 % when density was increased from one beetle per leaf disk (approximately
150 mm2) to two beetles per leaf disk, and by 57.0% when density was increased
from one beetle per leaf disk to three beetles per leaf disk. Mean feeding rate for
one beetle per leaf disk was not significantly different from mean 24 hour foliage
consumption of individual D. glabrata.

Decreased feeding rates at increased densities suggest competition occurred
among D. glabrata . Maximum feeding was accomplished when no more than one
D. glabrata occurred per 150 mm2.

D. glabarata has potential for use as a biological control agent for A. retroflexus.
Adults feed readily on A. retroflexus although competition occurs if densities are
greater than one adult per 150 mm2. Further study of adult feeding preferences
and larval feedingrates and should be conducted if D. glabrata is to be used for
control oL4. retroflexus.

PIGWEED FLEA

245

TABLE 2. Mean feeding oi Disonycha glabrata on Amaranthm retro floods under three densities.

Density

Mean ± SEM

per leaf disk

(in mg)**

1

24.2 ± 0.7 a

2

16.5 ± 1.0 b

3

10.4 ± 0.4 c

** Means followed by different letters are significant at the a - 0.05 level

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to thank Michael Leahy and Mary Leahy for their help in collecting
insects for this project,

LITERATURE CITED

Blake, D.H. 1933. Revision of the beetles of the genus Disonycha occurring in
America north of Mexico. Proc, U.S. Nat.Mus. 82: 1-66.

Blake, D.H. 1955. Revision of the vittate species of the chrysomelid beetle genus
Disonycha from the Americas south of the United States. Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus.
104: 1-86.

Garman, H. 1892. The pigweed flea beetle. Second Ann. Rep. Kentucky Agr. Exp.
Sta. 1889: 27-30.

Henenway, R. and W.H. Whitcomb. 1968. The life history of Disonycha glabrata
(Coleoptera:Chrysomelidae). J. Kan. Entomol.Soc. 41: 174-178.

Virginia Journal of Science
Volume 41, Number 3
Fall 1990

An Atwood Machine with a Variable Mass Distribution

James N. Boyd, Saint Christopher’s School
Richmond, VA 23226

ABSTRACT

The Atwood machine, which should be familiar to physics students who
have completed the mechanics portion of an introductory physics course,
is a simplification of an apparatus first described by the English clergyman
George Atwood (1746 - 1807). The Atwood machine of first-year physics
class consists of a stationary pulley with two masses connected by a cord
so that one mass hangs on either side of the pulley. The device lends itself
in beautiful fashion to the study of accelerated motion, both in the
laboratory through actual experiment and on the chalkboard through
gedanken experiment. The note to follow describes a problem which has
led to interesting and profitable classroom discussions.

This note concerns an Advanced Placement level problem out of which we at
Saint Christopher’s School have gotten lots of instructional mileage. It has been
particularly useful as an example of a mechanics problem which admits of a simple
solution when attacked by energy techniques but which is quite difficult when forces
are used. It well may be that it can be found in every physics text which we have not
read and that it is standard fare for most of the secondary school physics teachers
with whom we are unacquainted.

The problem is that of an Atwood machine with a separation of masses which
varies between the two sides (Boyd, 1985). Suppose that a rope of length L and
uniform linear density p is draped over a perfectly smooth horizontal rod as shown
in cross-section in Figure 1.

At the instant of time t — 0 seconds,
the rope is released from rest with the
length of rope kL on the right-hand side
of the Atwood machine and (1 - k)L on
the left where 0.5 < k < 1.0. The first part
of the problem is to find the velocity of the
rope just when it loses contact with the
rod.

For simplicity, let us take a specific
example with the total length of the rope
L = 2 meters and k = 3/4. Then, at t = 0,
the length of the rope on the right-hand
side is y0 = 3/2 and that on the left-hand
side is L - yG = 1/2. We assign the coor¬
dinate y to the right-hand end of the rope,
taking y to be zero at the level of the
supporting rod and positive below that
level. As always, we assume that the rope
slides under the influence of the conser-

f

(1-k)L < c.

L

r«L

A

kL

J

FIGURE 1. The rope begins to slip at t = 0

ATWOOD DEVICE

247

Zero level of gravitational
potential energy.

(Ignore radius of rod.)

vative, uniform gravitational field above a
flat earth. We can then claim that the sum
of the kinetic and gravitational potential
energies possessed by the rope must
remain constant throughout its motion
(until it lands upon the floor in a heap). 2 _ y
Taking out geometry and notation from
Figure 2, we proceed to write the ap¬
propriate energy equations.

At the instant (t = 0 sec.) when the
rope is released from rest, y = yQ = 3/2
meters and the center of mass of the
longer section of rope is yJ2 = 3/4 meter
below the rod whose cross-sectional
dimensions we have chosen to ignore. On
the left-hand side, the center of mass of
the shorter section of rope is 1/4 meter
below the rod. Since the initial kinetic FIGURE 2. The geometry for our problem,
energy of the rope is zero, we can write
the total energy (TE) of the system

throughout the motion as the initial gravitional potential energy. Thus,

TE = - [P(2~y0)\g^=^1= ^

Then, at the instant that the rope leaves the rod, the nonzero kinetic energy
and the new potential energy can be added to yield the same total energy:

TE = (2p)^+ (~2p)g( §) = =pv2-2pg

(1)

Equating our two expressions for TE , we obtain pvz - 2pg = -5pg/4 or

v2 - 3g/4.

>/%

Thus the velocity with which the rope leaves the rod is

If we replace Equation 1 with the total energy equation for the rope in an
arbitrary configuration after its release but before it leaves the rod, we have

(^)t- pys (o) - p(2~ y)g('2Zy^ =

v2= (y2- 2y + |)g (2)

This last equation can be solved for v as an explicit function of y, the spatial
coordinate of the right-hand end of the rope for 3/2 < y < 2. However, the second
part of our problem is to find the length of time for which the rope is in contact with
the rod after release.

Differentiating Equation 2 with respect to time and then simplifying the
resulting equation yield

248

VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

a = g(y - !) (3)

where a is the acceleration of the rope. Equation 3 can be rewritten as

d^y , ^ d2 (y - 1) / ^

— f = g(y- 1) or - — y-^ = g(y - 1)

dt 2 dt 2

which has the obvious solution

y — 1 = A exp (Vg t) + B exp ( — Vgt).

Lettings = 3/2 and v=^~ = 0 atf = 0 implies that A = B ^ 1/4 and that

- = cosh( Vg

0+ 1.

To find the value of t at which the rope leaves the rod, simply lety = 2 to obtain
t = Thus the rope remains in contact with the rod for approximately

1.32

Vg

= 0.42 sec. after its release.

LITERATURE CITED

Boyd, J. N. 1985. A Variable Acceleration. Physics Teacher 23:239.

Virginia Journal of Science
Volume 41, Number 3
Fall 1990

Rediscovery of Pseudotremia cavemarum Cope
in Virginia

Donald W. Linzey, Department of Biology
Wytheville Community College, Wytheville, Virginia 24382

Pseudotremia cavemarum , a cavernicolous diplopod, has been rediscovered in
three caves in southwestern Virginia.

The cavernicolous diplopod Pseudotremia cavemarum Cope was described by
Cope (1869) from Erhart’s Cave near Ellett, Montgomery County, Virginia.
Erhart’s Cave (elevation - 1630 ft.) is in the drainage of the North Fork of the
Roanoke River. The type locality has remained the only known locality for over 100
years. The status of this species was clarified by Hoffman (1958).

Erhart’s Cave was located in a commercial rock quarry. Quarrying operations
during the 1960s and 1970s gradually destroyed the cave. Ferguson (1979) stated:
"The only known cave habitat at Ellett in Montgomery County was recently
destroyed by a quarrying operation. It is not known if the species survives in
adjacent underground habitats." Pseudotremia cavemarum was classified as
Recently Extinct or Extirpated in Virginia at the first Symposium on Endangered
and Threatened Plants and Animals of Virginia (Ferguson, 1979).

On August 15, 1981 the author and his sons were exploring and mapping Dave’s
Cave (elevation - 1800 ft.) located on the author’s property approximately two miles
north of Erhart’s Cave. Neither Douglas (1964) nor Holsinger (1975) list Dave’s
Cave as being among Virginia’s 2300 + known caves. This previously undescribed
dry cave consists of approximately 100 feet of passageway. Several specimens of
Pseudotremia cavemamm were observed along a moist crawlway, but only one
specimen was collected. Identification of this specimen was subsequently con¬
firmed by Richard L. Hoffman. On August 17, 1983 six Pseudotremia were observed
along the same crawlway. No specimens were collected.

Based on the 1981 specimen, this species was reclassified as being Endangered
in Virginia at the second Symposium on Endangered and Threatened Plants and
Animals of Virginia in April, 1989 (Hoffman, in press).

Subsequent investigations by the author and his son during May and June, 1989
have revealed Pseudotremia cavemamm in two additional caves - Nellies Hole
(elevation - 2080 ft.) and Heartbeat Cave (elevation - 2050 ft.). These caves are
located along Virginia Route 681 approximately one mile southwest of Dave’s Cave.
Four specimens were observed in Nellies Hole and one in Heartbeat Cave. Iden¬
tifications of all specimens were confirmed by Hoffman.

LITERATURE CITED

Cope, E. D. 1869. Synopsis of the extinct Mammalia of the cave formations of the

United States, with observation on some Myriapoda found in and near same.

Proc. Amer. Philos. Soc. 11:171-192.

Douglas, H. H. 1964. Caves of Virginia. Virginia Cave Survey, Falls Church, Va.

761 P.

250

VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

Ferguson, L. M. 1979. Pseudotremia cavernarum. p. 170. In Linzey, D. W. (editor).
Endangered and Threatened Plants and Animals of Virginia. Virginia
Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia. 665 p.
Hoffman, R. L. 1958. On the identity of Pseudotremia cavernarum Cope, a poorly
known American chordeumoid diplopod. Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash. 71:113-118.
Holsinger, J, R. 1975.Descriptions of Virginia caves. Bull. 85, Virginia Division of
Mineral Resources, Charlottesville. 450 p.

AAAS RESOLUTION

251

Council asked that the following be plublished in the Journal

AAAS RESOLUTION ON THE USE OF ANIMALS IN RE¬
SEARCH, TESTING, AND EDUCATION

Whereas society as a whole, and the scientific community in particular, sup¬
ports and encourages research that will improve the well-being of humans and
animals, and that will lead to the cure or prevention of disease; and

Whereas the use of animals has been and continues to be essential not only in
applied research with direct clinical applications in humans and animals, but also
in research that furthers the understanding of biological processes; and

Whereas the American Association for the Advancement of Science supports
appropriate regulations and adequate funding to promote the welfare of animals
in laboratory or field situations and deplores any violations of those regulations;
and

Whereas the American Association for the Advancement of Science deplores
harassment of scientists and technical personnel engaged in animal research, as
well as destruction of animal laboratory facilities; and

Whereas in order to protect the public, both consumer and medical products
must be tested for safety, and such testing may in some cases require the use of
animals; and

Whereas the American Association for the Advancement of Science has long
acknowledged the importance and endorsed the use of animal experimentation in
promoting human and animal welfare and in advancing scientific knowledge;

BE IT RESOLVED that the American Association for the Advancement of
Science continues to support the use of animals in scientific research; and

BE IT FURTHER RESOLVED that scientists bear several responsibilities
for the conduct of research with animals:

(1) to treat their subjects with proper care and sensitivity to their pain and
discomfort, consistent with the requirements of the particular study and research
objectives;

(2) to be informed about and adhere to relevant laws and regulations pertaining
to animal research; and

(3) to communicate respect for animal subjects to employees, students, and
colleagues; and

252

VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

BE IT FURTHER RESOLVED that the development and use of complemen¬
tary or alternative research or testing methodologies, such as computer models,
tissue, or cell cultures, be encouraged where applicable and efficacious; and

BE IT FURTHER RESOLVED that the use of animals by students can be an
important component of science education as long as it is supervised by teachers
who are properly trained in the welfare and use of animals in laboratory or field
settings and is conducted by institutions capable of providing proper oversight; and

BE IT FURTHER RESOLVED that scientists support the efforts

to improve animal welfare that do not include policies or regulations that would
compromise scientific research; and

BE IT FURTHER RESOLVED that the American Association for the Ad¬
vancement of Science encourages its affiliated societies and research institutions
to support this resolution.

Joint Resolution Adopted by the AAAS Board and Council February 19, 1990

Sponsored by the AAAS Committee on Scientific Freedom and Responsibility

LATE ABSTRACTS

253

These abstracts from the Environmental Section were received too late to be
included in the Proceedings issue of the Journal.

THE DISTRIBUTION OF SEA TURTLES ON SAN SALVADOR , BAHAMAS. Ryan
R. Cilsick. Dept, of Biology, Lynchburg College, Lynchburg, VA,
24501. Study of the number of species of sea turtles found
around the island, and research conducted on population changes
in recent years. In this paper information was presented on
identification and habits of the Green Sea Turtle, Loggerhead,
and Hawksbill Sea Turtle. Furthermore, in the paper the turtle
farm being constructed is discussed.

Distribution of the Bluehead Wrasse, Thalassona bi fascia tun:

A Comparison Between Fernandez and French Bay, San Salvador,
Bahamas, by Chad R. Coley, Lynchburg College, Lynchburg, Va.
24501. The Bluehead Wrasse is a small, si y inch, cigar-shaped
fish which uses its ca'udal and pectoral fins for locomotion.
Fernandez Bay lies on the western Caribbean n ice of the island,
while French Bay lies on the south end of the island where the
Caribbean meets the Atlantic Ocean on the erst s.ide. Fernandez
Bay holds the greatest number of wrasses concentrated along
forereef areas. These areas are shallow, and the bottom is a
calcium carbonate base rock which has many crevices and holes
in which the wrasses live and hide. French Bay has less v.Tssses,
and they are also concentrated in the shallow forereef areas.
Fewer wrasses are located here due to the rough , murky waters.
The Bluehead was found to respond to environmental changes such
as temperature and water clarity. The wrasses were observed to
be most active in the early afternoon when the sun and water
temperature were increased and the water was clear.

THE PRACTICE OF CLEARCUTTING AS SURVEYED ON SEVEN TRACTS OF LAND IN BEDFORD
AND NELSON COUNTIES, VIRGINIA. Christine R. Fisher, Department of Biology,
Lynchburg College, Lynchburg, Virginia, 24501. Controversy surrounding the
practice of clearcutting prompted a survey to determine the effects of such
a cut. Tracts of land examined were numbered one through seven and were clear-
cut, respectively, 3, 12, 14-15, 20, 25-30, 30-40, and 45 years ago. All cuts
had been left to progress naturally. Two methods of survey used were the mill-
acre or circular plot method and the basal area method. The millacre method was
used in more recently cut areas where most of the growth was in stems less than
3 inches in diameter and, particularly, seedlings. The basal area method was
used in older stands with larger trees and less dense underbrush where the mill-
acre method would have yielded few species. All tree regrowth was noted with re¬
spect to size and species. Research and fieldwork showed some pros and cons of
the issue as well as variables affecting regrowth. Reasons for the decision to
clearcut, as opposed to other methods of cutting, is an important consideration.
A tract of woodland having been clearcut does not come back exactly as it was
prior to the cut but it is possible to affect what happens and to reasonably
predict the eventual outcome.

254

VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

BIOGEOCHEMICAL TRANSFORMATIONS OCCURING AT THE SEAGRASS RHIZOPLANE. Garrlet
W. Smith, Dept, of Biology, University of SC at Aiken, Aiken, SC 29801. The
seagrass rhizoplane is a unique environment for the establishment and growth
of microorganisms. The rhizoplane microflora appear to be somewhat specific
for seagrass species and differ from the outer rhizosphere microflora. Similar¬
ly, metabolic activities are partitioned among the outer rhizosphere, rhizoplane
and, in some cases, the endorhizosphere . Phosphorus solubilization, recycling
of nitrogenous compounds, and nitrification rates are highest at the rhizoplane.
Nitrogen fixation rates and the oxidation of inorganic compounds are also great¬
est at the rhizoplane while microbial chemical reductions occur primarily in
the outer rhizosphere. Data indicate that two distinct populations exist that
play difffrent roles in cycling and transforming both organic and inorganic
compounds. These activities appear to have a direct effect on the nutritional
status of the seagrasses.

LIP’E CYC LE OF THE BUJE CRAB C aHinectes sapi dus . Terry G . S pence B .S . ,D .D .St
Box 819, Exmore, V a. 233 SO. V irteo tape documentary of the larval stages and megalop of
C all jnectBs sapidus, Including mating and embryonic stages. The Blue Crab will hateh ae
ure-zoa arH will undergo eight zoeal stages in thirty to forty days becoming megalopa ,
which will then molt to toe first jjvenlLe stage. This video tape demonstrates each stage
of toe larval, develooment and shows ecdvsis of toe megaloo to toe first yvenile stage.
The first section of this tape deals with toe commercialization, harvesting and packing
of toe B foe C mbs .

SEAGRASSES, AN EARLY WARNING SYSTEM FOR COASTAL ECOLOGY. Teresa J.
Winston, Dept, of Biol., Lynchburg College, Lynchburg, VA. 24501.
Seagrasses were sampled during December, 1989, at 4 of 11 sites
around San Salvador Island, Bahamas. This work is in addition to
and in conjunction with four years of research conducted by Dr.
Garriet Smith, Univ. of South Carolina, Aiken, SC. Measurements of
canopy cover, frequency, standing crop, leaf density, and biomass
were determined along a meter length transect for each seagrass
species at the 4 locales. Data collected from these measurements,
analyzed and conducted periodically, can provide the shoreline
people of San Salvador with the ability to predict the "seagrass
stabilizing factor" on current velocity, sediment movement, and
marine productivity in reference to their future prosperity.

NOTES

\

NOTES

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Vol.41

ARTICLES

TABLE OF CONTENTS

No. 4B

The Effect of Maternal Fasting During Late Gestation on Sub¬
sequent Growth Performance of Pigs, M. O. Ezekwe and S. M.

Smith. 465

Mercury Concentration in Fish from Smith Mountain
Lake, Aaron P. Corkum and David M. Johnson . 472

The Pines of Virginia: Identification, Distribution and Ecology,

Charles E. Williams. 478

The Convex Coordinates of the Fermat Point, J. N. Boyd, J. J.

Lees , and P. N. Raychowdhury 487

Evaluation of a Pseudomonas fluorescens Strain fo Repression
of Seedling Disease in Cotton, C. Hagedom, N. Nelson and/. E.

Skwara. 492

ACADEMY MINUTES

Executive Committee-March 3, 1990 501

Council Meeting-March 3, 1990 504

Executive Committee-May 23, 1990 508

Council Meeting-May 23, 1990 511

CONSTITUTION AND BYLAWS 517

NECROLOGY

George William Jeffers 532

NEWS AND NOTES

Mountain Lake Summer Courses 534

Virginia Journal of Science
Volume 41, Number 4B
Winter 1990

The Effect of Maternal Fasting During Late Gestation
on Subsequent Growth Performance of Pigs1

M. O. Ezekwe 2, and S. M. Smith
Virginia State University3, Petersburg, VA 23803

ABSTRACT

Three groups of cross-bred (Yorkshire x Duroc x Hampshire) gilts were
used to determine the influence of 7-d and 14- d prepartum fasting of
gestating gilts on serum glucose and free fatty acids (FFA) levels of the gilts
and on body composition and subsequent growth of the progenies. The 7-d
and 14-d fasted gilts were taken off feed on days 107 and 100 of gestation,
respectively, while the control gilts were maintained on 1.8 kg daily of a
gestation diet containing 14% protein. Gestation length, total and number
of pigs born alive, hourly milk yield, progeny birth weight, mortality at birth
and at weaning were not altered (P > 0.05) by 7-d and 14-d feed deprivation.
Maternal serum free fatty acids (FFA) were elevated (P < 0.05) in the 7-d
and 14-d fasted dams while serum glucose remained unchanged (P >0.05).
Protein and lipid portions of the piglet body decreased quadratically
(p < 0.05) with fasting. Fasting and stage of growth increased (P < 0.05 and
P < 0.01, respectively) the subsequent growth of the progenies of the fasted
gilts. Fasting level by growth stage interaction (P < 0.05) was noted among
the experimental groups. The data indicated a strong compensatory growth
response by the progeny of fasted gilts which resulted in heavier (p < 0.05)
pigs at 21 weeks of age.

Key Words: Gestation, Fasting, Progeny, Growth.

INTRODUCTION

Inadequate energy stores in newborn pigs contribute to the high mortality rate
in piglets in the swine industry. Efforts to increase the energy reserves of newborn
pigs through alteration of the maternal nutrient supply to the fetus have been
reported (Elliot and Lodge, 1977; Ezekwe and Martin, 1978; Kasser et al , 1981).
A 20- d prepartum maternal fasting increased maternal serum concentration of
FFA and the subcutaneous adipose tissue in fetal pigs without alteration of then-
body weight (Kasser et al , 1981). Furthermore, a similar 20- d fasting was shown to
increase the number lipid-containing adiposites in fetal adipose tissue (Hausman

1 Contribution of Virginia State University Journal Article Series No. 155

2 Request reprints from: Dr. M. O. Ezekwe, Agricultural Experiment Station, Virginia State
University, P. O. Box 456, Petersburg, VA 23803.

3 The use of any trade namew or vendors does not imply approval to the exclusion of other
products or vendors that may also be suitable.

466

VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

et al , 1982). Other reports showed that maternal fasting improved a 3-d survival of
piglets subjected to fasting stress after birth (Ezekwe, 1981; Kasser et al ., 1982).

Although these early changes in subcutaneous fat depot suggest improvement
in physiological maturity of the pigs and therefore in factors related to energy
reserves and survival, little information is available on growth response of progenies
of prepartum fasted dams. Complete nutrient deprivation of gilts for 40 d prepar-
tum in gilts showed reduced early growth of the progenies, but these recovered and
were able to reach mature bodyweight faster than the control progenies (Hard and
Anderson, 1982). The purpose of this study is therefore to determine the influence
of prepartum nutrient deprivation of gilts produced by maternal fasting on sub¬
sequent growth of the progeny.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The pigs used in this study were from gilts utilized for a larger experiment
designed to assess the postnatal response of liver and skeletal muscle of piglets to
maternal fasting (Ezekwe and Opoku, 1988). Fifteen pregnant cross-bred gilts
(Yorkshire x Duroc x Hampshire) were randomly assigned according to body
weight to three experimental treatments: control, 7-d fast, and 14-d fast before
expected parturition. All the gilts were fed a corn-soybean diet containing 14%
protein at a rate of 1.82 kg/day before the initiation of treatments. The 7-d and 14-d
fasted groups were taken off feed on days 107 and 100 of gestation, respectively.
The control group was maintained on 1.82 kg/day throughout gestation. The diet,
described by Ezekwe et al. , (1984) was adequately fortified with vitamins and
minerals to meet or exceed the NR C- 1979 nutrient requirement for gestating swine.

Water and trace mineral salt, provided in form of dry salt, were offered ad
libitum to the two fasted groups to reduce the possibility of a micronutrient mineral
salt deficiency. All the experimental animals were housed in concrete floor pens at
a density of 2-4 animals per pen during gestation and provided with adequate
bedding material. The gilts were separated and placed in a single, well-bedded pens
before farrowing and during lactation.The barn temperature of about 25°C was
maintained by means of a fuel gas heating system during the winter. There were no
observable health problems associated with the animals during the experiment.

Blood was taken from the anterior vena cava of all the gilts 3 to 4 hours after
feeding at the beginning of the study and at weekly intervals thereafter for serum
glucose and FFA analyses. All farrowings were attended. Pigs were weighed at birth
and the number of live and dead pigs were recorded. One or two pigs from each
litter at birth, each near the average body weight of the litter, were mechanically
stunned and sacrificed by exsanguination for tissue biochemical determination.
Litter size was then equalized to 7 or 8 pigs at birth, and each pig was allowed to
suckle the dams until weaning at 7 wk of age. All lactating gilts were fed about 4.9
kg/day, scaled to an additional 0.45 kg of diet per pig nursed. Creep feed was not
provided to the pigs before weaning, although the sow feeder was accessible to the
pigs. Milk yield was estimated by the weigh-suckle-weigh method (Speer and Cox,
1984) on d 14 of lactation. Pigs were weaned at 7 wk of age and were continued on
the study until 21 weeks of age. The pigs were weighed at 7, 14, and 21 weeks of
age.

MATERNAL FASTING AND GROWTH OF PROGENY 467

Serum glucose was determined by the glucose oxidase procedure1 and serum
FFA was assayed according to the methods of Dunocombe, (1963, 1964).

Analysis of carcass dry matter, protein, lipid, and water was done on the pigs
sacrificed at birth. The carcasses were frozen and later thawed and ground with the
aid of a meat grinder. Sampling techniques and analyses used were those as
described by Hartsook and Hershberger (1963). Gilt farrowing characteristics,
blood data, and progeny chemical composition data were analyzed by one-way
analysis of variance (Steel and Torrie, 1960). Differences between means were
determined by Newman KeuPs procedures. Orthogonal polynomial contrasts were
used to evaluate the effect of level of fasting. For progeny postnatal growth data of
body weight and four different growth periods, a 3 x 4 factorial analysis of variance
was used to assess treatment by growth period interactions. Treatment means were
separated by the least significant difference technique (LSD).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Gestation length, total pigs born, percent born alive, piglet weight at birth and
at 49 d of age, total pigs born alive, and hourly milk yield were similar (p > 0.05)
among the control and fasted groups (Table 1). The similarity of birth weight,
gestation length, and litter size among the experimental groups was in agreement
with my previous report (Ezekwe, 1981). When gilts were restricted to a third of
the caloric intake of the control group throughout gestation, or deprived for 40 d
at various segments of gestation, birth weight was severely affected (Anderson et
al. , 1979; Pond et al., 1986). This study showed that gilts possessed the ability to
protect the fetuses from short-term nutritional stress during the most rapid period
of fetal growth. After farrowing, the adaptive mechanisms were still sufficient to
maintain lactation in the fasted gilts as demonstrated by similar hourly milk yield
among the treatment groups.

Live weight gain at 49 d of age was comparable among the treatment groups.
Although nonsignificant, control pigs showed a 6.2-fold increase in body weight
from birth to 49 d of age while 7-d and 14-d progenies had 6.7-fold and 7.7-fold
increases within the same period, respectively. Survival at birth and at 49 d of age
was not influenced by maternal fasting. Although improved survival has been
reported in piglets from fasted dams when subjected further to fasting stress after
birth (Ezekwe, 1981, Kasser et al., 1982), pigs in this experiment, reared under
practical farm conditions, showed no improvement in survival over the untreated
progenies.

Serum FFA concentrations, although more variable within groups than glucose,
were elevated in 7 d fasted gilts at 112 d (P < 0.01) of gestation and in 14 d fasted
gilts at 107 d (P < 0.05) and 112 d (p < 0.01) of gestation (Table 2). Serum glucose
concentration was stabilized within fasting levels. A 4-d total fast in rats resulted in
a significant drop in serum glucose level (Girard et al., 1977). The ability of gilts
and sows to maintain a stable serum glucose level during the fasting was considered
to be a key to the metabolic adaptation responsible for the buffering effect provided

1 Sigma Chemical Co., St. Louis, MO

468

VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

TABLE 1. Farrowing performance characteristics and milk yield in gestionally fasted gilts3.

Characteristics

Control

7-d Fasting

14-d Fasting

Gestional length, d

114.6

± 0.5

113.9

± 0.6

113.6

± 0.6

Total pigs bora, no

10.6

± 1.0

11.6

± 1.2

12.0

± 1.4

Piglet weight, kg

1.5

± 0.1

1.4

± 0.1

1.3

± 0.1

Percent bora alive

89.0

± 6.5

93.8

± 3.7

81.4

±11.2

Pig weight at 49-d, kg 9.4

± 1.1

9.4

± 0.6

10.0

± 0.8

Pig survival at 49-d,

80.8

± 5.0

77.9

±10.5

71.9

±11.9

% live pigsb

Hourly milk yield, g

219.2

±35.7

233.0

±30.1

208.5

±28.1

3 mean ± SE for five aninals
D % of live pigs after sacrifice at birth

TABLE 2. Serum free fatty acids and glucose concentrations in control and fasted gilts before and
during fasting3.

Item

Gestation

Control

7-d Fasting0

14-d Fasting

Glucose, mg/dl

98

59.4 ± 10.0

72.5 ± 8.9

107

66.7 ± 7.6

65.1 ± 4.8

51.1 ± 10.9

112

59.3 ± 10.2

51.4 ± 6.5

45.8 ± 9.7

Free fatty acids, n Eq/1 98

440.0 ± 117.7

—

287.0 ± 101.6*

107

621.0 ± 250.0

1102.0 ±99.1 1,030 ± 122.7

3 Mean ± SE for five gilts
D Treatment initiated at 107 d of gestation
* Differed from pretreatment FFA level (P < 0.05)

** Differed from pretreatment FFA level (p <0.01)

to the fetuses. This ability to buffer the offsprings may be regulated by hormones.
Glucagon has been shown to be elevated in gilts during maternal fasting (Kasser et
al , 1982).

The mean protein, lipid, and ash component of the pigs’ body at birth were
influenced (P < 0.05) by the level of fasting (Table 3). Protein and lipid, fractions
decreased (P < 0.05) while ash content increased (P < 0.05) quadratically with the
level of fasting. The proportion of carcass water remained unchanged (P > 0.05).

The growth pattern of the progeny of fasted gilts from birth through 21 wk of
age is presented in Figure 1. Postnatal growth was influenced by the level of fasting
(p < 0.05) and stage of growth (p<0.01). There was also a significant (p < 0.05)
fasting level by growth stage interaction; the mean body weight of the pigs did not
differ (p > 0.05) at birth, 7 wk, and 14 wk of age. However, body weight at 21-weeks
of age was different (p < 0.05) among the three experimental groups: 56.9, 64.5, and
68.9 kg for control, 7-d and 14-d fasted progenies, respectively.

The strong compensatory growth from pigs in the present studies agreed well
with the previous reports by Donker et al , (1986), who showed that restricting to 4
h of feeding a day or to 72% of ad libitum during growing or finishing period elicited

MATERNAL FASTING AND GROWTH OF PROGENY 469

TABLE 3. Percent chemical body composition of pigs at birth from control and fasted gilts3.

Item

Control

7-d Fasting

14-d Fasting

Dry Matter

20.6 ± 0.4

19.8 ± 0.5

20.1 ± 0.5

Proteinb

15.4 ± 0.3

14.2 ± 0.5

14.7 ± 0.4

Lipidb

1.5 ± 0.1

1.2 ± 0.1

1.3 ± 0.2

Ashb

3.7 ± 0.2

4.4 ± 0.2

4.1 ± 0.3

Water

79.4 ± 0.4

80.2 ± 0.4

79.9 ± 0.5

3 Mean ± SE for six animals
b Quadratic effect of fasting (P < 0.05)

Age (weeks)

— CONTROL (n-14) 7-d fast (n-14) 14-d fast (n-14)

FIGURE 1. Growth patterns of progenies of control, 7-d and 14-d gestionally fasted gilts. Body
weight of progeny at 21 weeks of age was different (P < 0.05 among the three groups.

a compensatory growth response proportional to the severity of restriction. Similar
studies have shown that pigs from 40-d fasted dams grew faster between 80 to 150
d of age and attained prepubertal estrus earlier than controls (Hard and Anderson,
1982). In this study, most of the compensatory growth response occurred between
14-wk and 21- wk of age. It is not clear why the compensatory growth response was
not triggered until 14-wk of age. Previous biochemical results from liver and skeletal
muscles from pigs (Ezekwe and Opoku, 1988) showed that cellular development
which was depressed at birth was fully reversed by 7 wk of age.

Normal husbandry practices in swine production recommend limited or
restricted feeding of pregnant sows/gilts in order to minimize excessive fat deposi-

470

VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

tion by the dam (Ensiminger, 1970). This study indicates that alteration of metabo¬
lite status of the dam through feed deprivation may also be beneficial to the progeny
postnatally. However, maternal fasting cannot be recommended as a practical
alternative for swine production until the sow’s subsequent reproductive perfor¬
mance is thoroughly evaluated. More research is needed to understand the
mechanism of action of compensatory growth response in swine.

LITERATURE CITED

Anderson, L. L., D. C. Hard, L. P. Kentiles. 1979. Progesterone secretion and fetal
development during prolonged starvation in the pig. Am. J. Physiol. 236:E335-
E341.

Donker, R.A., L. A. Den Hartog, E. W. Brascamp, T. W. M. Merks, G. J.
Noordewier, and G. A. Buiting. 1986. Restriction of feed intake to optimize
the overall performance and composition of pigs. Livestock Prod. Sci. 15:353-
365.

Dunocombe, W. G.1963. The colorimetric microdetermination of long chain fatty
acids. Biochem. J. 88:7-10.

Dunocombe, W. G. 1964.The colorimetric microdetermination of non-esterified
fatty acids in plasma. Clin. Chim. Acta: 9:122-125.

Elliot, J. I. and A. Lodge. 1977. Body composition and glycogen reserves in the
neonatal pig during the first 96 hours postpartum. Can. J. Anim. Sci. 67:141-
150.

Ensminger, M. E. 1970. Swine Science. The Interstate. Danville, Illinois. 881 pp.
Ezekwe, M. O. and R. J. Martin. 1978.1nfluence of maternal alloxan diabetes or
insulin injections on fetal glycogen reserves, muscle and liver development of
pigs (Sus domesticus). J. Anim. Sci. 47:1121-1127.

Ezekwe, M. O. 1981. Effects of maternal starvation on some blood metabolites,
liver glycogen, birth weight and survival of piglets. J. Anim. Sci. 53:1504-1510.
Ezekwe, M. O., E. I. Ezekwe, D. K. Sen, and F.Ogolla. 1984. Effects of maternal
streptozotocin-diabetes on fetal growth, energy reserves and body composition
of newborn pigs. J. Anim. Sci. 59:974-980.

Ezekwe, M. O. and J. Opoku. 1988. Postnatal response of liver and skeletal muscle
in pigs from gestationally fasted gilts. Growth, Devel. Aging. 52:47-51.

Girard, J. R., P. Ferre, M. Gilbert, A. Kerran, R. Assain, and E. B. Marliss. 1977.
Foetal metabolic response to maternal fasting in the rat. Am. J. Physiol.
234:E456-E463.

Hard, D. L. and L. L. Anderson. 1982. Growth puberty and reproduction in gilts
born to dams deprived of nutrients during pregnancy. J. Anim. Sci. 54:1227-
1233.

Hartsook, E. W. and T. V. Hershberger. 1963. A simplified method for sampling
animal carcasses for analyses. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 113:973-977.
Hausman,G. J., T. R. Kasser and R. J. Martin. 1982. The effect of maternal diabetes
and fasting on fetal adipose tissue histochemistry in the pig. J. Anim. Sci.
55:1343-1350.

Kasser, T. R.,R. J. Martin, and G. E. Allen. 1981. Effects of gestational alloxan
diabetes and fasting on fetal lipogenesis and lipid deposition in pigs. Biol
Neonate 40:105-112.

MATERNAL FASTING AND GROWTH OF PROGENY 471

Kasser, T. R., J. H.Gahagan, and R. J. Martin. 1982. Fetal hormones and neonatal
survival in response to altered maternal serum glucose and free fatty acid
concentrations in pigs. J. Anim. Sci. 55:1351-1359.

NRC - Nutrient Requirements of Swine. 1979. National Research Council, National
Academy of Sciences, Washington, DC 52 pp.

Pond, W. G., J. T. Yen, and L. H.Yen. 1986. Response of nonpregnant versus
pregnant gilts and their fetuses to severe feed restriction. J. Anim. Sci. 63:472-
483.

Speer, V. Cc. and D. F. Cox. 1981.Estimating milk yield of sows. J. Anim. Sci.
59:1281-1285.

Steel, R. D. G. and J. H. Torrie. 1960.Principles and Procedures of Statistics.
McGraw Hill, New York 481 pp.

Virginia Journal of Science
Volume 41, Number 4B
Winter 1990

Mercury Concentration in Fish from
Smith Mountain Lake

Aaron P. Corkum and David M. Johnson

Life Science Division, Ferrum College
Ferrum, Virginia 24088

ABSTRACT

Mercury levels were determined in fish taken from Smith Mountain Lake,
a 20,000 acre pump-storage reservoir in southwestern Virginia. Striped bass
( Monroe saxatilis ), largemouth bass ( Mirropterus salmoides ), and channel
catfish ( Ictalurus punctatus) were collected during 1987 and 1988 by person¬
nel from Ferrum College and the Virginia Commission of Game and Inland
Fisheries. A total of 51 fish were analyzed for mercury at Ferrum College.
Tissue samples were digested with nitric acid and hydrogen peroxide to
convert various forms of mercury to the divalent cation. Mercury was
determined by atomic absorption spectroscopy using the cold vapor techni¬
que. The overall mean mercury concentration was 50 ppb, five percent of
the FDA standard of 1 ppm (1000 ppb). When grouped by species, the bass
had significantly higher tissue concentrations of mercury than the catfish.
Mean concentrations were 58 ppb and 29 ppb, respectively. The fish were
also sorted by weight and a significant correlation between weight and tissue
concentration of mercury was observed in both species of bass but not for
catfish.

INTRODUCTION

The objective of this study, carried out between March, 1987 and April, 1988,
was to determine the mercury concentrations in fish taken from Smith Mountain
Lake. Mercury, on the U.S.Environmental Protection Agency’s list of priority
pollutants, is a cumulative poison producing irreversible neurological damage in
humans. The recommended maximum dietary intake of mercury is 30 p g/day to
avoid chronic poisoning (NAS/NAE, 1972). Because mercury is a cumulative
poison, its concentration in fish tissue is indicative of mercury levels in the water.
Mercury is a naturally occurring element, widely but unevenly distributed
throughout the environment, and low concentrations are present in unpolluted
waters. Typical concentrations in unpolluted surface waters range from 0.08 ppb
to 0.12 ppb. (Horne, 1978). In a 1970 study, 93% of the U.S. streams and rivers
sampled contained less than 0.5 ppb (NAS/NAE, 1972). The mercury content of
unpolluted streams is less than 0.1 ppb in 31 states where natural mercury deposits
are unknown (EPA, 1976). In the same reference, Hannerz reported that algae and
aquatic plants accumulate mercury primarily by surface adsorption while ac¬
cumulation in fish occurs by direct uptake from water and ingestion with food. Once
again in this reference, McKirn reported that fish tissue concentrations can exceed
concentrations in the surrounding water by factors in excess of 10,000. Some
researchers believe that mercury concentrations in the water column of less than

MERCURY IN FISH

473

0.1 ppb can lead to fish tissue concentrations exceeding the Food and Drug
Administration (FDA) action level of 1 ppm (FDER, 1984a).

METHODS

Three species of fish were examined; striped bass ( Monroe saxatilis), lar-
gemouth bass ( Mirropterus salmoides ), and channel catfish ( Ictalurus punctatus).
Both bass species are predatory while the channel catfish is a scavenger species.
Fish were sampled during the period from August, 1987 to March, 1988 by
personnel from the Virginia Commission of Game and Inland Fisheries and Ferrum
College. The fish were sampled at five locations; Moorman’s Marina, Hales Ford
Bridge, Smith Mountain Lake State Park, Penhook and Bull Run. Sampling
methods included sport fishing, gill netting and the application of rotenone to
coves. A total of 51 fish were analyzed. The fish were identified and the length,
weight and sex recorded along with the sample number, location and any pertinent
comments.

Ten grams of wet tissue were required for a single mercury determination. To
provide sufficient tissue for replication, approximately 30 grams were taken from
a U-shaped cut Perpendicular to the dorsal fin (FDER, 1984b). The tissue samples
were washed with double glass-distilled water, wrapped in aluminum foil, placed
in a polyethylene zip-lock bag with an identification tag and frozen until the time
of digestion.

10.00 grams of fish tissue were placed in a 250 mL flask along with 10 niL of
ultra-pure concentrated nitric acid. To avoid excessive frothing, the mixture was
allowed to sit for three hours before heating. The samples were then slowly heated
to 90-95 °C and held within this temperature range for three hours. The samples
were allowed to cool and 2 mL of 30% hydrogen peroxide were added dropwise.
The samples were again carefully heated and held at 90- 95 °C for one or two hours
until the hydrogen peroxide was destroyed. The digested samples were then
quantitatively transferred through glass microfiber filters into 100 mL volumetric
flasks and diluted to volume with double distilled water. Because of space and
equipment limitations the samples were digested in three batches.

Mercury determinations were made on a Buck Scientific Atomic Absorption
Spectrophotometer using the cold vapor technique (EPA, 1979). A 100 mL sample
was placed in the cold vapor generator and the system closed. 10 mL of 1% stannous
chloride was injected into the generator through a septum and the mixture was
stirred and allowed to stand 1.5 minutes to ensure that the divalent mercury had
been quantitatively converted to elemental mercury. An air stream was then used
to purge the mercury vapor from the generator and sweep it through the quartz
windowed cell of the spectrophotometer and the peak absorbance was recorded.
Between samples, the vapor generator was rinsed three times with double distilled
water and air flow through the system was continued until the signal returned to
the baseline. This method gives a detection limit for mercury in fish ranging from
3-8 ppb (FGFC, 1987). To reduce variability, all digested samples were analyzed
on the same day.

Precautions were taken at each step in the analysis to assure that the data were
reliable. All glassware was washed three times under the conditions in which it
would be used (e.g., digestion flasks with ultra-pure nitric acid and hydrogen

474

VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

peroxide were held at 90- 95 °C for 2 hours and this was repeated twice). Blanks,
EPA standards and EPA reference material (freeze-dried fish tissue analyzed by
EPA referee labs) were included with each of the three batches of samples before
digestion. A mean value of 0.2 ppb was obtained for the undigested blanks indicat¬
ing a clean analytical system. The mean value for digested blanks was 1.7 ppb,
indicating that the digestion and filtration steps introduced small ( ~ 0.2 jug) but
measurable amounts of mercury. This was accounted for by subtracting the mean
blank value of each batch from each sample value in that batch. The EPA QA/QC
standard of 4 ppb was prepared by appropriate dilution of a water pollution quality
control sample obtained from the EPA Environmental Monitoring and Support
Lab in Cincinnati. These standards were digested and filtered and the results were
corrected against blank values. The average value obtained was 4 ppb, the same as
the target value. The mean concentration of mercury in the reference material, also
from the EPA Lab in Cincinnati, was 1.9 ppm. While this indicates about a 75%
recovery, it is well within the 95% confidence interval of results from EPA referee
labs and a valid result according to EPA criteria. Two fish samples were analyzed
in duplicate and gave satisfactory results. Duplicate largemouth bass samples gave
values of 152 ppb and 183 ppb, while duplicate striped bass samples gave values of
157 ppb and 179 ppb. Quality assurance data is summarized in Table 1.

RESULTS

Overall results are given in table 2. Mercury levels were well above the detection
limit and the precision was higher than anticipated. The absolute deviations are
very low while the relative deviations are large. This reflects the difficulty of
measuring submicrogram quantities (10 g tissue x 50 ng Hg/g tissue x 1 n g/lOOOng
= 0.5 jug Hg), especially for samples requiring digestion. Further reduction of
variability would require a clean room and dedicated equipment. Based on the last
column in table 1, the relative precision of the analytical method was in the range
of 10-20%. It can be seen from figures 1-3 that mercury concentrations in fish of
approximately the same size vary in the range of 50-100%. Much and perhaps most
of the variability found in the data reflects real differences among fish rather than
the precision of the analytical methodology.

One result was rejected because of suspected contamination. This was a catfish
sample in which the mercury analysis gave a tissue concentration three times as
high as the next highest result and four times the mean value.

The mean mercury concentration for all fish was 50 ppb, five percent of the
FDA standard of 1 ppm or 1000 ppb. At these levels, consumption of fish from
Smith Mountain Lake is not a concern with respect to dietary intake of mercury.
Fish tissue levels this low also indicate that there is little chance of significant
mercury contamination having occurred in Smith Mountain Lake.

The mean mercury concentrations of the two bass species were nearly the same,
57 ppb and 58 ppb. However, the mean catfish concentration of 29 ppb was
significantly lower, using the Student t-test at a confidence level of 99%. This was
expected because bass, as predators, are higher on the food chain than catfish which
are primarily scavengers. This phenomenon is a property of many cumulative
poisons, known generally as bioamplification.

MERCURY IN FISH

475

TABLE 1. Summary of quality assurance data, x- arithmetic mean, n= sample size, s’ = sample
standard deviation.

Reagent Blanks (ppb) EPAQA/QC EPA fish tissue sample (ppm) Duplicate Analysis
undigested digested Std (4 ppb) reference value this study (% difference)

X

0.2

1.7

4.0

2.5

1.9

15.5

n

9

8

7

(large)

3

2

s'

0.1

0.7

1.0

0.6

0.1

3.5

TABLE 2. Results of mercury analysis. All values given in micrograms mercury per kilogram tissue
(ppb) x® arithmetic mean, n - sample size, s’ = sample standard deviation.

All Fish

Striped Bass

Largemouth Bass

Channel Catfish

X

50

57

58

29

n

50

19

17

14

s'

31

33

33

12

Scatter plots were generated to find if there was a significant correlation
between fish weight and tissue mercury concentration. The plots for each species
are shown in figures 1-3. Significance levels greater than 99% were obtained for
both bass species. However, there was essentially no correlation between catfish
weight and mercury concentration. Unfortunately, there are very few data for large
fish, but the strong correlation for both bass species suggests that tissue concentra¬
tions increase with age. This is another property of cumulative poisons termed
bioaccumulation. Bioamplification and bioaccumulation are both known to occur
with mercury. We have reported them here primarily to indicate the reliability of
the data set.

We will end on a whimsical note. Although presumptuous, the regression lines
on the scatter plots in figures 1 and 2 do have slopes and intercepts and beg the
question, "How big would a bass from Smith Mountain Lake have to be to exceed
the FDA standard for mercury?". Extrapolation gives an answer of slightly over 60
pounds for striped bass and slightly under 25 pounds for largemouth bass. These
are approximately world record size fish for both species and much larger than the
record sizes from Smith Mountain Lake where the record for largemouth bass is
about 12 pounds and for striped bass, about 45 pounds. Extrapolations for the Smith
Mountain Lake record size fish give tissue mercury concentrations of 525 ppb for
the largemouth bass and 740 ppb for the striped bass. It would be interesting to
analyze tissue taken from record size bass caught in Smith Mountain Lake and
compare the measured tissue concentrations of mercury with the values obtained
by extrapolation.

476

VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

0 1 000 2000
largemouth bass weight (grams)

FIGURE 1. Correlation of weight
with tissue concentration for
largemouth bass.

FIGURE 2. Correlation of weight
with tissue concentration for striped
bass.

1000 2000 3000

striped bass weight (grams)

4000

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This study was supported by the Smith Mountain Lake Association and Ferrum
College. The authors wish to thank Homer Royal with the Florida Game and
Freshwater Fish Commission for assistance with the analytical methodology and
David Whitehurst and the Virginia Game and Inland fisheries Commission for their
help collecting the fish samples.

MERCURY IN FISH

477

LITERATURE CITED

Environmental Protection Agency(EPA) 1976. Quality Criteria for Water (EPA-
440/9-76-023). U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. pp. 183-
192

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)1979. Methods for Chemical Analysis of
Water and Wastewater (EPA-600/4-79- 020). U.S. Government Printing Of¬
fice, Washington, D.C. PP- 245. 1 -24-5.5

Florida Department of Environmental Regulation (FDER) 1984a. Mercury in
Florida Aquatic Systems. Florida DER, Tallahassee.

Florida Department of Environmental Regulation (FDER) 1984-b. FDER Metals
Task Force Special Statewide Survey: Field Instructions and Records. FDER,
Tallahassee.

Florida Game and Freshwater Fish Commission (FGFC) 1987. Heavy Metal
Analysis-Mercury, in Florida GFC Quality Control Manual for Chemistry
Labs. FGFC, Tallahassee, Florida.

Horne, R.A. 1978. The Chemistry of Our Environment. John Wiley and Sons, New

York, p. 293.

NAS/NAE Committee on Water Quality Criteria 1972. Water Quality Criteria. U.S.
Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., p. 72

Virginia Journal of Science
Volume 41, Number 4B
Winter 1990

The Pines of Virginia: Identification,
Distribution and Ecology

Charles E. Williams1, Department of Zoology,

Miami University, Oxford, OH 45056

ABSTRACT

The genus Pinus in Virginia is represented by eight native species: P.
echinata, P. palustris, P. pungens, P. rigida, P. serotina, P. strobus, P. taeda ,
and P. virginiana. In addition, P. resinosa and P. sylvestris, occasionally
escaped from cultivation and (or) widely planted, are introduced pines most
likely to be encountered in the field. A key to the identification of the native
and common introduced pines of Virginia, with notes on their ecology and
distribution in the state, is presented.

INTRODUCTION

Pines (genus Pinus L.) are a conspicuous and important component of the
woody flora of Virginia. Found throughout the state, pines are the most prominent
conifers both ecologically and economically, playing major roles in forest succes¬
sion and recovery of forests after disturbance (McQuilken, 1940), and providing
the basis for a considerable forest products industry (Virginia Division of Forestry,
1980; Waghorne, 1983). Eight species of pines occur naturally in Virginia (Massey,
1961; Mazzeo, 1972; Harvill, et al ., 1986): Pinus echinata, P. palustris, P. pungens,
P. rigida, P. serotina, P. strobus, P. taeda, and P. virginiana. In addition, many
introduced species are cultivated as ornamentals ( e.g ., Mazzeo, 1966, 1972), but
only two, P. resinosa and P. sylvestris , occasionally naturalized and (or) widely
planted (Gleason and Cronquist, 1963), are most likely to be encountered in the
field. As a detailed guid to the field identification and ecology of the pines of
Virginia, I have compiled a key to the identification of native and common intro¬
duced species and provide notes on their distribution and ecology. The key has
been compiled from Gleason and Cronquist (1963), Preston (1976) and Elias
(1980). Information on the distribution of pines in Virginia is based on Massey
(1961) and Harvill et al., (1986) and is presented by physiographic provinces as
recognized by Hoffman (1969). For more detailed information on the distributions
of the pines listed below, the reader should consult Powells (1965) Critchfield and
Little (1966) and especially in Virginia, Harvill et al., (1986). Information on the
ecology of native pines has been gleaned from various literature sources and
personal observations. Notes on the ecology of P. resinosa and P. sylvestris are not
presented; information on the ecology of these introduced species can be acquired
from Fowells (1965) and Mirov (1967).

THE GENUS PINUS L. - PINES

The genus Pinus L. consists of over 90 species worldwide, almost all of which
are entirely restricted to the Northern Hemisphere (Little and Critchfield, 1969).
Pinus belongs to the family Pinaceae which also includes five other genera in North

1 Present address: P. O. Box 11016, Blacksburg, VA 24063-1016

THE PINES OF VIRGINIA

479

America: Abies Mill, (firs), Larix Mill, (larches), Picea A. Dietr. (spruces), Pseudo-
tsuga Carr. (Douglas firs), and Tsuga (Endl.) Carr, (hemlocks) [Preston, 1976;
Elias, 1980; Gleason and Cronquist, 1963; see Mazzeo (1972) for information on
these and other gymnosperm genera in Virginia]. Major morphological charac¬
teristics of the genus include: 1) linear or needle-like evergreen leaves, usually
spirally arranged, fascicled, and enclosed at the base by a sheath; 2) separate male
and female strobili (cones); male cones borne in fascicles at the end of the current
years growth; female cones woody, maturing in two or three years; 3) two naked
seeds subtended by each ovuliferous scale; and 4) generally excurrent, arborescent
growth form, small to large in size (Preston, 1976; Benson, 1979; Gleason and

Cronquist, 1963).

KEY TO THE PINES OF VIRGINIA

1. Leaves in clusters of 5, each having 1 fibrovascular bundle;
leaves 8-13 cm long, pale green, glaucous; cones

10-15 cm long, cylindric; cone scales lacking spines;

medium to tall tree (30-70 m) . (1.) P. strobus

V. Leaves in clusters of 2 or 3, each having 2 fibrovascular

bundles . 2

2. Leaves in clusters of 2 . 3

2\ Leaves in clusters of 3, or of 2 and 3 on the same tree ... 6

3. Cone scales lacking spines . 4

3. ’ Cone scales with a terminal spine . 5

4. Leaves 9-16 cm long, dark green, slender, soft;

cones 4-8 cm long, conic-ovoid; medium tree (20-30 m) . . (2.) P. resinosa
4’. Leaves 2-7 cm long, bluish-green, stiff, often twisted;
cones 3-6 cm long, reflexed, short ovoid to oblong;
flattened cone scales often pyramidally thickened;

bark distinctly orange-colored; medium tree (30-35 m) . . . (3.) P. sylvestris

5. Cone scales thick, armed with 2m upcurved spine 3-8 mm
long; cones 5-10 cm long, conic-ovoid, usually serotinous,
accumulating on branches for several years; leaves
4-7 cm long, dark green, stiff, usually twisted; small

to medium tree (3-20 m) . (4.) P. pungens

5’. Cone scales thin to moderately thickened, with slender
curved spine; cones 4-7 cm long, ovoid-conic, persistent;

young branches often purplish-brown to purplish-gray;
branches persistent, often accumulating on trunks;
leaves 4-7 cm long, dark green, flexible;

small to medium tree (10-15 m) ..... . . . (5.) P. virginiana

6. Leaves in clusters of 3 . .7

6’. Leaves in clusters of 2 and 3 on same tree . . 10

7. Cones 7 cm or more in length, much longer than broad . . 7

T. Cones not greater than 7 cm in length, broader than long . 8

480

VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

8. Leaves 20-50 mm long, light green, soft; cones 15-25 cm long,
ovoid-cylindric; young branches stout, with leaves in dense

tufts at ends; medium to tall tree (30-40 m) . (6.) P. palustris

8’. Leaves 14-25 cm long, dark green, flexible;

cones 7-13 cm long, oblong-conic; young branches

moderately slender; medium to tall tree (25-40 m) . (7.) P. taeda

9. Leaves 15-25 cm long, dark green flexible; cones
4-6 cm long, globose-ovoid, often serotinous,
accumulating on branches for several years; spines on

cone scales weak, deciduous; medium tree . (8.) P. serotina

9’. Leaves 7-12 cm long, dark green, stiff; cones 4-7 cm long,
conic-ovoid; cone scales with stiff curved spines;

small to medium tree (15-30 m) . . . . (9.) P. rigida

10. Leaves 7-12 cm long, dark green, soft, flexible;
cones 4-6 cm long, ovoid to ovoid-conic; cone scales

thin with small spines; medium to tall tree (25-35 m) . . . . (10.) P. echinata

1 . Pinus strobus L. - White pine

Distribution: Pinus strobus primarily occurs in the Blue Ridge, Ridge and
Valley, and Cumberland Mountain Physiographic Provinces and is less common in
the Piedmont. It is also widely planted throughout the state. Ecology: Pinus strobus
is a moderately shade tolerant pine, growing on a wide variety of soils but generally
occurring on submesic to mesic sites characterized by acidic, low fertility soils or
moist loamy soils (Whittaker, 1956; Massey, 1961; Fowells, 1965; Johnson and
Ware, 1982; McCune, 1988). Pinus strobus may assume several roles in forest
succession depending on site: as a pioneer in old field succession or an early
colonizer after fire, as a long-lived intermediate stage species, or as a topographic
or edaphic climax species (Cope, 1932; Wood, 1932; Minckler, 1946; Fowells, 1965;
Holla and Knowles, 1988). Pinus strobus stands often originate as a result of fire
although young trees often die following fire (Fowells, 1965), which greatly reduces
regeneration (Cope, 1932). Resistance to fire, however, increases with age
(Fowells, 1965). On favorable sites in portions of its range, P. strobus may be
self-maintaining, continually reproducing in the absence of exogenous disturbance
(Fowells, 1965; Holla and Knowles, 1988). Self-maintaining populations of P.
strobus have not been reported from Virginia.

2. Pinus resinosa Ait. - Red pine, Norway pine

Distribution: Introduced to Virginia and widely planted as an ornamental and
in forest plantations (Mazzeo, 1972), particularly in the Ridge and Valley (C. E.
Williams, pers. obs.). A component of the Northern Hardwoods Forest Region of
northeastern North America, P. resinosa reaches its southernmost natural limit in
the mountains of eastern West Virginia (Stephenson, et al., 1986).

3. Pinus sylvestris L. - Scots pine, Scotch pine

Distribution: Native to Eurasia. Pinus sylvestris is widely planted as an ornamen¬
tal and is sometimes escaped from cultivation (Gleason and Cronquist, 1963;
Mazzeo, 1972).

4. Pinus pungens Lamb. - Table mountain pine

THE PINES OF VIRGINIA

481

Distribution: Considered an Appalachian endemic (Zobel, 1969), Pinus pun-
gens is found primarily in the Blue Ridge and Ridge and Valley Physiographic
Provinces but also occurs infrequently in the Piedmont, chiefly on river bluffs
(Zobel, 1969). Ecology: Pinus pungens commonly grows on dry, mid to high
elevation mountain slopes and ridgetops, where it may produce self-maintaining or
nonsuccessional populations (Zobel, 1969; Barden, 1977, 1988; Whittaker, 1956,
1979; Williams, 1990). Pinus pungens also colonizes more mesic sites following fire,
but the low availability of suitable seedling habitat and competition with shade
tolerant hardwoods greatly limits regeneration in the absence of fire (Williams,
1989, 1990, 1991; Williams and Johnson, 1990; Williams, et al., 1990). Cones of P.
pungens are typically serotinous throughout the range of this species (Zobel, 1969),
although they may open at relatively low ambient temperatures [ca. 30°C (Mc¬
Intyre, 1929)] allowing seeds to be dispersed year-round (Williams, 1989). Pinus
pungens may be decreasing in importance in forests of the southern Appalachians
primarily a result of human-altered fire frequency (Harmon, 1982; White, 1987).

5. Pinus Virginians Mill. - Virginia pine, scrub pine

Distribution: Pinus virginiona occurs statewide but is most common in the upper
Piedmont (McQuilken, 1940), Coastal Plain (Rice and Ware, 1983) and mountains.
Ecology: Pinus virginiana is an early invader of abandoned fields in the upper
Piedmont (McQuilken, 1940) and lower elevation mountains (Whittaker, 1956; C.
E. Williams, pers. obs.), and rapidly colonizes sites disturbed by logging in the
Coastal Plain of Virginia (Monette and Ware, 1983; Rice and Ware, 1983). It is
tolerant of dry, nutrient-poor sites (Fowells, 1965), often growing on exposed shale
outcrops and barrens in Virginia (C. E. Williams, pers. obs.) and heath balds of the
southern Appalachians (Whittaker, 1956, 1979). Stands of P. virginiana on former
farmlands are dense and even-aged, sometimes exceeding 3000 stems per hectare
(Fowells, 1965). Typically cone production is limited until the stand ages and
density decreases. Seedlings are very intolerant of shade (Fowells, 1965). Pinus
virginiana is less tolerant of fire than many other pines of the eastern United States;
thin bark and low sprouting ability render trees and seedlings vulnerable to fire and
limit postfire recovery (Fowells, 1965; Zobel, 1969).

6. Pinus palustris Mill. - Longleaf pine

Distribution: Pinus palustris is limited to the extreme southeastern Coastal Plain
of Virginia, the northernmost portion of the range of this species. Ecology: Pinus
palustris usually grows on dry to mesic sand ridges in Virginia (Frost and Mussel-
man, 1987) and is a characteristic species of the sandhill, pine savanna, and
palmetto flatwoods communities in the Coastal Plain of the southeastern United
States (Fowells, 1965; Christensen, 1979; Myers, 1985; Natural Areas Journal,
1989). Reproduction of P. palustris is enhanced by fire and recent evidence suggests
that this species may possess certain traits that facilitate ground fires, thus favoring
its reproduction over other trees, particularly hardwoods (Williamson and Black,
1981; Platt, et al., 1988). Seedlings of P. palustris remain in a "grass stage" for three
or more years during which height growth is suppressed but root growth is extensive
(Fowells, 1965; Barbour, et al ., 1980). Long, slender, drooping needles protect the
meristematic region of the grass stage seedling from heat damage due to fire
(Barbour, et al ., 1980). Pinus palustris was probably more abundant in Virginia and
other parts of its range prior to European settlement but extensive lumbering,

482

VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

boxing for turpentine, grazing, and fire suppression contributed to the decline of
this species (Frost and Musselman, 1987; Noss, 1988). Due to its limited distribution
in Virginia, P. palustris has been officially listed as a species of special concern
(Terwilliger, 1989).

7. Pinus taeda L. - Loblolly pine

Distribution: Pinus taeda occurs in the Coastal Plain and Piedmont
Physiographic Provinces and is widely planted for timber and pulpwood. Ecology:
Pinus taeda tolerates a wide variety of sites but grows best in poorly drained soils
(Fowells, 1965). Pinus taeda is a characteristic secondary successional species in
the Coastal Plain and Piedmont, often colonizing fields in the first year after
abandonment and dominating pine reproduction in old fields (McQuilken, 1940;
Spring, et al., 1974; Monette and Ware, 1983; Rice and Ware, 1983; Christensen
and Peet, 1984). However P. taeda is generally replaced in time by more tolerant
hardwoods (Har combe and Marks, 1978; Felix, et al ., 1983). Regeneration of P.
taeda is favored by disturbances that expose mineral soil, including fire and logging,
and heavy litter accumulations greatly reduce seedling establishment (Trousdell,
1950). Pinus taeda is extensively planted on converted second growth forests in the
Piedmont of Virginia where it does not regenerate naturally (Felix, et al ., 1983).

8. Pinus serotina Michx. - Pond pine

Distribution: Pinus serotina occurs only in the southeastern Coastal Plain,
especially in the Dismal Swamp (Dean, 1969). Ecology: Pinus serotina grows in
poorly drained, wet soils and is a characteristic species of pocosin communities in
the Coastal Plain of the southeastern United States (Woodwell, 1958; Fowells, 1965;
Christensen, 1979) including Virginia. Fire is crucial for the regeneration of P.
serotina , since it exposes mineral soil, reduces competition from other trees and
shrubs, and facilitates dispersal of seeds from serotinous cones (Crutchfield and
Trew, 1961; Fowells, 1965). Cone serotiny, however, varies considerably among
populations (S mouse and Saylor, 1973). Pinus serotina sprouts vigorously when
injured and most reestablishment following fire is by vegetative sprouting (Chris¬
tensen, 1979). Because of its limited distribution in Virginia, P. serotina has been
officially listed as a species of special concern (Terwilliger, 1989).

9. Pinus rigida Mill. - Pitch pine

Distribution: Pinus rigida primarily occurs in the Blue Ridge, Ridge and Valley,
Appalachian Plateau, and Cumberland Mountain Physiographic Provinces and is
less common in the Piedmont where it grows on river bluffs (Zobel, 1969). Ecology:
Pinus rigida principally grows on mid-elevation ridgetops and mountain slopes of
southerly aspect, often replaced by P. pungens at higher elevations andP. virginiana
at lower elevations (Whittaker, 1956; Massey, 1961; Fowells, 1965; Zobel, 1969;
Ross 9etal.9 1982; Johnson and Ware, 1982; Williams and Johnson, 1990). Regenera¬
tion of P. rigida is usually facilitated by fire; poor seedbed conditions, particularly
heavy litter accumulations, restrict establishment of P. rigida seedlings in the
absence of fire (Bramble and Goddard, 1942; Fowells, 1965). Pinus rigida recovers
quickly from fire-induced injury by vegetative sprouting; dormant buds, shielded
by thick bark, assume active growth when stimulated (Ledig and Little, 1979).
Seedlings ofP rigida typically have a basal crook of the stem that insulates dormant
buds from fire by bringing them in close contact with mineral soil (Little and Somes,
1956). Cone serotiny occurs sporadically among P. rigida populations, particularly

THE PINES OF VIRGINIA

483

in the northern part of its range (Ledig and Little, 1979; Selender, 1980), but has
been reported in a Virginia population (Smouse and Saylor, 1973),

10. Pinus echinata Mill. - Shortleaf pine

Distribution: Pinus echinata is most common in the Coastal Plain and Piedmont
and occurs locally in the Blue Ridge, Ridge and Valley, and Cumberland Mountain
Physiographic Provinces. Ecology: Pinus echinata frequently occurs on mesic,
well-drained sites but will grow on a variety of soils and sites (Minckler, 1946;
Powells, 1965; Walker and Wiant, 1966) including mid- Appalachian shale barrens
in Virginia (Platt, 1951). In the Piedmont of Virginia and North Carolina, P.
echinata is often associated with P. taeda ; one or both species is usually the first to
invade abandoned fields (McQuilken, 1940). However postlogging succession in
the Coastal Plain of Virginia favors P, virginiana and, to a lesser extent, P. taeda but
notP. echinata (Monette and Ware, 1983; Rice and Ware, 1983). Regeneration of
P. echinata may be favored by fire. In some areas of the southeastern Coastal Plain,
P. echinata may produce large, even-aged stands following fire (Powells, 1965;
Walker and Wiant, 1966). Pinus echinata sprouts profusely after fire; this attribute,
thick bark, and the insulating basal crook of seedlings, allows virtually all age classes
of P. echinata to survive repeated fires of moderate intensity (Jemison, 1943; Little
and Somes, 1956; Powells, 1965).

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I gratefully acknowledge the hospitality of the Department of Biology,
Washington and Lee University, where this project was first conceived and or¬
ganized. The constructive comments of two anonymous referees improved the
content of this paper.

LITERATURE CITED

Barbour, M. G., J. H. Burk and W. D. Pitts. 1980. Terrestrial Plant Ecology.

Benjamin/Cummings Publ. Co., Menlo Park, CA. 604 p.

Barden, L. S. 1977. Self-maintaining populations of Pinus pungens Lam. in the
southern Appalachian Mountains. Castanea 42:316-323.

Barden, L. S. 1988. Drought and survival in a self-perpetuating Pinus pungens
population: equilibrium or nonequilibrium? Am. Midi. Nat. 119:253-257.
Benson, L. 1979. Plant Classification. 2nd ed. D. C. Heath Co., Lexington, MA.
901 p.

Bramble, W. C. and M. K. Goddard. 1942. Effect of animal coaction and seedbed
condition on regeneration of pitch pine in the barrens of central Pennsylvania.
Ecology 23:330-335.

Christensen, N. L. 1979. Shrublands of the southeastern United States, pp. 441-449.
In R. L. Specht (ed.), Heathlands and Related Shrublands: Descriptive Studies.
Elsevier Scientific Publ. Co., New York. 497 p.

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Virginia Journal of Science
Volume 41, Number 4B
Winter 1990

The Convex Coordinates of the Fermat Point

J. N. Boyd and J. J. Lees, St. Christopher’s School,
Richmond, VA 23226, and P. N. Raychowdhury, Mathematical
Sciences Department, Virginia Commonwealth University,
Richmond, VA 23284

ABSTRACT

Convex coordinates are often called b ary centric coordinates. They were
introduced into mathematics by the German geometer A. F. Mobius (1790
- 1868), but their usefulness in computational geometry is not well known to
mathematics teachers. In this paper, we briefly discuss convex coordinates
and then find the convex coordinates of the Fermat point of a triangle

INTRODUCTION

We have taken our own good advice(Boyd and Raychowdhury, 1987b) and
continued to seek ways to apply convex coordinates in Euclidean geometry. We
obtained a copy of Excursions in Advanced Euclidian Geometry by A. S. Posamen-
tier in hopes of finding a new problem for investigation. We were fortunate to find
therein a discussion of the Fermat point of a triangle (Posamentier, 1984). As usual
in "advanced Euclidean geometry," the mathematics is elegant, but the arguments
demand a great deal of ingenuity. Most mathematicians and scientists not up on
the intricacies of synthetic proof in Euclidean geometry would be hard put to derive
the results in the manner described by Posamentier. However, with convex coor¬
dinates, many of the results can be obtained in straightforward, workmanlike
fashion. Convex coordinates are tools for the blue collar geometer!

CONVEX COORDINATES

Before proceeding, let us remind the reader that the convex (or barycentric)
coordinates of a point (P) in the plane can be taken as weights or forces which,
when applied normal to the plane at the vertices of the triangle, cause the point to
become the balance point for the three forces (Boyd, 1985). The three vertices of
the triangle determine the plane of the triangle, and convex coordinates provide a
natural means for investigating the concurrence of lines through these vertices.

Suppose that our triangle has vertices Vi, V2, V3 as shown in Figure 1. If forces
a\ at Vi (i = 1, 2, 3) with a\ + 0.2 f <23 = 1 determine balance point P, then the
convex coordinates of P are («i, #2> ai) with respect to the vertices in the order Vi,
V2, V3. If and only if all three convex coordinates are nonnegative, P belongs to
the closed triangular region which we shall denote by AV1V2V3. The convex
coordinates of Vi, V2, V3 are (1,0,0), (0,1,0), (0,0,1), respectively; and along the
side opposite vertex Vj, all points have the convex coordinate a\ = 0. In the notation
which we shall adopt, the side opposite Vj has length l\ and the angle at Vj is
denoted by 6X.

A second interpretation of convex coordinates which is consistent with that in
terms of forces involves areas. Denoting the area of AV1V2V3 by A, we can write
the convex coordinates of P as («i,a2,a3) = (Area APV2V3/A, Area APV3V1/A,
Area APV1V2/A) (Boyd and Raychowdhury, 1987c).

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VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

v3: (0,0,1)

FIGURE 1. AV1V2V3 with Point «2> a3)-

Using forces and areas together, we can find the convex coordinates of the
Fermat point of AV1V2V3. Posamentier defines the Fermat point and developes
theorems about it as well as other special point of the triangle. However, we must
lay a bit of groundwork before we can say what the Fermat point of AV1V2V3 is.

Upon each side of our triangle let us construct an equilateral triangle as shown
in Figure 2. Of course, the equilateral triangle upon l\ has all sides of length lx. The
three vertices Pi,P2,P3 are in the exterior of AV1V2V3, and Pj is the vertex of the
equilateral triangle constructed on l\ opposite to Vj.

We shall show that the three lines Pi Vi ,P2V2 ,P3V3 are concurrent at a point.
That point is called the Fermat point (F) of the original triangle. Demonstrating
the concurrence of the lines and finding the convex coordinates of the point are
two forms of the same problem. The computations with the convex equations of
lines in the plane are simiaar to those previously given for the circumcenter of a
triangle (Boyd and Raychowdhury, 1987b).

THE CONVEX COORDINATES OF P2
The first step in our task is to find the convex coordinates of one of the points

2 ^3

Pl>P2>P3- We choose P2. The area of AP2V3V1, upon I2 is / 2 By the area

interpretation of convex coordinates, the second coordinate for P2 is

a2=-

lU 3

/A

(1)

\ /

where A is the area of AV1V2V3 and the negative value of 0.2 is due to the point’s
location outside of AV1V2V3 and in the interior of L V1V2V3 (Boyd and
Raychowdhury, 1987a).

CONVEX COORDINATES OF FERMAT POINT 489

FIGURE 2. The Fermat Point (F) of AV1V2V3.

The equation of the perpendicular bisector of l2 follows from the interpretation
of convex coordinates as forces and the applocation of Archimedes’ Law of Levers
(Boyd and Raychowdhury, 1987a). If the perpendicular bisector of I2 is to be a
balance line for forces aq, a2i a3 at Vi,V2,V3, respectively, we have the condition
that

h *! + ( 2 1\ cos O3 - l2 ) a2 - l2 <*3 = 0 (2)

Since P2 is a point of the line, its coordinates must satisfy equation 2.

Finally, we have

al + a2 + a3 = 1 (3)

from the definition of convex coordinates.

Solving equations 1, 2, 3 simultaneously, we have

( h h V3 cos @3 + 2A /1V3 /3/2V3 cos^i + 2A

(ai,a2,a3) =

4A

4A

4A

The form of a3 follows from the observation that l\ cos O3 ~ 1 2 - I3 cos 0\ .

THE CONVEX COORDINATES OF F
Along the line P2V2 , the convex coordinates a\ and a3 are in constant ratio

(Boyd, Farley, and Raychowdhury, 1987). Thus the convex equation of P2V2 , is
(l 1 12 V3 cos03 + 2A) a3 = (I3 12 Vs cos^i + 2A) a\. (4)

Similarly, the convex equations of Pi Vi and P3V3 are

(/] I3 Vs cos 02 + 2A) a2 = (/j l2Vs cos 0$ + 2A) «3

and

(5)

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VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

(1$ I2 V3 cos 6\ + 2A) <x\ — (fa I3V3 cos 62 4- 2A) a2 (6)

respectively.

In equations 4, 5, 6, let
Bi = fa 12 V3 cos + 2A ,

B2 = fa fa V3 cos 02 + 2A , and

B3 = fa 12 V3 cos 03 + 2A. The three equations become B3«3 = B\a\,

B2«2 = B3CC3, Biai = B2«2 which are satisfied by
_ B2B3

B1B2 + B1B3 4- B2B3 *

CC2 =

B1B3

BiB2 + B1B3 + B2B3

, and

B1B2

03 bib2 + bib3 + b2b3 •

Since these last three numbers sum to 1, they are indeed the convex coordinates

of the point common to the lines P1V1 , P2V2 , and P3V3 .Thus we have estab¬
lished that the lines are concurrent and, at the same time, found the desired convex
coordinates of the Fermat point. We do not bother to rewrite the rather pleasing
expressions for the convex coordinates in terms of the I\s and 0j’s.

FACTS CONCERNING THE FERMAT POINT

The Fermat point has several fascinating properties which can be developed by
computation with the convex coordinates which we have found. Among these
properties are that L V1FV2 = Z. V2FV3 _ L V3FV1 = 120° and that F is the
point of least total distance from the three vertices of the triangle (provided that
each angle of the triangle is less than or equal to 120°), and that the lengths of
PlVl, P2V2, P3V3 are all the same. As the reader has no doubt surmised, it was the
great matematician Fermat who, in the mid-Seventeenth Century, obtained these
results.

It is through the introduction of convex coordinates into analytic geometry that
industrious mathematicians can develope these properties as theorems for them¬
selves through straightforward (if tedious) computation. If the Cartesian coor¬
dinates of the vertices Vj are (xj, y*) for i = 1, 2, 3, then the Cartesian coordinates

(3 3

of point P:(«i, a2>a 3) must be (x,y) =

y ctj x, , y aj y;

Thus the Cartesian

coordinates of the Fermat point of any triangle can be obtained from its convex
coordinates, and the properties in question can be deduced by the methods of
anlytic geometry.

We really cannot recommend that the reader pursue the calculations. It is much
easier and much more efficient to read elegant proofs by someone else that these
claims are correct than to dig the proofs out for ourselves with convex coordinates.
But, on the other hand, if we were stranded on a desert island without our copy of
Excursions in Advanced Euclidean Geometry , we could do the job (although without

CONVEX COORDINATES OF FERMAT POINT 491

Professor Posamentier’s elegance) with convex coordinates and analytic geometry.
That knowledge gives us a sense of mathematical self-sufficiency.

LITERATURE CITED

Boyd, J. N. 1985 Convex Coordinates of the Gergonne Point. New York State
Mathematics Teachers’ Journal 35:95-98.

Boyd, J. N., R. W. Farley, and P. N. Raychowdhury. 1987. Invariance of Geometric
Equations in Convex Coordinates. Pure and Applied Mathematika Sciences

25:11-26.

Boyd, J. N. and P. N. Raychowdhury. 1987a. Applications of Extended Convex
Coordinates. The Mathematical Gazette 71:209-214.

. 1987b. Convex Coordinates Extended to the Circumcenter of a Triangle.
Virginia Mathematics Teacher 13:12-15.

. 1987c. Convex Coordinates, Probabilities, and the Superposition of States.
The College Mathematics Journal 18:186-194.

Posamentier, A. S. 1984. Excursions in Advanced Euclidean Geometry. Addison-
Wesley, Reading. MA.

Virginia Journal of Science
Volume 41, Number 4B
Winter 1990

Evaluation of a Pseudomonas fluorescens Strain for
Repression of Seedling Disease in Cotton

C. Hagedorn, and N. Nelson, Department of Plant Pathology,
Physiology, and Weed Science Virginia Polytechnic Institute and
State University Blacksburg, Virginia 24061; and
J.E. Skwara Ecogen Inc., 2005 Cabot Boulevard West, Lan-
ghorne, PA 19047-1810

ABSTRACT

A strain of Pseudomonas fluorescens (EG 1053) antagonistic to Pythium
ultimum (Trow) and Rhizoctonia solani (Kuehn), the major seedling
pathogens of cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.), was evaluated for disease
repression in greenhouse trials. In both potting mix and soil, disease severity
(presence of root lesions) and incidence (numbers of infected plants)
declined with higher application rates of EG 1053 in a peat-based carrier.
Low application rates resulted in plants that were equivalent to noninocu-
lated controls while higher rates produced plant stands equal or superior to
fungicide treatments. The placement of EG 1053 inoculum in relation to the
proximity of cotton seeds affected both the degree of root colonization that
occurred and the numbers of surviving plants. Applications of EG 1053
provided larger plant stands and reduced seedling disease symptoms on
surviving plants in both potting mix with amended pathogens and naturally
infested cotton soils.

INTRODUCTION

The heterotrophic bacterium, Pseudomonas fluorescens, has been successfully
used as seed and soil inoculants to biologically control several plant pathogens
(Colyer and Mount, 1984; Ganesan and Gnanamanickam, 1987). Strains of P.
fluorescens have been reported to control seedling disease of cotton {Gossypium
hirsutum L.) and there is some evidence regarding possible mechanisms involved
in the control process (Hagedorn et al ., 1989; Howell and Stipanovic, 1979). There
are also reports of P. fluorescens isolates that demonstrate both plant growth
promotion and yield increases under either gnotobiotic or field conditions (Kloep-
per and Schroth, 1981; Klopper et al ., 1980). The ability of/5, fluorescens to reduce
plant disease and promote plant growth has been attributed to several factors (or
combinations) that include antibiosis, competition and displacement of the natural¬
ly occurring microflora, siderophore activity, and alterations in microniche factors
such as pH and redox potential (Lambert etal., 1987; Scher and Baker, 1982; Suslow
and Schroth, 1982).

Cotton seedling disease impacts the quality of the plant stand early in the
growing season, and is responsible for substantially reducing cotton yields (Bell,
1984). Annual yield loss estimates have ranged from 1% to 6% over a thirty year
period and were 2.0% in 1987, for a loss of 291,042 bales of cotton (6.6 x 106 kg) in
the U.S. (CDCR, 1987).

SEEDLING DISEASE IN COTTON

493

This report demonstrates that seedling disease repression in cotton is related
to the quantity of P. fluorescens strain EG 1053 applied. Repression was reflected
in lowered disease severity on cotton roots and higher numbers of surviving plants.
The results indicate that EG 1053 grows rapidly on cotton roots and implicates root
colonization as a mechanism in biological control.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Bacterial Strain The P. fluorescens strain EG 1053 was originally isolated from
cotton field soil in Starkville, MS (Hagedorn et al., 1989). The soil was a Marietta
sandy loam (pH 8.1) classified as a fine-loamy siliceous, thermic, Fluvaquentic-
Entrocrept. This isolate was in a collection of bacteria that were screened for ability
to repress the seedling disease pathogens on cotton, and has been deposited in the
Northern Regional Research Laboratory, ARS-USDA (Peoria, IL), under acces¬
sion number NRRL- 18336.

Fungal Isolates Strains of P. ultimum and R. solani were originally isolated
from naturally infected cotton plants that demonstrated severe seedling disease
symptoms. Cultures were maintained on potato dextrose agar (PDA), and tested
for pathogenicity on cotton seedlings every six months.

Inoculum Preparation For root colonization assays, EG 1053 was grown in
trypticase soy broth (TSB) for 48 h at 30°C, followed by centrifugation and washing
(once) in 0.1 M potassium phosphate buffer, pH 7.0, containing 0.1% Bacto-Pep-
tone (Difco), and then added to sterile (gamma-irradiated) granular peat (pH 6.8,
provided by the Nitragin Co., Milwaukee, WX) to a level of 35% moisture (WAV).
The peat was incubated at 30°C for three weeks prior to inoculation and EG 1053
counts on King's Medium B (KB) were determined at seven day intervals. Fluores¬
cent colonies were observed after 48 h incubation at 30°C. Additional peat formula¬
tions (non-sterile, pH 7.1) for the biocontrol tests that contained pre-determined
numbers of colony forming units (CFU\s)/g were provided by Ecogen Inc., Lan-
ghorne, PA. These formulations were used within 24 h and samples were plated on
KB to determine numbers of EG 1053 at planting. Biocontrol Assay. Plants were
grown in either sterile potting mix that consisted of washed sand and commercial
vermiculite (1:1 v/v) or cotton soils that were transported from Mississippi, South
Carolina, Texas, and Virginia. Galvanized steel trays 60 cm by 30 cm were filled to
a depth of 10 cm with potting mix or soil and untreated cotton seeds (cv. Stoneville
825) were planted in two rows (30 cm by 3.0 cm deep) per tray at a rate of 10 seeds
per row. Four trays (replications) were employed for each test, and main treatments
were application rates while subtreatments were the number of cells/g in the
inoculum. One PDA plate each of P. ultimum (48 h at 25°C) and R. solani (72 h at
25°C) was blended in 500 ml sterile water and added to a volume of potting mix
sufficient to fill two trays, and this provided counts between 103 and 104
propagules/g'1 of mix for each pathogen. The pathogens were not added to the soils
since indigenous seedling disease pathogens were already present. Counts of fungal
propagules were determined on PDA for the sterile potting mix and selective media
for the soils: maize meal agar for P. ultimum and gallic acid agar for R. solani
(Dhingra and Sinclair, 1985). The EG 1053 peat inoculants were added to the trays
at planting by weighing the correct amount of peat for each row and dispensing it,
by hand, into the row as uniformly as possible. Plant growth tests included non-in-

494

VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

oculated (with pathogens but no inoculant), peat alone (with pathogens but no
EG1053) and fungicide controls (Terrachlor Super X (TSX), Olin Chemical Corp.,
and Ridomil, Ciba-Geigy). The granular fungicides were applied at a uniform rate
of 11.2 kg/ha (0.8 g/row) as recommended for cotton by the manufacturers. Plants
were grown in a glasshouse with 12 h light cycles of 25°C and 20°C at night, and
harvested after 35 days. Roots of all surviving plants were rated based on the
presence of P. ultimum root lesions and R. solani lesions and discoloration on the
plant stem.

Inoculum Placement The effects of inoculum placement were evaluated by
adding 0.25 g'1 of EG 1053 inoculum (108 CFU’s/g ) at distances of 0.0, 0.5, 1.0, 1.5,
2.0, 2.5, and 3.0 cm'1 away from cotton seeds in potting mix plus the pathogens (4
replications). After 35 days, plants were harvested and roots were rated and cut
into 100 mm segments to determine the populations of EG 1053 as described above.

Statistical Analysis The experimental design was a randomized complete
block with four replications. Application rates were main treatments while EG 1053
cell numbers within rates were subtreatments. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) of
treatment means was performed by the GLM procedure and mean separations
were performed by Duncan’s Multiple Range test when the overall F-test was
significant at P < 0.05.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Inoculum Production The sterile, granular peat supplied by the Nitragin
Company was a suitable medium for cultivating P. fluorescens strain EG 1053. Cell
counts increased by approximately tenfold during the first two weeks of the
incubation period and then doubled during the second two week period (data not
shown). The initial inoculum added to the peat (106 to 109 cells/g ) did not affect
the rapidity of EG 1053 growth in the material. Cell counts of the inoculants
provided by Ecogen, Inc., ranged from 6.2 x 106 to 5.3 x 1010 CFU’s/g.

The peat was an adequate carrier for EG 1053 whether sterilized or not,
although this material does contain large populations of indigenous microbes that
have caused problems with the use of peat as a Rhizobium carrier (Turco et al .,
1986; Vincent, 1980). Sterilization of the peat tonnage used annually in agriculture
is not practical but, without sterilization, resident microbes may overgrow the
added inoculant strain. Peat usually contains indigenous P. fluorescens strains and
this mandates selection of antibiotic resistance or some other distinguishing feature
to permit a sensitive counting technique for an inoculant bacterium.

Plant Stands-Pottinq Mix Disease pressure was maintained at a high level as
evidenced by the low percentage of surviving plants in the non-inoculated control
(12.5% ave. stand) while the fungicide treatment provided plant stands that
averaged 73.3% (Table 1). Increasing the inoculant application rate and the cell
numbers within each rate was significantly correlated with larger plant stands
(RSQR-0.92). In the 5.6 kg/ha treatment, the inoculants provided plant stands
that ranged from 26% (106 CFU’s/g) to 47% (1010 CFU’s/g), and these stands were
statistically intermediate between the non-inoculated and fungicide controls. For
the 8.4 kg/ha treatment, EG1053 provided plant stands ranging from 36% (IQ6
CFU’s/g) to 67% (IQ10 CFU’s/g). These were all superior to the stands from the
noninoculated control while one of the subtreatments (IQ10 CFU’s/g) produced

SEEDLING DISEASE IN COTTON

495

TABLE 1. Percent plant stand as a result of application rate and cell numbers of EG1053 in peat
inoculants,,

Inoculant Application Rate (kg/ha)

Treatment

5.6

8.4

11.2

14.0

16.8

Percent Stand

Controls

Non-inoculated

11.0a*

12,5a

10.3a

13.8a

15.0a

Fungicides**

71.3d

7Q.0e

75.0c

77.5c

73.0d

Granular EG 1053
106

(CFU’s/g)

26.3b

36.3b

43.8b

46.3b

48.8b

107

30.0b

42.5bc

53.8b

57.5b

60.0c

108

38.8bc

51.3cd

65.0c

73.8c

81.3de

109

43.7c

58.7de

67.5c

75.0c

85.0e

1010

47.5c

67.5e

72.5c

78.8c

87.5e

LSD

9.0

12.0

10.0

11.0

11.0

‘Entries followed by the same letter within each column are not significantly different at the 0.05 level
(Duncan’s Multiple Range Test) for Tables 14.

“The fungicides (Terraehlor Super-X and Ridomil) were applied in all tests at 11.2 kg/ha as recom¬
mended by the manufacturer ( Tables 14).

plant stands equal to those from the fungicide treatment. The 11.2 kg/ha treatment
provided plant stands that ranged from 43% (IQ6 CFUWg) to 72% (IQ10 CFUWg).
Three of the subtreatments (108, 109, and 10 0 CFUWg) provided stands equal to
those from the fungicide. Similar results were obtained for the 14.0 kg/ha treatment
as from the 11.2 kg/ha treatment. For the 16.8 kg/ha treatment, the inoculants
provided plant stands that ranged from 48% (106 CFUWg) to 87% (1010 CFUWg)
percent. One subtreatment (108 CFUWg) was equal to the fungicide, and two
subtreatments (109 and 10 10 CFUWg) provided stands superior to those from the
fungicide (Table 1). The inoculant control (peat without EG 1053) produced plant
stands that were equivalent to the non inoculated control (data not shown).

Plant Root Ratings-Fottinq Mix - Extensive disease was evidenced in the root
ratings on the non-inoculated plants while ratings from the fungicide treatment
were significantly higher (Table 2). The ratings were based on a visual evaluation
to estimate the proportion of plants that displayed root and stem lesions (1.0 =
75» 100% of plant roots and stems displaying lesions, 2.0 = 50- 75%, 3.0 = 25-50%,
and 4.0 = 0-25%. For the 5.6 kg/ha treatment, the inoculants provided plants with
root ratings that were intermediate between the non-inoculated and fungicide
controls. At all other application rates, one subtreatment (106 CFU’s/g) yielded
root ratings that were significantly lower than those from the fungicide treatment
while the other four subtreatments provided plants with root ratings that were
equivalent to the fungicide treatment. Root ratings were significantly correlated
with both increased application rates and higher numbers of EG1053 in the

496

VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

TABLE 2. Plant root ratings as a result of application rate and cell numbers of EG 1053 in in peat
inocuiants.

Treatment

Inoculant Application rate (kg/ha)

5.6

8.4

11.2

14.0

16.8

Plant Root Ratings*

Controls

Non-inoculated

1.0a

1.0a

1.1a

1.2a

1.0a

Fungicides

2.7c

2.6cd

2.5bc

2.8cd

2.9cd

Granular EG 1053 (CFU’s/g)

10°

1.4ab

1.7ab

1.9ab

2.0b

2.0b

107

1.7ab

1.9bc

2.0b

2.1bc

2.3bc

108

2.0bc

2.1bc

2.3b

2.6bc

2.8cd

109

2.3b

2.6cd

2.76bc

2.9cd

3.0cd

1010

2.2bc

3.0d

3.3c

3.4d

3.5d

LSD

0.8

0.7

0.8

0.7

0.7

‘visual rating based on proportion of plant roots displaying disease symptoms: 1.0 - 75-100%, 2.0 =
50-75%, 3.0 - 25-50%, 4.0 = 0.25% (Tables 2-4).

inocuiants (RSQR = 0.93). The inoculant control (peat without EG 1053) provided
plants with root ratings that were equal to the non-inoculated control (data not
shown).

Plant Stands and Root Ratings-soil - To confirm the results that were observed
with potting mix (Tables 1 & 2), three EG 1053 application rates (108 CFU’s/g in
each) were employed for the soil tests (Table 3). Seedling disease pressure was high
in the four soils as evidenced by the low average percent plant stands and root
ratings in the non-inoculated controls. The fungicides provided plant stands and
root ratings that were superior to the non-inoculated controls in each soil while the
peat control produced plants that were equivalent to the non-inoculated control.
For the granular EG 1053 inocuiants, the 5.6 kg/ha treatment produced plants that
were equivalent to the non-inoculated control while the 16.8 kg/ha treatment
provided plants that were equal to the fungicide and superior to the noninoculated
controls for each soil. The 11.2 kg/ha treatment produced plants that were inter¬
mediate between the other two application rates (Table 3).

The application rate and cell concentration (in the inoculant) studies deter¬
mined the minimal level of these two parameters required to provide plant protec¬
tion from seedling disease that was equivalent to the fungicide treatment. At the
same application rate recommended for the fungicides (11.2 kg/ha), EG 1053
produced plants that were equivalent to those from the fungicide treatment at levels
of 108 CFU’s/g or greater (Tables 1-3). At lower application rates, the inocuiants
did not perform as well as the fungicides but higher cell concentrations did provide
better levels of plant protection.

SEEDLING DISEASE IN COTTON

497

ABLE 3. Plant stands (%) and root ratings of cotton grown in four soils amended with EG1053.

Treatment

State

MS

SC

TX

VA

MS

SC

TX

VA

% Plant Stand

Root Rating

Controls

Non-Inoculated

42.9a

32.3ab 47.6a

36.7a

1.7a

1.7a

2.0a

1.9a

Granular Peat

37.6a

28.4a

49.5ab 63.0b

2.0a

1.5a

2.1a

2.3ab

Fungicides

76.7c

66.1c

74.2c

61.4b

3.1b

2.6b

3.2b

2.7b

Granular EG 1053 (kg/ha)

5.6

39.4a

36.7ab 53.5ab 57.4b

2.2a

1.8a

2.3a

2.1ab

11.2

56.0b

47.8b

61.7b

64.9b

2.8ab

2,Oab

2.7ab

2.8b

16.8

81.3c

63.4c

76.9c

77.3c

3.3b

2.5b

3.4b

3.1b

LSD

13

15

12

11

0.8

0.7

0.8

0.6

Inoculum Placement - The placement of EG1053 inoculant appeared to be an
important factor in successful root colonization and disease repression (Table 4).
When the inoculant was placed further than 1.0 cm away form the seeds, plant
stands were equivalent to the non-inoculated control. The proportion of 100 mm
root segments colonized by EG 1053 ranged from 95.6% (adjacent to the seeds) to
11.9% (3.0 cm from the seeds) and indicated that at least 80% of the root segments
required EG1053 colonization before adequate disease repression occurred
(plants equal to the fungicide treatment). These placement results may explain why
the lower inoculant application rates failed to adequately repress seedling disease
even though high numbers of cells were applied (Table 1). At 5.6 and 8.4 kg/ha
rates, there is not sufficient peat to adequately contact every seed, and those seeds
that do not receive any peat in close proximity will not be protected (Table 4).

SUMMARY

These studies demonstrate that P. fluorescens strain EG 1053 can effectively
protect cotton plants from seedling disease. The mechanisms of disease repression
by EG 1053 are unknown and no evidence of in-vitro antibiosis or direct fungal
inhibition has been found (Hagedorn, 1988). Competition for root colonization
sites has been associated with biocontrol agents (Loper et al ., 1985; Martin et al .,
1985) and, by comparison, EG 1053 appears to be a rapid root colonizer. An
antibiotic resistant mutant of EG1053 that would have permitted plate counts from
the soils was not used because any such mutant could colonize and compete quite
differently from the parental strain. Any differences cannot be acceptable when the
potential field performance of a commercial strain is being evaluated. The ex¬
perimental conditions in the potting mix were relatively non-competitive (no
indigenous bacteria), but EG 1053 had to compete against fungi that have been
described as aggressive root invaders (Martin et al., 1985). However, the non-sterile

498

VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

TABLE 4. Effects of distance between seeds and EG1053 inoculant on root colonization, plant stands,
and disease severity.

Treatment

% Root Segments
Containing EG 1053

% Plant
Stand

Root

Rating

Controls

Non-inoculated

38.3a

1.2a

Fungicide

....

75.7c

3.1d

Distance EG 1053

Inoculant Placed
from Seeds (cm)*

0.0

95.6

74.2c

3.3d

0.5

92.1

76.6c

3.2d

1.0

81.3

61.4bc

2.8cd

1.5

62.0

52.3ab

2.1bc

2.0

31.7

47.7a

1.4ab

2.5

16.4

39.2a

1.6ab

3.0

11.9

42.4a

1.3a

LSD

-

15

0.7

•The EG1053 inoculant contained 108 CFU’s/g, and 0.25 g of the inoculant was placed varying distances
from the cotton seeds.

soils contained large populations of indigenous bacteria that represented a realistic
competitive microbial environment. The granular peat-based inoculants were ap¬
plied to simulate in-furrow conditions, but resulted in only a small quantity of peat
actually in contact with each seed. The extensive colonization of seedling roots by
EG 1053 may indicate the degree to which the strain was able to respond to the
presence of young seedlings.

Future research will examine the ability of EG 1053 to reduce the effects of
seedling disease on cotton in field studies. To distinguish EG 1053 from indigenous
bacteria, the selection of spontaneous antibiotic-resistant mutants could be
employed (Compeau et al ., 1988; Teintse et al ., 1980). Such mutants will be
necessary if other fluorescent pseudomonads are present, but for non-fluorescent
bacteria, mutants may not be required if the added bacteria do not overgrow the
plating medium (Compeau et al ., 1988). Since EG 1053 demonstrated cotton see¬
dling disease repression, this strain lends itself to a molecular approach to deter¬
mine possible mechanisms. Siderophores are one apparent choice (Scher and
Baker, 1982) and the development of nonsiderophore mutants, as well as non¬
colonizing mutants, may demonstrate potential mechanisms involved in disease
repression and offer research approaches to enhance repressive activities and the
performance of EG 1053 in the field.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

This research was supported by Ecogen Inc., (Langhorne, PA), and the
Biotechnology Institute of the Virginia Center for Innovative Technology.

SEEDLING DISEASE IN COTTON

499

LITERATURE CITED

Beil, A/1984. Cotton protection practices in the USA and world. Section B:
diseases, p.288-309. In R J. Kohel and C.F. Lews (ed.)» Cotton, American
Society for Agronomy Monograph no. 24. Madison, WL

Colyer, P. D. and M .S. Mount. 1984. Bacterization of potato with Pseudomonas
putida and its influence on post harvest soft rot disease. Plant Dis. 68:703-706.

Compeau, G., B. I. Al-Achi, E.Platsouka, and S.B. Levy. 1988. Survival of rifam-
picin-resistant mutants of Pseudomonas fluorescens and Pseudomonas putida
in soil systems. AppL Environ. Microbiol 54:2432-2438.

Cotton Disease Council Report (CDCR). 1987. p. 2-57. In I. M. Brown and T. C.
Nelson (ed.), Beltwide cotton production research conferences: 1987 proceed¬
ings. National Cotton Council of America, Memphis, TN.

Dhingra, O. IX, and J. B. Sinclair. 1985. Basic plant pathology methods. Appendix
A: Culture media and their formulas. PP- 290-310. CRC Press, Inc., Boca
Raton, FL.

Ganesan, P., and S. S. Gnanamanickam. 1987. Biological control of Sclerotium
rolfsti Sacc. in peanut by inoculation with Pseudomonas fluorescens. Soil Biol.
Biochem. 19:35-38.

Hagedorn, C., W. D. Gould, and T. R. Bardinelli. 1989. Rhizobacteria of cotton
and their repression of seedling disease pathogens. Appl. Environ. Microbiol
55:2793-2797.

Hagedorn, C. 1988. Abstr. Annu. Meet. Soc. Environ. Toxicol and Chem. , no.

180, p. 62.

Howell, C. R., and R. D. Stipanovic. 1979. Control of Rhizoctonia solani on cotton
seedlings with Pseudomonas fluorescens and with antibiotic produced by the
bacterium. Phytopathology 69:480-482.

Kloepper, J. W.,and M. N. Schroth. 1981. Plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria
and plant growth under gnotobiotic conditions. Phytopathology 71:642-644.

Kloepper, J. W., J. Leong, M. Teintze, and M. N. Schroth. 1980. Pseudomonas
siderophores-A mechanism explaining disease suppressive soils. Curr.
Micobiol 4:317-320.

Lambert, B., F. Leyns, L. Van Rooyan, F. Gosselle, Y. Papon, and J. Swings. 1987.
Rhizobacteria of maize and their antifungal activities. Appl Environ.
Micrbiol. 53:1866-1871.

Loper, J. II, C. Haack, and M. N. Schroth. 1985. Population dynamics of soil
pseudomonads in the rhizosphere of potato (Solatium tuberosum L.). Appl
Environ. Microbiol 49:416-422.

Martin, S B., G.S. Abawi, and H.C. Hoch. 1985. Biological control of soilborne
pathogens with antagonists, p.433-454. In M.A. Hoy and D.Z. Herzog (ed.),
Biological control in agricultural IPM systems. Academic Press, Inc., New
York.

Scher, F. M., and R. Baker. 1982. Effect of Pseudomonas putida and a synthetic
iron chelator on induction of suppressiveness to fusarium wilt pathogens.
Phytopathology 72:1567-1573.

Suslow, T. V., and M. N. Schroth. 1982. Role of deleterious rhizobacteria as minor
pathogens in reducing crop growtLPhytopathology 72:111-115.

500

VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

Teintze, M., M. B. Hassain, C. L. Baines, J. Leong, and D. van der Helm. 1980.
Structure of ferric pseudobactin: a siderophore from a plant growth promoting
Pseudomonas . Biochemistry 20:6466-6457.

Turco, R. F., T. B. Moorman, and D. F. Bezdicek. 1986. Effectiveness and com¬
petitiveness of spontaneous antibiotic resistant mutants of Rhizobium
leguminosarum and Rhizobium japonicum. Soil Biol. Biochem. 18:259-262.
Vincent, J. M. 1980. Factors controlling the \egume-Rhizobium symbiosis, p.103-
130. In W. E. Newton and W. H. Orne- Johnson (ed.), Nitrogen fixation, Vol.
1., University Park Press, Baltimore.

MINUTES-EXECUTFVE COMMITTEE

501

VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE MEETING
SUMMARY PREPARED BY VAS SECRETARY

March 3, 1990George Mason University

The meeting was called to order by President Mike Bass.

Members present were: Michael Bass (President), Richard Brandt
(President-elect), Gerald Taylor (Secretary), Jim Martin (Editor, Virginia
Journal of Science), Elsa Falls (Treasurer), Dean Decker (Director, Virginia
Junior Academy of Science), Blanton Bruner (Executive- Secretary/Treasurer),
Kitty McIntyre, Susan Quick, Mindy Barnhart, and George Umberger (George
Mason University School of Information, Technology and Engineering, Local
Arrangements Chair).

Approval of Executive Committee Minutes. November 12. 1989.

Motion by J. Martin, seconded by E. Falls, to approve the minutes as
distributed with minor corrections. Motion passed.

President's Report bv Mike Bass.

1. Rae Carpenter is doing an excellent job with the trust fund. You have
copies of his December and February reports.

2. Paul Knappenberger, Director of Science Museum of Virginia, asked to
give a report at the Academy Conference on Thursday for 10-15 minutes. I
told him that would be fine.

3. Tom Sitz has sent out information on the small project grants. The new
general guidelines for submission of the grant proposal is on the back of his
letter. Applications have increased as compared to previous years.

4. The Biology Section wants a resolution brought before Council: that
students both undergraduate or graduate who are not presenting papers at
the annual meeting and who are guests of a registered member of the
Academy may be admitted to the papers sessions at the Annual Meeting
without charge. Discussion followed.

Motion by D. Decker, seconded by B. Bruner and D. Brandt, that the
registration form reflect the Academy members registration, early or late, that
there be a $10.00 charge for student (college and graduate students) that
includes registration (no early or late) to the meeting and includes a year
Academy membership. Discussion follow. Motion failed.

Motion by E. Falls, seconded by Dean Decker: That a registered senior
member of the Academy can bring up to two none-presenting student guests free
to the presentations if they sign up for one day. Discussion followed. D. Decker
noted that this is only a recommendation to Council. The motion carried.

502

VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

President-Elect's Report bv R. Brandt.

George Umberger, Kitty McIntyre and the other folks involved in preparing
for meeting at George Masson have been great.

Local Arrangements Report bv G. Umberger.

G. Unberger presented a snapshot of basic agenda of planned VAS/VJAS
meetings. B. Bruner noted that the Academy needs as soon as possible, the
names and information on those who have joined the Academy, so they can be
put them in the computer as paid. Discussion followed. G. Taylor stated that he
thinks the number of free guests should be limited to the speaker, some invited
presenters, the president of the University and a few people directly involved in
the program planning and arrangements. The institution should pay for meals it
wishes to provide for its guests at this function.

Motion by Dean Decker, seconded by Dick Brandt, that we set the cost of the
banquet at $24.00. Motion passed.

(George Umberger) Holiday Inn will be headquarters hotel. Support
services, security, health, audio visual, signs and directions, parking are all taken
care of or will be and we will have information in registration packet. Publicity
will be within the next several weeks. Expenses, about $46,000, including all
receipts for VJAS and VAS. They will be kept separately and does not include
awards which is a separate item of approximately $5,500. Discussion on
exhibitors followed.

Executive Secretary Repor bv B. Bruner. No report at this time.

Virginia Junior Academy of Science Report bv Dean Decker.

All schools have been sent a check list on paper preparation, a list of
suggestions to make the paper better, and a paper disqualification list (any of 11
items missing automatically disqualifies paper.) We have about 1430 papers,
which is about 200 more than last year. The papers are coming in much better
shape than before. They are more complete and more accurately put together.

The State Fair is changing its image and involving science. They are looking
for ways of putting science in front of the public... What has been proposed,
accepted by the State Fair, and accepted by the Junior Academy Committee, is
this fall to have winners in each section do a poster session at the State Fair. This
will not be a competition of the State Fair, these people have already competed.
The state fair has essentially agreed that if we are talking of 1st, 2nd, or 3rd place
student winners, based upon on what they did at the Junior Academy Annual
Meeting, the State Fair will provide them with ribbons. I think we will need a
vote of approval from Council this afternoon. It is a fantastic opportunity to put
science in front of the Fair.

MINUTES-EXECUTTVE COMMITTEE

503

Fundraising Committee has met twice and will meet again next Thursday with
our fund raiser (Mary Ellen Stumpf). We are planning a series of meetings to
talk to business and other individuals to see what they think of the feasibility of
raising the money. By Council meeting in May, we should know where this
campaign is leading.

Another item is redistricting, or the future of the Junior Academy.
Superintendents districts divide the state into seven districts. We have divided
three of those districts. The Richmond area and south, which is a very large
district, has been subdivided into A and B. The Tidewater district has been
divided into A and B. B involves James City County, Williamsburg, all of
Newport News (everything between York and James rivers and leaves
Southhampton County, Isle of Wright, Chesapeake, Norfolk, Portsmouth and the
Penninusula in part A. Superintendents district 4 is divided by putting Fairfax
County, Fairfax City, Arlington, Alexandria and Fall Church into one district
because they are so concentrated. So we end up with 10 Junior Academy
districts. This is favored by the Committee. Other than the fact that we may
have to do something with magnet schools, we are considering these 10 districts.
This will come up for approval at Council this afternoon.

(Dick Brandt) So you would have a regional director from each one of these
areas. Are you planning for an overall director of the regions? (Dean Decker)
Yes, we will still have a state operation which has to do several things: run the
state meeting, train and supervise people, maintain contact with national
organization, get additional financial support through grants etc. The idea is that
the new director will take over after the Blacksburg meeting (a year from now), if
the funds are there and the regionalization goes into effect.

President Bass thanked D. Decker for his report. 1430 papers so far, 200
above last year, great. The State Fair opportunity is really great. When you
called me, my OK was immediate. I appreciate your keeping me informed. I
also appreciate the work that the Junior Academy has done on redistricting.
When I brought this up with you in the meeting in July, you appointed your
committee and worked through the year. It was an excellent report in January.
My thanks and the Academy’s thanks too.

Thank you George, Kitty, Mindy and Susan for the excellent job so far.

President Bass adjourned meeting at 1:15 p.m.

Respectfully submitted by:

Gerald R. Taylor, Jr., Secretary

Virginia Academy of Science

504

VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
COUNCIL MEETING

SUMMARY PREPARED BY VAS SECRETARY

March 3, 1990George Mason University

The meeting was called to order by President M. Bass at 1:30 p.m.

Members president were: Michael Bass (President), Richard Brandt
(President-elect), Dean Decker (VJAS Director), Ertle Thompson (AAAS
representative), Blanton Bruner (Executive Secretary/Treasurer), James Martin
(Editor VJS), Jim Murray (Past-past-past President), George Umberger (Chair
of Local Arrangements Committee), Kitty Mclntyer (Director of Conference
and Community Services at George Mason University), Elsa Falls (Treasurer),
and Gerald Taylor (Secretary).

Motion by E. Thompson moved, seconded by D. Decker, that the minutes of
November 12, 1989, meeting be approved. Motion passed.

President’s Report bv M. Bass.

1. Rae Carpenter has done an excellent job with the trust fund. You have
copies of two of his reports.

2. Paul Knappenberger, Director of Science Museum of Virginia, asked if he
could address the Academy at Academy Conference on Thursday to give a
summary report of what the Science Museum is doing and its relationship
with the Academy.

3. Tom Sitz, Chairman of Research Committee, has sent out the
announcements for the small project grants. The new general guidelines for
the submission of this grant are on the back of the announcement letter.

4. Discussed at length in the Executive Committee was the resolution received
from the Biology Section regarding students attending meetings without
registering. The Executive Committee suggested motion, "That a registered
senior member of the Academy can bring up to two none-presenting student
guests free to the presentations if they sign up for one day."

Motion by E. Falls, seconded by J. Murray: That a registered senior member
of the Academy can bring up to two non-presenting student guests free to the
presentations if they sign up for one day. Motion Passed.

Local Arrangements Committee Report bv G. Umberger.

G. Umberger, Chair of the Local Arrangements Committee, passed out
summary materials, which he reported he had discussed in detail during
Executive Committee meeting. The annual meeting will be held May 22-25 at
George Mason University. Discussion followed.

President-Elect’s Report bv R. Brandt.

For the record, everybody has been doing an excellent job; everything is
under control.

MINUTES-COUNCIL

505

Secretary's Report bv G. R. Tavlor. No report.

Treasurer's Report bv E. Falls. No Report.

Past President's Report.

President Bass stated that Past President, Stuart Ware, is on a field trip and
was unable to attend the meeting.

Executive Secretary's Report bv B. Brunner. No report.

Virginia Junior Academy Report bv Director. Dean Decker.

Dean Decker, Director of the Junior Academy, presented report. Three
students from Virginia, 4 teachers-sponsors and I went to AAAS meeting in New
Orleans. The students did quite well.

The State Fair is looking at increasing science visibility in the state. One way
of doing that is to have some or all of our Junior Academy winners present poster
sessions at the State Fair, probably at youth day.

J. Murray moved approval, seconded by J. Martin, that some or all of our
Junior Academy winners present poster sessions at the State Fair. Motion
passed.

(D. Decker) The sub-committee on Verification and Handling of Papers met
and sent out 3 things to all the members: 1) Check-off list on how to put together
a paper, which is a condensation of what is in the handbook, 2) A list of
suggestions of how to make a quality paper, and 3) a list of things which would
automatically disqualify a paper from being read (11 items on this list). The sub
committee on regionalization has met several times, as indicated in minutes. We
have taken the seven Superintendent's districts, which provides a fairly collegiate
unit that already exist, and sub-divided three of those districts. Sub-divided
district 1, which includes Richmond and points south, into two parts because of
Junior Academy participation. Subdivided district 2, Tidewater area (put
basically everything from Williamsburg and between the York and James rivers
into one subdistrict and left the rest in the other subdistrict). The reason the
peninsula didn't go in with Newport News is because the bridge doesn’t connect
over there. The other split was Northern Virginia because Fairfax, Falls Church,
Alexandria, Arlington and Fairfax County are so large in population and in
participation. This gives us 10 Junior Academy regions. This is the way
regionalization is favored by the Committee. Discussion followed. (Dean
Decker) The decision about what to do with the magnet school has not been
made. I do not think it effects the redistricting. I am asking for Council approval
of the Virginia Junior Academy districting (regionalization) plan. We will have
to deal with the problem of the magnet schools, and we are ready to move to the
next step if we get approval for this.

Gerald Taylor moved, seconded by Elsa Falls, to approve Dean's requested
redistricting. Motion passed.

President Bass thanked Dean Decker for all the work.

Virginia Journal of Science Report bv Jim Martin.

We have more than enough to keep us in publications for next year, although
rejection rate is high.

Visiting Scientist Program Report.

506

VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

President Bass reported that Harold Bell, Director of Visiting Scientist
Program, has sent out information on the Visiting Science Program to presidents
of colleges asking for participation in the Visiting Scientist Program.

AAAS Report bv E. Thompson.

We had an excellent meeting in New Orleans. A written report is planned for
presentation at the Council in May.

Awards Committee Report bv J. Murray.

The Committee is directed to accept nominations for Fellows and make
recommendation to Council. The Council has to approve the recommendation.
A recent change in bylaws allows us to elect one fellow each year, no matter what
the proportion of fellows to members. We can elect only one fellow this year.
The Committee is nominating Jim Martin for fellowship in the Academy. The
Committee also intends to award the Ivey F. Lewis Distinguished Service Award.
That choice lies with the Committee, so we do not bring it to Council.

Motion to elect Jim Martin to Fellow was made by J. Murray, seconded by D.
Brandt. Motion passed unanimously.

Constitution and Bylaws Report. No report.

Science Education Committee Report bv E. Thompson. No report.

Finance and Endowment Committee Report.

President Bass reported that Arthur Burk just flew in from Australia and has
no report.

Fund Raising Committee Report.

President Bass asked Dean Decker to give the report. Dean Decker
reported. The Chairs of Fund Raising Committee are Roy Taylor and Amy
Water. Mary Ellen Stumpf is under contract for fund raising campaign plans.
We have determined some priorities and directions. We have business and
commercial prospects, corporations, foundations and individuals. We are going
to have a series of breakfast’s to meet with business people to discuss the Junior
Academy and what the fundraising campaign is about. That is in reality the
feasibility study that we discussed earlier. That will give us a good ideas of what
corporate leaders around the area think about the likely hood of the success of
the program. Hopefully these people will come up with some hard leadership,
not only financial support, but talk to other corporate leaders to encourage them
to participate. Since Mary Ellen has come on board, things have been happening
very quickly, and everything we have done seems positive. There are some
foundations and corporations which will not give to an endowment. We need to
convince them that it is really an investment to maintain us. We did discuss the
possibility of setting up another kind of fund for those who do not want to endow.
We feel real good about what has been happening.

Long Range Planning Committee Report. No report.

Membership Committee Report.

President Bass reported that Jerry Bass has been sending to various schools
membership applications and has been talking to different people. Discussion
followed.

Trust Committee Report.

President Bass noted that Council has Rae Carpenter’s report.

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507

Virginia Flora Committee Report. No report.

SECTION REPORTS FOLLOW

Psychology Section - No report.

Environmental Science Section.

President Bass reports that the Section is having a symposium on the Fresh
Water Tidal Regions of Chesapeake Bay.

Medical Science Section Report by R. Brandt.

Medical Sciences will be having a meeting next week and the proposal is
going to be that the Medical Science Section pay for membership of students who
are presenting.

Mike Bass asked if there were other Section reports? (No response.)

Nominations and Election Committee Report bv J. Murray.

We have two candidates for each of 3 offices: for President-elect, Carvel
Blair and Gerald Taylor, for Secretary, Elsa Falls and Jim O’Brien, and for
Treasurer, Carolyn Conway and Golde Holtzman. The Council voted to support
this slate of officers.

Old Business

R. Brandt presented a report on meeting sites.

New Business

G. Umberger asked if their was a flyer or announcement on the VAS and
VJAS. Discussion followed. There is one for the VAS and an old one for the
VJAS. Membership Committee Chair, has some membership forms which he
sends out.

President Bass adjourned meeting at 3:05 p.m.

Respectfully submitted by:

Gerald R. Taylor, Jr., Secretary

Virginia Academy of Science

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VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE MEETING

May 23, 1990 George Mason University

The meeting was called to order by President Michael Bass.

Members present were: Michael Bass (President), Richard Brandt
(President-elect), Gerald Taylor (Secretary), James (Jim) Martin (Editor,
Virginia Journal of Science), Elsa Falls (Treasurer), Dean Decker (Director,
Virginia Junior Academy of Science), George Umber ger (Local Arrangements
Chair), Golde Holtzman (Local Arrangements Chair for Virginia Polytechnic
Institute and State University meeting in 1991), Vera Remsburg (Since Museum
of Virginia Trustee), Carvel Blair (Envirnomental Sciences Section
Representative), and Stewart Ware (Past-president)

Approval of Executive Committee Minutes of March 3. 1990.

Motion by Elsa Falls, seconded by Jim Martin, to approve the minutes as
distributed with minor corrections. Motion passed.

President's Report bv Mike Bass.

1. At the Academy Conference tomorrow, Paul Knappenberger will give a
brief presentation on the Science Museum of Virginia.

2. Arthur Burke and Blanton Bruner will not be here today but will be at
Conference tomorrow. Art sent a letter stating The Academy is in sound
financial condition."

3. Ray Carpenter has been working diligently with the Trust Committee;
investments are doing well.

4. Dean Decker will give an update on the VJAS fund raising as well as the
regionalization plan.

Virginia Junior Academy of Science Report by Dean Decker.

There were 1441 papers submitted this year, most ever submitted. That broke
down into 35 sections, more sections than we have ever had. If you count the
number of papers in the program, that comes out to 635 papers, not the highest
by 6 or 8. Definitely, one of our largest meetings. A problem developed, 11
people (not preregistered) came in last night after dinner to register for rooms,
when registrations were due two weeks ago. George Umber ger and his staff took
care of them. George and his staff have done a fantastic job.

We have had an awful time getting sufficient judges. As a result, we have a
number of sections running with two judges, we have a number of last minutes
cancellations, and we have ten no shows today. We normally fill in with Academy
members and people from other institutions. We have very few from either. In
many schools, publishing seems to be the main goal, not state meetings. That's
what administrators are saying. As a result, we have a problem.

MINUTES-EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE

509

Richard Brandt remarked that for the VPI meeting, we talked with Golde
(Holtzman) about using your brochure and background material in a letter that
goes to all senior Academy members plus have Golde send the letter to the VPI
faculty. President Bass stated that he thinks we are going to get a lot of
cooperations from the faculty at VPI, they are a strong supporter of this.

Dean Decker continued his report. As an Academy, we need to be on guard
because we are not the only organization running into this problem. The
administrators will say that they would love for us to come to their campus and
we will have their support, too often the support is in words not actions. If a
university has adopted a philosophy that everybody better be doing research and
not these activities, we can’t get faculty support. This not only relates to judges
for the Junior Academy, it relates to our membership and to publishing in our
Journal. This is a much bigger syndrome than the Junior Academy.

President Bass stated that we have two institutions, VCU and VPI which have
been strong supporters of the Academy from the very beginning and they have
jumped right-in to help Junior Academy. George Mason does not have that
history, that’s one of the problems. He suggests that one of the things we are
seeing is the State budget crunch, because money is allocated per faculty or per
department to go to meetings, with emphasis on research and presentations at
national and regional meetings. Judging is dropping down farther and farther on
the list of priorities. Discussion followed.

Dean Decker continued his report. Overall the meeting is going very well.
Roy Taylor is going to talk at Council about our fund raising activities. We are
making good progress. The Feasibility Study is going well and should be
completed before Fall. People suggest that we make a big point of that 50th
anniversary coming up next year, we need to build it up.

Local Arrangements Report bv George Umberger.

A quick summary count of VJAS totals 864 at this time and may close at 880.
Senior Academy, 201, and that is very dynamic. We have had problems because
of late registrations, particularly for dorm housing for students. All in all, things
are going well. We have a great group of folks working with us.

Elsa Falls asked about the form that came out for listing sponsored students
who were not to pay, that Academy member would sponsor. The form stated
graduate students and the original motion was for any students. George
Umberger responded that he is sure if anyone had questions about that, his staff
took care of it.

Vera Remsburg complemented George Umberger and his staff on putting
together the addresses of those who preregister, it was very helpful.

President Bass stated that he was disappointed with the number of exhibitors.
The letter went out two weeks ago on the exhibit, that was late. George
Umberger responded. Yes. The critical problem we had was space, we couldn’t
get space released to hold the exhibits. Richard Brandt responded. Again this
problem came from the University, because George had a good report from Don
Mickulecky but couldn’t do anything with it because of the University. Golde
(Holtzman), lets look at that report and get request for the exhibitors at VPI out

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in December. My recommendation would be to have Don Mickelette as your
out-of-town exhibitor Chair. He has really done a good job in the past at VCU
meeting.

Golde Holtzman asked who pays for what. Financial statement from last
years meeting starts out that there is no additional money from VAS. President
Bass responded. There is, all you have to do is request it. Could be $200- $500 if
you need seed money. Comes from Blanton Bruner. Write Blanton Bruner,
Executive Secretary/Treasure of the Academy, and he will allocate some money.
You set up an account at a local bank or in the University system and that is
money you use for the meeting, Golde Holtzman asked what should he try to get
Virginia Tech to pay for. President Bass answered. Seriously, everything that
you can; the VAS appreciates any expenses that the University will donate to the
meeting. Suggestions followed.

George Umberger commented that he thinks it would be very helpful to the
VAS, the VJAS, and Local Arrangements Committee to establish a total budget
of the conference and include all costs weather born by the University, VJAS, or
VAS. Let those be estimated up front so you can create your balance sheet from
the very beginning.

President-Elect’s Report bv Richard Brandt.

At this meeting, 215 papers are to be presented in the Senior Academy, 2
symposia (Botany, 21 papers, and Environmental Science, 17 papers). Relatively,
good cooperation from people other than in sending me some of the abstracts. I
think George Umberger has done a very credible job, reflecting well on his
University.

Gerald Taylor inquired as to the status of development of the Computer
Science Section. President Bass responded that he has not heard anything from
anyone, something we need to pursue.

Stewart Ware inquired as to the status of the Agriculture Science Section.
President Bass responded that they are not meeting. So after this meeting, they
are defunct, even though we are meeting at Virginia Tech next time. Stewart
Ware notes that when he was president-elect, they decided that their papers
could go into Microbiology and Biology, and they were going to dissolve the
Section. Discussion continued.

The Executive Committee meeting was adjourned by President Bass at 1:05
P.M.

Respectfully submitted by:

Gerald R. Taylor, Jr., Secretary

Virginia Academy of Science

MINUTES-COUN CIL

511

VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
COUNCIL MEETING

May 23, 1990 George Mason University

The meeting was called to order by President Michael Bass at 1:16 P.M.

Members present were Michael Bass (President), Richard Brandt
(President-elect), Gerald Taylor (Secretary), Jim Martin (Editor, Virginia
Journal of Science), Elsa Falls (Treasurer), Dean Decker (Director, Virginia
Junior Academy of Science), George Umberger (Local Arrangements Chair),
Golde Holtzman (Local Arrangements Chair for Virginia Polytechnic Institute
and State University meeting in 1991), Carvel Blair (Environmental Science
Representative), Stewart Ware (Past-president), Vera Remsburg (Virginia
Science Museum Trustee), H. F. Painter (Chair, Biology Section), Tom Sitz
(Chair, Research Committee), James O’Brien (Chair, Publicity Committee &
Chair, Psychology Section), C. Roy Taylor (Fund Raising Committee), W. L.
Banks Jr. (Past-past president), Hugo R. Seibel (Medical Science Section), Lisa
Martin (Virginia Junior Academy of Science), Ertle Thompson (Representative
to AAAS, & Science Education Committee), and Jim Murray (Nominations &
Awards Committees Chairs).

Approval of Council Minutes of March 3. 1990.

At conclusion of meeting, motion was made by Jim O’Brien, seconded by
Richard Brandt, to approve the minutes as distributed with minor corrections.
Motion passed.

President’s Report bv Michael Bass.

1. Arthur Burke and Blanton Bruner will not be here today. Arthur Burke,
Chair of Finance and Endowment Committee in a note reports that finances in
the Academy are in good order and that the Academy is in sound financial
condition.

2. Ray Carpenter has been working diligently with the Trust Committee;
investments are doing well. Ray Carpenter is doing an excellent job.

3.1n the Junior Academy, work was started on VJAS regionalization in the
summer and on fund raising earlier than that. Dean Decker will give a report on
VJAS regionalization and fund raising.

4. Paul Knappenberger will present a ten minute report on the history of
Science Museum of Virginia tomorrow at the Academy Conference.

5. The meeting is going well so far. A little concern has been expressed about
the small number of exhibitors

Local Arrangements Committee Report bv George Umberger. Chair.

As of this morning, we had 864 VJAS registrants. The majority of those are
staying overnight. The Junior Academy activities seem to be proceeding

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smoothly. The weather is promising for a picnic this evening, if not, it will be
moved into the dining hall. The Senior Academy has 201 registrants; that is very
dynamic because people are continuing to come. Activities are proceeding on
track.

President-Elect’s Report bv Richard Brandt.

Approximately 215 papers are scheduled for presentation in the Senior
Academy and 2 symposia, Botany (8 papers) and Environmental Science (17
papers). Everything is in place.

Secretary’s Report bv Gerald Tavlor. No report.

Treasurer’s Report bv Elsa Falls. No report.

Past president’s Report bv Stewart Ware. No report.

Virginia Junior Academy of Science Report bv Dean Decker.

1431 papers were submitted this year, most ever submitted. 635 students were
selected to read, that is not quite the maximum by about 10-15. That broke down
into 35 sections, more sections than we have ever had. One of the largest
meetings we have had. Unfortunately, we are operating at less than capacity on
judges. Several sections have only 2 judges; one section has one judge. This is a
result of late cancellations and no shows today. In the Executive Committee
meeting, I noted that many people in the academic community are looking at the

Academy in less than favorable light . Very few Academy members are judging

and we did not pick up many judges from George Mason. Otherwise the meeting
seems to be going very well.

In looking through the minutes at the State Fair issue, it was pointed out that
in the summary sheet Items 1 and 2 should be struck and also from the regular
minutes, because those are activities that the State Fair Committee is trying to
do, not the Academy. At the State Fair, we are going to have 20-25 poster
boards. We will run two sessions, that means 80 - 100 students will be attending
the State Fair, September 20, youth day. There will be ribbons but no
competition at the State Fair. If a student has won 2nd place in earth science,
that student will get a 2nd place ribbon which will say 2nd place VJAS and
Virginia State Fair.... The State Fair project is really locked in and looks very
solid.

In the future, the State Fair is really looking to involve any area of science.
That means that the Senior Academy may, one of these years, have a poster
session at the State Fair.... The idea of the State Fair Committee is that this is a
means of putting science in front of the public.

The VJAS Committee, probably me, will select two high school students,
preferably a male and a female, to receive a year’s honorary membership to
AAAS. Also, that applies to the college level presenters and that has been in
effect for several years. The deadline is June 7th.

MINUTES-COUNCIL

513

Regionalization. I will repeat what the (March 3, 1990) minutes say. There
are seven superintendent districts in the state. Three of those districts will be
divided into two regions, ending with 10 VJAS districts. That is the decision that
the Junior Academy Committee accepted. That was approved at Council. For
the VJAS Committee, the next step is to define the criteria of leadership for
these districts and their activities.

Fund Raising Committee Report presented bv Co-chair Rov Tavlor.

Copies of Fund Raising Committee report were distributed. During the past
6 months, the Committee met with Mary Ellen Stumpf, who is our fund raiser
councilor, to plan the feasibility study that Council approved. The first phase of
this study is to be a series of three breakfast meetings at University of Richmond.
Corporate representative, individuals, community leaders, people from
foundations have been invited to join us. We are seeking their input and advice
and formulating a proposal for setting up this fund. We have had a good
response. The first meeting was held on May 17th; the discussions were very
helpful. A number of suggestions were made which will be incorporate into the
next two meetings as well as into the proposal. A number of reservations have
been received for the May 30 and June 1st meetings.

In addition to these breakfast meetings and input from the people who will be
there, the feasibility study will include one or more meetings with prominent
community leaders and conversations with granting agencies. Upon the
completion of all three of these facets a report will be compiled and brought to
Council.

Richard Brandt inquired as to the status of the Junior Academy of Science
brochure. Dean Decker responded that little has been done. Roy Taylor noted
that the Committee started to focus on the brochure and changed their focus to
the proposal for an endowment. They will bring along other things such as the
brochure as supplemental material. Roy Taylor passed around a single copy of
the packet of information that was provided to corporations and individuals.

In response to a question as to the time table which is being followed, Dean
Decker stated that two years ago, he had said that the Blacksburg meeting would
be the end of his directing the VJAS (11 years at this job.) As has been pointed
out, approximately 1200 hrs a year have been put into the duties of directing the
VJAS. Probably, the feasibility study will occur late summer to early fall. How
quickly from then, money will start coming in, is not known. One of the things
being worked on now for the grant is a budget... Based on a conversation with
Mary Ellen, it is very reasonable to think that the yearly operation will be in the
neighborhood of $75,000 - $100,000.... To do that we are looking at a campaign
of 1 million and probably 1-2 million dollars. Discussion continued.

Roy Taylor notes that the Council only approved the feasibility study, so to do
an endowment will require Council action.

President Bass asked for this report no later than Fall Council meeting. Roy
Taylor noted that they are focusing on the 50th anniversary of the Junior
Academy as the core of the fund rasing so they will have to have the report in
time for Council to take action. Presidents Bass stated that Council would need
the report at the fall Council meeting. Discussion followed.

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VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

Virginia Journal of Science Report bv Jim Martin. Editor.

Still have a high rejection rate. Of the last 6 papers received, 4 were rejected.
3 papers are ready for publication and 10 papers are out for review. The
computer system is now in place, a 386 based machine, 4 megabyte extended
memory which operates at 20 megahertz, and an Epson printer.

AAAS Report bv Ertle Thompson. AAAS Representative.

A written report was presented. The new section, which I chaired from its
founding and finished my term of office this year, sponsored 7 symposia and/or
panel discussions and in addition co-sponsored with other sections of AAAS 15
additional symposia and/or panel discussions. I think we had our best meetings
to date. At the Council meeting after a year debate, the Council endorsed the
joint resolution with the Board of Directors on the use of animals in research,
testing, and education. We were asked to make it available to the members of
the Academies and the resolution in its entirety is included in your report so you
may duplicate it or distribute it, however you desire.

Carvel Blair moved, seconded by Dean Decker, that the Academy publish the
resolution on the use of animals in research, testing, and education in our
Journal. Motion carried.

Science Education Committee Report bv Ertle Thompson.

After several years of urging by Arthur Burke, Joe Exline did plan in
cooperation with the Committee, the State Department of Educations Science
Teachers meeting in the northern Virginia area at the Ramada Inn in Falls
Church. They had a record attendance and a good meeting from all reports.
Plans are now being completed with the science supervisor service for the 1990
meeting which will be held in Charlottesville at the Omni Hotel on November 9
and 10.

Science Advisory Committee Report bv Ertle Thompson No report.

Report bv Representative to the Science Museum of Virginia. Vera

Remsburg. I serve as your representative to the Science Museum of Virginia,
serving on the Board of Trustees. The history of the Science Museum is that this
Academy helped establish it, helped to get this through the General Assembly,
and supported it over the years. I thank Jim Martin for the excellent review of
the tribute to Rosco Hughes. During the last year I have not brought reports
from the Science Museum to you because I did not serve on Council. I am
making a recommendation for your consideration, that this position be listed as
an ex-officio member of Council. (President Bass responds that Council did that
at their last meeting.) Next June will be the completion of my term of office, and
humbly, I ask your assistance in renomination to that Trustee Board. The reason
is that we are now in life science division of the exhibit area and that was the first
exhibit that was suppose to be started when the Museum was established. Being
a biologist ..., I would like to see this project completed. We anticipate it will be

MINUTES-COUN CIL

515

completed within the time frame of the new appointment. Bill Banks is serving
on the advisory committee of life science. I would like Bill to report.

Bill Banks reported. A conceptional plan is being developed, a perspectus,
for 8000 square feet to be on the second floor which will contain 4 areas. The
four areas are Man and His Environment, Molecular Biology, Human Biology,
and Making A Living, which combines a lot of botany and so on, which will be a
travelling exhibit. The Science Museum has obtained funding from NSF to
develop this traveling exhibit to go to different science museums throughout the
country in exchange for other projects from those museums. The prospectus is
very general, not developed. They are preceding toward developing a perspectus
for fund raising.. Vera Remsburg noted that the whole concept is the human
body , to take man and move him around. The goal is to have this completed by
the 25th year of the age of the Museum (1995). The second thing on the
Museum, nominations need to be submitted for Scientist of the Year award.

Communications Discussion Vera Remsburg emphasized that, based on
being the oldest supporter of the Academy, which is 49 years, the Academy
needs to have better communications with its members. There should be some
type of letter going out to all members, giving them highlights of things going on
in that year. She requested that the Council do something to improve
communications, a newsletter. An extended discussion on the proposed
newsletter and communications followed. Richard Brandt stated that he would
try at the Friday meeting of Council to establish a schedule of meetings for next
year.

Awards Committee Report bv Jim Murray.

The Academy will present one fellowship and 1 distinguished service award
tomorrow. Nominations for Fellows are due by October 1st, submitted by 3
members. The Committee considered all of the back nominations, one of those
will be active for next year but the ones that are left from before last year should
be renominated to keep them active. In resubmitting a nomination don’t
duplicate previous materials but add updated information.

Research Committee Report bv Tom Sitz.

There was $6000 in the research fund for the committee ($5500 for the small
project grants, $500 Horsley award.) This year, 11 proposals were received for
small project grants representing 6 institutions. We were able to fund 7 of these,
one to Emory Henry College, one to George Mason University, one to
Bridgewater College, one to James Madison University, and three to Virginia
Tech Biology Department. This year the Horsley Award will be given to Bruce
Arther, Chemistry Department at UVA. The last two years we have had
problems with the Horsley award. Papers were submitted and reviewed by the
Florida Academy of Science. They were sent to the President-elect of the
Florida Academy for review. This year, I had to call and get reviews of
manuscripts over the phone. I would suggest we change the procedure by which
the Horsley Award papers are reviewed. One possibility is to have the Research

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VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

Committee do the review. Richard Brandt suggested that previous recipients of
this award act as an ad-hoc committee to review Horsley papers. Not a bad
idea, because of the various nature of the papers, people from different fields can
be selected to review the manuscripts. The preference and consensus of Council
was to continue to have Horsley award papers reviewed out of state but consider
contacting previous winners.

Publicity Committee Report bv Jim O'Brien.

A report was passed around. The VCU poster session was very successful. A
good deal of effort has been spent on media relations for this meeting. George
Mason University has put out press announcement and produced press package.
Most important, George Mason is going to send to every hometown newspaper
the winners of VJAS sessions, throughout Virginia.

Psychology Section Report bv Chair. Jim O’Brien.

A proposal for the Virginia Psychological Foundation to support VJAS is
being prepared.

Environmental Sciences Section Report bv Carvel Blair.

The Section is happy to help present the Symposium, Fresh Water
Ecosystem, which will be held Friday.

Other Old Business

Council members should have received a copy of the Financial Statement of
Virginia Academy of Science.

Question asked if Academy had sent letter to state agencies suggesting
support for the Academy. Letter will be sent out at a future date.

New Business.

President Bass reminded Council of breakfast meeting at Holiday Inn, Friday
Morning at 7:00 am. He urged everybody to attend the VJAS award ceremony
tomorrow.

President Bass adjourned the Council meeting at 3:08 P.M.

Respectfully submitted by:

Gerald R. Taylor, Jr., Secretary
Virginia Academy of Science

CONSTITUTION and BYLAWS

517

CONSTITUTION OF

THE VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE*

ARTICLE I: NAME

The name of this organization shall be the Virginia Academy of Science.
ARTICLE II: PURPOSE

The purpose of this organization shall be to establish and maintain in Virginia
for scientific and educational purposes an association of persons and organizations
interested in science and scientific research in all of its branches; to solicit financial
and other support; to cooperate with educational institutions, industries, and state
agencies in fostering an interest in scientific matters, in promoting scientific inves¬
tigations and in spreading knowledge of the sciences; to provide a forum for the
presentation and discussion of papers on scientific subjects and facilities for their
publication; to provide opportunities for the cooperation and fellowship among its
members; and generally, in doing these things, to benefit not only its own members,
but to promote the civic, agricultural, academic, industrial and commercial welfare
of the people of Virginia.

ARTICLE III: ORGANIZATION
Section 1. Membership

Membership in this organization shall be open to professional scientists of all
branches of science and others who are interested in the purpose of the organiza¬
tion. Types of membership and dues for each shall be specified in Academy Bylaws.
The membership, through the Academy Conference, provided by Section 2 of
Article VIII, shall have ultimate authority over the affairs of this organization.

Section 2. Sections

The Academy shall be organized into sections according to the various scientific
disciplines. A person may belong to one or more sections in accordance with his
interests.

Sections. Council

The governing body of this organization shall be the Academy Council. Its
composition and responsibilities are specified in Article VII.

Section 4. Officers

The elected officers of this organization shall be a President, a President-elect,
a Secretary, and a Treasurer. Duties of each shall be specified in Academy Bylaws.

Section 5. Executive Committee

*

**

Approved by Academy at 1970 Annual Meeting. Subsequent changes indicated.
Am mended May, 1986

518

VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

The elected officers, the immediate past president and the Director of the
Junior Academy of Science shall comprise the Executive Committee of the
Academy Council.

Section 6. Standing Committees

The primary activities of this organization shall be implemented by Standing
Committees as follows: The Research Committee, the Long Range Planning
Committee, the Junior Academy of Science Committee, The Membership Com¬
mittee, the Finance and Endowment Committee, the Trust Committee, the Publi¬
cations Committee, the Awards Committee, the Fund Raising Committee, the
Nominations and Elections Committee, the Virginia Flora Commitee, Science
Advisory Committee, the Science Education Committee, and the Archives Com¬
mittee, and the duties of the Standing Committees not specified hereafter, shall be
as specified in the Academy Bylaws, and as may be further enumerated by Council
from time to time.

ARTICLE IV: THE VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

The Virginia Journal of Science shall be the official publication of the Virginia
Academy of Science. All Academy members shall receive copies of this publica¬
tion.

ARTICLE V: FELLOWS

From active membership, there shall be a body of scholars known as "Fellows
of the Virginia Academy of Science" selected because of their contribution to
science in one or more of the following ways: (a) outstanding scientific research,
(b) inspirational teaching of science, (c) significant leadership in the Academy.
Rules and procedures for selection of Fellows shall be specified in the Academy
Bylaws.

ARTICLE VI: ACCREDITATION OF MEMBERSHIP

Membership of the Academy shall be accredited by the Secretary and the
Treasurer. The membership list shall be published periodically according to types,
as directed by Council.

ARTICLE VII: COMPOSITION AND RESPONSIBILITIES OF COUNCIL

Section 1. Council shall be composed of the President, the President-elect, the
Secretary, the Treasurer, the three most recent Past Presidents and one member
elected by each Section of the Academy. Members from the Sections shall be
elected for three year terms on a rotational basis among the Sections, provided
the initial term of a member from a newly established Section shall be specified
by Council. In addition to the aforegoing, the Chairmen of the Standing
Committees, the Editor of the Virginia Journal of Science, and Visiting Scien-

*

**

Ammended May, 1986
Ammended May, 1975

CONSTITUTION and BYLAWS

519

tists Program Director shall be members of Council. In event of vacancies, the
President shall make interim appointments until the next election is held;
provided however, vacancies of elected officers shall be filled as hereafter
provided.

Section 2. Council shall meet each year preceding the annual meeting and at least
once in the fall at a time and place designated by the President.

Section 3. Twelve members shall constitute a quorum for the transaction of
business by Council.

Section 4. Council shall establish the policies of this organization and shall be
responsible for the administration of all Academy funds.

Section 5. Council shall consider and recommend to the membership from time to
time appropriate changes in the Constitution, and shall promulgate bylaws
appropriate to the implementation of the Constitution.

Section 6. Council may establish appropriate administrative positions and employ
such personnel as may be required. Terms of office, the duties and remunera¬
tion of such personnel shall be prescribed by Council.

Section 7. Through appropriate Bylaws, Council shall provide for the publication
of the Virginia Journal of Science.

Section 8. The Executive Committee of Council shall be empowered to act for
Council on an interim basis between meetings of Council and shall report to
Council at its regular meetings. A meeting of Council may be called at any time
upon concurrence of any four members of the Executive Committee.

ARTICLE VIII: MEETINGS AND BUSINESS

Section 1. The annual meeting of this organization shall be arranged in accordance
with procedures to be established by Council in appropriate Academy Bylaws.

Section 2. All business requiring action by the membership shall be transacted at
an Academy Conference, which shall be scheduled by Council during the annual
meeting. A meeting of the Academy Conference may be called between Annual
Meetings by concurrence of a majority of the members of Council; provided,
however, that the membership shall be notified of such called meeting no less
than 30 days prior to the date that such meeting is to be held. Forty accredited
members shall constitute a quorum for the transaction of business by an
Academy Conference.

Section 3. Each section shall annually arrange a program oriented to its area of
scientific interest; provided, however, such programs shall be compatible with
the purpose of the Academy and scheduled within the framework of the general
meeting program of the Academy.

Section 4. The fiscal year of the Academy shall be from January 1 through
December 31.

Section 5. The parliamentary procedure for all meetings of this organization shall
be governed by Robert’s Rules of Order Revised, and Council shall provide for
a Parliamentarian.

520

VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

ARTICLE IX: ESTABLISHMENT OF SECTIONS

Section 1. Sections as defined in Article III with the approval of Council, may be
organized by an accredited group of members. Each Section shall annually
arrange a scientific program related to its area of interest.

Section 2. Such a section may become accredited and established after it has
conducted one successful program at an annual meeting of the Academy.

Section 3. Any Constitution and Bylaws changes proposed by a Section must
conform to the provisions of the Academy Constitution and Bylaws and shall
be submitted to Council for review and approval prior to adoption by Section.

Section 4. Any Section which fails to conduct a program at two successive Academy
annual meetings, may be dropped as a Section by action of Council; but, may
be reinstated after subsequently conducting one successful program.

Section 5. When established, all Section names shall be enumerated in the
Academy Bylaws, and thereby subject to provisions of Article XIII, Section 1.

ARTICLE X*: ELECTION OF ACADEMY AND SECTION OFFICERS

Section 1. A "Nominations and Elections Committee" consisting of three recent
Past Presidents, appointed by the President shall establish a slate of nomina¬
tions for the positions of President-elect, Secretary and Treasurer and conduct
an election for same in accordance with procedures specified by Academy
Bylaws.

Section 2. Upon election, such officers shall serve one-year terms commencing at
the annual meeting at which their election is announced and continuing until
the next annual meeting; provided, however, the President-elect shall automat¬
ically ascend to the position of President at the end of this scheduled term of
office ar at any prior time that the office of President may be vacated; however,
such person shall not serve as President beyond the term that such person was
originally scheduled to serve.

Section 3. All interim vacancies in Academy offices, other than president, occur¬
ring between annual Academy Conferences, shall be filled by Council from
names of persons recommended by the Executive Committee. Persons so
selected shall serve until the next Academy Conference.

Section 4. Each Section shall elect from their members:

A. A Chairman, and a Secretary for one-year terms of office.

B. A representative to Council in accordance with the provisions of
Article VII.

C. Other officers desired.

Section 5. Persons to fill vacancies in Section offices which occur between Annual
Meetings, shall be designated by the Council Representative from that Section.

Ammended May, 1980

CONSTITUTION and BYLAWS

521

Section 6. All Elected officers shall serve without remuneration, but, at the
discretion of Council, may be reimbursed for certain expenses incurred in
conduction the business of the Academy.

ARTICLE XI: COMMITTEE STRUCTURE,
APPOINTMENTS, TERMS, ETC.

Section 1. Except as provided otherwise, all Standing Committees shall be com¬
posed of 3 or more members, and the President shall designate Committee
Chairmen, and appoint approximately one-third of the members of each Com¬
mittee for terms of 3 years, and shall subsequently appoint members to fill
unexpired terms that occur periodically.

Section 2. The Research Committee shall be composed of five (5) members, each
appointed for a term of five (5) years. One new member shall be appointed
each year by the President to replace the member whose term expires; unex¬
pired terms shall also be filled by appointment by the President. The senior
member of the Committee shall be Chairman.

Section 3. A Trust Committee, composed of three accredited members, shall be
elected by Council, to serve for terms of three years on a rotational basis. The
members of this Committee shall place in trust and supervise the management
of Academy investments subject to annual review by Council. The Committee
shall elect its own Chairman; provided, however, that should it be unable to do
so, the President shall name the Chairman.

Section 4. The President and Council shall assign operational matters to ap¬
propriate Standing Committees; however, the President and/or Council may
establish Special Committees as the need arises.

ARTICLE XII: JUNIOR ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
The Academy shall provide financial support, leadership, and supervision to a
Junior Academy of Science. Effective working relationships shall be maintained
with such Junior Academy of Science, through the Junior Academy of Science
Committee.

ARTICLE XIII: BYLAWS AND AMENDMENTS

Section 1. Council shall promulgate appropriate Bylaws to implement or further
clarify the Articles of this Constitution. The establishment or amendment of
such Bylaws shall require an affirmative vote of a majority of the total member¬
ship of Council; provided, that all proposed Bylaws or amendments shall be
distributed to the membership or published in an issue of the Virginia Journal
of Science at least 30 days prior to action by Council.

Ammended May, 1976

522

VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

Section 2. This Constitution may be changed or amended, after the recommenda¬
tion of a majority of the total membership of Council, by a two-thirds majority
of an Academy Conference, provided all proposed changes shall be submitted
to members of Council in writing no less than 15 days prior to the Council
Meeting at which such proposals are to be considered and further provided that
subsequent to approval by Council, all proposed amendments shall be publish¬
ed in the Virginia Journal of Science or distributed in writing to the membership
no less than 25 days nor more than 50 days prior to presentation to an Academy
Conference for adoption.

Section 3. All provisions of the Constitution and Bylaws in effect prior to the
adoption of this Constitution, except the provisions of this Article, shall rule
until new Bylaws are duly established in accordance with Section 1 of this
Article.

ARTICLE XIV: ARTICLES OF INCORPORATION
The Articles of Incorporation of this organization (Charter) shall conform to
the provisions of this Constitution and all amendments hereafter adopted. The
Constitution and Bylaws Committee shall review and coordinate all necessary
appropriate revisions of both documents and be responsible for the submission of
all required reports to the State Corporation Commission and other governmental
entities, annually or as otherwise required by law.

ARTICLE XV: DISSOLUTION OR LIQUIDATION

Section 1. In the event of dissolution or liquidation, all liabilities and obligations
of the Academy shall be paid, satisfied and discharged.

Section 2. All assets remaining, including those received and held for scientific and
educational purposes, shall be transferred to one or more societies or organiza¬
tions engaged in activities substantially similar to those of the Academy;
provided however, that no assets shall accrue to the benefit of any officer or
member of the Academy.

CONSTITUTION and BYLAWS

523

BYLAWS OF VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

ARTICLE I: TYPES OF MEMBERSHIP AND DUES

Section 1. There shall be eight types of members, regular, student, contributing,
sustaining, life, patron, honorary life, and business.

Section 2. Dues of the first 4 types of members shall be as follows:

(1) Regular members shall pay annual dues of twenty-five dollars
($25.00).

(2) Student members shall pay annual dues of ten dollars ($10.00).

(3) Contributing members shall be individuals who elect to pay an¬
nual dues of thirty dollars ($30.00).

(4) Sustaining members shall be individuals who elect to pay annual
dues of fifty dollars ($50.00) or more, and institutions which
shall pay annual dues of one hundred dollars ($100.00) or more.

(5) To be in good standing the foregoing types of members must pay
the specified dues by July 1.

Section 3. Life members shall be individuals who elect to pay to the Academy the
sum of three hundred dollars ($300.00) and thereby become exempt from
further payment of dues.

Section 4. Patrons shall consist of those persons who have given to this organization
the sum of one thousand dollars ($1,000.00) or its equivalent in property. They
shall have all the rights and privileges of regular members and shall be exempt
from dues. An institution may also become a patron by meeting the above
requirement. Its representative shall have all the rights and privileges of regular
members.

Section 5. Honorary Life members shall consist of persons elected by the Council
for long and distinguished service to science. They shall have all the rights and
privileges of regular members and shall be exempt from dues. Previous active
membership in this organization shall not be a requirement of eligibility.

Section 6. Business or industrial organizations, which elect to pay does of one
hundred dollars ($100.00) annually, shall be Regular Business Members of the
Academy, or may elect to:

A. Pay annual dues of three hundred dollars ($300.00) and be
designated Contributing Business Members, or

B. Pay annual dues of five hundred dollars ($500.00) and be desig¬
nated Sustaining Business Members.

ARTICLE II: DUTIES OF OFFICERS

Section 1. The President shall be the directing head of the Academy, shall preside
at business meetings and general sessions of the organization, and shall appoint
the members of the standing committees and of new committees authorized by
the Council, in accordance with Article XI of the Constitution.

524

VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

Section 2.

The President-elect shall assist the President as mutually agreed between them,
shall serve as president in the latter’s absence, and shall be responsible for coor¬
dinating the scientific programs of the Annual Meeting. He shall furnish the
Academy at its Annual Conference with a list of committee memberships which he
has set up to assist him during his year as President.

Section 3. The Secretary shall be responsible for keeping complete records of the
Academy Conference and all meetings of the Council and Executive Commit¬
tee.

Section 4. The Treasurer shall:

A. Account for the income and disbursements through one
Academy General Fund Account.

B. Keep the membership lists of the Academy up-to-date.

C. Upon request, supply the Secretary and others a list of all mem¬
bers in good standing.

D. Receive and disburse all funds as approved by Council and
directed by the President or Chairman of the Finance Commit¬
tee.

E. Submit to Council annually a written report of all receipts and
disbursements, accompanied by a statement of audit from a cer¬
tified public accountant.

F. Furnish quarterly financial summaries to the Executive Commit¬
tee, members of Council, and to members of the Finance Com¬
mittee.

G. Prepare annually and present to the Finance and Endowment
Committee for review a proposed budget for Academy opera¬
tions.

Section 5. The Treasurer and all administrative employees engaged in the receipt
and disbursement of funds shall be adequately bonded.

Section 6. All officers shall be ex-officio members of all Academy Committees.

ARTICLE III: DUTIES OF STANDING COMMITTEES
Section 1. Research Committee shall:

A. Review and award Academy Research Grants.

B. Arrange for and present the J. Shelton Horsley Research Award.

Section 2. Long Range Planning Committee shall:

A. Develop and advise Council on broad policies which will affect
the Academy in the future.

B. Solicit and study suggestions from the membership for the im¬
provement of Academy activities.

C. Investigate and evaluate proposed projects, publications and
other factors that may relate to the long-range effectiveness of
the Academy.

CONSTITUTION and BYLAWS

525

D. Advise and consult with other Academy Committees relative to
the aforegoing and make recommendations to such committees
concerning the effectiveness of their various activities.

Section 3. The Junior Academy of Science Committee shall:

A. Provide Director for Junior Academy of Science.

B. Coordinate activities of Junior Academy of Science including an¬
nual meeting.

C. Prepare VJ.A.S. budget and submit to V.A.S. Finance Commit¬
tee by September 1.

D. Prepare National Science Foundation proposal and submit to Ex¬
ecutive Committee by October 1.

E. Publish and distribute Proceedings of VJ.A.S. by October 1.

F. Select two student representatives to attend American Junior
Academy of Science.

G. Solicit membership and participation in Junior Academy
programs and projects.

H. Select students for V.A.S. and A.A.A.S. Honorary Membership
Awards.

I. Select recipient of Outstanding Science Teacher Award.

J. Select recipient of V J.A.S. Distinguished Service Award.

K. Select students to present papers to Senior Academy Sections.

L. Support and participate in all other programs and activities re¬
lated to the work of V J.A.S.

M. Canvass colleges and universities for scholarships available to
Science Talent Search Finalists.

N. Forward list of available scholarships to all high schools sponsors
that have requested applications for the Westinghouse Science
Talent Search.

O. Secure list of Virginia contestants from Science Clubs of
America and establish a committee to select best 45 papers.

P. Set up procedures for selecting the top 15 students and declare
and announce them to be State Winners in the Virginia Science
Talent Search, and all other contenders as runners-up.

Q. Send names of winners and runners-up to colleges and univer¬
sities in Virginia.

Section 4. Membership Committee shall:

A. Make recommendations to Council, the Executive Committee
and officers relative to policies on general membership.

B. Promote membership growth and seek adequate representation
from all scientific disciplines.

C. Sponsor a Business Advisory Committee for the purpose of creat¬
ing understanding between science and business, and to solicit
business memberships to the Academy.

526

VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

Section 5. Finance and Endowment Committee shall:

A. Monitor and appraise income and expenditures, and make ap¬
propriate recommendations to the President, Executive Com¬
mittee and Council.

B. Estimate annually the anticipated income of the Academy and
prepare a proposed budget for consideration by Council at its
Fall meeting.

C. Seek and encourage the establishment of endowments to the
benefit of Academy activities.

D. At least one member of this Committee shall be a member of the
Trust Committee.

Section 6. The Trust Committee shall:

A. Place in trust and supervise the management of funds of the
Academy designated by Council or otherwise for investment.

B. Review all Academy investments annually and make appropriate
adjustments subject to approval of Council.

Section 7. The Publications Committee shall;

A. Develop and implement a continuing policy of review and evalua¬
tion of Academy publications.

B. Present to Council annually through the Finance Committee the
budgetary needs of the several Academy periodical publica¬
tions.

C. Make recommendations to Council relative to priority, publica¬
tion, finance and distribution of non-recurring publications.

D. Select and recommend to Council, as necessary; an Editor for
the Virginia Journal of Science, and members of the editorial
Board.

E. Enlist the interest of all groups in worthwhile publications by the
Academy.

Section 8. The Awards Committee shall:

A. Select recipients of the Ivey F. Lewis Distinguished Service
Award to be presented periodically to a member who has made
significant contributions toward the activities of the Virginia
Academy of Science.

B. Select recipients of Special Awards periodically as directed by
Council.

C. Accept and submit to Council nominations for fellows in accord¬
ance to Article V of the Constitution and Article V of the
Bylaws.

Section 9. The Fund Raising Committee shall from time to time at the direction of
Council, plan, organize, and coordinate appropriate fund raising campaigns in
support of Academy activities or projects contingent to the purposes of the
Academy.

CONSTITUTION and BYLAWS

527

Section 10. Nominations and Elections Committee shall:

A.

B.

C.

D.

E.

Section 11.
A.

B.

C.

D.

Section 12.

A.

B.

C.

D.

Mail to the membership on or abut January 1 each year a request
for nominations of persons to fill the offices of President-elect,
Secretary and Treasurer.

Nominate a slate of two persons for each of the aforenamed of¬
fices and present report to Council for informational purposes.
Mail slate of nominees to members advising that names may be
added to the slate by 25 members petitioning the committee on
behalf of each name to be added.

Prepare ballots with or without additional nominees as the case
may be and mail to membership with registration and other in¬
formation relative to annual meeting indicating deadline and
address for return of ballot to committee.

Count ballots and announce results at the Academy Conference.
Should a tie vote result for any office, the Academy Conference
shall vote on the nominees. In all cases, the nominee receiving
the largest number of favorable votes shall be elected;
provided, however, that only members in good standing may
cast ballots.

The Constitution and Bylaws Committee shall:

Periodically receive and prepare drafts of all proposed changes
in constitution as the occasion arises and present same to Coun¬
cil and membership for consideration as set forth in the con¬
stitution.

Draft all bylaw changes as directed by Council and notify mem¬
bership of such changes.

Update articles of Incorporation (Charter) as required.

Provide a Parliamentarian for all Council meetings and Academy
Conferences.

The Virginia Flora Committee shall:

Promote the study of and publications of the flora and vegetation
of Virginia.

Sponsor symposia and conferences on the ecology, conservation,
and preservation of the plant life of Virginia.

Disseminate botanical information to all who are interested in
the flora and ecology of Virginia.

Serve as liaison between the Academy, government bodies, and
institutions in matters pertaining to the plant life of Virginia.

*

**

Ammended May, 1976
Ammended May, 1980

528

VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

Section 13. The Science Advisory Committee Shall:

A. Provide scientific and technical information and advice re¬
quested by the Executive, Legislative, and other governmental
bodies and agencies of the Commonwealth of Virginia.

B. Serve as liaison for the collection and transfer of scientific infor¬
mation and/or advice solicited in (A).

C. Collect and evaluate suggestions and opinions regarding topics of
general public interest wherein science and technology may
provide assistance, but were such assistance has not been re¬
quested. The Science Advisory Committee will make recom¬
mendations to the Academy, to the Executive Committee,
and/or the Council of the Academy for review and approval.

The Science Advisory Committee, upon direction of Council or
Executive Committee, shall serve as a conduit for placement of
such information before the appropriate Executive, Legislative,
or other governmental body or agency.

D. Maintain an inventory of scientific interests and expertise of in¬
dividuals within the Academy who are willing to serve in an ad¬
visory and/or consultant capacity to state government.

E. At no time operate beyond constraints considered as proper con¬
duct for a non-profit organization.

F. Append all reports and recommendations with a statement as fol¬
lows; "The Virginia Academy of Science assumes no legal or
financial responsibility for the utilization or dispersal of scien¬
tific and technical data or advice provided by the science Ad¬
visory Committee, further, the Academy assumes no
responsibility, financial or other wise, to governmental agents

or agencies, institutions, individuals or committee members
pursuant to the conduct and activities of this committee.

Section 14. The Science Education Committee shall:

A. Promote science education in the State of Virginia.

B. Disseminate information about scientific matters and scientific
topics of current interest.

C. Respond to requests for assistance in matters dealing with educa¬
tion in the areas of mathematics and science, such as are
embraced by the various Academy Sections and as directed by
the President and Council of the Academy.

D. Assist and cooperate with the Virginia State Department of
Education in planning and conducting the annual State Science
Teachers Conference, K-12. Delegated members of the Com¬
mittee may hold and be responsible for funds generated by the

Ammended May, 1986

CONSTITUTION and BYLAWS

529

activities of the State Science Teachers Conference, solely for
the purpose of funding the Conference meetings. These funds
shall remain separate from other funds of the Academy.

Section 15.*The Archives Committee shall address the business of collection,
assembly, organization, cataloguing and storage of records, documents, awards
and paraphernalia associated with the history and development of the
Academy; and, in support of this:

A. Secure an institutional repository for storage of the inactive
records of the Academy.

B. Secure the services of a qualified individual to establish and main¬
tain the aforementioned records, as the official Archivist of the
Academy; and such person shall be extended honorary mem¬
bership in the Academy; and,

C. Assist, and cooperate, with the Archivist in seeming and screen¬
ing of records and documents destined for permanent storage
in the Archives.

ARTICLE IV: VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

Section 1. The Academy shall publish the Virginia Journal of Science quarterly.

Section 2. The staff of the Virginia Journal of Science shall be composed of:

A. An editor recommended by the Publications Committee and ap¬
pointed by Council for a three-year term.

B. Such Associate Editors, Assistant Editors, or Editorial Board
Members, appointed by the President, as are recommended by
the Editor and the Publications Committee.

C. Editors designated by individual Sections.

Section 3. All members of the Academy shall receive the Virginia Journal of
Science.

Section 4. Subscriptions may be sold to non-members at a rate established by the
Publications Committee and approved by Council.

ARTICLE V: RULES AND PROCEDURES
FOR SELECTING FELLOWS

Section 1. A "Fellow” must be nominated by at least three members of the Academy.
The Academy Council must approve each Fellow by a majority vote. It will be
the usual procedure to announce new Fellows at an Annual Meeting.

Section 2. Nominations for Fellows with appropriate biographical information
shall be sent directly to the Executive-Treasurer annually prior to October 1.
All information received shall be forwarded to the Chairman of the Awards
Committee for review and recommendations to Council prior to the subsequent
Annual Meeting. All nominees not recommended by the Committee or not

Ammended May, 1986

530

VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

acted upon favorably by Council shall remain in consideration for one additional
year.

Section 3. No more than twenty-five fellowships will be approved the first year.
After the first year, no more than one-half of one percent of the total active
membership shall be selected in any one year. The limiting number of Fellows
shall not exceed five percent of the total active membership of the Academy.
However, nothing in this section shall preclude the election of one fellow each
year.

Section 4. All Fellows shall be presented with a suitably inscribed scroll.

Section 5. Appropriate announcement of new Fellows shall be made in the Virginia
Journal of Science.

ARTICLE VI: THE DULY ORGANIZED SCIENTIFIC
SECTIONS OF THE ACADEMY ARE:

(1) Agricultural Sciences

(2) Astronomy, Mathematics and Physics

(3) Microbiology

(4) Biology

(5) Chemistry

(6) Materials Science

(7) Engineering

(8) Geology

(9) Medical Sciences

(10) Psychology

(11) Education

(12) Statistics

(13) Aeronautical and Aerospace Sciences

(14) Botany

(15) Environmental Science

ARTICLE VII: OFFICIAL REPRESENTATION OF THE ACADEMY

Where official representation of the Academy is desirable the President or his
designates shall represent the Academy. No officer or other Agency member shall
receive reimbursement from Academy funds for such purposes, except that actual
expenses of the Academy representatives in attending the annual meeting of the
American Association for the Advancement of Science may be paid, subject to the
funds provided in the budget by the Finance Committee.

ARTICLE VIII: MEETINGS AND BUSINESS
The annual meeting of this organization shall be held in the Spring of each year
at a time and place selected by Council, which shall arrange for all appropriate
sessions.

CONSTITUTION and BYLAWS

531

ARTICLE IX: EXECUTIVE SECRETARY-TREASURER

Section 1. The position of Executive Secretary-Treasurer is hereby established for
the purpose of providing administrative assistance to the officers and committee
chairmen.

Section 2. The Executive Committee shall select a qualified person for this position,
specify his duties, and set appropriate remuneration which shall be approved
by Council.

Section 3. The incumbent of this position shall serve at the pleasure of the Executive
Committee, subject to review by Council.

Section 4. The incumbent of this position shall attend all Council and Executive
Committee Meetings and may participate in all deliberations as circumstances
dictate, but, shall not have a vote in either body.

ARTICLE X: VISITING SCIENTISTS PROGRAM DIRECTOR

Section 1. The position of Visiting Scientists Program Director is hereby estab¬
lished for the purpose of implementing a Visiting Scientists Program in
cooperation with the State Board of Education.

Section 2. The Executive Committee upon recommendation of the President shall
select a qualified person for this position and approve guidelines for the conduct
of the program.

Section 3. The incumbent of this position shall serve at the pleasure of the Executive
Committee, subject to review by Council.

532

VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

NECROLOGY

GEORGE WILLIAM JEFFERS
1897 - 1990

Dr. George W. Jeffers, retired Professor of Biology at Longwood College and
former Chairman of its Department of Natural Sciences, died on August 12, 1990.

Born in Freshwater, Carbonear, Newfoundland, Dr. Jeffers became a natural¬
ized U.S. citizen in 1938. He received an associate degree from Newfoundland
Methodist College and held the bachelors and masters degree from Boston Univer¬
sity. He received his doctorate in 1931 from the University of Toronto, having joined
the Longwood (formerly Farmville State Teachers College) in 1926.

GEORGE WILLIAM JEFFERS

533

Jeff, or "Doctor Jeff, as he was affectionately known by colleagues and students,
began his teaching career in the "common" schools of Newfoundland where he
served for five years. He held laboratory assistantships at Boston and Harvard
University, was a demonstrator at the University of Toronto and an Instructor of
Physiology at Miami University (Ohio). He conducted research at biological
stations in Halifax, Nova Scotia; St. Andrews, New Brunswick; and Solomons
Island, Md. In the mid-forties he was on leave of absence from FarmviUe serving
as the Director of the Chesapeake Bay Fisheries Survey.

He was a charter member of the NSTA and a board member; one of the 18
founders of the National Association of Biology Teachers, which he later served as
President and then as Secretary-Treasurer; Fellow of the AAAS and council
member for 15 years; and founder and first president of the Longwood Chapter of
AAUP.

In 1938 Dr. Jeffers promoted the concept of science supervisors for Virginia.
Shortly thereafter he led the Academy to establish the VJAS and during his
presidency in 1941-42 the first meeting of the VJAS was held. He was a member of
a commission appointed by the Governor in the mid-forties to study the creation
of a science museum for Virginia, an activity interrupted by World War II. As one
of the Academy’s respected and revered senior scientists, he again contributed his
time and energies for the benefit of the 1968 commission which brought the Science
Museum of Virginia into being.

Dr. Jeffers had received some of the highest honors the Academy can bestow
including election as an Honorary Life Member and as a Fellow. He was a recipient
of the Ivey F. Lewis Distinguished Service Award and was one of two to receive the
first VJAS Distinguished Service Award. The other VJAS awardee that year was
one of Jeffs former students, Susie F. Floyd, a teacher of high school biology in
Tidewater.

Jeff was a longtime contributor to such publications as Canadian Biology, the
American Biology Teacher, the VEA Journal, Science, and Scientific Monthly.
Many of these papers were related to improving science education. His latest
publication was The Bastards 1 Book, Driftwood Publications, Denver (1982), a
collection of over 100 entries with an introduction by the President of The Bar-
sinister Society. His keen sense of humor permeated his writing, his teaching, and
his conversation.

But, as with most jpreat teachers, his greatest contribution, and one in which he
could take great pride, was his influence on his students. A man of sincerity and
vivacity, one known for his sympathetic understanding, his infectious enthusiasm
for biology, especially marine biology and zoology, was conveyed to student and
colleague alike. Many of these students have received advanced degrees and many
have become outstanding teachers of biology. Many of those students were im¬
pressed by his deep appreciation of literature - poems used to point up biological
facts - and his attitude toward religion - demonstrated by a conviction that science
and religion could be reconciled.

He is survived by his wife, Anne, a son, Jack, of Radford University, and a
daughter, Mrs. Patricia Ray Lafoon, of Richmond.

The VAS Council voted in November to establish the George W. Jeffers
Memorial Lecture for the annual meeting of the VJAS.

534

MOUNTAIN LAKE BIOLOGICAL STATION
SUMMER FIELD COURSES 1991

The Mountain Lake Biological Station offers a summer program of study and
research in environment and evolutionary biology. Situated at an elevation of 4,000
feet in the Allegheny Mountains of southwestern Virginia, the station draws faculty
and students from across the nation. Students may pursue the master’s degree in
biology by summer study, a program that is particularly suitable for teachers in
secondary education.

FIRST TERM - June 9 - July 13

Course Title

Instructor Home Institution

Mammalogy

Jack A. Cranford VPI&SU

Assoc. Prof, of Biology

Animal Behavior

Robert G. Jaeger Univ. of SW Louisiana

Professor of Biology

Ecological Genetics

David A. West VPI&SU

Assoc. Prof, of Zoology

SECOND TERM - July 14 - August 17

Plant Taxonomy

Spencer Tomb Kansas State University

Assoc. Prof, of Biology

Community Ecology

Joseph Travis Florida State University

Professor of Biology

Mark A. McPeek Archbold Biological Station

Post-doctoral Assoc.

Whorkshop in
Electrophoresis
July 14 - 27

Charles R. Werth Texas Tech University

Asst. Prof, of Biology

Workshop in Molecular Michael P. Timko University of Virginia

Techniques for Asst. Prof of Biology

Field Biology

July 28 - August 17

Daniel J. Burke University of Virginia

Asst. Prof, of Biology

Scholarships :

Service awards for students covering room and board costs.
Scholarships which provide financial assistance.
Post-Doctoral Research Awards (10 weeks)

Further Information:

Director, Mountain Lake Biological Station

Gilmer Hall, University of Virginia

Charlottesville, VA 22901

MEMBERSHIP

Membership in the Academy is organized into sections
representing various scientific disciplines as follows:

1. Agricultural Sciences

2. Astronomy, Mathe¬
matics & Physics

3. Microbiology

4. Biology

5. Chemistry

6. Materials Science

7. Engineering

8. Geology

9. Medical Sciences

10. Psychology

11. Education

1 2. Statistics

13. Space Science & Technology

14. Botany

1 5. Environmental Sciences

16. Archaeology

17. Computer Sciences

Annual Membership Dues - Includes subscription to
Virginia Journal of Science

Approved May 2. 1325 — -Effective January L-1S&S

Student . $ 10.00

Regular - Individual . . 25.00

Contributing - Individual . 30.00

Sustaining - Individual . ...50.00

Sustaining - Institution . . . ....100.00

Business - Regular . . ....100.00

Business - Contributing . . ...300.00

Business - Sustaining . . 500.00

Life - Individual . 300.00

, VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

APPLICATION FOR MEMBERSHIP

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Address
City _ _

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Zip

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Contacted by: _ _ _ _ _

Make check payable to VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE and send to:
Department of Biology, University of Richmond, Richmond, VA 23173

Instructions to Authors

All manuscripts and correspondence about them should be addressed to the Editor.
The Virginia Journal of Science welcomes for consideration original articles and short
notes in the various disciplines of engineering and science. Cross-disciplinary papers
dealing with advancements in. science and technology and the impact of these on man
and society are particulaiy welcome. Submission of an article implies that the article has
not been published elsewhere while under consideration by the Journal.

Three complete copies of each manuscript ancLpE figures are required. It is also sug¬
gested that authors include a 5.25 diskette in IBM® compatible format containing a text
file (ASCII) of the manuscript. Original figures need not be sent at this time. Authors
should submit names of three potential reviewers . All manuscripts must be double-spaced.
The title, author's name, affiliation and address should be placed on a cover page. An
abstract (not to exceed 200 words) summarizing the text, particularly the results and con¬
clusions, is required. The text should follow the general format used by professional
journals in the author's discipline. Literature cited in the text should follow the name-
and-year: Fujishima and Honda (1972). In the Literature Cited section at the end of the
article each reference should include author(s), year, title of article, title of journal (using
standard abbreviations), volume number and first and last page of the article. For a
book, include author (s), year, title, pages or number of pages, publisher and city of pub¬
lication. Examples:

Fujishima, A. and Honda, K. 1972. Electrochemical Photolysis of Water at a Semi¬
conductor Electrode. Nature 238: 37»38.

Spry, A. 1969. Metamorphic Textures. Pergamon Press, New York. 350 pp.

Each figure and table should be mentioned specifically in the text. All tables, figures
and figure legends should be on a separate pages at the end of the text.

After revision and final acceptance of an article, the author will be required to fur¬
nish two error-free copies of the manuscript: 1) typed copy, single spaced, with tables
and figure captions at the end of the document, and one set of original figures, each iden¬
tified on the back by figure number and author's name; 2) a 5.25 diskette 'in an IBM com¬
patible format containing the text file, tables and figure legends.

Authors will be allowed 15 printed pages (including figures) free, but payment of $50
per page win be charged for the 16th and subsequent pages.

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