I I 1 )1 I J ! 73 .V 21 M mk THE' VIRGINIA ; OURNAL.' OF SCIENCE A journal issued, quarterly' by the - ’> i. ^ VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE V. 'j!§SSS^9S9^0^^^^^lSSi€:W^-:099iW!&M ■X *-5 -^ARli r-yp II ' 'K ' » 5 , '^ 6, New Series January, 1955 No.l VoL, 6 January, 1955 No. 1 THE VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Published Four Times a Year: In January, April, July, and September, by The Virginia Academy of Science Printed by The Giles County Virginian, Pearisburg, Va. CONTENTS Pages Edgar Calvin Leroy Miller, M.D. — Sidney S. Negus . 1 Sinews of Sciences — C. E. Sunderlin . 5 Physiological Aspects of Testing Contact Chemoreception. A Symposium — Introduction — James W. Johnston . 14 Molecular Structure and Taste Stimulation — W. J. Wiswesser . 16 The Comparative Physiological Approach to the Study of Chem¬ oreception — Edward S. Hodgson . 22 Concepts of Contact Chemoreception in Mammals and Man — James W. Johnston, Jr . 27 Flavor Perception by Consumers — L. W. Elder . 33 Velocity of Propagation of Luminosity in Long Distance Discharge Tubes — F. M. McGehee, Jr . 39 The X-Bivalent of the Golden Hamster — Charles I. Sheaffer . 46 The XY-Bivalent in Chinchilla laniger — Jesse Thompson . 53 News and Notes . . 56 EDITORIAL BOARD Boyd Harshbarger, Editor-in-Chief Horton H. Hobbs, Jr., Technical Editor Mary E. Humphreys, Assistant Technical Editor Richard W. Irby, Jr., Advertising Manager W. P. Judkins Robert T. Brumfield Robert Hubbard Richard H. Henneman Section Editors F. L. Hereford Carl J. Likes W. D. Lowry Caroline Gambill J. Douglas Reid James B. Patton, Jr. Ebbe C. Hoff Lionel Weiss Entered as second-class matter January 15, 1950, at the post office at Blacksburg, Virginia, under the Act of March 3, 1879. Subscription — $3 per volume. Published at Blacksburg, Virginia. Mailed February 23, 1955 73 -V ?! The Virginia Journal of Science Volume 6 (New Series), 1955 EDITORIAL BOARD Horton H. Hobbs, Jr., Charlottesville . Editor Mary E. Humphreys, Staunton . Associate Editor B. F. D. Runk, Charlottesville . . Managing Editor Richard W. Irby, Jr., Richmond . Advertising Manager SECTION EDITORS C. W. Allen, Blacksburg . F. L. Hereford, Charlottesville . J. Douglas Reid, Richmond . Robert T. Brumfield, Farmville . Carl J. Likes, Richmond . James B. Patton, Richmond . Robert M. Hubbard, Charlottesville ... W. D. Lowry, Blacksburg . Chalmers L. Gemmill, Charlottesville R. H. Henneman, Charlottesville . Caroline Gambrill, Waynesboro . . Lionel Weiss, Charlottesville . . Agricultural Science Astronomy, Mathematics, and Physics . Bacteriology . Biology . Chemistry . Education . . . Engineering . Geology . . . . . . . . . Medical Science . Psychology . . . Science Teachers . . . Statistics Published by The Virginia Ac.4DEmy of Science CONTENTS No. 1, February 23, 1955 Edgar Calvin Leroy Miller, M. D.-- -Sidney S. Negus . . . . 1 Sinews of Sciences-— -C. E. Sunderlin . . . . . . . . . . 5 Physiological Aspects of Testing Contact Chemoreception A Symposium— “Introduction — -James W. Johnston . . . 14 Molecular Structure and Taste Stimulation — W. J. Wiswesser ...... 16 The Comparative Physiological Approach to the Study of Chemo¬ reception — Edward S. Hodgson . . . . . . . , 22 Concepts of Contact Chemoreception in Mammals and Man— - James W. Johnston, Jr . . . . . . . 27 Flavor Perception by Consumers — L. W. Elder . . . 33 Velocity of Propagation of Luminosity in Long Distance Discharge Tubes— F. M. McGehee, Jr. . . . . . . 39 The X-Bivalent of the Golden Hamster — Charles L Sheaf fer . . 46 The XY-Bivalent in Chinchilla laniger - Jesse Thompson . . . . 53 News and Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 No, 2, April 23, 1955 Inhibition of in vitro Heme Synthesis from N^^-Glycine by 2,5-Dime- thylbenzimidazole, 5,6-Dimethylbenzimidazole and Related Com¬ pounds — Lynn D. Abbott and Mary J. Dodson . . . . . . . . . 77 The Eggs of the SHmy Salamander in Isle of Wight County, Virginia - — John Thornton Wood and Roger Henry Rageot . . . . . . . . 85 A Simplified Method for the Determination of Azo Dyes in Tissues, Urine and Feces— J. D. Spain and C. C, Clayton . . 88 The Stereographic Projection of Crystallographic Angles of Beta-tin —Henry D. Leidheiser, Jr. . . . 94 A Note on Spore Germination in Psilotum riMdwm— David W. Bierhorst 96 News and N otes 97 Program of the Thirty-third Annual Meeting of the Virginia Academy of Science ......................................................................................................................................... I ii ,108 No. 3, August 26, 1955 Boyd Harshbarger, An Appreciation . . . 133 On the Nature of Insect Resistance to Insecticides—”}. M. Grayson and D. G. Cochran . . . . . 134 Monoecious Tendencies in the Crayfish, Cambams longulus longulus Girard — W. H. Lewis . . . . . 146 The Nesting and Ovarian Eggs of the Dusky Salamander, Desmogna- thus f. fiiscus Raf., in Southeastern Vii'ginia — -John Thornton Wood, Frank G. Carey, and Roger H. Rageot . . . 149 The Terrestrial Shell-Bearing Mollusca of Hanover, Henrico, and Chesterfield Counties, Virginia — John Bayard Burch . 154 News and Notes . 163 No. 4, November 15, 1955 Proceedings for the Year 1954-1955 Minutes of the Thirty-Third Annual Meeting, May 11, 12, 13, and 14, 1955 . 192 Detailed Table of Contents . 174 iii SUBJECT INDEX Anguispira alternata . 157 fergusoni . 157, 162 Annual Meeting, 33rd Program . . . . . 108, 185 Registration . 187 Anopheles . 138 Arsenicals . 135 Aspedistra . 96 Awards Engineering, George Washington . 166 Jefferson Medal . 183 J. Shelton Horsley . 183 Azo Dyes . 88 Determination method . 88 Benzimidazole derivatives . 77-83 Bequest, Form of . 345 Beta-tin . 94 By-Laws, proposed ehanges . 57 Cambarus affinis . 146 1. longulus . 146, 148 propinquus . 146 Canjchium exiguum . 161 exile . 161 Chemoreeeption . 14-38 Comparative Physiology . 22 Coneepts in Mammals and Man . 27 Flavor Pereeption . 33 Introduetion . 14 Taste . 16 Chinchilla laniger . 53 Cionella morseana . 160 Coekroach, German . 139 Columella edentula . 160 Committee Membership (1955-56) . 109, 178-181 Loeal Arrangements . 57, 109, 177, 181 Committee Reports Conservation . 215 Finanee . 208 Flora . 216 James River Project . 215 Jamestown Exposition . 226 Journal . 223 IV Junior Academy . 210 Long Range Planning . 206 Membership . . . 228 Research . 207 Science Talent . 213 Virginia Institute for Scientific Research . 217 Science Education . 218 Council Membership . . . 109, 177, 178 Crystallographic Angles of Beta-tin . 94 DDT . 137 Desmognathus f. fuscus . 149 f. hrimleyorum . 150 Discharge Tubes . 39 Discus patulus . 157 Drosophila . 139 Euconolus chersinus . 159 dentatus . . . 159, 162 fulvus . 159 Feces . 88 Financial Statement Academy . 198 Journal . 224 Gastrocopta armifera . 160 contracta . 160 pentodon . - . 160, 162 procera . 160 Hamster, golden . 46 Haplotrema concavum . 157 Harshbarger, Boyd . 133 Hawaiia minuscula . 159 HCN . 136 Helicodiscus parallelus . 157 Heme Synthesis . 77 Hemidactylium scutatum . 149 Hemoglobin . 77-83 Influenza . 82 Insecticides . 134 Behavioristic Resistance . 137 Genetics of Resistance . 138 Physiology of Resistanee . 135 Luminosity . 39 Manuscripts, suggestions for . . . . . inside back covers M embership Application . . .......345 List of . . . . . . 317 V Memorial Justus Henry Cline . 56 Edgar Calvin Leroy Miller . 1 Mesocricetus auratus . 46 Mesodon appressus sculptior . 157 thyroidus . 157 Minutes Academy . 175, 192 Conference . 191 Council . 97, 188, 190, 194 Musca domestica . 138 vicini . 138 N^5-Clycine . 77 News and Notes . 56, 97, 163 Officers (1954-55) . 109, 177 (1955-56) . 178 Orconectes limosus . 146 p. propinquus . 146 Plethodon cinereus . 85 g. glutinosus . 85 Poliomyelitis . 80 Presidents, List of . 176 President’s Message . 56 Proceedings (1954-1955) . 175 Contents . 182 Program — 33rd Annual Meeting . 185 Psilotum nudum . 96 Psittacosis . 80 Punctum minutissimum . 157 Pupoides alhilahris . 161 Purine . 77, 78 Retinella burringtoni . 159, 162 indentata . 159, 162 indentata paucilirata . ....159 Salamander Eggs . 85, 149 Nests . 149 Secretary-Treasurer, Report . 196 Sections Agricultural Section . 58, 99, 112, 163, 229* Astronomy, Mathematics, and Physics . . . 60, 114, 237 Bacteriology . . . 61, 115, 243 Biology . 62, 103, 116, 246 * Bold face numbers indicate abstracts. VI Chemistry . . . . . . . . . . ...63, 118, 253 Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .....121, 264 Engineering . . . . . . . . . 70, 105, 122, 165, 270 Geology . . . . . . . . . . . .72, 106,' 124, 167, 280 Medical Sciences . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126, 290 Psychology . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74, 128, 169, 297 Science Teachers . . . . . . . . 74, 130, 306 Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75, 107, 130, 172, 309 Section News . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..................58, 99, 163 Snails . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 50 Stenotrema hirsutum . . . . . . . . . 158 Strobilops aenea . . . . . . . 161 labyrinthica . . . . . . . . . . 161 Succinea aurea . 160 Triodopsis albolabris . . . . . . . . . . .158 fallax . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 hopetonensis . . . . . . . . 154, 158 hopetonensis obsoleta . . . . . . . 154, 158 obsoleta . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154, 158 tridentata juxtidens . . .....158 Urine . . 88 Vaccinia . 80 Vallonia excentrica . . . 161 Ventridens ligera . . . 159 gularis theloides . 160 suppressus magnidens . . . . . 159, 162 Vertigo omta . . . . . - . 161 Vitamin 6^2 . . . 77, 78, 80 X-Bivalent, Hamster . 46 XY-Bivalent, Chinchilla . . . . . . . . . . 53 Zonitoides arbor eus . 160 Vll AUTHOR INDEX Abbott, Lynn D., Jr . 77 Bierhorst, David W . . 96 Burch, John Bayard . 154 Carey, Frank G . 149 Clayton, C. C . 88 Cochran, D. G . 134 Dodson, Mary J . . 77 Elder, L. W . 33 Foster, L G . 133 Grayson, J. M . 134 Hodgson, Edward S . 22 Johnston, James W., Jr . 14, 27 Leidheiser, Henry, Jr . 94 Lewis, W. H . 146 McGehee, F. M., Jr . 39 Negus, Sidney S. . 1 Rageot, Roger Henry . 85, 149 Sheaffer, Charles 1 . 46 Spain, J. D . 88 Sunderlin, C. E . 5 Thompson, Jesse . 53 Wiswesser, W. J . 16 Wood, John Thornton . 85, 149 Authors Correction Grayson, J. M. and D. G. Cochran — On the Nature of Insect Resistance to Insecticides. Va. Jour. Sci., 6 (3); 134-145 p. 138 — last line should read “complex inheritance in house flies. Pimentel et al. (1954) found the progeny from reciprocal crosses of DDT- resistant and non-resistant house flies to be intermediate in resistance be¬ tween the parents; and the female to influence the progeny more than the male even though the resistance was not sex linked. In addition, Johnston et al. (1954) have ’7 p. 139, line 15. should read “factor manner (King, 1954; Crow, 1954 )."' viii THEVIRGINIAJOURNALOFSCIENCE VoL. 6, New Series January, 1955 No. 1 Edgar Calvin Leroy Miller, M.D. 1867-1954 Dr. Edgar Ca.vin Leroy Miller, one of the founders of the Virginia Academy of Science in 1923 and The Virginia Journal of Science in 1940, died at the home of his younger daughter, Mrs. Gwendolyn L. Bowman, in San Diego, California, on July 21, 1954, at the age of 86. For twen¬ ty-six years, he contributed his time as secretary-treasurer of the Academy to build up this organization to its present respected reputation in Vir¬ ginia and throughout the country. No scientist in the Old Dominion has ever done more for organized science on a state level than Doctor Miller. Because of this contribution, he was considered to be the dean of the Academy Confeience of the Amierican Association for the Advancement of Science, made up now of 42 academies of science. His counsel was constantly being sought by otlier academies to try to find out why “his academy’' was so successful. Born in Pelham, Massachusetts, in 1867, Doctor Miller was graduated frem the Nebraska State Normal School in 1887. He then spent sev¬ eral years studying theology at Oberlin College and planned with his future wife, Lillian Belle Carpenter, careers as medical missionaries. They married in 1890 and both entered the medical school of the University of Michigan. He was awarded his M.D. degree in 1894 and then was an instructor for one year. His wife’s degree was delayed one year by the birth of a son. In 1895, both Doctors Miller left for Bilaspur, India, where they served as medical missionaries for five years. Returning to this country in 1900, he joined the research staff of Parke, Davis and Company and helped to develop this organization’s manufacture of bio¬ logical preparations. He was sent to Europe in 1906-1907 and visited most of the scientists doing investigative work in this field. His develop¬ ment of diphtheria antitoxin manufacture for his company and his papers in medical periodicals of that time about the manufacture of “biologicals” won for him an international reputation when he was 40. His “classes” at Parke, Davis and Company on new techniques having to vdo with the preparation of bacterial vaccines attracted physicians and laboratory men from this country and abroad. Doctor Miller liked to teach, and he was a “natural” in this field, so when an offer came to hmi from the University College of Medicine (a few years later consolidat¬ ed with the Medical College of Virginia) in 1911 to become professor of bacteriology he gladly accepted it, even though his decision involved a Slabs’ antial financial sacrifice. Successful in the medical missionary field, 9 The Virginia Journal of Science [January outstandingly so in the commercial world, Doctor Miller began his climb to remarkable successes in the fields of medical education and organiza¬ tional procedures. First of all, he established the department of bio¬ chemistry at the Medical College of Virginia in 1913 and also became custodian of what was then called the “college library” in the Virginia Hospital which was then a nurses’ home. He was dean of the Medical College of Virginia School of Medicine for one year, 1920, but soon “recov¬ ered from that” as he often remarked with a twinkle in his eyes. More to his liking was a nonprofitable connection with the American Illustrated Medical Dictionary which he made in 1922 with the publishers, W. B. Saunders and Company. He enjoyed this editorial work for many years. Then came 1923 and the organization of the Virginia Academy of Sci¬ ence. Dr. Miller was elected secretary-treasurer at the organizational meeting of the Academy at the College of William and Mary on April 26, 1923 and continued in this office until May, 1949, when he requested that his resignation be accepted. He agreed to serve as secretary emeritus and acted in this capacity until his death. There was none of Doctor Miller’s innumerable activities which he loved more than his work for the Academy. He was overjoyed when the annual E. C. L. Miller Award for an out¬ standing science club of the State was initiated, not because his name was attached to it but because he had always been intensely interested in encouraging high school students with apparent aptitudes for scientific careers. When his many friends of the Academy and others cooperated to present him with his likeness in oil in 1948, he wept and kept still. Said Dr. Ivey F. Lewis in his presentation talk: “I think it may fairly be said of Doctor Miller as of Sir Christopher Wren, the famous architect who rebuilt London after the Great Fire of the 17th Century and whose influence extended to Virginia, Tf you would see his monument, look around you’.” Although officially professor of bacteriology, Doctor Miller and his able associate, Professor Robert F. McCrackan, and two assistants taught all the biochemistry at the Medical College of Virginia from 1913 to 1927. In 1929, he relinquished the chair of bacteriology and in 1930 was appointed full-time director of the library. With more time for library planning, he started up the hill again at 63 in what amounted to his fifth major undertaking. Starting with a small reading room and a few stacks, on the first floor of McGuire Hall, containing comparatively few books and periodicals, Doctor Miller, with the encouragement of the administration and the assistance of Florence McRae, Margaret McCluer, and Virginia Staub Young, built up one of the leading libraries in the South special¬ izing in literature pertaining to the health fields. Doctor Miller was never a joiner of social clubs but in the early days of the Medical College of Virginia library he was probably the world’s greatest joiner of scientific organizations in this country and abroad. He contended that it was much cheaper obtaining scientific journals this way than it was by subscrip¬ tions! He also helped to establish the library of the American Tobacco Company Research Laboratory. Almost until his death, he translated articles from several different languages for this library. Doctor Miller 1955] Edgar Calvin Leroy Miixer 3 retired in 1947. When he passed away, he was Secretary Emeritus of the Virginia Academy of Science and Librarian Emeritus of the Medical College of Virginia. President William T. Sanger said upon learning of his death: “Doctor Miller’s contribution to the Medical College of Vir¬ ginia both as a professor and librarian was so great it could not be evaluat¬ ed.” Besides a highly successful life, he enjoyed an interesting one. He always said he was introduced to science by his professor of biology at Nebraska State Normal School who gave him a project during the sum¬ mer of 1884 of classifying all the snakes in the neighborhood with the request that he capture a specimen of each variety! Once, in India, Doctor Miller suffered from a toothache. He was miles from a dentist so he cleaned out and filled one of his back upper molars with an amal-^ gam made from a coin of the realm, using mirrors to do the job. With his keen and subtle sense of humor, he often remarked that this was the only tooth he ever lost! When it was rumored during World War 1 til at the Germans were adding powdered glass to certain American food supplies, Doctors Miller and Charles C. Haskell fed glass to dogs and swallowed some themselves. They came up with the conclusion, which was widely publicized at the time, that powdered glass that could be taken in food produced no noticeable symptoms in either in dogs or humans. (Subsequently Doctor Miller turned the tide in several lawsuits in the country involving suits for damages by individuals who claimed to have swallowed glass in soft drinks, cheese, frankfurters, ice cream, and other products.) He enjoyed corresponding with scores of individuals whom he had never seen about everything under the sun - astronom\ , psycho¬ logy, segregation and even the servicing of trains and often wrote the authors of published articles with which he agreed or disagreed. After the age of 80, he “discovered” oceanography and read all he could find on the subject. He enjoyed a happy life because he was never too busy to help some¬ one else in trouble - whether ic was weather-stripping a house or talk¬ ing a person out of despondency. In 1918, he responded to the urgent need for trained workers and offered his services to the Federal Food x4dministration to help with nutritional problems in Richmond and also became a member of the Volunteer Medical Corps autliorized by the Council of National Defense. He was director of the emergencx' hospital set-up in the John Marshall High School, Richmond, Virginia, in October 1918, to care for patients at the height of the influenza epidemic. Doctor Miller’s publications in scientific periodicals had to do with a wide variety of subjects. Miss Margaret McCluer, the present librarian of the Medical College of Virginia and staunch admirer of her former direc¬ tor, has recently compiled a list of them which she can’t be sure is com¬ plete. The subjects range from “On the Keeping of Antidiphtheritic Serum” in 1905 to “The Virginia Academy of Science Research Endow¬ ment” in 1943. Not until after his death did his immediate family know the extent of his publications! 4 The Virginia Journal of Science [January The activities of Doctor Miller were so diversified that he never had time to be bored and he was rarely upset. When he did become upset, one could be almost sure that it had to do with someone’s stupid¬ ity or deliberate injustice. He never could tolerate either. His favorite words were 'Vision” and “change” and with them he lived. There are all kinds of ways of walking with God - certainly this truly great scientist and selfless gentleman, whose life was given devotedly to the service of his fellowman, walked with Him in his way. NOW, THEREFORE, BE IT RESOLVED (1) THAT the Virginia Academy of Science will forever honor Dr. E. C. L. Miller for his devoted service as its secretary-treasurer for twenty-six years, 1923 to 1949, and (2) THAT the Virginia Academy of Science will always be grateful to him for assisting in the establishment of The Virginia Journal of Sci¬ ence in 1940, and ( 3 ) THAT the Virginia Academy of Science recognizes his outstanding accomplishment in being lately responsible for the organization of the Virginia Junior Academy of Science in 1940, and (4) THAT the Virginia Academy of Science honors him for his unique contribution to the scientific welfare of the Old Dominion and the Nation, and (5) THAT the foregoing resume of Dr. Miller’s career and this resolu¬ tion be made a part of the permanent records of the Virginia Academy of Science and published in the January, 1955, issue of The Virginia Journal of Science, and (6) THAT copies of the issue of the Journal containing the foregoing resume of Dr. Miller’s career and this resolution be obtained from The Virginia Journal of Science and sent to Dr. Miller’s four chil¬ dren, Mrs. Gwendolyn L. Bowman, 4789 Dwight Street, San Diego, Galif.; Mr. Leland H. Miller, Box 85, Atascadero, Calif.; Mr. Louis Miller, 208 lini Way, Aiea, Oahu, Hawaii; Mrs. Geraldine M. Duncan, 2915 Seminary Ave., Richmond, Va. Respectfully submitted, (Signed) Sidney S. Negus NOTE: This resolution was passed unanimously by a rising vote at a meeting of the Council of the Virginia Academy of Science in Lexing¬ ton, Virginia, October 31, 1954. (Signed) Irving G. Foster, President 19551 SixEws OF Science o Sinews of Science C. E. SuNDERLIN Deputy Director, National Science Foundation PROGRESS IN SCIENCE The Mountain Lake Biological Station was established just 25 years ago. It is of special interest, therefore, to recall some of the achievements in science since 1929, a year when uncertainty and depression began to have their temporary effects on American life. An outstanding event that we witnessed during this period was the destruction of the nuclei of atoms. This feat has since been surpassed by a reversal of the process in that most terrible of all weapons, the hydrogen bomb, in which the nuclei of atoms are fused together. We have also witnessed astonishing developments in the plastics and synthetic-fiber industries; in the con¬ quest of mam^ types of illness and disease with the discovery of sulfa drugs and the various antibiotics, the synthesis of vitamins, and the discovery of new vaccines. The sound barrier has been broken and the jet age is upon us. \^er)' recently there has been the announcement by Professor Marcel Schein of the University of Chicago that he has found evidence for the existence of contraterrene matter in the upper atmosphere. This discovery of the existence of particles of matter with negatively charged nuclei and energies of a million billion electron volts is perhaps one of the most important of the discoveries made in these 25 years of progress in science. In view of the remarkable progress in science - progress that every year seems to be accelerating — it may be appropriate to pause to examine those factors that are responsible for a strong and virile science. We might think about them in the light of the dictionary definition of the word “sinew”, a word which elicits connotations of strength and elasticity and durabilitx . The word “sinew” means a tendon, or less often a nerve, or a muscle. It also means “that which supplies strength or power”. What then are the factors which supply strength or power to science, and espe¬ cially to science in the United States? And conversely what are the weaknesses - the degenerative diseases of muscle and tissue - that threat¬ en our science of today? The sources of strength may be summarized as follows: (1) The individual who has the capacity for becoming a productive scientist. (2) Training, without which this potential could never be realized. (3) Opportunity for research, so that the trained scientist can make maximum use of his abilities. Editor’s Note; We are pleased that Mr. C. E. Sunderlin has permitted us to publish this article which is based upon remarks made at the Twenty-fifth Anniversary of the Mountain Lake Biological Station, University of Virginia, July 17, 1954. 6 The V^irginia Journal of Science [January (4) Communication among scientists, so that ideas can be generated in full knowledge of what has gone before and of the work in progress. Our failure to realize the full potential of these sources of strength is a principal cause of weakness, which, if unremedied, may permit a wast¬ ing away of the tough fiber of the tendon or “sinew” of science. I should like to discuss each of these sources of strength briefly and to indicate how the Federal Government is helping to build muscle tissue, and to strengthen the tendons of scienee. THE INDIVIDUAL SCIENTIST Science is peculiarly the creation of scientists, in some instances exist¬ ing only in their heads. Scientists, as human beings, and also as scholars, therefore, come in for extraordinary scrutiny. What are the qualities which the individual scientist should or must have? Vdrat are the innate characteristics which must be possessed by the individual before training and opportunity ean assist in his development as a creative scientist? I know of no other class of scholars - historians, economists, sociologists - whose personal characteristics have been so minutely scrutinized and analyzed. Perhaps this is because, as G. K. Chesterton once aptly put it - and this many years before the atomic bomb - : Men find it extremely difficult to believe that a man who is obviously uprooting mountains and dividing seas, tearing down temples and stretching out hands to the stars, is really a quiet old gentleman who only asks to be allowed to indulge his harmless old hobby and follow his harmless old nose. When a man splits a grain of sand and the universe is turned upside down in con¬ sequence, it is difficult to realize that to the man who did it, the splitting of the grain is the great affair, and the capsizing of the cosmos quite a small one. It is hard to enter into the feelings of a man who regards a new heaven and a new earth in the light of a by-product. But undoubtedly it was to this almost eerie in¬ nocence of the intelleet that the great men of the great scientific period, which now appears to be closing, owed their enormous power and triumph. If they had brought the heavens down like a house of cards, their pleas was not even that they had done it on principle; their quite unanswerable plea was that they had done it by aecident. Whenever there was in them the least touch of pride in what they had done, there was a good ground for attacking them; but so long as they were wholly humble, they were wholly victorious. Small wonder, then, that the rest of mankind wants to know, with a great deal of interest and not a little suspicion, what the “quiet old gentle¬ man” is really like. Several years ago, a psychologist. Dr. Anne Roe, under a grant from the United States Public Health Service, undertook a serious study to determine the faetors that contribute to seientifie greatness. She based 1955] Sinews of Science 7 her study upon an analysis of some 60 pre-eminent scientists — -about 20 in biology, 20 in the physical sciences, and 20 in the social sciences. In additon to the scientific papers in which she has published her findings, Dr, Roe has also published a popular book, The Making of a Scientist. Dr, Roe's book is enjoyable reading, particularly for scientists, because, of course, it is always interesting to see ourselves dissected and analyzed in so painstaking a fashion. It is significant that after her extensive study, Dr. Roe (1953) con¬ cludes : One thing seems clear. Scientists are people, not rational auto¬ matons. They differ from other people in terms of what they do, in the things that give them satisfaction, more than in terms of completely special capacities. There is nothing you can say about them as persons that you cannot also say about some peo¬ ple who are not scientists. And there is almost nothing you can say about a man in some particular field of science that you can not also say about someone in another field of science. Dr. Roe does find, however, that scientists tend to have many things in common; so that in studying their lives, one finds patterns in their back¬ grounds, in their intellectual abilities, in their personality structure, and so on. Such traits as native intelligence, imagination, and ingenuity are essential. In addition, however, the individual must have the attributes of curiosity and skepticism. Curiosity is a quality different from imagination. It is a habit of mind, a driving force that permits the exercise of intelligence and imagination in the solution of a particular problem. Curiosity is a strongly motivat¬ ing factor — -it is undoubtedly responsible for the selection of a scientific career by many able and intelligent students, who wish to know and understand the causes of the natural phenomena in the world around us. They wish to understand and explain the origin of the species, genetic variability, the attraction of physical bodies, the nature of the atom, the motions of the stars, the structure of the universe. To curiosity must be added skepticism, the attitude of mind that takes nothing for granted, which demands proof of statements, beliefs, hypo¬ theses, and laws. The true scientist is a skeptic, a doubting Thomas in the best sense of that phrase. He is, also, more often than not, a non¬ conformist in his thinking. As Fortune (Bello, 1954) pointed out in a recent article: The scientist, particularly the most gifted, is, by almost any definition, a maverick. His endowments, drives, interests, politi¬ cal opinions, and even religious beliefs are not, in most cases, those of the majority of society. In the total population of the U, S. the scientist is at most one in 3,000, and if the term scientist is reserved for only the independent investigator, on whom vir¬ tually all scientific progress depends, the ratio is more like one in 30,000. 8 The Virginia Journal of Science [January As more and more emphasis is placed on conformity, there is less and less room for the brilliant individual of unconventional thinking. This is a country to which the maverick has contributed a great deal, and it would be a great pity if we were to deprive ourselves of his unpredictable gifts. TRAINING OF SCIENTISTS The training of a scientist never ceases - if he is to remain a scientist. There are, however, certain recognizable periods during which the process of training is rigorous and intensive. In the university and in the graduate school this is particularly true, and to a lesser degree in high school. There are thus three times of decision when a critical choice is made, determining in each case a series of events in the career of the potential scientist. The first of these is the most uncertain of the three. It comes at a time when the interest and curiosity of the student - often still in grade school - have been stimulated to such an extent that he is motivated toward scientific activites. Such a stimulus might come from an inspira¬ tional teacher, a science TV show such as the Hopkins Science Review,” or “Watch Mr. Wizard,” elementary descriptive books on natural phenomena such as those on plants and flowers and trees, written by experts in the Fish and Wildlife Service of the Department of the Interior. Whatever the reasons, at some indeterminate time the student makes this first decision that he will follow scientific pursuits. The decision has been based on a combination of knowledge, thought, and emotion, and an inter¬ est that is easily lost if the motivation is not kept alive. It is by no means a final decision. The way may be hard and enthusiasms die. The second time of decision occurrs at the transition point between high school and college. At this time the decision is harder for some and easier for others. In some cases there may be merging of first and sec¬ ond decisions. Many who would like to go on to college do not do so, however, for a variety of reasons. At the present time only one student in three who graduates from high school enters college. More important, 47 per cent of those high school students of high ability do not go on to college or university. The loss that occurs here is an undetermined loss that is a potential source of weakness, not only to sinews of science, but to all other fields as well. The third time of decision occurs in the transition from undergraduate to graduate study. Science has become increasingly complex and spe¬ cialized, and there is need for longer periods of training than in the days of Newton, Galvani and Galileo. In their times the body of cumulative knowledge was much smaller than it is now. Today, however, the young man or woman who is seriously contemplating a career in science knows that the B.S. degree is probably not going to be sufficient to advance him very far in research. A bronze plaque in the halls of Monmouth College reminded students of the oft-repeated words of their chemistry professor, William S. Haldeman: “The Bachelor’s degree is not enough.” The young scientist is beginning to acquire momentum at the time of his third deci¬ sion cind this momentum must be conserved. 1955] Sinews of Science 9 The crucial nature of this transition point was kept in mind when the Foundation decided to emphasize first-year graduate fellowships in its fellowship program. On March 15 of this year announcement was made of - the award of 220 first-year graduate fellowships, as well as 240 inter¬ mediate and 197 terminal-year fellowships in the sciences. There were also 79 postdoctoral fellowships. In addition to support of training through fellowship programs, the training of students is aided through the grants and contracts for research at universities and colleges by such agencies as the Office of Naval Re¬ search, Atomic Energy Commission, National Institutes of Health, Depart¬ ment of Agriculture, and, of course, the National Science Foundation. Before leaving the subject of assistance for graduate training, however, there is one note of caution that I believe should be sounded. Dr. Roe has pointed out that if opportunities for graduate training are too numerous and too easily available, some of the motivation to acquire such training may easily be destroyed. She reminds us that in harder times a sort of natural selection took place of those individuals who were strongly enough motivated to obtain their graduate training despite the difficulties involv¬ ed. I believe that those of us who obtained our own training in the lean years of the depression would find it easy to agree with this premise. Turning now to other elements that enter into the training of scientists, we should all probably agree that the teacher is a vital fiber, if not the most vital, in the sinews of training. His fund of knowledge and his capacity for inspiration permeate and infuse the whole of the educational process. The work of Professors Goodrich and Knapp of Wesleyan Uni¬ versity has placed in bold relief the role of the teacher of science in our liberal arts colleges. Their studies show that certain of the small liberal arts colleges have distinguished records in graduating individuals who later obtain doctoral degrees in science. The proportion of their graduates who go on to careers in science is far greater than the average for the large universities. The fifty institutions that lead in the produc¬ tion of scientists include, among others, Reed College, Oberlin, Hope, Charleston (South Carolina), West Virginia, Wesleyan, Haverford, Mon¬ tana State, and other comparatively small schools. Their success is attri¬ buted in large measure to one or two members of the science faculty of each institution. These teachers have the capacity for imparting knowl¬ edge in such a manner that the students become more than receptors; they develop the curiosity and skepticism so vital to a continued career in science. The success of certain of these smaller institutions in inspiring careers in science points up a problem that is seldom discussed. This is the failure of the universities to stimulate a larger proportion of their under¬ graduates in science to continue as graduate students. This may be the result of preoccupation with their own research on the part of faculty members; the lack of a properly intimate environment for catalyzing inter¬ est in research as a profession; the failure to attract fine teachers because of undue emphasis upon the publication of research papers. Here again is a possible source of weakness for science, in spite of the outstanding 10 The Virginia Journal of Science [January record of the larger universities in providing the graduate school environ- ment so essential to advanced training in science. The ideal situation, of course, is one in which both teacher and school are equally strong and effective. In the absence of the ideal, however, there can be little doubt that it is the teacher who is the crucial element in the development of young scientists. OPPORTUNITIES FOR RESEARCH Opportunities for reasoned thought and investigation of problems in sci¬ ence are primarily limited by the imagination and ingenuity of the individ¬ ual scientist. At the same time, however, the increasing complexity and specialization of science have created requirements for physical facilities and equipment undreamed of 25 years ago. We were not concerned at that time with high-speed particle accelerators, cryogenics, high-tempera- ture and high-pressure research, upper-atmosphere research, and so on. Such studies as these have created logistic problems of substantial size. One wonders: Could the universites and colleges have financed research in these fields from their own resources? Research in these fields is expensive in time, money, and materials. The universities have had to face an increasingly expensive economic world with a generally static income of lower purchasing power. The dilemma was before them in 1939 but was postponed temporarily by World War TI and the concentration of scientific effort on war problems through the Office of Scientific Research and Development. In 1945 and sub¬ sequent years this dilemma was still present but was ameliorated by the actions of ONR, NIH and AEC in providing support for research in academic institutions. Thus, pending the establishment of the National Science Foundation, other agencies of the government developed programs of research support in universities, research institutes and medical schools, net only to solve problems of direct concern to them, but to maintain a healthy and vigorous scientific effort in the country. This arrangement was not, and is not, altogether altruistic, nor is it a marriage of convenience. There was gen¬ eral recognition of two important facts: (1) the urgent necessity of main¬ taining our leadership in scientific research, and (2) the importance of increasing our capacity for performing basic research. The two are inti¬ mately related to national strength and national security. Opportunities for research exist abundantly in the laboratories of the universities, industry, and government. The 20th-Century worship of the machine can be a source of weakness, however, if not tempered with the recollection that many great discoveries have come from relatively simple experiments and keen observation. Archimedes and his bathtub, Franklin and his kite, Bragg and his soap bubbles, Langmuir and his soap films, Powell and his nuclear emulsion plates are only a few of the examples one could cite. The combination of research with training in the universities is the backbone of ultimate scientific progress in this country. To remain strong, financial freedom must be combined with intellectual freedom. Another 1955] Sinews of Science 11 possible source of weakness is a dependence upon government for too large a proportion of financial support, and an emphasis upon applied research which will, in the words of Vannevar Bush (1945), ''invariably drive (s) out pure . . „ unless deliberate policies are set up to guard against this”. The danger is real. In 1952 only one dollar out of each five spent by the Federal Government in support of scientific activities at universi¬ ties was for basic research. The other four dollars went for applied, research and development. The muscle of research capacity in the uni¬ versities must not be stretched too far, nor in the wrong direction. COMMUNICATION Science without communication is like the links of a chain scattered loose upon the ground. There is no chain; the only strength is that of individual links. Science is dynamic and builds constantly upon the past. “The past is prologue” in a very real sense, as witnessed by the hundreds of thousands of scientific papers that accumulate in journals and are abstracted, docu¬ mented, referenced, collated, and translated. These are the stepping stones to the future, as well as a medium for communication of research results. There are certain boundaries and barriers to communication, however — both natural and artificial. The sheer bulk of scientific information, which noM’’ requires the development of machine methods for its efficient use, is one of the most serious problems in communication. Another is the lack of a single international language for science. Important research is being done behind the Iron Curtain, for example, but we know all too little about it because of our lack of proficiency in the Slavic languages. A barrier of constantly growing dimensions is the mounting volume of scientific and technical information subject to security restrictions. Is it possible that in our anxiety to safeguard legitimate secrets of military import, we have somehow thoroughly confused secrecy with security, until the thing that we seek to nurture is in some danger of being smothered in the process? Recently Mr. Lloyd V. Berkner, president of Associated Universities, Inc., which, as you know, administers the Brookhaven Na¬ tional Laboraiory, called for a sober reappraisal of the effects of tech¬ nological secrecy upon the progress of science. Mr. Berkner (1954) said; Since moie and more of our scientific activity is coming within the purview of secrecy, the need for appraisal of the effects of secrecy on our scientific stature and progress, and therefore on our national security, becomes of increasing importance. It seems highly probable that ' a little technological secrecy, like a little poison, may be a good thing, but too much can destroy us . . . As scientists, can we not demonstrate to the public how the bene¬ fits of science will quickly be extinguished by widespread tech- nological secrecy? Can we not demonstrate that in suppressing 12 The Virginia Journal of Science [January seemingly isolated scientific bits of information of direct military value, we at the same time prevent the germination of scientific ideas of much greater scientific, social, and military significance? Can we not show that such really great concepts, injected into our industrial complex, can provide far greater security through technological supremacy than we could ever hope to achieve through the secrecy of technological information? Still other obstacles to the free flow of scientific information are the immigration and visa laws, which have the essential purpose of promot¬ ing our national welfare and security, but have simultaneously made it difficult or impossible for many scientists to communicate directly with one another. Since communication is the life blood of science, the Foundation has supported research in documentation, in the translation of Russian scien¬ tific papers, and has advocated changes in the immigration laws that will safeguard our security while still permitting personal communication be¬ tween scientists. We have also supported a program of assistance to American scientists traveling abroad for the purpose of attending inter¬ national scientific meetings. CONCLUSION In this brief enumeration of the principal sources of strength in science— that is, the individual scientist, his training and opportunities for research, and communication among scientists, I have tried to single out some of the possible weaknesses to which science is vulnerable in each of these categories, I have mentioned our failure to motivate students of high ability toward careers in science; the loss of potential scientists at various stages of career decision; the emphasis upon machines to the possible exclusion of simple experiments and observation; the danger to our univer¬ sities in the imbalance between applied and basic research; and the over¬ load on our communication system in science. I should like to close with the reminder that the greatest weakness of all may be the possible loss of intellectual freedom as a result of the uncertainty and fear arising from our current activities witli respect to security and lo) a]ty. These problems confront the citizens of this coun¬ try because of the temper of the times and the chaos in the world today. Nothing could be worse, however, than the isolation of scientists as a group and their subjection to special treatment simply because their ability, training and experience have made them increasingly important in nation¬ al affairs. I should like to quote Dr. Bush again, this time from the article that appeared in the New York Times of June 13, 1954. Dr. Bush (1954) said: Scientists need to be used not as lackeys or underlings but as partners in a great endeavor to preserve our freedoms. They need to be welcomed, so that they will respond in spite of the lure of peaceful pursuits, because they are inspired and heartened 1955] Sinews of Science 13 as they join with their fellow men to preserve their way of life. They need, as do we all, words, and, far more important, acts and deeds to renew hope in troubled and loyal minds. They need to see, set up on a pedestal, fortified by the strongest bul¬ wark in Executive acts, those principles which we would abandon at our peril. This is another way of saying what Thomas Jefferson said over 150 years ago: 1 have sworn upon the altar of God eternal hostility against every form of tyranny over the mind of man. As the National Science Foundation grows in age and experience, so, too, we hope, will grov^ its contributions to our national strength in science. But no single agency or group of agencies, however wise and experienced, can meet the need in and of themselves. It must be the whole scientific community, and this means each individual member of the scientific com¬ munity, who must bring about a better understanding of the nature of science and (if you will) of the peculiar nature of scientists. For it is only when people generalh^ have acquired an understanding and applica¬ tion of those elements that make science strong, as well as those things that may weaken it, that we can feel that science in the United States is truly secure in an ultimate sense. REFERENCES AND NOTES Beelo, Francis. 1954. The Young Scientists. Fortune, June, p. 142. Berkner, Lloyd V. 1954. The Impact of Nuclear Energy on Scientific Research. (Paper presented at the American Institute of Chemical Engineers, Ann Arbor, Michigan, June 24, 1954, as a part of the symposium, “The Social Impact of Atomic Energy”). Bush, Vannevar. 1945. Science the Endless Frontier, a Report to the President. U. S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C. - . 1954. If We Alienate Our Scientists. The New York Times Magazine, June 15, 1954, p. 71. Chesterton, G. K. 1945. The Practical Cogitator. (Selected and ar¬ ranged by Charles P. Curtis, Jr. and Ferris Greenslet) Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston, p. 216. Roe, Anne. 1953. The Making of a Scientist. Dodd, Mead and Co., New York, p. 230. 14 The Virginia Journal of Science [January Physiological Aspects of Testing Contact Chemoreception. A Symposium ^ INTRODUCTION James W. Johnston, Jr. Schools of Medicine and Dentistry Georgetown University, Washington, D. C. The processes of detecting chemical compounds by an animal, either at a distance or in contact with a special tissue of the animaFs exterior, are ancient abilities. Simple animals without backbones relied upon their chemical senses for survival and propagation of the species long before the evolution of eyes and ears. Since man has gained a dynamic ascend¬ ency over the animals, he has come to rely largely upon vision and hear¬ ing and his senses of smell and taste have been assigned a minor biologi¬ cal value by the older students. As much of the enjoyment of life is derived from delectable foods and beverages, scents and perfumes, there is a very considerable production of commodities which impinge upon our chemical senses. Consequently, during the mid-twentieth century there has been a renaissance of scien¬ tific investigation as well as applied research in this department of sensory physiology. The motivation is as much a demand by consumers for bet¬ ter product-performance and more varied applications, as for pure scien¬ tific interest. In fact, it is not at all fantastic to prophesy that there will develop, during the next generation, an interest among people to sharpen their individual olfactory and gustatory senses by learning more about how to use them. Modern man has created many new flavors and odors, some of them serving the practical end of self-preservation, while others provide enjoyment. The truth is, though, that we have only a limited understanding of the fundamental processes or mechanisms for reception of a stimulus by the chemoreceptors. This applies to the taste buds and their analogous organs in the simpler animals with which we are concerned in this sym¬ posium. Before the applied scientists and technologists of industry can create new savory substances, a precise knowledge of the activation of the taste buds is needed. Whether this mechanism is physical, chemical, physicochemical, or bio¬ chemical in nature is a subject of much interest today. Some scientists hold that part of the answer has been elucidated, which is to say that the nature of the adequate stimulus has been determined to be ions of hydrogen and sodium. That the adequate stimulus, the least amount of 1 This article together with the four with follow immediately were read at a Symposium of the Graduate Summer Session in Statistics at the Virginia Polytechnic Institute, June 25, 1954. James W. Johnston, Jr. presided at the Symposium. * Paper received August 31, 1954. 1955] Symposium — Chemoreceptiox 15 energy of a particular form necessary to discharge an electrical impulse by a taste-receptor, is not a simple, chemical entity is clear. On the other hand, the mechanism of “bitter” and “sweet” sensations is not clear. We are not certain, for instance, why two such chemically different com¬ pounds as cane sugar and saccharin give us a “sweet” sensation. Thus, a significant part of the elucidation of the mechanism of excitation lies ahead. The theory of taste has a second aspect in the nature of the receptor cell, whose function it is to lower the threshold of the nerve fiber to some one form of energy. In the black blowfly (green bottle fly) a curved, blunt-tipped bristle is the contact chemo-receptor of one of the jointed mouth parts (labellum) and the front pair of legs (Grabowski and Dethier, 1954). The exterior surface is dry in contrast to the taste buds of mammals and man, which are exposed to saliva. In place of a stiff external bristle, our receptors are found in the taste buds on the tongue. A dozen or more elongated receptor cells, some of which have minute hair-like processes at the outer end, occur in a taste bud. The “hairs” project through a pore into the mouth cavity. Direct stimulation may take place on them and the impulse pass through the receptor cell to a nerve fiber and thence to the brain. It has been estimated that there are about nine thousand of these microscopic buds in man (Moncrieff, 1951). Unfortunately for a broad or comprehensive theoix’ of gustation, the chemical nature of the mammalian receptor is not knov,m. In all probabil¬ ity it is different from the insect receptor. Whether this difference has fundamental significance is a matter for conjecture. That is why good comparative experiments that will lend themselves to powerful statisti¬ cal analyses are needed. A clear proof of a basic similarity or dissimilar¬ ity would advance importantly our understanding of eontact chemorecep- tion. The present status of the field will be presented in the essays which a':'e to follow by discussions of the sapid molecules, the invertebrate ani¬ mals, the m.ammals, and finally by an interesting account of how humans react when stimulated by certain foods. LITERATURE CITED GkabovvSki, C. T. and Dethier, V. G. 1954. The structure of the tarsal chemoreceptors of the blowfly, Phormia regina Meigen. J. of Morph., 94: 1-17, 10 fig. and 2 tab. MojNCrieff, R. W. 1951. The Chemical Senses. Leonard Hall, Ltd., London. 16 The Virginia Journal of Science [January Physiological Aspects of Testing Contact Chemoreception. A Symposium MOLECULAR STRUCTURE AND TASTE STIMULATION W. J. WiSWESSER Willson Products, Inc., Reading, Pa. What is the chemical cause of taste? There are only four distinct kinds of taste — sweet, sour, salty, and bitter - so only a few variables seem involved, yet the question still ranks among the unsolved problems of science. The puzzle is made more mysterious by the recent observations that certain chemicals will prove tasteless to one fraction of a sampling audience, bitter to another fraction, and sweet to a third fraction - with surprisingly constant statistics! Only a few such substances are known (e.g., phenyl thiourea), but these singular discoveries prove that the taste response can be complicated by subjective differences of a heredi¬ tary nature. Asymmetric miolecules provide another important clue: a number of naturally occurring amino acids have a sweet taste, and can be described structurally as “left-handed” molecular forms; the corresponding “right- handed” amino acids, though mirror images and identical in every other respect, are tasteless! Thus the tasting mechanism also must involve some sort of hand-and-glove (or lock-and-key ) matching contact between the tasting molecules and the tasted ones. The most plausible theories of taste presume that the sensitive taste- bud surfaces are protein mosaics with repeating positive and negative electric charge patterns. These electric dipoles, or “taste couples,” as R. B. Warfield^ recently described them, are unbalanced by contact with a matching electric dipole in the tasting molecule, and this interaction “triggers” the nerve impulse. Since the taste signal must be due to actual contact with these electrically active parts of the stimulating molecules, the puzzle reduces to a search for correlations with dipolar atomic groups. Eventual elucidation of the taste responses should be aided by the use of systematic structure descrip¬ tions, such as those given in the tables of this report. R. W. Moncrieff summarized “Taste and Constitution” with eight dif¬ ferent theories of taste, and fifty-eight general relations between taste and chemical constitution. The complexity of the problem appears with the great variety of sweet and bitter substances, but even the relatively simple salty taste shows some significant variation with dilution. Salty taste can be associated with simple ionic compounds of low mole¬ cular weight, and the characteristic taste of these metallic salts may be See footnote on piu-i’e I i ~ R. B. Warfield, Abstracts of Papers, 125th Meeting of the American Chemical Society, September, 1954, page 15A. 3 R. W. Moncrieff, “The Chemical Senses,” Wiley, New York, 1946, pages 273-278. * Paper received September 30, 1954. 1955] Molecular Structure and Taste 17 due to their high degree of hydration: similar ionic compounds of lieavier molecular weight generally taste bitter. Sour taste is due to the hydrogen ion of simple acid structures. Clues to the ultimate solution of the total tasting mechanism may be found in dualistic tables of chemical structures that compare sweet-tasting substances with nonsweet ones, among the simplest classes of chemicals. The four simplest classes of such structures are, in elementary terms, ( 1 ) the open-chain or aliphatic compounds of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen; (2) the aliphatic nitrogen derivatives; (3) the aliphatic sulfur derivatives; and (4) the aliphatic halogen derivatives. The several hundred sweet and nonsweet aliphatic compounds mentioned in MoncriefFs treatise have been described with systematic structural symbols and listed in the illustrated tables according to these four elementary classes. The nitrogen deriva¬ tives form such a large group that they have been subdivided into two tables. Oxygen derivatives of the open-chain hydrocarbons contain two charac¬ teristic dipole groups in addition to the lone “etheric” oxygen segments: the hydroxyl or - OH group (here denoted by the letter Q), and the carbonyl or - CO. - connective (here denoted by the letter V). The less active hydrocarbon chains are identified distinctively by arabic nu¬ merals which show the number of carbon atoms in the represented alkyl group. Ternary carbon atoms are denoted by the leter Y (suggestive of the bond pattern), and quaternary carbon atoms by the letter X; prime marks on X or Y denote methyl groups (following a contraction suggest¬ ed by W. Gruber). A fully detailed account of the general notation is given elsewhere.*^ Table I shows that the sweet-tasting oxy-derivatives generally contain hydroxyl groups (Q) while the soiir-tasting derivatives contain carboxylic acid groups ( QV ) . However, this table includes a sufficient number of exceptions, even with this small number of structural variables, to hint at the subtlety of the tasting mechanism. Nitrogenous structure descriptions introduce four new atomic group symbols in addition to the letter N for lone nitrogen atoms: W for the two oxygen atoms in the nitro or NO^ group, K for the quaternary and cationic nitrogen atom, M for the imino or mid-amino NH group, and Z for the terminal ( “hydrazino” ) amino group, NHo. Table II compares the sweet and nonsweet substances that contain lone or quaternary nitrogen atoms (N or K, respectively); table III compares those that contain the hydrogenated imino or secondary amino and pri¬ mary amino groups (M and Z, respectively). Here again the structural variations given abundant evidence for the subtlety of the relation between taste and constitution. For example, some nitro compounds are bitter, though most of the listed ones are sweet; the long-chain acid betaines are bitter, but betaine and homobetaine are sweet; carbylamines are bitter, but the isomeric nitriles are sweet. (In these structural generalizations, the nonspecific or generic letter A denotes any alkyl group) * W. J. Wiswesser, “A Line-Formula Chemical Notation,” Crowell, New York, 1954, 18 The Virginia Journal of Science [January Table I\’ includes corresponding examples of the aliphatic sulfur com¬ pounds cited by Moncrieff; most of these are bitter-tasting substances. The prevailing '‘bitterness” of the lone sulfur atom is in striking contrast with the intense sweetness of saccharin and related structures that con¬ tain a cyclic sulfonyl or - SOg - group. Table V compares the sweet and nonsweet aliphatic halogen compounds. In this table, chlorine atoms are denoted by the letter G (which avoids the typewriting ambiguity of Cl) and bromine atoms, by the letter E. MoncriefFs treatise contains many additional examples of benzenoid and other cyclic structures, which have been listed in similar dualistic tables of structure descriptions. These tables have not been included in this paper since they offer no striking clues in the problem of correlating struc¬ ture with taste; the author will gladly furnish copies of these additional tables to those who wish to explore this challenging biochemical puzzle. The reader who searches for structural correlations in these or similar tables might rediscover some of the fifty-eight general relations cited by Moncrieff, and he might account for the facts with fewer than eight theories, but he is forced to a minimum conclusion that there is no sim¬ ple structural characteristic that causes sweetness or bitterness. The ulti¬ mate explanation must come with more subtle physical details, such as the fractional electric charge distributions among these atomic groups, or the angular relations among these charges that are possible in each sur¬ face-slithering molecule. Table 1. — Aliphatic Oxygen Compounds NONSWEET SUBSTANCES Notation Name Identification IVl Acetone 1V060V1 ^ H exam ethylene glycoldiacetate 20V4\^02 Diethyl adipate 6V1 Methyl hexyl ketone 80V1Y” Octyl isovalerate 0:1 Formaldehyde 0:2 Acetaldehyde 0:2:Y'3:V' Citral 0:2r3:Y” Citronella Q1:0 Formic acid (sour) Q201 Glycol methyl ether Q4 Butyl alcohol Q6Q *Hexamethylene glycol QVl Acetic acid (sour) QV2VQ Succinic acid (sour) QV3 Butyric acid (sour) QVVQ Oxalic acid (sour) QVYFIYQ Citraconic a. (sour) SWEET-TASTING SUBSTANCES Nofat ion Name Identification 10VYQYQ\^01 Dimethyl tartrate Methyl iso valerate Ethyl butyrate lY'IVOl 3V02 3V03 QIXIQIQIQ QIYQIQ QIYQ, 1:0 Q1YQ/1:0 Q1YQYQ2:1 Propyl butyrate Pentaerythritol Glycerol D-Glyceraldehyde L-Glyceraldehyde Hexenyl glycerin Q1 YQYQYQYQl : O Aldohexoses (Glucose, mannose, etc.) QIYQYQYQYQIQ Hexitols (Sorbitol, mannitol, etc.) Q2 Ethyl alcohol Q2Q Ethylene glycol Q3Q Trimethylene glycol Q4Q Tetramethylene glycol Q8 Octyl alcohol QYTQ Propylene glycol * Bitter. 1955] Molecular Structure and Taste 19 Table 1. Aliphatic Oxygen Compounds (Continued) NONSWEET SUBSTANCES NOTATION NAME IDENTIFICATION QVYQIVQ Malic acid (sour) QVYQYQVQ Tartaric acid (sour) QY^6 * Methyl heptyl carbinol QY'VQ Lactic acid (sour) SWEET-TASTING SUBSTANCES NOTATION NAME IDENTIFICATION QY':6 QY3.Y':2 QY5.1:1 2-Octen-2-ol 3-Me”2-Hepten-4-ol l-Octen-3-ol Table 2. — Aliphatic Nitrogen (N, K) Derivatives BITTER SUBSTANCES Notation Name Identification 1K*,-Q Tetramethylammonium hydroxide AKA,A.A,-Q Quaternary bases ANA.A Tertiary amines ANA.VNA.A Tetra-alkyl ureas CNl Methyl carbylamine CN2 Ethyl carbylamine 0N02:1 Allyl nitrite OV14K^ w-Aminopentadecylic acid betaine 0YY2.K^ Trimethyl a-aminobutyric acid betaine WN2:1 Nitro allyl WNX'2.2 fe/f -Nitrohexane SWEET-TASTING SUBSTANCES Notation Name Identification NCA Nitriles ( Cyanides ) NNNA Azides 0N02 Ethyl nitrite OVIK^ Betaine OVY'K^ a-Homobetaine QN:A Oximes (Aldo- or keto-) QN:Y1Q1Q Di-HO-acetone oxime QV10N:A Oxim-acetic acids WN2 Nitroethane WN5 Nitropentane WNOir' Isobutyl nitrate WN04 Butyl nitrate VVNY'NW Dinitroethane (1, 1-) WNY2.NW Dinitropropane (1,1-) Table 4. — Aliphatic Sulfur Derivatives BITTER SUBSTANCES Notation Name Identification ASA Thioethers ASSA Dialkyl disulfides SH2M1 yd-M ethylaminoethyl mercaptan SHA Mercaptans SHVA Thioamides S:YZMA Thioureas WS2.X'^SW2 Sulfonal WSA.OA Alkylsulfonic esters SWEET-TASTING SUBSTANCES Notation Name Identification S:YS1.02 Methyl xanthate S:YSA.02 Alkyl xanthates * Bitter. 20 The Virginia Journal of Science 1 January Table 3.- — Aliphatic NH and NHo Derivatives IMVMl IVMVl Z1 Z14V01 NONSWEET .SUBSTANCES Notation Name Identification * 5'1/m -Dimethyl urea * Diacetamide * Methyl amine ^ Methyl oj-aminopentadecylate Z14VQ fej-Aminopentadecylic acid Z16V01 Methyl w-aminopentadecylate Z16VQ «-Aminoheptadecylic acid Z1:0 * Formamide Z7 ^Heptyl amine ZMVY4.VMZ ^Bu Malonic dihydrazide ZM V2 VM N : 2 ^ Acetaldehyde succinic dihydrazide ZMVVQ Oxalic hydrazide ZMVYMZVMZ Malonic trihydrazide ZVl * Acetamide ZVIQ ^Glycollic acid amide ZV2 ^Propionamide ZVIVZ Malonamide ZV4VZ Adipamide ZVM402 * d-Ethoxybutyl urea ZVNVZVZ Triacetamide ZV02 * Urethane ZVVZ Oxamide ZVZ *Urea ZYVQTV2 D-Asparagine ZYVQ,1Y" D-Leuclne ZyvQ,Y- D-Valine ZYVQ,Y'2 ^D-Isoleucine ZVYNW.cn Nitrocyanacetamide ( sour ) SWEET-TASTING SUBSTANCES Notation Name Identification .1 VMM VMM 1 Diacetyl carbohydrazide 0:1M1 Methyl formamide QVIMI Sarcosine QV3M1 y-Methylaminobutyric acid ZIVQ Glycine Z2VQ B“Alanine ZMVY'VMZ Me Malonic dihydrazide ZMVY2.VMZ Et Malonic dihydrazide ZMVY3.VMZ Pr Malonic dihydrazide ZMV2VMZ Succinic dihydrazide ZMVVMl 5-Methyl semi- oxamazide ZMVYA.VQ Alkyl malonic hydrazides ZMVYQIVMZ Malic dihydrazide ZMVYQYQVMZ Tartaric dihydrazide ZVIVMA Alkyl malonaro.idc ZV3 Butyramide ZVNl.l fls-Dimethyl urea ZVN2.2 fl.5“Diethyl urea ZVVMZ Semi-oxamazide ZX'UVQ ^-Aminoisovaleric acid ZX^'VQ «■ -Aminoisobutyric acid ZYWQ Alanine (D- or L-) ZYVQ/IVZ L-Asparagine ZYVQ/IY" L-Leucine ZYVQ/2 L-Aminobutyric acid ZYVQ/3 L-Norvaline ZYVQ/4 L-Norleucine ZYVQ/Y" L-Valine * Bitter. 1955] Molecular Structure and Taste 21 Table S.-^-^Aliphatic Halogen Derivatives NONSWEET SUBSTANCES Notation Name Identification E2:1E 1 ,3-Dibromopropylene G20V3 ^Chloroetliyl butyrate GYS.Y'G ^2,3-Dichlorohexane Cl G 1 0 1 Y GG ® 5-T etracliloroethyl ether 0:1XGGG * Chloral QVIG Chloracetic acid (sour) QYQXGGG * Chloral hydrate WN2G l-Chloro-2-nitroethane ¥/NY-'G 1 “ChlorO" 1 -nitroethane Z1X'SW2.SW2/GH Aminosiilfonal MCI ZHH^.E * Ammonium bromide ZHH,.G ** Ammonium chloride ZHH,J ^Ammonium iodide ZVIG Chloroacetamide ZVII lodoacetamide ZVXGVZ2Y^ * Iso amyl Chloromalonamide ZVXGVZY'^ * Isopropyl Chloromalonamide SWEET-TASTING SUBSTANCES Notation Name Identification E1YE:1 2,3-Dibromopropylene G1 Methyl chloride GIY^^ Isobutyl chloride G2 Ethyl chloride GA Alkyl chlorides GY"' Isopropyl chloride GYGG Chloroform GYGXGGG Pentachloroethane GYGYGIG 1JA3- Tetrachloropropane GYGYGG 5-T etrachlorethane ZVXEEE Tribromacetamide ZVX"GVZ Me Chloromalonamide ZVXG2.VZ Et Chloromalonamide ZVXGG.VZ Hx Chloromalonamide ZVXGGG Trichloroacetamide ZVYEE Dibromacetamide ZVYGG Dichloracetamide * Bitter. Salty Bitter. 22 The Virginia Journal of Science [January Physiological Aspects of Testing Contact Chemoreception. A Symposium THE COMPARATIVE PHYSIOLOGICAL APPROACH TO THE STUDY OF CHEMORECEPTION" Edward S. Hodgson" Departments of Zoology, Barnard College and Columbia University The comparative physiologist attempts to contribute to any field of biological investigation in at least two ways. First, by studying a physiolo¬ gical process in many different animals, he tries to determine what is essential to the process, and what may be a peculiarity typical of one particular experimental animal. Secondly, by selecting animals which lend themselves to particular experimental techniques, he tries to shed some light on aspects of the problem which otherwise could not be studied. It is primarily the latter type of approach which will be discussed here. As has been indicated elsewhere in this symposium, the accessibility of invertebrate chemoreceptors and the lack of an ^verlying mucous layer in many forms constitute the major reasons for studying invertebrate ani¬ mals when attempting to obtain fundamental knowledge of chemorecep¬ tion. Another advantage of invertebrates is that relatively large homoge¬ neous populations of experimental animals can often be obtained. Small size and short life cycles permit rearing of thousands of individual animals under almost identical conditions. This, of course, makes it easier to characterize the responses of the population in a meaningful statistical way, and hence the individual variations in thresholds or reactions, which have to" be expected in all biological material, are not apt to be mislead¬ ing. It is not within the scope of this paper to attempt an exhaustive review of the contributions from comparative physiology to the understanding of chemoreception. As an example, one question of fundamental importance in this field will be treated through an analysis of pertinent experiments, giving particular attention to the statistical methods used. The question is usually stated somewhat as follows: What are the essential properties of a chemical compound that cause it to have its effect on a receptor cell? Certain generalizations, in partial answer to this question, have be¬ come widely accepted among comparative physiologists, and the evidence on which these generalizations rest may be analyzed as representative of the comparative physiologist's approach. In theory, the chemoreceptors of a large homogeneous population of animals are exposed to known concentrations of various chemical stimuli. 1 See footnote on page 14. 2 Public Health Service Research Fellow of the National Institute of Neurological Diseases and Blindness. =•= Paper received August 31, 1954. 1955] Physiological Approach to Chemoreception 23 An arbitrary measure of response by the population is regarded as “thres¬ hold”. Comparisons of the thresholds of responses toward different chemi¬ cal stimuli enables the investigator to rank the chemical stimuli in their order of relative stimulating effectiveness. Then any property of the chemicals which is present to a larger degree among highly stimulating com¬ pounds than among relatively ineffective compounds is examined as a possible clue to the essential properties of a stimulus. If, in a large series of compounds, a good correlation is found between such a property and the stimulating capacity of the compounds, the property is considered a likely prospect for being included among the essential ones, and its occur¬ rence among a new series of chemicals is used for predicting their rela¬ tive order of effectiveness. If the predictive value of the tentative new concept is found to be high, the whole process is repeated using other types of experimental animals. Only if similar results are then obtained can the new idea regarding the nature of the essential stimulating prop¬ erty be accepted as having any general biological significance. It will be obvious that some kind of statistical analysis must enter into this proc¬ ess at many points. A more specific analysis should make clear the par¬ ticular staListical methods which have been found to be generally useful. Suppose that the experimenter is impressed with the number of cases in which inorganic salts are known to stimulate chemoreceptors. It is well known that these salts differ widely in their capacity to stimulate chemoreceptors. The problem is to find out what properties of these salts determine their stimulatory power. An animal is chosen in which the salts stimulate the same small group of receptors. An apparatus is devised for administering known quantities of stimulant and permitting easy study of the reaction of the animals. (There is good evidence that the reaction of the whole animal can be used as a reliable measure of the stimulation of chemoreceptors in many invertebrate animals.) With each one of the salts to be tested, a series of doubling concentrations is prepared and used in the experiment. (The difference between concen¬ trations tested is kept large so that differences in powers of discrimination by members of the test population will not influence results.) The popula¬ tion is exposed to the various prepared concentrations of each salt, and responses noted. In tests of various salts the results show certain statis¬ tical resemblances: when the percentage of animals responding to a salt is plotted against the concentration of the salt administered, an asymmetric sigmoid curve is obtained. Statistically, this is exactly the same result as obtained in tests of the effect of toxic agents on multicellular animals (Bliss, 1950), and it appears to be a general phenomenon in studies on chemoreception, regardless of the type of chemical tested. The sigmoid dosage-response curve is often rather unwieldy for pur¬ poses of later analysis. By expressing the concentration of stimulus as the logarithm of the molar concentration used, and by converting the percentage responses into deviates of the normal curve, or probits, a linear relationship is obtained between the concentration of stimulus ad¬ ministered and the response obtained. The concentration to which fifty per cent of the population responds is customarily chosen as “threshold” 24 The Virginia Journal of Science [January for any stimulus. The theory of probit analysis is given in the book by Finney (1952) and the precise statistical method most generally useful in these studies is presented in detail by Bliss (1938); a shorter procedure, yielding results essentially the same, has been provided by Miller and Tainter (1944). A short digression here is necessary to emphasize the utility of this method of analysis and its significance. Dethier and Chadwick (1948) have demonstrated that the linear relationship between stimulus and re¬ sponse, when each is expressed as specified above, is obtained with a variety of insects and is true also of those vertebrates for which adequate data have been presented. As an experimental tool, this method is ex¬ tremely useful, since it permits extrapolation of data to threshold when solubility characteristics or expense of a chemical do not permit tests throughout the entire range of effective concentrations. To return to the salts, which provide a convenient example, let us suppose that two series are tested: one of sodium salts, and one of chlo¬ rides. These groups might include the following: SodiiiDi salts Chlorides Na 1 Na Br Na acetate KCl Na Cl Li Cl It will be noted that there is one coinponent of every compound that is shared with othei’ members of its own series. Therefore, the property which is actually being compared in a study of the relative effectiveness of chemicals in each group depends upon the unlike parts of the com¬ pounds. The sodium group tests the relative stimulating effectiveness of the I , Bry and CHyCOO components, while the chloride series tests the relative stimulating effectiveness of K", Na+, and LB. When this experi¬ ment was actually performed, the orders of effectiveness were found to be that given in the listings above. Wfiat makes 1“ stimulate in lower concentrations than Br , and Br in lower concentrations than CH3COO-? These differences are statisticalh' significant as can be shown by the usual statistical methods. Actually, an adequate explanation has never been given for this series. This, plus other information, has suggested that anions may not be very important influences on the stimulatory powers of compounds, although some unexpected principle may yet be uncovered from these data. All interesting explanation has been found for the cation series. The relative stimulating effectiveness of these and other cations can be related to their ionic mobilities. In fact, a plot of ionic mobility against threshold concentrations shows a linear relationship. Other properties of the cations which have been tested in this manner show nO' such relationship to thresholds. Data of this type have been obtained from studies on insects from quite different sorts of environments by Frings (1946) and Hodgson (1951). The correlation of stimulating effectiveness with ionic mobilities 1955] Physiological Approach to Chemoreception 25 of cations suggests that the limiting factor in chemoreception is some kind of “access to the receptor system”. It is not known whether the stimulus merely reaches a receptor cell membrane and is temporarily adsorbed there, or whether in order to be effective the stimulating chemical must penetrate into the receptor cell itself. In order to determine whether some kind of penetration property also determines the stimulating effectiveness of other compounds as well, the organic alcohols might be tested. If the sensitivity to alcohols differing in length of the main carbon chain is tested with an appropriate insect or other arthropod, the results appear quite startling at first. Large quan¬ tities of methyl, ethyl, and propyl alcohols are necessary to evoke threshold reactions. Relatively minute amounts of butyl, amyl, and hexyl alcohols are required. If one prepares a plot of threshold concentrations against number of carbon atoms, it can be seen that a sharp and significant break in the curve appears between propyl and butyl alcohols. What property of the alcohols also shows this peculiar irregularity in distribution? After testing various possibilities, it has been shown that oil-water partition coefficients increase sharply in the longer chain alcohols in precisely the manner observed with the alcohol thresholds. Since the receptor cell membrane presumably contains a high proportion of lipoids, these data also are interpreted as evidence that penetration to the site of action is the limiting factor in chemoreception. This has been demonstrated for insects from various environments (Dethier and Chadwick, 1948; Hodg¬ son, 1951), and for various other arthropods. What bearing do these findings have on human “taste” reception? Com¬ parisons of the invertebrate data with those obtained from human tests are not very extensive because human subjects cannot be safely exposed to many of the chemicals tested on invertebrates. However, the com¬ parisons thus far available indicate that the factors limiting the effective¬ ness of stimulation of chemoreceptors in man and invertebrates are the same. The most extensive comparison of the physiology of human recep¬ tors with those of invertebrates has been made by Dethier (1951). using homologous aliphatic glycols as test substances. When stimulating either the chemoreceptors of the human tongue or the tarsal chemoreceptors of the blowfly, threshold concentrations of glycols decrease logarithmically as the carbon chain is lengthened. It is encouraging to know that in a field beset with many impediments to experimentation, results obtained on the more easily handled experimental animals may have general signifi¬ cance for other organisms as well. To summarize, the insects and other invertebrates are excellent experi¬ mental material for the study of chemoreception because of ( 1 ) accessible, localized receptors without overlying coatings, and (2) the availability of large numbers of animals, permitting rigorous statistical characteriza¬ tion of the sensitivity of a population of animals. The method of testing the stimulating capacity of chemicals and the probit-analysis treatment of the data have been discussed. The generalizations which can be formu¬ lated in harmony with these results are believed to be of general signifi¬ cance for understanding chemoreception in other organisms, including man. 26 The Virginia Journal of Science LITERATURE CITED [January Bliss, C. I. 1938. The Determination of the Dosage-mortality Curve from Small Numbers, Quart. Jour. Pharm. and Pharmacol., 11: 192- 216, 3 fig., 9 tab. - . 1950. The Design of Biological Assavs. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci., 52: 877-888. Dethier, V. G. 1951. Taste Sensitivity to Compounds of Homologous Series. Amer. J. Physiol., 165: 247-250, 2 fig. Dethier, V. G. and L. E. Chadwick. 1948. Chemoreception in Insects. Physiol. Rev., 28: 220-254, 2 tab. Finney, D. J. 1952. Probit Analysis, 2nd Ed. Cambridge University Press. Frings, H. 1946. Gustatory Thresholds for Sucrose and Electrolytes for the Cockroach, Periplaneta americana (Linn.). /. Exp. Zool., 102: 23-50, 6 fig., 4 tab. Hodgson, E. S. 1951. Reaction Thresholds of an Aquatic Beetle, Lac- cophilus maculosus, to Salts and Alcohols. Physiol. Zool, 24: 131- 140, 4 fig., 2 tab. Miller, L. C. and M. L. Tainted. 1944. Estimation of the ED.-,„ and its Error by Means of Logarithmic-Probit Graph Paper. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol, and Med., 57: 261-264, 1 fig. 1955] Chemoreception in Mammals and Man 27 Physiological Aspects of Testing Contact Chemoreception. A Symposium CONCEPTS OF CONTACT CHEMORECEPTION IN MAMMALS AND MAN' James W. Johnston, Jr., Schools of Medicine and Dentistry Georgetown University, Washington, D. C. The fact that chemical sense organs are grouped together at the en¬ trance to the respiratory and alimentary tracts of mammals and man means that these senses are frequently stimulated in combination. The contribu¬ tion of each of these senses to the complex experience we call flavor or “taste” of food may be ascertained only by analytical study. These per¬ ceptions are further complicated by other components such as warmth, cold, touch, and pressure. In man, the order of decreasing sensitivity of the chemical sensory organ is smell, taste, and common chemical sense. In general or comparative use though, these terms should connote chemorecep- tors of particular sensitivities rather than particular sensations. Thus, Parker and Stabler (1913) showed that for man grain alcohol had an olfactory threshold of 0.000125 molar solution, a gustatory threshold of 3.0 molar solution, and a common chemical sense threshold of 5.0-10.0 molar solution. We may then, for purposes of discussion, follow Dethier and Chadwick’s (1948) suggestion that contact chemoreceptors are stimulated by sub¬ stances in solution; e.g., the taste buds and simple end-organs of the gen¬ eral chemical sense. The latter receptors may be disposed of b)' recall¬ ing that above a certain concentration grain alcohol is irritating or painful to the soft lining membranes of mouth and throat, whereas just below this concentration it is tolerated, and is enjoyed by many at milder concentra¬ tions. The evidence for this primitive modality of sensation is perhaps best exemplified by the reaction of insects. For them most substances are optimally attractive at a particular concentration and decrease progres¬ sively as the concentration increases (the attraction changing to repel- lency) . Since investigators of the fundamentals of chemoreception have long felt that precise determinations of threshold values, statistical concepts in themselves, would contribute to an understanding of the nature of the adequate stimulus, much of this work has been done on taste. For in¬ stance, man is sensitive (Pfaffmann, 1951) to' the extremely bitter com¬ pound, quinine hydrochloride, at the approximate minimum concentration of 1.5 X 10-" molar solution; he is sensitive to the sour compound, hydro- ^ See footnote on page 14. * Paper received August 31, 1954. 28 The Virginia Journal of Science 1 January chloric acid, at 1.25 x 10 '^ molar solution; he is sensitive to the salty compound, sodium chloride, at 9 x molar solution; and he is sensitive to sweet cane sugar, sucrose, at 2 x 10 ‘ molar solution. Consequently, it will aid us to consider the meaning of these classes of sapid compounds and the degree of refinement of experimental and statisti¬ cal controls achieved or deemed adequate for theorizing about gustatory function and its applications. While the taste buds in the tongues of man, rat and cat contain receptors that look alike in mieroscopic prepara¬ tions, experimental methods which we may term piinctiform and direct have demonstrated physiological types. Punctiform exploration of the human can be done simply by applying a pure solution with a tiny camel’s hair brush to many discrete sites on the tongue. The result of many tests with many pure solutions is a map comprised of four areas thai are of the lowest threshold for bitter, sour, salty and sweet sensations. These, then, are the total number of submodalities of taste which are more or less localized in different regions of the tongue, differing in posi¬ tion by as much as several centimeters. This arrangement permits an opportunity for experimentation which has been only partially exploited. Since there is considerable overlapping, we should think of the regions as quantitatively delineated. The receptors for sweet and salt are near the tip, those for sour are on the back lateral surfaces, whilst those for bitter are towards the baek upper surface. A more eontrolled method of stimulation, however, is by means of an insulated burette arrangement from which a fine stream of the test solution is directed on the tongue, thus keeping the mechanical stimulation of the different solutions con¬ stant (Zotterman, 1949). Richter (1943) discussed a preference or choice technique for threshold determination, devised by Richter and Clisby (1941), that is essentially the same for rats and humans, except the latter subjects gave oral descrip¬ tions of their taste reactions. The design utilized three of the submodali¬ ties of taste. The subjects were permitted to sip or drink liquids, the rats from a pair of bottles and the humans from a pair of 2-ounce glasses. The rats were caged separately and the humans faced the experimenter across a table one at a time. One unknown liquid was distilled, water, the other was a pure solution of sodium chloride, cane sugar, or phenyl- thiocarbamide (phenylthiourea) - a very bitter tasting substance which has a highly toxic effect on rats, 1 to 2 milligrams being sufficient to kill them in only a few hours. The stimulus was first presented in so low a concentration to the rats as to make it indistinguishable from distilled water, and on successive days the concentration was increased in small steps. Of the 23 male and 24 female rats tested, all of them eventually accepted or rejected (drank less of) a concentration of the solutions. This level was below the lethal dose for the poison. This acceptance or rejec¬ tion value was taken as the taste threshold as it was an indication of recognition of difference between the solutions and distilled water. Of the 139 male and 122 female humans tested, when a subject definitely stated that one glass had a bitter, salty or sweet taste the test was discon¬ tinued. If the subject could not taste a 0.25 per cent solution of phenyl- 1955] Chemoreceptiox ix Mammals and Man 29 thiocarbamide, he was regarded as ‘"taste-blind”. Many concentrations were presented to the humans in one day. For sodium chloride rats had a threshold of 0.055 gram per cent and humans had one of 0.087 per cent, but noticed a difference at 0.016 per cent. For sucrose rats exhibited a preference at 0.5 per cent and humans recognized “sweet” taste at 0.41 per cent, but noticed a difference at 0.17 per cent. For phenylthiocarbamide rats had a mean rejection value of 0.0003 per cent with ,a range of 0.00005 to 0.02 per cent. Humans had the same mean threshold for this substance with a range of 0.00001 to 0.2 per cent. Thus, an astonishingly close relationship between rats and humans was found, having virtually the same thresholds with the dif¬ ference that humans showed a wider range of individual variation. Richter earned these experiments much farther by providing rats with all the rav’^ materials of a healthful diet and demonstrating that an innate specific aopetite, functioning in part through the taste buds, provided self-regula- tion of the steady, physiological state (good health). The problem of determining the absolute taste thresholds was not solved by the preference method. Patton and Ruch (1944) stated that the fail¬ ure of normal rats to select salt solutions weaker than 0.055 per cent does not necessarily mean that the salt cannot be detected, but rather that the motivation is insufficient to force the animal to make such difficult discriminations. Due to the interest engendered by the knowledge that humans exhibit great differences between individuals for sensitivity to phenylthiourea (phenylthiocarbamide), Harris and Kalmus (1949) devised a method for determination of the absolute threshold. One of the diffi¬ culties that arises out of presenting subjects with increasing concentrations of phenylthiourea and recording their responses is that people differ in the degree of sensation which they consider to be a positive taste. A further difficulty is that different subjects, particularly near their threshold, record very different sensations; for example, besides bitter they may refer to the taste as sweet, sour, salty, astringent, like flat water and so on. These difPculties were surmounted by determining the lowest concentration of the sjbstance which a subject can discriminate from water. The experi¬ mental design is based on the classical tea experiment of R. A. Fisher. A stock solution containing 0.13 per cent phenylthiourea is made up in boiled tap water and serial dilutions are made up from 1300 milligrams per liter to 0.16 milligrams per liter in fourteen steps. ( 1 ) Starting from the higher dilutions and working down, the sub’T':"! is given a few cc. in a tumbler till he first says that he perceives a defi¬ nite taste. (2) Then eight tumblers are presented, four of which contain a few cc. of water and four contain the solution determined in stage one. The glass¬ es are arranged at random. The subject is told that four contain water and four the substance. If the two groups are correctly separated the test is repeated with the next lower concentration and so on, until the siibmct can no longer discriminate correctly. The lowest concentration at which a completely correct answer is given is taken as the threshold. If the initial separation is not entirely correct, the process is repeated in [January 30 The Virginia Journal of Science reverse by presenting increasing concentrations until the correct answer is given. Harris and Kalmus found that consistent results were produced and that in 441 boys and men taste sensitivity decreased with increasing age. This was true for both tasters and non tasters. Among the tasters, the 10-19 year olds had a mean threshold of 2.54 milligrams per liter of water; the 20-49 year olds had between 2.54 and 5.08 milligrams per liter; and the 50+ year olds had 10.16 milligrams per liter. Thresholds for the respective age classes of non-tasters were 6 to 7 serial dilutions more concentrated. Verification of earlier work showed that women had a slightly greater taste sensitivity for phenylthiourea than men. The direct method of typing the taste receptors and detennining thres¬ holds was utilized by Pfaffmann (1941) in the cat. He attached elec¬ trodes to the appropriate gustatory nerve conducting impulses from the taste buds and recorded electrical impulses by means of a Matthews oscil¬ lograph. The apparatus gives a photographic record. Since these were single fiber recordings of the magnitude and frequency of impulses aris¬ ing immediately after stimulation of the tongue by pure solutions with a small brush, some doubt is cast on the discrete nature of the taste recep¬ tors. No doubt about the fact of stimulation by a given solution of known concentration can be entertained. Pfaffmann found that the cat has three types of fibers in its taste-nerve; (a) responds to acid only, (b) responds to acid and sodium chloride, and (c) responds to acid and quinine. No fibers responding to sugar were found, but a map or zonal distribution of (a), (b), and (c) was delineated. A salt-quinine fiber was not found. Of much interest is that acid was an effective stimulus of all types of gustatory endings, while salt and quinine sensitivity do not exist independently, but always in conjunction with the hydrogen ions. The theory supported by this direct evidence from a series of cats is that sodium chloride and quinine each stimulate a different group of recep¬ tors. Discrimination between these two substances presumably depends on the fact that impulses reach the central nervous system in two differ¬ ent sets of fibers. Since hydrogen ions, by dissociation of the acid, acti¬ vate all receptors, sour must be discriminated from sodium chloride be¬ cause acid produces simultaneous activity in all fibers as opposed to activ¬ ity in one fiber group. If we carry over this mechanism to the human, we might say that a discharge of impulses in one set of fibers will pro¬ duce salt, whereas discharges in the same fibers combined with activity in all the remaining gustatory fibers will produce sour. In such a system, sensory quality does not depend simply on the “all or nothing” activation of some particular fiber group alone, but on the pattern of other fibers which are active. Since Richter thought that lowered salt concentration of the blood caused by removal of the adrenal glands would lower the threshold for salt, Pfaffmann and Bare (1949) showed by the direct method (or method of choice in studying the physiology of chemoreception ) that the average threshold for salt was the same for normal rats and adrenalectomized sub¬ jects. This result suggests that salt needy rats display a preference as 1955] Chemoreception in Mammals and Man 31 soon as they can taste salt, rather than Richters tentative suggestion that threshold is somehow determined by the blood concentration of sodium chloride. However, Richter's postulate that taste has a primary biological value is supported by Davis’ (1939) findings on fifteen human infants of wean¬ ing age. When presented with all the natural foods necessary for mainte¬ nance of the body, these inexperienced infants, by self -selection, chose fifteen different diets that sustained good health for four years, this being the longest period Davis experimented. She concluded that selective ap¬ petite is, primarily, the desire for foods that please by smelling or tast¬ ing good. In a few days, these infants developed patterns of selective appetite on the basis of sensory experience and a feeling of comfort and well-being following eating. On the complicated and elusive topic of the mechanism of taste recep¬ tor activation much has been written, but an adequate consideration of it must be sought through investigation of cellular changes in the sensory end-organ itself, a difficult and challenging problem. We know that stimu¬ lation requires the contact of the solution with the receptor - just what happens next is not known. One looks to the newer applications of creative statistics as well as to more refined apparatus and ingenious skills for needed guidance or tools. LITERATURE CITED Davis, C. M, 1939. Results of the Self-Selection of Diets by Young Children. Canad. Med. Assn. 41: 257-261. Dethier, V. G. AND L. E. Chadwick. 1948. Chemoreception in Insects. Physiol. Rev., 28: 220-254, 2 tab. Harris, H. and H. Kalmus. 1949. The Measurement of Taste Sensitiv- vity to Phenylthioiirea (Pt. I). Annals of Eugenics (London), 15: 24-31, 5 fig., 5 tab. Parker, G. H. and E. M. Stabler. 1913. On Certain Distinctions be¬ tween Taste and Smell. Aw. J. Physiol., 32: 230-240. Patton, H. D. and T. C. Ruck. 1944. Preference Threshold for Quinine Hydrochloride in Chimpanzee, Monkey and Rat. /. Comp. Psychol, 37: 35-49, 3 fig., 2 tab. Pfaffmann, C. 1941. Gustatory Afferent Impulses. /. Cell, and Comp. Physiol, 17: 243-258, 11 fig. 1951. Chapter 29, Handbook of Exp. Psychol (S. S. Stevens, ed.) John Wiley and Sons, Inc. Pfaffmann, C. and J. K. Bare. 1949. Gustatory Thresholds in Normal and Adrenalectomized Rats. J. Comp, and Physiol Psychol, 43- 320-324, 2 fig., 1 tab. Richter, C. P. 1942-1943. Total Self -Regulatory Functions in Animals and Human Beings. Harvey Lectures, Series 38: 63-103. New York N. Y. 19 fig., 1 tab. 32 The Virginia Journal of Science January Richter, C. P. and K. H. Clisby. 1941. Phenylthiocarbamide Taste Thresholds of Rats and Human Beings. Amer. J. Physiol., 134: 157- 164. 2 fig., 3 tab. Zotterman, Y. 1949. The Response of the Frog’s Taste Fibers to the Application of Pure Water. Acta Physiol. Scand., 18: 181-189, 5 fig. 1955] Flavor Perception by Consumers 33 Physiological Aspects of Testing Contact Chemoreception. A Symposium FLAVOR PERCEPTION BY CONSUMERS' L. \V. Elder Central Laboratories, General Foods Corporation Hoboken, New Jersey Without recourse to anthropology, most of us have observed that food habits, the likes and dislikes of individuals, are often unpredictable and highly whimsical. Some of the whimsy may have been due formerly to large variations in food quality, which today are less noticeable as a result of increasing standardization of processed fods. The trend toward standardization has been paralleled by the trend toward mass production and distribution. All of these factors have increased the financial risks resulting from mistaken or biased flavor judgment on the part of the food packer who wants to “improve” his products or introduce new prdoucts. Consequently, more and more of us in the food business are bolstering our marketing decisions by some sort of statistical flavor evaluation. The statistical approach has been added to that of the expert taster, as tradi¬ tionally employed by producers of tea, coffee, beer, and wine. The expert is respected for his ability to discriminate and describe flavor differences and to relate them to trade standards. However, the traditonal expert’s prediction of consumer opinion can often be biased and his errors remain undetected until too late if they are not frequently audited by a statisti¬ cal check with trained panels or by consumer sampling. Use of Laboratory Panels. — Taste panels are usually organized from laboratory or office staff members by a process of screening. For example, if the panel is to assess coffee quality, a group of about 30 candidates are presented first with known samples to demonstrate varying degrees of freshness, roast, varietal characters, etc. The same samples are later pre¬ sented under blind code for identification of small differences by means of the triangular test - two identical samples plus one odd sample - for identification of the odd sample. Tests are set up to cover all the known commercially important variables and are repeated on different days. At the end of 20 to 30 such screening tests, the most successful 10 or 15 persons are selected as an operating coffee panel. Reference will be made later to the relative acuity of such a panel and of large consumer panels. The function of a laboratory panel may be: (1) to detect any departure from standard quality, or to assess flavor intensity in terms of known standards (quality control) 1 See footnote on pa,ere 14. Paper received August 31, 1954. 34 The Virginia Journal of Science [January (2) to subjectively analyze a complex flavor into its attributes and to evaluate their relative intensities (flavor profile). To illustrate one use of a panel, let us suppose that a research group has discovered a new way to formulate a flavor for a dessert product. Let us assume that there are several alternate directions in which this project can move, and it is desired to know whether this particular one should be pursued or dropped. Our first step is to determine whether the experi¬ mental sample really differs significantly from the standard. The new and standard products are submitted to a screened panel in a triangle test. If fewer than nine tasters out of a panel of 15 succeed in the correct iden¬ tification, the experimental sample is judged to be so close to the standard that no further testing or development in this direction is warranted. Par¬ enthetically, the question is frequently asked why the judgments of tasters who are unable to identify the odd sample should not be rejected. This can be answered by considering what happens if all three samples are identical. On the average, one-third of the tasters will succeed and two- thirds will fail to identify a designated sample, by chance alone. The point that is often overlooked is that correct identification can be an accident as well as an indication of taste sensitivity. This risk is properly assessed by statistical treatment of all the individual judgments. It is often important to know whether a process change has produced a slight difference in flavor character. In such cases it is important to demonstrate the taste character to be determined, so that all tasters are agreed on the terms in which to express their opinions, before final selec¬ tion of the screened panel. For example, the characteristics of bitterness and astringency are both important, but are difficult for the average taster to distinguish. In our experience, it was not until demonstrations were set up, using quinine and tannin solutions as models, that many panel mem¬ bers were able to assign the proper descriptive terms to the flavors they perceived. It is also important to recognize that a panel judgment regarding the intensity of a specific flavor character does not necessarily provide any information as to how well the consumer will accept the product. We have discouraged the use of laboratory panels to measure preference alone, because of the unknown effects of individual prejudice and whimsy in such a small group. In general, we prefer to use the laboratory panel as an analytical tool to detect differences and to measure relative flavor intensities, leaving to the consumer panels the decision as to what the consumer likes. Fatigue. - The effect generally known as fatigue has been discussed subjectively by many writers in the field of sensory evaluation. In organo¬ leptic testing, it is characterized by diminishing ability of a taster to recognize small differences in flavor as tasting is prolonged. In our laboratory, triangular tests are used extensively for routine dif¬ ference evaluation of experimental and standard products. In order to obtain a maximum number of judgments and at the same time keep the cost of testing-low, two triangular tests are presented at one sitting. 1955] Flavor Perception by Consumers 35 Over the period of a year and a half, we have accumulated the results of 148 double triangular tests on a coffee product by an expert panel. In all of these, the sample pairs were the same for both triangles. In half of the tests, the odd sample of the first triangle was presented as the duplicated sample in the second triangle. In the other half, the odd sample of the first triangle remained the odd sample in the second. These 148 sets of successive tests were compiled and tabulated into the contingencies shown in Table I. TABLE L — Summary of the Number of Successes and Failures in A Series of Double Triangular Tests Results First Triangle Second Triangle Both Successes . . . 856 880 1736 Failures . 863 839 1702 Total . 1719 1719 3438 It is apparent that there is no lessening in sensitivity due to fatigue in this series. In fact, the total number of successes in the second set of triangles is even greater than in the first. Fatigue has been evaluated under similar conditions for maple syrup. This product is considered by our trained panel to be one of the most difficult to taste because of its high level of sweetness. A series of tests on blended maple syrup was conducted using double tiiangular tests. Results of this series of tests are shown in Table IT TABLE II.- — Summary of the Number of Successes and Failures in A Series of Double Triangular Tests on Maple Syrup Results First Triangle Second Triangle Both Successes . 97 75 172 Failures . 70 92 162 Total . 167 167 334 The difference in results between the first and second triangles was examined by X “ analysis and found to be significant at the 2% level. This definitely suggests that fatigue was operating, since all other factors of variation were either randomized or controlled. Consumer Tests. - As mentioned earlier, an analytical panel does not necessarily reflect consumer preference. When an experimental sample has been judged to be significantly different from the standard, yet not obviously defective, we have recourse to a short-cut method of consumer sampling. The control sample and an experimental variant are sent to one or another of several New York department stores where space is rented for this work. A staff of two to four trained interviewers invites custom¬ ers of the store to participate in a 'Taste test”. The respondents are asked to tell which of two blind-coded samples they prefer and, if possible, the reason for their choice. 36 The Virginia Journal of Science [January The information thus obtained is used as a day-to-day or week-to-week source of guidance for the technologist attempting to improve old or develop new products. Principal advantages of this store test procedure lie in the relative speed with which results can be obtained and the com- partively low cost. It has become standard practice to obtain at least 300 consumer judg¬ ments on a sample pair before concluding that a preference has or has not been demonstrated. Usually this can be done in one day’s time. Correlation of Panel and Consumer Tests. — During a two-year period we had occasion to examine about 76 different sample pairs of coffee by both laboratory panel and by store test. A breakdown of what occurred in these 76 matched tests is shown in Table III. TABLE III. — Comparison of Panel and Consumer Performance Number Per cent Total Tests . . 76 100 Consumer Preferences . .. 25 33 Panel Differences . 30 40 Total Consumer Preferences... . 25 100 Panel Differences . 15 60 Panel Failures . . . 10 40 The interesting part of Table III is the breakdown of the 25 cases in which consumers found a preference. It is not surprising for consumers to fail to show a preference for one of a pair of samples which a panel has found to be different. It is surprising at first glance for consumers to find a preference where a panel has failed to find a difference. Table in shows that this occurred 10 times (40^) in 25 cases of consumer pref¬ erence. The 5% significance level is not reached in a 300 judgment test until a preference of at least 55.7% for one sample is realized. In the 10 cases shown in Table III where the panel failed to find a difference, the average percent preference found in the consumer test was 58.3%. The range was 56.5% to 65.5%. The question may be raised as to whether or not the expert panel we used was actually large enough in size for the task assigned to it. Table IV shows the number of tasters participating in the 10 cases of panel failure, together with the percentage success in each test. It is interesting to note that Tests 3 and 9 were at chance level of 33% or below. For these tests, no increase in panel size, assuming the same percentage success, would ever yield a significant result. A simple cal¬ culation shows, however, that if a panel of 120 tasters had the same degree of success as shown in Table IV, eight of these cases of failure would have been considered to have shown a significant difference. This indicates that, for this type of sample, under the conditions of testing described earlier, a panel test of at least 120 judgments is needed 1955] Flavor Perception by Consumers 37 to avoid the risk of missing differences corresponding to an average con¬ sumer preference of 58%. TABLE IV. — Results of Expert Panel Which Were Considered Failures Test Expert Expert Panel Level of No. Panel Size % Success Significance 1 . . 26 42 .50 2 . . 14 50 .30 3 . . 16 31 >.50 4 . . 22 46 .30 5 . . 26 46 .30 6 . . 13 62 .06 7 . . 14 43 >.50 8 . . 13 62 .06 9 . . 48 33 >.50 10 . . 14 50 .40 These findings seem reasonable when one considers that the panel was selected as above average from twice its number of unscreened selectees. With an added advantage of training and experience in tasting, 120 judg¬ ments by this group is found to compensate for the added statisdcal ad¬ vantage of 300 inexperienced consumers. This is a ‘‘sensitivity ratio” of about 1 to 3, By comparison, when researchers use panel tests of 15 to 30 judgments, a sensitivity ratio of 1 to 10 or 20 is required. Consistency of Store Test Results and Correlation with Home Use Tests. - Although store test panels of at least 300 are recommended, it has been our practice to schedule the tests in units of 150 judgments each. Frequently the two halves of a test are run in different stores. Although the unit scheduling is governed by expediency rather than by deliberate randomization, it has been found that the differences between half-test results for a given sample pair do conform to the normal distribution of random error. Based on a total of 200,000 judgments accumulated over a period of 18 months, the error estimate for a 300 judgment paired pref¬ erence is 10 percentage points. When store test results appear encouraging, we usually recommend a nationwide consumer sampling by mail before changes in merchandising plans are authorized. Paired comparisons in the home are known to be subject to many more uncontrolled variables than are the local store tests, but they have the advantage of better representing, on the average, the actual conditons of use. Statistical analyses are in progress to establish the expected error of a home use test and the correlation between store tests and home use. At present it can be said that, for the majority of products tested, the 38 The Virginia Journal of Science [January store test provides a valid estimate of consumer acceptance, within the rather wide range of error which is characteristic of such sampling. In all of the foregoing it is assumed that our objective is to win con-^ Sumer acceptance over a standard or competitive product of high accepta¬ bility. It is interesting to speculate what would happen if a radically new (but not obviously objectionable) type of flavor were to be appraised. It is very probable that the techniques just described would never succeed in establishing a majority consumer acceptance for such a product. This would be expected for two reasons - ( 1 ) the unavailability of a standard having reasonably close resemblance to the new product, and (2) its prob¬ able rejection by the consumer because of lack of familiarity with the type. A decision to promote such a product today would require unusual courage, because no valid estimate of risk could be obtained until some degree of “consumer education” had been attained. 1955] Luminosity in Discharge Tubes 39 Velocity of Propagation of Luminosity in Long Discharge Tubes ^ F. M. McGehee, Jb. “ Rouss Physics Laboratory, University of Virginia The propagation of luminosity and potential in long discharge tubes has been investigated by Thomson (1893), Beams (1930), Snoddy et ah (1936, 1937), !vlitchell et ah (1947). The work to date has shown that the luminosity has the same propagation characteristics as the potential pulse; that it moves always from the high potential electrode; that the first discharge may be followed by a second of higher luminosity which originates at the low voltage electrode if the latter is grounded; that the velocity is highly dependent on voltage and pressure, showing a definite peak at some pressure which is characteristic of the gas. These charac¬ teristics are similar to the observed features of the lighting discharge (Schonland et ah, 1934) and the long sparks which may be produced in high voltage laboratories (Allibone et ah, 1938). The present investigation of velocity characteristics of luminous dis¬ charges was undertaken to extend observations previously made in this laboratory (Beams, 1930; Snoddy et ah, 1936, 1937; Mitchell et ah, 1947). The velocity of the luminous pulse in discharge tubes 10 feet long, sup¬ ported coaxially in 6 inch gutter pipe, was determined for air, argon, car¬ bon dioxide, helium, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen as a function of pressure, voltage, and electrode shape. Two tubes were used, of 6 and 12 mm. inside diameter. APPARATUS The arrangement of the equipment used is indicated in the block dia¬ gram, Figure 1. The high voltage power supply was a Marx circuit (Jacob, 1934: 7) which was calibrated by spark gap measurements. The time interval between arrival of the luminosity at two points in the discharge tube was measured by means of photomultiplier tubes and a 300 ohm Twinlead transmission line along which 16 detector circuits such as are shown in Figure 2 were spaced at 2 foot intervals. This is a modification of the “chronotron” described by Keuffel (1949). The operation is as follows: when a negative signal is sent down the trans¬ mission line each detector produces an output pulse about 0.4 microsecond in length. These pulses are delayed 0.5 microsecond with respect to one another by delay lines and are then presented on a synchroscope. When * Paper received September 5, 1954, ^ Supported by Navy Bureau of Ordnance Contract Nord.-7873. 2 Now at United Gas Corporation, Shreveport, Louisiana. 40 The Virginia Journal of Science [January o yj 2 o FIGURE S ARGOrj TO KV i TO 25 KV’ 5 10 !5 20 PRESSURE, MM HG 25 r.L ^IfKV FIGURE 7 CARBON DIOXIDE TO' m KV / • / 25 KV 0 1 z — — PRESSURE, MM HG 1955] Luminosity in Discharge Tubes 41 a positive signal is sent down the transmission line, the response of the detectors is too low to be observed, due to the polarity of the 1N34 crystals. If a positive signal is sent from one direction and a negative signal from the other, all of the detectors produce pulses except the ones on which the two signals are impressed simultaneously. An estimate of the signal length can be made, based on the contour of the pulse heights. This is apparent when one considers that a full negative signal is not presented to the detectors at some time only where the two signals are coincident in time and space. Hence in sketch A of Figure 2 one sees at once that the signals were longer than half the time interval represented by the detector spread, and that in sketch B the signals were coincident at seven detectors. If one of the transmission line signals is delayed with respect to the other, the meeting point will shift with a corresponding change in the output pattern of the detectors. By inserting known lengths of transmission line, using polarized connectors, the two signals can be made to meet at any detector desired, greatly extending the range of the instrument. The system was calibrated with respect to the velocity of light in air by use of a spark gap and an optical bench as shown in Figure 3. By changing the position of the optical corner, C, known time delays could be introduced into either signal to the detector circuits. The correspond¬ ing shift in meeting point of the signals could be recorded, or the signal pulses could be made to meet at the same detector as before by inserting various lengths of transmission line. This procedure established the fact that the detectors did not change the velocity of signals on the T'winlead transmision line to a noticeable degree. The velocity on the transmission line of a signal with a rise time of 3 x 10“° seconds was 0.92 times the velocity of light in air. Rise time as used here indicates the time from zero to maximum signal, as determined from the synchroscope pattern. It was found that the detectors functioned properly with a minimum of 3 inches separation, a limit set by the physical spacing of the detectors on the chassis. In the present work the 2-foot spacing of the detectors made it possible to read time intervals to an accuracy of 1.1 x 10 ° seconds, assuming the proper zero time. The arrival of luminosity at any point in the discharge tube was record¬ ed by means of 931-A photomultiplier tubes, the circuits for which are shown in Figure 4. Separate battery power supplies were used to present signals of opposite polarity but otherwise similar characteristics to the detec¬ tor circuits. A slit arrangement limited the field of view of the photo¬ multiplier tubes to about 1 mm. The photomultiplier tubes were spaced 7.0 feet apart, at 30 and 8 inches from the high and low voltage electrodes, respectively. A preliminary investigation of velocity as a function of posi¬ tion along the discharge tube showed that erratic effects observed in the first 40 cm (Beams, 1930) were not noticeable in the section used. The various parts of the vacuum system could be isolated from one another as shown in Figure 1. A dry ice-alcohol cold trap was used to prevent mercury contamination from the McLeod gauge used to measure pressures. Before taking data on any gas it was necessary to flush the system 42 The Virginia Journal of Science [January several times. A fresh sample of gas was used for each observation, the system being pumped between discharges. The velocity of the luminous pulse fluctuated widely if this was not done. Velocity readings repeated, however, if the tube remained quiescent for some five minutes between discharges. The gases used were of standard commercial purity. The low voltage electrode was normally connected to the ground through a 5000 ohm electrolytic resistor. If this resistor was shorted out, a lumi¬ nous pulse was observed to originate at this grounded electrode up to 20 microseconds after the arrival of the initial pulse. RESULTS The data are presented in graphical form in figures 5~14. All data shown were obtained with a 12 mm. diameter spherically ended brass electrode in the 12 mm. tube and a similar 6 mm. electrode in the 6: mm. tube. Unless otherwise specified, the data are those taken in the 12 mm. tube. A conical (20°) high voltage electrode produced velocities much lower than did spherical electrodes; the curves were similar to those obtained with spherical electrodes at lower input potentials. The spread of values of the data appears to be largely due to operator error in observing time intervals when the deviation is greater than the accuracy of the “chronotron”. This explanation is not satisfactory for the larger deviations; such fluctuations have been noted previously (Snoddy et ah, 1936, 1937; Mitchell et ah, 1947). DISCUSSION OF RESULTS The results of this investigation are in general agreement with the work referred to in the introduction. The principal contribution of this paper is the relative velocities of luminosity in various gases at a given poten¬ tial, as shown in Figure 5. The explanation of this ordering appears to be connected with efficiency of ionization by electrons in the gases. In this respect it is interesting to note the correlation of Figure 5 with plots of a, the first Townsend coeffi¬ cient, as a function of the energy of incident electrons (Compton et ah, 1926: 724; Maxfield et ah, 1941: 267). The relative magnitudes of maxi¬ ma in the two sets of data as well as the two cross-over regions are the most striking points of correspondence. One may construct a relatively simple qualitative description of the me¬ chanism of propagation which explains the observed features of the data. Consider an intermediate point in the discharge tube at which the posi¬ tive potential has just arrived. The intense luminosity in this region leads to production of photo-electrons in the undisturbed region ahead of the propagating potential front. These electrons are accelerated toward the front, ionizing by collision as they go. Both the conductivity of the discharge tube and the usual treatment of the spherical tipped discharge (Schonland et ah, 1934; Meek, 1939) lead to values of ionization of the order of 4 x 10’'^ ions/cc. One may now make certain assumption as 1955] Luminosity in Discharge Tubes 43 35 KV figure 9 HELIUM ' /' ;■■***** .5^\ / //r ky I 25 KV / i 1 , i 0 5 1 0 15 2 0 25 3 0 35 40 46 PRESSURE, MM H6 • FIGUF OXY IE 10 GEN / 30 KV / PRESSURE, MM HG FIGURE 12 * HYDROGEN 3^ KV 40 KV X ^KV ''\J 25 KV 0 0.5 i.O 1.5 ^0 2.5 3.0 35 45 45 PRESSURE, KG }*— EFFI ECT C >F TUS 3E SI2 .£ FIGURE 13 AIR -—30 KV > - 12 f siM TU !BE3 X — 3 5 KV > — 6 MM TUBE 5 - n ' /. * / [5^ ir~i. IS 3.0 3 ks 4.0 4.5 PRESSURE, MM H6 EFFEC /' ,T OF TUBE rx ; SI2I riGuiFTil NITROGEN SO KV 1 /* 12 MM TUBE e / / 6 MM T' J J UBE .. “15 t o Oio UJ > 5 0 0.5 ID 1.5 io as 3.0 35 4.0 4.5 PRESSURE, MM KG POTENTIAL REACHED BY LOW VOLTAGE ELECTRODE 44 The Virginia Journal of Science [January to the magnitude and gradient of the net charge at any point in the tube. Calculated values of the gradient in volts/cm. for exponential, linear, and constant densities of net charge over various lengths, as well as the hemi¬ spherical tip assumption, show that in each case fields may be found over distances which, combined with reasonable values of a, will produce an ionization of 4 x 10” ions/cc. from a single photoelectron. While the exponential distribution appears to be the most probable one, none is outstanding so far as application to the present problem is concerned. Assume for the present purpose that the field as a function of distance is the same for each gas at a given pressure (between 1 and 3 mm. of mercuiA') and potential. Ionization will then be more effective in the low field region for argon than for helium, or the ion density required for propagation of the potential will be developed in shorter distances from the point of origin of the initiating photoelectron, which corresponds to a higher velocity of the potential pulse. At higher potentials the opti¬ mum distribution of electron velocities will be attained in shorter mean free paths, or at higher pressures. This appears to be borne out by the shift of the velocity peak to higher pressures as the applied potential increases. As the pressure rises, however, the effective mean free path for photons decreases with a consequent decrease in velocity of the pulse. The preliminary investigation previously mentioned indicated a lower veloc¬ ity as the luminosity moved away from the high voltage electrode. This is explainable on the basis of a lower potential due to the tube drop. The extent of this drop is indicated in Figure 15, in which the voltage drop across the 5000 ohm low potential resistor is plotted as a function of pressure. Since the input ]3otential was constant, one sees that the tube drop increased linearly with pressure over this range. It should be point¬ ed out in this connection that the velocities measured are of necessity the average velocities for the given conditions. The extension of this treatment to a more exact quantitative develop¬ ment will require considerable data not yet available in the literature as to absorption coefficients of ionizing radiation in all of the gases, the net charge distribution, and the attenuation effect of the tube walls. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The “chronotron” described in this paper was developed under the direction of the late Dr. L. B. Snoddy. The remainder of the work was done under the direction of Dr. J. W. Beams, Chairman, Department of Physics, University of Virginia. The author wishes to express his gratitude to these gentlemen and to other faculty members and fellow students whose comments and suggestions contributed to the successful completion of this work. 1955] Luminosity in Discharge Tubes 45 REFERENCES Allibone, T. E. and J. M. Meek. 1938. Development of the Spark Discharge. Proc. Roy. Soc., A166, 97-126. Beams, |. W. 1930. Propagation of Luminosity in Discharge Tubes. Phys. Rev., 36: 997-1001. Compton, K, T, and C. C. VanVoorhis. 1926. Probability of Ionization of Gas Molecules by Electron Impacts. Phys. Rev., 27: 724. Jacob, L. 1934. High Voltage Physics. Methuen and Co. Keuffel, J. W. 1949. A Simplified Chronotron-Type Timing Circuit. Rev. Scient. Inst., 20: 197-201. Maxfield, F. a. and R. R. Benedict. 1941. Theory of Gaseous Con¬ duction and Electronics. McGratv Hill Book Co., Inc. Meek, J. M. 1939. The Mechanism of the Lightning Discharge. Phys. Rev., 55: 972-97. Mitchell, F. H. and L. B. Snoddy. 1947. Ionization Processes in a Long Discharge Tube with Application to Lightning Mechanism. Phys. Rev., 72: 1202-1208. Schonland, B. F. j. and H. Collens. 1934. Progressive Lightning. Proc. Roy. Soc., A143, 654-674. Snoddy, L. B., J. R. Dietrich, and J. W. Beams. 1936. The Propaga¬ tion of Potential in Discharge Tubes. Phys. Rev. 50: 469-471. - - - . 1937. Propagation of Potential in Discharge Tubes. Phys. Rev., 52: 739-746. Thomson, J. J. 1893. Recent Researches in Electricity and Magnetism. Clarendon Press, 115. 46 The Virginia Journal of Science [January The X-Bivalent of the Golden Hamster Charles I. Sheaffer Department of Biology, University of Virginia The sex chromosomes of the golden hamster, Mesocricetus auratus, are larger than the other chromosomes of the complement. At the first meiotic metaphase in the male the x-chromosome is composed of a deeply staining portion, and a less contracted more lightly staining heterochromatic part. The y-chromosome stains deeply in its entirety and is smaller than the x. The deeply staining portion of these chromosomes is the pairing segment, and the more lightly staining portion of the x, the differential segment (Koller, 1938). The retarded development of the differential segment is associated with the formation of gyres smaller in diameter and more nu¬ merous than the precociously developed spiral of the pairing segment. A chiasma is found between the long arm of the y and the x in 81.6 per¬ cent of the bivalents. The remainder have a second chiasma between the short arm of y and the portion of the x proximal to the differential segment (Koller, 1938). In spermatogonial divisons the two largest chromosomes, assumed by Koller (1938) to be the x and y, were described as morphologically indis¬ tinguishable and having subtenriinal centromeres. Husted, Hopkins, and Moore (1945) found the two largest chromosomes of oocyte nuclei under¬ going mitosis to have clearly submedian centromeres and an arm ratio of 1:1.9. Since the pairing segment of the y-chromosome at meiosis in the male is the longer arm and is seen to be equal in length to the deeply stained portion of the x, and since Koller had reported the x and y indis¬ tinguishable in size in spermatogonial divisions, Husted, Hopkins and Moore (1945) concluded that the differential segment of the x when fully contracted is a part of the shorter arm. In the male, chiasmata can form only between pairing segments of the X and y. In the female where two x-chromosomes occur, it is to be expected that chiasmata may form between differential as well as pair¬ ing segments. According to Husted, Hopkins and Moore (1945) the dif¬ ferential segment of the x is not heterochromatic at mitosis and meiosis in the female. This segment resembles the pairing segment in being con¬ tracted and also staining deeply. Husted, Hopkins and Moore (1945) have presented evidence, admittedly inconclusive, that chiasmata are local¬ ized between the short arms of the x-chromosomes. All of the x-bivalents they encountered, 6 in number, were associated by chiasmata between short arms. It seems desirable to extend these observations to determine if chiasma localization does in fact exist in the differential segment fo the female hamster. It is with this feature that this paper is primarily concerned. " Paper received August 4, 1954. 1955] X~Bivalent of the Golden Hamster 47 MATERIALS AND METHODS The mammalian ovary has been seldom used in chromosome studies because meiotic and mitotic divisons are less frequently found there than in the testes of the male. The chromosomes in oocytes, however, are more widely spread on the spindle and their structure more easily studied than in the crowded spermatogonial cells and spermatocytes. In hamsters 5-7 weeks of age numerous oocyte nuclei are found undergoing mitosis or meiosis. In older animals the number is reduced considerably. The mito¬ tic divisions occur in follicles that usually, if not always, degenerate. Some of the 'oocyte nuclei undergoing meiosis will likewise degenerate, but no changes were revealed by the methods here used that must be considered to alter the behavior or structure of the chromosomes. The ovaries from 20 ether-anesthetized hamsters, ranging in age from 5 weeks to 6 months, were removed and fixed in San Felice’s solution for 4 hours. They were washed in 70 per cent alcohol, and stained by means of the Feulgen reaction. After bleaching in SO2 water, the ovaries were dehydrated in ethyl alcohol, cleared in chloroform, embedded in paraffin and sectioned at 30 /x. The testes from two sexually mature males were removed and cut into small pieces. The material from one male was immediately fixed in Car- noy, while portions of the other were placed in hypotonic solutions of sodium chloride for 20 minutes before fixation. Pretreatment with 0.5 percent sodium chloride facilitated the spreading of the chromosomes. Four drops of 4 percent iron alum for each 10 ml. of fixative intensified the staining of the chromosomes with aceto-carmine. Observations were made with a Zeiss microscope equipped with lOx, 20x, and 30x oculars and 90x (n.a.1.3) oil immersion objective. Draw¬ ings were made with the aid of a camera lucida. OBSERVATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS The somatic chromosome number of the golden hamster is 44 (Figures 1 A and B ) . This is in agreement with the determination in the female made by Husted, Hopkins and Moore (1945) and in the male by Matthey (1951) and Sachs (1952) but contrary to the reports of Koller (1938, 1946) and Muldal (1948). The male -—The largest chromosome in the male complement (Figures 1 A and 3) measures approximately 7.1 ^ in length and is submedianly constricted. The next largest measures approximately 6.5 /x and is easily distinguishable from the former. The difference between these two chro¬ mosomes is seen not in their longer arms which are equal in length, but in their shorter arms, (Figure 3). Since these chromosomes are unequal in size, and the largest, and meiotic studies in the male show that the heteromorphic bivalent which is considered the x-y bivalent is the largest of the complement, it is apparent that these chromosomes seen in sperma¬ togonial divisions are the x and y. The differential segment, which is seen as a less contracted, lightly staining region of the x at meiosis in the male (Figure 2, A and B), 48 The Virginia Journal of Science [January 4 ^ -*7 J ifjI'V' » V’' ^ -'#■ fi r ^ ' WW V4VJ 3 I If 0:^ # I §■ .ft. -T-y k I 1955] X-Bi\'alent of the Golden Hamster 49 does not stain lightly in spermatogonial divisions (Figures 1 A, and 3) nor is it less contracted. Since the arm of the x that stains deeply, and the long arm of the y are equal in length, and since in spermatogonia! divisions the difference between the largest chromosomes designated the X and y is found to be only in their short arms, we must conclude that the differential segment of the x-chromosome is .represented in the sperma¬ togonial cells as the difference in length of the short arm of the x and y. The differential segment when contracted represents approximately 0.5 u or 7 percent of the len.gth of the entire chromosome. The Female. - In the female the two largest chromosomes at mitotic metapliase are siibmedianly constricted as seen in the only polar view of metaphase that has been found in the course of this study. Husted, Hopkins and Moore (1945) have reported two divisions of this kind which likewise show the largest chromosomes to be submedianly constricted. In both the present account and the one here cited the short arms of the largest chromosomes are longer than the short arm of the chromosome that has been designated the y in the male. It seems clear that these two chromosomes in the female are the same as the one that has been designated the x in the male. The differential segment, which stains intensely and is contracted in the spermatogonial cells of the male, stains similarly in the oocyte. There is a suggestion, as seen in Figure 1 B that the short arm of the x is less contracted in the mitosis of the female than in the spermatogonial cells of the male, (Fig. 1 A). Although there may possibly be a tendency here for less complete contraction, the staining reaction in all parts of the chromosome is the same. Chiasma localization. - Oocytes undergo the first meiotic division in various parts of the ovary. In all of these suitable for study, 40 in num¬ ber, the largest chromosomes, here designated the x-bivalent, are associat¬ ed by one or more chiasmata between the shorter of the two arms (Fig¬ ures 4-25 ) . The x-bivalents illustrated here have their long arms in many cases foreshortened and their short arms attenuated as a result of ana¬ phase movement. In each case where foreshortening occurs the method of Levitsky was used to determine the actual length of the foreshortened arm. Figure 10 shows an x-bivalent which lies in one plane while Fig¬ ure 22 has the free arm at the upper end and to the right greatly fore¬ shortened. Both free arms of this, and of all the other bivalents, are equal in length. Figures 17 and 18 are examples of x-bivalents with both free arms greatly foreshortened. In no oocyte were x-chromosomes associated by long arms nor were any ring bivalents found. There is in the female hamster complete or nearly complete localization of chiasmata in the shorter arm. This is the arm which is considered to include the differential segment. Chiasma frequency.- — In the male hamster, Koller (1938) has found that 8.3 percent of the x- and y-chromosomes fail to form chiasmata -and are unpaired at metaphase. In the female, no unpaired chromosomes were encountered. In the male, the average chiasma frequency in the xy-bival- 50 The Virginia Journal of Science [January 1955] X“Bivalent of the Golden Hamster 51 ent is reported to be 1.08 (Table I), while the average frequency in the autosomal bivalents is 1.33 (Koller, 1938). TABLE I. — Chiasma Frequency in Male and Female Haimsters No. of Total Chiasma freq. Sex Bivalents Bivalents Chiasmata per bivaleni Male^ xy 276 300 1.08 Autosomal 180 240 1.33 Female XX 40 55 1.38 Autosomal 132 193 1.46 In the female the 40 x-bivalents studied showed 1.38 as the average number of chiasmata between short arms. The autosomal bivalents had a mean chiasma frequency of 1.46. There are more chiasmata formed between both x-chromosomes and between autosomal bivalents in the fem¬ ale than in the male. This is in agreement with the cytological results found by Koller (1932) in the mouse. The conclusion has been reached that in the female hamster chiasmata are localized between arms which include the differential segment, and that the arms which constitute the major portion of the pairing segment in the male, fail to form chiasmata in the female. There is only one alternative to this conclusion: namely, that the chias¬ mata of the x-bivalents are localized beLveen the arms which represent the pairing segment. This alternative demands the assumption that in the female hamster the long arm of the x-chromosome (the pairing seg¬ ment) contracts differentially and to such an extent that it appears to be a short rather than a long arm. Since there is no evidence for extreme contraefon of the x-bivalent relative to the autosomal bivalents this assump¬ tion is considered unlikely. SUMMARY The x-chromoseme of the golden hamster at melcs's in the male con¬ sists of a deeply staining pairing segment and a more lightly staining, slender, elongated differential segment. At the spermatogonial divisions the entire x-chromosome is contracted and stains uniformly. The diffen- ital segment in these divisions represents approximately 7 percent of the x-chromosome and is indistinguishable from the pairing segment. In the female hamster, the two x-chromosmes are uniformly contracted and the differential segment is indistinguishabel as in the spermatogonial mitosis. Chiasmata at meiosis are formed only between the short arms of the x- chromosomes and hence are localized in those arms which are partly made up of the differential segment. The arm of the x, which in its entiretv has no counterpart in the y and consequently the distal portion of which cannot undergo crossmg over in the male, is the arm in which chiasmata are localized in the female. Data from Koller, 1938. 52 The Virginia Journal of Science LITERATURE CITED [January Husted, L,, J. T. Hopkins, and M. D. Moore. 1945. The X~Bivalent of the Golden Hamster. Jour. Hered., 36: 93-96. Koller, P. C, 1932. Sex-Differences in Crossing-over and Chiasma- Freqriency in the Mouse. Nature, 130: 242. - . 1938. The Genetical and Mechanical Properties of the Sex Chromosomes. IV. The Golden Hamster. Jour. Genet., 36: 177- 195. - . 1946. Control of Nucleic Acid Charge on the x-Chromo- some of the Hamster. Proc. Roy. Soc. B., 133: 313-326. Matthey, R. 1951. Chromosomes de Miiridae. Experimentia, 7: 340. Muldal, S. 1947. John Lines Horticultural Institution. Ann. Kept. 38: 22-23. Sachs, L. 1952. Polyploid Evolution and Mammalian Chromosomes. Hered., 6: 357-364. 1955] XY"Bivalent in Chinchilla laniger 55 The XY-Bivalent in Chinchilla laniger Jesse Thompson Department of Biology, University of Virginia Chinchilla laniger is a small rodent native to the South American Andes. Its soft, thick fur has led to its domestication and introduction into the United States where it now has become of some economic importance. The chromosomes are known only through the work of Makino (1953) who has reported the diploid number to be 64 and has designated the X and Y chromosomes at metaphase in a spermatogonial cell. Makino has also reported a “heteromorphic XY-complex which consists of a larger V shaped X and a smaller v-shaped Y coming into contact by their shorter arms.” Through the kindness of Gordon F. Harris (Charlottesville), C. W. Haga (Front Royal) and Tom Farrow (New Market), Virginia, the material was made available to stud)" tlie chromosomes in the male and to some extent in the female animal. The results of this study are not in agreement with the conclusions of Makino and furthermore show a striking similar¬ ity between the sex bivalent of the Chinchilla and the Golden Hamster as described by Koller (1938). Testes were removed from ether anesthetized animals and immediately fixed in the 6:3:1 solution of Carno)" while being teased into small pieces. The tubules were refrigerated until ready for staining by means of the aceto-carmine technique of Painter (1939). Observations were made with a microscope equipped with lOx and 15x oculars and a 95x (n.a. 1.25) oil immersion objective. All drawings were made at table level with the aid of a camera lucida and are reproduced at a magnification of 2366x. Fourteen sex bivalents have been examined at late diplotene, diakinesis, and metaphase 1. The X and Y are associated in each by a terminal chiasma between the longer arm of the Y and the arm of the X which is identical as to length with the pairing segment of the Y. The Y-chro- mosome has a submedian centromere and an arm ratio of approximately 1:1.3. The larger X-chromosome consists of a pairing segment which is of the same diameter as the Y-chromosome and a longer arm which is differentially contracted. The gyres of the differentially contracted por¬ tion are approximately one-half the diameter of those in the pairing seg¬ ment. The more slender arm presents an appearance similar to that of the differential segment of the X-chromosome of the hamsters that are known. The arm of the X-chromosome that is associated with the Y com¬ prises 26 percent of the entire chromosome at meiosis I and the differen¬ tially contracted arm 74 percent. Contrary to the observations of Makino the X-chromosome shows a pro¬ nounced differential contraction and is associated with the longer arm of the Y. From Makino’s figure it appears likely that he has wrongly inter¬ preted the differential segment to be the Y-chromosome and a portion of [January 54 The Virginia Journal of Science Legend to Figure 1. - Ten XY-bivalents from the male chinchilla in late cliplotene or diakinesis showing the Y-associated with the X-chromo- some bv a terminal chiasma. One arm of the X is differentially contract¬ ed. 2366x. 1955] XY-Bivalext IX Chinchilla laniger 55 the pairing segment of tlie X. I’he differential segment appears to be the same diameter as that portion of the bivalent which is described here as the pairing segment of the X and the Y-chromosome. The X-chromosome as seen in spermatogonial division is the largest chro¬ mosome of the complement and is not differentially contracted. This is likewise the situation in the Golden Hamster, Mesocricetiis auratus as rep¬ resented by Koher. The Chinchilla should be excellent material for the study of X-bivalent behavior during meiosis in the female since the X- bivalent can be easily distinguished from the autosomes. LITEKAITTRE CITED Koller, P. C. 1938. The genetical and mechanical properties of the sex chromosomes in the Golden Hamster. Jour. Genetics, 36: 177- 195. Making, S. 1953. Notes on the chromosomes of the Porcupine and the Chinchilla. Experimeniia, 9: 213-214. Painter, T. S. 1939. An aceto-carmine method for bird and mammalian chromosomes. Science 90: 307-308. The Virginia Journal of Science I faniiarv 56 News and Notes (Editor’s Note: News contributions should be sent to the person lohose name appears at the end of the appropriate section.) JUSTUS HENRY CLINE October 14, 1875 - July 26, 1954 The Nation, the State, and the Virginia Acadein\' of Science lost a noble scientist and teacher on July 26, 1954, with the death of Justus Henry Cline at the age of 78. Loved and respected by all, his wise counsel was sought by young and old alike. He was acclaimed throughout the nation for decades because of his foresight, inspiration, energy, and unselfish interest in science in general and conservation in parti¬ cular. His monument is in the Uinta Basin, the Big Levels Game Refuge, The James River Monograph, and the dam for the South River Water Supply System. Marcellus H. Stow A LETTER FROM THE PRESIDENT Your President takes this opportunity to make two announcements of general interest to the Academy. The first is that the Virginia Journal of Science has now reached its fifth birthday and after a series of growing pains is rapidly approaching maturity. During this period of growth the two men most responsible for the Journal have been Boyd Harshbarger and Horton Hobbs. It is with sincere pleasure that the Council of the Academy announces that both Messrs. Hobbs and Harshbarger have agreed to continue to guide the destinies of the Journal for another period of five \ears. Those attending the 1954 meeting of the Academy at Charlottesville will recall the gracious invitation of Dr. Tyler Miller, President of Madi¬ son College, to hold our 1955 meeting at that institution. This invita¬ tion has been accepted and the dates will be May 12, 13, and 14. Fol¬ lowing is a list of the membership of the local committee on arrangements for 1955. It is suggested that specific information may be obtained from the proper person in this group. 1955, News and Notes 57 Local Committee on Arrangements Madison College, May 1955 }. E. Ikenberry— General Chairman B. W. Fartlow— Housing W. L. Mengehier— Registration Murl Shawver— Traffic and Parking J. C. Wells— Jwii/or Academy Exhibits E. D. Miller-Commercial Exhibits Wilbert Chappell— Meefing Rooms and Equipment Bans Hanson — Geology Field Trip A, M. Showalter— Biologi/ Field Trip S. C. Bocskey - -Signs and Maps R. D. Cool— Chemical Industry Tour C. P, Shorts - - - Information- May I hope that a large number of you will be able to attend this meet¬ ing and become acquainted with yet another of the fine colleges of our state. I, G. Foster, President PROPOSED CHANGES IN THE BY-LAWS Section 5. The Virginia Journal of Science: Article 5. The staff shall be composed of an Editor, an Associate Editor, Managing Editor, and an Advertising Manager - all elected by the Council — . . . . Article 5. The Editor shall receive all materials for the Journal, shall send scientific articles to the appropriate Sectional Editors for refereeing, shall act as a referee himself, and shall edit all material published in the Journal. The Associate Editor shall aid the Editor in preparing materials for the Journal and in correcting proofs. The Managing Editor shall keep mailing lists that are up-to-date, shall mail all Journals (including Proceedings), shall keep financial accounts on the Journal, shall pay all bills and care for all business, including an annual audit of Books of the Journal - subject to the regulations and approval of the Academy CouiiciL The Advertising Manager shall be responsible for securing the proper amount and type of advertising material for the Journal, and shall be responsible to the Managing Editor. ■' The Sectional Editors shall aid the Editor and Associate Editor in refereeing, and in securing additional referees for scientific articles within their respective fields; in preparing proper announcements and news items for the Journal; and in such other ways as may be advantageous. 58 The Virginia Journal of Science [January SECTION NEWS Agricultural Science Section The Animal Science Conference organized for the purpose of acquaint¬ ing the faculty of the School of Agriculture with research conducted in this field is again meeting weekly on campus: Staff members of the Departments of Animal Husbandry, Biology, Biochemistr\' and Nutrition, Dairy Husbandry and Poultry Husbandry participate in the presentations. Dr. K. A. Huston, dairy cattle breeding extension specialist in the De¬ partment of Dairy Husbandry, has resigned to accept a position in research and teaching at Kansas State College. The effective date of his resigna¬ tion is November 1, 1954. The newly organized Milk Producers Federation has as its executive secretary Professor R. G. Connelly of the Department of Dairy Husbandry Professor Connelly is on a six months' leave of absence from his duties as extension dairyman to assume this position. The Southern Regional Collegiate Dairy Products Judging Contest was held on the Virginia Polytechnic Institute campus on October 22, 1954. The Department of Dairy Husbandry acted as host. Ten teams from various southern colleges participated in the contest, A new pipeline milker and bulk milk holding tank were installed in the new dairy barn in July. The Department of Dairy Husbandry is now in the process of investigating the cleaning and sanitizing of milk pipe lines and conducting time-motion studies on pipe line milkers. Mr. Earl T. Swink has been appointed Professor and Head of the De¬ partment of Agricultural Engineering at Virginia Polytechnic Institute ef¬ fective July 1, 1954. Mr. Swink has been employed by the Extension Service since April 1, 1935. He received his B.S. and his M.S. degrees here at the Virginia Polytechnic Institute. At the time he was appointed as head of the department he was serving as Extension specialist in rural electrification. Dr. Wilson B. Bell has been appointed as Associate Director of the Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station. Dr. Bell vlll continue to con¬ duct research in animal diseases. Dr. John Pendleton of the Agronomy Department at the Virginia Poly¬ technic Institute has published a challenging paper entitled “Background For Agronomy.” This paper discusses some of the problems facing educa¬ tors. The paper appeared in Agronomy Journal, September, 1954. Dr. H. A. Rollins, Jr. has been appointed Associate Professor of Horti¬ culture at Virginia Polytechnic Institute. Dr. Rollins is a native of Con¬ necticut and received his Doctor's degree from Ohio State University at the end of the summer quarter 1954. He will be located at the Winches¬ ter Fruit Research Laboratory where he will conduct research and serve as Extension fruit specialist. Dr. Anthony Lopez has been appointed Professor of Fruit and Vege¬ table Processing at Virginia Polytechnic Institute. Dr. Lopez came to Virginia from the University of Georgia. He received his Doctor’s degree in Food Technology from the University of Massachusetts. 1955] News and Notes 59 Mr. Arthur L. Eiser, Jr. has been appointed Research Instructor of Hor¬ ticulture at Virginia Polytechnic Institute. Mr. Eiser will assist with the operation of the Arboretum at the Horticultural Farm. He is a native of Illinois and received his Master’s degree from Iowa State College. The Animal Nutrition research group at Virginia Polytechnic Institute has developed a method of predicting the toxicity of the highly chlori¬ nated naphthalenes by feeding them in special diets to laboratory rats. In this work it was established that a diet rich in protein protects the animals to some extent against poisoning by these compounds. This work is summarized in a paper that will be published shortly in The Journal of Nutrition. The Bacteriology research group at Virginia Polytechnic Institute is working on the manner in which bacteria decompose cellulose. This proc¬ ess is vital to high roughage feed utilization by livestock, soil humus forma¬ tion, and waste disposal in the pulp and paper industry. Apparently, the breakdown occurs simultaneously anywhere along the plant fibre, rather than by cutting off small fragments from one end. A new product of cellulose breakdown, which is thus far only of theoretical importance, has been discovered. Dr. W. A. Hardison of the Department of Dairy Husbandry is present¬ ing the results of a cooperative study with the Department of Biochemis¬ try and Nutrition and the Department of Statistics at the annual meet¬ ing of the American Society for Animal Production in Chicago on Novem¬ ber 26, 1954. Results of an extensive experiment designed to establish the reliability of short-cut methods for determining the digestibility of feedstuffs by cattle will be presented. Dr. W. E. C. Moore has recently joined the Department of Biochem¬ istry and Nutrition at Virginia Polytechnic Institute. Dr. Moore will be two-thirds time on teaching staff in Bacteriology and will devote one-third time to Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station research on rumen micro¬ organisms. Dr. James H. By waters and Dr. Clayton E. Holmes of the Virginia Polytechnic Institute Poultry Department attended the annual meeting of the Technical Committee of the Southern Regional Poultry Breeding Proj¬ ect at the University of Georgia on the 4th and 5th of October. Dr. Bywaters is the Virginia representative on the Committee. During the meeting the new Southern Regional Poultry Testing Station was inspect¬ ed by the twelve man Committee and their associates. This testing sta¬ tion is a cooperative project between the 13 southern states and the Re¬ search Service of the United States Department of Agriculture and is designed to test, under common conditions, the several strains of chickens independently developed at each station. The Virginia Agricultural Ex¬ periment Station will have 3 or 4 strains on test in the 1955 season. Calvin C. Craighead was appointed to the position of Plant Superintend¬ ent and Instructor in Poultry Husbandry in July. He completed the re¬ quirements for a B.S. degree in Poultry Husbandry during the first term of summer school 1954. 60 The Vimgenha Journal of Science [January Denver D. Bragg was moderator of a panel which discussed “The Ex¬ tension Poultry Specialist’s Responsibility to Improve 4-H Poultry Club Work” at the annual meeting of the Poultry Science Association which was held at Purdue University in July. Lee W. Herrick and Dr. James H. Bywaters also attended this meeting. R. S. Westing, Jr., Extension Swine Specialist at the Virginia Poly¬ technic Institute, resigned from the Animal Husbandry Department effec¬ tive November 1 to work with the Augusta County, Virginia Farm Bureau as Agricultural Field Man. Dr. T. J. Marlowe has been appointed Asso¬ ciate Professor in Animal Husbandry Research at the Virginia Polytechnic Institute. He will do Record of Performance work with beef cattle. He received his Ph.D. degree from Oklahoma Agricultural and Mechanical College. Dr. Martin J. Burrus, formerly on the Animal Husbandry Staff, Oklahoma State, has been appointed Associate Professor in Animal Husbandry Re¬ search at Virginia Polytechnic Institute. He will be located at the Front Royal Station where he will be doing animal breeding work. Mr. Jack Taylor has been transferred to Virginia Polytechnic Institute from Front Royal to take the place of Frank McClaugherty, Instructor in Animal Husbandry, who was promoted to Director of the Field Station at Emory, Virginia. R. C. Carter, Animal Geneticist in Animal Husbandr\', has been recent- ly appointed on the newly formed technical committee which coordinates sheep research in the south. Pie will be Virginia representative on this regional planning. David Meyerhoeffer has been appointed Resaerch Instructor of Animal Plusbandry at Virginia Polytechnic Institute. Mr. Meyerhoeffer will be located at Front Royal. He received a B.S. degree in General Agricul¬ ture at Virginia Polytechnic Institute in June 1954. Mr. John Henry Carter has been appointed Research Instructor of Ani¬ mal Husbandry at the Tidewater Research Station. Mr. Carter received his B.S. degree from Virginia Polytechnic Institute in June 1954. Dr. C. M. Kincaid will give a paper on performance testing work at the November meeting of the American Society of Animal Production in Chicago. Dr. Tom J. Marlowe will present a paper on research in Dwarf¬ ism at the same meeting. A paper entitled “Correlation of Rapid Soil Tests with Chemical Com¬ position and Yield of Hay and Pasture Crops in Virginia” by R. K. Stivers, C. I. Rich, and R. E. Blaser of the Agronomy Department, Virginia Poly¬ technic Institute, was presented at the annual meeting of the American Society of Agronomy and Soil Science Society of America at St. Paul, Min¬ nesota, November 8-12, 1954. Wesley P. Judkins, Virginia Polytechnic Institute Astronomy, Mathematics, and Physics Section Professors Edward J. McShane and Gordon T. Whyburn attended the International Mathematics Conference in Amsterdam in August 1954. They 1955] News and Notes 61 were appointed by the National Science Foundation as representatives of the United States at this meeting. The Department of Astronomy at the University of Virginia held a NEIGHBORS MEETING on October 22=23 which was attended by some 30 astronomers from the eastern and southeastern sections of the country. Informal discussions were held on various topics in astronomy. Dr. Heinrich Eiclihorn, who received his Ph.D. at the University of Vienna, has joined the staff of the Leander=McCormick Observatory for the 1954-55 session. He holds a National Science Foundation fellowship and will study motions of stellar associations. Miss Marguerite Risley of Randolph Macon Women’s College is also working at the Leander-Mc- Cormick Observatory with members of the staff for the current session. Dr. Stephan Berko, who spent the past year at Princeton University as a National Research Foundation Post-doctoral Fellow, has joined the fac¬ ulty of the Department of Physics at the University of Virginia where lie will continue work in nuclear physics. Dr. John W. Stewart, who received his Ph.D. in June 1954 at Harvard University, has been awarded a post-doctoral fellowship in physics at the University of Adrginia. Dr. Stewart will continue his work on the com¬ pressibility of solidified gases at liquid helium temperatures. National Science Foundation Pre-doctoral Fellowship for the current session have been awarded to Messrs. John B. Breazeale and Melvin M. Levine, graduate students in physics at the University of Virginia. New basic research contracts have been awarded the Department of Physics of the University by the National Science Foundation and the Atomic Energy Commission. The National Science Foundation contract is for the sum of, $9,800.00 to support work by Professor J. W. Beams on molecular weight measurements by the iiltracentrifuge method. The Atomic Energy- Commission contract totalling $37,500.00 will support work by Professor Frank L. Hereford and Stephan Berko on interactions of polarized gamma rays. This program will include installation of a low energy, high cur¬ rent Van de Graaff machine. The Atomic Energy Commission has also awarded two other proposals for research contracts at the University of Virginia. Professors Nicolas Cabrera and Allan T. Gwathmey will re¬ ceive support for their work on nearly perfect crystals. Also the Ordnance Research Laboratory, which is associated with the Department of Physics, will receive support of work involving new centrifuge techniques. F. L. Hereford, University of Virginia Bacteriology Section The 199th meeting of the Washington Branch of the Society of Ameri¬ can Bacteriologists was held jointly with the Maryland and Virginia Branch¬ es on Saturday afternoon and evening, October 23, 1954, at the Army Medical Service Graduate School. The following program was presented. (1) Studies on the Mechanism of T-2 Bacteriophage Infection ■ — Roger M. Herriott, School of Hygiene and Public Health, Johns Hopkins Uni¬ versity. (2) The Sterilization of Culture Media Ingredients with Ethylene 62 The Virginia Journal of Science [January Oxide - Leo F. Judge, Michael J. Pelczar - Department of Bacteriology, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland. (3) Some Observations on the Nucleic Acids of Entozoic Amebae - Virginia J. Fuller, Angus M. Griffin - Department of Bacteriology, Hygiene and Preventive Medicine, George Washington School of Medicine, Wash., D. C. (4) Effect of Aeration Level on Sporulation of Aerobic Bacilli - Norman B. Roth, David H. Lively, and Howrad M. Hodge — - Camp Detrick, Frederick, Maryland. (5) A Paper in Reference to Virology - Thomas C. Ward, School of Hygiene and Public Health, Johns Hopkins University. (6) Xylose Dissimilation by Propionibacterhim pentasaceum - Wesley A. Volk, University of Virginia School of Medicine, Charlottesville, Virginia. (7) Tissue Culture in Microbiology — Karl Habel, Chief of Basic Studies Section Laboratory of Infection Diseases in the National Microbiological Institute of the National Institute of Health. J. Douglas Reid, Richmond Biology Section Mr. Heiden T. Cox, having spent a year on leave to serve as Deputy Executive Director of the American Institute of Biological Sciences, has returned to the Virginia Polytechnic Institute. Mr. Frederick S. Orcutt, who has been on leave of absence to serve as Professor of Bacteriology at the University of Hawaii, has returned to his position at the Virginia Polytechnic Institute. The Virginia Polytechnic Institute announces the completion of a new research laboratory for animal diseases which has been constructed on the Price’s Fork Road near Blacksburg. The research in the new labora¬ tory is directed by Mr. Wilson B. Bell. Mr. A. A. Muka joined the staff of the entomology section at the Vir¬ ginia Polytechnic Institute as associate professor. Mr. Muka was recently awarded the doctorate at Cornell University. Mr. Horton Hobbs, University of \hrfrinia, was elected a member of the American Society of Naturalists at its last meeting in recognition of his excellent contributions to the field of crayfish ecology, distribution and evolution. Mr. John Bayard Burch received the Master’s degree from the University of Richmond in June 1954 and is now working towards the doctorate at the University of Michigan. Charles M. Lankford, Jr., Commissioner oU Fisheries of Virginia, was unanimously elected Chairman of the Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Com¬ mission for the coming year at their meeting held at Baltimore. The Com¬ mission has a membership of fifteen Atlantic Coast states and meets amuaily to coordinate the fisheries research programs and to discuss legis¬ lation and other matters concerning the fisheries. The Commission was organized in 1942. The College of William and Mary was recently host to the Atlantic Estuarine Research Society. Members of the Societ)-, brought together by a common interest in the physics, chemistry, and biology of estuaries 1955] News and Notes 63 such as Chesapeake and Delaware bays, meet twice yearly to discuss re¬ search projects. The family of the late Professor W. D. Hoyt of Washington and Lee has given the Department of Biology an excellent research microscope in memory of Professor Hoyt. Mr. John E. Davis, Jr. has returned to the Biology Department of Washington and Lee as instructor in Biology. Mr. Davis attended Moun¬ tain Lake Biological Laboratory during the summer of 1954 where he was engaged in research leading toward the doctorate at the University of Virginia. ' ' Mr. Bertram B. Hanna joined the faculty of the Medical College of Virginia in September 1954 as an A. D. Williams fellow in the Depart¬ ment of Biology and Genetics. Mr. Hanna's research interests are popula¬ tion and medical genetics. The Mountain Lake Biological Station of the University of Virginia cele¬ brated its Silver Anniversary on July 17, 1954, The formal celebration was preceded by a social gathering at the Mountain Lake Hotel and open house at the Station. Professor Bruce D. Reynolds, Director of the Sta¬ tion presided at the formal program. The Invocation was given by the Reverend Ellison Smyth of Blacksburg, Virginia. Ivey F. Lewis, Dean of the College of Arts and Sciences, University of Virginia and formerly Director of the Station (retired), traced the history of the Station from its beginnings in the Thompson Cottage on the hotel grounds to the pres¬ ent modern stone laboratory. The principal address was delivered by Mr. C. E. Sunderlin, Deputy Director of the National Science Foundation, who spoke on the ^'Sinews of Science^ This address is the lead article in the present number of this Journal. The Benediction was pronounced by the Reverend Daniel B. Siiter of Eastern Mennonite College. The celebration was attended by many distinguished guests and former students of the Mountain Lake Biological Station. Robert T. Brumfield, Longwood College Chemistry Section Dr. Eugene D. Crittenden, Director of Research, Nitrogen Division, Allied Chemical and Dye Corporation, has been named by the Virginia Section of the American Chemical Society as the recipient of its Distin¬ guished Service Award, which is given annually for outstanding contribu¬ tions to the professional standing of chemists. Herbert Felix Sanders, Director of Science for the Martinsville School Division, was also selected by the Virginia Section to receive its second Distinguished Service Award, which is given for excellence in science teaching in the secondary schools of Virginia. These awards are made possible each year by a gift from Mrs. Henry K. McConnell of Richmond in memory of her husband, who was a former chairman of the Section and a recognized leader in industrial chemistry in the South. A number of Virginia chemists presented papers at the September meet¬ ing of the American Chemical Society held in New York. Dr. Frank A, 64 The Virginia Journal of Science I January Vingiello, with Alexej Borkovec and Joseph Shulman, Virginia Polytechnic Institute, discussed “The Synthesis of lO-Phenyl- 1,2-benzanthracene and the Three Isomeric lO-Monmetliyl-l, 2-benzanthracenes.” Dr. William P. Boyer, Director of Research, Virginia-Carolina Chemical Corporation, serv¬ ed as chairman of a symposium on “Resources for the Chemical Industry in the South Atlantic States” in which three other Virginians participated: Allan T. Gwathmey, University of \4rginia, spoke on “Research and Edu¬ cational Resources of the South Atlantic States”; Edward A. Wayne, First Vice-President of the Federal Reserve Bank of Richmond, presented “Fi¬ nancial Resources of the South Atlantic States”; Edwin Cox, Vice-President of the Virginia-Carolina Chemical Corporation, discussed “Chemical In¬ dustry in the South Atlantic States”. Mr. Cox was also luncheon speaker for the American Chemical Society Division of Fertilizer and Soil Chem¬ istry. His topic was “Plant Food Research - Evolution or Revolution”. Herschel S. Jenkins, also a Virginia-Carolina Chemical Corporation staff member, read a paper on “Proteins as Fiber-Forming Materials”, and Henry Leidheiser and Victor J. Kehrer, members of the Virginia Institute for Scientific Research, discussed the “Catalytic Decomposition of Carbon Monoxide on Large Metallic Single Crystals. James E. Worsham, Jr., with H. A. Levy and S. W. Peterson of the Oak Ridge National Laboratory, presented a paper on “Neutron Diffraction Investigation of the Positions of Hydrogen Atoms in Urea Crystals”. I3r. Worsham has recently joined the staff at the University of Richmond, transferring from Hampden-Syd- ney College. Dr. J. Stanton Pierce and A. G. Richardson of the University of Richmond gave a paper on the subject of “Tetrazolium Salts”. Repre¬ senting the University of Virginia, in addition to Dr. Gwathmey, were Dr. Alfred Burger, who with A. Chandler Schmalz presented a paper on “The Action of Hydrochloric and Nitric Acid on Some Derivatives of Phenothiazine”, Robert J. Gibbs and Alfred Chanutin, who discussed the “Denaturation of Human Plasma Albumin with Reference to pH and Ionic Strength”, and Dr. Robert E. Lutz and W. Bruce Black, whose paper was entitled “Ultraviolet Absorption Spectra of Chalcones - Partial Chromo- phores”. Dr. Burger also gave the Paul Ehrlich Centenary Memorial Lec¬ ture before the Division of Medicinal Chemistry. His talk was reprinted in the October 18 issue of Chemical and Engineering News. Additional publications which have been reported are the following: From Randolph-Macon Woman’s College, Julia T. Gary and Lucy W. Pickett, “The Far Ultraviolet Absorption Spectra of the Isomeric Butenes” in J. Chem. Phys., 22, 599 (1954); also by the same authors a similar' paper on isomeric hexenes, ihid., p. 1226. From Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Philip C. Scherer and Norbert J. Crookston, “Solvation of Cellu¬ lose Nitrate in Acetone- Water”, J. Polymer Sci., 14, 129 (1954); John W. Murray, “The Decomposition of Calcite and Aragonite in Caves”, /. GeoL, 62 (lfe4); Robert C. Krug and P. J. C. Tang, “The Preparation of Diakyl zinc Compounds”. /. Am. Chem. Soc., 76, 2262 (1954). From the Medi¬ cal College of Virginia, C. C. Clayton and J. D. Spain, “Reticulo-Endoi thelial System and Azo Dye Carcinogenesis”, Fed. Proc., 13, 193 (1954); J. C. Forbes, J. A. Board, and G. M. Duncan, “Adrenal Response of Ra>ty 1955] News and Notes 65 to Salicyiamide and Sodium Salicylate With and Without Para-Aminoben- zoic Acid”, Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol, and Med., 85, 37 (1954); J. C. Forbes, P. D. Camp, W. R. Jordan, O. M. Petterson, and C. Korn, “Serum Choles¬ terol Fractionation Studies”, Sou. Med. ]., 47, 226 (1954). Also G. W. James, L. D. Abbott, J. W. Brooks, and E. I. Evans, “The Anemia of Thermal Injury, III— Erythropoiesis and Hemoglobin Metabolism Studied with N^'-Glycine in Dog and Man”, J. Clin. Inv., 33, 150 (1954); G. W. James and L. D. Abbott, “Erythrocyte Destruction in Sickle Cell Anemia: Simultaneous N^’-Hemiii and N^"-Stercobilin Studies”, Clin. Res. Proc., 2, 57, (1954); L. D. Abbott and M. J. Dodson, “Inhibition of In Vitro Heme Synthesis From N’^-Glycine by 2-Ethyl-5-Methylbenzimidazole”, Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol, and Med., 86, 475 (1954). On the academic front a number of staff changes have occurred. At Hampden-Sydney College Dr. James M. Frederickson, formerly at Davis- Elkins College, has replaced Dr. T. H. Pearson as Head of the Chemistry Department. Dr. Pearson is now associated with the Ethyl Corporation in Louisiana. Charles W. Bondurant has also rejoined the Hampden- Sydney staff after a year of graduate study at Virginia Polytechnie Institute. A newcomer to the Biochemistry Department of the Medical College of Virginia is Dr. Richard L. Hardin. Dr. Hardin received his Doctor’s degree from the University of Wisconsin and taught formerly at the Uni¬ versity of Louisville Medical School. From Randolph-Macon Women’s College: Miss Helen V. Pashko, Instructor in Chemistry, has resigned to accept a position with Olin Industries in New Haven, Connecticut. Dr. Laura Bliss, Assistant Professor of Chemistry, has been granted a leave of absence and will study at Cambridge University in England this year. Her teaching duties will be taken over by Miss Julia T. Gary, who has joined the staff as an Instructor in Chemistry. Miss Gary is an alumna of Randolph-Macon and received her Master’s degree from Mount Holyoke. She taught at Mount Holyoke last year and was engaged in research there. Miss Gloria Sober, A.B. from the University of Pittsburgh, was also appointed as Instructor in Chemistry. Miss Sober has completed her work for her Master’s degree at Pittsburgh and will receive the degree in February. Dr. Nan V. Thornton, Chairman of the Chemistry Depart¬ ment, has returned from a leave of absence which she spent doing researdi at the University of Chicago. From Roanoke College Dr. Ashley Robey reports that Mrs. Leroy (Nor¬ ma B.) Moran has been added to the staff as an Instructor in Chemistry. Mrs. Moran received her B.S. degree from Lynchburg College and her M.S. degree from the University of Tennessee. Dr. Thomas C. Franklin, formerly at the University of Richmond, is now an Assistant Professor of Chemistry at Baylor University. His replacement, as noted previously, is Dr. James E. Worsham, Jr. Dr. Worsham holds a B.S. from Riehmond, a M.S. from \mnderbilt University, and a Ph.D. from Duke L^niversity. A recent addition to the staff at the University of Virginia is Dr. Loren G. Hepler, who will serve as an Assistant Professor. Dr. Hepler received his Ph.D. in Physical Chemistry from the University of California and has been working as a postdoctoral fellow at the University of Minnesota. Di. 66 The Virginia Journal of Science r January Nicholas Cabrera has been made Professor of Chemistry and Physics at Virginia. He was formerly an Associate Professor of Physics, but will now offer a course in quantum mechanics for chemists in alternate years. Dr. Ralph E. Thiers, Assistant Professor on leave of absence, is continuing his work in the Biophysics Research Laboratory at the Peter Bent Brigham Hospital in Boston. At Virginia Polytechnic Institute Dr. Russell E. Leed, who has been on official leave with the Atomic Energy Commission, has resigned his position as Associate Professor to accept a permanent appointment with the Atomic Energy Commission at Oak Ridge, Tenn, Edward C. Kramer, Instructor in Chemistry, has transferred to Clemson College. Dr. Ralph G. Steinhardt has joined the staff as an Associate Professor of Chemistry. He was formerly an Assistant Professor at Lehigh University, from which he received his B.S., M.S., and Ph.D. degrees. He also holds a B.S. degree in Chemical Engineering from Virginia Polytechnic Institute. Dr. Luther K. Brice has also been added to the Chemistry staff as an Assistant Pro¬ fessor. Dr. Brice has a B.A. degree from Harvard University, a M.A. from Dartmouth College, and has just completed requirements for his Ph.D. at Duke University. His specialty is physical chemistry. Among the changes in personnel taking place on the industrial scene the following have been reported by the Virginia-Carolina Chemical Corpo¬ ration, Richmond. Dr. J. Samuel Gillespie, Jr., former Group Leader with the Fiber Research Unit, has been transferred to the Fiber Division in New York. Charles L. Harowitz has been promoted to Group Leader of Organic Research in Richmond. Paul H. Coffey and Taylor G. King, both of the University of Richmond, have been added to the research staff, the former with the Organic Research Group and the latter with the Fiber Unit, John M. Daniek who received his bachelor’s degree from the Uni¬ versity of Virginia and his master’s degree from the Georgia Institute of Technology, has joined the chemical engineering staff, and Leslie H. Jen¬ kins has been appointed Senior Chemist with the Inorganic Division. Jenkins received both his baclielor’s and doctorate from the University of North Carolina. Dr. John P. Plorton has been added to the Develop¬ ment Department. He is a graduate of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and was formerly associated with the Nationa] Dairies Research Laboratories. Cone urrently with a physical expansion in their research facilities a number of additions to the research staff have been announced by the American Tobacco Company in Richmond. These include Miss Barbara Anne Eanes, B.S. Mary Washington College, as Analytical Chemist; Mrs. Darien Dorn Mahaffee, B.A. Lander College and M.S. University of South Carolina and J. Scott Osborne, M.S. Wake Forest College, both as Re¬ search Clienusts; as Research Biochemist, Burton M. Pogell, B.A. Johns Hopkins Un versity and Ph.D. University of Wisconsin. Also added to the staff as Research Biochemist is Dr. William A. Peabody. Dr. Pea¬ body holds a degree in Chemical Engineering from the Colorado School of Mines and a M.S. and Ph.D. from the University of Colorado. He 1955] News and Notes 67 was formerly associated with the Valentine Meat Juice Company in Rich¬ mond. An addition to the building of the American Tobacco Company Re¬ search Laboratory is now being constructed and is expected to be com¬ pleted by the end of January 1955. The new addition will double approxi¬ mately the present laboratory space, and on completion will be used to house the research departments. Control work will be coordinated en¬ tirely within the present building. The new quarters have been care¬ fully planned to provide the most modern facilities and equipment needed for the Laboratory’s work. Research on tobacco and tobacco smoke will be facilitated by the latest analytical methods, including mass spectrometry and emission spectrography. Equipment for radiological studies will also be available. The Company is also financing through a grant of 120,000 dollars the construction of a greenhouse at the Medical College of Virginia, which will be used for growing radioactive tobacco. The structure will consist of an ordinary greenhouse with a smaller sealed chamber for grow¬ ing radioactive plants. Tobacco uniformly labelled with C“ will be ob¬ tained by growing the tobacco plants in an atmosphere containing the radioactive isotope Carbon 14 as carbon dioxide. The whole plant or individual compounds will then be used in the biological research pro¬ gram sponsored by the American Tobacco Company at the Medical Col¬ lege of Virginia and also in the chemical and physical studies of tobacco and tobacco smoke conducted in its own laboratory. The greenhouse will be one of the few in this country with facilities for growing radioactive plants. Some other items of interest. Herschel S. Jenkins, Section Leader of Virginia-Carolina’s Fiber Research Section participated in the Fourth Cana¬ dian Textile Seminar at Queen’s University, Kingston, Ontario in Septem¬ ber. His paper, “Textile Fibers From Proteins”, has been published in “The Book of Papers of the Fourth Canadian Textile Seminar of the Tex¬ tile Technical Federation of Canada”. The Virginia-Carolina Chemical Corporation is continuing its fellowships at the University of Virginia for research on organic-phosphorus compounds under the direction of Dr. Alfred Burger. The Company also sponsors fellowships for graduate study on pesticides at Cornell, Rutgers, and Loui¬ siana State University. The Army Ordnance Works is sponsoring two projects at Virginia Poly¬ technic Institute under the direction of Dr. Philip C. Scherer and one under the supervision of Dr. Frank A. Vingiello. The Air Force Com¬ mission is sponsoring a project under Dr. Robert C, Krug. Dr. F. B. Clough, Asssitant Professor of Chemistry at Virginia Polytechnic Institute served as a Research Participant at Oak Ridge during the summer. Miss Imogene Claiborne, Assistant in Chemistry at Randolph-Macon Women’s College, received a Grant-In-Aid from Duke University for study during the summer months. Dr. James E. Worsham, University of Richmond, has been awarded a grant from the Research Corporation for the study of dipole moments of organic compounds, and Miss Velta Erdmanis, a graduate of the Uni-^ 68 The Virginia. Journal of Science [ January versity of Richmond, has been awarded a research assistantship made avail¬ able by the same agency. Mr. James W. Cook has been awarded a Pur- year fellowship for graduate study in chemistry. From the University of Virginia: A copy of a Technical Report entitled “Survey of the Literature on Antioxdants and Anticorrosion Additives for Lubricants at Elevated Temperatures” by Drs. A. F. Benton, Alfred Bur¬ ger, and J. W. Cole has been presented to the Chemistry Library. This report results from an Air Force Project which is entering its fourth year. Dr. J. W. Cole is the Principal Investigator. Dr. Cole is also serving as Consultant on the Advisory Panel for the Division of Seientific Personnel and Education of the National Science F'oundation. Last year he was a member of the Fellowship Screening Panel of the National Research Coun¬ cil. Dr. Allan T. Gwathmey of the University faculty was invited to present a paper in Paris to the Soeiete de Chimie Physique but was not able to make the trip. In his absence a paper by Drs. Gwathmey and R. E. Cunningham was read before the Society for the authors by Mme. Adrienne Weill. Madam Weill, who was a pupil of Marie Curie, spent several days at the Universit}^ last year and gave two lectures on Marie Curie and on the discovery of radium to the General Chemistry Class. Dr. John H. Yoe, Chairman of the Chemistry Department of the Uni¬ versity of Virginia, Dr. A. T. Gwathmey, and Dr. Bruce Wagner attended the Gordon Conference last August. Dr. Wagner will attend the Massa¬ chusetts Institute of Technology next year as a postdoctoral fellow, work¬ ing with Dr. Carl Wagner. As a guest of the General Eleetric Company- Dr. Yoe also visited prior to the American Chemical Society Meeting In New York the research laboratories and industrial plants of the General Electric Company in the Schenectady area. At the American Chemical Society Meeting he was elected to the Council Policy Committee for a term of three years, beginning the first of January. Dr. Robert E. Lutz and Dr. James W. Cole will present papers at the American Chemical Society Southeastern Regional Meeting which meets in Birmingham in October. Dr. E. S. Gilreath, Associate Professor of Chemistry at Washington and Lee University is the author of a text entitled “Qualitative Analysis Using Semimicro Methods” published in September by McGraw-Hill. Dr. John H. Wise, also of the Washington and Lee staff held an appointment at Oak Ridge during the summer. He was engaged in work on high-resolu- tion spectroscopy. A conference on “Undergraduate Research in Chemistry”, sponsored by the National Seience Foundation, was held at Washington and Lee last May. Dr. L. J. Desha, Head of the Chemistry Department, served as Chairman of the Planning Committee and as the Washington and Lee Representative. Thirty-two colleges and universities selected from all parts of the country participated in the conference. The College of William and Mary, with Dr. William G. Guy, Head of the Chemistry Department, as its representative, was the only other Virginia school represented at the Conference. Teachers who are interested in the problems of undergrad- 1955] News and Notes 69 Laboratory and Industrial Chemicals Chemical Equipment Complete Stocks — Prompt Service Post Office Box 828 DURHAM, NORTH CAROLINA ANALYTICAL BALANCES COLORIMETERS HOT PLATES MICROSCOPES pH METERS REFRACTOMETERS TUBING CENTRIFUGES LABORATORY REAGENTS COORS PORCELAIN FILTER PAPERS KIMBLE GLASSWARE OVENS PYREX GLASSWARE SPECTROPHOTOMETERS IRONWARE 70 The Virginia Journal of Science [January uate research will certainly find the Report of the Conference to be stimu¬ lating and worthwhile reading. Carl J. Likes, Virginia Institute for Scientific Research Engineering Section After 19 years as head of the Chemical Engineering Department at Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Dr. Frank C. Vilbrandt has relinquished this administrative position to Dr. Fred W. Bull who has been on the faculty there since 1938. Dr. Vilbrandt will continue to serve as Professor of Chemical Engineering. Dr, Fred Bull attended the seminar on teaching methods held by the General Electric Company in Schenectady, New York from August 30 to September 4. Dr. Dale S. Davis of the Chemical Engineering Department of Virginia Polytechnic Institute is the contributor of a section entitled “Nomography"’ in the Chemical Business Handbook recently published by McGraw-Hill, Dr. Nelson F. Murphy of the Chemical Engineering Department at Virginia Polytechnic Institute addressed the New York Section of the American Electroplaters’ Society in Syracuse, New York on September 17. In August, Dean John W. Whittemore of Virginia Polytechnic Institute and Drs. Fred Bull, and P. H. Watkins from the Chemical Engineering Department attended the meeting of the south central group of the Na¬ tional Council for Stream Improvement held in Lynchburg. Dean Whittemore also attended a meeting held in Minneapolis, Min¬ nesota of the National Council of State Boards for Engineering Examiners as representative of the National Institute of Ceramic Engineers. Dr. Lawrence R. Quarles, Assistant Dean of the School of Engineering of the University of Virginia, has been relieved temporarily of part of his teaching duties in order to serve as consultant to the Oak Ridge Na¬ tional Laboratory on problems involving control of the homogeneous reac¬ tor. Dr. Otis L. Updike, Jr., of the Chemical Engineering Department of the University of Virginia is on leave of absence for the session of 1954- 1955 and is employed by the Naval Air Missile Testing Center at Point Mugu, California. He is obtaining valuable experience in the design and construction of electrical computers and their use in solving engineering problems. Dr. Robert M. Hubbard of the Chemical Engineering Department of the University of Virginia attended the American Institute of Chemical En¬ gineers First International Nuclear Energy Congress in Ann Arbor, Michi¬ gan in June. Mr. Tilton E. Shelburne and Mr. Phillip Melville of the Virginia Coun¬ cil for Highway Investigation and Research at the University of Virginia, and Mr. Alfred Manor of the Virginia Department of Highways attended the Annual Highway Conference at the Virginia Military Institute in Octo¬ ber. Mr, Melville presented a paper on “Quality Concrete,” Mr. Phillip 1955] News and Notes 72 The Virginia Journal of Science [January Melville spent the months of June and July in Europe and visited Eng¬ land, France, and Italy during that time. Robert M. Hubbard, University of Virginia Geology Section Of much interest to all members of the Geology Section was the pub¬ lication in October, 1954 of the first issue of Virginia Minerals, the new quarterly of the Virginia Division of Geology. Upon request, the Divi¬ sion of Geology will be happy to put your name on its mailing list to receive future copies of Virginia Minerals. The new publication is design¬ ed to acquaint the public with the mineral resources of Virginia and to provide geologic information leading to their exploration. ‘'Geology and Oil Possibilities of the Rose Hill District, Lee County, \drginia” by Ralph L. Miller and J. Osborn Fuller is slated to appear soon as Bulletin 71 of the Virginia Division of Geology. The Geology Department of Washington and Lee University is form¬ ing a collection of specimens of minerals and rocks representing radioactive deposits throughout the United States. Radioactive specimens collected to date represent about 35 eastern and 20 western localities. Radiometric instruments in the Department consist (T a Precision Model HI Scintillator, an El-Tronics Model SM-3 Geiger counter, a Mineral Engineering Co. Model 600-A Geiger counter for making radiometric assays, a Tracerlab Model SU-7 Geiger counter, and long-wave and short-wave ultraviolet Mineralights. Titanium-bearing ores in -he \dnton-Stewartsville area of Virginia were investigated during August 1954, by C. E. Sears of the \hrginia Polytechnic Institute Geology Department. The Bush-Hutchins lead near Vinton was extended about a quarter of a mile to the southwest. An investigation was also made of a 20-foot outcrop of what appears to be a high-grade titaniferous ore on the Mcleod farm southeast of Stewartsville. Further Investigation of these deposits using magnetic equipment to supplement surface geology is planned in the near future. Dr. Jean Lowry, geologist of the Virginia Division of Geology, spoke on Caves of Virginia at a meeting of the Plolden SocieU^ of Virginia Poly¬ technic Institute on September 21, 1954. Her talk was illustrated by nu¬ merous kodachrome slides showing many interesting cave formations. “The Deposition of Calcite and Aragonite in Caves” by Dr. John W. Murray, professor of Chemistry, Virginia Polytechnic Institute appeared in the September 1954 issue of The Journal of Geology. During the past summer Wayne E. Moore of the 54rginia Polytechnic Institute Geology Department began a study of the sands associated with the coastal terraces of Virginia. The relationship of coastal geomorphology to the properties of the sands is being investigated. The sedimentation tank at the Virginia Polytechnic Institute has been fitted with a wave-maker that can generate weaves of three different ampli¬ tudes at each of three different frequencies. The tank and wave apparatus are being used to study sedimentation processes of rivers and coasts. W. D. Lowry, Virginia Polytechnic Institute 1955] News and Notes AMERICA’S LEADING MANUFACTURER OF CIGARETTES 74 The Virginia Journal of Science 1 January Psychology Section A large number of Virginia psychologists attended the annual meetings of the American Psychological Association in New York, September 1-8. William M. Hinton and Stanley B. Williams were delegates from Virginia at the workshop on legislation sponsored by the Conference of State Psychological Associations. Mr. Hinton also represented Virginia at the two meetings of the State Board of Examiners. Frank W. Finger was chairman of a symposium, New Courses in IntroductoiA^ Psychology, spon¬ sored by the Division on the Teaching of Psychology. L. Starling Reid chaired a symposium, The Place of the Concept of Drive in Motivation Theory, sponsored by the Division of General Psychology. Richard H. Henneman presented a paper on the program of the Division of Militar}^ Psychologists. Frank A. Geldard is president-elect of the Division of Ex¬ perimental Psychology. Frank W. Finger is chairman of the Committee on Undergraduate Education of the Education and Training Board of the American Psychological Association. During the New York meetings of the American Psychological Associa¬ tion, there was held an organization meeting of a new regional psychologi¬ cal association representing the states below the Mason-Dixon Line and east of the Mississippi River, The new association will be known as the Southeastern Psychological Association. Virginia psychologists have been invited to affiliate with this association. Officers of the Richmond Psychological Association for 1954-55 are: Dr. Cyril Mill, Richmond Public Schools, president; Dr. Robert Filer, University of Richmond, vice-president; and Dr. Jacob Silverberg, McGuire Veterans Hospital, secretary-treasurer. Several personnel changes have occurred in the Psychology Department at the University of Virginia. Frank W. Finger has returned after a year’s leave of absence at Yale on a Ford Foundation Fellowship. Kenneth E. Lloyd, a recent Ph.D. from Ohio State University, has been appointed assistant professor of psychology. Raymond E. Bice has been appointed director of admissions at the University. Evan G. Pattishall has been ap¬ pointed assistant professor of educational research in the School of Edu¬ cation. Richard H. Henneman was promoted from associate professor to professor of psychology, and L. Starling Reid, from assistant professor to associate professor of psychology. Miss Marjorie Brownell is on leave of absence from Randolph-Macon Woman’s Gollege to do advanced graduate work at the University of Massachusetts. Mr. Paul Mountjoy, of the University of Indiana, is fill¬ ing her place in the departoent. Richard H. Henneman, University of Virginia Science Teachers Section A conference on Biology Teaching, sponsored by the National Associa¬ tion of Biology Teachers in cooperation with the American Institute of 1955] News and Notes 75 Biological Sciences and made possible by a grant from the National Sci¬ ence Foundation, was held in Gainesville, Florida, during the latter part of August and early September. Approximately 100 persons - including research biologists, high school and college teachers of biology, and professional educators - from IT states, the Distriet of Columbia, and the Canal Zone were invited and participated in the discussions. Representatives were also present from the American Association for the Ad¬ vancement of Seience, the National Re¬ search Council, and the National Sci¬ ence Foundation, The Conference was under the direc¬ tion of Dr. Richard Weaver of the Uni¬ versity of Michigan, and Mr. George Jeffers of Longwood College, Mr. Samuel L. Meyer of Florida State Uni¬ versity, Mr. Ned Bingham of the Uni¬ versity of Florida, and Mr. Hugh Stick¬ ler of Florida State University served as staff members. Delegates from Virginia were Miss Samuella Crim of Broadway High School, Miss Susie V. Floyd of Newport News High School, Mr. Horton H. Hobbs of the University of Vii'ginia, Mr. Jeffers, Mr. Charles E. Packard of Randolph-Macon, Ashland, Mr. J. V. Parnell of Virginia State College, and Mr. Percy H. Warren of Madison Col¬ lege. Caroline Gambrill, Waynesboro Statistics Section Dr. D. B. Duncan has resigned his position as professor of statistics at the Virginia Polytechnic Institute effective December 31, 1954, and has accepted a position as professor and statistical consultant at the University of Florida in Gainesville. Dr. R. A. Bradley has been granted a leave of absence from the Vir¬ ginia Polytechnic Institute from February 1 to May 31. During this peri¬ od, he will be a visiting professor in the Department of Mathematics and Applied Statistics at Rutgers University. Dr. John E. Freund, who has been a visiting professor at the Virginia Polytechnic Institute since September of 1954 and on leave of absenee from Alfred University, has resigned his position at Alfred in order to accept a permanent position at the Virginia Polytechnic Institute. COMPARE MARCHANT Feature For Feature • Push-Button Multiplication ^ Complete 3-dial Proof 9 Automatic Division Clearance Model EFA NEARBY OFFICES IN: HARRISONBURG RICHMOND NORFOLK NEWPORT NEWS DANVILLE ROANOKE LYNCHBURG AS NEAR TO YOU AS YOUR TELEPHONE SALES and SERVICE Throughout the World MARCHANT Calculators 76 The Virginia Journal of Science [January The following members of the Statistics Department of the Virginia Polytechnic Institute attended and presented papers at the joint session at Montreal, Canada, Septmeber 10-13: Dr. Boyd Harshbarger, “2^ Fac¬ torial in a Latinized Rectangular Lattice Design”; Dr. George L. Edgett, “Multiple Regression with Missing Observations Among the Independent Variables”; Dr. Ralph A. Bradley, “A Note on the T-Distribution for Sam¬ ples from a Bi-Modal Population and a Skew Population”; Dr. William A. Thompson, “A Topic in Variance Components Analysis”; Dr. Paul N. Somerville, “Optimum Sampling in Multinomial Populations”; Dr. David B. Duncan, “Simultaneous Confidence Intervals Derived from Multiple Range and Multiple F. Tests”; Mr. Hale S. Sweeny, “Analysis of Experi¬ ments with Correlated Observations and Heterogeneous Variances”; Dr. John E. Freund, and Mr. Thomas S. Russell. Dr. William A. Thompson, associate professor of statistics at the Virginia Polytechnic Institute and principal investigator of a contract sponsored by the Quartermaster Corps of the United States Army, received a Doctor of Philosophy degree in Statistics from the University of North Carolina in August 1954. Dr. William E. Cook has resigned his position at the Richmond Profes¬ sional Institute and has accepted a position with Alton State Hospital. Alton, Illinois. The following are recent publications of members of the Department of Statistics of the Virginia Polytechnic Institute: “Statistical Methods Ap¬ plied to Highway Research Experimentation”, by D. B. Duncan, Froc. Highway Research Board, 33, 1954; “Multiple Range and Multiple F Tests”, by D. B. Duncan, Biometrics, II, 1955; “Rank Analysis of Incom¬ plete Block Designs, Additional Tables for the Method of Paired Com¬ parisons,” by R. A. Bradley, Biovietrika, 41, 319, December 1954; “Incom- jilete Block Rank Analysis: On the Appropriateness of the Model for a Method of Paired Comparisons”, by R. A. Bradley, Biometrics, 10, 375, September 1954; “A 2 x 2 Factorial with Paired Comparisons”, by R. A. Bradley and R. M. Abelson, Biometrics, 10, December 1954; “Some Prob¬ lems of Optimum Sampling”, by P. N. Somerville, Biometrika, December 1954, Parts 3 and 4, Vol. 41. Lionel Weiss, University of Virginia The Annual Subscription rate is $3.00, and the cost of a single ^number, $1.00. Reprints are available only if ordered when galley proof is returned. All orders except those involving exchanges should be ad¬ dressed to Boyd Harshbarger, Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Blacksburg, Virginia. The University of Virginia Library has exclusive exchange ar¬ rangements, and communications relative to exchange should be addressed ■^to The Librarian, Alderman Library, University of Virginia, Charlottes- ville, Virginia. Notice To Contributors Contributions to the Journal should be addressed to Horton H. Hobbs, Jr., Miller School of Biology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia. If any preliminary . notes have been published on the subject which is submitted to the editors, a statement to that effect must accompany the manuscript. Manuscripts must be submitted in triplicate, typewritten in double spacing on standard X 11" paper, with at least a one inch margin on all sides. Manuscripts are limited to seven pages, with the proviso that if additional pages are desired, the author may obtain them at cost. Division of the manuscript into subheadings must follow a consistent plan, and be held to a minimum. 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Instead, using the above citations, where a reference is desired: either “Sniffen (1940)”, ‘‘Sniffen, 1940: 186)”, or “Sniffen (1940) states that . . .” Explanations of figures. Graphs, etc., should be typed on separate pages. All figures V, .should be numbered consecutively beginning with the first text figure and continuing through the plates. If figures are to be inserted in the text this should be clearly indi- cated by writing “Figure — ” at the appropriate place in the margin. Illustrations, including lettering, should be arranged so that on reduction they will ' not exceed the dimen.sions of the maximum size of a printed page, 4%" x and . BO that they are well balanced on the page. The Journal will furnish the author with ':y one plate (halitone or line reproduction) or its equivalent; additional figures, colored T illustrations or lithographs may be used only if the author makes a grant covering the cost oF production. Original drawings (which must be done in black drawing ink) V not photographs of drawings, should accompany the manuscript. Photographs should not be used if a line and dot (strippled) drawing will suffice. If photographic prints are •; to be used they should be glossy, sharp and show good contrast. Drawings not neatly executed and labeled (do not use a typewriter), or which are submitted on yellow or „ yellowish-white paper will not be accepted. “ Galley Proofs and engraver’s proofs of figures are sent to the author for correction. Co.st.s of excessive changes from the original manuscript mu.st be defi’ayed by the author. OFFICERS OF THE VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE Irving G. Foster, President Walter S. Flory, Jr., President-Elect Foley F. Smith, Secretary-Treasurer COUNCIL (Board of Trustees) L. W. Jarman (1955) William Hinton (1959) S. B. Williams (1956) Sidney S. Negus (1957) Byron N. Cooper (1958) Lloyd C. Bird Paul M. Patterson Allan T. Gwathmey Marcellus Stow Boyd Harshbarger Horton H. Hobbs, Jr. A JOURNAL ISSUED QUARTERLY BY . THE VIRGINIA academy OF SCIENCE P'S". 73 MAY171£ pBRAfCi. £5 B, New Series April, 1955 No. 2 VoL. 6 No. 2 April, 1955 THE VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Published Four Times a Year: In January, April, July, and September, by The Virginia Academy of Science Printed by The Giles County Virginian, Pearisburg, Va. CONTENTS Pages Inhibition of in vitro Heme Synthesis from N^'^-Glycine by 2,5-Dime- thylbenzimidazole, 5,6-Dim ethylbenzimadazole and Related Com¬ pounds — Lynn D. Abbott and Mary J. Dodson . 77 The Eggs of the Slimy Salamander in Isle of Wight County, Virginia —John Thornton Wood and Roger Henry Rageot . . 85 A Simplified Method for the Determination of Azo Dyes in Tissues, Urine and Feces — J. D. Spain and C. C. Clayton . 88 Tlie Stereographic Projection of Crystallographic Angles of Beta-tin — Henry D. Leidheiser, Jr . 94 A Note on Spore Germination in Psilotum nudum — David W. Bierhorst . 96 News and Notes . 97 Program of the Thirty-third Annual Meeting of the Virginia Academy of Science . 108 EDITORIAL BOARD Boyd Harshbarger, Editor-in-Chief Horton H. Hobbs, Jr., Technical Editor Mary E. Humphreys, Assistant Technical Editor Richard W. Irby, Jr., Advertising Manager W. P. Judkins Robert T. Brumfield Robert Hubbard Richard H. Henneman Section Editors F. L. Hereford Carl J. Likes W. D. Lowry Caroline Gambill J. Douglas Reid James B. Patton, Jr. Ebbe C. Hoff Lionel Weiss Entered as second-class matter January 15, 1950, at the post office at Blacksburg, Virginia, under the Act of March 3, 1879. Subscription — $3 per volume. Published at Blacksburg, Virginia. Mailed April 23, 1955 THE VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE VoL. 6, New Series April, 1955 No. 2 Inhibition of in vitro Heme Synthesis from N“-GIycine by 2,5-Dimethylbenzimidazole, 5,6"Dimethylbenzimidazole and Related Compounds' Lynn D. Abbott, Jr. and Mary J. Dodson Department of Biochemistry, Medical College of Virginia, Richmond 5,6-Dimethylbenzimidazole is a part of the vitamin Bio molecule. Emer¬ son and associates (1950) studied the vitamin Bia-like activity of this and related compounds when fed to rats on diets devoid of animal protein and containing thyroid powder. They noted that, unlike 5,6-dimethyl- benzimidazole which had vitamin Bia-like growth activity, 2,5-dimethyl- benzimidazole appeared to act as a growth depressant. This property was not exhibited by benzimidazole itself or by any of the other mono- or dimethylbenzimidazoles studied. They remarked that 2,5-dimethylben- zimidazole might have “inhibitor activity”. Because of the chemical rela¬ tionship of 2,5-dimethylbenzimidazole to the benzimidazole moiety of vita¬ min Bi2 and to the purines, we have investigated its effect on the in vitro synthesis of heme by chicken erythrocytes. The present studies indicate that 2,5-dimethylbenzimidazole is a potent inhibitor of the utilization of glycine for heme synthesis in chicken erythro¬ cytes incubated in vitro. Investigation of related compounds indicated that benzimidazole, the 2-methyl- and the 5-methylbenzimidazole had some, but not comparable, inhibitory effects in this system. Since the 5-methyl derivative appeared to be somewhat more effective, 5,6-dimethyl- benzimidazole was investigated and found to be equally as effective as 2,5-dimethylbenzimidazole. 2-Ethyl-5-methylbenzimidazole was found to be the most effective inhibitor of all. The chemical relationship of these compounds to each other, and to vitamin B12 and the purines, is illustrated in Figure 1. EXPERIMENTAL The nucleated erythrocytes of avian blood have been shown to incorpo¬ rate N^^ from labeled glycine into the protoporphyrin of hemoglobin which 1 Presented at the 32nd annual meeting of the Virginia Academy of Science, Charlottes¬ ville, May 7, 1964. This paper was awarded the J. Shelton Horsley Research Award for 1954 and appears at the request of the Editors of the Virginia Journal of ScienceL Studies with the methyl-substituted benzimidazoles were published in the Journal of Biological Chemistry) [211 (846), December, 1954], and those with 2-ethyl-5-methylbenzimidazole appeared in the Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine [86 (475), July, 1954]. * Paper received November 15, 1964. 78 The Virginia Journal of Science [April can be isolated as N^“-labeled hemin after incubation of duck blood with N^“-glycine (Shemin et aL, 1948, 1950). In the present experiments we have used chicken blood in this way as an in vitro biological test system for the study of hemoglobin synthesis. Twenty ml. blood samples were incubated with the experimental compound and 25 mg. glycine containing 31 atom per cent ( Schoenheimer et ah, 1939) in 50 ml. Erlenmeyer flasks with constant shaking for 24 hours in a water bath at 37° C. In each experiment the effect on heme syn¬ thesis of the substance studied was determined by comparison with a control sample of the same blood incubated with N^^-glycine only at the same time under identical conditions. Hemin was isolated as described by Shemin and Rittenberg (1946) and recrystallized according to Fischer (1941). Hemin from each blood sample was analyzed for content in a mass spectrometer. Each of duplicate samples was compared with tank nitrogen as a reference standard and the atom per cent excess over tank nitrogen determined. |c53H77N|20|3PCoj VITAMIN B.o BENZIMIDAZOLE 2- METHYL¬ S' METHYL— 2.5- DIMETHYL— 5.6- OIMETHYL— 2- ETHYL-5-METHYL— Figure I. — Benzimidazole derivatives studied and their relationship to the vitamin B12 and purine structures. RESULTS In our previous studies it was determined that the concentration of isolated hemin was the same in the test and control samples if a supple- 1955] Inhibition of in vitro Heme Synthesis 79 mentary compound did not affect the incorporation of from N^^-glycine into heme (Abbott et ah, 1952). In the present experiments, however, a progressive decrease in hemin content was noted with increasing amounts of 2,5“dimethylbenzimidazole (Table I). In the presence of 10 mg. (.003M) 2,5-dimethylbenzimidazoIe (Exps. 2,3,4) the incorporation of was decreased considerably, whereas with 15 mg. (.005M) block¬ ing of isotope incorporation was almost complete (Exps. 5,6). Inhibition was slight with 5 mg. (Exp. 1) but complete with 20 mg. (Exps. 7,8). Addition of vitamin Bia, either 15 /xg. or 100 /xg. (Exps. 3,5), or of 25 mg. folic acid (Exp. 6), did not alter the effect of 2,5-dimethylben- zimidazole; the content of the hemin was the same as with 2,5-dime- thylbenzimidazole alone. In Exp. 7 complete inhibition by 20 mg. 2,5- dimethylbenzimidazole was compared with the lesser effect of 20 mg. adenine. Exps. 9, 12 and 15 show that 15 mg. benzimidazole had some inhibitory effect which was not comparable to that obtained with the same amount of the 2,5-dimethyl derivative. The lesser effect of 20 mg. of benzimidazole compared with 20 mg. of the 2,5-dimethyl derivative is seen in Exp. 8. Similarly, 2-methylbenzimidazole (Exps. 10, 11 and 12) had a slight effect which was comparable to that of benzimidazole (Exp. 12). That this effect was real however, is indicated in Exp. 11 in which an additional flask incubated with 15 mg. orotic acid showed no difference from the control sample. The 5-methyl derivative (Exp. 13) had a greater effect than either benzimidazole or the 2-methyl deriva¬ tive (Exp. 12) although not so great as that with the same amount of 2,5-dimethylbenzimidazole (Exps. 5,6). This suggested the importance of the 5 position and 5,6-dimethylbenzimidazole was obtained from Dr. Karl Folkers and studied. It was found to be equally as effective as 2,5-dimethylbenzimidazole in blocking incorporation of isotope into heme (Exps. 14-17). Inhibition was almost complete with 15 mg. and com¬ plete with 20 mg. (Exps. 16,17). The formic acid salt of 5,6-dimethyl- benzimidazole and the free base were both inhibitory (Exps. 14-17). Experiments 18-21 show that 2-ethyl-5-methylbenzimidazole was con¬ siderably more inhibitory than 2,5-dimethylbenzimidazole. Thus 5 mg. (.0017M), which produced minimal (18%) inhibition with 2,5-dimethyl- benzimidazole, gave marked (67%) inhibition with the 2-ethyl-5-methyl derivative (Exp. 18). Ten mg. 2-ethyl-5-methylbenzimidazole (.003 M) gave complete inhibition whereas this required 20 mg. 2,5-dimethylben¬ zimidazole (Exps. 19 and 20). Two mg. 2-ethyl-5-methylbenzimidazole (.0006 M) produced approximately the same degree of inhibition as 20 mg. benzimidazole (.0085 M). Thus 2-ethyl-5-methylbenzimidazole was as effective as 14 times the concentration of benzimidazole, and at the .0016 M level the percentage decrease in uptake from the control experiment was about 4 times greater with the 2-ethyl-5-methyl deriva¬ tive than with 2,5-dimethylbenzimidazole. Complete inhibition occurred with half the amount required by 2,5-dimethylbenzimidazole. 80 The Virginia Journal of Science [April DISCUSSION It is apparent that 2,5-dimethylbenzimidazole, 5,6-dimethylbenzimida- zole, and 2-ethyl-5-methylbenzimidazole prevent the incorporation of from N^'^-glycine into heme by chicken erythrocytes when incubated in vitro as described. These were more effective than adenine and at con¬ centrations much lower than we found previously with sodium fluoride (Abbott et ah, 1952). A slight, but not comparable, effect was exhibited by benzimidazole and the 2-methyl derivative, and 5-methylbenzimidazole had an effect intermediate between that of benzimidazole and 2,5-dime- thylbenzimidazole. Substitution of a methyl group in the 5 position appar¬ ently increased the inhibitory effect of benzimidazole; this was enhanced markedly by further methyl substitution in the 2 or 6 positions, and to an even greater extent by substituiton of an ethyl group in the 2 posi¬ tion. The mechanism whereby these compounds interfere with the introduc¬ tion of from glycine into heme during in vitro incubation of chicken erythrocytes is not known. In previous studies we found inhibition to occur with certain enzyme inhibitors such as fluoride (Abbott et al., 1952) and dinitrophenol. 5,6-Dimethyibenzimidazole is a part of the vitamin Bi2 molecule and is related structurally to part of the riboflavin molecule. It has been found to possess inhibitory properties for the vitamin B12- requiring organisms Lactobacillus lactis Dorner, Lactobacillus leichmannii, and Etiglena gracilis (Hendlin et al., 1951). Benzimidazole itself has been found to be a purine (Woolley, 1944) and nucleic acid (Klotz et al., 1948) antagonist, active in tissue cultures as a growth inhibitor of vaccinia (Thompson, 1947), psittacosis (Morgan, 1952) and poliomyelitis viruses (Brown, 1952). Recently Brown, et al. (1953) reported that benzimidazole prolonged the incubation period of infection and reduced mortality in experimental poliomyelitis in mice. TABLE 1. — Effect of 2,5-Dimethylbenzimidazole and Related Compounds on Incorporation of from N^^-Glycine into heme by Erythrocytes of Chicken Blood During in vitro Incubation concentration in hemin * Experiment Control Test Supplement t atom per cent excess 1 .076 .066 5mg 2,5-dimethylbenzimidazole 2 .066 .028 lOmg 2,5-dimethylbenzimidazole 3 .060 .035 lOmg 2,5-dimethylbenzimidazoie .036 lOmg 2,5-dimethylbenzimidazole -f- 15[ig vit. Bi2 4 .066 .041 lOmg 2,5-dimethylbenzimidazole 5 .071 .009 I5mg 2,5-dimethylbenzimidazole .009 I5mg 2,5-dimethylbenzimidazole -f lOOfig vit. Bi2 6 .073 .017 15mg 2,5-dimethylbenzimidazole .017 I5mg 2,5-dimethylbenzimidazole + 25mg folic acid 1955] Inhibition of in vitro Heme Synthesis 81 concentration in hemin Experiment Control Test atom per cent excess 7 .066 .003 .042 8 .066 .004 .045 9 .071 .062 10 .072 .060 11 .081 .066 .080 12 .075 .062 .061 13 .074 .035 .037 14 .080 .029 .032 15 .082 .018 .066 16 .063 .012 .003 17 .071 .006 18 .066 .054 .022 19 .080 .034 .003 20 .081 .008 .051 21 .078 .046 .042 Supplement f 20mg 2,5"dimethylbenzimidazole 20mg adenine 20mg 2,5-dimethylbenzimidazole 20mg benzimidazole 15mg benzimidazole 15mg 2-methylbenzimidazole 15mg 2-methylbenzimidazole 15mg orotic acid 15mg 2-methylbenzimidazole 15mg benzimidazole 15mg 5-methylbenzimidazole I5mg 5-methylbenzimidazole 15mg 5,6-dimethylbenzimidazole i 15mg 2,5-dimethylbenzimidazole 15mg 5,6-dimethylbenzimidazole t 15mg benzimidazole 15mg 2,5-dimethylbenzimidazole 20mg 5,6-dimethylbenzimidazole 20mg 5,6-dimethylbenzimidazole 5mg 2,5-dimethylbenzimidazole 5mg 2-ethyl-5-methylbenzimida- zole lOmg 2,5-dimethylbenzimidazole lOmg 2-ethyl-5-methylbenzimida- zole 20mg 2,5-dimethylbenzimidazole 3mg 2-ethyl-5-methylbenzimida- zole 2mg 2-ethyl-5-methylbenzimida- zole 20mg benzimidazole * Hemin isolated from chicken blood has slightly increased concentration over tank nitrogen similar to that of hemin from normal dog and human blood (Abbott et ah, 1953). Values on the order of .002 to .006 atom per cent excess thus indicate complete inhibition of incorporation into heme. t Benzimidazole, 2-methylbenzimidazole, 2,5-dimethylbenzimidazole and 2-ethyl-5-methyl- benzimidazole were prepared b?7 refluxing the appropriate diamine and acid according to the general procedure of Wagner and Millett (1944). The compounds were recrystallized several times, and melting points and nitrogen analyses were checked before use. 5-Methyl- benzimidazole was recrystallized several times from the Eastman Kodak Company product. We are indebted to Dr. Karl Folkers of Merck and Co. for supplying 2,5-dimethylbenzimida¬ zole for the initial experiments and for all of the 5,6-dimethylbenzimidazole used. Folic acid was kindly supplied by Lederle Laboratories through the courtesy of Dr. B. L. Hutchings, Other supplements were commercial products. t As the formic acid salt (24 per cent formic acid). 82 The Virginia Journal of Science [Apia The possibility that 2,5-dimethylbenzimidazole, 5,6-dimethylbenzimida- zole and 2-ethyl-5-methylbenzimidazole might be acting as purine or nu¬ cleic acid antagonists in hemoglobin synthesis is particularly attractive. If this mechanism v^ere involved, these substituted benzimidazoles might prove to be much more potent nucleic acid antagonists or antiviral agents than benzimidazole itself. The important work of Tamm, Folkers, Shrink, Heyl, and Horsfall (1953) on the inhibition of influenza virus multiplication by alkyl deriva¬ tives of benzimidazole has been described recently by Horsfall in The Harvey Lectures (1954). Not only has 2,5-dimethylbenzimidazole been found to be a more potent agent than benzimidazole in inhibiting multi¬ plication of influenza A or B virus, but the inhibitory activities of the methyl-substituted benzimidazoles for in vitro heme synthesis are precisely in the same relative order as was found for virus multiplication inhibition, i.e., 2-methyibenzimidazole was about the same as benzimidazole, and the 5-methyl derivative was intermediate between the 2-methyl and the 2,5-dimethylbenzimidazole. 5,6-Dimethylbenzimidazole also inhibited vir¬ us multiplication at lower concentrations than benzimidazole. 2-Ethyl-5- methylbenzimidazole was one of the most potent of all. It was considered to be approximately 7 times more effective than 2,5-dimethylbenzimidazole and 19 times more so than benzimidazole (Tamm et ah, 1953). The striking coincidence of the relative inhibitory activities of these alkyl-substituted benzimidazoles for two widely different systems, in vitro hemoglobin synthesis by avian erythrocytes and virus duplication, indicates to us that some very fundamxental mechanism underlying both processes is involved. This might be the result of selective inhibition of a basic step in the mechanisms whereby nucleic acid (or nucleoprotein) plays some very important role in biosynthesis. It is of interest to note that the 5 (or 6) position of benzimidazole is analogous to the 2 position of the purines. Recent discovery of 2-methyladenine (Dion et ah, 1954, and Brown et ah, 1954) and 2-methylhypoxanthine (Brown et ah, 1954) in biological material brings attention for the first time to the existence of analogous methyl-substituted purines in nature. ACKNOWLEDGMENT We are very much indebted to Dr. WilHam T. Ham and the Biophysics Department for use of the mass spectrometer and to Mr. Hyman Rosen for preparation of the N^^-glycine used. SUMMARY 2,5-Dimethylbenzimidazole, 5,6-dimethylbenzimidazole and 2-ethyl-5- methylbenzimidazoie prevent incorporation of N^“ from N^^-glycine into heme by chicken erythrocytes during in vitro incubation. Benzimidazole and 2-methylbenzimidazole had slight, but not comparable, inhibitory ac¬ tion. 5-Methylbenzimidazole had an inhibitory effect intennediate be¬ tween that of benzimidazole and 2,5-dimethylbenzimidazole. 2-Ethyl-5- riethylbenzimidazole was the most potent of all. 1955] Inhibition of in vitro Heme Synthesis 85 Tlie striking coincidence of the relative inhibitory activities of the sub¬ stituted benzimidazoles for two widely different systems, in vitro hemoglo¬ bin synthesis by avian erythrocytes and virus duplication, indicates to us that some very fundamental mechanism underlying both processes is involv¬ ed. This might be the result of selective inhibition of a basic step in biosynthetic mechanisms in which nucleic acid (or nucleoprotein ) plays some very important role. REFERENCES Abbott, L. D., Jr. and M. Dodson. 1952. Experiments on the in vitro Synthesis of Hemoglobin by Erythrocytes. Va. Journ. Sci., 3: 346. Abbott, L. D., Jr., M. J. Dodson, and R. H. Powell. 1953. Natural Abundance of N^'^ in Hemin and Plasma Protein from Normal Blood. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol, and Med., 84: 402-404. Brown, F. B. and E. Lester Smith. 1954. New Purines in Bia Vita¬ mins. Biochem. /., 50: xxxiv-xxxv. Brown, G. C. 1952. The Influence of Chemicals on the Propagation of Poliomyelitis Virus in Tissue Culture. J. Immunol., 69: 441-450. Brown, G. C., D. C. Craig, and A. Kandel. 1953. Effect of Benzimida¬ zole on Experimental Poliomyelitis in Mice and Monkeys. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol, and Med., 83: 408-411. Dion, H. W., D. G. Calkins, and J. J. Pfiffner. 1954. 2-Methylade- nine, an Hydrolysis Product of Pseudovitamin Bioj. J. Am. Chem. Soc., 76: 948-949. Emerson, G., N. G. Brink, F. W. Holly, F. Koniuszy, D. Heyl, and K. Folkers. 1950. Vitamin Bjo. VIII. Vitamin Bia-like Activity of 5,6-dimethylbenzimidazole and Tests on Related Compounds. /. Am. Chem. Soc., 72: 3084-3085. Fischer, H. 1941. Hemin. Org. Syntheses, 21: 53-55. Hendlin, D. and M. H. Soars. 1951. The Effect of 5,6-dimethylben¬ zimidazole and Related Compounds on the Growth of Lactobacillus lactics Dorner. J. Bact., 62: 633-647. Horsfall, F. L., Jr. 1954. Experiments on Chemical Alteration of Virus Infections. The Harvey Lectures, 48: 35-67. Klotz, I. M. AND M. Mellody. 1948. The Reversal of Benzimidazole Inhibition of Growth by Nucleic Acid. J. Bact., 56: 253-255. Morgan, H. R. 1952. Factors Related to the Growth of Psittacosis Virus (Strain 6BC) II. Purines, Pyrimidines, and Other Components Re¬ lated to Nucleic Acid. J. Exp. Med., 95: 277-283. Schoenheimer, R. and S. Ratner. 1939. Studies in Protein Metabol¬ ism. III. Synthesis of Amino Acids Containing Isotopic Nitrogen. J. Biol. Chem., 127; 301-313. Shemin, D., I. M. London, and D. Rittenberg. 1948. The in vitro Synthesis of Heme from Glycine by the Nucleated Red Blood Gell. J. Biol. Chem., 173: 799-800. 84 The Virginia Journal of Science [April - . 1950. The Synthesis of of Protoporphyrin in vitro by Red Blood Cells of the Duck. /. Biol Chem., 183: 757-765. Shemin, D. and D. Rittenberg. 1946. The Biological Utilization of Glycine for the Synthesis of the Protoporphyrin of Hemoglobin. /. Biol Chem., 166: 621-625. Tamm, I., K. Folkers, C. H. Shunk, D. Heyl, and F. L. Horsfall, Jr. 1953. Inhibition of Influenza Virus Multiplication by Alkyl Deriva¬ tives of Benzimidazole. III. Relationship between Inhibitory Activity and Chemical Structure. /. Exp. Med., 98: 245-259. Thompson, R. L. 1947. The Effect of Metabolites, Metabolite Antago¬ nists and Enzyme-inhibition on the Growth of the Vaccinia Virus in Maitland Type of Tissue Cultures. /. Immunol, 55: 345-352. Wagner, E. C. and W. H. Millett. 1944. Benzimidazole. Org. Syn¬ theses Coll., Vol. 2: 65-66. Woolley, D. W. 1944. Some Biological Effects Produced by Benzimi¬ dazole and Their Reversal by Purines. J. Biol Chem., 152: 225-232. 1955] Eggs of the Slimy Salamander 85 The Egg’S of the Slimy Salamander in Isle of Wight County, Virginia. John Thornton Wood University of Virginia Roger Henry Rageot Noiiolk Museum of Arts and Sciences, Norfolk, Virginia Reported here is a description of a group of eggs of the slimy salaman¬ der, Plethodon glutinosus glutinosus (Green), found on May 30, 1953, in the Carrsville area of Isle of Wight County. The literature contains only three descriptions of the nest of this subspecies. In 1929 Noble and Marshall reported on two nests found in Arkansas caves, and in 1940 Fow¬ ler described a nest found in a rotting stump in West Virginia. The Carrsville nest consisted of seven adherent eggs found in a depression in a damp pile of paper cement bags. The shifting of the bags during the collecting operation made it impossible to determine whether or not a female had been guarding the eggs immediately prior to their exposure. Five salamanders were also collected from the bag heap, and all were P. g. glutinosus. Four of the salamanders were adults, and one was a juvenile. Three of the adults were females, and two of these had fully gravid ovaries but no large ova in their oviducts (evidence that they had not been depositing eggs recently). The remaining adult female had ‘‘spent” ovaries, containing no large ova. This female was probably the source of the egg group. The eggs were arranged in a compact cluster, and were loosely con¬ nected by the adherence of their outer envelopes. Their general propor¬ tions and the character of their envelopes approximated closely those of the diagrammatic Plethodon glutinosus egg illustrated in Bishop’s report (1941). They did not bear any resemblance to the diagrammatic Pletho¬ don cinereus egg in the same report, the only other salamander egg that in any probability might have been found in the same habitat. The eggs did not closely approximate those described by Noble and Marshall (loc. cit.) in that they did not appear to have been contained in a “common envelope”. The vitelline membrane was closely adherent over a faintly yellowish deutoplasmic mass. A diffuse light pigmentation of melano- phores darkened the animal pole. The envelopes surrounding the vitel¬ line membrane were thin, and could not be distinctly separated in binocu¬ lar microscopic examination due to a cloudiness resulting from inadequate preservation. The eggs were in the early gastrula stage at the time of collection, and were preserved in the field shortly after their discovery. The probable relationship of an adult female specimen to the eggs was suggested by the presence of adequate space beside the eggs for an attending adult. It is well known that adult Plethodon cinereus remain * Paper received July 1, 1954. 86 The Virginia Journal of Science [April near egg groups, and it is likely that this behavior is also characteristic of glutinosus. It was not possible to determine whether or not the eggs were suspended from the top of the crevice prior to their being exposed in collecting. It is of interest to note that one of the egg masses reported by Noble and Marshall was suspended in a crevice, and the other was found lying on the bottom of a similar niche. This is more likely the result of poor adherence of their eggs than of variable behavior of the females during egg deposition. The Carrsville eggs were smaller than those described by Noble and Marshall (loc. cit.) who report “an average egg” measures 5.5 mm. in diameter, inner envelope 6 mm., outer envelope 6.5 mm., and the “com¬ mon envelope or outer sphere” (Piersol, 1915) is variable in thickness, bringing the total diameter of the egg and capsules to about 7.5 mm. An average egg in the Carrsville group had a yolk mass of 3.5 to 4.0 mm. diameter, and the maximum diameter including the envelopes ranged from 5.0 to 5.5 mm. The difference between the dimensions of these two series of eggs may reflect a zoogeographic factor, but it is not possible to ascribe much importance to this possibility in light of the paucity of data. Other factors affecting total egg dimensions include the amount of water absorption which has taken place prior to preservation, the amount of shrinkage after preservation, and variations in the dimensions of eggs pro¬ duced by different specimens of the same species. There has never been any report on the range in dimensions of Plethodon eggs at the time of deposition. The two gravid females in the habitat of the egg group had full ova complements. The larger specimen (snout-vent length: 62.5 mm.) had 19 large ova; the smaller (snout-vent length: 61.5 mm.) had 16. The snout-vent length of the female with “spent” ovaries was 56.8 mm. Noble and Marshall (loc. cit.) found eggs in “cleavage stages” on August 17, 1928, in Sheridan Cave, Mountain Home, Arkansas. Fowler (1940) found eggs on June 3, 1938, in a wooded valley near Ice Moun¬ tain, Hampshire County, West Virginia. Pope and Pope (1949) report that the height of the breeding season in the vicinity of Mountain Lake, Giles County, Virginia is between July 27 and August 9. The authors believe that the finding of an egg group in late May in Tidewater Vir¬ ginia is not incompatible with these data, and it is not strong evidence for an extended breeding season. Although Bishop (1941, 1943) believes that Plethodon glutinosus eggs are deposited in New York before May, or possibly during that month, his conclusion is based upon circumstantial evidence. No direct proof has been obtained that this species breeds that early in a northern state, and “it scarcely seems possible that this species would breed at one season in the lowlands of central and south¬ ern New York and at another in the high mountains of Virginia; in fact, one would expect coincidence of breeding seasons in these two areas” (Pope and Pope, loc. cit.). It would certainly be unusual if the breeding season in central New York approximated, or preceded that in the low¬ lands of the eastern Virginia coastal plain. 1955] Eggs of the Slimy Salamander 87 Noble and Marshall (loc. cit.) concluded on the basis of their two nests that in regions where no caves occur “the adults penetrate into the ground for some depth to deposit their eggs, and the young, in seeking the outer world, follow crevices such as those formed by ground-waters and make their exit (from their subterranean nursery) - near springs.” This is possible but not supported by proof. Nests found by Fowler (loc. cit.) and the authors support the view that eggs are deposited in vari¬ ous secluded spots in the usual habitat of the species. All of the nesting sites described are characteristically troglodytic, whether the “cave” is a crevice in a true cave, a dark hollow in a rotting stump, or an artificial cavity in a pile of soggy cement bags. The number of eggs in the Carrsville series is small. Pope and Pope (loc. cit.) found the mean for large ova in gravid females to be 23.4, and the range, 17 to 33. They report, “since a few large eggs are found in the spent females it is not surprising that the dissected females held more eggs than the nests. Even if all the large eggs were laid there would probably be some post-laying loss.” It is not possible to determine whether the seven eggs near Carrsville comprised a full complement of one female, but the only female found in the habitat who had been deposit¬ ing eggs recently had no large ova retained in her ovaries or oviducts. LITERATURE CITED Bishop, S. C. 1941. The Salamanders of New York. N. Y. State Mus. Bull, (324): 1-365. Bishop, S. C. 1943. The Handbook of Salamanders. Comstock Buhl. Co., Ithaca, N. Y., pp. 1-555. Fowler, J. A. 1940. A Note on the Eggs of Plethodon glutinosus. Co- peia, (2): 133. Noble, G. K. and B. C. Marshall. 1929. The Breeding Habits of Two Salamanders. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., Novitates, (347): 1-12. PiERSOL, W. H. 1915. The Egg-laying Habits of Plethodon cinereus. Trans. Can. Inst., 10: 121-26. Pope, C. H. and S. H. Pope. 1949. Notes on Growth and Reproduction of the Slimy Salamander Plethodon glutinosus. Chic. Nat. Hist. Mus., Fieldiana, 31(29): 251-61. 88 The Virginia Journal of Science [April A Simplified Method For The Determination of Azo Dyes in Tissues, Urine and Feces ^ J. D. Spain ^ and C. C. Clayton Department of Biochemistry, Medical College of Virginia, Richmond The final criterion for carcinogenicity of azo dyes as related to chemi¬ cal structure (Miller and Miller, 1948) or dietary variation (Griffin and Baumann, 1948; Kensler, 1947-48; Miller, 1947-48) is the tumor incidence. Some indication, however, of the effect of these variables may be ascer¬ tained in a shorter time by the degree of cirrhosis (Miller and Miller, 1948), liver riboflavin concentration (Griffin and Baumann, 1948; Miller, Miller, Kline, and Busch, 1948) and/or liver protein-bound azo dyes (Mil¬ ler and Miller, 1947; Miller, Miller, Sapp and Weber, 1949). The method of Miller and Miller (1947) for the determination of the protein-bound dyes involves a number of time-consuming procedures which limit its use¬ fulness when large numbers of analyses are involved. Therefore a meth¬ od was developed for the determination of total azo dyes in tissues which required a minimum of time and equipment. REAGENTS 95 per cent ethanol 11 N KOH (Approx.) Equal weights of 85 per cent U.S.P. KOH and of water Concentrated hydrochloric acid, C.P. Acid-alcohol solution: 16 gm. KCl, 50 ml. of 95 per cent ethanol, 100 ml. of concentrated HCl, made up to 500 ml. with water. This 2.4 N HCl solution approximates that obtained by the acidification and dilution of the KOH digest (see below) and is useful in dilutions of the azo dyes for reading in the colorimeter. Stannous chloride-acid solution: 60 gm. of stannous chloride dissolved and made up to 100 ml. with concentrated HCl. PROCEDURE Rats which had been fed 3'-methyl-4-dimethylaminoazobenzene (3'me- DAB) were sacrificed by decapitation and the livers removed and weigh¬ ed. Three gm. samples were removed from the left lateral and median lobes, homogenized with an all-glass tissue grinder, and made to 25 ml. with distilled water. Samples of 5 ml. of the homogenate were placed 1 From a portion of a thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science by J. D. Spain, and presented in part at the Annual Meet¬ ing of the Virginia Academy of Science, Charlottesville, May, 1964. Supported in part by a grant-in-aid from the American Cancer Society upon recommendation of the Committee on Growth of the National Research Council and by research grant C-1641 of the National Cancer Institute of the National Institutes of Health, Public Health Service. 2 Present address : Department of Chemistry, Stanford University, California. * Paper received September 29, 1954. 1955] Determination cf Azo Dyes in Tissues S9 in 50 ml. Erlenmeyer flasks with 7 ml. of 95 per cent ethanol and 2 ml. of 11 N KOH. The contents were mixed, and then refluxed for 20 hours at 80° C. (ether extraction-type hotplate) using cold-finger condens¬ ers. This method of liberating the dye was similar to that of Miller and Miller (1947) and found by them and from our studies to be the most satisfactory. The slightly cloudy, yellow digests were then cooled below 15° C. individually in an ice bath and acidified to the pink azo dye color with additions of concentrated HCl dropwise with continued cooling and swirling. The slightly acid solution was washed into a 50 ml. graduated cylinder and diluted to 40 ml. with distilled water. Ten ml. of con¬ centrated HCl were added and the contents mixed by inversion. The cylinder of acidified digest was allowed to stand for about 10 minutes in an ice-water bath and then filtered through rapid paper (MunktelFs No. 3). The fatty acids and other acid-insoluble materials were remov¬ ed leaving a clear, non-turbid filtrate. The concentration of dye in the filtrate was determined with the Evelyn colorimeter using a 515 filter, the galvanometer being set at 100 with the acid- alcohol solution. Each sample served as its own blank by being re-read following reduction of the azo dyes by the addition of one drop of stannous chloride solution to 20 ml. of the filtrate. The optical den¬ sity of the azo dyes was found by subtracting the optical density of the blank (L values with the Evelyn colorimeter) from the optical density of the original filtrate. If this value were multiplied by 10‘, we obtained an arbitrary number representing the units of azo dye in the sample diluted as outlined. One microgram of 3'-me-DAB was equivalent to 50 units. The azo dye color in the acid filtrate solution used for colorimetric read¬ ing was stable at room temperature for over 24 hours. This procedure is a measure of the total azo dye in the liver. Animals which did not receive the dye had a very slight amount of material in the acidified liver digest which lost color with the stannous chloride treatment. This we have called the “false dye” reading and amounted to only about 30 units in the aliquot of liver used. It was quite constant under the conditions employed and could be disregarded for most comparative studies. (Values reported were corrected for the false dye.) The apparent amount of false dye from the control animals was influenced by the normality of the acid solution used in the colori¬ metric measurements, becoming more intense as the solution became more acidic. At a normality of HCl between 2 and 3 the false dye correc¬ tion was minimized and slight changes in normality had little effect. The method was compared with that for bound dye of Miller and Miller (1947) which involves trichloroacetic acid (TCA) precipitation, alcohol extraction and KOH alcohol digestion of the protein, followed by ether extraction and colorimetric determination in acid after removal of the ether. The effect on the dye content of trichloroacetic acid and alcohol extraction of the protein was also determined using the simpler procedure described. Aliquots from a pooled homogenate from the livers 90 The Virginia Journal of Science [April of two rats fed 3'-me-DAB for five weeks were used in these studies and results calculated to units of dye per gram of fresh weight of liver (Fig¬ ure 1.). LIVER HOMOGENATE TCA PPT. PRESENT METHOD ALCOHOL EXTRACTION 675 260 UNITS UNITS 1375 UNITS tTOTAL) Figure 1.— Azo dye found in livers of rats fed 3'-inetbyl-4-dimethyl- aminoazobenzene for five weeks as measured by different procedures. (Units per gm. fresh weight). When a sample of trichloroacetic acid (TCA) precipitated, alcohol washed protein (prepared according to Miller and Miller, 1947) was analysed by our procedure (5 ml. of water added to protein in diges¬ tion) it was found to contain 1000 units of the 1375 units of dye per gram originally present in the fresh homogenate. (Figure 1.). Approxi¬ mately 25 per cent of the dye was extracted by alcohol and may be considered unbound or loosely bound. Two ether extractions of the digest by the method of Miller and Miller (1947) did not remove all the dye from the alkaline solution, for when the aqueous residue was acidified and the color in this portion determined before and after reduction by stannous chloride it was found to contain 260 units. This amount plus the amount in the ether fractions account¬ ed for 935 units which is comparable to the 1000 units found by the simpler procedure on the precipitated-alcohol extracted protein. Modifications of the above procedure were found to work equally well with other tissues, urine, and feces. Urine and feces were collected in metabolism cages from rats which had been fed the dyes previously for 1955] Determination of Azo Dyes in Tissues 91 four weeks. The collection period was eight hours during which time the animals were given water but no food. This resulted in a collec¬ tion that was not contaminated by diet. A measured amount of alcohol was added to the urine-collecting containers as a preservative. The urine was acidified to approximately 2.4 N with HCl, filtered, and diluted with the acid-alcohol solution for the colorimetric readings. Feces were mace¬ rated, allowed to stand for 20 hours in the acid-alcohol solution, then fil¬ tered, diluted, and the azo dye concentration determined. ANIMAL EXPERIMENTS Animals fed the dye, S'-me-DAB, were killed at weekly intervals and the total liver azo dye determined. The amount of dye per gram of liver increased rapidly for the first three weeks to a level of 1800 units, after which there was a gradual, progressive decrease to the sixth week (when the experiment was terminated) when 1400 units of dye per gram of liver were found. This change in total liver azo dye concentration with time was similar to that found by Miller, Miller, Sapp, and Weber (1949) for their protein-bound dye. Routine determinations of rat livers in duplicate for azo dye resulted in a deviation from the mean of less than two jjer cent. Less total azo dye was found in the liver after five weeks of dye feed¬ ing when the diet contained 5 pgm. of riboflavin per kilogram of diet than when ft contained 1 pgm. of the vitamin. This is in line with the results of Miller and Miller (1947). Azo dyes weie also found in the urine and feces when 3’-me-DAB was fed. The amount in the urine varied between 1000 and 5000 units per rat per day while the feces were found to contain between 5000 and 10,000 units per day, based on an eight hour collection. The daily inges¬ tion of the dye by the animals was approximately 320,000 units (10 gm. of 0.064 per cent S'-me-DAB). Very little dye could be detected in the spleen or kidneys. The method worked equally well for the determination of liver dye after feeding the less active carcinogen, 4-dimethylaminoazobenzene, although the amount per gram of liver was less. (cf. Miller, Miller, Sapp, and Weber 1949). No dye could be detected in the urine when this dye was fed. DISCUSSION With a simple rapid method for the determination of liver azo dye, it may be possible to ascertain more readily factors that affect the level of these compounds in the liver and the significance of these liver dyes and azo dye hepato-carcino genesis. Present studies indicate the same trend in liver total azo dyes with respect to time and dietary variation as was found previously with protein-bound liver dyes. Should further investigation show that the bound liver dye is of more value than the total, a procedure of trichloroacetic acid (TCA) precipitation and alcohol extraction with the method as outlined would eliminate the processes of 92 The Virginia Journal of Science [April drying, extraction, and solvent evaporation employed by Miller and Miller (1947). Such a procedure would give the total protein bound azo dye, whereas the use of organic solvent extraction removes and measures a portion of the dye. Miller, Kline, Rusch, and Baumann (1944) and Spain (1953) have shown that various azo dyes have different distribution coefficients be¬ tween chloroform and aqueous phases. From such distribution studies, Spain (1953) has evidence that the dyes present in the urine of rats fed 3’me-DAB are not the compound fed but are quite like those metabolites found in the livers of rats fed this compound. Furthermore, these solvent distribution studies and preliminary experiments with paper and column chromotography (unpublished) indicated that there were a number of dyes present in the liver and urine. Should such be the case, it may be that total or protein-bound dyes are not the main factors to be evaluat¬ ed, but rather one or more definite dye metabolites and its, or their, influence on the carcinogenic process. SUMMARY A simple rapid method is described for the determination of total azo dye in tissues by alkaline digestion, acidification and filtration, and deter¬ mination of color before and after reduction with stannous chloride. The method is compared with more time consuming methods now available. The method was also used for the determination of azo dyes in urine and feces. REFERENCES Griffin, A. C. and C. A. Baumann. 1948. Hepatic Riboflavin and Tumor Formation in Rats Fed Azo Dyes in Various Diets. Cancer Piesearch, 8: 279-284. Kensler, C. J. 1947-48. Effect of Diet on the Production of Liver Tu¬ mors in the Rat by N,N-Dimethyl-p-aminoazobenzene. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci., 49: 29-40. Miller, E. C. and J. A. Miller. 1947. The Presence and Significance of Bound Aminoazo Dyes in the Livers of Rats Fed p-Dimethylamino- azobenzene. Cancer Research, 7: 468-480. Miller E. C., J. A. Miller, B. E. Kline, and H. P. Rusch. 1948. Correlation of the Level of Hepatic Riboflavin with the Appearance of Liver Tumors in Rats Fed Aminoazo Dyes. J. Exper. Med., 88: 89-98. Miller, E. C., J. A. Miller, R. W. Sapp, and G. W. Weber. 1949. Studies on the Protein-bound Aminoazo Dyes formed in vivo from 4-Dimethylaminoazobenzene and its C-Monomethyl Derivatives. Can' cer Research, 9: 336-343. 1955] Determination of Azo Dyes in Tissues 93 Miller, J. A. 1947-48. Studies on the Mechanism of the Effects of Fat and Other Dietary Factors on Carcinogenesis by the Azo Dyes. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci., 49: 19-28. Miller, J. A., B. E. Kline, H. P. Rusch, and C, A. Baumann. 1944. The Carcinogenicity of p-Dimethylaminoazobenzene in Diets Con¬ taining Hydrogenated Coconut Oil. Cancer Research, 4: 153-158. Miller, J. A. and E. C. Miller. 1948. The Carcinogenicity of Certain Derivatives of p-Dimethylaminoazobenzene in the Rat. /. Exper. Med., 87: 139-156. Spain, J. D. 1953. The Reticulo-Endothelial System in Azo Dye Car¬ cinogenesis. Thesis Medical College of Virginia, Richmond, Va. 94 The Virginia Journal of Science [Apri» The Stereographic Projection of the Crystal¬ lographic Angles of Beta-tin * ** + Henry Leidheiser, Jr. Virginia Institute for Scientific Research The determination of the orientation of metallic single crystals by X-ray back reflection analysis is a well-established technique. - Irr^order to car¬ ry out this technique it is necessary to know the angles between the important crystallographic planes. Such angles have been tabulated by Bozorth (1925) for the cubic metals and by Salkovitz (1951) for the hexagonal metals, magnesium, zinc, and cadmium. A table of the crystal¬ lographic angles of beta-tin has been published by Nicholas (1951) but the number of angles tabulated is generally insufficient to determine the orientation from the Laue back reflection photograph. Only 67 angles were given by Nicholas for planes making angles less than 60° with one another. A 60° angle is the maximum angle which can be deter¬ mined from conventional back reflection X-ray photographs. Using the equation for tetragonal metals, hh , kik2 , hh ^ _| ^ COS = where is the angle between the planes {h^ l^) and (^2 ^2 h)y and a and c are the lengths of the a and c axes, 310 angles were calculated between planes making angles less than 60° with one another. Values of a = 5.831 and c=: 3.182 were taken from the work of Swanson and Tatge (1953). From the calculated angles the stereographic projection shown in Figure 1 was constructed. For most purposes angles can be taken from the stereographic projection with sufficient accuracy for orien¬ tation determination. It is useful, however, to have the angles in tabular form when in the process of identifying the Laue spots. Since these angles would consume too much space in the Journal, copies will be sup¬ plied to interested readers on request by the author, 326 N. Boulevard, Richmond 20. * These results were obtained during the course of a study sponsored by the American Can Company. ^ Reftt-tin, or white tin, is a member of space group (I4/amd), a body-centered lattice with 2 atoms in the unit cell. It transforms to the low-temperature alpha form, or gray tin, at approximately 13^ C. ** Paper received February 1, 1955. 1955] Crystallographic Angles of Beta-TiN 95 REFERENCES CITED Bozorth, R. M. 1925. The Orientation of Crystals in Electrodeposit- ed Metals. Phys. Rev., 26, 390. Nicholas, J. F. 1951. Crystallographic Angles for Tin. J. Metals, 3, 1142. Salkovitz, E. I. 1951. Crystallographic Angles for Magnesium, Zinc, and Cadmium. /. Metals, 3, 64; Correction p. 880. Swanson, H. E. and E. Tatge. 1953. Standard X-ray Diffraction Powder Patterns _ National Bureau of Standards Circular 539, June 15, Vol. 1. 96 The Virginia Journal of Science [April A Note on Spore Germination in Psilotum nudum David W. Bierhorst University of Virginia An unsuccessful attempt was made to germinate spores of Psilotum nudum (L.) Beauv. using the method described by Darnell-Smith (1918)^, i.e., placing them between thin slabs of limestone in a fine layer of soil. Success was obtained, however, by mixing spores with Minnesota black soil and coarse sand, placing the mixture in an 8-inch clay pot, and plant¬ ing a specimen of Aspedistra in the mixture. This was a duplication of the conditions under which mature gametophytes had been found grow¬ ing. Periodically a soil sample was removed and examined for germinat¬ ing spores. The first indication of germination is the opening of the spore wall along the longitudinal slit, followed by the bulging of the spore con¬ tents out of the wall. This is followed by the first cell division which cuts off a relatively small cell at the apex of the bulge by an oblique wall. According to Darnell-Smith (1918), the first division occurs from 3 to 5 months after the spores are placed in an environment suitable for germination. Although spores were recovered at frequent intervals dur¬ ing the present study, the culture was 15 months old at the time of the first recovery of germinating spores. After the 15 month period, approxi¬ mately 60 per cent of all the spores recovered were still alive, and of these approximately 50 per cent showed signs of germination. Of those that showed signs of germination, approximately 50 per cent were still in the one-celled stage and the remainder in the two-celled stage. The subsequent stages, as described by Darnell-Smith, are character¬ ized by cell divisions resulting in a tear-drop-shaped object very similar in appearance to a young plant of gemma-origin. Only one such plant was recovered during the present study, and this was 26 months after the spores were sown. Its total length was 0.5 mm., and it was easily distinguished from a plant of gemma-origin by the absence of a gemma or gemma scar. The spore wall was not attached. 1 Darnell-Smith, G. P. 1918. The gametophyte of Psilotum. Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., 52 : 79-91. * Paper received January 25, 1955. 1955] News and Notes 97 News and Notes MINUTES OF THE COUNCIL MEETING, OCTOBER 31, 1954 The meeting of the Council of the Virginia Academy of Science was held at 2:00 P.M. in Mallory Hall, The Virginia Military Institute, Lex¬ ington, Virginia. Present were Lloyd C. Bird, Byron Cooper, President¬ elect Walter S. Flory, Jr., Allan T. Gwathmey, William M. Hinton, Hor¬ ton H. Hobbs, Jr., Boyd Harshbarger, Edward S. Harlow, Sidney S. Negus, Paul M. Patterson, Foley F. Smith, and Stanley B. Williams. Also pres¬ ent, by invitation, were Emmert Ikenberry and A. M. Showalter, of Madi¬ son College, Harrisonburg; and Mrs. Thelma C. Heatwole, Chairman of the Junior Academy of Scienee Committee. President Irving G. Foster presided. Minutes of the last Council meeting at the Annual May meeting were read and approved. Sidney Negus read the resume of the life and career of Dr. E. C. L. Miller, late Secretary-Emeritus of the Academy, and then the resolutions adopted by the Council. On proper motion it was moved, seconded, and passed that this resume and resolutions be made a permanent part of the minutes and archives of the Academy. The resolu¬ tions follow as part of these minutes, and were published separately in the January issue of the Virginia Journal of Science, Volume 6, New Series, No. 1, page 1. The resolutions concerning the death of Justus Henry Cline prepared by Marcellus S. Stow, were also read, and it was moved, seconded, and passed that these resolutions be incorporated in the minutes of the Council, and that a copy be sent to Mrs. Cline. These resolutions (loc. cit., p. 56) were accepted by a rising vote of the members of the Council present. Professors Showalter and Ikenberry were present to discuss the arrange¬ ments for the annual meeting of the Academy at Madison College, Harrison¬ burg, May 12-14. The guest speaker for the May meeting was among the items discussed, and it was suggested that for this meeting we invite as speaker a distin¬ guished meteorologist, instead of a physicist, and that the selection of the speaker be left in the hands of the President. It was suggested that Professors Ikenberry and Showalter also make arrangements to meet with Fred Young, Chairman of the Local Committee on Arrangements at the last annual meeting at the University of Virginia. Future meeting places of the Academy were discussed, and an invita¬ tion to plan a joint meeting with the Tennessee Academy in Bristol was tabled at this time. The Speakers’ Bureau was next discussed, and it was decided to con¬ tinue this Bureau for one more year for those who might wish to take advantage of the Bureau’s facilities for furnishing authorities in scientific fields to speak before local groups. 98 The Virginia Journal of Science [April Walter S. Flory next reported for the Committee to study the Virginia Seience Talent Search. This rather full report was read to the Council, and the recommendations of this committee were approved and accepted. Edward S. Harlow reported for the Long Range Planning Committee on Secondary Science Education. This meeting of the Committee was held in Richmond on October 2, 1954, and in addition to discussing the Sci¬ ence Education program, the Virginia Science Talent Search, the James River Basin Monograph, and the National Scientific Manpower problem were considered. This report was also approved and accepted. Copies of the report may be obtained from the Secretary, or from Mr. Edward S. Harlow, Chairman of the Committee. It was moved, seconded and passed, that a committee be appointed to consider a request for funds to finance a study of State Science Search winners either from the National Science Foundation, or other such foun¬ dations. It was suggested that a condensed version of the James River Basin be offered for sale at Jamestown Exposition, 1957. It was moved, second¬ ed, and passed, that a Committee be appointed to confer with the James¬ town Exposition Commission, concerning any help that the Academy might offer in any capacity in which the facilities of the Aeademy might be used. Boyd Harshbarger, Editor-in-Chief of the Journal, reported that a re¬ newal of the printing contract, had been offered by Mr. Malcolm Donald Coe, Editor and Publisher of the Giles County Virginian, in Pearisburg. It was moved, seconded and passed that this bid be accepted for print¬ ing the Virginia Journal of Science for the next two years. Dr. Harshbarger also suggested, and it was moved, seconded and passed, that Section 5, Paragraph 4, of the by-laws be changed to read: The staff shall be composed of: an Editor, an Associate Editor, and a Man¬ aging Editor instead of “an Editor-in-Chief, a Technical Editor, an Assist¬ ant Technical Editor— -and the title Editor-in-Chief be changed to Editor wherever it might appear elsewhere in the by-laws and the other titles concerned above be changed respectively. Publications of this notice in the January issue of the Virginia Journal of Science will constitute official notice to the membership of the Academy; and this change will be voted on at the annual Academy Conference at Harrisonburg. The Editorial Board of the Virginia Journal of Science was unanimously re-appointed and re-elected for another term, and received the official commendation of the Council for a job well done. It was suggested that the committee on Place of Meeting for 1956 con- taet the Richmond Area University Center as a possible host to the Acad¬ emy in planning a Richmond meeting in 1957. The official thanks and appreciation were extended by the Council to Colonel and Mrs. I. G. Foster for their gracious hospitality to the Coun¬ cil, their wives, and guests at the very delightful buffet luncheon served at their home before the meeting. There being no further business, the meeting adjourned at 4:15 P.M. —Foley F. Smith, Secretary 1955] News and Notes 99 SECTION NEWS Agricultural Science Section > Dr. W. K. Stone has been appointed to the newly created position of Professor of Dairy Husbandry in Dairy Manufacturing Research at Vir¬ ginia Polytechnic Institute. Dr. Stone received his undergraduate degree and his M.S. degree at Utah Agricultural College and his Ph.D. degree at the University of Wisconsin. Prior to- coming to Blacksburg he was ein- ployed by the Food and Can Institute, U. S. Army Corps, Chicago, Illinois. Dr. V. L. Baldwin assumed his duties as Associate Professor of Dairy Husbandry and Associate Dairy Husbandman of the Virginia Agricultural Extension Service on February 15. He is a graduate of the University of Minnesota and received D'c B.S., M.S. and Ph.D. degrees from that institution. Prior to coming to Virginia Polytechnic Institute he was on the staff of the Dairy Department at the University of Minnesota. The Farm and Home Development phase of the Agricultural Exten¬ sion program is rapidly getting under way in Virginia. A training schopl for county Extension workers of 16 pilot counties, two others that may become such, and for specialists was held at Virginia Polytechnic Institute December 13-18. Training schools were also held in the five super¬ visory districts for white county workers in non-pilot counties. A train¬ ing school for Negro workers was held at Petersburg February 28-March 2. In the pilot counties, 19 additional workers have been employed to carry out the activity, with provision for a number of additional ones. The funds provided by the 83rd Congress were intended largely for use on the county level but did provide for some additional personnel on the State level to take care of critical needs. Work in the non-pilot counties will be conducted with only a few families by present county staff mem¬ bers. This emphasis placed on Farm and Home Development is in recogni¬ tion of a need to assist farm families to analyze their present economic status and to initiate plans for long range progress. Mr. L. B. Wilkins has been appointed Associate Professor of Horticul¬ ture, effective March 1, 1955, to serve as Extension Vegetable Specialist at Virginia Polytechnic Institute. He will make his headquarters at Blacksburg and will coordinate the activities of the several specialists work¬ ing in the field of vegetable production. Mr. Wilkins took his college training in Agricultural Economics at Virginia Polytechnic Institute, receiv¬ ing his B.S. degree in 1933 and his M.S. degree in 1934. He has served as County Agent of Norfolk County for a number of years. Mr, Edsel L. Phillips has been appointed Associate Professor of Horti¬ culture at Virginia Polytechnic Institute effective March 15, 1955. He will be located at the Piedmont Research Laboratory at Charlottesville, Virginia. Mr. Phillips will serve half time as a Fruit Extension Specialist and give half time to research. He received his B.S. degree in Horti¬ culture from the University of Idaho in 1950. He comes to Virginia after 100 The Virginia Journal of Science [April Laboratory and Industrial Chemicals Chemical Equipment Complete Stocks — Prompt Service Post Office Box 828 DURHAM, NORTH CAROLINA ANALYTICAL BALANCES COLORIMETERS HOT PLATES MICROSCOPES pH METERS REFRACTOMETERS TUBING CENTRIFUGES LABORATORY REAGENTS COORS PORCELAIN FILTER PAPERS , KIMBLE GLASSWARE ovens’ PYREX GLASSWARE SPECTROPHOTOMETERS IRONWARE 1955] News and Notes 101 having served for several years on the staff of the Mississippi Agricultural Experiment Station. Mr. Jerry B. Hardigree has been appointed Instructor of Horticulture at Virginia Polytechnic Institute effective January 1, 1955. He will assist with the research work in fruit breeding. Mr. Hardigree received his B. S. degree in Horticulture from the University of Georgia. Mr. James D. Ashley has been appointed Instructor of Horticulture at Virginia Polytechnic Institute effective March 1, 1955. He will be respon¬ sible for producing vegetable and floriculture crops at the greenhouses for use in research and teaching. Mr. Ashley received his B.S, degree in Horticulture at Virginia Polytechnic Institute in June, 1948. Mr. Andrew J. Lambert has been appointed Associate Extension Agri¬ cultural Engineer at Virginia Polytechnic Institute. Mr. Lambert receiv¬ ed his B.S. degree in Agricultural Engineering at this institution in 1950. He was formerly employed as Agricultural Engineer by the Appalachian Electric Power Company at Rocky Mount, Virginia. Dr. Robert A. Barton, Veterinary Eield Supervisor, Division of Animal Industry, Department of Agriculture of Virginia, resigned December 15, 1954, to accept a position in the Procurement Department of Kingan and Company at their Richmond Plant. Dr, Barton had nine years’ experience as a practicing veterinarian before entering State service in 1950. He is a native of New York and a graduate of the University of Pennsylvania. Dr. Bryan Baker, Jr. has been appointed Associate Professor of Animal Husbandry at Virginia Polytechnic Institute. His responsibilities will in¬ clude three-fourths time teaching and a fourth time research. He replaces Robert A. Edgar, who resigned in November to accept a position at the Mississippi Station. The Animal Husbandry Department of Virginia Polytechnic Institute presented four papers at the Southern Agricultural Workers’ Meeting at Louisville, Kentucky: one paper by H. R. Thomas, C. C, Brooks and C, M. Kincaid entitled “BOF Tankage as a Source of Protein Supplement for Swine”; another one by K. C. Williamson, “Factors Influencing Prices Paid for Feeder Calves in Virginia Calf Sales”; and another, “Feeding of Peanut Hulls” by H. R. Thomas and C. M. Kincaid; the fourth paper by Dr. C. M. Kincaid on the “Relationship of Offal to the Weight and Age of Cattle.” The Association of Southern Agricultural Workers met at Louisville, Kentucky on February 7, 8, and 9. R. K. Stivers of Virginia Polytechnic Institute’s Agronomy Department presented a paper before the Soils Di¬ vision of the Agronomy Section. It was entitled “Relation of Subsoiling, Deep Lime and Deep Phosphate Application to the Yields of Corn, Pea¬ nuts and Alfalfa in Virginia” by R. K. Stivers, J. H. Lillard, G. D. Jones and A. H. Allison. The American Society of Agronomy met in Saint Paul, Minnesota No¬ vember 8-12, 1954. R. K. Stivers presented a paper entitled “The Cor¬ relation of Soil Tests with Crop Response in Virginia” by R. K. Stivers, C. 1. Rich and R. E. Blaser, Virginia Polytechnic Institute. The Virginia Journal of Science [April 1955] News and Notes 103 Dr. Walter S. Wilkinson has been appointed Assoc'ate Professor of Ani¬ mal Husbandry and Associate in Biochemisay and Nutrition at Vi'g nia Polytechnic Institute. Dr. Wilkinson secured h's Ph.D. degree from the University of Wisconsin. He assumed his duties on January 15, 1955. His responsibilities will include the investigation of the utilization of forages by livestock. Among the mem.bers of the Virginia Polyte dinic Institute staff attend¬ ing the meetings of the Association of Southern Agricultural Workers at Louisville, Kentucky, from the seventh through the ninth of February was Dr. E. P. Johnson, of the Animal Pathology Section, who was a guest speaker at the Poultry Section of the Association on the sub ect “A Vac¬ cination Program for the Prevention of Avian Respiratory Diseases.” At the same session a paper by Alexander Harris, Clayton E. Holmes, and James H. By waters on “The Usefulness of Grit for Broilers” was pre¬ sented by Dr. Bywaters. Dr. Bywaters was elected Secretary of the Poultry Section for 1956. — Wesley P. Judkins, Virginia Polytechnic Institute. Biology Section Hudnall R. Croasdale, a native of Reedville, Virginia, has joined the Virginia Fisheries Laboratory staff at Gloucester Point to assist in the study of migratory finfish. Mr. Croasdale served in the Army from 1952 to March, 1954. He was in the Navy during 1945 and 1946. A graduate of the University of Virginia in 1951, Croasdale had previously attended Virginia Polytechnic Institute. Since his release from the Army he has been engaged in commercial fishing. Mr. Croasdale, his wife, and son are now making their home at Gloucester Point. Clarence E. Richards, Biologist from Concord, New Hampshire, has joined the Virginia Fisheries Laboratory to assist William H. Massmann and others in determining the causes in the fluctuation of abundance of some of our more important migratory fish. Richards is a recent graduate of the Wildlife Conservation School at Virginia Polytechnic Institute and is a member of the Wildlife Society of America. He graduated from Con¬ cord High School in June 1945 and was a member of the Army Air Force from then until 1946. He received his B.S. degree from the University of New Hampshire in 1951, Biology and Forestry being his major sub¬ jects, Mr. William L. Mengebier, formerly professor of biology at the Citadel, has been appointed chairman of the biology department at Madison Col¬ lege. Mr. Mengebier received a B.S. degree from the Citadel, M.S. from Oberlin, and Ph.D. from the University of Tennessee. Mr. Mengebier began his duties at Madison in the fall of 1954, Longwood College and Madison College announce the inauguration of a graduate program of study. Longwood will offer a course in evolution in the summer session of 1955 with Mr. George W. Jeffers as instructor. Madison offers Vertebrae Ecology by Mr. Mengebier and Major Diseases of Man by Mr. Shawver for the 1955 summer session. 104 The Virginia Journal of Science [April iJ^RETTE AMERICA’S LEADING MANUFACTURER OF CIGARETTES 1955] News and Notes 105 The following University of Virginia graduate students are now located at the institutions indicated: Mr. Robert Amy, Susquehanna University Mr. John Davis, Washington and Lee University Miss Harriet Farrier, Department of Neurology and Psychiatry, Univer¬ sity of Virginia Medical School Mr. Donald Foard, Longwood College Miss Nancy Groseclose, Agnes Scott College Mr. James Larimer, Duke University Miss Mary Jo Parrish, Mary Washington College Miss Jean Pugh, Norfolk Division, College of William and Mary and Virginia Polytechnic Institute Miss Polly anna Martin of Lynchburg, a senior at Longwood College, recently became the bride of Mr. Donald E. Foard, research assistant at Longwood. Mr. and Mrs. Foard are living in Farmville. — Robert T. Brumfield, Longwood College Engineering Section Dr. Lawrence R. Quarles, Assistant Dean of the University of Virginia School of Engineering, became a charter member of the American Nuclear Society which was organized in October, 1954. Mr. Tilton E. Shelburne and Mr. Phillip E. Melville of the Virginia Council of Highway Investigation and Research attended the annual meet¬ ing of the Highway Research Board in Washington, D. C. in January, 1955. Mr. Shelburne also attended the meeting of the American Asso¬ ciation of State Highway Officials, Highway Transport Committee, where final plans for a highway test road in Illinois were formulated. Mr. Phillip Melville presented a paper, '‘Concrete Aggregate Reaction in Vir¬ ginia” at the annual symposium on geology at Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland. Mr. Melville also attended a meeting of the Ameri¬ can Concrete Institute in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. Dr. Nelson F. Murphy, Department of Chemical Engineering, Virginia Polytechnic Institute, presented a paper "Mass Transfer in a Horizontal Liquid-Liquid Extraction Tube” at the annual meeting of the American Institute of Chemical Engineers in New York in December, 1954. Dr. Dale F. Davis, Department of Chemical Engineering, Virginia Poly¬ technic Institute, recently published papers entitled “Fire Protection in the Paper Industry” in the November issue of Paper Industry; “A New Flexibility Test for Rubber,” in the December Rubber Age; and “Specific Heats of Fluids,” in the January issue of Chemical Engineering. Professor Dan H. Pletta of the Department of Applied Mechanics, Vir¬ ginia Polytechnic Institute, is editor of the Engineering Mechanics Division Newsletter, puh]ished by the American Society of Civil Engineers. Professor W. A. Murray of the Electrical Engineering Department, Vir¬ ginia Polytechnic Institute, was elected second vice-president of the Blacks¬ burg chapter of the American Society of Professional Engineers. — Robert M. Hubbard, University of Virginia. 106 The Virginia Journal of Science [April Geology Section The Virginia Division of Geology is co-sponsoring with the Appalachian Geological Society and the West Virginia Geological Survey a Spring Field Gonference in the Harrisonburg, Virginia, area on May 20, 21, and 22. The conference will be devoted to a study of the older “Paleozoics” and basement complex of the northern Appalachians. All who plan to partici¬ pate in the conference should indicate their intention by letter to William M. McGill or Robert S. Young, Virginia Division of Geology, Box 3667, University Station, Gharlottesville, Virginia, on or before April 15. Mr .W. T. Parrott, of the Virginia De¬ partment of Highways, reports that the results of a statewide aggregate survey, published as “Physical Test Results of the Virginia Highway Statewide Aggre¬ gate Survey,” has created a great deal of interest in geological and engineering circles. The booklet is a compilation of tests on more than 2,000 samples of stone and aggregate which were collect¬ ed over a six-year period. Mr. Parrott also reports a successful meeting of geo¬ logists and engineers at the Sixth An¬ nual Symposium on Geology held at Johns Hopkins University on February 18th. Of much interest to the members of the Geology section is the recent pub¬ lication “Geology and Oil Resources of the Jones ville District, Lee Go., Virginia” by Ralph L. Miller and William P. Brosge. This report, U. S. G. S. Bull. 990, was prepared in cooperation with the Virginia Geological Survey. The Bulletin may be obtained from the Sup¬ erintendent of Documents, Washington, 25, D. G. The Geology Department of Virginia Polytechnic Institute has nearly complet¬ ed a new thin-sectioning laboratory which includes an automatic feed dia¬ mond saw and three laps. G. E. Sears recently demonstrated to members of the Holden Society of Virginia Poly¬ technic Institute the use of a Ruska magnetometer and also the use of a sun compass. Byron N. Gooper gave a talk on industrial limestones of Virginia at the AIME meeting in Ghicago, February 14-17. He also participated in a symposium on carbonate rocks held at the University COMPARE MARCHANT Feature For Feature • Push-Button Multiplication ^ Complete 3-dial Proof • Automatic Division Clearance Model EFA NEARBY OFFICES IN: HARRISONBURG RICHMOND NORFOLK NEWPORT NEWS DANVILLE ROANOKE LYNCHBURG AS NEAR TO YOU AS YOUR TELEPHONE SALES aad SERVICE Throu^out the World MARCHANT Calculators 1955] News and Notes 107 of Michigan, February 12. His paper dealt with the origin of Appala¬ chian dolomites. “Silica Sand Resources of Western Virginia” is the title of a paper which has been issued as Bulletin No. 96 of the Virginia Engineering Experiment Station. The bulletin was prepared by W. D. Lowry. — W. D. Lowry, Virginia Polytechnic Institute. Statistics Section Dr. Boyd Harshbarger, Head of the Department of Statistics at Virginia Polytechnic Institute, will be teaching Design of Experiments at the Southern Regional Graduate Summer Session which will be held at the University of Florida in Gainesville, Florida. Dr. R. A. Bradley will return to his position as Professor of Statistics at the Virginia Polytechnic Institute on June 1, 1955. He has been a visiting professor at Rutgers University. Dr. Robert E. Serfling of the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare presented a paper to a joint seminar of the Biology and Statistics Departments of Virginia Polytechnic Institute. His topic was “The Place of Statistics in Public Health Research.” Dr. P. N. Somerville resigned his position as Associate Professor at Vir¬ ginia Polytechnic Institute April 1 to accept a position at the American University in Washington, D. C. Paul C. Cox of White Sands Proving Ground and Robert Richards of the Redstone Arsenal will present seminars during the spring quarter at Virginia Polytechnic Institute. Dr. W. A. Thompson of the Virginia Polytechnic Institute will publish a paper, “The Ratio of Variances in a Variance Components Model,” in the June issue of the Annals of Mathematical Statistics. — Lionel Weiss, University of Virginia 1U8 The Virginia Journal of Science [April Virginia Academy of Science Program OF THE Thirty-Third Annual Meeting AT MADISON COLLEGE HARRISONBURG, VIRGINIA MAY 11, 12, 13. 14, 1955 Host to Meeting Madison College 1955] Program of Thirty-Third Annual Meeting 109 Virginia Academy of Science OFFICERS Irving G. Foster, President Walter S. Flory, President-Elect E. C. L. Miller, Secretary-Treasurer Emeritus Foley F. Smith, Secretary-Treasurer COUNCIL (Board of Trustees) Elected L. W. Jarman (1955) Stanley B, Williams (1956) Sidney S. Negus (1957) Byron N. Cooper (1958) Members William M. Hinton (1959) Horton H. Hobbs, Jr. Boyd Harshbarger Edward S. Harlow Ex-Officio Members Paul M. Patterson (1955) Lloyd C. Bird (1956) Allan T. Gwathmey (1957) Local Committee on Arrangements J. E. Ikenberry, General Chairman B. W. Partlow, Housing W. L. Mengebier, Registration Murl Shawver, Traffic and Parking J. C. Wells, Junior Academy Exhibits E. D. Miller, Commercial Exhibits Wilbert Chappell, Meeting Rooms and Equipment Raus Hanson, Geology Field Trip A. M. Showalter, Biology Field Trip S. C. Bocskey, Signs and Maps R. D. Cool, Chemical Industry Tour C. P. Shorts, Information Madison College Faculty Wives Club, Entertainment for Ladies HOST TO MEETING Madison College Tyler Miller, President 110 The Virginia Journal of Science [April General Program of The Thirty-Third Annual Meeting 19 5 5 WEDNESDAY, MAY 11 5:00 P.M. to 10:00 P.M. - Registration for Junior Academy Members, Participants in the Science Talent Search — ^Foyer, Madison Memorial Library. 5:00 P.M. to 10:00 P.M. - Arranging Exhibits - Burruss Science Hall. THURSDAY, MAY 18 8:00 A.M. to 5:00 P.M. - Registration for Junior Academy Members, Senior Academy Members and Guests — Foyer, Madison Memorial Library. 9:00 A.M. — Meeting of Science Exhibit Judges, Science Talent Search Judges — Burruss Science Hall, Rooms 201, 209. 9:30 A.M. - Meeting of Chairman and Exhibitors, and Science Talent Search Participants - Burruss Science Hall, Room 109. 10:00 A.M. to 12:30 P.M. and 1:30 P.M. to 4:00 P.M. — Finalists of Talent Search meet with Chairman and Interviewers — Burruss Science Hall, Rooms 2, 7, 307, 308. 10:00 A.M. to 12:30 P.M. and 1:30 P.M. to 4:00 P.M.—Judging of Science Exhibit Contests — Burruss Science Hall . 1:00 P.M. to 2:00 P.M. — -Luncheon. 2:00 P.M. - Meeting of the Council of the Academy- — ^Burruss Science Hall, Room 103. 4:00 P.M. — ^Meeting of all Senior Academy Section Officers — Burruss Science Hall, Room 109. 4:30 P.M. — Meeting of the Section Editors — Burruss Science Hall, Room 209. 5:00 P.M. — Meeting of Virginia Junior Academy of Science Commit¬ tee - Burruss Science Hall, Room 11. 7:00 P.M. - Business Meeting, Junior Academy of Science - -Wilson Hall, Auditorium. 7:30 P.M. — Address of Guest Speaker for Junior Academy Members and Guests-— “Wilson Hall, Auditorium. 8:30 P.M. — Senior Academy Conference and General Meeting— —Wilson Hall, Auditorium. 1955] Program of Thirty-Third Annual Meeting 111 FRIDAY, MAY 13 8:30 A.M.- — Registration. 9:00 A.M.- — Section Meetings: (See detailed sectional programs below for exact hour.) Agricultural Sciences - Wilson Hall - Room 28 Astronomy, Mathematics, Physics - Burruss Science Hall - Room 11 Bacteriology - Burruss Science Hall— -Room 311 Biology— Burruss Science Hall- — Room 109 Chemistry - Wilson Hall - Auditorium Education — Wilson Hall— Room 27 Engineering - Burruss Science Hall - Room 201 Geology — Burruss Science Hall — Room 209 Medical Sciences — Wilson Hall — Room 25 Psychology - Wilson Hall - Rooms 21 and 32 Science Teachers - Burruss Science Hall - Room 103 Statistics — Burruss Science Hall - Room 301 10:00 A.M. to 11:30 A.M. - Symposium, “What’s New in Chemistry,” sponsored by Science Teachers Section — Burruss Science Hall, Room 103. 12:00 noon to 1:00 P.M. - Junior-Senior Scientist Hour at which awards will he presented — Wilson Hall, Auditorium. 1:00 P.M. to 2:00 P.M.-— Luncheon. 2:00 P.M. — Section Meetings. 4:45 P.M. to 6:00 P.M. — Madison College will be host at a tea to the Members and Guests of the Academy - Alumnae Hall Parlor. 7:45 P.M.— Short Business Meeting, Senior Academy— Wilson Hall, Auditorium. 8:30 P.M.- — Address by Mr. Jerome Namias, Chief, Extended Forecast Section. U.S. Weather Bureau - Wilson Hall, Auditorium. SATURDAY, MAY 14 9:00 A.M.—— Section Meetings. 10:00 A.M. - Academy Council Meeting — Burruss Science Hall, Room 103. The Virginia Journal of Science [April 112 liiSfk, Section of Agricultural Sciences Rodney C. Berry, Chairman R. W. Engel, Vice-Chairman Paul M. Reaves, Secretary Wesley P. Judkins, Section Editor FRIDAY, MAY 13, 1955 — 9:00 A.M. — ROOM 28, WILSON HALL 1, 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 9:00 Announcements, Committee Appointments, etc. 9:15 Forage-Grain Substitution Rates in Milk Production Con¬ sidered Further. Carl W. Allen; Virginia Agricultural E::pc:'iT.zent Station. 9:30 Soil Factors Affecting the Availability of Manganese for Pea¬ nuts. C. I. Rich; Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station. 9:45 Crop Response to Various Rotations in the Peanut-Produc¬ ing Area of Virginia. D. L. Hallock and L. I. Miller; Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station. 10:00 Seedling Injury in Treated Wheat. James W. Midyette, Jr.; Virginia Department of Agricul¬ ture. 10:15 Preliminary Observations on the Value of a Low Calcium- High Phosphorus Diet for the Prevention of Milk Fever in Dairy Cows. W. A. Hardison, G. A. Miller, R. A. Sandy, and G. C. Graf; Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station. 10:30 Recess. 10:45 Crop Response to Rock Phosphate on Virginia Soils. W. W. Moschler; Virginia Agricultural Experiment Sta- , . . tion. 11:00 Sulfur Content of the Precipitation in Virginia. J. A. Lutz, Jr.; Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station. >11:15 Progress Report on the Use of V-C 13 for the Control of Nematodes Infesting Turf Grasses. M. A. Manzelli; Virginia-Carolina Chemical Corporation. 11:30 Application of Soil Survey to Certain Land Use Programs in Fairfax County. H. C. Porter; Soil Survey, Virginia Agricultural Experi¬ ment Station. 11:45 The Use of Sex Flormones for Fattening Lambs. W. S. Wilkinson; Virginia Agricultural Experiment Sta¬ tion. 1955] Program of Thirty-Third Annual Meeting 113 12:00 Noon — 1:00 P.M.- — Junior-Senior Scientist Hour - Wilson Hall Auditorium. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. FRIDAY, MAY 13, 1955 — ^1:30 P.M. 1:30 Observations on the Physiology of the Bovine Digestive Tract with Special Reference to Organ Activity. W. E. C. Moore and K. W. King; Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station. 1:45 In Vitro Estimation of the Cellulolytic Activity of Rumen Ingesta, S. E. Wood and W. E. C. Moore; Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station. 2:00 Freezing Bovine Semen. Paul M. Reaves, R. B. Potts, and E. A. Drinkwater; Vir¬ ginia Polytechnic Institute. 2:15 Variety, Type, Location and Yearly Effects on the Chemical Composition of Peanuts. J. F. Eheart, R. W. Young, and Allen H. Allison; Vir¬ ginia Agricultural Experiment Station. 2:30 Recess. 2:45 Factorial Experiments Give Valuable Information on How to Fertilize in Virginia. R. K. Stivers, P. T. Gish, G. D. Jones, and Boyd Harsh- barger; Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station. 3:00 Control of the Sting Nematode on Peanuts with an Ethylene Dibromide- Vermiculate Mixture. Lawrence I. Miller; Virginia Agricultural Experiment Sta¬ tion. 3:15 Highly Chlorinated Naphthalene Studies in the Rat and the Calf. B. E. Joyce, W. B. Bell, and R. W. Engel; Virginia Agri¬ cultural Experiment Station. 3:30 Growth Hormone Concentration in Swine Pituitaries. Bryan Baker; Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station. 3:45 Changing Concepts in Milk Sanitation. G. S. Kennedy; Roanoke Health Department. 4:00 Business Session. 114 The Virginia Journal of Science [April Section of Astronomy, Mathematics, and Physics H. Y. Loh, Chairman J. Gordon Stipe, Jr., Acting Secretary F. L. Hereford, Section Editor FRIDAY, MAY 13, 1955 — 10:00 A.M. — ROOM 11 BURRUSS SCIENCE HALL 1. 10:00 2. 10:15 3. 10:30 4. 10:45 5. 11:00 6. 11:15 7. 11:30 11:45 12:00 Scattering of 200 Kev Electrons in Gold Foils. W. G. Pettus, H. G. Blosser, and F. L. Hereford; Uni¬ versity of Virginia. Temperature Effects in the Annihilation of Positrons. R. T. Wagner and F, L. Hereford; University of Virginia. Design of the V. P. I. 1.5 Mev Pressurized Electrostatic Accelerator. T. M. Hahn; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. Two-photon Stokes Parameters. Stephen Berko; University of Virginia. Quenching of the Anomalous Lifetime Component of Posi¬ tron Annihilation in Organic Compounds by Free Radicals. A. J. Zuchelli and S. Berko; University of Virginia. Positron Annihilation Lifetime in Semiconductors. Hugh S. Landes and S. Berko; University of Virginia. A New Fast Triple Coincidence Circuit Using Secondary Emission Tubes. Herbert O. Funsten and S. Berko; University of Virginia. Business Meeting. Noon - 1:00 P.M.—— Junior-Senior Scientist Hour—— Wilson Hall Auditorium. FRIDAY, MAY 13, 1955—2:00 P.M. 8. 2:00 9. 2:15 10. 2:30 11. 2:45 Closed Expressions for Two Trigonometric Series. Marvin Stippes; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. The Stieltjes Integral in n-Dimensional Space. E. J. McShane; University of Virginia. Motions and Distribution of Red Dwarf Stars. George Mumford; University of Virginia. Electrodeless Discharge through Gases at Low Frequencies. Paul S. Nekrasov and H. Y. Loh; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. Program of Thirty-Third Annual Meeting 115 3:00 Reflected Fringes of Multiples-beam Interference. H. Y. Loh; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. 3:15 Diffusion Fields to Growing Crystal Surfaces. Marvin M. Levine; University of Virginia. (Introduced by N. Cabrera.) 3:30 Lattice Relaxations around Lattice Imperfections. George Hall; University of Virginia. (Introduced by N. Cabrera. ) 3:45 Surface Energy of Metals. Robert McIntyre; University of Virginia. (Introduced by N. Cabrera.) 4:00 Interference Fringes of Beats Investigated with Superposed Transparencies. L. G. Hoxton; University of Virginia. 4:15 Infra-Red Dispersion in the Region of Absorption Bands. Melvin A. Pittman; Madison College. Section of Bacteriology H. J. Welshimer, Chairman W. F. Lawrence, Vice-Chairman Miles G. Bowles, Secretary J. Douglas Reid, Section Editor SATURDAY, MAY 14, 1955-- 11:00 A.M.— ROOM 311 NEW SCIENCE BUILDING 11:00 A.M. Business Meeting. SATURDAY, MAY 14, 1955—1:30 P.M. 1:30 Some Problems in the Simplification of Endamoeha histoly¬ tica Cultivation Medium. E. Clifford Nelson and Muriel M. Jones; Medical Col¬ lege of Virginia. 1:45 Contamination in Bank Blood. A. Rosensweig; McGuire Veterans Hospital, Richmond. 2:00 Serological Studies of Lactobacilli. P. Ame Hansen and R. H. Miller; University of Maryland. 2:15 An Unusual, Small, Gram Positive Rod Isolated From Spinal Fluid. Herbert J. Welshimer; Medical College of Virginia. 116 The Virginia Journal of Science [April 5. 6. 7. 8. 2:30 A Comparison of the Original Loewenstein Media with Jensen’s Modification of Loewenstein in the Culture of My¬ cobacterium tuberculosis. William A. Dorsey and Jo Soles; Department of Public Health, Richmond. 2:45 Human Tissues in Tissue Cultures. A. E. Feller; School of Medicine, University of Virginia. 3:00 A Study on Some Racial Differences with Respect to Tuber- culosis. Margaret S. Anderson; Madison College. 3:15 The Tuberculostatic Activity of Aqueous Extracts Prepared , 'from Selected Mammalian Tissues. Quentin N. Myrvik; School of Medicine, University of Virginia. Section of Biology Roscoe Hughes, Chairman Jacques Rappaport, Vice-Chairman Jack D. Burke, Secretary Robert T. Brumfield, Section Editor .(1957) FRIDAY, MAY 13, 1955-— 9:30 A.M. — ROOM 109 BURRUSS SCIENCE HALL 9:30 1. 9:40 2. 10:00 3. 10:10 4. 10:20 5. 10:30 6. 10:40 Announcements— —Committee reports. The Inheritance of Fruit-shape in Cucurbita moschata. A. M. Showalter; Madison College. The Development of the Ovule, Megasporogenesis, and Megagametogenesis in Typha angustifolia. Philip E. Graef; University of Virginia. Certain Bryophytes with Critical Distribution in Virginia. Paul M. Patterson; Hollins College. Observations on the Effects of Eyestalk Extirpation on the Female Crayfish, Camharus longulus longulus, Girard. Elizabeth M. Zipf; University of Virginia. Growth of ■ Oysters at Gloucester Point, Virginia. J. L. McHugh; Virginia Fisheries Laboratory. Betula uber (Ashe) Fernald in Smyth County, Virginia. A. B. Massey and L. R. Hundley; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. 1955] Program of Thirty-Third Annual Meeting 117 7. 10:45 A Tendency Toward Cyclic Dimorphism in Female Cray¬ fishes. Horton H. Hobbs, Jr.; University of Virginia. 10:55 Business Meeting. 12:00 Noon — 1:00 P.M. —“-Junior-Senior Scientist Hour — Wilson Hall Auditorium. FRIDAY, MAY 13, 1955 — 1:30 P.M. 8. 1:30 Liver Restoration in the Golden Hamster After Partial Hep- atectomy - Preliminary Report. William L. Mengebier, Antonina Skapars, Oliver Hender¬ son; Madison College and Texas A. and M. College. 9. 1:40 A Preliminary Report on Observations of the Effects of Eye-Extirpation on Testicular Behavior in the Crayfish. Sam R. Telford, Walter H. Lewis, and John B. Kay an; University of Virginia. 10. 1:50 The Somatic Chromosomes of Tulbaghia. W. S. Flory, Jr.; University of Virginia. 11. 2:00 Alternanthera in Virginia. A. B. Massey; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. 12. 2:05 Chromosome Numbers of Some Species and Hybrids in the Araceae. Gertrude Earl; University of Virginia. 13. 1:15 Water Gontent of Vertebrate Embryos and Larvae. A. M. Showalter and Harry Ruebush; Madison College. 14. 2:25 Monoecious Tendencies in the Grayfish, Cambarus longulus longidus, Girard. W. H. Lewis; University of Virginia. 15. 2:35 Chromosome Complements of Some Cyrtanthus Species in Subgenus Monella Compared with that of C. sanguineus in Subgenus Gastronema. W, S. Flory, Jr.; University of Virginia. 16. 2:45 Oxygen Capacity Studies in Relation to Body Weight in Albino Rats. Jack D. Burke; University of Richmond. SATURDAY, MAY 14, 1955 — 9:00 A.M. Field Trip - Assemble at main entrance of Burruss Science Hall. 118 The Virginia Journal of Science [April Section of Chemistry J. Stanton Pierce, Chairman Richard M. Irby, Jr., Secretary Carl J. Likes, Section Editor FRIDAY, MAY 13, 1955 — 9:00 A.M. — AUDITORIUM, WILSON HALL 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 9:00 Introductory Remarks by the Chairman. 9:10 The Effects of Various Considerations on the Air Flow through a Cigarette. P. M. Pedersen and E. S. Harlow; Richmond. 9:30 X-Ray Photoelectron Spectrometry. Ralph C. Steinhardt, Jr.; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. 9:55 An X-Ray and Metalographic Study of Large Grain Tita¬ nium. Francis J. Dennis; Virginia Institute for Scientific Re¬ search. 10:10 Acid and Base Combining Capacity of Zein. Carl J. Likes and Donald F. Koenig; Virginia Institute for Scientific Research. 10:20 Sulfur and Nitrogen Compounds as Antioxidants at Elevated Temperatures. James W. Cole, Donald R. Campbell, and Robert N. Lawhorn; University of Virginia. 10:35 An Improved Smoking Automaton. Robert C. Lieser and Andrew E. O’Keeffe; Research Department, Phillip Morris and Company, Ltd., Inc. 10:50 Electrochemical Preparation of Boron. Nelson F. Murphy, Richard J. Tinsley and George F. Meenaghan; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. 11:05 Systematic Chromatographic Analysis For Metals. Harriett H. Fillinger; Hollins College. 11:15 Guest Lecture — Fundamental Research and the Tobacco Industry. E. S. Harlow; Coordinator of Research, Research Labora¬ tory, The American Tobacco Company. 12:00 Noon ~ 1:00 P.M.— -Junior-Senior Scientist Hour- — Wilson Hall Auditorium. 1955] Program of TmRTY-TmRD Annual Meeting 119 FRIDAY, MAY 13, 1955— -1:50 P.M. 1:50 Business Meeting. 10. 2:00 Detennination of Trace Quantities of Nickel in Human Blood. Maxwell L. Cluett and John H. Yoe; Pratt Trace Analy¬ sis, University of Virginia. 11. 2:15 Spectrophotometric Determination of Trace Quantities of Magnesium. Charles K. Mann and John H. Yoe; Pratt Trace Analysis Laboratory, University of Virginia. 12. 2:30 Two New Colorimetric Reagents for the Detennination of Boron. Robert L. Grob and John H. Yoe; Pratt Trace Analysis Laboratory, University of Virginia. 13. 2:45 An Apparatus for the Study of Ignition and Mass Transfer of Droplet Vapor Systems. W. E. Rice and S. S. Stein; Experiment Incorporated. , 14. 3:00 The Experimental Determination of Burning Velocity by the Bunsen Burner Technique. George J. Gibbs and Hartwell F. Calcote; Experiment Incorporated. 15. 3:15 Studies of Ionization in Flames by Means of Langmuir Probes. I. R. King and Hartwell F. Calcote; Experiment Incorpo¬ rated. 16. 3:30 A New Technique for Studying Dust Explosions. Lloyd E. Line, Jr. and Wendall J. Clark. 17. 3:45 Some Reactions of Butadiene Cyclic Sulfone. Robert C. Krug and George R. Tichelaar; Virginia Poly¬ technic Institute. 18. 4:00 Halogenated Isoprenic Cyclic Sulfones. Robert C. Krug and Teh-Fu Yen; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. 19. 4:15 Chromatographic Separation of a Complex Polynuclear Hydrocarbon Mixture. Frank A. Vingiello and Alexej B. Borkovec; Virginia Poly¬ technic Institute. 20. 4:35 Some Macrocyclic Chemistry. Albert W. Lutz; William and Mary. 21. 4:45 A Submerged Combustion Boiler. Gerald Golub; Experiment Incorporated. 120 The Virginia Journal of Science [April 1. 9:00 2. 9il5 3. 9:25 4. 9:55 5. 10:10 6. i0:25 7. 10:40 8. ‘10:55 9. 11:10 10. 11:25 11. 11:35 SATURDAY, MAY 14, 1955 — 9:00 A.M. AUDITORIUM, WILSON HALL Thermodynamics of Complex Ion Formation. Loren G. Hepler; University of Virginia. The Study of Films on Catalytic Surfaces With the Aid of Elliptically Polarized Light. Robert E. Cunningham and Fred W. Young, Jr.; Univer¬ sity of Virginia. The Rates of Oxidation of Several Faces of Copper With the Aid of Elliptically Polarized Light. F. W. Young; University of Virginia. Studies of the Coordination of l,3-bis-(tris-(hydroxy- methyl )) —methylamino— 2— propanol With Some Cations of the First Transition Series. Velta Erdmanis and William E. Trout, Jr.; University of Richmond. A Further Study of Fe (III) and l,3“bis-(tris-( hydroxy¬ methyl) ) -methylamino-2-propanol. Jane Bell Gladding and William E. Trout, Jr.; Univer¬ sity of Richmond. The Oxidative Determination of Humectant Additives in Tobacco. H. E. Wright, Jr. and W. W. Burton; Research Labora¬ tory, The American Tobacco Company. Comparisons of Zein Textile. Fibers with Fine Clothing Wool. George L. Walker; Research Department, Virginia Caro¬ lina Chemical Corporation. Synthesis and Chemistry of 0 — 2, 4 — Dichlorophenyl O, O — Diethyl Phosphorothioate (“V-C 13 Nemacide) and Its Analogs. Charles L. Harowitz; Research Department, Virginia Carolina Chemical Corporation. The Determination of Residues of 0 — 2, 4 Dichlorophenyl O, O — Diethyl Phosophorothioate (“V-C 13 Nemacide). George R, Boyd; Research Department Virginia-Carolina Chemical Corporation. Preparation of Some New Aromatic Ketones. Frank A. Vingiello and J. Robert Thornton; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. The Preparation of Some Methyl — and Trichloromethyl-O- benzylphenylcarbinols . Frank A. Vingiello and Peter E. Newallis; Virginia Poly¬ technic Institute. 121 1955] Program of Thirty-Third Annual Meeting 12. 11:45 Trityl Ethers of Negatively Substituted Alcohols. J. S. Belew, J. O. Edwards, (Brown University) and R. Layton; University of Virginia. Section of Education Jack H. Roger, Chairman Deforest L. Strunk, II, Secretary James Patton, Section Editor FRIDAY, MAY 13, 1955 — 9:00 A,M. — ROOM 27, WILSON HALL 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9:00 An Application of the Informal Reading Inventory. Katherine Minor Anthony; Madison College. 9:20 The New Science. Winfred P. Elson; Calverton, Virginia. 9:40 The Prediction of Achievement in High School Biology. Alonzo M. Myster and Emily Murdock; Statistical Labo¬ ratory, Virginia State College. 10:00 Comparison of Individual and Small Group Method of Laboratory Instruction in General College Chemistry. W, Donald Clague; Bridgewater College. 10:20 A Project in the Cooperative Production of Instructional Guides for Teachers of Science. John B. Ghase; University of Virginia. 10:50 A Study in the Cooperative Improvement of the Quality of Educational Experiences in the Laboratory School of Longwood College. Helen R. McDowell; Longwood College. 11:20 An Analysis of the True Value Factor in the Formula for the Calculation of the Distribution Monies from the Mini¬ mum Educational Program Fund and the Salary Equal¬ ization Fund of the Virginia State Department of Educa¬ tion with Particular Reference to Northampton County. Paul G. Watson; Cape Charles High School. 11:50 A Preliminary Investigation in the Teaching of Gollege Bio- logy. Mary H. Richardson; Stratford College. 12:00 Noon — 1:00 P.M. — -Junior-Senior Scientist Hour — Wilson Hall Auditorium. [April 12^ The Virginia Journal of Science FRIDAY, MAY 13, 1955 — 1:45 P.M. 9. 10. 1:45 The Construction of a Scale for the Measurement of At¬ titudes Towards Science in the Elementary Schools and Towards Mathematics in the Junior High Schools. Alonzo M. Myster, Lillian Banks, and Doris M. Wood; Statistical Laboratory, Virginia State College. 2:15 Panel Discussion of “The Manpower Shortage in the Sci¬ entific Fields and the Imphcations for Science Education in the Public Schools”. Panel Members: Jack H. Boger, Richmond Public Schools; J. W. Cole, University of Virginia; Alfred Win- go, Supervisor of Research, State Department of Educa¬ tion, and Alex Sadie, Allied Chemical and Dye Corpora¬ tion, Hopewell, 3:15 Business Meeting. Section of Engineering Phillip L. Melville, Chairman Dudley Tompson, Secretary Robert M. Hubbard, Section Editor (1958) FRIDAY, MAY 13, 1955 — 9:00 A.M. — ROOM 201 BURRUSS SCIENCE HALL 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 9:00 Opening Remarks — P. L. Melville, Chairman. 9:15 Investigation of Slotted and Perforated Transonic Nozzles. R. W. Truitt and Arthur C. Bruce; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. 9:35 A New Method of Accident Analysis and Its Application to Highway Engineering. Alfred Vick, HI; Virginia Department of Highways. 10.00 Lefs Take the “Burgers” out of Control Systems. B. A. Niemeier; Consulting Engineer, Richmond. 10:25 Model Studies of Prestressed Concrete Beams Used in the Hampton Roads Approach Bridges. Ignacio Romero; Virginia Council of Highway Investi¬ gation and Research. 10:50 A Study of Highway Sign Legibility. Terrence M. Allen; Virginia Council of Highway Investi¬ gation and Research. 1955] Program of Thirty-Third Annual Meeting 123 6. 11:15 Schlieren Photography, High Brilliance Light Source. Orville R. Harris; University of Virginia. 7. 11:35 Theory o£ Free Streamlines in Compressible Flow. Robert W. Truitt; Virginia Folytechnic Institute. 12:00 Noon — 1:00 P.M.- — Junior-Senior Scientist Hour — Wilson Hall Auditorium. FRIDAY, MAY 13, 1955 — 1:30 P.M. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 1:30 A Study of Variables Affecting Chemical Control of Shrubs on Power Line Right-of-Ways in Southwest Virginia. Herbert P. Olson and Frank C. Vilbrandt; Virginia Foly¬ technic Institute, 1:50 Calculations of Individual, Mass-Transfer Coefficients for Two-Phase, Liquid Extraction Systems. John E. Lastovica and Nelson F. Murphy; Virginia Foly¬ technic Institute. 2:10 Characteristics of Sieve Plates for Contacting Liquid and Vapor. James I. Lankford; University of Virginia. 2:30 Individual Dynode Voltage Regulator for Photomultiplier Tubes. B. d’E. Flagge and O. R. Harris; University of Virginia. 2:50 Causes of Highway Sign Failure. Arthur L. Straub; Virginia Council of Highway Investi¬ gation and Research. 3:10 An Investigation of the Properties of Various Gradations Meeting F-1, Sand-Asphalt, Specifications. P. E. McIntyre; Virginia Council of Highway Investiga¬ tion and Research. 3:30 Design and Construction of an Ultrasonic System for Study of Liquid-Liquid Extraction. Hughey Allen Woodle, Jr. and Dudley Thompson; Vir¬ ginia Folytechnic Institute. 3:50 Use of Prestressed Concrete in the Hampton Roads Bridge Tunnel Project. J. N. Clary; Virginia Department of Highways. 4:10 Junior Academy Awards. 4:40 Business Session. 124 The Virginia Journal of Science [Apra SATURDAY, MAY 14, 1955 — 9:30 R.M.— ROOM 201 BURRUSS SCIENCE HALL 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 9:30 A Study of Bond between Pretension Steel and Concrete in Prestressed Concrete. Charles E. Echols; Virginia Council of Highway Investi¬ gation and Research. 9:50 An Analytical Method for Analyzing Hipped Plate Struc¬ tures. Daniel Frederick, Virginia Polytechnic Institute. 10:10 Atomic Explosion and Structural Stability. Henry L. Kinnier; University of Virginia. 10:20 An Investigation of Wedges at Angle of Attack. R. W. Truitt and Robert D. Jones; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. 10:40 A Semi-Instantaneous Rainfall Ratemeter. Leo F. Goeller; University of Virginia. 11:00 The Design of a Pilot Plant for the Production of Maleic Acid Hydrazide. Willard Hall Sawyer and Frank C. Vilbrandt; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. 11:20 Correlation of Soil Properties and Index Constants. C. Page Fisher, Consulting Engineer, Richmond, and Wil¬ liam H. Vogelsang, Chief Geologist, Froehling and Rob¬ ertson, Inc., Richmond. Section of Geology William T. Harnsberger, Chairman William T'. Parrott, Vice-Chairman Marcellus H. Stow, Secretary W. D. Lowry, Section Editor (1958) FRIDAY, MAY 13, 1955 — 9:00 A.M. — ROOM 209, BURRUSS SCIENCE HALL (Time for discussion will be allowed at end of each paper.) 1. 9:00 Title to be announced. Marcellus H. Stow; Washington and Lee University. 2. 9:10 Effect of Traffic Polishing on Limestone Aggregates. William T. Parrott; Virginia Department of Highways' 1955] Program of T'hirty-Third Annual Meeting 125 3. 9:25 The Bergton-Crab Run Gas Field, Western Rockingham County, Virginia, R. S. Young and W. T. Harnsberger; Division of Geology^ Virginia Department of Conservation and Development. (Presented by W. T. Harnsberger.) 4. 9:35 Monazite Deposits of Virginia. 5. 9:50 Charles E. Sears, Jr.; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. Current Manganese Operations in Virginia. E. O. Gooch; Division of Geology, Virginia Department of Conservation and Development. 6. 10:05 Origin of a Greenstone Conglomerate in the Charlottesville Vicinity. Robert M. Cordova; University of Virginia. 7. 10:20 A Peridotite Dike Near Front Royal, Virginia. Robert S. Young and Roy A. Bailey; Division of Geology, Virginia Department of Conservation and Development. (Presented by Robert S. Young). 8. 10:35 Geology of Southeastern Piedmont Virginia. A. A. Pegau and W. B. Brent; Division of Geology, Vir¬ ginia Department of Conservation and Development. (Presented by A. A. Pegau). 9. 10:45 Are the Depressions of Major Synclines in the Valley and Ridge Province of Virginia of Depositional Origin? W. D. Lowry; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. 11:00 Announcements . 12:00 Noon — 1:00 P.M.— -Junior-Senior Scientist Hour—- Wilson Hall Auditorium. FRIDAY, MAY 13, 1955—2:00 P.M. (Time for discussion wiU be allowed at end of each paper) 10. 2:00 Is the Rockfish Conglomerate Intraformational? R. V. Dietrich; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. 11. 2:15 Ground Water in the Waynesboro Area, Virginia. Jack Lowden; University of Virginia. 12. 2:25 Preliminary Investigation of Fossils in the Arvonia Slate. Shelton P. Applegate; University of Virginia. 13. 2:35 Natural Chimneys of Augusta County, Virginia. C. C. Fisher; Division of Geology, Virginia Department of Conservation and Development. 14 2:50 ' Heavy Mineral Correlation in Coastal Plain Sediments. Allen Sinnott, U. S. Geological Survey. 126 The Virginia Journal of Science [April 15. 2:55 16. 3:05 17. 3:15 18. 3:25 19. 3:35 3:45 Mineralogical Studies of Sediments from the Eastern Shore Peninsula of Virginia. Basil Doerhoefer, III, Thomas B. Neblett, Jr., Harold E. Sturgill, Robert S. Wood; Washington and Lee Univer¬ sity. (Presented by Robert S. Wood.) Mineralogical Studies of Sediments from New River, Vir¬ ginia. Charles A. Macintosh, Alan R. Mixson, David K. Willard, Jr.; Washington and Lee University. (Presented by David K. Willard, Jr.) Mineralogical Studies of Sediments from Banister River, Virginia. Sam Berry, Douglas D. Monroe, Leroy H. Simkins, Jr.; Washington and Lee University. (Presented by Leroy H. Simkins, Jr.) Proposed New Systems of Soil Classification. G. H. Robinson and S. S. Obenshain; U. S. Department of Agriculture and Virginia Polytechnic Institute. Soil-Rock Relationships in Fairfax County, Virginia. J. F. Derting and H. C. Porter; Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station. (Presented by J. F. Derting.) Business Meeting. SATURDAY, MAY 14, 1955 — 8:30 A.M. 8:30 Field Trip: Lower and Middle Ordovician Stratigraphy, Middletown Quarry, M. J. Grove Lime Quarry and Mine. Leaders: C. E. Bass, B. N. Cooper, R. S. Edmundson, Paul Herbert, Robert S. Young. (Place of assembling and details of trip to be annormced during Friday meeting.) Section of Medical Sciences Sidney Solomon, Chairman Grover C. Pitts, Secretary Ebbe C. Hoff, Section Editor FRIDAY, MAY 13, 1955 — ^10:00 A.M. — ROOM 25, WILSON HALL 1. 10:00 A Histochemical Study of Ribose Nucleic Acid in the Eye of the Chick Embryo. Morris S. McKeehan; University of Virginia School of Medicine. 1955] Program of Thirty-Third Annual Meeting 127 2. 10:15 The Combination of Insulin with Frog Skeletal Muscle. D. R. H. Gourley; University of Virginia School of Medi¬ cine. 3. 10:30 Studies on the Activity of the Detrusor Muscle with Special Reference to the Effects of Electrical Stimulation of Fore¬ brain Structures. Everett H, Ingersoll, Louise L. Jones, and Erling S. Hegre; Medical College of Virginia. 4. 10:45 Serum Protein Patterns in Rabbits During Sensitization and Desensitization. Oscar Swineford, Cornelia Hoch-Ligeti, and Karen Irvine; University of Virginia School of Medicine. 5. 11:00 Motion Pictures of Cellular Changes in Tissues of Tadpoles After X-ray Irradiation as Recorded in vivo. Carl Caskey Speidel; University of Virginia School of Medicine. 6. 11:15 Further Studies on the Inhibition of Porphyrin Synthesis by Benzimidazole Derivatives. Lynn D. Abbott, Jr. and Mary J. Dodson; Medical Col¬ lege of Virginia. 11:30 Business meeting. 12:00 Noon — 1:00 P.M. - Junior-Senior Scientist Hour — Wilson 7. 1:30 Hall Auditorium. Studies by Paper Electrophoresis of Serum Lipoproteins. J. C. Forbes and P. C. Taylor; Medical College of Vir¬ ginia. 8. 1:45 The Ultraviolet Absorption Spectra of lodinated Proteins. Chalmers L. Gemmill; University of Virginia School of Medicine. 9. 2:00 Studies on Metabolites of Nicotine. Fletcher B. Owen and P. S. Larson; Medical College of Virginia. 10. 2:15 A Study of Defecation in the Cat. Roy L. Mundy and Eugene D. Brand; University of Vir¬ ginia School of Medicine. 11. 2:30 Autonomic Effects of a New Series of Substituted Amines and Quaternary Ammonium Compounds. W. H. Pindell, J. K. Finnegan, and J. D. Smith; Medical College of Virginia. 12. 2:45 The Mechanism of Nitrogen Mustard-Induced Emesis in the Cat. Eugene D. Brand; University of Virginia School of Medi¬ cine. 128 The Virginia Journal of Science [April Section of Psychology Gilbert J. Rich, Chairman Audrey M. Shuey, Secretary-Treasurer Henry M. Imus, Executive Committeeman R. H. Henneman, Section Editor FRIDAY, MAY 13, 1955 — 9:30 A.M. — ^WILSON HALL 9:30-12:00 Noon Program A — Room 21 Program B — Room 32 12:00 Noon — 1:00 P.M. — Junior-Senior Scientist Hour — Wilson Hall Auditorium. 1:30- 3:00 P.M. Symposium A — Room 21 Training Programs for Psychologists in Virginia: Present Status and Future Plans Symposium B— Room 32 The Role and Contributions of Clinical and Counselling Psychologists. 3:00- 5:00 P.M. Business Meeting (including report of Committee on Evalua¬ tion of Fimctions.) PROGRAM A-~ROOM 21, WILSON HALL 1. 9:00 Factors Determining the Proficiency of Multiple Task Per¬ formance. Glenn R. Hawkes; University of Virginia. 2. 9:20 Vibrotactile Communication and Training. William C. Howell; University of Virginia. 3. 9:40 The Influence of Varying Probabihties of Reinforcement in a Matching-to-Sample Situation with Humans. William E. Montague; University of Virginia. 4. 10:00 An Investigation of the Stimulus Dimensions in Vibratory “Phr. Wilham H. Sumby; University of Virginia. 5. 10:20 Stereot5^es and Perceptual Distortion, Linda Johnson; Mary Washington College. Program of Thirty-Third Annual Meeting 129 10:40 The Effect of Stimulus Reversal on Discrimination Chain¬ ing. Milton H. Hodge; University of Virginia. 11:00 Visual Recognition Thresholds as Indices of Word Probabili¬ ties. William A. Lee; University of Virginia. 11:20 The Retention of Responses to Specific Verbal Stimuli Com¬ pared with Retention of Responses to Classes of Verbal Stimuli. Kenneth E. Lloyd; University of Virginia. PROGRAM B — ROOM 32, WILSON HALL 9:00 Criteria for Enrolling College Students in “Improvement of Reading Skills” Course. Frances Dean Scott; Lynchburg College. 9:20 The Effects of Remedial Reading Upon California Mental Maturity Retest Scores. William P. Matthews; Lynchburg College. 9:40 Disproportionate Contribution of Revised Beta Scales Scores to Total Scores in Adolescent Groups. Walter A. Woods and Robert Toal; Richmond Profes¬ sional Institute. 10:00 Intelligence Differences in Delinquents as Appraised by Four Psychological Tests. Walter A. Woods and John A. Farley; Richmond Profes¬ sional Institute. 10:20 Research Programs in Neurological Disease and Blindness. Henry A. Imus; National Institute of Health. 10:40 The Measurement of Primary Mental Abilities by the Colum¬ bia Mental Maturity Scale. Jack H. Boger, Cyril R. Mill, and Charles J. Turner; Richmond Public Schools. 11:00 Recent Research in Perception and Its Implications for Re¬ search with Projective Techniques. A. W. Jeffreys, Jr.; Western State Hospital. 11:20 A Validity Study of the Morgan Test of Logical Reason¬ ing in Terms of Career Employees for Government Service. William J. Morgan; Aptitude Associates, Inc. 11:40 To Search for Evidence on the Popular Belief that Males Are More Logical in Their Reasoning Processes than Fem¬ ales. Antonia Bell Morgan; Aptitude Associates, Inc. 130 The Virginia Journal of Science [April Section of Science Teachers G. L. Thomasson, Chairman Franklin D. Kizer, Chairman-Elect Martha W. Duke, Secretary Caroline Gambrill, Section-Editor FRIDAY, MAY 13, 1955 — 9:30 A.M. — ROOM 103 BURRUSS SCIENCE HALL Theme — "‘Whafs New in Chemistry"' 9:30 Appointment of Nominating Committee. 1. 9:40 Biophysics. Sidney S. Negus; Medical College of Virginia. 2. 10:10 Fibers and Fertihzers. W. T. Boyer; Virginia-Carolina Corporation. 3. 10:40 Medical Chemistry. Speaker to be announced. 4. 11:10 Trend in Science Teacher Supply. M. C. Shawver; Madison College. 11:40 Report of Nominating Committee. 11:50 Adjournment. 12:00 Noon-1 : 00 P.M. — Junior-Senior Scientist Hour—— Hall Auditorium. Wilson Section of Statistics M. C. K. Tweedie, Chairman C. Y. Kramer, Secretary Lionel Weiss, Section Editor FRIDAY, MAY 13, 1955 — 9:00 A.M.— ROOM 301 1. 2. 3. 9:00 Introductory Remarks of the Acting Chairman. 9:10 Some Results on Recurrent Event Theory. John E. Freund; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. 9:30 A Property of the Balanced Incomplete Block Designs. W. A. Thompson, Jr.; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. 9:50 On Parameter Estimates Expressed as Sets of Values. M. C. K. Tweedie; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. 1955] Pbogram of T'htrty-Third Annual Meeting 131 4. 10:10 On llie Numeration of Consistent Pairwise Comparisons. R. L. Wine and John E. Freund; Virginia Polytechnic Institue. 5. 10:30 Intermission. 6. 10:40 Various Approaches in Evaluating Census Data. G. W. Suter; Virginia Cooperative Crop Reporting Service. 7. 11:00 Some Antecedents of Modern Experiment Design. Churchill Eisenhart; National Bureau of Standards. 12:00 Noon — 1:00 P.M.^—Junior-Senior Scientist Hour— —Wilson Hall Auditorium, FRIDAY, MAY 13, 1955—2:00 P.M. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 2:00 Business Meeting. 2:30 Estimation of Aircraft Spare Parts Requirements. Walter Jacobs; Department of the Air Force. 2:50 A Statistician Looks at the Employee Security Problem. Morris J. Solomon; Bureau of the Census. 3:30 Intermission. 3:40 Life Testing in the Discrete Case. F, S. McFeely; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. 4:00 New Developments in Paired Comparisons, R. A. Bradley; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. 4:20 Consistency of Subjective Scores in Non-Rephcated Experi¬ ments. T, S. Russell; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. SATURDAY, MAY 14, 1955—9:00 A.M.— ROOM 301 BURRUSS SCIENCE HALL 15. 9:00 Some Properties of Order Statistics from Discrete Uniform Distributions. E. L. Bombara; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. 16. 9:20 Sequential Procedures that Control the Individual Probabili¬ ties of Coming to the Various Decisions. Lionel Weiss; University of Virginia. 17. 9:40 Some Aspects of Quality Control. Donald J. Shaw; E. I. duPont DeNmours and Company. 18. 10:10 Intuitive Probability and Economic Behavior. Cleon Harrell; University of North Carolina. 19. 10:30 Intermission. 132 The Virginia Journal of Science [April 20. 10:40 A Result on Geary’s Extension of Berkson’s Case of Func¬ tional Relationships. H. C. Sweeny; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. 21. 11:00 Designs for Interblock Analysis. C. C. Beazley; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. 22. 11:20 A Study of the Use of an Auxiliary Variate in Analysing Discrete Data. R. J. Taylor and M. C. K. Tweedie; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. 23. 11:40 A Test of Consistency and Inconsistency in Subjective Rat¬ ings. (By Title) A. N. Pozner; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. ; The Annual Subscription rate is $3.00, and the cost of a single ^' number, $1.00. Reprints are available only if ordered when galley proof is returned. All orders except those involving exchanges should be ad- ■ dressed to Boyd Harshbarger, Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Blacksburg, J Virginia. The University of Virginia Library has exclusive exchange ar¬ rangements, and communications relative to exchange should be addressed to The Librarian, Alderman Library, University of Virginia, Charlottes- ■r- ville, Virginia. r- Notice To Contributors ^ Contributions to the Journal should be addressed to Horton H. Hobbs, Jr., Miller School of Biology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia. If any preliminary ; notes have been published on the subject which is submitted to the editors, a statement 7 to that effect must accompany the manuscript. j;; Manuscripts must be submitted in triplicate, typewritten in double spacing on standard Vi X 11" paper, with at least a one inch margin on all sides. Manuscripts are limited to seven pages, with the proviso that if additional pages are desired, the author may obtain them at cost. Division of the manuscript into subheadings must follow a consistent plan, and be held to a minimum. It is desirable that a brief summary be included in all manuscripts. Footnotes should be included in the body of the manuscript immediately following the reference, and set off by a dashed-line above and below the footnote content. Footnotes / should be numbered consecutively from the beginning to the end of the manuscript. Bibliographies (Literature Cited, References, etc.) should be arranged alphabetically according to author. Each reference should include the date, full title of the article, the name of the Journal, the volume, number (optional), pages, tables and figures (if any). For example; "Sniffen, Ernest W. 1940. Cobbles from the Pleistocene Terraces of the Lower York-James Peninsula, Va. Journ. Sci., 1 (8): 285-288, 1 fig. 1 tab. Ref¬ erence to the bibliographic citations should not be made by numbers. Instead, using the above citations, where a reference is desired; either “Sniffen (1940)", "Sniffen, 1940: 186)”, or "Sniffen (1940) states that . . .” Explanations of figures. Graphs, etc., should be typed on separate pages. All figures should be numbered consecutively beginning with the first text figure and continuing through the plates. If figures are to be inserted in the text this should be clearly indi¬ cated by writing "Figure — ” at the appropriate place in the margin. Illustrations, including lettering, should be arranged so that on reduction they will not exceed the dimensions of the maximum size of a printed page, 4%" x 6V2", and BO that they are well balanced on the page. The Journal will furnish the author with one plate (halftone or line reproduction) or its equivalent; additional figures, colored illustrations or lithographs may be used only if the author makes a grant covering the cost of production. Original drawings (which must be done in black drawing ink), not photographs of drawings, should accompany the manuscript. Photographs should not be used if a line and dot (stippled) drawing will suffice. If phoftographic prints are to be used they should be glossy, sharp and show good contrast. Drawings not neatly executed and labeled (do not use a typewriter), or which are submitted on yellow or yellowish-white paper will not be accepted. Galley Proofs and engraver's proofs of figures are sent to the author for correction. Costs of excessive changes from the original manuscript must be defrayed by the author. OFFICERS OF THE VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE Irving G. Foster, President Walter S. Flory, Jr., President-Elect Foley F. Smith, Secretary-Treasurer ' ■ . ■ I' ■ ■ L. W. Jarman S. B. Williams (1956) W. Sidney S. Negus (1957) Byron N. Cooper (1958) COUNCIL (Board of Trustees) (1955) William Hinton (1959) LlOyd C. Bird Marcellus Stow Paul M. Patterson Allan T. Gwathmey Boyd Harshbarger Horton H. Hobbs, Jr. ^^\THSO^ S£P8 1st THE VIRGINIA OURNAL OT'TSCIENCE A JOURNAL ISSUED' QUARTERLY BY VIRGINIA ACADEMY pF SCIENCf VoL. 6 No. 3 July, 1955 THE VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Published Four Times a Year: In January, April, July, and September, by The Virginia Academy of Science Printed by The Giles County Virginian, Pearisburg, Va. CONTENTS Pages Boyd Harshbarger, An Appreciation . 133 On the Nature of Insect Resistance to Insecticides — J. M. Grayson AND D: G. Cochran . 134 Monoecious Tendencies in the Crayfish, Cambarus longulus longulus Girard — W. H. Lewis . 146 The Nesting and Ovarian Eggs of the Dusky Salamander, Desmo- gnathus f. fuscus Raf., in Southeastern Virginia — John Thornton Wood, Frank G. Carey, and Roger H. Rageot . . 149 The Terrestrial Shell-Bearing Mollusca of Hanover, Henrico, and Chesterfield Counties, Virginia — John Bayard Burch . . . 154 News and Notes . 163 EDITORIAL BOARD Horton H. Hobbs, Jr., Editor Mary E. Humphreys, Associate Editor B. F. D. Runk, Managing Editor Richard W. Irby, Jr., Advertising Manager Section Editors Wesley P. Judkins Robert T. Brumfield Robert M. Hubbard Richard H. Henneman F. L. Hereford Carl J. Likes W. D. Lowry Caroline Gambrill J. Douglas Reid James B. Patton Charlmers L. Gemmill Lionel Weiss Second-class entry pending, Charlottesville, Virginia. Subscription $3 per ■volume. Published at Charlottesville, Virginia. THE VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE VoL. 6, New Series July, 1955 No. 3 Boyd Harshbarger An Appreciation In 1949 the Council of the Virgin ‘a Academy of Science decided to re¬ establish as the official organ of the Academy the Virginia Journal of Science. The first problem to be met was the appointment of an EdTor- in-Chief. One man seemed to be preeminently qualified for this task, and so Dr. Boyd Harshbarger, then the President of the Academy was asked to serve. Dr. Harshbarger accepted without hesitation, and for the past five years has guided the affairs of the Journal. With the able assistance of Dr, Horton H. Hobbs, Jr. as Technical Editor, twenty numbers of the Journal were published during this time, and they stand as a tangible evidence of Dr. Harshbarger’s service to the Academy. In addition, he has managed its business affairs so that the Journal has not only become self-supporting but has been able to set aside a reserve fund. During this period Dr. Harshbarger’s work as Chairman of the Depart¬ ment of Statistics of the Virginia Polytechnic Institute had been increasing and he found it necessary to submit his resignation as Editor-in-Chief, effective at the 1955 Annual Meeting. The Council has accepted this res¬ ignation with regret. The Virginia Academy of Science owes to Dr. Harsh¬ barger a debt of gratitude for the unsparing manner in which he has de¬ voted himself to his editorial duties. His efforts in behalf of this Journal nave helped provide the impetus to carry it on and to continue its record as an organ for the publication of research by members of the Academy. —Irving G. Foster AUG 3 1 195S 134 The Virginia Journal of Science [July On the Nature of Insect Resistance to Insecticides J. M. Grayson and D. G. Cochran Virginia Polytechnic Institute During ihe past forty-five years there have been many eases of inseets exhibiting remarkable abilitv to adiust to the efforts of man to bring them under control by chemical poisons. Although Melander (1914) is gener¬ ally considered to have first reported the occurrence of resistance in in¬ sects, it appears that this phenomenon was observed earlier by Smith (1897). During the period from 1914 to 1944 a number of insects show¬ ed definite evidence of being difficult to control with chemical insecticides that formerly were effective. In the last ten years there has been an in¬ crease in the number of reported cases of insect resistance to insecticides, so that the development of so-called resistant strains is currently one of the most serious problems in applied entomology. Many factors are probably involved but certainly it would seem that the more widespread use of con¬ tact. residual-type insecticides during the last decade is at least partially responsible. An analysis of resistance in insects reveals a complex of independent and mteracting factors which rather logically can be classified as physiological, behavioristic, and genetical. The purpose of this paper is to discuss briefly die subject of insect resistance to chemical insecticides from these stand¬ points, and to present certain apparent facts or ideas about resistance that perhaps are not generally understood. No attempt is made to review the complete literature on insect resistance; instead, selected references per¬ tinent to the various discussions are employed. Babers (1949) and Babers and Pratt (1951) have published critical reviews of the literature up to 1951. DEFINITION OF TERMS The term ‘Tesistance” is employed when an insect population consistent¬ ly exhibits greater survival from exposure to a chemical insecticide than ^The junior author completed work for the Doctor of Philosphy degree from Rutgers University in October, 1954 ; now in military service. Editor’s Note : We are pleased to present this invited review article by Messrs. Grayson and Cochran. *Paper received March 1, 1955. 1955] Insect Resistance to Insecticides 135 was originally the case. The term is used in the broad sense without regard to the mechanism involved in producing the resistance. The word“toler- ance” is restricted to those cases where the chemical insecticide actually enters the body tissues of the insect but fails to kill the insect. Survival is usually dependent upon the ability of the insect to store the insecticide at some harmless location, to render it relatively non-toxic through biochemi¬ cal action, or to develop a substitute for the physiological system affected. It would seem that the term “immunity” has no place in the various pheno¬ mena associated with insect resistance to insecticides. Certainly in the sero¬ logical sense there is no immunity involved; at least the writers know of no evidence of insecticides exerting antigenic action resulting in the formation of antibodies. PHYSIOLOGY OF RESISTANCE Resistance to Arsenicals— Hough (1934; 1943) has shown the difference between resistant and non-resistant strains of the codling moth to be one of general vigor, or “power of recovery” inherent in the individual. This difference can be demonstrated in the partially developed embryo, but it is most marked in the fully developed embryo or the newly hatched larva, and it disappears to a large extent in fully fed larvae. It is manifested by an increased ability to enter fruit sprayed with lead arsenate or non-arsenical insecticides, and also by increased efficiency of newly hatched larvae in attacking the fruit. On the other hand, Haseman and Burk (1929) and Haseman and Meffert (1933) found that codling moth larvae from resis¬ tant strains were no more successful than non-resistant larvae in surviving tests in which they were fed on drops of arsenious oxide solution placed in apple dents, or sodium arsenate or acid lead arsenate administered orally into the alimentary canal. These experiments would seem to disprove the existence of any real tolerance to arsenic in resistant strains of the codling moth; instead, resistance apparently dependent upon the selection of a strain with sufficient vigor to survive adverse conditions until entry into the apple can be made without getting the poison. While not directly pertinent to this argument, it is of interest at this point to mention the unsuccessful attempt by Campbell (1926) to induce a detectable tolerance to arsenic in individual silkworms. These tests were conducted by administering orally a number of sublethal doses of neutral sodium arsenate solution at intervals during larval development. Also in this connection, Schwartz (1923) has concluded that acquired tolerance to arsenic has not been convincingly demonstrated in man. The “arsenic 136 The Virginia Journal of Science [July eaters” of Styria consumed enormous doses of solid arsenious oxide but they were in leality taking sublethal doses of soluble arsenic because most of the rehTively insoluble arsenious oxide passes through the alimentary canal unchanged. In tJie above two examples the gradual development of tolerance in the individual is involved. On the other hand, a different phenomenon would seem to be functioning in the development of most resistant strains of in¬ sects. Here the individual usually either survives or perishes from an initial exposure to the chemical poison, and only those individuals which survive contribute progeny to the next generation. Thus it is a case of population selection rather than the gradual acquisition of tolerance in the individual. This is not meant to imply that tolerance is absent in population selection; instead inherent resistance or tolerance is presumed to be the basis for selection. Resistance to HCN. —It has been shown that both resistant and non- resistant strains of the California red scale and the black scale exhibit “protective stupefaction” to hydrogen cyanide (Gray and Kirkpatrick, 1929; Hardman and Craig, 1941; Lindgren, 1938). By this is meant that when first exposed to a sublethal concentration of HCN in air, followed by a lethal concentration, more scales are able to survive than when the re- v6Tse procedure is followed. There is some controversy as to the significance of this mechanism but, in general, it appears that protective stupefaction operates differently in the two strains with the resistaLi strain being able to utilize this mechanism in a manner to avoid being killed during the normal period of fumigation (Lindgren, 1938; Hardman and Craig, 1941). Regardless of its importance, however, protective stupefaction does not ap¬ pear to constitute the entire escape mechanism because it has been re¬ ported that both resistant and non-resistant strains of scales are able to close the spiracles when exposed to HCN. This is of importance because with the non-resistant strain tested the spiracles remained closed only very briefly, whereas with the resistant strain they remained closed at least 30 min¬ utes (Hardman and Craig, 1914) . It is obvious that such a factor could be of importance, although Quayle (1942; 1943) does not believe it is, and has postulated an “inherent resistance within the organism.” Likewise, Yust (1952) stated that tracheal closure does not cause resistance, nor does any other reaction which he was able to observe. Instead, Yust and Shelden (1952) have postulated that susceptibility to HCN is associated with a high degree of dependence on heavy metal-containing enzyme systems for tissue oxygen requirements, whereas resistance to HCN is associated with a high degree of dependence on metal-free, autoxidizable respiratory en¬ zymes. This hypothesis is based on their finding that, among other things, oxygen consumption is depressed least in a super-resistant strain, inter¬ mediate in a resistant strain, and to the greatest extent in a non-resistant strain of scale insects after they were exposed to HCN. Although this evi¬ dence is very suggestive, it must be taken as indirect or circumstantial evi- 1955] Insect Resistance to Insecticides 137 dence for the mechanism of resistance. It does not rule out the possibility of other factors being involved. Resistance to DDT, —A review of the physiological studies on DDT has been published by Chadwick (1952). ,He discussed the various facts and theories on the mechanism for DDT intoxication in insects, and pointed out that much remains to be learned before the mode of action of this poison will be entirely clarified. Some facts relative to the physiological nature of DDT resistance have been obtained. For example, significant correlations have been demonstrat¬ ed between survival of treated insects and the conversion of DDT by these insects to its relatively non-toxic derivative, DDE (Perry and Hoskins, 1950, 1951; Sternburg and Kearns, 1950; Sternburg et ah, 1950; March and Lewallen, 1950). It has been shown that this detoxification, at least in houseflies, is produced by the action of an enzyme (Sternburg et al., 1953; Sternburg et ah, 1954). This is probably not the entire mechanism of resistance to DDT, but there seems to be little doubt that DDT does readily enter the insect body (Lindquist et al., 1951; Tahori and Hoskins, 1953). It also appears to be well established that in resistant strains of houseflies, DDT is prevented from exerting its lethal effect at least partially through a biochemical conversion. In such case's it would seem that true tolerance to the poison was demonstrated. Analysis of Information. —From the above three examples of insect resistance to insecticides some interesting facts are evident. In all three cases the overall result is the same — i. e., resistance to an insecticide. In each case, however, the means by which this resistance was achieved is different. With the codling moth resistance is apparently due to an in¬ crease in the general vigor of the re'sistant strain, there being no evidence of the development of tolerance to arsenic. In scale insects the question of the mechanism of resistance to HCN is still undecided. It seems almost certain, however, that HCN is entering the body of the insects but fails to kill the resistant ones. According to the definition employed herein, this represents true tolerance to HCN. If it should subsequently be proven that this resistance is attributabF to a metal-free enzyme system, it will mean that resistance was achieved by the selection of a strain of insects capable of physiologically avoiding the effects of this poison. In the case of resis¬ tance to DDT true tolerance has been satisfactorily demonstrated, in that DDT is directly attacked by the resistant insects and converted to relative¬ ly non-toxic products. This apparently represents the first instance* where detoxification has played a significant role in resistance. BEHAVIORISTIC RESISTANCE Hough (1943) found that the newly hatched codling moth larvae from resistant strains showed less tendency to drop or wander from the fruit than similar larvae from non-resistant strains. He felt that this could be one of the factors contributing to the difference between a resistant and a 138 The Virginia Journal of Science [July non-resistant strain, although it could be considered as a result rather than a cause of the essential difference between strains. In a review of resistance in insects affecting public health, Hess (1953) calls attention to occurrences of resistance which might be attributed to changes in insect behavior. The resistance of Musca domestica to DDT in the Americas, and that of M. vicini in Africa and in Israel, is thought to be partially attributable to changes in insect behavior. The existence of be¬ havioristic resistance to DDT in populations of Anopheles mosquitoes in the Americas and in Africa is suspected. In some cases it is manifested by a hyper irritability to DDT' which causes the insect to become more restless and spend less time than normal upon treated surfaces. In insect popula¬ tions containing both zoophilic and anthropophilic strains, it is thought that DDT treatments produce a higher kill of the latter with a resulting shift in the population towards the strain preferring animals other than man. This, of course, makes satisfactory control difficult because it leaves a reservoir of insects around those areas in which it is feasible to attemnt control measures. At the present time, one of the most intriguing features of this type of resistance is its mere existence. It is obvious from the preceding remarks that much remains to be learned about the details of this phenomenon. It should be particularly interesting to see how it is related to the other more thoroughly studied phases of resistance. In any case, it serves to re¬ emphasize the complexitv of the whole problem. GENETICS OF RESISTANCE Resistance to Arsenicals and HCN. —Hough (1928, 1934) made re¬ ciprocal crosses and back crosses between strains of the codling moth which differed in their ability to enter apples sprayed with lead arsenate. The re¬ sults obtained have been interpreted by Brown (1951) as indicating auto¬ somal, multiple-gene inheritance. Dickson (1941) showed that resistance to HCN fumigation exhibited by the California red scale is inherited as a simple, sex-linked factor. This was later confirmed by Yust et at. (1943). Resistance to DDT. —The information on the inheritance of resistance to DDT in the house fly is somewhat contradictory. Bruce and Decker (1950) made reciprocal crosses between resistant and non-resistant strains and from their results concluded that autosomal, multiple-gene inheritance is involved. On the other hand, results obtained by Harrison (1951) in the El and Fs progeny from reciprocal crosses indicated one factor, autosomal inheritance with the factor for susceptibility being incompletely dominant. A more critical study of these results by Harrison (1953) revealed that the character inherited as a simple Mendelian factor is in reality resistance to paralysis or ‘‘knockdown” rather than resistance to DDT-induced mortality. When Harrison studied the latter character she also found evidence of a complex inheritance in house flies. In addition, Jonhston et al. (1954) have 1955] Insect Resistance to Insecticides 139 presented evidence for the involvement of a cytoplasmic factor in the in¬ heritance of DDT resistance in the house fly. They concluded that this factor apparently constitutes the entire mechanism for resistance. It is ex¬ tremely difficult to reconcile this and certain other rather sweeping con¬ clusions made by these workers with the data which they presented. The genetics of resistance in Drosophila is currently being investigated by a number of workers. Tsukamoto and Ogaki (1953) found some evi¬ dence of resistance to DDT in certain mutant strains of Drosophila melano- gaster although they had never been exposed to DDT. They found no evidence of DDT resistance being linked with the sex chromosomes. Fur¬ ther work indicated one or a few major genes of DDT resistance to be located on the second chromosome near the gene for vestigial. It is not clear if they consider this to be the entire mechanism. Other workers have found DDT resistance in Drosophila to be inherited in a complex, multiple- factor manner (King, 1954; Crow, 1954; Pimental et al., 1954). Cochran et al. (1952) have shown that the inheritance mechanism for DDT resistance in the Cerman cockroach is complex and that both chro¬ mosomal and extra-chromosomal factors seem to be involved. The genetics of resistance to chlordane in the German cockroach is currently being in¬ vestigated^. The evidence indicates that resistance to chlordane in this insect may involve a slightly different genetic mechanism from that of resistance to DDT. The results obtained from Fi and F^ progeny of reciprocal crosses, back crosses, and progeny from paired matings within strains, have in¬ dicated that the factors for resistance to chlordane in the German cock¬ roach are carried on the autosomes. This resistance probably involves the genes at several loci but there is no evidence of sex-linkage or extra- chromosomal factors. Analysis of Information, —The existing knowledge of the genetics of resistance in insects is somewhat fragmentary but there is presumptive evidence of the following points : ( 1 ) a lack of dominance in resistance, as indicated by the intermediacy of progeny from reciprocal crosses of re¬ sistant and non-resistant strains, and (2) that, with the exception of the red scale, resistance is a multiple-factor character, as shown by its con¬ tinuous distribution in the Fg and back crosses. A discontinuous distribution should result in segregation into definite Mendelian ratios. It should be pointed out, however, that it is extremely difficult to ascer¬ tain the resistance of an individual insect; in fact it is usually the resis¬ tance of the population as a whole wliich is determined. Because of this, it is conceivable that a ratio resulting from two or three genetic factors might be masked by the techniques currently in use. It must be admitted that mortality is not an entirely satisfactory genetic criterion, particularly in view of the phenotypic variation which normally occurs within a popu¬ lation. There is also a possibility that the development of resistance is in ^Unpublished data obtained in the laboratory of the senior author. 140 The Virginia Journal of Science [July reality a selection for heterozygotes because, superficially, the results ob¬ tained would be substantially the same as those which have been reported. A more plausible explanation, however, would seem to be that resistance is dependent on a number of independent non-allelomorphic genes probably not less than three, and that these genes are cumulative in their effect. In such cases the highest degree of resistance would result from homozygo- s:l; Tor resistance at each of the loci involved. This still permits that heteiuzygcus individuals could exhibit considerable resistance. It is con¬ ceivable that a number of heterozygous loci might compare favorably with a smaller number of homozygous loci in producing resistance. Such a difference could explain why resistance is more rapidly lost in some strains than in others when selection is discontinued. In addition, it should also be mentioned that in the German cockroach and in the house fly there is evidence for the involvement of cytoplasmic factors in the inheritance of DDT resistance. It is not clear how these factors work in either case, but the authors suggest that they are transmitted through the female and act in a complementary manner with the chromosomal mechanism. These cytoplasmic factors also appear to be under the control of the nuclear genes because in both animals there are examples of loss of the apparent effect when gemes for resistance and genes for susceptibility are both present. In any case, it appears that cytoplasmic inheritance in resistance does exist and should be taken into account in future experiments dealing with this subject. SOME OTHER CONSIDERATIONS Homozygosity in Resistance. —When frequency of homozygotes is plott¬ ed against gene frequency in a random breeding population, a curve such as that shown in Figure I is obtained (data from Lush, 1945, p. 67). It is a theoretical presentation involving one gene pair, and ignores the possi¬ bility of mutations or other factors which might lower the frequency of the favored allele as homozygosity is approached. If the degree of resistance to insecticides in insects is dependent to any appreciable extent upon a homozygous condition for genes favorable to resistance, as the authors believe, then the above mathematical concept should help to explain why resistance in an insect population develops slowly at first but more rapidly after the gene frequency has been in¬ creased through selection. Furthermore, it shows why complete homozy¬ gosity for resistance would be difficult to attain. This is true because of the diminishing number of individuals exposing the unfavorable allele to selec¬ tion as the frequency of the favored allele approaches unity. For example, when the favored allele has reached a frequency of 0.9, individuals homo¬ zygous for this allele constitute 81 per cent (0.9^) of the population, those homozygous for the unfavored allele only I per cent (O.I^), and the re¬ maining portion of the population is heterozygous. This principle can be extended to cases involving more than one locus. It is readily apparent 1955] Insect Resistance to Insecticides 141 that the existence o£ a situation involving multiple factors would consider¬ ably complicate the process of selection' for favored genes. Thus it is evident that homozygosity for resistance would be extremely difficult to attain in cases where genes at several loci are involved. Frequenci^ of Homo^qqotes (.AY Figure 1. —Relation of gene frequency to frequency of homozygotes in a random breeding population. Rate of Inbreeding. —It has been shown that some insecticidally selected insect strains are composed of individuals with lower biotic potential and smaller size than those in normal strains (Grayson, 1953, 1954). An oc¬ currence of this kind might appear to be an expected result of inbreeding, but such an assumption is hardly feasible after analysis. The formula for determination of rate of inbreeding in an entirely closed population is as follows : - H- - I X 100 — percentage of inbreeding (Lush, _ 8M 8L J 1945), where M is the number of males and L is the number of females in each generation that are effective in producing offspring. From this it can be determined that the rate of inbreeding would equal 0.5 per cent each generation if 50 effective pairs were allowed to mate at 142 The Virginia Journal of Science [July random, and it would be only 2.5 per eent if as few as ten pairs were in¬ volved. In view of the number of breeders that are likely to be used in the development of most selected strains, it would hardly seen logical to con¬ sider inbreeding as the principal factor responsible for lowered biotic potential and smaller size in selected strains. Types of Variation. —Beard (1952a; 1952b) has recognized the follow¬ ing three sources of variation in response of an insect species to a toxic material: (1) variation in response by the individual insect, (2) variation in response by individuals about the group mean at a particular time, and (3) variation of the means of test groups. Also, he has pointed out that contributing to these phenomena is a dynamic versus a static type of varia¬ tion, inherent in at least some species, which should be considered in evaluating the response of an insect to a chemical poison. Further work (Bliss and Beard, 1953) has shown that certain of these hypotheses are substantiated by experimental data. The existence of these types of variation in insect response certainly seems plausible, although they might be expected to exert varying degrees of influence in different insect species. In those cases where little resistance results from exposure to a poison over a considerable period, it might be logical to assume that a high degree of variation is present and that the technique of selection has been reduced to minimum effectiveness. On the other hand, resistance has developed sufficiently rapidly in many in- sect species from the use of standard toxicological procedures that such methods would appear to be effective in avoiding the influence of varia¬ tion. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The writers wish to express their appreciation to Dr. M. Levitan, Genet- icst of the Virginia Polytechnic Institute, and to Dr. R. L. Beard, En¬ tomologist of the Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, for their assistance in reviewing and criticizing this manuscript. LITERATURE CITED Babers, F. H. 1949 — Development of Insect Resistance to Insecticides. U. S. D. A. Mimeo. Kept. No. E-776. Babers, F. H. and J. J. Pratt. 1951 — Development of Insect Resistance to Insecticides — II. U. S. D. A. Mimeo. Kept. No. £-818. Beard, R. L. 1952a — Insect Resistance to Insecticides. Science, 115 (2996) ;608. 1952b — Effect of Sublethal Doses of Toxicants on Susceptibility of Insects to Insecticides. Jour. Econ. Ent., 45(4) :561-567. Bliss, C. I. and R. L. Beard. 1953 — Static and Dynamic Variation in the Response of an Insect to Sublethal Doses of Two Gases. Conn. Agri. Expt. Sta. Bull, 577, 24pp. Brown, A. W. A. 1951 — Insect Control by Chemicals. John Wiley and Sons, Inc. pp. 759-763. 143 1955] Insect Resistance to Insecticides Bruce, W. N., and G. C. Decker. 1950 — House Fly Tolerance for In¬ secticides. Soap and Sanit. Chem., 26(3) : 122-125;145-147. Campbell, F. L. 1926 — On the Possibility of Development of Tolerance to Arsenic by Individual Insects. Jour. Boon. Ent., 19(3) :516- 522. Chadwick, L. E. 1952 — The Current Status of Physiological Studies on DDT Resistance. Amer. Jour. Trop. Med. Hyg., I (3):404-411. Cochran, D. G., J. M. Grayson, and M. Levitan. 1952 ~ Chromosomal and Cytoplasmic Factors in Transmission of DDT Resistance in the German Cockroach. Jour Boon. Ent., 45(6) :997-1001. Crow, J. F. 1954 — Analysis of a DDT-Resistant Strain of Drosophila Jour. Boon. Ent., 47(3) :393”398. Dickson, R. C. 1941 — Inheritance of Resistance to HCN Fumigation in the California Red Scale. Hilgardia, 13:515-522. Gray, G. P. and A. F. Kirkpatrick. 1929 — The Protective Stupefaction of Certain Scale Insects by Hydrocyanic Acid Vapor. Jour. Boon Ent. 22(6):878-892. Grayson, J. M. 1953 — Effects on the German Cockroach of Twelve Gen¬ erations of Selection for Survival to Treatment with DDT and Benzene Hexachloride. Jour. Boon. Ent., 46(1) : 124-127. 1954 — Differences between a Resistant and a Non-Resistant Strain of the German Cockroach. Jour. Boon. Ent., 47(2) :253- 256. Hardman, N. F. and R. Craig. 1941 — A Physiological Basis for the Dif¬ ferential Resistance of the Two Races of Red Scale to HCN. Sci¬ ence, 94(2434): 187. Harrison, C. M. 1951 — Inheritance of Resistance to DDT in the House Fly Musca domestica Binn. Nature, 167(4256) : 855-856. 1953 — DDT-Resistance and Its InheTitance in the House Fly. Jour. Boon. Ent., 46:528-530. Haseman, L. and V. F. Burk. 1929 — A Determination of the Lethal Dos¬ age of Arsenic for Missouri and Colorado Codling Moth Larvae. Jour. Boon. Ent., 22(4)655-656. Haseman, L. and R. L. Meffert. 1933 — Are We Developing Strains of Codling Moth Resistant to Arsenic? Mo. Agri. Expt. Sta. Res. Bull., 202, 11 pp. Hess, A. D. 1953 — Current Status of Insecticide Resistance in Insects of Public Health Importance. Amer. Jour. Trop. Med. JJyg., 2(2):311-317. Hough, W. S. 1928 — Relative Resistance to Arsenical Poisoning of Two Codling Moth Strains. Jour. Boon. Ent., 21:325-329. 1934 ■— Colorado and Virginia Strains of Codling Moth in Re¬ lation to Their Ability to Enter Sprayed and Unsprayed Apples. Jour. Agri. Res., 48(6) :522-553. 144 The Virginia Journal of Science [July 1943 — Development and Characteristics of Vigorous or Resis¬ tant Strains of Codling Moths. Va. AgrL Expt. Sta. Bull. 91, 32 pp. Johnston, E. F., R. Bogart, and A. W. Lindquist. 1954 — The Resistance to DDT by House Flies. Some Genetic and Enviromental Factors. Jour. Hered., 45(4) : 177-182. King, J. C. 1954 — The Genetics of Resistance to DDT in Drosophila mel- anogaster. Jour. Econ. Ent., 47(3) :387"393. Lindgren, D. L. 1938 — The Stupefaction of Red Scale, Aonidiella aur- antii, by Hydrocyanic Acid. Hilgardia, 11 (5) :213-225. Lindquist, A. W., A. R. Roth, W. W. Yates, R. A. Hoffman, and J. S. Butts. 1951 — Use of Radioactive Tracers in Studies of Pene¬ tration and Metabolism of DDT in House Flies. Jour. Econ. Ent., 44(2):167-172. Lush, J. L. 1945 — Animal Breeding Plans. Iowa State College Press, 3rd Edition. March, R. B. and L. L. Lewallen. 1950 — A Comparison of DDT-Resis- tant and Non-Resistant House Flies. Jour. Econ. Ent., 43(5): 721-722. Melander, a. L. 1914 — Can Insects Become Resistant to Spravs? Jour. Econ. Ent., 7(2) : 167-173. Perry, A. S. and W. M. Hoskins. 1950 — The Detoxification of DDT by Resistant House Flies and Inhibition of Tliis Process by PipeT- onyl Cyclonene. Science, 111:600-601: 1951 — Detoxification of DDT as a Factor in the Resistance of House Flies. Jour. Econ. Ent., 44(6) :850-857. PiMENTAL, D., H. H. ScHWARDT, AND J. E. Dewey. 1954. — The Inheri¬ tance of DDT-Resistance in the House Fly. Ann. Ent. Soc. Amer., 47(1):208-213. Quayle, H. j. 1942 — A Physiological Difference in the Two Races of Red Scale and Its Relation to Tolerance to HCN. Jour. Econ. Ent., 35(6):813-816. 1943. — The Increase in Resistance in Insects to Insecticides. Jour. Econ. Ent., 36(4) :493-500. Schwartz, E. W. 1923 — The So-Called Habituation to “Arsenic”: Varia¬ tion in the Toxicity of Arsenious Oxide. Jour. Pharm. Expt. Ther., 20:181-203. Smith, J. B. 1897 ~ The Influence of Environment on the Life History of Insects. Card, and Forest, 10:344. Sternburg, j. AND C. W. Kearns. 1950 — Degradation of DDT by Re¬ sistant and Susceptible Strains of House Flies. Ann. Ent. Soc. Amer., 43:444-458. Sternburg, J., C. W. Kearns and W. N. Bruce. 1950 — Absorption and Metabolism of DDT by Resistant and Susceptible House Flies. Jour. Econ. Ent., 43(2) :214-219. 1955] Insect Resistance to Insecticides 145 Sternburg, J., E. B. Vinson, and C. W. Kearns. 1953. — Enzymatic De¬ hydrochlorination of DDT by Resistant Flies. Jour. Econ. Ent., 46(3)513-515. Sternburg, j., C. W. Kearns, and H. Moorefield. 1954 — DDT-De- hydrochlorinase, an Enzyme Found in DDT-Resistant Flies. Agri. & Food Chem., 2(22) :1125-1130. Tahori, a, S. and W. M. Hoskins. 1953 — The Absorption, Distribution and Metabolism of DDT in DDT-Resistant House Flies. Jour. Econ. Ent., 46(25) : 302-306: 829-837. Tsukamoto, M. and M. Ogaki. 1953 — Inheritance of Resistance to DDT in Drosophila melanogaster. Botyu-Kagaku, 18:39-44. Yust, H. R. 1952 ~ Visible Reactions of California Red Scale in Relation to Resistance to Fumigation with HCN. Jour. Econ. Ent., 45(6):- 985-987. Yust, H. R., H. D. Nelson, and R. L. Busbey. 1943 — The Influence of Repeated Fumigation with HCN on the Susceptibility of the California Red Scale. Jour. Econ. Ent., 36(6) :872-874. Yust, H. R. and F. F. Shelden. 1952 — A Study of Physiology of Re¬ sistance to Hydrogen Cyanide in the California Red Scale. Ann. Ent. Soc. Amer., 45(2) ;220-228. 146 The Virginia Journal of Science [July Monoecious Tendencies in the Crayfish, Cambarus longulus longulus Girard^ W. H. Lewis Department of Biology; University of Virginia When Hay (1905) recorded the presence of gonads of both sexes in one individual of Orconects limosus {^Cambarus af finis), it was the first published account of crayfish hermaphroditism. Although he observed a well developed ovary with maturing oocytes, the rudimentary testis and vasa deferentia contained no spermatozoa and presumably the former lack¬ ed spermatids and spermatocytes. In two individuals of O. propinquus propinqiius {=Camharus propinquus), a further example of hermaphrodi¬ tism was observed by Turner (1935) who noted scattered “patches of ovarian tissue” in an otherwise typical testis. It can be assumed that these specimens were capable of producing spermatozoa; however, in the ab¬ sence of an histological description of these ovarian patches, the extent of their development remains obscure. Though male and female elements were associated in the gonads of the three specimens, no evidence was presented by either Hay or Turner illustrating the existence of both oocytes and spermatozoa in any one animal. While working with C. longulus longulus in an attempt to ascertain what effect the removal of the eye stalk might have on the speimatogenetic cycle, another instance of a monoecious tendency was discovered in one of the control animals. In a sexually mature, form I male with no unusual secondary sexual characteristics collected at Piney River, Nelson Co., Vir¬ ginia on Nov. 11, 1954, thirteen oocytes were observed in the three lobes of the testis. With the possible exception of the proximal acini in each lobe, where the greater number of oocytes occurred, their distribution was ap¬ parently at random. Since young oogonia are difficult to distinguish from spermatogonia or primary spermatocytes, and further, since the proximal portions of the testicular lobes mature first, it is probable that there were additional potential oocytes in the distal portions of the lobes. The oocytes vary from 26-109|i. in diameter with a corresponding range in nuclear diameter from 21-60(.i. The arithmetic means of the diameters of thirteen oocytes and nuclei are 42pi. and 28p,., respectively. These are distinguished readily from the primary spermatocytes by their larger size and by the sizes of their nuclei — the diameter of the primary spermatocyt¬ es average 20p. and that of the nuclei, 14[i. In most cases the developing oocytes are small enough so that other cells occur within the acinus. Those oocytes, however, with a diameter of lOOp. or more tend to fill the entire ^The author acknowledges the guidance afforded by Dr. Horton H. Hobbs, Jr., of the Uni¬ versity of Virginia, in the preparation of this paper. ♦Paper received June 12, 1955. 1955] Monoecious Tendencies in the Crayfish 147 3 148 The Virginia Journal of Science [July acinar space. Figure 1 illustrates such an oocyte lOQji. in diameter almost filling the acinus and apparently pushing the spermatozoa into a tubule as it increases in size. A clearer illustration of the close association between the oocyte and the spermatozoa is afforded by Figure 2. Soon after their initiation, oogonia in the testis are similar to the sper¬ matogonia in their circular outline, but with development, they assume a more oval shape. This compares with the maturation of oogonia in the ovary of C. longulus longulus. The ovarian oocyte in Figure 3 measures 149p,. in length and in all morpohological respects, it resembles the oocyte in the testis. On Dec. 27, 1954, the testis of another form I male from the same population was found to contain twenty-one oocytes. Mature spermatozoa were abundant in the vas deferens. Oocytes again oceurred in all three lobes of the testis, occasionally two or three occupying a single acinus. The cells range from 32-1 17[i. in diameter, with an arithmetic mean of 50ji,., and all appear morphologically similar to the oocytes in the ovary as well as to those in the previously mentioned testis. Figure 4 shows an oocyte completely filling an acinus surrounded by other acini that contain sperm¬ atogonia or primary spermatocytes; in addition, darkly stained nuclei of the epithelial cells and connective tissues associated with the acini and tubules may be observed. Approximately 120 specimens from the Piney River population have been examined histologically and of these, only two were found with this ano¬ maly. There is insufficient evidence at this time to hazard an estimate on the percentage of crayfish with an “ovo-testis” at this locality. In the testes of more than 100 additional specimens of the same species from the Charlottesville area no monoecious tendencies were observed. There is one point of interest concerning the position of the germinal epithelium in the testis. Finding oocytes proliferating from cells of the acinar walls would indicate that it is the epithelial lining of the acinus, and hence the tubule (Word 1954), which has the additional potential of giv¬ ing rise to gametes. LITERATURE CITED Hay, William Perry 1905. — Instances of Hermaphroditism in Crayfish Smithsonian Misc. Coll., 48(2) :222-228. Turner, C. L. 1935. ■— Studies on the Secondary Sexual Characters of Cray¬ fishes X. The Annulus Ventralis in True Intersexes of Cambarus Biol Bull, 69(2):269-273. Word, B. H. 1954. — Observations on the Testis of the Crayfish, Cambarus montanus acuminatus Faxon, Unpublished Masters Thesis, Univ¬ ersity of Virginia. 1955] Nesting in The Duskey Salamander 149 The Nesting’ and Ovarian Eggs of the Dusky Salamander, Desmognathus f. fuscus Raf., in Southeastern Virginia John Thornton Wood, Frank G. Carey, and Roger H. Rageot University of Virginia, College of William and Mary, and Norfolk Museum of Arts and Science The literature contains no information on the time and duration of nesting of Desmognathus f. fuscus Raf. in southeastern Virginia, or on the ecology and natural history of this nesting. Similarly, there has been no previous study of behavior of the female attending the nest, of the rela¬ tionship between the number of large ova (ready for deposition) in the ovaries of a gravid female and her size, and of the changes in large ova dimensions through the year. Reported here is the first description of a nest of the dusky salamander in southeastern Virginia with ecological and natural history observations; a study of the relationships between the snout- vent lengths of 34 gravid females and their large ova complements; a com¬ parison of left ovary contents with those of right ovaries to detect any uni¬ lateral tendencies; and a study of the conditions of the ova in 115 females gathered throughout the year. On August 23, 1953 a single compact nest of Desmognathus f. fuscus eggs was found beneath a small log lying on a moist mud flat about five yards from the nearest surface water. The female darted into a tunnel in the log as soon as the nest was uncovered. This behavior is at variance with reports in the literature that nests are attended by females that were found curled around the egg masses and made no effort to escape (Robertson and Tyson, 1950). The female guarding the eggs is “undoubtedly the moth- e'r’ according to Wilder (1913), but as far as the authors can determine it has never been verified by .narking females and their large ova that they actually do attend the eggs they deposit. The female that attempted to es¬ cape when the nest was exposed was found to have a recently ingested (little digested) annelid worm in her stomach, and the egg group she had been attending contained embryos having total lengths of 10 mm., evidence that they were between three and four weeks old. Obviously the female had devoted part of her time of “attending” the nest to feeding herself. This behavior is sharply contrasted with that of Hemidactylium scutatum females, found attending their eggs, in which no stomachs contained re¬ cognizable food items. (Wood, 1951). . , , ♦Paper received August 17, 1954 150 The Virginia Journal of Science [July The egg group consisted of 34 embryos. In Massachusetts nests of Des- mognathus f. fusciis contain from 14 to 28 eggs, averaging 20 (Wilder, 1907); in New York, from 12 to 26 eggs, averaging 17 (Bishop, 1941); in Pennsylvania, from 22 to 34 eggs were found in 44 nests (Pawling, 1939) and in Ohio, 17 to 36 eggs, averaging 26.3 (Wood and Fitzmaurice, 1948). Nests contain fewer eggs south of Virginia— in the range of D. f. hrimleyorum Stejneger and intergrades between this subspecies and the northern one. In Georgia a nest contained six eggs (Neill and Rose, 1949); in North Carolina six nests contained from 14 to 20 eggs (Robertson and Tyson, 1950), and two nests contained 17 and 22 eggs respectively (Eaton, 1953). The Virginia nest contained an egg complement near the maximum reported in the literature. The nest, found near a drainage ditch near Suffolk, Nansemond County, was a moist hollow beneath a small log imbedded in mud, and the cavity containing the eggs might well have been formed by the turning move¬ ments of the female prior to egg deposition; females are known to ‘‘exca¬ vate” nests in this way (Wilder, 1913). Usually nests are immediately ad¬ jacent to water areas, and never more than two or three feet from water LARGE OVA Figure 1. Tlie relationship between the large ova complements of 34 Desmognathus f. ftiscus from Southeastern Virginia, and the snout-vent lengths of the females. The open circles indicate one specimen; dot, two specimens; crossed circle, three specimens. ^ 1. The lines in Figures 1 and 2 were fitted to these data by eye. 1955] Nesting on The Dusky Salamander 151 (Wilder, 1913). This nest was in a crevice which extended down into the mud from beneath the log, and would have been submerged if surface water were on the mud flat. Since females of this species do not lay eggs beneath water, it is evident that the nest was originally placed 15 feet from water just as it was when discovered later. Placing their eggs out of water, yet adjacent to it, is evident of less primitive nesting habits according to Noble (1931); the terrestrial location of this nest indicates that another step in the evolution of this species is in progress. Wilder (1913) considers that the number of large ova in a gravid fe¬ male approximate the number of eggs found in a nest. Dunn (1926) sug¬ gests the ova complement is related to the size of the female, and Bishop (1941) noted that although a large complement of ovarian eggs may equal in number the eggs in a nest, it usually exceeds it. Thirty-four gravid dusky salamanders were collected under logs and slabs beside brooks in James City and York counties in February and April, 1949 and 1950 — ap- > (T < > O X o (T LEFT OVARY Figure 2. The relationship between the numbers of large ova in the right and left ovaries of 34 Desmognathm f. fuscus. The open circles indicate one specimen; dots, two specimens. ^ 152 The ViEGiNiA Journal of Science [July proximately five and three months prior to the egg laying season in this area, respectively. The oviducts of all of the specimens were unmarked by the distension and convlutions which indicate that egg deposition has been partially completed. Snout-vent measurements of these females rang¬ ed from 40.0 to 57.0 mm., averaging 47.4 dz 3.4 mm. Large ova ranged in number from 17 to 51, averaging 29 + 8. Figure 1 shows the relation¬ ship between size of females and their complements of large ovarian eggs. For females of a specific size (e.g., snout-vent length 46 mm.) the number of ovarian eggs may vary widely {e. g., 18 to 43 large ova in this case). Wilder (1913) reported 10 or 11 large ova in each ovary as a consistent finding in her dissection of gravid fiisctis. No such consistent complement regardless of the size of the female has been noted. In elongated animals such as salamanders there is frequent longitudinal modification of organs, and in some cases one of a pair of organs becomes vestigial. Comparison of the ovary contents. Figure 2, shov/s that this is not true of the ovaries in fusciis. The time and duration of nesting in dusky salamanders is poorly under¬ stood. Some reports of nests in the literature are based upon observations made at time of larval emergence, and others shortly after egg deposition. For this reason it has been believed that the egg-laying season is an ex¬ tended one. Examination of the ovaries of 115 females gathered during the year indicates the egg-deposition season is a brief one. Large ova in fe¬ males collected from October to February contained deutoplasm which was distinctly yellowish, in contrast to the whitish translucent contents of the many small ova; their dimensions ranged in 9 specimens from 1.0 to 1.5 mm., and no evidence of growth during this winter period was evident. Ova were larger in specimens collected in February, March, and April, and in 49 specimens it was noted they increased in size to a maximum of 2.5 mm. Twelve specimens collected in June and July contained large ova which reached a maximum diameter of 3.0 mm.; none had started spawn¬ ing. All 39 females examined in August had completely spawned the large ova complements. No large ova were detected in specimens collected and examined in September, and not until October was yellow deutoplasm ob¬ served. From this it appears that nesting occurs in late July or early August in southeastern Virginia. ACKNOWLEDGMENT The studies to which these observations are incident were supported by a grant from the A.A.A.S. through the Virginia Academy of Science, to which groups grateful acknowledgment is hereby made. LITERATURE CITED Bishop, S. C. 1941. The Salamanders of New York. N. Y. State Mus. Bull., (324): 1-365. Dunn, E. R. 1926. The Salamanders of the Family Plethodontidae. Smith College ‘Anniv. Ser., Northampton, Mass, pp. 1-441. . ^ 1955] Nesting in The Duskey Salamander 153 Eaton, T. H. 1953. Salamanders of Pitt County, North Carolina. Jour. Elisha Mitchell Sci. Soc., 69:49-53. Neill, W. T. and F. L, Rose 1949. Nest and Eggs of the Southern Dusky Salamander, Desmognathus fusciis auriculatus. Copeia, (3):234. Noble, G. K., 1931. The Biology of the Amphibia. McGraw-Hill Book Co., N. Y., pp. 1-577. Pawling, R. O. 1939. The Amphibians and Reptiles of Union Conuty, Pennsylvania. Herpetologica, 1:165-169. Robertson, W. B. and E. L. Tyson 1950. Herpetologica! Notes from East¬ ern North Carolina. Jour. Elisha Mitchell Sci. Soc., 66:130-147. Wilder, I. W. 1907. On the Breeding Habits of Desmognathus fusca. Biol. Bull, 32:13-20. 1913. The Life History of Desmognathus fusca. Biol. Bull, 24:- 251-342. Wood, J. T. 1951. An Ecological and Biometric Investigation of the Nesting of the Four-Toed Salamander, Hemidactylium scutatum (Schlegel), in Virginia. Col. of William and Mary. pp. 1-47. (Unpublished thesis). Wood, J. T. and M. E. Fitzmaurice 1948. Eggs, Larvae, and Attending Females of Desmognathus f. fuscus in Southwestern Ohio and Southeastern Indiana. Amer. Midi Nat., 39:93-95. 154 The Virginia Journal of Science [July The Land Snails of Hanover, Henrico, and Chesterfield Counties, Virgrinia^ John B. Burch" University of Richmond A preliminary list of the Mollusca of Hanover County was published by J. B. Burch (1952) in which twenty-five species and sub-species of land snails were reported. P. R. Burch (1950) listed six species of land snails for Henrico and Chesterfield counties, and J. B. Burch (1954) reported twenty-four species and sub-species for Henrico County. Triodopsis obso- leta { = Triodopsis hopetonensis obsoleta) (Pilsbry) was reported by Hu- bricht (1953) as being an introduced form in Richmond. This paper is the result of a two-year investigation of the distribution and relative abundance of land snails in this area of Virginia. DESCRIPTION OF THE AREA Hanover, Henrico, and Chesterfield counties cover an area of 1179 square miles in east-central Virginia. The area is limited on the north by the North Anna and Pamunkey Rivers and on the south by the Appomat¬ tox River. The eastern boundary is for the most part marked by the Pamun¬ key, James, and Appomattox Rivers, and Matadequin and Turkey Island Creeks. The western boundary is in part formed by Tuckahoe and Skin- quarter Creeks. Two physiographic regions, the Coastal Plain to the east and the Pied¬ mont Plateau to the west, merge along a line which crosses each county, dividing Hanover and Henrico counties roughly into equal halves and Chesterfield County into an area about four-fifths of which lie’s in the Piedmont Plateau. This fall zone is several miles wide, with no definite boundaries. The Piedmont province is a region of hard rocks and rolling topography. The soils have been derived mainly from granite and gneiss formations and comprise primarily the Durham and Cecil series (Bloomer, 1938). The Cecil series is the most widespread type of soil occuring over the Piedmont region. It is a gray, red, or brown loam with a red clay subsoil. What was formerly a plateau is now so deeply eroded by drainageways that little of the plateau surface remains. In its eastern part the Piedmont Plateau has an average elevation of about two hundred feet above sea level, but it rises gradually toward the west. Most of the streams which cross it flow iThis represents a portion of a M. S. thesis submitted to the Department of Biology, Uni¬ versity of Richmond, June, 1954. -Present address : Department of Zoology, University of Michigan. * Paper received December 6, 1964 Piedmont Plateau 1955] Land Snails in Virginia 155 37*60' b H> N. V,4, COLLECTINa STATION / ^ ^ I >1, /V ”r°AW J % < -o 'VttENRibo ^ 37*30 N J ,MTV/V ’V CHESTERFIEt^ COUNTY f 4 '1., J A N % <>/ 5: ^ A V A COUNT'tf V CL O 4— CO a o o a J ^CALE 0^^345 ^ Rivet* “""“^MTur 156 The Virginia Journal of Science [July through narrow valleys in rocky channels. The Coastal Plain is a region of sand, clay, and other soft materials, laid down on an eastward-sloping floor of granite and other crystalline rocks and dips gradually to the east. The soils differ from those of the Piedmont in their loose structure, lack of loaminess, the predominance of sand, and the frequent occurrence of water worn gravel throughout the soil profile. For the most part the Coastal Plain consists of a wide plateau trenched by broad, terraced valleys of numerous streams. The larger streams are tidal estuaries as far inland as the zone in which the hard rocks rise from under the deposits of the Coastal Plain and become high enough to cause rapids. As the rise of these rocks is usually fairly steep the stream valleys narrow in a short distance into rocky gorges which mark the change from the Coastal Plain to the Piedmont province. The major portion of the two regions is well drained by several rivers and their tributaries. Tlie most extensive drainage system is the James River which flows through the central part of the area, marking the bound¬ ary between Henrico and Chesterfield counties. The largest tributary of the James in this area is the Appomattox River. The drainage system to the north consists primarily of the North Anna, Little, New Found, Pamunkey, Chickahominy, and South Anna Rivers. The climate is generally mild with an average annual temperature of 12° C. Because of a difference in elevation of almost three hundred feet, the average temperature of the region near the western boundary is slight¬ ly cooler than that of the district near the eastern boundary; however, there is no apparent difference in the precipitation. The annual precipitation averages about 43 inches (Latimer and Beck, 1913), and the wet months occur during the growing season in the spring and summer. The first kill¬ ing frost comes usually about the first of November and the last severe frost is usually during the early part of April. DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES Although no species in this area is abundant, i.e., “observed in numbers every time search is made for it in the proper habitat” (Dice, 1952), ac¬ cording to the scale of abundance commonly employed by ecologists, sev¬ eral species are common and generally distributed throughout the area. Several species have been found at only one station and may be introduced forms or epibiotics. Others are of frequent abundance and generally dis¬ tributed and some are apparently restricted to a particular physiographic province. Common species are arbitrarily defined as those found in sixty-five per cent or more of the total number of samples; numerous or frequent species in twenty-five to sixty-five per cent of the samples; occasional or scarce species in five to twenty-five per cent of the samples; and rare species in less than five per cent of the collections. Two species are common, five 1955] Land Snails in Virginia 157 frequent, fifteen occasional, and twelve rare. In the section to follow is an annotated list of species with notes on dis¬ tribution and abundance. Order Stylommatophora Suborder Sigmurethra Family Endodontidae Anguispira alternata (Say) is found occasionally in scattered localities in Hanover and Henrico counties in hardwood forests. It sometimes occurs in lots with Anguispira fergusoni. Anguispira fergusoni (Bland) is of occasional occurrence and is general¬ ly distributed over the three counties. It has been found in greatest num¬ bers in thickly forested rivcT valleys and has been found associated with various oak and elm communities, being most abundant in oak-elm as¬ sociations. It seems to be restricted to soils very high in calcium content and is most abundant at a pH range of 6.3 - 6.7. Helicodiscus parallelus (Say), a small, flattened, greenish-yellow snail, is common throughout the area and, although associated with all the types of plant communities where collections were made, is prevalent in oak- pine stands. It is exceeded in abundance only by Zonitoides arhoreus (Say). Punctum minutissimum (Lea), a minute snail, is rare and has been found in this area only in the Piedmont province, although P. R. Burch (1950) has reported it from the Coastal Plain in Norfolk County. It has been found associated with oak-elm and oak-pine communities, and only in the pH range of 6.3 - 6.7. Discus patidus Deshayes was reported by P. R. Burch (1950) from Henrico County but was not found during this investigation. Family Haplotrematidae Haplotrema concavum (Say), generally considered a carnivorous species, is of frequent occurrence, and has been found in a large number of plant communities, although it is more commonly associated with oaks, maples, and willows. Ingram (1941) considers this species an omnivore rather than a carnivore and in this case the plant association may have some direct in¬ fluence on distribution. Family Polygyridae Mesodon appressus sculptior Chadwick is of rare occurrence and was found only along the James River lowlands, prim_arily on the Chesterfield County side of the river. It was encountered most frequently in willow and sycamore-willow communities and was associated only with soils very high in calcium content. Mesodon thyroidus (Say), one of the larger land snails, is numerous in this area, being found most abundantly in the Piedmont, although P. R. Burch (1950) reported its occurrence in Elizabeth City and James City counties. Rehder (1949) found it “common” at Virginia Beach, Princess 158 The Virginia Journal of Science [July Anne County. It is generally associated with woodlands having a predomin¬ ance of oaks. Stenotrema hirsutum (Say) is another species which seems generally to be restricted to the Piedmont, but has been found by P. R. Burch (1950) in Elizabeth City County. It has an occasional occurrence in the Piedmont and has been found in two localities in the fall zone. Those individuals found in Henrico and Chesterfield counties comprise a small race, averag¬ ing somewhat less than 7 mm. in diameter. S. hirsutum has been found in a number of oak and elm associations, most frequently in oak-pine associ¬ ations. Although Lee (1952) states that in the vicinity of Ann Arbor, Michigan, S. hirsutum is restricted to river valleys and alkaline soils (pH range 7.5 - 8.5) this is not the case here. Its occurrence is most frequent in woodlands some distance from streams, and it has been found only in soils having a pH range of 6.2 - 7.4. Triodopsis albolabris (Say), the largest land snail found in this area, is somewhat solitary, of occasional occurrence, and has been found only in associations in which oak is one of the dominant trees - most frequently in oak-maple communities. Triodopsis fallax (Say) is a scarce species, and except for one station near the fall zone in the Coastal Plain was found only in the Piedmont pro¬ vince. P. R. Burch (1950), however, has found it in James City County, and Hubricht (1953) has reported it from York, New Kent, Sussex, South¬ hampton, and Franklin counties. It has been found most generally in edi- ficarian communities. Triodopsis hopetonensis (Shuttleworth) has been found in only on© locality in Henrico County, near the James River, Va. Rt, 605, and in two localities in Chesterfield County, near the intersection of Va. Rt. 655 and Va. Rt. 659, and near the James River, Va. Rt. 746. Hubricht (1953) states that it apparently does not occur north of the James River in Virginia. Its occurrence in Henrico may be due to accidental transportation. Triodopsis obsoleta (^Triodopsis hopetonensis obsoleta) (Pilsbry) has been reported by Hubricht (1953) as an introduced form in Richmond, but specimens have not been found in this study. P. R. Burch (personal communication), however, believes that polgyrid forms with aperture den¬ tation reduced or lacking are probably the result of insufficient calcium in the diet, since laboratory culture of snails in cultures deficient in food and calcium show reduced aperture dentation. Hubricht’s T. obsoleta may have been atypical T. hopetonensis.^ T. hopetonensis has been found in oak, sycamore- willow, and willow associations. Triodopsis tridentata juxtidens (Pilsbry) is generally distributed and of frequent occurrence throughout the three counties. It has been found pre- sAccording to the large sample Mr. Hubricht gave the U. S. National Museum, Dr. J. P, E. Morrison (personal communication) thinks his ^‘obsoleta” reported for Richmond is actu¬ ally Triodopsis messana. 1955] Land Snails in Virginia 159 dominantly in oak and elm communities, and at a pH range of 5.8 - 6.2, decreasing in number as the pH increases. Family Zonitidae Euconulus dentatus Sterki. — Dr. Morrison identified specimens sent to the U. S. National Museum from Falling Creek, Va. Rt. 653, Chesterfield County as E. dentatus and doubts if Euconulus chersinus (Say), a south¬ ern species, and Euconulus fulvus (Muller), a northern species, occur in this area of Virginia. E. chersinus and E. fulvus were previously reported from Hanover County in 1952, and E. chersinus from Henrico County in 1954. These previous identifications were made from descriptions given by Pilsbry (1946) and based partly on the absence of dentations in the last whorl. Hawaiia minuscula (Binney), a species of occasional occurrence, is generally distributed throughout the area, and has been found most abun¬ dant in oak-sycamore communities and at a pH range of 6.3 - 6.7. Retinella hurringtoni (Pilsbry) was found frequently in the Piedmont region, and usually in plant associations dominated by oaks. It has rarely been observed in the Coastal Plain. The southernmost point in its range, as published, is at its type locality. Natural Bridge, Rockbridge County, Vir¬ ginia (Pilsbry, 1946). Retinella indentata (Say) is of frequent abundance and generally dis¬ tributed over the entire area in association with a variety of trees. Its most common occurrence is in oak-poplar stands. R. i. paucilirata (Morelet) was reported in 1952 from Hanover County, but all specimens were probably atypical R. indentata, R. i. paucilirata differs from the typical R. indentata mainly in a slightly larger umbilicus and somewhat greater size. Although some specimens from this area fit the description of R. i paucilirata very well, J.P.E. Morrison identified all specimens sent from Hanover and Henri¬ co counties as R. indentata. The form R. i. paucilirata is a southern variety, Rehder (1949) giving its northernmost record in the Coastal Plain as along State Route 170, south of Moyock, Currituck County, North Carolina. Rehder (1949) giving its northernmost record in the Coastal Plain as James River, U. S. 1, and near the intersection of Va. Rts. 667 and 690), both in the Piedmont of Chesterfield County and in diffcTent plant associ¬ ations, viz., sycamore-willow and oak-pine respectively. It has not been reported from any of the surrounding counties. Ventridens ligera (Say), a large snail of occasional occurrence, is most common in the eastern James River flood plain. It was observed most fre¬ quently in association with oak-sycamore stands in the lowlands and in oak- pine stands in the higher regions. Although Rehder (1949) states that it is apparently rare in the coastal region, but common at Virginia Beach, Prin¬ cess Anne County, Hubricht (1953) has reported it from Southhampton, Nansemond, and Elizabeth City counties. Ventridens suppressus magnidens (Pilsbry) was found occasionally throughout the area except for the Coastal Plain of Chesterfield County. 160 The Virginia Journal of Science [July Most frequently it was collected in oak and oak-pine associations and at a pH range of 5.3 - 5.7. There seems to be a local race in Hanover County different from the forms found in the two counties to the south. This local race comprises individuals in which the teeth diminish or even disappear in the fully adult stage (as they do in V. suppressus (typical form) (H. A. Pilsbry, personal communication). V. gularis theloides (Pilsbry) was re¬ ported in 1952 from Hanover County but all specimens were later identifi¬ ed by Pilsbry as this local race of atypical V. suppressus.^ Zonitoides arhoreus (Say) is the most comanon and widely distributed land snail found in this vicinity. It is not restricted to woodlands but when found in plant communities is most frequently associated with oaks. It is found in the most acid and the most alkaline soils, i.e., in the pH range 4. 8-7. 7, but most frequently in a range of pH 6. 8-7. 2. Suborder Heterurethra Family Succineidae Succinea aurea Lea was found at five localities in the eastern part of the area along the James River. Specimens were picked from rocks near the waters edge. Suborder Orthurethra Family Cionellidae Cionella morseana (Doherty) was found at only one locality, near the James River, Va. Rt. 679, Chesterfield County. It was found under decay¬ ing oak, poplar, and sycamore leaves at the base of a granite cliff on soil with a pH of 6.0 and a very high calcium content. Family Pupillidae Columella edentula ( Draparnuad ) , a scarce, solitary species, was found in both physiographic provinces in all three counties. P. R. Burch (personal communication) also found it in King William County. It has been found associated with oak-pine and maple-sweet gum stands. Gastrocopta armifera (Say) was found at only one station, Va. Rt. 657, three miles west of Ashland, Hanover County, under and around a com¬ post pile. It has been reported by P. R. Burch (1950) from Dinwiddie County. Gastrocopta contracta (Say), although a scarce species, is distributed over the entire area. It is most abundant in oak and oak-poplar associations on soils with a pH range of 6.8 - 7.2. Found rarely in soils with less than very high calcium content. Gastrocopta pentodon (Say) is rare and apparently restricted to the Piedmont region, although it is reported in the Coastal Plain from Eliza¬ beth City County (P. R. Burch 1950). It has been found only in plant asociations abundant in oak. Gastrocopta procera (Gould) is rare in this area, and has been found *Dr. J. P. E. Morrison is of the opinion that V. s viagnidens does not occur in Virginia. He identified material sent the U. S. National Museum from VA. 657, three miles west of Ashland, Hanover County, as Ventridens cerinoideus (Anthony). 1955] Land Snails in Virginia 161 at only three localities in the western Piedmont of Hanover County. Pupoides albilabris (Adams), also a rare species, has been found in two localities in the Piedmont of Hanover County (Springfield Church, Va. Rt. 611, and Va. Rt. 657, one mile west of Ashland) and one locality in the Coastal Plain of Henrico County (White Oak Swamp Creek, Va. Rt. 802). It has been reported by P. R. Burch (1950) in Dinwiddie, Highland, and Norfolk counties. In this area it has been found associated only with oak- maple stands. Vertigo ovata (Say) was found at several stations in the Piedmont pro¬ vince associated with oak-maple and oak-poplar stands. Although not found in the Coastal Plain of this area, it has been reported from Norfolk County (P. R. Burch, 1950). Family Strobilopsidae Strobilops aenea (Pilsbry) occurs frequently and is generally distribut¬ ed over the entire area. This minute, dome-shaped species was found most commonly under the bark of fallen oak logs. When found in humus it was most frequent at a pH range of 6.3 - 6.7 and soil of very high calcium content. Strobilops labyrinthica (Say), very similar to S. aenea, is not restricted to any particular region, but is scarce. It has been reported by P. R. Burch (personal communication) from Louisa, King William, and New Kent counties. Family Vallonidae Vallonia excentrica (Sterki) was found only in the Piedmont of Han¬ over and Henrico counties and was rare. It has been reported from the Coastal Plain of Virginia by P. R. Burch (1950) in Norfolk County. It was found at a pH of 7.5 at the only station where soil analysis data are avail¬ able for this species. Order Basommatophora Family Carychiidae Carychium exiguum (Say), one of the smallest snails in the area (length, 1.6 mm.; width, 0.7 mm.), has been found occasionally in the Piedmont, as¬ sociated only with stands where oaks are abundant. Specimens resembling Carychium exile Lea were also present in some lots, but recent work by Harry (1951) seems to indicate C. exile is merely a growth variant of C. exiguum. SUMMARY One hundred and ninety-seven collections from 123 stations have been made in Hanover, Henrico, and Chesterfield counties, Virginia, between June, 1952 and May, 1954. Thirty-four species and subspecies represent¬ ing ten families and two orders have been determined and their distribution and abundance noted. Duplicate specimens have been deposited in the collections of Dr. Paul R. Burch, Rockville, Virginia, and in the United States National Museum, Washington, D. C. 162 The Virginia Journal of Science [July ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I wish to thank Dr. Nolan E. Rice, University of Riehmond, for criti- eism, eneouragement, and advice in the development of this problem. I am indebted to Dr. Henry A. Pilsbry, Curator of Mollusks, Aeademy of Na¬ tural Seienees of Philadelphia, for identifying Gastrocopta pentodon (Say) and Ventridens suppressus magnidens Pilsbry; Dr. J. P. E. Morrison, As¬ sociate Curator of Mollusks, United States National Museum, Washing¬ ton, D. C., for identifying Anguispira fergusoni (Bland), Euconulus denta- tus Sterki, Retinella hurringtoni (Pilsbry), and Retinella indentata (Say), and for critieally checking some of my material; and Dr. Paul R. Burch, formerly Professor of Biology, Radford College, Virginia Polytechnic Insti¬ tute, for information concerning land snail distribution in Virginia. Grate¬ ful acknowledgement is made to the Research Committee of the Virginia Academy of Science for a research grant which helped meet the financial demands of this problem. LITERATURE CITED Bloomer, Robert Oliver 1938. The Geology of the Piedmont in Chester¬ field and Henrico Counties, Virginia. M. S. Thesis, U. Va., p.8. Burch, John Bayard 1952. A Preliminary List of the Mollusca of Hanover County Virginia. Naut., 66(2):60-63. 1954. The Land Snails of Henrico County, Virginia. Naut., 68(1): 30-33. Burch, Paul R. 1950. Mollusks. In: The James River Basin Past, Present, and Future. Va. Acad. ScL, I29-I37. Dice, Lee R. 1952. Natural Communities. U. Mich. Press., 34-44. Harry, Harold W. 1951. Carychium exigtium (Say) of Lower Michigan; Morphology, Ecology, Variation and Life History (Gastropoda, Pulmonata). Ph.D. Dissertation. U. Mich. Hubricht, Leslie. 1953. Land Snails of the Southern Atlantic Coastal Plain. Naut., 66(4): 1 14-125. Ingram, W. M. 1941. Habits of Land Mollusca at Rensselaerville, Albany County, New York. Amer. Mid. Nat., 23(3) :644-65I. Latimer, W. J. and M. W. Beck. 1913. Soil Survey of Henrico County, Virginia. U. S. Dept. Agr., p. 145. Lee, C. Bruce. 1952. Ecological Aspects of Stenotrema hirsutum (Say) in the Region of Ann Arbor, Michigan. Amer. Mid. Nat., 47(1) :55- 60. Pilsbry, Henry A. 1939-48. Land Mollusca of North America (North of Mexico) Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., I and 2.:I-22I5 xxvi. Rehder, H. a. 1949. Some Land and Freshwater Mollusks from the Coas¬ tal Region of Virginia and North and South Carolina. Naut., 62(4): I2I-I26. : 1955] News and Notes 163 News and Notes AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE SECTION Dr. F. D. Hansing, who has been working in cooperation with staff members of the Department of Agricultural Economics at Virginia Poly¬ technic Institute, was transferred by the U. S. Department of Agriculture to the University of Delaware, effective April 30, 1955. Dr. J. S. Plaxico resigned from Virginia Polytechnic Institute March 12 to accept a position in the Department of Agricultural Economics at Okla¬ homa Agricultural and Mechanical College. Mrs. Marguerite N. Horn, Instructor of Rural Sociology at Virginia Polytechnic Institute, has resigned, to be effective June 5, 1955. Her hus¬ band, Dr. Herman Horn, will become Superintendent of Roanoke County Public Schools. Andrew Jackson Lambert, Agricultural Engineering Graduate of Vir¬ ginia Polytechnic Institute, 1950, has joined the Agricultural Engineering Department Staff as Associate Extension Agricultural Engineer. Lambert served as rural representative for the Appalachian Electric Power Company at Rocky Mount, Virginia for four years. He is devoting most of his time to the Extension program in rural electrification. Homer T. Hurst has been appointed Associate Agricultural Engineer in the Research Division of the Agricultural Engineering Department. Hurst is a native of Arkansas and received his B.S. and M.S. degrees in Agricul¬ tural Engineering at Ohio State University in 1950 and 1951 respectively. He did structures research work for the Ohio Experiment Station prior to coming to Virginia Polytechnic Institute on March first. Hurst’s work at Virginia Polytechnic Institute will be on farm structures research. James H. Strickler has been appointed Associate Agricultural Engineer to serve as Coordinator for the Virginia Fann Electrification Council, a posi¬ tion on the Agricultural Engineering Department Staff. Strickler received his B.S. degree in Agricultural Engineering at Virginia Polytechnic Institute in 1951 and since then had been employed in rural electrification work with T. V. A. His appointment was effective May 2. The Virginia Farm Electrification Council reelected E. T. Swink, Head, Agricultural Engineering Department and H. W. Sanders, Head, Vocational Education Department at Virginia Polytechnic Institute, for its Chairman and Vice Chairman, respectively, for 1955-56. The annual busi¬ ness meeting of the Council was held in Richmond on May 11. Dr. Robert F. Kelly has been appointed by the Animal Husbandry De¬ partment at Virginia Polytechnic Institute to direct the work in meats re¬ search and teaching. Dr. Kelly received his training at the University of Wisconsin, Recent publications from the Biochemistry and Nutrition Department at Virginia Polytechnic Institute include the following: Nutrients in Soils and Plants. Minor Element Content of Forage Plants and Soils. Journal of Agri- 164 The Virginia Journal of Science [July 1955] News and Notes 165 cultural and Food. Chemistry 3, pp. 226-229, March, 1955. N. O. Price, W. N. Linko’js and R, W. Engel. Minor Element Content of Forage Plants from the Coastal Region of Virginia. Agricidtural Experiment Sta¬ tion Technical Bulletin 123, April, 1955. N. O. Price, W. N. Linkous and R. W. Engel, Department of Bzochemistry and Nutrition. Wesley P. Judkins, Virginia Polytechnic Institute ENGINEERING SEGTION Mr. Tilton E. Shelburne of the Virginia Gouncil for Highway Investiga¬ tion and Research attended a meeting on May 9 in Chicago of the Working Committee on design of a test road of the American Association of State Highway Officials. On May 25 he attended a meeting of Department Chairmen of the Highway Research Board in Washington. Mr. Shelburne is Chairman of the Design Department. Professor Lawrence R. Quarles, Assistant Dean of the Engineering School of the University of Virginia, attended the ASEE Southeastern district meeting in Knoxville, Tennessee on April 14-16. On May 25 he attended an invitational meeting at Penn. State University to discuss university nu¬ clear reactors. This meeting \vas held under the auspices of the National Research Council Subcommittee on Plnclassified Reactors. Professor Quarl¬ es has been instrumeTital in establishing the degree Doctor of Science in Engineering-Physics which was approved during May by the University of Virginia. Professor R. E. L. Gildea of the Civil Engineering Department, Univer¬ sity of Virginia, and Mr. Phillip Melville of the Virginia Council for High¬ way Investigation and Research attended the joint meeting of the Student Chapters of the ASCE at Lexington, Virginia on May 6. Professor Robert M. Hubbard of the Chemical Engineering Department, University of Vir¬ ginia, attended the meeting of the AIChE held in Louisville, Kentucky in March. Professor Robert W. Truitt of the Aeronautical Engineering Department, Virginia Polytechnic Institute, has recently completed a research project for the Air Force on “Investigation of Wedges in Transonic Flow.” Dean John W. Whittemore of Virginia Polytechnic Institute attended the Industrial Management Conference on March 18 held under the sponsorship of the Virginia Manufacturers’ Association, Virginia Military Institute, and Wash¬ ington and Lee University. Professor Dan Frederick of the Applied Me¬ chanics Department, Virginia Polytechnic Institute, received the Ph.D. degree in Engineering Mechanics from the University of Michigan in Feb¬ ruary. Professor Nelson F. Murphy of the Chemical Engineering Department, Virginia Polytechnic Institute, presented a paper on “Two Film Theory in Liquid-Liquid Extraction” at the Houston, Texas meeting of the AIChE, on May 2. Professor Murphy escorted chemical engineering students to the 166 The Virginia Journal of Science [July 1 corrosion research laboratories of the International Nickel Company near Wrightsville Beach, North Carolina on May 20. Professor Dale S. Davis, also of this chemical engineering department, presented a paper called “Industrial Nomography” before the Engineering Drawing Division of the ASEE in Knoxville, Tennessee on January 28. Professor Davis recently had published by Reinhold Publishing Corporation a text entitled “Nomo¬ graphy and Empirical Equations.” Professor Dudley Thomson, also of this chemical engineering department, has been awarded a grant of $4,100 by Socony -Vacuum Oil Company to support research on the effects of ultra¬ sonic energy on mass transfer in liquid-liquid extraction. The George Washington Engineering Award has been presented for three successive years by the Engineering Section as a result of the generous enthusiasm of various engineers throughout the State of Virginia. The in¬ ception of this award resulted from the excellent projects showing engineer¬ ing ability on the part of Junior Academy members. The substance of the award is not only the scroll shown above but also a cash prize. In addition the complimentary efforts of the Senior engineers reflect themselves in counsel and encouragement for the Juniors to pursue their projects. Gui¬ dance into college or technical employment is a common result for the winner and all other contestants. ptmtt piiginwmj ypt it Ef knaiirtt nniir aitE hpiecrfartk that palter Eiti kpiwan^lratp in tkr gear af ^ur BtiF thanwtti nine knnkrpil ank Iifhj four ikp taknl^ far enginrrmg abilito br- forr tkiST arabrmjg.Hn Ml rpra^nifion ank Uiitk anr ramisInHrulsr. aiirartt roauaittrp 1955] News and Notes 167 The winners of this award have been: 1952 - Gerald P. Waldberg 1953 - Floyd Wilson 1954 — Walter S. Thomas —Robert M. Hubbard, University of Virginia GEOLOGY SECTION Nearly one hundred geologists representing colleges and universities, governmental agencies and private companies participated in the joint field conference held in Harrisonburg, Virginia, May 19-22, 1955. The confer¬ ence was sponsored by the Virginia Division of Geology, the Applachian Geological Society, and the West Virginia Geological Survey. The strati¬ graphy and structure of Pre-Cambrian and Paleozoic rocks between the east slope of the Blue Ridge and the Bergton gas field in Rockingham County were studied. One of the highlights of the conference was the trip through the Shenandoah Caverns. Geology of Bergton Gas Field, Rockinghain County Virginia, by Robert S. Young and Wilbur T. Harnsberger is being issued as Reprint Series No. 17 by the Virginia Division of Geology. Porter J. Brown, geologist. United Fuel Gas Co. of Charleston, West Virginia, spoke to the Holden Society of Virginia Polytechnic Institute in connection with the Sixth Annual Engineering Conference held April 21-23. He emphasized practical aspects of exploring for oil and gas in the Appala¬ chians. Dr. R. M. Allen, manager of the French Coal Co., Bluefield, West Vir¬ ginia, spoke to the Holden Society at the regular meeting held on May 10. His talk dealt with the composition and structure of certain coal beds in southern West Virginia. Dr. Bruce Nelson will join the staff of the Virginia Polytechnic Institute Geology Department in September 1955. He will teach courses in minera¬ logy and geochemistery and also will devote part of his time to research in connection with the study of the clay deposits of Virginia. Jonathan Edwards, Jr. is this year’s recipient of the Holden Prize. The prize, a Brunton compass, is awarded annually to the Virginia Polytechnic Institute senior majoring in geology who has the highest scholastic stand¬ ing. Edwards will be field assistant with The Texas Company in Montana before returning to Virginia Polytechnic Institute in the fall to work on his masters degree. Donald P. Moore was the winner of the Sophomore Achievement Award. This award, an Estwing geologic pick, is given to the Virginia Polytechnic Institute sophomore majoring in geology who from all standpoints has shown promise of contributing much to his profession. The first Additions to Virginia Mineral Localities will be published by the Virginia Engineering Experiment Station, Blacksburg, Virginia, in Octo¬ ber or November. R. V. Dietrich requests that any information concern- The Virginia Journal of Science •• Vr": AMERICA’S LEADING MANUFACTURER OF CIGARETTES 1955] News and Notes 169 ing new mineral localities or corrections of material included in Virginia Mineral Localities be sent to him at the Department of Geology, Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Blacksburg, Virginia, so that they may be included in this new bulletin. Dr. Troy J. Laswell of the geology department of Washington and Lee University will spend the summer working on photogeology for Humble Oil Co. John Alford and Alan Mixson, Washington and Lee students, will be engaged in exploration for uranium in the Yellowknife district of the Northwest Territory of Canada. Wayne E. Moore of Virginia Polytechnic Institute will spend the sum¬ mer studying the lithology and stratigraphy of the sediments of the Virginia Coastal Plain, This study is being made for the Virginia Division of Geo¬ logy. Fletcher McCutcheon is stationed in Lewiston, Montana where he is employed by The Texas Company. Carl Meyertons is working for Stano- lind and is stationed in Albuquerque, New Mexico. Both received their masters degrees from Virginia Polytechnic Institute in June. — W. D. Lowry, Virginia Polytechnic Institute PSYCHOLOGY SECTION The Virginia Examining Board for Clinical Psychologists has recently certified the following: Alvis W. Jeffreys, Jr,, of Western State Hospital, Mrs. Antonia Bess Morgan of Aptitude Associates, and Jacob Silverberg of McGuire Veterans Hospital. William M. Hinton was reelected chairman of the Examining Board. William E. Harris, Chief Clinical Psychologist at McGuire Hospital, was appointed to the Board to succeed Austin E. Grigg, who has resigned his position at the University of Richmond to continue graduate work at the University of Iowa. Richard H. Henneman was re¬ elected to the Board. Other members of the Board at the present time are Miss Catherine T. Giblette of Richmond, and Dr. Gilbert J. Rich, Director of the Roanoke Guidance Center, and present Chairman of the Psychology Section. Several Virginia psychologists were active on the program of the first meeting of the newly organized Southeastern Psychological Association, held in Atlanta, May 22-24. Frank W. Finger was modeTator of a sym¬ posium, "'The Teaching of Psychology in Colleges and Universities”; Stan¬ ley B. Williams spoke on psychology in the small liberal arts college, on this same symposium; Dr. Gilbert Rich was a panel speaker on a sym¬ posium, "The Roles of Psychological Organizations”, speaking on the role of the state organization. Richard H. Henneman was panel speaker re¬ presenting experimental psychology on a symposium, "Research in Pro¬ gress”. Morris Roseman presented a paper, "The Advantages and Disad¬ vantages of the Co-therapy Method in Group Psychotherapy — the Opini¬ ons of Co-therapists”. He was also co-author of another paper on the pro¬ gram, "A Graphic Method for Showing Therapeutic Change by the Use .170 The Virginia Journal of Science [July Laboratory and Industrial Chemicals Chemical Equipment Complete Stocks — Prompt Service Post Office Box 828 DURHAM, NORTH CAROLINA ANALYTICAL BiVLANCES COLORIMETERS HOT PLATES MICROSCOPES pH METERS REFRACTOMETERS TUBING CENTRIFUGES LABORATORY REAGENTS COORS PORCELAIN FILTER PAPERS KIMBLE GLASSWARE OVENS PYREX GLASSWARE SPECTROPHOTOMETERS IRONWARE 1955] News and Notes 171 of MMPI Scales”. Dr. Gilbert Rich also presented a paper, “The Psychol¬ ogist in the Community Clinic Team as Seen by a Psychiatrist”. William M. Hinton and Richard H. Henneman were chairmen of the sessions on the school psychologist, and on motivation, respectively. Arrangements are now being completed for the Fourth Annual Semi¬ nar of the Roanoke Veterans Administration Hospital to be held on October 10 and 11. The subject of this year’s seminar is “The Patient, the Hospi¬ tal, the Community — The Integration of the Psychiatric Hospital and the Community”. At the annual business meeting of the Richmond Psychological Associ¬ ation, on May 20, the following officers were elected for the forthcoming year: Robert Filer, president; Jack Silverberg, vice president; Ann Hardesty, secretary-treasurer. James T. Grayley will leave the Educational Therapy Center, Richmond, in August, to attend the University of Maryland, work¬ ing toward his Ph.D. in counseling psychology. John Williams, Ph.D., Uni¬ versity of Iowa, will join the staff at the University of Richmond in Sept¬ ember. Charles E. Peachee, formerly psychologist at Central State Hospi¬ tal, Petersburg, assumed his duties as staff psychologist at Westbrook Sanitarium, Richmond, on June 1. Mrs. Catherine Giblette recently retired from her position as chief psychologist at the Memorial Guidance Clinic in Richmond. She is continuing her psychological work in private practice. Rurton R. Wolin left the College of William and Mary February 1 to take a research position with the Rand Corporation, Santa Monica, Califor¬ nia. Miss Ernestine Cox took his place during the past semester as acting instructor. Peter M. Guthrie of Brown University has been appointed to an assistant professorship in psychology for 1955-56. John Bare and Stanley B. Williams are continuing a research project at William and Mary this sum¬ mer for the Air Force on operator efficiency as a function of scope size. Walter A. Woods, of the Richmond Professional Institute School of Clinical and Applied Psychology, is leaving to accept a Veterans Administration ap¬ pointment at Lyons, New Jersey. Other changes in the RPI staff include William R. Reeve, who is leaving at the end of the summer to accept a position at Oregon University; Robert Corder, who joined the staff as as¬ sociate professor in February, will continue next year; Edwin S. Thomas, completing his Ph.D. at Syracuse University, will join the RPI staff in September. Morris Roseman of the Veterans Administration Hospital, Roanoke, has been appointed Chief Clinical Psychologist at the Veterans Administration Mental Hygiene Clinic in Baltimore, and will assume his duties there sometime during the summer. Dr. Frederick S. Hauser, Assistant Professor of Psychology at Hollins College, has accepted a position in New York City with George Fry and Associates as a consultant psychologist. William M. Hinton of Washington and Lee, and Robert C. Wingfield of Converse College will be members of the Summer School staff in psychol- 172 The Virginia Journal of Science [July ogy at the University of Virginia. Frank A. Geldard will continue to direct research on vibratory sensitivity of the skin on a contract for the Office of Naval Research. Richard H. Henneman is director of a research con¬ tract on complex decision-making behavior for the Surgeon General’s Office of the Army. Frank W. Finger and L. Starling Reid have received a grant from the National Science Foundation for research on patterns of response to food and water deprivation in the rat. Miss Hannah Davis is expected to return to the Lynchburg State Colony this summer following her leave of absence. Mrs. William McConnell is leaving the Lynchburg Guidance Center to do graduate study at the Uni¬ versity of Pittsburgh. Miss Marjorie Brownell will return to Randolph- Macon Woman’s College after a year of advanced study at the University of Massachusetts. Paul Mountjoy will be an acting member of the psycho¬ logy department at Sweet Briar College during the 1955-56 session. Richard H. Henneman, University of Virginia STATISTICS SECTION Dr. R. A. Bradley returned to his position as Professor of Statistics at the Virginia Polytechnic Institute June 1, 1955, from Rutgers University where he was a visiting professor. He will present a series of seminars at the Southern Regional Graduate Summer Session in Statistics which will be held at the University of Florida this summer. Dr. Bradley gave a paper at the convention of the American Society for Quality Control entitled “Statis¬ tical Designs for Taste Test Panels”. His papers, “Some Notes on the Theory and Application of Rank Order Statistics, Parts I and II,” were published in the February and March issues of Industrial Quality Control. Dr. Brad¬ ley is going to Rutgers University September 10 to take part in the Rutgers All-Day Convention on Statistics. Dr. Boyd Harshbarger and Dr. R. A. Bradley visited the Oak Ridge Institute of Nuclear Studies to discuss the progress of R. G. Cornell’s dis¬ sertation and reported that definite progress is being made. Dr. Boyd Harshbarger is teaching Design of Experiments at the South¬ ern Regional Graduate Summer Session held at the University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida. Dr. W. A. Thompson, Jr. will resign his position as Associate Professor of Statistics at the Virginia Polytechnic Institute June 30 to accept a posi¬ tion in El Paso, Texas. Dr. R. L. Wine joined the staff of the Virginia Polytechnic Institute as an Associate Professor of Statistics on April 15, 1955. Dr. Wine studied at Bridgewater College, the University of Virginia, the University of Michi¬ gan, and received his Ph.D, degree from the Virginia Polytechnic Institute. His dissertation was entitled “A Power Study of Multiple Range and Multi¬ ple F Tests.” He has published a paper entitled “Some Air War Games”, 1955] News and Notes 173 Engineering Research Institute, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Re¬ port No. M965 R-2. Dr. R. J. Freund joined the staff of the Virginia Polytechnic Institute as an Associate Professor of Statistics June 1. Dr. Freund has studied at the University of Chicago and North Carolina State College. He completed and received his Ph.D. degree from the North Carolina State College. His publications include “A Statistical Investigation of the 1949 North Caro¬ lina Grain Survey”; “The Selection of Optimal Farm Enterprises: a Case Study in Linear Programming” with Dr. R. A. King; “A Procedure for Solving a Linear Programming Problem” with Dr. R. A. King. Mr. D. P. Morton will join the staff of the Statistics Department of the Virginia Polytechnic Institute September 1, 1955. He received his formal training at the McGuire’s University School and the Virginia Polytechnic Institute. Mr. Morton is a registered Professional Engineer (Mining and Mechanical) and has written numerous technical articles and papers. He has worked in Virginia and West Virginia coal fields as mine superinten¬ dent. Mr. Morton has been Chief Rating Commissioner with the Chesa¬ peake and Ohio Railroad and has been very active in forecasting and statistical work. Dr. J. E. Freund and Mr. Irwin Miller published a paper entitled “In Defense of Frequencies” in the American Statistician, April 1955. The following members of the Statistics Section received their M.S. de¬ grees in statistics from the Virginia Polytechnic Institute on June 5, 1955: E. L. Bombara, Leo Lynch, Kamini Patwary, A. N. Pozner, R. L. Taylor, and Dan Zakich. Mr. Norbert L. Enrick of the Institute of Textile Technology, Charlot¬ tesville has recently published the following: “Quality Control”, Second Revised Edition, The Industrial Press, N. Y.; “Quality Control through Statistical Methods; Specifically Designed for Textile Mills”, Modern Tex¬ tiles Magazine; “Modern Mill Controls”, Modern Textiles Magazine; “Mak¬ ing Best Use of Sampling Inspection”, Plant Administration; and “Statis¬ tical Quality Control in Textile Processing”, Amer. Soc. for Quality Con¬ trol, Textile Division (Copies of the latter may be obtained from Mr. En¬ rick. Lionel Weiss, Unwersity of Virginia The Annual Subscription rate is $3.00, and the cost of a single £ number, $1.00. Reprints are available only if ordered when galley proof ffeis returned. All orders except those involving exchanges should be ad- H' dressed to B. F. D. Runk, Biology Laboratory, University of Virginia, Charlottesville. The University of Virginia Library has exclusive exchange |i arrangements, and, communications relative to exchange should be addressed * , to The Librarian, Alderman Library, University of Virginia, Charlottes- ; ville, Virginia. Notice To Contributors Contributions to the Journal should be addressed to Horton H. Hobbs, Jr., Biology Laboratory, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia. If any preliminary notes have I ‘ been published on the subject which is submitted to the editors, a statement to that effect (i must accompany the manuscript. Manuscripts must be submitted in triplicate, typewritten in double spacing on . standard ' X 11" paper, with at least a one inch margin on all sides. Manuscripts are limited to seven pages, with the proviso that if additional pages are desired, the author may obtain them at cost. ' ■ Division of the manuscript into subheadings must follow a consistent plan, and be V' held to a minimum. It is desirable that a brief summary be included in all manuscripts. Footnotes should be included in the body of the manuscript immediately following the reference, and set off by a dashed-line above and below the footnote content. Footnotes should be numbered consecutively from the beginning to the end of the manuscript. Bibliographies (Literature Cited, References, etc.) should be arranged alphabetically ■ V, according to author. Each reference should include the date, full title of the article, the name of the Journal, the volume, number (optional), pages, tables and figures (it ' , any). For example: "Sniffen, Ernest W. 1940. Cobbles from the Pleistocene Terraces of the Lower York-James Peninsula, Va. Journ. Sci., 1 (8) : 285-288, 1 fig. 1 tab. Ref- *' erence to the bibliographic citations should not be made by numbers. Instead, using the {, above , citations, where a reference is desired; either “Sniffen (1940)”, “Sniffen, 1940: 186)”, or "Sniffen (1940) states that . . Explanations of figures. Graphs, etc., should be typed on separate pages. All figures should be numbered consecutively beginning with the first text figure and continuing ; through the plates. If figures are to be inserted in the text this should be clearly indi* ‘f/ cated by writing "Figure — ” at the appropriate place in the margin. ■ Illustrations, including lettering, should be arranged so that on reduction they will V not exceed the dimensions of the maximum size of a printed page, 4%" x 6^", and ' BO that they are well balanced on the page. The Journal will furnish the author with ■ one plate (halitone or line reproduction) or its equivalent; additional figures, colored ,v! illustrations or lithographs may be used only if the author makes a grant covering the cost of production. Original drawings (which must be done in black drawing ink) 1 not photographs of drawings, should accompany the manuscript. Photographs should not be used if a line and dot (stippled) drawing will suffice. If photographic prints are li to be used they should be glossy, sharp and show good contrast. Drawings not neatly / executed and labeled (do not use a typewriter), or which are submitted on yellow or ■■ yellowish-white paper will not be accepted, ' Galley Proofs and engraver’s proofs of figures are sent to the author for correction. Costs of exce.ssive changes from the original manuscript must be defrayed by the author. OFFICERS OF THE VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE , Walter S. Flory, Jr., President r'-'" ; Edward S. Harlow, President-Elect Foley F. Smith, Secretary -Treasurer William B. Wartman, Jr., Assistant Secretary |v' COUNCIL ^ (Board of Trustees) Stanley B. Williams (1956) Mrs. B. G. Heatwole (1960) ‘ Sidney S. Negus (1957) Lloyd C. Bird (1956) Horton H. Hobbs, Jr. i Byrn N. Cooper (1958) A. T. Gwathmey (1957) B. F. D. Runk , William Hinton (1959) Irving G. Foster (1958) Lynn D. Abbott, Jr. 3%^:. f 5 , V' s"/ T.HE VIRGINIA OURNAL OF SCIENCE A JOURNAL ISSUED QUARTERLY BY THE VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE ■i'l' ■A % PROCEEDINGS FOR THE YEAR 1954 — 1955 NOV 39 1955 I New Series September, 1955 No. 4 VoL. 6, New Series September, 1955 No. 4 THE VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Published Four Times a Year: In January, April, July, and September, by The Virginia Academy of Science Printed by The Giles County Virginian, Pearisbiirg, Va. CONTENTS Pages Proceedings for the Year 1954-1955 Minutes of the Thirty-Third Annual Meeting, May 11, 12, 13, and 14, 1955 Detailed Table of Contents . 174 EDITORIAL BOARD Horton PI. Hobbs, Jr., Editor Mary E. Humphreys, Associate Editor B. F. D. Runk, Managing Editor Richard W. Irby, Jr., Advertising Manager Wesley P. Judkins Robert T. Bmmfield Robert M. Hubbard Richard H. Henneman Section Editors F. L. Hereford Carl J. Likes W. D. Lowry Caroline Gambrill J. Douglas Reid > James B. Patton Charlmers L. Gemmill Lionel Weiss Second-class entry pending, Charlottesville, Virginia. Subscription $3 per volume. Published at Charlottesville, Virginia. Mailed November 15, 1955 THE VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE VoL. 6, New Series No VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE Proceedings for the Year 1954"1955 MINUTES OF THE THIRTY-THIRD ANNUAL MEETING MAY II, 12, 13, 14, 1955 AT MADISON COLLEGE HARRISONBURG, VIRGINIA 176 The Virginia Journal of Science [September LIST OF PRESIDENTS Ivey F. Lewis . 1923-24 James Lewis Howe . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1924-25 Robert E. Loving . . . . . . . . . 1925-26 *J. Shelton Horsley . . 1926-27 *Donald W. Davis . 1927-28 Wm. Moseley Rrown . . . . . . 1928-29 Garnett Ryland . 1929-30 L. G. Hoxton . . . . . . . . . 1930-31 I. D. Wilson . . . . . 1931-32 T. McN. Simpson, Jr . . . 1932-33 William A. Kepner . 1933-34 William T. Sanger . . . . . . . . . 1934-35 Ida Sitler . 1935-36 H. E. Jordan . 1936-37 D. Maurice Allan . 1937-38 Earle R. Norris . . . . . 1938-39 Ruskin S. Freer . 1939-40 *WoRTLEY F. Rudd . . . . . 1940-41 George W. Jeffers . 1941-42 M. \rcellus H. Stow . 1942-43 *W. Catesby Jones . 1943-44 Robert F. Smart . 1944-45 H. Rupert Hanmer . 1945-46 Arthur Revan . 1946-47 Jesse W. Beams . 1947-48 Sidney S. Negus . 1948-49 Boyd Harshb-A.rger . . . . . . . 1949-50 Guy W. Horsley . . . . . . . . . . . . 1950-51 Paul M. Patterson . . . . . . . 1951-52 Lloyd C. Bird . . . . . . . . 1952-53 Allan T. Gwathmey . . . . . . . . . . 1953-54 Irving G. Foster . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1954-55 Walter S. Flory, Jr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1955-56 * Deceased. 1955] Proceedings 1954-1955 177 Virginia Academy of Science OFFICERS Irving G. Foster, President Walter S. Flory, President-Elect E. C. L. Miller, Secretary-Treasurer Emeritus ’m Foley F. Smith, Secretary-Treasurer COUNCIL (Board of Trustees) Elected L. W. Jarman (1955) Stanley B. Williams (1956) Sidney S. Negus (1957) Byron N. Cooper (1958) Members William M. Hinton (1959) Horton H. Hobbs, Jr, Boyd Harshbarger Edward S. Harlow Ex-Officio Members Paul M. Patterson (1955) Lloyd C. Bird (1956) Allan T. Gwathmey (1957) LOCAL COMMITTEE ON ARRANGEMENTS J. E. Ikenberry, General Chairman B. W. Partlow, Housing, W. L. Mengebier, Registration Murl Shawver, Traffic and Parking J. C. Wells, Junior Academy Exhibits E. D. Miller, Commercial Exhibits Wilbert Chappell, Meeting Rooms and Equipment Raus Hanson, Geology Field Trip A. M. Sho WALTER, Biology Field Trip S. C. Bocskey, Signs and Maps R. D. Cool, Chemical Industry Tour C. P. Shorts, Information Madison College Faculty Wives Club, Entertainment for Ladies HOST TO MEETING Madison College Tyler Miller, President 178 The Virginia Journal of Science [September OFFICERS OF THE VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE FOR 1955-56 Walter S. Flory, President Blandy Experimental Farm, Boyce Edward S. Harlow, President-Elect Box 4178, Richmond Foley F. Smith, Secretary-Treasurer Box 1420, Richmond 11 William B. Wartman, Jr,, Assistant Secretary COUNCIL (Board of Trustees) Elected Members Stanley B. Williams (1956) Sidney S. Negus (1957) Byron H. Cooper (1958) William M. Hinton (1959) Mrs. B. G. Heatwole (1960) Lynn D. Abbott, Jr. Horton H. Hobbs, Jr. B. F. D. Runk Ex-Officio Members Lloyd C. Bird (1956) Allan T. Gwathmey (1957) Irving G. Foster (1958) ^ PRESIDENT’S ADVISORY COMMITTEE (Elected by Sections) Officers of Sections for 1955-1956 Agricultural Sciences: R. W. Engle, Chairman; P. M. Reaves, Vice-Chair¬ man; James W. Midyette, Jr., Secretary; R. K. Stivers, Section Edi¬ tor (1956). Astronomy, Mathematics, and Physics: J. Cordon Stipe, Chairman; Mel¬ vin A. Pittman, Secretary; Frank L. Hereford, Section Editor (1956). Bacteriology: A. L. Rosensweig, President; Wesley Volk, Vice-President; Mrs. Barbara H. Caminita, Secretary-Treasurer; P. Arne Hanson, Sec¬ tion Editor (1956). Biology: J. L. McHugh, Chairman; J. N. Dent, Secretary; Robert T. Brumfield, Section Editor (1957). Chemistry: Richard M. Irby, Jr., Chairman; Mary E. Kapp, Secretary; Carl J. Likes, Section Etoor (1957). Education: DeForest L. Strunk, II, Chairman; W. Donald Clague, Secre¬ tary; James B. Patton, Section Editor (1957). Engineering: Dudley Thompson, Chairman; David Michael Crim, Secre¬ tary; Robert M. Hubbard, Section Editor (1958). Geology: William T. Parrott, Chairman; Troy J. Laswell, Vice-Chairman; Robert S. Young, Secretary; W. D. Lowry, Section Editor (1958). 1955] Proceedings 1954-1955 179 Medical Sciences: GrovcT C. Pitts, Chairman; Geraldine M. Duncan, Sec¬ retary; Chalmers L. Gemmill, Section Editor (1958). Psychology: Gilbert J. Rich, President; Audrey M. Shuey, Secretary- Treasurer; Henry A. Imus, Executive Committeeman; Richard H. Henneman, Section Editor (1959). Science Teachers: Franklin D. Kizer, Chairman; Miss Samuella Grim, Chairman-Elect; Miss Martha W. Duke, Secretary; Miss Caroline Gambrill, Section Editor (1959). Statistics: M. C. K. Tweedie, Chairman; John E. Freund, Vice-Chairman; Clyde Y. Kramer, Secretary; Lionel Weiss, Section Editor (1959). COMMITTEES APPOINTED BY PRESIDENT FLORY Officers of the Academy will be ex-officio members of all committees. Long Range Planning Lynn D. Abbott, Jr., Chairman Medical College of Virginia, Richmond Lloyd C. Bird R. W. Engel George W. Jeffers Allen Gwathmey J. W. Cole W. G. Guy W. T. Ham, Jr. Ladley Husted Henry Leidheiser Sidney S. Negus Marcellus Stow Lorin A. Thompson Boyd Harshbarger Research Chalmers L. Gemmill, Chairman (1960) Dept, of Pharmacology, Univ. of Va., Charlottesville D. Maurice Allen (1956) R. C. Krug (1956) John Forbes (1957) Robert T. Brumfield (1958) R. A. Bradley (1959) Finance and Endowment Lloyd C. Bird, Chairman Box 2-V, Richmond Allen Gwathmey Boyd Harshbarger Guy W. Horsley W. T. Sanger Sidney S. Negus Robert F. Smart Charles T. O’Neill Edwin Cox Virginia Flora A. B. Massey, Chairman Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Blacksburg Lena Artz R. P. Carroll Ruskin S. Freer Paul M. Patterson Walter S. Flory, Jr. Ivey F. Lewis 180 The Virginia Journal oi< Science [September Junior Academy of Science Thelma C. Heatwole, Chairman Box 312, Staunton Adrienne Nettles Edward R. Dyer Susie V. Floyd E. S. Harlow Bruce D. Reynolds John Towler Franklin D. Kizer Felix Sanders Beatrice Harrington H. H. Garretson Ardelia Brown E. S. Grable Reuben R. McDaniel D. L. Kinnear George D. Sands Virginia Science Talent Search Harold H. Garretson, Chairman Lynchburg Gollege, Lynchburg Resolutions Paul M. Patterson, Chairman S. S. Obenshain Roscoe Hughes Nominations Lloyd G. Bird, Chairman Box 2-V, Richmond Allen T. Gwathmey Irving G. Foster Membership Robert W. Truitt, Chairman Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Blacksburg Thomas M. Hahn, Jr. D. R. H. Gourley J. H. Roger Glyde Y. Kramer R. G. Berry W. T. Harnsberger Roscoe Hughes H. J. Welshimer Gilbert J. Rich J. S. Pierce Place of Meeting Stanley B. Williams, Chairman Sidney S. Negus L. W. Webb, Jr. Resource-Use Education J. J. Shoman, Chairman 826 E. 45th St., Richmond Mrs. J. H. Adams Gharles F. Lane Paul Sanders A. H. Anderson Harry S. Mosby R. J. Walker Sam Bondurant E. W. Mundie Donald S. Wallace 1955] Proceedings 1954-1955 181 William C. Cooper W. W. Nobb Alfred L, Wingo T. V. Downing Mrs. H. Gray Parker Percy H. Warren Harry S. Jopson Elizabeth Peny I. D. Wilson James River Project Marcellus Stow, Chairman Washington and Lee University, Lexington Robert P. Carroll A. B. Massey Foley F. Smith Ivey F. Lewis Charles T. O'Neill I. D. Wilson Jamestown Exposition Marcellus Stow, Chairman Horton H. Hobbs W. G. Guy Awards Committee Boyd Harshbarger, Chairman Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Blacksburg Sidney S. Negus George W. Jeffers Local Committee on Arrangements (1956) Colonel Herbert W. K. Fitzroy, General Chairman Jackson J. Taylor (University of Richmond), Housing Mary E. Kapp (R. P. L), Registration Lewis F. Taylor (Phipps & Bird), Meeting Rooms and Equipment Russell J. Rowlett, Jr. (Virginia-Carolina Chemical Corp.), Public Informa¬ tion E. Sherman Grable (U. of Richmond), Junior Academy Exhibits W. Schuyler Miller (Randolph-Macon), Commercial Exhibits Robert F. Smart (U. of Richmond), Biology Field Trip R. P. Hackney (American Tobacco Co., Research Lab.), Chemical Indus¬ try Tours William M. McGill (Virginia Geological Survey), Geology Field Trip Roscoe D. Hughes (Medical College of Virginia), Signs, Maps and Park¬ ing Mrs. William R. Harlan and Mrs. Edward S. Harlow, Entertainment for Ladies 182 The Virginia Journal of Science Contents [September Page List of Presidents . 1V6 Officers and Committees for 1954-55 . 177 Officers and Committees for 1955-56 . 178 Jefferson Medal Winners . 183 Horsley Award . . . . . 184 General Program — Thirty-Third Annual Meeting . . . . . 185 Tabulation of Registration . . . . . . . . . 187 Minutes of Council Meeting . . . . . . 188 Minutes of Academy Conference . 191 Minutes of Academy Meeting . . . 192 Minutes of Council Meeting . . . . 194 Reports of Secretary-Treasurer . 196 Committees Long Range Planning . 206 Research . 207 Finance and Endowment . 208 Junior Academy of Science . . . 210 Science Talent Search . . . 213 James River Project . . . . . 215 Conservation . 215 Virginia Flora . . . . . 216 Virginia Institute For Scientific Research . 217 Science Education . 218 Virginia Journal of Science . . . . . . . 223 Jamestown Exposition . 226 Membership . 228 Minutes of Sections Agricultural Sciences . 229 Astronomy, Mathematics, and Physics . 237 Bacteriology . 243 Biology . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246 Chemistry . 253 Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264 Engineering . 270 Geology . 280 Medical Sciences . 290 Psychology . . . 297 Science Teachers . . . . . . . . . . . 306 Statistics . 309 List of Members . 317 Membership Application . 345 Form of Bequest . . . . . . . . . . . 345 1955] Proceedings 1954-1955 183 JEFFERSON MEDAL WINNERS Recipients of the Jefferson Gold Medal ^ Alfred Chanutin 1936 William B. Porter 1937 H. M. Phillips . . . 1938 G. M. Shear and H. D. Ussery . . . 1939 Recipients of The Jefferson Prize * L, G. Overholzer and John H. Yoe .......................................................... 1940 Allan T. Gwathmey . . . 1941 R. N. Jefferson . . . . . . . . . . . . 1942 W. H. Hough . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1943 Glinton B. Cosby . . . . . . . . 1944 RECIPIENTS OF J. SHELTON HORSLEY RESEARCH AWARDS Carl C. Speidel . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1927 John H. Yoe . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1928 J. C, Street . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1929 H. E. Jordan Carl C. Speidel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1930 E. C. Stevenson . . . . . . 1931 James H. Smith . . . . . . . . . . 1932 S. A. Wingard . . . . . . . 1933 E. P. Johnson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1934 Margaret Hess . . . . . . . . . . 1935 Alfred Chanutin . . . . . . . . . . . . 1936 R. G. Henderson . . . . . . . . 1937 S. G. Bedell . . . . . . . . . . . 1938 M. J. Murray F. F. Cleveland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1939 Walton C. Gregory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1940 Charles Ray . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1941 No Award . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1942 J. B. Meyer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1943 J. H. Taylor . . . . . . . . 1944 No Award . . . . . . . . . . . . 1945 Boyd Harshbarger and D. B. DeLury (separate papers) . . . . . . 1946 No Award . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1947 Henry Leidheiser, Jr. . . . . . . . . . 1948 1 The winning papers in this conii)etition were entered ag'ainst those of the North Caro¬ lina, South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida Academies of Science. It was discontinued in 1940. 2 The winning authors had the choice of the Jefferson Prize or the Academy Prize dur¬ ing this period. The name of the Academy Prize was changed to the J. Shelton Horsley Award and the Jefferson Prize discontinued in 1944. 184 The Virginia Journal of Science [September Walter S. Flory, Jr. . . . . . . . . . 1949 Erling S. Hegre . . . . . . . . . 1950 David B. Duncan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1951 D. R. H. Gourley . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1952 Stephen Berko Frank L. Hereford . . . . . . . . . . 1953 Lynn D. Abbot, Jr. and Mary J. Dodson . . . 1954 Albert W. Lutz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1955 1955] Proceedings 1954~]955 185 General Program of The Thirty-Third Annual Meeting 19 5 5 WEDNESDAY, MAY 11 5:00 P.M. to 10:00 P.M.- — Registration for Junior Academy Members^ Participants in the Science Talent Search — -Foyer, Madison Memorial Library. 5:00 P.M. to 10:00 P.M. - Arranging ExhibitS“-"-“Burruss Science Hall. THURSDAY, MAY 18 8:00 A.M. to 5:00 P.M. — Registration for Junior Academy Members, Senior Academy Members and Guests — Foyer, Madison Memorial Library. 9:00 A.M.— Meeting of Science Exhibit Judges, Science Talent Search Judges— Burruss Science Hall, Rooms 201, 209. 9:30 A.M. — Meeting of Chairman and Exhibitors, and Science Talent Search Participants — Burruss Science Hall, Room 109. 10:00 A.M. to 12:30 P.M. and 1:30 P.M. to 4:00 P.M.^ — Finalists of Talent Search meet with Chairman and Interviewers - Burruss Science Hall, Rooms 2, 7, 307, 308. 10:00 A.M. to 12:30 P.M. and 1:30 P.M. to 4:00 P.M. - Judging of Science Exhibit Contests — Burruss Science Hall. 1:00 P.M. to 2:00 P.M. - Luncheon, 2:00 P.M. — Meeting of the Council of the Academy — Burruss Science Hall, Room 103. 4:00 P.M. — Meeting of all Senior Academy Section Officers — Burruss Science Hall, Room 109. 4:30 P.M. - Meeting of the Section Editors^ — Burruss Science Hall, Room 209. 5:00 P.M. — Meeting of Virginia Junior Academy of Science Committee — Burruss Science Hall, Room 11. 7:00 P.M. — Business Meeting, Junior Academy of Sciencse — Wilson Hall, Auditorium. 7:30 P.M. ““Address of Guest Speaker for Junior Academy Members and GuestS“““ Wilson Hall, Auditorium. 8:30 P.M. —“Senior Academy Conference and General Meeting — -Wilson Hall, Auditorium. 186 The Virginia Journal of Science [September FRIDAY, MAY 13 8:30 A.M. — Registration. 9:00 A.M. — Section Meetings: (See detailed sectional programs below for exact hour.) Agricultural Sciences — Wilson Hall — Room 28 Astronomy, Mathematics, Physics — Burruss Science Hall — Room 11 Bacteriology — Burruss Science Hall — Room 311 Biology — Burruss Science Hall — Room 109 Chemistry — W ilson H all — Auditorium Education — Wilson Hall — Room 27 Engineering — Burruss Science Hall — Room 201 Geology — Burruss Science Hall — Room 209 Medical Sciences — Wilson Hall — Room 25 Psychology — Wilson Hall — Rooms 21 and 32 Science Teachers — Burruss Science Hall — Room 103 Statistics — Burruss Science Hall — Room 301 10:00 A.M. to 11:30 A.M. — Symposium, “What’s New in Chemistry,” sponsored by Science Teachers Section — Burruss Science Hall, Room 103. 12:00 noon to 1:00 P.M. — Junior-Senior Scientist Hour at which awards will he presented — Wilson Hall, Auditorium. 1:00 P.M. to 2:00 P.M. — Luncheon. 2:00 P.M. — Section Meetings. 4:45 P.M. to 6:00 P.M. - Madison College will be host at a tea to the Members and Guests of the Academy- — Alumnae Hall Parlor. 7:45 P.M. — Short Business Meeting, Senior Academy - Wilson Hall, Auditorium. 8:30 P.M. - Address by Mr. Jerome Namias, Chief, Extended Forecast Section. U. S. Weather Bureau — ^Wilson Hall, Auditorium. SATURDAY, MAY 14 9:00 A.M. — Section Meetings. 10:00 A.M. — Academy Council Meeting— —Burruss Science Hall, Room 103. 1955] Proceedings 1954-1955 187 Tabulation of Registration Section Members Non-Members Total 1. Agricultural Sciences .................... ............. 25 9 34 2. Astronomy, Mathematics & Physics 34 14 48 3. Bacteriology . . ............. 2 0 2 4. Biology . . . . . 68 17 85 5. Chemistry . . . . . . . . 53 38 91 6. Education ............................................... ............. 9 4 13 7. Engineering . . . . . . . . . 9 16 25 8. Geology . . . . . . . . . ............. 24 16 40 9. Medical Sciences . . . . . 10 6 16 10, Psychology . . . . . ............. 28 13 41 11. Science Teachers ............................. . . 14 1 15 12. Statistics . . . ............. 18 2 20 No Section Preference ..... . . . 12 26 38 Total ......... .... . . ....306 162 468 188 The Virginia Journal of Science 1 September MINUTES OF THE MEETING OF THE COUNCIL, CHARLOTTESVILLE, MARCH 13, 1955 A meeting of the Council of the Virginia Academy of Science was held in the Conference Room, Alderman Library, University of Virginia. March 13, 1955. President 1. G. Foster called the meeting to order at 2:00 P.M. Pres¬ ent were: Lloyd C. Bird, James W. Cole, Byron W. Cooper, President- Elect Walter S. Flory, Jr., Allan T. Gwathmey, Ed Harlow, Boyd Harsh- barger, William Hinton, Horton H. Hobbs, Sidney S. Negus, and Foley F. Smith. Also present were George W. Jeffers, Ladley Husted, and J. E. Iken- berry, Chairman of the Local Committee on Arrangements, for the Madi¬ son College meeting, and William B. Wartman, Jr. As the first item of business, Mr. Ikenberry discussed the meeting and housing arrangements, and advised the Council that everything possible was being done to make the Harrisonburg meeting a successful one. President Foster told the Council that the guest speaker for the May meeting would be Mr. Jerome Namias, Chief, Extended Forecast Sec¬ tion U. S. Weather Bureau. It was announced that Mrs. B. G. Heatwole was working on the project of following up the careers of former State Science Talent Search winners through the Academic Department of the University of Virginia, and not directly as an Academy project. The Secretary informed the Council that the AAAS Council at the Berke¬ ley, California meeting had approved the recommendations of the Policy Committee to liberalize the use of the AAAS research grant made to the State Academies on the basis of fifty cents per Academy member who is also a member of the AAAS. This previously could be used only for research projects by senior members of the Academy, approved by the Research Committee; and now can be used for an individual project by a high school science student provided such project is approved by the Academy Research Committee; however, cannot be used for Science Fairs or Science Club activities. Stanley Williams reported to the Council for the Place of Meeting Com¬ mittee, and recommended that the 1956 meeting of the Academy be held at the Hotel Roanoke, Roanoke, and that the 1957 meeting be held in Richmond, in conjunction with Jamstown-Williamsburg-Yorktown Celebra¬ tion, which will take place in 1957. Edward Harlow, Chairman of the Long-Range Planning Committee, reported on the problem of Secondary School Science Education. After considerable discussion entered into by all members present, it was decided the Academy should offer its services towards improving Science Teaching in the State, by asking for a joint conference with the State Board of Edu¬ cation. It was felt that the Academy should take the initiative in asking for this Conference and suggest it be made the type of meeting which 1955] Proceedings 1954-1955 189 would best focus attention on science education in Virginia. Many phases were discussed; such as, what such a meeting would accomplish; sum¬ mer jobs for teachers offered by industries; how many would be available for such jobs, and other problems offered by such a program. The Presi¬ dent appointed James W. Cole, Chairman of a committee to study this problem, and report to the May meeting of the Council. It was moved, seconded and passed that Dr. Cole's statement made in his report of the Scientific Manpower Sub-Committee of the Long Range Planning Com¬ mittee be adopted as the feeling of the Council in this matter. This state¬ ment is as follows: "The Virginia Academy of Science occupies a highly important posi¬ tion in the Commonwealth of Virginia, and its influence extends through¬ out the Nation. This Association has never before been in a position where the need is so great for widely circulated statements of its policy on scien¬ tific conditions. It not only must clearly define its policy, but it must also suggest ways in which it can take positive action. In an attempt at summary statements might be: The Virginia Academy of Science expects to undertake new activities in Virginia to appraise the condition of science education, to encourage science education of high quality, and to insure an adequate supply of competent Science Teachers. At the outset it might establish a new committee to gather information on science education, to define the problems, to outline the Academy’s area of responsibility, and to suggest ways of meeting the problems. Such a meeting should make every effort to determine what other interested groups in the State are doing, and to cooperate with such groups where appro¬ priate.” The resignation of Boyd Harshbarger as Editor-in-Chief of the Virginia Journal of Science was accepted with deep and sincere regret by the Council. Dr. Harshbarger served in this capacity for five years since the start of the new series. In fact, he was primarily responsible for the rebirth of the Journal and because of his efforts and activities, the Academy has much to be proud of, both from the financial status of the Journal and the quality of the papers that have been published. Changes in the By-Laws concerning the Journal were approved by Coun¬ cil for recommendation to the Academy Conference in May. These changes were published on page 57, in the January issue of the Journal, Vol. 6, No. 1. President Poster called for a meeting of the Council on Thursday, May 12, 1955, at 2:00 P.M. at Madison College; the meeting room to be an¬ nounced later. There being no further business the meeting adjourned at 4:00 P. M. Foley F. Smith, Secretary 190 The Virginia Journal of Science [September MINUTES OF THE COUNCIL MEETING, MAY 12, 1955 A meeting of the Council of the Virginia Academy of Science was held in Room 103, Burruss Science Hall, Madison College, Harrisonburg, at 2:15 P.M. Present were: Lloyd C. Bird, William M. Hinton, Horton H. Hobbs, Jr., Boyd Harshbarger, Edward S. Harlow, L. W. Jarman, James W. Cole, Ladley Husted, Stanley B. Williams, Sidney S. Negus, Mrs. B. G. Heat- wole, President-Elect Walter S, Flory, Jr., Marcellus Stow, and Foley F. Smith; President Irving S. Foster presided. Minutes of the last meeting were read and approved. Kenneth Hyde, Associate Manager of the Hotel Roanoke, was present to invite the Academy to hold its 1956 meeting at the Hotel Roanoke, Roanoke; but it was found that due to conflicting dates, the hotel could not accommodate both the Senior and Junior Academies at a time suitable to the Academy. The place of meeting for 1956 was tabled until the Saturday meeting of the Council. Marcellus Stow reported for the Committee for cooperating with the Jamestown Exposition for 1957 consisting of Horton Hobbs, and William Guy. It was the thought of Council that the Committee be continued to carry out suggestions made, concerning exhibits at the Exposition; revi¬ sion and sale of the Academy Monograph, “The James River Basin — Past, Present and Future”, and any special program to be held at the 1957 meeting. Edward Harlow reported for Lloyd C. Bird, Chairman of the Finance Committee, and suggestions were made concerning increasing senior dues to four or five dollars with the elimination of the contributing membership classification. It was suggested that the incoming President appoint a com¬ mittee of three to bring in suggestions to the Finance Committee, in regards to increasing the revenue of the Academy; this committee to report to the President at the 1956 meeting. This will include a survey of the present membership. This was moved, seconded and passed. It was moved, seconded, and passed that the report and budget of the Finance Committee be accepted for recommendation to the Academy Con¬ ference. Boyd Harshbarger briefly extracted the report of the Virginia Journal of Science for his five year term as Editor-in -Chief. This report will be included in the Proceedings. There was discussion concerning appoint¬ ment of an Associate Editor. This appointment was tabled until the meet¬ ing of the Council Saturday. It was moved, seconded, and passed that the Resolution Committee be authorized to draw suitable resolutions commending Professor Harshbarger for his five years of stewardship as Editor-in-Chief of the Journal. It was moved, seconded, and passed, that the office of Assistant Secre¬ tary be created, but as an elected office, it would require a slight change 1955] Proceedings 1954-1,955 191 in the Academy Constitution, and this was also referred to the Saturday meeting of the Council. James Cole reported as Chairman of a special committee on the Study of Science Education in Secondary Schools. It was moved^ seconded, and passed that the report be accepted for recommendation to the Conference. This report is contained in the Proceedings. There being no further business President Foster adjourned the meeting at 4:15 P.M. Foley F. Smith, Secretary MINUTES OF THE ACADEMY CONFERENCE, MAY 12, 1955 The Academy Conference was held in the Auditorium of Wilson Hall, Madison College, Harrisonburg, May 12, 1955, A quorum of more than forty members being present, the meeting was called to order at 9:15 P.M. by President Foster. Recommendation of the Council concerning changes in By-Laws as printed on page 57, Vol. 6, No, 1, of the Virginia Journal of Science, was moved, seconded, and passed. The report of the special study committee on Secondary Science Edu¬ cation was read and accepted by the Conference after considerable dis¬ cussion, covering various phrases of the problem ranging from monetary considerations to extra curricula school duties demanded of all teachers. Reports of the various standing committees of the Academy were then called for and follow this report. A letter was read inviting the Virginia Academy of Science to visit the Nature Trail, off route 250, west of Staunton, on the road to Monterey. There being no further business, the Conference adjourned at 10:40 P.M. Foley F. Smith, Secretary 192 The Virginia Journal of Science [September MINUTES OP THE ACADEMY MEETING, MAY 13, 1955 The meeting was called to order in the Auditorium, Wilson Hall, Madi¬ son College, Harrisonburg, at 7:45 P.M. President Foster recognized Dr. Raymond Taylor, Assistant Executive Secretary of the American Association for the Advancement of Science. Dr. Taylor extended greetings from the A A AS to the Academy on its Thirty- third Annual Meeting, and spoke graciously of the value of the Virginia Academy of Science among the forty-two State Academies, and its place in the Academy Conference held at the Annual AAAS Meeting. He spoke of the 1955 meeting of the Association, which will be held in Atlanta December 26-31, the preliminary program of which will be in the June issue of “Scientific Monthly” and the May 27 issue of “Science.” Colonel R. C. Weaver reported for the Resolutions Committee, and it was moved, seconded, and passed that the Resolutions be accepted to be printed in the Proceedings. The Sponsor scholarship award was announced. The University of Vir¬ ginia scholarship at the Mountain Lake Biology Station, was awarded to Miss Samuella Crimm, Broadway High School, Broadway. The William and Mary Scholarship in Chemistry was awarded to Robert T. Horn, of Mount Vernon High School, Alexandria. Paul Patterson reported for the Nominating Committee, and proposed the following slate, which was unanimously elected for the coming year: President Walter S. Flory, Jr., Vice Director of the Blandy Experiment Farm, Boyce President-Elect Edward S. Harlow, American Tobacco Com¬ pany Research Laboratory, Richmond Foley F. Smith, Seeretary-Treasurer, Virginia A. B. C. Board, Richmond Mrs. B. G. Heatwole, Staunton, was elected to the Council for a period of five years succeeding L. W. Jarman, whose term expired. Chalmers L. Gemmill reported for the Research Committee, and an¬ nounced that Dr. Albert W. Lutz, Jr., Department of Chemistry, William and Mary College, was awarded the J. Shelton Horsley award for 1955 for his paper with E. B. Reid, on “Clovene and B-Caryophyllene Alcohol.” Unfortunately, Dr. Lutz was absent, so the check and certificate of award will be presented to him later. Dr. Lionel Weiss received honrable mention for his paper presented before the Statistics Section, “Sequential Procedures that Control the Indi¬ vidual Probabilities of Coming to the Various Decisions.” President Foster introduced Dr. G. Tyler Miller, President of Madison College, who welcomed the Academy on behalf of the College and com- 1955] Proceedings 1954-1955 193 mended the action of Dr. James W. Cole’s Committee on Science Educa¬ tion for its interest in improving Science teaching. He indicated that Madison College was deeply concerned, since its primary function was to prepare students for teaching. President Foster then gave formal recognition to Boyd Harshbarger, the retiring Editor-in-Chief, of the Virginia Journal of Science, and specifically noted the excellent financial condition of the Journal, having assets of approximately five thousand dollars. The business session was adjourned, and the guest speaker of the even¬ ing, Jerome Namias, Chief of the Extended Forecast Section, U. S. Weather Bureau, was introduced. Mr. Namias gave a very interesting and enter¬ taining talk on long range weather forecasting all over the world; and his address was followed by a very lively question period, after which the meeting adjourned. Foley F. Smith, Secretary 194 The Virginia Journal of Science [September THE MINUTES OF THE COUNCIL MEETING, MAY 14, 1955 A meeting of the Council of the Virginia Academy of Science was held in Room 103, Burruss Science Hall, Madison College, Harrisonburg. Pres¬ ident Walter S. Flory, Jr. called the meeting to order at 10:00 A.M. Present were: William N. Hinton, Stanley S. Williams, Allan T. Gwathmey, Sid¬ ney S. Negus, Edward S. Harlow, Irving G. Foster, and Foley F. Smith. Horton H. Hobbs, Jr., of the Department of Biology, University of Virginia, was unanimously elected Editor of the Virginia Journal of Sci¬ ence. B. F. D. Runic, also of the University of Virginia, was elected Managing Editor, both terms to be for five years. It was moved, second¬ ed, and passed that Mary E. Humphreys, Mary Baldwin College, Staun¬ ton, be commended by the Council for her able work as Associate Techni¬ cal Editor of the Journal during the past five years. Dr. Humphreys with Richard W. Irby, Jr. were re-appointed to the staff of the Journal. It was suggested that the Finance Committee consider surplus funds of the Journal in view of possibly limiting the surplus to be held by the Journal from year to year. It was decided that since Hotel Roanoke, Roanoke, could not accom¬ modate the Academy in May 1956, an invitation extended by the Rich¬ mond Area University Center, through its Administrator, Colonel Herbert W. K. Fitzroy, be accepted. Sidney Negus, Stanley B. Williams, and L. W. Webb, Jr. were appointed a committee to recommend a meeting place in the Jamestown area for 1957. The President was authorized to appoint a committee as recommended in Dr. James W. Cole’s report on Secondary Science Education to continue this most important study. Lynn D. Abbott, Jr., Medical College of Virginia, was appointed Chair¬ man of the Long Range Planning Committee to succeed Edward S. Har¬ low, President-Elect. It was moved, seconded and passed that a special Committee be ap¬ pointed by the President to investigate further sources of revenue for the Academy; this Committee to work with the Finance Committee in mak¬ ing a study of present revenues and to report at the next annual meet¬ ing of the Academy. It was moved, seconded, and passed that Article 5 of the Constitution titled “Officers” be changed to include the office of Assistant Secretary. This article now reads, “the officers of this organization shall consist of the President, President-Elect, and Secretary-Treasurer”. This will be changed to read, “the officers of this organization shall consist of the President, President-Elect, Secretary-Treasurer, and Assistant Secretary.” The publication of this change in the Virginia Journal of Science will con¬ stitute proper notice to the membership for consideration at the next Acad¬ emy Conference. It was decided that an Awards Committee to consider eligibility for 1955] Proceedings 1954-1955 195 Honorary membership in the Academy and other similar matters be insti¬ tuted. Sidney Negus suggested that the senior scientists be specifically invited to view the Junior Academy exhibits at the Annual meeting and to dis¬ cuss with the students their projects and exhibits. He further suggested that the time now allotted on the Senior program for Junior activities be eliminated. It was moved, seconded, and passed that Honorable Mention be given for the J. Shelton Horsley award, at the discretion of the Research Com¬ mittee, and that the sum of fifty dollars be given to the author of the paper receiving such Honorable Mention. Consideration was given the matter of changing the name of the present Committee on Resource-Use Education to the Committee on Conservation, but it was decided that this matter would be left to this committee for its decision. It was recommended that the section secretaries make an effort to in¬ crease the number of papers on their programs, so that section meetings would continue through Saturday morning wherever feasible. It was also suggested that effort be made to develop more interest in the Academy Conference and that a formal program at this meeting might achieve this objective. It was moved, seconded, and passed unanimously that the official thanks and appreciation be given Past-President Irving G. Foster for his work for the Academy during his year as President. There being no further business, President Flory adjourned the meet¬ ing at 11:50 A.M. Foley F. Smith, Secretary 196 The Virginia Journal of Science [September REPORT OF THE SECRETARY-TREASURER This, the thirty-third meeting of the Virginia Academy of Science, rep¬ resents the second new fiscal or calendar year, but is the first full calen¬ dar year, representing the business of the Academy from December 31, 1954, to January 1, 1955. This change has increased the efficiency of all business affairs of the Academy. The audit and report of the Finance Committee follows, and will also present the budget for 1955. The various sections of the Academy for this year availed themselves of the addressograph service by which individual sections can have en¬ velopes and membership lists made for their mailing at minimum expense and trouble. American Association for the Advancement of Science Meeting Your secretary represented the Academy at two Council meetings of the A A AS at the University of California, Berkeley, December 27 and 30, 1954. This, the 121st meeting of the Association, was the largest diversi¬ fied scientific meeting ever held on the Pacific Coast, and the first time in many years that the Association has had a full meeting on the campus of a University. Elected to the office of President-Elect of the Association was Paul B. Sears to succeed Ceorge W. Beadle, Professor of Biology, California Insti¬ tute of Technology, the incoming President. The Council elected Chaun- cey D. Leake, educator and author; and Margaret Mead, anthropologist, for four year terms on the Board of Directors. The Academy Conference The Conference of State Academies of Science is held in conjunction with the AAAS meeting. The Virginia Academy was represented at the Conference on December 30, 1954, by the Secretary and Mrs. B. G. Heat- wole. Wayne Taylor, of the Texas Academy of Science, retiring President, acted as presiding officer for all sessions of the Conference in the absence of President-Elect Leland Taylor, of the Kentucky Academy. Mrs. Heatwole, as Chairman of the Committee, presented a most excel¬ lent and comprehensive report to the Conference on the activities and operation of the Junior Academies throughout the country. The Virginia Academy was further honored by the election of Mrs. Heatwole as Seere- tary of the Conferenee for the coming year. Your Secretary was a member of the Committee on Financial Policies and Practices of the Academies, and in the absence of Chairman Percival Robertson, of Principea College, read the report of this committee. Dr. Clinton L. Baker, of the Tennessee Academy reported on the Study of Constitution and By-Laws of thirty-five State Academies. Miss Margaret Patterson of Science Service gave a report on the history and affairs of the National Westinghouse Science Talent Search. 1955] Proceedings 1954-1955 197 Business Membership Due to personal activities of Past-President Lloyd C. Bird, the Busi¬ ness Memberships of the Academy have been increased by six in addition to those mentioned last year. All of these but one have continued their membership giving a total at this time of twelve such memberships. The new members in this classification are as follows: Reynolds Metal Company, Richmond, Virginia. Norfolk and Western Railroad, Roanoke, Virginia. Philip Morris, Company, Ltd., Richmond, Virginia, Esso Standard Oil Company, Richmond, Virginia. Virginia-Carolina Chemical Company, Richmond, Virginia. C. D. Flowers School Equipment Company, Richmond, Virginia. Gifts were also received from Morton G. Thalhimer, and Mrs. Alfred duPont, in addition to the annual gift of Mr. C. M. Goethe, of California, who for many years has contributed funds for the use of the Research Committee. Foley F. Smith, Secretary 198 The Virginia Journal of Science [September FINANCIAL STATEMENT VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE CONSOLIDATED FUND BALANCE SHEET DECEMBER 31, 1954 EXHIBIT A ASSETS General Fund: Cash in Bank (Exhibit "‘B”) . $ 5,318.66 Investment (At Cost): Preferred Stocks (Market Value $1,801.00) . . . 2,445.95 Total General Fund . Research Fund: Cash in Bank (Exhibit “C”) . $ 850.88 Due from Trust Agent - Special Invest¬ ment Account (Temporary Investment).. 2,000.00 Total Research Fund . . . . Trust Eund Principal Account: (Note I) Cash on Deposit (Exhibit “D”) . $ 25.96 Investments (At Cost): United States Savings Bonds, Series “E”, “G” and “K” . $ 7,337.00 Stock Securities (Market Value $11,672.70) . 9,489.66 16,826.66 Total Trust Fund Principal Account . . Trust Eund Principal — Investment Income Account: Cash on Deposit (Exhibit “E”) . . . . . $ 385.81 Total Trust Fund Principal — Investment Income Account . . . . . Trust Agency Special Account: (Note I) Cash on Deposit (Exhibit “H”) . . . $ 22.94 Investments (At Cost): United States Savings Bonds, Series “J” - $ 1,584.00 Stock Securities (Market Value $2,255.00 . 1,991.80 3,575.80 $ 7,764.61 2,850.88 16,852.62 385.81 Total Trust Fund Special Account 3,598.74 1955] Proceedings 1954-1955 199 Trust Fund Special Account — Investment Income Account: Cash on Deposit (Exhibit ‘T”) . . . $ 66.00 Total Trust Fund Special Account — Investment Income Account . . . 66.00 $31,518.66 LIABILITIES AND FUND SURPLUS General Fund: Advance payment on Dues . $ 1,549.00 Less Virginia Journal Sub¬ scriptions . . . . 857.75 $ 691.25 Due to the Virginia Journal of Science . . 857.75 Fund Balance . . . 6,215.61 Total General Fund . . . . . $ 7,764.61 Research Fund: Fund Balance . . . . . . . . . . $ 2,850.88 Total Research Fund . . . . . 2,850.88 Trust Fund Principal Account; Fund Balance — January I, 1954 . . . . . $15,608.14 Add — Cost of stock transferred from Trust Fund Accumulated Income Account . . . . . . . . 1,790.85 $17,398.99 Less — Loss on sale of stock . . . . . . 546.37 Fund Balance — December 31, 1954 . . . $16,852.62 Total Trust Fund Principal Account . 16,852.62 Trust Fund Princip.vl— Investment Income Account: Fund Balance — January 1, 1954 . . $ 346.25 Add — Excess of Current Year’s income over income distribution (Exhibit “E”) . 39.56 Fund Balance — ^December 31, 1954 . . . . . $ 385.81 Total Trust Fund Principal — - Investment Income Account 385.81 200 The Virginia Journal of Science [September Trust Agency Special Account: Due to Research Fund . $ 2,000.00 Less excess of book value of stock rights sold over. cash received . 1.26 $ 1,998.74 Due to James River Project . 1,600.00 Total Trust Fund Special Account . 3,598.74 Trust Fund Special Account — Investment Income Account: Due to Research Fund (dividends on stock investment) . $ 66.00 Total Trust Fund Special Account — Investment Income Account . . 66.00 $31,518.66 NOTE 1 : Trust Fund Account figures were taken from Trust Agent’s report, First and Merchants National Bank of Richmond, and exclusive of cash, were not verified in any manner. GENERAL FUND STATEMENT OF CASH RECEIPTS AND DISBURSEMENTS FOR THE YEAR ENDED DECEMBER 31, 1954 EXHIBIT “B” Balance on Deposit — January 1, 1954 . . . $ 2,717.26 Receipts: Revenue: Dues : Regular Members . $ 1,819.00 Contributing MembeTs . 285.00 Sustaining Members . 170.00 Collegiate Members . 66.00 Business Members . . . 1,000.00 Delinquent Dues for Prior ^ Years Collected . 1,539.00 $ 4,879.00 Gifts, Grants and Bequests — Virginia Junior Academy of Science . . . . . 210.00 Non-Revenue: Advance Payment of Dues . $ 1,549.00 Collections for May 1954 Meeting: Sales of Booth Space $345.00 Registration Fees . 245.50 $590.50 1955] Proceedings 1954-1955 Meeting Expenses Paid 164.44 426.06 201 Dividends from Stock Investment 105.40 Miscellaneous . 4.00 James River Project— For Deposit in Special Account . 1,600.00 3,684.46 Total Receipts . . 8,773.46 $11,490.72 Disbursements: American Association for Advancement of Science Meeting . . . . . . . $ 488.86 Junior Academy of Science . . . . . . . 700.55 Miscellaneous and General Expenses (Schedule M”) . . . . . . 275.10 Postage and Express . . . . . . . . . . . 91.14 Printing . . . - . 187.36 Science Talent Search . 629.36 Stationery Supplies and Stenographic Service 118.62 The Virginia Journal of Science . 2,011.07 Traveling Expenses . 10.00 Dr. E. C. L. Miller Award . . . 50.00 Major Catesby Jones Award . . . 10.00 James River Project — Deposit in Special Trust Agency Account . . . . . . . . 1,600.00 Total Disbursements . . . 6,172.06 Balance— December 31, 1954 . $ 5,318.66 Consisting of: Cash on Deposit First and Merchants National Bank of Richmond— Checking Account . $ 5,318.66 RESEARCH FUND STATEMENT OF CASH RECEIPTS AND DISBURSEMENTS FOR THE YEAR ENDED DECEMBER 31, 1954 EXHIBIT “C” Balance on Deposit — January 1, 1954 . $ 214.86 Receipts: Revenue: Income from Trust Investments . $ 736.02 Gifts, Grants and Bequests . . . . . 450.00 Total Receipts . . . . . . . 1,186.02 1 1,400.88 202 The Virginia Journal of Science [September Disbursements : Grant-in-Aid Awards . . . . . . . . . . $ 550.00 Total Disbursements . . . . 550.00 Balance on Deposit — December 31, 1954 (Exhibit '‘A”) . $ 850.88 Consisting of: Cash on Deposit First and Merchants National Bank of Richmond - Checking Account . . . $ 850.88 TRUST FUND PRINCIPAL ACCOUNT-PRINCIPAL CASH ACCOUNT STATEMENT OF CASH RECEIPTS AND DISBURSEMENTS P’OR THE YEAR ENDED DECEMBER 31, 1954 EXHIBIT “D” Balance — January 1, 1954 . . . . . . . . $ 440.85 Receipts: Proceeds from United States Savings Bonds maturing in January 1954 . $ 1,000.00 Proceeds from payment on principal of Real Estate First Deed of Trust Note . . 1,400.00 Proceeds from sale of 10 shares of Servel Incorporated Preferred Stock . . 538.98 Total Receipts . 2,938.98 $ 3,379.83 Disbursements: Purchase of United States Savings Bonds, Series “K” . $ 2,000.00 Purchase of 15 shares of Owens-Illinois Glass Company Common Stock . . . 1,353.87 Total Disbursements . 3,353.87 Balance — December 31, 1954 . . . . $ 25.96 Consisting of: Cash on Deposit with Depositary Bank of the Trust Agent, First and Merchants National Bank of Richmond . . . . . . . $ 25.96 1955] Proceedings 1954-1955 203 TRUST FUND PRINCIPAL ACCOUNT — INVESTMENT INCOME CASH ACCOUNT STATEMENT OF CASH RECEIPTS AND DIS¬ BURSEMENTS FOR THE YEAR ENDED DECEMBER 31, 1954 EXHIBIT “E” Balance — January 1, 1954 . . . . $ 346.25 Receipts: Dividends on Stock Investment . . . . . . $ 504.76 Interest on United States Savings Bonds . 158.80 Interest on Real Estate First Deed of Trust Note . . . . . 52.50 Transferred from Trust Fund Accumulated Income Account — Investment Income Cash Account . . . . . . . . . . . 38.38 Total Receipts . . . 754.44 $ 1,100.69 Disbursements : Remittance to Virginia Academy of Science Research Fund . . . . . $ 664.88 Agent’s Commission for Year Ended March 31, 1954 . . . . . . . 50.00 Total Disbursements . 714.88 Balance— December 31, 1954 (Exhibit “A”) . $ 385.81 Consisting of: Cash on Deposit with Depositary Bank of the Trust Agent, First and Merchants National Bank of Richmond . . . $ 385.81 TRUST FUND ACCUMULATED INCOME ACCOUNT — PRINCIPAL CASH ACCOUNT STATEMENT OF CASH RECEIPTS AND DIS¬ BURSEMENTS FOR THE YEAR ENDED DECEMBER 31, 1954 EXHIBIT “F” Balance — January 1, 1954 . . . . . . . $ (63) Receipts: Transfer of cash to cover deficit occasioned by purchase of stock which had been transferred to the Trust Agency Special Account . . . . . . . . 63 Balance- — December 31, 1954 . . . . . . . . . . . . . $ 0 204 The Virginia Journal of Science [September TRUST FUND ACCUMULATED INCOME ACCOUNT-INVESTMENT INCOME CASH ACCOUNT STATEMENT OF CASH RECEIPTS AND DISBURSEMENTS FOR THE YEAR ENDED DECEMBER 31, 1954 EXHIBIT “G” Balance — January 1, 1954 . . . . . . . . . . . $ 32.76 Receipts: Dividends on Stock Investments . 76.76 $ 109.52 Disbursements : Remittance to Virginia Academy of Science — Research Fund . $ 71.14 Transferred to the Trust Fund Principal Account — ^Investment Income Cash Account closing this account . . . . . 38.38 Total Disbursements . 109.52 Balance — December 31, 1954 . . . $ 0 TRUST ACENCY SPECIAL ACCOUNT-PRINCIPAL CASH ACCOUNT STATEMENT OF CASH RECEIPTS AND DISBURSEMENTS FOR THE YEAR ENDED DECEMBER 31, 1954 EXHIBIT “H’^ Account Opened July 20, 1954 Receipts: James River Project Funds . $ 1,600.00 Sale of Stock Rights . 7.57 Total Receipts . . . . . . . $ 1,607.57 Disbursements : Transferred to Trust Fund Accumulated Income Account to cover deficit occas¬ ioned by purchase of stock later trans¬ ferred to Trust Agency Special Account $ 63 Purchase of United States Savings Bonds Series “J” . . . . . . . 1,584.00 Total Disbursements . . . 1,584.63 $ 22.94 Balance — December 31, 1954 (Exhibit “A”) 1955] Proceedings 1954-1955 205 Consisting of: Cash on Deposit with Depositary Bank of the Trust AgeTit, First and Merchants National Bank of Richmond . . . . . . . . . $ 22.94 TRUST AGENCY SPECIAL ACCOUNT — INCOME CASH ACCOUNT STATEMENT OF CASH RECEIPTS AND DISBURSEMENTS FOR THE YEAR ENDED DECEMBER 31, 1954 EXHIBIT ‘T” Agcount Opened July 20, 1954 Receipts: Dividends on Stock Investments . . . $ 66.00 Disbursements . . . None Balance — December 31, 1954 (Exhibit “A”) . . . . $ 66.00 Consisting of: Cash on Deposit with Depositary Bank of the Trust Agent, First and Merchants National Bank of Richmond . . . . . . . $ 66.00 GENERAL FUND SCHEDULE OF MISCELLANEOUS AND GENERAL EXPENSES FOR THE YEAR ENDED DECEMBER 31, 1954 SCHEDULE ‘T” Auditing and Tax Service . Virginia Corporation Registration Fee Insurance — Fidelity Bond . Post Ofice Box Rental . Flowers — Dr. E. C. L. Miller . $ 200.00 5.00 12.50 30.00 27.60 $ 275.10 206 The Virginia Journal of Science [September REPORT OF THE LONG RANGE PLANNING COMMITTEE One scheduled meeting of the Long Range Planning Committee was held at Richmond on October 2. Several meetings of smaller groups of the committee were held during the year* The following projects were considered: 1) Science Education and Scientific Manpower; 2) The Vir¬ ginia Science Talent Search; 3) Academy Participation in the 1957 James¬ town Exposition; 4) Salaried Employees of the Academy. As a result of recommendations made by the Long Range Planning Com¬ mittee the Council has: 1. Appointed a Special Study Committee on Science Education with Dr, James Cole as chairman. It is understood that this committee has met and will report to the council at this meeting. 2. Appointed a committee to consider requesting funds from the Na¬ tional Science Foundation or other appropriate organization to finance a study of the results of the Virginia Science Talent Search. 3. Appointed a committee to confer with the Jamestown Exposition Commission about the possibility of Academy participation in the Exposition. This may include making available a special exposition issue of The James River Monograph at a nominal price for all visi¬ tors, if agreeable with the commission. The Long Range Planning Committee has appointed a sub-committee^ with Dr. Allen Gwathmey as chaiiman, to study the practicality of salaried employees to aid in carrying out the business of the Academy. This com¬ mittee will report the results of their study at some future date. The chairman wishes to take this opportunity to thank the membership of the committee for their enthusiastic cooperation. E. S. Harlow, Chairman 1955] Proceedings 1954-1955 207 REPORT OF RESEARCH COMMITTEE Grants. - During the past year, the following grants have been made: R. S. Young — Paleontology in Northern Shenandoah Valley of Virginia, Virginia Division of Geology, Charlottes¬ ville, Virginia . . . . . . . . $200.00 R. S. Dunning — Purchase of ammeter. 242 Carolina Ave,, Norfolk 2, Virginia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.00 J. T. Wood - Publication of “Distribution of Poisonous Snakes in Virgina”, University Station, Charlottesville, Virginia... 50.00 A. W. Jeffreys — Flicker Frequency of Visual Preception and the Alpha Index of the Electroencephalogram. Western State Hospital, Staunton, Virginia . . . 478.00 C. C. Fisher — Study of Uranium Ores, Division of Geology, Charlottesville, Virginia . 100.00 $843.00 /. Shelton Horsley Research Award. - The J. Shelton Horsley Award was given to Dr. A. Lutz, College of William and Mary, for his paper (with E. B. Reid) on “Cloveme and B-Caryophyllene Alcohol.” Honorable Mention was giv¬ en to Dr. L. Weiss of the Department of Economics, University of Virginia, for his paper on “Sequential Pro¬ cedures that Control the Individual Probabilities of Com¬ ing to the Various Decisions.” . . . $100.00 Financial Report. - Total income for Research from May 1954 until May 1955 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $1,386.69 Expenditures: Research Grants and J. Shelton Horsley Research Award... 943.00 Balance . . . . . $443.69 Chalmers L. Gemmill 208 The Virginia Journal of Science [September REPORT OF FINANCE COMMITTEE The Finance Committee met April 4, 1955. The report of the auditor was approved. The budget that was proposed by the Committee is attached. This bud¬ get is based on the experience of the past, both as to income and expendi¬ tures. It will be noted that provision has been made for the estimated expenses of the Junior Academy and Science Talent Search, and also the cost of the Virginia Journal of Science. BUDGET VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE ESTIMATED INCOME AND EXPENDITURES — 1955-56 Estimated Income Dues Regular Members . 623 @ $3.00 $1,869.00 Contributing . 57 @ 5.00 285.00 Sustaining . 25 @ 10.00 250.00 Collegiate . 29 @ 2.00 58.00 Business . 7 @ 100.00 700.00 $3162.00 Gifts The American Tobacco Co. 1 @ 100.00 100.00 Mrs. duPont . 1 @ 100.00 100.00 Exhibit Fees Harrisonburg Meeting 10 booths @ 30.00 300.00 $300.00 Stock Dividends Received . 53.00 $ 53.00 $3715.00 Estimated Additional Income Accounts Receivable Dues (Delinquent) Regular . . . . . . 107 @ $3.00 $321.00 Collegiate . 16 @ 2.00 32.00 $353.00 Registration Fees Harrisonburg Meeting . 400 @ 0.50 $200.00 $200.00 Stock Dividends Expected . . . . . . $ 52.00 $ 52.00 Total . . . . . .... $605.00 Total Expected Income . . . $420.00 1955] Proceedings 1954-1955 209 Estimated Expenditures — - 1955-56 AAAS Meeting . . . . . $ 200.00 ECL Miller Award . . . . . . . 50.00 Jr. Academy and Science Talent Search . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,375.00 Annual Meeting Expenses . . . . . . . . . . 200.00 Audit and Tax Services . . . . . . . . . . . 225.00 Premium on Fidelity Bond . . . . . . . . . . . 12.50 Stenographic Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225.00 Postage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125.00 Subscriptions to Jour, for Life and Honorary Members . . 40.00 Printing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200.00 Addressograph Services . . 125.00 Contingencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200.00 Virginia Journal of Science . . . . . . 2,050.00 Total Expected Expenditures . . . $5,027.50 Expected Income . $4,320.00 Expected Deficit . . . . . . . . .$ 747.50 Lloyd C. Bird, Chairman 210 The Virginia Journal of Science I September REPORT OF THE VIRGINIA JUNIOR ACADEMY OF SCIENCE COMMITTEE Junior Officers Jack Chaffin, President Adrienne Nettles, President-Elect Committee Meetings October 16, 1954 . Thomas Jefferson Inn ..... Charlottesville February 19, 1955 . . Thomas Jefferson Inn . Charlottesville May 12, 1955 . Madison College ....... Harrisonburg The Virginia Junior Academy of Science, organized to promote and main¬ tain interest in science among secondary school students, has had during 1954-55 an individual membership of 3221, representing 101 affiliated science clubs. Sixty-two more clubs are affiliated with Junior Academy through affiliation with Science Clubs of America. The clubs represent schools from all parts of the State. The following activities have been carried out during the year: Mimeographed letters concerning activities were mailed three times dur¬ ing the year to all public and private high schools in the State. The JUNIOR SCIENCE BULLETIN was issued three times during the year and mailed to every science teacher in the State whose mailing ad¬ dress could be obtained. The publication of the BULLETIN was made possible by a contribution of $200 by the American Tobacco Research Laboratory. The printing was done by the Newport News High School print shop under the direction of Miss Susie V. Floyd. A traveling library of kodachrome slides showing science projects dis¬ played at the 1953-54 meeting of VJAS was circulated among the clubs. Grants were made, to assist in project work, from research funds made available to the Virginia Academy of Science by the American Associa¬ tion for the Advancement of Science. Summer scholarships of $200 each were again made available by the University of Virginia and the College of William and Mary as awards to two outstanding Teacher-Sponsors, Five Junior Science Days were sponsored by five colleges in coopera¬ tion with the Junior Academy. Excellent scientific programs and tours were offered the student and teacher visitors to the colleges. A total of 251 student exhibits were on display at the Junior Science Days (an inerease of 115 over the previous year); 65 individual and 8 club exhibits were qualified for entry at the May meeting of the Virginia Junior Academy of Science. Annual Meeting The annual meeting of the Junior Academy was held at Madison Col¬ lege on May 12 and 13. Sixty individual and eight club displays were exhibited. 1955] Proceedings 1954-1955 211 Senior scientists advised students on their scientific careers, and discuss¬ ed their projects with them. Selected students had senior scientists as “buddies” for a part of the day on May 13. (Virginia’s Junior-Senior “Buddy Program” has received favorable comments nationally by such scientific organizations as the American Chemical Society and the Scien¬ tific Manpower Commission. The students, themselves, feel that it is a most valuable contribution of the Virginia Academy of Science, and are deeply grateful for the interest of members of the Academy in their scien¬ tific endeavors.) A guest speaker. Dr. E. D. Crittenden, Director of Research, the Nitro¬ gen Division of Allied Chemical and Dye Corporation, gave a verv inspira¬ tional talk on the subject: THE UNFOLDINC WORLD. The following awards were made by the Virginia Junior Academy of Science: E. C. L. Miller Award, for club having the most outstanding program of activities. Advanced Science Club, Mt. Vernon High School, Alexandria R. H. Horn, Sponsor Major Catesby Jones Award, for most outstanding piece of research, Mathew Winston, Booker T. Washington High School, Norfolk Awards for Individual Exhibits First Place — Fred Barloga, Mt. Vernon High School, Alexandria Project — Marine Model Testing Chamber Second Place — Bob Showalter, Broadway High School, Broadway Project — Chick Embryology Third Place — ^William Conde, Huntington High School, Newport News Project — Electronic Timing Circuits Honorable Mentions — Suzanne Wright, Lane High School, Charlot¬ tesville Project — Study of a Lake Joanna Hackman, Radford High School Project — A Nutritional Study of Algae Awards for Club Exhibits First Place — Newport News High School, Newport News. Miss Susie V. Floyd, Sponsor Project — Study of the Bee Second Place — Mt, Vernon Advanced Science Club, Alexandria. R. H. Horn, Sponsor Third Place — Norview High School, Norfolk. Frank Kizer, Sponsor Project — Facets of Testing and, Control Important to Man 212 The Virginia Journal of Science [September Honorary Memberships, American Association for the Advancement of Science Victor Werner Ludewig, Lane High School, Charlottesville Ralph Daniel Reymond, Washington-Lee High School, Arlington Virginia Academy of Science Richard Leatherman, Wilson Memorial High School, Fishersville David Lundquist, Newport News High School, Newport News Teacher-Sponsor Scholarships University of Virginia Scholarship— Miss Samuella Grim, Broadway. Alternate, Miss Lois Rynaldo, Hopewell College of William and Mary Scholarship— -R. H. Horn, Alexandria Alternate, Mrs. Kate McDermott, Madison Heights Thelma C. Heatwole, Chairman 1955] Proceedings 1954-1955 213 REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON THE VIRGINIA SCIENCE TALENT SEARCH The Tenth Virginia Science Talent Search was conducted with the same purposes and procedures as in previous years. The search was made in cooperation with the National Science Talent Search as conducted by Sci¬ ence Clubs of America, Washington, D. C., for the Westinghouse Founda¬ tion. This year (1954-55) there were one hundred and fifty completed entries from forty-one different Virginia high schools. From these forty -five final¬ ists, including six that had been chosen honorable mention in the National Search, were invited, with part expenses paid, to attend the meeting at Madison College. Thirty-eight attended and were accompanied by thir¬ teen teacher-sponsors. Committee members and invited judges, operating in four panels, inter¬ viewed the finalists and selected a group of fourteen winners. The other finalists attending the meeting were given honorable mention. Committee Members H. H. Garretson, Chairman Edward E. Dyer C. M. Kincaid Percy H. Warren James W. Gole Thelma C. Heatwole Alfred L. Wingo Mary E. Kapp J. H. Johnson L. W. Jarman Frank C. Vilbrandt I. D. Wilson Lowell V. Heisey G. S. Mumford Judges James B. Newman R. C. Howard G. W. Kent W. Donald Glague Winners These students received National Honorable Mention. Don Stowe Cromley, Mount Vernon High School, Alexandria * Robert Scott Dunning, Norview High School, Norfolk * Frederick John Gaiser, Washington-Lee High School, Arlington * Michael David Garrick, Newport News High School, Newport News Edward Lee Gibbon, Thomas Jefferson High School, Richmond * Joanna Hackman, Radford High School, Radford Richard Alexander Jesser, Waynesboro High School, Waynesboro Victor Werner Ludewig, Lane High School, Charlottesville Melvin Douglas Miller, Newport News High School, Newport News Robert Matthew Olton, Thomas Jefferson High School, Richmond * Robert Milton Pearlstein, Washington-Lee High School, Arlington Ralph Daniel Reymond, Washington-Lee High School, Arlington 214 The Virginia Journal of Science [September * Margaret Gene Senter, Andrew Lewis High School, Salem Betty Sue Siler, Radford High School, Radford. Honorable Mention Robert Earl Bailey, Washington-Lee High School, Arlington Fred Ross Barloga, Mount Vernon High School, Alexandria Curtis Marvin Brooks, Maury High School, Norfolk Winifred Catherine Firsht, Washington-Lee High School, Arlington Robert Peel Futrelle, Loudoun County High School, Leesburg James Allen Hall, Halifax County High School, South Boston Nelson Lee Hall, Lane High School, Charlottesville Carl Hennrich, Washington-Lee High School, Arlington James Richard Hobson, Washington-Lee High School, Arlington Jerry Randolph Holt, Pulaski High School, Pulaski William Gordon Hunter, Washington-Lee High School, Arlington Mary Beverly James, Thomas Jefferson High School, Richmond Lonnie Willard Knight, Mount Vernon High School, Alexandria Christopher Kounnas, Newport News High School, Newport News Richard Lee Leary, Cradock High School, Portsmouth William Frederick McGonegal, Norview High School, Norfolk Ronald Angus McKenney, Mount Vernon High School, Alexandria Luther Howard Martin, Washington-Lee High School, Arlington John Daniel Norwood, Norview High School, Norfolk Walter Fenton O’Brien, Jr., Jefferson Senior High School, Roanoke David Keith Richart, John Marshall High School, Richmond Clifford James Roberson, Jr., Jefferson Senior High School, Roanoke Arnold Gary Rubin, Woodrow Wilson High School, Portsmouth Frederick William Stevens, Mount Vernon High School, Alexandria William Edgar Trout, III, Thomas Jefferson High School, Richmond Matthew Maurice Winston, Booker T. Washington H. School, Norfolk The names of these students were sent to the thirty-four Virginia Col¬ leges and Universities which have cooperated with the Virginia Academy of Science in making scholarship funds available upon application. The Chairman wishes to take this opportunity to express his gratitude: to Dr. Dyer and Mrs. Heatwole for their advice and assistance, to the faculty members of the University of Virginia who helped in grading the student essays, and to the Committee Members and Judges for their willing and ready service. Harold PL Garretson, Chairman 1955] Proceedings 1954-1955 215 JAMES RIVER PROJECT Financial Statement as of April 30, 1955 Total copies distributed as of May 5, 1954 . . . . . 530 Balance on deposit People’s National Bank, Lexington, Va. as of May 5, 1954 . . . . $1,753.90 Complimentary copies distributed between May 5, 1954 and April 30, 1955 . . . . . . . . 1 Copies sold, payment received at $6.00 between May 5, 1954 and April 30, 1955 (2) . $12.00 Total copies distributed between May 5, 1954 and April 30, 1955 . 3 Deposited in bank between May 5, 1954 and April 30, 1955 . $12.00 Withdrawn for investment by Trust Dept. First and Merchants National Bank. (Authorized by Council) . $1,600.00 Balance in People’s National Bank after withdrawal of $1,600.00 . $153.90 Total balance in People’s National Bank as of April 30, 1955 . $165.90 Total to credit of James River Project as of April 30, 1955 . $1,765.90 Total copies distributed May 11, 1950 to April 30, 1955 . 533 Marcellus H. Stow, Chairman REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON CONSERVATION There has remained a steady interest in resource use education matters in Virginia as exemplified by the members of the Resource Use Educa¬ tion Committee of the Virginia Academy of Science engaged in conserva¬ tion education work. Several of the Committee’s members participated in the fall meeting of the Virginia Resource Use Education Council which met in September near Portsmouth, Virginia. Several members of the group have been assist¬ ing in the prepaartion of a resource use educational booklet to be publish¬ ed by interested conservation agencies within the State and to be distrib¬ uted to the public schools in autumn. The Academy, through its Committee, gave its endorsement to the eighth statewide conservaLion essay contest conducted by the Virginia Com¬ mission of Game and Inland Fisheries and the Virginia Division of the Izaak Walton League of America. As a result of this annual affair it is believed that close to 100,000 Virginia school pupils have been taught the fundamentals of conservation. Members of the Committee have been asked to assist in the prepara¬ tion and publication of the Academy’s new proposed book on the Great Dismal Swamp, and at least one member of the Committee has been asked to prepare a full chapter in this publication. 216 The Virginia Journal of Science [September No Committee meetings were held during the year although one was contemplated, but because of the difficulty of getting together in one loca¬ tion the meeting was dispensed with and in its place a questionnaire was circulated asking for suggestions and recommendations of members. In general it can be said that the members favor a continuation of the Committee but that its objectives be more clearly defined by the Academy. There appears to be a growing feeling that the Committee’s name should be changed and that it function as a Conservation Committee of the Aca¬ demy. J. J. Shomon, Chairman COMMITTEE ON VIRGINIA FLORA Work relative to the flora of Virginia progresses, though slowly. The state herbarium at the Virginia Polytechnic Institute is progressing. Sev¬ eral hundred specimens from different parts of the State have recently been donated to the herbarium by Mr. F. W. Hunnewell through the Gray Herbarium and Mr. G. C. Mason through the Mariners Museum. Such contributions enhance the value of the herbarium in studies of the State flora and economic botany. Specific attention is being given to such major groups as the legumes, grasses, and the aquatic plants. The manuscripts of these are well along. Dr. Patterson continues his valuable studies relative to the identification, distribution, and ecology of the mosses. Members of the committee have given lectures to lay groups relative to the identification and conservation of our Native plants. These lectures are illustrated by slides, films, specimens, or some combination of these. A supply of Professor Merriman’s book. Flora of Richmond and Vicinity, is still on hand. These have sold slowly in recent years. A. B. Massey, Chairman 1955] Proceedings 1954-1955 217 REPORT OF THE VIRGINIA INSTITUTE FOR SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH The most significant event of the past year was the appointment of Dr. Fontaine Catesby Armistead as the first Director of the Institute charged with the overall responsibility for its operation. The Institute is greatly indebted to Dr. Robert Kean and Dr. Henry Leidheiser, who largely car¬ ried the administrative duties during the first five years of existence of the Institute. Dr. Armistead is a physicist by training, a native of Richmond, a grad¬ uate of St. ChristopheFs School and of the University of Virginia where he carried out both his graduate and undergraduate studies. During the war, he conducted research on the separation of uranium isotopes with the aid of the ultracentrifuge; and for the past few years, he has been asso¬ ciated with the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. The research activities during the past year largely include two major fields - surface chemistry and the determination of the sizes, shapes, and weights of large molecules. Dr. Leidheiser is immediately in charge of the studies in surface chemistry, and during the past year important discov¬ eries have been made in the field of corrosion and in obtaining a better understanding of the photographic process in silver chloride crystals. The studies on molecular weights are under the directorship of Dr. Carl Likes, and during the past year, he has begun an investigation of the protein molecules found in tobacco. Under the direction of Mr. von Gemingen, the electron microscope is being increasingly used to assist other labora¬ tories in this region. The business of supplying special single crystals to other laboratories continues, and a new project is being started for the development of better methods of growing certain crystals for an impor¬ tant commercial use. At the present time, there are six major projects being undertaken at the Institute. There are twelve regular employees and six part-time em¬ ployes. The research being done at the present time involves about $90,- 000 a year. The Institute is pleased that Dr. Leidheiser has been invited to present a paper before Busen-Gesellschaft (equivalent to the Electrochemical Soci¬ ety) in Germany in May cf this year. The subject of the meeting is “Processes at Metal Electrodes.” He will visit a large number of labora¬ tories in Germany, France, and England, and it is believed this trip should be of great value both to Dr. Leidheiser and to the Institute. Allan T. Gwathmey, President 218 The Virginia Journal of Science [September REPORT OF THE SPECIAL STUDY COMMITTEE ON SCIENCE EDUCATION The Council of the Virginia Academy of Science on March 13, 1955, established a large committee, on an experimental basis, to bring together a breadth of viewpoints for a discussion of the problems of science educa¬ tion in Virginia and to define, if possible, any problems within the respon¬ sibility of the Virginia Academy of Science. The committee was requested to report to the Council during the Annual Meeting of the Academy at Madison College on May 12, 1955. The President of the Academy, with the advice of various members, appointed 25 members to the committee, representing industry, business, secondary schools, colleges, and universi¬ ties, and the State Board of Education. A list of the members is appended. At the outset the chairman requested each member to submit any avail¬ able factual information pertaining to science education in Virginia, to recommend procedures for the Committee and to suggest areas where the Academy might take action. The response was very gratifying with a wide spectrum of thoughts being submitted. It was possible to hold only one meeting of the Committee during the short time available. On April 23, 1955, twenty members had a lively discussion of some of the issues in the President’s Conference Room of the Medical College of ^^irginia. Each of the members who was unable to attend made comments on the Committee’s responsibility through letters to the chairman. This report is an attempt to present some of the problems in their broader aspects. It incorporates sentiments expressed by members of the Committee and in¬ cludes five recommendations for action by the Virginia Academy of Sci¬ ence. The Special Study Committee recognizes that it is dealing with a very perplexing aspect of our current civilization. There have been statements from various parts of the scientific community of the Nation indicating there may be a crisis approaching in science education. Concern has been expressed in many quarters that a continuing expansion in the number of high quality scientists and engineers is necessary if the American way of life is to continue. In some statements, the short supply and the apparent decline in the relative members of graduates in these fields has been attri¬ buted to conditions associated with the schools, colleges, and universities. Expressing the various viewpoints are many elegant quotations which stress the need for doing something about education in the science. It is a much more difficult task, however, to assemble statistics and other facts which point-up the specific needs and state the problems in Virginia in ways for effective presentation to those who make and administer the policies. There are some publications based on long-term studies which have im¬ plications of concern for science teaching everywhere. The U. S. Office of Education has information on the number of boys and girls at various levels in our educational system. Such statistics show the rate of increase in the school population and this can be related to some of the basic needs of the future. The National Science Foundation in its Fourth An- 1955] Proceedings 1954-1955 219 nual Report (1954) stated that there is a shortage of qualified seience teachers and indicated that this situation may get worse. The National Educational Association estimated the need for new high school science teachers over the next decade as increasing from 7,700 per year in 1954- 55 to over 10,000 per year in 1965-66. The available information on col¬ lege graduates qualified and willing to teach high school science subjects shows that the current needs are not being met and that there may be an increasing gap between supply and demand. One of the most definitive sources of information on the potential sup¬ ply of talented people is the recent publication “America’s Resources of Specialized Talent” by Dael Wolfle, who was director of the Commission on Human Resources until his recent appointment as Executive Secretary of the American Association for Advancement of Science. This publica¬ tion, which has become knov/n as the Wolfle Report, contains much fac¬ tual information and it is finding increasing use by the professional and scientific organizations, which have expressed concern over the short sup¬ ply of high qualit)^ scientists and engineers, and which have initiated pro¬ grams directed toward increasing the supply. Perhaps of greater import¬ ance is that many of these groups also have emphasized the need for an increasing awareness of the role that science is now playing in our every¬ day life and of the eritical role persons with understanding of our modern technology will play in the event of a National emergency. The Aeademy must now decide whether it wishes to take extraordinary steps to help define and to assist in solving some of the current problems. Some new activities suggested are in keeping with one of the major objec¬ tives of the Academy — to arouse interest in and appreciation of science among the people of the State. An intelligent and well organized informa¬ tion source can help show the people of Virginia that the occupations con¬ nected with the training of our young people are of major importance in our way of life. Many close to the problems of education have expressed the need for more awareness on the part of the general public of the prob¬ lems associated with teaching and for a wider recognition that our most precious possession is the talented youth. This Special Study Committee feels that the Academy can intensify its endeavors directed toward increas¬ ing public awareness of educational problems by establishing a permanent committee on science education. It is recommended that this committee be small enough to work effee- tively, but it should have representation from industry, secondary educa¬ tion, higher edueation, and the State government. It should be not only a fact-finding group for gathering statistical information which will be use¬ ful in supporting recommendations for policies at all levels in our school systems, but also a center for aecumulating opinions of a more subjective nature, the importance of which will be related to the number of such opinions. Moreover, if the Virginia Academy of Science is going to have an effect on actions which will improve any existing situations then the information must be disseminated in ways to impress those who support, influence, and administer our educational systems. 220 The Virginia Journal of Science 1 September Several factors have been cited as motivations away from science teach¬ ing as a career. Some members of the scientific community believe that the salaries of science teachers, especially in the secondary schools, are too low to attract the needed number of qualified people into science teach¬ ing and away from the higher salaries in other occupations for which these people may also be qualified. This aspect is fairly easy to document from statistics gathered by professional organiaztions like the American Chemi¬ cal Society and the American Society of Civil Engineers. Others go be¬ yond monetary considerations and feel that a reasonable definition of a science teacher, perhaps incorporated in the requirements for certification for the teaching of science, will attract more qualified people because of the relationship between high specifications for a position and the prestige and professional standing of the position. Some feel that those teaching science should be primarily science teachers and not be required to use their energies in extra-time activities, which are not closely related to sci¬ ence teaching. Other factors of a more intangible nature have been men¬ tioned but they cannot be conveniently incorporated in this report. A per¬ manent committee can assemble information that will help define the tan¬ gibles as well as the subtle things which appear to make science teaching less attractive and which, if brought to the attention of those concerned, might be -fairly easily remedied. As a second item the Special Study Committee recommends that a super¬ visory position be established to represent science education at the State level. This person might supervise activities related to the certification of science teachers and the maintenanee of facilities, and initiate other activi- tis which are appropriate to insure that the Commonwealth of Virginia pro¬ vides science education at all levels whieh is adequate and at least equiv¬ alent to that of every other state. It should be emphasized that if this recommendation is made at the State government level that a detailed brief should accompany the recommendation which points out any unusual situations in Virginia and demonstrates that there is a need for the posi¬ tion. If the Academy determines that its responsibility is to pursue this recommendation, it is suggested that a special committee be established specifically for the purpose of assembling information and preparing the proposal. In another area it is recommended that a committee be established to serve as a coordinating center for the activities of various organizations in Virginia which are now working to promote more interest in science and the building up of the scientific manpower resources. The main function of this committee would be to encourage interested organizations to partici¬ pate, and to serve as a clearing house of information so as to avoid duplica¬ tion and to make the endeavors as effective as possible. This committee could help with the arranging of schedules of science teachers conferences, science open house days, special events, etc., so that wider participation can be achieved. It should be emphasized that there is no intention to usurp any of the functions of other organizations which are now active but 1955] Proceedings 1954-1955 221 only to try to keep each informed of what the other is doing and to provide the most effective service to those doing the actual teaching. Another committees is recommended to promote a mutual and sympa¬ thetic approach on the parts of teachers of scientific subjects and of those more closely connected with professional education. The criticism of the methods of some groups has caused some persons to feel that an exchange of information will be very helpful so that areas of agreement can be deter¬ mined and the energies of those interested and active can be applied most effectively. For example, there seems to be interest in increasing the in-service training possibilities for those doing the classroom teaching. Also there may be ways in which our scientists can be used during the school year as consultants on teaching scientific subjects in the secondary schools. The apparent need is a medium for bringing the interested groups together. The Special Study Committee recognizes the value of a large group to serve in an advisory and review capacity. It recommends that a large ad- visoiy panel on science education be established on a permanent basis, along the lines of this Special Study Committee, and that it comprise repre¬ sentatives from business, industry, secondary schools, colleges and uni¬ versities, and the State government. This panel might first promote a statewide conference at which all interested in science education may be heard. It should meet occasionally to hear reports from any of the above committees and from any additional sub-committees it might care to estab¬ lish. This panel should make recommendations directly to the Academy of Science and also encourage its members to participate in outside activi¬ ties, such as School Boards and Parent-Teachers Associations. It could of¬ fer its services at the State government level and give advice if so request¬ ed. While it was recognized that a large group would have cumbersome aspects and that its success might not be readily measured in terms of con¬ crete accomplishments,, nevertheless it was felt that a group with broad representation and wide interests could make many indirect contributions. This Special Study Committee of the Virginia Academy of Science was fortunate in having access to other studies made in Virginia under the auspices of the Virginia Academy of Science. Particularly valuable are the Reports of the Committee on Resource-Use Education, the Committee on Science Teaching in Secondary Schools in Virginia, and the Survey of the Science Facilities in the Secondary Schools in Virginia. These committees and others have focused attention on special problem areas and the reports have been included in the proceedings of the Academy. This Special Study Committee would like to point out that the Academy as an organ¬ ization should also determine if follow-up action is needed on these com¬ mittee reports. In summary, the recommendations of this Special Study Committee con¬ sist mostly of proposals for the establishment of new committees with some suggested areas of action. These are: 1. A permanent, working committee on science education, representing industry, secondary education, higher education, and the State gov¬ ernment. Its function should be mainly fact finding, keeping abreast 222 The Virginia Journal of Science [September of developments in science education and disseminating information where appropriate. 2. A special committee to prepare a brief for presentation at the State level in support of the recommendation that a supervisor of science be established in the State Board of Edu action. 3. A committee to serve as a coordination center for the activities of various organizations which are trying to promote more interest in science and engineering, 4. A committee representing both the subject matter and the methodol¬ ogical approach to science teaching, to develop new activities of mutual benefit. 5. A fairly large advisory panel, representing all interested areas, to review and evaluate reports of the other committees and to give advice at any level when requested. Members of the Special Study Committee on Science Education are: Dr. Lynn D. F. Abbott, Jr., Mr. Lloyd C. Bird, Dr. John B. Chase, Jr., Dr. Byron N. Cooper, Mr. Edwin Cox, Miss Samuella Crim, Dr. E. D. Crittenden, Dr. R. W. Engel, Miss Susie V. Floyd, Dr. William T. Ham, Jr., Mr. Edward S. Harlow, Mrs. Thelma C. Heatwole, Dr. Ladley Husted, Dr. George W. Jeffers, Mr. Franklin D. Kizer, Major James A. Mc¬ Donough, Dr. Sidney S. Negus, Mr. A. B. Niemeyer, Jr., Dr. Alexander Sadie, Mr. H. Felix Sanders, Mr. Foley Smilh, Dr. William E. Trout, Jr., Dr. John C. Wells, Mr. Alfred L. Wingo, and Dr. James W. Cole, Jr. Thelma C. Heatvole, Ladley Husted, AND James W. Cole, Jr., Chairman, Protem 1955] Proceedings 1954-1955 223 REPORT OF THE VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE In 1949, there was only a hope and a prayer for re-establishing the Virginia journal of Science. Many members had expressed a desire for a journal through letters and otherwise, but, in general, it was felt that there would not be sufficient demand for a journal, there would not be sufficient papers for a journal, and there would not be sufficient money on which to operate a journal. Your President at that time was determined to give the journal a try and to see if it could not be a literary as well as a financial success. The cost of printing the Proceedings under the arrangement existing at that time amounted nearly to what it would cost to publish a journal. Under special arrangements, the President was able to make with the Rad¬ ford News- Journal, four issues of the journal could be printed for almost the same cost as the Proceedings. At a meeting on June 19, 1949, I was elected Editor-in-Chief and Dr. Hobbs, Technical Editor with the understanding that for the first year we would be supplied with a sufficient amount of money to publish the journal and to give the journal a sufficient reserve fund. Three sets of letters were then mailed to the membership urging their support in re-establishing the journal. One of these letters was mailed under the auspices of Dean Ivey F. Lewis of the University of Virginia. The other two letters were sent out later by the President and the newly elected Editor. Upon this' request, 328 members contributed $2.00 each. 49 members increased their memberships to that of contributing members, and 18 became sustaining members. The Council of the Academy then voted to allot $2.00 from each membership fee to the journal. This was the beginning of the Ahrginia Journal of Science. Since that time, five Proceedings and 22 issues of the Journal have been published. They total 2,017 pages and according to the indexes, 120 articles. Tlie Journal has served as a medium for carrying the news and activi¬ ties of the scientists in Virginia. It has held the membership closer to¬ gether, and it has given the membership a continuity of progress in addi¬ tion to their Annual Meetings. Prior to the Journal, there was no accurate record of membership. Since then, the membership has increased by thirty per cent according to figures of paid-up members to whom the Journal is sent. The financial success of the Journal is best stated by presenting to you the current balance of its regular checking and sav¬ ings accounts. These amounts are $2,504.05 and $2,593.61 respectively making a total of $5,097.68. The Journal has now successfully operated for over five years. Its financial success would not have been possible without the continued sup¬ port of the Virginia Polytechnic Institute. The future of the Journal looks rosy. More subscriptions are coming in. I have enjoyed my work with the Journal but feel that others in the Academy should now try their hands at furthering its success. I have tendered my resignation, and this will be my last time to address you as Editor-in-Chief of the Journal. The Editorial Staff and the Academy as 224 The Virginia Journal of Science [September a whole have given me great encouragement, valuable assistance, and con¬ tinued backing. These things alone have m.ade all my effort on behalf of the Journal worthwhile. I wish the new officers of the Journal the greatest success in making the Journal a medium for holding together the scientists of Virginia, a means of publishing the scientific literature that will be produced in Virginia in the next few years, and as an instrument for promoting the strongest, the largest, and the most successful state academy in the nation. Boyd Harshbarger, Editor-in-Chief FINANCIAL STATEMENT VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Virginia Polytechnic Institute Student Activities Office Operation Statement for the Fiscal Year Virginia Journal of Science May 5, 1954, to May 10, 1955 RECEIPTS Academy Subsidy Regular members 974 at $2.00 . . . $ 1,948.00 Student members 50 at $1.25 . . . . . 62.50 Advertising . 400.30 Subscriptions . 335.98 Extra pages . 50.00 Miscellaneous . 38.00 Total of All Receipts . . . $ 2,834.78 EXPENDITURES Reprints . . . . . $ 116.00 Printing . 2,011.81 Postage . 113.05 Engraving . 86.02 Office supplies . . . . . . . . 62.00 Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.50 Miscellaneous . . . . . . . . . 154.60 Transfer to savings . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,000.00 Total of All Expenditures . . 3,574.98 Net Amount . . —740.20 1955] Proceedings 1954-1955 225 STATEMENT OE CASH ACCOUNT Balance of cash at beginning of year . . . $ 3,244.25 Total reeeipts for year . 2,834.78 Total cash on hand during year . 6,079.03 Total expenditures for year . . . 3,574.98 Balance of cash at end of year (checking account) . 2,504.05 Balance of cash at end of year (savings account) . 2,593.61 TOTAL . $ 5,097.66 Audited by: Joe W. Guthridge Date: May 10, 1955 VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE STATEMENT OF ACCOUNTS RECEIVABLE MAY 10, 1955 Dombrower Advertising Agency . $ 24.90 April 1955 issue Cardinal Products . 29.40 April 1955 issue American Tobacco Company . 29.40 April 1955 issue M archant Calculator January 1955 issue . $ 9.80 April 1955 issue . 9.80 19.60 TOTAL . $103.30 Audited by: Joe W. Guthridge Date: May 10, 1955 226 The Virginia Journal of Science i September REPORT OF JAMESTOWN EXPOSITION SURVEY COMMITTEE By letter of November 3, 1954, President Foster appointed William G. Guy, Horton H. Hobbs, Jr., and the undersigned as a “committee to meet with the Jamestown Celebration Committee and explore the avenues of cooperation between this group and the Virginia Academy of Science.” The Committee was instructed to present a preliminary report to the Coun¬ cil of the Academy at its May meeting. On January 28, 1955, the Chairman and Dr. Hobbs discussed the mat¬ ter at some length. Four possible aspects of cooperation with the James¬ town Celebration Committee were considered and are noted herewith. 1. Put attractive jacket on copies of the James River Monograph and sell them at the Exposition for $2.50-$3,00. 2. Issue a special Jamestown Celebration number of the Virginia Jour¬ nal of Science. This would not be in the regular Journal series and would not involve change in normal format or content of the regular issues of the Journal. It would be a specific and special issue featuring topics in keeping with the spirit of the Celebration. It might contain special adver¬ tising. It would be for sale during the year of the Celebration. 3. Development of appropriate exhibits in conjunction with other exhi¬ bits devised by the Jamestown Committee. These might be divided into two groups: one by the Senior Academy, possibly depicting the develop¬ ment of science in Virginia; the other by the Junior Academy, possibly depicting the development of science education in the secondary schools of Virginia. 4. Possibility of holding a special Academy meeting during the Cele¬ bration year or of holding the regular annual meeting in Williamsburg. (It was decided that the former would be impractical and it was learned later that plans for the 1957 meeting of the Academy were already being developed. Hence this topic was discarded without further considera¬ tion.) During the morning of March 12, Messrs. Hobbs and Stow met with Dr. Guy at Williamsburg and the four points described above were dis¬ cussed. No new phases of cooperation were developed and it was agreed to present the first three for tentative consideration by the Jamestown Celebration Committee. At three o’clock that afternoon the Academy committee met with Mr. Parke Rouse, Jr., Executive Director of the Virginia 350th Anniversary Commission. Mr. Rouse was most enthusiastic about the possibility of participation by the Academy in the Celebration and about the three suggested means of effecting this participation. The Academy Committee, obviously, was not authorized to make final commitments concerning Academy participation. Hence no specific de¬ tails were developed. Results of our conference are best expressed by quoting part of a letter written to the undersigned by Mr. Rouse under date of April 11, 1955. “1 gave our Commission a resume of our brief discussion when it met 1955] Proceedings 1954-1955 227 here last Wednesday, and I want to report that considerable interest and enthusiasm was shown. We hope you will be able to go through with all your plans, and we’ll be glad to do anything we can to help. “Please assure your colleagues of our warm interest and keep us inform¬ ed as your program develops.” Marcellus H. Stow, Chairman 228 The Virginia Journal of Science [September REPORT OF THE MEMBERSHIP COMMITTEE As of December 31, 1954, the membership of the Academy was made up as follows: Regular members . 743 Business members . 7 Contributing members . 57 Sustaining members . 25 Life or honorary members . 14 Patrons . 2 Student Members . 33 Total . 881 All members in arrears in dues for more than one year had been dropped from membership as of January 1, 1955. For the calendar year 1954 new members were obtained as follows: Regular members . 79 Student members . 10 Total . 89 Losses for the calendar year 1954: Regular members . 84 Student members . 15 Total . . . 99 The membership committee would like to report the following progress for the year 1955: New Members: Regular members . 18 Student members . 10 Business members . . 6 Total... . . . 34 1955] Proceedings 1954-1955 229 MINUTES OF THE SECTION OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE [1] Rodney C. Berry, Richmond, Chairman R. W. Engel, Blacksburg, Vice-Chairman P. M. Reaves, Blacksburg, Secretary Wesley P. Judkins, Blacksburg, Section Editor FRIDAY, MAY 13, 1955 — 9:00 A, M. — ROOM 28, WILSON HALL 1. Forage-Grain Substitution Rates in Milk Production. Carl W. Allen; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. The importance of an accurate determination of the rates of substitu¬ tion between grain and forage in producing milk has been determined. The present study includes the introduction of an expression of the de¬ pendent variable (Y) which affected the solution in two ways: (a) the linear effect, and (b) the quadratic effect. The estimates of the de¬ pendent variable used to obtain the eleven additional “independent” variates are based on an earlier regression analysis. The purpose for making these added variates related to Y was to permit greater flexibility in the slopes of the iso-product contours. Agricultural production is characterized by production processes in which factor substitution rates are dependent on the level of output. Some examples being (1) phosphorus and nitrogen in crop production, (2) grain and forage in meat production, (3) carbohydrates and protein in meat production, and (4) labor and capital in most production process¬ es. This special method merits consideration in deriving such produc¬ tion functions. 2. Soil Factors Affecting the Availability of Manganese for Peanuts. C. 1. Rich; Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station. The influence of several soil factors on the manganese content of pea¬ nut leaves was studied. Soil factors studied were manganese content, pH, percentage organic matter, oxidation-reduction potential, exchangeable hydrogen, magnesium, calcium, potassium, and sodium. In 1951, sam¬ ples from 28 fields showed that the following surface soil factors were related to the content of plant manganese as indicated by the analysis of variance: pH, exchangeable calcium and manganese, and easily reduced manganese. The 1952 study with 101 fields showed that pH accounted for 28% of the variation of plant manganese. However, a consideration of five soil factors (pH, easily reduced manganese and exchangeable manganese, calcium, and magnesium) accounted for 62% of the variation. Low pH, calcium, and magnesium, and high soil manganese favored a high manga- 230 The Virginia Journal of Science I September nese uptake. The exchangeable, easily reduced, and water soluble manga¬ nese tests were influenced markedly by the moisture and oxygen con¬ centration in the soil. 3. Crop Response to Various Rotations in the Peanut Producing Area of Virginia. D. L. Hallock and L. I. Miller; Virginia Agricultural Experi¬ ment Station, Holland. Yields of peanuts grown in three year rotations were significantly higher than those grown alternately with corn, which, in turn, were also higher than for peanuts grown every year on the same soil. Highest production of peanuts was obtained when cotton was included in rotation with pea¬ nuts and corn, an effect which may have been caused by (1) additional nitrogen and potash applied to cotton, (2) insecticide treatments applied for control of boll weevil, or (3) the immunity of cotton to common peanut diseases. The average yields of peanuts or corn were not influ¬ enced appreciably by cover crops of crimson clover or rye. Soybeans interplanted with corn did not depress corn yields significantly. A three year rotation which included only two years of harvested crops proved uneconomical. The tests were conducted on a soil with relatively high fertility. More response to rotations might have been obtained with less fertile soils. 4. Seed Injury in Treated Seed Wheat. James W. Midyette, Jr.; Virginia Department of Agriculture. In the fall of 1954 numerous lots of seed wheat, which had been tested by the Virginia Department of Agriculture in July and August, showed typical mercury injury when retested 4 to 6 weeks later. The injury decreased germination by 15 to 20 percent. All lots of seed in question had been treated according to recommended rates and methods of application. The seed were not confined to one processor. The seed had been stored under hot and dry conditions and had a very low moisture content. A crack or opening existed in the pericarp over the embryo of some seeds and correlated very closely with the percentage of seedlings which showed mercury injury. It was concluded that the high temperatures during storage caused the mercury compound to become volatile and to enter the openings in the pericarp, which caused injury to the tissues of the embryo. 5. Preliminary' Observations on the Value of a Low Calcium-High Phosphorus Diet for the Prevention of Milk Fever in Dairy Cows. W. A. Hardison, C. A. Miller, R. A. Sandy and C. C. Graf; Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station. Milk fever is a metabolic disorder which is apparently caused by a sudden shortage of calcium in the cow’s system resulting from the large 1955] Proceedings 1954-1955 231 amount of calcium that is secreted in the milk following the birth of the calf. Work at the California Station indicates that a praetical method of preventing this condition is the feeding of a ration with a Ca;P ration of approximately 1:4 for about one month prior to calving. Ten animals with histories of previous attaeks of milk fever have been fed a ration consisting of equal parts of a grain mixture (containing shelled corn, wheat bran, and a phosphorus supplement) and oat hay. Blood samples for ealcium and phosphorus analysis were taken. None of these animals developed clinical symptoms of milk fever at calving and the blood levels of Ca and P of all the animals were within the normal range. 6. Crop Response to Rock Phosphate on Virginia Soils: Progress Report. W. W. Moschler; Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station. \5rriable crop response is being obtained from the direct application of raw rock phosphate. Certain plants, particularly legumes, are more responsive than grasses, and certain soil eonditions, especially pH, are critical factors governing efficieney. Combined applications of the slowly soluble raw rock and a quickly soluble phosphate sueh as superphosphate offer the best promise en¬ countered to date. 7. Sulfur Content of the Precipitation in Virginia. J. A. Lutz, Jr.; Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station. The continued use of high analysis sulfur-free fertilizers may result in crop injury caused by an inadequate supply of sulfur unless plants can obtain proper amounts from the precipitation and the atmosphere. Sul¬ fur is essential for plant growth and is ordinarily used in amounts similar to phosphorus. Tlie amount of sulfur brought down per year in the precipitation has varied from 7 to 30 pounds per acre per year with the higher amounts near centers of industrial activity and the lower readings somewhat re¬ moved from industrial areas. More sulfur was brought down during the winter months than during the summer when less fuel containing sulfur was consumed. Evidence this far indicates that the amount of sulfur brought down in the precipitation is inadequate for normal plant growth. However, field experiments with crops in areas believed to be low in sulfur have failed to show any response to sulfur. 8. Progress Report on the Use of V-C 13 for the Control of Nematodes Infesting Turf Grasses. M. A. Manzelli; Research Department, Virginia-Carolina Chemi¬ cal Corporation, Richmond. Field testing of V-C 13, a 75% emulsifiable concentrate of 0-2, 4- 232 The Virginia Journal of Science [September dichlorophenyl 0, 0-diethyl phosphorothioate, has shown it to be effec¬ tive in the control of nematodes infesting turf grasses. Good control was obtained with 125^ 250, and 500 pounds of toxicant per acre. The grasses treated were St. Augustine, annual rye, colonial bent, native Bermuda, and improved strains of Bermuda as Gene Tift and Everglades No. 1. The nematode genera involved were: Aphenchoides, Dorylaimus, Hopololaimus, Paratylenchus, Pratylenchus, Rotylenchus, Trichodorus, and T ylenchorhynchiis. At the two highest application rates, a slight temporary injury to the grass blade tips was noted. Grasses became re-established in the treated plots, whereas the untreated check plots remained unchanged. The root systems in the former plots were vigorous and extensive, whereas in the latter plots they were short and weak. The life length of the achieved control is not yet known, but to date it is longer than nine months. 9. Application of Soil Survey to Gertain Land Use Problems in Fairfax Gounty, Virginia. H. G. Porter and Soil Survey Party. Fairfax Gounty contains many different soils and land use problems, and has a rapidly increasing population of about 156,000. Economists predict a population of 320,000 by 1980. A Planning Gommission has been hired by the county to make a Master Plan for the orderly adjust¬ ment of the population to the land. A generalized soils map was made of the county in 1915, and informa¬ tion from it has been very extensively used in formulating the Master Plan. However, most agencies in the county felt that a more detailed survey was needed to help carry out the Master Plan, and in July, 1953, the county gave $37,000 to help make such a survey. This survey will be finished early in 1956. New methods of applying soil survey informa¬ tion to the many needs of the county are illustrated by slides, maps, and soil monoliths. 10. The Use of Sex Hormones for Fattening Lambs. W. S. Wilkinson; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. The use of sex hormones in ruminants may be the most effective de¬ velopment to date for increasing meat production with greater profit to the producer. Diethylstilbestrol implanted in feed-lot lambs increases growth rate and feed efficiency but decreases carcass quality and dressing percentage. Occasionally it causes physiological abnormalities. The Federal Pure Food and Drug Administration has not approved its use in lambs. An implant containing estradiol plus progesterone (trade name of Syno- vex) has been advertised as giving an increased rate of gain similar to diethylstilbestrol but causing no abnormalities or harmful carcass effects. This pellet has been approved for use in lambs by the Food and Drug Administration. 1955] Proceedings 1954-1955 233 These hormones are not retained in the lamb carcass to any extent, and the meat is completely safe for human consumption. Testosterone increases rate of gain and feed efficiency - an effect similar to the estrogens but not so great. 11. Observations on the Physiology of the Bovine Digestive Tract WITH Special Reference to Organ Activity. W. E. C. Moore and K. W. King; Virginia Agricultural Experi¬ ment Station. The ingesta from each digestive organ of nine slaughtered cattle has been analyzed in an attempt to clarify the specific digestive function of each organ. Total weight, dry matter, pH, cellulolytic activity, ammonia, soluble nitrogen, total carbohydrate, polysaccharide, amino acid, and vola¬ tile fatty acid analyses of each ingesta sample were performed. Three relatively obscure functions appear to be clarified. One is the rapid and nearly quantitative destruction of starch in the omasum, indicat¬ ed by disappearance of polysaceharide from the ingesta in this organ. Another is rapid absorption of volatile fatty acids in the omasum. The third is rapid bacterial fermentation in the lower small intestine, cecum, and colon which is reflected in the accumulation of ammonia, polysac¬ charide, and volatile fatty acids in the ingesta of the lower gut. 12. In Vitro Estimation of the Cellulolytic Activity of Rumen Ingesta. S. E. Wood and W. E. C. Moore; Virginia Agricultural Experi¬ ment Station. In experiments conducted at the Virginia Agricultural Experiment Sta¬ tion five methods for measuring the activity of cellulose-digesting organ¬ isms in the bovine rumen were compared. As a result of these experi¬ ments it was concluded that the most reliable and reproducible method was that recommended by Henderson, Horvat, and Block, which consist¬ ed of inoculating samples of vegetable parchment with rumen fluid, and recording the percent weight loss after an incubation period of 24 hours. An effort was made to determine the type activity being measured and its correlation to the pH of the rumen contents. 13. Freezing Bull Semen. Paul M. Reaves, R. B. Potts, and E. A. Drinkwater; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. Semen was frozen by placing ampules of diluted semen in methyl alcohol at 40° F. in a thermos jug. Dry ice was added to the alcohol to lower the temperature at rates of 2 to 4° F. per minute until 5° F. was reached. Below this temperature faster cooling was employed to reach the melting point of dry ice (-110° F. or -79° C.) Storage was maintained by packing the thermos bottle with dry ice and holding it in an ice cream hardening room. 234 The Virginia Journal of Science r September The frozen semen was thawed by placing in water at 100° F. The recovery rate was in the range of 40 to 60% motile sperm. Twelve cows were inseminated with the semen. Five have been re¬ ported pregnant by rectal examination. In another trial semen was handled similarly, but frozen to -4° F. (-20° C.) and stored in the ice cream hardening room at around 0° F. This gave very little recovery of motile sperm. 14. Variety, Type, Year and Location Effects on the Chemical Composition of Peanuts. James F. Eheart, R. W. Young, and Allen H. Allison; Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station. Variety had a greater influence on all constituents studied than year. Location had a greater influence on thiamine and riboflavin and hay protein than variety. Spanish-type kernels were higher in protein and Virginia-type were higher in niacin and hay protein. The higher the content of protein and oil in the kernel and protein in the hay, the greater was its varietal variability. Variety x year interaction was significant for all constituents studied except thiamine. Variety x location interaction was significant only for riboflavin. Mean protein, riboflavin and niacin contents were considerably higher and thiamine contents 50% higher than Fx\0 values. Protein content of the hay was practically the same as Morrison’s value. Variety J-ll-L and Introduction 149-637 had the highest nutritive value and could well be used in future peanut breeding studies. 15. Factorial Experiments Give Valuable Information on How to Fertilize in Virginia. Russell K. Stivers, P. T. Gish, G. D. Jones, and Boyd Harsh- barger; Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station. A factorial fertilizer experiment was initiated in 1950 on a Frederick silt loam near Staunton and a Davidson clay loam near Orange. Four rates of phosphate and three rates of potash fertilizer in ail factorial com¬ binations v/ere applied each year in a three-year rotation of corn, wheat, and red clover hay. Increases in yields were obtained with all crops on both soils as the rates of phosphate fertilization increased from none through 60 pounds per acre of P2O5. Gorn had the smallest and hay the largest percentage increase in yields. As the rates of potash fertilization of the Frederick soil increased from none through 50 pounds per acre of K2O, large increases in the yields of hay and wheat were obtained. Increases in the yields of corn were relatively smaller. On Davidson soil which tested high in available potash there were no significant differences associated with potash fertilization. 1955] Proceedings 1954-1955 235 16. Control of the Sting Nematode on Peanuts with an Ethylene Dibromide-Vermiculite Mixture. Lawrence I. Miller; Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station, Holland. Liquid soil fumigants for nematode control are usually applied under pressure with attachments designed to discharge the fumigant at given rates and depths. Standard fertilizer dispensing machinery might pos¬ sibly be used to apply the nematocides if a satisfactory free-flowing absorb¬ ent for the fumigant could be found. Vermiculite was tested as an absorbent for ethylene dibromide at Suffolk, Virginia, in 1954. This free- flowing mixture was applied 5 inches deep in a furrow along the drill row at the rate of 0.5 pounds per 100 feet of linear row, and ethylene dibromide at the rates of 21, 31, and 42 pounds per acre. These mix¬ tures were effective in controlling the sting nematode and correcting the stunted plant disorder. Ethylene dibromide used at the rate of 21 pounds per acre resulted in a 900-pound increase in yield of nuts, and gave the highest net return. 17. Highly Chlorinated Studies in the Rat and the Calf. B. E. Joyce, W. B. Bell, and R. W. Engel; Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station. In vitro and in vivo studies on the metabolism of highly chlorinated naphthalenes, causative agents of Bovine Hyperkeratosis, were undertaken in the albino rat and the calf. In vitro investigations indicate liver to be an active metabolizing organ for this compound in both animals. Balance studies, investigating the relationship of absorption of hexa- and octachloronaphthalene to their relative toxicities, showed that of 5 mgs. of each fed, hexachloronaphthalene, the more toxic of the two, was absorbed to 91.8%. Octochloronaphthalene was absorbed to 83.5%. Studies on the possible formation of conjugated products as a means of highly chlorinated naphthalene metabolism in the rat give evidence of the excretion of such conjugates of hexa- and octachloronaphthalene in the feces. Conjugation to the extent of 50% of the recovered chlorinated naphthalenes was observed. 18. Growth Hormone Concentration in Swine Pituitaries. Bryan Baker; Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station. Assays of the anterior pituitaries of animals ranging in age from the 56 day old fetus to 1400 day old mature animals were conducted. In addition, certain body measurements of the donor animals were made: body weight, carcass composition, long bone length, and organ weight. The total amount of growth hormone of the pituitary (unit potency X. A. P. wt.) was low in young animals and increased rapidly as the animals aged. During the phases of most rapid growth the amount of available hormone was high and during phases of slower growth the hormone titre per unit of body weight was constantly low. It appears that rapid 236 The Virginia Journal of Science [September growth continues only so long as there is a high concentration of growth hormone available, and that the slow growing phases result from a dilution of the growth hormone to such an extent that active growth is no longer possible. 19. Changing Concepts in Milk Sanitation. G. S. Kennedy; Roanoke Health Department. Effective milk sanitation by regulation, developed since 1900, has wit¬ nessed such rapidly changing concepts in all aspects as to pose a con¬ tinuing problem for milk inspectors. With pasteurization now recognized as basic, other developments include electric milking, cooling; glass pipelines, stainless steel; bulk cooling, haul¬ ing; homogenization; air-tight separators, clarifiers; hi-short pasteurizers; permanent pipelines, in-place cleaning, bulk dispensers; phosphotase tests, coliform, and psychrophilic counts. Mileposts in Roanoke’s milk control program: 1911, Health Depart¬ ment organized, dairy inspection started; 1926, Grading Ordinance pass¬ ed; 1927-29, average bacterial count of pasteurized milk reduced from 83,000 to 2,200; 1939, P. H. S. standard ordinance passed; 1946, 100% pasteurization required. It is interesting that Roanoke’s infantile diarrhea death rate, averaged by 5-year periods, 1912 through 1951, declined from 88.6 for first period to 2.5 for last. Most dramatic drop from 68 in 1922-26 to 27.2 in 1927- 31 occurred simultaneously with greatest milk improvement. Business Meeting The annual business meeting was held at the close of the session, May 13, 1955. The nominating committee composed of S. F. Thornton, Ghair- man; E. M. Dunton, Jr.; and Lawrence I. Miller presented the following nominees for 1955-56: Chairman, R. W. Engel; Vice Chairman, P. M. Reaves; Secretary, James W. Midyette, Jr.; Section Editor, R. K. Stivers. The report of the nominating committee was accepted and those nomi¬ nated were elected for next year’s officers. The desirability of interesting persons in fields related to agriculture to become affiliated with the Agricultural Science Section was discussed. It was recommended that efforts be made to attract these people to Academy membership and meetings. 1955] Proceedings 1954-1955 237 MINUTES OF THE SECTION OF ASTRONOMY, MATHEMATICS, AND PHYSICS [2] H. Y. Loh, Chairman J. Gordon Stipe, Jr., Acting Secretary F. L. Hereford, Section Editor FRIDAY, MAY 13, 1955 - 10:00 A. M. — ROOM 11, BURRUSS SCIENCE HALL 1. Scattering of 0.2 — Mev Electrons by Gold Foils*. W. G. Pettus, H. G. Blosser, and F. L. Hereford. Recent experiments'^ on large angle scattering of 0.15 — 0.4 Mev elec¬ trons by gold and platinum foils indicated appreciable discrepancies be¬ tween experimental and theoretical angular distributions. In order to check these experimental deviations from the otherwise well-established theory, we have made another measurement of the angular distribution of scattered electrons. Electrons of approximately 0.19 Mev were supplied by a resonant cavity accelerator® and after magnetic analysis were focus¬ ed on a gold foil of 0.202 mg/cm® surface density. The foil was cen¬ tered in a 12" diameter scattering chamber with exit ports to allow count¬ ing of scattered electrons at angles between 60° and 150° relative to the incident beam. The background rate observed with a blank foil holder was subtracted from the counting rate at each angle. Gomparison of these data with theoretical results indicates agreement to within 10%, considerably better than in the previous work. 2. Temperature Effects in Three Quantum Annihilation of Posi¬ trons. R. T. Wagner and F. L. Hereford; University of Virginia. The ratio of three quantum to two quantum annihilation of positrons in ice and in zinc has been investigated in the 4° — 300° K. temperature range. The positron source (Na^Q was prepared by dissolving sodium chloride in distilled water in a 5 ml flask which was then placed at the bottom of a Dewar. The ratio of three photon to two photon annihila¬ tions at several fixed low temperatures was then measured using a triple coincidence circuit. An approximately linear decrease in this ratio is noted with decreasing ice temperature similar to results in teflon.^ Using the same apparatus, the above ratio was measured for positrons annihilation in Zn in which the positron emitter (Zn®®) was the absorber; here no temperature effect is observed. The correlation of these results * Supported by Office of Ordnance Research, 1 E. Kinzinger, Z. Naturforsch. 8a, 312 (1953). 2N. F. Mott, Proc. Roy. Soc. (London) A124, 425 (1929). SF. L. Hereford, J. Applied Phys. 18, 956 (1947). ^ R. L. Graham and A. T, Stewart, Can, J. Phys. 32, 678 (1954). 238 The Virginia Journal of Science [September with data ® on positron lifetimes will be discussed together with results of other concurrent investigations of annihilation of positrons. 3. Design of the V. P. I. 1.5 Mev Pressurized Electrostatic Accelerator. T. M. Hahn; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. Under construction at Virginia Polytechnic Institute is a horizontal pres¬ surized electrostatic accelerator with a design limit of 1.5 to 2.0 Mev. The accelerator is to be enclosed in a 4-foot diameter removable pres¬ sure tank, 8 feet long. Working pressure is to be 150 psig, and a gas drying and storage system is being installed. Provision is incorporated for later conversion to a 4 Alev vertical installation using a new base plate with an additional 4 feet of tank length. The insulating column consists of three 3-inch Textolite tubes carrying aluminum corona rings. The ion source is of the Moak radio-frequency type, and power for the ion source and associated circuits is provided by a 500 watt permanent magnet alternator being built into the upper charging pulley. The ac¬ celerating tube is 39 inches long and is being formed of spun aluminum (2-S) electrodes and Isolantite insulators cemented together with Vinyl thermal cement. Energy control will be effected by a 90 degree magnetic analyzer and corona feedback system. 4. Closed Expressions for Tm^o Trigonometrical Series. M. Stippes. Let 4 CO CO mTT^ nTrry mTrX n7ry ( A ) W ( X, y ) = - - ^ ^ sin - sin - sin - sin — - TT^ab "^=1 ^=1 a b a b D^w D^w The purpose of this note is to obtain closed expressions for - , - 9X2 3y2 in terms of Weierstraussian elliptic functions p(z) along with the asso¬ ciated quantities ^(z), p(z). This is accomplished by noting that (A) is the solution to the follow¬ ing boundary value problem; V o in R {R is the rectangle x ~ o, x = a, y = o, y = b}, w = 0, V — 0 on the boundary of R, R. E. Bell and R. L. Graham, Phys. Rev., 90, 644, (1953). 1955] Proceedings 1954-1955 239 1 w(x, y) — log r is analytic in R, Stt {1-2= (x~^)2+(y— ^)2}, and, additionally, by making certain observations concerning the nature of harmonic functions. 5. The Stieltjes Integral in n-Dimensional Space, E. J. McShane; University of Virginia. The Stieltjes integral, originally defined in one-dimensional space, can easily be defined in space of n-dimensions. The same is true of the modi¬ fied form of the Stieltjes integral studied by McShane and Botts. How¬ ever, two of the known theorems for the case of one dimension cannot be immediately extended to the case of n dimensions. These are the following: (I) If f is integrable with respect to g, there is no point at which both f and the difference-function Ag are discontinuous. (II) If f is integrable with respect to g, and g is of bounded total variation, then f is also integrable with respect to the total variation of g. In this paper a lemma is proved which makes it possible to prove that these theorems both are still true in n dimensions. 6. The Motions and Distribution of Red Dwarf Stars. George S. Mumford, III; Leander McCormick Observatory, Uni¬ versity of Virginia. In 1941 Vyssotsky inaugurated a survey of objective prism spectral plates at this observatory with the purpose of discovering red dwarf stars, spectral types dK8 — dM5. This survey has been completed, and it is now possible to make a more accurate analysis of the motions of these stars than was possible previously. The components of the velocities along the axes of the velocity ellipsoid have been computed. The frequency of the components along the axis directed towards the galactic center and anticenter is as symmetrical as one would expect it to be. The distribution of the components along the axis in the direction of l otation and the opposite direction is strongly asymmetrical; the asymmetry is present at velocities around 25 km/sec. It is interesting to note that the largest velocity in the direction of rotation is 54 km/sec while that in the opposite direction is 171 km/sec. The quantity mass times the square of the total dispersion is found to be constant. This suggests a quasi-equipartition of energy among these stars. A projection of the positions of the red dwarfs on the galactic plane indicates they are uniformly distributed in space. Any apparent cluster¬ ing is found to be only an effect of projection when the distribution per¬ pendicular to the galactic plane is investigated. All the evidence sug¬ gests that the red dwarfs are probably old stars. 240 The Virginia Journal of Science [September 7. Electrodeless Discharge through Gases at Low Frequencies. Paul S. Nekrasov and H. Y. Loh; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. A study of the instantaneous variations and fluctuations of the elec¬ trodeless discharges through mercury vapor, air, and argon at the lowest frequencies used (60 and 400 cps) revealed that the light intensity varia¬ tion produced was in the form of grouped peaks, whose average height and number per group depended on such factors as the gas pressure, the kind of gas used, terminal voltage, distance between the terminals, etc. Discharges produced at radio frequencies (80 to 1100 kc) exhibited no apparent periodic variation. No peaks were observed under any cir¬ cumstances, except when the applied r-f was modulated by a low-audio modulation envelope, in which case the wave shapes were in the form of the applied modulating wave. The point of transition from the regular wave shapes to the disorderly oscillations (noise) produced at r-f is yet to be determined. General appearance of the discharge column at r-f was that of a uni¬ form column separated by dark spaces moving closer together as the pressure was decreased. Variation of the break-down and extinction potential with pressure was found to be nearly linear, the potentials increasing as the pressure was increased. It was found that less load current was drawn by the dis¬ charges as the pressures were increased. All work was done for sine wave terminal voltage variation, unless otherwise specified. 8. Reflected Fringes of Multiple-Beam Interference. H. Y. Loh; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. A more general formula than Airy's for the reflected fringes produced by multiple-reflection has been worked out. It requires no restriction on either reflectivity or absorption of the reflecting surfaces. This new formula reveals not only the contour but also the contrast of the fringes. Theoretical results, as well as photographs of the fringes obtained by combining various surfaces, are shown. Gonditions for producing inter¬ ference patterns of high contrast and sharpness are also discussed. 9. Etch Pits. Melvin M. Levine; University of Virginia. When a crystal is exposed to an undersaturated medium, etch pits sometimes occur at places where dislocations meet the crystal surface.® Gonditions of undersaturation necessary for this to happen are inves¬ tigated in terms of nucleation, and the rate of evaporation from the rest of the surface is shown, for ordinary densities of dislocations, to be negli¬ gible in comparison with that from the pits for undersaturations at which the process begins. 6 Cabrera, Levine, Plaskett, Phys. Rev. 96, 1153 (1954). 241 1955] Proceedings 1954-1955 10. Lattice Relaxations around Lattice Imperfections. George L. Hall; University of Virginia. A theoretical description of the distorted structure of a simple crystal in the region surrounding a vacancy is presented. In a face-centered cubic, rare-gas crystal at the absolute zero of temperature, the twelve first nearest neighbors to the vacancy shrink inward only slightly, whereas the remainder of the crystal expands about the vacancy. It is shown that other authors ® have applied linear elasticity theory to arrive at results contrary to those reported here. However, the correct use of linear elas¬ ticity theory is shown to be inadequate for a proper description of the vacancy. Further, calculations of the lattice relaxations around a vacant site as a function of temperature and pressure are described to some extent. 11. Surface Energy and Surface Potentials of Metals. R. J. McIntyre; University of Virginia. The approximations necessary to justify the free electron model of metals are examined. It can be shown that to a fair approximation, the valence electron wave functions may be considered to be solutions of the equation h2 [ - V^ + V(r)] — Ai 4>i 2m where V ( r ) z=ie^ J - - dr^ — I ri— r| Sij (r) (^i'^(r) (r^) 11 spin - dri + S(r) •’ 2, k,(r)P 11 spin ep+(r) is a uniform positive charge distribution of e per atomic volume everywhere inside the lattice, terminating at the surface in a regular net¬ work of polyhedra which foPows the structure of the crystallographic face, and E(r) is a calculable constant everywhere inside the lattice. Since Si I c^i (r) |^== p+(r) everywhere inside the metal except in the vicinity of the surface, the first term in V(r) is seen to be the potential due to a dipole layer on the surface which differs from one crystallographic face to another. Preliminary calculations yield results which are consist¬ ent with the few existing measurements of differences in surface poten¬ tials. The corresponding expression for the energy yields terms proportional Frenkel, J. : Kinetic Theory of Liquids, Oxford Press, 1946. 8 Machlup, S. : Baltimore Meeting of the American Physical Society March, 1955. » Tucker and Sampson : KAPL — 1037. See also, Nachtrieb, N. H. and Handler, G. S. : Acta Metallurgica, 2, 797, 1954. 242 The Virginia Journal of Science [September to the surface area which are also consistent with the experimentally- measured values of the surface energy. 12. Interference Fringes of Beats Investigated with Superposed Transparencies. L. G. Hoxton; University of Virginia. The findings of a communication at the 1947 meeting, when it was shown that these fringes were Cartesian ovals in motion, are extended here, making use of a familiar phenomenon as a research tool on the sophomore level. It is flexible, labor saving, and suited to lecture demon¬ strations. Photographic transparencies of a set of equally spaced concentric cir¬ cles, when superposed, produce fringes of demonstrably the same form and like width as those produced by circular waves. These “artificial” fringes are projected on a screen and watched while conditions are varied. The ovals may degenerate into circles or hyperbolas but, in general, are all closed curves, a finite number enclosing the source of higher frequency, an infinite number enclosing both. Some other elementary facts are as follows: The fringe velocity is proportional to the fringe separation at each point in the field. If c is the common wave velocity and Ai < A2 then along the line of sources, outside and between them respectively: The fringe velocities are c and | c | (A2 — Ai)/(A2+Ai) directed from I to 2, while the fringe spacings are AiA2/(A2 — Ai) and A1A2/ (A2-I-A1) . Professor Linfield discussed the inflexions at the 1948 meeting. Wil¬ liamson’s Differential Calculus 8th Ed. 1895, Longmans, discusses the ovals. The technique of transparencies has been systematically used by R. W. Pohl in his Einfuhrung in die Physik, Vols. I and 3, Berlin Springer 1931, 1940. 13. Infra-Red Dispersion in the Region of Large Absorption Bands. Melvin A. Pittman; Madison College. Measurements on the dispersion of CS 2 were made in the region of the large absorption bands. The apparatus consisted of two infra-red spec¬ trometers in series, the first serving as a monochromator for the second with which the measurements were made. The first spectrometer was the conventional type with a rock salt prism while the second had a hollow prism with rock salt sides. Thermocouple currents were amplified with a Moll and Burger double galvanometer arrangement. Business Meeting At its business meeting, the membership elected the following officers: Chairman, J. Gordon Stipe; Secretary, Melvin A. Pittman; Section Editor, Frank L. Hereford. 1955] Proceedings 1954-1955 243 MINUTES OF THE SECTION OF BACTERIOLOGY [3] H. J. Welshimer, President William F. Lawrence, Vice-President Miles G. Bowles, Secretary -Treasurer J. Douglas Reid, Section Editor 1. Some Problems in the Simplification of Endamoeba histolytica Cultivation Media. E. Clifford Nelson and Muriel M. Jones; Medical College of Virginia. Agar slant cultures of E. histolytica were found to grow better if the saline was replaced after twelve hours’ incubation. Subsequent tests show¬ ed that a single washing of the sterilized rice flour has a similar effect and even enables growth of the amoeba in a simple phosphate buffered saline suspension of the powder. The addition of hemoglobin powder and mucin powder was found to enhance growth. Antibiotic inhibition of the bacterial flora of rice flour hemoglobin cultures was found to pre¬ vent E. histolytica growth. Survival was improved by addition of yeast factor, anaerobic conditions, and mucin, but complete replacement of the bacterial component has not been achieved. 2. Contamination in Bank Blood. Abraham L. Rosenzweig; Veterans Administration Hospital, Rich¬ mond. A brief review of the problem of contamination in stored bank blood is presented. The negative findings of preliminary studies on contamina¬ tion are presented, namely, with 120 samples collected by physicians when transfusions were started and with 98 discarded bottles of blood ranging in age from 7 days to 3 months. A preliminary report on a possible source of contamination of blood through minute holes remaining in rub¬ ber stoppers after withdrawal of puncture needle is presented and recom¬ mendations for correction are made. 3. Serological Studies of Lactobacilli. P. Arne Hansen and Robert H. Miller; Department of Bacterio¬ logy and the Live Stock Sanitary Service Laboratory, University of Maryland, College Park. The subgenus Thermobacterium of Lactobacillus has been studied anti- genically using the agglutination technique of Williams and Orland. L. lactis (Orla-Jensen) Holland has an antigen not described so far in other species of the genus. It seems distinct from the antigens A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I by Williams and Orland, from other homofermentative 244 The Virginia Journal of Science [September lactobacilli. It is proposed to call it K or in the new terminology by Williams, Norris and Gyorgy, 1-10. Rabbit sera prepared from L. lactis strain Dorner ATCC 8000 absorbed v/ith cells of L. casei strain Tittsler 318, seemed specifically to agglutinate L. lactis. 4. An Unusual, Small, Gram Positive Rod Isolated from Spinal Fluid. H. J. Welshimer; Department of Microbiology, Medical College of Virginia. The organism isolated from spinal fluid is a small rod generally 0.5 x 1.4 microns in dimension. On direct examination of spinal fluid the or¬ ganism stained gram negatively. The cells of very young cultures stain gram positively. After 18 hours incubation, increasing numbers of the bacteria become gram negative. The colonies are non-hemolytic on sheep’s blood agar plates, reaching a maximum size of about 4 mm. after 4-5 days at 37° C. The colonies are grey, smooth, entire, round, and slightly convex. Good growth is obtained on brain veal agar slants at 37° G., and a characteristic tackyness develops. No growth is obtained on ordinary peptone agar. Gultures on brain heart infusion broth show motility after 4-6 hours incubation at 37° G, Acid is not produced on enriched media containing rhamnose, dextrose, inulin, xylose, lactose, mannitol, sucrose, salicin, or dextrin. The organ¬ ism does not produce any ocular involvement when rubbed onto the con- junctivae of rabbits. Agglutination reactions are obtained only in low dilutions of known Listeria monocytogenes antiserum. 5. A Gomparison of the Original Lowenstein Media with Jensen’s Modification of Lowenstein in the Gulture of Mycobacterium tuberculosis. W. A. Dorsey and Jo Soles; Department of Public Health, Rich¬ mond. Tlie results of culture studies testing a large number of sputa on the original Lowenstein’s medium and Jensen’s modification indicate that the original Lowenstein medium is superior for the isolation of the human Mycobacterium tuberculosis strains, whereas the Jensen modification is better for the isolation of bovine tuberculosis strains. 6. Hum A Tissues in Tissue Gulture. A. E. Feller Department of Microbiology, University of Virginia, Charlottes¬ ville. The problems and methods involved in the use of human tissue as a medium for isolation and cultivation of viruses associated with respiratory tract infections were discussed. 1955] Proceedings 1954-1955 245 7. A Study of Some Racial Differences with Respect to Tubercu¬ losis. Margaret S. Anderson; Madison College, Harrisonburg. A study was made of tuberculosis mortality among the negro and white residents of each Virginia county. The tuberculosis mortality of the races was followed over a period of ten years. The tuberculosis mortality among the negroes after ten years dropped to a level equal to that of the white race at the beginning of the ten-year period. The mortality among the white race also dropped over the same period; however, the decline was less than in the case of the negroes. The ratio of negro to white tubercu¬ losis deaths was less at the end of the ten-year period than at the begin¬ ning. 8. The Tuberculostatic Activity of Aqueous Extracts Prepared FROM Selected Mammalian Tissues. Quentin N. Myrvik; Department of Microbiology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville. (No abstract available.) New Officers Effective January 1, 1956, the officers will be: President, A. L. Rosen- sweig; Vice-P resident, Wesley Volk; Secretary-Treasurer, Mrs. Barbara H. Caminita; Section Editor, P. Arne Hansen. 246 The Virginia Journal of Science [September MINUTES OF THE SECTION OF BIOLOGY [4] Roscoe Hughes, Chairman Jacques Rappaport, Vice-Chairman Jack D. Burke, Secretary Robert T. Brumfield, Section Editor 1. The Inheritance of Fruit^shape in Cucurbita moschata. A. M. Showalter; Madison College. Ten fairly distinct true breeding varieties differing in fruit-shape have been derived from a single ancestor in fifteen generations of inbreeding and selection. These varieties differ markedly in proportion of thickness to length of fruits. Crosses of varieties that differ only slightly generally give F;, fruits of intermediate shape and high uniformity. These F^ when selfed give F2 populations somewhat more variable than the Fj, and in some cases the range of variation exceeds the difference between the parental inbred strains. One cross gives F^ fruits distinctly longer than either of the parents. In another cross the F^ was back-crossed to one of the par¬ ents and gave fruits shorter than the Fj or either of the inbred parents. Fj plants frequently manifest hybrid vigor, and this may be assumed to affect fruit shape in some cases. It seems evident that many pairs of alleles are concerned with these differences of fruit-shape. 2. Growth of Oysters at Gloucester Point, Virginia. J. L. McHugh; Virginia Fisheries Laboratory. Oysters of various sizes, and usually of known age, have been held in trays suspended from the Laboratory pier for several years. At inter¬ vals, usually of one month, the oysters have been cleaned of marine growth, and their lengths and weights have been recorded. Growth in length reaches two maxima during the year, in spring and fall. Growth in weight is more regular, although in some summers the rate of weight increase declines during the warm months. Growth in length apparently ceases during January to March inclusive, and growth in weight reaches a minimum. The periods of most rapid growth do not coincide with the periods of heaviest oyster mortality. This knowledge has formed the basis of suggestions to oyster growers by which they may realize maximum yields. 3. Certain Bryophytes with Critical Distribution in Virginia. Paul M. Patterson; Hollins College. Examples of some recent finds which are critical in the sense of being 1955] Proceedings 1954-1955 247 at or near their limits of geographical ranges were discussed. These fall into several categories as follows: 1. Nearctic species with Virginia at or near their southern limit. 2. Southern coastal plain and tropical species reaching our southern coastal plain, or confined to the southern appalachians in this area, or distributed over both areas. 3. Southern Appalachian endemics. 4. A disjunct from southwestern U. S., Barbula Enrenbergii. 4. Observations on the Effects of Eyestalk Extirpation on the Female Crayfish, Cambarus longulus longulus Girard. Elizabeth M. Zipf; University of Virginia. Among other effects, eyestalk extirpation in the crayfish is known to hasten moulting and egg-laying. Utilizing this knowledge, the eyestalks of the crayfish, Cambarus longulus longulus, were removed in order to incite egg-laying at a date earlier than is usual among females of this species. It has been found that among animals brought into the labora¬ tory and maintained there, if their eyestalks are removed between Octo¬ ber and March, they will lay within 10 to 15 days following the opera¬ tion. A similar operation performed between the early part of March and mid-May, the normal egg-laying season, induces egg-laying within 6 to 10 days. Molting of such females occurs from 28 to 40 days after the operation, an average of about 20 days after the eggs are removed, or lost, from the pleopods. There are indications that a temperature of 11° to 13° C. (as opposed to 13° to 15° C.) will markedly retard both egg- laying and molting. 5. The Development of the Ovule, Megasporogenesis, and Mega- gaaietogenesis in Typha angustifolia. Philip E. Graef; University of Virginia. A single anatropous ovule arises from the upper inner surface of the ovary wall. The ovules are bitegmic on the convex surface and unitegmic on the concave surface. After the integuments have been differentiated and the apex of the ovule turns toward the stylar end of the ovary, a hypodermal cell of the nuceilus is differentiated as an archesporial cell. As a result of two meiotic divisions a linear row of four megaspores is formed in all the ovules examined. The first chalazal spore is always larger than the other three spores, and as it develops into a 7-celled mega- gametophyte of the “normar’ type the three micropylar spores disintegrate. 6. Betula uber (Ashe) Fernald in Smyth Go., Va. A. B. Massey and L. R. Hundley; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. W. W. Ashe found a Betula near Rye Valley Station (now Sugar Grove) in 1914 and described it as Betula nigra, var. uber. Fernald raised it to the rank of a species. The taxon has not been rediscovered. The pres- 248 The Virginia Journal of Science [September ent report is to call attention to it in hope that it may be rediscovered. The type locality was visited in 1954. Betiila nigra was the only form seen. 7. A Tendency Toward Cyclic Dimorphism in Female Crayfishes. Horton H. Hobbs, Jr.; University of Virginia. For more than three-quarters of a century the existence of a cyclic dimorphism in the male crayfishes of the subfamily Cambarinae has been known. This dimorphism, correlated with the spermatogenic cycle, has led a number of investigators to seek a similar phenomenon, correlated with the oogenic cycle, in the female crayfishes. No such dimorphism has been reported. In two Virginia crayfishes it has been observed that in early fall the cement glands, located in the sternal area of the abdomen of the females, assume a milky opaqueness which becomes more dense toward spring, the egg-laying season. Accompanying ovulation the glands become less opaque, are not visible after the spring molt, and do not reap¬ pear until immediately after the molt in late summer. It is of interest that the season in which the cement glands are apparent coincides with that of the so-called “first form” male, and that during the summer months when the cement glands are not obvious the male population is in the “second form”. It has been demonstrated that the size and degree of opacity of the cement glands during the fall and winter months reflect the relative size and color of the oocytes within the ovary. 8. Liver Restoration in the Golden Hamster After Partial Hepa- tectomy. Preliminary Report. William L. Mengebier; Madison College. The present study was instituted to determine whether the total weight of the liver of the Golden Hamster would be restored after partial hepa- tectomy. Animals were sacrificed at set intervals after removal of the left lateral lobes. The total weight of the remaining liver lobes of each animals was calculated as percentage of total body weight. Gompensa- tion in terms of increased weight in the remaining lobes became apparent twenty-four hours post operative. Complete recovery in terms of total liver weight took fourteen days. In all cases the remaining lobes became enlarged to the extent of changing the normal position of other abdominal organs. 9. A Preliminary Report on Observations of the Effects of Eye- extirpation ON Testicular Behavior in the Crayfish. Sam R. Telford, Walter H. Lewis, and John B. Kayan; University of Virginia. Previous studies by other workers have shown that the sinus gland, located in the eyestalks of decapod crustaceans, produces a hormone which inhibits molting; further, that if this gland is removed, ecdysis occurs 1955] Proceedings 1954-1955 249 shortly thereafter. It is also known that in the crayfish a cyclic sexual dimorphism in the male is correlated with the spermatogenic cycle and the usual spring and fall molts. Experiments have been performed in order to determine whether or not the removal of the sinus glands has any effect on the spermatogenic cycle. While no conclusive generalizations have been drawn from this study, there is evidence that the removal of the eyestalk, and hence the sinus gland, tends to accelerate the spermatogenic cycle. 10. The Somatic Chromosomes of Ttilhaghia. W. S. Flory, Jr.; University of Virginia. Whitaker and Flory (1955) give taxonomic and cultural notes on T. violacea Harv. along with brief chromosome descriptions based chiefly on the first microspore division, and mention that T. cepacea and T. fragrans also have chromosome numbers of n = 6. These are the first chromosome reports for the genus. The present work extends the chromosome descriptions, especially of the somatic ones, for the 6 pairs found in T. cepacea, T. fragrans, and T. violacea. Five additional species (not definitely identified and still carried under number) of this South African genus have been studied. All have 6 pairs of chromosomes except Ttilhaghia sp. No. 469S which has 12 pairs. The complement of Ttilhaghia sp. No. 7249 is rather representative of all the diploid species. The chromosomes do not vary greatly in length, but there are two longer ones (with sub-median centromeres), two medium ones (with median centromeres) and two shorter ones (one with sub-median, the other with sub-terminal centromeres). Following two hours of pre-treatment in .2% colchicine solution the respective lengths of these three chromosome groups are approximately 17/x, 14/x and 10^. The shorter chromosomes with sub-terminal centromeres are the most dis¬ tinctive with a second constriction — and euchromatic region — quite near the centromere. This same type of chromosome, with tertiary constric¬ tion, is found in each species studied here but with variations in (1) position of the centromere, (2) position of the tertiary constriction, (3) the amount of heterochromatic material between the two euchromatic blocks, and (4) the number of chromosomes of this type. 11. Alternanthera in Virginia. A. B. Massey; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. Alternanthera philoxeroicles (Mart.) Griseb., the Alligator grass, is not listed in Gray’s Manual as its recorded range northward is to North Garo- lina. It has been sent in from Hampton, Virginia, where it is reported as a pest. 12. Ghromosome Numbers in the Araceae. Gertrude Earl; University of Virginia. 250 The Virginia Journal of Science [September Species belonging to two genera in the Araceae, Zantedeschia Sprengel and Saufomatum Schott, have been investigated cytologically. Six of the eight species of Zantedeschia listed by Traub in the most recent mono¬ graph of the genus have been examined in addition to three hybrids and four varieties. In all the material used here in this genus a chromosome number of 32 was found. One previous report has given the number of Z. aethiopica (Linn.) Sprengel as 24. The species examined were Z. aethiopica, Z. alhomaculata (Hook, f.) Baillon, Z. angnstiloba. (Schott) Engl., Z. ElUottiana (Knight exWatson) Engl., Z. melanoleuca (Hook, f.) Engl., and Z. Rehmannii Engl. Sauromatum, also a small genus, has five or six species or perhaps forms of only one species. Two species, S. guttatiim Schott and S. nubicium Schott, were examined and both found to have 26 chromosomes. A 2n number of 26 has been reported previously for S. guttatum. No critical study of the Araceae has yet been made although some 25 genera have now been studied by cytologists. Basic numbers of 8, 9, 11, 12, 13, 14, and 17 have been reported, but present knowledge is too sketchy as yet to trace the evolution of the num.bers. 13. Water Content of Vertebrate Embryos and Larvae. A. M. Showalter and Harry Ruebush; Madison College. Embryos and larvae of Amphibians in various stages are weighed, desic¬ cated, and reweighed. From these weights the percentages of water are calculated. Chick fetuses and a few mammalian fetuses are similarly investigated. Results thus far indicate that the few statements in Embryology text¬ books are not very accurate. 14. Monoecious Tendencies in the Crayfish, Cambarus longtdus lon- gulus, Girard. W. H. Lewis; University of Virginia. On sectioning more than one hundred crayfish testes from a population at Piney River, Nelson Co., Virginia, two form I males were observed with oocytes developing in their testicular lobes. As many as thirty-four oocytes found at random throughout each lobe and varying in diameter from 26-117 /x. appeared similar to ovarian oocytes in all morphological respects. At the present time there is insufficient evidence to hazard an estimate on the percentage of crayfish with an ovi-testis at this local¬ ity. 15. Chromosome Complements of some Cyrtanthus Species in Sub¬ genus Monella Compared with that of C. sanguineus in Sub¬ genus Gastronema. W. S. Flory, Jr.; The Blandy Experimental Farm, University of Virginia. Cyrtanthus angustifolius, C. falcatus, C. lutescens, C. Mackenii, C. 1955] Proceedings 1954-1955 251 O'Brieni, and C. sanguineus each have 16 somatic chromosomes. The first five species named are in snbgenus Monella, while C. sanguineus is in subgenus Gastronema. The species in Monella have quite similar chro¬ mosome complements with 3 long chromosome pairs - one with median and two with submedian centromeres, and 5 shorter pairs with subtermi- nal centromeres. Cyrta7ithus sanguineus has a complement with a dis¬ tinctly different appearance: 3 long chromosome pairs — - with median, sub-median and sub-terminal centromeres, respectively; 1 medium - long pair with sub-median centromeres; 3 medium size pairs with sub¬ terminal centromeres; and 1 short pair with sub-terminal centromeres. Cyrianthus lutescens, C. Mackenii, and C. O’Brieni have been found to intercross readily with resulting hybrid progenies. Attempted crosses between C. sanguineus and C. O’Brieni, of separate subgenera, have fail¬ ed. Taylor has earlier found 2n = 16 in C. parviflorus of subgenus Monella, while Sato has reported 2n — 22 in a form identified as C. obliquus of the third subgenus, Cyrtanthus proper. 16. Oxygen Capacity Studies in Relation to Body Weight in Albino Rats. Jack D. Burke; Uinversity of Richmond. The oxygen capacity of the blood of albino rats was determined by the Roughton-Scholander micro-gasometric method as modified by Grant. Animals of different weights were studied in groups of eight, and the mean weights were reported in relation to mean oxygen capacities in volumes per cent. It was found that the mean oxygen capacity increased as the mean body weights increased. 17. Reversion of Stylonychia Giants. Stephen C. Bocskey; Madison College. Giant, cannibal forms of Stylonychia pustulata, when isolated and main¬ tained on a diet of Bacillus subtilis will revert to normal-sized organisms within 120 hours and within seven generations. The highest division rate during this reversion takes place between the 48 to 96 hour period after isolation into a pure bacterial flora medium. During this period of higher reproductive rate the Feulgen stain on dis¬ carded generations indicates the presence of nucleo -proteins within the food vacuoles; 120 hour discards give a negative Feulgen stain. Twenty-four hour bacteria feeding giants, the first generation raised on bacteria, revert to cannibalism when placed in a mixed culture of Stylonychia and bacteria. Ninety-six hour generations, followed for two days by carmine in their food vacuoles, do not revert to cannibalism in a mixed culture of Stylony¬ chia and bacteria. 252 The Virginia Journal of Science [September New Officers The following officers were elected at the Business Meeting: Chair¬ man, John C. Strickland^ Vice-Chairman J. L. McHugh; Secretary, J. N. Dent. Resigned because of other duties. 1955] Proceedings 1954-1955 253 MINUTES OF THE SECTION OF CHEMISTRY [5] J. Stanton Pierce, Chairman Richard M. Irby, Secretary Carl J. Likes, Section Editor FRIDAY, MAY 13 — 9:00 A.M. and SATURDAY, MAY 14 — AUDITO¬ RIUM, WILSON HALL Introductory Remarks — Chairman J. Stanton Pierce; University of Rich¬ mond. 1. The Effects of Various Considerations on the Air Flow THROUGH A CiGARETTE. P. M. Pedersen and E. S. Harlow; American Tobacco Company. The airflow through an unlighted cigarette serves as a means of evaluat¬ ing the ease or difficulty which a smoker may have in puffing and is one of the criteria used in quality control of manufacture. The relationship of certain physical characteristics of a cigarette, such as weight, circum¬ ference, length, moisture, and width of strand to airflow of cigarettes made from different types of tobacco have been studied. From this work it has been possible to determine correction factors for variations in weight, circumference, and length. Airflow is not materially affected by width of cut or by moisture content if other factors are kept constant. The Poiseuille relationship for laminar flow of a gas through porous media is substantially confirmed in the case of cigarettes. 2. X-RAY Photoelectron Spectrometry. Ralph G. Steinhardt, Jr.; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. When a beam of x-rays irradiates a solid target, electrons are emitted with a spectrum that is characteristic of the target atoms. The energies of these electrons may be analyzed by a magnetic or electrostatic field and their relative intensities measured with an ultra-thin window GeigeT- Muller counter. Because of the relatively low energies of x-ray photo¬ electrons, only those that originate in the surface or in the immediate sub-surface regions of the target can escape. The x-ray photoelectron spectrometer thus provides a convenient method for the analysis of sur¬ faces and sub-surface regions of solids. Both qualitative and quantitative analysis can be performed non-destructively. The degree of roughness need not interfere with analysis, and the actual roughness may be deter¬ mined if the RMS value is not less than about one micro-inch. 3. An X-ray and Metallographic Study of Large Grain Titanium. Francis J. Denise; Virginia Institute for Scientific Research. Large single crystals of high temperature beta phase titanium can be 254 The Virginia Journal of Science [September prepared by a modification of the strain-anneal method, but recrystalliza¬ tion occurs on cooling. Etching revealed the titanium rod to consist of a great many crystalline fragments which were oriented with respect to one another. This was confirmed by x-ray back reflection methods. The results indicate strongly the existence of an orientation relationship between a low temperature hexagonal phase and a high temperature cubic phase. 4. Acid and Base Combining Capacity of Zein. Carl J. Likes and Donald F. Koenig; Virginia Institute for Sci¬ entific Research. As part of a general study of factors which influence the fiber forming properties of zein, the prolamine of corn, the acid and base combining capacities of zein in 85.0% by weight iso-propyl alcohol have been inves¬ tigated. Titrations were made with a Beckman pH meter using 0.01 N HCl and NaOH, and were carried out under an atmosphere of helium. The total number of basic groups was found to be 23.3 x 10“"’ moles per gram of zein. Corresponding values, based on published amino acid analyses of zein, were calculated to be 18,3 x 10-'’ and 25.9 x 10"^, respectively. The amount of acid bound by the alcohol system itself was determined and found to be negligible. 5. Sulfur and Nitrogen Compounds as Antioxidants at Elevated T E M PER ATURES . ^ James W. Cole, Jr., Donald R. Campbell, and Robert N. Law- horn; University of Virginia. The heterocyclic structure of phenothiazine apparently is not the sole basis for its unusual antioxidant properties at 200° C. and higher. It has been shown that the reaction of the molecule with equivalent quantities of oxygen promotes species which also have antioxidant activity. The current report will show the relative activity of heterocyclic nitrogen and sulfur atoms and the effect of ring substitution on diphenyl systems, through a study of the anti-oxidant characteristics of selected compounds with strategic functional groups. Experiences will also be described with the functional systems on titanium, aluminum, copper, silver, and iron surfaces. 6. An Improved Smoking Automaton. A. E. O’Keeffe and R. C. Lieser; Philip Morris and Co., Ltd., Inc. A constant volume, positive displacement, syringe type smoking machine is described. This machine may be assembled by modifying a commer¬ cially available basic unit. 1 This research was conducted under Contract No. AF 33 (038) -22947 with the United States Air Force, under the sponsorship of the Materials Laboratory, Wright Air Develop¬ ment Center, Air Research and Development Command. 1955] Proceedings 1954-1955 255 The machine is very reproducible with regard to volume, duration and frequency of puff, and the puff pattern closely approximates that of some human beings. Volume, duration, and frequency may be varied precisely and independ- endy over wide ranges with little or no operational interruption. Eight cigarettes may be smoked simultaneously but individually by use of eight puffing mechanisms. The puff volume and duration are less sensitive to large pressure drops across cigarette and absorption train than is the case with other machines described in the literature. The authors recommend that the steel balls and weights initially used in the value assemblies be replaced with sapphire balls and that a safety filter be employed to prevent valve sticking during prolonged operation. 7. Electrochemical Preparation of Boron, Nelson F. Murphy, Richard S. Tinsley, and George F. Meenagh- an; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. A process for preparing boron by electrolysis of the molten alkali- alkali borofluoride-boron oxide mixture, at 750° to 875° C., with a cathode current density of 0.5 to 5.0 cathode amperes per sq. cm. was studied. The only appreciable impurity in the deposit is carbon which arises from decrepitation of the crucible and anode. The current efficiency of the process is about 73 per cent. A gas fired furnace is preferred to an electrically heated one, since the fumes are corrosive to the heating ele¬ ments. 8. Systematic Chromatographic Analysis for Metals. Harriett H. Fillinger; Hollins College. A fairly complete scheme of chromatographic qualitative analysis for the metals of a first course of qualitative analysis has been developed. Each of the separate groups of metals of classical schemes of qualitative analysis can be analyzed by this method in a few minutes. In addition to the handling of the individual groups of metals separately, the scheme is applicable to a general miknown containing eight to twelve kinds of metal ions with only a fraction of the separation of groups, and parts of groups, needed in classical methods of analysis. Column chromatography requiring only the simplest of regular labora¬ tory equipment is employed. Specially prepared alumina is the adsorbent used. The analyses can be accomplished by the chromatographic method in a small fraction of the time required by classical methods of qualita¬ tive analysis. 9. Guest Lecture: Fundamental Research and the Tobacco In¬ dustry, E. S. Harlow and H. R. Hanmer; American Tobacco Company. 256 The Virginia Journal of Science I September Fundamental research on tobacco and tobacco smoke has been increas¬ ingly emphasized in the tobacco industry in the last decade. Originally directed primarily to development of methods for quality control in manu¬ facture, it now is chiefly concerned with finding out the relationship between composition of tobacco and the taste and biological effects of tobacco smoke. To elucidate this major problem a thorough study of the composition of tobacco and smoke is required. The complexity of the tobacco plant and of the smoke itself requires the most modern techniques to isolate and identify the various components. Mass spectrometry, ultra¬ violet and infrared spectrophotometry, low temperature separation of gaseous constituents, the ultracentrifuge, and electron microscope are fre¬ quently employed. Tracer techniques with radioisotopes, particularly are also being used and are a means of separating and identifying tobacco precursor compounds of smoke constituents. Without such procedures, studies of this sort are almost impossible. Business Meeting A nominating committee, consisting of James W. Cole, William E. Trout, Jr., and Sidney S. Negus, nominated the following candidates as officers of the Chemistry Section for 1955-56: Chairman, Richard M. Irby, Jr.; Secretary, Mary E. Kapp; Section Editor, Carl J. Likes. These officers were elected by a unanimous vote of the members pre¬ sent. 10. Determination of Trace Quantities of Nickel in Human Blood. Maxwell L. Cluett and John H. Yoe; University of Virginia. Gram-atom absorptivity values of several Ni(II) chelates were com¬ pared in order to select the most sensitive reagent for a spectrophoto- metric determination of trace amounts of nickel. The reaction between Ni(II) and sodium diethyldithiocarbamate was chosen and studied criti¬ cally to determine the most suitable solvent, stability of reagent, effect of pH, blank characteristics, optimum concentration range, effect of foreign ions, etc. The reaction exhibits a gram-atom absorptivity of 37,300. A separation procedure based on the anion exchange behavior of Ni(n) and interfering metal ions in strong hydrochloric acid solution will be discussed. 11. Spectrophotometric Determination of Trace Quantities of Magnesium. Charles K. Mann and John H. Yoe; University of Virginia. A new, sensitive method for the determination of trace quantities of magnesium has been developed. Procedures have been devised for the elimination of interfering elements and for the determination of magnesium in the presence of larger quantities of calcium. 1955] Proceedings 1954-1955 257 12. Two New Colorimetric Reagents for the Determination of Boron. Robert L. Grob and John H. Yoe; University of Virginia. Tw^o organic compounds that give sensitive color reactions with boron have been discovered, and a procedure for their use in determination of trace quantities of this element in plants and fruit tree leaves has been developed. A method for the rapid decomposition of the sample, with subsequent separation of boron, as the trimethyl ester, is described. 13. An Apparatus for the Study of Ignition and Mass Transfer of Droplet-Vapor Systems. W. E. Rice and S. S. Stein; Experiment Incorporated. The apparatus is designed to permit a single droplet of a reactant to fall through an atmosphere of the vapor phase of another reactant with provision for determining the time of fall before ignition, in the case of combustion studies, or the degree of mass transfer, in the case of mass transport studies. During the operation of the unit, a droplet falls from the drop producer at the top and passes a photocell, which starts an interval timer and also causes a sliding valve to open as soon as the drop is ready to enter the jacketed reaction zone containing the vapor reactant. A smooth separa¬ tion between an original inert gas and the reactant vapor thereby exists when the drop enters the reactant zone. The light from the flame as a result of the reaction between the droplet and vapor causes a photocell, located at the bottom of the unit, to stop the interval timer. The appa¬ ratus can be rapidly disassembled for cleaning after each test. The rate of mass transfer between the drop and the vapor is deter¬ mined within the same unit, but with the introduction of a droplet catcher inside of the reactant tube. Drops are caught after falling various dis¬ tances and analyzed. 14. The Experimental Determination of Burning Velocity by the Bunsen Burner Technique. George J. Gibbs and Hartwell F. Galcote; Experiment Incorpo¬ rated. The burning velocities of various compounds have been investigated by many different observers in an attempt to understand the mechanism of flame propagation. This paper presents the procedure used at this laboratory, with data demonstrating the errors involved, a comparison with results from other laboratories, and the effect of moisture on flame propa¬ gation. 15. Studies of Ionization in Flame by Means of Langmuir Probes. L R. King and H. F. Galcote; Experiment Incorporated. In order to determine the ion distribution through the flame front a 258 The Virginia Journal of Science [September Langmuir probe, such as that used in studying electrical discharges in gases, was chosen as the measuring tool. By means of such an instru¬ ment it is possible to determine, among other characteristics of an ion plas¬ ma, the electron temperature and the positive-ion concentration. Although both parameters have been determined in this program, attention is direct¬ ed mostly toward a determination of the ion concentration. Results thus far indicate that the abnormally high ionization found in most flames is not due to impurities or to thermodynamically ionized nitric oxide. The arguments for this conclusion are: ( 1 ) Flames of carbon disulfide and hydrogen sulfide contain very small concentrations of ions. (2) Very lean flames at low temperatures have high ion concentrations. (3) The ionization is concentrated in a very thin region comparable in thickness to the reaction zone. (4) One cannot correlate the results at two pressures by assuming ther¬ mal ionization of contaminants. 16. A New Technique for Studying Dust Exflosions. Lloyd E. Line, Jr. and Wendall J. Clark; Experiment Incorpo¬ rated. An apparatus has been built for producing a dust cloud that can be ignited under controlled conditions. The cloud is in the form of a mov¬ ing stream of particles suspended in a oxidizer gas and is stable, uniform, and wall-free. It has about 12 inches of usable length and is ignited in a chamber containing observation windows. Provision has been made for varying gas flow, gas composition, system pressure, dust concentration, and particle size. The instantaneous control and measurement of the dust coneentration is accomplished with a light- absorption apparatus. Successful dust clouds have been made of finely-divided carbon black, charcoal, magnesium, boron, and lycopodium. Preliminary ignition experi¬ ments with some of these materials are deseribed. The apparatus will be used to obtain information that will further our understanding of the combustion of dusts. 17. Some Reactions of Butadiene Cyclic Sulfone. Robert C. Krug and C. R. Tichelaar; Virginia Polytechnic Insti¬ tute. Sulfur dioxide and 1,3-butadiene undergo a 1,4 Diels-Alder type addi¬ tion to give butadiene cyclic sulfone, a compound of relatively low thermal stability. Due to its acidie alpha hydrogen atoms, this sulfone will react with Gignard reagents, sodium hydride, and other bases. The sulfone also undergoes many addition reactions at the carbon-carbon double bond. Other properties and reactions of the butadiene cyclic sulfone will be illus¬ trated. 259 1955] Proceedings 1954-1955 18. Halogenated Isoprene Cyclic Sulfones. Robert C. Krug and Teh-Fu Yen; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. The nucleus and the side chain of isoprene cyclic sulfone may undergo halogenation, and thus a number of halogen derivatives of this sulfone could be prepared. The following reactions involved in the synthesis of certain of these compounds will be discussed: the ionic and radical types of addition, the Wohl-Ziegler halogenation of the side chain, the allylic shift, dehydrohalogenation, and isomerization. 19. Chromatographic Separation of a Coaiplex Polynuclear Hy¬ drocarbon Mixture. Frank A. Vingiello and Alexej B. Borkovec; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. A mixture of three structurally related polynuclear hydrocarbons was prepared by the cyclization of 2-(2'-naphthylmethyl)-benzophenone and their separation was attempted by several methods. Four of the methods, i.e., crystallization, selective oxidation, molecular compound formation, and preferential adduct formation will be mentioned, while the fifth one, chro¬ matography, will be discussed with regard to the following: (1) adsorb¬ ents, (2) solvents, (3) methods of separation and tracing, (4) selectivity, and (5) general aspects of the procedure. 20. The Decarbonylation of Some Carbonyl Bridge Coaipounds. Albert W. Lutz; The College of William and Mary. The application of Schmidt’s “double bond rule” to the decarbonylation of several carbonyl bridge compounds is considered. A more modern mechanistic explanation is attempted. The synthesis of cyclodecanone as an intermediate in the preparation of one of these model carbonyl bridge compounds is discussed in the light of the high speed stirring (10,000 r.p.m) technique as applied to the acyloin condensation. 21. A Submerged Combustion Boiler. Gerald Golub; Experiment Incorporated. A steam boiler which will provide for the intimate contact of the hot combustion gases with its boiler water will show many advantages. Its use, however, is limited to presently-used, closed condensing cycle units because of the presence of the non-condensable combustion gases in the steam and the necessity of pressurizing the air-fuel mixture to the steam pressure. The object of this investigation is to find a suitable heat trans¬ fer medium which would eliminate these disadvantages. When the unit is operating, a lighted propane-air burner is submerged in a bath of a molten chloride salt eutectic which is held at 800-900° F. Circulation of the salt is provided by a jet pump which pulls the colder salt from the bottom of the unit past the burner where the liquid salt mixes with the hot combustion gases. The salt continues to cycle, but 260 The Virginia Journal of Science [September the exhaust gases leave through a vent at the top of the unit. The heat is continually withdrawn from the salt bath by passing water through copper coils which encircle the unit. An electric heater is required to melt the original salt. In a given boiler room a unit of this design utilizing high output ram¬ jet type burners and this method of heat transfer could increase steam production by three to six times its present capacity. 22. Thermodynamics of Complex Ion Formation. Loren C. Hepler; University of Virginia. Tlie heats, free energies, and entropies of formation of a series of com¬ plex fluoride ions have been experimentally determined. These thermo¬ dynamic properties, especially the entropy, are interpreted in terms of what is known about the hydration of ions in solution and the bonding of one atom to another. The effects of polarization and molecular crowd¬ ing in solution are also discussed. 23. The Study of Films on Catalytic Surfaces with the Aid of Elliptically Polarized Light. Robert E. Cunningham and F. W. Young, Jr.; University of Virginia. The use of elliptically polarized light allows the measurement of films of a few molecular layers thick on a surface. This technique has been applied to films on catalytic surfaces, and the thickness of the oxide film on the (111) face of copper during the catalytic reaction of hydrogen and oxygen has been studied for a variety of conditions. 24. The Rates of Oxidation of Several Faces of a Single Crystal OF Copper with the Aid of Elliptically Polarized Light. F. W. Young; University of Virginia. The rates of oxidation of the (100), (111), (HO), and (311) faces of a copper single crystal were determined at the temperatures 70°, 106°, 130°, 159°, and 178° C. by measuring the increase in thickness of the oxide film as a function of time. A polarizing spectrometer was used to measure film-thickness. Particular emphasis was placed on preparing a smooth strain-free surface of known orientation, and on eliminating small amounts of contamination. The results showed the great differ¬ ence in the rate of oxidation with crystal face at these temperatures, the ratio of the thickness of the oxide on the (100) face to that on the (311) face being 12.5 for oxidation at 178° C. An analysis of the results ac¬ cording to the present theories of the oxidation of metals was presented. 25. Studies of the Coordination of 1,3-bis (tris-( hydroxymethyl) (-xiethyl-amino) -2-propanol with Some Cations of the First Transition Series. 1955] Proceedings 1954-1955 261 Velta Erdmanis and William E. Trout, Jr.; University of Rich¬ mond. The coordination of l,3-bis(tris-( hydroxymethyl) (-methyl-amino) -2-pro¬ panol wtih seven cations of the first transition series was studied by means of spectrophotometry and pH measurements. The composition of the com¬ plexes was studied by Job's method of continuous variations, where pos¬ sible, Stability constants were calculated from potentiometric measure¬ ments of hydrogen-ion concentrations. 26. A Further Study of Fe (III) and 1,3-bis(tris-( hydroxymethyl) ( -METHYL-AMINO ) -2-PROPANOL. Jane Bell Gladding and William E. Trout, Jr.; University of Rich¬ mond. Fe(III) and 1,3-bis (tris-( hydroxymethyl) ( -methyl-amino ) -2-propanol have been studied to determine the nature of the coordination compound which they apparently form, Spectrophotometric studies were made at pH intervals of 0.5 from pH 2.5 to pH 12. A graph of absorption versus pH gives some significant results. 27. The Oxidative Determination of Humectant Additives in To¬ bacco. H. E. Wright, Jr. and W. W. Burton; American Tobacco Co. Large quantities of humectants are used by the tobacco industry as additives for the purpose of improving the moisture-retention properties of tobacco products. Glycerol, propylene glycol, diethylene glycol, triethy¬ lene glycol, and sorbitol are among the hygroscopic agents more com¬ monly used by the manufacturers. Mixtures of humectants are analyzed quantitatively by use of the peri¬ odate and dichromate oxidations. The periodate reaction is limited to those polyols having vicinal hydroxy or alcoholic functional groups, while the dichromate ion is not at all selective in its oxidative capacity. Thus, the periodate ion reacts quantitatively with glycerol and propylene glycol, but does not react with diethylene glycol or triethylene glycol. By tak¬ ing advantage of the oxidizing properties of the periodate and dichromate ions, it is possible to evolve an analytical procedure applicable to the measurement of the humectant content of cigarettes. 28. Some Comparisons of Zein Textile Fiber with Fine Clothing Wool. George L. Walker, Jr.; Virginia-Carolina Chemical Corporation. Bulky amino acid residues distributed along polypeptide chains are thought to constitute the molecular units for both zein fiber and wool. The average amino acid residue weights of zein and wool keratin appear to be nearly identical. The structural similarity of the two fibers is fur¬ ther suggested by a comparison of their x-ray diagrams . 262 The Virginia Journal of Science i September In sueh dry mechanical properties as tensile strength, ultimate elonga¬ tion, tensile recovery, work recovery, work to stretch, Young’s modulus, and compliance ratio, zein fibers are closely similar to 80’s wool, cashmere, and vicuna. In yarn manufacture both zein fibers and cashmere wool require less carding than is normal for coarser wools, and both are high in potential contributions to softness and fineness of texture of the yarns and fabrics into which they are incorporated. 29. Synthesis and Chemistry of 0-2,4-Dichlorophenyl 0,-0-Diethyl Phosphorothioate (“V-C 13 Nemacide”) and Its Analogs. Charles L. Harowitz; Virginia-Carolina Chemical Corporation, The preparation and physical properties of 0-2,4-dichlorophenyi 0,0-di- ethyl phosphorothioate (the active ingredient in V-C 13 Nemacide) are covered. Synthetic methods are shown based on phosphorus trichloride, phosphorothioic chloride, and phosphorus xientasulfide as starting mate¬ rials. Analogs of the diethyl ester are reported, and the effect of struc¬ tural modifications on nematocidal activity are discussed. 30. The Determination of Residues of 0-2,4-Dtchlorophenyl-0,0- DiETHYL Phosphorothioate (“V-C 13 Nemacide”). George R. Boyd; Virginia-Carolina Chemical Corporation. A sensitive and accurate method of analysis has been developed for residues of 0-2,4-dichlorophenyl 0,0-diethyl phosphorothioate, the active component of “V-C 13 Nemacide”, in soils and in fruits and vegetables. The method is based on hydrolysis of the phosphorothioate ester to liberate 2,4-dichlorophenol which is determined colorimetrically by its reaction un¬ der controlled conditions with 4-aminoantipyrine. Optimum conditions have been determined for the hydrolysis of “V-C 13 Nemacide” and for the development of the red color with 4-aminoan¬ tipyrine. Samples of treated soils and of fruits and vegetables grown in treated soils have been analyzed for residues by the procedure developed in this work. 31. The Preparation of Some New Aromatic Ketones. Frank A. Vingiello and J. Robert Thornton; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. The most common procedure for effecting the aromatic cyclodehydra¬ tion of ketones involves heating them with a mixture of hydrobromic and acetic acids. Since this reaction mixture is also an effective hydrolyzing solution, it cannot be used to cyclize ketones containing hydrolyzable groups. We are currently developing cyclization procedures involving the use of anhydrous catalysts. As part of this research we have synthesized three new ketones : 4'-methoxy, 4'-chloro, and 4'-cyano-2-benzylbenzo- 1955] Proceedings 1954-1955 263 phenone. We will describe, in detail, the syntheses which led to the above-mentioned ketones. 32. The Preparation of Some Methyl- and Trichloromethyl-o-ben- ZYL-PHENYLCARBINOLS. Frank A. Vingiello and Peter E. Newallis; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. In the course of preparation of chlorinated anthracenes, some methyl- and trichloromethyl-o-benzylcarbinols were prepared. These compounds were synthesized by the addition of acetaldehyde or chloral to the appro¬ priate Grignard reagent. In some cases the product isolated was an ex¬ tremely viscous oil which had a wide boiling range. In such cases the alcohols were identified by converting them to their acetates, which were crystalline. The synthesis of the alcohols and their acetates will be de¬ scribed. 33. Trityl Ethers of Negatively Substituted Alcohols. J. S. Belew, J. O. Edwards,^ and R. Layton; University of Vir¬ ginia. Trityl chloride reacts with a negatively substituted alcohol in the pres¬ ence of a tertiary amine to produce the corresponding ether. This study is restricted to those substituted ethanols having three like negative sub¬ stituents on the two position. The trityl ethers of some of these alcohols are obtained in good yields as solids, and they are recommended as deriva¬ tives for identification purposes. Structures of the ethers are supported by analytical evidence and infra-red spectra. 2 Brown University. 264 The Virginia Journal of Science [September MINUTES OF THE SECTION OF EDUCATION [6] Jack H. Boger, Chairman Deforest L. Strunk, II, Secretary James B. Patton, Jr., Section Editor FRIDAY, MAY 13 - 9:00 A.M. — ROOM 27, WILSON HALL 1. An Application of the Informal Reading Inventory. Katherine Minor Anthony; Madison College. The Informal Reading Inventory studies the subject’s reading attitudes and abilities in an interview-test situation. The child reads from a series of school readers and the examiner uses a mimeographed record blank. Levels of achievement are secured in four areas: (1) word recognition, (2) oral reading, (3) silent reading, and (4) listening, including both vocabulary and comprehension. This Informal Reading Inventory fur¬ nishes data for diagnosis and remedial suggestions. It also indicates the grade level of materials to be used for the child’s free reading and for teacher-directed or instructional reading. An informal reading inventory was used as the core of individual read¬ ing analysis. A pattern has been developed for securing supplementary data concerning personal problems, reading interests, auditory and visual difficulties. A group inventory is being prepared for use by classroom teachers. 2. The New Science. Winfred P. Elson; Calverton High School. 3. The Prediction of Achievement in High School Biology. Alonzo M. Myster and Emily B. Murdock; Virginia State College. The problem investigated in this study was to determine the relation¬ ship of total reading ability and selected reading factors to achievement in biology and at the same time investigate the value of mental age in predicting academic success in biology. The variables considered in this study were general mental age, express¬ ed in months, total reading ability and unit skills of reading, expressed in terms of grade level or placement and biology grades for first term, second term and average of the two terms. These biology grades were assigned values ranging from a value of four for A, to a value of zero for F. The sizes of the correlations were small but of a size sufficiently large to make predictions possible. The errors of prediction will be in many cases very large. The relationship between general mental age and achievement in biology was greater than that between reading and achievement in biology. Although it was quite obvious that the perfonn- 1955] Proceedings 1954-1955 265 ance of females was above that of the males, these differences were not statistically significant. It was possible to develop regression equations yielding estimates of achievement, which estimates were better than ran¬ dom guesses. The standard deviations around the regression lines were generally relatively large. Likewise, the sampling error of the regres¬ sion coefficient was not so small as might be desked. Moreover, the errors of estimate for a particular value of X, and especially for a par¬ ticular individual, were very large. In spite of these evidences of unrelia¬ bility, the equations here reported are to be recommended in preference to subjectively derived estimates of achievement. 4. Individual and Small Group Methods of Laboratory Instruc¬ tion IN General Gollege Ghemistry. W. Donald Glague; Bridgewater College. This study was an attempt to determine the effectiveness of individual work in the laboratory as compared with working in pairs in General Gol¬ lege Chemistry. The class was divided into two sections on the basis of class schedules, given a standardized test in General College Chem¬ istry, taught by the method assigned, and given another standardized test in General Chemistry. Finally a teacher-constructed questionnaire was given students to determine student reaction to the methods used for instruction. Results were tabulated for matched pairs and for sections as a whole. From the standardized tests, the outcomes were as follows: Students showed about equal improvement under both methods; students of high academic ability tended to do better working alone; students of lower ability tended to do better working with someone; students greatly prefer¬ red working with someone; both time and materials were saved by work¬ ing in pairs. On the basis of this study, variety in methods of laboratory instruction in General College Chemistry would seem desirable. 5. A Project in the Cooperative Production of Instructional Guides for Teachers of Science. John Bryant Chase, Jr.; University of Virginia. The purposes of this study were: (I) to discover the desires of select¬ ed teachers of science throughout the United States for instructional guides in science; (2) to produce a sample instructional guide in science, meet¬ ing the desires of the teachers selected; and (3) to use the sample guide to help teachers produce cooperatively through classroom trial other in¬ structional guides. State Departments of Education in thirty-eight states suggested 324 teachers who might be interested in joining this project. Each of the 324 teachers was asked by questionnaire to recommend topics for which he would like to have instructional guides. To determine what teachers felt should be included in an instructional guide, seventeen proposed items 266 The Virginia Journal of Science r September were listed, and teachers were asked to revise and supplement the list. One hundred and thirty-two teachers from thirty-six states responded. After an analysis of the topics recommended for development, Micro¬ scopic Living Things in Relation to Human Activities was selected as the topic on which to develop a sample instructional guide. To discover the desires of science teachers in Virginia for instructional guides, 736 teachers were asked by questionnaire to indicate at least three topics for which they would like to have guides. Relying on this help a sample instruc¬ tional guide on Microscopic Living Things in Relation to Human Activi¬ ties was prepared. The sample guide was mailed to participating teachers to use in teaching this topic, and they were asked to report their ideas for improvement of the guide. With the aid of 101 Virginia teachers, four additional instructional guides have been completed; (1) The Earth’s Weather and How It Affects Us, (2) Heredity and Evolution, (3) The Nature of Matter and Chemical Energy, and (4) The Nature and Use of Electricity. 6. A Study in the Cooperative Improvement of the Quality of Educational Experiences in the Laboratory School of Long- wood College. Helen R. McDowell; Longwood College. The purpose of this study was to determine how the quality of the educational experience of pupils in the laboratory school of Longwood College could be improved. Related to the purpose and essential to its realization was the problem of uniting the efforts of the instructional personnel in developing a consistent philosophy that would serve as a guide in directing the experience of children. The exeprimenter, who was a supervisor in the school, recognized the responsibility of offering positive leadership without imposing a program upon the staff. Procedures, at first, took the form of indirect guidance to individuals and small groups in the laboratory school. This approach was used in working with the supervising teachers, committees working on curriculum development, and student teachers. When evidences of improved living and learning began to appear, the experimenter fostered a cooperative spirit throughout the school by initiat¬ ing a way to develop a school philosophy, illustrating it with actual class¬ room situations. 7. An Analysis of the True Value Factor in the Formula for THE Calculation of the Distribution of Monies from the Mini¬ mum Education Program Fund and the Salary Equalization Fund of the Virginia State Department of Education with Particular Reference to Northampton County. Paul G. Watson; Cape Charles High School. The purpose of this study was (1) to determine whether assessment values in the assessment ratio actually represented assessment values of 1955] Proceedings 1954-1955 267 the county as a whole; (a) to apply the information in (1) above to whether errors were made in determining the true value of locally taxable wealth in Northampton County which could affect the distribution of state educational monies to the county and hence to other localities as well. The method of procedure was a very simple descriptive approach using a comparison of assessment data compiled from the State Department of Taxation’s 1950 Assessment Ratio Study for Northampton County with the actual assessed values in the county and with a 25% sample of these values. The study revealed that (1) The assessment ratio represented 1.1% of the assessed valuation of the county and 2.4% of the items of the county. (2) The average assessed value of a piece of real estate in the assessment ratio was $518, whereas, the actual assessed value of an average piece of real estate was $1,132. (3) Predominantly low-valued property was utilized in the assessment ratio. A projection of the assessment values of the assessment ratio against the assessment values o fthe 25% sample showed 46.6% to 20% respectively in properties assessed below $998. (4) The same type of projection as used in (3) above was made of the number of items in the assessment ratio against those of the 25% sample in the very low range of $998 and below. The percentage was 86.2 to 67 respectively. (5) Only one piece of property was used in the assess¬ ment ratio that was valued above $5,000. The 25% sample showed that 28.7% of the assessed valuation of the county fell in this range. Since Northampton County expended such a small amount above the 45 cents per $100 of true valuation necessary to participate in the Mini¬ mum Education Program Fund and the Salary Equalization Fund, and since it is accepted that high-valued property is generally assessed low and low-valued property is generally assessed high, in the opinion of the author the above listed findings are significant. 8. A Preliminary Investigation in the Teaching of College Bio¬ logy. Mary H. Richardson; Stratford College. This project came about because of a profound dislike of college biology textbooks which separate the zoological and botanical aspects of the study. The purpose of this investigation was to dovetail the two kingdoms, plant and animal, so that students would acquire a total picture of the life processes of plants and animals. One class in biology was taught by the old stereotyped, textbook meth¬ od, another by this new method. In the latter, the students planned the course by choosing and outlining the areas such as, “Cells and Protoplasm”, “Reproduction”, etc., forming groups for study and research, planning for speakers or field trips and using visual aids. The instructor gave ap¬ proval before assignments were carried out. Results were most gratifying. Scientific thinking and procedure re- 268 The Virginia Journal of Science [September placed the simple acquiring o£ facts. Interest was keener, group work made for better citizenship, research increased, desired associations were made, and much was learned. 9. Construction and Validation of a Scale for Measuring Atti¬ tude TOWARD Mathematics and a Scale for Measuring Attitude TOWARD THE SCIENCES. Alonzo M. Myster, Doris M. Wood, and Lillian M. Banks; Vir- ginia State College. The results of investigations designed to construct and validate a scale for measuring attitude toward mathematics and an attitude toward the sciences are reported. For both the mathematics and the science attitude scales it was possible to break the over-all attitude variable down into three components: attitude toward studying the subject, attitude toward a vocation in the field, and general attitude. The coefficients of reliability for the S-, G-, and V-scales of the mathematics attitude variable were, respectively, .8902, .9071, and .9933. For the science attitude scale utilizing the sigma method scoring the coeffieients of reliability for the S-, G-, and V-scales were .745, .592, .928, respectively. For the sigma method of scoring these values were .918, .765, and .910, respectively. In the case of the mathematics attitude scale it was shown that tha scale differential between groups of individuals whose attitude should logically differ on an average. In the case of the science attitude scale it was shown that the sigma method of scoring, except in the case of the G-scale, yielded estimates of reliability differing from those obtained when the five-point method of scoring was used. Both the science attitude scale and the mathematics attitude scale provided convincing evidence that the S-, G-, and V-scales have different population coefficients of reliability. The attitude scales here reported are of sufficient reliability to justify their use in actual classroom practice for practical purposes of teaching and guidance. In actual practice it is to be borne in mind that attitude toward studying, attitude toward vocations, and general attitude will not be estimated with equal reliability. Nothwithstanding this fact the scales here reported are to be recommended over more subjective techniques or procedures of attitude evaluation. Panel Discussion The Manpower Shortage in the Scientific Fiflds and the Implica¬ tions FOR Science Education in the Public Schools. Jack H. Boger, Richmond Public Schools; J. W. Cole, University of Virginia; Alfred L. Wingo, State Department of Education; Alex Sadie, Allied Chemical and Dye Corporation, Hopewell 1955] Proceedings 1954-1955 269 Busienss Meeting The report of the nominating committee was presented and the fol¬ lowing officers were elected by the Section of Education to serve for the year 1955-1956: Chairman, DeForest L. Strunk, 11; Secretary, W. Do¬ nald Clague. 270 The Virginia Journal of Science I September MINUTES OF THE SECTION OF ENGINEERING [7] Phillip L. Melvhxe, Chairman Dudley Thompson, Secretary Robert M. Hubbard, Section Editor FRIDAY, MAY 13 AND SATURDAY, MAY 14 — 9:00 A.M. — ROOM 201, BURRUSS SCIENCE HALL 1. Investigation of Slotted and Perforated Transonic Nozzles. Robert W. Truitt and Arthur C. Bruce; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. A comparison is made of solid and open tunnel working sections. In closed and open tunnels it is shown that wall corrections are required for angle of attack and drag coefficient. In solid wall supersonic tunnels an undesirable characteristic is the reflection of shock waves. In the tran¬ sonic range a phenomenon known as “choking” occurs in solid wall tun¬ nels and prevents testing in the neighborhood of Mo = 1. To overcome these undesirable characteristics of solid and open tun¬ nels, partially open tunnels were designed and constructed by employ¬ ing slots or perforations. They have the ability to make the wall correc¬ tions for subsonic flow equal to zero, to give noticeable shock and expan¬ sion wave cancellation, and to allow testing in the neighborhood of Mo = 1. Mach number distributions which were obtained with the V. P. I. slotted and perforated nozzles indicated that the slotted nozzle gave better distrib¬ utions. The distributions in both nozzles became less satisfactory as the speed increased. Observations of flow about wedges in each nozzle indicated that the perforated nozzle gave better wave cancellations. It is concluded that the V. P. I. slotted tunnel is more advantageous for sub¬ sonic flow and the perforated nozzle for supersonic flow. 2. A New Method of Accident Analysis and its Application to Highway Engineering. Alfred Vick, III; Virginia Department of Highways. The Highway Department has an accumulation of traffic accident information in the accident records which is filed by the individual drivers involved, and the investigating officers of the vehicle accidents occurring in Virginia. An Accident Analysis System was recently established by the Highway Department in order to provide information to serve as a basis for recommendations for correcting deficiencies on existing highways and to aid in the sound design of new highways. Several brief examples are given of field investigations made at accident prone locations and other special accident studies, all of which make use of the Accident Analysis System. 1955] Proceedings 1954-1955 271 3. Let's Take the ‘"Burgers” out of Control Systems. B. A. Niemeier; Consulting Engineer, Richmond. Problems encountered and generally apparent as a result of the lack of understanding in the general field of controls are reviewed. In lan¬ guage for the layman and using a series of colloquialisms an attempt is made to educate the professional and subprofessional toward a more basic understanding of controls. From an engineering point of view all con¬ trols are categorically examined from the safety or convenience aspect. 4. Model Studies of Prestressed Concrete Beams Used in the Hampton Roads Approach Bridges. Ignacio Romero; Virginia Council of Highway Investigation and Research. Tliere are cases in engineering where the mathematical solution of cer¬ tain structural forms becomes too extensive and involved to be of prac¬ tical use, or where verification of the accuracy of analytical solutions by means of tests is required. In either case the use of models could be of great help to obtain the desired information. The Virginia Council of Highway Investigation and Research is con¬ ducting an investigation of model studies of prestressed concrete beams used in the Hampton Roads approach bridges. A 50-foot span stringer was chosen as prototype, and models were constructed to scales of 0.1, 0.2, and 0.3. The data indicate that prestressed concrete models exhibit a generally true behavior within the elastic limit. Values outside of the elastic range show a tendency in the models to increase in strength with the reduc¬ tion of the scale factor, a fact that has also been established in previous investigations with plain and reinforced concrete. After the completion of this study, it may be possible to find out whether model analysis is feasible outside of the elastic limit of the stresses. 5. A Study of Highway Sign Legibility Terrence M. Allen; Virginia Council of Highway Investigation and Research. The use of reflectorized materials has greatly increased the night legi¬ bility of highway signs. However, these materials have raised new prob¬ lems. Materials differ greatly in reflectance characteristics and cost, and there is need for basic information on the relationships between sign reflectance and legibility under night highway conditions. A field experiment with one specific type of sign is reported. The complexity of results indicated need for laboratory study, with each of the important factors controlled experimentally. A laboratory experiment involved four factors: sign brightness, surrounding illumination, letter series, and contrast direction. Statistical analysis showed interaction be¬ tween brightness and the other factors. Curves are presented showing results for each factor. The phenomenon of irradiation and its relation 272 The Virginia Journal of Science [September to highway signs is discussed. Effects of opposing headlight glare were studied, and found to be very different for different levels of sign bright¬ ness. The general relationship of brightness and legibility is used to illus¬ trate the way in which design criteria for reflectorized signs will be developed. 6. ScHLiEREN Photography, High Brilliance Light Source. Orville R. Harris; University of Virginia. A high brilliance, high frequency light source has been developed for use in Schlieren air flow photography. A peak brilliance of up to 174 million candles per square inch and an average brilliance of up to 62 million candles per square inch over a ten microsecond period has been obtained. The repetition rate is continuously variable from 10 to 5000 cycles per second provided the maximum power input does not exceed one kilowatt at the highest frequency, and this repetition rate can be synchronized to the impulse generator output of a motion picture camera. 7. Theory of Free Streamlines in Compressible Flow. Robert W. Truitt; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. The modified Lorentz transformation of the Sound-Space Theory is used to derive a relation between compressible and incompressible free- streamlines. It is shown that an exact solution of the Sound-Space coordi¬ nate transformation is possible for the case of free streamlines in com¬ pressible flow. The general expression is applied to several examples of free stream¬ line flow from classical hydrodynamic theory. A simplified analysis is given for the establishment of two-dimensional low supersonic flow in a slotted transonic-type working section. The amount of slot opening for an effective minimum-length nozzle is found to be a function only of design Mach number. 8. A Study of Variables Affecting Chemical Control of Shrubs ON Power Line Right-of-Ways in Southwest Virginia. Herbert P. Olson and Frank C, Vilbrandt; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. Variables affecting the chemical control of shrubs were studied on selected plots on Appalachian Power Line right-of-ways. The investiga¬ tion was limited to the Roanoke area, and the specific shrubs studied were locust, sumac, and ailanthus. The variables studied were time of spraying, herbicides used, quantity of herbicides, spraying method, rain¬ fall, terrain, exposure, climate, age of shrub, and virility of shrub. Ob¬ servations were made on the commercial herbicide applications perform¬ ed by the Bartlett Tree Expert Company in 1951, 1952, and 1953. The effect of each variable could not be determined effectively because of the short time association with the project. The dominating variables 1955] Proceedings 1954-1955 273 are time of spraying, rainfall, quantity and type of herbicides used, and virility of shrub. Further investigation should be continued for the next three years. These investigations should include replications wherever possible, with statistical implications. A colored pictorial record of the eight test plots was obtained for Novem¬ ber, 1954, and April, 1955. 9. Calculation of Individual, Mass-Transfer Coefficients for Two-Phase, Liquid Extraction Systems. John E. Lastovica and Nelson F. Murphy; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. A method is presented for calculating interfacial concentrations and film mass-transfer coefficients for liquid extraction systems. Using the ternary phase diagram, a graphical solution is presented. The same solution can be made algebraically using the distribution curve and the equations ob¬ tained from material balances: C.., = (Lw2 ^w2 + Ls2 Cs2) Lw2 + _Ls2 m (Lwi + Lhi Csi) - N) + (L,i + N) m m where: C solute concentration, Ib./cu. ft. N = rate of mass transfer, taken as positive when solute is m — distribution coefficient L = phase flow rate, cu. ft./hr. subscripts: wi and si — reference to the water and solvent side of an interface, respectively wl and w2 =: referenee to inlet and outlet water streams of an ex¬ tractor, respectively si and s2 = reference to inlet and outlet solvent streams of an ex¬ tractor, respectively Film coefficients, calculated by this method, can be converted into over¬ all coefficients. These were shown to agree with published values regard¬ less of extractor design. 274 The Virginia Journal of Science [September 10. Characteristics of Sieve Plates for Contacting Liquid and Vapor. James I. Lankford; University of Virginia. Capacity data have been developed for use in industrial sieve-plate columns. Water and air were used in a transparent plastic column 12 inches square having plates 6" by 12" by thick. The holes varied from 1/32" to in diameter. The variables measured included pres¬ sure drop, weepage point, froth height, and entrainment level, all measur¬ ed at various air mass velocities, liquid rates, and liquid depths. For small holes pressure drop increased as air rate increased; for larger holes pressure drop passed through a minimum before increasing. Froth height was relatively constant. Entrainment increased rapidly at high air rates. 11. Individual Dynode Voltage Regulator for Photo-Multiplier Tubes. Bruce d’E. Flagge and Orville R. Harris; University of Virginia. Extensive use of multiplier phototubes in scintillation counters, sus¬ pension systems, and photometers, in recent years, has increasingly em¬ phasized the need for good stabilization of the individual dynode voltages. This voltage stabilization would stabilize phototube gain. Gain stability has been attempted, with various degrees of success, with regulated power supplies and batteries, but it is only recently that much has been done to regulate the individual voltages between dynodes. High voltage multi¬ plier phototube operation has been reported by Stump and Talley in Rev. Sci. Inst., p. 1132, Nov. 1954. This was accomplished by the regulation of the last two dynode potentials by VR tubes, but regulation of all dynodes in this manner necessarily results in rather cumbersome equip¬ ment and a multi-conductor cable. The latter, due to the relatively high voltages, is subject to problems of current leakage and voltage break¬ down between cable conductors. These problems have been eliminated by the development of an indivi¬ dual dynode regulating system which can be mounted on the phototube socket in much the same manner as, and with no more difficulty than, the common bleeder resistance voltage divider. The report is organized to explain the operation and design of this system. 12. Causes of Higihvay Sign Failure. Arthur L. Straub; Virginia Council of Highway Investigation and Research. A questionnaire survey was conducted to gather information on sign replacements in Virginia. Data (age at replacement, height, location, message, cause of replacement, etc.) were secured on 3,500 signs (a 6% sample). Overall age at replacement was 34.3 months. Natural weath¬ ering accounted for 40.7% of replacements at an average age of 44.3 1955] Proceedings 1954-1955 275 months; vandalism, 32.5% at 32.1 months; change in policy or law, 19.3% at 25.0 months; vehicle damage, 7.5% at 24.5 months. Based on natural failure, costs attributable to lost life were: vandalism, $72,500 per year (11.7% of total sign costs); change in policy or law, $67,500 (10.9%); vehicle damage, $27,000 (4.4%). The data did not justify recommenda¬ tions to change sign locations to reduce natural failure or vehicle damage. Gunshot damage was prevalent during hunting season. Signs near schools or school bus stops were three times as likely to be marked up as those near other public places. The probability of a sign being marked up was three times greater if it were within six feet of the ground. There¬ fore, this type of damage could probably be reduced if only signs near schools and school bus stops were raised. Other significant relationships were cited and recommendations made. 13. An Investigation of the Properties of Various Gradations Meeting F-1, Sand-Asphalt, Specifications. Philip E. McIntyre; Virginia Council of Highway Investigation and Research. Virginia sand asphalt pavements are fairly short lived and the dura- ability of these pavements is much less than asphaltic concrete. The short life is attributed to rapid oxidation of the asphalt which is per¬ mitted by the high void content of the mixture. Therefore, this study was proposed to investigate the properties of various gradations meeting Virginia's F-1, sand-asphalt, specifications, and to correlate these proper¬ ties with the gradations in an attempt to locate the most desirable grad¬ ings from the standpoint of good stability and low air void content. Using three basic grading groups and allowing only one extremity of each curve to vary at a time, a total of thirteen gradings was designed. The Marshall test method was used throughout the study, however; particular emphasis was given only to the stability and per cent voids- total-mix figures. The most important results can be summarized as follows: (1) an increase in top size material produced an increase in stability; (2) an increase in top size material produced a decrease in voids; (3) an increase in filler produced an increase in stability; (4) an increase in filler pro¬ duced a decrease in voids; and (5) an increase in filler produced a de¬ crease in the asphalt demand. 14. Design and Gonstruction of an Ultrasonic System for Study OF Liquid-Liquid Extraction. Hughey A. Woodle, Jr. and Dudley Thompson; Virginia Poly¬ technic Institute. Possible application of ultrasonic energy to unit operations has inter¬ ested various chemical engineers for several years. A laboratory size pilot plant has been designed and constructed to facilitate study of effect of ultrasonic energy on mass transfer in liquid-liquid extraction. Ultra- 276 The Virginia Journal of Science [September sonic equipment is a Brush Hypersonic generator of 250 watts rated output used in conjunction with bowl-shaped barium titanate piezoelec¬ tric crystal of approximately 400 kilocycles per second frequency. A single contact cell contactor for two liquid phases has been designed to utilize focused ultrasonic waves issuing from barium titanate element. Overall equipment will handle continuous flow of most two-phase, multi¬ ple component liquid systems with flow rates for each phase ranging up to one half gallon per minute and could be used for ultrasonic studies of two-phase liquid systems in several unit operations other than mass transfer and liquid-liquid extraction by design and attachment of par¬ ticular type reaction chamber desired. Instrumentation for use in eco¬ nomic study of power used in ultrasonic treatment of the liquid system is an integral part of the apparatus. First liquid system to be studied using pilot plant will be acetone-water-1, 1, 2-trichloroethane. 15. Use of Prestressed Concrete in the Hampton Roads Bridge Tunnel Project. J. N. Clary; Virginia Department of Highways. Prestressed concrete provides a material that will be free of tensile cracks and should be less subject to deterioration from water. Because of this property as well as for economy in construction, prestressed con¬ crete has been chosen for use in the trestle bridge approaches to the Hampton Roads Tunnel. There are to be a total of 189 spans each 50 feet long; 65 spans are in the north approach and 124 are in the south approach. All spans will be supported on concrete pile bents. AH bents in the north approach trestle and 64 bents in the south trestle will contain four 24^'' square pre¬ cast, prestressed, pretensioned concrete piles each. These are prestressed using 32 cables of 3/8" diameter. The remaining 59 bents have 2 piles each. These will be 54" diameter cylindrical concrete piles centrifugally cast in sections 16 feet long. These sections are later joined end to end and prestressed by post-tensioning and grouting-in the prestressing cables. It is believed that the use of prestressed concrete in these structural members will provide maximum service life in this location where they will be exposed to the action of salt water. Business Meeting The chairman convened the business meeting at 4:10 P.M. on Fri¬ day, May 13. The previously appointed nominating committee consisting of R. W. Truitt, B. A. Niemeier, and R. M. Hubbard presented the following two names on a slate of officers for the year 1955-1956, who were unanimously elected to serve: Chairman, Dudley Thompson Secretary, David Michael Grim. A report of the Section Editor was heard. After discussion of the method 1955] Proceedings 1954-1955 277 of preparing the scroll for the George Washington Engineering Award, it was decided to prepare printed sheets for use in the next few years. The possibility of having special meeting sponsored by the Engineering Section at other times than the annual meeting was discussed, and Mr. Melville was instructed to mention the desires of the Section to members of the Council of the Academy. From four contestants describing their exhibits, Mr. William Conde of the Huntington High School, Newport News, Va. was selected to receive the 1955 George Washington Engi¬ neering Award. The business meeting then adjourned. 16. A Study of Bond Between Pretension Steel and Concrete in Prestressed Concrete. Charles E. Echols; Virginia Council of Highway Investigation and Research. A novel testing procedure was devised by which loads were applied to either end of a collapsible metal box cast in the center of the experi¬ mental concrete beam containing a single pretensioning unit. Test loads compressed the concrete with greater force than offered by the opposing strain on the wire and at this point bond between wire and concrete failed. Tests with 0.146 inch diameter smooth wire showed that adhesive bond is effective only over a length of embedment of about 18 inches when concrete compressive strength is 6000 psi. Bonding qualities for this smooth wire improved when the pretension rose above 90,000 psi. In the pretension transfer range of 75,000 to 125,000 psi, concrete compressive strengths under 4500 psi could not be depended upon to develop adhesive bond for the smooth wire. A comparative study of 5/16 inch diameter stranded wire pretension¬ ing units composed of six 0.100 inch diameter smooth wires wrapped around a 0.108 inch diameter smooth wire revealed that the eritical con¬ crete compressive strength for developing adhesive bond was about 3500 psi. Dimpled wire appeared to have bonding ability 33 1/3 per eent in excess of that developed by stranded wire. 17. An Analytical Method for Analyzing Hipped Plate Structures. Daniel Frederick; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. Using the classical theory for the bending and extension of plates, solu¬ tions for each plate of the structure are written in series form. The boundary conditions at all edges not at a fold are taken into account in the usual manner. At each fold, the displacements and stresses must be continuous. This permits the writing of the proper number of equa¬ tions to evaluate all of the constants. However, contrary to existing proposed solutions, the extension of one plate contributes to the bend¬ ing of the other and vice versa. It is assumed that the effects of the bending and extension can be added linearly. 278 The Virginia Journal of Science [September 18. Atomic Explosions and Structural Stability. Henry L. Kinnier; University of Virginia. As a result of the first atomic explosions in August, 1945, and the fast pace at which the atomic scientists of the world have developed larger and more destructive nuclear bombs, the structural engineering profes¬ sion has found itself faced with the difficult, if not impossible, task of designing and building structures that can resist the terrific effects of these explosions. It was soon recognized that complete and unqualified ‘"blast-proof” design and construction was impossible; it was also realized that there were many design features and methods of construction that would pre¬ vent complete or even partial collapse of a structure under severe con¬ ditions. The most important of these structural features are thought to be: (1) continuity in design ,that is, the use of continuous reinforced concrete frames or welded steel frames with stout moment resisting joints; (2) utilization of appropriate building materials; (3) the prudent use of geometrical shapes. Blast resistant construction is, of course, more expensive than the con¬ ventional industrial building construction that is generally used in the United States today but not prohibitively so. The increase in cost will depend upon many variable factors that would be set up in the design specifications. 19. Investigation of Wedges at Angle of Attack. Robert W. Truitt and Robert D. Jones; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. A series of wind tunnel tests was run on three symmetric diamond wedges (5°, 7V2°, and 10°) to determine the pressure distributions. The pressure distributions were integrated to find the lift and pressure drag coefficients for a series of angles of attack. The results are compared with theory and other high speed experimental results. 20. A Semi-Instantaneous Rainfall Ratemeter, Leo F. Goeller; University of Virginia. Rain gauges in general consist of a cylindrical collector and a weigh¬ ing or volume measuring system. The Universal Recording Rain Gauge delivers collected rainfall to a tipping bucket mechanism which records on a clockwork-driven recording drum. At rainfall rates of one milli¬ meter per hour the bucket tips at about fifteen minute intervals. The rain gauge described records accurately at fifteen second intervals rain¬ fall rates as low as one millimeter per hour. The output of a number of collectors may be combined electrically in the integrator described to give an accurate average rainfall for any specific area at fifteen second intervals. The instrument may also be used as a rainfall totalizer not susceptible to evporation losses at low rainfall rates. 1955] Proceedings 1954-1955 279 21, The Design of a Pilot Plant for the Production of Maleic Acid Hydrazide. Willard H, Sawyer and Frank C. Vilbrandt; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. Maleic acid hydrazide is a plant hormone which will reduce the growth of the plant, but will not cause plant or soil sterility. This characteristic makes maleic acid hydrazide useful as a herbicide. The purpose of this investigation was to determine the optimum synthesis method and con¬ ditions, to analyze cost, and to design a pilot plant for the productioiL of maleic acid hydrazide. It was concluded from this investigation that the optimum synthesis method and conditions were: (1) five minutes for the reaction time, (2) a stoichiometric quantity of 85 per cent hydrazine hydrate, and (3) a 10 per cent excess of the stoichiometric quantity of maleic anhydridge; the reaction occurred at 85° F., with the hydrazine hydrate dissolved in 95 per cent ethyl alcohol; the ethyl alcohol constituted 73 weight per cent of the reaction mass. A 26 per cent of the theoretical yield was obtained. The pilot plant was designed to produce 10 pounds of purified maleic acid hydrazide per day. With a competitive selling price of $4.38 per pound, the total fixed plus working capital must be $129,377. A re¬ search subsidy of $96,000 a year was required to produce a 10.3 per cent return on the investment. 22. Correlation of Soil Properties and Index Constants. C. Page Fisher and William H. Vogelsang; Froehling and Rob¬ ertson, Inc., Richmond. The results of about sixty-five laboratory analyses of undisturbed sam¬ ples from the Norfolk, Viiginia, area are examined. A brief description of the general geology of the area is given. The sampling and laboratory testing techniques and equipment are described. The soils are described as stratified sands, silts, and clays in a complex arrangement with a large but variable organic content. Much of the organic material was in a good state of preservation. The data indicate little or no correlation between the Standard Pene¬ tration Test and laborator}’ shear strengths, but do show that the con¬ solidation characteristics may be estimated from the Atterberg Limits. 280 The Virginia Journal of Science [September MINUTES OF THE SECTION OF GEOLOGY [8] William T. Harnsberger, Chairman William T, Parrott, Vice-Chairman Marceli.us H. Stow, Secretary W. D. Lowry, Section Editor FRIDAY, MAY 13, 1955 — • 9:00 A.M. — ROOM 209, BURRUSS • SCIENCE HALL. 1. Was There a “Fall-out” of Radioactive Material in Lexington, Virginia in May 1954? Marcellus H. Stow; Washington and. Lee University. Normal background radioactivity in Lexington, Virginia, is 0.025 MR/ HR. On May 13, 1954, the weather was clear in the morning and cloudy in the afternoon. During the morning a scintillation counter indicated normal background radioactivity; in the afternoon it indicated 0.25 MR/ HR, or 10 times normal. The next day, May 14, there was a heavy rain all day; in the morning 0.4 MR/HR was registered and in the after¬ noon 0.25 MR/HR. The third day. May 15, was cloudy with light showers and the counter read 0.25 MR/HR in the morning. On May 16, there was light rain in the early morning; no instrument readings were taken that day. The weather on May 17 v/as clear and the scintillation counter indicated 0.2 MR/HR in the morning and normal background of 0.025 MR/FIR at 4:30 P.M. On the 18th there was rain until mid-day and clouds in the afternoon, but normal radioactivity continued. All readings referred to were the same indoors and out. The maximum anomalous radioactivity of 0.4 MR/HR, noted on May 14, was 16 times normal radiation for the area. Since the above dates, no anomalous radioactivity has been detected. Specific cause of this phenomenon is not known, but “fall-out” of radioactive material may be presumed. 2. The Effect of Traffic Polishing on Limestone Aggregates. W. T. Parrott; Virginia Department of Highways. This paper deals with the effect of limestone aggregates on skid resist¬ ance. A review of the various types of aggregates which have been used and certain tests are presented. A theory is presented to explain the poor skid resistance of limestone aggregates. Water is believed to find its way between calcite crystals developed on the larger fragments of the aggregate to form an effective plane of lubrication which gives rise to skidding when the brakes of a car are applied suddenly. 1955] Proceedings 1954-1955 281 In this paper it is recommended that limestones not be ruled out but that their skid resistance be improved by the addition of silica, sand, slag, or rock asphalt. 3. The Bergton-Crab Run Gas Field, V/estern Rockingham Coun¬ ty, Virginia, R. S. Young and W. T. Harnsberger; Virginia Division of Geol¬ ogy. Recent drilling on the Bergton-Crab Run anticline, western Rockingham County, Virginia, has partly delimited a small, potential gas field. This field is in the^ folded Appalachians, about 25 miles southeast of the Appalachian structural front, where the carbon ratio is in excess of 80. Rocks of the Bergton district range in age from Upper Ordovician to Lower Mississippian. The “Oriskany” sandstone of Devonian age is the major pay zone with minor showings in overlying shales. Along the axial part of the Bergton-Crab Run anticline the “Oriskany” is encountered in wells at a depth of approximately 3,000 feet. Major structural elements of the area are complex folds; no mappable faults were recognized in the area west of the North Mountain fault, which lies about 11 miles southeast of the Bergton-Crab Run anticlinal axis. The gas-bearing structure is complicated by several minor folds, most of which parallel the major axis. Though limited in extent north¬ east of Bergton, the anticline appears to be continuous with a large anticlinal complex 25 miles southwest. Local doming along the axis should present favorable areas for future exploration. 4. Monazite Deposits in Virginia. Charles E. Sears, Jr.; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. Monazite, a phosphate of rare earths, is the principal source of thorium. This element has increased in importance and it also has possibilities of being a source material for which can be produced from thorium in breeder reactors. Monazite occurs in two belts in the Virginia Pied¬ mont; the western belt extends from Stuart in Patrick County to Fred¬ ericksburg, Virginia; the eastern belt extends from Bracey in Mecklenburg County to west of Richmond where it joins the western belt. In the Blue Ridge province, monazite is found in Lower Cambrian sandstones at sev¬ eral localities. The age of these deposits, their origin, and economic value are discussed. 5. Current Manganese Operations in Virginia. E. O. Gooch; Virginia Division of Geology. Manganese production in Virginia began in 1834, although little was produced before 1867. Virginia produced manganese annually from 1867 until 1946 when production from mines ceased. The United States normally imports most of its manganese. With the unsettled international situation of 1950 and the possibility of the 282 The Virginia Journal of Science [September foreign supply being cut off in the event of a world conflict, the govern¬ ment began a stockpiling program for domestic manganese. Under this program, the government contracts to buy, at set prices, specified amounts of manganese meeting certain chemical and physical requirements. This program led to the revival of manganese mining in Virginia and, under the impetus of government support prices and modem mining and mill¬ ing practices, there has been an annual increase in production. The three principal manganese districts in Virginia are: (1) the James River-Roanoke River district in Campbell and Appomattox counties; (2) the western base of the Blue Ridge from Front Royal southwestward to the Tennessee state line; and (3) the Valley Ridges section of western Virginia from Frederick County to Lee County. Although there is cur¬ rent production from all three districts, the greatest production has been from the latter two in the southwestern part of the State. 6. The Origin of a Greenstone Conglomerate in the Vicinity of Charlottesville, Virginia. Robert M. Cordova; University of Virginia. Along the southeastern slopes of the Southwestern Mountains in Albe¬ marle County, Virginia, there crops out a rock which during reconnais¬ sance was classified as a volcanic conglomerate. The “conglomerate” is a mappable unit (maximum thickness 1300 feet) within a thick series of Upper Pre-Cambrian or Lower Cambrian metabasaltic (hornblendic green¬ stone) flow sheets known as the Catoctin greenstone. The “conglomerate” is distinguished readily from the metabasalt because it has a nodular sur¬ face. The nodules, which are greenstone, protrude from a schistose mat¬ rix; they appear to be the surface of pebbles, cobbles, and boulders. A detailed study discloses that the composition of the “conglomeratic” materials is very uniform. There is essentially only one compositional, textural, and structural variety of coarse constituent. There is also a high degree of rounding with no apparent sorting. These characteristics are not readily explained as a result of stream action, wave action, glacial erosion, mud-flow (lahars) transport, or kata- morphism. It is concluded that the greenstone conglomerate is the result of a complex interlacing of joint sets and that the rounding was produced by attrition along the joint planes during intense orogeny. 7. A Mica Peridotite Dike near Front Royal, Virginia.^ Robert S. Young and Roy A. Bailey; Virginia Division of Geology and U. S. Geological Survey. A mica peridotite dike occurs 2.8 miles S. 11° E. of Waterlick, Virginia, in the Strasburg quadrangle. It intrudes the east limb of the Massanut- ten syncline and is enclosed in the Martinsburg shale of Ordovician age. The dike is apparently conformable with enclosing beds which strike N. 28° E. and dip 65° E. It is about 6 feet wide and is exposed for approxi- * Publication authorized by the Director, U. S. Geological Survey, and the State Geologist Virginia Diviison of Geology. 1955] Proceedings 1954-1955 283 mately 600 feet in prospect pits. The shale contacts are brecciated and hardened for about a foot by mild thermal metamorphism. The mica periodotite is composed of chlorite, 43 per cent; phlogopite, 31 per cent; hydrobiotite(?) pseudomorphous after phenocrysts of olivine and pyroxene, 13 per cent; secondary pyrite, 5 per cent; perovskite partly altered to leucoxene, 4 per cent; apatite, 2 pe*r cent; dolomite, 1 percent; and ilmenite, magnetite and epidote, < 1 per cent. In thin section, the rock consists of altered olivine and pyroxene phenocrysts in a matrix of coarse crystals of phlogopite and fine-grained interstitial chlorite. Rela¬ tively large apatite crystals are poikilitically included within phlogopite and also in interstitial chlorite. The petrographic similarity between this rock and the mica peridotite and alnoite dikes in Kentucky, Pennsylvania, and central New York suggests that they may be related, but definite correlation cannot be made. 8. Are the Depressions of Major Folds of the Va.lley and Ridge Provinge of Virginia of Depositional Origin? W. D. Lowry; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. Culminations of major folds of the Valley and Ridge Province are not merely quirks of fate. In numerous places two or more adjacent folds plunge in the same direction and their structurally highest parts are contiguous. Could the depressions of major synclines, as well as anti¬ clines, result from accumulation of greater thicknesses of land-derived clastic sediments adjacent to major contributing streams? Once depress¬ ed isostatically, such areas never recover from their initial disadvantage and even may be downwarped further while adjacent areas in the same strike belt are up warped. The thickness of the section in Massanutten Mountain, the depression of the great Massanutten syncline, may be 2000 feet greater than that near Endless Caverns. The extra thickness may be the result of con¬ cealed repetition, but evidence suggests it is real. The broad Kimberling basin of Bland County between the Burkes Garden and Bane domes contains an abnormally thick Devonian section. Perhaps the depositional floor of the basin was sufficiently depressed so that when deformed later, it buckled downward whereas adjacent areas buckled upward into major anticlines. Additional measurements may prove either depositional control of de¬ pressions or contemporaneous longitudinal warping. Such findings would facilitate the search for many nonmetallics including oil and gas. 9. A Virginia Oggurrenge of Paligorsktte. Troy J. Laswell and Marcellus H. Stow; Washington and Lee University. In 1953 D. E. Brady, Jr. collected specimens of a soft, tough, white, fibrous mineral from cleavage planes and slickensided surfaces in Lower Cambrian Shady dolomite of the Lone Jack quarry near Glasgow, Rock- 284 The Virginia Journal of Science [September bridge County, Virginia. Additional specimens were collected by the authors in the spring of 1955. The mineral was subjected to blowpipe and qualitative chemical analy¬ ses by Laswell and found to be a hydrous magnesium-aluminum silicate with a small amount of calcium. A specimen submitted to the Petrographic Laboratory of the U. S. Geological Survey was analyzed chemically, optically, and by x-ray dif¬ fraction by Jewell Glass and Fred Hildebrand. Miss Glass reports that the mineral has a mean index of refraction of 1.52 and that the mineral is a “hydrous Al-Mg-silicate, close to Paligorskite”. X-ray diffraction pat¬ terns also indicate paligorskite. Paligorskite, an aluminous amphibole, was first described by T. v. Sav- chenkov (Vh. Min. Ges., p. 102, 1862). The chemical analysis of pali¬ gorskite is given by Dana as: Si02, 52.18 percent; AI2O3, 18.32 percent; MgO, 8.19 percent; CaO, 0.59 percent; H2O, 12.04 percent; hygroscopic water, 8.46 percent (total 99.78 percent). In so far as the writers are aware, this Rockbridge County occurrence of what appears to be paligorskite is the first recorded in Virginia. 10. What Is the True Significance of the Rockfish Conglomerate? R. V. Dietrich; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. Rocks in Albemarle, Amherst, Bedford, and Nelson counties, Virginia, previously identified as Rockfish conglomerate, have been alleged to con¬ stitute a basal conglomerate of the Lynchburg formation. Recent ex¬ amination of many outcrops shows that the metaconglomerates occur as lenticular masses at several stratigraphic horizons within rocks previously mapped as Lynchburg formation and as Lovingston gneiss. Observed imbrication of fragments in this polymictic metaconglomerate indicates a northeastern or southwestern source for the fragments; both possibilities must be considered until correct top and bottom determina¬ tions are made. Statements that some fragments within the metaconglomerate are of higher metamorphic rank than that of the matrix have not been sub¬ stantiated. At least some fragments have had their foliation developed since they were incorporated in the conglomerate; foliation within lath¬ shaped fragments whose long axes lie athwart the foliation of the matrix is parallel to foliation of the matrix itself. It is suggested that evidence relating to the hypothesis that the Rock¬ fish metaconglomerate constitutes the basal part of the Lynchburg forma¬ tion and to the idea that the metaconglomerate constitutes unequivocal evidence for a “profound unconformity” between the Lynchburg forma¬ tion and an “older Precambrian injection complex” should be re-examined objectively. Observations appear to suggest that at least some of the rocks previously mapped as Rockfish conglomerate are intraformational lenses and that at least part of the “injection complex” of some previous workers is a metasedimentite conformable with the Lynchburg formation. 1955] Proceedings 1954-1955 285 11. Ground Water in the Waynesboro, Virginia Area. Jack Lowdon; University of Virginia. In the southeast environs of Waynesboro, Virginia, large quantities of relatively soft water have been recovered from the Tomstown dolomite for a number of years by means of deep wells. There is an unusual rela¬ tionship between these wells and a large spring in the area. This spring is unaffected by pumping a well adjacent to it, but its flow is diminished appreciably by heavy pumping of a well field 3,000 feet away. Although the spring occurs in a shale formation known to furnish hard water, it produces soft water at the rate of 5,000 gallons of water per minute. Ground water recovered from the Tomstown dolomite in this area is relatively soft. The surrounding recharge area is obviously too small to account for the known supply. It is theorized that a large fault zone acts as an underground conduit to supply the spring and that the wells are drilled into a large system of caverns, some partially connected with the fault plane. The cavernous nature of the Tomstown dolomite coupled with a factor of time, combine to suggest this theory which satisfactorily accounts for the relationship of the wells to the spring. 12. Preliminary Investigation of Fossils in the Arvonia Slate. Shelton P. Applegate; University of Virginia. Fossils in the Arvonia slate are now known to be present in quarries of the LeSueur-Richmond Slate Co., Arvonia-Buckingham Slate Co., Wil¬ liams Slate Co., and also in the Pitts' and “basebalF quarries. All of these quarries are in the same strike belt. The fossil bed as exposed in the “baseball” quarry is more than 200 feet thick. The so-called Buthotrephis is most abundant, Cornulites is next most abundant, and crinoid remains rank third. Straight cephalopods and a gastropod are reported for the first time. Some of the past fossil identifications are based on insufficient evidence, and a review of age determination should be made with the use of the new material now available at the “baseball” quarry. 13. Natural Chimneys of Augusta County, Virginia. C. C. Fisher; Virginia Division of Geology. The Natural Chimneys, located one mile north of Mt, Solon, Augusta County, Virginia, are unusually well developed erosion outliers in Elbrook dolomite (Cambrian). The flat-lying dolomite is here cut by several sets of vertical joints. Weathering along these joints has separated the chim¬ neys from the hill behind them. Because of the attitude of the joints and the action of nearby North River in removing such debris as has fallen from the chimneys in the past, the towers rise perpendicularly above the level flood plain. Development and preservation of the chim¬ ney form have been aided by the horizontal bedding of the Elbrook. The 286 The Virginia Journal of Science [September largest tower, more than 100 feet high, leans noticeably, as the joints bounding it are not quite vertical. The towers are not capped by resistant material, but individual towers are relatively unjointed. Historic accounts indicate that less than 100 years ago the chimneys rose directly from a stream. Today the nearest stream is more than 100 yards away. This is one of very few measurements on the rate of lateral migration of streams. Peculiarities of Elbrook sedimentation are described. The effects of the 1949 flood are noted. 14. Mineralogical Studies of Sediments from the Eastern Shore Peninsula of Virginia. B. Doerhoefer, T. B. Neblett, H. E. Sturgill, and R. S. Wood; Washington and Lee University. Microscopic study of the heavy minerals found on the Eastern Peninsula of Virginia shows that the same minerals occur in equal abundance on both the west and east sides. Because only little is known about cur¬ rents and sediments of the Delaware and Susquehanna rivers, it is impos¬ sible to precisely pin down the formations from which the sediments of the Eastern Peninsula were derived. 15. Mineralogical Studies of Sediments from New River, Virginia. Charles A. Macintosh, Alan R. Mixson, and David K. Willard; Washington and Lee University. This paper presents the results of a study of the heavy minerals in the sediments of the New River between Radford, Virginia, and the North Carolina boundary. The area covered can be divided into two distinct parts. The southern section contains the Pre-Cambrian crystal¬ line schists of the Lynchburg gneiss and the Grayson granite gneiss, whereas the northern section contains dolomites, shales, quartzites, and limestones of Cambrian age. The study indicates that there is a decrease in abundance and variety of heavy minerals after the stream leaves the Pre-Cambrian crystalline rocks and enters the Cambrian sedimentary formations. The principal source of heavy minerals in the sediments is the Lynch¬ burg gneiss and the Grayson granite gneiss. Heavy minerals identified are: ilmenite, magnetite, amphibole, pyroxene, zircon, muscovite, epidote, rutile, titanite, garnet, tourmaline, staurolite, kyanite, chlorite, sillimanite, and fluorite. 16. Mineralogical Studies of Sediments from the Banister River OF Virginia. S. H. Berry, D. D. Monroe, and L. H. Simkins; Washington and Lee University. A study of samples of sand collected from the Banister River in Pittsyl¬ vania and Halifax counties of Virginia shows that there is a correlation 1955] Proceedings 1954-1955 287 between the stream sediments and the country rock of the adjacent drain¬ age area. There is a marked difference in the variety of minerals found in the Pre-Cambrian crystalline rocks and those found in the Triassic sand¬ stones and shales. Epidote is not found in sand derived from the Triassic formations whereas it is present in most of the sediments derived from crystalline rocks. 17. Proposed New System of Soil Classification. G. H. Robinson and S. S. Obenshain; U. S. Department of Agriculture and Virginia Polytechnic Institute. This proposed scheme reflects zonality of soils, but is based upon sev¬ eral critical horizons whose presence or absence provides a key to either lack of development or to dominant soil-forming processes that have been active. Minerals soils are separated from the organic soils in the high¬ est category (VII), and divisions of mineral soils are based upon the kinds of soil horizons present. Category VI (Great Soil Groups) is based upon genetically significant A and B horizons, and the group is a little broader than most Great Soil Groups recognized by Dr. Marbut. Cate¬ gory V (Little Soil Groups) maintains the kinds of A and B horizons of Category VI, but is subdivided on the basis of the presence or absence of extra horizons. Category IV (High Family) subdivides the units on the basis of the central concept for a given Little Great Soil Group, and intergrades in properties from one unit in Category V with properties of other units of Category V. Category III (Low Families) is based upon uniformities within the groups of soils with relation to those physical properties that affect the development of roots and their relationships to soil moisture. The criteria used for Low Families include textures of all horizons below the A, permeability of all horizons, drainage classes, and consistence when moist and dry. Little or no changes have been proposed in Category II and I, soil series, and soil types. The above material is from a working draft of what is hoped will soon be a scheme of soil classification suitable for publication and general use. Suggestions and criticisms are invited. 18. Soils-Rock Relationships of Fairfax County, Virginia. J. F. Derting and H. C. Porter; Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station. Fairfax County comprises 410 square miles including the Piedmont Uplands, Piedmont Lowlands, and Coastal Plain provinces. Each of these provinces contains a number of geological formations, and on each forma¬ tion many soil series have been developed. The intrusion of igneous materials and consequent baking of the sur¬ rounding shales and sandstones in the Triassic Lowlands is an interest¬ ing and controversial study. The development of a catena of soils from a given forniation is exemplified by the quartz-sericite schist formation. The Coastal Plain is composed of many terraces. Each terrace presents 288 The Virginia Journal of Science [September a study within itself as well as its relation with other terraces. The inter¬ mixing of soils developed from isolated remnants of high lying Coastal Plain deposits with very similar soils developed from residual materials is probably the field in which the soil scientist can learn most from the geologist. 19. Heavy-Mineral Correlation in Coastal Plain Sediments. Alien Sinnott; U. S. Geological Survey. Drill cuttings of samples collected across the Pleistocene-Miocene con¬ tact in an exploratory test hole recently drilled on the Eastern Shore were prepared for petrographic study in order to determine whether correla¬ tion based on microfauna would be accompanied by changes in the rela¬ tive abundance of certain heavy mineral species. Preliminary results indi¬ cate that pyrite, garnet, and altered grains of various minerals are more abundant in the section thought to be Miocene than in that thought to be Pleistocene, whereas zircon and kyanite are less abundant in the Miocene than above. The method thus appears to show promise, and additional work is planned to test the method as a correlation tool on samples, barren of microfossils, from other holes drilled on the Eastern Shore. 20. Quantitative Studies of a Miocene Aquifer on the Eastern Shore Peninsula, Virginia. G. C. Tibbitts, Jr.; U. S. Geological Survey. Near Hailwood in Accomack County, on the Eastern Shore Peninsula, Virginia, a pumping test was made in April, 1955, at a cannery the wells of which tap water in a Miocene aquifer. After allowing the piezomeb'ic surface to stabilize for 2 days, one well was pumped at a constant rate of 194 gallons per minute for 6 hours, while measurements of drawdown were made at another well 404 feet from the discharging well. Solving the Theis equation graphically, the coefficients of transmissibility and storage were determined to be about 7,500 gallons per day per foot and 4 X 10“^, respectively. These values indicate an artesian aquifer of low to moderate productivity. The most important application of coefficients such as these is in esti¬ mating the effect on the water level in wells caused by discharge from other wells, which information is essential in predicting the practicable yield of well fields and of whole aquifers. Business Meeting At the close of the technical session, which was attended by 61 geol¬ ogists, the nominating committee placed the following names in nomina¬ tion for section officers for 1955-56. All were unanimously elected. Chairman, William T. Parrott ■ Vice-Chairman, Troy J. Laswell 1955] Proceedings 1954-.1955 289 Secretary, Robert S. Young Section Editor, W. D. Lowry The meeting adjourned at 4:00 P.M. SATURDAY, MAY 14, 1955 — 8:30 A.M. — FIELD TRIP At 8:30 A.M. a group of about 35 geologists left Harrisonburg, in a pouring rain, for the annual field trip. Because of the weather, the order of the stops was reversed and the group drove to Stephens City where the underground limestone mine of the M. J. Grove Lime Co. was inspected. The next stop was at the open pit quarry of the same company^ near Middletown. Following lunch at Strasburg, the Tumbling Run section of New Market, Lincolnshire, and Edinburg formations was studied; this was followed by inspection of Orando and lower Martinsburg rocks nearby. In the vicinity of Timberville, the Bowers zinc-lead prospects were visited, and west of New Market the old Wise zinc prospects were studied. Lead¬ ers were: R. S. Edmundson, Paul Herbert, and R. S. Young. The group disbanded at 4:00 P.M. 290 The Virginia Journal of Science [September MINUTES OF THE SECTION OF MEDICAL SCIENCE [9] Sidney Solomon, Chairman Grover C. Pittson, Secretary Ebbe C. Hoff, Section Editor FRIDAY, MAY 13, 1955 — 10:00 A.M. — ROOM 25, WILSON HALL 1. Separation by Means of Azide of Active Sodium Transport from Resting Ion Equilibrium in Isolated Frog Skin. E. G. Huf, J. P. Wills, and N. A. Streever; Medical College of Virginia. Normal frog skin contains approximately 350 /xEg Na per gm. of dry skin. The potassium content is of the order of 180 ^Eg/gm. of dry skin. Such skins under proper experimental conditions are able to actively trans¬ port NaGl from Ringer’s solution at the epithelial side of the skin to the solution at the corium side of the skin. No changes in sodium and potassium content were found when skins were kept for 8 hours at 20° G. in Ringer’s solution containing 0.5 to 2.0 x 10~^ molar sodium azide. At this azide level active salt transport, however, was decreased to about 1/3 the normal rate. 1 x 10"^ molar azide will lead to increase of sodium and decrease of potassium content of the skin (500 /xEg Na and 70 /xEgK/gm. of dry skin). These findings suggest that the mechanism involved in the maintenance of normal Na/K distribution between cell and environment is different from the mechanism engaged in active Na+ transport. Azide may be used to bring about a functional separation of these two mechanisms. It is visualized that the differences in these me¬ chanisms lies either in their location within the cell, or in their chemical characteristics, or in both location and chemical characteristics. It also follows from this work that studies on the effect of enzyme inhibitors on active salt transport should be designed such that disturbance of the normal resting ion equilibrium between cell and environment is not inter- ferred with by the inhibitor. 2. The Gombination of Insulin with Frog Skeletal Muscle. D. R. H. Gourley; University of Virginia. In the presence of sodium lactate insulin stimulates the oxygen con¬ sumption and the net uptake of potassium ions by intact frog skeletal muscles in vitro (Am. J. Physiol., 179: 378: 1954; Biol. Bull., 99: 312: 1950). These effects of insulin may occur at the surface of the muscle cells since it is unlikely that protein molecules can pass through the membranes of living cells. When a muscle is exposed for one minute to insulin (0.05 U/ml.) and subsequently washed vigorously two times in large volumes of Ringer’s solution, significant stimulations of oxygen 1955] Proceedings 1954-1955 291 consumption and potassium uptake are observed. Thus there must be a strong combination of the hormone and the muscle tissue. However, the effects observed under these conditions are not so great as those observed when insulin is present throughout the 6-hour incubation period. In¬ creasing the exposure period to 5 minutes does not result in a correspond¬ ing increase in the two effects over those caused by the one-minute exposure suggesting that the eombination occurs very rapidly. ^^Tlen the insulin concentration is increased tenfold (0.5 U/ml.), exposure of the tissue for one minute results in approximately the same degree of effect on oxygen consumption and potassium uptake as continued exposure to the lower concentration. It is suggested that there are specific sites on the cell surfaces which bind insulin. These sites can be saturated either with a high concentration of insulin for a short exposure period or a low concentration for a long exposure period. 3. Studies on the Activity of the Detrusor Muscle with Special Reference to the Efects of Electrical Stimulation of Fore¬ brain Structures.* Everett H. Ingersoll, Louise L. Jones, and Erling S. Hegre; Medical College of Virginia. By photographically recording the activity taking place in all regions on the exposed surface of the bladder we (J. Urol., 61: 1037, 1949; ibid., 72: 178, 1954; Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. & Med., 88: 46, 1955) have shown that electrical stimulation of the hypogastric, as well as the pelvic nerves, evoked responses in all portions of the detrusor muscle. The response following hypogastric nerve stimulation was always diphasic. It consist¬ ed of an initial contraction followed immediately by marked relaxation. Excitation of the pelvic nerves, with few exceptions, resulted in a prompt, vigorous, and sustained contraction of the vesical wall. Following electrical stimulation of forebrain structures such as the frontal cortex, basal ganglia, thalamic or hypothalamic nuclei, the response was usually similar to that obtained following pelvic nerve activity. Fur¬ thermore, the response was abolished by section of the pelvic nerves. Occasionally a response was elicited from the basal ganglia, thalamic or hypothalamic nuclei which was similar to the diphasic reaction evoked during stimulation of the sympathetic outflow to the bladder. Section of the pelvic nerves in these instances did not always alter or abolish this response. The third type of response obtained from stimulation of fore¬ brain structures was a marked relaxation of the detrusor muscle, which, like the diphasic response, often persisted after section of the pelvic nerves. From these data we infer that the hypogastric, as well as the pelvic nerves, play a role in vesical activity. This supports an opinion express¬ ed by Wang and Harrison some years ago. * This investigation was supported in part by a Veterans Administration Contract and ^ grant from the National Institute of Health. 292 The Virginia Journal of Science [September 4. Serum Protein Patterns in Rabbits during Sensitization and Desensitization. Oscar Swineford, Cornelia floch-Ligeti, and Karen Irvine; Uni¬ versity of Virginia. Rabbits were immunized by repeated intraperitoneal injections of crude polysaccharides from Ascaris coelomic fluid and from egg white proteins. During immunization the total proteins in the serum, the 0:9, and y glo¬ bulin fractions, and the protein bound carbohydrates showed a significant increase. The rabbits were desensitized by intraperitoneal injection of large doses of antigen. During desensitization the amount of y globulin decreased and the a and /3 globulins split into several smaller fractions. The splitting of the globulins was observed until about 2 weeks after the desensitizing injections. About 5 weeks after all injections were termi¬ nated the percentage composition of serum protein components returned to the pre-sensitization levels. 5. Motion Pictures of Cellular Changes in Tissues of Tadpoles After X-ray Irradiation as Recorded in Vivo.^ Carl Caskey Speidel; University of Virginia. Tadpoles were relatively resistant to whole-body x-ray treatment. Doses of 1,000 roentgens or less caused no noticeable cellular damage over the observation period of 58 days. Doses of 10,000-100,000 roentgens, how¬ ever, quickly induced visible tissue reactions and structural changes. These changes were observed in vivo under the microscope and recorded by cine-photomicrography. The following scenes were obtained from irradi¬ ated tadpoles after periods varying from two hours to three weeks: early circulation reaction with marked lagging of circulatory leukocytes and increased rate of diapedesis; damage to some leukocytes, erythrocytes, and blood vessels; extravasation of blood; vacuolation of endothelium; occlu¬ sion of small vessels; leukopenia; excessive sticking of erythrocytes at vessel forks; injury to some nerve fibers with early appearance of fluid between myelin sheath and axis cylinder and later degeneration; lateral¬ line organ atrophy; mild injury to some muscle fibers with transforma¬ tion of several sarcomeres into retraction clots at muscle-tendon zones; also emaciation, vacuolation, wrinkling, and complete degeneration of some fibers; injury to the epidermal epithelium with mal- alignment of cells; contrast in melanophore behavior in normal and irradiated animals; con¬ trast in leukocyte reaction in normal and leukopenic irradiated animals; examples of tissue destruction in irradiated tadpoles by an invading ciliat¬ ed protozoon (Tetrahymena) . 6. Further Studies on the Inhibition of Porphyrin Synthesis by Benzimidazole Derivatives. * This investigation was supported by a research grant (PHS B-359 C) from the Na¬ tional Institute of Neurological Diseases and Blindness, of the National Institutes of Health, Public Health Service. 1955] Proceedings 1954-1955 293 Lynn D. Abbott, Jr. and Mary J. Dodson; Medical College of Virginia. We reported last year that certain alky] -substituted benzimidazole de¬ rivatives prevented incorporation of from N^^-glycine into heme by chicken erythrocytes during incubation in vitro (Va. J. Science, 5, 316 (1954); 6, 77 (1955)). The striking coincidence of the relative inhibi¬ tory activities of these compounds for two widely different biological sys¬ tems — hemoglobin synthesis by avian erythrocytes and influenza virus duplication — suggested to us that some fundamental mechanism under¬ lying both processes might be involved. To determine whether these compounds interfere with conversion of protoporphyrin to heme or affect earlier reactions involved in poi-phyrin synthesis from glycine, we deter¬ mined their effect on synthesis of free erythrocyte protoporphyrin and coproporphyrin by quantitative measurement of these porphyrins produced from glycine by chicken erythrocytes incubated in vitro. The same ben¬ zimidazole derivatives were noted to inhibit coproporphyrin and protopor¬ phyrin synthesis in the same relative order in the present studies as was found eai'lier in the inhibition of heme synthesis. Thus benzimidazole and 2-methylbenzimidazole had some inhibitory activity, but with the same concentrations the 5-methyl-, 2,5-dimethyl- and 5,6-dimethyl deriva¬ tives completely inhibited synthesis of free erythrocyte coproporphyrin and protoporphyrin from glycine. 2-Ethyl-5-methylbenzimidazole again was the most inhibitory of all. These studies demonstrate that the effect of these compounds is not on the inhibition of conversion of protoporphyrin to heme. Inhibition of the synthesis from glycine of free protoporphyrin and coproporphyrin indi¬ cates that a step in the metabolic pathway of heme synthesis from gly¬ cine prior to porphyrin ring formation may be involved. The present technique also makes it possible to use other non-isotopic intermediates in the study of the mechanism of benzimidazole inhibition of porphyrin synthesis. 7. Paper Electrophoretic Studies of Serum Lipoproteins. J. C. Forbes and P. C. Taylor; Medical College of Virginia. The distribution of the serum lipoproteins following paper electrophore¬ sis has been studied in conjunction with the distribution of the main serum proteins. It has been found that the rate of migration of the main serum proteins was approximately the same whether the electro¬ phoresis was carried out at 5° or at 35° C. The movement of the lipo¬ proteins migrating with the albumin and alphai -globulins was also not affected by the temperature change. However, the rate of movement of the lipoprotein fractions migrating in the neighborhood of the beta-glo¬ bulins was definitely affected by the temperature change. At the higher temperature a fair percentage of the cholestrol in this fraction actually migrated faster than the beta-globulins but at 5° C. very little of this cholesterol fraction extended past the beta-globulins. Hypercholestero- 294 The Virginia Journal of Science [September lemic sera showed no abnormal amount of cholesterol present in the albumin and alphai-globulin area, the excess being found mainly with the lipoproteins in the general area of the beta-globulins. Lyophilization of sera did not affect the cholesterol migrating with the albumin and alpha^-globulins but slowed down markedly some of the cholesterol found in the general area of the beta-globulins, some of it not migrating at all. Extraction of lyophilized normal sera by chloroform removed little, if any, of the cholesterol which migrated with the albumin and alpha^ -glo¬ bulins, most of the cholesterol extracted apparently coming from the beta- lipoprotein fraction. This was also more or less the case with lyophilized abnormal sera from which most of the cholesterol had been removed by chloroform extraction. In this case, however, a small amount was also extracted from the albumin and alpha^-globulin area. 8. The Ultraviolet Absorption Spectra of Iodinated Proteins. Chalmers L. Gemmill; University of Virginia. The ultraviolet absorbance spectra of thyro globulin was detei mined using a purified thyroglobulin obtained from Warner-Chilcott Research Laboratories. In alkaline solution, maxima were obtained at 315, 291, and 247 mu. In acid solution, there was a marked decrease in absorbance at the 315 mu region. The addition of small amounts of iodine (KI + I2) caused a shift in absorbance from the 291 mu to 315 mu. Similar changes were observed on iodination of casein and insulin. It is concluded that the region of 315 mu gives a measure of the organically bound iodine in iodinated proteins. 9. Studies on the Metabolites of Nicotine. Fletcher B. Owen, Jr. and P. S. Larson; Medical College of Virginia. Studies with uniformly labeled nicotine in the rat (Ganz, Kelsey and Ceiling, J. Pharmacol, and Exper. Therap. 103: 209, 1951) and in the dog (Bennett, Tedeschi and Larson, Arch. int. pharmacodyn. 98: 221, 1954) have shown that virtually all of the administered C^^ is eliminated in the urine. Present studies suggest that this is also true in the cat. Urine collected from dogs receiving C^^ labeled nicotine has been con¬ centrated by freeze drying and chromatographed (descending method) on Whatman No. 1 filter paper. Tertiary amyl alcohol, saturated with a pH 5.6 acetate buffer was used as the developing solvent. Following development at 7-9 degrees C., the papers were air dried, cut into squares of 2.2 cm., and scanned for radioactivity in a gas flow counter. Peaks of activity were assumed to represent unchanged nicotine and its metabolites. Evidence has been obtained for three major and possibly four minor meta¬ bolites plus unchanged nicotine. 10. Some Aspects of the Central Nervous System Control of Defecation in the Cat. 1955] Proceedings 1954-1955 295 Roy L. Mimdy and Eugene D. Brand; University of Virginia. Codeine has been used as the defecatory stimulus in a study of the central nervous system control of defecation. Dose-response curves were determined for intravenously and intramuscularly administered codeine. The maximally effective, non-convulsive dose, 30 mg. per kg. IM, pro¬ duced 86 per cent defecation in 31 tests. This dose was used in all subsequent experiments. Chronic cervical vagotomy had no significant effect on codeine-induced defecation. This indicates that in the cat, in contrast to the dog, (Koppanyi, J. Lab. and Clin. Med. 16; 225, 1930) the vagus is not essential for the response. The incidence of codeine defecation was markedly decreased by decerebration and by chronic lesions of the medulla in the region of the emetic chemorecepter trigger zone (Borison and Wang, Proc. Soc. Exper. Biol, and Med. 76: 335, 1951). Animals whose medullary lesions resulted in refractoriness to codeine exhibited normal coordination in executing the physiologically stimulated act of defecation. This suggests that the area destroyed may be a chemoreceptor zone for defecation. The fact that 4 of 6 of these animals vomited following the administration of lanatoside C indicates that in these cats the chemoreceptor zone for emesis is intact and is ana¬ tomically distinct from the postulated chemoreceptor zone for defecation. 11. Autonomic Effects of a New Series of Substituted Amines and Quaternary Ammonium Compounds. M. H. Pindell, J. K. Finnegan, and J. D. Smith; Medical Col¬ lege of Virginia. Pharmacological study of a series of 54 compounds (derivatives of l-phenyl-3-diethylaminopropane) revealed that many produced marked hypotension of short duration in anesthetized (pentobarbital sodium) dogs. That this hypotension was due to ganglionic blockade was shown by inhi¬ bition of the pressor effects of small doses of nicotine (0.02-0.04 mg/kg) or of DMPP (15 ug/kg) coincidentally with potentiation of the epine¬ phrine pressor response. The active members also inhibited the response of the nictitating membrane to constant electrical stimulation (10 stimuli/ second) of the superior cervical sympathetic nerve in the cat and of the vago-sympathetic trunk in th.e dog. DMPP induced bladder contractions were concurrently inhibited indicating parasympathetic blockade. Among the tertiary amines, the diethyl derivati\'es were usually the most active. Quaternization of the latter uniformly increased ganglionic blocking ac¬ tivity several fold, depending on the quaternizing groups. Introduction of methoxy groups or chlorine into the phenyl ring or introduction of a second alkyl or aryl group on the carbon atom adjacent to the amine grouping did not appear to greatly alter activity. The most active com¬ pounds are more potent than TEA but of about the same duration of action. In the dog, intraduodenal injection of 25 times an effective intravenous dose of the active quaternaries caused on effect no ganglionic transmission or blood pressure. Most of the compounds exhibited weak 296 The Virginia Journal of Science [September relaxant properties on isolated rabbit ileal strips (bath concentrations of 1:100,000-1:500,000) and were cholinolytic at similar high concentrations. 12. Central Nervous Mechanisms Affecting Reflex Laryngospasm IN THE Cat. Eugene D. Brand, Blair M. Webb, and Harold F. Chase; Uni¬ versity of Virginia. Spasmodic closure of the larynx was produced in cats by electrical stimulation of the central cut ends of the sensory branches of the superior laryngeal nerves. Sodium pentobarbital anesthesia was used throughout. The spasm was measured by means of a balloon placed between the vocal cords. Reflex laryngospasm varied in intensity with the strength and frequency of the stimulating current. The values for threshold stimulus, threshold for maximal response, and intensity of maximal response were reproducible under a given stage of anesthesia. The response was grad¬ ually depressed with deepening of the level of anesthesia but remained present even at the stage of respiratory arrest. During stimulation re¬ spiration was depressed in expiration. Laryngospasm was occasionally seen, during such an apnea, to decrease in steps at about the rate of respiration prior to stimulus. This suggests thaf the respiratory pace¬ maker continues to fire in spite of the apnea and that its impulses inhibit the laryngeal reflex. The act of inspiration markedly inhibited the spasm. Anoxia of 1-2 minutes duration immediately prior to stimulation was without gross effect on the reflex. 13. A Critique on the “L-C Method” of Treating Snake Bites. J. T. Wood; University of Virginia. In 1953 Stahnke proposed a new method for treating snake venom poisoning. This consists of brief occlusive ligation proximal to the injury and hypothermia of the involved extremity. A case is reported in which this treatment was used initially without benefit. Five patients involving six cases of treatment with “L-C” technique are reviewed from Stahnke’s report, and their course is compared with that in patients treated with antivenom and tourniquet, incision, and suction in Virginia hospitals. It is the author’s opinion that the “L-C Method” should be discarded “in toto” pending quantitative animal studies to compare its efficacy with that of the conventional therapies. New Officers The following new officers were elected: Chairman, Grover C. Pitts Secretary, Geraldins M. Duncan Section Editor, Chalmers L. Gemmill. 1955] Proceedings 1954-1955 297 MINUTES OF THE SECTION OF PSYCHOLOGY [10] Gilbert J. Rich, Chairman Audrey M. Shuey, Secretary-Treasurer Henry A. Imus, Executive Committeeman Richard H. Henneman, Section Editor FRIDAY, MAY 13 -- 9:30 A.M. - PROGRAM A, ROOM 21, WILSON HALL 1. Factors Determining the Proficiency of Multiple Task Per¬ formance. Glenn R. Hawkes; University of Virginia. In previous research on simultaneous multiple task performance it was found that as the number of stimulus-response units involved, and the rate of responding were increased, there was a deterioration in level of performance. An experiment, designed (utilizing a bi-manual task) to provide rapid choices of responses with easy discrimination of stimuli, was set up with the following variables: (1) rate of stimulus presenta¬ tion at two/second or one/second); and (2) temporal phase relations among the response components of the task (“in-phase” where stimuli for both hands were presented simultaneously, and “out-of-phase” where stimuli for the two hands were presented one-fourth second apart). Stimuli consisted of two sets of four lights each, and corresponding sets of four keys, one for each hand. Instructions were given to respond to a random presentation of lights by pressing the appropriate key while the light was on. A trial consisted of a two-minute session followed by two minutes of rest. Each S was given 10 trials per day for four days (it having been determined from preliminarv practice that learning curves would asymptote after this amount of practice). Sixteen Ss were used, 4 per cell of a 2 x 2 design. It was postulated that both increased rate of stimulus presentation and out-of-phase relations would cause a decrement of performance. Data- taking is near completion, results and conclusions to be reported. 2. ViBROTACTILE COMMUNICATION AND TRAINING. William C. Howell; University of Virginia. The practical advantages and limitations of a communication system dependent upon vibratory cues are presented. The various characteristics of the vibratory stimulus are then reviewed, and the feasibility of employ¬ ing each as a dimension in a vibratory communication system is discussed. The results of systematic investigations of sensitivity along three of these dimensions are reviewed: intensity, locus, and duration. There follows 298 The Virginia Journal of Science [September an account of studies designed to determine a method of integrating these dimensions into a system producing discrete stimulations of sufficient number to transmit a variety of messages. The possibilities of training on such a system are discussed in view of findings from experiments currently in progress, and plans for future research in this area are given. 3. The Influence of Varying Probabilities of Reinforcement in A Matching-to-Sample Situation with Humans. William E. Montague; University of Virginia, The Estes-Burke association learning theory provides a mathematical model capable of predicting rate of acquisition and asympotes in simple learning situations. It has been found, for example, that the empirical asymptote of response probability turns out to be equal to the probability of reinforcement as predicted by the model. The present experiment utilized this model to examine the rats and asymptotes of learning in a matching-to-sample situation. Three groups of ten undergraduate male students were used as Ss. They were presented stimuli projected in sequence from strip film. The stimuli were geometrical figures (squares and triangles, black or white). The task was to choose between color or form on each trial; a trial consisted of: a frame with a sample figure, a frame with two figures each one containing one property of the sample figure (color or form), a final frame with the reinforcement figure. Each group received 120 trials (sequence A) with different probabilities of reinforcement. Group I received 30 per cent reinforcement for form and 70 per cent for color; Group II received 50 per cent reinforcement for form and 50 per cent for color; Group III received 85 per cent reinforcement for form and 15 per cent for color. Following sequence A, all three groups received another sequence of 120 Rials; here the same probability of reinforce¬ ment, i.e., 30 per cent for form and 70 per cent for color, was used for all groups. The results tend to support the findings of other research with simple association learning. The empirical rates of responding reach their asymp¬ totes at the theoretical level, i.e., the level corresponding to their pro¬ babilities of reinforcement. 4. An Investigation of the Stimulus Dimensions in Vibratory “Phi.” William H. Sumby; University of Virginia. A psychophysical investigation is reported, the purpose of which is to determine the stimulus relationships critical for the occurrence of the phi phenomenon on the skin when induced by vibrotactile stimulation. The design of the transducer system, its reliability and limits are briefly dis¬ cussed. The occurrence of vibratory “phi” is discussed as a function of the interaction of the following variables: 1) the intensity of vibration, 2) the duration of stimulation delivered by each of two vibrators succes- 1955] Proceedings 1954-1955 299 sively energized, 3) the temporal interval between successive vibrating "'bursts”, and 4) the spatial separation of the stimulators on the body surface. A comparison of the obtained results and Korte's laws for visual phi is drawn. In addition, a comparison is made between the stimulus property relationships optimal for the occurrence of phi when a body area highly sensitive to such stimulation is the locus of vibration (e.g., the volar side of the forearm) and when a less sensitive surface is used {e.g., the lumbar region of the back). 5. Stereotypes and Perceptual Distortion. Linda Johnson; Mary Washington College. This study was designed to investigate the influence of stereotyping upon the perception of human physiognomy. Physiognomy in this study is not considered from the standpoint of the validity of its relationship to personality, but serves as the visual stimulus in testing the following two hypotheses: 1) that perception of physiognomy will be distorted if a photograph is presented in conjunction with a personality description which arouses a stereotypic idea, and 2) that the direction of distortion will be toward the stereotypic idea. One group of Ss was presented two short personality descriptions, one giving a positive and the other a negative impression. Ss were asked, after hearing each description, to form an imaginary picture of a person having that type of personality and to rate this image on a physiognomic rating scale having 32 physiognomic traits. Other groups were presented with full-face photographs of men and one of the personality descriptions; they were asked to rate the photo¬ graphs on the physiognomic rating scale. An analysis of the data revealed that peTsonality descriptions induced distortions in 48 photographic ratings. Thirty of these were in the direc¬ tion of the stereotype. These results are interpreted as support for the two original hypotheses and are discussed in terms of current perceptual theory. 6. The Effect of Stimulus Reversal on Discrimination Chaining. Milton H. Hodge; University of Virginia. The present experiment was designed to determine the nature of trans¬ fer of extinction in a chain of responses as a function of the temporal position of the extinguished response. Sixteen food-deprived rats were terminally reinforced to correctly choose one of two stimuli at two dif¬ ferent choice points in a linear discrimination box. As a control measure, half of the animals learned the chain with brightness stimuli at the first choice point and pattern stimuli at the second choice point, and half learned the chain in reverse order. When the chain was well estab¬ lished, eight animals were given 70 trials of reversal training with stimuli that were either at the first or second choice point during the acquisi¬ tion period. The remaining animals were maintained on the deprivation 300 The Virginia Journal of Science [September schedule in their living cages during the 70 trials. All Ss were then given reversal training to a criterion with the stimuli not employed in the first reversal. The experimental results are analyzed by means of a 2 X 2 X 2 factorial design. These results and theoretical interpreta¬ tions are discussed. 7. Visual Recognition Thresholds as Indices of Word Probabili¬ ties. William A. Lee; University of Virginia. Solomon and Howes have proposed that visual recognition thresholds for words are a function of response probabilities of the words. The relevant literature is reviewed, and it is concluded that available data tend to support the hypothesis, but not strongly enough to warrant, with¬ out further research, the use of recognition thresholds as a tool in the investigation of verbal behavior. 8. The Retention of Responses to Specific Verbal Stimuli Com¬ pared WITH THE Retention of Responses to Classes of Verbal Stimuli. Kenneth E. Lloyd; University of Virginia. Concepts, or classes of stimuli, are reputed to result in higher retention than non-conceptualized material. This study tests the thesis that no differences in retention should be observed if the number of response units to be learned is equal in both situations. Four experimental groups of 21 Ss each associated eight numbers with either eight specific words, or eight classes of words with three instances each, i.e., 24 words. Using a memory drum two groups practiced to one perfect trial, and two groups practiced for five trials. A trial was 24 responses. Following the recall trial one week later, Ss learned a second list with “new” stimuli and “old” responses. Ss in the “class” groups were assumed to be responding to the words as members of classes; if so, then they should respond to “new” instances of “old” classes more efficiently than Ss in the “specific” groups. The transfer task tested this prediction. With the number of responses equal, no superiority in retention of conceptualized material was observed. However, class groups were supe¬ rior on the transfer task. As measured here retention appeared to be related more to the degree of original learning than to possible qualita¬ tive differences in the stimulus material. PROGRAM B, ROOM 32, WILSON HALL 1. Criteria for Enrolling College STimENTS in “Improvement of Reading Skills” Course. Frances Dean Scott; Lynchburg College. The paper deals with the most efficient method of enrolling stu- 1955] Proceedings 1954-1955 301 dents in an ‘Improvement of Reading Skills’" course. ' The usual criterion has been that of including the lowest one -fourth or lowest one- third of students according to their percentiles on a standardized reading test. The criteria which are developed in this paper make the most efficient use of time and equipment available for training those students who show the greatest potentiality for improvement with training. 2. Disproportionate Contribution of Revised Beta Scaled Scores TO Total Scores in Adolescent Groups. Walter A. Woods and Robert Toal; Richmond Professional In¬ stitute. A previous study revealed that, with Negro adolescent delinquents and non-delinquents, sub-test four (spatial visualization) of the Revised Beta Examination ( Lindner-Guervitz scaled scores) contributes significantly less to total score than does any other of the sub-tests. In this study 120 Beta examinations by Negroes were matched for total score with 120 Beta examinations completed by white adolescents of the same age range. White Ss within the age and IQ range perform similarly to Negro Ss. In both groups sub-test four contributes dispro¬ portionately less to total score than do other sub-tests, according to F test. Treatments-by-levels analysis of variance and F test for interaction by comparison of treatments-levels mean square to within-cells mean square reveals significant interaction effects. It is suggested that the interaction revealed by F test is that of greater comparable difficulty at lower levels of intelligence, of sub-test four, as compared to difficulty of other sub-tests. In its present form, the Lind¬ ner-Guervitz scaled scores of the Revised Beta Examination do not appear to be valid scores for the appraisal of the intelligence of adolescent sub¬ jects. 3. Intelligence Differences in Delinquents as Appraised by Four Psychological Tests. Walter A. Woods and John A. Farley; Richmond Professional Institute. Mean scores are compared for four samples of juvenile delinquents: white males, white females, Negro males, and Negro females, on four intelligeTice tests. These are: Wechsler-Bellevue Revised Beta, S. R. A. Primary Mental Abilities, and House-Tree-Person Test. Within each sub¬ group each test was correlated with each other test, to ascertain common variances. Gorrelations between pairs of tests among the delinquent samples sug¬ gest that these groups derive their intelligence estimates from different facets of the tests. Differences between mean scores on the various tests for the sub-groups support this finding. Possible correlates of IQ differences are suggested, and limitations are noted in assessing intelligence of delinquents from single tests. 302 The Virginia Journal of Science [September 4. Research Programs in Neurological Diseases and Blindness. Plenry A. Imus; National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Mary¬ land. The National Institute of Neurological Diseases and Blindness of the National Institutes of Health was established in 1950. Since then, com¬ prehensive programs of fundamental and clinical research have been de¬ veloped both within the Institute and in the extramural grants which are awarded to universities, medical schools, and other research centers. These programs include research on neurological disorders, such as cere¬ bral palsy, epilepsy, multiple sclerosis, and muscular dystrophy; on sensory disorders, such as deafness, cataract, glaucoma, retinopathy; and disturb¬ ances of the other special senses. Fundamental laboratory studies are con¬ ducted jointly with the National Institute of Mental Health. These studies include investigations of neural transmission, neuronal interactions, the hypothalamus, the cerebral cortex, and the special senses. Also under investigation are the metabolism of the nervous system, the effects of hormones and drugs, drug addiction, and the development, regeneration, and aging of the nervous system. Psychological studies of perception and behavior, as well as those on human relations, are undertaken on a small scale. Clinical studies on in-patients and out-patients at the clinical cen¬ ter are conducted on cases of cerebral palsy, epilepsy, muscular dystrophy, and multiple sclerosis, as well as on certain diseases affecting the eyes, as toxoplasmosis, uveitis, glaucoma, and cataract. 5. The Measurement of Primary Mental Abilities by the Colum¬ bia Mental Maturity Scale. Jack H. Boger, Cyril R. Mill, and Charles J. Turner; Richmond Public Schools. The Columbia Mental Maturity Scale, published in 1954, is designed to yield an estimate of the intellectual ability of children in the mental age range from 3-12 years. It calls for no verbal response and a mini¬ mum of motor response from the S- features which were thought to make this a particularly useful tool for work with children afflicted with cere¬ bral palsy. Since administration and scoring are brief and simple, it also has potentialities for becoming a quick device for the measurement of intelligence of normal children. This study was an attempt to determine the degree to which certain mental abilities are measured by the Columbia Mental Maturity Scale, and its relative validity at various age levels. Ss included 75 boys and girls between ages of 7-7 and 12-6, enrolled in Richmond Public Schools. CMMS was individually administered. The SRA Primary Mental Abili¬ ties test was administered to the same Ss in small groups. Correlations were obtained between the total Columbia Mental Maturity IQ and scores for the five Primary Mental Abilities, and the Total Score and Total Non- Reading Score of the PMA. The significance and implications of these results were discussed, as 1955] Proceedings 1954-1955 303 well as a general resume o£ certain other features of the Columbia Mental Maturity Scale which have become apparent with increasing use. 6. Recent Research in Perception and its Implications for Re¬ search WITH Projective Techniques. A. W. Jeffreys, Jr.; Western State Hospital. An appeal is made for clinical psychologists to abandon a test orienta¬ tion kind of approach to clinical psychology and attempt to establish a more systematic theoretical basis for the interpretation of psychological tests, especially the projective tests. The present need is for a shift from tests as the subject of study to that of behavior. By studying the be¬ havioral processes of an individual and the way in which this behavior is measured by tests, much faster and more scientific progress can be made invalidating projective techniques. Research in perception in recent years provides one starting point for the development of the needed theory. With an emphasis on the per- ceiver in the study of perceptual processes, recent investigators have been able to demonstrate promising dimensions of personality. Perception is regarded as the window for viewing and measuring the otherwise elusive dynamics of personality. The work of Klein, Witkin, and Jeffreys exem¬ plifies this approach. Beginning in the laboratory they have been able to aiTive at rather precise measmrements of perceptual functioning and show how these behaviors are reflected in other tasks such as projective tests. 7. To Search for Evidence on the Popular Belief that Males Are More Logical in their Reasoning Processes than Females. Antonia Bell Morgan; Aptitude Associates Inc., Merrifield. The Morgan Test of Logical Reasoning, first developed in 1946 for the testing of superior adults for Government employment, consisting of 75 true-false items in verbal form, scored Right minus Wrong, was given in 1951 and 1952 to 133 males and 35 females, all of whom were alike in that they: (a) were all college graduates with either the BA or BS degree (b) had no degrees other than the BA or BS (c) were all between the ages of 20-29, inclusive (d) were all applicants for Government employment (e) had never taken courses in formal logic. No significant differences whatsoever were found between these two groups. The median for both groups was 27; mean for females was 27.4, sigma 12.4; mean for males was 28.7, sigma 13.3. The frequency curves reveal that the distribution of scores was the same. It was concluded that no significant differences in scores were found between a group of adult males and a comparable group of adult females on a verbal-type test of logical reasoning. 304 The Virginia Journal of Science [September 8. A Validity Study of the Morgan Test of Logical Reasoning ixN Terms of Career Employees for Government Service. William J. Morgan; Aptitude Associates Inc., Merrifield. An agency of the Government, engaged in international affairs, select¬ ed 55 college graduates for career employment, doing so without direct recourse to a testing program. The Civil Service application papers of thousands of candidates were reviewed, and hundreds were personally interviewed by personnel officers. Those who were judged to be most likely career employees were given a final-type interview by a Board of Three, consisting usually of a psychologist and two educators. Program carried out in 1951 and 1952, and 55 career employees were selected. After they reported for employment they were given a battery of tests, one of which was the Morgan Test of Logical Reasoning. The 55 career employees obtained a mean score of 35.4; the sigma was 13.0; lowest score was 7, the highest, 60. The mean for this group is the highest yet obtained in the use of this test in thousands of cases. This group did significantly better on this test than various “comparable” groups of college graduates, all of them applicants for Government em¬ ployment. The comparative groups included: 170 graduates with BA or BS degree, 107 with MA or MS degree, 71 college graduates, all of whom had studied formal logic. As a group, the 55 did somewhat bet¬ ter than a group of 9 Ph.D’s. Role of age, extent of education, and formal training in logic are considered in interpreting the results obtained. The Morgan Test of Logical Reasoning appears to have value as a practical discriminant in the selection of career personnel for Government employment. Business Meeting The business meeting was opened by the Chairman at 3:00 P.M. The Secretary-Treasurer reported a membership of 92; receipts of $222.50, of which $188.00 was sent to the Academy Treasurer and $34.50 to the Treasurer of the Conference of State Psychological Associations. An¬ nouncement was made of the re-appointment by the Executive Commit¬ tee of Dr. Henneman to succeed himself on the Examining Board for Clinical Psychologists for a full term of five years and the appointment of Dr. William E. Harris to fill the vacancy resulting from the resigna¬ tion of Mr. Grigg. A report of the committee appointed last year to re-examine and re¬ evaluate the constitution, functions, and responsibilities of the Psychology Section, was made by its chairman, Dr. Morris Roseman. The committee report was accepted, and a motion was made to proceed according to the recommendation of the committee, i.e., that a representative Con¬ stitutional Committee be appointed to draw up a constitution accom¬ modating the various roles and needs of an organization of Virginia psy¬ chologists - within the framework of the Academy if possible - and that a written report be presented to the Executive Committee at least 1955] Proceedings 1954-1955 305 one month before the Academy meeting in 1956. After discussion from the floor pertaining to the inability of the Section to deny membership to anyone, to the need for money to be used in the Section, and to the legislative and lobbying power of sections of the Academy, the motion was unanimously carried. It was reported that the Section is practically without funds for carry¬ ing on a committee investigation. A motion was made and carried that the psychology section authorize a small assessment of members for one year, the expenditure not to exceed $3.00 per person. Dr. Henneman asked the members for contributions to the Virginia Journal of Science. The report of the Nominating Committee was presented and the fol¬ lowing persons were re-elected officers for the coming year: President, Gilbert J. Rich Secretary-Treasurer, Audrey M. Shuey Executive Committeeman, Henry A. Imus. A brief report was made by Dr. Hinton, the representative to the Con¬ ference of State Psychological Associations. Following his expressed wish that he be re-placed, the Executive Committee named Dr. Reuben Horlick as a delegate to the Conference, the chairman to seiwe as alternate. The Chairman brought for the consideration of the group a proposed agreement drafted by the Committee on Relations with Psychiatry of the APA and the Committee on Relations with Psychology of the American Psychiatric Association. This proposed agreement involved a “moratorium” on certain types of legislation, a plan for the advancement of other types of legislation, and suggestions for further discussion and research in con¬ nection with problems of mutual concern to the two organizations. After discussion the members voted to accept the proposed agreement. The meeting was adjourned at 5 P.M. 306 The Virginia Journal of Science [September MINUTES OF THE SECTION OF SCIENCE TEACHERS [11] G. L. Thomasson, Chairman Franklin D. Kizer, Chairman-Elect Martha W. Duke, Secretary Caroline Gambrill, Section Editor FRIDAY, MAY 13, 1955 — 9:30 — ROOM 103, BURRUSS HALL Business Meeting Mr. Thomasson appointed Mr. L. W. Jarman as chairman of the nomi¬ nating committee, which included Miss Virginia Ellett and Mr. A. B. Niemeyer. The following slate was presented: Chairman-Elect, Miss Samuella Grim Secretary, Miss Martha W. Duke As there were no nominations from the floor these officers were re-elected. More than sixty persons attended the meeting, which was very gratifying. 1. New Trends in Biochemistry. Dr. Sidney S. Negus; Medical College of Virginia. Biochemistry has been of age for only about fifty years. During this time new trends of biochemical research have appeared. Stressed today are the dynamic aspects seeking to explain in chemical terms trans¬ formations taking place in living organisms. A second trend is a study of the chemistry of homogeneous cells rather than of whole living organ¬ isms. Studies show the specific ways in which complex substances are made in the body and intermediate products formed. They show the astonishing speed with which body constituents are being built and broken down. Basic researches on yeast cells have revealed that a mixture of three different co-enzymes was necessary in alcoholic fermentation. Oxida¬ tion of glucose in the human body requires the same or similar enzymes. Studies of co-enzyme systems show that probably all vitamins are parts of such systems. So, beginning with the study of yeast cells, there has been built up a tremendous amount of bioehemical knowledge dealing with how energy is released from foods, how vitamins function, how certain chemothera¬ peutic agents act, as well as facts about the boundary lines between the living and the dead. These are just glimpses of modern biochemistry. 2. Liquids at High Temperatures. Dr. G. P. Smith; Oak Ridge National Laboratory. 1955] Proceedings 1954-1955 307 Substances which can exist as liquids at high temperatures are held together in condensed phases by forces which are fundamentally differ¬ ent from the forces which are active between the molecules in most fami¬ liar liquids. For this reason many of the properties of liquids at high temperatures are very different from the properties of ordinary liquids. During the past fifteen years the development of new experimental meth¬ ods for high temperatures in research has brought about a renaissance in the study of liquids at high temperatures. Recent studies of oxidation and reduction reactions, polymerization reac¬ tions, and some electrode processes at high temperatures in liquid phases were discussed together with some of the applications of these reactions to the synthesis of new kinds of inorganic compounds and to the develop¬ ment of new procedures in chemical analysis. 3. Protein Fibers. Dr, Carl J. Likes; Virginia Institute of Scientific Research. Steady improvement in the field of regenerated protein fibers has resulted in their increased use and production and has stimulated increas¬ ing interest in further developments of this type of synthetic fiber. Re¬ generated protein fibers are being produced commercially in this country from corn and soybean protein and in Europe from milk casein and peanut protein. The fibers are very similar to wool in fiber properties and are currently being used predominantly in the form of blends with most of the standard fibers, both natural and synthetic. The production and development of these fibers will be reviewed, supplemented by a brief summary of the principles of fiber formation. 4. Trend in Science Teacher Supply. Professor Murl C. Shawver; Madison College. An investigation of one aspect of the white high school science teacher supply for 1955 in Virginia was reported. The questionnaire technique was employed in securing information. Inquiries were sent to twenty-one colleges and universities in the state. Seventeen institutions supplied usable data. It was learned that forty college students who had majored in one of the areas of science will constitute a part of the teacher supply for Virginia High Schools for the fall of 1955. Biology led with 19 majors (8 men and 11 women); chemistry was next with 10 majors (3 men and 7 women); general sci¬ ence followed with 6 majors (3 men and 3 women); physics was last with five majors (one man and 4 women). The Maul studied show that in the fall of 1954 the needs for staffing Virginia’s white high schools were as follows: 67 new general science teachers, 16 new biology teach¬ ers, 9 new chemistry teachers, and 2 new physics teachers. National trends in the failure of college graduates, qualified to teach science in the high schools, to take teaching positions the next fall were applied to Virginia’s science teacher supply. 308 The Virginia Journal of Science [September The two institutions preparing the greatest number of science majors, of those indicating an interest in teaching high school science, were the University of Virginia (10) and Longwood College (9). In another aspect of the study it was found that during the first semester of the 1954-55 session almost 60% of the students of 16 Vir¬ ginia colleges and universities were enrolled in at least one science course. 12:00 — Adjournment to the Junior Science Hour. 1955] Proceedings 1954-1955 309 MINUTES OF THE SECTION OF STATISTICS [12] W. S. Connor, Chairman M. C. K. Tweedie, Vice-Chairman Clyde Y. Kramer, Secretary Lionel Weiss, Section Editor FRIDAY AND SATURDAY, MAY 13, 14, 1955 — ROOM 301, BURRUSS HALL. 1. Some Results on Recurrent Event Theory. John E, Freund; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. This is a preliminary report on the development of a continuous exceed¬ ance test for the comparison of two Poisson processes. The fundamental theorem of recurrent event theory is generalized to apply to this case, and some results on first occurrence times are derived. 2. A Property of the Balanced Incomplete Block Designs. W. A. Thompson, Jr.; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. It is a well-known property of the B.I.B. design that all treatment effects are estimated with the same accuracy, i.e., that the variances of the estimates of the treatment effects are all equal and their covariances are also all equal. We show that the converse is also true. If the esti¬ mates of the treatment effects in an incomplete block design all have the same variances and the same covariances, then the design is B. I. B. 3. On Parameter Estimates Expressed as Sets of Values. M. C. K. Tweedie; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. The main objectives of this paper are to demonstrate (a) that prop¬ erties which are desirable in tests of statistical hypotheses, according to the Neyman and Pearson theory, do not necessarily have direct equivalents in estimation procedures, despite statements or implications to the con¬ trary in a number of publications; (b) that comparisons of probabilities in a way not actually used by Neyman in his principal paper (1937) on confidence intervals can be applied to discrete distributions, thus over¬ coming some of the frustration experienced in attempting to apply the Neyman and Pearson theory of tests to estimation in such distributions; and (c) that (at least in estimating a one-dimensional parameter from a single value of a one-dimensional variate) estimates as points, or as intervals of minimal length, can be based on the idea that the observed value is the mode of the population sampled, and that with continuous variables, after suitable transformations if necessary, this gives the point estimates of maximum likelihood. 310 The Virginia Journal of Science [September 4. On the Numeration of Consistent Pairwise Comparisons. R. L. Wine arid John E. Freund; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. Each of the pairwise comparisons of n means, for example mj and m2 shows a preference for m^, a preference for m2, or no preference between m^ and m2 which is written as m^ m2, m2 m^, or mi m2, respec¬ tively. In general, for any two means, the mean written to the left is preferred if they are not joined by a common underline, and there is no preference if they are joined by a common underline. On comparing n means, there are many possible patterns of underline which show prefer¬ ence or no preference of each of the pairs of means. Recursion formulas are derived which give the total number of such patterns. 5. Various Approaches in Evaluating Census Data. , Glenn W. Suter; Bureau of the Census. The 1954 Census of Agriculture was the first census to be taken in the fall months. This produces some new problems in determining the quality of the statistics. The Crop Reporting Service made a special mail and enumerative survey to determine the change in livestock numbers between the census enumeration date and January 1, 1955. This survey was tested in the fall of 1953 when a Sample Census of Agriculture was made in Virginia and Utah. The Census Bureau is making a special series of studies on the quality of the current Census of Agriculture. Sample segments were re-enu¬ merated with a more thorough set of questions on farm acreage. All the acreage within the segment boundary and all land associated in any way with the segment was accounted for and mapped. In this way several types of expansions of the sample data can be made. Farms showing discrepancies from the original census enumeration in acreage in farms or crops harvested were revisited to determine what the correct answers were and why the discrepancies existed. The results of these surveys have added new considerations in the making of agricultural enumerative and mail surveys. 6. Some Antecedents of Modern Experiment Design. Churchill Eisenhart; National Bureau of Standards. Examples are given of the explicit use, a century or more ago, of weighing designs in metrology; and of components of variance, in astron¬ omy and geodetic surveying. The latter appears to have become a lost art in the physical sciences about 50 years ago, and seems now to be a tool primarily of biometricians and other statisticians. By 1907, use of certain special classes of weighing designs of the chemical-balance type had become standard practice in metrology, in connection with the cali¬ bration of graded series of weights. Such designs are today employed 1955] Proceedings 1954-1955 311 regularly in this type of work, the selection of a particular design in a given case being influenced not only by the precisions with which the individual weights may be determined, but also by the internal checks against gross errors that it affords at successive stages of the work. Vari¬ ous other types of incomplete-block designs occur naturally in geodetic surveying operations; and the least-square estimates of the "‘treatments” and their respective standard errors may be found in manuals of geodetic surveying of 50 years ago and earlier. The systematic exploitation of such designs as a tool of experimentation is, however, a modern develop¬ ment, sparked by a geodetic surveyor become statistician, F. Yates. 7. Estimation of Aircraft Spare Parts Requirements. Walter Jacobs; Department of the Air Force. In estimating the budgetary provision for spare parts required for air¬ craft and engine maintenance, the Air Force presently uses a detailed procedure similar to that used to specify the actual quantities to be pro¬ cured. Since upward of a million individual items are involved, this involves a very large computation. However, since the budget estimate is based on a tentative program subject to change, the exact computation may not be needed, provided that a sufficiently dependable approxima¬ tion can be obtained. An approximation is developed on theoretical grounds, and some fig¬ ures are presented to indicate that a simple formula or set of formulas will yield suitable accuracy. 8. A Statistician Looks at the Employee Security Problem. Morris J. Solomon; U. S. Bureau of the Census. Employee security and quality control are “statistical decision prob¬ lems.” Both require a decision to accept or reject something based on a sample of information with two types of error possible and a cost of getting information. An applicant for a job in the personnel security problem is comparable to a lot of material in quality control. Instead of sampling pieces in the lot, the security administrator takes a sample of a man’s past actions. The unique features of the personnel security problem are as follows. First, estimates of probability of a person being a “wrongdoer” are very approximate. Second, the personnel security problem deals with people who react to decisions. Third, the personnel security problem inevitably involves a multi-dimensional value judgment weighting system. The complexity of the personnel security problem makes it economical to have the basic decisions incorporated in a code which is used as a guide for those who administer the program. To avoid measuring value judgments, this paper uses a technique often employed in economic theory, namely the enumeration of the relationships and the direction of effects at extreme points of action, leaving the prob¬ lem of specific measurement to empirical specialists. 312 The Virginia Journal of Science [September 9. Life Testing in the Discrete Case. F. S. McFeely; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. Minimax procedures are applied to the comparison o£ two geometric populations to determine optimum sample size if one of two alternatives must be accepted. Interpreting ordered observations from the two pop¬ ulations as failures in a discrete life test, the decision as to which is the population having the smaller mean is based on the first occurrence of the r^^ failure. The loss function used takes into account losses due to wrong decision, items used, and cost of experimentation. 10. New Developments in Paired Comparisons. Ralph Allan Bradley; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. A method of paired comparisons developed with M. E. Terry is dis¬ cussed. The method depends on comparisons of t treatments in n repeti¬ tions of the possible pairwise comparisons. Treatment parameters, TTj > O, ^TTi = 1, so that the probability that T; ranks above Tj in a i comparison of these two treatments is in/ (iri + ttj). Variations on this mo¬ del are introduced, including factorial arrangements of treatments, and test procedures are developed. This paper summarizes results that have been published and prepared for publication covering the development of the paired comparisons meth¬ od and investigations of its properties. Asymptotic formulas (with n) for the variances and covariances of estimators pj of tti are discussed as is the distribution of these estimators. The efficiency, based on power comparisons, of the method of paired comparisons in comparison with analysis of variance and multi-binomial analyses is given. The relative efficiency of paired comparisons relative to the analysis of variance was found to be t/7r(t — 1). 11. Consistency of Subjective Scores in Non-Replicated Experi¬ ments ^ T. S. Russell; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. Estimates are obtained in non-replicated experiments to determine which judge or judges best summarizes the opinion of all the judges when r judges grade n items subjectively by assigning a score. These estimates are shown to be maximum-likelihood estimates in the case of three judges grading n items. ^ “This work was supported in part by the U. S. Army Quartermaster Research and Development Command under Contract No. DA44-109-qm-1488. The views and conclusions in this report are those of the author (s) and do not necessarily reflect the views, or have the indorsement, of the Department of Defense.” 1955] Proceedings 1954-1955 313 The model assumed is Xij = /Xi + /?j + €ij i == 1, 2, 3, . . . , n j =: 1, 2, 3, . . . , r where Xjj = the score given item i by the judge /xi = true score for the item = bias of the judge and ey = random error which is distributed normally with mean zero and variance 12. A Study of Order Statistics for Samples froai Discrete Uni¬ form Distributions. Elwood L. Bombara; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. Order statistics often supply quick non-parametric tests of hypotheses and estimates. The theory of order statistics from discrete distributions presents difficulties which have not been fully explored. Some of these problems have been investigated in the special case of a discrete uni¬ form distribution, where sampling is made with replacement. The dis¬ tributions and lower moments of various order statistics are derived, and asymptotic values of these moments investigated in some cases. The order statistics that have been investigated are the lowest value, the value, the highest value, the range, and the median of a sample, and also the joint distribution of the lowest and highest values. 13. Sequential Procedures that Control the Individual Probabili¬ ties OF Coming to the Various Decisions. Lionel Weiss; University of Virginia. We consider cases where we have a finite number of decisions and a finite number of possible distributions, and we confine attention to procedures which have zero probability of continuing beyond the observation, where N is a given positive integer. We find a class C of procedures such that given any procedure R, there is a member of C, say R', such that the probabilities of coming to the various decisions under the various distributions when using R' are at least as desirable as when using R, and such that we are at least as likely to take fewer than n observations under R' as under R, for any n. Various exten¬ sions are indicated. 14. Some Aspects of Quality Control. D. J. Shaw; E. L duPont de Nemours and Company. Aspects of quality control covered in this discussion are those related to the management and operation of a control group. Necessity for sub¬ division of a quality control group into sections, each with certain func- 314 The Virginia Journal of Science [September tions, is pointed out. It is believed that these functions vary with (a) products manufactured and (b) plant organization. At duPont in Way¬ nesboro, the functions of the subdivisions of the quality control group are (1) developmental, (2) evaluative, (3) investigative and (4) proce¬ dure and specification writing. The work done by each section is briefly described. The placement of statistical, engineering, and plant-experi¬ enced personnel is discussed. 15. Intuitive Probability and Economic Behavior. Cleon Harrell; NoHh Carolina State College. New insights into the theory of inductive behavior have important implications for economics, as one of its central problems is the behavior of decision-making units under uncertainty. The attention various intui¬ tive or subjective approaches to probability have received in recent years is interesting in this connection, and the theories of B. O. Koopman, Carnap, and Savage are briefly discussed. The formal aspects of many of the somewhat subjective theories is very close to the formal axiomatic treatment of economic choice; this is because both involve the properties of various types of order. The plausibility of the assumption that the entities of interest in probability theory {e.g., propositions, acts) and in economic theory {e.g., decisions) are simply ordered is discussed. Fol¬ lowing Georgescu-Roegen, the assumption that entities which are sub¬ ject to choice comprise a partially ordered set with a maximal element will be shown to be adequate for certain classes of problems. 16. A Result on Geary’s Extension of Berkson’s Case, of Function¬ al Relationships. : H. C. Sweeny; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. Berkson [JASA;45( 1950) 164] has shown that standard regression tech¬ niques are valid when there are errors in both variates in a linear regres¬ sion problem, and when the independent variable is a “controlled vari¬ able”. Geary [JASA;48(1953)94] extended Berkson’s . argument to the non-linear case, and developed some simple sampling theory. It is shown in this paper that, in the non-linear case P y -f e 1 there are two and only two parameters which have linear unbiased esti¬ mates, and these are and Further, it is shown that these are the same estimates which would have arisen under the usual least squares approach, ignoring errors in the independent variable. Some extensions of Berkson’s case are made to the non-linear multi-variable case and simi¬ lar' results are proved. 1955] Proceedings 1954-1955 315 17. Designs for Interblock Analysis. C. C. Beazley; Virginia Polytechnic Institute, In scientific experiments utilizing incomplete block designs, where a model of the form Yij — a + Ti -|- /^j + €ij is used, it is often convenient to assume that the /Ij’s are normal and independently distributed with mean 0 and variance o-i- The e^’s are assumed to be normal and independently distributed with mean 0 and variance Such balanced or partially balanced incomplete block designs are ordinarily arranged for the purpose of estimating the tj’s. If, however, the dual of the design used is also a known balanced, or partially balanced, incomplete block design, the interblock analysis is cri simplified, and the ratio /x = - may be studied.