The Virginia Journal of Science Volume 8 (New Series), 1957 EDITORIAL BOARD Robert T. Brumfield, Fannville . . . . Editor Mary E. Humphreys, Staunton . Associate Editor Charles F. Lane, Farmville . Managing Editor Lee S. Harrow, Richmond . Advertising Manager SECTION EDITORS Carl W. Allen, Blacksburg . Agricultural Science Irving G. Foster, Lexington . Astronomy, Mathematics and Physics P. Arne Hansen, College Park, Md . Bacteriology Walter S. Flory, Jr., Boyce . Biology Merle A. Kise, Norfolk . Chemistry James P. Patton, Richmond . Education Robert M. Hubbard, Charlottesville . ' Engineering W. D. Lowry, Blacksburg . Geology W. Parker Anslow, Jr., Charlottesville . Medical Science John K. Bare, Wilhamsburg . Psychology Caroline Gambrill, Waynesboro . Science Teachers P. Y. Kramer, Blacksburg . Statistics Published by The Virginia Academy of Science i CONTENTS No. 1, February 25, 1957 Foreword — Marcellus H. Stow . 1 Indians of Virginia 350 Years Ago — Bruce D. Reynolds . 3 Geologic Ancestry of the York— James Peninsula — Arthur Bevan . 19 Seventeenth Century Science in Old Virginia — Ivey F. Lewis . 35 History of Virginia's Commercial Fisheries — J. L. McHugh and Robert S. Bailey . 42 Physicians at Early Jamestown — Sidney S. Negus . 65 News and Notes . 74 No. 2, May 1, 1957 Human Engineering; Applied Experimental Psychology — Richard H. Henneman . 103 A Comparison of the Blood Oxygen Capacity in the Black Crappie Pomoxis nigromaculatus) and the Bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus) — Jack D. Burke and William S. Woolcott . 113 The Sex Bivalent of the Chinese Hamster, {Cricetuliis griseus) — Ladley Husted, Edward G. Pollock and Grover C. Smart, Jr . 121 Checklist of Oribatoid Mites in the Vicinity of Mountain Lake Biological Station, Virginia — Howard George Sengbusch 128 News and Notes . 135 Program of the Thirty-Fifth Annual Meeting of the Virginia Academy of Science . 143 No. 3, October 14, 1957 Bruce Dodson Reynolds 1894-1957 . 175 ii The Agar Diffusion Technique as Applied to the Study of Serological Relationships among Crayfishes Rose Mary Johnson . 177 Megasporogenesis and Megagametogenesis in Hamamelis virginiana L. — Franklin F. Flint . 185 ^ The Effect of Corn and High Protein Price Relations on Net Returns in Hog Production — Roy G. Stout . 190 An Introduction to the Genus Rosa with Special Reference to R. acicularis — Walter H. Lewis . 197 Headward Growth of Anticlinical Valleys in the Karst Cycle of Erosion — Charles F. Lane . 203 News and Notes . 210 No. 4, February 17, 1958 Proceedings for the Year 1956-57 Minutes of the Thirty-Fifth Annual Meeting, May 8, 9, 10, 11, 1957 Detailed Table of Contents . 229 iii SUBJECT INDEX Academy Conference . Acarina . Agar Diffusion Technique . Awards Jefferson Medal . J. Shelton Horsley . Banisteria . Bequest, Form of . Black Crappie . Blood Oxygen Capacity . . Bluegill . Camharus baHonii hartonii . hartonii robustus . bartonii sciotensis . bartoni striatus . longulus longirostris ... longulus longulus . montanus acuminatus Committees . Local Arrangements . . Committee Reports Auditing . Conservation . Education . Finance . Flora . James River Project . Jamestown Festival ... Journal . Junior Academy . Local Arrangements ... Long Rrange Planning Membership . . 260 . : . 128 . 177 . 227 . 171, 227 . 41 . 400 . 113 . 113 . 113 178, 179, 180, 182, 183 . 178, 179, 180, 182 . 178, 179, 180, 182 . 178 . 178, 182 . 178, 182 178, 179, 180, 182, 183 . 220, 226 . 221, 226 . . . 244 . ■ . 253 . 255 . 169 . 254 . 252 . 258 . 234, 256 . 171, 234, 247 . 172 . 234, 241 . 234, 259 Nominating . 260 Place of Meeting 1958-59 . 260 Research . 242 Resolutions . 234, 245 Scholarship . 246 Science Talent Search . 79, 245 Council, Membership . 221, 222 Crayfishes . 177 Cricetulus griseus . 121, 124, 127 griseus . 121, 124, 127 Cricetus cricetus . 121, 124 Ernstella bracteata . 198 Enrosa . 198, 200 Financial Statement Journal . 257 Fisheries . 42 Hamamelis virginiana . 185 Hamster Chinese . 121, 124, 127 Syrian . 124 Hesperhodos . 198 Hog Production . 190 Hulthemia . 198, 202 Human Engineering . 103, 111, 112 Indians, Virginia . 3 Karst Cycle . 203 Lepomis macrochirus . 113, 116 Lowed . 198, 202 Manuscripts, Suggestions for . Inside Back Cover Megagametogenesis . 185 Megalonyx Jeffersonii . 40 Megasporogenesis . 185 V Membership Application . 400 List of . 369 Memorial Bruce Dodson Reynolds . 175 Mesocricetus auratus . 121, 124 Minutes Academy . 237 Conference . 236 Council . 75, 169, 233, 238 Section . 261 Mites, Oribatoid — Annotated List . 129 Mountain Lake Biological Station . 128 News and Notes . 74, 135, 210 Officers (1956-57) . 221 1957-58 . 222 Orihatei . 128 Orconectes immunis . 178, 182 juvenilis . 178, 180, 182 nais . 178, 182 Pacifastacus . 180, 183 Pacifastacus trowbridgii . .• . 178, 180, 182 Physicians, Early Jamestown . 65 Platyrhodon microphylla . 198 Promoxis nigromaculatus . 113, 115 Presidents, List of . 220 President's Message . 74 Procambarus hayi . 178, 180 Proceedings (1956-57) . 219 Contents . 229 Program — 35th Junior Academy Annual Meeting . 143, 230 Vi ' Psychology, Experimental . 103, 147 Rattus norvegictis . 117^ Rhodophora . 198 Rhodopsis . 198 Rosa acicularis . 197, 200, 201 arkansana . 200, 201 hlanda . 199, 200, 201 blanda hispida . 199 hracteata . 198 calif ornica . 199 Carolina . 199, 200 cinnamomeae . 197 foliolosa . 199, 200 gymnocarpa . 199 microphylla . 198 minutifolia . 198 mirifica . 198, 200 nitida . 199, 200 nutkana hispida . 199, 201 palustris . 199, 200 persica . 198 pisocarpa . 199 setigera . 200 stellata . 200, 202 Woodsii . 199, 200, 201 Science in Old Virginia . 35 Secretary-Treasurer, Report . 240 Section News . 81, 135, 210 Sections Agriculture . 81, 135, 210, 26r Astronomy, Mathematics and Physics . 84, 210, 271 Bacteriology . 85, 137, 287 * Italics indicate abstracts. vii Biology . 86, 137, 212 291 Chemistry . 87, 212, 305 Education . 317 Engineering . 93, 139 322 Geology . 96, 214, 328 Medical . 338 Psychology . 98, 349 Science Teachers . 358 Statistics . 100, 141, 361 Serological Relationships . 177 Sex Bivalent . 121, 126 Smith, Foley Foster . 210 Smith, Robert Blackwell, Jr., . 75 Tabulation of Registration . 232 Valleys, Anticlinal . 203 York- James Peninsula . 19, 34 AUTHOR INDEX Bailey, Robert S . 42 Bevan, Arthur . 19 Burke, Jack D . 113 Flint, Franklin F. . 185 Henneman, Richard H . 103 Husted, Ladley . 121 Johnson, Rose Mary . 177 Jones, E. Ruffin, Jr . 175 Lane, Charles F . 203 Lewis, Ivey F. . 35 Lewis, Walter H. . 197 McHugh, J. L . 42 Negus, Sidney S. . 65 Pollock, Edward G . 121 Reynolds, Bmce D . 3 Sengbusch, H. G . 128 Smart, Grover C., Jr . 121 Stout, Roy G . 190 Stow, Marcellus H. . 1 Woolcott, William S . 113 Errata Page 46, Hne 3: insert “THOUSANDS OF” before “U. S.” Page 55, hne 21: delete the period after “catch.” Page 55, hne 23: delete the word “catch.” Page 64, hne 1: “Engle” should read “Engel.” Page 155, paper no. 19. “Population should read “Pollution.” ix THE VIRGINIA OURNAL OF SCIENCE A JOURNAL ISSUED QUARTERLY BY THE VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE ^\THSO/V^ APR 1 0 1957 f/l, Vol. 8, New Series January, 1957 No. 1 ft VoL. 8, New Series January, 1957 No. 1 THE VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Published Four Times a Year In January, April, July, and September, by The Virginia Academy of Science Printed by The Bassett Printing Corporation, Bassett, Virginia CONTENTS Pages Foreword — Marcellus H. Stow . . 1 Indians of Virginia 350 Years Ago— Bruce D. Reynolds . . . 3 Geologic Ancestry of the York— James Peninsula — Arthur Bevan . 19 Seventeenth Century Science in Old Virginia — Ivey F. Lewis . 35 History of Virginia’s Commercial Fisheries — J. L. McHugh and Robert S. Bailey . 42 Physicians at Early Jamestown — Sidney S. Negus . 65 News and Notes . 74 EDITORIAL BOARD Horton H. Hobbs, Jr., Editor Mary E. Humphreys, Associate Editor B. F. D. Runk, Managing Editor Richard W. Irby, Jr., Advertising Manager Carl W. Allen Robert T. Brumfield Robert M. Hubbard Richard H. Henneman Section Editors Irving G. Foster Carl J. Likes W. D. Lowry Caroline Gambrill P. Ame Hansen James P. Patton W. Parker Anslow, Jr. P. N. Somerville Entered as second-class matter October 31, 1955, at the post office at Charlottesville, Virginia, under the Act of March 3, 1897. Subscription $3.00 per volume. Published four times a year: in January, April, July, and September, by the Virginia Academy of Science at Charlottesville, Va. Mailed February 25, 1957 THE VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE VoL. 8, New Series January, 1957 No. 1 Foreword The Virginia Academy of Science takes particular pride in the five purposes for which it exists, two of which are: “To encourage scientific research in Virginia and to arouse pubHc interest in science” and “To render public service in scientific matters.” When it became known that the State of Virginia would publicly recognize the 350th anniversary of the settlement of Jamestown, the officers of the Academy saw a unique opportunity to “arouse pubhc interest in science” and to “render public service in scientific matters.” It was decided to publish a special issue of the Virginia Journal of Science in which would be included chapters describing certain basic aspects of the scientific and cultural development of Virginia. It was thought appropriate to Include one chapter on the race of mankind that inhabited Virginia before the arrival of another race to establish the settlement at Jamestown. Hence a section on Indians has been prepared by Dr. Bruce D. Reynolds, Professor of Biology, Univer¬ sity of Virginia. Of fundamental importance in the history of any state or nation is the composition and structure of its rocks; an article on the Geology of Virginia has been prepared by Dr. Arthur Bevan, one time State Geologist of Virginia and recently retired as Principal Geologist, Illinois State Geological Survey. It was recognized that all aspects of science could not be included in a single number of a journal; therefore a chapter on the History of Science in I7th Century Virginia has been prepared by Dr. Ivey F. Lewis, formerly Head of the Miller School of Biology and recently retired as Dean of the College, University of Virginia. Probably the first and most obvious source of food for the settlers was from the waters of the ocean and tidal streams. Since those da vs seafood has been an important part of the State’s economy and much scientific study has been devoted to shell fish and fin fish. The article on Fisheries has been written by Dr. John L. McHugh, Director, Virginia 2 The Virginia Journal of Science [January Fisheries Laboratory, and Mr. Robert S. Bailey also of the Virginia Fisheries Laboratory. The seientifie and eeonomie status of a nation bears a direct and distinct relationship to the health of its inhabitants. Virginia has always been a leader in the development of medical sciences; hence a chapter on this topic was included in this Commemorative Issue of the Journal. It was prepared by Dr. Sidney S. Negus, Professor of Biochemistry, Medical College of Virginia. The attractive design for the cover was prepared by Mr. Horace Day, Professor of Art, Mary Baldwin College. We are confident that readers of this Jamestown Festival number of the Virginia Journal of Science will appreciate the time and energy the above Virginians put into the preparation of these articles. Members of the Virginia Academy of Science wish to express sincere thanks to the authors and to Mr. Day. Particular expression of thanks and appreciation are due Dr. Horton H. Hobbs, Professor of Biology, University of Virginia, and Editor, Virginia Journal of Science, and Miss Mary E. Humphreys, Associate Professor of Biology, Mary Baldwin College, Associate Editor, who assumed the additional work and responsibility of editing and making all arrangements for the Commemorative Issue. Marcellus H. Stow, Chairman Jamestown Festival Committee, Virginia Academy of Science November 20, 1956 Lexington, Virginia 1957] Indians in Virginia 3 Indians of Virginia 350 Years Ago Bruce D. Reynolds University of Virginia America had been discovered by primitive man long before Colum¬ bus sailed westward. No evidence uncovered so far indicates that man evolved from the prehuman condition to modern man in the Western Hemisphere, but we do have proof that man inhabited this country during the Pleistocene period. At Folsom, New Mexico, and later at Collins, Colorado, manmade artifacts were found beneath the bones of an extinct species of bison. Near Clovis, New Mexico, these so-called “Folsom” points have been found with the skull of a mammoth. The age of these characteristic darts is estimated to be from 10,000 to 20,000 years. Folsom points have been found extensively over the United States, and over one hundred have been reported from Virginia. In the October, 1956, issue of the National Geographic Maga¬ zine, Carl F. Miller describes diggings in Russell Cave in north¬ eastern Alabama. These findings indicate a continuous human occupancy for the past 8,000 years. The excavations have not been completed, but there is the possibility that the time of its habitation will exceed 15,000 years. The Richmond Times-Dispatch for October 14, 1956, page 32-A, carries two articles dealing with early man in America. One states that a spearhead found with a human skeleton indicates that: “The four Turin, Iowa, skeletons were buried about 4,500 B. C.” The other article informs us that: “A Texas anthropologist says radiocarbon tests show a woman’s skull found near Midland, Tex., three years ago apparently is 20,000 years old-the oldest human remains ever found in the Western Hemisphere.” The skull is “not unlike that of the modern American Indian.” A few years ago I was impressed by a collection of copper arti¬ facts in a Madison, Wisconsin, museum. They were so superior to any I had seen before that I inquired, tvhat Indians made them? The reply "‘early/' prompted me to ask “How long ago?” The reply was “Over 1500 years; a carbon 14 test is now being made to establish the age.” When this test was completed it showed the objects to be 5,600 years old. Thus, this culture was coexistent with early Babylonian culture. If the Indians did not develop in America, from whence did they come? According to Ales Hrdlicka some of the Tibetan tribes along 4 The Virginia Journal of Science [January the southern slopes of the Himalayas resemble the American Indian so closely that if they were transported to America nobody could possibly take them for anything but Indians. Martin, Quimby, and Collier (1946: 16) state "‘The American Indians probably represent several different racial types.” Hrdlicka has shown that several migrations came over from Asia by way of the Behring Straits. Such migrations probably took place over a long period of time. This does not preclude the pos¬ sibility of water-borne migrations at other places. Several years ago a number of people became intrigued with the idea that the American Indians were a lost tribe of Israel. In his book, published in 1853, McIntosh develops the thesis that Magog, the sec¬ ond son of Japheth, was the progenitor of the American Indians. He says these Magogites were called Scythians by the Greeks. Since recent dis¬ coveries have pushed back the time table this position is no longer tenable. As in other parts of the world, human populations in America were subject to change. It is not at all unusual to find two or more types of artifacts in the same locality. On one site near Charlottesville, Virginia, we have found artifacts representing four distinct cultures, one of which is extremely primitive. Many village sites have been found since the Indians left the region and new ones are being added to the list each year. This is not surprising in view of the fact that during colonial times neither Indians nor whites were particularly interested in vanished tribes. At the beginning of the seventeenth century there were probably less than 1,000,000 Indians in America north of Mexico, or about 800,000 in continental United States. Approximately 20,000 of these were in the confines of present Virginia. In the Coastal Plains (Tide¬ water) area there were close to 9,000 belonging to the Algonquian stock. These belonged to the powerful Powhatan Confederation, which was made up of over thirty tribes, all but six of which had been brought together by Powhatan himself. Powhatan’s father had started the Confederation by bringing under his control six of the Algonquian tribes. According to Strachey (1849) they called their land “Isenacom- macach.” Siouans occupied most of the Piedmont and Blue Ridge Mountains area. In the northern part of this region were the Manahoacs, consist¬ ing of at least eight tribes and comprising perhaps 1,000 persons. In the central and southern region were the Monacans, made up of five or more tribes and comprising about 2,500. From Batts Journal (1671) we learn that another group of Sioux, the Monetons, were in the western part of the State and in West Virginia on the New River. Apparently one tribe of them was called the Kanawhas. Their number is estimated to have been 500. Several of their village sites and burial 1957] Indians in Virginia 9 and several unauthorized expeditions were led against them by Natha¬ niel Baeon.” On some of these oecasions old men, women, and chil¬ dren were brutally slaughtered. As pointed out above, the American Indians were composed of several racial groups. Those Hving in Virginia belonged either to the Algonquian, Siouan, or Iroquoian stocks. Various morphological differ¬ ences existed between the different stocks, such as height, features, and color. At birth most Indians are lighter in color. With increasing age and exposure to the sun and other elements the skin becomes darker. In many cases the darkness was exaggerated by the accumulation of clay, soot, and dirt. In general they had excellent postures and it was very rare to see a cripple, or otherwise deformed Indian. This applies to the mental condition as well as to the physical. This trait was so marked that the early observers wondered if they dehberately destroyed the feeble. Perhaps nature takes care of that in a primitive society where the rigors of living take a heavy toll of the weak. The primitive Indian rarely had enough food or time to permit him to be¬ come obese. The face is described as ugly and severe. The high cheek bones, the large mouth with thickened hps, the large nose, aquiline in some, broad in others, the dark brown or black eyes, the straight black hair, the coppery red color — these are qualities we usually associate with the Indian. The body hair was sparse, as was the facial hair of the men. Usually the beard was plucked out or cut off. Adair (1775) describes this process as follows: “Both sexes pluck all the hair off their bodies with a kind of tweezers made formally of clamshells.” Exceptions to this rule are noted by Spelman (1884) who says that beards were worn by some priests, and by Lawson (1714) who mentions mustaches and whiskers seen among the Keyauwee. The manner of wearing the head hair varied with the different tribes. Women usually allowed their hair to grow long except in time of mourning, when it might be cut off or just disheveled. The Powhatan unmarried girls had the front and sides cut close and allowed the rest of it to grow long and hang down their backs, tying it in a plait. The married women allowed all of their head hair to grow long. It was plait¬ ed and tied as was that of the unmarried women. On occasions both might put flowers or feathers in their hair as decorations. The Siouan women ’made their hair into a long roll like a “pony’s” tail. This was bound with a string of beads, or a simple leather thong. The male hair¬ do varied more than that of the female. With all of the variation, how¬ ever, a top portion was left. This could be Hfted as a scalp, if the enemy was able to do so, and the brave seemed to think that it was not “cricket” unless this opportunity was afforded. In many of the tribes the males 10 The Virginia Journal of Science [January would cut the hair from the right side of the head and leave it long on the left. Apparently this was done to keep the hair from getting in the way of action when shooting a bow. The Algonquian men usually left a roach running from front to rear along the top of the head. They might let the hair grow long on either side and bind it up in knots under the ears or at the back of the head. Frequently feathers were stuck into these. Clothes were worn pdmarily for protection. The amount, therefore, depended on the season. During warm weather nothing more than a loin cloth (men) or apron (women) was needed. These were made of skins, from which the hair had been removed, or a woven fabric. Sometimes a thong was tied around the waist and leaves or grass inserted into it far modesty’s sake. Prepubertial children usually went naked during the sum¬ mers. When the weather got cold, garments made from skins with the hair left on constituted the principal clothing. Occasionally feathers were attached to a skin or to fabric as special garment material. Pelts of various animals were used, but in Virginia deer was more commonly used. Tattoo¬ ing was commonly practiced. Perhaps most people think of the Indian as living only in a tent, tepee, or wigwam. That may have been true of the Plains Indians, but it was not true of the Virginia Indians. The Indians hved in small villages, containing generally from 10 to 100 families. The houses were made by planting upright poles at three to four foot intervals. These were either bent over and tied together to make a roof, or else a ridge pole and other poles were put in position. The roof was made of bark, thatch, or skins. Summer houses usually did not have side walls, but winter houses had walls, made of bark, thatch, mats, skins, or logs, and sticks daubed with mud. Many houses of this kind were depicted by White and many of the post holes have been observed by recent excavators. There was a hole left in the roof for smoke to escape. Usually there was a door in front and one to the rear. Adair (1775) says: “The inside of their houses is furnished with genteel couches to sit, and lie upon, raised on four forks of timber of a proper height, to give the swarming fleas some trouble in their at¬ tack, as they are not able to reach them at one spring.” Further he adds, “. . . they tie with fine white oak splinters, a sufficient quantity of mid¬ dle-sized canes of proper dimensions, to three or four bars of the same sort, which they fasten above the frame.” On this base they place a mat¬ tress which is made of long cane splinters. Their bedding consists of skins of bears, bisons, elks, deer, panthers, and other wild animals. The Indians’ cooking utensils were made of clay, stone, bone, wood, etc. The cook pots were made of soapstone in some regions, but elay ves¬ sels were in use over the entire State. These ranged in size from small cups to more than a bushel. Clay for making the pottery was collected by the women. It was carefully selected with reference to texture and freed 1957] Indians in Virginia 11 of all extraneous matter while in the dry condition. When mixed for use, ground shell, old pottery, slate, or sand was added as a binder. They had no potters wheel but nevertheless some of their products were extremely well executed. Pots were made by smearing clay inside a woven form (basket), outside of a form, or more commonly by rolHng out cylindrical forms of clay and building up a vessel by putting down layer after layer of this “mud rope” and smoothing the layers together with the hands and a smooth rock or shell. Balls of clay that had been stored for future use have been found by the author, as have fragments of “mud rope” that had been pinched off for use in pottery making. I have found no painted designs on Virginia pottery. The decorative motifs have been produced by the woven basket, by a stylus, by a stamp, by ears of corn or corn cobs, and by hand crimping. Crude pots, made by children in imitation of their mother’s, and beautifully made play dishes have been found. Most of the Indians in Virginia had become more or less adapted to an agricultural life; they still depended on hunting and fishing for flesh food, but most of them had their crops of corn beans, squash, and fre¬ quently tobacco. Women usually planted and cultivated the crops, al¬ though men might help with the harvest. They were familiar with some of the wild vegetable crops, but did not depend on them. In some places corn was extensively cultivated and they were able to let the Jamestown colonists have hundreds of bushels of that commodity. They especially liked tender young com roasted in the husk (roasting ears); also they made a meal and bread of it, hominy, and a parched cracked corn that was especially good for carrying on long trips, for it kept without mould¬ ing. There was no set time for meals. Whenever one was hungry and food was available, it was time to eat. When visitors called, they were offered food by the polite Indian, and after eating the business could be attended to. Usually the men ate first and the women and children had what was left. Fishing and hunting were done by the men. Hunting was accom- pHshed by snaring, stalking, ambush, and surrounding. The latter method required a large number and sometimes fire was used for herding wild life into a narrow passage where the animals could be slaughtered. The hun¬ ter stalking his prey might use a skin of the animal as a disguise. Spears and arrows were the principal weapons. These were tipped with stone, bone, shark’s teeth, turkey spurs, and bills of various birds. Fish were speared with arrows, caught with bone hooks, or trap¬ ped with seines or compHcated weirs. Fish hooks and sinkers have been found far inland feom the sea. This indicates that the Indians engaged in fresh-water, as well as salt-water fishing. Perhaps the women were 12 The Virginia Journal of Science [January permitted to collect shell fish. Wherever inland kitchen middens are found the numerous snail and mussel shells present bear evidence of the na¬ tives’ love for these molluscs. In a midden on Glouchester point examined a few years ago, I was impressed by the fact that most of the shells found were clams, not more than four percent were oyster shells. It was quite obvious from an examination of this midden that the stench from this garbage heap would ultimately become more than the Indians could en¬ joy, for fires were built on the shells from time to time. From Lederer’s report, cited earlier, we are informed that the ancient inhabitants of Virginia fed only on raw flesh and fish. This was not true of the seventeenth century Indians of Virginia. Wherever remains are found, the charred bones are mute evidence of cooked meat. Reports handed down from whites who made contact with these people indicate that the Indians cooked their food more thoroughly than did the whites. They ate all kinds of animals, both invertebrate and vertebrate, and some of the men considered it effeminate to balk at anything. When going on a long expedition through unfriendly territory, where discovery would be dangerous and fires were forbidden, they generally carried parched corn, dried meat and often a pudding-like mixture called pemmican. The Indians about whom we are concerned in this discussion thought that the gods had human shapes and therefore they represented them by images. They had priests who were older, sober men, and also con¬ jurers, who were younger, more active men who were given to exhaust¬ ing exhibitions of trickery. Henry Spelman, who spent a long time as a captive among the Algonquians, says (1884) that for the most part they worship the devil, which the conjurers, can make appear at will. Each tribe has an image of its own god which is usually kept in a special house. In some cases they give presents of beads and copper to this god and at times offer special supphcations. Once a year the Patomecks offer a child as a sacrifice to their god whom they call Quioquascacke. Although the Indians were fundamentally communistic, they recog¬ nized a difference between their lords (weroances) and the common people. To quote from Strachey (1849): “Concerning the immortality of the sowle they suppose that the common people shall not live after death; but they thinck that their weroances and priests, indeed whom they esteeme half quioughcosughes, when their bodyes are laied in the earth, that that which is within shall go beyond the mountaynes and traveU as farr as where the sun setts into most pleasant fields, growndes, and pastures, where yt shall do no labour; but stuck finely with feathers, and painted with oyle and pocones, rest in all quiet and peace, and eat de¬ licious fruicts, and have store of copper, beades, and hatchetts; sing, daunce, and have all variety of dehghts and merryments till that waxe old there, as the body did on earth, and then it shall dissolve and die, and 1957] Indians in Virginia 9 and several unauthorized expeditions were led against them by Natha¬ niel Bacon.” On some of these occasions old men, women, and chil¬ dren were brutally slaughtered. As pointed out above, the American Indians were composed of several racial groups. Those living in Virginia belonged either to the Algonquian, Siouan, or Iroquoian stocks. Various morphological differ¬ ences existed between the different stocks, such as height, features, and color. At birth most Indians are lighter in color. With increasing age and exposure to the sun and other elements the skin becomes darker. In many cases the darkness was exaggerated by the accumulation of clay, soot, and dirt. In general they had excellent postures and it was very rare to see a cripple, or otherwise deformed Indian. This applies to the mental condition as well as to the physical. This trait was so marked that the early observers wondered if they dehberately destroyed the feeble. Perhaps nature takes care of that in a primitive society where the rigors of living take a heavy toll of the weak. The primitive Indian rarely had enough food or time to permit him to be¬ come obese. The face is described as ugly and severe. The high cheek bones, the large mouth with thickened lips, the large nose, aquiline in some, broad in others, the dark brown or black eyes, the straight black hair, the coppery red color — these are qualities we usually associate with the Indian. The body hair was sparse, as was the facial hair of the men. Usually the beard was plucked out or cut off. Adair (1775) describes this process as follows: “Both sexes pluck all the hair off their bodies with a Idnd of tweezers made formally of clamshells.” Exceptions to this rule are noted by Spelman (1884) who says that beards were worn by some priests, and by Lawson (1714) who mentions mustaches and whiskers seen among the Keyauwee. The manner of wearing the head hair varied with the different tribes. Women usually allowed their haii* to grow long except in time of mourning, when it might be cut off or just disheveled. The Powhatan unmarried girls had the front and sides cut close and allowed the rest of it to grow long and hang down their backs, tying it in a plait. The married women allowed all of their head hair to grow long. It was plait¬ ed and tied as was that of the unmarried women. On occasions both might put flowers or feathers in their hair as decorations. The Siouan women ^made their hair into a long roll like a “pony’s” tail. This was bound with a string of beads, or a simple leather thong. The male hair¬ do varied more than that of the female. With all of the variation, how¬ ever, a top portion was left. This could be hfted as a scalp, if the enemy was able to do so, and the brave seemed to think that it was not “cricket” unless this opportunity was afforded. In many of the tribes the males 10 The Virginia Journal of Science [January would cut the hair from the right side of the head and leave it long on the left. Apparently this was done to keep the hair from getting in the way of action when shooting a bow. The Algonquian men usually left a roach running from front to rear along the top of the head. They might let the hair grow long on either side and bind it up in knots under the ears or at the back of the head. Frequently feathers were stuck into these. Clothes 'were worn pdmarily for protection. The amount, therefore, depended on the season. During warm weather nothing more than a loin cloth (men) or apron (women) was needed. These were made of skins, from which the hair had been removed, or a woven fabric. Sometimes a thong was tied around the waist and leaves or grass inserted into it fo^r modesty’s sake. Prepubertial children usually went naked during the sum¬ mers. When the weather got cold, garments made from skins with the hair left on constituted the principal clothing. Occasionally feathers were attached to a skin or to fabric as special garment material. Pelts of various animals were used, but in Virginia deer was more commonly used. Tattoo¬ ing was commonly practiced. Perhaps most people think of the Indian as living only in a tent, tepee, or wigwam. That may have been true of the Plains Indians, but it was not true of the Virginia Indians. The Indians lived in small villages, containing genecrally from 10 to 100 families. The houses were made by planting upright poles at three to four foot intervals. These were either bent over and tied together to make a roof, or else a ridge pole and other poles were put in position. The roof was made of bark, thatch, or skins. Summer houses usually did not have side walls, but winter houses had walls, made of bark, thatch, mats, skins, or logs, and sticks daubed with mud. Many houses of this kind were depicted by White and many of the post holes have been observed by recent excavators. There was a hole left in the roof for smoke to escape. Usually there was a door in front and one to the rear. Adair (1775) says: “The inside of their houses is furnished with genteel couches to sit, and lie upon, raised on four forks of timber of a proper height, to give the swarming fleas some trouble in their at¬ tack, as they are not able to reach them at one spring.” Further he adds, “. . . they tie with fine white oak splinters, a sufficient quantity of mid¬ dle-sized canes of proper dimensions, to three or four bars of the same sort, which they fasten above the frame.” On this base they place a mat¬ tress which is made of long cane splinters. Their bedding consists of skins of bears, bisons, elks, deer, panthers, and other wild animals. The Indians’ cooking utensils were made of clay, stone, bone, wood, etc. The cook pots were made of soapstone in some regions, but clay ves¬ sels were in use over the entire State. These ranged in size from small cups to more than a bushel. Clay for making the pottery was collected by the women. It was carefully selected with reference to texture and freed 1957] Indians in Virginia 11 of all extraneous matter while in the dry condition. When mixed for use, ground shell, old pottery, slate, or sand was added as a binder. They had no potters wheel but nevertheless some of their products were extremely well executed. Pots were made by smearing clay inside a woven form (basket), outside of a form, or more commonly by rolling out cylindrical forms of clay and building up a vessel by putting down layer after layer of this “mud rope” and smoothing the layers together with the hands and a smooth rock or shell. Balls of clay that had been stored for future use have been found by the author, as have fragments of “mud rope” that had been pinched off for use in pottery making. I have found no painted designs on Virginia pottery. The decorative motifs have been produced by the woven basket, by a stylus, by a stamp, by ears of corn or corn cobs, and by hand crimping. Crude pots, made by children in imitation of their mother s, and beautifully made play dishes have been found. Most of the Indians in Virginia had become more or less adapted to an agricultural life; they still depended on hunting and fishing for flesh food, but most of them had their crops of corn beans, squash, and fre¬ quently tobacco. Women usually planted and cultivated the crops, al¬ though men might help with the harvest. They were familiar with some of the wild vegetable crops, but did not depend on them. In some places corn was extensively cultivated and they were able to let the Jamestown colonists have hundreds of bushels of that commodity. They especially liked tender young corn roasted in the husk (roasting ears); also they made a meal and bread of it, hominy, and a parched cracked corn that was especially good for carrying on long trips, for it kept without mould¬ ing. There was no set time for meals. Whenever one was hungry and food was available, it was time to eat. When visitors called, they were offered food by the polite Indian, and after eating the business could be attended to. Usually tlie men ate first and the women and children had what was left. Fishing and hunting were done by the men. Hunting was accom¬ plished by snaring, stalking, ambush, and surrounding. The latter method required a large number and sometimes fire was used for herding wild life into a narrow passage where the animals could be slaughtered. The hun¬ ter stalldng his prey might use a skin of the animal as a disguise. Spears and arrows were the principal weapons. These were tipped with stone, bone, shark’s teeth, turkey spurs, and bills of various birds. Fish were speared with arrows, caught with bone hooks, or trap¬ ped with seines or complicated weirs. Fish hooks and sinkers have been found far inland fcom the sea. This indicates that the Indians engaged in fresh-water, as well as salt-water fishing. Perhaps the women were 12 The Virginia Journal of Science [January permitted to collect shell fish. Wherever inland kitchen middens are found the numerous snail and mussel shells present bear evidence of the na¬ tives’ love for these molluscs. In a midden on Glouchester point examined a few years ago, I was impressed by the fact that most of the shells found were clams, not more than four percent were oyster shells. It was quite obvious from an examination of this midden that the stench from this garbage heap would ultimately become more than the Indians could en¬ joy, for fires were built on the shells from time to time. From Lederer’s report, cited earlier, we are informed that the ancient inhabitants of Virginia fed only on raw flesh and fish. This was not true of the seventeenth century Indians of Virginia. Wherever remains are found, the charred bones are mute evidence of cooked meat. Reports handed down from whites who made contact with these people indicate that the Indians cooked their food more thoroughly than did the whites. They ate all kinds of animals, both invertebrate and vertebrate, and some of the men considered it effeminate to balk at anything. When going on a long expedition through unfriendly territory, where discovery would be dangerous and fires were forbidden, they generally carried parched corn, dried meat and often a pudding-like mixture called pemmican. The Indians about whom we are concerned in this discussion thought that the gods had human shapes and therefore they represented them by images. They had priests who were older, sober men, and also con¬ jurers, who were younger, more active men who were given to exhaust¬ ing exhibitions of trickery. Henry Spelman, who spent a long time as a captive among the Algonquians, says (1884) that for the most part they worship the devil, which the conjurers can make appear at will. Each tribe has an image of its own god which is usually kept in a special house. In some oases they give presents of beads and copper to this god and at times offer special supplications. Once a year the Patomecks offer a child as a sacrifice to their god whom they call Quioquascacke. Although the Indians were fundamentally communistic, they recog¬ nized a difference between their lords (weroances) and the common people. To quote from Strachey (1849): “Concerning the immortality of the sowle they suppose that the common people shall not live after death; but they thinck that their weroances and priests, indeed whom they esteeme half quioughcosughes, when their bodyes are laied in the earth, that that which is within shall go beyond the mountaynes and traveU as farr as where the sun setts into most pleasant fields, growndes, and pastures, where yt shall do no labour; but stuck finely with feathers, and painted with oyle and pocones, rest in all quiet and peace, and eat de¬ licious fruicts, and have store of copper, beades, and hatchetts; sing, daunce, and have all variety of dehghts and merryments till that waxe old there, as the body did on earth, and then it shall dissolve and die, and 1957] Indians in Virginia 13 come into a woman’s womb againe and so be a new borne unto the world.” The Siouans believed in a supreme god and several minor deities. When people die, all travel along the same road for a long time until they come to a fork. Here the good are separated from the bad by a flash of lightning and are hurried away to a charming warm country where spring is ever lasting and every month is May. People are always young, and women are as bright as stars and never scold. The people who have been bad are taken to a dark and barren country where it is always winter. The people stay hungry and the only thing they have to eat is a bitter potato that gives them the gripes and fills their bodies with loathsome ulcers. The women are old and ugly and have panther-like claws which they use on the men who shght their passions. Attention should be called to the fact that this information was recorded by Wilham Byrd about 1728, and it looks very much as if the Indians had been influenced by white man’s rehgion. The Iroquoians concept of religion was not obtained until occasional contacts with the whites for over a century. The account that we have shows a decided similarity to the Christian behef and must be considered as influenced by it. Among the Algonquians, and other Indians in Virginia, it was the custom for a man to have as many wives as he wanted and was able to buy. For the wealthy polygyny was the mle, and it is said that Pow¬ hatan had over 100 wives. When a chief wanted additional wives, the fairest in the land were brought to him. If an ordinary man became interested in a girl, he would inquire of her people as to the price demanded; and if the arrangements were satisfactory, the woman would go to him upon payment of the requested amount. In some cases promises were accepted in part, and if the woman was passed on to some other man before this was paid, the second husband would assume that obligation. Apparently a woman could not be “given in marriage” without her consent. Prior to marriage, which took place at an early age, girls bestowed their favors on whom they wished. Among some of the tribes these “light o’ loves” accepted gifts for their favors. Also there was a class of prostitutes made up of adulteresses and outcasts who ad¬ vertised their trade by the way they painted their faces. Sometimes men made temporary alliances with such women. Marriage itself was a serious affair, and adultery was severely pun¬ ished. Among some tribes only the man was held guilty. He might have to take the woman as wife and pay her people any outstanding obliga¬ tions, or pay the husband the amount of the marriage dowry, or for presents he had made to her, or for the loss of her services in his garden and cornfield. Sometimes death was the penalty. 14 The Virginia Journal of Science [January The ritual associated with marriage varied from tribe to tribe. In some cases a string of beads of the demanded length was broken over the couple's joined hands; a bowl of food was placed under the eaves of the gill’s people’s corncrib and if the girl allowed the youth to steal up and take a spoonful of it, he was accepted; reeds exchanged between the two; an ear of corn divided between them; venison given to the girl by the boy and an ear of corn given to the boy by the girl. Before mar¬ riage the man was supposed to possess a house as pointed out by Hawkins (1848) . . when a man has built a house, made his crop, and gath¬ ered it in, then made his hunt and brought home the meat, and put all this in possession of his wife, the ceremony ends, and they are married.” In some tribes the union was not considered to be established until after the succeeding harvest festival (busk). Until that time either could leave the other, but afterwards the woman was considered to be bound to her husband. Should a man marry a second wife he could not bring her into the same house with the first wife without her consent. Also he was supposed to have the first wife’s consent to subsequent alliances, Swanton (1946) says: ‘Tn succession to the chieftainship Algonquians preferred the female side to the male side though there is no evidenc of a totemic system.” Powhatan inherited his office through his father and he passed his authority on to his brothers and son. In some of the tribes authority was through matrilineal descent. The methods of disposing of their dead differed greatly among the different tribes and among the different classes within a tribe. Usually important persons were disposed of in a manner to indicate belief in an after life. Attention has been called to the fact that the chiefs and priests were considered to be in a different category from the average person by some of the tribes. When members of this higher category died their bodies received special attention. Some of the Virginia Indians disposed of the bodies of their dead chiefs very much like Hariot (1588) de¬ scribed for the Carolina Algonquians: “They build a scaffolde 9 or 10 foote highe . . . and lai the dead corpses of their weroans theruppon.” In preparing the corpses for deposition on the scaffold the viscera are first removed, then the sldn is taken off and all of the flesh is cut from the bones. The bones are dried and put back into the sldn and this is stuffed with dry grass or sand and sewn up. The scaffold is under a roof and by the body an idol is placed. A priest lodges under the seaf- fold and mumbles prayers day and night. Such temples may be kept for vears and come to contain many of tlieir chief persons. Spelman (1884) says that the corpses of ordinary persons are placed on scaffolds 9-12 feet high and apparently are left there until all the flesh is off the bones. The bones are then placed in a mat and hung up in the house until it falls down, after which they are buried among the ruins. 1957] Indians in Virginia 15 The Siouans sometimes put their dead in temporary open graves until the flesh had disappeared and then placed the bones of important per¬ sons in caves, if they were available. The bones of lesser persons would be collected in bundles and buried indiscriminately in mounds. Jefferson (1801) dug into the Saponi mound near Charlottesville, Virginia, and estimated that it contained about 1,000 bodies, the bones occurring in a jumbled manner. Numerous skeletons have been removed from several places in Virginia. The author, with Mr. John H. Reeves, Jr., has re¬ moved about twentv skeletons from a recently located site on the Staun¬ ton River, Halifax County. Most of these were buried in the flexed po¬ sition and lying on the left side In one case a person and a dog were buried in one corner of a house, a person in each of two other corners, while the fourth corner was used as a garbage pit. The dog was placed on a cairn of stones, but there was no evidence of special offerings with adult skeletons. Whenever children skeletons were uncovered, ossuaries and beads were usually found. This is sugges¬ tive of the practice of the ancient Mycaenians. Skeletons unearthed by Mr. Reeves on the New River, near Eggleston, showed a similar prac¬ tice. These were probably Monetons, while the skeletons found on the Staunton River might have been Saponis. Timberlake (1765) says of the Cherokees: “They seldom bury their dead, but throw them into the river; yet if any white man will bury them he is generally rewarded with a blanket, besides what he takes from the corpse, the dead having commonly their guns, tomahawkes, powder, lead, silverware, wampum, and a little tobacco, buried with them.” When northern Europeans overran the Roman Empire, the conquer¬ ing hordes became amalgamated with the vanquished and, to a great extent, took over their language and culture. When some of the de¬ scendants of these same northern Europeans conquered the primitive tribes inhabiting Virginia, there was little amalgamation and but little of this primitive culture was appropriated and adapted to the use of the colonists. For the most part the natives were exterminated, placed on reservations, or driven westward. At one time the red man seemed to be doomed to extinction, but during the past several decades he has made a comeback. There are about one half as many Indians in the United States now as there were in 1607. There are only about one thirtieth as many in Virginia as there were when Jamestown was settled and most of these are of mixed blood. Swanton (1946) says that “No considerable number of Powhatan (Algonquian) Indians seem ever to have removed from the locality. They gradually died out or retired into one or two reservations where a few mixed-blood descendants still live.” These include “the Pamunkey, Chick- 16 The Virginia Journal of Science [January ahominy, Powhatan, Mattapony, Werowocomoco, Nansemond, Rappa¬ hannock, Potomac, Tappahannock, Wicocomoco, and Accohamoc, though only the first two are of any considerable size. Hodge (1912) calls atten¬ tion to the fact that with the Reaty of Albany in 1722, the history of the Powhatan tribes practically ceased and the remnants dwindled to near extinction. “They now number altogether about 700, including the Chick- ahominy, Nansemond, Pamunkey, and Mattapony.” All of the Siouan Tribes have departed from Virginia. The Monacans remained on the James River at Manikin until after 1702. They probably joined the Indians from Fort Christanna when they migrated to New York about 1740 and estabhshed tliemselves among the Iroquois. The Manahoacs were at Fort Christanna in 1714. They united with the Saponis and went with them to New York, after which they disappear from history. It is not known whether the Monetons joined the Tutelos or moved westward. The Saponis, Nahyssans, and Occaneechis were at Fort Christanna and went to New York, They were adopted into the League of Iropuois in 1753. The Iroquoians seem to have been more adept at playing the ‘bal¬ ance of power” game. Perhaps because of this they have left more de¬ scendants. The Meherrins probably united with the Tuscaroras and moved to New York, where they joined the Confederation about 1722. The Nottoways, called Mangoacs by the Raleigh expedition, maintained their identity until as late as 1825, when they were Hving on a reserva¬ tion in Southampton County. In spite of broken treaties and repeated encroachments by the whites, the Cherokees maintained their position until 1836, when the bulk of them were forcibly moved beyond the Mississippi. About 1,500 remained behind and were subsequently placed on a reservation in western North Carohna. These have multiphed, as have those in Oklahoma, so that now there are twice as many of them as there were in 1607. LITERATURE CITED AND SUGGESTED REFERENGES Adair, James 1775. The History of the American Indians. London. Barlowe, Arthur 1584. (See under Lorant) Batts, Thomas 1671. (See under Bushnell, 1907) Brown, Alexander 1890. The Genesis of the United States. 2 Vols. New York. Brownell, Charles DeWolf 1854. The Indian Races of North and South America. Dayton 6- Wentworth. Boston. Bushnell, David L, Jr. 1907. Discoveries Beyond the Appalachian .Mountains in September, 167J. American Anthropology, n. s., Vol. 9, pp. 45-56. 1957] Indians in Virginia 17 - 1907 a. The Virginia Indians. American Anthropology, n.s., Vol. 9, pp. 448. — ___ — -1934. Tribal Migrations East of the Mississippi. Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collection, 89(12). 2 Vols. Riehmond. Byrd, William 1866. History of the Dividing Line and Other Tracts. Collier, John 1947. The Indians of the Americas. W. W. Norton 6- Company, New York. CoTTERiLL, R. S. 1954. The Southern Indians. The Story of the Civilized Tribes before Removal. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman. Davis, Emily C. 1931. Ancient Americans. Henry Holt h- Co. Douglas, Frederick H. 1933. The Virginia Indian Tribes; 17th Century. Leaflet 57, Denver Art Museum, Department of Indian Art. 25-28 pages. Hariot, Thomas 1588. Narrative of the First English Plantation of Vir¬ ginia. London. (Also see Lorant) Hawkins, Benjamin 1848. A Sketch of the Creek Country, in 1789 and 1799. Georgia Historical Society Collection, Vol 3. Savannah. Hodge, Frederick W. 1912. Handbook of American Indians. Smith¬ sonian Institution, Bull. 30, Part 2. Jefferson, Thomas 1801. Notes on the State of Virginia with a Map of Virginia, Maryland, Delaware, and Pennsylvania. Philadelphia. Lawson, John 1714. History of Carolina, containing the exact descrip¬ tion and natural history of that country. London. Lederer, John 1672. The discoveries of John Lederer in three several marches from Virginia to the west of Carolina and other parts of this continent; begun in March, 1669, and ended September, 1670. Together with a general map of the whole territory which he traversed. London. Lewis, Clifford M. and Albert J. Loomie 1953. The Spanish Jesuit Mission in Virginia, 1570-1572. The University of North Caro¬ lina Press, Chapel Hill. Lorant, Stefan 1946. The New World. The First Pictures of America. Diiell, Sloan & Pearce, New York. Martin, Paul S., G. F. Quimby, and Donald Collier 1946. Indians Before Columbus. University of Chicago Press. Chicago. McIntosh, John 1853. The Origin of the North American Indians. Cornish Lamport 6- Company, New York. Miller, Carl F. 1956. Life 8,000 Years Ago Uncovered in an Alabama Cave. National Geographic Magazine, 110(4): 542-558. 18 The Virginia Journal of Science [January Mooney, James 1928. The Aboriginal Population of America North of Mexico. Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collection, 80(7). Palmer, Rose A. 1934. The North American Indians. Smithsonian Science Series, Vol. 4. Robinson, W. S. 1953. The Legal Status of the Indians in Colonial Vir¬ ginia. Virginia Magazine of History. Vol. 61:247-259. Sams, Conway W. 1916. The Conquest of Virginia. G. Putnanis Sons. New York and London. Smith, John 1884. Works 1608-1631. Edited by Edward Arber. English Scholars Library, No. 16, Birmingham. Spelman, Henry 1884. (See Smith 1884) Stirling, Matthew W. et al 1955. Indians of the Americas. (Pro¬ fusely illustrated). National Geographic Society. Strachey, William 1849. The historic of travaile into Virginia Britannia, expressing the cosmographie and commodities of the country, together with the manners and customs of the people. Hakluyt Society Publication, Vol. 6. London. SwANTON, John R. 1946. The Indians of the Southeastern United States. Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of American Ethnology. Bulle¬ tin 137. Timberlake, Henry 1765. The memoirs of Lieut. Timberlake (who accompanied the three Cherokee Indians to England in the year 1762) containing ... an accurate map of their Over-hill settlement. London. Verrill, a. H. 1929. Old Civilizations of the New World. Bobbs-Merrill Co., Indianapolis. Wilson, Marcus 1847. American History. Historical sketches of the Indian Tribes. Mark H. Newman & Company, New York. WissLER, Clark 1951. Indians of the United States. Four centuries of their history and culture. Doubleday h- Company, New York. 1957] Geologic Ancestry of the Peninsula 19 Geologic Ancestry of the York-James Peninsula Arthur Bevan^ Churchville, Virginia FOREWORD The Peninsula was discovered and settled by the first Virginia col¬ onists 350 years ago through the historic landing on Jamestown Island. That fortuitous event was the precursor of all the history of Virginia dur¬ ing the last three and a half centuries. Far back in time as 1607 seems to us in this eventful age, the elapsed centuries are not a second as measured against the geologic time recorded in the rocks, rivers, and landscapes of the Peninsula. How old, then, is the Peninsula? How was it developed? What has been its geologic ancestry? What particular geologic events prepared the way for the landing at Jamestown? READING GEOLOGIG REGORDS To read meaning into the geologic manuscripts of the Peninsula, which contain the records of its earth history, and to interpret them validly, one should comprehend the elements of geologic field research. A geologist is no less a skilled detective than a versatile Sherlock Holmes. He studies clues in rocks and minerals, hills and valleys, and seacoasts and rivers instead of human personalities and aberrations. The geologist is always seeking clues to past natural events so as to reconstruct the history of tlie earth and its inhabitants. To do that logically, he should be proficient in the field observation of present geologic processes, for “the present is the key to tlie past.” An active, logical imagination is almost indispen¬ sable, for the observing interpreter must envision agents, processes, and results on a grand scale throughout eons of time. Many geologic records present perplexing problems because of their antiquity, stupendousness of ultimate events, and partly because many of the processes and results cannot yet be duplicated in laboratories. This state of affairs is a chal¬ lenge and a lure to geologic research. The records and problems of the geologic history of the Peninsula are, however, relatively simple. The geologic ancestry of the Peninsula is derived from observable features: landscapes along the shores and inland; Ghesapeake Bay and its tributary rivers; surface and subsurfaces rocks; and the fossils of former 1 State Geologist of Virginia. 1929-1947. 20 The Virginia Journal of Science [January indigenous organisms— plants, invertebrates, and vertebrates. All of these data must be eritieally studied, having constantly in mind the guiding axiom— the present is the key to the past. As rivers now carry gravel, sand, silt, and mud toward the sea, so did they throughout geologic ages from the time rain fell on the young solid earth. As those sediments now accumulate in layers along river flood plains, in lakes, and in shoal waters along seacoasts, so did they during all past centuries and geologic periods. Calcareous sediments are now being produced chemically and biochemically in lacustrine and marine waters; they were no doubt formed under similar environmental conditions throughout geologic time. Fragments of land plants become buried in sands and muds along river channels and flood plains and in estuaries. Shells and other hard parts of invertebrate animals are incorporated in some sediments, especial¬ ly muds and calcareous oozes. Fresh- water clams and snails leave their shells in alluvial and lacustrine deposits. Marine invertebrate remains are characteristic of many sands and muds deposited in the sea. They are common in calcareous sediments, derived in part from their shells and other hard parts. Skeletal parts of land vertebrates are found in river, swamp, and lake deposits; of marine forms, e.g., sharks, in marine sediments. Each landscape feature, whether a river valley, a hill, or remnant of an upland plain records specific geologic history. Each has been fash¬ ioned by some geologic agent through long intervals of geologic time. The most common and ubiquitous sculpturing agent in humid chmates is running water, as rills on slopes and streams in valleys. Waves and cur¬ rent along a seacoast erode the shore and transport sediments to deposi- tional areas. Long-continued wave erosion at a stable sealevel reduces the adjacent land to a submarine plain, bordered landward by a cliff or escarpment. Winds transport sands from beaches and flats to construct dunes. Water percolating underground dissolves soluble mineral mat¬ ter, chiefly calcareous, and carries it to other sites.* The essential point to keep in mind in understanding geologic records in the Peninsula, or elsewhere, is that as geologic agents now erode and sculpture the land, transport and deposit sediments to build sedimentary rocks and certain land forms, so have they done since the earhest re¬ corded geologic time. This principle of uniformitarianism, in general, is another guiding axiom in deciphering earth history. 2 Details and examples of these common geologic processes cannot be given here ; a textbook on geology should be consultud. Only those relevant to the interpreta¬ tion of the geologic ancestry of the Peninsula are mentioned. 1957] Geologic Ancestry of the Peninsula 21 FIELD OBSERVATIONS Surface features. — The Peninsula is a part of the Coastal Plain of Virginia, popularly known as Tidewater Virginia. In a board view, as from an airplane at high altitude, the region appears to be a plain with a gentle eastward slope. The inner margin is at the somewhat irregular eastern edge of the Piedmont province, along the Fall Zone where rivers, such as the James, descend over rapids and low waterfalls. Early Rich¬ mond, for instance, was located at the Fall Zone — the head of tide¬ water navigation. The outer border of the Coastal Plain is deeply indented by bays and estuaries, of which Chesapeake Bay is the most prominent and, for this account, the most significant. The eastern part of the Coastal Plain is now submerged; the surface slopes gently under the ocean. The lower part of the Peninsula lies between two broad and beauti¬ ful tidal rivers, the James on the southwest and the York on the no»rth- east. Northwest of the confluence of the Pamunkey and Mataponi rivers to form the York, the valley of the former may be taken as the northern boundary of the Peninsula. The Peninsula thus has within its borders one large, long river, the Chickahominy. It has a remarkably tortuous course, as has the James to a less extent in its upper Tidewater reaches. The Pamunkey is similar, flowing seaward in broad sweeping curves. Because the lower part of the Peninsula is bounded on three sides by deep valleys, including Chesapeake Bay, its borders are digitate. Along the Bay the land is deeply indented by estuaries of Back and Poquoson rivers and their short tributaries. The bay borderland consists of “necks,’’ smaller bays, marshes, islands, and shoals. A long coastal bar or beach extends northward from Old Point Comfort into the Back Bay estuary. Valleys tributary to the James are partly submerged, or “drowned.” Low riverside islands, such as Jamestown, have been separated from the mainland of the Peninsula by the relatively high waters in the James. Marginal swamps are rather common. A few necks of land. e. g.. Curies Neck, are almost enclosed by the broad meandering curves of the river. Similar drowned tributaries, swamps, and islands are marginal features of the Pamunkey and Chickahominy rivers. The York River is almost straight. Its short tributaries are also drowned. Steep cliffs border the York in the vicinity of Yorktown. The surface of the Peninsula rises gradually northeastward from slightly below sealevel to an altitude of about 200 feet on the flattish upland near Richmond. The outer part is submerged. The Peninsula is a low, broad plain in most of York, Warwick, and Elizabeth City counties. Here it is only slightly dissected by streams except for the bay side indentations. The surface rises imperceptibly to a maximum gen- 22 The Virginia Journal of Science [January eral altitude of about 50 feet southeast of Lee Hall and Yorktown. Ex¬ tensive stream dissection has destroyed most of the original plain north¬ west of these points. Intervalley uplands are remnants of the gently sloping plain. The uniform continuity of the seaward slope is inter¬ rupted by low escarpments— the landward “risers” of broad, approximate¬ ly north-south trending terraces. Observable rocks. — The outcropping rocks are much more ancient manuscripts of its geologic history than are the surface features of the Peninsula. They are exposed in cuts along streams, roads and railroads, and in excavations of all kinds. The visible rocks of the Peninsula are sedimentary, i. e.y their constitu¬ ent particles were laid down as sediment — pebbles, sand, silt, mud, and shell fragments. Most of the sediments are still unconsolidated or loosely consolidated. Rainwater and snow-water percolating downward from the surface have dissolved soluble material and redeposited some of it as cement to bind together some of the sediments: pebbles into conglomerate, sand grains into sandstone, and shells and shell fragments into marl. Mud flakes and clayey particles formed layers of clay. The particles of these sedimentary rocks have been more or less sorted according to size and shape into layers or beds. Some of the strata contain plant remains, particularly those near the Fall Zone and in surficial deposits. Fossil shells occur here and there; however, they are abundant in bluffs along the York above and below Yorktown and in a few outcrops along the James. Most of the forms are pelecypods and gastropods. More than 100 species have been collected by the School of Geology at the University of Vi^rginia. Ver¬ tebrate fossils consist of vertebrae and other parts of whales and teeth and vertebrae of sharks. Geologic formations. — Geologists classify sedimentary roeks into formations, eaeh having distinctive physical characteristics and, perhaps, a diagnostie fossil flora or fauna. Each formation was deposited during a particular stage of geologic time. Such an orderly classification is essen¬ tial to depict the distribution of contemporaneous strata upon a geologic map as well as to arrange the episodes of geologic history in a proper and understandable sequence. As in a stack of books, the topmost formation is the last one that was laid down; each lower stratum was placed earlier and thus is increasingly older. This natural order of superposition is of critical importance in arranging the manifold events of earth history in a true succession. When the natural vertical succes¬ sion of strata has been determined, fossils in the beds can be used to identify more or less contemporaneous formations, even at widely sepa¬ rated localities. 1957] Geologic Ancestry of the Peninsula 23 The geologic succession of plants, invertebrates, and vertebrates has in general been worked out for much of the entire sequence of sedi¬ mentary rocks, from the oldest fossil-bearing beds to the youngest. Hence the twin principles of supei-position and of the geologic evolution of organisms enable stratigraphers and paleontologists to correlate, or match approximately in time, formations that cannot be traced at the surface because of the scarcity of outcrops. The same method is used to identify strata penetrated in deep well borings, often many miles apart. In this maimer formations that are meagerly exposed on the Peninsula can be shown on a geologic map according to their geologic ages and extent. Thickness. — The sedimentary rocks on the Peninsula range in thickness from a feather edge near the Fall Zone to a measured maximum of about 2,250 feet in the deep well at Fort Monroe. They have been traced seaward in a geophysical traverse: their thickness is calculated to be more than 12,000 feet below the submerged plain about 60 miles east of Cape Henry. Structure. — The attitude, or structure, of the formations on the Peninsula is not immediately obvious, for the stratification is commonly poor or indistinct. The structure, however, is simple. Recognizable beds in restricted exposures appear to be horizontal; notwithstanding, it has been found that over extensive areas the upper strata dip seaward at about 10 feet per mile. Data from well borings indicate that the deeper beds have somewhat steeper seaward dip; also, that in places they may be broken and displaced by faults. Foundation rocks. — The sedimentary formations of the Peninsula rest upon a foundation of much older rocks which are of two main types. Very old crystalline rocks — “basement rocks” — crop out along the Fall Zone and underlie much of the Piedmont region. They consist of igneous rocks, and highly altered sedimentary and igneous rocks. The other type is exposed in the Richmond coal basin, comprising sedimen¬ tary “red beds,” other strata, and coal. Some igneous rock was intruded, in a molten state, into these formations. These rocks are very much younger than the ancient crystalline rocks of the Piedmont but are much older than the sediments that comprise the upper crust of the Peninsula. It is a logical and safe inference that both groups of rocks underhe the Peninsula, at increasing depths seaward. The red beds were pene¬ trated by a well in another part of the Coastal Plain. A well drilled in 1902 at Fort Monroe struck crystalhne rock at a depth of 2,240 feet. A boring made in 1929 at Mathews Court House reached granite at 2,300 feet below sea level. A later geophysical traverse determined the depth to basement rock at Cape Henry to be about 2,900 feet. 24 The Virginia Journal of Science [January These foundation rocks afford considerable information about the early stages in the geologic development of the Peninsula. Its early history can be soundly inferred only from an intensive study of the rocks in the Piedmont province of Virginia. Even the great pile of sedimen¬ tary formations in the Valley of Virginia, which probably lies upon similar foundation rocks, affords numerous clues to ancestral conditions and events in the area of the Peninsula before its mantle of sedimentary rocks was deposited. GEOLOGIC TIME Just as the significant events of human history have been chronicled in terms of ancient, medieval, and modern history, so the known im¬ portant events of earth history have been arranged in time categories. Virginia’s physical ancestry, in which the peninsular area inevitably participated, progressed through four great eras of geologic time. Each of those eras was characterized by some distinctive combination of events and the approximate end of each one was marked by some particularly significant series of events. Eras have been divided into major units of time, called periods, each with more or less characteristic records. This classification of geolo¬ gic time is rather similar in general nature to the division of human history into periods and epochs. It is a natural division of geologic his¬ tory; it is also essential for a clear and world-wide interpretation and comprehension of the succession of geologic events. The classification is based in part upon major physical changes on the continents and in part upon changes in contemporary floras and faunas, whose remains have been entombed in the strata. The names of eras and periods may seem odd to a layman, but they mean more than mere convenience in classification. Each name of an era is based upon the stage of evolution of the whole organic realm in¬ cluding the dominant types then living. Most period names have been derived from a geographic unit in which formations of that age were first described. A few names designate sedimentary deposits that were peculiarly characteristic of that time. 1957] Geologic Ancestry of the Peninsula 25 The geologic ancestry of the Peninsula can be most clearly and concisely presented by reference to the geologic time scale. It is given below in abbreviated form, with the major events on the Peninsula in¬ dicated. Geologic Ghronology of the Peninsula Era Life stage Period Typical animals Peninsula record Cenozoic Recent Quaternary Mammals Present landscapes Surficial sediments Tertiary Principal sediments Mesozoic Medieval Cretaceous Reptiles Oldest sediments (?) Jurassic Triassic Probably erosion Local sediments (?) Paleozoic Ancient Permian Carboniferous Devonian Silurian Ordovician Cambrian Invertebrates Probably erosion throughout era, of landmass supplying sediments westward Precambrian Basement rocks akin to Piedmont rocks GEOLOGIG ANGESTRY It is evident that the Peninsula was affected by most of the major geologic events whereby was constructed the physical framework of Virginia and adjacents parts of the continent. The oldest accessible records of its geologic ancestry are those in the basement crystalhne rocks that crop out extensively in the Piedmont region and form the foundation of the Peninsula. Those rocks record events of Precambrian time and also some during the following Paleozoic era. Precambrian history. — The principal events to be deduced from the great body of most ancient rocks are these: widespread deposition of thick 26 Teie Virginia Journal of Science [January masses of clastic sediment; intrusion of large masses of molten rock into pre-existing rocks; the rise of other bodies of molten rock to the surface where they became lava flows; very widespread and intense deforma¬ tion of most of the Precambrian rocks; and alteration of the sedimentary foiTuations and some of the igneous rock into completely crystalline meta- moiphic rocks. Because of their thorough alteration, the original sediments are now scarcely recognizable. Nevertheless, the ancestry of the present rocks can be interpreted from some of their characteristics, such as constituent minerals, internal structure, and chemical composition. The source and de- positional environments of the ancient sediments are unknown: the events were too remote and the obscuring later changes too great for confident intei-pretations. It is surmised that; those sediments were derived from a landmass that may have included the site of the Peninsula; or it may have been situated east of the present seacoast. In the latter geographic relationship, the Peninsula may have been partly occupied by one or more of the troughs that received the land waste. Throughout the decipherable history of the earth, rocks have melted in the deep interior and have risen toward the surface as large molten masses. Many of these magmas came to rest at considerable depths where they cooled slowly and crystalhzed to form intrusions of granite and other igneous rocks. Some of those within the basement rocks of the Piedmont and the Coastal Plain were injected during Precambrian time. It was formerly thought that most of them were of that age. Re¬ search in recent years upon the characteristics and environmental relations of the Piedmont intrusive masses indicates that some of them were as¬ sociated with the profound crustal movements that occurred in eastern North Ameriea during the closing epochs of the Paleozoic era. Some of the magmas were sufficiently fluid and were subjected to strong propulsive forces that brought them onto Precambrian land sur¬ faces. There they spread over the land like lava flows do today. They have been found at several places in the Piedmont and the Blue Ridge. None has yet been encountered in deep borings in the Tidewater sec¬ tion. The severe deformation and intense metamorphism of most of the Precambrian rocks denote that they were subjected to great compressive stresses. It may be that mountain ranges were produced, perhaps also far out in the Atlantic basin of today. Upwarping and folding of the late Precambdan land no doubt accelerated the processes of rock disinte¬ gration and stimulated the streams to transport rock waste to various basins. Reduction of the uplands and deposition on the lowlands may have produced a broad undulatory plain with local hills and ridges. 1957] Geologic Ancestry of the Peninsula 27 Paleozoic history. — The geologic history of the Peninsula and the Coastal Plain in Virginia during the few hundred million years of the Paleozoic era must be inferred. Indubitable clues to some of the condi¬ tions and events are found, however, in the great mass of Cambrian to Carboniferous sedimentary rocks that underlies the Valley of Virginia and composes the mountain ridges and valleys to the west. The topography of the Virginia area during the Paleozoic era was extremely unlike the present surface. A prominent landmass at the east was bordered by a broad sea to the west. A succession of invasive seas flooded the sites of the Blue Ridge, the Valley, and the mountains far west of Virginia, from Cambrian time at least through the early part of the Carboniferous. Some of those seas joined the north Atlantic with the Gulf of Mexico or its Paleozoic counterpart. The eastern shores of those seas is unknown; some of the eastern Piedmont was covered during the Ordovician period by marine waters. An extensive landmass lay between the interior seas and the open Atlantic. Geologists long ago named it “Appalachia.” Its actual extent and character can never be known, for it disappeared before late Meso¬ zoic time. How is it known, then, that it ever existed? That interpreta¬ tion is attested by the Paleozoic sedimentary rocks in and west of the Blue Ridge. The enormous volume of sand and mud that now makes up the sandstones and shales of that region was swept into the interior seas by streams that flowed down the western slopes of Appalachia. Much of the clastic sediment could have had no other source. That Paleozoic land mass may have been at times a bold mountain range. It may have occupied part of the Tidewater area or it may have been situated entirely east of the present coast. Late Paleozoic cataclysm. — Before the end of the Paleozoic era, cataclysmic disturbances disrupted the eastern border of the continent. Irrestible forces impelled from the southeast buckled the Paleozoic strata into a broad series of huge corrugations. They trended northeast and southwest. The lateral pressure toward the interior of the continent ultimately became so intense that many of the overturned folds were broken and thick slices of the earth’s crust were gradually propelled for many miles to the northwest. These long-continued convulsions in the outer shell of the earth produced the ancestral Appalachian mountains— a high mountain chain that may have had the grandeur of the present Rocky Mountains. That late Paleozoic-early Mesozoic mountain system also eventually disappeared. Proof of its existence, nevertheless, is direct and obvious because the great folds in the strata are cogently evident in every crossing of the present Appalachian Mountains. 28 The Virginia Journal of Science [January The effect of the birth of the old Appalachian mountains upon the coastal part of Virginia is unknown. Any inference is mere conjecture. The old landmass of Appalachia may have been slowly engulfed by the Atlantic. Perhaps it had another fate. Mesozoic history. — As soon as the ancestral Appalachian moun¬ tains began to rise above the common level of the land, the forces of rock decay and disintegration attacked them, especially running water. Streams on all slopes transported rock debris to lower levels, always towa’rd the sea. During the 130 million years of the Mesozoic era the uplands were gradually worn down to a vast plain. It covered all of Virginia and the eastern part of the continent. It sloped toward the Atlantic across the Peninsula, where it is buried under a mantle of younger sediments. Hills and ridges on more resistant rock or farther removed from main drainage courses stood in places above the plain. The geologic age of its completion is uncertain; perhaps in the Cretace¬ ous period. During the Triassic period large, elongate basins were developed in the Piedmont region. Thick bodies of sand and mud were deposited in them. Parts of the basins were at times occupied by swamps in and beside which lush vegetation grew. Vegetal debris which accumulated in the swamp waters eventually became coal beds. Molten rock at in¬ tervals invaded the strata. Some of these basins may have been formed in the Coastal Plain, possibly in the northwestern part of the Peninsula. The Jurassic period was a time of widespread erosion in the east¬ ern part of the continent. No sediments of that age are known in Virgin¬ ia. The vast erosional plain mentioned above may have been in its penultimate stages. If Appalachia were destroyed by long-continued erosion during the Mesozoic era, the final phases were completed dur¬ ing this time of general planation of the land. During the Cretaceous period the geologic record in the Peninsula became mo're definite and clearer, for sediments of that age have been preserved. It is from the rocks formed during a geologic period that the contemporary geography and geologic activities can be deduced with a fair degree of certitude. Early Cretaceous sediments are chiefly gravels, sands, and clays, locally with considerable lignitic material, which lie upon the basement crystalline rocks. Most of the sediments are unconsolidated although some of the gravel has been cemented into conglomerate and some of the sand into sandstone. Abundant plant remains include ferns, cycads, and conifers. True flowering plants had not yet become numerous or abundant. 1957] Geologic Ancestry of the Peninsula ^2S These data show that late in the Jurassic or early in the Cretace¬ ous period, porhaps during both, the vast erosional plain was tilted — up toward the west and down toward the sea. This gradual uplift rejuvenat¬ ed the streams that flowed toward the Atlantic so that they began to scour off the thick mantle of decayed rock upon the plain. The lignitiz- ed wood — incipient coal — and fossil land plants, together with the absence of marine fossils, suggest that the rivers emptied into marshes and estuaries on a broad coastward flat. Topographic conditions were perhaps similar to those along the eastern side of the present Coastal plain. The sea may have submerged the eastern part of the Early Cretace¬ ous coastal plain, which inclined seaward, but because marine fossils have not been found in deep well borings its shore is unknown. A pronounced thickening of the sti'ata from the Fall Zone to the deep well at Fort Monroe indicates that the land was tilting seaward during Early Cretaceous time. The sea encroached upon the eastern Coastal Plain during Late Cretaceous time, for sediments with marine fossils of that age were penetrated in deep wells near Norfolk and at Old Point Comfort. How far the sea spread inland or whether it submerged much of . the Penin¬ sula will be unknown until more deep wells have been drilled in that area. A low coastal plain sloping gently seaward would have favored marine invasion. Tertiarij history. — The Tertiary is the earlier period in the era in which we live. It began approximately 60 million years ago. Sediments were deposited over much of the Coastal Plain during that period; hence the Tertiary history of the Peninsula is more completely evident than at any previous time. During the early part of the period (Eocene) the sea slowly crept over the Peninsula at least as far west as the Fall Zone. This may have been one of the most extensive submergences of the Tidewater Virginia region which throughout most of prior geologic time had been land. Streams had eroded this land into an irregular surface before the sea submerged it, as is shown by the uneven lower surface of the Eocene deposits. Some of the sediments appear to have been deposited in basins where they are much thicker than elsewhere. Most of the time during the Eocene epoch rivers carried fine sand and clay to the incoming sea. Much greensand (glauconite) was formed in offshore waters. Marine invertebrates abounded: the strata contain many shells of many species of pelecypods and gastropods. Some of the beds are shell marl. Well cuttings from deep borings in 1941-42 at 30 The Virginia Journal of Science [January the Navy Mine Depot at Yorktown contained many tests of numerous species of Foraminifera. The second epoch (Oligocene) of the Tertiary period seems to have been a time of relatively static conditions on the Peninsula. The Eocene sea had withdrawn into the Atlantic basin, possibly because of a slight upward tilt of the land. Erosion was slight upon the Peninsula and deposi¬ tion was virtually nil; at least there is no clear record of either process having been active. The area probably was a stable, low, flat coastal plain. Toward the Fall Zone, however, an eroded surface lies beneath the old¬ est Miocene sediments. That area was land, crossed by eroding streams. During the next epoch (Miocene) the sea advanced again toward the Fall Zone, in places flooding beyond it. This was the last extensive marine submergence of the region. In the early part of the Miocene, rivers carried much fine sand to the sea, where it was reworked and distributed by the waves and littoral currents. Some greensand was pro¬ duced off sho're. That sea harbored an abundant and varied fauna, as is shown by the many species of fossil gastropod and pelecypod shells as well as numerous other forms of invertebrates. It contained some verte¬ brates, viz., fish, reptiles, and mammals, some of the remains of which have been fossilized. Peculiar marine conditions for a long stage permitt¬ ed billions of diatoms to flourish; microscopic plants that extracted silica from the sea water to form their remarkable and, in some species, beau¬ tifully ornate tests. Leaves from land plants floated down the rivers to become imbedded in the estuarine and littoral sediments. After the initial Miocene formation was deposited, the sea appears to have withdrawn, for sediments deposited farther north are lacking on the Peninsula. The area was submerged again during the Middle Miocene. Rivers contdbuted large quantities of clay and less quartz sand to this sea than to the Early Miocene sea. These sediments indicate that the Piedmont source areas were mantled deeply with the products of long- continued rock decay. The turbid waters prevented the growth of the large colonies of diatoms which had been so characteristic of the Early Miocene sea. Considerable shell marl and the abundance of fossils de¬ note the richness of the marine invertebrate fauna. It is uncertain whether tliis sea withdrew from the Peninsula and advanced again over the area in the Late Miocene or whther the supply of terrigenous sediment was depleted. In either case the marine waters were at times clearer; hence the uppermost Tertiary formation in many places consists chiefly of shell marl or coquina. Excellent exposures are in the cliffs up and down the south side of York River near Yorktown. This section of Miocene strata was named the Yorktown formation from these typical sediments. These outcrops and beaches have long been 1957] Geologic Ancestry of the Peninsula 31 noted places for collecting fossils — among the best Tertiary ones on the Atlantic Coastal Plain. Professor Joseph K. Roberts of the School of Geology at the University of Virginia reported two decades ago that he had collected ‘TlO of the reported 123 species”. That fossils are predominantly shells of gastropods and pelecypods, but most of the in¬ vertebrate phyla are represented. Some outcrops yield shark teeth and the vertebrae of whales. Toward the close of the Miocene epoch the sea withdrew from the Peninsula and the rest of the Coastal Plain in Virginia, never to flood the region extensively again. A long period of emergent land ensued during which streams from the Piedmont and western parts of Virginia brought gravel and sand and deposited them on flood plains in the Peninsula. These Late Tertiary or Early Pleistocene sediments have been preserved at several places, e.g., east of Williamsburg. Some of the peb¬ bles of Hmestone were derived from outcrops west of the Blue Ridge, as is proved by the Paleozoic fossils in them. Pleistocene history. — The Quatei-nary period is divisible, chiefly for convenience of reference, into an earlier or Pleistocene epoch and the present or Recent epoch. The Pleistocene epoch is also called the “Great Ice Age,” because expansive sheets of ice — continental glaciers — spread over much of Canada and the northern United States. South of the southern limit of glaciation other geologic processes were normally active, except as they were affected by changes in climate and precipitation. One effect was pronounced on the Peninsula and other parts of the Coastal Plain — the fall and rise of sea level causing lands to emerge far east of the present shore and then to be flooded a considerable distance west of the present coast. This slow cychc fluctuation of sea level was in response to the locking up of large amounts of evaporated sea water in the huge ice sheets, followed by its slow return to the ocean as those glaciers melted during the warmer interglacial stages. Four distinct Pleistocene glacial stages have been recognized from geologic records in the glaciated region; hkewise, four interglacial stages if the present stage is counted as one of them. (It may, however, be a post-glacial stage, in which case the term “Recent epoch” may be some¬ what appropriate.) Responses of sea level to the variable supply of water are recorded on the Coastal Plair> though in general not so well on the Peninsula. The invading seas smoothed their new floors, partly by wave and current erosion and partly by sediments eroded from the coasts and contributed by tributary rivers. This mantle of recent sediment eonstitutes some of the surficial formations on the Peninsula. Large rivers dropped parts of their loads of gravel, sand, and silt along their lower courses before they reached the seas. As successive seas withdrew from the pre- 32 The Virginia Journal of Science [January sent land surface, James and York rivers of necessity extended theic courses across the newly emergent sea floors, as they had done in each prior cycle of emergence since the Cretaceous sea invaded the Coastal Plain. An index to the climate in Virginia during the glacial stages is af¬ forded by striated cobbles and boulders in some of the fluvial and estuarine sediments. In this part of the state these erratics occur mainly south of the James. They have the earmarks of ice transport and scor¬ ing. Because they occur far south of the terminii of the continental glaciers it seems most probable that they were ice-borne in rivers from the colder regions of the upper Piedmont and the Blue Ridge; perhaps even from the upper valley of the James in the distant mountains. The shore of each invading Pleistocene sea is marked by a moderate¬ ly steep upward slope or subdued sea-cliff. The present surface of the region consequently is composed of a series of broad plains, or “treads,’’ and north-south trending scarps, or “risers.” These are the coastal plain terraces. The most recently exposed submarine plain, or sea floor, is the broad, low surface in the southeastern counties of the Peninsula. That gently sloping plain in late Pleistocene time was exposed land far east of the present coast. The mouths of the York and James were east of their present positions. These interpretations are clearly evident from the deep channels that lead into the ocean. The lower part of the James — the magnificent harbor of Hampton Roads — is approximately 100 feet deep. The lower York is about 80 feet deep. These stream-scoured val¬ leys could have been cut mainly in a land surface only, at considerable height above the sea, even though sediment-laden submarine currents may have partially scoured them. The extreme eastern edge of the coastal plain during its maximum emergence is unknown. At this relatively recent geologic stage in the ancestry of the Peninsula its seaward portion was a low swampy plain. Its inland portion was higher above the sea than now. This altitude provided st-ream gradients and velocities that caused the James and the York to deepen their channels. The erosive power of their tributaries was accentuated; hence they dissected the western upland into the present pattern of ridges and valleys. Chesapeake Bay in its present form did not exist. Its area was occupied by the drainage system of the lower part of the great Susquehanna River. The York and the James were major tributaries. Recent geologic events. — An immense volume of evaporated sea water was temporarily locked in the million or more cubic miles of ice that constituted the last great continental glaciers. As the cold Pleistocene climate moderated, large quantities of melt waters from the wasting ice sheets flooded rivers which poured the water back into the Atlantic and 1957] Geologic Ancestry of the Peninsula 33 other oceanic basins. Those basins, therefore, became filled to overflow and the sea again gradually inundated the coastal plain. The seaward portions of the James, York, and similar rivers became estuaries and tidal channels; in the James today even to Richmond. A major part of the large, ancestral Susquehanna Valley and its major tributaries were slowly drowned to make Chesapeake Bav. As the sea crept farther inland, slug¬ gish tributaries of the James and the York also were drowned, and the adjacent lowlands became swamps. With their gradients and velocities decreased, the rivers wandered from side to side across their low flood- plains in broad meandering curves. Shallow depressions across some of the riverside peninsulas became short straits and the “necks” of land be¬ came islands. Jamestown Island is typical. The long coastal bar or barrier beach that extends northward from Old Point Comfort into the Back Bay estuary has been built recently by waves and wind-driven shore currents which swept sand northward along the shallow sea floor. Winds have heaped up dry sand locally into dunes, as at Cape Henry. Flooded rivers have carried silt and clay into the estuaries, gradually converting them into mud flats on which vegetation slowly gains an anchorage. Through its long and diversified geologic ancestry the Peninsula was gradually developed to its present form and constitution. It was the set¬ ting of the stage, so to speak, for the chance landing of the first colo¬ nists on Jamestown Island. Their activities and those of successors were henceforth influenced in part by environmental conditions inherited from that geologic ancestry. Age of the Peninsula. — The foundations of the Peninsula were constructed a half billion and more years ago. This deduction is based upon the age determination of certain minerals in analagous crystalline rocks in the upper Piedmont and elsewhere, by study of the isotopes of elements involved in radioactive disintegrations. A characteristic mineral in Amherst County, for example, has been determined to be of the order of 800 million years old. The superstructure of sedimentary forma¬ tions which was built up from Early Cretaceous time to the latest Pleistocene encompasses approximately 110 million years. The last Pleistocene sea retreated into the Atlantic basin a few tens of thousands of years ago. The present inundation of the Coastal Plain and the lower Peninsula has been in progress, perhaps, for 10,000 years, though possibly for even less time. REFERENCES Cederstrom, D. J. 1954. Geology and Ground- Water Resources of the Coastal Plain of Southeastern Virginia. Virginia Geol. Survey Bull. 63. 34 The Virginia Journal, of Science [January - 1945. Selected Well Logs in the Virginia Coastal Plain North of James River. Ihid. Circ. 3. Clark, W. B. and B. L. Miller 1912. Physiography and Geology of the Coastal Plain Province of Virginia. Ibid. Bull. 4. Cooke, C. W. 1391. Seven Coastal Terraces in the Southeastern States. Jour. Wash. Acad. Sci., 21: 503-513. Cushman, J. R. and D. J. Cederstrom 1945. An Upper Eocene Foraminiferal Fauna from Deep Wells in York County, Virginia. Virginia Geol. Survey Bull 67. Roberts, K. 1932. The Lower York-James Peninsula. Ibid. Bull. 37. Wentworth, C. K. 1930. Sand and Gravel Resources of the Coastal Plain of Virginia. Ibid. Bull. 32. Acknowledgment. — This interpretation of the geologic history of the Peninsula has been made possible by the geologists who have done inten¬ sive field work in the area, as listed in the “References.” 1957] Seventeenth Century Science 35 Seventeenth Century Science in Old Virginia Ivey F. Levv^is University of Virginia When the first permanent English settlers came to Jamestown in 1607 they found a new raw land so different fiom what they were ac¬ customed to in old England that they had the greatest difficulty in ad¬ justing to the new life. The immediate problem was survival. Science could only be of an exploratory type, directed toward the discovery of commodities “for victuall and sustenance of mans life.” Native animals and plants, the soil, rocks and minerals, the possible occurrence of gold, the geography of the area, the climate, the character and ways of the Indians — all must have been of intense interest and of great importance to the settlers. Rosy prospects of immediate wealth were held out to the gentlemen adventurers and others f?:om England. The experience of Spanish con¬ quistadors and explorers in Central and South America must have in¬ flamed the imagination and excited the cupidity of Europeans in the early seventeenth century, especially because of the writings of Oviedo. Our settlers might have learned something about Virginia from the first report to go back to England. This was “A briefe and true report on the new found land of Virginia” by Thomas Hariot, the mathematician. Hariot went as historian, surveyor, and explorer with the expedition sent out by Sir Walter Raleigh in 1585. The commander was Sir Richard Grenville. A temporary settlement was made on Roanoke Island, now in North Carolina. Hariot was a real scientist whose report covered the natural history of that time. He had little use for travellers’ tales, but made an accurate survey of plant and animal life as well as geological conditions in the New World. After returning to England he published his report in Lon¬ don in 1588. This is the first account in English of any section of the United States. The book is divided into three parts. The first treats of “Marchan- table commodities” in which Hariot mentioned various minerals and the occurrence of iron and copper. His report is confirmed by Governor Ralph Lane and by the mineralogist or “mineral man,” (Captain Vaug¬ han) who took part in the expedition. The second part is entitled “suche commodities as Virginia is known to yeelde for victuall and sustenance of mans life.” Here we have the 36 The Virginia Journal of Science [January first description of the plant and animal life of old Virginia. One need not expect a systematic report from one who lived a century and a half before Linnaeus, but keeping in mind the day and the state of science, the fulness and accuracy of Harlot’s narrative is notable. He names twenty-eight species of mammals, twelve of which he saw himself. He was the first to distinguish the American and European species of deer: “Deere, in some places there are great store: neere unto the sea coast they are of the ordinarie bignes as ours in England, & some lesse; but further up into the countrey where there is better feed they are greater; they differ from ours onely in this, their tails are longer and the snags of their homes looke backward.” This brief account was not replaced by a better one for nearly two centuries. Of birds, he wrote: “Turkie caches and Turkie henness: Stock doves: Partridges: Cranes: Hernes: & in winter great store of Swannes & Geese. Of al sortes of foule I have the names in the countrie language of four score and sixe of which number besides those that be named, we have taken, eaten, and have the pictures as they were there drawne with the names of the inhabitaunts of sev- erall strange sortes of water foule eight, and seventeene kinds more of land foul, although wee have seen and eaten of many more, which for want of leasure these for the purpose could not be pictured: and after we are better furnished and stored upon further discovery, with their strange beastes, fishe, trees, plants, and herebes, they shall be also published. There are also Parats, Faulcons, & Marlin Hawkes, which al¬ though with us they be not used for meate, yet for other causes I thought good to mention.” Sixteen different varieties of fish were listed. Harlot also described the planting, sowing, and cultivation of maize, beans, pease, melons, pumpkins, and gourdes, and then gives this in¬ teresting account of tobacco: “There is an herbe which is sowed apart by its selfe & is called by the inhabitants uppowoc. In the West Indies it hath divers names, according to the severall places and countries where it groweth and is used: the Spaniardes generally call it Tobacco. The leaves thereof being dried and brought into powder; they use to take the fume or smoke thereof by sucking it through pipes made of claie into their stomacke and heade; from whence it purgeth superfluous fleame & other grosse humors, openeth all the pores & passages of the body: by which meanes the use thereof, not only preserveth the body from obstructions; but also if any be, so that they have not beene of too long continuance 1957] Seventeenth Century Science 37 in short time breaketh them: whereby their bodies are notably preserved in health, & know not many greevous diseases where withall we in England are oftentimes affKcted.” In the final section of the book are observations on the geology of the area which are remarkably good considering the short time, less than a year, at the author’s disposal and the obstacles to travel from the coastal island of Roanoke. Hariot distinguishes the coastal plain, the Piedmont, and the fall hne. He notes varied crystalline rocks of the Pied¬ mont and the good and abundant clay of the coastal plain for brick making. He speaks of the occurrence of iron ore in the Piedmont and of copper at some point beyond the limit of exploration. This information probably came from the Indians who used copper ornaments. Hariot’s Virginia is the first scientific effort by an Enghshman in our colonial history. Enough has been said of the work to indicate its quaint flavor; the flavor of the man himself is largely lost. We can guess that he was a modest man by the very fact that in spite of his stature as a scientist he is little known. His best biographer is Henry Stevens of Vermont, who asserts that Hariot, after his return, worked on the same problems as Gahleo. Although it is difficult to say which one actually invented the telescope, it seems that each independently made the invention. Hariot was the constant companion of Sir Walter Raleigh and Henry Percy, ninth Earl of Northumberland during their years in the Tower of London. He collaborated with Raleigh in his Historie of the World. Hariot was one of England’s great scientists of his day. He died in 1621 and was buried in the churchyard of St. Christophers on the site of the Bank of England on Threadneedle Street. In any account of the earliest Virginia science the name of Thomas Hariot must occupy a prominent place. Captain John Smith, along with his remarkable talent for leadership, has the distinction of being the first scientist of the Jamestown Colony. A Map of Virginia, with a description of the Countrey, published in Oxford in 1612, contains many scientific observations. Smith’s Map is on the whole accurate and detailed. Like Hadot, Smith distinguishes coastal plain. Pied¬ mont, and the fall line. His observations on soil types are the first made in the new land. He notes the relation between vegetation and soil: “The vesture of the earth in most places doeth manifestly prove the nature of the soile to be lusty and very rich.” He was not deceived by: “These waters [from the mountains] wash from the rocks such glistering tinctures that the ground in some places seemeth as guilded, where both the rocks and the earth are so splendent to behold, that better judgement than ours might have been perswaded, they contained more than probabilities.” 38 The Virginia Journal of Science [January The inference is plain. John Smith’s own judgment is not persuaded that glistering tinctures and moskered shining stone in the stream beds are gold. Speculators in England learned to their sorrow that a shipload of such material had no more value then so much ballast. Captain Smith in die brief compass of the first chapter of his book gives a great deal of new information about his “Quid Virginia.” He was the first to describe the muskrat, raccoon, and flying squirrel. He notes the opossum’s pouch. He catalogues twenty-five kinds of fish and shell¬ fish. Among birds he includes blackbirds with red shoulders. He mentions the common types of trees such as oak, ash, walnut, elm, mulberry, and various fruits and vines. He describes the “chechin- quamens” and “putchamins” (chinquapins and persimmons). It seems strange to find so little mention of pine, which must have been abundant. Another omission among cultivated plants is tobacco, though he devotes considerable space to Indian methods of cultivation and utilization of maize. Though untrained in scientific writing Smith shows himself a keen observer, whether of natural history or of the manners, religion, and government of the Indians. Three years after publication of Smith’s Map Ralph Hamor the young¬ er extended the list of native animals in his True Discourse on the Present Estate of Virginia. A considerable figure in seventeenth century science in Virginia was the Reverend John Clayton, thought to be a cousin of the later and greater botanist of the same name. This Clayton was a man of scientific culture. He published in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, 1693, ’94, a creditably full annotated catalogue of mammals, birds, and reptiles. He was especially interested in fossils. His description of a fossil whale is well known. He also described shark’s teeth and many fossil shellfish. His attitude toward the latter was similar to that of his scientific contemporaries in England, where there was uncertainty as to their being the remains of animals or just figured stones. These and other seventeenth century Englishmen contributed some¬ thing to American science, but of them all, perhaps only Hariot can be called great. The period was not favorable to the development of science in America. Persistently beset by danger on all sides and the struggle to exist, the colonials had little opportunity to develop an American science before the eighteenth century. At a time when England and the Continent of Europe were experiencing the age of enlightenment, one man stands out on the American scene, John Banister. We have seen that the earlier scientific writers were historians rather than scientists. John Banister, however, was an exact observer; and though 1957] Seventeenth Century Science 39 remembered chiefly as a botanist, was the first to investigate and report intelligently on the mollusks and insects of North America. In a paper transmitted to the Royal Society in 1693 he refers to drawings of ten or twelve kinds of land snails and six of freshwater mussels, probably the first zoological paper of scientific importance to go from the American Colonies. While scientific thought and investigation begin with Thomas Hariot, ac¬ curate scientific knowledge of plant and animal life finds its first real pioneer in John Banister. This eminent naturalist is supposed to have been a native of England and a graduate of Magdalen College, Oxford. He was living in Charles City County, Virginia, as early as 1678 and for at least fourteen years carried on serious scientific studies of the plant and animal life of Virginia. The belief that Banister was really a native Virginian has some support in two documents on record in the court house of Charles City County. On January 12, 1658, a certain John Burton demised to “Lieutenant John Banister one plantation at Bonacco?:d which I hold by lease for thirteen years or upward to come.” A John Banister is hsted as having served on a jury in the County record books, 1655-1666, p. 219, dated July 2, 1659. This Banister is thought to have been the father of John the naturalist. Whether young John Banister was a native of Virginia or England Ameri¬ can natural history actually begins with him. He marks the real beginning of a native science. He was a tireless investigator of the plant and animal life of Virginia. Very little is known of Banister’s personal hfe. He was a clergyman of the Church of England and patented land on the Appomattox River. There is evidence that he married a “young widow” in 1688. He was a friend of the first William Byrd and was highly regarded by those who knew him. He is known to have spent much time in scientific pursuits. William Bycd mentioned Banister in several of his letters as a neighbor and friend. In a letter to Jacob Bobert, keeper of the botanical gardens and Sherardian Professor of Botany at Oxford University, Byrd says: “Virginia, May 20th, 1684. To Jacob Bobert, Per Wynne. Sir, — Yours of the 9th of January and the 28th of Sept’r both came safe to my Hands, with your acceptable present of roots and seeds. The Iris, Crocus, Tulips, and anemones flowered this year. The Seeds (I fear) were heated in the hould of the Ship, but very few of them coming up. If you send anything to Mr. Banister, you had best send it up to Messrs. Peiry & Lane, merchants in London to bee sent to mee, who will send anything from the middle of July to the 40 The Virginia Journae of Science [January last of Oct’b’r when there is allways a ready passage. If you send roots and seeds you had best write on the box to bee put in the Hould. I wish it lay in my power to doe you and Mr. Banister any acceptable service. I’ll assure you none should bee more ready than your obliged friend and servant. W(illiam) B(yrd)” In another letter to Bobert he gives this interesting side-view of .Banister; “I gave your Token to Mr. Banister who is marry ed to a Young Widow. I did expect him at my home last weeke, but hear since that he was not very well. . .” The first William Byrd was a capable amateur botanist. His interest in trees and plants was doubtless heightened by his friendship with Banister. Proof of Banister’s ability as a naturalist is found in the testimony of his contemporaries and in his correspondence with many eminent natural¬ ists of the seventeenth century, notably John Ray, Bishop Compton, Sir Hans Sloane, and Martin Lister. He sent many specimens and drawings of New World plants to these men. In 1680 he sent Petiver a collection of fifty-two species of insects, which with his observations and notes by Petiver, were later communicated to the Royal Society. Among these insects many forms are recognizable, notably the mudwasp, seventeen year locust, Cimex, cockroach, firefly, Elater, and tobacco moth. He seems also to have drawn and described several phases of the life history of the ichneumon fly. Banister had in his possession in 1686, and exhibited to an English traveller, large bones and teeth of fossil mammals from the interior of Virginia. These are among the first fossils of which there seems to be any record in North America. George Brown Goode has suggested that these were the bones of Megalonyx Jeffersonii, the giant sloth subse¬ quently discovered by Thomas Jefferson. In 1687 Banister sent his hst of Virginia plants to the English botanist John Ray, who spoke of him as “emditissimus vir et consum- matissimus botanicus.” Lister termed him “a very learned and sagacious naturalist.” The historian John Lawson of North Carolina remarked that “had not the ingenious Mr. Banister (the greatest virtuoso we have ever had on this continent) been unfortunately taken out of this world, he would have given the best account of the plants of America of any that have yet made such an attempt in these parts.” 1957] Seventeenth Century Science 41 Banister’s zoological and botanical papers were published in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society. His lengthy catalogue of Virginia plants, the first systematic paper upon natural history to emanate from America, was published in Ray's Historia Plantarum. His descriptions in this paper are generally accurate, and some have been called elegant. The Banister River, flowing through Pittsylvania and Halifax Counties and meeting the Roanoke by way of the Dan, and the small Virginia village of Banister, were named for John Banister. John was nominated an original trustee of the College of William and Mary. He was considered by that institution to be one of the forty-two most distinguished men of Virginia before the American Revolution and his name is engraved as such on the mace of the College. Linnaeus named the genus Banisteria of the tropical Malpighia family for him. His early death prevented the completion of a proposed Natural History of Virginia, for which work Ray says he was in every way qualified. After Banister’s death his papers were transmitted to Bishop Compton, and his herbarium to Sir Hans Sloane, with whose collection it became a part of the nucleus of the British Museum. The accounts of Banister’s death vary with each reporter. One says that he was accidentally shot; one that he fell from a cliff in pursuit of his objective; and a descendant that he was sti’uck by a falling tree. We have no way of knowing which version is correct. We do know that he died about 1692 somewhere on the Roanoke River while on a botanical expedition. He sleeps somewhere in the sweet Virginia soil, possibly in the soft sands of the tidewater where he made his home, or in the blue hills of the Piedmont, or on a winding bank of the Roanoke as it ghdes through Southside Virginia. No one knows. Nothing he owned or wrote is left, but the first naturalist of America, the first martyr to science in the New World, has no need of memorials. 42 The Virginia Journal of Science [January History of Virginia's Commercial Fisheries’ NEGLECTED HISTORICAL RECORDS THROW IJGHT ON TODAY’S PROBLEMS J. L. McHugh and Robert S. Bailey Virginia Fisheries Laboratory, Gloucester Point As the Susan Constant, the Godspeed, and the Discovery made their way through Hampton Roads and up the James River toward Jamestown in 1607, they traversed a 15-mile stretch of wate^ that was to play an important part in the history and economy of Virginia. Beneadi these pleasant waters, and sometimes forming reefs that were awash at low tide, lay the most prolific natural oyster beds in the world. Three hundred and fifty years later these grounds still provide the seed that makes Virginia’s oyster industry supreme, producing about one-quarter of the nation’s supply of these delicious mollusks. Had they been free to harvest at will the oysters and other seafoods that were so abundant round these shores, the colonists might have escaped some of the dietary troubles that contributed to their hardships. But ignorance, lack of experience, and other things conspired to deny these benefits to them. Today, though ignorance and self-interest still hamper the full utilization and management of these resources, we can see ever-increasing improvement. Despite dire predictions to the contrary, these resources have continued to renew themselves, and there is no reason why they should not do so forever if exploited wisely. Several major problems face Virginia’s seafood industry today. It is commonly believed that these troubles would disappear if the biological supply could be controlled. For this reason, the traditional approach to fishery management has been through biological research, and except in a few fisheries, the results have not been entirely successful. Although the historical record of Virginia’s marine fisheries is brief and incomplete, the lessons to be learned from evun this fragmentary history have never been fully explored. Perusal of the available records suggests that the situation is far more complex than popular opinion would suppose, and that the study of history, economics, and sociology, among others, must take equal place with biology if fishery investigations are to serve their full purpose. 1 Contributions from the Virginia Fisheries Laboratory, No. 70. 1957] History of Virginia Fisheries 43 SOURCES OF HISTORICAL MATERIAL No complete historical account of Virginia’s fisheries exists, although Pearson (1942a, b, 1943a, b, c, d) and Wharton (1948, 1949, 1957) have published excellent summaries of available knowledge on certain phases of the industry. The reports of the U. S. Commission of Fisheries and its successors the Bureau of Fisheries and the U. S. Fish and Wild¬ life Service, and the reports of the Virginia Commission of Fisheries, contain many references to the seafood harvest. The statistical reports of the U. S. Government have contained relatively detailed records of Virginia’s fisheries since 1880, but prior to 1929, when annual summaries began, only eleven years, separated by irregular intervals, are on record. Before 1880, information on Virginia’s fisheries must be culled from oc¬ casional reports, individual diaries, and the like. For example, the journals of George Washington contain numerous references to his fishing activi¬ ties, conducted primarily to provide food for his slaves, although he shipped quantities of seafood to the city markets. No large commercial fishing industry existed in Virginia before the War between the States. It is the history of the period after 1865, when the fisheries as we know them today were evolving, that provides the perspective in which current problems should be viewed. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PENINSULA FISHERIES Written for publication on the 350th anniversary of the landing at Jamestown, this article most appropriately should deal only with the fisheries of the historic peninsula bounded by the James and York Rivers. Unfortunately, the records are not sufficiently detailed to permit this separation from the fisheries of Virginia as a whole. But the fortunes of the fishing industry on the Peninsula are so strongly linked with those of the entire State that the lack of this specific information is not a serious handicap. The Peninsula fisheries have their own peculiar characteristics, of course. In 1945 and 1950, although the landings in this area accounted for only 10 to 20 per cent of the total weight of raw fishery products landed in Virginia, this represented 15 to 25 per cent of the total value. The principal reason for this relatively great unit value is the almost com¬ plete absence from these landings of the relatively cheap menhaden, from which oil and meal are manufactured. On the other hand, the fisheries of the Peninsula are unusual in that they include almost all the State's landings of turtles and one-third to one-half of the catfish catch. The oyster has always been the major product of Virginia’s seafood industry. Indeed, its scientific name, Crassostrea mrginica, ‘‘the thick (or heavy) oyster from Virginia,” signifies that this is the most favored spot 44 The Virginia Journal of Science [January along our eastern coast for oyster growth and fattening. The httle port of Menchville, not far from Newport News, harbors most of the fleet of tongers that reap the State’s great seed-oyster harvest. The major development of the fisheries for blue crabs and migra¬ tory food fishes has taken place since the turn of the century. Before 1900 the lack of modern methods of preservation, the difficulty of trans¬ portation, and the lack of mechanization in the fishing fleet, restricted these seafoods to local markets. Today, one-third of all the blue crabs landed in the United States come from Virginia. The latest and earliest comparable catch records available from tlie U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service are summarized in Table I. By value, oysters made up about two-thirds the total in 1890, one-half in 1954. Menhaden, the second most valuable single species in Virginia in 1954, were also fairly important in 1890, but the crab fishery, of minor import¬ ance in 1890, was third in value in 1954. In order of value, the im¬ portant food fishes in 1890 were the shad, the alewife, and the sea trout; in 1954 the scup or porgy had captured first place, followed by the shad, croaker, sea bass, alewives, spot and sea trout. TABLE 1. Virginia Fisheries Landings, 1890 and 1954 1890 1954 Species Weight in pounds Value in 1954 dollars Weight in pounds Value in 1954 dollars Oysters 40,453,000 8,416,000 21,225,000^ 9,840,000 Blue crabs 3,025,000 184,000 34,561,000^^ 1,638,000 Menhaden 107,342,000 476,000 284,933,000 3,670,000 Food Fishes Miscellaneous 34,463,000 3,288,000 70,782,000 1,040,000 4,423,000 420,000 Totals 185,282,000 12,364,000 412,541,000 19,991,000 ^Pounds of meat shucked from 4,474,000 bushels of oysters. **Total weight of crabs before picking. As prepared for market this would repre¬ sent about 4,452,000 pounds of crab meat, 2,091,000 pounds of soft crabs, and about 3000 tons of dried meal and scrap. 1957] History of Virginia Fisheries 45 FLUCTUATIONS IN ABUNDANCE From very early times fears have been voiced that these bountiful resources would be depleted, and their capacity for reproduction re¬ duced. That these fears were not groundless is illustrated by the history of the public oyster grounds, the natural, self-sustaining oyster beds of the State, that were set aside for public use in 1892. The take of market Figure 1. Annual landings of market-sized oysters in Virginia, 1920 to 1954. oysters, that is, oysters three inches or more in length, from these grounds has declined steadily over the years (Table II and Fig. 1), but an approximately equal increase in the harvest from private grounds has held the total annual yield to a fairly constant level for the past 35 years. In 1858 it was reported that the oyster production of Chesapeake LE II. AL O Yea] 1880 1888 1890 1891 1897 1901 1904 1908 1912 1920 1924 1929 1930 1931 1932 1933 1934 1935 1936 1937 1938 1939 1940 1941 1942 1944 1945 1946 1947 1948 1949 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 The Virginia Journal of Science [January JGTION OF Market and Seed Oysters in Virginia, and Production in Virginia and Maryland, 1880 — 1954, IN U. S. Standard Bushels Virginia Maryland Market Seed Total Total 9,549 13,809 5,118 11,115 8,483 13,614 8,606 12,956 .... 9,810 9,452 8,475 7,407 .... 10,632 5,771 7,088 8,119 .... 8,668 7,179 4,506 1,030 5,536 5,924 4,102 1,982 6,084 5,541 3,345 1,678 5,023 3,338 3,994 2,248 6,242 3,055 3,180 2,132 5,312 3,051 3,198 2,050 5,248 2,550 2,850 2,070 4,920 2,317 4,833 3,105 2,090 2,553 7,742 5,658 2,913 3,527 3,673 1,180 4,853 3,402 2,532 1,112 3,644 4,516 3,314 3,777 1,234 1,142 4,548 4,919 4,146 4,403 4,026 1,289 5,315 4,264 3,744 1,241 4,985 4,055 3,569 981 4,550 2,974 3,557 1,644 5,201 3,366 3,897 1,498 5,395 3,254 4,597 1,455 6,052 2,949 4,857 1,104 5,961 2,799 5,083 1,932 7,015 3,129 4,154 2,248 ’ 6,402 2,924 3.485 2,541 6,026 2,770 4,263 2,866 7,129 2,868 3,998 2,682 6,680 3,190 4,293 4,077 8,300 3,342 4,474 3,736 1957] History of Virginia Fisheries 47 Bay was 20 million bushels (De Broca, 1865). This level o£ annual production was sustained until the early 1890’s (Table II), but thereafter the harvest declined steadily. The drop has been much more pro¬ nounced in Maryland, where the annual crop in recent years has been only about one-quarter the amount harvested 60 years ago. Superficially, it would appear that the annual oyster crop in Virginia has declined only slightly in the same period. This is true when the seed-oyster landings are included (Table II), but a radical change in the seed-oyster industry has occurred in the past 100 years. Whereas in the nineteenth and early twentieth century Virginia seed consisted of large oysters shipped to northern waters, where they were replanted briefly and then marketed, today almost all Virginia seed is replanted within State waters. Therefore these same oysters now appear again in the records as market oysters. Thus, although in earher years seed and market oysters together correctly designated the total Virginia harvest, more recently the total crop is represented by the market oysters alone. On this basis, it appears that Virginia now markets only about half the amount of oysters she formerlv produced. The supply of blue crabs, another seafood in which Virginia leads the nation, always has been erratic. In some years crabs are so abun¬ dant that the catch exceeds the demand; in others, so scarce that the industry suffers real hardship. Careful study of the history of the crab fisheries has produced no evidence that fishing operations or other human activities have influenced the capacity of the resource to renew itself, and it seems fairly obvious that the biological fortunes of the crab fisheries are determined in large part by natural forces. Certainly, within the past quarter-century, the catch has oscillated through several highs and lows (Van Engel, 1954; McHugh, 1955) and there is no reason to doubt that this condition has existed always (McHugh and Ladd, 1953). The migratory fishes, the mainstay of Virginia’s pound-net, haul- seine, and gill-net fisheries, exhibit a similar history of fluctuation. The high point in recent years was reached in the period 1944-1949 inclusive, when the average annual catch of food fishes within the Virginia waters of Chesapeake Bay was about 132 million pounds, greater than in any other 6-year period on record. But fishing in the Bay has not always been so good, and in the available records, the landings of many species exhibit considerable fluctuation. These changes were not en¬ tirely due to variations in abundance, it is true, for economic conditions and changing tastes play their part, as we shall demonstrate later. But newspaper files, official reports, and reliable fishermen of long experience are unanimous in their remembrance of the major shifts in abundance. Without a doubt, some species, especially sturgeon and shad, have declined steadily in abundance since the white man came. The striped 48 The Virginia Journal of Science [January bass or rockfish also seems to have deereased in numbers, although there have been several unusually suecessful spawnings, notably in 1934, 1940 and 1942, that have produeed temporary inereases in fishing success. These three species return to the rivers each year to spawn, hence are particularly vulnerable to the effects of pollution, dams, and other human agencies. Yet the river herrings, apparently equally vulnerable, seem to be more abundant in recent years than ever before. Recent declines in the landings of croaker and sea-trout, two of Virginia’s most important food fishes, have been attributed to several causes, all associated with man’s activities. But there is evidence also of large natural fluctuations in the success of spawning of both species, and the spot, which has similar habits, and is caught in large numbers by essentially the same fishing gears, has shown no parallel decline. It is clear, therefore, that although the possibility of depletion by the effects of pollution, obstructions, or fishing operations should not be minimized, the great variations in abundance produced by natural forces must not be forgotten. Such natural fluctuations in abundance always will have sociological and political repercussions, and perhaps always will be confused with the effects produced by man. RECENT HISTORY OF VIRGINIA’S FISHERIES The reports of the Virginia Commission of Fisheries and the various fishery agencies of the U. S. Government, dating back almost to the middle of the nineteenth century, are often biased, full of conjecture completely unsupported by facts, and contradictory. Nevertheless, they present many interesting sidehghts on the fisheries of their day and on the philosophy of the people engaged in them. The fishery statistics of the United States, published by the U. S. Government, contain a wealth of material, from which we have extracted the information on landings and landed values used herein. The average annual price per pound was derived by dividing the total recorded value for each species by the total recorded weight, and these figures were adjusted according to the wholesale price indices for farm products as published by the Bureau of Labor Statistics. The Oyster The commercial packing of oysters, an industry that began in Mary¬ land in the 1830’s, was not important in Virginia until after 1865. Growth of the industry was rapid, and near the turn of the century the annual production in Virginia alone reached 10 million bushels (Table H). The per capita consumption of oysters in the United States 100 years ago was almost unbelievable by present-day standards. According 1957] History of Virginia Fisheries 49 to De Broca (1865), in towns along the Atlantic coast, oysters formed a part of the daily food of almost every family. Large restaurants espec¬ ially intended for the sale of shellfish were common everywhere, and in New York City alone there were more than 300 of these establishments. Oysters also were sold in small shops, and at stalls in the open street. In 1865, the consumption of oysters in New York City was almost seven million bushels. At that time the population of the city was less than 900,000 people, and the per-capita consumption therefore was almost 8 bushels a year, or 5 oysters per day, for every man, woman, and child in the city! If this rate of consumption had persisted. New York City alone would now consume about 61 million bushels of oysters each year, four times the present oyster productior^ of the entire United States! In the first few years of the twentieth century oystering in Virginia continued to expand. New oyster houses were put into operation each year, and by 1903, more than 8,000 licenses were issued for hand- tonging as well as several hundred each for patent-tonging and dredging. But in the season of 1907-1908 calamity struck, partly as the result of the depression that was just ending, but perhaps mostly from a pollution scare that reduced the demand. The details of this “pollution scare” are not complete in the records examined, but the passage of the pure food and drug act in 1906 undoubtedly laid the foundation, and the resulting restrictions on the marketing of oysters from polluted areas near the larger cities erected the first barriers to publie acceptance of oysters. The 1908 report of the Virginia Commission of Fisheries states that the ban on Virginia oysters was not justified, and that this was the most unsatisfactory oyster season in many years. By 1910 a substantial recovery had taken place, and it is said that the season of 1910-1911 rivalled 1907, the peak year before the “pollu¬ tion scare” of 1908. This same report stresses an increased production of oysters from the natural grounds and a sharp decline in the acreage of ground under lease. From the early 1900’s the Commission became increasingly pre¬ occupied with pollution problems. The prevailing attitude of the industry toward the then recent sanitation laws is undoubtedly echoed in the Commissioner’s rather contemptuous reference to the “pure food craze.” It is interesting to speculate on the effect that this attitude may have had on the demand for oysters. Later, however, the Commission took an increasingly serious view of the growing pollution problem, caused primarily by the discharge of untreated sewage. The oyster industry continued to prosper, according to reports of the Commission, until the season of 1924-1925, when another pollution scare affected the market. In the fall of 1924 a health officer in Chicago 50 The Virginia Journal of Science [January issued some general remarks on the purity of oysters. The ensuing publicity seriously affected oyster sales over the entire countiy. The report for 1925-27 stated that the setback was temporary, and that oys¬ ters again were in great demand and prices excellent. This optimistic view is not well supported by the published catch records, however, and it is significant that although the population of the United States had been increasing rapidly for some years, neither the production of oysters, nor the price, increased proportionately. In the 1920’s the conviction grew that a shortage of cultch was developing on the natural oyster grounds. A seafood survey commission, appointed by Governor Byrd in 1927, recommended a special tax on oysters to finance the planting of shell on these grounds^ This plan was put into action in 1929, and “repletion” activities have become an in¬ creasingly important function of the Commission. The 1929-1930 season was marked by a serious mortality in Mobjack Bay and the York River, when 75 per cent of the oysters on planted grounds died. Dr. H. F. Frytherch, assigned by the U. S. Bureau of Fisheries to investigate the catastrophe, was not able to identify the cause postively, which was hardly strange, for his investigations began well after the deaths had occurred. But his studies emphasized the import¬ ance of scientific fishery research, and in 1931, Dr. V. L. Loosanoff, now a leading authority on the oyster, was employed by the State. A year later Dr. LoosanofFs appointment was terminated for lack of funds, and Virginia conducted no marine research again for several years. Reference to oyster chills or screwborers as a growing pest on oyster grounds within the Bay arose in the early 1930’s. The inference was that these predators were responsible, together with over-exploitation, for the decline of many natural oyster grounds. In recent years, oyster drills have come to be recognized as a major pest on Virginia grounds. A heavy strike of young oysters in the James River was reported in 1930. In the 1931-1932 season it was said that the supply of seed far exceeded the demand. It is not entirely clear whether this was caused partly by an unusually abundant supply, for the market for oysters in the depression yea^rs was poor, and planters apparently held their crops on the grounds rather than sell them at the low prevailing prices. Thus there was little ground available on which to plant seed, and probably little interest in further planting. The oyster industry did not prosper in the 1930’s. Heavy mortalities were reported in the winter of 1935-36, caused by unusually low tem¬ peratures, ice, freshets, and gales. The preceding winter apparently also had been severe, and the seed harvest in the James River in 1936-37 was unusually small in consequence. It is difficult, however, to escape the 1957] History of Virginia Fisheries 51 conclusion that economic factors played a large part in the ills of the industry, for the demand for oysters certainly dropped during the de¬ pression. Excessive publicity given to the growing problem of domestic pollution also may have affected the market adversely. In the late 1930’s a research laboratory was established at Yorktown by the U. S. Government to investigate industrial pollution of oyster grounds in the Yodc River. The investigation was financed partially by Virginia. Impressed with the value of scientific research, the General Assembly appropriated funds to establish the Virginia Fisheries Labora¬ tory, which was inaugurated in 1940 at the Gollege of William and Mary. The season 1942-1943 was described as one of unprecedented pros¬ perity for the oyster industry, and the period 1943-1945 was called the ‘‘golden age of the oyster business.” The sudden burst of prosperity was caused by World War II with its stringent rationing of meat. The de¬ mand for oysters, and the price (Fig. 2), rose sharply, and this in turn led to substantial increases in the annual landings of oysters and in the acreage of ground under lease. At the close of the war the price fell as abruptly as it had risen, but the total crop of oysters continued to rise as the increased plantings, stimulated by the earlier high prices. 100 1 I 7S SO i 1 o ^ Figure 2. Annual landings of market-sized oysters in Virginia, 1920 to 1954, average annual price in dollars per bushel, and amount of planting ground under lease. Prices are expressed in standard dollars based on the Bureau of Labor Statistics wholesale price index for farm products. 52 The Virginia Journal of Science [January reached market size. Probably this very abundance forced the price to its low point in 1948, for as production fell off again, the price rose. The steady increase in ground under lease probably reflects the continued decline in the harvest of market oysters from the natural grounds. Recent high prices can be attributed to a decreased supply caused by hurricane losses, disease, and poor growth in Virginia, and poor sets in northern waters, plus increased sales stimulated by the efforts of the Oyster Institute of North America, and by the development of new products, such as frozen oyster stew, frozen breaded oysters, and oyster sticks. The Blue Crab As early as 1903 is was suggested that fishing activities might affect the future supply of crabs. The report of the Virginia Commission for that year stated that crabs were abundant, that the soft crab fishery was not harming the resource, but that danger lay in the lower part of the Bay, where the mature females congregate and are exploited heavily by the early spring fishery. Again in 1911 the great abundance of crabs was mentioned, but the protection of sponge crabs was urged. By 1915 the situation had changed, as illustrated by the following quotation from the Commissioner’s report: “The supply of crabs has now decreased to such an extent as to threaten the very existence of the industry, and fishermen are unanimously of the opinion that, unless proper protective legislation is enacted, the crabbing industry will soon be a thing of the past. We are of the opinion that the present scarcity of crabs is due directly to the failure to prevent the catching of ovigerous females which have not spawned.” One can recollect similar statements in recent years. At its 1916 session, the General Assembly passed two laws restricting the take of crabs, one banning the capture of sponge crabs in cecrtain months, the other establishing a minimum width of 5 inches for hard crabs. The 1916 season was a profitable one, and this was attributed to the effects of these laws. Nevertheless, a scarcity of crabs was noted again in the 1919-1921 report. Detailed records of the success of crabbing have been kept since 1924-1925, with a gap in the period 1927-1930. These records show the availahilitij of crabs to the fishermen, hence are more useful biologically than the total catch, which is affected by the demand, the number of fishermen, the weather, and other factors. The availability of crabs varies widely, the best season having been about five times as good as the poorest, but the general trend has not been downward, as reports often suggest. Alarming indications often appear in short-term records. 1957] History of Virginia Fisheries 53 however, and the decline in the success of crabbing from the 1931-1932 high to the 1941-1942 low must have created consternation. The Commissioner’s report of 1931 mentions an “overabundance” of crabs. The 1932 report states that the great abundance had affected the price. Later reports recognize the gradual drop in crab production and repeatedly stress the opinion that sponge crabs should be protected. A sanctuary established in 1941, in the area where the spawning females congregate, has been credited by many with the apparent recovery of the resource, but in the ensuing period there have been equal numbers of good and poor seasons. Obviously, protection of sponge crabs is not the complete remedy that public opinion would suppose. The Migratory Food-Fishes Much has been written about the changing fortunes of the food fisheries, in Virginia as elsewhere in the United States. Characteristical¬ ly, the story is one of depletion and hardship. The most important food fish of the early days was undoubtedly the shad. As pointed out above the shad was particularly vulnerable to the effects of dams and pollution, and though the catch in recent years is considerably smaller than it was at the peak of the fishery, the shad maintained its position as the most valuable food fish of Virginia until well into the present century. As early as 1893 it was believed that Virginia’s fishery resources were declining. The Commissioner of Fisheries (Wilkins, 1894) stated: “the question of greatest importance to our fishermen is the appalling decline in the number of the free migratory fishes that annually visit the waters of our State.” The 1903 report of the Virginia Commission of Fisheries stated: “It is an alarming fact that all of the finer varieties of fish are becoming less abundant.” Non-enforcement of the laws, and the “destructive” action of pound nets were cited as the major causes of the reported decline. Yet 1911 was described as the greatest year in Virginia seafood history: “Never before in our history have we seen such abundance of fin-fish . ” But only four years later the prevaiHng opinion had changed: “Legislation, however, is badly needed for the protection of both fish and crabs, as the supply of some of our best varieties of fish has been decreasing for years .... Our fishing industry is in a very unsatisfactory condition . . . owing to the growing scarcity of many of our best varieties.” 54 The Virginia Journal of Science [January By the next year (1916) optimism had returned and the season was described as the most profitable in years, with all varieties, especially shad, more plentiful than usual, and prices good. In 1923 it was stated that fish catches were down during the war and for two years after because manpower was lacking, but that the situation had improved. The fish catch received very little attention in reports issued during the 1920’s, and this suggests that the threatened scarcity failed to materiahze. The report for 1931 mentions an abundant food-fish supply. The newly-established trawl fishery in the ocean off the Virginia capes was expanding rapidly also, and in 1932 there were Figure 3. Annual catch by haul seines in Virginia, 1925 to 1953, and numbers of yards of nets licensed; and annual catch by pound nets for the same period, and numbers of pound nets licensed. 1957] History of Virginia Fisheries 55 22 Virginia-owned trawlers in operation. Fish were abundant in 1932, but prices were low. In 1933 there was an excellent supply of croakers and other pan fishes in the Bay, but the ocean fisheries were not too successful and some boats dropped out. By 1935, the increased cost of fishing gear, with no increase in prices, brought an unprofitable season to Virginia fishermen, and this condition persisted until the early 1940’s. The trawl fishery continued to grow and show fair profits, however, probably because the gear was more flexible and efficient than the pound net. It was recognized that refrigeration and transportation problems placed Chesapeake seafoods in an unfavorable competitive position with fishery products from other areas. In 1939 it was pointed out that the demand for all Chesapeake seafoods had declined in recent years. The war seems to have brought prosperity to all segments of the fishing industry in Virginia. A part of the increase in landings may well have been caused by an increased intensity of fishing stimulated by the unusually high prices, but there is little doubt that an increased abundance of croakers and perhaps some other species also contributed. The close correspondence between the number of pound nets and the pound-net catch, and the total length of haul seines licensed and the haul-seine catch. (Fig. 3) suggest that there has been no progressive decline in the total catch abundance of all food fishes in Virginia since 1929. Unfortunately, however, when prices are high or abundance is temporarily increased, there is a certain time-lag in the response of fishermen. This delayed response, quite evident in figure 3, usually places the heaviest fishing effort at a time when abundance, or prices, or both, are already falling. The present trend seems to support the conclusion of Taylor (1951) that the ills of these fisheries have an origin that is primarily economic. Another interesting feature of figure 3 is the increasing importance of the haul seine relative to the pound net. Pound nets are much more costly to install and operate, and they are subject to destruction by storms. Under these circumstances the haul seine may be a more effective gear in many localities. In 1925 only about 2 per cent of all food fishes landed in Virginia were caught in haul seines, but by 1950 this fishing gear accounted for 17 per cent of the food-fish catch. Two recent events illustrate the reduced demand for Virginia food- fishes. When the shad catch rose in 1952 to almost 6 million pounds, only about half the average catch at the turn of the century, the price fell so low that fishing became unprofitable, and many fishermen drop¬ ped out well before the season ended. The improved catch of croakers in the spring of 1956 glutted the market so that the price fell as low as two cents per pound, and many fish were wasted for lack of a market. 56 The Virginia Journal of Science [January Returns to former levels of abuudauee brought no benefit to the industry, probably beeause frozen produets, such as fish sticks, from other areas have captured the market. Most Chesapeake fishes, because they are small and contain proportionately little meat, cannot be prepared econo¬ mically as fillets, fish sticks or blocks. Perhaps a market could be de¬ veloped for fresh-frozen, dressed panfish, emphasizing the best features of Virginia or Chesapeake varieties. A few progressive processors are testing such products. HISl’ORICAL PERSPECTIVE ON TODAY’S MAJOR PROBLEMS As Quittmeyer (1950) has pointed out, the chief preoccupation of Virginia’s fishing industry has been with the physical supply, presumably on the assumption that marketing problems would work themselves out automatically. Perusal of historical records, however incomplete they may be, is apt to convince the reader that biological factors are not the only things affecting the welfare of the commercial fishing industry. Indeed; sociological, economic, and political forces often equal or exceed in magnitude the purely biological aspects. The history of Virginia’s fisheries over the past quarter-century pro¬ vides an ideal example of the interaction of all the major forces that shape the well-being of her fishermen. The aftermath of the great economic depression is clearly marked on the record of seafood prices. The reports of the Commission of Eisheries continually stress the low prices that prevailed throughout the 1930’s, and there is little or no evidence that the recurring complaints of hardship were caused by a biological scarcity of any of the important species. Indeed, there are several indications that the seafood supply was better than average, particularly in the sec¬ ond half of that decade. Many of the recent complaints can be traced to tlie economic up¬ heaval generated by World War II. The prices of all seafoods rose to unprecedented heights during the war, and reached a climax in 1945 (Figs. 2 and 4). Meat rationing probably was the chief cause of the unusual demand for seafoods, and the absence of controls on seafood explains the high prices, but it seems clear also that some of the major food fishes, especially croaker, were unusually abundant at the same time (Fig. 5). This combination of high biological productivity and unusuallv favorable economic conditions set the stage for the sociological fishery problems of the present day. 1957] History of Virginia Fisheries 57 20 /8 /6 J4 JZ /O 8 4 2 O J6 /4 JZ /O 8 G 4 2 O Figure 4. Annual catch of croakers and gray sea trout in Virginia, 1920 to 1954, and the average annual price in cents per pound. Prices are expressed in standard dollars based on the Bureau of Labor Statistics wholesale price index for farm products. /?r/c€ //? ce/?fs per poa/icf [January 58 The Virginia Journal of Science Figure 5. Relative annual catch of gray sea trout and croakers per net per day, for the period 1929 to 1946, in a series of pound nets fished in the ocean off the eastern shore of Virginia. The high prices of the mid-1940’s undoubtedly attracted men back into the fishing industry. As might be expected, however, there was a time-lag in the response to these favorable conditions. For example, as mentioned previously, the increase in numbers of pound nets and haul seines lagged two or three years behind the high prices and high catches. The delay may have been shorter if most of the available men had not 1957] History of Virginia Fisheries 59 been serving in the armed forces. The result was that, in the period 1947-1950, perhaps the greatest effort ever expended in the history of Virginia’s fisheries was exerted at a time when both the supply and the price had fallen from unusually and artificially high levels. One need not look back farther than 1945 to find the cause of most of today’s fisheries problems. In the memory of fishermen, the war years are the “norm” to which legislation and scientific research will restore their fortunes, but in truth such bountiful times were the fortuitous result of an unusual set of circumstances that may not recur in their lifetimes nor in many genera¬ tions to come. Soon after the concurrent decHnes of prices and the catch of the major food-fish species in the years following 1945, the price of most species, particularly croakers and trout (Fig. 4), took an equally abrupt upswing. This probably occurred in response to the alarming drop in catches of both species. In other words the price responded this time to a biological scarcity of fish. But in the face of abruptly falling catches this did nothing to improve the economic situation of the indus¬ try. The abrupt reversal of this price increase, at a time when catches were still falling sharply, seems equally significant. The rapid growth of the frozen-fish industry, especially with the introduction of fish sticks, and the lure of attractive packages and ease of handling, coming at a time when croakers and tro.ut from Chesapeake Bay were disappearing from the markets, probably was the final coup. That the demand for croakers fell off with the recent decline in abundance seems to be well illustrated in the current fishing season, when a sharp increase in catches has not brought the wave of prosperity that was anticipated. The bountiful catches of April and May 1956 soon brought prices to ridicul¬ ously low levels, and many fish were wasted for lack of markets. In com¬ petition with the relatively cheap and attractive frozen product from the northeast it seems almost impossible for the major Virginia species to re¬ gain their former position, although imaginative proeessors may regain at least a portion of dieir lost markets by adopting modern methods of prep¬ aration and selhng, as some already have done. An almost parallel, though not yet quite so disastrous, situation has existed in the oyster industry of the Peninsula and the State (Fig. 1). There has been a slow but steady decHne in the harvest of market oysters, not only in Virginia, but along the entire coast, since the first reasonably aceurate reeords were made in 1887. In Virginia, production reached a low in the 1930’s (Fig. 2), and it is interesting that the unit price reached a minimum at the same time. According to Taylor (1951) it is signifi¬ cant that the price of oysters has not risen in response to the diminishing supply, especially as the human population has been increasing in numbers and in standard of living. The causes are undoubtedly complex, includ¬ ing changing tastes, a wider variety of competitive foods, and improved 60 The Virginia Journal of Science [January methods of processing and marketing of all protein foods. A probable factor of importance is the rising cost of labor and materials in an industry that does not lend itself easily to mechanization. There is no doubt also that biological factors have contributed to the declining crop, for it is well known that the production of market oysters from the public grounds in Virginia, as elsewhere, has decreased considerably. But when the demand is sufficient, and prices warrant the effort, apparently the harvest can be increased considerably, as illustrated by the increase from about 3 1/2 million to over 5 million bushels in the 1940’s. Unfortunately, it requires two or three years to raise a crop of oysters, and the increased crops stimulated by the high prices of 1945 came too late for profit. The sharp recession in production after 1948 speaks for itself. Good prices have prevailed for Virginia ovsters since 1954 as a result of biological scarcity, and the development of new products, such as frozen oyster stew, promises a bright future for the industry. But high costs of production and the poor supply have cancelled out some of the benefits that the favorable market created. The margin of profit would be in¬ creased if oysters could be produced more cheaply. This goal may be achieved through more frequent harvesting and control of enemies and diseases. Another possibility, as Dr. Taylor has proposed recently, is to improve the quality and flavor of oysters, emphasizing the delicate natural flavoc.' of the oyster rather than destroying it by excessive blowing or washing. Figure 6. Annual catcti ot blue crabs in Virginia, 1920 to 1954, and the average annual price in cents per pound. Prices are expressed ill standard dollars based on the Bureau of Labor Statistics wholesale price index for farm products. 1957] History of Virginia Fisheries 61 In its main features, the blue crab fishery seems to have responded to changing biological and economic conditions in much the same ways as the oyster and the food fishes (Fig. 6). The annual catch reached maxima at the beginning of diQ 1930’s, in the late 1930’s, and in 1950, and each of these high points corresponds to a period of known biological abundance. In each period also, the price fell as the catches rose. Crab prices cHmbed during the war, to a maximum in 1945, but this coincided with a period of biological scarcity, and the total catch did not increase substantially in response to the favorable market. The three major dips in the annual catch, in the mid-1930’s, the early 1940’s, and the early 1950’s each coincided with a period of relative scarcity of crabs, and the price responded accordingly. Biological research can help the crab in¬ dustry by investigating availability in the waters of other states where crabs are relatively abundant. Perhaps scarcity in one region may be balanced by plenty in another. Improved methods of processing and preservation, particularly to speed up the costly and wasteful process of hand-picking, to eliminate shell from the picked meat, and to permit storage in times of great abundance, would benefit the industry. The menhaden is not used as food for humans, hence its economic status is governed by an entirely different set of forces. We have not considered this fishery in any detail here, because menhaden are not of any importance directly to the Peninsula. But it is worth noting that the menhaden industry has profited from technological advances, which are continually developing new uses for the oil and scrap, improving the efficiency of the processing operation, and finding uses for by-products formerly wasted. The price of menhaden, as computed from the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service records, has not exhibited the major oscillations characteristic of all the seafood species, and it is particularly interesting that no boom in prices developed during World War II. Superficially, it would seem that the menhaden fishery in Virginia is in a much stronger economic position than any other marine resource, although it is still subject to the effects of fluctuating biological supply. A thorough study of the history of this fishery in all its aspects might provide valuable lessons for the improvement of all our fisheries. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS The recent historical record seems to explain very clearly current pessimism as to the condition of Virginia’s marine fisheries. Artificially high prices during the last war created a temporary period of prosperity, and the illusion unfortunately was heightened by an unusual abundance of some of the migratory food fishes, especially croaker and trout. An equally artificial condition developed at the close of the war, when both prices and the biological supply of these fishes fell rapidly. 62 The Virginia Journal of Science [January Another important factor which has narrowed the margin of profit in most branches of the seafood industry in recent years has been the sharply rising cost of labor and materials. Many operations in the catching and processing of seafoods still require hand labor, and mechani¬ cal substitutes are slow to come. The producers of most Virginia food fishes also have suffered from competition by the cheaper and more attractive frozen fillets and fish sticks from the northeast. The demand for oysters and blue crabs perhaps also has been supplanted to some extent by the rapidly-growing shrimp industry. Biological research, to be of significant economic value to Virginia’s fisheries, eventually must point the way to reduced costs of production. Recent findings by the Virginia Fisheries Laboratory, that oyster yields may be improved by more frequent harvesting, are a step in this direc¬ tion. Predictions of blue crab and food-fish abundance also might aid efficient harvesting of these resources. The importance of basic biolo¬ gical research in achieving this objective cannot be overemphasized. Practical solutions to these many problems will depend on a thorough understanding of the habits of marine animals and their reactions to the environment. This basic information also is needed urgently to guard against the growing threat of industrial pollution. But careful study of the history of the fisheries, incomplete though the record is, scarcely can fail to impress the reader with the importance of economic and sociological forces in shaping the welfare of the industry. Nowhere is this truth more apparent than in the important fishing State of Virginia. Yet fishery research everywhere has traditionally emphasized the biological aspects of the industry’s problems, and when economic problems have been investigated, they have been concerned almost exclusively with the technical aspects of fishing or processing. The concept of fishery research as a method of obtaining the maxi¬ mum sustained (or equilibrium) yield of each useful product of the sea is not adequate so long as this definition embraces only the biological factors. But the other important factors can be included without re¬ writing the definition. The objectives of fishery research are not in doubt, but the means of attaining the desired ends through scientific investigation perhaps never have been clearly nor completely stated. Virginians sometimes are criticised for their preoccupation with past events. It is perhaps appropriate that a consideration of historical matters, in this most historic of all the States, should lead to a broader understanding of a very pressing modern problem — the efficient utiliza¬ tion of a bountiful natural resource, and the economic and social stability of the people who use it for business and for pleasure. 1957] History of Virginia Fisheries 63 LITERATURE CITED De Broca, Lieut P. 1865. On the Oyster-Industries o£ the United States. In Mise. Doe. U. S. Senate, 43rd. Congress, 2nd. Session, Doe. 108, Kept. Commissioner Fish and Fisheries for 1873-4 and 1874-5: 271-319. McHugh, J. L. 1955. Report of the Virginia Fisheries Laboratory. In 56th and 57th Ann. Repts. Commission of Fisheries of Va. for the fiscal years ending lune 30th., 1954 and June 30th, 1955 (Exhibit B) . Richmond, Va. January 1955: 27-56. McHugh, J. L. and E. C. Ladd. 1953. The Unpredictable Blue Crab Fishery. National Fisheries Institute Yearbook: 127-129. Pearson, John C. 1942a. The Fish and Fisheries of Colonial Virginia. William and Mary College Quarterly Historical Magazine, 2nd. Ser., 22 (3), July 1942: 213-220. - .1942b. Idem. Second installment. Ibid., 22 (4), Oct. 1942: 353-360. - - - . 1943a. Idem. Third installment. Ibid., 23(1), Jan. 1943: 1-7. - . 1943b. Idem. Fourth installment. Ibid., 23(2), Apr. 1943: 130-135. - . 1943c. Idem. Fifth installment. Ibid., 23(3), July 1943: 278-284. - . 1943d. Idem. Sixth installment. Ibid., 23(4), Oct. 1943: 435-439, Quittmeyer, Charles L. 1950. The Marketing of Virginia Seafood: Advisory Council on the Virginia Economy, Div. of Planning and Economic Development, Richmond: iii 4-70 pp. Taylor, Harden F. and a staff of associates. 1951. Survey of Marine Fisheries of North Carolina. Univ. of N. C. Press, Chapel Hill: xii 4- 555 pp. United States Bureau of Fisheries, 1928-1941. Fishery Industries of the United States, 1926-1939. U. S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C. United States Fish and Wildlife Service. 1942-1956. Fishery Statistics of the United States 1939-1953. U. S. Government Printing Off ice, Washington, D. C. - 1956. Chesapeake Fisheries - 1954. Dept. Interior Dupli¬ cating Sect., Washington, D. C.: 6 pp. The Virginia Journal of Science 64 [January Van Engle, W. A. 1954. Prepared Crab Products Growing in Popularity. Frosted Food Field, 18(4): 19-20. Virginia, Commission of Fisheries. 1899-1955 Annual {or Biennial) Reports, Richmond, Va. Wharton, James. 1948. The Turbulent Oyster Trade, Part I: In the Nineteenth Century. The Commonwealth, 15(11), Nov. 1948: 9-12. - . 1949. The Turbulent Oyster Trade in Virginia. Part II: In the Twentieth Century. Ihid., 16(3), Mar. 1949: 13-15, 34-35. - . 1957. The Bounty of the Chesapeake. Whittet and Shepperson, Richmond, Va. In press. Wilkins, J. T. Jr. 1894. The Fisheries of the Virginia Coast. In House Misc. Doc., 53rd. Congress, 2nd Session, Vol. 20, Bull, U. S. Fish Comm., for 1893: 355-356. 1957] Physicians at Early Jamestown 65 Physicians at Early Jamestown Sidney S. Negus Medical College of Virginia, Richmond Prior to the establishment of the first permanent English settlement in North America at Jamestown, Virginia, on May 13, 1607, attempts had been made by Sir 'Walter Raleigh and others to found colonies on the coast. Although these early colonizing attempts failed, the explorc'rs had named the territory Virginia in honor of the virgin Queen Elizabeth, and had brought back home such glowing reports about their adventures that the London Company was influenced to organize an expedition to this new country in 1606. Among these earlier unsucessful explorers was Captain Bartholomew Gilbert. He anchored in the “Chespian Bay in the country of Virginia” in 1603, the year that Queen Elizabeth died, and sent ashore a landing party of five, among whom was the English “surgeon” attached to the fleet. The little party fell into an Indian ambush and pedshed to a man. If this recorded history is correct, the first Enghsh physician to land upon the American continent, and the first to lose his life there in line of duty, was the ship’s surgeon, Henry Kenton. When the ships of the London Company, with their band of 105 THE SITE OF JAMESTOWN In the Background is Glasshouse Point, the Location of Fes¬ tival Park — Center for the Jamestown Festival of 1957. 66 The Virginia Journal of Science [January adventuresome colonists, landed in the marshy lowlands on the Virginia coast, there was no physician aboard. If there had been, tlie London Company’s warning, “neither must you plant in a low or moist place because it will prove unhealthful,” might have been heeded. This was the Company's fault, however, because it reckoned wrongly. It evidently calculated that wounds and injuries would be the problems of these pioneers — not sickness — so two “chirurgeons” were sent along, Thomas Wotton and Will Wilkinson. They probably were the typical “barber- surgeons” of that day, but of this there is no historical proof. Nothing is known about Wilkinson except that his name was included in the list of planters. Wotton was probably the “gentleman chirurgeon.” He was praised highly by Captain John Smith in the summer of 1607 for his “skilled diligence” in treating the illnesses of Smith and two other planters. It is known that Wotton was with the colony for two years. What became of him after that is unloiown. In January of 1608, 120 additional settlers including the first two women colonists “Mistresses Forrest and Anne Buras, her maide,” reached Jamestown. They found only forty of the original planters remaining! Fortunately, in this new group, there were a physician (Dr. Walter Russell), a chirurgeon (Post Ginnat), and two apothecaries (Thomas Field and John Harford). They were badly needed and so were the medical supplies which they brought with them. The original colonists had been weakened by their five-month voyage from England and the summer of 1607 had almost wiped out the settlement. Its wretched plight was described by George Percy and originally recorded by Samuel Purchas in 1625: “Our men were destroyed with cruell diseases as swellings, fluxes, burning fevers and by warres, and some departed suddenly, but for the most part they died of meer famine. There were never Euglish- men left in a forreigne countrey in such miserie as we were in this newly discovered Virginia. — Our food was but a small can of bailie sod in water, to five men a day, our drinke cold water taken out of the river, which was the destruction of many of our men. Thus we lived in this miserable distress, not having five able men to man our Bulwarkes upon any occassion. If it had not pleased God to have put a terrour in the Savages heart, we had all perished by those wild and cruell Pagans, being in that weake estate as we were: our men night and day groaning in every corner of the Fort most pittiful to heare.” Captain John Smith's “True Relation,” which is said to be the most important narrative of the earliest Colonial days in America, has this recorded: — “Our extreme toil in bearing and planting pallisadoes, so strained and bruised us, and our continual labor in the extremity of the heat had so weakened us, as were cause sufficient to have made us as miserable in our nature tember— And now where some affirmed it was ill done of the Councel to send forth men so badly provided, this incontradictable reason will shew them 1957] Physicians at Early Jamestown 67 The Barb of a Stingray’s Tail. Such a Barb was Responsible for what is Probably America’s First Medical Case History. A Stingray Caught by Dr. Russell V. Bowers of Richmond Near Spot Where Captain Smith Got into Trouble with One. The Boys are John and Daniel Bowers. The Arrow Points to the Barb. 68 The Virginia Journal of Science [January plainely that they are too ill advised to nourish such il conceipts. First the fault of our going was our owne. What could be thought fitting or necessary wee had, but what should wee find, what wee should want, where wee should bee, we were all ignorant, and supposing to make our passage in two months, with victuall to live, and the advantage of the spdng to work: we weare at sea 5 monthes, where we both spent our victuall and lost the opportunity of the time and season to plant/' Doctor W'alter Russell was the first physician, as distinguished from a chirurgeon, to come to this country to live in an established settlement. He contributed the first literary effort of an American physician, the earhest of early American fish stories. It seems he was on an exploring trip in Chesapeake Bay with Captain Smith in June of 1608. “But it chanced,” wrote Russell, “the Capitaine taking a fish from his sword (not knowing her condition), being much of the fashion of a Thorne- backe with a longer taile whereon is a most poysoned sting 2 or 3 inches long, which shee stroke and inch and halfe into the wrist of his arme; the which in 4 houres, had so extremely swolne his hand, arme, shoulder and part of his body, as we all with much sorrow concluded his funerall, and prepared his grave in an He hard by (as himselfe appointed) which then wee called Stingeray He, after the name of the fish. Yet by the helpe of a precious oile. Doctor Russell applyed, ere night his tormenting paine was so well asswaged that he eate the fish to his supper; which gave no less joy and content to us, then ease to himself.” Thereby Stingray Point, near Deltaville, Virginia, got its name. Russell was not with Smith on the second expedition up the bay later in 1608. Instead, Anthony Bagnall, a surgeon or chirurgeon went along — probably because the captain’s stingray wound needed surgical rather than medical attention. Not much is known about Bagnall except that he was surgeon at the fort and for settlers at Jamestown and vicinity for a brief period beginning in 1608. Both Doctor Russell and Bagnall could not have been in the colony long because when Captain Smith, the first president of the Virginia Company, was injured by tlie explosion of some gunpowder in 1609, he had to set sail for England to secure treatment “because there was neither chirurgeon or chirurgerye in the fort.” The severity of Smith’s bum is still a historical question mark — he may have wanted to sidestep the Jamestown brawls and his shaky existence there. His administration was considered a cruel one by his enemies who did all they could to get rid of him. When Lord Delaware (Thomas W’est) came to Virginia in June of 1610 to take over where Smith left off, he brought with him a phvsician and scientist of parts— Dr. Lawrence Bohune. He was the first physician general of the London Company appointed for service in the Jamestown colony. He might be considered the first research scientist to join an 1957] Physicians at Early Jamestown 69 Lord Delaware, Successor of Captain John Smith. Because of America’s First Noted Case of Scurvy, He Had to Leave Jamestown in Less than a Year. 70 The Virginia Journal of Science [January established settlement in America. Finding sickness so prevalent and medical supplies dwindling, he began investigating the medicinal properties of such nature plants as sassafras, and rhubarb, and gums of the local trees. His experiments are among the first of a scientific nature to be recorded in the Jamestown colony. Health conditions at the time were so serious that in July of 1610 Lord Delaware wrote the London Company in part as follows: — “. . . Dr. Bohune, whose oare and Industrie for the preservation of our men’s lives (assaulted with strange fluxes and agues), we have just cause to commend unto your noble favours; nor let it, I beseech yee, be passed over as a motion slight and of no moment to furnish us with these things . . . since we have true exToerience how many men’s lives these physicke helps have preserved since our coming, God so blessing the practice and diligence of our doctor, whose store has nowe grown thereby to so low an ebb, as we have not above three weekes physicall provisions.” Shortly after Lord Delaware’s arrival at Jamestown, he became ill. A portion of his report about his several maladies to the London Company is of interest because it describes well the horrible health conditions which must have prevailed generally among the early Virginia colonists. He wrote: “Presenily after my arrival in James Towne, I was welcomed by a hote and violent Ague, which held mee a time, till by the advice of my Physition, Doctor Lawrence Bohune (by blood letting), I was recovered. That disease had not long left me, til (within three weeks after I had gotten a little strength) I began to be distempered with other greevous sicknesses, which successively and severally assailed me: for besides a relapse into the former disease, which with more violence held me more than a moneth, and brought me to great weaknesse, the Flux (dysentery) surprised me, and kept me many days; then the Crampe assaulted my weak body, with strong paines; and afterwards the Gout . . . afflicted mee in such sort, that making my body through weaknesse unable to stirre, or to use any manner of exercise, d^rew me upon the disease called the Scurvy; which though in others it be a sickness of slothfulnesse, yet in me of weaknesse, whieh never left me, til I was upon the point to leave the world.” Not feeling so well (!) and instead of leaving the world. Lord Delaware left Jamestown in March of 1611 for the West Indies which was then noted for its healthful baths and food. He selfishly took Doctor Bohune with him and the latter probably never got back to JamestCwn. The winds didn’t blow right so they landed in the Azores where, wrote Lord Delaware, “I found help for my health, and my sickness ass waged by means of fresh diet, and especially of Oranges and Lemonds, an undoubted remedy and medicine for that disease, which lastly, and so long, had afflicted me.” This statement is of special interest because it was not until 1928 that is was definitely proved by Szent-Gyorgi that there was a specific chemical 71 1957] Physicians at Early Jamestown in citrus juices — now known as ascorbic acid or vitamin C — that would cure scurvy. Doctor Bohune was known to be a shareholder in the London Com¬ pany and quite a business man on the side so probably until March of 1622 he was occupied elsewhere. It is definitely recorded, however, that in December of 1621 he was appointed Physieian General of the Colony. He set sail for Virginia with 85 immigrants early in 1622. In March, “while nearing the West Indies to obtain water, they fell in with two large ships who feinted to be Hollanders until they had secured the advantage of position, when they broke the Spanish colors and fired upon the English ships. The unequal combat continued for six hours with the most desperate courage on the part of the English; and then they beat off the enemy with the loss of the latter’s captain, making thek- skuppers run with blood, coloring the sea in their quarter.” Dr. Bohune was killed in this heroic defense while encouraging the crew to resistance. Dr. Wvndham B. Blanton of Bichmond, Virginia, the authority on tne history of medicine in Virginia, puts it this way: “So perished one of the most eolorful of early Virginia doetors, a man of talent, of an investigative nature, full of robust enthusiasm for the sea and for adventure.” The London Company soon appointed Dr. John Pott to succeed Dr. Bohune as physieian to the colony of Virginia. He landed in Jamestown in 1322. Dr. Richard Townsend is known to have come along as his apprentice and Joseph Fiteh as his apothecary. Dr. Pott, mixing his medicine with politics and business, got into trouble right away. He managed to become Governor of the eolony in 1629 but that lasted only a year. Sir John Harvey, his bitter enemy, succeeded him and immediate¬ ly had Pott arrested for pardoning a murderer, holding cattle not his own and killing hogs belonging to other people. He was convieted of the latter but his sentence was suspended beeause he “was the only physician in the Colony skilled in epidemical diseases.” Mrs. Pott set sail for England and was influential in having her husband pardoned by King Charles. Doctor Pott retired from all publie life, moved inland a few^ miles and built a home which he called “Harrop.” The fact that the physician to the Jamestown Colony had chosen this new location seemed a convineing indication of its healthfulness and it wasn’t long before a village was built around “Harrop.” It was later given the name of Williamsburg. From the time that Doetor Bohune left the eolony in 1611 until Doetor Pott arrived in 1622, there must have been physicians at the Jamestown Colony, but historical records of that day reveal few of their names. It is known that a Reverend Robert Pawlett came to Virginia in 1619 as a preacher, surgeon, and physician but little is known about his activities. There was also a Dr. William Norton who, aceording to Captain Smith, 72 The Virginia Journal of Science [January “freely imparted to all gratis, but most bountifully to the poore.” He was massacred by the Indians in 1622. Then there was a “Master Cloy- bourne the Surgian” who arrived in Jamestown in 1621, and Dr. William Rowsley who practised only a short time in the colony. The earliest tombstone record (1618) of a physician who had died in this country was found in Stafford County and marked the burial place of a Dr. Edmond Helder. Nothing is known about his life at Jamestown. Doctor Blanton in his authoritative book, “Medicine in Virginia in the 17th Century” (The William Bvrd Press, Richmond, 1930), has this to say about medicine during the regime of the London Company, which ended in 1624: “Throughout the remaining years of the century Virginia had many physicians and surgeons, most of them home grown, self educated, or products of a local apprenticeship. There were probably none comparable in training and education to the men sent over by the London Company before 1624.” In the 1620’s, because of this fact, the Jamestown settlers had become fairly well “seasoned” to Virginia vicis¬ situdes and were able to send food supplies to the Plymouth Colony which was having difficulties comparable to those of Captain Smith and his planters in 1607 (The Virginia Magazine of History and Biography, April, 1954). According to Dr. Samuel Eliot Morison, Jonathan Turnbull Professor of History at Harvard University, “The first succor the Plymouth Colony had, in their straits of semi-starvation, came from the Jamestown Colony.” Dr. Maurice Bear Gordon, in his comprehensive book, “Aesculapius Comes to the Colonies” (Ventnor Publishers, Inc., Ventnor, N. J., 1949), has devoted much of its introduction to the powerful influences of the Indians on the practice of medicine in early Jamestown days. Their physical drugs included herbs, animal products, leaves and barks. They had empirical remedies, tied in with religion and animal worship, for all their diseases except the contagious ones introduced by the white man. Those exacted a deadly toll. Physicians of earliest colonial days often used suecessf Lilly the remedies of the Indian medicine men. It may perhaps be appropriate to close this sketchy article about early Jamestown physieians with the answer to a question which is often asked us at the Medical College of Virginia in Richmond about the sculpture, “The Bear Group,” which is part of the attractive landscape in the west courtyard of one of the college hospitals. The question for which few know the answer is “Why the bears?” Sculptured by one of the country’s leading artists, Mrs. Archer M. Huntington, it svmbolizes the Indian medicine man’s reverence for the bear, the strongest animal of this continent, a Beast-God to which he appealed for strength and power in the administration of medicine. Medicine has come a long way since the early days of Jamestown, 1957] Physicians at Early Jamestown 73 The Bear Group at the Medical College of Virginia, Richmond. Sculptured by Mrs. Archer W. Huntington thanks to the Indians, to early colonial physicians and to researchers of more modern times. Its development since the founding of this country at Jamestown in 1607, makes one of the thrilling stories of America. It still has many fields to conquer, so we still need to invoke in our prayer gardens something similar to this Zuni Indian ritual: You are my father, bear. You are life giving society chief; Bringing your medicine. You will make your road come hither. 74 The Virginia Journal of Science [January News and Notes (Editor’s Note: News contributions should be sent to the person whose name appears at the end of the appropriate sections.) MESSAGE FROM THE PRESIDENT The Virginia Academy of Science will hold its annual meeting May 9-11, 1957, at the Hotel Chamberlin at Old Point Comfort, Virginia. It is particularly appropriate that the Academy is meeting in this area during the Jamestown Festival celebration since, as all will remembor, it was organized at Williamsburg, Virginia in May 1923. The Academy is also, as a part of its participation in the celebration, preparing an appropriate cover for tlie James River Monograph, which will be offered for sale during the Festival. A special Jamestown Festival issue of our Journal, which includes material of interest to those visiting Virginia during the Festival, will be offered at a nominal price. The development of science in Virginia, since its initial settlement, is certainly a very important part of the history of our State. Our host for the meeting, the College of William and Mary including its Norfolk Division, is one of the oldest and most respected institutions in our nation and has contributed significantly to the cultural, educa¬ tional and scientific achievement of the Commonwealth. Our local Arrangements Committee, made up largely of representatives of this institution, are formulating plans for an excellent meeting and it is now time to consider assembhng our meeting’s program. Our section programs are the bulwark of the meeting. They afford the opportunity for Virginia scientists to report on their investigations and research, and the quahty of the papers presented, as well as the degree to which the program of a particular section reflects the scientific work carried on in the State, determines to a large extent the caliber and success of our meeting. It has been noted that there has been a falloff in the number of pages in certain sections in recent years. We sincerely hope that each section will be able to arrange a program with a complement of papers sufficient to provide for the full time allotted — one and a half days. Section officers should also encourage all members submitting papers to enter them in competition for the J. Shelton Horsley Award. In order better to acquaint section officers and committees with the activities of the Academy, a Council meeting was recently held to whigh all section chairmen and committee chairmen were invited. Almost every activity of the Academy was represented at the meeting. It is our belief that such open council meetings should be held each year 1957] News and Notes 75 since such a meeting stimulates interest and provides an opportunity for those who, in reality, carry on the work of the Academy to coordinate their activities and exchange ideas. Many suggestions were obtained from the section and committee chairmen which will make for an improved Academy program as well as a fine 1957 meeting. E. S. Harlow, President ROBERT BLACKWELL SMITH, JR., FOURTH PRESIDENT OF THE MEDICAL COLLEGE OF VIRGINIA The inauguration of Dr. Robert Blackwell Smith, Jr., as the fourth president of the Medical College of Virginia took place on December 17 at 11:00 A.M. in the Monumental Church, Richmond. The Chairman of the Board of Visitors of the College, Buford Scott, presided at the inaugural ceremony. Following the greeting of the delegates Mr. Scott presented Chancel¬ lor William Thomas Sanger who introduced the speaker for the occasion. Dr. Joseph Clarke Robert, President of Hampden-Sydney College whose subject was “The Healing Arts and the American Way.” Dr. Smith was presented to the Honorable Edwin Wren Hudgins, Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of Appeals of Virginia who administ¬ ered tlie oath of office. The Reverend Benjamin Rice Lacy, Jr., Chap¬ lain of Hampden-Sydney College gave the prayer of intercession and dedication. Following the inaugural exe*rcises, a luncheon for delegates and their wives was held in the Social Center of the College, and a recep¬ tion followed in the headquarters of the Alumni Association. MINUTES OF THE VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE COUNCIL MEETING - CHARLOTTESVILLE, VIRGINIA - OCTOBER 7, 1956 The Council of the Virginia Academy of Science met in the Commit¬ tee Room of the Colonnade Club at the University of Virginia. The meeting was called to order by President Harlow at 1:50 P.M. The following council members were present: Edward S. Harlow, William G. Guy, Foley F. Smith, Allan T. Gwathmey, Lynn D. Abbott, Jr., B. F. D. Runk, Charles F. Lane, William B. Wartman, Jr., Irving G. Foster, Horton PI. Hobbs, Jr., Sidney S. Negus, William M. Hinton, John C. Forbes, Jr., Robert T. Brumfield. The chairmen of the committees not represented on the council and the section chairmen were invited to attend the meeting. Those present were: 76 The Virginia Journal of Science [January A. B. Massey, Chairman, Vk'ginia Flora Committee; E. D. Critten¬ den, Chairman, Edueation Committee; Samuella Crim, Chairman, Seience Teachers Section; Leslie E. Edwards, Chairman, Medical Science Section; Mrs. Geraldine M. Duncan, Co-chairman, Membership Commit¬ tee; W. R. Smithey, Jr., Chairman, Membership Committee; Boyd Harsh- barger. Chairman, Place of Meeting Committee; Marcellus H. Stow, Chairman, James River Project Committee and Jamestown Festival Committee; Jack D. Burke, Chairman, Biology Section; Mary E. Kapp, Chairman, Chemistry Section; Frank W. Finger, Chairman, Psychology Section; David M. Crim, Chairman, Engineering Section; Troy J. Laswell, Chairman, Geology Section; Paul M. Reaves, Chairman, Agricultural Sciences Section; A. L. Rosensweig, Chairman, Bacteriology Section; George W. Jeffers, Member, Long-Range Planning Committee; W. Schuy¬ ler Miller, Chairman, Virginia Science Talent Search Committee; Henry Leidheiser, Jr., Secretary, Long-Range Planning Committee; Ladley Hust- ed. Member, Long-Range Planning Committee. President Harlow welcomed the visiting committee and section chairmen and invited them to participate in the deliberations. Due to the tardiness of several members who had attended an earlier scheduled Long-Range Planning Committee meeting, the discussion began with the activities of the sections. Activities of the Sections at the 1957 Meeting. — President Harlow expressed a desire that all section officers make an effort to have an outstanding program at the 1957 meeting since this was to be held dudng the Jamestown Festival. He asked the section chairmen present to tell the members of any special activities planned. Dr. Laswell, of the Geology Section, told of tentative plans for a field trip for Saturday, May 11. Dr. Rosensweig, of the Bacteriology Section, is attempting to arrange for several awards to be given, by that section, to the outstanding micro-biological exhibitors of the Junior Aca¬ demy. He also hopes to procure publicity, both newspaper and radio, wTereby the public may be better informed of the role of microbiology in their daily living. Dr. Reaves, of the Agricultural Science Section, told of plans to recruit new members for his section from people in related fields, especially those in vocational programs. Mr. Harlow commended those who told of their plans, and expressed the hope that other sections would consider the idea of special awards for Junior Academy exhibitors. The President asked the chairman of sections having Constitutions, not already approved by Council, to foiAvard them to him so that they could be submitted to Council for approval. Mrs. Duncan, of the Medical Sciences Section, asked whether it was 1957] News and Notes 77 permissible to schedule a ‘Saturday morning program at the annual meeting. She was informed that some of the other sections have been doing this for some time and that it was not only permissible, but encouraged, should the section desire to do so. The secretary told of rosters of section members and addressed envelopes which are available on request to him. He also explained t!iat bills for postage should be submitted to him. The minutes of the previous meeting were read upon the arrival cf those members of the Council who had been delayed due to attending the Long-Range Planning Committee meeting. No corrections or addi¬ tions we^re made. The following items were discussed: The Possibility and Desirability of Acquiring Seashore State Park by the Academy. — This matter was referred to the Long-Range Planning Committee at the May 12 Council meeting. The report of this commit¬ tee, given by Dr. Abbott, recommended that the Academy itself not attempt to acquire the park, but that the Academy fo-rward to the Cover- nor and to the Directors of Conservation and Development and to the Board of Commissioners of Conservation and Development a recommenda¬ tion, prepared by the Committee, that Seashore State Park be permanently maintained as a wilderness area. It was further recommended that the area be used for the training of science teachers and a location for appropriate advanced studies in science. The report of the Long-Range Planning Committee was approved by the Council. After considerable discussion it was the feeling of the Council that, in order to make the recommendation as forcible as possible, it was advisable to consult with the Virginia Advisory Legislative Council Sub¬ committee and other appropriate agencies before submitting such a recommendation to the Governor and others named above. Accordingly, a motion was passed that the President appoint a committee to consult with appropriate agencies and rephrase, wherever advisable, the recom¬ mendation, as submitted by the Long-Range Planning Committee. After preparation by the committee- the President, at his discretion, is to submit the document to the Governor and others named above. This committee is to consist of the following: Henry Leidheiser, Jr., Chairman; Sidney S. Negus, William G. Guy, Ladley Husted, Marcellus H. Stow, Bruce D. Reynolds, J. T. Baldwin, Jr. A Survey of the Results of the Virginia Science Talent Search. — The report of the Long-Range Planning Committee also included a proposal to be submitted by the Academy to the National Science Foundation for funds to finance a survey of the results of the Virginia Science Talent Searches. This was prepared by Mrs. B. G. Heatwole, 78 The Virginia Journal of Science [January as decided by Council, at the May 12 meeting. The funds required are $4,500 and the estimated time for the survey is one year. A motion was passed that the President forward this request to the National Science Foundation. It was suggested that he inquire into the possibility of procuring additional funds should the survey extend bevond the one year period. Reports of Officers and Committees. — Flora Committee — Dr. Massey reported the continuing efforts of this committee in classifying the flora of the state. He also reported there was an unpublished paper available on the Flora of Seashore State Park which he would furnish upon request. Virginia Science Talent Search Committee — Dr. Miller reported that the activities of this committee this year would follow the procedure as practiced in recent years. However, he felt that the survey proposed by the Long-Range Planning Committee would be very valuable to the Science Talent Search Committee. Membership Committee — Dr. Smithey and M^^-s. Duncan reported that this committee was making a concerted effort to procure additional business members as well as other classes of members. Place of Meeting Committee — Dr. Harshbarger reported that he could arrange for the 1958 meeting to be held af; the Hotel Roanoke on May 7, 8, 9 and 10, provided Council would approve this action. He stressed the necessity of making hotel arrangements two years in advance, due to extensive advance scheduling of other conferences. It was moved and passed that Dr. Harshbarger be requested to schedule the 1958 annual meeting on May 7, 8, 9, and 10 at the Hotel Roanoke, Roanoke, Virginia. James River Project and Jamestown Festival Committees — Dr. Stow reported that he has arranged for an appropriate Jamestown Festival cover for the James River Monograph, which will be offered for sale at the Festival. Dr. Hobbs is planning a special issue of the Journal for this occasion. Scholarship Comahttee — Dr. Negus told of the plans of this committee in aiding science' students to secure academic scholarships. Trustees Committee — In the absence of Senator Ryrd, the trus¬ tees’ report was given by the assistant secretary. Virginia Journal of Science — Dr. Hobbs reported that the delay in mailing the July issue of the Journal was due to the printer moving his plant to another site. He expected the July issue and The Proceed¬ ings for 1955-56 to be out at an early date. 1957] News and Notes 79 The Journal officers were authorized by Council to negotiate a new printing contract based upon the best bid submitted. Research Committee — Dr. Forbes stated that the Research Com¬ mittee had made these research grants totaling $485 and commented on the disposition of funds by the Research Committee. Education Committee — Dr. Crittenden announced that Frank D. Kizer has been appointed assistant supervisor of secondary education and with his background in science this is tantamount to the state having a science supervisor. Much good should result from this appointment. Scheduling of the Academic Conference at the Annual Meeting. — Dr. Cwathmey indicated that Mrs. Heatwole planned to schedule the main Junior Academy meeting so as not to conflict with the Academy Conference on Thursday evening. It was the feeling of Council that this would result in a more active participation in the conference by the membership. Attempts at holding these two meetings concurrently have resulted in a dwindling of interest in this important phase of the Academv meeting. Secretarial Assistance for Academy Activities. — All activities of the Academy requiring secretarial assistance should submit requests for funds for this purpose to the Secretary-Treasurer. Participation of the Academy in Science Fairs. — It was the feeling of Council that it is unwise for the Junior Academy to become a sponsor or participate in Science Fair workshops at the present time. There being no further business, the meeting was adjourned at 3:55 P. M. Foley F. Smith, Secretary REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON THE VIRGINIA SCIENCE TALENT SEARCH, 1955-56 The Eleventh Virginia Science Talent Search was conducted in the year 1955-56 in the same gene?L-al manner as in previous years. The search was made in cooperation with the National Science Talent Search as conducted by Science Clubs of America, Washington, D. C., for the Westinghouse Foundation. Participation in the search in terms of number of students and the number of schools represented increase nearly twenty-five per cent over the previous year. From those who completed their entry in the search forty-five were chosen to attend the academy meeting in Richmond. Forty-one attended and came with part of their travel expenses paid. 80 The Virginia Journal of Science [January The committee members and invited judges interviewed these fin¬ alists and selected fifteen winners and awarded honorable mention to the remainder. Each finalist was interviewed by three judges, and each judge held a fifteen minute interview with each of about ten finalists. The names of the winners and othe’r finalists were sent to the thirty-four colleges in Virginia that cooperate with the search by listing scholarship aid available to the finalists upon application. Committee Members James W. Cole Mrs. Walter Gladding R. C. Howard J. H. Johnson Alfred L. Wingo Edward E. Dyer Thelma C. Heatwole L. W. Jarman Percy H. Warren H. H. Garretson, Chairman Florence S. Hague Paul Osborne Frank C. Vilbrandt Judges James B. Newman O. L. Updike, Jr. Winners and Honorable Mention Eric G. Adelberger, Arlington Frederick F. Andrews, Richmond Lee Martin Avie, Newport News William Henry Blake, Arlington Ardelis Ella Brown, Norfolk Charles C. Bundy, Lebanon Tobias W. T. Burnett, Middletown Nicholas J. Carrere, Arlington John Clifton Carson, Richmond Barry Michael Casper, Arlington Thomas M. Chilton, Portsmouth Reuben Clay, Richmond George Willett Cornell, Suffolk James Donald Curling, Hickory Victor Maceo Dandridge, Roanoke Thomas Watson Dougherty, Alexandria William Charles Doughty, Willis Wharf Emmett Charles Dye, jr., Arlington Leland M. Edmunds, Newport News Edwin Foster Ford, Arlington David Earl Foster, Lexington 1957] News and Notes 81 Edward Harris Friedman, Danville William G. C. Gordon, Charlottesville David Warren Hadley, Emporia Edward Bledsoe Harris, Jr., Richmond John R. Harvey, Portsmouth Christofer Henderson, Richmond Earnest Hibble, Jr., Portsmouth Philip Frank Ingersoll, Richmond Clifford T. Ireland, Arlington Henry Stuart Jacobs, Portsmouth A1 Ray Manson, Martinsville Maynard Wayne McNeil, Check James R. Merikangas, Fort Belvoir William Lee Painter, Richmond Frank Overton Perkins, Charlottesville Samuel G’raves Snow, Hickory Robert Lee Tomlin, Jr., Charlottesville Robert Needy Whitesel, Waynesboro Ralph Theodore Wirt, Pulaski The Chairman wishes to thank those who assisted the committee and helped in the interviewing and judging. He would like to thank in particular those faculty members of the University of Virginia and Lynchburg College who assisted in the grading of the student essays. Haeold H. Garketson, Chairman Agricultural Science Section Recent staff changes in Animal Husbandry are: Associate Professor J. P. Fontenot, Ph.D., Oklahoma A & M College, replaces W. S. Wilkinson who has gone to Louisiana. Associate Professor J. W. Gossett, Ph.D., Texas A & M, replaces Bryan Baker, Jr., who went to Mississippi. In¬ structor Owen Thomas, III, 1955 Graduate of Animal Husbandry, re¬ places Professor R. E. Hunt, who retired on September 1. Instructor A. N. Huff, 1955 Graduate of Animal Husbandry, replaces Hugh E. Henderson who is on leave to study. Dr. G. C. Graf and Professor Paul Reaves attended the College Feed Conference Board meeting in Lexington, Kentucky, in August. Dr. Graf was elected chairman and Professor Reaves re-elected secretary of the College Section. Dr. Ellmore and Professor Griffith attended a regional conference in New York recently where the new Weigh-a-day Month Program was discussed. 82 The Virginia Journal of Science [January Dr. Vernon L. Baldwin of the Dairy Seience staff, V.P.I., attended the annual meeting of the National Artificial B*reeding Association, held in St. Paul Minnesota, in September. The V.P.I. Dairy Cattle Judging Team and the Virginia 4-H Dairy Cattle Judging Team participated in regional and national contests in September and October. Professor R. A. Sandy was coach of the college team and Professor William N. Patterson was coach of the 4-11 team. The Department of Dairry Science conducted a Dairy Cattle Judging Conference on campus in July. This conference was sponsored by the Virginia State Dairymen’s Association. Dr. N. R. Thompson attended the Biometrics meetings in Detroit in September. Dr. M. Daniel Lane, B. S., and M. S. Iowa State College, Ph.D. University of Illinois, joined the staff on the Biochemistry and Nutrition Department in August, 1956. Dr. Lane will pursue studies concerning the exti'a-visual function of Vitamin A in animals and will also be responsible for some graduate teaching. The following entomologists attended the meetings of the Eastern Branch of the Entomological Society of America in November in Atlantic City: Dr. C. H. Hill, Mr. A. M. Woodside, Mr. C. B. Dominick, Dr. M. L. Bobb, Dr. E. C. Turner, Jr., and Dr. J. M. Grayson. Several papers were presented by members of the group. Dr. E. M. Raffensperger, Mr. J. G. Barker, Dr. F. E. Jarvis, and Dr. J. M. Grayson attended the National Meetings of the Entomological Society of America in December in New York City, with two papers being presented. Mr. Arthur L. Eiser, Jr., resigned as Instructor of Horticulture at V. P. I. effective September 1, 1956, to continue study for a Ph.D. degree in Botany. Mr. Robert W. Gray, II has been appointed Instruetor of Hortieul- ture at V.P.I. effective September I, 1956. Mr. Gray will assist with the teaching and research work in floriculture and nursery management. Dr. H. A. Rollins, Jr. was transferred ftrom the Winchester Fruit Research Laboratory to V.P.I. at Blacksburg as of July 1, 1956, to serve as project leader of the fruit extension program. Dr. Rollins is filling the vacancy left at the result of the retirement of Professor A. H. Teske, April 30, 1956. At the meeting of the Technical Gommittee of the Southern Regional Poultry Breeding Project in Athens, Georgia, on Oetober 8-9, 1956, Dr. 1957] News and Notes 83 James H. Bywaters of the Department of Poultry Husbandry at V.P.I. was elected to the Executive Committee for a one year term. R. H. Burtner started work as a Specialist with the Poultry Depart¬ ment in September of this year, with primary emphasis on junior poultry activities. Mr. Burtner was graduated from V. P. I. in 1940. Most of his experience since then has been in county agent work. Dr. Jesse Lunin of the Soil and Plant Relationship Branch, Agri¬ cultural Research Service, U.S.D.A., established headquarters at the Virginia Truck Experiment Station, Norfolk, on September 4, 1956. Dr. Lunin will serve as coordinator between the research program at the Truck Station dealing with salinity problems in irrigation for the middle Atlantic region and the research program on related problems at the U.S.D.A. Salinity Laboratory, Riverside, California. Research on the utilization of brackish water is being conducted at the Truck Station by Mr. M. H. Gallatin of the Eastern Soil and Water Management Branch, ARS, U.S.D.A., who began the program in May 1955. Dr. Lunin received his undergraduate training at Oklahoma A & M College and received his Ph.D. degree from Cornell in 1949. Immediately before coming to Norfolk he was stationed in the Dominican Republic with the Research Station of the West Indies Sugar Corporation. Dr. Edward A. Borchers joined the research staff of the Virginia Truck Experiment Station, Norfolk, on November 5, 1956, in the position of Plant Breeder to replace Dr. Forman T. McLean, retiring. Dr. Borchers was born in New York state and received his undergraduate training at Cornell and received his M.S. degree in 1953 from N. C. State College. His Ph.D. was received from the University of California in 1956. Paul W. Stoneburner of Waynesboro, Virginia was elected to succeed E. T. Swink, Blacksburg, Virginia, as President of the Virginia Section, American Society of Agricultural Engineers at the annual meeting of the section held in Richmond on October 20. Also elected, to se-rve a.s Vice-Presidents for 1956-57 were J. Nick Jones, Jr., Cecil Wheary, Blacksburg, Virginia, and George Duke, Holland, Virginia. A. J. Lam- j bert, Blacksburg, Virginia, was re-elected Secretary-Treasurer. Dr. Ralph G. Kline joined the staff of the Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station as Associate Agricultural Economist in July. Dr. Kline is a native of Pennsylvania. He received his Ph.D. from N. C. State in 1956. He will wodc primarily in the field of farm management : research. Dr. R. E. Blaser, Agronomy Department, V.P.I. , spent five months 84 The Virginia Journal of Science [January in New Zealand and Australia as the guest of those countries advising on forage crops. Dr. S. S. Obenshain, of the Agronomy Department, V.P.I., served as head of a fertilizer consultant team in Korea for about six weeks and brought back many interesting tales both of agriculture in Korea and otherwise. Dr. C. I. Rich and Dr. Kroontje returned the early part of October after having attended the International Soil Science Society Meeting in Paris, where Dr. Rich presented a paper entitled “The Distribution of Free Iron Oxides in Four Coastal Plain Soils in Virginia.” Prior to the meeting, Dr. Kroontje was visiting his family in his native Holland. Dr. Rich visited the Rothamstead Experiment Station and the Macauley Institute in England and Scotland before attending the meeting. After the meeting, both Dr. Rich and Dr. Kroontje visited two experiment stations in conjunction with the University of Bonn, in Germany, and also the soil testing laboratory at Oosterbeek and the Waganingen Agricultural Experiment Station in Holland. Dr. C. I. Rich, Agronomy Department, V.P.I., has just been asked to serve as Consulting Editor of Soil Science. This periodical, published by Rutgers University, has international circulation and being selected as Consulting Editor is recognition of world standing in his particular field. Dr. Rich has also been recognized by the Soil Science Society of America, in his being assigned to serve on their committee on clay mineral studies. — Carl W. Allen, Virginia Polytechnic Instiinte. Astronomy, Mathematics, and Physics Section Additions to the Physics Staff at V.P.I. for the present year are Dr. Leon S. August, who completed graduate work at L.S.U. recently, David L. Bushnell, formerly on the staff of Iowa University, Harry L. Reaves who has served at ORNL, and Jean S. Ryan formerly at the University of Kentucky and the Emory Tumor Clinic. Dr. Andrew Robeson, Asst. Prof, of Physics at V. P. I. is on leave to attend the Oak Ridge School of Reactor Technology. Dr. J. Gordon Stripe, Jr., Prof, of Physics at R.M.W.C. is on sabbati- j cal leave. He holds a Carnegie Internship at Harvard University where ' he is teaching and working in solid state physics. Mr. George White- head, formerly at William and Mary has been appointed Asst. Prof, of Physics at R.M.W.C. Mr. Whitehead holds degrees from Cambridge University. Jackson J. Taylor has recently been promoted to Associate Prof, of Physics at the University of Richmond, where he heads the Department 1957] News and Notes 85 of Physics. On the staff are Drs. Addison Campbell and Billy Sloope. Dr. Sloope is visiting professor at Randolph-Macon this year. The following items of interest came from the Dept, of Physics at the University of Virginia. Dr. Stephan Berko has been appointed a Sloan Foundation Fellow for the coming year, and Prof. E. C. Stevenson will carry on research at Charlottesville as a Senior Postdoctoral Fellow of the N.S.F. He will work in radioastronomy. Dr. Dexter Whitehead, a graduate of the University and formerly at N. C. State has been appoint¬ ed Asst. Prof, of Physics. Dr. Robert C. Yates is now Chairman of the Mathematics Depart¬ ment at William and Mary. Mr. L. C. Leonard has joined the William and Mary faculty as lecturer in mathematics for the present year. Asst. Prof. V. Ray Hancock of the Mathematics Department at V.P.I. is on leave doing graduate work at Tulane University. Three men have been added to the staff of the Mathematics Dept, as Asst. Profes¬ sors. They are Dr, Svend T. Gormsen, Capt. E. W. Lammons, and Mr. Robert H. Riffenburgh. The completion of a ten year project involving the search for red dwarfs over a large area of the northern sky has been announced by McCormick Observatory. The work was done under the direction of Prof. Vyssotsky, aided by Prof. E. C. Dyer and others of the staff. In its annual report, the Observatory announced the completion of the distance determination of 2000 stars. No other Observatory has yet reached this number. After two years at McCormick as an OEEC fellow. Dr. H. K. Eich- horn has returned to the Vienna Observatory. Mr. A. G. Balz, Jr., formerly at McCormick, has been appointed an assistant at the Lick Observatory. Of interest to physics is an announcement that the University of Virginia has been given a 75 MEV electron synchrotron. The V.P.I. natural uranium graphite exponential reactor has now been completed. This facihty, along with the 2 MEV Nuclear Accelerator and the Nuclear Reactor Simulator is to be used in the graduate program in Nuclear Engineering. — LG. Foster, Virginia Military Institute. Bacteriology Section At the fall meeting of the Virginia Branch, Society of American Bacteriologists, the members voted to establish an annual award of $25.00 payable from Branch funds, and a certificate of merit to the 86 The Virginia Journal of Science [January person presenting the best paper or project in microbiology at the annual meeting of the Junior Academy of Science, held in conjunction with the Virginia Academy of Science. The purpose of the award is to stimulate interest and encourage research by future scientists in the various fields of microbiology. Final establishment of the award is contingent upon the approval of the Virginia Academy of Science. Mrs. B. H. Caminita attended the International Congress of Develop¬ mental Biology and the International Symposium on Cytodifferentiation in Providence, R. I., July 23-31, 1956; and a work conference on immunology and development at Bar Harbor, Maine, August 7-9, 1956. — P. Arne Hansen, University of Maryland. Biology Section Mr. Bruce D. Reynolds has retired as Director of the Mountain Lake Biological Station and Horton H. Hobbs, Jr., has been appointed as his successor. M?i'. Warwick R. West, University of Richmond, was promoted from Assistant Professor to Associate Professor of Biology beginning September 1, 1956. Mr. J. D. Burke and Mr. W. S. Woolcott, University of Richmond, are working on a problem dealing with the oxygen capacity of fishes. The Virginia Academy is supporting this work through a research g^rant to cover travel expenses on their collecting trips. Mr. Nolan E. Rice, University of Richmond, is studying the fresh¬ water jellyfish in Virginia and getting some interesting results. Construction of a new research vessel for the Virginia Fisheries Laboratory is well under way at Curtis-Dunn Marine Industries, Inc., West Norfolk. The scheduled completion date is November 30, 1956. Preliminary plans for a new laboratory building were approved by the Board of Administration of the Virginia Fisheries Laboratory at a recent meeting. To be about equal in size to the present building, the new laboratory will provide much-needed space for permanent staff, grad¬ uate students, and summei; workers. In addition to office and laboratory [ space, there will be several dormitory rooms, a dining-room, kitchen, and | lounge. I Mr. Jay D. Andrews, of the Virginia Fisheries Laboratory staff, is | President of the Atlantic Estuarine Research Society this year, and Mr. ' Dexter Haven is a member of the Executive Committee. Me:. Andrews ' also was recently appointed to a three-year term on the Editorial Board i of the National Shell-fisheries Association. 1957] News and Notes 87 Mr. James J. Murray, Jr., has been appointed instructor in the Department of Biology at Washington and Lee University. Mr. Murray graduated from Davidson College in 1951, was a Rhodes Scholar, re¬ ceiving the B. A. degree in 1954 and the M. A. degree in 1956 from Oxford. Mr. Murray has also taken part in scientific expeditions in the high Himalayas. Two new isolation buildings for research in diseases of poultry will be constructed this fall for the use of the Animal Pathology Section of the Biology Department at V.P.I. Bids were let on October 24, 1956. Mr. A. B. Massey was promoted to Professor of Biology on Septem¬ ber 1, 1956. Mr. Massey has been associated with V.P.I. as a teacher and research worker for 28 years. Since 1935, he has served as Botanist for the Wildlife Unit. Mr. Perry C. Holt has joined the staff of the Biology Department at V.P.I. as Assistant Professor of Zoology. Mr. Holt received his Ph.D. from the University of Virginia and comes to V.P.I. from East Tennessee State College. He replaces Mr. Frank R. Burleson who resigned. Mr. William G. Evans has joined the staff of the Virginia Agricul¬ tural Experiment Station as an Assistant Professor of Entomology. Mr. Evans, who received his Ph.D. degree from Cornell University, replaces Mr. A. A. Muka who resigned to accept an Assistant Professorship at Cornell. Mr. and Mrs. J. M. Grayson are the proud parents of their fourth girl, Mary Ellen, born June 29. Mr. Gcayson is head of the Entomology section of the Biology Department of V. P. I. Mr. and Mrs. E. G. Turner, Jr., are the parents of a boy, Edgar Craig, born September 1, 1956. Mr. Turner is Associate Entomologist with the Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station. Mr. and Mrs. J. O. Rowell are the parents of a boy, Robert Shelley, born September 7, 1956. This is the third son and fifth child for the Rowells. Mr. Rowell is an Entomologist with the Agricultural Extension Service. — Robert T. Brumfield, Longwood College. Ghemistry Section Dr. John H. Yoe, Professor of Ghemistry and Ghairman of the De¬ partment of Ghemistry of the University of Virginia, has received one of the nation’s top scientific honors in being named as the recipient of the Fisher Award in analytical chemistry for 1957. Dr. Yoe was honored for his “pioneering work in colorimetric analysis and organic analytical reagents.” His achievements in the field of analytical chemistry also brought him the 1956 Distinguished Service Award, presented by the 88 The Virginia Journal of Science [January Virginia Section of the American Chemical Society. An additional honor is his election as the next chairman of the Division of Analytical Chemis¬ try, A. S. C. Several staff changes have been announced in the University of Virginia Department of Chemistry: Dr. John S. Belew has resigned to accept a position at Baylor University, and Dr. Paul N. Schatz has been appointed Assistant Professor of Chemistry, Dr. Oscar R. Rodig as Acting Assistant Professor. Dr. Schatz received his doctorate from Brown Uni¬ versity and held a year’s postdoctoral fellowship with Professor Linus Pauling at the California Institute of Technology before joining the Virginia staff. Dr. Rodig received his Ph.D. from the University of Wisconsin and has had two years of postdoctoral work, one with Professor E. R. H. Jones at the University of Manchester in England and the other with Professor V. Prelog of the Federal Institute of Technology at Zurich, Switzerland. Dr. Thurman T. Grossnickle has been appointed Assistant Professor of Chemistry at Bridgewater College. Dr. Grossnickle received his doctorate in organic chemistry in 1955 from Wayne University, and has been awarded a Research Corporation grant for the study of the mechan¬ ism of the dienonephenol rearrangement. Dr. Lowell V. Heisey, P»rofes- sor of Chemistry at Bridgewater, is working on a joint project with the Department of Botany of the University of North Carolina under an American Chemical Society grant for the synthesis and testing of hyd^ra- zide plant hormones. Dr. J. B. Sanders has been added to the chemistry staff at Hampden- Sydney College. Dr. Sanders performed his graduate work at the University of Iowa (M. S.) and at the University of North Carolina (Ph.D.) and was formerly associated with the National Bureau of Stand¬ ards. C. W. Bondurant, formerly on the Hampden-Sydney staff, has joined the faculty of Roanoke College. Dr. Stanley E. Kerr, Professor of Biochemistry at the American University of Beirut, is spending a sabbatical year in the United States as the A. D. Williams Visiting Professor in the Department of Bio¬ chemistry at the Medical College of Virginia. Dr. Edwin S. Higgins has also joined the biochemistry staff at MCV as an Assistant Professor. He was awarded his Ph.D. degree by the State University of New York Medical School at Syracuse last June. The inauguration of Dr. Robert Blackwell Smith, Jr., as the fourth president of the Medical College of Virginia, took place on December 17 in the Monumental Church, Richmond. Included among the dis¬ tinguished speakers for the occasion were Dr. Colgate W. Darden, Presi¬ dent of the University of Virginia and Governor Thomas B. Stanley. The 1957] News and Notes 89 principal speaker was Dr. Joseph Clark Robert, President of Hampden- Sydney College. The Medical College of Virginia was established in 1837 as the Medical Department of Hampden-Sydney College, was incorporated in 1854, and became a state institution in 1860. In 1913 it was consolidated with the University College of Medicine, founded in 1893 by Dr. Hunter Holmes McGuire. Dr. J. S. Pierce, Professor of Organic Chemistry at the University of Richmond, has been granted a sabbatical leave. During his absence, his teaching duties will be taken over by Drs. Robert S. Murphey and Carl D. Lunsford, both of the A. H. Robins Company, Richmond, and by Chades Varsel of Philip Morris and Co., Ltd., Inc. Both industrial concerns were most cooperative in granting time to their staff members to handle these extra duties during their regular worldng day. Dr. Pierce, assisted by Y. H. Chen, J. A. Richman, and V. F. Carman, also worked full time during the summer on a project financed by the Geschickter Fund for Medical Research, Inc. The work is being continued on a part-time basis during the fall. Another project under Dr. Pierce’s direction is concerned with the “Synthesis of Compounds to be Used in the Study of Cancer Cell Metabolism.” Mr. L. D. Hancock is assisting with this work, which is financed by a grant from the National Cancer Institute. Dr. William Allan Powell has been promoted to an Associate Pro¬ fessor of Chemistry at the LTniversity of Richmond. The Puryear Fellow¬ ship, awarded annually to a promising graduate student in the Depart¬ ment of Chemistry, was received this year by G. Christian Guvernator. Recent graduates of the University of Richmond who were awarded M. S. degrees include: Andrew G. Richardson, Ying-Ho Chen, James W. Cook, and William P. Moore. Mr. Richardson and Mr. Moore completed their graduate work by taking advantage of the night school program. Dr. Carl Hoback, Ph.D., University of West Virginia, and Charles Oesti'eich, M. S., Ohio State University, have been added to the chemistry staff at the Virginia Military Institute. C. W. Smart, also on the V.M.I. staff, has been elected secretary of the Blue Ridge Section of the American Chemical Society. Plans for a new V. M. 1. chemistry lecture room with a seating capacity of 250 have been completed and will be let out? on bid this year. Two staff changes have been announced on the chemistry faculty at Virginia Polytechnic Institute. Dr. Ralph G. Steinhardt has resigned to accept the chairmanship of the Chemistry Department of Hollins College, and he has been replaced by Dr. Samuel M. Graham, who served last year on the faculty at Hampden-Sydney College. Dr. Graham is a graduate of V.P.I. (B. S. and M. S.) and received his doctorate from 90 The Virginia Journal of Science [January Catholic University. In addition to his teaching experience at Hampden- Sydney, he has served on the staffs at V.P.I. and at Catholic University, and has had industrial experience with the du Pont Company. The Office of Ordnance Research, U. S. Army, has renewed two contracts at V.P.I., one under Dr. F. A. Vingiello on the ^‘Synthesis of Hydrocarbons,” said the other under Dr. P. C. Scherer on “Dielectric Properties of Solutions of High Polymers.” Dr. D. W. Levi’s research contract with the Research Corporation on “Solution of Some High Poly¬ mers” has also been renewed. Two ceceiit papers from the V.P.I. Chemistry Department were “The Use of Alumina in Aromatic Cyclodehydration” by F. A. Vingiello and A. B. Borkovec, which appeared in a recent issue of the Journal of the American Chemical Society^ and “Distribution Curves ond Mechanical Properties of Polymers,” by P. C. Scherer, Monograph University Micro¬ films Publications, No. 16 (1956). Dr. R. C. Krug presented a paper, with Dr. Teh Fu Yen, at the September Meeting of the American Chemical Society in Atlantic City on “Unsaturated Cyclie Sulfones.” Dr. Yen received his Ph.D. degree from V.P.I. last June and is now asso¬ ciated with the Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company in Akron, Ohio. Dr. F. A. Vingiello and Dr. J. W. Watson, Chairman of the V.P.I. Depart¬ ment of Chemistry, also attended the Atlantic City Meeting. Dr. Watson is Councilor of the Virginia Blue Ridge Section and is a member of one of the Standing Committees of the Council. Dr. John W. Murray attended and presided over the forum of Mineralogy and Geology at the Annual Convention of the National Speleological Society held at Natural Bridge in April. He presented a paper entitled “Some Phosphate Minerals from Bat Guano.” Dr. E. S. Gilreath, Head of the Chemistry Department at Washing¬ ton and Lee University, has completed a manuscript for a textbook in advanced inorganic chemistry, which is designed for advanced under¬ graduate study. It will be published by McGraw-Hill. Dr. J. H. Wise, also on the W. & L. staff, has recently published a manual for freshman chemistry. In addition to his writing, Dr. Wise worked foe the third consecutive summer at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory in the Stable Isotope Division. Dr. James K. Shillington is continuing his research project, sponsored by the National Science Foundation, on the resolution of optically active ketones. Dr. W. J. Watt served during the summer as a research associate on an inorganic polymer project at Cornell University. Dr. Watt received his doctor’s degree from Cornell last February. On the industrial front, several additions to the research staff at the American Tobacco Company, Richmond, have been announced: Graham S. Palmer, Dr. E. C. Cogbill, and Dr. Stanley J. Clark. Mr. Palmer 1957] News and Notes 91 I 92 The Virginia Journal of Science [January is a recent graduate of the College of William and Mary. Dr. Cogbill is a graduate of the University of Virginia and se Wayne E. Moore has resigned from the V.P.I. Department of | Geological Sciences and in January will be with The California Company I in Pensacola, Florida. j H. Robert Hopkins joined the Virginia Division of Geology October i 1 as junior geologist. He will make detailed magnetometer surveys of | magnetite and hematite deposits and of certain selected districts in tlie i Piedmont. During the summer he made a magnetometer survey of the Lynchburg hematite and limonite district. Robert S. Wood also joined the Virginia Division of Geology October , as a part-time junior geologist. He will complete a detailed study of the Chepultepc limestone of the Shenandoah Valley which he began in the summer. I Edwin O. Gooch is continuing his investigation of vermicuhte in Virginia. The results will be published by the Virginia Division of Geology early in 1957. i Carl T. Meyertons began a study of the clays and shales of the Danville Triassic area, which will be the subject of his doctor’s thesis ; at V.P.I. The work is a cooperative project of the Virginia Division of ] Geology and the Virginia Engineering Experiment Station. W. T. Harnsberger, now at Madison College, and J. G. Patterson ] investigated during the past summer the geology and mineral resourees - of the Broadway quadrangle, mostly in Roekingham County, foe the | Virginia Division of Geology. ' “Sulfide Mineralization in the Shenandoah Valley of Virginia” by I Paul Herbert, Jr., and Robert S. Young has been issued as Bulletin 70 5 of the Virginia Division of Geology. “Titanium” by A. A. Pegau is the [ subject of Circular No. 5 of the Virginia Division of Geology. “Oil and [i Gas Wells Drilled in Southwestern Virginia 1950” are noted in U. S. | Geol. Surv. Bull. 1027-L. “The Mineral Industry of Virginia (1953)” ij as noted in U. S. Bureau of Mines Minerals Yearbook has been reprinted j 1957] News and Notes 93 chemist, also a. University of Riehmond graduate and formerly with the Virginia Department of Highways; Robert C. Parsons, patent Coordinator, from Emory University and Devoe and Reynolds Co.; Ralph Cool, devel¬ opment engineer, from North Carolina State; Miss Suzanne M. Borke, analytical chemist, from Mary Washington College; Andrew R. Jones from the University of Miami, and formerly with Froehling and Robert¬ son; and James L. Carnes, a graduate of the University of Richmond. James M. Carruth, a graduate of V.P.I., has been added to the Technical Service Group. Edwin C. Cox, V-C Vice-President, presented a paper '‘Phosphatic Fertilizers-1956-How Far-Where To?” at the September Meeting of The American Chemical Society in Atlantic City. Mr. Cox has also been named to the governing board of the Agricultural Research Institute of the National Academy of Sciences. Herschel Jenkins, Fiber Section Leader, is the author of an invited article “Proteins as Fiber Raw Materials” to be published in the Encyclopedia of Man-Made Textiles. M. A. Manzelli, Biological Section Leader, presented a paper in “Recent Development in Nematocides” at the Annual Convention of Southern Feed and Fertilizer Control Officials in June. Portions of the paper were published in the August issue of Farm Chemicals. At the Virginia Institute For Scientific Research, Richmond, Donald F. Koenig has resigned to pursue work towards his doctorate in biophysics at Johns Hopkins University. He has been replaced by Dr. James K. Palmer, formerly with Connecticut Agricultural Experimental Station, New Haven. Other recent additions to the VISR staff include: Dr. Robert A. Lefever, from Linde Air Products, Tonawanda, New York; Dr. James F. Kirn, from Swift and Company, Chicago; and Dr. Karl Killer, fromi the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology. Dr. Palmer is a graduate of Penn State in biochemistry. Dr. Lefever received his degree in inorganic chemistry from Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and Dr. Kim is a graduate of Michigan State University in the field of physical chemistry. — Carl J. Likes, Virginia Institute For Scientific Research. Engineering Section Acting as Virginia Polytechnic Institute’s representative to the OaK Ridge Institute of Nuclear Studies, Professor Frank Vilbrandt attended the 1 0th anniversary celebration of the founding of the organization on October 15 and attended a meeting of the Council the following day. Dr. Vilbrandt was the guest of the West Virginia Pulp and Paper Com¬ pany on October 18 and 19 on the occasion of the formal opening of this company’s new research laboratory. Professor Nelson F. Murphy, research professor of chemical engineering at Virginia Polytechnic In¬ stitute, presented a paper on “Electrodeposition of Aluminum from Ether- 94 The Virginia Journal of Science [January I' Amine- Aluminum Chloride Solutions” to the American’ Electroplaters" Society in Washington, D. C. June 21, 1956. Professor Fred Bull, head of the Chemical Engineering Department at Virginia Polytechnic Institute has announced the appointment of Mr. David A. Hayford as a new Assistant Professor of Chemical Engineering. I Professor Robert Truitt, Head of the Aeronautical Engineering De¬ partment at Virginia Polytechnic Institute, was employed during the past summer as a Senior Engineer at the Glenn L. Martin Company in Baltimore where he was engaged in research in the field of Aerodynamic Heating. He is now writing a manual on “Fundamentals of Aerodynamic Heating” for the Glenn L. Martin Company. Mr. T. E. Shelburne, Director of the Virginia Council of Highway Investigation and Research, attended the meeting of the Southeastern Association of State Highway officials in Roanoke, Virginia, September 5 to 7 where he presented a paper on “Highway Research.” On Sep¬ tember 10 Mr. Shelburne went to LaSalle, Illinois to attend a meeting of the National Advisory Committee for the A. S. H. O. Road Test. On October 17 to 19 he attended the national meeting of the American Society of Civil Engineers in order to take patit in the District 6 Council meeting. Dean Lawrence R. Quarles of the University of Virginia School of Engineering attended the annual meeting of the American Societ)’ for Engineering Education from June 25 to 29 at Ames, Iowa. On September 5 to 8 he attended the Deans’ and Presidents’ Conference on Nuclear Energy Education of the Atomic Energy Commission at Gatlinburg, Tennessee. In September Dean Quarles attended the Atomic Industrial Forum and the meeting of the Board of Directors of the American Nuclear Society to which he has recently been elected. The Engineering School of the University has just completed a training program for the Army Package Power Reactor during which Professors R. E. L. Gildea, O. L. Updike and L. R. Quarles participated as instructors. Professor R. M. Hubbard of the Chemical Engineering Department of the University relinquished his position as Director of the Engineering Experiment Station on September 1 to Professor Orville R. Harris. He served in this capacity since the reactivation of the Experi¬ ment Station in August, 1951. Professor Hubbard is now on leave of absence from his academic position but is now engaged in research at the University. In September he visited New York to attend Instrument Exposition and on August 18, 19 was the guest of the West Virginia Pulp and Paper Company on the occasion of the opening of this com¬ pany’s new research building. Professor Orville R. Harris attended the Institute of Radio Engineers 1957] News and Notes AMERICA’S LEADING MANUFACTURER OF CIGARETTES 96 The Virginia Journal of Science [January Symposium on Solid State Devices on October 20 at Winston-Salem, North Carolina. — Robert M. Hubbard, University of Virginia. Geology Section Robert S. Young resigned from the Virginia Division of Geology August 15 and is now regional geologist with Roland F. Beers, Inc., Troy, New York. He will be in charge of base metal sulfide exploration in the southeastern U. S. from Georgia to and including Virginia. His office in Charlottesville, Virginia. Wayne E. Moore has resigned from the V.P.I. Department of Geological Sciences and in January will be with The California Company in Pensacola, Florida. H. Robert Hopkins joined the Virginia Division of Geology October 1 as junior geologist. He will make detailed magnetometer surveys of magnetite and hematite deposits and of certain selected districts in the Piedmont. During the summer he made a magnetometer survey of the Lynchburg hematite and limonite district. Robert S. Wood also joined the Virginia Division of Geology October as a part-time junior geologist. He will complete a detailed study of the Chepultepc Hmestone of the Shenandoah Valley which he began in the summer. Edwin O. Gooch is continuing his investigation of vermiculite in Virginia. The results will be published by the Virginia Division of Geology early in 1957. Carl T. Meyertons began a study of the clays and shales of the Danville Triassic area, which will be the subject of his doctor’s thesis at V.P.I. The work is a cooperative project of the Virginia Division of Geology and the Virginia Engineering Experiment Station. W. T. Harnsberger, now at Madison College, and J. G. Patterson investigated during the past summer the geology and mineral resources of the Broadway quadrangle, mostly in Rockingham County, foe the Virginia Division of Geology. “Sulfide Mineralization in the Shenandoah Valley of Virginia” by Paul Herbert, Jr., and Robert S. Young has been issued as Bulletin 70 of the Virginia Division of Geology. “Titanium” by A. A. Pegau is the subject of Circular No. 5 of the Virginia Division of Geology. “Oil and Gas Wells Drilled in Southwestern Virginia 1950” are noted in U. S. Geol. Surv. Bull. 1027-L. “The Mineral Industry of Virginia (1953)” as noted in U. S. Bureau of Mines Minerals Yearbook has been reprinted 1957] News and Notes 101 Mr. Paul D. Minton has returned to Southern Methodist University after spending one year with the Department of Statistics of the Virginia Polytechnic Institute. Mr. M. C. K. Tweedie resigned his position as Associate Professor of Statistics at the Virginia Polytechnic Institute to accept a position with the University of Manchester, Manchester, England. Mr. C. W. Clunies Ross has joined the staff of the Department of Statistics of the Virginia Polytechnic Institute as an Associate Professor. Mr. Clunies-Ross received a B. A. degree in mathematics from Cam¬ bridge University, England, in 1955 and a Diploma in Mathematical Statistics from Cambridge University in 1956. While at Cambridge, Mr. Clunies-Ross studied under an Open Scholarship. He is now working under a grant from the National Science Foundation. Mr. A. E. Garratt has joined the staff of the Department of Statistics of the Virginia Polytechnic Institute as an Assistant Professor. Mr. Garratt received an A. B. degree in mathematics from the University of Nebraska in 1948 and an M. S. degree in mathematics from North¬ western University in 1950. Before coming to the Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Mr. Garratt worked at Dugway Proving Ground, Utah, as Chief of the Design and Analysis Office. He is now working under a contract with the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics. Dr. R. A. Bradley of the Virginia Polytechnic Institute received the Brumbaugh Award of the American Society for Quality Control for his paper, “Some Notes on the Theory and Application of Rank Order Statistics,” presented at the Annual Convention in June 1.956 in Mon¬ treal, Canada. Dr. R. A. Bradley presented a paper entitled “Some Recent Research in Statistical Problems in Subjective Testing” at the Gordon Research- Conference in New Hampton, New Hampshire on “Statistics in Chem¬ istry and Chemical Engineering,” August 1956. Dr. Boyd Harshbarger and Dr. R. A. Bradley attended the Second Conference on the Design of Experiments in Army Research, Develop¬ ment, and Testing at the National Bureau of Standards in October 1956. Both presented papers at this conference. Mr. C. Y. Kramer and Dr. R. A. Bradley attended a Symposium on the Design of Industrial Experiments at the University of North Carolina in November 1956. “The Introduction of Risk into a Programming Model” by Rudolf J. Freund appeared in Econometrica, 24, No. 3, July 1956. 102 The Virginia Journal of Science [January The following papers by C. Y. Kramer: appeared recently in journals, “Extension of Multiple Range Tests to Group Means with Unequal Numbers of Replications,” Biometrics, September 1956; “Additional Tables for a Method of Choosing Judges for a Sensory Experiment,” Food Research, Sept. -Oct., 1956. The following papers have appeared recently: “Some Results on Restricted Occupancy Theory,” by J. E. Freund and A. N. Pozner, Annals of Mathematical Siatistics; “Expected Arc Length of a Gaussian Process on a Finite Interval,” I. Miller and J. E. Freund, Journal of the Royal Statistical Society; “Some Results on the Analysis of Random Signals by Means of a Cut-Counting Process,” by I. Miller and J. E. Freund, Journal of Applied Physics. The Southern Regional Graduate Summer Session in Statistics will be held at the Virginia Polytechnic Institute during the summer of 1957. Guest lecturers will be Dr. D. B. DeLury of the Ontario Foundation, j Canada, and Dr. E. J. Williams of South Melbourne, Australia. | Dr. Boyd Harshbarger, who is Chairman of the Committee on s Statistics of the Southern Regional Education Board, attended a meeting | of that committee October 28 and 29 in New Orleans. Final plans for the 1957 and 1955 summer sessions were formalized at that time. | Dr. Norbert Lloyd Enrick, head of the Statistics Department, !! Institute of Textile Technology, Charlottesville, Virginia was appointed chairman of the ASTM Task Group on Electronic Yarn Imperfection Counters. Revisions were also made of the Method of Test for Uneven¬ ness of Textile Strands, under a separate Task Group of which he is also chairman. The ASTM Manual on “Statistical Methods for Textile Technologists” is now nearing completion. Dr. Enrick is in charge of the sections on Sampling and Significance Tests for Sample Averages and Standard Deviations. During the summer. Dr. Endck presented a series of talks on statistical quality control applications before textile mill groups in Geor¬ gia and the Carolinas. On November 2, he presented a seminar at the Department of Statistics of the Virginia Polytechnic Institute. — Paul N. Somerville, National Buteau of Standards. ■A r ' ) f.-r ■ -.-r ■ V* ^ ' ■ ' * * • 'y -Vh* The Annual Subscription Rate is $3.00, and the cost of a single number, $1.00. Reprints are available only if ordered when galley proof is returned. All orders except those involving exchanges should be ad- diessed to B. F. D. Runk, Biology Laboratory, University of Virginia, Charlottesville. The University of Virginia Library has exclusive exchange arrangements, and communications relative to exchange should be ad¬ dressed to The Librarian, Alderman Library, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia. Notice To Contributors Contributions to the Journal should be addressed to Horton H. Hobbs, Jr., Biologry Laboratory, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia. If any preliminary notes have been published on the subject which is submitted to the editors, a statement to that effect must accompany the manuscript. Manuscripts must be submitted in triplicate, typewritten in double spacing on standard X 11” paper, with at least a one inch margin on all sides. Manuscripts are limited to seven pages, with the proviso that if additional pages are desired, the author may obtain them at cost. Division of the manuscripts into subheadings must follow a consistent plan, and be held to a minimum. It is desirable that a brief summary be included in all manuscripts. Footnotes should be included in the body of the manuscript immediately following the reference, and set off by a dashed-line above and below the footnote content. Footnotes should be numbered consecutively from the beginning to the end of the manuscript. Bibliographies (Literature Cited, References, etc.) should be arranged alphabetically according to author. Each reference should include the date, full title of the article, the name of the Journal, the volume, number (optional), pages, tables and figures (if any). For example: "Sniffen, EJrnest W. 1940. Cobbles from the Pleistocene Terraces of the Lower York-James Peninsula Va. Journ. Sci., 1 (8) : 235-288 1 fig., 1 tab. Reference to the bibliographic citations should not be made by numbers. Instead, using the above citations, where a reference is desired: either “Sniffen (1940)”, (Sniffen, 1940: 186)”, or “Sniffen (1940) states that . . .” Explanations of figures. Graphs, etc., should be typed on separate pages. All figures should be numbered consecutively beginning with the first text figure and continuing through the plates. If figures are to be inserted in the text this should be clearly indicated by writing “Figure — ” at the appropriate place in the margin. Illustrations including lettering, should be arranged so that on reduction they will not exceed the dimensions of the maximum size of a printed page. 4-1/2” x 6-1/2”, and so that they are well balanced on the page. The Journal will furnish the author with one plate (halftone or line reproduction) or its equivalent ; additional figures, colored illustrations or lithographs may be used only if the author makes a grant covering the cost of production. Original drawings (which must be done in black drawing ink) not photographs of draw¬ ings, should accompany the manuscript. Photographs should not be used if a line and dot (stippled) drawing will suffice. If photographic prints are to be used they should be glossy, sharp and show good contrast. Drawings not neatly executed and labeled (do not use a typewriter), or which are submitted on yellow or yellowish-white paper will not be accepted. Galley Proofs and engraver's proofs of figures are sent to the author for correction. Costs of excessive changes from the original manuscript must be defrayed by the author. OFFICERS OF THE VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE Edward S. Harlow, President William G. Guy, President-Elect Foley F. Smith, Secretary-Treasurer William B. Wartman, Jr., Assistant Secretary COUNCIL (Board of Trustees) Sidney S. Negus (1957) Mrs. B. G. Heatwole (1960) Byron N. Cooper (1958) A. T. Gwathmey (1957) Horton H. Hobbs, Jr. William Hinton (1959) Irving G. Foster (1958) B. F. D. Runk Thomas E. Gilmer (1961) Walter S. Flory (1959) Lynn D. Abbott, Jr. -THE VIRGINIA iOURNAL OF SCIENCE A JOURNAL ISSUED QUARTERLY BY THE VIRGINIA academy OF SCIENCE Vol. 8, New Series April, 1957 No. 2 No. 2 VoL. 8, New Series April, 1957 THE VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Published Four Times a Year In January, April, July, and September, by The Virginia Academy of Science Printed by The Bassett Printing Corporation, Bassett, Virginia CONTENTS Human Engineering: Applied Experimental Psychology — Richard H. Henneman . 103 A Comparison of The Blood Oxygen Capacity In The Black Crappie (Poxomis nigromaculatus) and The Bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus) — Jack D. Burke and William S. WOOLCOTT . 113 The Sex Bivalent of the Chinese Hamster, {Cricetulus Griseus)— Ladle Y Husted, Edward G. Pollock and Grover C. Smart, Jr . 121 Checklist of Oribatoid Mites in the Vicinity of Mountain Lake Biological Station, Virginia — Howard George Sengbusch 128 News and Notes . 135 Program of the Thirty-Fifth Annual Meeting of the Virginia Academy of Science . 143 EDITORIAL BOARD Robert T. Brumfield, Editor Mary E. Humphreys, Associate Editor Charles F. Lane, Managing Editor Richard W. Irby, Jr., Advertising Manager Section Editors Carl W. Allen Robert T. Brumfield Robert M. Hubbard Richard H. Henneman Irving G. Foster Carl J. Likes W. D. Lowry Caroline Gambrill P. Ame Hansen James P. Patton W. Parker Anslow, Jr. P. N. Somerville Entered as second-class matter, at the post office at Farmville, Virginia, under the Act of Ma^ch 3, 1897. Subscription $3.00 per vol¬ ume, Published four times a year: in January, April, July, and September, by the Virginia Academy of Science at Farmville, Va. Mailed May 1, 1957 THE VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE VoL. 8, New Series April, 1957 No. 2 Human Engineering: Applied Experimental Psychology Richard H. Henneman University of Virginia Probably no development in Psychology in the last quarter-century has so appealed to the imagination of professional psychologists and the American public alike, as human engineering. Born in the latter days of World War II, this area of psychology has gained widening recognition and increased momentum in the relatively brief span of ten years. Informally, human engineering has been called the attempt “to fit the machine to the man” a striking reversal of the time-honored task of the personnel selection psychologist. More accurately, human engineering research involves the application of experimental psychology to the design of equipment so that it will be better adapted to the capacities and limitations of the human operator. The rationale is simply that an optimally designed machine is safer to operate, is less fatiguing, requires less training to master, and enables the operator to attain a higher level of proficiency. A few familiar examples will illustrate the concept. Can you readily tell which knob controls which burner on your kitchen range, or which is the volume control knob of your radio or TV set? What color combinations in highway signs are most easily detected from a moving automobile? Can you quickly and accurately read your dashboard instruments at night, or discriminate by touch the various control knobs in your car? Does your turn indicator flash brightly enough or provide an auditory signal to remind you it is still on when you change your mind about making a turn? The tinted glass in auto¬ mobile windshields has led to serious problems of reduced night visibility, especially for old people, and to anguished protests from the drive-in movie people! A new typewriter keyboard is now being tried out experi¬ mentally on a group of government secretaries in Washington. This keyboard was redesigned to achieve a better load distribution between 104 The Virginia Journal of Science [April the left and right hands, and among the respective fingers — on the basis of strength and agility tests. The term “human engineering” is perhaps an unfortunate designation for this area of investigation. This name was first used by Johnson O’Connor to identify his procedure for aptitude testing and vocational counseling. The title has also been employed by the authors of some applied and industrial psychology textbooks to embrace the entire area of industi'ial efficiency, including conditions of work, time and motion studies, fatigue, and related topics having to do with work output. Writers in the field of personnel management have applied the label of “human engineering” to the whole complex field of “human relations,” including leadership, morale, advertising, and selling. Research psycho¬ logists working on problems of equipment design have suggested such terms as biomechanics, biotechnology, and psychotechnology in place of human engineering. The writer would agree with those who argue for the more neutral title of engineering psychology (5) to cover this area of joint activity by psychologists and engineers. However, the use of “human engineering” has become so widespread that it seems unlikely to be superseded by any other title in the next few years. How has the psychologist approached the problem of designing complex equipment in line with human capacities and limitations? The basic ideas are simple, though the necessary investigations have been beset with peculiar methodological difficulties. The displays and controls of the machine are regarded as essentially extensions of man’s sense organs and muscles. The displays or indicators serve to present stimulus data for the operator to make use of in deciding upon appropriate responses. The purpose of the controls is to enable a more effective manipulation of the environment. Neither of these is a very recent idea in the history of human invention. The telescope, the microscope, and radar are examples of visual aids extending the informational intake capacity of the eyes. On the behavioral side, the successive inventions of the wheel and axle, the stirrup, and the engine, have revolutionized locomotion and transportation, not to mention warfare. The process of adapting the displays and controls of machines to the human operator has involved extensive programs of research relating to the efficient presentation of information through various sense channels, the assimilation of this information by the operator, and an analysis of behavior on the human output side. Thus questions have had to be answered relative to human sensory capacities, and various intellectual functions (such as identification, interpretation, retention, computation, and decision-making) as well as those concerned with a wide range of motor responses. The term “information processing” has been applied to the complex functions by which the human operator receives and makes 1957] Human Engineering 105 appropriate use of information from his environment. Interest in equipment design problems arose in World War II, growing out of difficulties encountered in attempting to train men to high proficiency levels in the operation of complex mechanisms such as bomb-sights, and the controls involved in operating tanks, submarines, and aircraft. It was found that even the most highly selected and trained personnel were not too successful in the operation of some of the complex equipment which had evolved in modern mechanized warfare. A closer examination of the problem revealed that the equipment had frequently been poorly designed for comfort, safety, or efficiency of operation by the species, Homo sapiens. Tanks were found with accelerators 16 inches from the seat (when the driver was in the “buttoned up” situation); bomb-sights might require the simultaneous use of three arms, or two pairs of eyes; radically different controls (such as those for the flaps and landing gear on aircraft) would be placed adjacent in space, with identical shapes, and out of visual range. Pilots complained that radio headsets numbed their ears. The early investigators of man-machine operation concluded from their studies that as machines become increasingly complex, the additional demands upon the operator’s attention, skill, and memory bring about a point where selection and training can no longer guarantee a high level of operator proficiency. Mihtary planners became convinced that properly engineered equipment plays a crucial role in determining operator proficiency in combat. To the traditional “three-legged stool” of selection, training, and supervision, there was added a fourth component of successful operations — namely, optimally designed equipment. The background information essential to human engineering research is collected from several sources by a variety of techniques. The men actually using the equipment may be interviewed or polled by question¬ naires and check-lists to learn about operating difficulties, and sources of discomfort, fatigue, or error. Job analysis of actual man-machine operation has been fruitful in revealing ideas for modification or re¬ design. Error analyses of records such as those of gunnery practice, or bombing missions, have afforded valuable data as to malfunctioning. Finally, the investigation of accidents, especially those on the highway, and in the air, has led to suggestions for eliminating potential hazards built into passenger cars, trucks, and aircraft. Human engineering research has necessitated a close liaison between psychologists on the one hand and engineers, physicists, and mathe¬ maticians on the other. The psychologists have had the task of pursuad- ing the design engineers of the necessity of considering the characteris¬ tics of the human operator as an essential “link” in the man-machine 106 The Virginia Journal of Science [April system. On the other hand, the psyehologist has had to learn something about maehines, engineering prineiples, and mathematies in order to discuss and contribute effectively to the technical problems of the design engineer. It has been a process of mutual indoctrination and research effort, a process not easy for either party at the outset, but one which has, on the whole, evolved harmoniously and profitably. There are fast developing breeds of psychologically-oriented engineers and machine- oriented psychologists who are able to talk each other’s language with a reasonable degree of mutual understanding and appreciation. Modern human engineering research often entails the cooperative efforts of teams of specialists, each one of whom contributes information from his own field to the solution of common problems. Members of such research teams may include medical scientists, biophysicists, psysiologists, and mathematicians, in addition to experimental psychologists and engineers. The activities of human engineering psychologists may be said to take place on three levels. The first of these consists primarily of pro¬ fessional consultation with design engineers on immediate problems of equipment already in process of construction. The second level involves research on practical problems specifically applicable to operational situations, such as how best to encode altitude and range information on a cathode ray tube display, or how much torque to put into a control device for optimum manual operation, or whether a pilot can respond to control instructions better when they are presented as voice messages over a radio telephone, or displayed visually in symboHc form. The third level involves basic laboratory research designed to discover the principles underlying behavior in practical situations. Instead of trying to replicate operational tasks, attempts are made to devise laboratory tasks which involve behavior categories thought to be important in a wide variety of operational situations. At this level even the “purest” of experimental psychologists may find research problems consistent with his behef in strict adherence to the scientific method. Adequate coverage of the various problem areas under investigation by engineering psychologists is impossible in a brief survey of the field. Below are summarized three of those which have proven to be of particu¬ lar interest. The oldest and most extensively investigated area is that of the design and arrangement of instrument displays. These include dials, cathode ray tubes, and other types of presenters which provide informa¬ tional input from the machine to the operator. The problems in this area call for the application of knowledge of man’s perceptual processes and the conditions determining efficiency of perception. The great majori¬ ty of machine displays present data visually. Most instrument dials fall into one or the other of three categories depending on the use to be made Human Engineering 107 .1.957] of the information: (1) check instruments, providing “on-off” or “safe- clanger” signals; (2) qualitative instruments, such as fuel gauges where precise reading is not required; (3) precise quantitative instruments i e. g., speedometers, altimeters, compasses) which have to be read rapidly and accurately. These last are the most common and obviously call for the most care in design. In one striking experiment it was found that experienced aircraft pilots misread the conventional altimeter by as much as 1,000 feet 12% of the time! Experimental studies are providing answers to such questions as: the best shape for a dial; the most legible numbering system and scale sizes for dials; the best location of “zero” on circular dials (e. g., at 3, 6, 9, or 12 o’clock); and the relative intelligibility of pointer-and-scale instruments as compared with direct- reading counters. Since machine displays are used to present many different types of information and their designs are capable of tremendous variation, it is easy to see that the investigator is faced with a multitude of hypotheses to test in the field of data presentation. The location, discriminability, and a variety of manipulation charac¬ teristics of machine controls have been investigated in order to reduce error, combat fatigue, and generally increase efficiency of operation. Here the emphasis is on the human operator as a “link” between the displays and controls of the machine. Difficulties have arisen from such conditions as crowding of controls, the nonstandardization of control shapes and locations from one machine model to another (e. g., in aircraft and automobiles), awkward directions of control movements, and improper torques in control mechanisms. Investigators have found that the majority of persons have pronounced preferences for certain directions of control movements. For example, a toggle switch should flip up for ON, GO, or INCREASE, and clown for OFF, STOP, or DECREASE. Such preferences have come to be known as “population stereotypes” in control design research (5). It has also been found that data displays best adapted to one type of response (e. g., rotating a control knob) are not neces¬ sarily the most efficient presenters for a radically different type of response (moving a joy stick, for example). This relationship has come to be known as “stimulus-response compatability” (6), and has led to a number of principles for properly matching machine displays and controls. Research efforts have also been made to combat errors arising from confusion of controls. These have led to various kinds of “control coding” in terms of shape, color, location, etc. As a striking example. Air Force psychologists were able to devise different shapes for control knobs which could be immediately discriminated by blindfolded operators, even with gloves on (9). Extensive research has been concerned with factors determining human efficiency in tracking, a process of paramount importance in a 108 The Virginia Journal of Science [April number of military operations. Tracking represents a special aspect of the concept of “stimulus-response compatability,” since man (acting as a servo mechanism to make control adjustments based on data fed back through displays) applies force to the controls intermittently rather than continuously. Taylor and his associates at the Naval Research Laboratory have developed two principles which have greatly aided the accuracy of human performance in continuous tracking by redesigning control and display mechanisms (1). The first of these has the effect of relieving the man of the necessity of applying force continuously or in some time- sequenced pattern. This process of easing the human’s task by reducing the required effort has been called “unburdening.” The second principle, termed “quickening” was designed to provide the operator with immediate knowledge of the results of his own actions. Consider in the case of steering a large ship, the time lag between the helmsman’s turning the wheel and the ship’s response in heading into the new course. In nosing a ship through a very narrow space, as into a dock, this delay could lead the operator to “overcontrol” with consequent deviations, to the left and right of the desired path. Progress would be “jerky” at best, and danger of collision with obstacles would be great. In control mechanisms designed to provide the “quickening” aid to the operator, this delay between control movements and “feed-back” of information is eliminated. The installation of special mechanisms which display to the operator early information concerning the system output, enable him to make faster and smaller corrections. Experiments with actual tracking devices have established the marked superiority of performance achieved with the aid of “quickening.” Some of the other problems of current interest in human engineering are the following: Comparison of the relative efficiency of the several sense organs (especially the eyes and ears). These senses are being compared as input channels for the reception of information. One of the questions under investigation in this area is whether it is more efficient to present all of the data through one sense charmel or to distribute the information through several senses. If the latter is more advisable, are the different senses peculiarly adapted for specific purposes? Here the “stimulus- response compatability” concept is applied to the sensory input of information for purposes of communication. As an example, research at the University of Virginia has indicated that when persons are distracted by competing tasks, auditory input in the form of spoken words is more intelligible than printed messages (8, 9). Research is currently in progress on the exploration of the tactual and vibratory senses at potential channels for communication to relieve the eyes and ears which some engineers believe to be already overburdened. Geldard and his Human Engineering 109 1957] associates at the University of Virginia, have developed a vibrotactile code which is now being tested by the Office of Naval Research for possible use in operational communication (7). Factors determining the efficiency of operator performance of near- simultaneous multiple tasks. This problem would once have been called “divided attention.” The efficiency with which a person can shift quickly back and forth among a number of competing tasks is a problem of paramount importance in modern control centers, both military and civilian. Factors determining the efficiency of “decision-making.” This problem is closely related to the last one, since “tasks” whether simple or complex, usuallv call for the operator’s making a choice from among alternative responses on the basis of available data and his memory of preceding events. Considerable research, much of it at a rather basic level, is currently in progress on the complex processes involved in deciding on alternative courses of action. Other areas of research, initiated by the Armed Forces, relate to the influence of extreme environmental conditions (e. g., heat, cold, high altitude, vibration), upon human performance. Closely associated are questions concerning the most efficient design of personal clothing and equipment. One of the most intriguing questions confronting the human engi¬ neer is that of determining the relative efficiency of human beings and machines. Answers to this question are thus far more speculative than experimental, but there is tentative agreement that machines can be constructed that are superior to the human operator in speed, smoothness, and power of response ( the autopilot is an example ) ; in performing routine, repetitive tasks (since they are less susceptible to boredom or fatigue); in computation; in conducting simultaneous activities; and in short-term storage or “memory.” Man appears superior to machines thus far devised in acuity of sensory discrimination; in recognition and inter¬ pretation; in flexibility or adaptability of judgment; in inductive reasoning; and in long-term memory. In human engineering there is now discernible a distrinct trend away from “end item” research (e. g., the design of dials and control knobs) toward a more comprehensive investigation of the overall effi¬ ciency of teams of men and machines cooperatively involved in complex operations extending over great distances and long periods of time. This area of investigation is known as systems research. The work of Fitts at Ohio State on air traffic control, and that at the Rand Corporation, and on “Project Lincoln” at Massachusetts Institute of Technology (both on air defense), are examples. Teams of systems researchers, utilizing elec- 110 The Virginia Journal of Science [April tronic simulators, can test typical operations for delays and errors, and can evaluate new proeedures and equipment. The methodological difficul¬ ties encountered in systems research are probably the most formidable in all of human engineering. The eontributions of human engineering researeh have not been limit¬ ed to solving the man-maehine problems of the Armed Forees and private industry. As might have been expected, the basic research on the per¬ ceptual, intellectual, and motor capacities of the human has enriched experimental psychology as a pure science. For example, the practical problems, hypotheses, and experimental findings of man-machine operation are leading psychologists to take a “new look” at the old problem of perception. Emphasis is shifting away from the older description of how objects in the world appear in conscious experience, toward factors deter¬ mining the efficiency of responses made to the various stimulus eomplexes which comprise the signals and messages of the man-machine world. Increasing recognition is being given to conditions within the human organism, as distinct from characteristics of the physical stimulus situation, as important determiners of perception. In place of the older emphasis on sensory diserimination, new problems of interpretation, retention, and judgment are considered eritical aspeets of the total process by whieh the human operator takes in and makes use of information from his environment. We now seem to be on the threshold of important basie research on these processes, frequently referred to by engineers as the “recoding” of stimulus data by the human operator. Information Theory has provided the experimental psyehologist with a new teehnique for measuring the informational input of stimulus presentation and that of the subsequent responses made by the operator on the output side. Espeeially significant in the area of sensory diserimination has been the reeent finding that human capacity to make absolute sensory judg¬ ments is far more limited than had been suspeeted. Investigations have shown that in the identification of tones, loudnesses, taste intensities, visual extents, and taeto-vibrile qualities, successful absolute judgments are limited to a narrow range of from 4 to 12 steps, or in terms of Information Theory, to a range of from 2 to 3.5 “bits” of information. This limited capacity to identify specifie stimuli is in striking contrast to the enormously greater differential sensitivity of the average human to the same stimuli. Miller has dramatically underlined the significance of these findings in a paper published in the Psychological Review (12). The eoncept of “stimulus-response compatibility” has led to important new insights into the nature of motor skills. Pressing questions now waiting to be answered will doubtless lead to mueh needed investigation of the charaeteristics of human responses. Under the influenee of the classieal introspectionists, research in this very significant aspect of Human Engineering 111 1957] psychology has lagged far behind experimentation on the sensory aspeets of human behavior. Where does human engineering researeh take plaee? Currently four widely divergent types of agencies are engaged in the investigation of problems in engineering psychology. These are military researeh labora¬ tories; private commereial agencies, like the Ameriean Institute for Researeh, or Dunlap and Assoeiates; industrial eompanies engaged in the development and manufaeture of complex equipment, notably the aireraft companies; and in universities. Mueh of the university researeh in this field takes plaee under eontraets supported by the Armed Services. Up to the present time human engineering researeh has been largely sub¬ sidized by the various national defense agencies. Private industry as exemplified by the Bell Telephone Laboratories, is eoming to devote more efforts in this direction. Both federal and state agencies are today financ¬ ing investigation of highway and automotive safety problems related to man-maehine operation. Will human engineering researeh be made obsolete within the next few years by automation? In the kaleidoseopie age in whieh we are now living long-range predietions are hazardous. But it seems unlikely that the human link in eomplex machine systems will be entirely eliminated for a long time to eome. In this eonneetion it should be noted that as more complex machines are built more and more maintenance is inevitably required. Furthermore, the last deeade has seen the production of multi¬ tudes of machines and gadgets for operation by the average eitizen. It can be predieted with some confidenee that problems of man-maehine operation and maintenanee will remain with us long enough to require a eonsiderable amount of human engineering researeh in the years immediately ahead. REFERENCES 1. Birmingham, H. P., and Taylor, F. V. A human engineering approach to the design of man-operated eontinuous eontrol systems. NRL Report 4333, Naval Research Laboratory, Washington, April 1954.. 2. Chapanis, a.. Garner, W. R., and Morgan, C. T. Applied Experi¬ mental Psychology. New York; Wiley, 1949. 3. Committee on Undersea Warfare. Human Factors in Undersea Warfare. National Research Council, Washington, 1949. 4. Fitts, P. M. (Ed.). Human engineering for an effective air naviga¬ tion and traffie-control system. Committee on Aviation Psychology, National Research Council, Washington, March 1951. 112 The Virginia Journal of Science [April 5. Fitts, P. M., Engineering psychology and equipment design. In Stevens, S. S. (Ed.). Handbook of Experimental Psychology, N. Y.; Wiley, 1951. 6. Fitts, P. M., and Seegar, C. M. S-R compatibility: spatial charact¬ eristics of stimulus and response codes. Jour, of Exp. Psychol, 46, 1953, 199-210. 7. Geldard, F. a. Hearing through the skin. Research Reviews. Office of Naval Research, Washington, October 1954. 8. Henneman, R. H. Lev^is, P., and Matthevs^s, T. L. Auditory and visual message presentation under distracting task conditions: 1. The influence of the sensory requirements of the distracting task. WADC Technical Report 53-309, Wright Air Development Center, November 1953. 9. Henneman, R. H., and Matthews, T. L. Auditory and visual message presentation under distracting task conditions: II. The influence of message length and distracting task complexity. WADC Technical Report 54-145, Wright Air Development Center, July 1954. 10. Institute for Applied Experimental Psychology. Handbook of Human Engineering Data. Medford, Mass.; Tufts College, 1952. 11. Jenkins, W. O. Tactual discrimination of shapes for coding air¬ craft-type controls. In Fitts, P. M. (Ed.). Psychological Research on Equipment Design. Washington, U. S. Government Printing Office, 1947a. 12. Miller, G. A. The magical number seven, plus or minus two: some limits on our capacity for processing inforaiation. Psychol. Review, 53, 1956, 81-97. 13. Mobray, G. H., Man as a link in complex machine systems. Sci. Monthly, 83, 1956, 269-276. 14. Warren, N. D. Automation, human engineering, and psychology. The Amer. Psychol, 11, 1956, 531-536. 1957] Blood Oxygen Capacity 113 A Comparison of the Blood Oxygen Capacity In The Black Crappie (Pomoxis nigromaculatus) And The Bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus) Jack D. Burke and William S. Woolcott Department of Biology, University of Richmond Blood oxygen capacity is a measure o£ the amount o£ oxygen present in blood when it is £ully saturated with atmospheric oxygen. As used in the present investigation, the measurement is reported in volumes per cent. This is the number o£ milliters o£ oxygen that combines with 100 mis. o£ blood in a complete saturation state, and corrected to standard temperature and pressure. Relatively little in£ormation is available in the literature concerning the oxvgen capacity o£ the blood o£ vertebrates. Investigations in the past have been primarily concerned with mammals (Albritton, 1952; Burke, 1953). It is recognized that in the various vertebrate classes homoiotherms have, in general, a higher blood oxygen capacity than do poikilotherms. Also, the oxygen capacity o£ the blood varies within indi¬ vidual species as well as among species (Prosser et ah 1950; Hoar et al. 1951; and Burke, 1953). Inasmuch as most £ishes are subjected to comparatively narrow tolerance limits within their environment, they present problems o£ ecological interest as related to physiological demands. Among these limiting £actors, oxygen plays a primary role since a steady state of equilibrium must be maintained in respiration. It is the dissolved oxygen in the water that is transported by the blood hemoglobin for respiratory function. The black crappie {Pomoxis nigromaculatus) and the bluegill {Lepomis macrochirus) were used as experimental animals because of their availability, size, family relationship, and utilization of the same habitat. Specimens were collected in Westhampton Lake and its drainage from April through August, 1956. The one-hundred year old, artificial lake is located on the campus of the University of Richmond, Richmond, Virginia. Its water source is Westham Creek at the north end, run-off surface water, and several springs within the lake. It is surrounded by woods except at the south end where it drains to the James River which 114 The Virginia Journal of Science [April is approximately one mile away. Lying on a northwest, southeast axis, the lake is about 15 £t. deep near the center hne, 1700 ft. long, and 500 ft. wide. The bottom is sand, and has been subjected to heavy silting which has necessitated periodic draining and dredging. METHODS AND MATERIALS The microgasometric syringe method described by Roughton and Scholander (1943) and modified by Grant (1947) was used to determine the blood oxygen capacity of twenty bluegills and twenty crappies. The syringe method, which utilizes only 39.3 cmm. of blood, is particularly adaptable to the study of blood oxygen capacity in small animals. Carefully, and without loss of time, blood was removed from the fish in the following manner: a ventral, abdominal incision was made exposing the heart; the ventricle clipped; blood sucked into a pipette; and transferred immediately into the syringe. Immediate transfer was necessary as the blood coagulated within thirty seconds or less. This is in keeping with the findings of Saito (1954) who reported that, in the blood of fishes he studied, coagulation occurred in one minute or less. Data pertaining to the blood oxygen capacity determinations were recorded. Each fish was weighed to the nearest gram, standard length (from snout tip to the hypural plate) measured in millimeters, and the sex and gonad condition noted. The oxygen content of the water was determined by the Alsterberg modification of the Winkler Method (A.P.- H.A. 1946, Standard Methods). The specimens were taken from water which ranged in dissolved oxygen values from 6.3 to 10.0 ppm. Collections were made with a 10 ft., one-quarter inch seine, and by angling. Individual specimens were immediately transported to the laboratory, placed in tanks with running water, and samples then run. Air and water temperature recordings were made at the time of collec- Table I. Abbreviations used denote the following: gm. mm. O. C. S. D. S. E. m A. D. m S. E. d = body weight in grams = standard length in millimeters = blood oxygen capacity in volumes per cent = standard deviation of the blood oxygen capacity = standard error of the mean of the blood oxygen capacity arithmetic difference of the mean blood oxygen capacity between males and females = standard error of the difference between the two mean oxygen capacities in males and females 1957] Blood Oxygen Capacity 115 Table I Pomoxis nigromaculatus No. wt. (gm.) FEMALE Std, Ig. (mm) Condition of gonads Blood O. C. (Vol. %) 1 57 124 mature 9.6 2 60 135 mature 9.6 3 141 160 mature 8.0 4 88 138 mature 8.4 5 52 123 mature 7.1 6 84 143 ripe 8.3 7 63 132 ripe 7.9 8 57 123 ripe 8.7 9 84 146 ripe 8.8 10 60 128 ripe 7.9 Mean 75 135 _ — 8.4 S. D. — , — — 0.74 S. E. m — — 0.23 MALE 1 53 123 mature 8.7 2 86 123 immature 8.9 3 108 153 mature 7.6 4 68 132 ripe 7.5 5 57 126 ripe 8.8 6 61 126 ripe 7.9 7 45 118 ripe 8.7 8 58 121 ripe 9.7 9 73 136 ripe 8.4 10 53 125 spent 8.4 Mean 66 128 — 8.5 S. D. — 0.63 S. E. m -- -- — 0.20 A. D. m .. — — — . 0.10 S. E. d ____ . — 0.31 (S. E. d X 3) ~ 0.93 TOTAL SAMPLE Mean 71 132 ____ 8.5 S. D. 0.69 S. E’. m ____ ___ ___ 0.15 116 The Virginia Journal of Science [April Table II Lepomis macrochirus No. wt. (gm.) FEMALE Std. Ig. (mm) Condition of gonads Blood O. C. (Vol. %) 1 99 136 mature 7.9 2 86 145 mature 6.0 3 90 137 immature 7.7 4 69 125 immature 8.1 5 56 122 immature 8.1 6 91 141 immature 7.8 7 65 120 immature 6.8 8 62 122 immature 7.3 9 65 118 immature 8.4 10 56 114 6.3 Mean 74 128 — 7.4 S. D. — — — 0.78 S. E. m — — — 0.24 MALE 1 130 142 mature 7.7 2 111 145 mature 6.9 3 113 142 immature 6.8 4 90 138 immature 7.7 5 95 140 immature 8.5 6 72 122 immature 7.3 7 78 132 immature 6.8 8 91 136 immature 6.3 9 101 146 immature 7.2 10 90 133 immature 8.4 Mean 97 138 — 7.4 S. D. — — — 0.68 S. E. m — - — — 0.21 A. D. m — — — 0 S. E. d S. E. D. X 3 TOTAL SAMPLE — — 0.33 0.99 Mean 86 133 — 7.4 S. D. — — — 0.73 S. E. m — — — 0.16 Table II. Abbreviations have the same meaning as in Table I. Blood Oxygen Capacity 117 1957] tion. Air temperatures ranged from 48° to 81° F., and water temperatures from 53° to 84° F. Statistical analyses concerning differences in sexes, differences be¬ tween species, and relationship of blood oxygen capacity to body weight and standard length follow Simpson and Roe (1939), and Arkin and Colton (1950). RESULTS Data are presented in Tables 1 and II for twenty specimens each of black crappie and bluegill. They had a mean body weight of 71 and 86 gm., a mean standard length of 132 and 133 mm., and a mean blood oxygen capacity of 8.5 and 7.4 volumes per cent, respectively. Each sample consisted of ten males and ten females with gonadal condition ranging from immature to spent in the crappie, and immature to mature in the bluegill. The standard deviation and the standard error of the mean of blood oxygen capacities were as follows: black crappie = 0.69 and 0.15 volumes per cent; bluegill == 0.73 and 0.16 volumes per cent. Statistics, including significance tests, were tabulated for males and females of each species; these showed no positive sex correlation. Graphical presentation of the relationship of blood oxygen capacity in volumes per cent per gram of body weight to an increase in body weight for the black crappie and bluegill is given in Figure 1. DISCUSSION OF RESULTS As shown in Tables I and II, the blood oxygen capacity value is 1.1 volumes per cent higher in the black crappie than in the bluegill. When treated statistically, using the standard error of the difference between two means, it was found that the difference was significant and not due to chance although the fishes are in the same family, occupy the same habitat, and are of approximately the same age, weight, and length. The significance is evident as the actual difference between the means is greater than three times the standard error of the difference between the means: (3 x 0.23 = 0.69). When these statistics are plotted, as in Figure 1, the oxygen capacity values for the black crappie tend to shift to the left of those for the bluegill. Whether this difference is entirely genetic, or related directly to environmental factors, or both, is problematic at present. However, future investigations should provide answers that can be correlated with the data presented here. It has been reported in mammals such as albino rats (Rattus norve- gicus) (Burke, 1957), that the blood oxygen capacity per unit of body weight decreases as the unit of body weight increases. This con- 118 The Virginia Journal of Science [April i (lition of relationship was also found to exist in the crappie and in the bluegill. Reference to Figure 1 shows that as the body weight increases the blood oxygen capacity per gram of body weight decreases. A similar i relationship is shown to exist in fish blood volume studies by Martin (1950). These two factors may reflect a lowering of metaboHsm in larger fish inasmuch as mammalian blood studies can be correlated to | show this relationship (Pearson, 1948; Burke, 1954). It is conceivable, then, that fish of a lesser weight may utilize available oxygen to a better metabolic advantage than fish of a greater weight. Although fishes of | approximately the same weight were used so that a comparison could be made between species, an indication of an increase in oxygen capacity with an increase in body weight was noted. This characteristic has also ' been shown to be true of mammals (Burke, 1957). Apparently blood oxygen capacity in either the black crappie or bluegill is not affected by the conditions of the gonads. Also, there was Figure 1. The relationship of blood oxygen capacity in volumes per cent per gram of body weight to an increase in body weight for the black crappie and the bluegill. Included is a 247 gm. specimen of black crappie not shown in the data in Table I. Blood Oxygen Capacity 119 1957] no evidence of sexual dimorphism in regard to the relationship of this character to body weight or to standard length as shown by the statis¬ tical treatments in Tables I and 11. SUMMARY 1. The microgasometric syringe method was used since it is adaptable to the study of the oxygen capacity of blood in small fish as only 39.3 cmm. of blood is necessary for a sample. 2. Coagulation of blood occurred in the black crappie and the bluegill in thirty seconds or less. 3. The black crappie and the bluegill had a mean body weight of 71 and 86 gm.; a mean standard length of 132 and 133 mm., and a mean blood oxygen capacity of 8.5 and 7.4 volumes per cent, respectively. 4. Statistically, a significant difference existed between the species in reference to their blood oxygen capacity. This may indicate a character of importance in the study of the taxonomy of fishes. 5. The data show that as the body weight increases the oxygen capacity of the blood per gram of body weight decreases. 6. Results indicate the oxygen capacity of the blood increases as body weight increases. 7. Apparently, blood oxygen capacity was not influenced by either sex or gonad condition. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Appreciation is expressed to our wives for their help in the prepara¬ tion of the graph and the typing of the manuscript. Thanks are also given to our colleagues in the Department of Biology, University of Richmond for their critical reading of the manuscript: Dr. Robert F. Smart; Dr. J. C. Strickland; Dr. Nolan E. Rice; and Dr. W. R. West, Jr. LITERATURE CITED Albritton, E. C. (Editor) 1952. Standard Values in Blood. W. B. Saunders Co., Philadelphia. American Public Health Association 1946. Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Sewage. 9th Ed., A.P.H.A., N. Y. Arkin, H., and R. R. Colton. 1950. An Outline of Statistical Methods. Barnes and Noble, N. Y. 120 The Virginia Journal of Science [April Burke, J. D. 1953. Oxygen Capacity in Mammals. Psysiol. ZooL, 26: 259-266. Burke, J. D. 1954. Blood Volume in Mammals. Physiol. Zool., 27: 1-21. Burke, J. D. (1957). Blood Oxygen Capacity of Albino Rats. Amer. J. Physiol. 188:118-120. Grant, W. C. 1947. Determination of Oxygen Capacity on 39.3 cmm. of Blood. Proc. Exper. Biol, and Med., 66: 60-62. Hoar, W. S., V. S. Black, and E. C. Black. 1951. Some Aspects of the Physiology of Fish. No. 59., University of Toronto Press. Martin, A. W. 1950. Some Remarks on the Blood Volume of Fish. In Studies Honoring Trevor Kincaid. University of Washington Press. Pearson, O. P. 1948. Metabolism of Small Mammals, with Remarks on the Lower Limit of Mammalian Size. Science, 108: 44. Prosser, C. L. (Editor), D. W. Bishop, F. A. Brown, Jr., T. L. Jahn, and V. J. WuLFF. 1950. Comparative Animal Physiology. W. B. Saunders Co., Philadelphia. Roughton, F. j. W., and P. F. Scholander. 1943. The Microdetermina¬ tion of Blood Gases. I. Oxygen. Jour. Biol. Chem., 148: 541-550. Saito, K. 1954. Biochemical Studies on Fish Blood. II. On the Elements of Blood Coagulation and Coagulation Time. Bull. Japanese Soc. Sci. Fish., 19: 1139-1143. Simpson, G. G., and Anne Roe. 1939. Quantitative Zoology. McGraw- Hill, N. Y. 1957] The Sex Bivalent in the Hamster 121 The Sex Bivalent of the Chinese Hamster, (Cricetulus Griseus) Ladley Husted, Edward G. Pollock, and Grover C. Smart, Jr. Department of Biology, University of Virginia The Syrian or golden hamster, Mesocricetus auratus, is a well known laboratory animal but the related Chinese hamster, Cricetulus griseus, has been domesticated for a shorter time and its cytogenetic possibilities only recently made clear (Yerganian, 1952). This hamster was first mentioned by Hsieh (1919), and first examined cytologically by Pon- tecorvo (1943). Pontecorvo, working with testicular material which had been fixed and stored for several years, reported a mitotic chromosome number of 14 and described the sex chromosomes as the largest pair. His figures depict both symmetrical and asymmetrical sex bivalents apparently identical with those of Mesocricetus auratus previously de¬ scribed by Koller (1938). Matthey (1951, 1952), was unable to confirm the chromosome number determination of Pontecorvo, and reported 22 as the mitotic number in Cricetulus griseus. He agrees with Pontecorvo's conclusion that the longest chromosomes constitute the X-Y bivalent. This is describ¬ ed, however, as undergoing prereduction only, contrary to the observa¬ tions of Pontecorvo. In a study of Cricetulus griseus, Cricetus cricetus* and Mesocricetus auratus, Sachs (1952) reports 22 chromosomes in C. griseus and C. cricetus thereby confirming Matthey ’s determination. He does not describe the sex chromosomes. Yerganian (1953, 1955) has studied the mitotic chromosomes of C. griseus in some detail and describes them as follows: “ . . . . four large — to — medium sized metacentric or V-shaped pairs, three small meta- centric pairs, one large J-shaped pair, and three medium sized sub telocen¬ tric or I-shaped pairs.” On the basis of an X-ray induced reciprocal translocation involving one of the largest and one of the smallest chromo¬ somes, he takes exception to the conclusion of Pontecorvo and Matthey that the largest pair are sex chromosomes and states that “the correspond¬ ing male and female mitotic homologues are morphologically similar. Consequently the sex chromosomes remain unidentified.” Although the chromosome number of the Chinese hamster has been determined by Matthey, Sachs, and Yerganian, there is disagreement with respect to the chromosomes which constitute the X-Y bivalent. It has seemed necessary to clarify the situation by further study. This has 122 The Virginia Journal of Science [April been done; it is now apparent that the submedianly constricted pair of chromosomes, one of which is nearly subterminally constricted at mitotic metaphase in the male, are the chromosomes associated with sex. The testes of three adult males^ were fixed immediately upon removal in acetic-alcohol (1:3), acetic-alcohol-chloroform (1:6:3) or the fixative of San Felice. Temporary preparations were stained with aceto- carmine after the method of Painter (1939). The material fixed in San Felice’s solution was stained by means of the Feulgen reaction, embedded in paraffin, and sectioned at 20 The squash preparations, especially after fixation in acetic-alcohol-chloroform, were so superior to the sec¬ tioned material that they were used exclusively. Final observations were made with a Zeiss microscope using 90x, n.a. 1.3 and 1.4 oil immersion objectives, and 7x, 15x, and 20x oculars. All drawings and measurements were made with a camera lucida. The chromosomes of spermatogonial cells, fixed in acetic-alcohol- chloroform without pretreatment and stored immediately at 5“C., vary in length depending upon the degree of spindle formation and the completion of congression. At late prophase and prometaphase, when pressure upon the coverglass will spread the chromosomes, they measure from 9.8— 1.5 ^ in length (Fig. 1). The five largest pairs are submedianly constricted; the longest chromosomes are 9.8 jx in length and the shortest are 4.3 jx. The three smallest pairs are medianly or submedianly constricted and measure approximately 1.5 /x. The remaining three pairs are subterminally constricted; the largest are 3.7 ^ and the smallest slightly over 3 When the spindle is completely formed and the chromosomes have assumed the late metaphase position, they have decreased 30-50 percent in length and their position is seldom if ever altered by pressure upon the coverglass (Fig. 8). The largest of the submedianly constricted chromosomes are 5.6 /x in length and the smallest 2.8 jx. The smallest chromosomes are now 0.9 — 1 /x in length and the subterminally con¬ stricted ones 1.5 — 2 /X. The chromosomes of eight spermatogonial cells are arranged in order of decreasing length in Figs. 1-8. The largest chromosomes are all sub¬ medianly constricted. With the exception of one pair, the homologous arms, when foreshortening is allowed for, are identical in length. The (1) These were among several kindly furnished by Mr. G. Yerganian of the Children’s Cancer Research Foundation, Boston. We are indebted to him for them and for helpful suggestions. The Sex Bivalent in the Hamster 123 I 1957] I members of the exeeptional pair, whieh is shown in outline, are unequal I in size. The size difference is confined to the shorter arms. The centromere ! of the shorter chromosome is sufficiently far from the median position in I Figs. 1, 3, 5, 6, and 8 to present a problem in terminology. Here it may as easily be considered subterminally constricted as submedianly. The short arm of the longer chromosome is 0.3 — 1 ^ longer than the short arm of the shorter. This difference is small in terms of micra but it is easily detected in our preparations. It represents 6-10 percent of the length of the longer chromosome which we assume to be the X. The I contraction of this heteromorphic pair between the late prophase and late metaphase is more exti'eme (at least 10 percent greater) than any of the other chromosomes. At the earlier stages (Pugs. 1-4) it is seen as the third longest. At later stages (Figs. 5-7) it is the fourth longest and at late metaphase the three smaller submedianly constricted pairs are nearly identical in size (Fig. 8). The diameter of the X and the smaller member of the heteromorphic pair, the Y, is slightly less than the dia¬ meter of the other chromosomes of comparable size. At late metaphase the X and Y are smoother in outline and may be described in some preparations as appearing “overfixed.” In Figs. 3-7 a larger unstained region is seen at the centromere in one or both of these chromosomes than is found in any of the other pairs. The heteromorphic pair is probably the “large J-shaped pair” men¬ tioned by Yerganian (1955). The two lowermost chromosomes in Plate 1, Figure 5 of Sachs (1952) may be the unequal pair described here. At metaphase-anaphase of meiosis I the heteromorphic bivalent may be recognized by its less intense staining, the submedian position of its centromeres, and the invariable association of the attenuated shorter arms (Figs. 9-11). The Y-chromosome shows somewhat less intense staining than the autosomes, and the X-chromosomes less intense staining than the Y. The X-chromosome is frequently more loosely coiled. Occasionally plasmasomal material is associated with a portion of this bivalent (Figs. 15, 22). The long arms of the X and Y may be associated as well as the short arms (Figs. 18, 20, 31 and 37). The ring configurations reveal the submedian position of the centromeres especially well. Figures 19-21 suggest strongly that the short arms of the X and Y are associated by a chiasma which will lead to the equational separation of a short differential segment. Figure 23 also supports this conclusion. The X-and Y-chromosome, as seen at mitotic metaphase, have short arms of unequal length; these are the arms that are invariably associated at metaphase I. The occurrence of a chiasma demands the symmetrical separation of the X and Y. When the chromosomes have reached the poles at anaphase, the X- 124 The Virginia Journal of Science [April chromosome remains more loosely coiled, and, except for a portion of its shorter arm, is less deeply colored by the aceto-carmine than are the autosomes. The Y-chromosome, however, decreases in size and becomes indistinguishable from the autosomes with respect to degree of staining j (Figs. 26-30, 32-36). : It is clear that the chromosome we have called the Y is subterminally ! constricted or nearly so. The short arm is bent backward toward the attenuated short arm of the X. This is additional evidence that these i arms are associated earlier, for the three pairs of subterminally constricted I autosomes present a different appearance. As they separate the short arms are pushed in front of the centromeres and lead the way to the | poles unless they have been earlier associated as ring bivalents (Fig. 10). In a portion of the testes of one animal, several ring bivalents were 1 found at metaphase which are identical to the symmetrical sex bivalent of the Syrian hamster as described and figured by Koller (1938). These ■ had an elongated, light staining segment which arose from the shorter I arms (Fig. 37). i The sex chromosomes of the Chinese hamster and the Syrian ham¬ ster appear to be structurally alike. The short arm of the X-chromosome of the Syrian hamster is 0.6 longer than the short arm of the Y at mitotic metaphase. This difference in length represents approximately 7 percent of the length of the entire X-chromosome ( Sheaf fer, 1954). In the Chinese hamster the difference in length is 0.3 — 1 /x, or 6-10 per¬ cent of the X-chromosome. The sex chromosomes of the Syrian hamster, however, are usually associated by chiasmata between their long arms which results in an asymmetrical bivalent and prereduction. They are less frequently associated by chiasmata between both the long and short arms giving rise to a symmetrical bivalent and the equational separation of the differential segment at anaphase I. In the Chinese hamster the sex chro¬ mosomes may be associated by chiasmata between the long as well as the short arms, although the most frequently encountered association is between short arms only, resulting in a symmetrical bivalent. An asym¬ metrical bivalent has not been seen in our material. A more detailed study of the chromosomes of Cricetus cricetus and Mesocricetus auratus may furnish additional support for the interesting proposal of Sachs (1952) that Mesocricetus auratus is a polyploid species derived from Cricetus cricetus and Cricetulus griseus. LEGENDS FOR TEXT FIGURES 1-37 Figures 1-8. The chromosomes of Cricetulus griseus from 8 spermatogonial cells. The X- and Y-chromosomes are shown in outline X 2166. 1957] The Sex Bivalent in the Hamster 125 w n %» «• 88 «8 08 «9 •• «B 08 «8 99 e» «• «e «i 08 •• «9 99 «8 •8 •• m •« «» 99 m «» 80 » ^P» «. o «• ®. «» «» «. «• e»> «. a». <8. 8^ «« «. 99 90 %• •» 81 C30 Od Cx) CZX) cS) CPO <:7o CPO HI 09 cno «• <90 <0 A H n 8^ tt V /I A 5 126 The Virginia Journal of Science [April •1^ M 4 0 1 9 ,0 I Figures 9-11. Meiotic metaphase — anaphase 1. in outline. X 1666. •Ill I : : I lit: The sex bivalent is shown Figures 12-37. Twenty six pairs of sex chromosomes at metaphase I and anaphase I. Figs. 12-25, 31, and 37. Metaphase — anaphase; Figs. 26-20, 32-36. Late anaphase. X 1666. 1957] The Sex Bivalent in the Hamster SUMMARY 127 The Chinese hamster, Cricetulus griseus, has 22 chromosomes. The sex chromosomes are the third largest pair at late prophase and prome¬ taphase of spermatogonial divisions. As the chromosomes decrease in length they become the fourth largest pair and at late metaphase cannot be distinguished by size alone from the smaller of the large submedianly constricted pairs. The short arm of the Y is shorter than the short arm of the X. The difference represents 6-10 percent of the length of the X-chromosome. In the male the X and Y are found as rod-, and less frequently as ring-bivalents. All the rod-bivalents are associated by their shorter, heteromorphic arms. LITERATURE CITED Hsieh, E. T. 1919. A New Laboratory Animal, Cricetulus griseus. Nat. Med. J. China. 5:20. Koller, P. C. 1938. The Genetical and Mechanical Properties of the Sex- Chromosomes. IV. The Golden Hamster. Jour. Genet. 36:177-195. Matthey, R. 1951. Les Chromosomes des Muridae. Experientia 7:340. - 1952. Chromosomes de Muridae. Chromosoma 5:113-138. Painter, T. S. 1939. An Aceto-Carmine Method for Bird and Mammalian Chromosomes. Science 90:307-308. PoNTECORvo, G. 1943. Meiosis in the Striped Hamster (Cricetulus griseus Milne-Edw. ) and the Problem of Heterochromatin in Mammalian Sex-Chromosomes. Proc. Roy. Soc. B. 62:32-42. Sachs, Leo. 1952. Polyploid Evolution and Mammalian Chromosomes. Heredity 6:357-364. Sheaffer, Charles I. 1954. The X-Bivalent of the Golden Hamster. The Virginia Journal of Science 6:46-52. Yerganian, G. 1952. Cytogenetic Possibihties with the Chinese Hamster, Cricetulus harabensis griseus. Genetics 37:638-639. 1953. Evidence disclosing the autosomal nature of sex- chromosomes previously reported in the Chinese hamster, Cricetulus griseus. Genetics. 38:703-704. ]“ - 1955. Cytological features of a transplantable sarcoma induced in the Chinese hamster, Cricetulus griseus. Proc. Am. Asso. Cancer Res. 2:56. 128 The Virginia Journal of Science [April Checklist of Oribatoid Mites in the Vicinity of Mountain Lake Biological Station - V irginia ( Acarina, Oribatei ) ^ Howard George Sengbusch^ This list of oribatoid mites is based upon observations and eollections made during the summers of 1955 and 1956 in the vicinity of the Mountain Lake Biological Station, Giles Gounty, Virginia. Since no check¬ list has been compiled up until now, this information is incomplete and should be considered only as a preliminary report. The major collecting sites are indicated on the map (Fig. 1) which encompasses an area of approximately fifteen and one half square miles surrounding the Biological Station. The sites contain varied ecological niches in which the hygrophilous, so-called ‘"moss mites” can be found. The habitats range from a thin layer of green algae growing in the twilight zone of Tawney’s Gave (elevation 1900') to moss growing in crevices of exposed rock on Bald Knob (elevation 4368’), and from leaf litter at Wind Rock to lichens on the upper branches of oak trees near the Station. The mites, which were collected by means of a modified Tullgren funnel (Sengbusch, 1951) were mounted on slides and examined. There is no key published in tliis country that is even approximately complete for the identification of these mites. However, Baker and Wharton (1952j have presented a key to, and synopsis of, the oribatoid mite families of the world and this key was followed by the author in compiling the checklist. The genera are listed in the sequence followed by Baker and Wharton (1952) with only a few minor exceptions. New species will be reported in a subsequent paper. The letters following the biotypes in which each of the species was found refer to the collecting sites on the map (Fig. 1) in this manner: A-Old West Virginia Road near Station; B-Pipeline leading into Station; G-Oak trees near entrance to Station; D-Wind Rock; E-Vicinity of Lakeside Glub; F-Bald Knob; G-Gascades; H-Mann’s Bog; I-Little Stoney Greek; J-Tawney’s Gave Entrance; K-Taw- ney’s Gave Exit. 1 Contribution of the Mountain Lake Biolog-ical Station of the University of Virginia. ^ State University of New York, College for Teachers, Buffalo. 1957] Checklist of Oribatoid Mites 129 ANNOTATED LIST Order Acari Leach 1817 Suborder Sarcoptiformes Reuter 1909 Supercohors Oribatei Duges 1833 Cohors Aptyctima Oudemans 1906 ★ [April 130 The Virginia Journal of Science Family Palaeacaridae Grandjean, 1932 1. Acaronychus sp. (deutonymph) — Leaf litter-D. Family Nanhermanniidae Sellnick, 1924 1. N anhermanannia nana Nicholet, 1855 — Moss and lichens on white oak-C. Family Hypochthoniidae Berlese, 1910 1. Hypochthonius rufulus C. L. Koch, 1835 — Moss — E; Leaf litter- D, J, K. 2. Cosmochthonius lanatus (Michael, 1885) — Algae, twilight zone-K. 3. Eniochthonius grandjeani (Michael, 1888) — Leaf litter D, ]. 4. Eohrachychthonius sexnotatus Jacot, 1936 — Leaf litter — D. J; Moss-I. 5. Trhypochthonielliis excavatus (Willmann, 1919) — Very wet moss- A, G. Family Malaconothridae Berlese, 1916 1. Trimalaconothnis glaher Michael, 1888 — Very wet moss-A. Family Gamisiidae Sellnick, 1928 1. Camisia segnis (Hermann, 1804) — Lichens on red oak-G. 2. Camisia horrida (Hermann, 1804) — Forest litter-K. 3. Camisia spinifer (G. L. Koch, 1835) — Wet sphagnum-H. 4. Nothrus pratensis Sellnick, 1928 — Wet decaying leaves-J. 5. Nothrus rugulosus Banks,, 1895 — Leaf litter-J. 6. Nothrus silyestris Nicolet, 1855 — Forest litter-J. 7. Flatynothrus peltifer (G. L. Koch, 1839) — Wet moss-A, G. Family Hermanniidae Sellnick, 1928 1. Hermannia scabra (L. Koch, 1879) — Moss-E, F. 2. Hermannia convexa (G. L. Koch, 1840) — Leaf litter-J. Family Gymbaeremaeidae Willmann, 1931 1. Scapheremaeus sp. — Moss in crevice of rock-F. Family Belbidae Willmann, 1931 1. Belba articola Hammer, 1952 — Wet leaves and moss-D. 1. 2. Belba tatrica (Kulczynski, 1902) — Wet decaying leaves-D. 3. Metabelba cremersi Van der Hammen, 1952 — Wet moss-I. 4. Metabelba pulverulenta (G. L. Koch, 1840) — Algae, twilight zone- K; Moss-I; Leaf litter-J. Family Eremaeidae Willmann, 1931 1. Eremaeus columhianus Berlese, 1884 — Lichens on red oak-B, G; Moss-I. 2. Eremaeus oblongus G. L. Koch, 1836 — Lichens on red oak-G; Moss-G, I. I Checklist of Oribatoid Mites 131 1957] 3. Eremaeus quadrilamellatus Hammer, 1952 — Leaf litter-D; Moss-I. 4. Ceratoppia bipilis (Hermann, 1804) — Leaf litter-D; Wet moss-I. 5. Oppia nitens C. L. Koch, 1836 — Moss-E, G, 1. 6. Oppia nova (Oudemans, 1902) — Lichens on white oak-C; Moss- A, I; Wet leaf litter-D. 7. Oppia quadricarinata (Michael, 1885) — Moss-G; lichen on white oak-C; algae, twilight zone-K. 8. Oppia unicarinata (Paoh, 1908) — Moss-F, 1. 9. Oribella crosbyi Berlese, 1908 — Wet leaves in small cave-D. 10. Peloppia serrata Sellnick, 1931 — Leaf litter-K; lichens on white oak-C. 11. Suctobelba sarakensis Forsslund, 1941 — Moss on rock-F. 12. Suctobelba sp — Partially digested in gut of earthworm {Bimastos zetecki Smith and Gittens, 1915). 13. Tricheremaeus pilosus (Michael, 1888) — Lichens on red and white oaks-B, C; moss-G. Family Carabodidae Willmann, 1931 1. Carabodes coriaceous C. L. Koch, 1836 — Wet leaves and moss-K. 2. Carabodes areolatus Berlese, 1916 — Lichens on red and black oaks-B, C; moss-G. 3. Carabodes minusculus Berlese, 1923 — Moss-E, F. 4. Carabodes niger Banks, 1895 — Moss-F. 5. Scutovertex sp. — Lichens on red oak-C. 6. Tectocepheus velatus (Michael, 1880) — Lichens on red oak-C; wet moss-G, I. 7. Tectocepheus minor Berlese, 1903 — Wet moss-A, E, 1. Family Hermanniellidae Grandjean, 1934 1. Hermanniella granulata (Nicolet, 1855) — Very wet moss-I. 2. Hermanniella punctidata Berlese, 1908 — Leaf litter-J. Family Liacaridae Willmann, 1931 1. Liacarus carolinensis Banks, 1906 — Leaf htter-D, J, K. 2. Liacarus subterraneus (C. L. Koch, 1841) — Wet moss-I. 3. Liacarus nitens (Gervais, 1844) — Leaf litter-J. Family Oribatulidae Jacot, 1929 1. Oribatula tibialis (Nicolet, 1855) — Wet moss-E, F, I. 2. Oribatula minuia (Ewing, 1909) — Wet moss-F, 1. 3. Oribatida pallidida (Ewing, 1909) — Wet moss-G; lichens on black 132 The Virginia Journal of Science [April oak-B. 4. Zygorihatula exilis (Nicolet, 1855) — Moss-E, G; lichens on red and black oaks-B, C. 5. Liebstadia humerata Sellnick, 1928 — Wet moss-G. 6. Liebstadia sp. — Moss-E. 7. Protoschelobates seghetti Runkel and Kates, 1947 — Leaf litter- D; moss-F. 8. Scheloribates latipes (C. L. Koch, 1841) — Wet moss-A; lichens on red oak-C. 9. Scheloribates pallidulus (C. L. Koch, 1841) — Moss-F; algae in twilight zone-K. Family Ceratozetidae Jacot, 1925 1. Ceratozetes gracilis (Michael, 1884) — Moss-E. 2. Ceratozetes mediocris Berlese, 1908 — Wet moss-I; lichens on white oak-C. 3. Chamobates cuspidatus (Michael, 1884) — Lichens on black oak-B. 4. Chamobates schutzi (Oudemans, 1901) — Wet moss-I; leaf Htter-K. 5. Hammeria canadensis Hammer, 1952 — Lichens on black oak-B; moss-F. 6. Hammeria sp. — Moss-F. 7. Limnozetes canadensis Hammer, 1952 — Wet moss-F, G. 8. Mycobates tridactylus Willmann, 1929 — Very wet moss-I. 9. Sphaerozetes arcticus Hammer, 1952 — Very wet moss-I. 10. Punctoribates punctum (C. L. Koch, 1839) — Very wet moss-A, I. 11. Trichoribates copperminensis Hammer, 1952 — wet moss-G. | 12. Trichoribates novus (Sellnick, 1928) — Very wet moss-G. ! Family Oribatellidae Jacot, 1925 1. Oribatella quadricornuta (Michael, 1884) — Leaf litter-K; moss-G. 2. Oribatella minuta Banks, 1896 — Lichens on red oaks-B, C. 3. Oribatella sexdentata Berlese, 1916 — Wet moss-G, I; leaf litter- D, J. 4. Tectoribates latitectus (Berlese, 1908) — Moss-F, G; leaf htter- D; lichens on red oak-C. j Family Notaspididae Oudemans, 1900 i 1. Parachipteria punctata (Nicolet, 1855) — Lichens on white oak- [ C; wet moss-F, G. 2. Parachipteria willmanni Van der Hammen, 1952 — Moss-G; lichens on white oak-C. 133 1957] Checklist of Oribatoid Mites 3. Achipteria bella (Sellnick, 1928) - Lichens on oaks-B, C. 4. Achipteria nitens (Nicolet, 1855) — Wet moss-G. 5. Fuscozetes fuscipes (C. L. Koch, 1844) — • Very wet moss-A, E, G. 6. Fuscozetes sellnicki Hammer, 1952 ~ Very wet moss-A, G. 7. Fuscozetes setosus (C. L. Koch, 1840) — Moss-A, F. Family Haplozetidae Grandjean, 1936 1. Felorihates pilosus Hammer, 1952 — Lichens on black oak-B; moss in rocky crevice-F. 2. Xylohates lophotrichus (Berlese, 1904) — Leaf htter-D; moss-F. 3. Xylohates capucinus (Berlese, 1908) — Moss-F. Family Pelopidae Ewing, 1917 1. Pelops plicatus (C. L. Koch, 1836) — Very wet moss-A. 2. Peloptulus americanus (Ewing, 1907) — Moss-E. 3. Propelops pinicus Jacot, 1937 — Moss-F. Family Galumnidae Grandjean, 1936 1. Galumna virginiensis Jacot, 1934 — Leaf htter-K; moss-I; lichens on red oaks-C. 2. AlJogalumna tenuiclavus (Berlese, 1908) — Wet moss-G. 3. Pergalumna nervosa (Berlese, 1915) — Moss-F. Cohors Ptyctima Oudemans 1906 Family Phthiraoaridae Perty, 1841 Subfamily Phthiracarinae Perty, 1841 1. Phthiracarus piger (Scopoli, 1763) — Wet moss-G. 2. Phthiracarus globosus (C. L. Koch, 1841) — Wet leaf htter-D, J. 3. Atropacarus striculus (C. L. Koch, 1836)— Wet moss-I; leaf litter-J. Subfamily Euphthiracarinae Jacot, 1930 1. Oribotritia cribaria (Berlese, 1904) — Wet leaf litter-D. 2. Oribotritia virginiensis Jacot, 1924 — Wet moss-A. 3. Pseudotritia ardua (C. L. Koch, 1841) — Wet leaf htter-D. 4. Pseudotritia minima (Berlese, 1904) — Moss in crevice of rock-F. SUMMARY From the present list which contains twenty famihes, fifty seven genera and ninety five species, it can be seen that the region of Mountain Lake, Virginia is particularly rich in regard to the oribatoid fauna and that this location offers abundant opportunities for further research in the taxonomy and biology of these relatively httle known animals. 134 The Virginia Journal of Science ACKNOWLEDGMENTS [April Grateful acknowledgment is made to the University of Virginia for providing facilities at the Mountain Lake Biological Station and to the National Science Foundation for providing the award that made possible the persuance of this research. The author also wishes to thank the Ameri¬ can Optical Company for the use of one of their most modern micro¬ scopes during the course of this investigation. LITERATURE CITED Baker, E. W., and Wharton, G. W. 1952. An Introduction to Acarology Macmillan and Co., N. Y. Sengbusch, H. G. 1951. Notes on some New York oribatid mites. Zoologica 36 (3): 155-162, 16 text-figs. 1957] News and Notes 135 News And Notes (Editors Note: News contributions should he sent to the person whose name appears at the end of the appropriate sections.) Mrs. Thelma C. Heatwole of Staunton, Virginia, was elected President of the Academy Conference at the annual meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science in New York December 26-30. The Academy Conference is the national organization of forty-one state and city Academies of Science. Dr. John Yarborough of Meredith College, Raleigh, N. C., was named President-Elect and John G. Arnold of Loyola University, New Orleans, was elected Secretary. —Sidney Negus, Medical College of Virginia. Agricultural Science Section Dr. Walter Roe has joined the staff of V.P.I. as a Veterinary Phy¬ siologist. Dr. Roe was graduated from Randolph-Macon, received his DVM from Texas with advanced work in Physiology at Minnesota. A laboratory in Veterinary Physiology is being established at V.P.I. for research and teaching. Funds for equipping this laboratory have been furnished by the Rockefeller Foundation. Dr. George M. Roush has been appointed Associate Professor of Entomology at V.P.I. He received his MS and PhD from Ohio State. He will do research on insects affecting peanuts and other crops in the tide¬ water area of Virginia and will be located at the Tidewater Research Sta¬ tion, Holland. Dr. Joseph L. Troutman has been appointed Assistant Plant Patho¬ logist of the Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station and will be located at the bright tobacco research Experiment Station, Chatham, Virginia, to work on tobacco diseases. He did his undergraduate work at the Universi¬ ty of Kentucky and received his PhD from the University of Wisconsin. Dr. Orvin Elwood Rud has been appointed Assistant Plant Patholo¬ gist at V.P.I. to conduct research on chemical weed controls on crop plants. He will be stationed in Blacksburg. He receievd his PhD from Minnesota and his most recent position was at North Carolina State. The Department of Dairy Science at V.P.I. is planning a Dairy Science Career Day for high school students who are planning to attend college and are interested in Dairy Science. The Virginia Dairy Products Association and the Virginia State Dairymen's Association are cooperating in the Career Day by contacting local high school students and will act as the sponsor of the students. 136 The Virginia Journal of Science [April News and Notes 137 1957] Professor P. M. Reaves, of the Department of Dairy Science, V. P. I., is senior author of a new text book just off the press. The title of the book is SOUTHERN DAIRY FARMING and is published by the Inter¬ state, Danville, Ill. The book is designed as a text for high school dairy courses. Dr. G. C. Graf, of the Department of Dairy Science, V. P. I., ap¬ peared on the program of the annual meetings of the Virginia Dairy Products Association and the Virginia State Dairymen’s Association in January. His subject dealt with the need for more college trained dairy graduates in the Dairy Industry. Dr. M. F. Ellmore was also on the program of the Virginia State Dairymen’s Association and discussed the Weigh- A-Day Production Testing Program. — Garl W. Allen, Virginia Polytechnic Institute. Bacteriology Section Dr. P. Ame Hansen has started a research project on the detection of bacteria by means of fluorescent antibodies and has been granted a contract by Fort Detrick for that purpose. — P. Arne Hansen, University of Maryland. Section of Biology Of particular interest to scientists is the recent announcement by Dr. Quillian that Randolph-Macon Woman’s Gollege has accepted a $350,000 gift from an anonymous donor. This money will be used to strengthen the already excellent programs in Biology and Mathematics and to stimulate an increased interest among the students for advanced work in these fields. The money from the grant will be applied partly to the General Administration, the Department of Mathematics, and to the Department of Biology of Randolph-Macon Woman’s Gollege, the bulk of the grant going to the Department of Biology. It is most gratifying to learn that a department would be so conducted as to interest a donor to grant this amount for the furtherance of science. Our congratulations to Randolph-Macon Woman’s College, Department of Science. Mr. Robert F. Smart, Professor of Biology, University of Richmond has been promoted to the Deanship at the University of Richmond to replace the late Dean Pinchbeck. Mr. John H. Reeves formerly of the Department of Biology, Virginia Military Institute is now associated with the Department of Biology at Virginia Polytechnic Institute. — Robert T. Brumfield, Longwood College. [April 138 Virginia Journal of Science Quahty AMERICA’S LEADING MANUFACTURER OF CIGARETTES 1957] News and Notes 139 Engineering Section An article entitled “A New Organo — Aluminum Chloride Bath for Deposition of Aluminum” by Drs. N. F. Murphy and A. C. Doumas of the Virginia Polytechnic Institute has appeared in the 43rd Annual Proceedings of the American Electroplaters Society. The Virginia Polytechnic Institute announced that “continued study of the chemistry of aluminum compounds was confirmed by a grant of $4,600 from the National Science Foundation. This grant will support re¬ search on “Preparation and Properties of Metallic Compounds of Sub¬ stituted Amines” under the direction of Professor Nelson F. Murphy and Mr. J. C. Salonish. A paper on “Mass Transfer in Horizontal Liquid — Liquid Extrac¬ tion Tube” by Professor Nelson F. Murphy, John E. Lastovica and Adam E. Skrzec has been published in the December 1956 A. 1. Ch. E. Journal. The West Virginia Pulp and Paper Company of Covington, Virginia has established a fellowship at the Virginia Polytechnic Institute for the purpose of studying the removal of color from waste, papermill streams. The studies are under the direction of Dr. N. F. Murphy and Mr. H. A. Woodle of the Chemical Engineering Department. Dr. Frank C. Vilbrandt, Professor of Chemical Engineering, Virginia Polytechnic Institute, attended the meeting of the American Institute of Chemical Engineers at the Greenbrier Hotel, White Sulphur Springs, West Virginia, March 3 and 4, 1957. Dr. Robert W. Truitt, head of the Department of Aeronautical Engineering, at the Virginia Polytechnic Institute will present a paper on “Flow in the Forward Stagnation Region of Blunt Bodies” at the Midwestion Conference on Fluid Mechanics to be held at the Univer¬ sity of Michigan April 1 and 2. On April 5, Dr. Truitt will speak at the A S E E meeting at the University of Louisville on “How Do We Se¬ cure Research FaciHties.” Mr. T. E. Shelburne, Director of the Virginia Council of Highway Investigation and Research, attended meetings of the Highway Research Board and the National Advisory Committee for the ASHO Road Test in January. On February 18 to 22 he attended the national meeting of the American Society of Civil Engineers in Jackson, Mississippi. Dean Lawrence R. Quarles of the University of Virginia School of Engineering attended a meeting of the Deans and Presidents Conference on Nuclear Energy Education of the Atomic Energy Commission at the Argonne National Laboratory in Ferbuary. Dean Quarles also attended the National Convention of the Institute of Radio Engineers, which was held in New York, March 18 to 21. R. M. Hubbard, University of Virginia. 140 The Virginia Journal of Science [April PHIPPS & BIRD PIPEHE DRYER In the laboratory this large capacity Pipette Dryer is special¬ ly recommended for thorough dry¬ ing pipettes of any size up to 375 mm. in length. Cylinder is mounted on vented base with specially designed heat¬ er placed in lower end of cylin¬ der. The instrument is designed to take the standard rack of 6-in. pipette washer. Rack is tak¬ en out of washer drained for about a minute and placed right into the dryer. Drying time varies according to size and load of pipettes. But this method of dry¬ ing means less handling by the technician thus the hazard of breakage is greatly reduced. The Pipette Dryer comes com¬ plete with cord and plug but without rack. The instrument operates on 115 volts AC or DC. Cat. No. 71-281-1 Cat. No. 71-726 $45.00 $10.00 Without obligation send us com¬ plete information on your Pipette Dryer. Name . . . . . Title . Company . Address . City . . State . IPGOQLPLPg - y MANUFACTURERS AND DISTRIBUTORS OF SCIENTIFIC EQUIPMENT L±^ «TH & BYRD STREETS RICHMOND, VA. 1957] News and Notes Statistics Section 141 Dr. Boyd Harshbarger was elected President of the Biometric So¬ ciety, Eastern North American Region, for the year 1957. The following members of the Department of Statistics of the Vir¬ ginia Polytechnic Institute attended and took part in the Joint Meeting of the Biometric Society, ENAR, and the Institute of Mathematical Statistics at the Catholic University in Washington, D. C. March 7-8: Dr. Boyd Harshbarger, Dr. R. A. Bradley, Dr. C. Y. Kramer, Dr. J. E. Freund, Dr. R. J. Freund, Mr. C. W. Clunies-Ross, Dr. R. L. Wine, and Mr. W. O. Ash. Dr. Boyd Harshbarger presented a paper at the Ninth Research Con¬ ference which was sponsored by the American Meat Institute in Chicago, Illinois, March 21 and 22, 1957. Recent publications of the Department of Statistics of the Virginia Polytechnic Institute include: “Some Methods of Estimating the Para¬ meters of Discrete Heterogeneous Populations” by John E. Freund, Journal of the Royal Statistical Society; “Simphfied Computations for Multiple Regression” by C. Y. Kramer, Industrial Quality Control; “On the Enumeration of Decision Patterns Involving Means” by B. L. RESEARCH opportunity for trained CHEMISTS, PHYSICISTS, METALLORGISTS preferably with advanced degree To DO or to ASSIST IN FUHMMENTAL WORK Inquire in writing : Virginia Institute for Scientific Research 326 North Boulevard^ Richmond 20, Va. 142 The Virginia Journal of Science [April Wine and J. E. Freund, Annals of Mathematical Statistics; “Extension of Multiple Range Tests to Group Correlated Adjusted Means” by C. Y. Kramer, Biometrics. The Southern Regional Graduate Summer Session in Statistics will be held at the Virginia Polytechnic Institute during the summer of 1957. Guest lecturers will be Dr. D. B. DeLury of the Ontario Research Foun¬ dation and Dr. E. J. Williams of South Melbourne, AustraHa. Seminars to be given during this session include; “Multiple Decision Procedures for Ranking Means” by Robert E. Bechhofer, Cornell University; “Study of the Validity of SampHng and Testing of Materials Using the Prob¬ ability Integral of the Range” by Charles A. Bicking, The Carborundum j Company; “Accelerated Life Testing for Insulation Systems” by W. H. j Horton, Westinghouse Electric Corporation; “Response Surface Fitting with Apphcations to Industry” by J. S. Hunter, Princeton University; “Statistical Estimation Problems in the Steel Industry” by Irwin Miller, U. S. Steel Corporation; “Subject to be Announced” by Robert J. Mon¬ roe, North Carohna State College; “Some Remarks on Non-Randomness of Data” by Ellis R. Ott, Rutgers University; “A Statistical Analysis of | Some Deer Population Data” by Vincent Schultz, University of Mary- I land; “Statistics for the Control of Laboratory Tests” by Hale C. Sweeny, Atlantic Refining Company; “Subject to be Announced” by H. R. Van Der Vaart, Leiden University, Netherlands. Norbert Llyod Enrick, head of Statistics, Institute of Textile Tech¬ nology, Charlottesville, Virginia attended the recent annual Convention of the American Society for Quality Controls Textile Division, at Geor¬ gia Institute of Technology in Atlanta. He^ presented two papers at the meeting; “Process-to-Process Variations Analysis” and “Results of Var¬ iance Analysis of Drawing Sliver from Cooperative Tests.” He also conducted training courses in industrial apphcations of statstical quahty control for textile mill laboratory and supervisory personnel. These were held in Virginia, North and South Carohna, Georgia, and Tennessee. His series of articles on “Quahty Control through Statistical Methods,” which originally appeared in “Modern Textiles” Magazine is now appearing in German under the title “Qualitatetsueberwachung durch Statistische Methoden” in Reyon-Zellwolle und Andere Chemiefasern’ Journal. 1957] Program, Thirty=fifth Annual Meeting 143 Virginia Academy of Science ro^ram OF THE Thirty-Fifth Annual Meeting AT HOTEL CHAMBERLIN OLD POINT COMFORT, VIRGINIA May 8, 9, 10, 11, 1957 HOSTS TO MEETING The College of William and Mary in Virginia AND The College of William and Mary, Norfolk Division 144 The Virginia Journal of Science [April Virginia Academy of Science OFFICERS Edward S. Harlow, President William G. Guy, President-Elect Foley F. Smith, Secretary-Treasurer William B. Wartman, Jr., Assistant Secretary COUNCIL (Board of Trustees) Elected Members Sidney S. Negus (1957) Thomas E. Gilmer (1961) Byron N. Cooper (1958) Lynn D. Abbott, Jr. William Hinton (1959) John C. Forbes, Jr. Mrs. B. G. Heatwole (1960) Robert T. Brumfield Charles F. Lane Ex-Officio Members Allan T. Gwathmey (1957) Irving G. Foster (1958) Walter S. Flory, Jr. (1959) Local Committee on Arrangements Stanley B. Williams; General Chairman. C. S. Sherwood, III; Housing. Mrs. Margaret C. Phillips; Registration. Melvin A. Pittman, Mitchell A. Byrd, Richard G. Canham, John H. Long, Hansel L. Hughes, Joseph R. Lee; Meeting Rooms and Equipment. William G. Guy, Roger Dudley; Public Information. Miss Jean Pugh; lunior Academy Exhibits Alfred R. Armstrong; Commercial Exhibits. J. T. Baldwin, Jr., John L. McHugh, Kenneth A. Wagner; Field Trips. HOSTS TO MEETING The College of William and Mary in Virginia The College of William and Mary, Norfolk Division 1957] Program, Thirty-fifth Annual Meeting 145 General Program Of The 35th Annual Meeting All meetings will be held at the Hotel Chamberlin, Old Point Comfort, Virginia WEDNESDAY, MAY 8 5:00 P.M. to 10:00 P.M. —Registration for Junior Academy Members and Participants in the Science Talent Search. Lobby. 5:00 P.M. to 10:00 P.M. —Arrangement of Exhibits. Sun Porch. THURSDAY, MAY 9 8:00 A.M. to 10:00 P.M. —Registration. Lobby. {Junior Academy members register and sign up for James¬ town tour before 10:00 A.M.) 9:00 A.M. to 9:30 A.M. —Meeting of Science Exhibit Judges. John Smith Room. Meeting of Science Talent Search Judges. Chesapeake Room. 9:30 A.M. to 10:00 A.M. —Meeting of Chairmen, Exhibitors, and Sci¬ ence Talent Search Participants. Virginia Room. 10:00 A.M. to 12:00 P.M.; and 1:00 P.M. to 3:00 P.M.-FinaHsts of Talent Search meet with Chairmen and Interviewers. Parlors A, B, C, D, E, F. 10:00 A.M. to 12:00 P.M.; and 1:00 P.M. to 3:00 P.M.-Judging of Science Exhibit Contest. Sun Porch. 2:00 P.M. —Meeting of the Council of the Academy. Chesapeake Room. 3:00 P.M. to 10:00 P.M.— Junior Academy tour to Jamestown. 4:00 P.M.— Meeting of Section Officers. John Smith Room. 4:30 P.M.— Meeting of Section Editors. Chesapeake Room. 8:00 P.M. —Academy Conference. Virginia Room. FRIDAY, MAY 10 8:30 A.M. to 10:00 P.M.— Registration. Lobby. 9:00 A.M.— Section Meetings. See the detailed section programs for time schedule of papers. 146 The Virginia Journal of Science [April Agricultural Sciences— Coiiee Shop Astronomy, Mathematics and Physics— Virginia Room Bacteriology— Chamberlin Club TV Room Biology— Roof Garden Chemistry— John Smith Room and Chesapeake Room Education— Parlor A Engineering— Parlor B Geology— Parlor C Medical Sciences— Chamberlin Club Psychology— Parlor D and Parlor E Science T eachers— Parlor F Statistics— Parlor G 12:00 Noon to 2:00 P.M.— Virginia Junior Academy of Science Assem¬ bly. Virginia Room. (See Program of Junior Academy.) 2:00 P.M. to 5:00 P.M.— Section Meetings. 3:00 P.M. to 4:30 P.M.— Tea and reception for visiting ladies given by the College Woman’s Club of the College of William and Mary. Barrett Hall, East Living Room, Williamsburg campus. 8:00 P.M.— Virginia Academy of Science Assembly. Roof Garden. Business Meeting: Election of Officers. Presentation of the J. Shelton Horsley Research Award. Guest Speaker: Willard F. Libby, U. S. Atomic Energy Gom- mission, Washington, D. G. Subject: ‘'Atomic Energy Commission Policy and Methods” The general public is invited to attend. i t i ! SATURDAY, MAY 11 The Section of Geology will hold a field trip to the Jamestown Island on Saturday, May 11. Leaders will be Mr. John L. Cotter, Arche¬ ologist of the Colonial National Historical Park, and Dr. John T. Hack of the U. S. G. S. The program will include an archeological and geological tour of the island, a tour of the museum, and an illusti'ated lecture on the archeological excavations of the Island. 9:00 A. M.— Section Meetings. 10:00 A. M.— Meeting of the Council of the Academy. Chesapeake Room or Parlor A (to be announced at the Thursday meeting of the Council). 1957] Program, Thirty-fifth Annual Meeting 147 Program Of The Virginia Junior Academy Of Science All meetings will he held at the Hotel Chamberlin, Old Point Comfort, Virginia. WEDNESDAY, MAY 8 5:00 P.M. to 10:00 P.M.— Registration for Junior Academy Members and Participants in the Science Talent Search. Lobby. 5:00 P.M. to 10:00 P.M.— Arrangement of Exhibits, Junior Academy of Science. Sun Porch. THURSDAY, MAY 9 8:00 A.M. to 10:00 A.M.— Registration for Junior Academy Members. Lobby. Junior Members wishing to go on the tour to James¬ town must sign up before 10:00 A.M. 9:00 A.M. to 9:30 A. M.— Meeting of Science Exhibit Judges. John Smith Room. Meeting of Science Talent Search Judges. Ches¬ apeake Room. 9:30 A.M. to 10:00 A. M.— Meeting of Chairmen, Exhibitors, and Sci¬ ence Talent Search Participants. Virginia Room. 10:00 A.M. to 12:00 P.M. and 1:00 P. M. to 3:00 P.M.-Finalists of Talent Search meet with Chairmen and Interviewers. Par¬ lors A, B, C, D, E, F. 10:00 A.M. to 12:00 P.M. and 1:00 P. M. to 3:00 P.M.-Judging of Science Exhibit Contest. Sun Porch. (Encouragement of Juniors at their exhibits). 3:00 P.M. to 10:00 P.M.— Tour to Jamestown for Junior Academy Mem¬ bers who sign up before 10:00 A.M. at Registration Desk in Lobby. Buses for about 150 members will leave Hotel Chamberlin at 3:00 P.M. and proceed to Jamestown. The trip will include a 3-hour guided tour of the Jamestown Fes¬ tival area and dinner at the College of William and Mary in Williamsburg. Buses will return to the hotel by about 10:00 P.M. 10:00 P.M.—Meeting of the Junior Academy of Science Committee. Ches¬ apeake Room. 148 The Virginia Journal of Science [April FRIDAY, MAY 10 | 9:00 A.M. to 12:00 P.M.— Participation in Senior Academy Section I Meetings. | 12:00 P.M. to 2:00 P.M.— Virginia Junior Academy of Science Assembly. Virginia Room. Rusiness Meeting: Election of Officers. Guest Speaker: Allan T. Gwathmey; Founder of the Vir¬ ginia Institute of Scientific Research and Professor of \ Chemistry, University of Virginia. \ Subject: “The World of Crystals” Presentation of Awards. I 1957] Program, Thirty-fifth Annual Meeting 149 Section Of Agricultural Science Paul M. Reaves, Chairman James W. Midyette, Jr., Vice-Chairman Allan H. Allison, Secretary C. W. Allen, Section Editor (1956) FRIDAY, MAY 10-8:30 A. M.-COFFEE SHOP 8:30 Announcements and Committee Appointments 1. 8:35 Utilization of Pasture Resources by Virginia Livestock. Shirley H. Carter; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. 2. 8:50 Progress Report On The Lime Requirements of Virginia Soils. W. W. Moschler; Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station. 3. 9:05 The Determination of Available Phosphorus in Several Virginia Soils by Flouride Extraction Methods. Clarence C. Gray, III; Virginia State College. 4. 9:20 The Use Of Seed Characteristics to Check Variety Claims. J. 'W. Midyette, Jr. H. L. Smith, and Graham Copeland; Virginia Department of Agriculture. 5. 9:35 Effectiveness of Superphosphate and Certain Liming Materials. Topdressed on Established Pastures in Southeastern Virginia. Daniel L. Hallock; Tidewater Research Station. 6. 9:45 Evaluating Irrigation in Flue-eured Tobacco Production. Floyd W. Williams; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. 10:00 Recess 7. 10:10 Water— The Hidden Menaee To Homes. R. C. Bricker; Virginia Department of Agriculture. 8. 10:35 Studies on Flavor During Storage of Dried Milk and Frozen Cream. W. K. Stone, Mary Kimzey and G. G. Graf; Virginia Agri¬ cultural Experiment Station. 9. 10:50 Some Costs Assoeiated with Broiler Production in Virginia. James H. Simpson, Jr.; Agricultural Extension Service. 10. 11:05 The Effect of Protein Level Upon the Molybdenum— Sulphate Response in the Rat. N. O. Price; Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station. 150 The Virginia Journal of Science [April 1 11. 11:20 Guest Speaker: The Plant Food Industry for 350 Years. E. Y. Floyd; Director, Plant Food Institute | 11:50 Adjourn for Luneh ! 12. 1:25 Virginia 312, A New Dark-Fire Cured Variety of Tobacco Re¬ sistant to Mosaic and Root Rot. | R. G. Henderson, R. D. Sears and Luben Spasoff; Virginia Ag- \ ricultural Experiment Station . 13. 1:40 Guest Speaker: | Virginia Field Crops for 350 Years. M. S. Kipps; Virginia Polytechnic Institute \ 2:10 Recess ' 14. 2:20 Regulation of Pesticides in Virginia. Paul E. Irwin; Virginia Department of Agriculture | 15. 2:35 A Greenhouse Comparison of the Relative Phytotoxicity and i Nematocidal Efficacy of Certain Chemical Soil Treatments. | W. Wyatt Osborne; Virginia Polytechnic Institute 16. 3:05 Relation of Diseases and D:sease Control Practices to Quality of Raw Products for Specfiic Uses. K. H. Garren; U. S. Department of Agriculture. 17. 3:20 Some Costs and Benefits in Converting Dairy Barn Operations. Carl W. Allen; Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station 18. 3:35 Effects of High Oxygen Tensions on Ascorbic Acid and Vita¬ min A in the Rat. Jean Swartz and C. J. Ackerman; Virginia Polytechnic Institute 3:50 Business Session Section Of Astronomy, Mathematics and Physics Melvin A. Pittman, Chairman Edward R. Dyer, Jr., Secretary Irving G. Foster, Section Editor (1961) FRIDAY, MAY 10, 1957 - 10:00 A.M. - VIRGINIA ROOM 1. 10:00 A Study of Inelastic Scattering of Positive Pions. Paul McCorkle; College of William and Mary. 2. 10:10 Measurement of Neutron Slowing-Down with a Liquid Scin¬ tillator. George S. Ofelt; College of William and Mary. 1957] Program, Thirty-fifth Annual Meeting 151 3. 10:20 4. 10:30 5. 10:40 6. 10:50 7. 11:00 8. 11:10 9. 11:20 10. 11:30 11. 11:40 11:50 12:00 12. 2:00 13. 2:10 14. 2:20 15. 2:35 Scattering of Polarized 3.1-Mev. Neutrons from Be®. Clarence D. Bond; University of Virginia. Scattering of Partially Polarized Neutrons from Various Nuclei. Billy M. McCormac; University of Virginia. A Versatile Heterogeneous Sub-Critical Assembly. T. M. Schuler, Jr., A. Robeson, and T. M. Hahn, Jr.; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. Radio Star Scintillation Studies at the University of Virginia during the International Geophysical Year. E. C. Stevenson and Jack T. Smith; University of Virginia. Population Groups among Red Dwarf Stars. A. N. Vyssotsky; University of Virginia. An Unusual Variable Star. C. R. Cowley and G. S. Mumford, HI; University of Vir¬ ginia. The Sale Planetarium of the Virginia Military Institute. A. Roland Jones; Virginia Military Institute. A Recording Accelerometer. I. G. Foster; Virginia Military Institute. Design and Construction of an Isotope Separation Column for a College Laboratory. Win. Thomas Eley; College of William and Mary. Business Meeting. Noon -2:00 P.M. — Virginia Junior Academy of Seience Assembly — Virginia Room. FRIDAY, MAY 10, 1957 - 2:00 P.M. Experiments with Stringed Instruments. Robert E. Smith; College of William and Mary. The Faraday Effect in Combined Magnetic and Radio Fre¬ quency Fields. Frederic R. Crownfield, Jr.; College of William and Mary. Heat Transter between Particles and Gas in a Rocket Nozzle. Lloyd E. Line, Jr. and Peter L. P. Dillon; Experiment Incorporated. Conductivity of a Still Gas with Volume Ionization. William E. Rice; Experiment Incorporated. 152 The Virginia Journal of Science [April 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25 26. 27. 2:45 Chemiionization in Flames. Willard E. Meador; Experiment Incorporated. 3:05 Measurement of Lifetime of Minority Carriers in Single Silicon Crystals. Stanley R. Jones and T. E. Gilmer, Jr.; Experiment In¬ corporated. 3:15 Definition of Elementary Functions. Robert C. Yates; College of William and Mary. 3:25 Approximation to an Algebraic Irrational Number by a Se¬ quence of Transformations on Quadratic Forms. Reuben R. McDaniel; Virginia State College. 3:40 A Magnetically Driven Ultracentrifuge. D. Rae Carpenter, Jr. and Jesse W. Beams; Virginia Mili¬ tary Institute and University of Virginia. 3:50 Some Improvements in the Optical System of the Ultracentri- fuge. K. D. Williams, B. V. English, and J. W. Beams; Univer¬ sity of Virginia. 4:00 Determination of Tensile Strength and Adhesion by Centrifugal Technique. H. N. Bundv and J. F. McArdle; University of Virginia. 4:10 Mechanical Strength of Polvcrvstalline Gold and Silver Films. A. L. Stamper, D. E. Kraft, and T. Strider; University of Virginia. 4:20 Tensile Strength of Liquid Helium. J. W. Beams; University of Virginia. 4:30 The Properties of Whiskers of Zinc and Cadmium. R. V. Coleman, B. P. Price, and N. Cabrera; Utiiversity of Virginia. 4:40 On the Maxwell-Boltzmann Energy Distribution: Advantages of Including a Constant of Proportionality in the Definition of Probability. David E. Lundquist; Newport News High School. (Introduced by Miss Susie V. Floyd) 4:50 Nomographic Charts for the Solution of Kepler’s Equation. A. Hughlett Mason; Office of the Chief of Staff, U. S. Army.. 1957] Program, Thirty-fifth Annual Meeting 153 Section Of Bacteriology Wesley A. Volk, President Barbara Caminita, Vice-President Miles Hench, Secretary P. Arne Hanson, Section Editor (1957) FRIDAY, MAY 10, 1957-11:00 A.M.-CHAMBERLIN CLUB TV ROOM 11:00 A.M. Business Meeting 12:00 Noon Recess 1:50 P.M. Presentation of Scientific Papers. 2:00 P.M. A Study of Bactericidin Levels in Sera From Humans With Myocardial Infarction. George Naff, Department of Microbiology; University of Virginia, School of Medicine. 2:20 P.M. Some Observations on pH Controlled Endamoeba histolytica Cultures. E. Clifford Nelson and Muriel Jones; Department of Microbiology, Medical College of Virginia. 2:40 P.M. Identification of Escherichia coli by the Fluorescent Anti¬ body Technique. Walter R. Dowdle; Department of Bacteriology, Uni¬ versity of Maryland; Margaret Green and Mildred En- gelbrecht; Department of Bacteriology, University of Alabama. 3:00 P.M. Growth of HeLa Cells in the Presence of Anti-HeLa Cell Rabbit Serum. Gerald Goldstein-, Department of Microbiology, Uni¬ versity of Virginia, School of Medicine. 3:20 P.M. Comparison of Isolation Techniques and Methods for the Diagnosis of Onychomycosis. Muriel M. Jones, J. Douglas Reid, and Albert Pincuf; Department of Microbiology, Medical College of Vir¬ ginia. [April 154 The Virginia Journal of Science 3:40 P.M. Observations on Human Mucosa in Tissue Culture. Catherine M. Russell; Department nf Microhiologij, Universitij of Virginia, School of Medicine. 4:00 P.M. Adjourn. Section of Biology Jack D. Burke, Chairman Harry L. Holloway, Secretary Robert T. Rrumfield, Section Editor (1957) FRIDAY, MAY 10, 1957 - 9:00 A. M. - ROOF GARDEN 1. 9:00 Preliminary Survey of Aquatic Hyphomycetes on Angiosperm Debris. Clyde J. Umphlett; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. 2. 9:15 Hybridization in Ipomoea and Its Relatives. Robert J. Knight; The Blandy Experimental Farm. 3. 9:30 A Biosvstematic Study of Rosa acicidaris. Walter H. Lewis; The Blandy Experimental Farm. 4. 9:45 The Effect of Indoleacetic Acid on Certain Growth Phases of Mosses. Paul M. Patterson; Hollins College. 5. 10:00 Weekly Fluctuation of an Unstable Beach. K. A. Wagner; College of William and Mary in Norfolk and W. W. McNeil; Seashore State Park. 6. 10:15 Chlorella and The Nitrogen Cycle. Kathryn P. Smith; Newport News High School. Honorable Mention, National Science Talent Search. 7. 10:30 Preservation of Plant Materials for Collections. Mary V. Charlton; Buckingham High School. Honorable Mention, National Science Talent Search. 8. 10:45 Unit and Polygenic Traits as Indicators of Population Relation¬ ship. B. L. Hanna and Marv Ellen Dechert; Medical College of Virginia. 9. 11:00 The Sex Bivalent of the Chinese Hamster, Crisetulus griseus. L. Husted, E. G. Pollock, and G. C. Smart, Jr.; University of Virginia. 1957] Program, Thirty-fifth Annual Meeting 155 10. 11:15 Silver Impregnation of a Rockpool Hypotrichous Ciliate from Mountain Lake. Jesse C. Thompson; Hollins College. 11. 11:30 Observations on the Fresh-water Medusa, Craspedacusta sower- bii. Occurring in a Pond in Southampton Quarry. Nolan E. Rice; University of Richmond. 12. 11:45 The Host Specificity of Monogenetic Trematodes. William J. Hargis; Virginia Fisheries Laboratory. 13. 12:00 The Distribution of N eoechinorhynchus cylindratus in North America. Harry L. Holloway; Roanoke College. 14. 12:15 Chaetonotid Gastrotrichia in Ashland, Virginia. C. E. Packard; Randolph-Macon College. 12:30 BUSINESS MEETING FRIDAY, MAY 10-2:00 P.M. 15. 2:00 Alkaline Phosphatase in Turbellaria. Paul J. Osborne; Lynchbiurg College. 16. 2:15 The Life History of the Lesser Peach Tree Borer in Virginia. Marvin L. Bobb; Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station. 17. 2:30 Invitational Paper. The Chemical Senses of Arthropods. E. S. Hodgson; Columbia University and Mountain Lake Riological Station. 18. 3:00 Comparative Osteology of Serranid Fishes of the Genus Roccus (Mitchell) . William S. Woolcott, Jr.; University of Richmond. 19. 3:15 The Effects of Population on Virginia’s Marine Fisheries. J. L. McHugh; Vrginia Fisheries Laboratory. 20. 3:30 Blood Oxygen Capacity in Albino Rats. Jack D. Burke; University of Richmond. 21. 3:45 Milieu and the Manner of Melanocytes. Willie M. Reams, Jr.; Medical College of Virginia. 22. 4:00 Blood Oxygen Capacity in Turtles. Harold J. Payne; University of Richmond. 23. 4:15 Blood Oxygen Capacity in the Black Crappie (Pomoxis nigro- maculatus) and the Bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus) . William S. Woolcott, Jr.; University of Richmond. 156 [April The Virginia Journal of Science SATURDAY, MAY 11 - 9:00 A. M. 9:00 Field trip to Seashore State Park, Princess Anne County; under the direction of Kenneth A. Wagner. Section Of Chemistry Mary E. Kapp, Chairman Joseph C. Holmes, Secretary Carl J. Likes, Section Editor (1957) FRIDAY, MAY 10, 1957 - 9:00 A.M. - JOHN SMITH ROOM Concurrent Session In Chesapeake Room 9:00 Announcements; Introductory Remarks. (1) 9:15 Some Experiments Using Phenyl Acid Phosphate as a Cycliz- ing Agent. F. A. Vingiello, M. Spangler, W. Zajac, R. Thornton, R. Stevens, M. Schlechter, and R. Light; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. (2) 9:30 An Unequivocal Synthesis of 3-Chloro-9-Anthrone. F. A. Vingiello, P. Newallis, and M. Schlechter; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. (3) 9:45 Some Ionic Addition Reactions of Two Isomeric 3-methyl- dihydrothiophene 1,1-Dioxides. Robert C. Krug and Francois E. Didot; Virginia Polytech¬ nic Institute. (4) 10:00 Molecular Weight Determination by Effusion Constants. Charles J. Varsel, John P. Bell, Joseph C. Holmes, and Frank E. Resnik; Philip Morris Incorporated. (5) 10:15 The Clarification of Aqueous Tobacco Extracts Prior to De¬ termining Reducing Sugars. A Preliminary Report. F. L. Greene and Robert B. Seligman; Philip Morris Incorporated. 10:30 Recess (6) 10:45 Micro Infra-red Techniques for the Identification of Carbo¬ hydrates. F. E. Resnik, L. S. Harrow, J. C. Holmes, M. E. Bill, and F. L. Greene; Philip Morris Incorporated. 157 1957] Program, Thirty-fifth Annual Meeting (7) 11:00 Studies of Tobacco Leaf Proteins. Donald F. Koenig, James K. Palmer, and Carl J. Likes; Johns Hopkins Hospital and Virginia Institute for Scientific Research. (8) 11:15 Distiibution of Radioactivity in Main and Side Stream Cigarette Smoke Using Carbon-14 Labeled Materials. P. M. Pedersen and E. S. Harlow; The American Tobacco Company. (9) 11:30 The Respiration of the Tobacco Plant. 1. Oxidation of Hexose Phosphate and Pentose Phosphate by Cell-free Exti'acts of Tobacco Leaves. R. A. Clayton; The American Tobacco Company. (10) 11:45 The Spectrophotometric Determination of Total Carbonyl Content Utilizing Integrated Absorbence Measurements. L. S. Harrow, J. T. Butler, F. E. Resnik, A. C. Estes, M. E. Bill and R. B. Seligman; Philip Morris Incorporated. 12:00 Business Meeting. FRIDAY, MAY 10, 1957 ™ 9:00 A. M. - CHESAPEAKE ROOM (11) 9:15 Specti’ochemical Determination of Certain Trace Metals in Human Blood. Leonel M. Paixao; Pratt Trace Analysis Laboratory, Uni¬ versity of Virginia. (12) 9:30 A Spectrophotometric Method for the Determination of Chromium in Human Blood. Dwight O. Miller; Pratt Trace Analysis Laboratory, Uni¬ versity of Virginia. (13) 9:45 Simultaneous Spectrophotometiic Determination of Traces of Copper, Cobalt and Nickel with Dithiooxamide. William D. Jacobs; Pratt Trace Analysis Laboratory, Uni¬ versity of Virginia. (14) 10:00 A New Colorimetric Reagent for Uranium. H. Perry Holcomb; Pratt Trace Analysis Laboratory, Uni¬ versity of Virginia. (15) 10:15 Stimctural Analysis of the Napthylamine Sulfonic Acid-Os- mate Complexes with Application to the Determination of Trace Amounts of Osmium. Edgar L. Steele and John H. Yoe; Pratt Trace Analysis Laboratory, University of Virginia. 10:30 Recess 158 The Virginia Journal of Science [April (16) 10:45 The Dissociation Pressures of the Tantalum Silicides. Chfford E. Meyers and Alan W. Searcy; Lynchburg Col¬ lege and University of California. (17) 11:00 A Modification of the Turmeric Paper Test for Boron. W. Allan Powell, Emmet H. Poindexter and James Hard- castle; University of Richmond. (18) 11:15 Combustion of Carbon Disulfide - Air Mixtures. George J. Gibbs, Irving R. King and Hartwell F. Calcote; Experiment Incorporated. (19) 11:30 Microscopic Examination of Incandescent Surfaces. Claud P. Talley and Everett J. Nieuwenhuis; Experiment Incorporated. (20) 11:45 Whisker Growth of Silver Metal. Mechanism and Kinetics. Welby G. Courtney; Chemical Construction Corporation. 12:00 Business Meeting — John Smith Room. FRIDAY, MAY 10 - 2:00 P.M. (21) 2:00 Copolymerization of vinvl chloride and styrene. Joseph Clema; National Science Talent Search. (22) 2:15 Preparation of Dipyrrylmethylpyrocolls. Catalytic Reduction of 3,5,4’ - Tricarbethoxy - 4,3’, 5’ - trimethylpyrromethene. Bryant Harrell and Alsop H. Corwin; The College of Wil¬ liam and Mary and Johns Hopkins University. (23) 2:30 Ultracentrifugal Studies of Aggregation Occurring in Alkaline Zein Solutions. Carl J. Likes and Donald F. Koenig; Virginia Institute for Scientific Research and lohns Hopkins Hospital. (24) 2:45 Synthesis and Properties of Pyridylalanines. Herbert McKennis, Jr., and Edward R. Bowman; Medical College of Virginia. (25) 3:00 The Determination of Residues of 0-2,4-Dichlorophenyi’ 0- O-diethyl Phosphorothioate (V-C 13 Nemacide) by Cholin¬ esterase Inhibition. George R. Boyd; Virginia-Carolina Chemical Corporation. (26) 3:15 Chemical Library Resources In Virginia. Miss M. Hathaway Pollard; Virginia-Carolina Chemical Corporation. (27) 3:30 Nuclear Reactors for Research. W. E. Chamberlain; AMF Atomics, Incorporated. 1957] Program, Thirty=fifth Annual Meeting 159 Section Of Education W. Donald Clague, Chairman Evan G. Pattishall, Secretary James B. Patton, Jr., Section Editor (1960) FRIDAY, MAY 10, 1957 - 9:00 A.M. - PARLOR A 1. 8:30 Registration, 2. 9:00 The quality of Written Expression of Virginia’s High School Seniors. Alfred L. Wingo; State Department of Instruction. 3. 9:20 Changes in Attitudes Resulting from Training in Educational Psychology. Charles Martindale and George Kent; Bridgewater College. 4. 9:40 Some Effects of College Mental Hygiene Courses in Personal Development. George Kent; Bridgewater College. 5. 10:00 Recess 6. 10:20 An Experiment in Cooperative, Non-cooperative and Individual Performance. Frank W. Banghart; University of Virginia. 7. 10:40 Evaluating Behavior Traits in Elementary Science. Jack Boger; Richmond Public Schools. 8. 11:00 Mental Maturation Lag in Retarded Children. Thomas Lahey; Charlottesville Public Schools. 9. 11:20 Symposium: Needed Research on the Gifted Child. Mike Alford; Norfolk Public Schools; Virgil Ward; Univer¬ sity of Virginia; Kuhn Barnett; State Department of In- srtuction; Leon Reid; University of Virginia; Evan Patti¬ shall, Chairman; University of Virginia. 10. 12:30 Business Meeting and Election of Officers. 11. 1:00 Adjournment. IbO The Virginia Journal of Science [April Section Of Engineering D, M. Grim, Chairman O. L. Updike, Secretary R. M. Hubbard, Section Editor (1958) FRIDAY, MAY 10, 1957 - 9:00 A.M. - PARLOR B 9:00 Announcements, Committee Appointments, ete. 1. 9:10 An Investigation of Some Aspects of Transonic Wind Tunnel Design. Arthur C. Bruee; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. 2. 9:30 Determination of the Aerodynamie Charaeteristies of Bodies of Revolution in an Axially Symmetrie Perfect Fluid Flow by the Method of Vortex Ring Distribution. Charles R. Wilson and James B. Fades, Jr.; Virginia Poly¬ technic Institute. 3. 9:55 Some Consideration of the Transonic Area Rule. Edgar B. Pritehard and Arthur C. Bruee; Virginia Polytech¬ nic Institute. 4. 10:15 Flow in the Forward Stagnation Region of Blunt Bodies. Robert W. Truitt; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. 5. 10:35 Aerodynamie Heating on Bodies of Revolution Including Slip Flow. Adolf K. Anderson, Jr., and Robert W. Truitt; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. 6. 10:55 Struetural Problems Due to Aerodynamie Heating of Super- sonie Airframes. William Zuk; University of Virginia. 7. 11:15 Proeess Design for the Produetion of Maleic Acid Hydrazide for Weed Control. E. C. Monerief, W. H. Sawyer, and Frank C. Vilbrandt; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. 8. 11:30 Planning Problems in the Washington Metropolitan Area of Virginia. J. E. Woodward; Virginia Military Institute. 12:00 Recess. 161 1957] Program, Thirty-fifth Annual Meeting 9. 2:00 A Molecular Lens. Paul R. Little, Robert L. Ramey, and Orville R. Harris; University of Virginia. 10. 2:30 An Investigation of the Modified Newtonian-Type Flow Over a Flat Plate. F, Wendell Johnson and Robert W. Truitt; Virginia Poly¬ technic Institute. 11. 2:50 Determination of Pressure Drag on Bodies of Revolution in Transient Fhght. Samuel J. Harris, III, and Robert W. Truitt; Virginia Poly¬ technic Institute. 12. 3:10 An Investigation of Modified Newtonian Hypersonic Theory in the Stagnation Region of Cylindrical and Hemispherical Bodies. Jerry C. South, Jr., and Robert W. Truitt; Virginia Poly¬ technic Institute. 13. 3:30 Experimental Compressible Pressure Distributions and Velocity Gradient on a 180° Wedge. Paul Taynton and Arthur C. Bruce; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. 3:50 Engineering Exhibits — Presentation by Members of the Vir¬ ginia Junior Academy of Science. 5:00 Business Meeting and Election of Officers. Section Of Geology Troy J. Laswell, Chairman Richard V. Dietrick, Vice-Chairman Robert S. Young, Secretary Wallace D. Lowry, Section Editor (1958) FRIDAY, MAY 10, 1957 »■ 9:00 A.M. - PARLOR C 9:00 Announcements 1, 9:10 Magnetic Intensities of Some Rocks in the Vicinity of Lynch¬ burg, Va. Robert Hopkins; Virginia Division of Geology. 2. 9:22 Study of Heavy Minerals in Sands of South River, Rock¬ bridge County, Virginia. James R. Creel, James H. Davis, and Robert B. Lurate; Washington and Lee University. Presented by James H. Davis. 162 The Virginia Journal of Science [April 3. 9:34 Desiderata for the '‘Representative Sample.” A. C. Lilly, Jr.; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. 4. 9:46 Struetural Polytypism and the Spiral Growth of Crystals. Riehard S. Mitchell; University of Virginia. 5. 9:58 Weathered Stream Gravels at the Crest of the Blue Ridge. R. V. Dietrich; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. 6. 10:15 Vermiculite in Virginia. Edwin O. Gooch; Virginia Division of Geology. 7. 10:30 Zircon in Bentonite in the Martinsburg Shale at Fisher’s Hill. | Virginia. I Dorothy Carroll; United States Geological Survey. j 8. 10:44 Heavy Mineral Studies of Sediment from Little River, Floyd | County, Virginia. i Carl R. Mangold, Jr., Lee Marshall, and William K. Young; ! Washington and Lee University. ' Presented by Carl R. Mangold, Jr. | 9. 10:56 Description of Large Calcite Crystals from Staunton, Virginia. I William F. Giannini; University of Virginia. i 10. 11:08 Non-tectonic Folds in the Athens Formation, near Harrison¬ burg, Virginia. W. D. Lowry; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. 11. 11:25 Chert in the Murat-Collierstown Area, Rockbridge County, Virginia. R. S. Edmundson; University of Virginia. 12. 11:37 Remarks on Spherulitic Phosphate Concretions from Big Horn Basin, Wyoming. Richard S. Mitchell and W. Cullen Sherwood; University of Virginia. 13. 11:50 Origin of Ordovicean Dolomite-Bearing Carbonate Rocks in Virginia. C. R. B. Hobbs, Jr.; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. 14. 12:00 Relationship of Igneous Intrusion To North Mountain Thrust¬ ing, North River Gap Area, Virginia. Mark Fara; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. 12:10 Recess AFTERNOON PROGRAM TO EE ANNOUNCED 1957] Program, Thirty-fifth Annual Meeting 163 Section Of Medical Science L. E. Edwards, Chairman G. M. Duncan, Secretary W. P. Anslow, Jr., Section Editor (1961) FRIDAY, MAY 10, 1957 - 9:00 A.M. - CHAMBERLIN CLUB ROOM 9:00 Announcements. 1. 9:05 Studies on the Metabolism of Nornicotine. H. B. Hucker and P. S. Larson; Medical College of Virginia. 2. 9:20 Dialysis as an Analytical Tool. H. Hock and R. C. Williams; Medical College of Virginia. 3. 9:40 Effects of Oral Hypoglycemic Compounds on the Metabolism of Isolated Intact Frog Muscle. D. R. H. Gourley; University of Virginia. 4. 10:00 Motion Pictures of Tissue Changes in Regenerating Zones of Irradiated Tadpoles. C. C. Speidel; University of Virginia. 5. 10:20 Transport of Dye by Renal Tubular Cells. (Film) E. L. Beeker and S. Solomon; Medical College of Virginia. 6. 10:40 Reactions of Enzymes with Toxie Phosphorus Compounds. L. A. Mounter; Medical College of Virginia, and H. C. Alexander HI; University of Virginia. 7. 11:00 Irreversible Shock Produced by Temporary Cerebral Ischemia in Cats. E. D. Brand; University of Virginia. 8. 11:20 Histochemieal Studies on Trypan Blue and Related Dyes. J. W. Kelly; Medical College of Virginia. 9. 11:40 Metabolic Effects of Triiodothyronine Given Orally to Rats. C. L. Gemmill; University of Virginia. 11:55 Business Meeting. 10. 2:00 Some Factors Influencing Gross Composition of the Fat-Free Body. G. C. Pitts; University of Virginia. 11. 2:20 The Effeet of Pentobarbital on the Uptake of p32 in the 164 The Virginia Journal of Science [April Brain, Endocrines and Other Organs in the Adult Rat. P. Lindgjerde and O. J. Malm; Medical College of Virginia. 12. 2:40 Hypogammaglobulinemia in Children. C. Hoch-Ligeti and J. P. Hobbs; University of Virginia. 13. 3:00 Indirect Hemagglutination Studies on Salmonellosis of Chickens. J. M. Sieburth; Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station. 14. 3:20 E. coli as a Pathogen in Chickens and Turkeys. W. B. Gross; Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station. 15. 3:40 Exchange Absorption Mechanism of Active Ion Transport. E. G. Huf, N. Doss, and J. Wills; Medical College of Virginia. 16. 4:00 An Experimental Analysis of the Genetotrophic Theory of Alcoholism. E. C. Hoff; Medical College of Virginia. 17. 4:20 Effect of Perthane on Spontaneous Mammary Carcinoma in the C3H Mouse. L. A. Leone; Medical College of Virginia. 18. 4:40 Effects of X- Irradiation on Guinea Pig Brain, with Special Reference to the Age Eactor. R. H. Brownson and B. A. Moss; Medical College of Vir¬ ginia. 19. 5:00 Menometric Determinations of Hydrazine and Hydrazides. H. McKennis, Jr. and J. H. Weatherby; Medical College of Virginia. Section Of Psychology Erank W. Finger, Chairman Robert J. Filer, Secretary-Treasurer Nobel McEwen, Executive Committeeman Richard H. Henneman, Section Editor (1959) FRIDAY, MAY 10, 1957 - 1:00 P.M. - PARLOR D AND PARLOR E 1. 1:00 The influence of conditional probability, intei-polated activity and stimulus similarity upon responses to sequentially pre¬ sented stimuli. John B. Feallock; University of Virginia. 1957] Program, Thirty-fifth Annual Meeting 165 2. 1M5 The effects on retention of two motor activities used as inter¬ polated tasks. Albert M. Blecich and Nobel R. McEwen; Randolph-Macon College. 3. 1:30 Irrelevant stimuli and complex visual discrimination. Milton H. Hodge; University of Virginia. 4. 1:45 An olfactometer for the rat. Carl Pfaffmann, Brown University; J. K. Bare, College of William and Mary; William R. Goff, University of Virginia. 5. 2:00 Motivational support of perceptual hypotheses. Charles C. Keach; Alexandria Mental Hygiene Clinic. 6. 2:15 The changing role of the psychotherapist in the treatment of schizophrenia. A. W. Jeffreys, Jr.; Western State Hospital. 7. 2:30 Cutaneous adaptation to alternating current. G. R. Hawkes; University of Virginia. 8. 2:45 Derived dimensions of vibratory stimulation. William G. Howell; University of Virginia. 9. 3:15 Functions of psychological organizations at the state level. William Hinton, Moderator; Washington and Lee University. 10. 4:45 Business Meeting. SATURDAY, MAY 11 - 9:15 A.M. 11. 9:15 Manifest content and interpretative meaning of verbal intelH- ligence test responses. Norman Tallent; Kecoughtan Veterans Administration Center. 12. 9:30 Therapeutic validation of the A scale. Dell Lebo, Richmond Professional Institute; Robert A. Toal, Medical College of Virginia; and Harry Brick, Virginia State Penitentiary. 13. 9:45 Normative data for a multiple-choice TAT. John E. Williams; University of Richmond. 14. 10:00 The effect of recitation on recall. F. J. McGuigan, Allen D. Calvin, Martha M. Myers, and Elizabeth J. Hobbs; Hollins College. 15. 10:15 Flexibility in relation to problem-solving ability. William F. Battig; University of Virginia. 166 The Virginia Journal of Science [April j 16. 10:30 “Quickening” techniques in improving tracking performance. ! Henry P. Birmingham, Engineering Psijchology Branch, 1 Naval Research Laboratory and Patricia A. Rund; Univer- ! sity of Virginia. \ 17. 10:45 An experiment with complex verbal behavior. William E. Montague; University of Virginia. | 18. 11:00 The self concept as a means of determining personality types in a population of delinquent boys. i Cletus'A. Cole; Arlington County Schools. 19. 11:30 Business Meeting. i Section Of Science Teachers > Samuella Grim, Chairman Vera B. Remsberg, Chairman-elect Martha W. Duke, Secretary Caroline Gambrill, Section Editor (1959) FRIDAY, MAY 10, 1957 - PARLOR F 1. Business Meeting 9:00-9:30 A.M. 2. 9:30-9:50 Conservation of Fishery Resources. L. A. Walford; U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 3. 9:50-10:10 Motivation of the Superior Science Student. Miss Virginia Lewis; Cidpeper High School. 4. 10:10-10:30 Recent Trends in the Teaching of Science. John Mayor; Director, Science Teachers Program, AAAS. 5. 10:30-10:50 The Possibility of Using Marine Forms in the Science Programs of our schools. Robert S. Bailey; Asst. Biologist, Virginia Fisheries ! Laboratory. \ 6. 10:50-11:10 The Respective Roles of Industry and Education in the I Enrichment of Science Teaching. Paul Caron; General Electric Co. I I 1957] Program, Thirty-fifth Annual Meeting 167 7. 11:10-11:30 Atomic Energy Development in Virginia. W. M. Breazeale; Babcock and Wilcox Co. 8. 11:30 Discussion, Adjournment. Section Of Statistics J. E. Freund, Chairman E. L. Enrick, Vice-Chairman C. Y. Kramer, Secretary P. N. Somerville, Section Editor (1959) FRIDAY, MAY 10, 1957 - 9:00 A. M. - PARLOR G 1. 9:00 Introductory Remarks by the Chairman. 2. 9:05 Some Results on Cross Spectrum Estimation. A. E. Garratt and J. E. Freund; Virginia Polytechnic Insti¬ tute. 3. 9:30 Simultaneous Prediction Limits. J. J. Cart; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. 4. 9:55 Intra-Block Analysis for Factorials in Two-Associate Class Group Divisible Designs. C. Y. Kramer and R. A. Bradley; Virginia Polytechnic Insti¬ tute. 10:20 Intermission 5. 10:30 The Statistical Foundations of Chmatology. H .C. S. Thom; U. S. Weather Bureau. 6. 11:30 Business Meeting. FRIDAY, MAY 10, 1957 - 2:00 P.M. 7. 2:00 A Multivariate Rank-Sum Test. L. Lynch, and J. E. Freund; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. 8. 2:25 One-Way Variances in a Two-Way Classification. T. S. Russell and R. A. Bradley; Washington State College and Virginia Polytechnic Institute. 9. 2:50 Statistical Consulting in Industry. I. Miller; U. S. Steel Corporation. [April 168 The Virginia Journal of Science 10. 3:20 Linear Discriminant Analysis. ^ R. H. Riffenburgh and C. W. Clunies-Ross; Virginia Poly- j technic Institute. '■ 1 11. 3:45 Trends Within Blocks. I H. A. Still and R. A. Bradley; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. \ SATURDAY, MAY 11, 1957 - 9:00 A.M. I 12. 9:00 Randomized Power Spectrum Estimation. j W. O. Ash and J. E. Freund; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. 13. 9:25 Possibility of Monozygotic Twins in Mice. C. W. Clunies-Ross; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. 14. 9:50 A Method and Its Properties for the Analysis of Ranking in Triple Comparisons. I R. N. Pendergrass and R. A. Bradley; Radford College and ; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. \ 15. 10:15 On the Analysis of Residuals from Regression. R. J. Freund; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. 10:40 Intermission 16. 10:50 The Comparison of the Sensitivities of Similar Experiments. D. E. W. Schumann and R. A. Bradley; University of Stel¬ lenbosch, South Africa, and Virginia Polytechnic Institute. 17. 11:15 Effects of Underlying Trends in Experimental Designs. Jean Laity; Virginia Polytechnic Institute (By Title). , 169 1957] Minutes of Council Meeting MINUTES OF THE VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE COUNCIL MEETING Charlottesville, Virginia — February 23, 1957 The Council of the Virginia Academy of Science met at the Monti- cello Hotel, Charlottesville, Virginia. The meeting was called to order by the President at 10:30 a.m. Council members present were: Edward S. Harlow William G. Guy Sidney S. Negus John C. Forbes Robert Brumfield Walter S. Flory Mrs. B. G. Heatwole Thomas L. Gilmer Foley F. Smith William B. Wartman, Jr. Also present was Dr. Alfred R. Armstrong, representing the Local Arrangements Committee for the 1957 meeting. The minutes of the previous meeting were read by the Secretary- Treasurer and were approved as read. The following items were discussed and action taken as noted. FUNDS FOR SURVEY OF THE RESULTS OF THE VIRGINIA SCIENCE TALENT SEARCH E. S. Harlow reported that the Academy’s application to the Na¬ tional Science Foundation for funds to finance a survey of the results of the Virginia Science Talent Search had been rejected. Several members suggested other possible sources for these funds, and Mrs. Heatwole was requested to refer tlie matter to the Chairman of the Long Range Plan¬ ning Committee. This committee is requested to investigate other pos¬ sible sources of funds to finance this project. REPORT OF THE FINANCE COMMITTEE The Secretary-Treasurer read the report of the Finance Committee. Recommendations of this committee were taken up in the following order: Audit of the Treasurers Piecords — The Finance Committee recom¬ mended that the Treasurer’s records be audited by an accountant every two or three years, with an examination of the records during the inter¬ vening years by a committee of Academy members appointed by the President. Since an audit now costs $225.00, this would result in a con¬ siderable saving to the Academy. The Finance Committee recommenda¬ tion also provided for the raising of the Treasurer’s bond from $5,000.00 to $10,000.00. 170 The Virginia Journal of Science [April A motion was made and passed that the Treasurer’s records be aud¬ ited by an accountant bi-annually or at such other times as requested by the officers of the Academy, with an examination during the inter- i vening years to be made by a committee appointed by the President; I also, that the Treasurer’s bond be raised from $5,000.00 to $10,000.00. | Additional Revenue for the Aeademy — It was reported by Dr. Negus i that the Membership Committee is attempting to obtain new members I at various facilities throughout the State and, through correspondence, , is making a concerted effort to secure new members among the science | teachers in the State. ■ As recommended bv the Finance Committee, a motion was made i and passed that the President appoint a committee to solicit additional business members and that a stamp, with its context urging all regular members to become contributing or sustaining members, be used on all j future bilhngs to regular members. Additional Funds for Researeh Orants-in-Aid — Dr. Forbes pointed ! out that an $1,800.00 surplus from the Research Fund had been trans¬ ferred to the Research Endowment Fund in 1955. He further reported that he had already received this year applications for grants-in-aid totaling $600.00 in excess of funds available. As a consequence, it was moved and passed that the President and Secretary arrange for the trans¬ fer of $800.00 from the Research Endowment Fund to the Research Com¬ mittee for research grants-in-aid. Dr. Forbes expressed the feeling that there were many teachers^ ! particularly in the smaller colleges of the State, who pursued research projects during the summer and their efforts would be intensified if they could get financial assistance in the amount of $100.00 to $200.00. He proposed that the Research Fund for grants-in-aid be increased an addi¬ tional $500.00 so that such assistance might be made available to a few applicants each year. Recognizing the fact that support of research in the State is one of the prime functions of the Academy, it was moved and passed that the sum of $500.00 be included in the annual budget of the Academy, beginning with the current calendar year; this sum to be made available, if needed, to the Research Committee for such research grants-in-aid, and to be in addition to funds already available to the Research Committee. Dr. Forbes requested the opinion of Council on the idea that re¬ cipients of grants-in-aid provide the Research Committee with an abstract of their progress on their research projects and publication of these ab¬ stracts in the Proceedings of the Academy. Council was in sympathy with the idea and requested Dr. Forbes to work out the mechanics of publi¬ cation with the Editor of the Journal. iy57] Minutes of Council Meeting 171 The 1957 Budget — The 1957 budget, as submitted by the Finanee Committee, was approved after making the following ehanges: (1) Deleting the item “Audit — Tax Serviee — $225.00” (2) Adding “Research Fund for Grants-in-Aid — $500.00” REPORT OF THE JUNIOR ACADEMY OF SCIENCE COMMITTEE Mrs. Heatwole reported that she had just recently attended a Junior Academy Conference arranged by The Academy Conference of the Amer¬ ican Association for the Advancement of Science and the Museum Divi¬ sion of the Oak Ridge Institute of Nuclear Studies. At this conference several proposals were made, some of which would require action by the Academy Conference. One of these proposals concerned the establish¬ ment of regional workshops for secondary school science students. She reported that she was drafting a list of these proposals which would be disseminated to Council members. THE J. SHELTON HORSLEY AWARD Dr. Forbes requested the feeling of Council on a proposal that he ask the various chairmen of sections, in which papers were submitted for the Horsley Award, to designate a representative of the section to aid the Research Committee in evaluating the papers submitted by members of their respective sections. It was the feeling of Council that the mechan¬ ics of operation in selecting the winning papers was entirely a Research Committee function and Council had no objection to the modus operandi proposed by Dr. Forbes. PRESENT STATUS OF THE SEASHORE STATE PARK SCIENCE CENTER PROPOSAL The President reviewed the present status of this proposal as con¬ tained in a memo to Council members dated January 14, 1957. The pro¬ posal is still under consideration by the Board of Conservation and De¬ velopment, and subsequent developments will be promulgated to Council members. PROPOSED CHANGES IN THE CONSTITUTION AND BYLAWS OF THE VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE A proposal for changes in the Constitution and Bylaws of the Vir¬ ginia Academy of Science to increase the number of officers to five — such officers to be the President, President-Elect, Secretary, Treasurer and Assistant Secretary-Treasurer — was introduced by the President. Revisions in the Constitution and Bylaws can be initiated only by noti¬ fying Council members of such proposed changes at least thirty days prior to the call for a formal vote. For final approval, revisions approved by 172 The Virginia Journal of Science [April the Council are presented to the membership prior to the annual meet¬ ing. Council was in complete accord with the proposal and it is expected that a resolution to revise the Constitution and Bylaws will be formally approved by them at their scheduled meeting, Thursday, May 9, 1957. The burden of correspondence to both the Office of Secretary-Treas¬ urer and of President has increased exceedingly in the past few years. Hence, it was felt that the separation of the Office of Secretary-Treasurer into two offices — Secretary and Treasurer — would tend to alleviate this situation. In addition, the Secretary would (without the financial responsi- i bilities) be in a better position to perform the administrative duties of ■ his office and relieve the President of considerable responsibility along this line. The Office of the Assistant Secretary-Treasurer will provide one ' individual to assist both the Secretary and the Treasurer in the perform¬ ance of their duties and will allow for at least two individuals to be thoroughly informed of all business operations of the Academy. REPORT OF THE LOCAL ARRANGEMENTS COMMITTEE FOR THE 1957 MAY MEETING Dr. Stanley Williams, Chairman of this committee, was unable to attend and Dr. Alfred Armstrong of the College of William and Mary reported for the Committee. Dr. Armstrong reported that plans for the 1957 meeting are well under way and stressed the importance of mem¬ bers, who plan to attend the meeting, making housing reservations im¬ mediately. , He proposed that a notice of the urgency in making housing reservations be mailed to each member. The Secretary-Treasurer was re¬ quested by Council to mail such a notice to the members and to include a notice of the proposed changes in the Constitution and Bylaws. REPORT OF THE EDITOR OF THE JOURNAL Dr. Brumfield reported that the Januarv issue of the journal would be mailed to members of the Academy in the next few days. There being no further business, the meeting was adjourned at 12:45 p.m. William B. Wartman, Jr. Asst. Secretarv IB (■ A i ' / The Annual Subscription Rate is $3.00, and the cost of a single number, $1.00. Reprints are available only if ordered when galley proof is returned. All orders except those involving exchanges should be addressed to Charles F. Lane, Stevens Hall, Longwood College, Farmville, Virginia. The University of Virginia Library has exclusive exchange arrangements, and communications relative to exchange should be addressed to The Librarian. Alderman Library, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia. Notice To Contributors Contributions to the Journal should be addressed to Robert T. Brumfield, Stevens Hall, Longwood College, Farmville, Virginia. If any preliminary notes have been pub¬ lished on the subject which is submitted to the editors, a statement to that effect must accompany the manuscript. Manuscripts must be submitted in triplicate, typewritten in double spacing on standard 8 Vs” X 11” paper, with at least a one inch margin on all sides. Manuscripts are limited to seven pages, with the proviso that if additional pages are desired, the author may obtain them at cost. Division of the manuscripts into subheadings must follow a consistent plan, and be held to a minimum. It is desirable that a brief summary be included in all manuscripts. Footnotes should be included in the body of the manuscript immediately following the reference, and set off by a dashed-line above and below the footnote content. Footnotes should be numbered consecutively from the beginning to the end of the manuscript. Bibliographies (Literature Cited, References, etc.) should be arranged alphabetically according to author. Each reference should include the date, full title of the article, the name of the Journal, the volume, number (optional), pages, tables and figures (if any). For example: “Sniffen, Ernest W. 1940. Cobbles from the Pleistocene Terraces of the Lower York-James Peninsula Va. Journ. Sci., 1 (8) : 235-288 1 fig., 1 tab. Reference to the bibliographic citations should not be made by numbers. Instead, using the above citations, where a reference is desired: either “Sniffen (1940)”, (Sniffen, 1940: 186)”, or “Sniffen (1940) states that . . .” Explanations of figures. Graphs, etc., should be typed on separate pages. All figures should be numbered consecutively beginning with the first text figure and continuing through the plates. If figures are to be inserted in the text this should be clearly indicated by writing “Figure — ” at the appropriate place in the margin. Illustrations including lettering, should be arranged so that on reduction they will not exceed the dimensions of the maximum size of a printed page. 4-1/2” x 6-1/2”, and so that they are well balanced on the page. Large plates must be accompanied by 8-1/2” x 11” photographic copies which can be sent to the reviewers. The Journal will furnish the author with one plate (halftone or line reproduction) or its equivalent; additional figures, colored illustrations or lithographs may be used only if the author makes a grant covering the cost of production. Original drawings (which must be done in black drawing ink) not photographs of drawings, should accompany the manuscript. Photo¬ graphs should not be used if a line and dot (stippled) drawing will suffice. If photo¬ graphic prints are to be used they should be glossy, sharp and show good contrast. Drawings not neatly executed and labeled (do not use a typewriter), or which are sub¬ mitted on yellow or yellowish-white paper will not be accepted. Galley Proofs and engraver's proofs of figures are sent to the author for correction. Costs of excessive changes from the original manuscript must be defrayed by the author. OFFICERS OF THE VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE Edward S. Harlow, President William G. Guy, President-Elect Foley F. Smith, Secretary-Treasurer William B. Wartman, Jr., Assistant Secretary COUNGIL (Board of Trustees) Sidney S. Negus (1957) Mrs. B. G. Heatwole (1960) Byron N. Gooper (1958) A. T. Gwathmey (1957) Robert T. Brumfield William Hinton (1959) Irving G. Foster (1958) Charles F. Lane Thomas E. Gilmer ( 1961 ) Walter S. Flory ( 1959) Lynn D. Abbott, Jr. SOS', J 3 y El THE VIRGINIA OURNAL OF SCIENCE A JOURNAL ISSUED QUARTERLY BY THE VIRGINIA academy OF SCIENCE Vol. 8, New Series July, 1957 No. 3 VoL. 8, New Series July, 1957 No. THE VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE | Published Four Times a Year In January, April, July, and ^ September, by The Virginia Academy of Science » Printed by The Bassett Printing Corporation, Bassett, Virginia | CONTENTS f Bruce Dodson Reynolds 1894-1957 . 175! The Agar Diffusion Technique as Apphed To The Study of Serological Relationships Ainong Crayfishes Rose Mary Johnson . 177" Megasporogenesis and Megagametogenesis in Hamamelis Virginiana L. — Franklin F. Flint . . 185 The Effect of Corn and High Protein Price Rations On Net Returns in Hog Production — Roy G. Stout . 190 An Introduction To The Genus Rosa With Special Reference To R. Acicularis — Walter H. Lewis . 197 Headward Growth of Anticlinal Valleys In The Karst Cycle of Erosion — Charles F. Lane . 203 News and Notes . 210 i EDITORIAL BOARD Robert T. Brumfield, Editor Mary E. Humphreys, Associate Editor Charles F. Lane, Managing Editor Richard W. Irby, Jr., Advertising Manager W. Parker Anslow Carl W, AUen John K. Bare Walter S. Flory Section Editors Caroline Gambrill P. Ame Hansen Clyde Y. Kramer Robert M. Hubbard Richard H. Henneman Merle A. Kise W. D. Lowry P. N. Somerv^e Irving G. Foster Entered as second-elms matter, at the post office at Farmville, Virginia, under the Act of March 3, 1897. Subscription $3.00 per vol¬ ume. Published four times a year: in January, April, July, and September, by the Virginia Academy of Science at Farmville, Va. Mailed Or )ber 14, 1957 BRUCE DODSON REYNOLDS i v:K,tA ' "N . . . ) *>:• ■- ■ ■■ '•'" j .•'=/ ■ ■ '. ■ '' .••"■ •-'■ .’. ^ .r . . ’ . ■ ■■ . •■;:'''''Avi: ,V •.;. : • ) 'i. \ ( ■•'f THE VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Vol. 8, New Series July, 1957 No. 3 Bruce Dodson Reynolds 1894-1957 Bruce Dodson Reynolds, fifth of the eleven children of Keene John¬ son and Mary Susan Brumfield Reynolds, was born at Renan, Virginia, June 28, 1894. He attended local public school's and Fork Union Military Academy where he played varsity football. After graduating in 1914 he entered the University of Virginia but military duty as a second lieuten¬ ant in the Signal Corps and later as a first lieutenant in the Aircraft Production Division of the Army interrupted his college career. However, he returned to the University of Virginia and received his B. S. degree in 1920. He was a Miller Scholar for two years and an Instructor in Bi¬ ology during his last year. In 1920-21 he was a graduate student and Instructor in Biology at Iowa University. During the next two years he was a Research Fellow in the School of Hygiene and Public Health of the Johns Hopkins University and received the D.Sc. degree in 1923. He spent the next session as Assistant Professor of Biology at the University of Arkansas, and returned to the University of Virginia as Assistant Professor of Biology in 1924. In 1927 he became Associate Professor, in 1938 Professor, and in March, 1957, Chairman of the Department. This post he had held only a little over a month at the time of his sudden death in April. Dr. Reynolds was a Fellow of the AAAS and a member of the So¬ ciety of Protozoologisls, the American Society of Parasitologists, the American Society of Zoologists, the AIBS, the Virginia Academy of Science and the Association of Southeastern Biologists, serving as Presi¬ dent of this last organization in 1953. In the Virginia Academy of Science he had been particularly active in the Junior Academy work. While Dr. Reynolds had done some work on Hydra and mosquitoes, most of his publications were in the fields of protozoology and para¬ sitology. His most outstanding research was probably that on amoebae and flagellates. He was particularly proud of the large number of graduate students who had completed their training under his supervis¬ ion and, despite the pressure of administrative duties in recent years, he maintained his interest in his students. As a result they had a strong sense of loyalty to him. Recently he had become intensely interested in early American History. His presidential address before the Association of Southeastern Biologists was on this topic, and because of his studies on Indians he was asked to write an article on the Virginia Indians for NOV 4 176 The Virginia Journal of Science a special issue of the Virginia Journal of Science published this year as a part of the eommemoration of the 350th anniversary of the founding of Jamestown. He was also editor of the volume published as a tribute to Dr. Kepner at the time of his retirement in 1946. The Blandy Experimental Farm and the Mountain Lake Biological Station were very elose to Dr. Reynolds’ heart and his praetical wisdom, untiring energy and faith that the job could be done played an important role in bringing them into existence. Almost everv sizable college and university in the eountry has at one time or another been given a farm comparable to the Blandy Farm, but it stands virtually alone in having developed into a real educational and research unit of the institution involved. Dr. Reynolds as Chairman of the Investigating Committee was instrumental in pointing out the possibilities of the Blandy Farm and in securing Dr. Orland E. White as its first Director. In the late 1920’s there was a good deal of discussion at the Univer¬ sity of Virginia as to the relative merits of a marine biological station on the Eastern Shore of Virginia or an inland station at Mountain Lake. Dr. Reynolds was among those who advocated the mountain site and the present standing of the Mountain Lake Biological Station has abundantly vindicated his judgment. He was the first Director of the Station which was established in 1930 in cottages rented from the Mountain Lake Hotel. It was always the institution from which he derived the greatest pleasure and when it was moved to its present location in 1934 his keen interest in it continued even though he was no longer Director. He came to Mountain Lake whenever possible and devoted a great deal of time and energy to the work there, especially to the improvement of the grounds and buildings. In 1946 he again became Director and continued in this capacity until his retirement after the 1956 session. During his second administration the acreage owned by the Station was approximately doubl¬ ed and funds were secured from the National Science Foundation for the renovation of the physical plant as well as for the support of study and research. While regular in his attendance at local, regional and national scientific meetings, it was through his work at Mountain Lake that Dr. Reynolds was best known. The many alumni of the Station will remember how he took part in every phase of life at Mountain Lake: scientific, social, athletic or just plain physical labor. He loved it all from pitching horseshoes to presiding over scientific meetings; from laying water pipes and digging rocks to booming forth with his deep bass voice at the Sunday night sings. His sudden and untimely death came as a shock to all who knew him and biology in the Southeast has suffered a great loss in his passing. He is survived by his wife, Katherine Grayson Reynolds; three children: Bruce D., Jr., Katherine Grayson (Mrs. Garl Stark), May Hollingsworth (Mrs. James P. Elkins); a number of grandchildren; three sisters and two brothers. E. Ruffin Jones, Jr., University of Florida 1957] Agar Diffusion Technique 177 The Agar Diffusion Technique As Applied To The Study Of Serological Relationships Among Crayfishes' Rose Mary Johnson University of Virginia There are reasons for doubting that the present taxonomic treatment accorded the crayfishes of the Genus Camharus (comprising some fifty species and subspecies) expresses the true affinities of this group of organisms. This treatment is based upon limited data from the fields of morphology, ecology, and geographic distribution. Inasmuch as serological data concerning the interrelationships of organisms have, in general, supported those data obtained from such fields as morphology and embryology, it seems reasonable to assume that this approach might aid in the classification of the members of the Genus Cambanis. The present study, therefore, was initiated in anticipation of a better understanding of the interrelationships of the members of this group. Among the crayfishes there appears to be but one kind of antigenic serum protein, the hemocyanins (Leone, 1949). Therefore, serological variation among crayfishes is due to differences in their hemocyanins. In no case is hemocyanin known to occur in blood corpuscles or within tissue cells. Until the investigations of Oudin (1952) and Ouchterlony (1949, 1953), it was impossible to demonstrate the number of antigens in an antigenic mixture. Oudin, by adding antigens to a test tube of semi¬ solid agar containing antiserum, was able to demonstrate the presence of several components in antigenic complexes. Ouchterlony modified the technique, using agar Petii plates. The antigens and antisera for the plate method of Ouchterlony are placed in wells molded in the agar in such a way as to form an isosceles triangle. It is possible to determine which antigenic components are "Identical” by utilizing three wells; one con¬ taining an antiserum and each of the others containing the antigens to be tested. Antigens and antibodies diffuse from their respective wells and form precipitate lines when they meet. If the two antigenic mixtures are “identical,” the lines will meet and fuse. Conversely, if the antigens are This work is a portion of a thesis presented to the Graduate Faculty of the University of Virginia in partial fulfillment for the Master of Arts Degree. 178 The Virginia Journal of Science different but have some components in common, all of the lines will not fuse but will cross one another (reaction of “partial identity” or “non¬ identity” depending on the degree of heterogeneity). Elek (1949) further modified Ouchterlony’s technique employing strips of filter paper instead of wells in the agar. Strips of filter paper soaked with antigen are placed at right angles to an embedded filter strip soaked with antiserum. “Serological equivalence” (reaction of “identity” of Ouchterlony) is demonstrated by “looping” (fusion) of the precipitate lines between the antigen strips. MATERIALS AND METHODS The crayfishes^ selected for the major portion of this work are at pres¬ ent assigned to three groups of the Genus Cambarus. The Bartonii Group is represented in this study by five subspecies: Cambarus bartonii bartonii (Fabricius), C. baHonii sciotensis Rhoades, C. bartonii robustus Girard, C. bartonii striatus Hay, and C. bartonii subsp. The Montanus Group is represented by a single subspecies, C. montanus acuminatus Faxon, and it is suspected that this form is identical to C. bartonii robustus. The Long- ulus Group is represented by three crayfishes; C. longulus longulus Girard, C. longulus longirostris Faxon, and Cambarus sp. Three species of the genus Orconectes [O. juvenilis (Hagan), O. nais ( Faxon )^ and O. immunis (Girard)^], one of the Genus Paci- fastacus [P. trowhridgii (Dana)^], and one species of the Genus Procam- bariis [P. hayi (Faxon)] are included. The crayfish sera used in these experiments were collected by re¬ moval of the last three podomeres of the cheliped and the blood issuing forth was allowed to drop into a glass tube. "When possible, the crayfish were starved 24 hours before bleeding. After the blood had clotted, the serum was drawn off and frozen. Total proteins were determined by the method of Looney and Walsh (1939) using the Klett-Summerson photo¬ electric colorimeter. Antisera were produced in healthy rabbits weighing between five and eight pounds. The injection schedules were patterned after those of Leone (1949, 1952). Since this schedule failed to produce antisera of high enough titer in some cases, a pre-sensitizing injection was given subcutaneously followed in thirty days by four intravenous injections on alternate days (Table 1). All antisera were sterilized through a Seitz filter and stored in a freezer. 2 Personal communication from Dr. Horton H. Hobbs, Jr., University of Virginia, who also identified the crayfishes utilized in this study, and suggested the problem. 3 These sera were kindly supplied by Dr. Charles A. Leone, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas. 1957] SPECIES C. m. acuminatus C. b. sciotensis C. b. bartonii Agar Diffusion Technique 179 TABLE 1 (See Text) INJECTION SCHEDULE 0.25cc, 0.50cc, 0.50cc, 0.50cc. IV. on alternate days; 0.50 IV two weeks later (booster); blood collected from heart two weeks after booster. 0.40cc subcut.; after thirty days, O.SOcc, O.SOcc, l.Occ, l.Occ IV on alternate days; blood was collect¬ ed from heart ten days after last injection. 0.25cc, O.SOcc, O.SOcc, O.SOcc IV on alternate days; 0.50cc IV two weeks later (booster); blood collected from heart one week after booster. C. b. rohustus 0.50cc subcut.; after thirty days, O.SOcc, O.GOcc, O.GOcc, O.SOcc IV on alternate days; l.Occ IV eight days later (booster); blood was collected from heart twelve davs after booster. The procedure used was essentially the same as reported by Elek (1949). A thin layer of 1.5% agar was poured into a Petri dish. After solidification of the agar, a strip of filter paper, 35mm by 15mm, which had been soaked in undiluted antiserum (about eight drops) was placed on the surface of the agar. Strips of filter paper, 25mm by 4mm, soaked in antigen (crayfish serum) were placed on the surface of the agar, parallel to each other, and at right angles to the strip containing anti¬ serum. A series of antigen dilutions was tested and 1400 gamma of protein/cc seemed to give an optimum precipitate line, therefore, the antigens for this series of tests were diluted to contain 1400 gamma of protein/cc. The plates were sealed and incubated for from 48 to 72 hours at 37.5° C. There are certain limitations to the agar diffusion technique as artifacts may appear in the agar which may be confused with bands of precipitate. These false bands or “striae” appear as a result of sudden temperature change (Munoz, 1954). For this reason, the results were interpreted immediately after suitable incubation and all tests were re¬ peated. Other interesting observations have been made with reference to interpretation of the Ouchterlony plate method by Korngold (195G) and Wilson and Pringle (195G). RESULTS AND CONCLUSION Table 2 shows the results of the right-angled double-diffusion tech¬ nique of Elek. The term “partial loop” has been used to denote some 180 The Virginia Journal of Science degree of heterogeneity (termed reaction of “partial identity” by Ouchterlony, 1953), but no attempt has been made to interpret the degree of correspondence since this is a qualitative method. All of the crayfishes showed serological equivalence between some of the antigenic components. The straight line (termed “spur” by Ouch¬ terlony, 1953) ascending from the filter strips containing homologous antigen (^.g.. Fig. 3, the vertical strips labeled C. b. bartonii) , however, illustrates clearlv that some of the antigenic components of Orconectes juvenilis, Orconectes sp., and Pacifastacus trowbridgii are not serologically equivalent (cf.. Fig. 1.) The formation of multiple precipitate lines in Fig. 2 and Fig. 4 support the assumption that more than one antigenic component may be present in the hemocyanins of the crayfishes. It may be noted in Table 2 that the five subspecies of the Bartonii Group exhibited complete serological equivalence. Also, the serum pro- EXPLANATION OF FIGURES Fig. 1 — Photograph of a typical agar diffusion Petri plate demon¬ strating serological equivalence as indicated by a “looping” of the preci¬ pitate lines. Above the antiserum strip, containing the antiserum prepar¬ ed against C. montanus acuminatus, is a homologous “loop” between the the two antigen strips containing C. montanus acuminatus serum. On the opposite side of the antiserum strip is a “loop” demonstrating serological equivalence between C. montanus acuminatus and C. baHonii sciotensis. Fig. 2. — Photograph of an agar diffusion plate illustrating an hetero¬ logous reaction between the sera of C. montanus acuminatus and Procam- barns haiji. Note the multiple precipitate lines developed by the hetero¬ logous antigen of P. haiji and the antiserum prepared against C. mon¬ tanus acuminatus. Fig. 3. — Photograph of an agar diffusion plate demonsti'ating sero¬ logical equivalence between the homologous antigen, C. bartonii bartonii, and C. bartonii robustus. Also, a partial heterogeneity can be seen be¬ tween the homologous antigen and two members of the Genus Orconectes and one member of the Genus Pacifastacus. Fig. 4. — Photograph of an agar diffusion plate demonstrating sero¬ logical equivalence between C. bartonii robustus and three other sub¬ species of the Genus Cambarus. Note the double precipitate lines sug¬ gesting that there are two flocculating systems involved. Each time anti¬ gens were tested with the antiserum prepared against C. bartonii robustus, two precipitate lines developed. 1957] Agar Diffusion Technique 181 182 The Virginia Journal of Science TABLE 2 (See Text) [July Antibody (Rabbit Anti-Crayfish Serum) j Antigens (Crayfish Serum) C. b sciotensis C. m. acuminatus C. b. bartonii C. b. robustus C. h. sciotensis L L L L C. m. acuminatus L L L L C. b. bartonii L L L L C. b. robustus L L L L C. b. striatus L L L L C, b. subsp. L L PL L C. 1. longulus L L PL L C. 1. longirostris L L PL L C. species i L L PL L O. juvenilis L PL PL L O. immunis L PL PL PL O. nais L PL PL PL P. trowbridgii PL PL PL PL L = loop (serological equivalence) PL = partial loop (some degree o£ heterogeneity) 1957] Agar Diffusion Technique 183 teins of C. montanus aciiminatus gave serologically equivalent reactions with all the antisera with which it was tested. Therefore, it would seem that this crayfish is serologically equivalent to the members of the Bartonii Group. Some degree of heterogeneity was indicated between the crayfishes of the Bartonii Group and those of the Longulus Group when the anti¬ serum prepared against C. hartonii haiionii was employed (Table 2). This antiserum was probably the most specific of the four since it was able to distinguish serological differences between these two closely related groups of crayfishes. Most of the antisera demonstrated a partial heterogeneity between the Genus Cambarus and the Genus Orconectes (Table 2, Fig. 3 . All of the antisera were able to detect partial heterogeneity between the Genera Cambarus and Pacifasticus (Table 2, Fig. 3). Repeated tests with the reagents (antigen and antibody) used in this study confirmed the results presented in Table 2. The angle and width of the precipitate lines often varied upon repetition of the experi¬ ments, but, in each case, either the significant “loop” or the partial “loop” was present. SUMMARY Antisera were presented against the serum proteins of Cambarus bartonii bartonii, C. bartonii sciotensis, C. bartonii robustus, and C. mon¬ tanus aciiminatus. Studies employing these four antisera and utilizing the right-angled double-diffusion method of Elelc (1949) were conducted on nine subspecies of the Genus Cambarus, one species of Procambarus, and three subspecies of Orconectes, all members of the subfamily Gambarinae, and one species of the Genus Pacifastacus, subfamily Astacinae. The relationships indicated among the crayfishes compared by this method are in accord with the present system of classification except for the apparent close relationship of C. montanus aciiminatus (Montanus Group) to the members of the Bartonii Group. From the results of these agar diffusions studies, it is impossible to demonstrate to which member of the Bartonii Group C. montanus acuminatus is most closely related. The formation of multiple precipitate lines supports the assumption that more than one antigenic component may be present in the serum of crayfishes and demonstrates the unique value of this technique in separating the components of an antigenic complex. LITERATURE CITED Elek S. D. 1949. The serological analysis of mixed flocculating systems 184 The Virginia Journal of Science by means of diffusion gradients. Brit. Jour. Path., 30: 484-500. Korngold, Leonard 1956. Immunologieal eross-reactions studied by the Ouehterlony gel diffusion technique. Jour. Immunol. 77 (2): 119-122. Leone, Charles A. 1949. Comparative serology of some brachyuran Crustacea and studies in hemocyanin correspondence. Biol. Bull. 97 (3): 273-286. Leone, Charles A., and Carlton W. Pryor, 1952. Serological compari¬ sons of astacuran Crustacea. Biol. Bull. 103 (3): 433-445. Looney, Joseph M., and Anna Walsh, 1939. The determination of serum albumin and serum globulin; A/G ratio. Jour. Bio. Chem., 130: 635-639. Munoz, J. 1954. Serological approaches to studies of protein sti'ucture and metabolism. William Cole, Ed. Rutgers University Press. New Jersey, pp. 55-72. Ouchterlony, O. 1949. Antigen-antibody reactions in gels. Arkiv. for Kemi, Mineral. Geol. 26B: 1-9. Ouchterlony, O. 1953. Antigen-antibody reactions in gels. IV. Types of reactions in coordinated systems of diffusion. Acta Path, et Microbiol. Scandinav., 32: 231-241. Oudin, J. 1952. Methods in medical research, 5: 335-378. Wilson, M. W. and B. H. Pringle, 1956. Cross-reactions in the Ouch- terlong plate: analysis of native and halogenated bovine serum al¬ bumins. Jour. Immunol., 77 (5): 324-331. 1957] Agar Diffusion Technique 185 Megasporogenesis and Megagametogenesis in Hamamelis Virginiana L Franklin F. Flint, Department of Biology, Randolph-Macon Womans College. Shoemaker (1905) contributed to our knowledge of tlie general floral structure, the development of the anther, the ovule, and the young embryo in Hamamelis virginiana. He did not describe the process of megasporogenesis and megagametogenesis. MATERIALS AND METHODS The flowers were collected in the vicinity of Lynchburg, Virginia, along the banks of small streams which flow into the James River. The young ovules were fixed in Formalin- Aceto-Alcohol in the proportions of 90 cc. of 70 percent ethyl alcohol to 5 cc. formalin and 5 cc. of glacial acetic acid. Tertiary butyl alcohol, as recommended by Johan¬ sen (1940), was found to be most satisfactory for dehydration. The ovules were then embedded in tissuemat, sectioned at 10-30 microns and stained with Harris’ Hematoxylin, Safranin O, and Fast Green, FCF. MEGASPOROGENESIS The megaspore mother cell is first distinguishable within the young ovule in late November, lying at the chalazal end of a hnear row of 4-5 nucellar cells (fig. 1). The megaspore mother cell is oval and contains a large, vesicular nucleus and dense cytoplasm. As the prophase of Meiosis I begins this cell is more than 3 times the linear dimensions of the im¬ mediately surrounding nucellar cells. Development ceases and this division is not completed until April. During the first part of April the nucellar cells begin to divide rapidly and by the middle of the month Meiosis I is completed. Gytokinesis takes place resulting in a dyad of cells of approximately the same size, each with dense cytoplasm and a large, deeply staining nucleus containing a prominent nucleolus (fig. 2). Meio¬ sis II and cytokinesis take place immediately and 4 cells, the mega¬ spores, are formed, arranged in a linear row between the micropylar and the chalazal ends of the ovule (fig. 3). A megaspore can easily distinguished from the surrounding nucellar cells by the dense cytoplasm, prominent nucleus, and especially by the single, very large nucleolus. The megaspores vary somewhat in size, with the chalazal one being slightly larger from the beginning and the micropvlar one the smallest 186 The Virginia Journal of Science [July | (fig. 3). In 69 of the 78 ovules studied, the chalazal megaspores enlarg- 1, ed and became the functional megaspore, the 3 micropylar ones disin- j tegrating. In the remaining 9 ovules one or more of the megaspores en- I larged and functioned for a short time as rudimentary megagametophytes (figs. 9, 10, 11). The megaspores which disintegrate do so gradually as the enlarging megagametophyte presses against the surrounding nucellar cells (figs. 4, 5). I MEGAGAMETOGENESIS In all cases where the chalazal megaspore is the only functional ! one, the cell increases greatly in size, the nucleus divides, and gradually a 2-nucleated megagametophyte is formed. As this change takes place a | small vacuole forms towards the micropylar end and a larger one develops ' laterally to the 2 nuclei (fig. 4). As the lateral vacuole increases in size ; and extends across the center of the enlarging cell one of the nuclei and j part of the cytoplasm move towards the micropylar end and the other : nucleus and the remainder of the cytoplasm towards the chalazal end of ; the megagametophyte (fig. 5). | I The 2 nuclei now divide and form a 4-nucleated megagametophyte j with 2 nuclei at each end, separated by the large central vacuole (fig. 6). The pair of nuclei at either end of the megagametophyte are orient¬ ed at right angles to the opposite pair and both pairs are perpendicular j to the major axis of the megagametophyte. At this time the developing i megagametophyte is surrounded by many crushed nucellar cells and the three micropylar megaspores disappear completely. The 4 nuclei soon divide resulting in an 8-nucleated megagametophyte (fig. 7). One nu¬ cleus from each pole migrates toward the center of the megagametophyte along with a portion of the cytoplasm. Occasionally another nucleus from the antipodal pole is carried towards the center of the cell with the migrating cytoplasm but it soon disintegrates leaving only 2 antipodal nuelei (fig. 7). Recognizable antipodal cells were not formed in the ovules studied and the antipodal nuclei exist for only a short time. This is contrary to Shoemaker’s (1905) work, where, in his only illustration of the mega¬ gametophyte, he shows 3 definite antipodal cells. The nuclei which have migrated to the center of the megagametophyte are the polar nuclei. They soon fuse to form the secondary nucleus which is very large and has a prominent nucleolus (fig. 8). This nucleus, embedded in a granular cytoplasm, migrates towards the antipodal pole after the disintegration of the antipodal nuclei (fig. 8). A cell membrane is formed around each micropylar nucleus incor¬ porating a portion of the cytoplasm. This is the egg apparatus and con- V. 8 11 188 The Virginia Journal of Science sists of an egg cell and 2 synergid cells (fig. 8). The nuclei of the 2 synergid cells soon show signs of disintegration and the cytoplasm be¬ comes vacuolated while the egg cell enlarges and extends beyond thein (fig. 8). ! Any one or all four megaspores may occasionally develop rudi¬ mentary megagametophytes. Nearly 12 percent of the 78 ovules studied ' in detail had more than one megaspore functioning, although in no in- ji stance did it appear that a mature megagametophvte developed in such jj EXPLANATION OF FIGURES The figures were made with the aid of an Abbe camera lucida. Size is indicated on the plate. Fig. 1. — Young ovule showing the megaspore mother cell with nucleus in prophase of Meiosis I buried within the nucellar tissue. Fig. 2. — Dyad cells formed after Meiosis I as the result of cytokinesis. Fig. 3. — Linear tetrad of megaspores with tlie chalazal one enlarging. Fig. 4. — Two-nucleated megagametophyte with a single lateral vacuole and a smaller vacuole at micropylar end. The 3 megaspores are still visible but degenerate. Fig. 5. — Two-nucleated megagametophyte with large central vacu¬ ole and small vacuole at chalazal end. Fig. 6. — Four-nucleated megagametophyte. Fig. 7. — Eight-nucleated megagametophyte with 2 polar nuclei at center. One of the antipodal nuclei has moved towards the center and is disintegrating. Fig. 8. — Mature megagametophyte showing the complete egg ap¬ paratus. Fig. 9. — Four 2-nucleated megagametophytes formed in 1 ovule. The first and third megagametophytes from the micropylar end are partially crushed. Fig. 10. — Three of the megaspores have formed 2-nucleated mega- gametophvtes. The fourth megaspore has enlarged but a nuclear division has not taken place. Fig. 11. — Two megagametophytes at the 4-nucleated stage. The degenerating megaspores are crushed but still recognizable. 1957] Megasporogenesis and Megagametogenesis 189 an ovule. In 3 ovules all megaspores had formed a 2-nucleated mega- gametophyte (fig. 9) with the megagametophytes developing from the first and third megaspores from the micropylar end partially crushed and the nuclei partly disintegrated; while the 2 megagametophytes develop¬ ing from the second and fourth megaspores were continuing to develop with the latter one larger (fig. 9). Four ovules had 3 of the megaspores developing into large 2- nucleated megagametophytes with vacuoles forming in the cytoplasm. The fourth megaspore had enlarged but a nuclear division had not taken place and there were no vacuoles in the cvtoplasm (fig 10). In 2 ovules it was found that 2 of the megaspores had developed into 4-nucleated megagametophytes with the more chalazal one larger and the micropylar one with nuclear degeneration (fig. II). The other 2 megaspores in both of these ovules were degenerate and it did not appear that they had enlarged. SUMMARY With certain modifications Hamamelis virginiana follows the pattern of development listed as the Polygonum Type by Maheshwari (1950). The nucleus of the megaspore mother cell remains in prophase of Meiosis I from late November to early April. In April a linear tetrad of mega¬ spores is formed with the most ehalazal one functioning normally. In approximately 12 percent of the ovules studied one or more of the other megaspores functioned to form rudimentarv megagametophytes. The antipodal nuclei disintegrated quickly without incorporation into true antipodal cells. ACKNOWLEDGMENT The author wishes to thank Dr. Edwin M. Betts of the Universitv of Virginia for help during the investigation and for constructive criticism of the manuscript. LITERATURE CITED Johansen, D. A. 1940. Plant Microtechnique. McGraw-Hill, N. Y. Maheshwari, P. 1950. An Introduction to the Embryology of the Angio- sperms. McGraw-Hill, N. Y. Shoemaker, D. N. 1905. On the Development of Hamamelis virginiana Bot. Gaz. 39: 248-266. 190 The Virginia Journal of Science [July j The Effect Of Corn And High Protein Price Ratios i On Net Returns In Hog Production' | Roy G. Stout, Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station I Many factors influence the total cost of producing hogs, but feed j costs are quantitatively most important. Feed costs alone usually com- i prise 75 to 85 per cent of the total costs (Heady and Jensen, 1954). The other cost items accounting for the remaining 15 to 25 per cent are: | (1) labor; (2) depreciation on building and equipment, and interest on investment; (3) rent, death losses, and miscellaneous costs. The net re- i turns from hog production depends on the producer’s ability to obtain I maximum efficiency from these factors. | Com is often considered the “basic” hog feed. It makes up a larger I portion of the ration for hogs than for any other livestock. However, successful hog producers are aware that a hog ration should contain high protein supplement feeds and minerals in addition to corn. By experience and from research findings, they have found that the addition of protein ; supplement and minerals to the ration will increase daily gain, reduce ' feed consumption per unit of gain, and decrease feed costs per unit of gain in comparison with an all corn ration. Nutritional research has re¬ peatedly shown that for both economic and physical reasons hog rations should be balanced so as to contain, in addition to corn and other grains, certain quantities of proteins, minerals, and perhaps limited amounts of antibiotics. Also, experimental feeding tests have shown that the con¬ version ratio of feed to pork increases as the hog increases in weighF. Light weight hogs are more efficient in converting feed into pork than heavier hogs. For example, more feed is required per pound of gain for a hog weighing 220 pounds than for one weighing 160 pounds. Thus, the conversion ratio of the 220 pound hog is greater than the conversion ratio for the hog weighing 160 pounds. Price relationships between corn and high-protein feeds, such as soybean oilmeal and tankage, usually vary both seasonally and annually. These variations in price relationships (price ratios) are due largely to the variations in the available supply of the different feeds from time to time. During World War II the price ratios between feeds were closer than during any other time in the 15-year period from 1935 to 1950. The ^ A portion of a Master’s Thesis, “Factors Affecting Net Returns from Hog Production with_ Specil Emphasis on Time of Marketing,” submitted to the Graduate School, Virginia Polytechnic Institute, February 1952. ^ Conversion ratio is defined as the number of pounds of feed necessary to produce one pound of gain. 1957] Net Returns in Hog Production 191 average price per 100 pounds of soybean oilmeal for the five year period, 1943-1947, -was 1.23 times larger than the price of corn; during this same period the ratio of the price of 100 pounds of corn to 100 pounds of tankage was 1 to 1.72^ During the years 1935-1939 the average price ratio of soybean oilmeal and tankage to corn was 1 to 1.3 and 1 to 1.91 respectively. The nine year average, 1935-1939 and 1947-1950, price of soybean oilmeal and tankage was 1.42 and 2.05 times, respectively, greater than the price of corn. Feeding results from several experiments have shown that feed in¬ gredients commonly used in hog rations do not substitute for each other in fixed or constant ratios. Rather, results from these tests show that the physical rate of substitution of these feeds for each other are generally at a diminishing marginal rate. In other words, if by adding, say, two pounds of soybean meal to an all corn ration it would replace, say, five pounds of corn in the ration and still produce as many pounds of pork as before, the substitution ratio between soybean meal and corn would be 1:2.5. But, if an additional, say, two pounds of soybean meal were added, it would not be expected to replace five pounds of corn as the first increment did. The marginal rate of substitution of protein feeds for corn in pro¬ ducing 100 pounds of pork diminishes as more protein feed is added to the ration. The amount of feed required to produce 100 pounds of gain on hogs may be stated mathematically by: C^f (A-hB) where C is total feed A is the pounds of corn B is the pounds of protein feed f is some function of A and B For the discussion in this paper C is a constant 100 pounds of pork. The rates of substitution of corn for high protein feed are graphi¬ cally illustrated in figure 1. The small circles represent results of actual feeding trials from which smooth line curve was constructed (Keith and Miller, 1940). This iso-product curve for producing 100 pounds of pork shows the results of feeding different levels of protein feed to pigs with an initial weight of approximately 125 pounds and feeding them to about 200 pounds. In the experimental feeding trials from which these data were obtained, rations of different protein levels varying from 10 to 25 per cent were fed. Higher rates of substitution of protein feed for corn in the fattening ration will occur when the ration is low in protein con- All price information on feeds in this paper was taken from Virginia Crops and Live¬ stock, State Department of Agriculture, Virginia Cooperative Crop Reporting Service. Volumes 15 and 19. 192 The Virginia Journal of Science [Juty tent. For instance, if a ration of 375 pounds of corn and 25 pounds of protein feed (a 10 per cent protein ration) is replaced with a ration composed of 279 pounds of corn and 38 pounds of protein (12 per cent protein ration), the output will be 100 pounds of pork in either case. In this exchange, in going from a 10 to a 12 per cent ration, 13 pounds of high protein feed replaced 96 pounds of corn. But, if a 17 per cent protein ration (composed of 176 pounds of corn and 75 pounds of pro¬ tein feed) is replaced with a 20 per cent protein ration (composed of 145 pounds of corn and 120 pounds of protein feed), 45 pounds of high protein feed would replace only 31 pounds of corn. Thus the marginal rate of substitution of protein feed for corn is only 1 to 0.6889 (31 45) in the 20 per cent protein ration, but in a 12 per cent protein ration a much higher substitution rate of 1 to 7.385 (96 -f- 13) exists. Hence, as the amount of protein feed or corn is increased in the ration its marginal rate of substitution for the other feed diminishes. Since feed costs are the most important item affecting total produc¬ tion costs, hog producers should, in light of the above mentioned facts, attempt to feed the most economical ration consistent with minimum nu¬ tritional requirements for keeping the hog healthy and growing. The most economical ration will depend upon the relationship between marginal (physical) rates of substitution of the various feed ingredients used and the ratio of their prices. If the 12 per cent protein ration mentioned earlier is to be more economical than the 10 per cent protein ration, the cost of the 13 pounds of high protein feed must be less than the value of the 96 pounds of corn. The producer must continually keep himself informed of the price relationship of the various feeds that make up the hog ration and adjust his feeding rations accordingly. However, he should not vary his feed ra¬ tion beyond a nutritionally balanced one, since an unbalanced ration usually affects the healthy condition of the hog. As long as a balanced ration is maintained, a producer may react to an increase in the price of one feed, say corn, by replacing it with another, say soybean oilmeal. The combination of high protein feeds and corn that will be the optimum combination (least feed cost combination) will be at a point where the marginal rates of substitution of com for high protein content is equal to the ratio of the price of corn to the price of the high protein feed. If the priee of corn is one-half of the priee of high protein feed, then the cheapest ration that would produce 100 pounds of pork would be composed of the combination of corn and high protein feed at the point where the last pound of high protein feed added would replaee two pounds of corn. At this point, the addition of one more pound of high protein would replaee something less than two pounds of corn. The following two examples give a comparison of the economieal 1957] Example One: Net Returns in Hog Production 193 Protein Content: 12 (Point A) 17 (Point C) 20 (Point B) Corn @ $1.50 per cwt. 279 lbs. $4.18 176 lbs. $2.64 High @ $2.50 per cwt. 38 lbs. $0.95 75 lbs. $1.87 Protein - - - Cost per 100 pounds gain $5.13 $4.51 145 lbs. $2.17 120 lbs. $3.00 $5.17 Price Ratio 1.5: 2. 5 Example Two: Protein Content: 12 (Point A) 17 (Point C) 20 (Point B) Corn @ $1.00 per cwt. 279 lbs. $2.79 176 lbs. $1.76 High @ $3.50 per cwt. 38 lbs. $1.33 75 lbs. $2.68 Protein - - Cost per 100 pounds of gain $4.12 $4.44 145 lbs. $1.45 128 lbs. $4.10 $5.55 Price Ratio 1.0: 3. 5 gains made by choosing the proper protein content ration for various price relationships. In example one where the price ratio of eorn to high protein feed is 1.5: 2.5, the 17 per cent protein eontent ration produces 100 pounds of pork at the least cost. Suppose the supply of high protein eontent feeds is small, causing an increase in the priee to $3.50 per hundred, and the cost of corn declines to $1.00 per hundred. This situation is demonstrat¬ ed in example two. Since the priee of com decreased and the priee of high protein supplement inereased, tlie addition of more eorn and less high protein should reduce the feed cost. This, we see, is what happened. For this priee ratio of 1.0:3. 5, the 12 per eent protein produced 100 pounds of pork eheaper than the 17 per cent. For any given price ratio, there exists a combination of corn and high protein feed that will produee 100 pounds of pork at less feed cost than any other combination. The two examples suggest one method of finding this least cost combination. This might accurately be ealled the trial and error method. There may be other rations with the priee ratio 194 The Virginia Journal of Science of 1.5: 2.5 tliat would be cheaper in terms of feed costs than the 17 per cent ration. The only way to find it with the trial and error method would be to compute the costs for several different rations at a given price ratio and select the ration with the least feed cost per 100 pounds gain. Another method that is easier and less time consuming is to compare the slope of the line of the feed price ratio with the curve of the rates of substitution of corn for protein feed. The point on the iso-production curve where the slope is the same as the slope of the price-ratio line gives the least cost combination of corn and protein for the given price ratio of the feeds. This point is where the price-ratio line is tangent to the iso-production curve. In fig. 1, point A represents the 12 per cent protein ration; points B and C represent the 20 and 17 per cent rations respectively, used in the two examples. In example two, the 12 per cent ration is the cheapest of the three. Is this the cheapest one possible in terms of the cost of corn and high protein feeds? To find the least cost combination line E-E’ was drawn. This is the ratio of the prices of 1.0:3. 5 (100 pounds high protein costs as much as 350 pounds corn). Pofum^ of Fig. 1. (See Text). Net Returns in Hog Production 195 1957] Then we constmet line F-F’ parallel to E-E’ in such a manner that F-F’ touches the iso-product curve (point D). At this point the slopes of the line and the curve are the same. Computing the cost of the feed com¬ bination (246 pounds of corn and 44 pounds of high protein), we find that this combination of corn and high protein supplement costs $4.00 per hundred pounds of gain. Thus the 12 per cent protein ration shown in example two was close to the least cost combination, but not the cheapest one. A tangent representing the price of corn to protein supple¬ ment may be constructed at any point on the iso-production curve. A third and more concise method of computing the minimum feed cost combination is by equating the derivative of y (corn) with respect to X (high protein) to the inverse price ratio preceded by a minus sign. Thus dy — Px mathematical approach to the method pre- dx Py sented above. For the iso-product curve of 125-200 pound hogs (other weight hogs as 78-125 pounds may have a different iso-product curve) used in this paper and presented in fig. 1, the formula would be -7418.5 . The value of x is found by inserting the price ratios. For example, if Px equals $3.00 per hundred pounds and Py equals $1.00 per hundred pounds then -7418.5 -3 ; x = 49.7 x2 "" T Substituting this value of x into the original equations gives 228 pounds as the y component. This is the least cost combination of producing 100 pounds of pork with the price ratio 3 to 1 for this particular iso-product curve. The graph in figure 1 shows that this is point G. If a line with a price ratio of 3 to 1 were constructed, it would be tangent to the iso-product curve at this point. CONCLUSIONS Research results may appear insignificant to small individual pro¬ ducers, yet these results become an imposing total when considered as the sum of all producers in agricultural economy. For example, this paper shows that the feed cost per hundred pounds of pork produced with a price ratio of corn to high protein feed of 1.5 to 2.5 would be approxi¬ mately 60 cents more for a 12 per cent protein ration than a ration con¬ taining 17 per cent protein. To an individual with 200 head of hogs, this would mean nearly $100 in feeding the hogs from 125 pounds to a mar¬ keting weight of 200 pounds. If the assumption were made that all the producers in the nation were feeding a 12 per cent protein ration with a price ratio of 1.5 to 2.5, the savings to the economy for one year would be about 27 million dollars. Actually part of this loss would be absorbed 196 The Virginia Journal of Science by the consumer. If all resources of production were employed at mini¬ mum feed costs, the total output would be greater resulting in a lower price per unit of the product. In other words, the consumer could buy meat at a lower price per pound. Additional research is needed, from an economic standpoint, to determine the substitution rates of various feeds that will replace each other in rations for different weight hogs. Heady et. ah, recently have done considerable work in this phase, but much additional work is greatly needed. SUMMARY The price of corn and high protein feeds varies from year to year. These changing prices often create situations where it is more profitable for a hog producer to use a high protein content ration one year and a lower protein ration another year. Marginal rates of substitution of high protein feed for corn is de¬ fined as the ratio of the amount of corn that is replaced by the addition of the last unit of high protein feed. For example, if 1 pound of high protein feed were added to a certain ration 3 pounds of corn could be taken out and both rations would produce the same amount of pork. The marginal rate of substitution would be 3 to I. The least feed cost com¬ bination is found by equating the ratio of the prices of corn and high protein feed to the marginal rate of substitution. Since the marginal rate of substitution varies at different levels of corn and high protein feed combinations and the prices of the feeds change, the least feed cost ration of corn and high protein feed changes. LITERATURE CITED Heady, Earl O. and Jensen, Harold. 1954. Farm Management Econo¬ mics. Prentice-Hall, New York. Heady, Earl O.; Woodworth, Roger; Catron, Damon V. and Ashton, Cordon C. 1954. New Procedures in Estimating Feed Substitution Rates in Determining Economic Efficiency in Pork Production. Agricultural Experiment Station, Iowa State College, Ames, Iowa, Research Bulletin No. 409. Keith, T. G. and Miller, R. C. 1940. Levels of Protein for Pigs. Penn¬ sylvania State College, Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin. No. 401. 1957] The Genus Rosa 197 An Introduction To The Genus Rosa With Special Reference To^ Acicularis’ Walter H. Lewis^ The Blandy Experimental Farm University of Virginia Although the second half of this paper alone was awarded the J. Shelton Horsley Research Prize, it is felt that an introduction to genus Rosa, especially in eastern North America, would logically begin a series of papers on the problems of Rosa speciation from this continent. One of the most interesting taxa is R. acicularis Lindl. — the complete text of which is being published elsewhere. L THE GENUS ROSA {Rosa (Tourn.) L. Sp. PL 491, 1753 The species of the genus are characterized as: woody perennials, upright or trailing, usually with prickly stems; leaves alternate, com¬ pound or rarely simple, typically with adnate stipules or rarely absent, leaflets 3-15, serrate or biserrate, often pubescent and glandular; flowers perfect, solitary, corymbose or paniculate, sepals 5, rarely 4, petals 5, rarely 4, or by transformation of the stamens numerous, obovate or or obcordate, stamens numerous inserted on a disk at the margin of the hypanthium, ovaries numerous within the hypanthium, styles connate or free, included or exserted, stigmas thickened; hypanthium urceolate or globose, contracted at the mouth, becoming fleshy at maturity (the hip); fruit an achene. The type species for the genus is Rosa cinnamomeae L. Sp. PI. 1: 703 (1764), habitat in Europa australi. The genus Rosa is distributed throughout the northern hemisphere below the tree line to a southern limit in North Africa, Ethiopia, south¬ ern India, Burma, the Phillipine Islands, Mexico, and central Florida. In North America the genus is a predominant part of the flora of central and southern Canada, and northern United States. It is by no means un¬ common in other regions of the continent, for at least two species are native to each state in the United States, to each Canadian province 1 For his guidance and encouragement during the course of this study, the author is indebted to Dr. W. S. Flory, Jr, 2 Present address : Department of Biology, Stephen F, Austin State College, Nacogdoches, Texas. [July 198 The Virginia Journal of Science and territory, to Alaska, and to northern Mexico. Although many schemes of intrageneric classification have been suggested since the fii’st proposal by De Candolle (1818), the one sketch¬ ed by Crepin (1887) is the form most widely used. He divided the genus into fifteen sections including: I, Synstylae DC; II, Stvlosae Crep.; Ill, Indicae Thory; IV, Banksianae Lindl. (Bankseae Crep.); V, Gal- licanae DC (Gallicae Crep.); VI, Caninae Crep.; VII, Carolinae Crep.; VIII, Cinnamomeae Crep.; IX, Pimpinellifoliae DC; X, Luteae Crep.; XI, Sericeae Crep.; XII, Minutifoliae Crep.; XIII, Bracteatae Thory; XIV, Laevigatae Thory; and XV, Microphylae Crep. With several modi¬ fications, Crepin’s sectional division of the genus is adopted. Focke (1888) separated the roses of the world into two subgenera, Hiilthemia Du Mortier (1824) with one species, R. persica Michx. dis¬ tinguished from the other species bv simple leaves lacking stipules. All remaining species have compound leaves with stipules and are grouped into the subgenus Eurosa Focke. Some authors (Hurst 1928) have con¬ sidered R. persica quite distinct from the genus Rosa and they believe that the species should be represented by the genus Hiilthemia. Other monotvpic generic names have been introduced to characterize R. per¬ sica, as for example, Lowea (Lindley 1829) and Rhodopsis (Ledebour 1830). It is generally agreed, however, that this species is the most primitive member of the genus Rosa (Harrison and Blackburn 1927) having not yet developed compound leaves or stipules. This separation of Rosa into two subgeneric taxa has been followed in the present study, thereby reducing the genera Lowea and Rhodopsis to svnonymy under the subgenus Hiilthemia (Du Mortier) Focke. Within the sub genus Eurosa Focke, several species have been dis¬ tinguished by new genera: R. microphylla Roxb. as Platyrhodon mic- rophylla by Decaisne (1850); R. hracteata Wendl. as Ernstella bracteata by Germain de St. Pierre (1878); and the species of the section Minuti¬ foliae (R. miniitifolia Engel., R. stellata Woot., and R. mirifica Greene) as subgenus or genus Hesperhodos by Cockerell (1913). Although these species have several unique characters such as numerous, up to 15, leaf¬ lets in R. microphylla, tomentose inflorescence and hips in R. hracteata, and few, small, incised leaflets in R. miniitifolia, R. stellata, and R. mirifica, they are not considered sufficientlv important for exclusion from the genus Rosa or to represent even a major rank above section. Necker (1791) neglected the generic name entirely and created the svnonym Rhodophora. In North America, the native species were grouped bv Crepin (1887) into four sections: Cinnamomeae, Carolinae, Synstvlae, and Minutifoliae. The latter two sections are readily separable from all others. The styles The Genus Rosa 199 1957] of the Synstylae species are united forming a column projecting well above the disk of the hypanthium, while the very small, incised leaflets distinguish the species in the section Minutifoliae. The section Carolinae was separated from the section Cinnamomeae on the basis of the ovary position within the hypanthium and by the position of the sepals on the hypanthium at maturity and by their degree of persistence. A further character, glandular-hispid hypanthia, has been used by Rydberg (1918), Rehder (1927), Fernald (1950) and others, to differentiate these sec¬ tions. The section Carolinae has been characterized by ovaries that are inserted exclusively at the base of the glandular-hispid hypanthium with spreading or erect caducous sepals. On the other hand, the species of the section Cinnamomea have ovaries lining the walls as well as the bases of the smooth hypanthia, with erect and persistent sepals. Boulenger (1925) found that the mode of carpel insertion in the hypanthium is an inconsistent character in Rosa. Further, Erlanson (1934) stated that the achenes of R. palustris Marsh, (section Carolinae) are frequently attached to the side wall of the hypanthium while R. hlanda Ait., R. Woodsii Lindh, R. pisocarpa Gray and other species of the sec¬ tion Cinnamomeae can be found with achenes at the base of the hy¬ panthium only. The sections Carolinae and Cinnamomeae can hardly be separated on the basis of ovarial position when no degree of discontinui¬ ty exists. Sepals may be erect, spreading, or reflexed on the mature hypanthia in different individuals of the same culture in R. Woodsii Lindh, R. pis¬ ocarpa Gray, and R. calif ornica C. & S. (Cinnamomae) , and Woodsii and R. pisocarpa have been observed with deciduous sepals Erlanson (1934). It is interesting that Crepin (1887) included R. gymnocarpa Nutt, as a Cinnamomeae species, yet this taxon is the most consistent example of a species with caducous sepals in North America even to the extent of establishing a new section (Gvmnocarpae) on this and other characters by Rydberg (1918). Erlanson (1934) noted the occurrence of persistent sepals for R. palustris Marsh. (Carolinae). Since Crepin used persistent and erect sepals to characterize the section Cinnamomeae and spreading or erect and caducous sepals to typify the section Carolinae, there is little value in using the sepal characteristics for this purpose in view of the major discrepancies cited above. Although all species of the section Carolinae have typically glandul¬ ar-hispid hypanthia, a few individuals of R. virginiana Mill., R. foliolosa Nutt., R. nitida Willd., and R. Carolina L. have been observed with smooth hypanthia. Several well known glandular-hypanthia Cinnamomeae forms including R. nutkana Presl var. hispida Fern., R. hlanda Ait. var. hispida Farw. and a new form of R. Woodsii Lindh illustrate that the section Carolinae is not unique from the section Cinnamomeae in having 200 The Virginia Journal of Science [July individuals with glandular-hispid hypanthia. Smooth and hispid hypan- thia, therefore, occur in the species populations of both sections. Since the characters used by Crepin and others to distinguish be¬ tween these sections have little consistency, the sections are re-grouped under the older name, Cinnamomeae. The species of the three sections found in North America east of the Rocky Mountains are grouped as follows : Subgenus Eurosa Focke Section Cinnamomeae DC (section Carolinae Crep.) (section Gymnocarpae Rydb.) 1. R. Carolina L. Sp. PL 1: 492 (1753) ^,non L. 1762). 2. R. virginiana Mill. Card. Diet. ed. 8, no. 10, (1768). 3. R. palustris Marsh. Arb. Am. 135 (1785) . 4. R. hlanda Ait. Hort. Kew. 2: 202 (1789). 5. R. niiida Willd. Enum. PL Berol. 544 (1809). 6. R. acicularis Lindl. Ros. Mon. 44 (1820). 7. K. Woodsii Lindl. Ros. Mon. 21 (1820). 8. R. foliolosa Nutt, ex Torr. & Grav FI. N. Am. 1: 460 (1840). 9. R. arkansana Porter ex Porter & Coulter Syn. FI. Colo., U. S. Geol. & Geog. Surv. Misc. Pub. No. 4: 28 (1874). Section Synstylae DC (section Synstylae Lindl.) 1. R. seiigera Michx. FI. Bor.-Am. 1: 295 (1803). Section Minutifohae Crep. (genus or subgenus Hesperhodos Ckll.) 1. R. stellata Woot. Bull. Tor Bot. CL 25: 152 (1898). 2. R. mirifica Greene Leafl. Bot. Obs. 2: 62 (1910). II. SUMMARY OF A BIOSYSTEMATIC STUDY OF R. ACICULARIS. The native roses are one of several groups of plants notoriouslv difficult to separate into distinct species with definite, definable limits. The ease with which species hybridize giving fertile offspring and the wide, often overlapping, range of morphological variation within each species are factors contributing to this problem of speciation. As a result of isolation and of wide geographical ranges, rose species have 1957] The Genus Rosa 201 in some instances evolved infraspecific complexities separable not only on gross morphological evidence, but cytological and phytogeographical as well. Such an example is R. acicularis LindL, a bristly stemmed species native to northern Europe, Asia, and North America from Alaska to New Mexico, across Canada and northern United States to New Bruns¬ wick and West Virginia, respectively. This is by far the widest natural range of any species in the genus. In North America the species has often been confused with R. hJanda Ait., R. Woodsii LindL, and R. arkansana Porter, all of which bv one or more characters resemble R. acictdaris. In addition, individuals of the taxon can hybridize with R. niitkana Presl and intermediate forms between the two are common west of the Rocky Mountains from Alas¬ ka (Hulten 1946) to Colorado. Within the species there has never been a comprehensive study of material from both Eurasia and North America. Due to the generosity of the curators of several herbaria in Sweden and the U. S. S. R., such a study has been possible and it has been found that the Eurasian popu¬ lation varies from the North American population by at least nine mor¬ phological characters. Not only is there an observable variation, but the number of chromosomes differ — the population in Eurasia has 56 chrom¬ osomes (octoploid) while only 42 chromosomes (hexaploid) in North America. In eastern Siberia and Alaska typical Eurasian and North American individuals are found together with a greater percentage of morpholo¬ gically appearing intermediate forms. Since the members of the two populations differ in chromosome number, cytological evidence from these 'intermediate’ forms would be critical in determining if the ap¬ parent hybridizations are an actuality. Although no septaploid plant has yet been observed, an individual from a controlled cross has been found to have 49 chromosomes. The characteristics of the two populations of R. acicularis can be summarized as follows (morphological data based on 200 specimens): (1) in Eurasia — leaves 5-foliolate (91%), leaflets eglandular be¬ low (78%) with singly serrated (86%), eglandular (82%) serrations and with fewer than eighteen serrations per half leaflet (88%), petioles without bristles (83%), one auricle 5mm. or more wide (62%), pedicels glandular (89%), sepals less than 3 mm. wide at their bases (59%); chromosome number of 2n = 56; native to Eurasia and Alaska. (2) in North America — leaves 7-foliolate (53%), leaflets glandular below (85%) with partly or entirely biserrated margins (69%), the 202 The Virginia Journal of Science [July serrations gland-tipped (67%) and with eighteen or more per half leaf¬ let (57%), petioles bristly (43%), one auricle less than 5 mm. wide (58%), pedicels eglandular (92%), sepals 3 mm. or more wide at their bases (78%); chromosome number of 2n = 42; native to North America and eastern Siberia. LITERATURE CITED Boulenger, G. a. 1925. Remarques sur Timportance attachee au mode d’insertion des carpelles pour la classifications des especes du genre Rosa. Compt. Rend. Ac. Sci. Paris I8I: III4-III6. Cockerell, T. D. A. 1913. “Rosa stellata.’" Nature 90: 571. Crepin F. 1887. Sketch of a new classification of roses. Journ. Roy. Hort. Soc. 11: 217-228. Decaisne, J. 1850. see Hurst (1928). De Candolle, A. P. 1818. Regni Vegetabilis Systema Naturale. Vol 1. Paris. Du Mortier, B. C. J. 1824. Notice Sur un Nouveau Genre de Plantes: Hidthemia; Precede d’un Apercu sur la Classification des Roses. Tournay. 10 p. Erlanson, E. W. 1934. Experimental data for the revision of the North American wild roses. Rot. Gaz. 96: 197-259. Fernald, M. L. 1950. in A. Gray, Manual of Botany, ed 8. New York. Focke, W. O. 1888. in A. Engler and K. Prantl, Die Naturhchen Pflan- zenfamilien. Vol. 3, part 3. Germain de Saint-Pierre, E. 1878. Journal des Roses. Harrison, J. W. H. and K. B. Blackburn. 1927. The course of pollen formation in certain roses, with some deductions therefrom. Mem. Hort. Soc. N.Y. 3: 23-32. Hulten, E. 1946. Flora of Alaska and Yukon. VI. Lund. Ledebour, C. F. V. 1830. Flora Altaica. Vol. 2. Berhn. Lindley, j. 1829. Lowea. Edwards’ Bot. Reg. 15: pi. 1261. Linneaus, C. 1753. Species Plantarum. Vol. 1. Holmiae. Necker, N. j. de 1791. Elementa Botanica. Vol. 2. Neowedae and Phenum. Rehder, a. 1927. Manual of Cultivated Trees and Shmbs. New York. 930 p. Rydberg, P. A. 1918. North American Flora. Vol. 22, part 6. 1957] Headward Growth of Anticlinal Valleys 203 Headward Growth Of Anticlinal Valleys In The Karst Cycle Of Erosion Charles F. Lane Longwood College, Farmville, Virginia Numerous articles have been written (see literature cited) about erosion and erosion cycles in horizontal limestone formations and in fold¬ ed strata of unequal resistance. The literature dealing with structural folds has been concerned mostly with the development of stream pat¬ terns and the evolution of relief features in the fluvial cycle of erosion. The important karst processes that have been active in the headward growth of anticlinal valleys have been neglected. While working on a physiographic field problem in the Cumberland Plateau of Tennessee, the writer noted numerous surface features that had resulted from water solution and subterranean streams in the head of Sequatchie Valley. This valley has been eroded along the axis of an anticline that extends for nearly 200 miles from Cumberland County, Tennessee, southwestv^ard into Alabama. A study of Grassy Cove and vicinity (Fig. 1), located to the northeast and in hne with the longi¬ tudinal axis of Sequatchie Valley, reveals the dominant role that karst processes are playing in its headward erosion and growth.^ The sequential stages in the fluvial and karst cycles of erosion that led to the landforms in Grassy Cove and its vicinity will be presented in this paper. The author believes that a study of the coves and valleys in this area helps to explain the erosional processes and stages during the geomorphic evolution of Sequatchie Valley and other valleys in the folded Appalachians. STRATIGRAPHY AND STRUCTURE The rock formations in the area of this study are shales and indurated sandstones of Pennsylvania age and shales and limestones of Mississippian age. The floor of Sequatchie Valley is underlain predominantly by Cam¬ brian and Ordovician limestones. The formations in the Grassy Cove area are as follows: Fort Payne chert, Warsaw limestone, St. Louis limestone, Ste. Genevieve limestone. Gasper odite, Hartselle sandstone, Bangor The Sequatchie Valley fault along the western side of Sequatchie Valley should be mentioned in relation to the straightness of this valley. However, the center of Sequat¬ chie Valley follows closely the axis of the anticline rather than the fault. Furthermore, the fault does not extend into Grassy Cove which is along the axis of the anticline. This indicates the fault is not the controlling factor in the headward growth of Se¬ quatchie Valley. The disturbances along the western side of Sequatchie Valley are reflected in the steep monoclinal dip 1,000 feet northwest of Grassy Cove. 204 The Virginia Journal of Science limestone, Pennington shale, all of Mississippian age; Gizzard formation, Sewanee eon glomerate, Whitwell shale, Herbert sandstone, Eastland shale, Newton sandstone, Vandever shale, Rockcastle sandstone, Duskin Creek formation, all of Pennsylvanian age. Pennsylvanian formations cap most of the Cumberland Plateau in Tennessee. Generally, the strata have low dips that comprise broad shal¬ low synclines and broad anticlines. Along the Cumberland Escarpment the beds dip steeply to the northwest but flatten out quickly a few hundred feet to the west (Fig. 2). Eight and one-half miles northwest of the Cumberland Escarpment, and parallel to it, the strata have been bent into a singular fold called the Sequatchie anticline. The formations along the axis of this fold stand generally between 1,000 to 1,500 feet higher than the corresponding ones on the surrounding plateau. The steep head of Sequatchie Valley terminates against precipitous escarpments of the Crab Orchard Mountain, locally called Dorton Knob and Brady and Hinch mountains. The crests of these mountains stand 1,900 feet above the valley floor. This difference in elevation occurs within a distance of one mile. Although Sequatchie Valley ends against these mountains, the processes that were so active in its formation are continuing their work to the northeast along the anticline. Six coves have been eroded into the crest and limbs of this fold, and each one represents a different stage in the fluvial and karst cycles of erosion. Grassv Cove is the largest with an area of 5.1 square miles. The north¬ east-southwest segment of this cove is located along the crest of the Sequatchie anticline, whereas the north-south segment is on the north¬ western limb. Smaller coves are also located on the northwestern and southeastern flanks of the fold. THE FLUVIAL CYCLE OF EROSION The forces that caused the folding of the rock formations in the Ridge and Valley Province also affected the strata of the Appalachian Plateaus. In general, only minor folds were formed in tlie Cumberland Plateau of Tennessee, however, a major one was the Sequatchie anticline. During uplift and folding, surface streams were adjusting to the regional topography. Major longitudinal consequent streams followed the broad synclinal troughs, such as White and Piney creeks southeast of the Sequatchie anticline and Daddy Creek to the northwest (Fig. 1). These were joined by secondary lateral consequents which descended the limbs of the anticline. Today, the heads of the lateral consequent vallevs ex¬ tend almost to the cuesta escarpments overlooking the coves. A few of these lateral streams were able to cut through the resistant Sewanee conglomerate which caps the crest and the higher parts of the Sequatchie 1957] Headward Growth of Anticlinical Valleys 205 Fig. 1. A section of Cumberland Plateau, Tennessee. Parts of the Kingston and Pikeville, Tennessee, quadrangle maps of the United States Geological Survey. Horizontal scale 1/125,000, contour interval 100 feet. Shows the steep Cumberland Front, the eastern part of the 206 The Virginia Journal of Science [July anticline. A typical example is in the upper valley of Coal Creek where this stream has eroded through the Sewanee and exposed the weak¬ er shales of the Gizzard formation. After the cap rock was breached, the streams were able to extend their valleys rapidly by sapping and head- ward erosion. After the valley-heads had reached the crest of the anti¬ cline, further erosion was along its axis. This is exemplified on the eastern side of Grassy Cove by Stillhouse Hollow, a deep wind gap made bv an eastward-flowing lateral consequent stream. After this stream work¬ ed its way into the crest of the fold, any further erosion had to be toward the highest summit along its axis. In Grassy Cove the Sequatchie anti- eline plunges to the northeast, hence the headward erosion was to the southwest. The erosion along the axis was governed by structure and gave rise to the subsequent valley which forms the southwestern arm of the cove. It is generally aecepted that headward erosion by subsequent streams along the crest of an anticline continues until the fold is breached and a large anticlinal valley is formed. This was the sequence in the south¬ western section of Grassy Cove until the normal fluvial cycle of erosion was interrupted and the karst cycle was initiated bv subterranean drain¬ age. Not only was the cycle interrupted along the axis of the fold but also on the flanks where the lateral consequent streams had cut through the resistant cap rock of the Sewanee conglomerate. Since these streams cut through the Sewanee formation high on the limbs of the fold, thev must flow across this formation again downstream. This resistant rock ex¬ tending across the lower end of the incipient gashes serves as a local base level. Upstream from the base level, downward cutting continues for a time, but as the bed of the stream nears the local base level lateral cut¬ ting becomes important. The original vallevs are lowered and widened until the Gizzard and Pennington formations are removed and the soluble limestones of Upper Mississippian age are exposed. KARST CYCLE OF EROSION The exposure of the Mississippian limestones marked a new phase in the cycle of erosion and in the headward growth of Sequatchie Valiev. Incipient sinks and dolines began to form along fissures in the Bangor limestone. The surface streams were eventually diverted underground bv the sinks and dolines. This diversion was geologicallv recent because the Cumberland Plateau called Walden Ridge, and the straight alignment of Grassy Cove and Sequatchie Valiev. Longitudinal consequent streams, such as Daddy, White, and Piney creeks, and lateral consequent streams, such as Fall, Sandy, Coal, Swagerty, Big Soak, and Duskin creeks, can be seen. 1957] Headward Growth of Axticlinal Valleys 207 Fig. 3. Two minor coves on the northwestern limb of the Sequatchie antichne. Part of the Dorton quadrangle map of the Tennessee Valley Authority Survey. Horizontal scale 1/24,000, contour interval 20 feet. McClough Hollow is an incipient sink developing in the Gasper lime¬ stone and rimmed bv the impermeable Hartselle sandstone. This sink has captured the headwaters of Haley Creek, but most of Haley Cove is Fig. 2. A generalized cross-section of Walden Ridge and Grassy Cove. Shows the structure and rock systems between A and B on figure 1. O=:0rdovican, S = Silurian, M = Mississippian, and P= Pennsylvanian. 208 The Virginia Journal of Science [July deep wind gaps which extend through the mountains surrounding the coves are only 40 to 100 feet above the cove floors. Haley Cove is the onlv one todav drained by a surface stream. The dolines and sinks were enlarged by solution and sapping, and some coalesced bv collapse of cavern roofs. As a result of these processes ljuany of the resistant rock units stand as prominent bluffs along the mountain sides overlooking the coves. Many rock falls and landslides from the undercut bluffs are evident by the great mass of debris around the margins of the coves. While the sides of the coves were retreading by the processes of solution and sapping, the cove floors were being lowered by solution and underground erosion. The subterranean streams enlarged the fissures and caverns until their downward erosion was halted by the impermeable Hartselle sandstone in Haley and Bat Town coves and sandy phases of the Warsaw limestone in Grassy Cove. Both of these formations are com¬ posed, in part, of very hard, dense, and calcareous sandstones. They, therefore, completely stop or interrupt the sequential steps in the karst cycle of erosion. While this cvcle of erosion was interrupted by the impermeable strata, water was slowlv penetrating their joints and fissures. Subsequent- Iv, another limestone formation was encountered by the descending water and a new cvcle of karst erosion was initiated. This is well illustrated in Haley and Bat Town coves where large sinks have appeared in the Hartselle sandstone, exposing the underlying Gasper limestone (Fig. 3). The surface stream in Bat Town Cove has already been diverted under¬ ground through one of these sinks. However, the sink in Halev Cove has not vet captured all of the surface drainage. From this study, it is evident that the surface features in this area have been developed by two types of erosion cycles. The initial stages in the evolution of the topography resulted from the normal fluvial cvcle of erosion on folded strata, whereas the later stages resulted from the karst cycle of erosion. The lateral and downward erosion and enlarge¬ ment of the sinks and valley coves involve numerous agents and proces¬ ses. The divides separating the coves and Sequatchie Valley will slowly be removed by sapping and collapse of the resistant strata, by headward erosion of a few surface streams, and by subsurface erosion and solution. The latter process not only forms a large network of caverns, but also drained by a surface stream to the northwest. Bat Town Cove shows sub-surface drainage into a sinkhole on the eastern side of the cove. Drainage was formerly through the wind gap to the west of the cove. 1957] Headward Growth of Anticlinal Valleys 209 causes collapse or slump of some areas into the caverns which lie from 200 to 400 feet below the surface as illustrated by large sinks in sand¬ stone and shale on the mountain crest surrounding Grassy Cove. SUMMARY The topography in the area to the northeast of Sequatchie Valley and in line with it has evolved on an anticline. The initial erosion was by surface streams, whereas the more recent erosion and enlargement has been by solution and subterranean streams. The various stages in the karst cycle of erosion are illustrated in the separate coves as well as the processes that were active during different stages of development. By studying the various phases of erosion in the several coves, the steps in the future headward growth of Sequatchie Valley can be determined. It may be assumed that the same processes that are so active at the present time were also active in forming the entire Sequatchie Valley and many of the valleys in the Ridge and Valley Province. LITERATURE CITED Davis, W. M. 1899. The Rivers and Valleys of Pennsylvania. National Geographic Magazine, 1: 183-253. Dicken, S. N. 1935. Kentucky Karst Landscapes. Jour, of GeoL, 43; 708-728. JiLLSON, W. R. 1924. American Karst Country. Pan American Geologist, 42: 37-44. Lane, C. F. 1953. The Geology of Grassy Cove, Cumberland County, Tennessee. Jour, of the Tenn. Acad, of Sci., 28; 109-117. . — 1952. Grassy Cove, A Uvala in the Cumberland Plateau, Tennessee. Ibid., 27: 291-295. Sanders, E, M. 1921. The Cycle of Erosion in a Karst Region. Geol. Review, 11: 593-604. Thompson, H. D. 1939, Drainage Evolution in the Southern Appala¬ chians. Bull. Geol. Soc. of Amer., 50: 1323-1356. Wright, F. J. 1934. The Newer Appalachians of the South, Part I, Be¬ tween the Potomac and the New River. Bidl. Dennison Univ., 34, Sci. Lab. Jour., 29: 1-105. — — — 1936. The Newer Appalachians of the South, Part II, South of the New River. Ibid., 36, Sci. Lab. Jour., 31: 93-142. 210 [July The Virginia Journal of Science News and Notes (Editors Note: News contributions should be sent to the person whose name appears at the end of the appropriate sections.) FOLEY FOSTER SMITH - AN APPRECIATION When the late Dr. E. C. L. Miller, of revered memory, resigned as secretary-treasurer in 1949, The Virginia Academy of Science was faced with one of its major decisions. Who would take his place? After all, Dr. Miller was one of the founders of the Academy in 1923 and served as secretary-treasurer since that date — a tenure of 26 years. Fortunate¬ ly for science in Virginia, Dr. Miller’s last official recommendation was that the office be turned over to the assistant secretary-treasurer, Foley Smith, and Dr. Miller’s recommendation was unanimously approved bv the council. Were Dr. Miller alive today, he would be pleased with the work that Foley Smith has done. Foley has been a good secretary-treasurer and with him in this office the academy has continued to prosper. The continuing growth of the activities of the academy has matched the expansion of science in the Old Dominion and has made it imperative to afford some relief to the secretary-treasurer. Accordingly, the council at its meeting on May 11, 1957, voted to divide the office into two — a secretary and a treasurer. Again, fortune favors the academy because Foley agreed to remain as secretary, in which position he will continue to give his wise counsel and unflagging loyalty to serve the Academy. — George W. Jeffers, Longwood College AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE SECTION Dr. D. G. Cochran joined the staff as Associate Entomologist on May 1. He will do research on insect physiology. He received his B.S. from Iowa State, his M.S. from Virginia Polytechnic Institute and his PhD. from Rutgers. Dr. J. W. Gossett arrived at Virginia Polytechnic Institute on June ! 10. He will teach and do research in the field of Physiology of Repro- ' duction. — Carl W. Allen, Virginia Polytechnic Institute ASTRONOMY, MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS SECTION Professor Frank S. Hereford of the Physics Department, University of Virginia, has received a Fulbright Scholarship for the coming academic year. He will work with the high energy synchro-cyclotron at the Univ¬ ersity of Birmingham, England. 1957] News and Notes 211 212 The Virginia Journal of Science Dr. A. N. Vyssotsky of the McCormick Observatory has been invited to take part in a ‘'Symposium on the Coordination of Galactic Research.” The symposium met in Stockholm in June, 1957. Dr. Paul McCorkle, recently retired Head of the Department of Physics at Bradley University, has been a Visiting Professor at William and Mary this year. Dr. McCorkle will go to Roanoke College next Sep¬ tember as Head of the Physics Department. Virginia Polytechnic Institute has been chosen as one of the col¬ leges which will offer special AEC Fellowships in Nuclear Energy Tech¬ nology. Additions to the staff of Virginia Polytechnic Institute for the com¬ ing year are Dr. C. D. Bond, recently at the University of Vigrinia, and Dr. W. B. Payne who is presently a member of the staff at Johns Hopkins. Professor J. W. Beams, Chairman of the Department of Physics at the University of Virginia has recently been elected Vice-President of the American Physical Society. The University of Richmond has announced that a graduate program in Physics will begin in September 1957. The degree of Master of Science will be offered. Fields of interest are solid state physics, nuclear physics, and radiation detection. Teaching assistantships are available, and the program will stress close faculty-student relationships. Inquiries may be made of Professor J. J. Taylor, Chairman, Department of Physics. Frederick R. Crownfield, Jr., has joined the faculty at William and Mary as Assistant Professor of Physics. Dr. Crownfield was formerly at North Carolina State. — Irving G. Foster, Virginia Military Institute BIOLOGY SECTION Mr. Aaron H. O’Bier has accepted the position at Longwood College as Research Assistant under a contract with the Atomic Energy Commis¬ sion. Mr. O’Bier holds a masters degree from the University of Rich¬ mond and has done graduate work at the Virginia Polytechnic Institute. — Robert T. Brumfield, Longwood College CHEMISTRY SECTION A $1000 Grant for Instrumentation, for the purchase of a refracto- meter and hydrogenator has been received joindv by Dr. Grossnickle and Dr. Heisey, from the National Science Foundation in June, 1957. — M. A. Kise, Virginia Smelting Company 1957] News and Notes 213 S ^ [D D [HEt Dcas. — 7 /AANUFAaURERS AND DISTRIBUTORS OF SCIENTIFIC EQUIPM04T «TH & BYRD STREETS RICHMOND, VA. [July 216 The Virginia Journal of Science Mountains of Montana and Wyoming. ‘Ts Anthraxolite Related Genetically to Coal or to Oil?” is the sub¬ ject of a paper by R. V. Dietrich which appeared in Economic Geology, vol. 51, no. 7, November, 1956. Anthraxolite from Montgomery County, Virginia, is among those discussed in the paper. Dietrich also described “Trigonal Paragonite from Campbell and Franklin Counties, Virginia” in the American Mineralogist, vol 41, 1956. “Implications of Gentle Ordovician Folding in Western Virginia” are discussed in an article by W. D. Lowry in the April issue of the AAPG Bulletin. Ralph L. Miller has been appointed chairman of the AAPG Com¬ mittee on Preservation of Samples and Cores. W. D. Lowry will serve on the committee as the member in charge of most of the Atlantic Coast states. R. V. Dietrich is serving on the AAPG “Basement Rocks Project Committee.” He is collecting data on the buried basement in 18 different eastern states. Byron N. Cooper discussed synchrony of Appalachian sedimentation and tectonism on his recent AAPG distinguished lecture tour of manv U. S. and several Canadian cities. At the G.S.A. Southeastern Section meeting at Morgantown, West Virginia, May 16, and 17, much Virginia geology was discussed. Frank Lesure spoke on “Iron Deposits of the Clifton Forge Area, Virginia;” Haryey Sunderman on the “Geology of the Scottsyille Basin, Virginia;” R. V. Dietrich on the “Origin of the Blue Ridge Escarpment Directly Southwest of Roanoke, Virginia;” C. E. Sears on “Late Cretaceous Eros¬ ion Surface in Southwest Virginia;” and W. D. Lowry on the “Betts Quarry Case, Harrisonburg, Virginia.” One afternoon session was deyoted ex- clusiyely to a symposium on “New Geophysical Data and Their Rela¬ tion to Surface Geology of the Central Appalachians.” John C. Maxwell served as moderator. The symposium began with a formal paper by Robert W. Johnson, Jr. on “Regional Geophysical Data and Their Relation to the Appalachians in Central and Western Virginia.” A second formal paper on “Gravity-anomaly Patterns in Virginia” was presented by G. P. Woolard. These papers were followed in turn by rather informal dis¬ cussions of the geology of the Piedmont, Blue Ridge, Valley and Ridge, and Plateau provinces of Virginia by W. R. Brown, R. O. Bloomer, Byron N. Cooper, and Rhesa M. Allen, Jr., respectively. The science exhibits of the Virginia Junior Academy of Science at Old Point Comfort featured several of geological nature. In the Miscellane¬ ous Division, first prize of $50.00 was won by Vernon Rollins of Hampton High School for his “Geological Survey of New Market Creek” and second News and Notes 217 1957] prize of $30.00 was won by Randolph Bland, Jr. of Thomas Jefferson High School, Richmond, for his collection of “Virginia Rocks and Min¬ erals.” In the Biology Division, Honorable Mention was won by Godfrey Smith for his display of the “Paleontology of the Lower York-James Peninsula.” — W. D. Lowry, Virginia Polijtechnic Institute RESEARCH opportunity for trained CHEMISTS, PHYSICISTS, METALLURGISTS preferably with advanced degree To DO or to ASSIST IN FUNDAMENTAL WORK Inquire in writing : Virginia Institute for Scientific Research 326 North Boulevard, Richmond 20, Va. IJ The Annual Subscription Rate is $3.00, and the cost of a single 1 number, $1.00. Reprints are available only if ordered when galley proof is returned. All orders except those involving exchanges should be addressed to Charles F. Lane, Stevens Hall, Longwood College, Farmville, Virginia. L The University of Virginia Librarv has exclusive exchange arrangements, ; and communications relative to exchange should be addressed to The Librarian, Alderman Library, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia. Notice To Contributors Contributions to the Journal should be addressed to Robert T. Brumfield, Stevens Hall, Longwood College, Farmville, Virginia. If any preliminary notes have been pub¬ lished on the subject which is submitted to the editors, a statement to that effect must gi accompany the manuscript. M Manuscripts must be submitted in triplicate, typewritten in double spacing on standard « X 11” paper, with at least a one inch margin on all sides. Manuscripts are limited % to seven pages, with the proviso that if additional pages are desired, the author may obtain them at cost. The author may estimate the length of his paper by counting the total # number of characters, including blank spaces, and dividing this by 3300. The result is the " approximate number of printed pages in the Journal. Division of the manuscripts into subheadings must follow a consistent plan, and be held to a minimum. It is desirable that a brief summary be included in all manuscripts. Footnotes should be included in the body of the manuscript immediately following the reference, and set off by a dashed-line above and below the footnote content. Footnotes should be numbered consecutively from the beginning to the end of the manuscript. Bibliographies (Literature Cited, References, etc.) should be arranged alphabetically according to author. Each reference should include the date, full title of the article, the name of the Journal, the volume, number (optional), pages, tables and figures (if any). For example: “Sniffen, Ernest W. 1940, Cobbles from the Pleistocene Terraces of the Lower York-James Peninsula Va. Journ. Sci., 1 (8) : 235-288 1 fig., 1 tab. Reference to the bibliographic citations should not be made by numbers. Instead, using the above citations, where a reference is desired: either “Sniffen (1940)”, (Sniffen, 1940: 186)”, or “Sniffen (1940) states that ...” Explanation of figures, graphs, etc., should be typed on separate pages. All figures should be numbered consecutively beginning with the first text figure and continuing through the plates. If figures are to be inserted in the text this should be clearly indicated by writing “Figure — ” at the appropriate place in the margin. Illustrations including lettering, should be arranged so that on reduction they will not exceed the dimensions of the maximum size of a printed page. 4-1/2” x 6-1/2”, and so that they are well balanced on the page. Large plates must be accompanied by 8-1/2” x 11” photographic copies which can be sent to the reviewers. The Journal will furnish the author with one plate (halftone or line reproduction) or its equivalent; additional figures, colored illustrations or lithographs may be used only if the author makes a grant covering the cost of production. Original drawings (which must be done in black drawing ink) not photographs of drawings, should accompany the manuscript. Photo¬ graphs should not be used if a line and dot (stippled) drawing will suffice. If photo¬ graphic prints are to be used they should be glossy, sharp and show good contrast. Drawings not neatly executed and labeled (do not use a tsrpewriter) , or which are sub¬ mitted on yellow or yellowish-white paper will not be accepted. Galley Proofs and engraver’s proofs of figures are sent to the author for correction. Costs of excessive changes from the original manuscript must be' defrayed by the author. OFFICERS OF THE VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE William G. Guy, President John C. Forbes, President-Elect Paul M. Patterson, Secretary Foley F. Smith, Treasurer William B. Wartman, Jr. Assistant Secretary-Treasurer. COUNCIL (Board of Trustees) Sidney S. Negus (1957) Mrs. B. G. Heatwole (1960) Byron N. Cooper (1^58) Horton H. Hobbs (1962) Robert T. Brumfield William Hinton (1959) Irving G. Foster (1958) Charles F, Lane Thomas E. Gilmer (1961) Walter S. Flory (1959) Lynn D. Abbott, Jr. ^ THE VIRGINIA OURNAL OF SCIENCE . ! A JOURNAL ISSUED QUARTERLY BY THE VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE VoL. 8, New Series September, 1957 No. 4 THE VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Published Four Times a Year In January, April, July, and September, by The Virginia Academy of Science Printed by The Bassett Printing Corporation, Bassett, Virginia CONTENTS Pages Proceedings for the Year 1956-57 Minutes of the Thirtv-Fifth Annual Meeting, May 8, 9, 10, 11, 1957 Detailed Table of Contents . 229 EDITORIAL BOARD Robert T. Brumfield, Editor Mary E. Humphreys, Associafe Editor Charles F. Lane, Managing Editor Lee S. Harrow, Advertising Manager Carl W. Allen Walter S. Flory, jr. Robert M. Hubbard John K. Bare Section Editors Irving G. Foster Merle A. Kise W. D. Lowry Caroline Gambrill P. Arne Hansen James P. Patton W. Parker Anslow, Jr. P. Y. Kramer Entered as second-class matter, at the post office at Farmville, Virginia, under the Act of March 3, 1897. Subscription $3.00 per vol¬ ume. Published four times a year: in January, April, July, and September, by the Virginia Academy of Science at Farmville, Va. Mailed February 17, 1958 The Virginia Journal of Science VoL. 8, New Series No. 4 VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE Proceedings for the Year 1956 - 1957 MINUTES OF THE THIRTY-FIFTH ANNUAL MEETING MAY 8, 9, 10, 11, 1957 HOTEL CHAMBERLIN OLD POINT COMFORT, VIRGINIA 220 The Virginia Journal of Science [September LIST OF PRESIDENTS Ivey F. Lewis . 1923-24 * James Lewis Howe . 1924-25 Robert E. Loving . 1925-26 Shelton Horsley . 1926-27 ^Donald W. Davis . 1927-28 Wm. Moseley Brown . 1928-29 Garnett Ryland . 1929-30 L. G. Hoxton . 1930-31 1. D. Wilson . 1931-32 T. McN. Simpson, Jr . 1932-33 William A. Kepner . 1933-34 William T. Sanger . 1934-35 Ida Sitler . 1935-36 H. E. Jordan . 1936-37 D. Maurice Allan . 1937-38 Earle B. Norris . 1938-39 Riisldn S. Freer . 1939-40 *Wortley F. Rudd . 1940-41 George W. Jeffers . 1941-42 ^Marcellus H. Stow . 1942-43 *W. Catesby Jones . 1943-44 Robert F. Smart . 1944-45 H. Rupert Hanmer . 1945-46 Arthur Bevan . 1946-47 Jesse W. Beams . 1947-48 Sidney S. Negus . 1948-49 Boyd Harshbarger . 1949-50 Guy W. Horsley . 1950-51 Paul M. Patterson . 1951-52 Lloyd C. Bird . 1952-53 Allan T. Gwathmey . 1953-54 Irving G. Foster . 1954-55 Walter S. Flory, Jr. . 1955-56 Edward S. Harlow . 1956-57 William G. Guy . 1957-58 '\ Deceased. 1957] Proceedings 1956-1957 221 Virginia Academy of Science OFFICERS Edward S. Harlow, President William G. Guy, President-Elect Foley F. Smith, Secretary-Treasurer William B. Wartman, Jr., Assistant Secretary COUNCIL (Board of Trustees) Elected Members Sidney S. Negus (1957) Thomas E. Gilmer (1961) Byron N, Cooper (1958) Lynn D. Abbott, Jr. William Hinton (1959) John C. Forbes, Jr. Mrs. B. G. Heatwole (1960) Robert T. Brumfield Charles F. Lane Ex-Officio Members Allan T. Gwathmey (1957) Irving G. Foster (1958) Walter S. Flory, Jr. (1959) LOCAL COMMITTEE ON ARRANGEMENTS Stanley B. Williams; General Chairman C. S. Sherwood, HI; Housing. Mrs. Margaret C. Phillips; Registration. Melvin A. Pittman, Mitchell A. Byrd, Richard G. Canham, John H. Long, Hansel L. Hughes, Joseph R. Lee; Meeting Rooms and Equipment. William G. Guy, Roger Dudley; Public Information. Miss Jean Pugh; Junior Academy Exhibits. Alfred R. Armstrong; Commercial Exhibits. J. T. Baldwin, Jr., John L. McHugh, Kenneth A. Wagner; Field Trips. HOSTS TO MEETING The College of William and Mary in Virginia The College of William and Mary, Norfolk Division 222 The Virginia Journal of Science [September OFFICERS OF THE VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE FOR 1957-58 OFFICERS William G. Guy, President John C. Forbes, Presidetit-Elect Paul M. Patterson, Secretary Foley F. Smith, Treasurer William B. Wartman, Assistant Secretary-Treasurer COUNCIL (Board of Trustees) Elected Members Byron H. Cooper (1958) Mrs. B. G. Heatwole (1960) William M. Hinton (1959) Thomas E. Gilmer (1961) Horton H. Hobbs, Jr., (1962) Ex-Officio Members Irving G. Foster (1958) Lynn D. Abbott, Jr. Walter S. Flory (1959) Robert T. Brumfield Edward S. Harlow (1960) Charles F. Lane PRESIDENTS ADVISORY COMMITTEE (Elected by Sections) Officers of Section for 1957-58 Agricultural Sciences: James W. Midyette, Jr.; Chairman; Allen H. Alli¬ son, Vice-Chairman; S. S. Obenshain, Secretary; Carl W. Allen, Section Editor (1960) Astronomy, Mathematics, and Physics: E. R. Dyer, Jr., Chairman; Jack- son |. Taylor, Secretary; Irving G. Foster, Section Editor (1960) Bacteriology (through December 31, 1957): Wesley Volk, President; Mrs. Barbara H. Caminita, Vice-President; Miles E. Hench, Secre¬ tary; P. Arne Hansen, Section Editor. Bacteriology (beginning January 1, 1958): Mrs. Barbara H. Caminita, President; Miles E. Hench, Vice-President; Quentin N. Mvrvik, Secretary-Treasurer, P. Arne Hansen, Section Editor 1957] Proceedings 1956-1957 223 Biology: William J. Hargis, Jr., Chairman; B. L. Hanna, Secretary; Waiter S. Flory, Jr., Section Editor (1962) Chemistry: J. C. Holmes, Chairman; F. A. Vingiello, Secretary; Merle A. Kise, Section Editor Education: Evan F. Pattishall, Jr., Chairman; Charles Turner, Secretary; James B. Patton, Section Editor Engineering: Otis L. Updike, Jr., Chairman; Arthur C. Bruce, Secretary; Robert M. Hubbard, Section Editor Geology: R. V. Dietrich, Chairman; J. T. Hack, Vice-Chairman; R. S. Mitchell, Secretary; W. D. Lowry, Section Editor (1958) Medical Sciences: Cornelia Hoch-Ligeti, Chairman; Robert H. Bronson, Secretary; W. Parker Anslow, Section Editor (1961) Psychology: Noble R. McEwen, President; Penelope Lewis, Secretar\- Treasurer; William E. Harris, Executive Committeeman; John K. Bare, Section Editor Science Teachers: Mrs. Vera Remsberg, Chairman; Mae Jennings, Chair¬ man-Elect; A. B. Niemeyer, Jr., Secretary; Caroline Gambrill, Section Editor (1959) Statistics: N. L. Enrick, Chairman; John W. Griswold, Vice-Chairman; R. A. Bradley, Secretary; Clyde Y. Kramer, Section Editor COMMITTEES APPOINTED BY PRESIDENT GUY Officers of the Academy will be ex-officio members of all committees. Long Range Planning Lynn D. Abbott, Jr., Chairman William P. Bover Alfred R. Armstrong Llovd C. Bird Robert T. Brumfield James W. Cole, Jr. R. W. Engel Allan T. Gwathmey Edward S. Harlow Ladlev Husted George W. Jeffers Henry Leidheiser Schuyler Miller Sidney Negus *Marcellus H. Stow RESEARCH Robert T. Brumfield, Chairman (1958) R. A. Bradley (1959) Chalmers L. Gemmill (1960) Jackson J. Taylor (1961) Henry Leidheiser (1962) Deceased 224 The Virginia Journal of Science [September Finance and Endowment Lloyd C. Bird Edwin Cox Allan T. Gwathmey Guy W. Horsley, Chairman Box'd Harshbarger Sidney S. Negus Charles T. O’Neill Robert F. Smart R. B. Smith Virginia Science Talent Search W. Schuyler Miller, Chairman J. C. Holmes, Co-Chairman Virginia Flora A. B. Massey, Chairman Lena Artz Walter S. Flory, Jr., Ruskin Freer Ivey F. Lewis Paul M. Patterson JUNIOR ACADEMY OF SCIENCE Mrs. B. G. Heatwole, Chairman Richard Canham E. R. Dyer Susie V. Floyd E. Sherman Grable Beatrice Harrington J. C. Holmes Franklin D. Kizer Reuben R. McDaniel W. Schuvler Miller Sidney S. Negus H. Felix Sanders Ashton Rudd Resolutions Zoe Black, Chairman Nolan E. Rice ^ Marcellus Stow Nominating Irving G. Foster, Chairman Walter S. Flory Edward S. Harlow PlxXCe of Meeting B. F. D. Runk, Chairman Irving G. Foster Andrew L. Ingles 1957] Proceedings 1956-1957 225 Jamestown Festival ^MarceTlus H. Stow, Chairman Robert T. Brumfield Horton H. Hobbs Awards H. R. Hanmer, Chairman Sidney S. Negus Paul M. Patterson J. Francis Allen G. Preston Burns Thomas H. Christie Membership R. A. Clavton, Chairman Imogene B. Claiborne Kenneth R. Lawless Catherine E. Corcoran Henry Leidheiser Dorothy D. Daughtrey Willard A. VanEngel Jesse W. Beams Lloyd C. Bird Edwin Cox A. H. Anderson R. S. Bailey T. V. Dowming George W. Jeffers Ivey F. Lewis A. B. Massev Scholarship Sidney S. Negus, Chairman H. R. Hanmer W. T. Sanger Boyd Harshbarger Marcellus H. Stow Ivey F. Lewis John W. Whittemore Conservation Alfred L. Wingo, Chairman H. S. Mosby Charles E. Packard George P. P. Mullin E. E. Rodger E. W. Mundie D. S. Wallace 1. D. Wilson James River Project * Marcellus H. Stow, Chairman L D. Wilson Charles T. O’Neill Foley F. Smith To assist the State Board of Education in improving the Teaching of Science and relieving the Shortage of Scientists and Engineers. E. D, Crittenden, Chairman James W. Cole, Jr. R. A. Bradley Edwin Cox Irving G. Foster Edward S. Harlow Fred R. Millhiser Sidney S. Negus W. T. Sanger Robert F. Smart * Deceased MAR 4 1958 226 The Virginia Journal of Science September Business Memberships Guy W. Horsley, Chairman Allan T. Gwathmey Rupert Hanmer Edwin Cox Lloyd C. Bird R. Bfaekwell Smith History of Science in Virginia Irving G. Foster, Chairman Trustees Lloyd C. Bird, Chairman Rupert Hanmer Charles T. O’Neill Local Committee on Arrangements (1958) Boyd Harshbarger (Virginia Polyteehnie Institute), General Chairman Dayid Rosbash (Veterans Administration Hospital), Housing Paul M. Patterson (Hollins College), Meeting Rooms and Equipment Ashley Robey (Roanoke College), Junior Aeademy Exhibits H. L. Holloway (Roanoke College,) Registration R. E. Garrett (Hollins College), Publie Information N. F. Murphy (Virginia Polyteehnie Institute), Commereial Exhibits P. R. Thomson (General Electrie Company), Industrial Tours Mrs. Ruth B. Painter (Roanoke), Entertainment for Ladies Dorothy D. Montgomery, (WSLS-TV), Entertainment for Ladies Mrs. Athena Burton (Roanoke College), Entertainment for Ladies G. Vb Downing, (Roanoke), Entertainment for Ladies 1957] Proceedings 1956=1957 227 JEFFERSON MEDAL WINNERS Recipients of the Jefferson Gold Medal^ Allred Chanutin . 1936 William B. Porter . 1937 H. M. Phillips . 1938 G. M. Shear and H. D. Ussery . 1939 Recipients of the Jefferson Prize^ L. G. Overholzer and John H. Yoe . 1940 Allan T. Gvvathmey . 1941 R. N. Jefferson . 1942 W. H. Hough . 1943 Glinton B. Gosby . 1944 RECIPIENTS OF J. SHELTON HORSLEY RESEARCH AWARDS Carl C. Speidel . 1927 John H. Yoe . 1928 J. C. Street . 1929 H. E. Jordan . . Carl C. Speidel . 1930 E. C. Stevenson . 1931 James H. Smith . 1932 S. A. Wingard . 1933 E. P. Johnson . 1934 Margaret Hess . 1935 Alfred Channtin . 1936 R. G. Henderson . 1937 S. G. Bedell . 1938 M. J. Murray . . F. F. Cleveland . 1939 Walton C, Gregory . 1940 Charles Ray . 1941 No Award . 1942 J. B. Mover . 1943 J. H. Taylor . 1944 No Award . 1945 Boyd Harshbarger and D. B. DeLury (separate papers) 1946 1 The winning papers in this competition were 'entered against _ those of the North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida Academies of Science. It was discon¬ tinued in 1940. ~ The winning authors had the choice of the Jefferson Prize or the Academy Prize during this period. The name of the Academy Prize was changed to the J. Shelton Horsley Award and the Jefferson Prize discontinued in 1944. 228 The Virginia Journal of Science [September No Award . 1947 Henry Leidlieiser, Jr . 1948 Walter S. Flory, Jr . 1949 Erling S. Hegre . 1950 David B. Duneaii . 1951 D. R. H. Goiirley . 1952 Stephen Berko . . Frank L. Hereford . 1953 Lynn D. Abbott, Jr. and Mary J. Dodson . 1954 Albert W. Lutz . 1955 M. C. K. Tvveedie . 1956 R. A. Bradley . 1957 Walter H. Lewis . . ) 1957] 229 Proceedings 1956-1957 Contents List of Presidents . 220 Officers and Committees for 1956-57 . 221 Officers and Committees for 1957-58 . 222 Jefferson Medal Winners . . 22 i Horsley Award . 227 General Program — Thirty-Fifth Annual Meeting . 230 Tabulation of Registration . 232 Minutes of Council Meeting . 233 Minutes of Academy Conference . 236 Minutes of Academy Meeting . 237 Minutes of Council Meeting . 238 Reports of Secretary-Treasurer . 240 Committees Long Range Planning . 241 Research . 242 Auditing . 244 Resolutions . 245 Virginia Science Talent Search . 245 Scholarship . 246 Junior Academy of Science . 247 Virginia Science Talent Search — Winners . 250 Virginia Science Talent Search — Honorable Mention . 251 James River Project . 252 Conservation . 253 Virginia Flora . 254 Science Education . 255 Virginia Journal of Science . 256 Jamestown Exposition . 258 Membership . 259 Place of Meeting . 260 Nominating . 260 The Academy Conference . 260 Minutes of Sections Agricultural Sciences . 261 Astronomv, Mathematics, and Physics . 271 Bacteriology . 287 Biology . 291 Chemistry . 305 Education . 317 Engineering . 322 Geology . 328 Medical Sciences . 338 Psychology . 349 Science Teachers . 358 Statistics . 361 List of Members . 369 Membership Application . 400 Form of Bequest . 400 230 The Virginia Journal of Science [September General Program Of The 35th Annual Meeting 1957 All meetings will be held at the Hotel Chamberlin, Old Point ComfoH, Virginia WEDNESDAY, MAY 8 5:00 P.M. to 10:00 P.M.— Registration for Junior Academy Members and Participants in the Science Talent Search. Lobby. 5:00 P.M. to 10:00 P.M. —Arrangement of Exhibits. Sun Porch. THURSDAY, MAY 9 8:00 A.M. to 10:00 P.M. —Registration. Lobby. (Junior Academy members register and sign up for James¬ town tour before 10:00 A.M.) 9:00 A.M. to 9:30 A. M.— Meeting of Science Exhibit Judges. John Smith Room. Meeting of Science Talent Search Judges. Chesapeake Room. 9:30 A.M. to 10:00 A. M.— Meeting of Chairmen, Exhibitors, and Sci¬ ence Talent Search Participants. Virginia Room. 10:00 A.M. to 12:00 P.M.; and 1:00 P.M. to 3:00 P.M. -Finalists of Talent Search meet with Chairmen and Interviewers. Parlors A, B, C, D, E, F. 10:00 A.M. to 12:00 P.M.; and 1:00 P.M. to 3:00 P.M.-Judging of Science Exhibit Contest. Sun Porch, 2:00 P.M. —Meeting of the Council of the Academy. Chesapeake Room. 3:00 P.M. to 10:00 P.M.— Junior Academy tour of Jamestown. 4:00 P.M. —Meeting of Section Officers. John Smith Room. 4:30 P.M. —Meeting of Section Editors. Chesapeake Room. 8:00 P.M. —Academy Conference. Virginia Room, FRIDAY, MAY 10 8:30 A.M. to 10:00 P.M. —Registration. Lobby. 9:00 A.M. —Section Meetings. See the detailed sections programs for time schedule of papers. 1957] Proceedings 1956-1957 231 Agricultural Sciences— CoHee Shop Astronomy, Mathematics and Physics— Virgima. Room Bacteriology— Chamberlin Club TV Room Biology— Rooi Garden Chemistry— John Smith Room and Chesapeake Room Education— Parlor A Engineering— Parlor B Geology— Parlor C. Medical Sciences— Chamberlin Club Psychology— Parlor D and Parlor E. Science T eachers— Parlor F 1 Statistics— Parlor G 12:00 Noon to 2:00 P.M.— Virginia Junior Academy of Science Assem¬ bly. Virginia Room. (See Program of Junior Academy.) 2:00 P.M. to 5:00 P.M.— Section Meetings. 3:00 P.M. to 4:30 P.M. —Tea and reception for visiting ladies given bv the College Woman’s Club of the College of William .and Mary. Barrett Hall, East Living Room, Williamsburg campus. 8:00 P.M. —Virginia Academy of Science Assembly. Roof Garden. Business Meeting: Election of Officers. Presentation of the J. Shelton Horsley Research Award. Guest Speaker: Willard F. Libby, U. S. Atomic Energv Com¬ mission, Washington, D. C. Subject: “Atomic Energy Commission Policy and Methods” The general public is invited to attend. SATURDAY, MAY 11 The Section of Geologv will hold a field trip to the Jamestown Island on Saturday, May 11. Leaders will be Mr. John L. Cotter, Arche¬ ologist of the Colonial National Historical Park, and Dr. John T. Hack of the U. S. G. S. The program will include an archeological and geological tour of the island, a tour of the museum, and an illustrated lecture on the archeological excavations of the Island. 9:00 A. M.— Section Meetings. 10:00 A. M.— Meeting of the Council of the Academy. Chesapeake Room or Parlor A (to be announced at the Thursday meeting of the Council) . 232 The Virginia Journal of Science I September TABULATION OF REGISTRATION Section Memb. Non-Memb. Total 1. Agricultural Sciences . ... 19 14 33 2. Astronomy, Mathematics, & Physics . . .. 40 31 71 3. Bacteriologv^ . . 12 8 20 4. Biologv . 68 19 87 5. Chemistry . .. 58 30 88 6. Education . 6 2 8 7. Engineering . .. 6 8 14 8. Geology . 16 9 25 9. Medical Sciences . . 19 7 26 10. Psychology . . 34 11 45 11. Science Teachers . 16 5 21 12. Statistics . .. 9 6 15 No Section Preference . 29 27 56 Totals . 332 177 509 Total Registration of the Junior Academy 320 Total Registration 1 957 Meeting .. 829 Proceedings 1956-1957 233 1957] MINUTES OF THE MEETING OF THE COUNCIL / OLD POINT COMFORT, MAY 9, 1957 The meeting was held at the Chamberlin Hotel, Old Point Comfort, Virginia. The President called the meeting to order at 2:00 p.m. Those present were: Edward S. Harlow Folev F. Smith William G. Guy Robert T. Brumfield Walter S. Florv, Jr. Sidney S. Negus The Secretary read the minutes of the last meeting which were ap¬ proved as read. Stanley Williams, chairman of the Local Arrangements Committee, gave a report for this committee. He reported that the College of William and Marv wnuld be dinner hosts to the members of the junior Academ\- members making the trip to jamestowm. The President expressed his ap¬ preciation to the Local Arrangements Committee for their excellent ar¬ rangements made for the meeting. He also requested that the Secretary write to Dr. Chandler, President of the College of William and Mar\;, and express the appreciation of the Academy for their hospitality to the members of the Junior Academy. Old Business Present Status of the Seashore State Science Center Proposal The President reviewed the present status of the proposal which is still under consideration by the Board of Conservation and Development. He reported that plans for himself, W. G. Guy and others to visit the presidents of the University of Virginia, William and Mary, and Virginia Polytechnic Institute to discuss the possible participation bv these institu¬ tions in the program, has been unavoidably delayed. Changes in the Constitution and By-laws of the Academy The Assistant Secretary read the proposed changes in the Gonstitu- tion and By-laws. These proposed changes provide for separation of the office of Secretary-Treasurer into two offices, so that the officers would be President, President-elect, Secretary, Treasurer and Assistant Secretary- Treasurer. These changes were unanimously approved by Gouncil. William M. Hinton Irving G. Foster Mrs. B. G. Heatwole William B. Wartman, |r. Stanley B. Williams. .234 The Virginia Journal of Science [September REPORTS OF COMMITTEES Long-Range Planning Committee Survey of Virginia Science Talent Search: It was reported that no source of funds to finance the Survey of the Virginia Science Talent Search had been found. The Dismal Swamp Project: It was reported that little progress on the Dismal Swamp Project had been made since the last report, but it was hoped that work on this project could be accelerated during the summer. The Long-Range Planning Committee was asked to make every effort to expedite the completion of this project by the fall Council meeting. Membership Committee The report of this committee showed that intensive efforts of this committee had resulted in increased membership in the Academy. It was the feeling of Council that this committee be expressly commended for its contribution to the Academy. Business Membership Committee It was reported that plans for intensiye efforts to secure additional business memberships will include the dissemination of a recently drafted concise statement of Academy activities in the fields of training of scientists, research and publication of the JOURNAL and the James River Monograph. Research Committee A record, both in number and total amount, in research grants was made by the committee this year. Dr. Forbes and his committee were highly commended by Council for their work in this important phase of Academy activities. Junior Academy of Science Mrs. Heatwole reported a record participation in the Science Da vs held this year. She told of extensive plans for publicizing, in the second¬ ary schools, the activities of the Academy, espeeiallv those of the Junior Academy. Report of the Editor of the Journal Dr. Brumfield reported that the cost of publishing the JOURNAL under the new contract — awarded to the low bidder — was approximate¬ ly double that of the former contract. This has necessitated the use of a 1957] Proceedings 1956-1957 235 portion of the accumulated smplus funds of the JOURNAL. He requested that Council act to provide additional operating funds for the JOURNAL. Council requested that Dr. Brumfield present an operating budget to the Finance Committee and this committee is requested by Council to recommend means for providing necessary funds for the JOURNAL. Committee to Audit Treasurer's Records This committee reported that the Treasurer’s records for 1956 ap¬ peared to be in order. NEW BUSINESS The President read a letter from Mr. F. A. Ernst, president of the Virginia State Chamber of Commerce, inviting the Academy to become a member of that organization. Council passed a motion that the President reply stating that although the Academv was in accord with the objec¬ tives of the Virginia State Chamber of Commerce, it would not be able to become a member. The President read a letter from Dr. Kellner of the Virginia Resource- Use Education Council requesting that the Academy contribute toward the workshop program of this group. It was the feeling of Council that the Academy was unable to contribute to this program. The President also read a letter from Dr. C. L. Baker of the History Committee of the American Association for the Advancement of Science requesting that the Virginia Academy of Science have a History of Science Committee. A motion was passed that the president of the Academy appoint a History of Science Committee and to inform Dr. Baker of the membership of this committee. This committee will develop the history of science in Virginia. The President expressed his appreciation to Council for their coopera¬ tion and assistance. Council passed a motion that E. S. Harlow be commended for his outstanding service to the Academy during the past year. The meeting was adjourned at 4:00 p.m. — William B. Wartman, Assistant Secretary 236 The Virginia Journal of Science [September MINUTES OF THE ACADEMY CONFERENCE OLD POINT COMFORT, MAY 9, 1957 The Academy Conference was held in the Virginia Room of the Hotel Chamberlin of Old Point Comfort, a forum of more than forty members being present. The meeting was called to order at 8:15 P.M. by President Edward S. Harlow. After proper motion, the reading of tlie minutes of the last Academy Conference was dispensed with, as they were published in the Virginia Journal of Science. The report of the Secretary-Treasurer was read, and after Stanley Williams, Chairman of the Local Committee on Arrangements, announced some changes in the meeting rooms and the program, the various standing committees reported for the year. These reports follow in the Proceedings of the Annual meeting of 1957. In order to eliminate the expense of an annual audit, an experiment was tried this year in having an auditing committee study the books and accounts of the Treasurer and report to the Conference. This special committee reported at this time and declared that the records and ac¬ counts of the Treasurer were in good order. The proposed changes in the Constitution and By-laws recommended and passed by tiie Council, providing for a separation of the offices of Secretary-Treasurer into two offices, were read by the Assistant Secretary, William B. Wartman, Jr., and were unanimously passed by the Con¬ ference. It was noted that the revised corrected Constitution and By-laws would be mimeographed and sent to officers, members of the Council, and Section officers. There being no further business, the meeting adjourned at 10:40 P.M. Foley F. Smith, Secretary. 1957] Proceedings 1956-1957 237 MINUTES OF THE ACADEMY MEETING OLD POINT COMFORT, MAY 10, 1957 The meeting was called to order by President Edward S. Harlow at 8:10 P.M., in the Virginia Room of the Hotel Chamberlin, Old Point Comfort. President Harlow made a few remarks concerning the excellence of the meeting and complimented the planning of the Local An'ange- ments Committee, and noted at this time there were 500 seniors and 320 juniors registered, making it one of our largest meetings. William Guy was recognized, representing Dr. Alvin Chandler, Presi¬ dent of the College of William and Mary, host to the meeting, and welcomed the Vhginia Academy to the Eastern area of the State. Dr. Guy also expressed the regrets of Dr. Chandler that he was unable to be pres¬ ent at the Academy meeting. A report of the Nominating Committee was made and their slate was unanimously accepted with the following officers being elected. William G. Guy, College of William and Mary, President. John C. Forbes, Medical College of Virginia, President-Elect. Paul M. Patterson, Hollins College, Secretary. Foley F. Smith, A.B.C. Board, Treasurer. William B. Wartman, Jr., American Tobacco Company Research Laboratory, Assistant Secretary-Treasurer. Horton H. Hobbs, Jr., University of Virginia, was elected to the Coimcil for a term of five years. Dr. Raymond Taylor, Assistant Administrative Secretary of the AAAS was recognized and extended greetings to the Virginia Academy from the American Association for the Advancement of Science on the occasion of its 35th annual meeting. John C. Forbes reported for the Research Committee, and announc¬ ed that because of the equal excellency of two papers submitted for the J. Shelton Horsley award, the award would be divided this year. The recipients of the two prizes were: (1) D. E. Schumann and R. A. Bradley, Virginia Agricultural Ex¬ periment Station, V.P.I., for a paper on “The Comparison of the Sensitivities of Similar Experiments.” (2) Walter H. Lewis, Blandy Experimental Farm, University of Virginia, for a paper on “A Biosystematic Study of Rosa Aci- cularis” 238 The Virginia Journal of Science [September The Teacher Sponsor scholarship awards were made to: Miss Gilliam Phenix (College of William and Mary scholarship) and O. P. Sadler, Buckingham Central High School, (University of Virginia scholarship). The report of the Resolutions Committee was made by 1. G. Foster, and was accepted. (These Resolutions appear under Committee Reports). The report of the Place of Meeting Committee recommended that the 1958 meeting of the Academy be held at the Hotel Roanoke, Roa¬ noke, Virginia. It was further recommended that an invitation to the Academy for its meeting for 1959 by the University of Virginia, be accepted. The report of the committee was unanimously accepted. The business session adjourned, and the guest speaker of the eve¬ ning, Dr. Willard F. Libby, of the U. S. Atomic Energy Commission, Washington, D. C., was introduced by President Harlow. He gave a verv interesting address on “Atomic Energy Commission Policy and Methods.” Afterward the address, the meeting adjourned. Foley F. Smith, Secretary MINUTES OF THE VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE COUNCIL MEETING OLD POINT COMFORT, MAY 11, 1957 The Council of the Virginia Academy of Science met at the Cham¬ berlin Hotel, Old Point Comfort, May 11, 1957. The president called the meeting to order at 10:05 a.m. Those present were: William G. Guv Edward S. Harlow Walter S. Flory John C. Forbes William M. Hinton Mrs. B. C. Heatwole Allan T. Gwathmev Lynn D. Abbott, fr. Foley F. Smith William B. Wartman, Jr The following items were discussed and action taken as noted: OLD BUSINESS The Seashore State Science Center Proposal: The president report¬ ed that he, E. S. Harlow and perhaps others will visit the presidents of the University of Virginia, Virginia Polytechnic Institute, and the College of William and Mary and discuss the possible participation of these in¬ stitutions in the proposed Science Center. 1957] Proceedings 1956-1957 239 Funds to Finance the Survey of the Virginia Science Talent Search. The Long-Range Planning Committee was requested by the president to investigate possible sources for such funds. Council members weie requested "to forward any suggestions for sources to Dr. Abbott. Business Membership Committee: The president reported that he will reappoint this committee who wifi, by letter or personal contract, seek to increase the Business Memberships in the Academy. History of Science Committee: The president reported that he will appoint a Histor^^ of Science Committee to develop the history of science in Virginia. NEW BUSINESS Public Information Committee: After considerable discussion on the subject of publicizing the Academy and its activities, a motion was pas¬ sed that the president, after consultation with Dr. Negus, appoint a Public Information Committee with Dr. Sidney S. Negus as chairman, and including the secretary in its membership. Funds for the Junior Aeademy Activities: Mrs. Heatwole requested that Council provide additional funds for the Junior Academy activities. Mrs. Heatwole was requested to submit a budget covering Junior Academy activities to the Finance Committee prior to its fall meeting so that the Finance Committee would be able to include necessary Junior Academy funds in the budget to be presented at the fall Council meeting. Dr. Sidney S. Negus: A motion was passed that Dr. Sidney S. Negus be commended for his outstanding contribution to the Academy while serving as a member of the Council. Mr. Foley F. Smith: Council passed a motion that the Editor of the Journal publish in the Journal an expression of appreciation to Folev F. Smith for his services as Seeretary-Treasurer of the Academy. Dr. Bruee D. Reynolds: Council passed a motion that a statement, formally recognizing the many years of services to the Aeademy of the late Dr. Bruce D. Reynolds, be published in a forthcoming issue of the Journal. Dr. Walter S. Flory will prepare the statement for publication. Other Business: Mr. E. S. Harlow reported that R. M. Irby had re¬ signed as Advertising Manager of the Journal. Mrs. Heatwole, as chairman of the Junior Academy Committee, ex¬ pressed appreciation to E. S. Harlow for his work on behalf of the Junior Academ^^ The meeting was adjourned at 11:25 a.m. William B. Wartman, Jr. Assistant Secretary-Treasurer 240 The Virginia Journal of Science [ September REPORT OF THE SECRETARY-TREASURER The thirty-fifth meeting of the Virginia Academy of Science appears to be one of the largest in the history of tlie Academy, if not the largest. Again, the Junior Academy exhibits are outstanding, and has the largest total number of exhibits both individually and class exhibits than at any meeting so far. This year, as an experiment, it was decided to appoint an Auditing Committee to examine the books and records of the Secretary-Treasurer, instead of paying for the expense of a more complete audit by a C.P.A. The report of this Auditing Committee, and of the Finance Committee relative to the budget follow along with the reports of the standing committees. American Association for the Advancement of Science Meeting — The Academy was represented at two Council meetings of the AAAS in New York City, on December 27 and 30 ,1956. The Council elected Dr. Wallace R. Erode as President-Elect of the Association. Dr. Erode is Associate Director of the National Eureau of Standards, Washington, D. C. Laurence H. Snyder became President of the' Association, and Dr. Paul E. Sears, the Retiring President. Paul E. Klopsteg, Emeritus Profes¬ sor of Engineering, Northwestern University, and Alan T. Waterman, Director of the National Science Foundation, were elected to the Eoard of Directors. 1957] Proceedings 1956-1957 241 REPORT OF THE LONG-RANGE PLANNING GOMMITTEE The main efforts of the Long Range Planning Gommittee during the year 1956-1957 have been concerned with the question of the utilization of the Seashore State Park referred to the Gommittee by the Gouncil at its meeting on May 12, 1956. At that time it was recommended that a subcommittee be set up by the Long Range Planning Committee to con¬ sider the matter of utilization of the Seashore State Park. This subcom¬ mittee was established in July, 1956, under the able chairmanship of Dr. Henry Leidheiser, Jr., with Marcellus Stow, J. T. Baldwin, I. G. Foster and the late Bruce D. Reynolds serving actively. Dr. Armstrong repre¬ sented Dr. Guy, and Dr. Abbott attended for Dr. Negus. This subcom¬ mittee met several times during the summer of 1956 and prepared recom¬ mendations which were accepted by the Committee and by Council in Charlottesville, October 7, 1956. Following this, members of the Long Range Planning Committee continued to work with Mr. Harlow on this project during the vear, and met several times with the Director of the Department of Conservation. The results of these meetings and the pres¬ ent status of our formal proposal to the Department of Conservation have been presented to the Council by Mr. Harlow. At a meeting of the Committee in Charlottesville, October 7, 1956, Mrs. Heatwole’s proposal of September 19, 1956, for a grant from the National Science Foundation for a study of the effectiveness of the Vir¬ ginia State Science Talent Searches was approved and sent to Council. Approved by Council, the proposal was submitted to the National Science Foundation by Mr. Harlow, Drs. Negus and Abbott during a meeting in Washington on October 12, 1956. The Academy was informed on ]anu- ary 25, 1957, that the National Science Foundation would be unable to support this proposal, and the Survev has not vet found financial support. No progress has been made during the past year on the Dismal Swamp Project. Dr. J. T. Baldwin reports he hopes to find some time during the summer to devote to it. The chairman wishes to take this opportunitv to thank all members of the Committee for their enthusiastic cooperation. Lynn D. Abbott, Jr., Chairman 242 The Virginia Journal of Science REPORT OF RESEARCH COMMITTEE [September Grants: During the period May 1, 1956, to May 1, 1957, the following grants were made: D. Burke and W. S. Woolcott, Department of Biology, $ 250.00 University of Richmond, for a study on blood oxygen capacity in fish and relationship to envii'onment factors. W. L. Burger, Department of Biology, College of William 85.00 and Mary for a continuation of his study on the ecology and taxonomy of reptiles and amphibians with particular emphasis on (1) A taxonomic and ecological study of the Rough Green Snake and (2) Distributional studies of the turtle and frogs of Eastern Virginia. Mitchell A. Byrd, Department of Biology, College of William 125.0C and Mary for a study on Plasmodium berghei. Harry L. Holloway, Department of Biology, Roanoke College 110.00 for the purchase of animal cages to be used in a study on the life cycle of Hijdatigera Itjncis, a tapeworm of the bobcat which passes its cysticerous stage in the wood rat. Roscoe D. Hughes, Department of Biology, Medical College 200.00 of Virginia for the purchase of testing anti-sera, films, etc. used in an investigation of the dento-facial region in growing twins and their families. Roger Rageot, Curator, Natural History, Norfolk Museum, for a 125.00 continuation of his study on the fauna of the Dismal Swamp. Nolan E. Rice, Department of Biology, University of Rich- 125.00 mond, for an investigation on the ecology and physiology of the fresh-water medusa, Craspedacusta sowerhii. Robert D. Ross, Department of Biology, Virginia Polytech- 125.00 nic Institute for the purchase of alcohol to be used in per¬ manently preserving fish collected in cooperation with the Commission of Game and Inland Fisheries. This material is a part of the Research Museum of the College. Grover C. Smart, Miller School of Biology, University of 125.00 Virginia for travel expense incurred in connection with a study of the life history of the crayfish, Camharus longulus longulus. Jesse C. Thompson, Jr., Department of Biology, Hollins Col- 173.00 lege, for the purchase of an ortho-illuminator to be used in a morphological study of the ciliated protozoan fauna of tree borne lichens and mosses. 1957] Proceedings 1956-1957 243 John H. Wise, Department of Chemistry, Washington and Lee University, for the purchase of a spectrophotometer to be used in research work on reactions of nitryl chloride, etc. 340.00 Total 1,783.50 J. Shelton Horsley Research Prize for 1957 150.00 Total expenditures for May 1, 1956, to May 1, 1957 $1,933.50 Since the requests for grants were considerably in excess of the amount of money available for distribution, the Academy Council trans¬ ferred $800.00 of previously unexpended research funds to the Commit¬ tee, thus enabling it to grant in all cases at least a part of the amount requested. We are confident that these grants-in-aid, small as they are, are of inestimable value to the cause of science in Virginia. They have in many cases enabled well trained scientific personnel to carry on re¬ search projects which might not have been possible otherwise on ac¬ count of the limited research funds available to them. We are all aware of the fact that many of the scientific personnel within the State are so busy with teaching or other duties that they have time for research only during the vacation period. On account of this these individuals find it difficult to obtain support from large foundations. The Virginia Academy of Science can make no greater contribution to the welfare of the State and the Nation than by doing all in its power to support the research interests of these individuals. J. C. Forbes, Chairman 244 The Virginia Journal of Science [September REPORT OF THE AUDITING COMMITTEE The committee appointed by President Harlow as a special commit¬ tee on March 6, 1957, has followed his request to go over the Secre¬ tary-Treasurer’s books in order to be prepared to say whether or not the books are in order. The committee has examined the general checking account of the Secretary-Treasurer, V.A.S. as represented by check stubs in the Treas¬ urer’s checkbook and monthly statements of the First and Merchants National Bank of Richmond and find as follows: Cash on deposit in Bank as of December 31, 1955 $ 5137.87 Deposits during year December 31, 1955-December 31, 1956 (as shown in Treasurer’s checkbook 6217.10 11254.97 Expenditures during year December 31, 1955-December 31, 1956 (as shown in Treasurer’s checkbook) 6113.31 Balance 5241.66 Bank statements show: Cash on deposit as of December 31, 1956 5250.31 The Academy, therefore, has on deposit as of December 31, 1956, a sum of $8.65 in excess of that shown in the Treasurer’s books. We have examined the Research Checking Account and find it to be in complete accord with the statement of the First and Merchants National Bank of Richmond as of December 31, 1956. We have examined the Stock Certificates held in the personal de¬ posit box of the Secretary-Treasurer and find 12 shares Food Fair Stores, Inc. No. 286; 11 shares Virginia Electric and Power Companv, No. 11323. The income from the shares is added to the General Check¬ ing Account. Also available for inspection were the Cash Receipt Book and the Cash Disbursement Book and the statement of the First and Merchants National Bank of Richmond on the condition of the Endowment Fund, income from which is credited to the Research Checking Account. In the light of the above report we are prepared to sav that the books of the Secretary-Treasurer, V.A.S. are in order. William G. Guy, Chairman Walter S. Flory, Jr. Russell H. Rowlett, Jr. 1957] Proceedings 1956-1957 245 REPORT OF THE RESOLUTIONS COMMITTEE The Virginia Academy of Science expresses its appreciation for their contributions to the success of the 1957 annual meeting to the host institutions, the College of William and Mary and the College of William and Mary, Norfolk Division, to the Chamberlin Hotel, and to Stanley B. WilHams and his local committee on arrangements. For his six years as managing editor and editor of the Virginia Journal of Science, the Academy is indebted to Horton H. Hobbs. His contribution to the success of the Journal is of inestimable value. The membership committee of the Academy merits sincere thanks for its outstanding work in recruiting new members. In particular, the unremitting efforts of Mrs. Geraldine M. Duncan in this work deserves recognition. The Virginia Academy of Science has suffered a great loss in the recent death of Dr. Bruce D. Reynolds, Professor of Biology of the University of Virginia. Long active in the affairs of the Academy, he was ever willing to lend his talent and energy to the solution of its problems. His role in founding the Blandy Experimental Farm and the Mountain Lake Biological Station was of primary importance and they will remain as monuments to his influence in the scientific life of the Commonwealth of Virginia. Finally, the Academy recognizes its loss through death of several members of long standing during the past year. I. G. Foster, Chairman. REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON THE VIRGINIA SCIENCE TALENT SEARCH The twelfth Virginia Science Talent Search was conducted as usual in cooperation with the National Science Talent Search. Of the one hund¬ red and seventy-four Virginia high school students who entered the search, seven received National Honorable Mention. Our own reading committee considered all of the Virginia entries and selected the top forty-five as finahsts to come before interviewing committees at the Old Point Comfort meeting of the Academy. The list of fifteen Winners chosen by the interviewers, and also the list of Hon¬ orable Mentions, will be attached to this report*. All cooperating colleges and universities already have received a list of the finalists. At the con¬ clusion of this meeting they will be sent the lists of Winners and Hon¬ orable Mentions. The director is grateful for the assistance of the following who serv- 246 The Virginia Journal of Science [September ed on the reading committee: Richard M. Irby, Jr. E. Clifford Nelson Mary E. Kapp J. Doyle Smith Noble R. McEwen William E. Trout, Jr. Thanks are also due to the judges who helped with the interviewing of the finalists: Alfred R. Armstrong Frank Roldridge Jane Bell Gladding Richard M. Irby, Jr. Mary E. Kapp J. L. McHugh W. Allan Powell j. Douglas Reid Wade y. Temple Special appreciation goes to Mr. William B. Wartman and the American Tobacco Company for taking care of a large part of the secre¬ tarial work. W. Schuyler Miller, Chairman. REPORT OF THE SCHOLARSHIP COMMITTEE The functions of the Academy Scholarship Committee, composed of Messrs. Beams, Bird, Cox, Hanmer, Harshbarger, Ivey Lewis, Negus, Sanger, Stow, and Whittemore are primarily twofold. 1. To assist worthy students with aptitudes for scientific careers in securing financial aid to pursue their studies in the educational institutions of their choice. 2. To serve as counselors to students interested in scientific careers and to teachers of science, especially in the public and private high schools of Virginia. The specific accomplishments of this committee during the past year are difficult to report. Scholarships in colleges have been obtained for several students and many have been advised about their future careers. Each case concerned is always an individual one. Quite a few science teachers have been informed about scholarships available for their outstanding students. It is not yet well enough known by high school seniors and science teachers of the State that there is an Academy Scholarship Committee. During the second year of this new committee’s existence, efforts will be made in various ways to be of more service to those needing counsel in matters having to do with scholarships. Sidnev S. Negus, Chairman 1957] Proceedings 1956-1957 247 THE VIRGINIA JUNIOR ACADEMY OF SCIENCE COMMITTEE The Virginia Junior Academy of Science had during 1956-57 an individual membership of 7438, representing clubs in both Junior and Senior High schools from every region of the State. Charters were issued to 29 new clubs. The following activities were carried out during the year: Mimeographed letters concerning activities were mailed three times during the year to all public and private high schools in the State. The JUNIOR SCIENCE BULLETIN was issued two times during the year and mailed to every science teacher whose address could be ob¬ tained. The publication of the BULLETIN was made possible by a con¬ tribution of $200.00 by the American Tobacco Research Laboratory. The printing was done under the direction of Miss Susie V. Floyd. Grants were made to assist in project work from research funds made available by the Philip Morris Co., Inc. Summer scholarships of $200.00 each were again made available by the University of Virginia and the College of William and Marv to two outstanding Teacher-Sponsors. Junior Science Days were sponsored by Virginia Polytechnic Insti¬ tute, University of Richmond, College of William and Mary, University of Virginia, and Virginia Union University. Eightv-one schools, represent¬ ed by 2261 students, participated in the Junior Science Days. Two hundred and ninetv-one exhibits were displayed. From them, 79 exhibits were selected for display at the annual meeting. ANNUAL MEETING The annual meeting of the Junior Academy was held at the Hotel Chamberlin, Old Point Comfort, on Mav 9th and 10th. Sixty-one individual and nine club displays were exhibited. Over three hundred student dele¬ gates registered during the meeting and many other interested individuals visited the exhibit area. An outstanding panel of scientists judged the research exhibits and counselled the students on their research projects and on their preparation for scientific careers. At the JUNIOR ACADEMY ASSEMBLY on May 10th, Dr. Willard F. Libbv, Vice-Chairman of the Atomic Energy Commission, spoke brief¬ ly to the students, encouraging them to become discoverers and conquer¬ ors through research, study and understanding. Dr.Allan T. Gwathmey, Professor of Chemistry at the University of Virginia, who is an international authority on metal crystals, was the guest speaker. His lecture on “The World of Crystals” was exceptionally dyna¬ mic and inspirational. 248 The Virginia Journal of Science [September Awards for individual research projects were again made possible by a grant from the Philip Morris, Co., Inc. They were given to first, sec¬ ond and third place winners in each of four categories: Physics, Chemistrv, Biological Sciences, and Miscellaneous Sciences. Philip Morris Achievement Awards Biology 1st— Transforming of Bacteria — Exhibitor — Wilfreta Gourdine — I. C. Norcum High School. — Sponsor — Mrs. M. A. Parham. 2nd— “Investigations Involving a Pancreas-Adrenal-Pituitarv-Sulfhvdrl Axis.” — Washington-Lee High School — Exhibitor — Ralph Dougherty — Sponsor — Mr. E. M. North. 3rd— “The Culture of Chick Embryo Heart Tissue Outside the Or¬ ganism.” — William Fleming High School — Exhibitor— Jim Baird — Sponsor— Mrs. Ruth Painter. Honorable Mentions “Cerebral Development in Vertebrate Animals” — Jefferson Senior High School — Exhibitor— Bill Wallace — Sponsor— Mrs. Kay Sheppard. “Some Effects of Ray Radiation” — Radford High School — Exhibitor— Tony Giesen — Sponsor— Miss Mae Jennings. “Palentology of Lower York-James Peninsula” — Hampton High School — Exhibitor— Godfrev Smith — Sponsor— Mr. D. E. Rose. Chemistry Two exhibitors tied for First. “Polymerization of Monomers.” — Exhibitor— Joe Glema — Washington & Lee High School, Arling¬ ton, Va. — Sponsor— Edward North, and “Phosphorus as a Nutrient for Algae in Marine Waters” — Newport News High School — Sponsor— Mr. J. W. Mays — Exhibitor— Miss Page Smith. Third Place — “Powder Metallurgy — Tungsten Carbide” — Exhibitor — Larrv Gilmer — Mount Vernon High School — Sponsor— Mr. R. H. Horn. Honorable Mentions “See Better Through Plastic.” — Peabody High School, Peters¬ burg, Va. — Exhibitor — Miss Yolanda Ridlev — Sponsor— Mr. N. S. Gilliam. “Chromotography” — Craddock High School — Exhibitor— Robert Copeland — Sponsor— Alan Mandell. 1957] Proceedings 1956-1957 249 Physics Tie for First - "Electronics Photographic Negative Intensifier” - Exhibi¬ tor - Johnny Williams - Jefferson High School - Sponsor- Mr. Caldwell and "Coil Properties on Crystal Radio Reception” - Exhibitor - Tommy Yancy - Buckingham Central High School — Sponsor — Mr. O. P. Sadler Third - "Experimental Wind Tunnels” - Exhibitor - Irwin Gladstone - Woodrow Wilson High School - Sponsor - Mrs. J. K. Fordham. Honorable Mentions "Wilson Cloud Chamber” - Exhibitor - Robert Miller - Radford High School — Sponsor— Miss Mae Jennings “Ramjet Propulsion” — Exhibitor — William Todd — I. C. Norcum High School — Sponsor— Mr. John F. Bailey & Mrs. Parham. "Principles of Stadia” — Exhibitor— Mary Brown — McLean High School — Sponsor— Miss Pilgrim. "Astronomical Telescope” — Exhibitor— Charles Joyner — Bolling Junior High School. "Maxwell-Boltzman Energy Distribution” — Exhibitor— David Lundquist — Newport News High School — Sponsor — Mr. J. W. Mays. "Speech Memory Unit” — Exhibitor— Larry Adams — Falls Church High School — Sponsor— Mrs. Nell Shugrua. “Electric- Arc Furnace” — Exhibitor— Frank Woollev — James Monroe High School — Sponsor— Mr. Robert Hodge. Miscellaneous 1. "Geological Survey of the New Market Creek Area” — Exhibitor — Vernon Rollins — Hampton High School — Sponsor— Dale E. Rose. 2. "Virginia Minerals and Rocks” — Exhibitor— Rudolph J. Bland, Jr. — Thomas Jefferson High School, Richmond — Sponsor— Miss Ellet 3. “Effect of Music on Study Habits” — Exhibitor— Carl Hacker — Ne\\ - port News High School — Sponsor — Mr. J. W. Mays Honorable Mentions "Binary Mathematics” — Exhibitor— Denise Brooks — McLean High School — Sponsor— General Rumbaugh. 250 The Virginia Journal of Science [September “Products of Indian Ingenuity” — Exhibitor— Irvin Catlett — Buckingham Central High School — Sponsor— Mr. O. P. Sadler Club Awards 1st— Horizons Unlimited — Victoria Jr. Science Club — \uctoria High School — Sponsor— Mrs. Jesse Turner 2nd— “Insects” — Newport News High School Science Club — New¬ port News High School — Sponsor — Mr. J. W. Mays. 3rd— An Investigation of the use of sequence in logical reasoning. — Huntington High School Science Club — Huntington High School — Sponsor — Miss Lillian Weaver. E. C. L. Miller Award — to club having the most outstanding program of activities for the year. — Eagle Rock High School Science Club Eagle Rock, Virginia — Sponsor — W. W. Cash, Jr. Major N. Catesby Jones Award — to individual who showed outstanding research ability. — Tommy Yancy, Buckingham Central High School. Honorary Membership in AAAS — Wilfreta Gourdine, I. C. Norcum High School — Vernon Rollins, Hampton High School. Honorary Memberships in VAS — John Towler — Halifax High School Mary Lou Myers, Eagle Rock High School. Teacher Sponsor Scholarships — College of William and Mary — E. M. North, Washington & Lee High School, Arlington — Alternate —Miss Jane Gilliam, Phenix High School, Phenix. University of Virginia — O. P. Sadler, Buckingham High School Alternate— Miss Mae Jennings, Radford High School. The following awards were made in the Twelfth Virginia Science Talent Search: WINNERS OF THE TWELFTH VIRGINIA SCIENCE TALENT SEARCH 1956-57 Adelberger, Rexford Earle . Washington-Lee High School *Bacon, Otis Blake . Warren County High School * Charlton, Mary Virginia (Miss) . Buckingham Central High School Chilton, Helen M. (Miss) . Washington-Lee High School *Clema, Joseph Kotouc . Washington-Lee High School * Fritz, Harold Geiger . Wakefield High School Gillum, Gary Patrick . Mount Vernon High School Fairfax County, Virginia 1957] Proceedings 1956-1957 251 Hagenbuch, John Randolph . Washington-Lee High School Hinton, Albert Lucius . Booker T. Washington High School ‘'Lundquist, David Eugene . Newport News High School Newport News, Virginia Schulthesis, William B . Washington-Lee High School Smith, Kathryn Page (Miss) . Newport News High School * Traylor, Rock Roberson . John Marshall High School Veasey, William Maury . Andrew Lewis High School Williams, John Garland . Jefferson Senior High School HONORABLE MENTION IN THE TWELFTH VIRGINIA SGIENGE TALENT SEARCH Allen, Marian Janet (Miss) . Check High School, Check, Virginia Auton, David Lee . Washington-Lee High School Baber, Albert Thornhill . Buckingham Central High Buckingham, Virginia Bradshaw, Jerry Orem . Tazewell High School Brain, Willard . Falls Church High School Brunton, Nancy Ann (Miss) . Lane High School Burton, Claudia Elizabeth (Miss) . Washington-Lee High School Gaboon, Betty Frances Louise (Miss) . Cradock High School Dougherty, Ralph C. . Washington-Lee High School Harold, Douglas Walker . Washington-Lee High School Haupt, Walter Preston . Jefferson Senior High School Hodder, Robert Edwin . Hermitage High School Hooks, Kenneth Robert . Washington-Lee High School Hudson, John Henry . Mount Vernon High School Johnson, David Copeland . Osbourn High School Lyons, Barbara Jean (Miss) . Castlewood High School Manly, Charles Lynhaven . Washington-Lee High School Noel, Thomas Howard . Farmville High School Othmer, Siegfried . Manchester High School Phipps, Donald Lee, Jr . William Fleming High School Richardson, Claude Artice . Huntington High School Riegel, Kurt . Lexington High School Roland, Flora Ann (Miss) . Cradock High School Honorable Mention in the National Science Talent Search. 252 The Virginia Journal of Science [September Sanford, Frederick Earl . Scoville, James Griffin . Stephens, Franklin Marshall Towler, John Gotten . Walker, Jefferson Hiden, Jr. Yens, David E . Young, John Arthur . . King George High School King George, Virginia Washington-Lee High School Washington-Lee High School . Halifax County High School South Boston, Virginia . Warwick High School . Mount Vernon High School Alexandria, Virginia Washington-Lee High School REPORT OF JAMES RIVER PROJECT COMMITTEE An appropriate jacket for the James River Monograph has been de¬ signed by Elmo Jones of Richmond and printed bv the Dietz Press. Copies of the Monograph, with jacket, are now on sale at the Information Center of the Jamestown Festival, at Cokesbury’s Book Shop, Thalhimers, and Miller and Rhoads. Financial statements as of April 30, 1957, is as follows: Total copies distributed as of April 30, 1956 . 546 Balance on deposit. Peoples Nat. Bank., Lex., Va., as of April 30, 1956 . $ 183.90 Complimentary copies distributed between May 1, 1956, and Apr. 30, 1957 . 6 Copies sold at $6.00 between May 1, 1956 and April 30, 1957 (7) . $ 42.00 Copies on consignment for Jamestown Festival . 105 Total copies distributed between May 1, 1956 and April 30, 1957 118 Deposited in Peoples Nat. Bank between May 1, 1956 and Apr. 30, 1957 . $ 42.00 Expenditures between May 1, 1956, and April 30, 1957 . $ 78.10 Account in Trust Dept., First & Merch. Nat. Bank, Richmond, Va. (exclusive of interest) . $1600.00 Total to credit of James River Project as of April 30, 1957 . $1678.10 Total copies of Monograph distributed between May 11, 1950 and April 30, 1957 . 554 Marcellus H, Stow, Chairman 1957] Proceedings 1956-1957 253 REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON CONSERVATION Through their work as teachers or supervisors in a variety of fields the members of your Conservation Committee influenced thousands of people during the past year in every phase of conservation. The member of ^e Committee who works with vocational agriculture indicated that 23,588 youths and adults were enrolled last year in organized classes in that field. It required three single-spaced typewritten pages to set forth a digest of the conseiwation acitvities engaged in by those groups. Conservation essay contests have been promoted by members of your Committee. In addition to teaching, some of your Committee mem¬ bers have written newspaper and magazine articles, made a number of speeches both inside and outside of the laboratory or classroom, promot¬ ed the use of conservation materials, and given a variety of demonstrations. The member of the Committee who works in marine biology prepared and presented forty television programs, as a part of his promotional work. The water resources engineer member of your Committee has been conducting a research project on a small watershed in tlie Piedmont. One of the forester members of the Committee is involved in an interesting research project in silviculture that deals with the runoff from logging roads. Most of the members of your Committee are also members of the Virginia Resource-Use Education Council. This Council has published a bulletin entitled, A Look at Virginias Natural Resources. Last summer the Council promoted and carried through to completion at V.P.I. a very successful resource-use workshop for teachers. The Council has plans for conducting resource-use workshops for teachers at V.P.I. and the College of William and Mary during the summer, 1957. Doubtlessly, the Academy will be interested to learn that the Com¬ monwealth Fund is contributing $3,000 for the current year and it has agreed to contribute a like amount for the years 1958 and 1959, to be used as scholarships for teachers who attend resource-use workshops. Your Committee feels that it would be proper for the Academy to pass an appropriate resolution expressing its appreciation and commending Mr. Monroe Bush for the wisdom of the contribution. In the judgement of your Committee, there are two matters to which the attention of the Academy should be called. (1) The efforts of the Virginia Resource-Use Education Council, a voluntary organization, which culminated in a resource-use workshop for teachers last summer and plans for two such workshops this summer represent a large undertaking. Planning and raising funds for these workshops require much effort, thought, time, and preseverance on the part of many individuals. Your Committee believes that the Academy should commend, endorse, and support the efforts of this Council in every way possible. (2) According to infoianation that has come to your Committee, the cooperative enter- 254 The Virginia Journal of Science [September prise that has been carried on for years by the State Division of Water Resources and the U. S. Geological Survey will be terminated June 30, 1957. Apparently, this termination of cooperative efforts by these two agencies will be unfortunate because some of the work will be curtailed and the two parallel organizations will continue with partial programs. Alfred L. Wingo, Chairman. REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON VIRGINIA FLORA There is little opportunity for group activity by the Committee on account of the fact that its members are scattered throughout the State. Individuals of the Committee and other botanists in the State have been active in studies relative to the State Flora or, through lectures and demonstrations, have promoted a better appreciation of native plants and vegetation. Dr. Patterson has continued active studies of the mosses and liverworts of Virginia. A paper is in press reporting new records of Hepatics in Virginia. Other papers on the mosses have been issued. Mr. W. H. Lewis, working with Dr. Flory, has submitted a thesis reporting biosystematic study of the genus Rosa. This considers the species of Rosa east of the Rocky Mountains; hence, gives valuable information relative to species native to this State. Dr. J. T. Baldwin reports biosystematic studies of certain native plants. At V.P.I. an illustrated bulletin on the Legumes of Virginia has been issued. This considers native and intro¬ duced species. A short report is in press relative to the presence of goat grass, Aegilops cijlindrica, a new species for Virginia. A manuscript on the grasses of Virginia is in preparation for publication in early 1958. Having been granted untrainecl assistance, the State Herbarium at V.P.I. , is being put into much better condition. Several thousand additional specimens have been mounted and filed. Many specimens from over the State have been received for identification. These are mostly plants of economic interest. Several hundred herbarium .specimens have been re¬ ceived and filed in the herbarium. A. B. Massev, Chairman 19571 Proceedings 1956-1957 255 REPORT OF THE EDUCATION COMMITTEE The Education Committee is the outgrowth of the Advisory Panel on Education in the Sciences which was so ably headed by Professor James Cole, Jr., in 1955-1956, Following the annual meeting in Richmond in 1956, word was received that Mr. Frank Kizer had been appointed an Assistant Supervisor of Secondary Education in the State Department of Education. A considerable part of his time was to be spent on prob¬ lems relating to science teaching, science teacher certification and science text books. This appointment represents a real step forward and marks the culmination of an idea which has received strong support from the Academy. The Education Committee held one meeting in Richmond on No¬ vember 24, 1956 at which all members but one were present. Mr. Frank Kizer attended by invitation and gave the Committee a broad outline of the plans which were being undertaken by him relating to science edu¬ cation in Virginia. The Committee discussed at considerable length the various angles of science education at secondary and college levels and the very acute shortage of scientists which has developed in recent vears. The meeting closed with the idea that an early conference would be held with Dr. Dowell J. Howard to work out a program through which the Education Committee could be of most help to the State Department of Education. Before final arrangements for the conference could be made, word was received of the untimely passing of Dr. Howard and it has been impossible to hold the conference with Dr. Paschal before the Academv’s annual meeting. Dr. Fred R. Millhiser and your Chairman have been serving this past year on the Committee on Education of Scientists of the Virginia Advisory Legislative Council. This committee was instructed by V.A.L.C. through a joint resolution of the General Assembly to gather information and to determine whether additional steps should be taken at State level to maintain an adequate supply of scientists and engineers and of teachers of these subjects. A public hearing was held in Richmond on Januarv 25, 1957, and a report is in preparation. Individual members of the Education Committee have been con¬ sulted by Mr. Frank Kizer on frequent occasions during the year and have been called upon to participate in several teachers meetings and panel discussions. The list of members who served on the Education Committee in 1956-1957 is attached. E. H. Crittenden, Chairman 256 The Virginia Journal of Science ] September REPORT OF THE VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Following the appointment of R. T. Brumfield as Editor and C. F. Lane as Managing Editor by the Couneil of the Aeademy at the Annual meeting in May of 1956, the editorial and business offiee of the Virginia journal of Seienee was moved from the Department of Biology at the University of Virginia to Stevens Hall of Longwood College. The administration of Longwood College has been eooperative in supplying transportation to transfer the baek eopies of the Journal from the Universitv to Longwood. The Librarian has turned over a room in the Library for housing the Journal, giving us the safety of a fire-proof building. The Journal is faeed this year, under a new printing contraet, with rapidly mounting eosts. For example, the cost of one page of straight printed matter in the old contract was $4.00, under the new contract this cost has doubled to $8.00. This increase is because of increased labor and paper costs. To retain the high quality of past Journals, more finan¬ cial support for the Journal will be needed in the future. Rather than read the complete financial statements, I am turning the detailed, audited statement over to the Council for its careful studv and consideration. Briefly stated, the receipts this year amounted to $2,686.59, expenses to $3,970.93. With all bills paid to May 1, 1957, there is a cash balance in the bank of $1,606.68, in addition to $43.74 on deposit with Farmville post office and $4.05 cash on hand. The Journal has $2,688.41 in the savings account and thus has a total favor¬ able balance of $4,342.88. C. F. Lane, Managing Editor 1957] Proceedings 1956-1957 257 FINANCIAL STATEMENT VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE May 3, 1956 - April 30, 1957 RECEIPTS: Academy Subsidy: Members . $2, 132 '50 Advertising . 315.99 Subscriptions . 229.10 Miscellaneous . 9.00 Total of all receipts . $2,686.59 EXPENDITURES: Reprints . $ 6.50 Printing ($846.56 Jamestown Reprints) . 3150.60 Engraving . 314.80 Freight . < . 51.88 Postage . 130.82 Office Supplies . 69.21 Stenographic . 212.66 Miscellaneous . 30.41 Total of all expenditures . $3,966.88 STATEMENT OF CASH ACCOUNT: Balance of Cash at Beginning of Year . $2,891.02 Total Receipts for Year . 2,686.59 Total Cash on Hand During Year . 5,577.61 Less Total Expenditures for Year . 3,966.88 Less Balance in Petty Cash Fund . 4,05 Balance of Cash per Checkbook . 1,606.68 Add Cash on Hand (Petty Cash Fund) . 4.05 Add Cash Deposited With Farmville Post Office . 43.74 Add Balance in Savings Account . 2,688.41 Total Cash as of April 30, 1957 . $4,342.88 Audited bv Willard G. Deeper May 7, 1957 258 The Virginia Journal of Science [September REPORT OF JAMESTOWN FESTIVAL COMMITTEE The Jamestown Festival issue of the Virginia Journal of Scienee was published on sehedule. The title is “Early Virginia.” The eover design is bv Mr. Horace Day, Professor of Art, Mary Baldwin College. The booklet of 73 pages contains a “foreword” by the chairman of this com¬ mittee, and the following chapters; “Indians of Virginia 350 Years Ago,” b\' Bruce D. Reynolds, University of Virginia; “Geologic Ancestry of the York- James Peninsula,” by Arthur Bevan, formerly State Geologist of \hrginia; “Seventeenth Genturv Science in Old Virginia,” by Ivey F. Lewis, University of Virginia; “History of Virginia’s Gommercial Fish¬ eries,” bv J. L. McHugh and Robert S. Bailey, Virginia Fisheries Lab¬ oratory; “Physicians at Early Jamestown,” by Sidney S. Negus, Medical College of Virginia. Two thousand copies have been reprinted. Elmo Jones of Richmond designed, and the Dietz Press printed, the commemorative jacket for the James River Monograph. Conferences were held with Parke Rouse, Executive Director, James¬ town Festival, King Meehan, General Manager, Jamestown Festival, A Bvron Johnson, Sales Manager, Methodist Publishing House, Charles G. Thalhimer, Vice-President, Thalhimers, and Edward Hyde, President, Miller and Rhoads concerning sale of the Monograph and the commem¬ orative issue of the Journal. It was agreed that they would sell the Monograph for $3.50 ($0.50 commission). These arrangements have been agreed upon by Messrs. Stow, Guy and Brumfield. (Dr. Hobbs was out of the country at the time final arrangements were made.) Copies of the publication are now on sale at the Festival, Cokesbury’s Book Shop, Thalhimers, and Miller and Rhoads. Marcellus H. Stow, Chairman 1957] Proceedings 1956-1957 259 MEMBERSHIP COMMITTEE REPORT Contacts by letter and in person were made with a large number of prospective V.A.S. members. These efforts included the following: (1) letters to influential senior members of the Academy asking help to solicit new business memberships (2) letters sent to science and education faculty members of Virginia colleges and universities — 567 letters (3) letters to and personal contacts with prospective new industrial members (4) 183 letters sent to non-member registi'ants at 1956 Richmond meeting (5) 1527 letters sent to state high school science teachers (6) 1265 letters sent to state high school math teachers The activities of this committee cover the year beginning May, 1956. The membership report below covers this calendar year 1956. New memberships received during 1956, regular, contributing and sustaining memberships, . 85 student memberships . 15 TOTAL . 100 Members resigned or dropped for non-payment of dues during 1956 regular . 74 student . 24 business (closed plant in Virginia) . 1 TOTAL . 99 The secretary reported that approximately 75 new memberships of all classes have been received during the first four months of 1957. These, of course, are not included in the membership report for the 1956 calendar year. WiUiam R. Smithey, Jr., Co-Chairman Geraldine M. Duncan, Co-Chairman. 260 The Virginia Journal of Science [September REPORT OF THE PLACE OF MEETING COMMITTEE FOR 1958 In 1958, the Academy will meet at Hotel Roanoke May 7-10 and will be sponsored by Hollins College, Roanoke College, Virginia Poly¬ technic Institute, American Viscose Corporation, General Electric Cor¬ poration, Norfolk and Western Railway, and tlie Veterans Administration Hospital. The Academy Council at their May 1956 meeting approved the date May 7-10, 1958 and Hotel Roanoke as the place for the 1958 Academy meeting. Boyd Harshbarger, Chairman REPORT OF THE PLACE OF MEETING COMMITTEE FOR 1959 On behalf of the University of Virginia and the Place of Meeting Committee of the Virginia Academy of Science for 1957-58 a cordial in¬ vitation is extended to the Virginia Academy of Science to hold its an¬ nual meeting at Charlottesville, Virginia, during the month of May, 1959. B. F. D. Runk, Chairman. REPORT OF THE NOMINATING COMMITTEE The Committee nominated the following for: President-Elect, J. C. Forbes; Treasurer, Foley F. Smith; Secretary-Elect, P. M. Patterson; As¬ sistant-Secretary, W. B. Wartman, Jr.; Council, Horton H. Hobbs (1962), and T. E. Gilmer (1961). Allan T. Gwathmey, Chairman. THE ACADEMY CONFERENCE The Academy was represented at the Academy Conference Decem¬ ber 29, 1956, by the Secretary-Treasurer, and President Edward S. Harlow. Brief reports concerning activities of each Academy were given by the representatives of some forty State Academies of Science represent¬ ed. The Virginia Academy can well be proud of having one of its members, Mrs. Thelma C. Heatwole, of Staunton, serve as President of the Conferenee this year. Father P. H. Yancey, of the Alabama Academy of Science was the retiring President. 1957] Proceedings 1956-1957 261 MINUTES OF THE SECTION OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE (1) Paul M. Reaves, Chairman James W. Midyette, Jr., Vice-Chairman Allan H. Allison, Secretary C. W. Allen, Section Editor (1956) FRIDAY, MAY 10-8:30 A. M.-COFFEE SHOP 1. Utilization of Pasture Resources in Virginia. Shirley H. Carter; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. This study is a preliminary analysis of how farmers actually use their pastures as measured by livestock production. The data were obtained from a portion of the schedules of the Virginia Livestock Survey of 1951 in which over 7,000 farmers were contacted. The multiple regression approach is used for the primary analysis. Responses on four types of pastures; blue grass and white clover, blue grass and Lespedeza, orchard grass and Lespedeza and orchard grass and Ladino clover, are studied in each crop reporting district where tliey are of economic importance. The effect of six factors, calcium, phosphor¬ us, potassium, nitrogen, supplemental pasture and sizes are analyzed. Carrying capacity expressed in animal units is used as the measure of pasture productivity. Potential carrying capacity as estimated by the livestock farmers surveyed did not prove to be a better measure of pas¬ ture productivity than actual carrying capacity except in the “old blue grass region” of the state. Preliminary analysis of the data revealed a significant difference of carrying capacity between the different types of pastures. Analysis of variance and Tukey’s test of additivity were used with a logarithmic transformation of the data for this determination. For the primary analysis prediction equations were computed for each of the four kinds of pasture in each area studied. Confidence levels and tests of significance were established for each equation. Significance of the different factors studied varied widely for die several pastures .studied and in the different areas of the state. 262 The Virginia Journal of Science [September With a very few exceptions size of the operation showed a negative relationship. That is, carrying capacity of the permanent pasture decreased as size of pasture increased; calcium and phosphorus seemed to show little influence on carrying capacity of permanent pasture in Western Virginia and in the Southern Piedmont (districts 4, 7, and 8). Neither of these factors showed any significant results on blue grass and Lespedeza pasture and phosphorus did not give significant results on blue grass and white clover. The effects of nitrogen appear to be most significant on orchard grass and Lespedeza. The study also includes data on the concentration of the various livestock enterprises in the state. The widespread use of limes and fertilizers are shown by pounds of each element normally applied on each pasture studied in the different areas of the state. 2. Lime Requirements of Virginia Soils. W. W. Moschler; Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station, R. K. Stivers; Purdue University, and C. I. Rich; Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station. Changes in soil pH values were determined on thirteen Virginia soil types at O, 3, 6, 12, 24, and 36 months after the application of O, 1, 2, 4, and 8 tons per acre of ground dolomitic limestone. The reaction rates were largely complete at twelve months on most of the soils. In three of the soils pH was still increasing after three years, and had begun to decline in two. The four and eight ton rates were much more effective in promoting a rapid pH increase than the one and two ton rates. Four of the soils failed to reach the 6.5 to 7.5 range recommended for certain crops in three years with an eight ton per acre application. Six of the soils failed to reach the 6.5 to 7.5 range with a four ton application. The heavier soils showed a slower rate of reaction and had lower final pH values than the lighter soils, but there were certain soils in both groups which did not follow this trend. 3. The Determination of Available Phosphorus in Several Virginia Soils by Fluoride Extraction Methods. Clarence C. Gray, HI; Virginia State College. Greenhouse and laboratory studies were conducted to investigate Proceedings 1956-1957 263 1957] the values of two rapid flouride methods for the determination of avail¬ able phosphorus in six Virginia soil types. Soil phosphorus was ex- traeted by solutions of 0.03 N NH^F in 0.025 N HGl and 0.03 N NH^F in 0.1 N HCl. The release of native and applied phosphates for plant use was measured by the phosphorus content of oats grown on the soils under greenhouse conditions. For the soils studied, both of the rapid fluoride methods were satisfactory chemical measures of available soil phosphorus. The coef¬ ficients of correlation between the phosphorus content of the oats and soil phosphorus determined by 0.03 N NH4F in 0.025 N HCl and 0.03 N NH4F in 0.1 N were 0.787 and 0.864 respectively. 4. The Use of Seed Characteristics to Check Variety Claims. ]. W. Midyette, Jr., H. L. Smith, and Graham Copeland; ' Virginia Department of Agriculture. In checking the accuracy of variety claims made on Oats, Soybeans and Barley offered for sale in Virginia, seed characteristics have proven to be very valuable. Many varieties throughout the country have similar seed characteristics even though thev may perform differently in the field; therefore, there is a limit to the use of seed characteristics as they relate to variety. However, by cataloguing the characteristics peculiar to each variety distributed in Virginia, we find that in most cases when a definite claim for variety is made it can be concluded from seed charact¬ eristics whether or not the seed is acceptable for the variety claimed. If the seed does not carry the characteristics peculiar to the variety claimed we “Stop Sale” on the seed and prohibit its sale bearing a variety claim. Due to the similarity of certain varieties we are unwilling to attempt to designate the varietv on seed found mislabeled or seed of unknown varie¬ ty. All seed characteristics used to question variety have been correlated with field plantings and found to be dependable. By close study in the laboratorv and follow-up plantings, we have been able to catalogue in¬ formation and reference samples on most all varieties of Soybeans, Oats, and Barley currently grown in Virginia. 5. Effectiveness of Superphosphate and Certain Liming Materials Top-dressed on Established Pastures in Southeastern Virginia. D. L. Hallock; Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station, Holland. Superphosphate, tagged with radioactive phosphorus (P32), was broadcast on pastures in April 1954 and 1955 at a rate of 50 pounds of 264 The Virginia Journal of Science [September PaOs per acre to determine the extent to which top-dressed fertilizer phosphorus is readily utilized by establishing forages in southeastern Virginia. In general, the percentage of fertilizer-derived phosphorus in the plants 8 weeks after fertihzation was similar for both grasses and legumes. On some plots as much as 40 per cent of the phosphorus ab¬ sorbed by the forages came from the fertilizer and thus die recom¬ mendation of top-dressing phosphates appears warranted. In another experiment with established pastures, 3 liming materials were top-dressed at a rate approximating the neutralizing potential of 2000 pounds per acre of CaCOs. This initial pH level in the plots was 5.7. The pH of the 0 to 1 inch layer increased to 6.1 in one month and to 6.6 in 3 months after hydrated lime (200 mesh) was applied. Similarly, the pH increased to 6.2 and 5.9 in 3 months after application of burnt shell (200 mesh) and dolomitic limes (100 mesh), respectively. At the end of 1 year, the pH values of the 0 to 1 inch layer were 6.8, 6.6 and 6.4, and after 2 years, 6.8, 6.7 and 6.6 in plots treated with hydrated, burnt shell, and dolomitic limes, respectively. The pH of the 1 to 3 inch soil layer had increased to 6.0 by the end of 1 year in the case of all 3 liming materials, but no further increase in pH was observed. None of the liming treatments increased the pH of the 3 to 6 inch soil layer appreciably, during this 2-year experiment. In both experiments the soil was an imperfectly drained fine sandy loam high in available phosphorus, as indicated by the Tmog method. 6. Evaluating Irrigation in Flue-Cured Tobacco Production. Floyd W. Williams; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. Most farm businesses have a limited amount of capital. One of the goals of the farm business is to maximize returns from this limited capital. To do this, the capital must be allocated between factors like fertilizer, machinery, labor and irrigation in such a way that the last dollar invested in each will return the same amount. To determine the returns to capital invested in irrigation of flue- cured tobacco, 55 farms on which water was applied to flue-cured to¬ bacco in 1956 were studied. Each of these farms was paired with a non-irrigated farm for yield comparison. Preliminary analysis indicates, on the average, that for a little over three inches of water applied per acre at a cost of about 15 dollars per acre inch about 250 pounds of additional tobacco was produced per acre. Adjustments have not been made for variations in rates of feitili- zation and planting, varieties and date of planting, soil types or rota¬ tions. The final analysis is not expected to differ significantly from an 1957] Proceedings 1956-1957 265 average standpoint. Further refinement is necessary to determine the response in yield to different amounts of water applied with different rates of fertilization and planting. 7. Studies on Flavor During Storage of Dried and Frozen Cream. W. K. Stone, Mary Kimzey, and G. C. Graf; Virginia Agricul¬ tural Experiment Station, Blacksburg. Storage of surplus cream during the flush milk season for later u.se in manufacture of ice cream may be profitable. Packaging should be inexpensive, protect against contamination, and prevent absorption of odors. Also, off-flavors should not develop during 9 to 12 months’ storage. , Composite milk from the Virginia Polytechnic Institute herd was separated at 135° F. The fat in the cream was varied between 40 and 60 per cent, and each batch was heated at 185° F. for 5 minutes. Then part of each batch was packaged in polyethylene-lined paper cartons and stored at -10° F.; the other part was added to condensed skimmilk and spray dried. The dried product was packaged in polyethv- lene-lined crinkled kraft paper bags and stored at room temperature. Flavor analyses and fat peroxide determinations were made on each batch of cream immediately after heating and on each stored pro¬ duct initially and each month for 9 months. Fat peroxide values varied between .04 and 1.03, and increases occurred earlier during storage of dried cream than of frozen cream. The increases were accompanied bv increases in intensity of oxidized flavor which was more pronounced in the dried cream than in the frozen cream. 8. Some Gosts Assogiated With Broiler Produgtion in Virginia. James H. Simpson, Jr.; Virginia Agricultural Extension Service. Commercial broiler production is becoming increasingly important in manv areas of Virginia, notably in the Shenandoah Valley. The situation in this area as to markets, climate, labor supply, credit, and lack of a more profitable alternative use of underemployed labor has led to this development. Both producers and those feed dealers who hold broiler production contracts need reliable cost of production data if they are to plan their operations so as to make the most efficient use of their labor and capi¬ tal. This study was made for the purpose of arriving at some estimates of these production costs that might aid in efficient planning on the part of dealers and producers. A sample of 212 producers in Rocking- 266 The Virginia Journal of Science [September ham County was taken covering the production period July 1, 1954 through June 30, 1955. An average of all producers in this studv indicated that broilers were being produced at a feed conversion ratio (pounds of feed per pound of meat sold) of 3.02. With this feed conversion ratio and under the other average conditions of this study, broilers were being produced at an average cost of 24.9c per pound. This study also indicated that broiler producers had made rapid progress in several phases of their operations. Labor required per bird has dropped 43% since a similar study was made in 1947-48 while the pounds of feed required to produce a pound of meat has decreased from 4.4 lb. to 3.02 lb. during the same period of time. 9. The Effect of Protein Level Upon Molybdenum-Sulfate. Response in the Rat. Russell F. Miller and Nelson O. Price; Virginia Agricultwral Experiment Station. Weanling albino rats were fed either 8, 12, or 18% casein in a purified ration, low in sulfate and copper, for a 6-week period. Growth was followed by weighing each rat weekly. At each casein level, the following additions to the diet were made: None; + 2,000 ppm SO4; + 100 ppm Mo; and + 2,000 ppm S04 and 100 ppm Mo together. The effect of the addition of 0.3% DL-methionine to the 12% casein diets was further studied. Blood, liver, copper, and molybdenum levels were determined in some lots. As the casein level of the diet increased from 8 to 18%, the rat growth inhibition caused by 100 ppm of added molybdenum disap¬ peared. The effect of additional casein does not appear to be due in its entirety to the additional methionine supplied by the added casein. Blood, liver, copper, and molybdenum levels were decreased by addi¬ tional casein. 10. Preliminary Observations on the Tolerance of the Young Dairy Calf to Arsanilic Acid. W. A. Hardison and D. F. Wilson; Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station. Bull calves of the Jersey and Holstein breeds were fed a limited whole milk diet plus hay and grain which was supplemented with levels of arsenilic acid varying from 0.016 to 0.05% of the total dry ration. The results indicate that this compound is slightly toxic to the young calf at approximately the 0.016% level and is highly toxic at the 0.04- 1957] Proceedings 1956-1957 267 0.05% level. On autopsy the most characteristic symptom observed was a generalized edema throughout the entire body. There was some indi¬ cation that Jersev calves were more tolerant to the arsenilic acid than Holstein calves. 11. Virginia 312, A New Dark, Fire-Cured Variety of Tobacco Resistant to Mosaic and Root Rot. R. G. Henderson, R. D. Sears, and Luben Spasoff; Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station. A tobacco root rot, apparently caused by a fungus Thielaviopsis basicola and certain pathogenic nematodes, is widespread in the dark fire-cured tobacco area of Virginia. This root rot does not kill the plants but stunts their growth and thereby reduces yields. Tobacco mosaic is not widespread in occurrence but occasionally causes severe damage on certain farms. Varieties of the dark fire-cured type with resis¬ tance to these two diseases have not been available. The Walker’s Broad Leaf variety has moderate resistance to root rot but is susceptible to mosaic. The Virginia 312 variety which was released this year has a high level of root rot resistance and carries the Glutinosa type of resistance to mosaic. In advanced yield tests in 1955 and 1956, Virginia 312 produced the highest yield per acre of the six varieties tested, and in 1956 was first in dollar value per acre. In 1955 it ranked second in value per acre. Virginia 312 is somewhat brittle and is therebv subject to storm damage, as was demonstrated in 1955. 12. Regulations of Pesticides in Virginia. Paul E. Irwin; Virginia Department of Agriculture. The present Virginia Insecticide, Fungicide and Rodenticide Law has been in effect since July 1, 1948. A pesticide (Economic Poison) is any substance or mixture of substances intended for preventing, destroy¬ ing, repelling or mitigating any insects, rodents, fungi, bacteria, weeds, or other form of plant or animal life which the Virginia Gommissioner of Agriculture shall declare to be a pest. The administration of this Law is broken down into three essential procedures — registration, inspection and analysis. Each pesticide offer¬ ed for sale in Virginia must be properly registered with the Virginia De¬ partment of Agriculture. Graduate chemists serve as inspectors and pro¬ cure samples which are analyzed in the laboratory to determine if the active ingredients conform with the label guarantee. During the year 1956, 1001 samples were analyzed and approxi- 268 The Virginia Journal of Science [September mately 10% were deficient. In 1949, 26% of the samples analyzed were deficient. Approximately 4000 items are currently registered by about 600 registrants. Each year brings forth many new and more powerful pesti¬ cides. A few pesticides are now authorized to be mixed with fertilizers for use on edible crops. A great deal of research is being done on this phase of pesticide application to agricultural products. 13. A Greenhouse Comparison of the Relative Phytotoxicity AND NeMATOCIDAL EfFICACY OF CERTAIN ClIEMICAL SoiL Treatments. W. W. Osborne; Virginia Polytechnic Institute Extension Service. The most serious widespread disease of flue-cured tobacco in Vir¬ ginia is caused by the root knot nematode (Meloidogijne spp.). The se¬ verity of this disease can be reduced by chemical soil treatment to re¬ duce the nematode population prior to transplanting the tobacco. Certain methods and procedures were devised whereas the relative phytotoxicitv and nematocidal efficacies of certain chemicals were eva¬ luated using a minimum of greenhouse space, equipment, and labor. In these greenhouse trials satisfactory root knot and phytoxicity indices were obtained with DD, Vapam, Dorlone, and DCB-60, when applied 7, 14, and 21 davs prior to transplanting tomatoes. Nemagon and Thimet gave severe phvtotoxicity, V-C 13 did not give satisfactory root knot nematode control. The results obtained from greenhouse trials correlate with results obtained using selected rates of these materials in field trials. 14. Evaluating Newer Techniques in Milk Production and Handling. Carl W. Allen; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. Manv farmers todav have a large investment in stanchion type barns with conventional milkers. They are faced with the decision of (1) adding a pipeline milker and/or a bulk tank to the present organi¬ zation, (2) putting in a separate milking parlor set-up with pipeline, or (3) some modification between these. Obtaining farmer experience on some of the important costs involv¬ ed and benefits derived from adding bulk tank, pipeline milker and milking parlor is the objective of the current study. The economic setting in this problem is within the framework of 1957] Proceedings 1956-1957 269 substituting one source (capital) for another (labor). We are interested in determining how these two resources substitute for each other. Assum¬ ing the output remains constant, what combinations of resources will minimize cost? The decrease in daily labor per cow as herd size increased was much sharper for the systems including the milking parlor than those with stanchion barns. A smaller “time per day” could be reached with fewer cows with the loose-housing milking parlor arrangement than with stanchion bams. Translated into “savings” of labor on an annual basis, with the size of herd at the average, the loose housing-milking parlor, pipeline milker, and bulk handling system used about 22 hours less labor per cow than the conventional system used. 15. Effects of High Oxygen Concentrations on Ascorbic Acid AND Vitamin A in Newborn Rats and Young Guinea Pigs. Jean G. Swartz and C. J. Ackerman; Department of Biochem¬ istry and Nutrition, Virginia Polytechnic Institute. Newborn white rats showed no loss of liver ascorbic acid after ex¬ posure to 70% oxygen atmosphere for 10 or 14 days. At a 100% oxygen concentration there was no loss of ascorbic acid after 7 days, but after an exposure period of 10 days at this high concentration the liver ascor¬ bic acid level fell to one-half that of the control group. Brain ascorbic acid levels of the experimental group were slightly lower than those of the control group until the animals reached an age of 14 days. After that age the brain ascorbic acid levels of both groups were comparable. The liver tissue of the young guinea pigs was depleted of ascorbic acid bv 34-50% (as compared with the control group) by both concentrations of oxygen. Brain tissue from these same animals showed ascorbic acid levels to be from 14-20% lower than those of the control group. During the course of the experiment the guinea pigs of the experimental group developed an abnormal eve condition which ophthalmoscopic examina¬ tion revealed to be a type of coronary cataract.^ Microscopic examina¬ tion of the eve sections showed retinal degenerative changes in the nerve fiber laver and layer of the rods and cones. There appeared to be a reduction in the number of cells in the ganglion cell layer. None of these abnormalities were seen in sections from eyes of the control anim¬ als. The vitamin A studies conducted thus far have shown that this vitamin was not affected in liver tissue from exposed white rats. 1 I am indebted to Dr. W. B. Gross of the Animal Pathology Department of Virginia Polytechnic Institute for making the ophthalmoscopic examinations and for preparing and reading the slides. 270 The Virginia Journal of Science [September Business Meeting The annual business meeting was held at the close of the session. The nominating committee presented the following nominees for officers for 1957-58: Chairman, James W. Midyette, Jr., Vice-Chairman, Allen H. Allison; and Secretary, C. S. Obenshain. The edtior continues in of¬ fice. The report was accepted and the above were elected. 1957] Proceedings 1956-1957 271 MINUTES OF THE SECTION OF ASTRONOMY, MATHEMATICS, AND PHYSICS Melvin A. Pittaian, Chairman Edward E. Dyer, |r.. Secretary Irving G. Foster, Section Editor FRIDAY, MAY 10, 1957 - 10:00 A.M. - MRGINIA ROOM 1. A Study’ of Inelastic Scattering of Positive Pions. Paul McGorkle; College of William and Mary. 2. Measurement of Neutron Slowing-Down. With a Liquid Scintillator. George S. Ofelt; College of William and Mary. The properties of neutron slow-down are important to the theorv of nuclear reactors since neutrons are slowed down to thermal energy in the moderator. Hydrocarbons have been used as moderators. Since hydrocar¬ bons can also be used as scintillators, it follows that this type of scintil¬ lator can be used as the moderator itself. The major portion of the scintillations occur from proton recoil by the collisions of the neutrons with the hydrocarbon nuclei. The distribution of these energy losses can be determined as a function of distance by observing scintillations in the different regions of the moderator. The counting can be facilitated ;if the moderator is made svmmetrical and the neutron source considered as a point source. For the experimental arrangement the seintillator consists of a solution of toluene, p-terphenyl, and POPOP. A ten millicurie neutron source was used. The photo-multiplier tube was mounted so as to view a conical section of the volume with the vertex at the source. The cone was made of aluminum foil and a series of stops were provided to restrict the photomultiplier tube’s observation to a truncated section of the cone. The energv losses of the neutrons as a function of distance from the source could be calculated from the height of each truncation and the number of counts per unit time. 272 The Virginia Journal of Science [September 3. Scattering of 3.1 Mev Polarized Neutrons by Be^. C. D. Bond and F. L. Hereford; University of Virginia. Polarized neutrons emitted at an angle of 53" (cm) from the D(d,n)He^ reactions have been scattered from beryllium and the right- left asvmmetrv measured as a function of the scattering angle. Neu¬ trons scattered at equal angles to the right and left were detected simul¬ taneously by two 3/4 inch cube stilbene crystals. The counters were differentiallv biased to reject inelastically scattered neutrons. A thick deuterium “drive-in” target was produced by prolonged bombardment of a water cooled silver disk with a 50 /x a beam of deuterons. The differential polarization of beryllium was measured in the vicinity of the Be^ (ri,n) Be^ resonances at 2.73 and 2.85 Mev and the observed angular distribution expanded in a series of associated Legendre functions. The angular dependence exhibited a dominant component with the bervllium polarization reaching a maximum at 60" and 109° (cm) such that P„PBe(60") = ± 4.76 - 0.99)% and P^Pse (109") = (-6.31 ±1.20)%. 4. Scattering of Partially Polarized Neutrons from Various Nuclei. Billy M. McCormac and Frank L. Hereford; University of Virginia. The D-D neutrons with a partial polarization of —10.56 per cent were scattered from various scatterers and the polarization was measur¬ ed as a function of the angle of scattering. The theoretical relation for the polarization from a scatterer by partially polarized neutrons is given by pp n SCAT 2 where P„ is the polarization of the incident neutrons and Pscat is the polarization by the scatterer as if the incident beam were unpolarized. The coefficients Cl and the differential elastic scattering cross section are determined from a phase shift analysis of the scatterer. Experimentally the polarization is measured from the right-left aysm- 1957] Proceedings 1956-1957 273 metry in scattering of the neutrons. The polarization is expressed for 0 rz - 53° as P P n^SCAT l+r“(^2^ where r is the right-left asymmetry measured, and where T is the finite geometry correction. A comparison is made of the experimental results to the theoretical predictions for carbon and lead. The experimental results are given for Sn and Cu. 5. A Versatile Heterogeneous Subcritical Assembly.^ T. M. Schuler, Jr., A. Robeson and T. H. Hahn, Jr.; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. A natural-uranium, graphite-moderated exponential pile has been constructed utilizing approximately 30,000 pounds of AGOT grade re¬ actor graphite and 2,500 pounds of natural uranium slugs. The assembly consists of a cube of graphite 6 feet on a side containing 1 inch diameter uranium rods arranged in a lattice with eight inches between fuel rod centers. The assembly rests on a graphite pedestal 2 feet high contain¬ ing a 15 curie polonium-beryllium source emitting 3 x K)^ neutrons per second. Measurements of the properties of the moderator yield a diffusion length of 57.5 centimeters and a Fermi Age of 357 square centimeters. The multiplication and material buckling of the fuel moderator system lead to a critical size of 18.5 feet on a side. 6. Radio Star Scintillation Studies at The University of Virginia During the International Geophysical Year. E. G. Stevenson and Jack T. Smith; University of Virginia. This project in the program of the International Geophysical year should give infonnation about the winds in the upper atmosphere and about the composition of the upper ionosphere. The electromagnetic ra¬ diation in a narrow band about 100 ke/sec wide centered at 39 Mc/sec received from an intense “radio star” source will be recorded simultane¬ ously at three stations. These are located a mile or two apart at the vertices of a right triangle. From a study of the auto-and cross-correla¬ tion functions of the fluctuating signals received, it is possible to esti- ^ Supported in part by the U. S. Atomic Energy Commission. 274 The Virginia Journal of Science [September mate the size and shape of the ion elouds in the upper atmosphere which are responsible for the fading effects and to deduce the drift velocities of these clouds. 7. Population Groups Among Red Dwarf Stars. A. N. Vyssotskx'; University of Virginia. it has been suggested by several investigators (Delhave, Baade, Ambarzumian) that red dwarf stars with emission lines in their spectra are recentlv formed voung stars. A study of the distribution of velocitv vector points of the two groups of red dwarfs, one comprising those with emission line spectra and the other, the remaining red dwarfs, has been made at the McCormick Observatory. The diagrams show clearlv that the stars of the first group are intimatelv connected with the spiral arms of the galaxv, thus substantiating the assumptions as to the age of these stars. 8. An Unusual Variable Star. Charles Cowlev and George Mumford III;^ University of Vir¬ ginia. The variabilit\' of BD + 37° 2318 has been discovered. Spectral range is from B5 to K2; magnitude range is from 11.6 to 9.3 photo¬ graphic. The galactic latitude is +81°; the proper motion is small. It is suggested that the star mav be related to Z Andromedae and similar stars. It is presumed that stars of this tvpe consist of two comjionents, I red giant with small light variation and a nova-like white component svhich occasionallv explodes. 9. Experiences in Operating A College Planetarium. A. Roland Jones; The Sale Planetarium, Virginia Military J li¬ st it ute. In the year that has elapsed since I - found myself in charge of a brand-new planetarium, responsible for its programs, the chief problem before mv mind has been how to make the best use of the planetarium in a college course in astronomy. The solution I have arrived at, oddlv enough, did not come entirely from mv experience with students, but in some measure from giving per¬ formances to school children and to the general public. This side of the work, begun as a public service, soon began to show its value in pointing tlie wav to the ideal course lecture. The chil- Now at Tufts University. 1957] Proceedings 1956-1957 275 dren, sufficiently young not to be too prejudiced in favor of the otlier “star” entertainments, television, and the Hollywood film, provided the perfeet barometer for the planetarium atmosphere; the general publie audienees made it necessary that the programs should balanee the teeh- nical interests with human ones. The eourse leeture that has evolved consists of a ritual which be¬ gins with the professor’s demonstration using the planetarium installation (in the Sale Planetarium, a Spitz, A, Model); proeeeds to individual work on assignments at blackboards surrounding the room, and concludes with a verbal recitation beneath the stars. This arrangement, I believe, answers the eriticism sometimes heard that the planetarium, like the scientific film, can only be of oceasional use in college astronomy. Thanks to its versatility, the planetarium can give to every lecture the inspirational note which is the essence of teaching. 10 A Recording Accelerometer. I. G. Foster; Virginia Military Institute. A self contained mechanical recording accelerometer eapable of reading acceleration pulses of amplitude 5000-10000 g, and periods of a few milliseconds has been proposed by staff members of the Diamond Ordnanee Fuze Laboratories, A stylus is fixed at the end of a cantilever. The beam is mounted in a small steel box, so that the vibrating stylus scratehes a spring driven disc. This disc rotates in a plane parallel to the plane of vibration of the eantilever so that a traee of the motion is produced. To obtain aceurate records of the eantilever vibration a simple photoeell circuit was used, such that the motion of the end of the eanti¬ lever varied the intensity of a light beam. Analysis of these reeords showed that the damping was quite elosely proportional to the velocity of the eantilever. It was also found that the relative magnitudes of the various modes are accurately predicted by theory. Comparison of theoretical and experimental vibration patterns when known aeceleration pulses are applied to the aeeelerometer indieate that information in regard to amplitude and duration may be accurately de¬ termined. Information as to the shape of the pulse will be less precise. 11. Design and Construction of a Thermal Diffusion Column FOR Purpose of Isotope Separation. William T. Eley; College of William and Mary. The idea that isotopic separation occurs in gases subjected to a 276 The Virginia Journal of Science [September high temperature gradient was mentioned by James Cork in his book Radioactivity and Nuclear Physics/ He refers to papers published by Clusiiis & Dickel," A. K. Brewer & A. Bramley/ H. C. Urey, and A. O. Nier." The present work of this experiment, based on the information from these papers is the design and construction of a thermal diffusion column that can be duplicated in the ordinary college physics labora¬ tory. The column itself is made of three concentric copper pipes IV2”, 1” and >2” with a nichrome heating element enclosed in a fused quartz tube. The I 'A” pipe is the water jacket, the ^2” pipe holds the heating element and between the V2” and 1” pipe is the gas space. At each end of the column is a copper reducing tee in order to supply a water tap. The gas space is sealed on both ends by a galvanized ring. To analyze the gas samples most of the above mentioned authors used a mass spectrometer. Nier used this instrument to determine the presence of isotopic separation. However, since a mass spectrometer is not a standard piece of equipment in a college laboratory, two simpler and less expensive methods are available. 1. Chemicallv, bv using gases that will separate easily into compon¬ ent gases. For instance upon separation, the oxygen and nitrogen of air can easily be tested with a burning splint. 2. Physically, by weighing samples and determining the molecular weight. 12. Experiments With Stringed Instruments. Robert E. Smith; College of William and Mary. 13. Faraday Effect in Combined Magnetic and Radio Frequency Fields. When an atomic or molecular system is acted on by two perturba¬ tions simultaneously, the response to the first perturbation may be strongly influenced by the presence of the second if the latter coincides with a natural resonance of the system. In the present work the system is an atom or a molecule in a DC ^ James M. Cork — Radioactivity & Nuclear Physics. 2 K. Clusius and G. Dickel — nauturwiss 26, 546 (1938) ; 27, 148 (1939). ^ A. K. Brewer and A. Bramley — Physics Review 55, 590 (1939). * H. C. Urey — Jour. App. Phys. 12, 270 (1941). ^ A. O. Nier — Phys, Rev. 57, 30 (Jan, 1, 1940). 1957] Proceedings 1956-1957 277 magnetic field; the first perturbation is a plane polarized light wave, and the second a radio frequency field. The plane of polarization of the light wave is rotated bv passing through the system parallel to the magnetic field, and anomalies in this rotation due to the presence of a radio frequency field at one of the resonant frequencies of the system (e.g, proton resonance in water) are sought. Preliminary experiments and instrumentation are described. 14. Heat Transfer Between Solid Particles and Gas in a Rocket Nozzle. Peter L. P. Dillon and Lloyd E. Line, Jr.; Experiment Incorpor¬ ated. The effect on rocket performance of the degree of heat transfer be¬ tween solid particles and gas as the mixture is exhausted through an expansion nozzle was calculated.^ The working fluid was assumed to consist of 8 parts by weight of solid carbon and 1 part of hydrogen in thei*mal equilibrium at 2000 °K and 25 atmospheres in the chamber, ex¬ panding adiabatically through a nozzle of assumed configuration to an ambient pressure of 1 atmosphere. For the extreme case of no heat transfer (carbon exhausted at 2000° K) the loss in specific impulse should be only 12%. The loss in impulse associated with the retention of enthalpy by the carbon is offset some¬ what by the fact that hvdrogen expands to a temperature about 600° below that for the case of complete thermal equilibrium. A calculation of the more realistic case of partial conductive heat ti*ansfer showed an expected loss in specific impulse of less than 1%. Carbon particles 0.01 micron in radius were assumed. Since the mean free path of hvdrogen gas is larger than the carbon particle, the rate of heat tiansfer Was calculated with the aid of the kinetic theory of gases and a theianal accommodation coefficient reported in the literature. This work was supported by the Department of the Navy, Bureau of Ordnance. 15. Conductivity of a Still Gas With Volume Ionization. William E. Rice; Experiment Incorporated. Thomson’s theory* of electric! conduction in ionized gases has been employed extensively, but reasons for distrusting it are reported here. The theory applies to gases in which ions are produced continually in * Peter L. P. Dillon and Lloyd E. Line, Jr., Jet Propulsion, 26, 1091 (1956). 2 J. J. Thomson and G. P. Thomson, Conduction of Electricity through Gases, New York, The Macmillan Co., 1928. 278 The Virginia Journal of Science [September every volume element, and migrate between electrodes according to the ordinary diffusion laws. By ignoring ion concentration gradients, keeping only the electric field as a driving force for diffusion, it is possible to reduce the problem to integration of one differential equa¬ tion. Experiments show that there are “sheaths” at the electrode sur¬ faces. The field strength varies rapidly with distance in the sheaths, but is nearly constant between them. To solve the difficult case of electrons as the negative carriers, Thomson divided the gas artificially into regions corresponding to the sheaths and the intervening space, fie ignored re¬ combination in the sheaths, and made the field exactly constant between them. The present author integrated the differential equation numericallv without introducing sheaths artificially. The occurrence of sheaths was not predicted. This means that the differential equation ignoring con¬ centration gradients does not describe the phenomena correctlv. The input data were for flames, in which much of the experimental conduc¬ tivity research has been performed. The Air Research and Development Command supported this work. 16 .Chemi-ionization in Flames. Willard E. Meador, Jr., Experiment Incorporated. Calculations show that abnormal ion concentrations in flames, par¬ ticularly those in which organic fuels are burned, cannot be accounted for on the basis of thermal dissociation; thus some other mechanism must be sought. A theoretical investigation has been underway at Ex¬ periment Incorporated since September, 1956, sponsored by Project SQUID, to determine quantum mechanically whether or not certain ion- ized-product chemical reactions can take place under flame and rocket conditions. The first step in such a project is to calculate the appropriate po¬ tential energy surfaces for each reaction to be considered. If it should happen that the surface corresponding to ionized products “crosses” or approaches the one leading to un-ionized products (the latter in each case being derived from electronically excited reactants), there will be a finite probability that a “jump” from one to the other will take place. These transition probabilities, and thus transmission coefficients, can be determined quantum mechanically for use in Eyring’s reaction rate theory. Thus far extensive work has been done in the outer regions of these surfaces with calculations now having begun in the inner regions using 1957] Proceedings 1956-1957 279 modifications of the Roothaan self-consistent field procedure; the num¬ erical iterations being aceomplished on the NORC at Dahlgren, Virginia. 17. Measurement of Lifetime of Minority Carriers in Single Silicon Crystals. Stanley R. jones and T. E. Gilmer, Jr.; Experiment Incorporated. A photoeonduetive decay apparatus for the measurement of minorit\' carrier lifetimes in semiconductors is described, and some of the results obtained with silicon are presented. The apparatus makes use of a special spark light source which gives a light pulse of 0.2 mieroseconds dura¬ tion as measured with a photomultiplier; a wide-band amplifier and oscilloscope are used for amplification and display of the photoeonduetive signal. Some of the results which have been obtained with this appara¬ tus on samples of single crystal silicon ( grown by the Czochralski technique) are presented. In particular, the variation of lifetime with distance from the center of one single crystal pull is shown; the lifetime decreases almost linearly with distance from the center, an effect be¬ lieved due to an increase in crystalline defects in the outer portions of the crystal. In some p-type erystals it is found that lifetime is a func¬ tion of ambient light intensity, increasing linearly with increasing am¬ bient light up to a point and remaining constant for further increases in light intensitv. A similar dependenee on spark light intensity is found. No such dependence has been found in any of n-type crystals investigated at this Taboratorv. 18. Defining Functions. Robert C. Yates; The College of William and Mary. The trigonometric and logarithmic functions are basically and most satisfactorily defined by power series. The purpose of this paper is to show that such series completely define these elementary transcendental functions and that all familiar properties evolve directly from the series. Of particular interest are several matters: the development of the sine and cosine of the sum; the discovery of the periodic character of the trigonometric functions; and the derivation of the three fundamental prop¬ erties of the logarithm. It is necessary to assume that the term-by-term differentiation of :i power series that defines a function produces a new series that defines the derivative of the function at least within the same interval of con¬ vergence. It is recommended that a similar treatment be given to students before completing a first course in calculus. 280 The Virginia Journal of Science [September 19. Approximation to an Algebraic Irrational Number by a Sequence of Transformations on Quadratic Forms. Reuben R. McDaniel; Virginia State College. It has been shown in a previous paper^ that there exist a finite se¬ quence of linear transformations, the product of which will carry the quadratic form n / n r i“I\ s / n i“l\ / n i-l\ into a quadratic form F. = i-1' s I t = l 2 ^2t ^3t Bj ( S Yi \ i = l n At I ' 1 Y, r t = 2 \ rH II n s V, i-l’ where (t = 1, 2, . . . n) and real roots and and are conjugate imiginary roots of a rational algebraic equation in one unknown of degree n + 2s. Also, and are algebraic numbers in the field of . Let T be the transformation that takes F into Fj where (a-) is the matrix of its transformation. Furthermore, we designate the matrix of 1 Abstracts of Doctors of Philosophy Dissertations, Cornell University, 1938. Proceedings 1956-1957 281 1957] (r) T as X being a positive integer, (r = 1, 2, 3, . . . ) In order for T to take F into it is neeessary that i-1 n -i^-l iii "i 2 a.. i=l 1] n r i — 1 :e ^1 4 and i = l n i-^l V a .1 rrJ: - — - — = y . n i-l^i-1 '] 2, "ii 1 = 1 2 "il i = l i-1 (j=l, 2, 3, ...,n) From these identities it can be shown that in the matrix ( = R( a constant ) i = ( 1, 2, . . . n — 1 ) (r) lim r->oo (r) 1, i + 1 If the algebraic equation considered is of the form = P where the nth rooth P is irrational, it has been shown that R = 20. A Magnetically Driven Ultracentrifuge. D. Rae Carpenter, Jr. and Jesse W. Beams; Virginia Military Institvte and University of Virginia. The magnetically suspended equilibrium ultracentrifuge has become an increasingly important tool for measurement of molecular weights. An ultracentrifuge driven by a rotating magnetic field was constructed and attained speeds .of 515 rps. The rotor, essentially a cylinder 4^4 inches in diameter and 3 inches high, was made of steel having a lower dural¬ uminum portion in which were imbedded four permanent magnets. ’282 The \hrginia ]ournal of Science 1 September Weight slightly exeeeded nine pounds with a moment of inertia of 57,000 gram centrimeters. The electromagnetic driving coils were located beneath and out¬ side the vacuum chamber. A signal for driving frequencv w^as taken from the rotor itself up to operating speed after which an audio oscilla¬ tor provided constant frequency operation as a svnchronous motor. A multiple reflection type interferometer was used for observing the change in concentration of the solution being centrifuged. Localized fringes were formed by gold coatings on two glass windows separated by a wedge shaped disc having a sector shaped opening. A solution cell was located 13/4 inches from the rotor axis. This cell had quartz windows forming its end and held a smaller cell inside containing the gold coated windows. Measurements of molecular weights with this centrifuge are now being attempted. 21. Some Improvements in the Optical System of the Ultracentrifuge. K. D. Williams, B. V. English and j. W. Beams; University of Virginia. The optical system contains a modified Jamin interferometer. The interferometer consists of a beam splitter and a set of plates forming an air wedge. The beams produced by the beam splitter are recombined in the second set of plates and localized interference fringes are formed in the plane of the cell. The angle of the wedge determines the number of fringes in the field of view. Since the fringes formed are parallel to the vertex of the wedge, the wedge may be rotated so that the fringes are either parallel (verti¬ cal) or perpendicular (horizontal) to the radial length of the cell image. The “vertical” fringes draw a picture of the concentration gradient in the cell but are difficult to measure. The “horizontal” fringes are more easily measured. The new system uses three beams with two of them passing through the solvent and one through the solution. This produces two distinct sets of fringes. The set due to the two beams in the solvent shows no change when the system is in equilibrium. 22. Determination of Tensile Strength and Adhesion by Centri¬ fugal Technique. R. N. Bundy and J. F. McArdle; University of Virginia. Recent work at the Universitv of Virginia has indicated that there 1957] Proceedings 1956-1957 283 is a marked dependence of the tensile strength and adhesion of thin films of metals upon the film thickness. In this experiment, further study of this dependence has been made using thin silver films electro- deposited on one-half millimeter cylindrical steel rotors. These films are spun in a magnetically-supported, magnetically-driven ultracentrifuge until the film yields, in the case of tensile strength determination, or until the film patches break awav from the rotor for determination of adhesion. The advantage of this method is that the stress developed is nearly uniform and unidirectional. The results thus obtained confirm earlier work on the subject. Further research is being done to deter¬ mine the stress-strain relationship for films while they are being sub¬ jected to centrifugal stresses. Strain is determined by measurement of the change in film diameter on spark microshadowgraphs taken while rotor is spinning. Preliminary data indicate that maximum value of the adhesion for each particular rotor and film can be. determined in this manner, 23. Mechanical Strength of Polycrystalline Gold and Silver Film'. A. L. Stamper, D. E. Kraft and T. Strider; University of Vir- ginia. The “bulge” technique has been employed to determine the me¬ chanical strength of polycrystalline gold and silver film as a function of film thickness. The metal film was evaporated over the open end of a hollow cylindrical tube and air pressur eapplied until the film broke. The amount of bulge was measured at various air pressures inside the tube. From these data the tensils strength can be determined" and stress- strain curves obtained. The tensils strengths are practically constant (1.10 X 10^ dynes cm^ for silver and 0.90 x 10^ dynes/cm" for gold) at thicknesses greater than the critical thickness (2.5 x 10"5 cm for silver and 2.0 x 10-5 cm for gold). At thicknesses below these critical thicknesses there is a marked increase in tensile strength. The stress- strain curves show that plastic flow is considerable less in the thin polycrystalline film than in the bulk metal (for example, a silver or gold wire). 24. Tensile Strength of Liquid Helium. J. W. Beams; University of Virginia. The tensile strength of liquid helium below the lambda point was measured by three methods. The first was a piston cylinder method, the 1 Supported by the Office of Ordnance Research, U. S. Army. A. G. Gleyzal, trans. Am. Soc. Mining Met. Engrs. 70, 288 (1948). 284 The Virginia Journal of Science [September second a centrifugal method and the third a method which employed rapid linear acceleration. All three methods gave values of the same order of magnitude. The centrifugal method was the most preeise and gave values of .14 + .02 atmosphere for the tensile strength. 25. Properties of Zinc Whiskers Grown by Vapor Deposition. R. V. Coleman, P. B. Price and N. Cabrera; University of Virginia. Single crvstal whiskers of zinc and cadmium have been grown by vapor deposition, exhibiting phenomenal properties indicative of a high degree of perfection. Some whiskers have hexagonal plates growing from them having the same crystallographic orientation as, the whiskers, usu- allv with the c-^axis making an angle of about 30° with the axis of the whisker. Tensile tests have been performed on the whiskers at various tem¬ peratures. At room temperature the yield stress is about 4 x 109 dynes/ cm“ and the vield strain about 1%. All whiskers tested were strong, with no observable size effect in the range from one to eight microns. After the slip is incubated, a very small stress is required to cause plastic de¬ formation, with definite slip bands propagating over the whisker for a constant stress. At liquid nitrogen temperature cadmium whiskers behave in a qualitativelv similar wav, although the elastic stress and strain are about 50% higher. Zinc whiskers, having a higher melting point, are much stronger than at room temperature. The strain is so great that a deviation from Hooke’s Law is observed. There is no plastic deformation; when the elastic limit is exceeded, the whiskers fractures with the release of considerable elastic energy which defonns the fragments. 26. On the Maxwell-Boltzmann Energy Distribution: Advantages OF Including a Constant of Proportionality in the Definition OF Probability'. David E. Lundquist; Newport News High School. From the book. Theoretical Physics, by Joos and Freeman, (Hafn- er, New York), page 578, lines 16-17, one reads, "Then, by LiouviTle’s theorem, each (cell volume Art) will have an a priori probability Study made under the guidance of Dr. Eugene E. Lundquist, the author’s father. 1957] Proceedings 1956-1957 285 proportional to its size.” Inclusion of the missing constant of proportion¬ ality in equation (25) renders all equations of the derivation dimen¬ sionally correct. This inclusion can be effected if, in the numerator, f ( i ) A r| . is replaced by ( A f ( 1 ) ^ where 1/g is the constant of proportionality, g being a phase space volume as is also Ar^ . With this change, the following corrections must be made to the equations of the derivation: in equations (26), (29), and (30), log f(i) becomes log f(i)g; in equations (31) and (32), A becomes A/g; in equations ''35), (37), and the unnumbered equation following equation (43), log cr becomes log (<7/g). Another advantage of including a constant of proportionality in the definition of probability lies in the clear implication at the beginning of the analvsis that there does exist a fundamental unit of phase space volume. The fact that this unit of phase space volume, g, is related to Planck’s constant^ helps in understanding the role played by Planck’s constant in the theory of the Maxwell-Boltzmann energy distribution. 27. Nomographic Diagrams for the Solution of Kepler’s Equation. A. H. Mason; Office of Chief of Staff, United States Army. In calculating the elements of the orbit of a comet or asteroid, a transcendental equation, M = E — e sinE must always be solved. Definitions of parameters follow: M = Mean anomaly of celestial object E = Eccentric anomaly e = Orbital eccentricity A linear relation exists between M and e. Nomographic diagrams of M versus e in small steps of E can therefore be prepared. Let it be required to solve Kepler’s Equation for the following values of the parameters: M = 1.8765432 radian e = 0.2641546 Graphical interpolation on the diagrams gives a preliminary value of E = 120°33’12”. This will be slightly off, but E is bracketed by 120°33’ ^Compare g with hs in notation of equation (44), page 580. 286 The Virginia Journal of Science [September and 120° 34’. The following scheme leads to the precise value. E = 120°33W’ M = 1.8765082 radian E = (Value to be obtained) M = 1.8765432 E = 120°34W’ M = 1.8768381 Now split 60” to fit M. Therefore increment in E = 06.”4 E = 120°33’06.”4 We therefore have a system of nomographic diagrams from which the solution to Kepler’s Equation may be taken directly with an error of a few seconds, depending on M. A linear interpolation leads to a value of the eccentric anomaly, correct to less than a half-tenth of a second. Actually 320 diagrams of the type here shown have been prepared and indexed. The diagrams will do the work of a table of 314,160,000 entries. Business Meeting At its business meeting the membership elected the following new officers: Chairman, Edward E. Dyer, Jr.; Secretary, Jackson J. Taylor; Section Editor, Irving G. Foster. 1957] Proceedings 1956-1957 287 MINUTES OF THE SECTION OF BACTERIOLOGY Wesley A. Volk, President Barbara Caminita, Vice-President Miles Hench, Secretary P. Arne Hansen, Section Editor (1957) FRIDAY, MAY 10, 1957-11:00 A.M.-CHAMBERLIN CLUB TV ROOM 1. A Study of Bactericidin Levels in Sera from Humans vfith Myocardial Infarction. George Naff; Department of Microbiology; University of Vir¬ ginia, School of Medicine. A Bactericidal system for Bacillus subtilis characterized by requir¬ ing calcium and bicarbonate ions for aetivity was studied in the sera of normal adults and patients following acute Myocardial Infarction. A sys¬ tem similar to this was described by Jacox requiring calcium ions for activity. One unit of Bactericidin was arbitrarily defined to represent the minimum amount of Bactericidin contained in one ml. volume capable of inhibiting the growth of the standard inoculum. In a series of determinations of the sera of fourteen healthy adults, the Bactericidin level was observed to be two units per ml. or less. In a comparative study of five patients diagnosed as having acute Myo¬ cardial Infarction, a marked rise of Bactericidin levels was observed. On the first day following the symptoms of Myocardial Infarction the Bactericidin levels were usually within normal limits. However, these levels began to rise on the second post symptom day and reached a maximum of 4 to 16 times their initial concentration by the 4th to the 5th post symptom day. The decline in Bactericidin levels was relatively rapid with a normal titer about the 14th day after the onset of symptoms. This Bactericidin was also elevated in patients with lobar pneumonia, and some patients with advanced metastatic carcinoma. This Bactericidal system may represent a model of a non-specific immune mechanism that is increased during certain stress conditions. 288 The Virginia Journal of Science [September 2. Some Observations on PH Controlled Endamoeba histolytica Culture. E. Clifford Nelson and Muriel M. Jones; Medical College of Virginia. In test tube cultures of Endamoeba histolytica it was observed that hydrogen ion changes take place more rapidly in the bottom of the tube than at the top. By means of careful sampling it was found that notably different readings could be obtained from the top of the culture, th^ bottom of the culture and after mixing. Only the reading from the bot¬ tom where the amebae grow can be considered as the true reading, to be related to the growth and multiplication of the organism. Tests were run on cultures of buffered media at pH 6.4, 6.8, 7.2 and 7.6. Growth and multiplication of amebae were observed to ensue promptly in acid medium but in alkaline medium only after a shift in pH to the acid range. Multiplication was observed in cultures which had dropped to as low as pH 5.7. 3. Identification of Escherichi coli by the Fluorescent Antibody Technique^. Walter R. Dowdle; Department of Bacteriology, University of Maryland; Margaret Green and Mildred A. Engelbrecht; Department of Bacteriology, University of Alabama. This investigation was undertaken to determine the sensitivity and specificitv of the fluorescent antibody technique for the detection and identification of Escherichia coli. One hundred and twenty eight strains of E. coli isolated from natural sources and 55 strains of other bacteria were exposed to fluo¬ rescein-labeled E. coli strain ATCC 26 antibodies. Maximum fluorescence of the E. coli strains occurred at the age in which the cell has the greatest surface area, e.g., the upper lag phase of the growth cycle (age 2 hours at 37° C). By exposing 2 hour cultures to labeled antibodies, immunochemical staining as a means of identifying E. coli isolates was found to be more sensitive than conven¬ tional agglutination tests. Forty five percent were fluorescent positive. Twenty six percent were agglutinated with unlabeled antisera. Each E. coli isolate exhibited a characteristic reaction with labeled antibodies. The reactions were graded as minus to 4-plus fluorescence. The extreme low-order (one-plus) and the minus fluorescent reactions were considered negative. 1 This work was performed under contract with the Chemical Corps, Fort Detrick, Frederick, Maryland. 1957] Proceedings 1956-1957 289 Labeled E. coli antibodies were not completely specific for E. coli. Several strains of Aerobacter and Escherichia species exhibited cross¬ fluorescence, and a low-order non-specific fluorescence was encountered with the Bacillus species. 4. The Growth of HeLa Cells in Anti-HeLa Cell Serum. Gerald Goldstein; Department of Microbiology, School of Medi¬ cine, University of Virginia. HeLa cells have been propagated for 14 subcultures in medium containing antibodies directed against HeLa cells. These antibodies were produced by injecting rabbits with extracts of HeLa cells. The addition of rabbit serum containing antibodies directed against HeLa cells and complement destroys HeLa cells within 15-30 minutes. By omitting complement it has been possible to propagate HeLa cells in the presence of antibodies for Hela cells. Cultures of these cells contain bizarre shaped cells and many clumped cells. The majority of the cells appear normal. The addition of complement to cells that have been washed in an attempt to remove the antibodies still produces rapid cel¬ lular destruction. 5. Comparison of Isolation Techniques and Methods for the Diagnosis of Onychomycosis. Muriel M. Jones, J. Douglas Reid and Albert Pincus; Depart¬ ment of Microbiology, Medical College of Virginia. One hundred fifty specimens of nails presenting a diagnostic prob¬ lem were investigated for the presence of a fungus. The efficiency of the potassium hydroxide wet mount direct examination was found to be comparable to that of the Periodic Acid Schiff Base staining technique for disclosing mycelial elements but inferior to the latter in demonstrating small yeast-like fungi. The PAS stain also has the advantage of per¬ manence. The isolation potentials of Mycosel, Sabouraud’s Agar with penicil¬ lin, streptomvcin and Actidione and Sabouraud’s without antibiotics were compared. Plain Sabouraud’s proved inferior to the other two media but there was no notable difference in the efficiency of Mycosel and Sab¬ ouraud’s with freshly added antibiotics. The relation of the number of positive cultures obtained (26%) to the positive direct examinations (50%) is discussed. The organisms isolated were Trichophyton rubrum. Trichophyton mentagrophytes, a single Candida albicans and a small lipotrophic yeast of undetermined significance. 290 The Virginia Journal of Science [September 6. Observations on Human Nasal Mucosa in Tissue Culture. Catherine M. Russell; Department of Microbiologyy University of Virginia. Explants of human nasal mueosa were cultured in roller tubes and pooled human sera were used in the nutrient media. The epithelial cells which grew out from the explants disintegrated in about 10 days. Sheets of fibroblasts completely replaced the epithehal cells. Seventy days later small areas of epithelial-like cells appeared in the culture. The epithehal-like cells continued to grow and completely replaced the fibroblasts. The epithelial-like cells were mechanically separated from the parent culture and subcultured. The new epithelial-like cell line derived from nasal mucosa is now in its 12th passage and will be studied for its sensitivity to upper respiratory tract viruses. 1957] Proceedings 1956-1957 291 MINUTES OF THE SECTION OF BIOLOGY (4) Jack D. Burke, Chairman Harry L. Holloway, Secretary Robert T. Brumfield, Section Editor (1957) FRIDAY, MAY 10, 1957 - 9:00 A. M. - ROOF GARDEN 1. Preliminary Survey of Aquatic Hyphomy'Cetes on Angiosperm Debris. Clyde J. Umphlett; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. A preliminary taxonomic survey of the aquatic hyphomycetous flora characteristically growing on submerged, decaying angiosperm debris was conducted in Montgomery County, Virginia. The best natural substrata for development of these fungi were leaves which had been reduced to skeletons by decay. The following species were observed, and sporogene- sis in each was discussed: Alatospora acuminata Ing., Lemonniera aqua- tica De Wild., Anguillospora longissima (Saac. and Syd.) Ing., Liinulos- pora curvula Ing., Tetracladium marchalianum De Wild., T. setigerum (Grove) Ing., Tricladium angulatum Ing., T gracile Ing., Triscelophorus monosporus Ing., Campylospora chaetocladia Ranz., Clavariopsis aquatica De Wild., Tetrachaetum elegans Ing., and Heliscus tentaculus n. sp. The latter species was proposed as a new species. 2. Hybridization in Ipomoea and Its Relatives. Robert J. Knight; The Blandy Experimental Farm, University of Virginia. Interspecific hybridization is rare in morning glories, although it has been claimed respectively for /. Batatas, L pandurata, I scahra, 1. Horsfallii, 1. hederacea and I. purpurea. The sweet potato is considered of probable alloploid origin. Merremia digitata, reported by Watanabe to have 58 somatic chromosomes, is probably an amphiploid. Sterile plants from the artificial hybridization of 1. coccinea x I. Quamoclit are discussed. 1. Sloteri is almost certainly the amphiploid of this hybrid. Inter¬ action of genes from orange-colored I. coccinea x white-flowered I. Quamoclit produced a hybrid having scarlet flowers similar to normal 1. Sloteri. Variety “Hearts & Honey” differs from normal 1. Sloteri in having an orange flower similar to that of I. coccinea. 292 The Virginia Journal of Science [September The following genic compositions are suggested as controlling flower color in cypress-vine, star-glory, and cardinal climber. I Quamoclit, Red, CR/-R; 1. Quamoclit, White, cR/cR; L coccinea. Orange, light center, Cr/-r; 1. coccinea x I. Quamoclit, Scarlet, Cr/R; 7. Sloteri. Cardinal Chmber, Scarlet, CCrr/— RR; 7. Sloteri, Hearts & Honey, Orange, light center, CCrr/— rr, derived as a segregate from Cardinal Climber. This in¬ dicates enough homology of chromosomes bearing genes r and R in the two parental species, to allow them to pair in the amphiploid hybrid. 3. A Biosystem ATic Study of Rosa Acicularis. Walter H. Lewis; Blandy Experimental Farm, University of Virginia. Utilizing the evidence obtained from the disciplines of gross- and micro-morphology, cytology, and phytogeography, the population of R. acicularis are divisible into two; a Eurasian, octoploid (2n— 56) taxon as subsp. acicularis and a North American, hexaploid (2n — 42) taxon as subsp. Sayi (Schw.) Lewis. Individuals morphologically intermediate between these subspecies occur in eastern Siberia and Alaska, but only a critical cytological examination of plants from this region can determine the authenticity of their hybrid origin. No native septaploid (2n — 49) plant is now known although such an individual has been obtained from a controlled cross giving a new polyploid number to the genus Rosa. 4. The Effect of Indoleacetic Acid on Certain Growth Phases OF Mosses. Paul M. Patterson; Hollins College. The literature on growth promoting substances as it pertains to the bryophytes was reviewed. Concentrations of lAA varying from 1.0—0.01 gamma/cc were used since the optima for growth stimulation reported in the literature generally lay in this range. Spore germination and pro- tonemal growth of several mosses were accelerated at the lower con¬ centrations while others showed little or no response. Concentrations as high as 1.0 gamma/cc were inhibitory in most instances. Pseudopodia of Sphagnum bearing nearly mature sporophytes elongated quicklv at the lower concentrations. The effect on the protonemal production from the gemmae of several species was indifferent or inhibitory. 5. Weekly Fluctuation of an Unstable Beach. K. A. Wagner; College of William and Mary in Norfolk and W. W. McNeil; Seashore State Park. The weekly gain or loss of sand on a beach segment may exceed two feet even under conditions not considered severe storm. These flue- 1957] Proceedings 1956-1957 293 tuations may be correlated with actual tide levels and, indirectly with those conditions which affect deviation of the tides from the predicted levels. 6. Phosphorus as a Nutrient in Marine Water.^ Kathryn Page Smith; Newport News High School. The amount of phosphate-phosphorus used in the cycle of growth of Chlorella was studied. Samples of water were taken from the York River, the James River, Old Point Comfort, and Hampton Roads. After one gram of 6-8-6 fertilizer was added to each liter of water, the solu¬ tions were set in a warm place with much sunlight. In about a month the cultures were green with Chlorella. When these solutions were grow¬ ing well, tests were made at intervals for the total phosphate-phosphorus content and the inorganic phosphate-phosphorus content, with the or¬ ganic content in the Chlorella being found by substracting the inorganic result from the total value. Variations of certain colorimetry tests were used for the detenninations. Because of certain factors the results of these tests were not too accurate, giving at best only good estimates of how much phosphorus the Chlorella used as it grew. A cycle for the use of the phosphorus could not be found as the Chlorella took so long to begin to grow well. However, it was discovered that when the weather was good and the Chlorella showed good growth, its organic phosphorus content increased while the inorganic content in the water decreased. When there was less sunlight for photosynthesis, the Chlorella grew little, with its organic content decreasing and the inorganic phosphorus content increasing. 7. Preservation of Plant Materials for Collection."' Mary Virginia Charlton; Buckingham Central High School. The methods of preservation of plant material for collection were studied. Methods studied were: (1) embedding with wax, plastic, or resin; (2) dehydrating by pressing, hanging, using borax, or baking; (3) pickling with alcohol or formaldehyde; (4) wax or glycerin replace¬ ment; (5) coating by dipping fresh material in wax, plastic, or varnish; and (6) finishes for dehydrated material. This study shows that all plant material can be preserved, but not in the same way. The method to be used depends upon the moisture content, the strueture, and the thickness of the material. All materials should be gathered at maturity. Picked material is useful, but it tends ^ Honorable Mention, National Science Talent Search. 294 The Virginia Journal of Science [September to finish its life cycle, contains moisture, and insects and microbes at¬ tack it. Study tends to show that leaves and roots are most adaptable to pressing; stems, buds, and seed pods, to hanging; flowers to hanging, wax dipping, boraxing, plastic mounting, and resin mounting. Plastic applied to dehydrated material is most advisable. 8. Unit and Polygenic Traits as Indicators of Population Relationship.^ B. L. Hanna and Mary Ellen Dechert; Medical College of Virginia. The biological relationships among seven Athapascan, Piman aiid Yuman Indian tribes of the southwestern United States are examined with respect to the distributions of ( 1 ) quantitative anthropometric measurements, each presumably affected by the interaction of several or many gene systems and (2) allelic frequencies at the ABO blood group and the MN and Rh blood type loci, each of which is genetically in¬ dependent of tlie others. The results of analyses of the quantitative traits by the method of Mahalanobis suggest that the linguistic groups represent biological units, each exhibiting a different degree of internal variation. The distribution of biological distances among the tribes mav be explained on the basis of known tribal histories. Study of the blood groups and types reveals the same general relationships, with coefficients of divergence related to the mileage distance between population centers. The examination of several loci is shown to give a more reliable esti¬ mate of biological relationship than examination of single loci. It is sug¬ gested that fixation at the ABO locus among the small Maricopa popu¬ lation has resulted from random frequency fluctuation. The results do not support BirdselBs contention that polygenic traits are no more stable in time than are unit traits. 9. The Sex Bivalent of the Chinese Hamster, Cricetulus Griseus. Ladley Husted, Edward G. Pollock, and Grover C, Smart, Jr.; University of Virginia. The Chinese hamster, Cricetulus griseus, has 22 chromosomes. The sex chromosomes are the third largest pair at late prophase and prometa¬ phase of spermatogonial divisions. As the chromosomes decrease in length they become the fourth largest pair and at late metaphase can¬ not be distinguished by size alone from the smaller of the large sub- medianly constricted pairs. The short arm of the Y is shorter than the 1 Aided by a gi-ant from the A. D. Williams Fund of the Medical College of Virginia. 1957] Proceedings 1956-1957 295 short arm of the X. The difference represents 6-10 pecrent of the length of the X-chromosome. In the male the X and Y are found as rod-, and less frequently as ring-bivalents. All the rod-bivalents are associated by their shorter, heteromorphic arms. 10. Some Notes on Maleic Hydrazide. Arthur L. Eiser, Jr.; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. Maleic hydrazide, a relatively new chemical, possesses selective herbi- cidal and plant growth inhibitor qualities. Sprayed on plants it is absorbed and moves internally to block the growth-promoting hormone present in plants. Solutions containing 1.0, 0.5, 0.25, 0.125, and 0.0625 percent maleic hydrazide were used in the study of the spray in retarding the growth of some ornamental plants. Plants of Coleus blumei and Thuja occidentalis, and Ilex crenata were used in the experiment. The 0.25 percent solution gave most satisfactory results in retarding growth of Coleus and Thuja plants without serious damage. A 0.0625 percent solution showed the most favorable result on the Ilex plants. Workers have found that maturity of plants and the manner of application of the chemical affect the results. This experiment indicated that results are also affected by: (1) the degree of activity of the plant tissue; (2) the concentration of the material used; and (3) the genotvpe. 11. Observations on the Fresh-water Medusa, Craspedaciista soic- erhii, Occurring in a Pond in Southampton Quarry. Nolan E. Rice; University of Richmond. A total of forty-seven specimens of the fresh-water medusa were collected in a pond in Southampton Quarry, Richmond, Virginia on July 22 and August 4, 1954. Fertilized eggs developed to the hydroid stage. Approximately equal numbers of both sexes were present in the collections. No medusae were found during the summer of 1955. Col¬ lections made between June 15 and September 30, 1956 totalled 35 males and 544 females, but no males appeared in collections between August 16 and 28. The absence of males in the pond was indicated also by the fact that 165 females failed to produce fertilized eggs. Of a total of 515 specimens (including immature ones), 134 had fed on daphnias, one on nematodes, 3 on amphipods, and 7 on unidentified organisms. The coelenterons of the remainder were empty. Hydroids have been cultured for nine months. Several species of rotifers served as food. Out of over a hundred reports of the occurrence of the medusa since its discovery in 1880, this is the second instance of the occurrence of both sexes together in the same body of water. 296 The Virginia Journal of Science [September 12. The Host-Specificity of Monogenetic Trematodes. William J. Hargis, Jr.; Virginia Fisheries Laboratory. Members of the order Monogenea are highly host-specific. Many authors have discussed this phenomenon during the last half-centurv. Recent tabulations confirm their conclusions. The data undergirding this discussion were collected at Westhamp- ton Lake, University of Richmond and the Alligator Harbor Marine Laboratory of Florida State University. A study of these data disclosed two general aspects of monogeneid host-specificitv. Infra-specificity is the occurrence of a single monogeneid species on members of a single fish taxon. If the parasite is on one species the term species-specificity applies, if on several congeneric species — genus-specificity, etc. Marine monogeneids seem more infraspecific than fresh-water forms although the latter strongly exhibit this phenomenon. Supraspecificity is the oc¬ currence of members of a supraspecific parasite taxon on members of a fish group. Both infraspecificity and supraspecificity have phylogenetic and/or ecological implications. Studies of host-specificity may aid in under¬ standing the natural relationships of hosts and vice versa. The Mono¬ genea offer a sound basis for studies of this fundamental aspect of parasitism. 13. The Distribution of N eoechinorhynchus cylindratus Van Cleave IN North America. Harry L. Holloway; Roanoke College. In the life cycle of this parasite three distinct groups of animals are involved as potential hosts; fishes, artliropods, and fish-eating mammals. Of these, fishes and arthropods are essential links in the Hfe cycle; and fish-eating mammals appear to be accidental. Ward (1940) found the largemouth bass {Micropterus salmoides Lacepede) to be the natural definitive host, the bluegill (Lepomis pallidiis) a transport host, and an ostracod {Cypria globula Furtos), the first intermediate host. The long list of piscine vertebrates (28 species) reported as de¬ finitive hosts for N. cylindratus indicates a wide range of physiological adaptation between this parasite and its hosts. A study of Westhampton Lake fishes revealed that this parasite finds optimal conditions in a relatively small number of fishes. N. cylindratus has been reported from nine states (eight east of the Mississippi and Minnesota) and the Canadian province of Ontario. The lack of records to the west of the Mississippi may be due to the lack of field studies. The fish hosts and probably C. globula are much 1957] Proceedings 1956-1957 297 more widely distributed than N. cijlindratus. The factors responsible for N. cylindratiis failing to attain the geographical limits set by its hosts cannot be explained at this time. 14. Chaetonotid Gastrotricha in Ashland, Virginia. C. E. Packard; Randolph-Macon College. Chaetonotus succinctus (Voigt) and Folijmenirus nodicaudus (Voigt), or closely related variants thereof, have been found in campus water- pools and are reported for the first time from Virginia. Morphological and other data concerning these lesser known chaetonotids were presented. 15. Alkaline Phosphatase in Turbellaria. Paul J. Osborne; Lynchburg College. The histochemical technique of Gomori for the localization of alka¬ line phosphatases was applied to five species representing three orders of Turbellaria. Evidence of the enzyme was found in certain tissues of all the worms tested. The state of nutrition appeared to affect the distribution of enzyme activity, as was found in controlled studies on two species of aquatic triclads. Several physiological roles are suggested for alkaline phosphatases in the life of these woims. 16. The Life History of the Lesser Peach Tree Borer in Virginia. Marvin L. Bobb; Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station. The lesser peach tree borer, Synanthedon pectipes G. & R., has caused considerable injury to peach trees in eastern Virginia during the past few years, and the pest is becoming more numerous in peach orchards throughout the state. The female moth prefers to oviposit eggs in broken bark, and the borers get started most often in split hmbs and crotches, in pruning scars, in abrasions caused by equipment, in cankers and sunscald, and in winter-injured areas. The winter is passed in various stages of larval development under the bark and in old feeding galleries. The larvae feed on the inner bark and cambium layers throughout the summer. Two distinct generations developed during 1956. Moth emergence extended over a period from mid- April to mid-November, with an overlapping of the two broods in July- 17. The Ghemical Senses of Arthropods. E. S. Hodgson; Columbia University and Mountain Lake Bio¬ logical Station. The senses of taste and smell are among the principal senses of 298 The Virginia Journal of Science [September arthropods. By recording the electrical changes which accompanv the functions of these receptor cells, precise information about their physio¬ logy is being collected. In some oases, the behavior of an insect can be predicted from measurements of the responses of its chemoreceptors. The chemoreceptors of various insects and cravfish exhibit different rang¬ es of sensitivity related to the diet of the species. The receptors of arthropods commonly respond to more than one tvpe of stimulus (chem¬ icals, temperature changes, touch, etc.), contrary to the theory of ‘^specif- ic nerye energies.” Many insecticides, attractants, and repellents exert their primary action on such receptors. A tape recording of the nerve im¬ pulses from chemoreceptors will be used to illustrate some of their properties. 18. Comparative Osteology of Serranid Fishes of the Gent'S Roccus (Mitchill). William S. Woolcott: University of Richmond. The genus Roccus is represented by six species and three sub-genera. In North America the subgenus Roccus (Mitchill) contains saxatilis (Walbaum) and chrysops (Rafinesque) ; the subgenus Morone (Mitchill) includes americanus (Gmelin) and interruptus (Gill). In Europe two species, lahrax (Linnaeus) and punctatus (Bloch), form the subgenus Dicentrarchus (Gill). Formerly the species were assigned to as many as five genera by authors. Jordan and Gilbert (1883, Synopsis of the Fishes of North America) relegated the four American species to the genus Roccus and tentatiyely included the two European species. Berg (1949, Fresh-water Fishes of the USSR and Adjoining Countries) as¬ signed the six species to the genus Morone with three subgenera. Both classifications were based primarily on external characters. The present osteological study, undertaken to check the validity of a monogeneric classification, compared five species (punctatus expected). Preserved spe¬ cimens were X-raved, cleared and stained while others were cleaned by insects. Greatest species differences were found in the supraoccipital crest, otic (prootic, basioccipital and exoccipital) , vomerine tooth plate and preopercle. However, these differences as well as those of smaller magnitude had intermediate forms between the extremes. Except for americanus and interruptus the species were readily separated using os¬ teological characters. The findings strongly support a monogeneric clas¬ sification, but both osteological and external characters are needed to properly define subgenera. 19. The Effects of Pollution on Virginia’s Marine Fisheries. J. L. McHugh; Virginia Fisheries Laboratory. Virginia has important commercial and recreational fisheries and manv of the animals in them spend an important part of their lives in 1957] Proceedings 1956-1957 299 the estuaries, where they are vulnerable to the effects of industrial wastes. Particularly threatened are the oyster, which spends its entire life in the estuary, the shad, striped bass, and other anadromous fishes, which enter fresh water to spawn and utilize the tidal estuaries as nur¬ sery grounds for a considerable period after hatching, and migratory animals like the blue crab, croaker, menhaden, and spot, that spend several months of their first year of life in the estuaries. Because we know almost nothing of the effects of specific compon¬ ents of industrial wastes upon these estuarine organisms, we are ill-pre¬ pared to forecast the possible consequences of increased industrialization of the tidewater area. We cannot even state what maximum concentra¬ tions of the various wastes should be permitted in natural waters, hence cannot advise as to the levels of waste treatment that should be required. Virginia cannot lag behind in industrial development and maintain a balanced economic status, yet without adequate information for planning precautionary measures, the growth of industry might affect our marine resources seriously. Several major pollution problems already exist in the James, York, and Rappahannock Rivers. Other situations exist in these same waters which pose an equal threat to the seafood industry, yet are entirelv natural in origin. Such a situation in the Rappahannock River caused ser¬ ious oyster mortalities in 1949 and 1955, yet most oystermen blamed pollution from the Fredericksburg area. Badly needed are funds and personnel to conduct basic studies of all phases of estuarine ecology, together with experimental investigations of the effects of specific phy¬ sical and chemical factors, and specific components of industrial and domestic wastes, on the important marine organisms. Joint financial support by industry and by the State would seem appropriate. 20. Blood Oxygen Capacity of Albino Rats. Jack D. Burke; University of Pdchmond. The microgasometric syringe method was used to determine the blood oxygen capacity of 64 albino Rattiis norvegicus (Sherman strain). Data were obtained showing the relationship of blood oxvgen capacity to weight and sex of the animals. It was found that blood oxygen capacity in volumes per cent increased as the weight of the rats increased. Also, the oxygen capacity of the blood per unit of body weight decreased as the weight of the rats increased. Statistically, there was no difference in the blood values in either male or female rats as analyzed in different weight groups and ranges. 300 The Virginia Journal of Science [September 21. Milieu and the Manner of Melanocytes.^ Willie M. Reams, Jr.; Medical College of Virginia. Cultivation in vitro of coelomic melanocytes alone and in combi¬ nation with different types of tissues indicate that there is an antagonism between certain embryonic tissues and the coelomic lining for the mode of expression of pigment cells. That is, the tissue community of the coel¬ omic lining acts as an inhibitor upon the formation of branches by the pigment cells, whereas effective branching is evoked in the presence of certain other embryonic tissues. The evidence demonstrates a dosage effeet to be in play. In order for a pigment cell to produce branches, the titre of the effector substance must be sufficiently high to off-set the inhibitory effects imposed by the coelomic lining. That the prin¬ cipal factor which initiates the production of branches bv the pigment cells appears to be a chemical entity and not merely a matter of plw - sical substrate influences was shown by the application of extract from embryonic skin upon cultures of coelomJc lining melanocvtes. Such a procedure resulted in the formation of branches bv the previouslv un¬ branched cells. 22. Blood Oxygen Capacity in Turtles. Harold J. Payne; Universitij of Richmond. The blood oxygen capacity of 80 turtles was determined by the Grant modification of the Roughton-Scholander microgasometric syringe method. These animals were collected in two different habitats. Forty specimens represent the aquatic type {Chnjsemijs picta), and 40 speci¬ mens represent the terrestrial type (Terrapene Carolina). Data were obtained which showed a relationship of oxygen capacity to body weight in each species. It was found that in the aquatic animals, the oxygen capacity in yolumes per cent per gram of body weight decreased as the body weight increases. The same trend of relationship was found to exist in the terrestrial turtles. Statistically, there is an indication that no difference existed in the mean blood oxygen capacities in relation to the body weight of the two forms. Also, there was no statistical evi¬ dence of sexual dimorphism of the turtle blood oxygen capacity in re¬ lation to body weight in each species. 23. A Comparison of the Blood Oxygen Capacity in the Black Crappe (Pomoxis nigromaculatus) and the Bluegill (Lepornis macrochirus). Jack D. Burke and William S. Woolcott; Universitij of Richmond. The blood oxygen capacity in twenty specimens of black crappie Supported in part by a grant from the A. D. Williams Fund of the Medical College of 1957] Proceedings 1956-1957 301 (Pomoxis nigromaculatus) and twenty specimens of bluegill {Lepomis macrochirus) was determined by the Roughton-Scholander microgaso- metric syringe method. The black crappie and the bluegill had a mean body weight of 71 and 86 gm., a mean standard length of 132 and 133 mm., and a mean blood oxygen capacity of 8.5 and 7.4 volumes per cent respectively. Statistically, a significant difference existed between the blood oxygen capacities of the two species. Total blood oxygen capacity increased with an increase in body weight. However, as the body weight increased, the oxygen capacity of the blood per gram of body weight decreased. There was no indication of sexual dimorphism for this character. It was also found that the blood coagulated in 30 sec¬ onds or less in each species. 24. The Role of Man in Distributing Diseases and Pests of Marine Organisms. Jay D. Andrews; Virginia Fisheries Lahoratory. Man has a penchant for taking plants and animals with him in his migrations with little consideration for the well being of the immigrant or native species which must live together. Man’s introduction of do¬ mestic species has been beneficial on the whole although numerous pests and diseases have accompanied these transplantings and challenge the ingenuity of scientists. The introduction of wild species has been more haphazard, and, in the writer’s opinion, more deleterious than helpful. Nowhere are the effects of introductions more clearly demonstrated than in marine waters where man’s control of populations of organisms is quite limited. The literature on oysters abounds with accounts of “plagues” some of which have been traced to earlier introductions. Prob- ablv more pests and diseases of oysters remain unknown than are pres¬ ently recognized. The “enemies” of marine fishes and invertebrates have been scarcely touched upon. No doubt man’s inexorable and unwitting goal for each species is a distribution as cosmopolitan as its vitalitv will permit. This is competition and survival of the fittest at an accelerated and unnatural pace; indubitably many species will fall by the wayside — in numbers if not in toto. 25. The Pea Crab Pinnotheres Ostreum as a Parasite of the Oyster. Dexter S. Haven; Virginia Fisheries Laboratory. The pea crab Pinnotheres ostreum, as a parasite in the mantle cavity of the oyster Crassostrea virginica, ranges from Massachusetts to Florida. In Virginia it is present in oysters living in waters of moderate and high salinities. The incidence of this parasite varies with the age of 302 The Virginia Journal of Science [September oysters, season, year, salinity, and other faetors. Pea erabs impair the growth and fattening of oysters by scraping food from the gills which are usually injured in the process. In the York River, oysters with pea crabs yielded from 17 to 33% less meat on a wet-weight basis than oysters free of this parasite. Infected oysters were smaller than those without crabs as shown by measurements of shell length, total volume, and capacity of the shell cavity. 26. Chromosomes of Pogonia and of Its Allies in the Range OF Gray’s Manual. ]. T. Baldwin, Jr., and Bernice M. Speese; College of William and Mary. Pogonia ophioglossoides, Isotria verticillata, I. medeoloides, and Cleis- tes divaricata each has a 2n-number of 18; the chromosomes are large. Morphological differences between the idiograms of the two species of Isotria appear as great as the differences among the idiograms of Pogonia, Isotria, and Cleistes. This may be used as evidence for the maintenance of all these plants in Pogonia. Triphora trianthophora has 44 small chromosomes. This marked difference in chromosome number and size of chromosomes support the conclusion of Oakes Ames that Triphora is not closely allied to the Pogonia complex. Observations on fluctuations in populations of the two species of Isotria at a single station in Virginia over a period of 36 years are recorded. 27. Phoradendron flavescenss Chromosomes, Seedlings, and Hosts. J. T. Baldwin, Jr., and Bernice M. Speese, College of William and Mary. Twenty-six collections of Virginia representatives of Phoradendron flavescens and one Arkansas collection have been examined cytologically; the mistletoes were from 15 taxa of hosts. Chromosome number for the species is uniform; 2n=28; n=14. Chromosome morphology is con¬ stant for pistillate and staminate plants, for plants from Virginia and Arkansas, and for plants from different hosts (with the possible excep¬ tion of certain individuals on Cary a). Mitotic metaphase chromosomes contracted with paradichlorobenzene for 24 hr. range in length from 5.7^ to 12.8;x,. Meiosis occurs during July and August. Chromosome numbers and sex-chromosome mechanism reported by Billings for two species of Phoradendron are considered likely to be based on faulty observations. Seedlings of P. flavescens offer many possibilities for experimental work. The hypocotylar axis seemingly exhibits no regular geotropic response unless it be negative. The tip of the axis apparently contains a digestive enzyme. Some seed are polyembryonic. Genetic races of P. flavescens with respect to host preference seem to exist. 1957] Proceedings 1956-1957 303 28. A Stltdy of Tularemia in a Native Population of Wild Rabbits IN an Enclosure. Burd S. McGinnes; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. Tularemia (Pasteurella tularensis) was discovered in a 10.9 acre rabbit enclosure near Roanoke in October, 1956. Cottontails indigenous to the enclosure were live-trapped and marked, using 45 traps during 22 nights. During the three week period, 14 rabbits were captured and marked, however, eight or 57 percent plus three unmarked specimens were found dead within 25 days. Enclosure drives revealed an additional 12 rabbits remains, dead 3 to 12 weeks. Early in November, 19 marked rabbits were released. Within 31 days, 46 per cent of the stocked rabbits were found dead. From March, 1957 release of 9 cottontails, four disease victims were retrieved; these 44 per cent succumbed within 39 days post-release. All rabbits autopsied displayed necrotic foci on the liver and spleen. The disease appeared to be restricted to cottontails. Liver- suspension injections killed domestic rabbits from which the tularemia organism was isolated. Disease activity subsided with the onset of winter weather, but became virile to rabbits again in the spring of 1957. The data indicated that the presence of tularemia may make impractical, from a game management point of view, both the reestablishment or building up of a satisfactory population on an infected area. 29. Megasporogenesis and Megagametogenesis in Poly gala polygama. John H. Reeves, Jr.; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. In an effort to add more information to the study of phylogenetic relationships of plants, a study of megasporogenesis and megagametogene¬ sis in Polygala polygama were done. Poly gala polygama possesses both chasmogamous (aerial, open flow¬ ers) and cleistogamous flowers. It was discovered that the development of the embryo sac of Poly gala polygama followed the general Polygonum type (monosporic — eight nucleate type ) . All stages of embryo sac development in both types of flowers are alike, except that the cleistogamous flower produces a larger embrvo sac than does the chasmogamous flower. 30. Black Bear Cub Growth Study and Its Implications in Management. Allen R. Stickley, Jr.; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. Three black bear cubs (Euarctos a. americanus Pallas) were hand- reared and studied in 1956 by the Virginia Wildlife Research Unit for the purpose of gathering data which might prove useful in bear manage- 304 The Virginia Journal of Science [September ment. Tooth emption and weight data obtained were considered to be of the most value. Cub A, the male, grew much faster than either B or C, the two females; and all three cubs were considered unusually large for their age. This condition was believed to be caused by the abun¬ dance of food available in their captive status. Considerable individual variation was found in the eruption dates of the permanent dentition, but all the cubs had their full set of adult teeth by one vear of age. The chronology of tooth eruption in the black bear was compared to that of the European Brown bear ( Ursiis circtos) and was found to extend over a period of time only half that of the brown bear. However, the order of eruption was quite similar. On the basis of this cub study, it is believed that Virginia’s Taw which prohibits shooting anv bear under 75 lb. offers adequate protection for black bear cubs. ' 1957] Peoceedings 1956-1957 305 MINUTES OF THE SECTION OF CHEMISTRY (5) Mary E. Kapp, Chairman Joseph C. Holmes, Secretary Carl J. Likes, Section Editor (1957) - FRIDAY, MAY 10, 1957 - 9:00 A.M. - JOHN SMITH ROOM Concurrent Session In Chesapeake Room 1. Some Experiments Using Phenyl Acid Phosphate as a Cyclizing Agent. F. A. Vingiello, M. Spangler, W. Zajac, R. Thornton, R. Stevens, M. Schlechter and R. Light; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. The possibility of finding new catalysts for the aromatic cyclode- hydi-ation of ketones was studied. Recently F. A. Vingiello and A. Borko- vec, (J. Am. Chem. Soc., 78, 3205 (1956) reported on the use of alumi¬ na as such a catalyst. The use of phenyl acid phosphate (kindly sup¬ plied to us by the Virginia-Carolina Chemical Company) as a cyclizing agent has been investigated. Various aromatic ketones were synthesized and cyclized to give sub¬ stituted anthracenes and benzanthracenes using phenyl acid phosphate as a catalyst. The syntheses of the ketones as well as the cyclization ex¬ periments were described. 2. An Unequivocal Synthesis of 3— Chloro — 9 — Anthrone. F. A. Vingiello, P. Newallis and M. Schlechter; Virginia Poly¬ technic Institute. On reduction of 2-chloroanthraquinone with tin and glacial acetic acid, Barnett and Mathews [J. Chem. Soc., 2549 (1923)] isolated a pure compound, m.p. 156° which they designated at 2 (or 3) — chloro — 9 — anthrone (I). Several years later, Barnett and Wiltshire [J. Chem. Soc., 1822 (1928)] unequivocally prepared 2— chloro — 9 — anthrone (II), m.p. 155°. Since a mixed melting point of I with II showed a depression, it was concluded that I was 3— chloro — 9 — anthrone. In addition, an admixture of the acetates of I and II showed a depression in melting point. 306 The Virginia Journal of Science [September In connection with work on the synthesis of certain DDT analogues 2— bromo — 5 — chlorodiphenylmethane was prepared. This was con¬ verted to the Grignard reagent, carbonated and the resulting 2— benzyl — 4 — chlorobenzoic acid was cyclized with sulfuric acid to give 3— chloro — 9 — anthrone. This was converted to its acetate using acetic anhydride in pyridine. The results obtained are tenable with those of Barnett and his co-workers. 3. Some Ionic Addition Reactions of Two Isomeric 3— Methyldi- HYDROTmOPHENE 1,1— DiOXIDES. Robert C. Krug and Francois E. Didot; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. The action of 5% aqueous potassium hydroxide on 3— methyl— 2, 5— dihydrothiophene 1,1— dioxide (^— isoprene sulfone) gave the isomeric, 4— methyl— 2,3— dihydrothiophene 1,1— dioxide (a— isoprene sulfone) in 70% yield. The addition of hydrogen bromide to the a— and ^—isoprene sulfones was accomplished by passing hydrogen bromide through an aqueous solution containing zinc bromide. A yield of 55% was obtained in both cases, giving the same end product, the 3— bromo— 3— methyl tet- rahydrothiophene 1,1— dioxide. In a similar manner hydrogen chloride was added to the ^—isoprene sulfone in 35% yield. No evidence for the addition of hydrogen chloride to the a— isoprene sulfone was obtained. 4. Molecular Weight Determinations from Effusion Constants. Charles J. Varsel, John P. Bell, Joseph C. Holmes, and Frank E. Resnik; Philip Morris Incorporated. The application of mass spectrometry to qualitative analysis is limited in certain instances because of the lack of molecular ion peaks and spectrum complexity in the case of mixtures. For these reasons new techniques were sought which were capable of producing additional in- foiTnation about the components of a mixture. One technique investigat¬ ed was the effusion rates of gases. The mass spectrometer, with its capil¬ lary leak and ionization source, is an excellent effusiometer which can be used for determining the effusion rate of any volatile compound. According to Graham’s law, ‘‘the effusion rate of a gas is inversely proportional to the square root of its molecular weight.” Therefore, the molecular weight of any volatile compound can be calculated by com¬ paring its effusion constant with that of a reference gas. The rate of partial pressure decline of a compound is measured in the mass spectrometer and the molecular weight calculated by compari- 1957] Proceedings 1956-1957 307 son with a standard sample whose effusion constant and molecular weight are known. A number of organic compounds were investigated, through this technique and the accuracy of the molecular weight measurements were within -|-3% of their known values. Although this paper presents data obtained from mass spectrometric studies, any apparatus can be used in which the rate of effusion of a gas through a capillary leak can be measured. 5. The Clarification of Aqueous Tobacco Extracts Prior to Determining Reducing Sugars. F. L. Greene and Robert B. Seligman; Philip Morris Incorpo- rated. Prior to the determination of its total reducing sugars, aqueous to¬ bacco exti-acts must be clarified. Ordinarily, neutral lead acetate solutions are used to precipitate the non-sugar, reducing substances in such ex¬ tracts. The use of charcoal absorption chromatography for clarification was described and its effectiveness compared with that of the clarification done with lead acetate. Comparisons were made of (1) the efficiency of the clarification, (2) the effect on the final total reducing sugar values, and (3) the total time of sample preparation. This is an initial report. The experimental details of the procedure were given, and the results obtained from a limited number of samples were presented. 6. Micro Infrared Techniques for the Identification of Carbohydrates. F. E. Resnik, L. S. Harrow, J. C. Holmes, M. E. Bill and F. L, Greene; Philip Morris Incorporated. The extractable portions of most natural products are complex. For this reason characterization techniques of high selectivitv and sensitivity must be employed in determining the composition of these mixtures. Infrared spectroscopy has been used extensively for the specific identification of compounds from natural products. This method of characterization, however, has always been limited by the difficulties of examining water soluble substances and microgram quantities of mater¬ ials. Techniques were described by which microgram amounts of water soluble compounds, paiticularly carbohydrates, can be identified and determined by infrared spectroscopy. The scope and limitations of these 308 The Virginia Journal of Science [September techniques were discussed and typical spectra were presented. The speci¬ ficity of infrared speetroscopy for carbohydrate identification was empha¬ sized and the spectra of structurally similar carbohydrates were presented and discussed. These techniques were applied to the identification of carbohydrates in tobacco. 7. Studies of Tobacco Leaf Proteins. Donald F. Koenig, James K. Palmer, and Carl J. Likes; Johns Hopkins Hospital and Virginia Institute for Scientific Research. The importance of the proteins in the curing and aging of tobacco leaf as well as in the metabolism of the living plant has been amply demonstrated. The purpose of this investigation was to characterize a protein fraction — Fraction I — which appears to be homogeneous and constitutes approximately 40% of the total protein of the green tobacco leaf. This protein fraction is of special interest as it disappears from the leaf during curing. The leaf proteins have been extracted from fresh, frozen and lyophi- lized leaf tissue with various buffers. Ultracentrifugation of these extracts reveals the presence of Fraction I and serves as a means of estimating the relative quantity present. Factors affecting the yield of Fraction I from the leaf have been studied. Fraction I has been isolated essentially free of other contaminants by ultracentrifugation across a density gradient boundary. The isolated protein has been characterized by its sedimentation constant, amino acid composition and other properties. 8. Distribution of Radioactivity in Main and Side Stream Cigarette Smoke Using Carbon-14 Labeled Materials. P. M. Pedersen and E. S. Harlow; Research Laboratory^ The American Tobacco Company. Using carbon-14 tracer techniques, the distribution of activity was determined in certain fractions of the main and side stream smoke of cigarettes in which had been incorporated carbon- 14 randomly labeled materials. The radioaetive materials used included tobacco itself, glucose, nicotine, cellulose, glycerol, a pentane extract of labeled tobacco and a chloroform extract of labeled tobacco. Cigarettes were smoked under con¬ trolled conditions and both main and side stream smoke were collected in appropriate absorption trains. The activities of gross fractions, includ¬ ing the particulate phase, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, aldehydes and other gases, were determined by means of a gas-flow counter, using 1957] Proceedings 1956-1957 309 a technique developed at the University of Chicago by Dr. W. F. Libby. This involves the mixing of the active materials with talc and subsequent counting. 9. The Respiration of the Tobacco Plant. I. Oxidation of Hexose Phosphate and Pentose Phosphate by Cell-Free Extracts of Tobacco Leaves. R. A. Clayton; Research Laboratory, The American Tobacco Company. In this study, an attempt was made to elucidate the pathway (s) of carbohydrate metabolism operative in the leaves of Nicotiana tabacum. Acetone powders of leaves of field-grown Bright tobacco, prepared in the usual manner, were homogenized with 0.1 M. Tris buffer (pH 7.60) containing cysteine. In the absence of cysteine, the homogenate darkened rapidly and lost activity. After centrifugation at 8500 x G., the clear yellow supernatant was used to study TPN reduction and oxygen uptake. The rate of reduction of TPN was followed spectrophotometrically at 340 mu. The following substrates, listed in order of decreasing activity, reduced TPN: glucose-6-phosphate, fructose-6-phosphate, hexose-diphos- phate, 6-phosphogluconate, ribose-5-phosphate and glucose -1-phosphate. None of the substrates reduced DPN or DPN in the presence of arsenate. With HDP as substrate, TPN reduction was inhibited ca. 25% bv iodoa- cetate, while fluoride induced a slight lag in the reduction. When oxygen uptake was followed with the substrates listed above, the homogenates were active without the addition of any cofactors except TPN, DPN or DPN plus arsenate did not replace TPN. With some homo¬ genates, no oxygen uptake activity was observed with HDP, even though these homogenates showed good TPN reduction with this substrate. Cofactor requirements of dialyzed extracts, inhibitor studies and a comparison of activity with stalk position were discussed. 10. Spectrophotometric Determination of Total Carbonyl Content Utilizing Integrated Absorbance Measurements. L. S. Harrow, J. T. Butler, F. E. Resnik, A. C. Estes, and R. B. Seligman; Philip Morris Incorporated. Previous communications from this laboratory have shown the utility Kji the absorption spectra of 2,4-dinitrophenyIhydrazine carbonyl deriva¬ tives for the characterization of individual carbonyl compounds. A method for the estimation of total mono- and di-carbonyl compounds was de¬ scribed. The method involves formation of a mixture of 2,4-dinitrophenyl- hydrazones by reaction of 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazine with the sample fol- 310 The Virginia Journal of Science [September lowed bv separation into mono- and di-hydrazone fractions. After suit¬ able purification, alkaline solutions of the two fractions are examined spectrophotometrically in the visible spectral region. The integrated ab¬ sorbances within defined wave length limits were found to be linear functions of the mono- and di-carbonyl contents of the original sample. 11. Spectrochemical Determination of Certain Trace Metals in Human Blood. Leonel M. Paixao; Pratt Trace Analysis Laboratory, University of Virginia. A spectrochemical method for the determination of magnesium, chromium, nickel, copper and zinc in human blood has been developed. The technique used for the collection, digestion and analysis of the blood samples were discussed, and all data available to date were compared with values found in the literature. Methods used by other investigators for the determination of these metals in human tissues were also con¬ sidered, as well as possibilities for future work on trace analysis of blood and plasma. 12. A Spectrophotometric Method for the Determination of Chromium in Human Blood. Dwight O. Miller; Pratt Trace Analysis Laboratory, University of Virginia. The most sensitive organic analytical reagent available for chromium is a-diphenylcarbazide. The reagent reacts with dichromate ions ( (>20^^) in dilute sulfuric acid solution to give a violet colored complex. The use of this reagent makes it necessary to oxidize the chromium to the dichromate state quantitatively. The excess of oxidizing agent must then be removed because of its action on the reagent. Ferric ions interfere and must be removed before developing the color reaction. 13. Simultaneous Spectrophotometric Determination of Traces of Copper, Cobalt and Nickel with Dithiooxamide. William D. Jacobs; Pratt Trace Analysis Laboratory, University of Virginia. The dithiooxamide (rubeanic acid) complexes of copper, cobalt and nickel have been investigated as a possible method for the simul¬ taneous determination of traces of the three ions. Factors affecting the stability of the three systems, such as pH, the use of a protective colloid, temperature, and the order of addition of reagents have been studied. 1957] Proceedings 1956-1957 311 Mole ratios of the three metallo-organic complexes have been determined. The adherence of the three color-systems to Beer’s law, the effect of foreign ions and the optimum conditions for the analytical use of the reagent were investigated. 14. A New Colorimetric Reagent for Uranium. H. Perry Holcomb; Pratt Trace Analysis Laboratory, University of Virginia. ^ 3- ( 2-Arsonophenylazo ) -4,5-dihydroxy-2,7-naphthaIene-disulfonic acid (trisodium salt), forms a stable complex with the uranyl ion (UOs-b^) giv¬ ing an intense blue color. The reaction is specific for the uranyl ion and is highlv sensitive. A method for the spectrophotometric determination of uranium is now being developed, as well as a study of interference by various ions. The absorbance characteristics of the reagent and its uranyl complex were presented. 15. Structural Analysis of the Naphthylamine Sulfonic Acid- OsMATE Complexes with Application to the Determination of Trace Amounts of Osmium. Edgar L. Steele and John H. Yoe; Pratt Trace Analysis Labora¬ tory, University of Virginia. The naphthylamine sulfonie acid-osmate complexes were investigated to determine the effect of the number and position of the sulfonic acid group on the rate and extent of reaction between the osmate ion (Os VI) and the amine group. By means of various mole-ratio, rate, temperature and pH studies, a steric and resonance effect was noted and a reaction mechanism postu¬ lated. Optimum conditions for the determination of trace amounts of osmium have been established. 16. The Dissociation Pressures of the Tantalum Silicides. Clifford E. Myers; Lynchburg College, and Alan W. Searcys; University of California. The dissociation pressures of the tantalum silicides have been meas¬ ured by the Knudsen effusion method. Phase modifications in the tem¬ perature ranges covered were established by quenching experiments and x-ray diffraction investigation. The heats of dissociation were combined with the heat of vaporization of silicon to obtain, for heats of formation per silicon atom at 298 °K.: 4.5TaSi 0.222+0:03, -34.4kcal.; Ta^Si, -29.3 kcaU; 1.67TaSi 0.60±0«08, “ 26.7 kcal. ; and l/2TaSi ‘11-6 kcal. 2, 312 The Virginia Journal of Science [September 17. A Modification of the Turmeric Paper Test for Boron. W. Allan Powell, Emmett H. Poindexter, and James E. Hard- eastle; University of Richmond. Various modifications of the turmeric paper test have been used for the detection and determination of traces of boron for many years. In the present work the sensitivity of the test has been increased considerablv by the use of oxalic acid in the reaction mixture. Also a thorough study lias been made of the effect of variables on the test. To test for boron the paper containing boron is sprayed with a vurmeric solution and allowed to dry. The red color developed is compared with standards prepared in a similar manner. Acetone is a very suitable solvent for preparation of the spray solution. The solution should con¬ tain no water since water increases the time required for full develop¬ ment of color. At high humidity the color developed is less intense. The time required for development can be reduced and the effect of high humiditv minimized by the use of a development temperature of 55 °C. The test should be especially useful for paper chromatographic and electrochromatograpliic work. It is very sensitive, the difference between 0.00 and 0.01 micrograms being detectable. The increase in intensity \vith increase in boron is linear up to 0.20 micrograms boron. 18. Combustion of Carbon Disulfide-Air Mixtures. George J. Gibbs, Irving R. King, and Hartwell F. Calcote; E xperiment Incorpo rated . The anomalous behavior of carbon disulfide-air flames in flame studies has been recognized by numerous investigators both in this lab¬ oratory and elsewhere. Since this is one of the few fuels which con¬ tains no hvdrogen, and since one of the important mechanisms uroposed for flame propagation is associated with the diffusion of hydrogen atoms ahead of the flame front, an investigation of the effect of water vapor on such a fuel should be of value in better understanding the mechanism of flame propagation. Such an investigation has been undertaken at Ex¬ periment Incoi-porated. Preliminary measurements indicate that the burn¬ ing velocitv of carbon disulfide-air flames increases as the hydrogen content decreases. Minimum spark ignition energy and quenching distance decrease as the hydrogen content decreases. This is quite contrary to the effect of water vapor on most fuels. From these results, it would appear that hydrogen is not important in the diffusion mechanism for carbon disulfide flames; the important transport property may be diffusion of some other species or simply the transfer of heat by thermal conduction. It is suggested that, in this par¬ ticular flame, hvdrogen probably acts as an inhibitor of a reaction chain. 1957] Proceedings 1956-1957 313 19. Microscopic Examination of Incandescent Surfaces. Claude P. Talley and Everett J. Nieuwenhuis; Experiment In¬ corporated. A technique has been developed for observing microscopically the surface character of elemental boron rods at 1000 °C and above. The method consists of illuminating the surface with short wavelength visible light and filtering out the longer wavelength visible light which radiates from the incandescent surface. Only the reflected light which is respon¬ sible for revealing surface character is allowed to reach the observer’s eye or photographic film after passage through the microscope. In this manner still and motion photomicrographs have been obtained of ele¬ mental boron at incandescent temperatures oxidizing in air. This technique enables one to determine unambiguously the sequence of visible events taking place on the surface. 20. Whisker Growth of Silver Metal. Mechanism and Kinetics. Welby G. Gourtney; Chemical Construction Corporation. The crystal growth of silver metal whiskers and “ferns” occurring in the reduction of Ag (I) by Fe (II) from aqueous perchlorate solution was observed under the microscope. Whiskers grew to 1000 microns in length with parallel sides and widths usually between 0.4 and 1.5 mi¬ crons. They frequently grew at well-defined angles to the previous direc¬ tion and occasionally stopped growing abruptly, although nearby whisk¬ ers continued to grow. In fern growth, short spikes grew in a regular manner from one side of a main stem. Linear sfrowth rates of whiskers O were essentially independent of an estimated eight-fold variation in supersaturation, but the growth rate of a particular whisker could in¬ crease abruptly with time in apparently integral ratios. Whisker or fern growth is attributed to an axial screw dislocation which had, re¬ spectively, a perfect or twinned lattice orientation across the dislocation plane. The results support the Burton-Gabrera-Frank (dislocation) mech¬ anism for crystal growth and suggest that close-packed surfaces at the solution-solid interfaee in the present system are atomieally smooth. How¬ ever, the results appear to be difficult to reconcile with the BCF treat¬ ments of the growth behavior or infinite crystal surfaces and the kinetics of the growth of disloeated surfaces. An alternate explanation was pre¬ sented for the observed growth kinetics. 21. Copolymerization of Vinyl Chloride and Styrene. Joseph Clema; National Science Talent Search. 314 The Virginia Journal of Science [September 22. Preparation of DiPYRRYLMETmcPYROCOLLS. Catalytic Reduction OF 3, 5, 4’ — Tricarbethoxy — 4,3’, 5’ — Trimethylpyrromethene. Brvant Harrell; Alsoph H. Corwin; The College of William and Marij and The Johns Hopkins University. The catalytic reduction of 3,5,4’-tricarbethoxy- 4,3’,5’-trimethylpyr- romethene gave two dimeric products. The products were formulated as cis and trans isomers of a dipyrrylmethylpyrocoll derivative. Similar dipvrrylmethvlpvrocoll derivatives were synthesized by other routes and have proven to exhibit properties similar to those of the compounds re¬ sulting from the reduction. Explanations were offered for the tendencies of these compounds to retain water and alcohol. 23. Ultracentrifugal Studies of Aggregation Occurring in Alkaline Zein Solutions. Carl J. Likes; Donald F. Koenig; Virginia Institute for Scientific Research and The Johns Hopkins Hospital. With the aim of obtaining information relative to the behavior of commercial zein in solutions suitable for the production of textile fibers, ultracentrifugal studies have been conducted on spin solutions (15% zein with 2% NaOH on the protein basis) diluted to one per cent protein with 0.01 N NaOH. In contrast to its behavior in 80% by weight aqueous isopropanol, in which zein exhibits a single sedimentation peak (sedimen¬ tation constant, 1.69 S), two ultracentrifugal components were observed in diluted spin solutions, one of which (Fraction I) sediments about twenty times more rapidly than the other (Fraction H). A number of prop¬ erties associated with the aggregated phase. Fraction I, were discussed. These included: rates of formation and degradation, relative concentra¬ tion, the effects of temperature and aging, solvent stability, the nature of intermolecular forces, and the influence of a cross-linking agent. The aggregation tendency of other proteins, such as ardein, casein, gliadin, and soybean protein, were compared with that of zein under correspond¬ ing conditions. 24. Synthesis and Properties of Pyridyl alanines. Herbert McKennis, Jr. and Edward R. Bowman; Medieal Col¬ lege of Virginia. To provide pyridylalanines for biochemical studies, methods for the synthesis of the parent compound and derivatives have been explored. 3- Pyridinecarboxaldehvde was condensed with creatinine in the presence of acetic anhydride and sodium acetate in glacial acetic acid The resulting 4-3’-pyridylmethylene-5-acetylcreatinine, m.p. 235-237°, on reduction with 1957] Proceedings 1956-1957 315 zinc dust and acetic acid gave 4-3’-pyridylmethylcreatinine, m.p. 275- 279° in 80% yield. Upon treatment with strong barium hydroxide and heat tliis compound readily yielded N— methyl-/l-3-pyridylalanine. The corresponding pyridylmethylhydantoin similarly and in contrast to pub¬ lished reports [Niemann, et. ah, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 64 1678 (1942)] was hydrolysed with no unusual difficulty under the same conditions. 25. The Determination of Residues of 0-2,4-Dichlorophenyl 0,0- Diethyl Phosphorothioate (“V-C 13 NEMACIDE”) BY Cholinesterase Inhibition. George R. Boyd; Research Department, Virginia-Carolina Chemi¬ cal Corporation. The electrometric method of Giang and Hall for the determination of organic phosphates by cholinesterase inhibition has been adapted for use with 0-2,4-dichlorophenyl 0,0-diethyl phosphorothioate, the active in¬ gredient of “V-C 13 NEMACIDE.” This compound is itself only a weak inhibitor of cholinesterase. However, oxidation with nitric acid increases its activity by a factor of 1000 so that micro amounts can be determined by antiesterase activity. V-C 13 has greater stability and lower water solubility than Parathion or Systox and certain modifications of previous¬ ly reported procedures are required in its determination. Other changes have also been made in the interest of increased operating efficiency. These modifications were discussed and a detailed procedure for the analysis of vegetable products was given. Results were presented for the application of this procedure to the following analyses: solutions of pure V-C 13; extracts of vegetables grown in untreated soils; recovery of known amounts of V-C 13 added to vegetable extracts; and residues of V-C 13 found in vegetables grown in treated soils. 26. Chemical Library Resources in Virginia. M. Hathaway Pollard; Research Department, Virginia-Carolina Chemical Corporation. There are in Virginia over 100 libraries that collect chemical litera¬ ture and cooperate in making it available to those who seek chemical infoiTnation. Included are both public and ‘"special” libraries such as school, government, and industrial. The services of these libraries are more numerous and varied than most of us realize. The special library, whose primary purpose is to provide specialized information and services to the personnel of its own organization, also provides information and literature to other librarians and, where practical, to the public. The public library not only makes its colleetion available to the public, but, where practical, offers specialized services such as photocopying and 316 The Virginia Journal of Science [September assistance in literature searching. By consulting one of these hbraries the chemist can open up a vast network of information sources locally, na¬ tionally and even internationally. The value of hbrary research to the chemist can be measured in saving of time and dollars for himself and for his organization. 27. Nuclear Reactors for Research. W. E. Chamberlain; AMF Atomics^ Incorporated. Business Meeting The Chemistry Section business meeting was held at 12:00 Friday, May 10, in the John Smith Room of Hotel Chamberlin. The practice of holding two concurrent sessions on Friday and none on Saturday was discussed. It was decided that the section officers would determine if this practice should be continued. The report of the nominating committee was presented and the fol¬ lowing officers elected by unanimous vote of the members present. Chairman, J. C. Holmes; Secretary, F. A. Vingello; Section Editor, Mearl A. Kise. 1957] Proceedings 1956-1957 317 MINUTES OF THE SECTION OF EDUCATION (6) W. Donald Clague, Chairman Evan G. Pattishall, Jr., Secretary James B. Patton, Jr., Section Editor \ FRIDAY, MAY 10, 1957 - 9:00 A.M. - PARLOR A HOTEL CHAMBERLIN 1. The Quality of Written Expression of Virginia's High School Seniors. Alfred L. Wingo; Virginia State Department of Education. The over-all purpose of the study was to analyze the quality of written expression of Virginia’s High School Seniors for the School Session, 1953-1954. The analysis that was made served the following detailed purposes : 1. To determine the value of the Total Score on the American Council on Education Psychological Examination, the L-Score on the same test, and the English Score on the Essential High School Contest Battery as predictors of the ability to write. 2. To compare the quality of written expression of pupils enrolled in college-bound programs of instruction with that of pupils enrolled in the general curriculum or non-college-bound programs. 3. To compare the quality of written expression of girls with that of boys. 4. To compare the seniors in the classifications of schools used in the study with respect to the quality of written expression. 5. To compare boys and girls with respect to both linguistic aptitude and achievement in English. A large majority of the Seniors were requested to write an essay of 250 to 400 words on the topic: What High School Graduation Means To Me. With the advice and help of Dr. Richard A. Meade, Professor of Education, University of Virginia, a committee composed of three per- 318 The Virginia Journal of Science [September sons was selected to judge the essays. Through the use of a controlled and stratified random sampling technique 366 papers were drawn from 14,911 for appraisal by the judging committee. The validity of the sample was established by comparing standardized test scores available for all seniors in the State with similar scores for the pupils included in the sample. The comparisons and statistical analyses used were developed in terms of the purposes stated in the preceding section. For the purpose of stating conclusions the Judging Committee classified the papers into five groups according to previously determined criteria for judging effective¬ ness. Some conclusions: 1. The Judging Committee’s “Conclusions” and assigned scores indicate a wide range in the quality of written expression for the sample as a whole. It appears that the top half of the group wrote very fine papers, but the quality of written expression trails off rapidly in the lower half, particularly below the 20th percentile. 2. As predictors of the ability to write, the three test scores used (Total A.C.E., L-Scores of the A.C.E., and English scores of the E.H.S.C.B.) differed slightly in value. The English scores were slightly better predictors than the total A.C.E. scores, and the total A.C.E. scores were somewhat superior to the L-Scores. With few exceptions the English scores predicted the qualitv of written expression within one quartile deviation; for example, a pupil in the top quartile for oiie measure would not be lower than the next to the top quartile in the other. 3. The essay scores of pupils, in the sample, enrolled in the college- bound programs of instruction are quite superior to those of pupils enrolled in the general curriculum. 4. The scores indicating quality of written expression for the girls in the sample are definitely superior to those for the boys; and to the extent that the L-Scores indicate linguistic ability, it appears that the girls achieve their potential in written expression to a higher degree than the boys. 5. From the City Whites, Twelve-Grade Systems down to the Countv Negroes, Eleven-Grade Systems there is a wide range in the quality of written expression. The test scores follow a similar pattern. 6. The essay scores of pupils, in the sample, enrolled in twelve-grade systems exceed by very substantial margins those of pupils in eleven- grade systems. 7. Although there are no substantial sex differences in the L-Scores, die girls made better English scores than tlie boys. It appears that the 1957] Proceedings 1956-1957 319 girls in the sample have a greater flair for the mechanics of written expression as well as for the art. 2. Changes in Attitudes Resulting From Training in Educational Psychology. Charles Martindale and George Kent; Bridgewater College. The purpose of this experiment was to determine the effects of a course in Educational Psychology on attitudes toward teaching and teaching practices. The Purdue Teachers Examination “How 1 Teach” was administered over a two year period at the beginning and again at the end of an 18-week semester to students registered in courses in Educational Psv- chology at Bridgewater College. Significant improvement from pre to post test was found (.001). Checking further to determine if this improvement could be attributed to the course in Educational Psychology, the data were grouped for those students with previous education courses versus those with none; those students with previous psychology courses versus those with none; those students currently taking education courses versus those who were not; and those students currently taking other psychology courses versus those who were not. While significant differences between groups on pre tests and on post tests were observed, only in one case were the relative improvements between the groups significant. Those students currentlv taking other courses in psychology were higher on the initial test, but not significantlv different on the final test; in this case the relative improve¬ ment was significant at .01 level of confidence. A final test of those stu¬ dents not taking other psychology courses revealed significant improve¬ ment at the .001 level of confidence. It was concluded that previous courses in psychology and education, and current courses in education do not account for the improvement on superior on the first test. It was suggested that perhaps those factors which lead to the improvement on the attitude test were present in other psychology courses, consequently these students did not show a great increase during the eourse in edueational psychology. It was con¬ cluded that there was a real improvement in the scores on the attitude test, and that this improvement could be attributed to the course in edu¬ cational psychology. 3. Some Effects of College Mental Hygiene Courses in Personal Development. Donald W. Border and George W. Kent; Bridgewater College. The purpose of this experiment was to examine the effects of a 320 The Virginia Journal of Science I September the attitude test. Students currently taking psychology courses were college mental hygiene course on personal adjustment as measured by standardized personality tests. Thirty-three members of a class in the Psychology of Adjustment at Bridgewater College served as an experimental group, and 33 members of a General Psychology class served as a control group. Three person- alitv tests were administered to both groups at the beginning and again at the end of an 18-week semester. Significant improvement was observ- ed in both experimental and control groups. However, only on three sub¬ tests did the experimental and control groups differ significantlv. It is concluded that changes observed in personal development during the course of a semester’s work in mental hygiene do not necessarily reflect the effects of this course alone. Rather it may be due to the effect of the college situation in general. A number of significant changes is greatlv reduced when the comparison is made with other students not registered in mental hygiene. It was also observed that the experimental and con¬ trol groups differed markedlv in their use of the “undecided” categorv on the Johnson Temperament Analysis. 4. A Study of Problem Solving Under Three Experiment \l Conditions. Frank W. Banghart; University of Virginia. The purpose of this experiment was to investigate the role of speci¬ fied interference on problem solving efficiency. Eighty-one subjects were used. The subjects were all drawn from the same rural elementary school. An equal number was drawn from each of the fourth, fifth, and seventh grades. The subjects were divided into three levels of mental ability, upper third, middle third, and lower third. The subjects were divided into three experimental groups; one third worked non-cooperatively, one third cooperatively, and one third individ¬ ually. The apparatus consisted of a panel equipped with ten colored lights mounted in a circle with a ten-inch diameter. The subject’s task was to predict which light would come on next. The results showed that the non-cooperative group did best, the individuals next best, and the cooperative group poorest. These differ¬ ences were significant at the .01 level of confidence. The differences were, also, consistent at each grade level and at each level of mental ability. 5. Measuring Behavior Traits in Elementary Science. Jack Roger; Richmond Ptihlic Schools. One important aspect of the total evaluation program in elementary 1957] Proceedings 1956-1957 321 science is concerned with behavior traits related to science-mindedness. Important traits include: 1. Curiosity 2. Creative imagination 3. Persistence 4. Manual dexterity 5. Planning ability 6. Abihty to spot a problem or detect inconsistencies One promising lead to evaluation which takes into consideration the behavior traits exhibited by pupils under controlled conditions is the situation type test. The situation type test subjects an individual or small group to a stimulus situation which is concrete and uniform enough for comparisons. The situation can be suffieiently structured or Controlled to give pupils ample opportunity to engage in those tvpes of behavior which the test maker proposes to measure. Recording instruments such as a checklist or reading scales can be developed to study the situation imposed by the test. The situational test is difficult to design and administer, and it is subject to observer error in scoring, but it offers more promise than other available teehniques for the assessment of typical behavior traits. A pilot group of sixty grade children has been taking tests of the sort described above every few weeks during this school term. The re¬ sults of this pilot study suggest that this is a fruitful area for action re¬ search in elementary school science. SYMPOSIUM Needed Research on the Gifted Child Leon Reid, University of Virginia; Kuhn Barnett, State Department of Education; Virgil Ward, University of Virginia; William F. Koontz, Nor¬ folk County Public Schools; Evan G. Pattishall, Jr., University of Virginia, Moderator. BUSINESS MEETING The report of the nominating committee was presented and the following new officers were elected: Chairman, Evan G. Pattishall, Jr.; Secretary, Charles J. Turner. 322 The Virginia Journal of Science [September MINUTES OF THE SECTION OF ENGINEERING (7) D. M. Crim, Chairman O. L. Updike, Secretary R. M. Hubbard, Section Editor (1958) FRIDAY, MAY 10, 1957 - 9:00 A.M. - PARLOR B 1. An Investigation of Some Aspects of Transonic Wind Tunnel Design. Arthur C. Bruce; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. An experimental investigation was conducted to compare various meth¬ ods of obtaining transonic Mach numbers slightly above one in a two dimensional slotted wall nozzle. Three distinct mediods were applied to a nozzle with essentially parallel walls in order to alleviate choking near the nozzle exit. These methods consisted of modifying area ratios by means of bumps installed upstream of the test section, varying the pressure ratios along the test section by forced expansion of the flow through wall slots, and creation of a vena contracta upstream of the test section by installation of fences in the convergent portion of tlie nozzle. Comparisons are presented on the basis of Mach number distribu¬ tions along the working section, resulting ranges of available Mach number, and attenuation of wave reflection from the tunnel walls. 2. Determination of the Aerodynamic Characteristics of Bodies OF Revolution in an Axially Symmetric Perfect Fluid Flow BY THE Method of Vortex Ring Distribution. Charles R. Wilson and James B. Fades, Jr.; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. This paper presents a method of predicting the incompressible pres¬ sure distribution for a body of revolution in a perfect fluid flow at zero angle of attack. The present method uses the mechanism of vortex rings, in ]:)lace of the usual source-sink method, which alleviates the difficulty 1957] Proceedings 1956-1957 323 of the singularities on the axis encountered in the more classical source- sink analysis. The investigation was initiated when it was found that the classical approach, when applied to a cone-cyhnder body of revolution, did not give acceptable agreement with experiment. A comparison of this analysis will be made with experiment and with results obtained from the classi¬ cal analysis. 3. Some Considerations of the Transonic Area Rule. Edgar B. Pritchard and Arthur C. Bruce; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. The transonic area rule is applied to a cone cyhnder and to several modifications of this basic body configuration. Experimental re¬ sults are obtained in the transonic range of Mach numbers. The first modification of the basic cone cylinder configuration was the addition of an unswept triangular wing to the body. A body of revolution having the same distribution of cross-sectional area as the wing body combination was tested as the second modification. Drag coefficients were obtained in the transonic range of Mach numbers for each of the three configurations tested and variations with Mach numbers were presented. A visual comparison of waves present on the three bodies is pre¬ sented as obtained from Schlieren photographs and the present experi¬ mental results are compared qualitatively with Whitcomb's results for bodies of revolution with cylindrical after bodies. 4. Flow in the Forward Stagnation Region of Blunt Bodies . Robert W. Truitt; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. The purpose of this paper is to present methods of calculation which yield important information on the symmetric inviscid flow in the foiAvard stagnation point region of blunt bodies for incompressible and hypersonic flow. Round and perfectly flat-nosed bodies are treated. An analysis is made to show the conditions necessary to give exactly the modified Newtonian-type flow in the forward stagnation region ol cylindrical, hemispherical and flat-nosed bodies at supersonic speeds. The present theoretical results are compared with those of Li and Geiger and with available experimental data. 5. Aerodynamic Heating on Bodies of Revolution Including Slip Flow. 324 The Virginia Journal of Science [September Adolf K. Anderson, Jr. and Robert W. Truitt; Virginia Poly¬ technic Institute. A method for the detennination of transient skin temperatures on bodies of revolution in turbulent and laminar-slip flow is presented. The method is applied to a typical missile trajectory by using the Runge- Kutta method of numerical integration. The stagnation point on the bodv is investigated to find the maximum skin temperature to which the bodv is subjected during this typical high-speed trajectory. A comparison is made between the skin temperatures at the stagnation point and at a location on the body which experiences turbulent heat transfer charact¬ eristics. It is found that the skin temperatures attained at the stagnation point of the body exceed the allowable Hmit. 6. Structural Problems Due To Aerodynamic Heating of Supersonic Airflames. William Zuk; University of Virginia. With the advent of aircraft velocities in excess of Mach 1, the structural designers of airframes are now faced with three new and important sources of difficulties over and above all the old ones of computing the stresses in a complex indetenninate structure as an air¬ plane due to dead loads, aerodynamic forces, impact, and fatigue. These three added problems are due to aerodynamic heat generated in supersonic flight causing creep, temperature softening, and thermal stresses in the materials and structural components. These factors are all inter-related in the complex structural frame; some merely causing addi¬ tional deflections and increased stresses, but others causing more catas¬ trophic effects as complete collapse due to reduced rigidity and buckling instability. These effects will be explained in concept and practical importance in an airframe. Several methods of analysis will also be discussed to evaluate these effects quantitatively, many of these methods being original with the author. 7. Process Design for the Production of Maleic Acid Hydrazide FOR Weed Control. E. C. Moncrief, W. H. Sawyer and Frank C. Vilbrandt; Vir¬ ginia Polytechnic Institute. The effects of excess maleic anhydride, hydrazine hydrate to solvent ratio, time, concentration, specific solvents, agitation were studied. A reaction time of 12 minutes was employed with the ratio of solvent to 1957] Proceedings 1956-1957 325 reactants held constant at 75 weight percent. Solvents employed were ethanol, methanol, isopropyl alcohol, glacial acetic acid, hydrochloric acid, benzene and water. Drying rates were also studied. Yields up to 70% immediate precipitation to 88% upon evaporation and crystallization were obtained. Then field application of 0.10 to 0.22 weight percent hydrazide solutions in water were made in “wild” varieties of briers, Bermuda grass, Johnson grass, milkweed, red pine, ragweed, and honey locust in the Blacksburg area from May to August 1956. Field tests on the “wild” plots indicated 40 to 80% control on all plots and vegetation studied with the exception of milkweed and honey locust. A total capital of $1,150,000 was determined to be necessary to pro¬ duce annually 242 tons of 95.5% pure maleic acid hydrazide. A sefling price of $3.00 per pound, or $0.50 per gallon of spray liquid, would \ield 13.7% return as new earning plus working capital. 8. Planning Problems in the Washington Metropolitan Area of Virginia. Cadet John E. V/oodward, Jr.; Virginia Military Institute. The Washington metropolitan area in Virginia is undergoing tre¬ mendous growth. Comprehensive, coordinated planning by all the com¬ munities involved is necessary for the solution of the problems resulting from this rapid expansion. The purpose of this paper is to review gener¬ ally the problems facing planners in the area. 9. A Molecular Lens. Paul R. Little, Robert L. Ramey, and Oiwille R. Harris; Uni¬ versity of Virginia. A force can be exerted on certain molecules possessing electric dipole moments when placed in non-uniform electrostatic fields. By shaping these non-uniform electrostatic fields, molecular beams can be formed. Various electric-field configurations have been extensively exam¬ ined. From evaluating the different types of electrodes, a ne\v focuser has evolved. This new focuser is a series of stacked discs insulated from one another. There is an axial hole down the stacked discs through which the molecular beam is directed. By alternating the voltage on each disc, positive and negative, a space varying field can be shaped. This field will form a beam of molecules according to the initial velocity, change in dipole moment, and energy state in the molecule. One application of such a lens is to focus a beam of ammonia mole- 326 The Virginia Journal of Science [September cules for use in a moleeular beam amplifier (MASER), resulting in im¬ proved separation, transpareney, and beam eomposition. 10. An Investigation of the Modified Newtonian-Type Flow Over A Flat Plate. F. Wendell Johnson and Robert W. Truitt; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. This paper presents a method of obtaining an analytical description of the modified Newtonian flow over a normal flat plate at hypersonic speeds. In particular the method of conformal mapping is used to find the flow over a flat plate from the known solution of the flow over a cylinder due to motion of a concentric cylindrical shell. The solution thus obtained is used to find the local Mach number distribution over the flat plate in the hypersonic speed range. 11. Determination of Pressure Drag on Bodies of Revolution in Transient Flight. Samuel J. Harris and Robert W. Truitt; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. Theoretical investigation of the pressure drag on bodies of revolution for a typical high-speed, high altitude trajectory. A 10° semi-angle cone is analyzed over a trajectory covering Mach numbers from 2.14 to 10.39, and altitudes from 17,000 to 110,000 ft., by integrating the conical- shock solutions for the pressure distribution. An analysis is made on an ogival body with a fineness ratio of 3 at Mach numbers from 1.5 to 9, and altitudes from 4,000 to 190,000 ft., by integrating pressure distri¬ butions obtained by conical shock-expansion methods. 12. An Investigation of Modified Newtonian Hypersonic Theory IN THE Stagnation Region of Cylindrical and Hemispherical Bodies. Jerry C. South, Jr. and Robert W. Truitt; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. This paper presents a method of determining the flow characteristics in the stagnation point region of cylindrical and hemispherical bodies at hypersonic speeds. A detailed description of the embedded subsonic flow field is given. The region for local Mach number is 0.3 or less is calcu¬ lated and the results are discussed. 1957] Proceedings 1956-1957 327 13. Experimental Compressible Pressure Distributions and Velocity Gradient on a 180° Wedge. Paul Taynton and Arthur C. Bruce; Virginia Polytechnic In¬ stitute. A necessary step in the determination of skin temperature on a body in flight is the evaluation of stagnation of velocity gradients on the body surface. To this end, an experimental investigation was carried out utilizing a 180 degree, two dimensional wedge. Tests were conducted to cover the compressible flow range of Mach numbers from approximately zero to one. From experimental results compressible pressure distributions are determined and comparison is made with existing compressible and in¬ compressible theory. The experimental stagnation velocity gradients are also compared with theoretical predictions and consequent effects upon skin temperature are indicated. 328 The Virginia Journal of Science [September MINUTES OF THE SECTION OF GEOLOGY (8) Troy J. Las well. Chairman Richard V. Dietrich, Vice-Chairman Robert S. Young, Secretary Wallace D. Lowry, Section Editor (1958) FRIDAY, MAY 10, 1957 - 9:00 A.M. - PARLOR C 1. Magnetic Intensities of Rocks near Lynchburg. H. R. Hopkins; University of Virginia. During a vertical magnetic intensity survey carried on by the Vir¬ ginia Division of Mineral Resources in the Lynchburg hematite and mag¬ netite District the following relative magnetic intensities were found:. Candler formation readings ranged from +400 to —300 gammas, ( the adjusted average was —82 gammas ) ; Archer Creek marble ranged from +400 to —400 gammas, (the adjusted average was —16 gammas); Archer Creek graphite schist ranged from +600 to —180 gammas, (the adjusted average was 83 gammas); the Mount Athos schist ranged from +500 to —600 with an adjusted average of 0 gammas; the magnetite¬ bearing Mount Athos quartzite had an average reading of +480 gammas, and the greenstone had an average reading of +2,500 gammas. No extensive magnetic anomalies were found which would indicate large iron ore deposits in the area. A mapped extensive negative anomaly in the vicinity of Riverville is thought to be the result of polarization. A positive anomaly lies west of Stapleton, Amherst County. This anomaly is believed to be caused by the low southeast dip of the greenstone. The magnetic intensities on the western edge of the metasediments next to the greenstone are unusually high and decrease in value away from the greenstone. They may indicate a series of low-angle thrust faults similar to the Bent Creek fault which dips 5-15° to the southeast. 2. Study of Heavy Minerals of Sands of Tributaries to South River, Rockbridge County, Virginia. James H. Davis, Jr. Randall Creel, Jr., and Robert Lurate; 1957] Proceedings 1956-1957 329 Washington and Lee University. Seventeen samples of sand were taken from the tributaries to South River, Rockbridge County, Virginia. This stream flows southward along the west foot of the Blue Ridge escarpment. Minerals identified by standard petrographic methods were black opaques, zircon, tourmaline, hypersthene, epidote, staurolite, and garnet. These 'vere found in sands of tributaries draining the Paleozoic sedi¬ mentary formations to the west as well as the Precambrian crystalline rocks to the east. No definite differentiation could be made. It is un¬ likely that significant quantities of hypersthene, epidote, staurolite, and garnet would be derived from Paleozoic sedimentary formations. Possibl)' they were derived from Blue Ridge and Piedmont sediment which had been transported by westwardly flowing streams and deposited on the Valley Floor peneplain before the development of the present valley of South River. 3. Desiderata for the Representative Sample. A. C. Lilly, Jr.; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. Representative sampling has long been a problem in geology. A mathematical analysis of the problem suggests two “rules of thumb” regarding sampling: (1) the larger the volume of sample taken the greater the probability that the sample will be representative, and (2) the representative volume varies logarithmically with the degree of sort¬ ing; therefore more sample should be taken (on a logarithmic basis) in poorly sorted sediments than in well-sorted sediments. Because in every sediment there are theoretically an infinite number of sizes, the geologist cannot hope to obtain a truly representative sam¬ ple. He must sample size ranges and hope that his sampling gives the same results that a representative sample would give. Recognition of these limitations, themselves, is perhaps the most important aspect of sampling. Perhaps the critical educated eye is, after all, the best control of procuring a representative sample — this, despite the fact that our litera¬ ture is overloaded in favor of the peculiar. 4. Structural Polytypism and the Spiral Growth of Crystals. Richard S. Mitchell; University of Virginia. Certain substances crystallize in several modifications which differ basically only by the manner in which identical unit layers of stmctnre are stacked upon each other. The cell dimensions of these different modi¬ fications usually vary only in the direction perpendicular to the stacked layers, and this variable dimension is a multiple of the thickness of the 330 The Virginia Journal of Science [September imit layer. Struetural polytypism has been observed in wurtzite graph¬ ite, miea, elay, eadmium iodide, silieon earbide and long chain organic compounds. Over thirty polytypes of silicon carbide, the classical exam¬ ple, have been discovered. These range from four layers to more than a thousand layers per unit of structure. The numerous explanations of the phenomenon of polytypism, which have been concerned with impurities, temperature, rate of crystallization, influence of neighboring crystals, etc., have become quite inadequate with the discovery of the many layered types. A more satisfactory postu¬ lation is that polytypism might be brought about by the spiral growth of crystals as a consequence of screw dislocations. Polytypic structures would result if the exposed steps, produced by such dislocations, were of various heights and contained at least one departure from the ideal structure of the crystal. Recent investigations by the writer have shown that nearlv all the known polvtypes of cadmium iodide and silicon carbide can be derived by such a mechanism. 5. Weathered Stream Gravels at the Crest of the Blue Ridge. Richard V. Dietrich; Virginia Pohjtechnic Institute. A significant deposit of alluvial cobbles and boulders occurs at the crest of the Blue Ridge near the eastern boundary of Floyd County, five miles S.37°E. of the Roanoke-Montgomery-Floyd counties’ common point. The deposit occurs within the New River Basin a few feet from the pres¬ ent Atlantic-Gulf Divide which, in this area, essentially coincides with both the crest and the top of the Blue Ridge Escarpment. The roundstones range up to 5 x 6 x 8 inches, are irregular to ellip¬ soidal, are subrounded to well rounded, and consist almost wholly of ‘Tull” quartz and quartzite. That most of the roundstones have undergone chemical weathering since being deposited is manifest by development of friabilitv, secondary porosity, and formation of one-to-three millimeter (s) thick iron-stained outer zones. The presence of the deposit, along with underfit streams and other features, in this area indicates that large streams once existed here. If the drainage was to the west, and all evidence suggests this, the New River Basin must have once been much larger and have included a sizeable area east of the present Blue Ridge Escarpment. 6. Vermiculite in the Virginia Piedmont. Edwin O. Gooch; Virginia Division of Mineral Resources. Vemiiculite is the name given a group of hydrated silicate minerals, with a mica-like cleavage, that have the peculiar quality of expanding when heated. Although venniculite is a distinct mineral species, some of 1957] Proceedings 1956-1957 331 the materials classified as vermiculite are mixed-layer mica-vermiculite structures. X-ray determinations are necessary to distinguish vermiculite from the mixed-layer mica-vei*miculites. Because of their ability to expand when heated, the uses of vermic¬ ulite and the related mica-vermiculites have developed rather rapidly in recent vears. Today there is a growing demand for vermiculite pro¬ ducts, especiallv in the building industry. Vermiculite and the related mica-venniculite mixtoes probably are found as constituents of many of the basic rock formations in the Pied¬ mont province in Virginia. However, recent studies show that there are concentrations of these minerals in at least six areas in the Piedmont. These areas are found in Louisa County, Buckingham County, Bedford- Franklin counties, Pittsylvania-Franklin counties, Henry County, and Charlotte-Halifax counties. 7. Zircon in a Bentonite Bed in Martinsburg Shale at Fishers Hill, Virginia/ Dorothv Carroll; U. S. Geological Survey. A number of bentonite beds, originally volcanic ash, in the Martins¬ burg shale at Fishers Hill, Shenandoah County, Virginia, have been de¬ scribed by Roy A. Bailey and Robert S. Young. The heavy residue from the lowest of these beds, approximately 1 foot above the base of the Martinsburg, consists almost entirely of euhedral, unabraded grains of zircon averaging 95 microns in length and 35 microns in breadth. The zircon varies from colorless to very pale yellow and cry stallo graphically is all of one type with well-developed prism and pyramid faces. A zircon concentrate was prepared by Howard W. Jaffe and the age determined bv the total lead-alpha activity ratios (Larsen method) to be 340 + 35 million years. Although age deteiminations from single samples are of little value, it is significant that the age found is within the range obtained for igneous rocks of Ordovician age using the same method, and also that given in Holmes" time scale. Heavy residues of samples of Martins¬ burg shale from other localities contain a number of different types of detrital zircon including puiple grains which are generally considered to be of Precambrian age. 8. Heavy Mineral Studies of Sediments from Little River, Floyd County, Virginia. Carl Mangold, Jr., Lee Marshall, W. K, Young; Washington and Lee University. 1 Publication authorized by the Director, U. S. Geological Survey. 332 The Virginia Journal of Science [September Fourteen samples of sediment were collected from the Little River, Floyd and Montgomery counties, Virginia. The samples represent the entire length from its origin to its confluence with New River. Slides made of the heavy minerals showed that amphiboles and pyroxenes, muscovite, opaques, and zircon were by far the most abundant minerals with rutile, sillimanite, tourmaline, staurolite, and garnet present only in rare quantities. No definite correlations could be made between the samples and specific or individual formations of the Little RiveFs drainage basin. 9. Large Calcite Crystals from Staunton, Virginia. William F. Giannini; University of Virginia. Unusually large and well developed calcite crystals occur in the Beekmantown limestone of the Belmont Trap Rock Company quarrv within the city limits of Staunton, Virginia. The quarry, owned and operat¬ ed by Mr. C. W. Lawrence and sons, is approximately 300 feet long, 100 feet wide, and 150 feet deep. The calcite crystals are best exposed on the wall at the southeast end of the quarry and they occur in fractures and vugs. Perhaps the fractures were developed during folding, whereas the vugs probably resulted from subsequent enlargement of these frac¬ tures by solution. The size of the largest crystal found was 6 inches parallel to the a crystallographic axis and 31/^ inches parallel to the c crystallographic axis. The common basic forms observed on the crystals are rhombohedrons, scalenohedrons, and prisms. The negative, modified rhombohedron (0112) was present on all crystals observed. Iron oxide is closely associated with the crystals. Tn l^me crystals the oxide imparts a uniform pale yellow coloration wljereas in others it produces a definite zoning of various shades of yellow and brown. In addition to this many crystals have an external coating of iron oxide. Many specimens contain phantoms which are coated either with iron oxide or small pyrite crystals. 10. Non-tectonic Folds in the Athens Formation near Harrison¬ burg, Virginia. W. D. Lowry; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. Folds of non-tectonic origin occur in the black, very fine grained Athens limestone in the Jamison Black Marble Company quarry about one mile north of Harrisonburg, Virginia. Most of the individual folds are less than several feet across. They comprise an unsystematic group of tight disharmonic folds which show marked thickening in their axial por¬ tions. The folding is believed to be the result of flowage while the beds were still incoherent. The beds comprise a zone several feet thick and 1957] Proceedings 1956-1957 333 overlie a group of rather steeply foreset beds. The foreset bedding and the flovvage exhibited by these Athens limestones indicate instability of the sea floor at the time of deposition. Such instability may be related to the structural setting of these beds. They lie on the west flank of the Harrisonburg anticline which is known to have begun to form in Middle Ordovician time. 11. Chert in the Murat-Collierstown Area, Rockbridge County, Virginia. Raymond S. Edmundson; University of Virginia. Chert in the Beekmantown dolomite at a locality along Buffalo Creek about one mile northwest of Murat and four miles southwest of Lexing¬ ton shows the following form tvpes: (1) lattice (intersecting fracture fillings), (2) nodular; (3) mottled, and (4) bedded. The general struc¬ ture in this area is a broad anticline plunging southwestward. The upper part of the Beekmantown is repeated across the axis of the fold. Masses of chert were x-rayed and gave definite lines for crvstalline silica, although they appear isotropic and frequently minutely speckled under crossed nicols. A few of these isotropic occurrences grade into marginal zones of microcrystalline quartz in which individual grains are easily recognizable under low magnification. Another type of silica is chalcedonv which appears as microfibrous quartz and occurs in sheaves with banding perpendicular to the length of the fibers. All the categories of chert, except for small cavity fillings and sec¬ ondary veinlets which cut across both chert and host rock, show evidence of replacement. Criteria include irregular contacts between chert and dolomite and the occurrence of considerable dolomite in chert both as dustv inclusions and euhedral grains. 12. Spherulitig Phosphate Congretions from Big Horn Basin, Wyoming. Richard S. Mitchell and W. Cullen Shei*wood; University of Virginia. The occurrence of light gray spherulitic phosphate concretions in tliie basal part of the Thermopolis formation (Upper Cretaceous) in the Big Horn Basin, Wyoming has been known for over fifty vears. In 1935 A'fcConnell published a thorough petrographic description of these con¬ cretions, which he determined were composed primarily of dahllite, the carbonate-hydroxyapatite. In this report he suggested the forms might rep¬ resent replacement of some other material, but was unable to find re¬ licts of a replaced material. Recently the writers have found evidence to show that these masses are actually pseudomorphs of dahllite after pyrite. 334 The Virginia Journal of Science [September The eoneretions are spherical in shape, have a rough external sur¬ face, and average slightly more than one inch in diameter. Internally they exhibit radiating fibers of dahllite, and in places contain pyrite, which may show interstitial clav- Iron oxide is always at the center of the masses. The powder x-ray diffraction method permitted the definite identification of pyrite, dahllite, kaolinite, goethite and hematite. Thin sections show that dahllite ranges in size from powdery masses to microscopic hexagonal prisms. The replacement of pyrite fibers by dahllite was observed in thin sections. Dahllite microlites are both paral¬ lel and transverse to the pvrite fiber directions. The presence of iron oxide rims around unreplaced pyrite islands suggests that oxidation was subsequent to the phosphatization. A striking similaritv was noted between the structure of these pseu- domorphs and an unaltered pvrite concretion from a different locality which was sectioned for comparison. 13. Origin of Ordovician Dolomite-Bearing Carbonate Rocks in Virginia. C. R. B. Hobbs, Jr.; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. From a studv of the dolomite-bearing carbonate rocks of Ordovi¬ cian age in Virginia petrographic data which bears on the problem of dolomite genesis has been assembled. The results of this studv show that because dolomite looallv occurs with increasing abundance within oolites, pellet limestones, and finely granular limestones, the introduction of mag¬ nesium ions in the calcium carbonate sediments is believed to have taken place where there was low permeabilitv, but high porosity. Further, the sea water within these sediments is believed to be static pore water or at best sluggishly circulating pore water. Diffusion of magnesium ions through tlic static pore water caused the transformation of calcium car¬ bonate to calcium magnesium carbonate. The resulting formation within the parent calcium carbonate sediment zone is believed to have occur¬ red near the sea water-sediment interface. Below this zone but still at a shallow depth dolomite may have developed along slump structures form¬ ed in the carbonate sediments. Diffusion of magnesium ions in static pore water permitted the formation of dolomite within slump faults and adjacent carbonate laminae. The environment of the carbonate sediments was one of shallow seas that covered flat extensive sea floors which were intermittently exposed to the atmosphere. 14. Relationship of Igneous Intrusion to the North Mountain Thrust, North River Gap Area, , Virginia. Mark Fara; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. 1957] Proceedings 1956-1957 335 Several igneous dikes, at least one of which appears to cut across the trace of the North Mountain fault, were mapped during the course of field work in the North River Gap area of Augusta County, Virginia. The crosscutting dike was not seen in direct contact with the rocks of the overthrust sheet. However, a questionable outcrop of igneous material is present on the upthrown block approximately 50 feet southeast of the fault trace. If this material is in place, and it is firmly beheved to be so, the dike does cut across the tiaceyof the fault. Assuming that all of the dikes in the Shenandoah Valley are of the same age and that the dike does cut across the trace of the fault, the following conclusions can be made: 1. The igneous bodies of the Shenandoah Valley were not emplaced until after completion of folding and faulting associated with the so- called Appalachian orogeny. 2. The igneous intrusions have no preferred structural position. 3. Theii' locus of intmsion does not favor a particular lithology. Although the dikes may occupy shear fractures, the igneous material is believed to have risen along tensional fractures extending into the basement. Apparently, the fractures were developed essentially perpendi¬ cular to the compressional forces as a result of unexplained mechanical conditions set up when the compressional forces were relaxed. 15. Twinned Calcite Crystals from Lone Jack Quarry, Rockbridge County, Virginia. Troy J. Laswell; Washington and Lee University. Calcite twins of the contact variety are found in cavities in the Lower Cambrian Shady (Tomstown) dolomite in the Lone Jack Quarry near Glasgow, Virginia. The twins are scalenohedrons (hkll), with the basal pinacoid ( oo a: oo a: coa:c) (0001) serving as the twinning plane. The two parts of the twin, therefore, have the same vertical axis. This type of twinning is not uncommon in the mineral calcite. The specimens from this Rockbridge locality are of note because of the size (as much as six inches in length) and the degree of perfection of the specimens. 16. The Division of Mineral Resources of the Virginia Depart¬ ment OF Conservation and Development. Marcellus H. Stow; Washington and Lee University. The former Virginia Geological Survey has been reorganized and is now officially the Virginia Division of Mineral Resources. Dr. James L. Calver is Commissioner of Mineral Resources and State Geologist, The 336 The Virginia Journal of Science [September Division will funetion with two major objeetives: (1) development of scientifie and teehnical studies of the geology and mineral resources of Virginia, and (2) development of economic studies pertaining to the utilization of these resources. Branches of the Division will include mineralogy and petrologv, stratigraphy and structure, geophysics and geochemistry, economic geology (metallics, non-metallics, fuels), and mineral economics. Technical and scientific objectives will include: (1) to determine the occurrence, extent, and quality of the State’s mineral resources; (2) to map and describe the geological formations and features of the State bv counties; (3) to map and describe the geological formations and features of the State by 15 minute quadrangles; (4) to prepare and keep up to date a key map showing status of geologic mapping of Virginia; (5) to complete and modernize the topographic mapping of Virginia; (6) to re¬ vise and publish the manuscripts now in the files of the Division; (7) to prepare and publish two volumes on the geology of Virginia; (a) a technical edition, (b) a popular edition; (8) to examine and identify specimens of rocks and minerals of the State as requested by residents or landowners; (9) to prepare and distribute sets of Virginia rocks and minerals, for nominal charge, to schools, clubs, other organizations and individuals; (10) to prepare and publish maps and popular reports on the geology of the State Parks. Application of technical and scientific investigations to the economic development of Virginia’s mineral resources will include: (1) interpre¬ tation of the technical and scientific studies through publications design¬ ed for public information and understanding; (2) determination of pres¬ ent and potential uses of the State’s minerals, the present and potential market, and publication of this information; (3) encouragement of pros¬ pecting and exploration for economicallv valuable minerals and rocks; (4) promotion of best use and prevention of waste of mineral resources; (5) collection and publication of up-to-date statistics on the State’s mineral production; (6) preparation and publication of reports on the minerals and rocks of economic importance; (7) advisorv and technical assistance to individuals, local governments, business organizations and industries concerning the use of Virginia’s minerals; (8) development of close cooperation with other divisions of the Department of Conservation and Development and other State and municipal agencies; (9) develop¬ ment of a close professional relationship with the schools of Virginia. 17. Mineral Resources Along the Norfolk and Western. L. E. Ward, Jr.; Norfolk and Western Railway, Roanoke, Virginia. The prosperity and wealth of an area can be measured rather ac¬ curately by the tonnage hauled by the railroads serving it; and conversely 1957] Proceedings 1956-1957 337 the economic health of a railroad reflects the economic prosperity of the area it serves. Beginning in the early 1880’s, the Norfolk and Western started mineral investigations within its territory. Mineral economics has been a concern of the railroad since the early 1900’s. For example, in 1909 the railroad’s industrial agent predicted the development of a large cement industry in the Roanoke area — a prediction that came into reality with the erection of Lone Star’s large cement mill near Clover- dale nearly 40 years later. Since 1948, the Norfolk and Western has supported a continuing program of geologic research designed to explore for and collect specific data on the mineral resources within its territory. Much of this work is done under the aegis of the Virginia Engineering Experiment Station at V.P.I. Thesis work of selected graduate students in geology is supported by the raihoad. During the past decade more than 40 detailed reports on various resources have been prepared for use of the railroad’s industrial and agricultural department. BUSINESS MEETING The sessions of the Geology Section were attended by about fiftv geologists. Following the discussion of the last paper a brief business meeting was held. Upon the recommendation of the nominating commit¬ tee the following officers were elected: Chairman — R. V. Dietrich; Vice-Chairman — J. T. Hack; Secretary — R. S. Mitchell; Section Editor — W. D. Lowrv. The meeting was ad¬ journed at 4:45 P.M. FIELD TRIP The annual field trip, which took place Saturday, May 11, was to Jamestown Island. The leaders of the trip were Mr. John L. Cotter, Arche¬ ologist of the Park Service, and Dr. John T. Hack of the U. S. Geological Survey. The part of the program conducted by Mr. Cotter included an illustrated lecture on the archeological excavations on the Island, a tour of the museum, and a trip around the Island. Dr. Hack spoke on the geology of the Island and noted changes in the shoreline since the first settlement. Thirty people took part in the trip. 338 The Virginia Journal of Science [September minutes of the section of medical science (9) L. E. Edwards, Chairman G. M. Duncan, Secretary W. P. Anslow, Jr., Section Editor FRIDAY, MAY, 10, 1957 - 9:00 A.M. - CHAMBERLIN CLUB ROOM 1. Dialysis as an Analytical Tool. Hans Hoch and Ray C. Williams; Medical College of Virginia. The rate of transfer through a cellophane membrane was studied for benzoic acid, salicylic acid, phenylacetic acid (PA) and thyroxine (THY) in order to test the assumption that rate of transfer is proportional to the difference of the activities on both sides of the membrane. The four substances gave straight line plots of log concentration vs time, as was found previously for other substances by Canals (1955) and Craig (1957). A mixture of PA with 2.1% THY gave plots of log concentration vs time which were concave with respect to the coordinate axes. Both, more slowly and more rapidly dialyzing “impurities” will cause concave plots. It was possible to distinguish between the two by graphing (A log cone.) /(A time) vs time. Normal serum that had been brought to pH 6 with HCl to eliminate the bicarbonate buffer, was dialyzed against 1/8 volume of 0.11 N NaCl which was replaced 10 times at hourly intervals. For a single dialysis rate coefficient the ratio of the concentration in the dialysate at the end, to the concentration in the serum at the beginning should be the same for all hour periods. This was found for the absorbances at 280 m^u.. But at 250 m/x the absorbencies indicated a substance or substances of appreciably smaller dialysis rate. 2. Effects of Oral Hypoglycemic Compounds on the Metabolism OF Isolated Intact Frog Muscle. D. R. H. Gourley, University of Virginia. When ingested orally, sulfonylurea compounds such as carbutamide and tolbutamide cause hypoglycemia in many species but the mechanism 1957] Proceedings 1956-1957 339 by which this is achieved is as yet unknown. The hypoglycemic hor¬ mone, insulin, increases the oxidation of lactate and the influx of po¬ tassium ions in isolated frog muscle. However, neither carbutamide nor talbutamide exert these effects in frog muscle but each influences meta¬ bolism differently. Carbutamide, like sulfanilamide, inhibits the oxygen consumption of frog muscle in vitro and potassium leaks from the tis¬ sue. The same concentration of tolbutamide greatly increases the oxygen consumption without added substrate and slightly increases potassium influx into this tissue. Although no contraetions were observed visually and the muscles retained their irritability throughout the experiments, tolbutamide caused a great decrease in muscle gylcogen and an accumula¬ tion of lactate. The effect of tolbutamide on oxygen consumption was inhibited by sodium azide which suggests that the increased utilization of oxygen was to oxidize the accumulated lactate. The small effect on po¬ tassium influx is probably a secondary effect due to lactate oxidation. Thus a change in the sulfonylurea molecule from a -NHa group (car¬ butamide) to a -CHg group (tolbutamide) completely reverses the effects of the molecule on frog muscle metabohsm. 3. Motion Pictures of Tissue Changes in Regenerating Zones of Irradiated Tadpoles. Carl Caskey Speidel; University of Virginia. These pictures portray various tissues in regenerating tail zones of irradiated tadpoles. They demonstrate the extent to which the progressive changes of regeneration may proceed even in animals that have already received a lethal dose of x-rays. Partial tail amputation is combined with whole-body x-ray irradiation. This results in a conflict between two opposing influences, namely, a strong locahzed regenerative urge leading to growth of a new tail tip, and a severe general injury from radiation leading to degenerative changes and death of the animal. The least re¬ generation and the greatest susceptibility to infection were noted in those tadpoles irradiated several days before the tail was sectioned. Scenes are presented showing the early progressive changes in tissues of regenerating zones of tadpoles destined to die from radiation injury already received. Other scenes are presented showing the late regressive changes that ultimately result from the radiation treatment. Invasion of the tissues of irradiated tadpoles by Tetrahymena, a protozoan facultative parasite, is also shown. / 4. The Transport of Dye by the Renal Tubular Cells. (Sound Movie) . 340 The Virginia Journal of Science [September E. Lovell Becker and Dr. Sidney Solomon; Medical College of Virginia. This film demonstrates certain basic phenomenon involved in the renal tubular transport of various dyes, using in vitro preparations of the goldfish kidney. Procedure is a modification of that developed by Forster as reported in Science in 1948. Particular phenomenon which will be demonstrated are; (1) the transfer of certain vital acidic dyes by the renal tubular cells, (2) the biological separation of a dye impurity from its parent compound, (3) competition for transport by two different dyes, (4) the influence of a carbonic anhydrase inhibitor on acid secre¬ tion by the tubule, (5) self blockade with high levels of dye in the medium, and (6) neutral red accumulation in the presence of high potassium, low calcium media. 5. Reactions of Enzymes Toxic Phosphorus Compounds. L. A. Mounter and H. C. Alexander, III; Medical College of Virginia and University of Virginia. Data will be presented for the pH dependence and dissociation constants (pK) of hog Iddney dialky Ifluorophosphatase and rabbit serum A-esterase, both of which hydrolyze diisopropylfluorophosphate (DFP). Similiar results will be presented for red cell cholinesterase, serum cholin¬ esterase, chymotrypsin, trypsin, wheat germ lipase, thrombin and plas- min, all of which are inhibited by DFP. The results suggest that the imidazole group of histidine is present in the active centers of each of the enzymes studied. A number of different types of organophosphorus compounds was tested for their effects on these enzymes. Several new potent inhibitors for chymotrypsin, trypsin, plasmin and lipase will be de¬ scribed. In all cases the rate of reaction appears to be related to the steric structure of the organophosphorus compound. 6. Irreversible Shock Produced by Temporary Cerebral Ischeaha IN Cats. Eugene D. Brand; University of Virginia. Temporary bilateral occlusion of the common carotid and vertebral arteries, if prolonged for more than 3.5 hours, will result in the delayed onset of typical irreversible shock. During the period of occlusion and for about three hours thereafter the arterial pressure is high or normal. Then a progressive fall in pressure sets in leading to death of the animal, in cardiorespiratory arrest. With artificial respiration supplied however, the blood pressure levels off again at about 30 mm Hg and this pressure is maintained for several hours. Eventuallv pressure again begins to fall terminating the death of the animal. This course can 1957] Proceedings 1956-1957 .341 be interpreted as being due to a delayed failure of the vasomotor me- ehanism in the eentral nervous system. The prolonged maintenance of very low pressure after the development of shock suggests that the peri¬ pheral cardiovascular system is not, as is often assumed, in a state of progressive decompensation. In a limited number of cats subjected to irreversible hemorrhagic shock the course was essentially the same. Thus it would appear plausible that the basic mechanism involved in the two conditions might be the same. Further studies designed to evaluate thi.s hypothesis are planned. 7. Histochemical Studies on Trypan Blue and Related Dyes. John W. Kelly; Medical College of Virginia. An earlier study of anionic disazo dyes showed that Congo red, benzopurpurin and trypan blue display significant, perhaps useful, hue shifts with certain tissue components. Subsequent in vitro reactions of these dyes with appropriate substrates suggested but did not prove that the histological observation on trypan blue, a marked red staining by a blue dye, reflected selective staining by the components of an impure dye and not, as is true of Congo red, a spectral shift of a pure dye in a bound state. Statements on a red fraction in trypan blue (or Evans blue) were found in the literature and were usually related to renal studies. Few histological observations of the red component have been made and no special studies of the properties of this impurity were found. A detailed study was therefore made on five samples of trypan blue, in particular, with additional investigation of seventeen samples of eight related dyes. Dyes were characterized and/or separated by paper and column chromatography, solvent partition, and dialysis, followed by spectral analysis of the fractions. Histological studies of whole dyes and fractions were based on human, dog, rabbit, rat and frog tissues. Addi¬ tional histochemical tests and microspectrophotometric studv were made on selected sections, in order to learn about the chemical basis for the highly selective reaction of the red dye in trypan blue. One factor is clearly the basic protein content of some tissue structures, illustrated by er\4;hrocvtes (globins), most nuclei (histones), and sperm nuclei (pro¬ tamines). Other factors must be involved in the staining of blood serum and certain sites in the connective tissue ground substance; these are speculative at present and were discussed. 8. Metabolic Effects of 3,3’5-Triiodothyronine Given Orally to Rats. C. L. Gemmill; University of Virginia. Experiments reported in the Amer. J. Physiol. (187, 323, 1956) in 342 The Virginia Journal of Science [September which high metabolic rates in rats were observed following the placing of 3, 3’, 5-triiodo-l -thyronine in their drinking water have been continued and extended. When 26 micrograms per 100 ml. of drinking water were used, the metabolism rose to 50 Calories per sq. meter of body surface per hour while on 52.5 micrograms, the metabolism rose to 99 Calories. On the higher dosage levels, there was considerable mortality. The heart sizes of the rats on triiodothyronine were greater by weight than the heart sizes of the control groups. Similar changes in heart weight were observed in mice on triiodothyronine. Pulse rates obtained from elec¬ trocardiograms of the rats on triiodothyronine varied from 470 to 520, of normal rats from 336 to 380 and of hypothyroid rats from 190 to 230 beats per minute. These rates were obtained with the rats under sodium pentobarbital anesthesia. 9. Some Properties of the Fat-Free Body of the Guinea Pig. Grover C. Pitts; University of Virginia. The carcasses of 47 adult guinea pigs were studied bv dissection, freeze-drying and fat-extraction. Conclusions were based upon calculations made on four other published studies as well as our own. A positive correlation between fatness and fat-free body weight (FFBW) was found. Per cent of water in the FFB was shown to be precisely regulated and independent of fatness or FFBW. Specific gravity of the FFB was inde¬ pendent of FFBW but equivocal results were obtained on its correlation with fatness. 10. Effects of Pentobarbital on the Uptake of P32 in the Rat. P. Lingjaerde, O. J. Malm, R. A. Natvig and O. E. Skaug; Medical College of Virginia. The effect of pentobarbital on the 2.5 hours uptake of P32 in the adult male rat has been investigated. Series 1. Pentobarbital sodium in a dose of 3 mg/100 gm of body weight was given 10 minutes before the administration of P32. There¬ after 30 per cent of the initial dose was given every 45 minutes through¬ out the uptake period. A decreased uptake is found in thymus, pons, thalamus, cerebellum (P< 0.001), medulla oblongata, blood (P 0.01), cortex cerebri, hypothalamus and liver (P 0.05), as compared with normal controls. The diaphragm uptake is increased (P 0.001). The uptake is normal in the pineal gland, anterior and posterior pituitary, adrenal cortex and medulla, thyroid and pancreas. Series 2. Pentobarbital sodium in a single dose of 3 mg/100 gm of body weight was injected 2 hours before administration of P32, at which time the animals were fully awake. Increased uptake is found in the 1957] Proceedings 1956-1957 343 diaphragm (P< 0.001), cortex cerebri (P 0.01), hypothalamus, liver (P 0.02), cerebellum (P<0.04), and medulla oblongata (P 0.05), as eompared with the normal eontrols. The uptake is normal in the pineal gland, anterior and posterior pituitary, adrenal cortex and medulla, thyroid, pancreas, thymus, blood, pons and thalamus. 11. Hypogammaglobulinemia in Children under the Age of 12 Years. Cornelia Hoch-Ligeti and Joyce P. Hobbs; University of Virginia. Serum protein patterns of children under the age of 12 years were studied by paper eleetrophoresis. The statement of previous authors that infants, even during the per¬ iod of physiologically low serum gamma globulin in the first 2 years of life, reaet to infection with an increase of gamma globulin could not be confirmed. In a series of 150 children suffering from repeated infections, 80% of the children below the age of 2 years and 34% of those between the ages of 2 and 12 years did not react to repeated infections with an in¬ crease of serum gamma globulins. It is suggested that these children are in a state of decreased immunological reactivity. In 3 children with re¬ peated infections the serum gamma globulin fraction was completelv absent. In a group of 50 children in comparable age groups whieh were well or had various clinical complaints but not repeated infections, in¬ creased gamma globulins were found in 44% of the cases. During the first 2 years of life low gamma globulins were often associated with increased alpha2 globulins. Above this age low gamma and low alpha2 globulins were observed together. In children with low gamma globulins the total serum proteins were slig;htlv lowered. The reaction between serum gamma globulin levels and the total and differential white count is under investigation. It seems that leu- koeytosis in response to infections is more prominent in children with normal gamma globulins. A group of children, which did not show increased serum gamma globulins in response to repeated infections, showed marked clinical im¬ provement on parenteral administration of gamma globulin. 12. Indirect Hemagglutination Studies on Salmonellosis of Chickens. John McNeill Sieburth; Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station. 344 The Virginia Journal of Science [September A comprehensive Salmonellosis control program for the poultry in¬ dustry will only result when all or most of the 60 species (5 sero- groups) that occur in poultry are tested for in breeding flocks before they are used as a source of hatching eggs. Single species agglutination tests are used at present. This study was undertaken to determine if the indirect hemagglutination system would be applicable as a polyvalent diagnostic test. Chicken erythrocytes sensitized with the supernatant fluid of heat¬ ed Salmonella cell suspensions were used for the indirect hemagglutina¬ tion test which was compared with the agglutination test. White Leg¬ horn chickens were orally infected with Salmonella tijphi-muriiim, S. mon- tevideo, S. ptillonim and S. anatuni; serum samples were obtained at cer¬ tain intervals and all birds were cultured at the conclusion of the experi¬ ments. Serum samples were also obtained from chickens naturallv infect¬ ed with S. tijphi-murhim and S. heidelberg. Indireet hemagglutinins appeared earlier, were consistently higher and persisted longer than agglutinins. The actual titre increase was also consistently higher for the indirect hemagglutination tests. Heterologous group specific and polyvalent indirect hemagglutinin titres were within one tube of the species-specific monovalent titres. In groups of chickens receiving an inoculum insufficient to infect all individuals, the serologi¬ cal and cultural results did not always correlate. The spread in polyvalent indirect hemagglutinin titres between uninfected chickens and those from a flock naturally infected with S. tijphi-murium appeared adequate for diagnostic purposes. 13. Eseherichia eoli as a Pathogen in Chickens and Turkeys. W. B. Gross; Virginia Agrieultural Experiment Station, Blacks¬ burg. Chronic respiratory disease is a common respiratory infection of chickens and turkevs which is caused by a pleuropneumonia-like organism ( PPLO ) . In its uncomplicated form it is characterized by a chronic Ivm- phoid inflammation of the trachea, lungs and air sacs with low mortality and high morbiditv. The disease may exist in a latent form or may result in a reduction in weight gain or in egg production. When complicated with Escherichia eoli periods of high mortality with an acute course in individual birds are observed. The lesions are characterized by fibrinous pericarditis, perihepatitis, salpingitis and panophthalmitis. Microscopically the lesions consist of infiltrations by heterophiles and mononuclear pha¬ gocytes with a tendency to form giant cell barriers around necrotic areas. Strains of E. eoli could be isolated from the pericardial sacs in all field cases. These cultures could be classified into 6 serological types des- 1957] Proceedings 1956-1957 345 ignated as a, b, c, d, e, and f by their “O” antigens. Only 3 of these types, b, c, and d, were found from more than two sources and type c was by far the most common. When these strains were inoculated into the air sacs of chickens as few as 7 viable cells resulted in pericarditis in 1/15 birds. If PPLO were also present 9/15 birds developed pericarditis. About 500,000 viable organisms were necessary to produce pericarditis when they were ino¬ culated intravenously. The presence of large numbers of pathogenic or¬ ganisms in the intestinal tract did not result in pericarditis even in the presence of severe PPLO infection. Pericarditis often followed the exposure of PPLO infected birds to aerosols of E. coli containing a total of as few as 600 organisms. Apparently individual birds are extremely susceptible to E. coli aerosols for only a short period in the course of the disease. At these times there is increased mitosis in the Ivmphoid cells and hyperplasia of the lining epithelium of the air sacs. The production of salpingitis was correlated only with infection of the adjacent left greater abdominal air sac. 14. Exchange Adsorption Mechanisxi of Active Ion Transport. E. G. Huf, N. Doss and J. Wills; Medical College of Virginia. Active ion (NaCl) transport across isolated frog skin is discussed in relation to sodium and potassium composition and to O.-consumption of skin. A distinction is made between processes in skin related to “uni¬ directional active ion transport” and processes related to maintenance electrolyte equilibrium” i.e., ionic composition of skin. Several meta¬ bolic inhibitors were found that could be used in separating maintenance electrolyte equilibrium from unidirectional active ion transport. Fluoro- acetate (up to 1 x lO'^M/1) did not affect maintenance electrolyte equilibrium, but severely diminished the rate of active ion transport. This could also be accomplished with azide and diethyl malonate when 1 X 10"" molar concentrations were used. When applied in higher concen¬ trations, these two inhibitors, and several others, diminished active ion transDort, but this was associated with changes in maintenance electrolyte equilibrium (gain of Na-f by loss of K + from skin). Similar obser¬ vations were made when skins were subjected to K+— deficient media. Mersalvl and theophvlline, in low concentrations, stimulated active ion transport without leading to changes in maintenance electrolyte equili¬ brium. Inhibition of active ion transport was found accompanied by de¬ crease, increase and unaltered overall Oa-consumption, depending on the kind of chemical agent used. A provisional scheme of the mechanism of unidirectional active ion transport is proposed. It is conceived as a process 346 The Virginia Journal of Science [September of metabolically supported ion exchange absorption, involving a carrier, forming complexes with K+ and Na +, a trigger, K + ions and two spatially separated metabolic pathways. 15. An Experimental Analysis of the Genetotrophic Theory of Alcoholism. Ebbe Curtis Hoff; Medical College of Virginia. According to Williams’ genetotrophic concept of alcoholism, uncon¬ trolled craving for alcohol in alcoholics is ascribed, partly at least, to nutritional deficiencies arising from abnormally high needs for certain nutrients. Since Rogers has reported that glutamine administration to rats reduces voluntary alcohol consumption and in alcoholic pa¬ tients appears to favor controlled alcohol intake, the present pilot study was conducted to evaluate oral use of glutamine in alcoholic patients attending an out-patient clinic. Of ten male volunteers, five were select¬ ed at random for 1 gram of glutamine daily and five for a lactose place¬ bo. All had been out-patients previously and none had achieved abstin¬ ence. Three glutamine patients and three controls participated for three to five months. Apart from the glutamine or placebo, the patients con¬ tinued with previously instituted psychotherapy and other treatment. No patient took disulfiram during the study. None of the patients abstained totally from alcohol during the study period. In the three controls who participated, no essential change in alcohol use was seen. In the three glutamine patients, there was some evidence of enhanced abilitv to handle alcohol and a subjective sense of improved well-being. While no conclusions may be drawn from this small preliminary series, it provides indication for further investigations. 16. Effect of Perthane Administration on Spontaneous Mammary Carcinoma in the CgH Mouse. (Preliminarv report.) Louis A. Leone, M.D. and Henry B. Hahn, Medical College of Virginia. Orally administered perthane given daily in the diet (11,000 parts per million) resulted in inhibition of spontaneous mammary carcinoma in all of 18 unbred CgH females. One animal in this series was found to have subcutaneous sarcoma which metastasized to the lung. Animals receiving 6,800 PPM developed tumors in approximately 55% of instances while animals receiving 3,400 PPM or no perthane were found to have 80 to 90% spontaneous tumor formation. Preliminary histologic study of the adrenals suggests non-specific toxic alterations. Cytologic study of 1957] Proceedings 1956-1957 347 vaginal cells suggest impairment of estrus eyele and mieroseopie exami¬ nation of ovaries in the treated animals indieates impairment of folliele maturation and absenee of corpora lutea. Although not absolutely defined by this study, it appears possible that perthane may inhibit spontaneous mammary tumor formation in the C3H mouse by bloeking hormonal sti¬ mulation through both the adrenal and ovary. Studies of the pituitary were not done but experiments are in progress for this purpose. Marked inerease in melanin pigmentation in eoat and skin was noted in perthane treated animals. Silver stain revealed deep pigmentation in tlie basal layer and in the dermis. Survival time of animals receiving 11,000 PPM perthane was approximately 15% greater than in the con¬ trol and 3,400 PPM groups. Adrenal weight, body length, and tumor size were not signifieantlv altered by perthane administration. Animals in the low perthane group developing tumor, however, demonstrated a lower total number of tumors in the untreated groups. 17. The Effects of X-1rradiation on Guinea Pig Brains with Special Reference to the Factor of Age. Burton A. Moss, Robert H. Brownson; Medical College of Vir¬ ginia. Certain eytological and histoehemical approaehes have been utilized to study the effeets of x-irradiation on guinea pig brains. Two conRol and four experimental animals of identical age and sex were used in eaeh age braeket. The various age groups were arranged approximately as follows: 1, 6, 9, 15, 28, and 62 months. All animals were fed on a special vitamin C fortified guinea pig ehow. Eaeh experimental animal reeeived 1600 r total head radiation in a single exposure. Both control and surviving experimental animals were saerifieed after 32 days of lateney. Control and experimental animals were anesthesized with nembutal sodium and saerifieed by perfusing with physiologieal saline-aeaeia fol¬ lowed by 10 per eent formalin physiologieal saline-aeaeia. The per¬ fusion was made via the upper abdominal aorta under 76 mm. Hg pres¬ sure subsequent to eutting the inferior vena eava. The brains were then removed, halved by a mid-sagittal seetion and fixation eompleted in eaeh half by immersion in two separate solutions, one of formalin, phy¬ siologieal saline and aeaeia and the other of aeetie aeid, formalin, aleohol and aeaeia. The quantitative data were obtained by using the cresvl violet staining teehnique. 348 The Virginia Journal of Science [September 18. Manometric Determinations of Hydrazine and Hydr azides. Herbert McKennis, Jr. and J. H. Weatherby; Medical College of Virginia. Isonicotinic acid hydrazide and a number of other monoacyl deriva¬ tives of hydrazine have been found to yield nitrogen readily when treated with an excess of iodate in the presence of acid. In contrast, diacyl derivatives do not yield nitrogen until at least one of the acvl groups has been removed by hydrolysis. It is possible to study biological acylation and deacylation by means of this iodate reaction. The deter¬ minations are conveniently conducted in the Warburg apparatus. Quan¬ titative yields of nitrogen were obtained when known quantities of h\'- drazino compounds were added to blood, urine, spinal fluid and saliva. In agreement with the earlier work of Miller and Furman it is believed that many of the arylhydrazines are first oxidized to comparatively stable diazonium compounds. P-hydrazinobenzoic acid, for instance, yields nitrogen very slowly over a period of many hours. The rate of nitrogen liberation is a measure of the rate of decomposition of the intermediate diazonium compound rather than a measure of the initial reaction with iodate. 1957] Proceedings 1956-1957 349 MINUTES OF THE SECTION OF PSYCHOLOGY (10) Frank W. Finger, Chairman Robert J. Filer, Secretary-Treasurer Nobel McEwen, Executive Committeeman Richard H. Henneman, Section Editor (1959) FRIDAY, MAY 10, 1957 - 1:00 P.M. - PARLOR D AND PARLOR E 1. The Influence of Conditional Probability, Interpolated Activity and Stimulus Similarity Upon Responses to Sequentially Presented Stimuli. John B. Feallock; University of Virginia. The present study tested the effects of stimulus similarity and in¬ terpolated activity upon the performance of a serial task which required the subject to remember previous stimulus events in order to respond appropriately to immediate stimuli. Conditional probabability, or the like- Hhood that stimulus B was preceded by stimulus A, was also manipula¬ ted as a means of reducing the interference usually associated with simi¬ larity and interpolation. Reinforcement of responses should facilitate learning conditional probabilities present in the sequence. Performance errors were expected to increase with stimulus similarity and with the number of intei-polated stimuli; errors were expected to decrease with conditional probability and with reinforcement. The stimuli consisted of three colored forms presented serially on a memory drum. The subject’s task was to state the color of the previous figure with the same geometric form as the figure immediately before him. A2x2x2x5 factorial design was used with two levels each of similarity, conditional probability, reinforcement, and five levels of in¬ terpolation. Analysis of variance indicated that interpolation and conditional probability were significant effects as were the interactions of in¬ terpolation with both probability and similarity. It was concluded that conditional probabilities can serve to offset the effects of interpolation and of similarity. 350 The Virginia Journal of Science [September 2. The Effects on Retention of Two Motor Activities Used As Interpolated Tasks. Albert M. Blecich and Noble R. McEwen; Randolph-Macon College. The purpose o£ this study was to determine if there was more re¬ troactive inhibition resulting from an “active” kind of motor performance than from a “mild” motor activity or from restful activity. The three types of interpolated activities were as follows: (1) a “violent” motor activity which consisted of a rapid game of basketball, (2) a “mild” kind of physical activity where a basketball was passed back and forth for ten minutes, and (3) social conversation along with listening to a musical recording. Three lists of fifteen nonsense syllables, matched in learning difficulty, were presented in serial order by means of a tachistoscope. Thirty college men were divided into three groups, each of which report¬ ed at the same hour for three different evenings. A counterbalanced de¬ sign was used in the experimental method so that each group experienc¬ ed the three kinds of interpolated tasks on different evenings of the same week. The results showed that a “violent” motor activity produced a greater amount of retroactive inhibition than did either a “mild” motor or restful type of interpolated activity. 3. Irrelevant Stimuli and Complex Visual Discrimination. Milton H. Hodge; University of Virginia. The present study sought to determine the effects of irrelevant stimuli upon complex visual discrimination when these irrelevant stimuli were relevent in other discrimination conditions. Several experimental questions were asked: does performance efficiency of a 16-choice task decrease as the number of irrelevant stimuli in the visual patterns is increased, does this decrement tend to decline with practice, does per¬ formance efficiency also decrease as discrimination difficulty of the rele¬ vant stimuli in the patterns is increased and do the effects of discrimina¬ tion difficulty interact with the effects of irrelevant stimuli? Three con¬ ditions of irrelevancy and four levels of discrimination difficulty were employed. Thirty subjects were randomly assigned to one of the three irrelevant stimulus conditions; each subject was given all levels of dis¬ crimination difficulty. The geometrical stimulus patterns, previously pho¬ tographed on 16 mm film, were projected automatically with a strip film projector. Each pattern was presented for 0.5 sec. The subject was required to respond by operating one of 16 switches during the 5.5 sec. interval before the next stimulus pattern was presented. Each subject practiced on the same experimental film for three consecutive days. Number of errors and latencies were the response measures. The results were analyzed by means of Lindquists’ Type I factorial design. The results and theoretical interpretations will be discussed. 1957] Proceedings 1956-1957 351 4. An Olfactometer for the Rat. Carl Pfaffmann; Brown University ]. K. Bare; College of William and Mary and William R. Goff; University of Virginia. A new behavioral method for the quantitative and qualitative study of olfactory sensitivity in the rat utilizes a bar-pressing apparatus mount¬ ed in a miniature wind tunnel. Through the tunnel passes a continuous stream of demoisturized and deodorized air, into which a specifiable concentration of odorous gas can be introduced. The rat is trained to press the bar continually into an odor-free atmosphere, and to stop pres¬ sing the bar when he detects an odor. Data are presented showing the successful establishment of this ol¬ factory discrimination, as well as some preliminary results obtained by this method in a study of the effects of bilateral ablation of the olfactory bulbs. 5. Motivational Support of Perceptual Hypothesis. Charles C. Keach; Alexandria Mental Hygiene Clinic. The “new look” in thinking about perception has emphasized the role of cognitive, central-directive, “ego” factors. Processes of “percep¬ tual defense” have been hypothesized. There have been conflicting re¬ ports of the importance of stimulus attributes, of values and personalitv attributes generally of the subject, of motivating, stressful, or threatening task orientations, and of past experience as providing simply greater familiaritv with stimulus materials or as influencing set or hypothesis strength. This study attempts to evaluate through a factorial design tlie rela¬ tive importance and interaction of stimulus character (hostile, non- hostile words), of motivational conditions (stress, non-stress), and of the personalitv attributes of the subjects (high, low need aggression) as influencing perception. Four groups of twelve high school seniors were selected on the basis of need aggression scores from Edwards “Personal Preference Schedule.” They viewed hostile and neutral words presented tachisto- scopically under high stress and low stress conditions. Recognition thres¬ holds, in terms of number of trials at constant shutter speed, and pre¬ recognition hypotheses were obtained as dependent variables. Results are seen as supporting the perceptual defense hypothesis. Explanation of results in terms of “hypothesis strength” or of revised set theory is seen as bevond reasonable limits of complexity. 352 The Virginia Journal of Science [September 6. The Changing Role of the Psychotherapist in the Treatment OF Schizophrenia. A. W. Jeffreys, Jr.; Western State Hospital. Through Freud and the orthodox analytic movement, the stage was set for modern psychotherapy. The therapist’s role was seen as passive and objective with the emphasis placed on the client and, especially, on the client’s unconscious. While emphasis dealt with many of the neuroses, the method was not particularly beneficial in the treatment of schizo¬ phrenia. Neo-analytic and other schools now approach the treatment of maladjusted persons by dealing with the relationship established between the client and the therapist. The attitudes, defenses, values, etc. of both client and therapist become a vital part of the behavior dealt with during psychotherapy. The therapist no longer assumes primarily a passive and objective role, but becomes more of a distinct person engaged in an interpersonal relationship that hopefully provides tlie necessary milieu for learning. Particularly in the treatment of schizophrenia this approach has been found, subjectively at least, to be relatively more effective in com¬ munication, in establishing a strong interpersonal relationship and in reinforcing realistic behavior. 7. Cutaneous Adaptation to Alternating Current. G. R. Hawkes; University of Virginia. This study was an attempt to resolve differences among earlier stud¬ ies of the adaptation of cutaneous sensitivity to alternating current. Fre¬ quencies of one hundred and one thousand cycles per second were used to study vibratory sensations, with the duration of the adapting stimulus ranging from fifteen seconds to three hundred sixty seconds. An adapting current at a level of two times the unadapted thres¬ hold gave the following results, measured by threshold values immediate¬ ly following the adapting stimulation: stimulation at a frequency of one hundred cycles per second showed adaptation to be slightly faster, with slightly greater loss of sensitivity and more extensive recovery time than when one thousand cycles per second was used. At both frequencies adaptation followed a negatively accelerated curve. Differences between these results and those of certain of the earlier experiments may be due to the use of naive subjects in some instances, and, in other cases, to the use of different measures of adaptation. Theoretical implications discussed include relevance of these results to the hypothesis that in these experiments the electric current is acting on cutaneous receptors rather than nerves. 1957] Proceedings 1956-1957 353 8. Derived Dimensions of Vibratory Stimulation. William C. Howell; University of Virginia. Recent experimentation on the feasibility of using vibratory stimula¬ tion as a means of transmitting encoded information has produced the following general conclusions: a) Using a tri-dimensional system based upon amplitude, duration, and spatial locus of vibratory stimulation of the chest, it is possible to transmit encoded words and messages accurate¬ ly at better than 35 words per minute,b). The system selected for in¬ vestigation is probably not the most efficient one available using these three primary dimensions, and c) There is at least one other primary and probably several derived dimensions of the vibratory stimulus which, if incorporated into a communication system, might greatly enhance the utility of such a system. The present paper is concerned with a persual of the latter possibility, the search for and evaluation of potential derived dimensions. An analvsis of many possible variations in the vibratory pulse was made and the most elementary one was selected for study. This dimen¬ sion, which appeared to be involved in most of the more complex var¬ iations, was one of rate of increase from zero to maximum amplitude. To assess the information-carrying potential of this dimension, determina¬ tions of j.n.d.’s were carried out between the values of 0.03 and 0.19 sec. of rise for several widely-spaced intensities. The results were suffi¬ ciently encouraging to warrant proceeding to the next step, a determina¬ tion of the number of absolute judgments possible along this dimension. Possibilities for other derived dimensions include variations in slope of offset, and of onset and offset combined. 9. Manifest Content and Interpretative Meaning of Verbal Intelligence Test Responses. Norman Tallent; Veterans Administration Center, Kecoughtan. The observation was made that in clinical practice interpretations of manifest content are sometimes made in accordance with the “self-evi¬ dent” or “obvious” meaning of such content. An example is the “theatre” item on the Wechsler-Bellevue Intelligence Scale, Form I, where, ac¬ cording to Rapaport, subjects who indicate they would yell “fire,” if the first to discover a fire in a theatre, are impulsive. This hypothesis was tested by comparing the responses which were given to this item by three groups of boys who were designated as “well-controlled,” “average” (in control) and “impulsive,” on the basis of ratings on their overt behavioral control. The hypothesis was unsupported by the findings, nor could anv other sugge.stive responses be found which differentiated the groups. 354 The Virginia Journal of Science [September 10 Therapeutic Validation of the A Scale. Dell Lebo, Robert A. Toal, and Harry Briek; Richmond Pro¬ fessional Institute, Medical College of Virginia and Vir¬ ginia State Penitentiary. The A Scale, a measure of manifest anxiety, is used in investigations of theoretical import. Hence, the scale itself deserves examination. Versions of the scale frequently have yielded reliability figures above .80. Considering the dissimilar filler and critical items employed, this figure is assuring. Since such changes may influence anxiety, relia¬ bility should be reestablished whenever items are altered. Validity is another matter. Originally the scale relied upon content validity. Validation has since been approached by other avenues. One road has been largely ignored, i.e., measuring, manipulating, and re¬ measuring an independent variable (anxiety) to determine whether dif¬ ferences in magnitude correlate with differences in scale scores. The present experiment used the A Scale and Bender-Gestalt (B-G) as pre- and posttherapy tests for 24 overtly anxious prisoners divided into matched treatment and control groups. Therapy constituted adminis¬ tration of 30% CO. and 70% 02 bv slow coma technique. The B-G served to check motivation to falsify A Scale responses. Analysis by Festinger’s distribution free method revealed scores on both tests significantly decreased following CO2 therapy. Scores for the untreated group remained the same or markedly increased. The A Scale adequatelv reflected differences in the variable of anxiety. 11. Normative Data for a Multiple-Choice TAT. John E. Williams; University of Richmond. The Iowa Picture Intei*pretation Test (IPIT) is a group-administered, ten-picture, multiple-choice form of the TAT. The test yields scores on Achievement Imagery, Hostility, Insecurity and Blandness. Research has shown that these variables — particularly Achievement Imagery — are related to performance in a wide variety of experimental situations. To date, all of the work with the IPIT has been done in college populations and no information has been available concerning non-college groups. This paper will present data comparing IPIT scores in three populations: male college students; male state prison inmates, and U. S. Navy Submariners. Although some significant differences are found, the general finding is that of similarity in the IPIT scores of the three groups. Observations are also made concerning the relationship of IPIT scores to certain non-experimental variables such as education, IQ and academic competence. 1957] Proceedings 1956-1957 355 12. The Effect of Recitation on Recall. F. J. McGuigan, Allen D. Calvin, Martha M. Myers, and Eliza¬ beth J. Hobbs; Hollins College. In 1917 Gates conducted a widely cited experiment that led to the generally accepted conclusion that recitation increases efficiency in recall for both meaningful and meaningless material. The practical importance of this conclusion, and the limited amount of evidence that supports it, indicated a need for repetition of the experiment using contemporary ex¬ perimental techniques. The procedure followed was essentially that used by Gates. Fifty- eight students from two eighth grade classes were randomly assigned to one of five experimental conditions: 100% reading, 80% reading, 60% reading, 40% reading, 20% reading. Each subject was given one set of nonsense syllables and one set of biographical material on each of five days. Immediate recall and recall after four hours were measured. Essentially the same procedure was also followed for thirty-eight college students, using three experimental conditions: 100% reading, 50% reading, and 20% reading. Nonsense syllables only were used and no de¬ layed recall measure was made. A statistical analysis of the results did not support Gates’ conclusions. 13. Flexibility in Relation to Problem-Solving Ability. William Battig; University of Virginia. The retarding effect of what is variously termed inflexibility, rigidity, fixedness, sterotypy, or consistency represents one of the few relation¬ ships with any degree of generality in studies of human problem-solving. This is to be expected, since the presence of a variety of possible respon¬ ses and the unlikelihood that the first response will be correct are among the defining properties of problem-solving, and most studies on this ques¬ tion have used problems in which flexibilitv was required for solution. This paper is concerned with a problem in which flexibility had a somewhat different effect. The task required identification of words bv naming letters of the alphabet, the objective being to find the word by naming as few letters as possible. Subjects proficient in this task were less flexible in the initial stages of solution from problem to problem, but became more flexible in the later stages, as contrasted with less proficient subjects. These results point up the importance of the specific character¬ istics of the problem in determining the role of flexibility. It appears that ability to become more or less flexible in line with the demands of the problem is related to problem-solving proficiency, rather than a general tendency toward flexibility. 356 The Virginia Journal of Science [September 14. “Quickening” Techniques in Improving Tracking Performance With a Binary Display. Patricia A. Rund; University of Virginia. Man’s tracking performance when error information is presented by a binary display system (e. g. two lights, two vibratory signals) has been found to be greatly inferior to that observed when information is displayed continuouslv (e. g. dial, cathode ray tube). This inferiority of performance is generally attributed to the fact that with a binarv displav, at any one instant, the only information the man has is the direc¬ tion of his tracking error. Therefore, information as to the amount of error or its velocity and direction of movement is unavailable in the conven¬ tional binary display system. The results reported indicate that by modi¬ fying the display-control system so that man is provided with earlv know¬ ledge of the eventual effects of his control movements (“quickening”) and by fuHher modifying the binary display so that a switch in indication occurs not as a function of direction alone hut as a function of the direc¬ tion of error and its velocity (“super-quickening”), adequate tracking per¬ formance can be obtained with a binary display system. 15. An Experiment with Complex Verbal Behavior. William E. Montague; University of Virginia. This paper presents the results of an experiment proposed at the Academy meeting last vear. The experiment attempts to demonstrate that what have been called hvpotheses in concept formation and problem solving studies, are complex verbal responses related to reinforcement in a fashion similar to simple verbal responses. A matching-to-sample task was used which required subjects to make a choice between the form and brightness properties of geometri¬ cal figures in terms of a previous sample. “Hvpotheses” were set up in the structure of the task. The subject’s choice between form and brightness was made dependent upon the color or the size of the sample figure. In this wav at one time the “correct” choice between brightness or form would depend on the color of the sample, and at another time the “correct” choice would depend on the size of the sample. After the subjects had learned the “hvpotheses” they were placed in a situation in which the “hvpotheses” were differentially reinforced. The data obtained show that these responses are lawfully related to the reinforcement variable. This research was carried out at the Naval Research Laboratory, Washington, D. C., under the direction of Mr. Henry P. Birmingham. 1957] Proceedings 1956-1957 357 16. The Self Concept As a Means of Determining Personality Types In A Population of Delinquent Boys. Cletus A. Cole; Arlington County Schools. The basie problem of this research was to determine by statistical analysis of data relative to the self concept the ‘"existence” of certain per¬ sonality types in a population of delinquent boys. In earlier studies reference has been made to various types of de¬ linquents among which are the socialized delinquent and the unsocialized, aggressive delinquent described by Hewitt and Jenkins. Previous studies in this area have been more concerned with relating situational factors and types of crime to symptom patterns, and have employed for the most part case history material which was submitted to cluster analysis and traditional factor analysis (R technique). The present study, on the other hand, involved data relative to the self concept and employed a technique more suitable to the determination of personality types i. e., the “Q” technique. Subjects were obtained from the population at the National Training School for boys. Selection was based on a description of the two tvpes desired for this studv, namely the Socialized Delincpient and the Unsocialized Dehnquent. Two independent behavior samples were drawn from each subject, and each of these sets of data was sub¬ mitted to an obverse factor analysis in an effort to isolate specific groups. The results of this research indicate the existence of the two types of delinquents described by Hewitt and Jenkins, namely, the socialized delinquent and the unsocialized delinquent. Although tvpes similar to those mentioned above were isolated by factor analysis on two different sets of data, the characteristics defining each factor do not appear to be specific to that factor alone. 358 The Virginia Journal of Science [September minutes of the SECTION OF SCIENCE TEACHERS (11) Samuella Grim, Chairman Vera B. Remsberg, Chairman-elect Martha W. Duke, Secretanj Caroline Gambrill, Section Editor (1959) FRIDAY, MAY 10, 1957 - PARLOR F 1. Conservation of Fishery Resources. L. A. Walford; U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 2. Motivation of the Superior Science Student. Virginia Lewis; Culpeper High School. We as science teachers are grateful for the increased emphasis which is placed upon science and the importance of science training today. The need for trained scientists and engineers is so great that the eyes of the people of the world are focused on the shortage in these areas. In a recent issue of The School Executive, an article stated that 84 percent of the students enrolled in the secondary schools in 1900 were taking Science while onlv 54 percent of those enrolled in the secondary schools in 1956 were taking science. At a glance this situation would shake our confidence in our schools, but as we reflect on these percent¬ ages of today compared with those of 1900 let us remind ourselves of three points. First, while the population of America has doubled between 1900 and 1956 the number who take science courses has increased eight fold. Second, today we have 90 percent of those of school age enrolled in our secondary schools. A very small percentage of those people of school age were enrolled in 1900 because there was a very narrow curri¬ culum and because there was no compulsory attendance law. Third, while 54 percent of those enrolled in secondary schools are taking science by a nationwide count the state of Virginia has approximatelv an average of 60 percent of those enrolled in the secondary schools taking science. In answer to the frequent question, “How do we identify the gift- 1957] Proceedings 1956-1957 359 ed?” some so-called experts would have us believe that an l.Q. of 135 or over is the only criterion for this identification. As teachers in the class¬ room, we know that the l.Q. of a student is merely one of the many indications of a student’s ability and that there are students of such an l.Q. who will never be classed as superior because of their inability to get along with others, their inability to apply knowledge to new problems or their inabilitv to adjust socially and emotionally. An effective study and identification of superior students in a school should include consider¬ ation of a student’s results on such tests as science aptitude tests, intelli¬ gence tests, education achievement tests, and reading tests. What are we as teachers to do to motivate superior students after thev have been identified? Motivation activities will be classed as curri¬ cular activities and (or) co-curricular activities. Activities provide the opportunities for motivation and we as teachers make them “come alive” for the individual student. Motivation can be provided in two general ways for a majority of the schools. First by enrichment of the existing science subjects whereby opportunities are given to those superior students to delve more deeply into various areas of a class project. A second general method of motivation is that of acceleration. In this type of motivation care must be taken that a student is not accelerated through all of the science courses available in a school only to find himself in his senior year of high school with no other science course available. Special twelfth grade provisions should be made for those high school students who take biology in the ninth grade (rather than general science), chemistry in the tenth grade and physics in the eleventh grade. Dr. Virgil Ward, Assistant Professor of Education at the University of Virginia, who has made valuable contributions through his studies con¬ cerning the gifted, suggests that a twelfth grade science course for those superior students who have been accelerated might deal with a historical background of science. 3. Recent Trends in the Teaching of Science. I. E. Wallen; Science Teachers Program, AAAS. 4. The Possibility of Using Marine Forms in the Biology Program OF Our Schools. Robert S. Bailey; Virginia Fisheries Laboratory. Teachers working in the Tidewater area are urged to use marine forms to enrich their teaching. Animals indigenous to the region in which students live will attract their interest. Textbooks are general source books necessary in the classroom; their chief ‘weakness is that they are general and often do not describe the particular animals that are common to the area in which the classes are being taught; use crabs when cray- 360 The Virginia Journal of Science [September fish are studied, oysters when fresh water clams are studied, and local fish when perch or some other forms are studied. Biology is the study of life, yet many high school class rooms have no living forms in them. Aquaria and terria using local forms should be introduced to every biology class room. Fundamental concepts of biology, such as environment and adapta¬ tion can be studied on field trips to the river shore. A variety of habitats can easily be observed, such as piling habitat, seaweed habitat, open water habitat, and beach habitat. Food change can easily be illustrated with marine plants and animals. Algae to plankton, plankton to plankton feeders (such as shrimp and mollusks) and larval fish, and these forms in turn to larger fish. Marine forms are useful in studying reproduction. Shrimp and crab eggs may be removed from the parents and held in open pans of sea¬ water until they hatch. During the spring some of the fish are ready to spawn and this can be stripped from the fish and held in small con¬ tainers and the embrvonic development of fish observed. Marine forms also lend themselves well to the study of classification, food values, regeneration and growth, and of blood circulation. Many are suitable for dissection, and on many of our beaches, fossil remains may be collected. 6. The Respective Roles of Industry and Education in the En¬ richment OF Science Teaching. C. A. Thompson; General Electric Company, Waynesboro. 7. Atomic Energy Development in Virginia, W. G. Gumprich; Babcock and Wilcox, Lynchburg. BUSINESS MEETING At a short business meeting, the nominating committee, consisting of Franklin D. Kizer and Martha W. Duke, announced the following slate: Chairman-elect, Mae Jennings of Radford and Secretary, A. B. Nie- meyer, Jr., of Graddock, as there were no nominations from the floor these officers were declared elected. 1957] Proceedings 1956-1957 361 MINUTES OF THE SECTION OF STATISTICS (12) J. E. Freund, Chairman E. L. Enrick, Vice-Chairman C. Y. Kramer, Secretary P. N. SoMERFiELD, Section Editor (1959) FRIDAY, MAY 10, 1957 - 9:00 A.M. - PARLOR G 1. Some Results on Cross-Spectrum Estimation. A. E. Garratt and J. E. Freund; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. The cross-spectral density function may be estimated by $xy ("k) = = I I u = l ( ku)+iX(t )y(t, +m„ At)G (m •’) where the are independently distributed according to p2(k), k= — r; . . . , r; where the m^ are similarly distributed according to p2(in) and are independent of the k^; and where G^(k^) and 0^(111^) are arbitrary weight functions. It is shown that the expectation of the estimator depends on the products p J ( k ) G J ( k ) and p ^ ( m ) G2 ( m ) , whereas the variance of the estimator depends specifically on pj (k)and P2(m). Various specifications of the products Pj(k)Gj(k) and p2(m)G2(m) and of the probability distributions p ^ ( k ) and P2 ( “ ) ^re considered which provide estimators with certain optimum properties. 362 The Virginia Journal of Science [September 2. Simultaneous Prediction Limits. John J. Gait; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. The assumption of a multiple regression model enables us to find 1-a prediction Umits for the dependent random vaiiable, y, at a given value of the independent variables, , . . . , Xp This is based on a t-statis- tic. If we wish to predict at k values of x, then the joint distribution of k such t statistics must be considered. This distribution is a straight-for¬ ward generalization of “Students’” t distribution and analogous to it in that it approaches the k-variate normal as the" number of degrees of free¬ dom becomes infinite. In order to determine the tiue probability coefficient for a set of k such prediction limits, it is required to integrate this distribution over a hvpercube centered at the origin with edges equal to 2f a/2. As in the case of the multivariate normal, this is a very difficult problem. However, it can be shown that l-ka10), existing bivariate normal tables can be used to lower this upper bound appreciably. Further approximation procedures as well as infinite series expansions for the integral are being investigated. 3. Intra-Block Analysis for Factorials in Two-Associate Class Group Divisible Designs. Clyde Y. Kramer and Ralph A. Bradley; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. Methods of incorporating factorial treatment combinations in group divisible incomplete block designs are given. The factorial treatment combinations are so matched with the basic treatments in the association matrices of the designs that the sums of squares for the factorial effects can be obtained as functions of the original treatment estimators. It is shown first how a two-factor factorial may be incorporated into group divisible incomplete block designs. Single degree of freedom con¬ trasts are obtained for the effects in much the usual way as for factorials in complete block designs. Multi-factor factorials and partial factorials are discussed, and a method of obtaining estimates and tests of signifi¬ cance of the effects is given. 1957] Proceedings 1956-1957 363 5. The Statistical Foundations of Climatology. H. C. S. Thom; United States Weather Bureau. The science of climatology is a branch of meteorology which arose through the recognition of certain stabilities in weather fluctuations which could not be explained by pure physical reasoning alone. Observed cli¬ matological data series can be shown to be closely represented by ideal series of random numbers and hence the climatological variable can be assumed to be a random variable. This makes application of the calculus of the random variable valid and leads to stochastic models for climato¬ logical analysis which are in acceptable agreement with observation. This analvsis furnishes the basis for climatological prediction which is shown to be a special case of synoptic prediction or weather forecasting. The stochastic processes of climatology are shown to have a physical basis. This is expressed by giving physical significance to the parameters of the probability function on the random variable and is the fundamental relationship of analytical climatology. 7. A Multivariate Rank-Sum Test. Leo Lynch; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. An extension of the Wilcoxon-Mann-Whitney U-test to the case of two bivariate populations is considered. The test statistic is: P m 1 0 r ® *1 ] 2“a- m(N+l) ^ m(N + l) 2 J L 1 2 J where m 2 1 sum of ranks for the m observations on m sum of ranks for the m observations on m m E(]Eu . ) = E ( X V = m ( N -H ) 1 1 2 m + n = N . Keeping the u’s and v’s paired as given in the sample, m of and 364 The Virginia Journal of Science [September these pairs are selected at random and assigned to population A, while the remaining n pairs of ranks are assigned to population B. Under this randomization procedure, the mean and variance of SI are derived. An investigation of the power of this test for specified alternatives is in progress. 8. One-Way Variances in a Two-Way Classification. T. S. Russell, Washington State College and R. A. Bradley, Virginia Polytechnic Institute. In this paper, certain results previously presented by the authors are summarized and additional notes are added. To avoid repetition, we re¬ fer the reader to the abstract carried in the Proceedings (1955-56) of the Virginia Academy of Science, pages 358 and 359. Considerable experience in use of the techniques developed has now been gained and the major emphasis of this presentation is to indicate the use of the procedures. Published data suitable for illustrative purposes recently appeared (Biometrics 12, 1956, p.p. 127-153, Kauman, Gott- stein, and Lantican) and they have been used in the paper. 9. Linear Discriminant Analysis. R. H. Riffenburgh; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. This paper is a population and large sample study of linear dis¬ criminant analvsis for two populations. Two criteria for judging discrimi¬ nators are presented, viz. (i) total probability of misclassification and (ii) maximum among probabilities of misclassification. If A is a k-dimensional row vector of direction numbers, X a k- dimensional row vector of variables, and c a constant, the linear dis¬ criminator is AX’ = c, a hypeiplane in k-space. An individual is clas¬ sified as being from one or the other population on the basis of its po¬ sition relative to the hypeiqilane. A and c are found for each criterion for unequal dispersion matrices where feasible and for proportionate matrices where not. Results for loss functions and prior probabilities are considered. Certain comparisons among different discriminators are made. A simplification of a certain integral is given. In the investigation of large sample theory, the estimate of P, P, with the greater density within a region close to the parametric minimum 1957] Proceedings 1956-1957 365 A P may be considered the better P. Comparisons are made for different P’s and results are tabulated. 10. Trends Within Blocks. H. A. Still and R. A. Bradley; Virginia polytechnic Institute. This paper contains a theoretical study of the analysis of data for experimental designs which have underlying polynomial trends within each block. For example, in testing for treatment effects relative to the study of com hybrids, there is sometimes a productivity gradient or a fertility gradient that must be considered. This gradient may be different within each block. 11. Randomized Powder Spectrum Estimation. Willard O. Ash; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. An important problem in the analysis of stationary ergodic Guassian processes is the estimation of the power spectral density function, oo = ^ / p(r) cos Cl) r d r , where p ( r) is the autocovariance function. ^ o The classical treatment of this problem is to estimate first p^r) for various values of t by systematic subsampling the process and then using A numerical integration for an estimate $ ( ca ) . While the classical estima¬ tor can be shown to be biased, it has nevertheless proved to be adequate in many applications. It has the disadvantage, however, of requiring a sizable number of numerical calculations in order to produce a single estimate of $ (co ) . An attempt to get an estimator substantially as good as *(6>)can be made the same as the bias of <|) ((d) by suitable choice of G ( k . ) and P ( k. ) and that the difference in the sampling variances of the estimators may be expressed as Var Var $(co) = i |p^(0)+p2(j A t ) j k2( j ) | -1 where K(j) = G(j)P(j). It was also discussed how to minimize the variance by a suitable choice of the probabilities and weights. 12. The Possibility of Monozygotic Twinning in Mice. C. W. Clunies-Ross; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. An outline of the program set up at Cambridge, England to investi¬ gate this phenomenon is given together with a brief discussion of various genetic problems in so far as they affected the problem in testing and estimating. The probability distributions on both the hypothesis of no twinning and a hypothesis of some twinning are given. From these are derived tests of significance suitable for spot checks and final analysis; also estimation procedures, one of which embodies adjustments suitable for a wide class of minor genetic discrepencies between actual and theoretical distribu¬ tions. 13. A Method and Its Properties for the Analysis of Ranking in Triple Comparisons. R. N. Pendergrass and R. A. Bradley; Virginia Polytechnic Insti¬ tute. The method of paired comparisons as developed by R. A. Bradley and Milton Terrv is extended to the rank analysis of blocks of three. Different probability models for ranking three items are considered. From these a model that retains its form when the direction of ranking is re¬ versed is selected for further investigation. Maximum likelihood methods are used to estimate parameters and likelihood ratio tests are proposed to test certain specified hypotheses. Some large sample results concerning the distribution of estimators and the power of the suggested tests are ob¬ tained. Power comparisons are made with such test procedures as those of paired comparisons and analysis of variance. 1957] Proceedings 1956-1957 367 14. Problems in Residential Analysis. Rudolf J. Freund; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. Consider a regression equation of the form The e is usually considered to be a random variable; it is this random variable which we minimize in the least squares estimation of the regression coefficients. But exactly, what is this “e”? Essentially it can be considered to be of the effects of a large number of other varia¬ bles on the dependent variable y. In many cases there are so many of these variables and each has such a small effect that these effects can not be separated and are therefore lumped into the “error” or residual. There are however, cases when a part of this residual variation can readilv be ascribed to certain factors. It is in such cases that an analysis of the individual residuals, that is ei, i = 1,2, . . . n, is both advantage¬ ous and desirable. Such an analysis on the ei can be used to determine not only the effect of other independent variables, but can also be used to determine insufficiencies of the regression model, such as the existence of non-linearities in the effeets of the independent variables. 15. The Comparison of the Sensitivities of Similar Experiments. Part I: Theory; Part IT. Applications, Ralph Allan Bradley; Virginia Polytechnic Institute. Daniel Eber- hardt Waldemar Schumann; University of Stellenbosch. The problem considered evolved from a need for means of compar¬ ing the sensitivities of two available experimental techniques. The ex¬ perimental techniques mav differ through measuring methods, experimen¬ tal procedures, or evaluation systems. It is not always easy to establish differing experimental techniques, and this difficulty led to the researeh conducted. W. G. Cochran discussed the problem of comparing differing scales of measurement for experimental results in a paper in the Annals of Mathematical Statistics in 1943. He considered cases where known or estimable relationships existed between observations on the two scales and posed the more general problems where such relationships were not known. The research required for the more general problems involved considerable mathematical complexity and no further publications have appeared since 1943. In this paper, we have considered the more general 368 The Virginia Journal of Science [September problems and obtained results useful in a wide class of applications as noted below. The approach to the comparison of the sensitivities of similar experi¬ ments developed here assumes that the research worker has conducted two comparative experiments in exactly the same way except for the dif¬ ference in experimental techniques under study. In future research, he wishes to use the technique that has the greater sensitivity to the detec¬ tion of effects of research significance. The methods of mathematical statistics developed permit a precise comparison of the sensitivities of the two experimental techniques without the requirement that there be an established mathematical relationship between observations from the two techniques. Apphcations of the procedures developed are suggested in a wide area of research including taste testing, medical research, chemistry, life testing, and agronomy. Specific applications are made in two examples. One involves comparison of the discriminating abilities of judges in taste testing. The other uses data obtained by N. F. Murphy, J. E. Lastovica, and A. E. Skrzec, Virginia Polytechnic Institute in chemical engineering research. We are indebted to them for permission to use their data. 1957] Proceedings 1956-1957 369 LIST OF MEMBERS 1956-1957 Note: Following are the types of membership in the Academy. Patrons, who contribute one thousand dollars or more to the Academy. Members, who contribute one hundred dollars or more to the Academy. Honorary Life Members (Elected by Council). "^Sustaining Members, who pay annual dues of ten dollars. —Contributing Members, who pay annual dues of ten dollars. Regular Members, who pay annual dues of three dollars. Student Members, who pay annual dues of two dollars, (restricted to college students only). Note: Number following name designates section, or sections, to which member belongs; “C” following name indicates "‘Student Mem¬ ber”; “B” following name indicates “Business Member.” 1. Agricultural Sciences 7. Engineering 2. Astronomy, Mathematics, 8. Geology and Physics 9. Medical Sciences 3. Bacteriology 10. Psychology 4. Biology 11. Science Teachers 5. Chemistry 12. Statistics 6. Education Please notify Foley F. Smith, P. O. Box 1420, Richmond, of any errors you may find in this list. Abbitt, Mrs. Mary Harne, 12 .... 6411 1/2 Three Chopt Rd., Richmond Abbott, Betty J., 4 . 2730 Broad St., N. W., Roanoke 12 Abbott, Dr. Lynn D., Jr., 9, 5 Medical College of Virginia, Richmond Ackerman, C. J., 5 . Dept, of Chemistry, V.P.I., Blacksburg Addison, W. Meade . 2000 Monument Ave., Richmond Akerman, Prof. Alfred, 1 . The Seward Forest, Triplett ** Albemarle Paper Manufacturing Co . Richmond Alcock, Carol D., C, 5, 4 . 2917 Chamberlayne Ave., Richmond — Alden, Prof. Harold L., 2 .... Box 3445 Univ. Station, Charlottesville Alford, John R., 8 . . . Box 268, Glasgow Allan, Dr. D. Maurice 10 . Hampden-Sydney 370 The Virginia Journal of Science [September Allen, Carl W., 1 . Box 246, Blaeksburg Allen, Dr. J. Franees, 4 . Univ. of Maryland, Dept, of Zoology, College Park, Md. Allen, Dr. Rhesa M., Jr., 8 . French Coal Co., Bliiefield, W. Va. Aliev, Prof. R. E., Jr., 2, 7 . Physics Dept., Washington & Lee University, Lexington Allied Chemical & Dye Corp., B . Nitrogen Division, Hopewell Allison A. H., 1 . 123 Fife St, Norfolk Alrich, Dr. E. Meredith, 9 . Univ. of Va. Hosp., Charlottesville Alston, R. E., 4 . Dept, of Botany, Univ. of Texas, Austin, Tex. Alvey, Dr. Edward Jr., 6 Marv Washington College, Fredericksburg American Tobacco Co., B Research Lab., Petersburg Pike, Richmond Amore, Dr. Thomas, 5 . Cardina IProducts, Inc., P. O. Box 1611, Durham, N. C. Anderson, A. IL, 1 . Forest Supervisor, U.S.D.A., George Washington National Forest, Harrisonburg Anderson, Mrs. John Wm., 11, 4 4404 East Franklin St., Richmond Anderson, Stewart W., 7, 6 . V.M.I., Lexington Andrews, Dr. Jay D., 4 . Va. Fisheries Lab., Gloucester Point Anslow, W. Parker, Jr., 9 . Bennington Rd., Hessian Hills, Gharlottesville ■— Apperlv, Dr. Frank L., 9 . Med. Gollege of Va., Richmond *Armistead, Fontaine G. . 7611 Sweetbriar Rd., Richmond 26 Armstrong, Dr. Alfred R., 5 . 510 Newport Ave., Williamsburg Armstrong, Mary L., 4 . 501 Virginia Ave., Front Roval Arrington, Dr. George E. Jr., 9 McGuire Vets. Administration Hosp., Richmond Artz, Miss Lena, 4, 8 . Waterlick Austin, John M., 11, 5 . Rt. 2, Farmville Baber, Glinton W., 5, 7 . Apartado 769, Garacas, Venezuela Bachrach, Arthur J., 10 .... Div. of Chemical & Medical Psychology, Univ. of Va. Hosp., Charlottesville Bahous, Mrs. C. Ruth, 2 . ' . 110 Langhorne Lane, Lynchburg Bailey, Dr. John Wendell, 4 . 27 Willway Rd., Richmond 26 Bailey, Robert S., 4 . Gloucester Point —Baker, Dr. T. Nelson, 5 . Va. State College, Petersburg Baldock, Dr. Russell, 2, 5 . . 114 Ogontz Lane, Oak Ridge, Tenn. ** Baldwin, Dr. J. T. Jr., . College of William & Mary, Williamsburg Balthis, Thomas A., 5 . 3301 Grove Ave., Richmond Bane, Ruby K., 5, 9 . 1206 West Franklin St., Apt. 15, Richmond Bare, John K., 10 . Dept, of Psychology, College of William & Mary, Williamsburg Barrett, Nancy Jane, 5, 11 . 230 Blvd., Salem Bartsch, Dr. Paul, 4, 8 . Gunston Hall Rd., Lorton, Va. Bass, Charles F., 8 . Box 43, Stephens City 1957] Proceedings 1956-1957 371 Bateman, Robert C., 5 . 8410 Spalding Dr., Richmond 26 Bates, Dr. Robert L., 10 . V.M.I., Lexington Baum, Parker B., 5 . 2104 White Ave., Knoxville, Tenn. Baxter, Donald L., Lt., (MC) USNR, 9 471 Briarhill Rd., Delaware County, Pa. Bayton, Dr. James A., 10 Howard Univ., Psychology Dept., Washington 1, D. C. Beach, Miss Mary Leigh, 3 . Box 151, Arlington —Beams, Dr. Jesse W., 2 . Physics Lab., McCormick Rd., Univ. Station, Charlottesville Becker, Dr. E. Lovell, 9 . , . M.C.V. Station, Richmond Bell, C. Cooper, Jr., 9 . . 3917 Pilots Lane, Richmond 22 Bell, Dr. Wilson B., 9 . V.P.L, Blacksburg Benton, Prof. Arthur F., 5 . University, Va. Berne-Allen, Dr. Allan, Jr., 5, 7 144 N. Washington Dr., St. Armands Key, Sarasota, Fla. Berry, Rodney C., 5, 1, 3 1123 State Office Bldg., Richmond Berry, Rodney C., Jr. ,5 . 1433 Drewry St., Richmond 24 Betts, Edwin M., 4 . Box 3203, Univ., Va. Bevan, Dr. Arthur, 8 . Churchville Beverly, Mary Lee C., 9, 4, 5 . 663 Montrose Ave., Roanoke Bice, Prof. Raymond C., Jr., 10 Peabody Hall, U. of Va. Charlottesville —Bickers, Dr. William . Medical Arts Bldg., Richmond Bieliauskas, Dr. V. J., 10 . Quinton Bierhorst, Dr. David, 4 Dept, of Botany, Cornell Univ., Ithaca, N. Y. Bill, Miss Margaret E., 5 . 3300 Hanover Ave., Richmond —Bird, Lloyd C., 3 . 303 South 6th St., Richmond Black, Dr. Zoe, 4 . Box 1171, College Station, Fredericksburg Blackwell, Jane, 11, 5 . Box 514, South Boston Blake, Dr. Archie, 12 . 2133 N. Circle Dr., Ann Arbor, Mich. Blake, Dr. John A., 10 . 6707 Stuart Ave., Richmond Blank, Miss Grace J., 9 . 605 Chandler Court, Williamsburg —Blanton, Dr. Wyndham B., 9 . 828 W. Franklin St., Richmond Blaser, Dr. R. E., 1, 4, 12 V.P.L, Blacksburg Blincoe, Dr. J. W., 2 . Ashland Bliss, Dr. Laura 225 S. Princeton Circle, Lynchburg Bobb, Dr. Marvin L., 4 Piedmont Fruit Research Lab., Charlottesville Boger, Jack Holt, 6 . 6209 Dustin Dr., Richmond ^Boggs, Prof. Isabel, 2 . Box 235, R.-M.W. College, Lynchburg Boldrdige, Frank, 5 . 305 Henrv St., Ashland Bombara, Elwood C., C 12 Dept, of Statistics, V.P.L, Blacksburg —Bond, Dr. W. R., 9 . Box 106, Midlothian Boozer, Miss Mary E., 12 . 1140 W. Grace St., Richmond 20 Bose, Smritimoy C., 4 . Biology Bldg., Univ. of Va., Charlottesville Bouton, Dr. S. Miles, Jr., 9 . Rt. 1, Cherry Hill Farm, Evington 372 The Virginia Journal of Science [September Bowen, Dr. Leroy E., 1 . 505 Elmwood Ave., Lynchburg Bowles, John L., 8 . 329 Clovelly Rd., Richmond 21 Bowles, Miles C., 3 . P. O. Box 246, Accomac —Bowman, Dr. Paul W., 4 . 3114 5th St., N., Arlington Bowman, Dr. Raymond P. G., 6 . 609 Progress St., Blacksburg Boyer, Dr. William P., 5 . Director of Research, Virginia-Carolina Chemical Corp., Richmond Bradley, Frank D., 4 . 4249 25th St., N., Arlington 7 Bradley, George W., ]r., 11 . Box 54, Front Royal Bradley, Ralph A., 12 . 204 Rose Ave., Blacksburg Brand, Dr. Eugene D., 9 . Dept, of Pharmacology, Univ. Hosp., Charlottesville Bray, Dr. W. E., 3, 5, 9 . Box 1063, Univ., Va. Brent, Miss Frances 11 . Kilmarnock Brice, Dr. Luther K., Jr., 5 Chemistry Dept., V.P.I., Blacksburg Brinkley, Mrs. Bernice N., 11, 4 . Clover Brogden, C. E., 5 . 11 Greenway Lane, Richmond 26 —Brown, Dr. Frederick L., 2 308 Montebello Circle, Charlottesville Brown, Irby H., 5 . 1123 State Office Bldg., Richmond Brown, Dr. W. Horatio, 8 . Austinville Brown, Lt. Col. Warren W., 5, 6, 11 Box 73, Kable Station Staunton Brownson, Dr. Robert H., 9 . 4371 Chamberlayne Ave., Richmond Bruce, A. C., 7 . P. O. Box 196, Blacksburg Bruce, Dr. Robert E., 11, 2 . P. O. Box 385, Staunton * Brumfield, Dr. Robert T., 4 . Longwood College, Farmville Bruner, B. M., 5 . 105 N. Wilton Rd., Richmond 21 Buchanan, Dr. Josephine J., 9 . 5806 Franklin Ave., Falls Church Buck, John N., 10 . 1600 Langhorne Rd., Lynchburg Bull, Fred W., 7, 5 . V.P.I., Blacksburg Bullington, Dr. W. E., 4 . Randolph-Macon College, Ashland Bully, Miss Kathryn, 4 . 216 W. Queen St. ,Hampton Bunce, Lt. George E., 5 . 425 N. McCullough St., San Antonio, Tex. Burch, John B., 4 Museum of Zoology, Univ. of Mich., Ann Arbor, Mich. Burch, Dr. Paul R., 4 . Rockville Burger, Miss Elizabeth, 4 . Longwood College, Faimville Burke, Jack D., 4 Biology Dept. Univ. of Richmond, Richmond Burleigh, Mrs. Dorothy R . Christiansburg High School, Christian sburg Burns, Prof. G. Preston, 2 . P. O. Box 1005, College Station ' Fredericksburg Burton, Willard W., 5 . 6510 Engel Rd., Richmond 26 Buxton, Dr. W. D., 9 Univ. of Va. Hosp., Charlottesville Byrne, Col. William E., 2 . Box 836, Lexington By waters. Dr. James H., 4, 1 Box 549, Black.sburg 1957] Proceedings 1956-1957 373 Cabaniss, Mrs. Emblyn J., 5, 6 . 1101 First St., S.W., Roanoke Cabrera, Dr. N., 2, 5 . 14-R Copeley Hill, Charlottesville Caldwell, Paul N., 11, 4 . 2784 Westhampton Ave., S. W., Roanoke Callahan, William H., 8 . 1 Rowe Place, Franklin, N. J. Calver, James L., 8 . Box 3667, Univ. Station, Charlottesville Calvin, Dr. Allen, 10 . Psychology Dept., Hollins College, Hollins Caminita, Mrs. B. H., 3 . 501 N. Lincoln St., Arlington Campbell, Addison D., 2 . 8520 Julian Rd., Richmond 26 Carman, George Gay, 2 . 3907 W. Franklin St., Richmond 21 Carpenter, Prof. D. R., 2 . Roanoke College, Salem Carpenter, D. Rae, Jr., 2 . 313 Letcher Ave., Lexington Carroll, Dorothy, 8 . .. U. S. Geological Survey, Washington 25, D. C. Carroll, Robert P., 4 . Box 613, Lexington Carter, Miss Linda L., 10 . Children’s Service Center Univ Hosp., Charlottesville Carter, Marjorie E., 4 . Valdosta State College Valdosta, Ga. Carter, W. M., 4 . 21 Monroe Park, Charlottesville Carver. Dr. Merton E., 10 Univ. of Richmond, Richmond Cary, Miss M. Katherine, 9, 5 . Med. College of Va., Richmond Cash, W. W., Jr., 5 . Rt. 2, Box 150, Eagle Rock Cederstrom, Dr. John, 8 American Embassy, U. S. O. N/L APO 231, New York, N. Y. Chace, F. M., 8 . The M. A. Hanna Co., 1300 Leader Bldg., Cleveland, O. —Chapman, Dr. Douglas C., 9 . 324 Clovellv Rd., Richmond Chappell, Dr. Wilbert, 5 . Madison College, Harrisonburg Charlton, Mrs. T. R., 9 . Calthrops Neck Rd., Tabbs Chase, H. M., 5 . 158 W. Main St., Danville Chauncev, Warren F., C, 4 . 71 Post St., Warwick Cheng, Thomas C., C, 4 . Miller School of Biology, Univ. of Va., Charlottesville Chesson, R. R., 5 . 6 Lexington Rd., Richmond 26 Chevalier, Dr. Paul L., 9 . 11 E. Franklin St., Richmond Chi Beta Phi, Iota Sigma Chapter . Radford College, Radford Christian, Sue B., 11, 4 . 3305 Patterson Ave., Richmond 21 Christie, Thomas H., 11 . 3713 W. Washington Blvd., Arlington Chronister, Borden S., 1 . P. O. Box 28, Hopevv^ell Churchill, Miss Helen, 4, 3, 9 . Hollins College, Va. Clague, Prof. W. Donald, 5, 9 . Bridgewater Claiborne, Miss Imogene B., 5 . 2413 Terrell Place, Lynchburg Clark, G. Wayne, 2 . R.F.D. 9, Box 155, Richmond 25 Clayton, Dr. C. C., 5 MCV Station, Richmond 19 Clayton, Dr. R. A., 5 Research Lab., American Tobacco Co., Richmond Cline, Frances, 11 . WMHS, Fisherville Clough, Dr. O. W., 9 . Med. College of Va., Richmond 374 The Virginia Journal of Science [September Cocke, E. C., 4 . College Station, Winston-Salem, N. C. Cofer, Mrs. Elizabeth S., 11, 5, 4 . 1503 W. Laburnum Ave., Richmond 27 Cogbill Dr. E. C., 5 . Dept, of Chemistry, Duke Univ., Durham, N. C. Cole, Cletus A., 10 . 3414 N. Kensington St., Arlington Cole, Dr. James W., Jr., 5 . Cobb Chemical Lab., Charlottesville Coleman, C. S., 1, 8 . P. O. Box 194, Faufax Coleman, George U., Jr., 4, 5, 2 . 621 Staunton Ave., W. Roanoke Coleman, John S., 2, 6 . 3010 N. Florida. St., Arhngton 7 * College of William & Mary . Williamsburg Compton, Dr. Jack, 4, 5 . Institute of Textile Technology, Charlottesville Congdon, Dr. Wm. f., 8 . 611 Prince Henry Ave., Hopewell Cook, Mrs. F. Hartwick, 2, 5, 12 . Alton State Hosp., Alton, Ill. Cool, Dr. R. D., 5 . Madison College, Harrisonburg Cooley, Dr. C. C., 9 . 912 Med. Arts Bldg., Norfolk 10 Cooper, Dr. Byron N., 8, 7 . Box 634, Blacksburg Copeland, Graham, 1 . 1112 State Office Bldg., Richmond Copeland, Mrs. Madeleine Jeffers 10 2950 Rivermont Ave., Lynchburg Corcoran, Catherine E., 10 . 4322 N. 2nd St., Arlington Cornfield, Jerome, 12 . R.F.D. 2, Herndon Cotting, Mrs. Ed. L., 9 . 1213 Rowe St., Fredericksburg Coty, Mr. O. N., 5 . 4300 N. Ashland Dr., Richmond 2i —Cox, Edwin, 5 . Box 667, Richmond Cox, Edwin L., 12, 4 . Assessment Division, Camp Detrick Frederick, Md. —Cox, Edwin 5 . Box 667, Richmond Cox, Mary Lee, 11, 5, 4 . 3654 Radford St., Norfolk 13 Cox, Norman R., 5 . 5209 Forest Hill Ave., Richmond Coyner, Prof. M. Boyd, 10, 6 . Longwood College, Farmville Craighead, R. A . General Office Bldg., N & W Railroad, Roanoke Crandall, Dorothy L., 4 . Box 278, R.M.W. College, Lynchburg —Crawford, Stuart C., 5, 4, 7 . Box 124, Franklin Creel, J. Randall, Jr., 8 . Cleft Rd., Mill Neck, Long Island, N. Y. Crim, David M., 2, 11 . V.M.I., Lexington Crim, Samuella, 4, 11 . New Market Crittenden, Eugene, 5, 1 . .. Nitrogen Division, Allied Chemical & Dye Corp., Hopewell Crouch, Joseph P., 9 USN Facility, APO 845, New York, N. Y. Crowell, Prof. Thomas L, 5 Cobb Chemical Lab., Charlottesville Cruser, Melvin E., Jr., 2 610 West Princess Anne Rd., Apt. 2-B Norfolk 7 Cummins, Dr. Milton D., 9 . 1001 W. Franklin St., Richmond 20 Cunningham, Robert E., 5 I-R, Copelev Hills, Charlottesville 1957] Proceedings 1956-1957 375 —Baffin, Prof. John B., 5, 2 . Mary Baldwin College, Staunton Dancy, William H., Jr., 2 Rt. 1, Box 79-B, Proffit *Darden, Dr. Colgate W., Jr., . Univ. of Va., Charlottesville **Davenport & Company . 1113 E. Main St., Richmond Davier, Maurice, 12 . Box 3342, Univ. Station, Charlottesville Davies, Dr. E. F. S., 6 . Va. State College, Petersburg Davies, William E., 8 . 125 W. Greenway Blvd., Falls Church Davis, Donald, 4 3607 Wickham Ave., Newport News Davis, James H., 8 . 3207 Inwood Dr., Houston, Tex. Davis, Loyal H., 5, 2 Box 1895, Richmond 15 Davis, Thursa F., 5 . Va. State College, Petersburg DeArmon, Ira A., Jr., 12 . 508 Military Rd., Frederick, Md. Deck, Dr. J. David, 9 Dept, of Anatomy, Univ. of Va., Hosp., Charlottesville Decker, Miss Mary G., 5 Alabama College, Montevallo, Ala. Delk, J. A., 11, 4 . 816 Appomattox St., Hopewell DelPriore, Frances R., 12 Rt. 2, Box 22, Arnold, Md. Denise, Francis J., 5 1706 Butte Rd., Richmond 25 Dent, Dr. J. N., 4 Miller School of Biology, Univ. of Vki., Charlottesville Derting, John F., 8, 1 Box 84, Flint Hills Desha, Dr. L. J., 5 . Box 776, Lexington DeVote, Charles H., Jr., 5, 8 . 3327 Hanover Ave., Richmond Dewev, Dr. Lovell J., 5 Dept, of Pharmacy, M.C.V., Richmond Dickerson, Dr. L. M., 4, 1, 5 P. O. Box 686, Tappahannock Dickey, Dr. R. W., 2 32 Univ. Place, Lexington Dietrick, L. B., 1 . 506 Preston Ave., Blacksburg Dietrick, Dr. Richard V., 8 Box 779, Blacksburg Dinwiddie, Dr. J. G., 5 . 620 Walnut Ave., Waynesboro Dodd, Dr. Eileen K., 10 Box 1205, College Station, Fredericksburg Doerhoefer, Basil, 8 . Longview Lane, Upper River Rr., Louisville, Ky. Domermuth, Charles H., 3, 4 Dept. Animal Pathology, V.P.I., Blacksburg Dorsey, Edward G., Jr., 7 1327 Avondale Ave., Richmond 27 Doub, W. H., Jr., 10 . 615 Roseneath Rd., Apt. 7, Richmond Doughtrey, Dorothy D., 4, 5 406 N. Nansemond St., Richmond 21 Dovel, Anne Hundley, 5 1016 Gilpin Ave., Wilmington, Del. Downing, Dr. T. V., 1, 6 906 Pine Ridge Rd., Richmond Dryer, Mrs. Hilda Y., 11, 4 . 463 N. Thomas St., Arlington 3 Duke, Miss Martha W., 4, 11 . 721 Park St, Charlottesville * Duncan, Cecil E., 2 865 Thornwood Dr., Palo Alto, Calif. Duncan, Mrs. Geraldine, 9 . 2915 Seminary Ave., Richmond Dunn, William L., Jr . 1012 Taylor Ave., llichmond 25 Dunlap, Miss Elizabeth, 11 . Spring Farm, Lexington Dimton, Dr. E. M., Jr., 1 . Box 2160, Norfolk 376 The Virginia Journal of Science [September ***DuPont, Mrs. Alfred I . Nemours, Wilmington, Del. DuPont, E. I., de Nemours & Co., Inc., B Textile Fibers Dept. Richmond Dyer, Edward R., Jr., 2 Leander-McCormick Observatory, Univ. of Va., Charlottesville Eades, James L., 8 . 1528 Westwood Ave., Charlottesville Eddv, C. Vernon, 6 . Box 58, Winchester Edmundson, Dr. R. S., 8 . 1411 Virginia Ave., Charlottesville Edwards, Dr. Leslie E., 9 . Dept, of Physiology M.C.V. Station, Richmond 19 Eggert, Matthews J., 9 . 3123 Stuart Ave., Richmond Eheart, James F., 5, 1 . V.P.I., Blacksburg Eisenhart, Dr. Churchill, 12 . National Bureau of Standards Washington 25, D. C. Eiser, Arthur L., 4 . 514 Progress St., Blacksburg Elder, John H., 5, 1 . 1123 State Office Bldg., Richmond Elkan, Gerald H., 3, 4 . Dept, of Biology, V.P.I., Blacksburg * Emmett, Dr. J. M., 9 . C & 0 Hosp., Clifton Forge Engel, Dr. R. W., 5 . V.P.I., Blacksburg —English, Prof. Bruce V., 2 . 536 Valley Rd., Charlottesville Enrick, Norbert Lloyd, 12 . % Institute of Textile Technolo2;v Charlottesville Esso Standard Oil Company B . Attention: C. C. Pembroke, Broad & Hamilton Streets, Richmond Evans, L. S. . Blue Shingles, Butte Lane, Richmond Evert, Dr. Henry, 4, 5 . 11 Harvard St., Garden City, N. Y. —Experiment Incorporated . Box 1-T, Richmond 2 Farlowe, Vivian, 4 . Meredith College, Raleigh, N. C. — Faulconer, Dr. Robert Jamieson, 9 Dept, of Pathologv, DePaul Hosp., Norfolk 5 Ferneyhough, Dr. Robert S., 9 . 810 Lee St., Warrenton Filer, Dr. Robert J., 10 . Univ. of Richmond, Richmond Fillinger, Miss Harriett H., 5, 2 . P. O. Box 18, Hollins College Finch, Earl A., 1, 12 . 1311 Hillside Ave., Richmond Finger, Prof. Frank W., 10 . Peabody Hall, University, Va. Finlay, Dr. Cecil Bolton, 10 ... 3615 Martha Custis Dr., Park Fairfax, Alexandria Finnegan, Dr. J. K., 5, 9 . M.C.V. Station, Richmond 19 Fischer, Dr. Ernst, 9, 4 . Med. College of Va., Richmond Fish, Prof F. H., 5 . Box 702, Blacksburg Fisher, Dr. Robert A., 7, 5 . 106 Cohee Rd., Blacksburg — Fitzroy, Herbert W. K., 6 . 1 W. Main St., Richmond Area, Univ. Center, Richmond Flemer, Capt. John, 7 . Oakgrove 1957] Proceedings 1956-1957 377 Fletcher, Dr. F. T., 9 2319 E. Broad St., Richmond Flint, Dr. Franklin F., 4 Biology Dept., R.M.W.C., Lynchburg — Flory, Dr. Walter S., Jr., 4, 1 . Blandy Exper. Farm., Boyce Flowers School Equipment Co., Inc. B 327 W. Main St., Richmond 20 Flowers, Win. L., 5 8719 Weldon Dr., Richmond Floyd, Miss Susie V., 4 . 46 Hopkins St., Hilton Village Foltin, Dr. Edgar M., 10 Penn College for Women, Woodland Rd., Pittsburgh 22, Pa. Forbes, Dr. Allan L, . 2372 Nome St., Denver 8, Colo. Forbes, Dr. J. C., 5, 9, 2 Med. College of Va., Richmond Foster, Col. I. G., 2 . 451 Institute Hill, Lexington Fredericksen, Dr. James M., 5 . Box 25, Hampden-Sydney Freer, Prof. Ruskin, 4, 8 Lynchburg College, Lvnchburg Freitag, Arthur H., 2, 11 . 2424 Avalon Ave., N. W., Roanoke Freitag, Mrs. Herta Taussig, 2 Hollins College, Hollins —French, G. Talbot, 1, 4 1510 Wilmington Ave., Richmond 27 French, R. H., 5 . Longwood College, Fannville Freund, Dr. Jack, 9, 5 . 622 N. Blvd., Richmond Freund, Dr. John, 12 606 Preston Ave., Blacksburg Friedline, Dr. Cora L., 10, 9 R.M.W.C., Lynchburg *Froehling & Robertson, Inc . 814 W. Carv St., Richmond Fulton, H. R., 4, 8 1732 Lanier Place, Washington 9, D. C. Fuqua, Mrs. F. C., 9 3005 Linden Ave., Fredericksburg Fnrtsch, Dr. E. F., 5, 6 P. O. Box 618, Blacksburg “Gaines, Prof. Robert E., 2 3 Bostwick Lane, Univ. of Richmond, Richmond Gambill, Miss Caroline, 11, 5 . Fairfax Hall, Wavnesboro Gant, Dr. James Q., 9 1726 M. St., N. W., Washington 6, D. C. Garber, Louis L., 10 Box 1080, Staunton Garretson, Harold H., 5 Lynchburg College, Lvnchburg Garrett, H. E., 10 1872 Winston Rd., Charlottesville Geldard, Dr. Frank A., 10 1900 Edgewood Lane, Charlottesville Gemmill, Chalmers, L., 9 Dept, of Pharmacology, Univ. of Va., Charlottesville German, Dr. Leslie, 5 . 303 Letcher Ave., Lexington Giblette, Mrs. Catherine T., 10, 6 3424 Carolina Ave., Richmond 22 Gibson, Prof. Theodore W., 2 Wise Gibson, W. L., Jr., 1 206 Fairview Ave., Blacksburg Gilbert, Ray G., 8 . Austinville Gildersleeve, Benjamin, 8 . 5811 N. 19th St, Arlington 5 Giles, Robert H., C, 4 . Va. Wildlife Unit, V.P.I., Blacksburg Gillespie, Robert F., Jr., 4 . Va. Episcopal School, Lynchburg Gilliam, Jane F., 11, 2, 5 . Phenix Gilmer, Prof. Thomas E., 2 Hampden-Sydney Gilmer, T. E., Jr., 2 . 1100 Keswick Lane, Richmond 25 7 The Virginia Journal of Science [September Gilreath, Dr. E. S., 5 . Box 745, Lexington Gladding, Randolph N., 5 . American Tob. Research Lab., 400 Petersburg Pike, Richmond Gladding, Mrs. Walter, 5, 9 . 1613 Park Ave., Richmond 20 Glock, Dr. Eugene, 5 . American Tobacco Co., Research Lab., Richmond '’^Goethe, C. M. 720 Capital National Bank Bldg., Sacramento, Calif. Goldsborough, Mrs. Cora L., 10 115 Lisle Ave., Pimmett Hills, Falls Church Goldstein, Lewis C., 4 . 824 Park Ave., Richmond Gooch, Edwin O., 8 Division of Geology, Box 3667, Charlottesville Gordon, Dr. Hiram L., 10 Clinical Psvchologv Dept., V. A. Hosp., Roanoke Gould, Henry W., 2 . 422 N. 6th Ave., Portsmouth Gourley, Dr. D. R. H., 9 Univ. of Va. Med. School, Charlottesville Goyette, Dr. Lewis E., 4 . 6506 Stuart Ave., Richmond Grable, Prof. E. Sherman, 2 . 1109 Foxcroft Rd., Richmond 26 Graf, Dr. G. C., 1 Dept, of Dairy Science, V.P.I., Blacksbm'g Gray, Dr. Clarence C., LLL, 5, 1 P. O. Box 537, Va. State College, Petersburg Graybeal, Prof. H. C., 6 Box 1204, Radford College, Radford Grayson, Dr. James McD., 4 . Blacksburg Green, Ralph E., 2 3015-A, Woodrow Ave., Richmond Greene, William M., 8 50 Fairway Dr., Birmingham, Ala. Griffin, Pearl C., 5 . Lynchburg College, Lvnchburg Gross, W. B., 9 . % Animal Pathology, V.P.I., Blacksburg Grossnickle, Dr. Thurman T., 5 Bridgewater College, Bridgewater Groves, Dr. A. B., 1, 4, 5, 3 Winchester — Guerry, Dr. DuPont, HI, 9 . 2015 Monument Ave., Richmond 20 Gupton, Oscar W., 4 . Dept, of Biologv, V.M.I., Lexington Guthridge, Joe W., 2 . Univ. Club, Blacksburg Guthrie, John D., 1 . . "Ville View”, Charlotte Court House —Guy, Dr. William G., 5 . Box 1274, Williamsburg *Gwathmey, Dr. Allan T., 5 Cobb Chem. Lab., University, Va. Gwathmey, Mrs. Allen T., 6 . Dawson’s Row, Univ. of Va., Charlottesville -Haag, Dr. H. B., 9 . Med. College of Va., Richmond Hack, Dr. John T., 8 U. S. Geological Survey, Washington 25, D. C. Hackman, Miss Joanna C, 5 . 8 Monroe Terrace, Radford Hackney, R. P., 5 . 4500 Hanover Ave., Richmond 21 Hahn, J. F., 10 . Peabody Hall., Charlottesville Hahn, Dr. T. M., Jr., 2 . Dept, of Physics, V.P.I., Blacksburg Hajek-Nichols, Dr. Norman 10, 6 Med. College of Va., Richmond 19 Hallock, Dr. Daniel L., 1 . Holland 1957] Proceedings 1956-1957 379 Hamm, Dr. William T., Jr., 2 P. O. Box 816, MCV Sta., Richmond 19 Handley, Charles Overton, Jr., 4 . U. S. National Museum Washington 25, D. C. *Handy, E. S. C., 4, 10 . Box 216, Charlottesville Hanenson, Dr. 1., 9 . Box 2653, Williamson, W. Va. **Hanmer, H. Rupert, 5 . 400 Petersburg Turnpike, Richmond 24 Hanna, Dr. Bertram L., 12, 9 . MCV Station, Richmond 19 Hansen, Dr. P. Ame, 3, 4 . Dept, of Bact., Univ. of Md., College Park, Md. Hardesty, Mrs. Anne S., 10 . Rivermont Park Apts., Lynchburg Hargis, Dr. Wm. J., Jr., 4 . Va. Fisheries Lab., Gloucester —Harlan, Dr. William R., 5 . 329 Greenway Lane, Richmond *Harlow, Edward S., 5 . Stuart Court Apts. 303, 1600 Monument Ave., Richmond 20 Hamsberger, Wilbur, Jr., 8 . 366 Franklin St., Harrisonburg Harowitz, Charles L., 5 . 7804 Meherrin Rd., Richmond Harrell, Dr. Bryant, 5 . Dept, of Chem., College of William & Mary, Williamsburg Harrell, Cleon, 12 . Princess Anne Harrell, Miss Ruth Elinn, 10 . 6411 Powhatan Ave., Norfolk 8 Harrington, Mrs. Beatrice A., 2 . . 2024 Barton Ave., Richmond 22 Harris, Dr. Isabel 2 . 6411 Three Chopt Rd., Richmond Harris, Dr. Orville R., 2, 7 . 908 Rosser Lane, Charlottesville Harris, Dr. William E., 10 . Bon Air Harrison, Dr. Guy R., 9 . Professional Bldg., Richmond — Harshbarger, Dr. Boyd, 12 . Dept, of Statistics, V.P.I., Blacksburg Hartung, Walter H., 5 . MCV Station, Richmond 19 Haven, Dexter S., 4 Biology Dept., Va. Fisheries Lab., Gloucester Point Hay, N. R. T., 8 . Four Winds, Mendham, N. J. Heatwole, Mrs. B. G., 11, 2 . 1411 Churchville Ave., Staunton Heckel, Dr. H. L., 5 . 2817 Pickett St., Hopewell Hedgepeth, Rodger 7 . Box 405, Blacksburg Heflin, Col. S. M., 2 . 508 Highland Rd., Lexington Hegre, Dr. Erling S., 9 . MCV Station, Richmond 19 Heisey, Dr. Lowell, 5, 3 . Bridgewater College, Bridgewater Hembree, Dr. Howard W., 10 . 2720 Forest Hills Rd., Petersburg Hench, Miles E., . 4802 Kensington Ave., Richmond Henderson, R. G., 1, 4 . Blacksburg Henneman, Dr. Richard H., 10 . Psychology Lab., Universitv, Va. Herbert, Dr. Paul, 8 . Tri State Zinc Co., P. O. Box 1011, Galena, Ill. Hereford, Dr. Frank L., 2 . Rouss Phvsical Lab., Charlottesville Hering, Mrs. T. T., 4, 2, 11 . W.M.H.S., Fishersville Herr., J. M., Jr., 4 717 Lyons Court Lane, Charlottesville 380 The Virginia Journal of Science [September Higgins, Dr. Edwin S., 5, 9 . Dept, of Biochemistry, MCV Station, Richmond 19 Hildreth, Dr. H. M., 10 7606 Lakeview Dr., Falls Church Hill, C. H., 4 . 447 N. Braddock St., Winchester Hillsman, Overton L., 5 . 5814 Crestwood Ave., Richmond 26 Hinton, Dr. William, 10 . 15 Jordan St., Lexington Hoak, James F., C, 2 Luray Hobbs, Herman H., C, 2 . .. 32 Univ. Circle, Apt. 305, Charlottesville Hobbs, Prof. Horton H., Jr., 4 . 517 Rugby Rd., Charlottesville Hoch, Dr. Hans, 5, 2 . MCV Station, Box 816, Richmond Hoch-Liget, Dr. Cornelia, 9 . 1614 Greenleaf Lane, Charlottesville Hodge, Robert A., 11, 4 . 417 Pelham St., Fredericksburg —Hodges, Dr. Fred M., 9 . 1000 W. Franklin St., Richmond Hodgldn, Dr. W. N., 9 . Warrenton Hoff, E. C., 9, 4, 10 . MCV Station, Richmond 19 Holcomb, Carl J., 4 . Extension Forester, V.P.L, Blacksburg Holland, Charles T., 7 . P. O. Box 836, Blacksburg Holland, Margaret M., 4 . Dept, of Botany, V.P.L, Blacksburg * Hollins College . Hollins College, Va. Holloway, Harry Lee, Jr., 4 . Roanoke College, Salem —Holmes, Dr. B. T., 9 . Ky. State College, Frankfort, Ky. Holmes, Dr. E. M., Jr., 9 . City Hall Annex, Richmond Holmes, J. C., 5 . 519 Tanglewood Rd., Richmond 25 Holt, Robert E., 8 . . 601 Downey St., Radford Hopkins, H. Robert, 8 . Va. Division of Geology, Box 3667, Univ., Station, Charlottesville Horlick, Dr. Reuben S., 10 . 3004 N. Stuart St., Arlington Horn, Robert H. . ' . Rt. 4, Box 348-A, Alexandria Horne, Dr. T. J., 1, 6 . 1013 Draper Rd., Blacksburg —Horowitz, Alan S., 8 . Box 268, Littleton, Colo. * Horsley, Dr. Guy W., 9 . 617 W. Grace St., Richmond Horsley, Mrs. Ruth O., 4 . . . Wingina Horton, Dr. John P., 1, 5, 7 . ' 2022 Stratford Rd., Richmond 25 Hostetter, Dr. D. Ralph, 4, 8 . Eastern Mennonite Gollege, Harrisonburg, Va. Hough, Dr. W. S., 4, 1, 8 . 523 Fairmont Ave., Winchester Hoxton, L. G., 2 Univ. of Va., McGormick Rd., Dept, of Phvsics, Charlottesville Hubbard, Robert M., 7, 5 311 Montebello Circle, Charlottesville Hudgins, Webster R., 5 . Port Havwood Huf, Dr. Ernest G., 9 MCV Station, Richmond 19 Hughes, Hansel L., 5 . 1538 W. 50th St., Norfolk Hughes, Mrs. Lillian A., 5, 9 Room 401, Clinic Bldg., MC\' Station, Richmond 19 Hughes, Dr. Roscoe D., 4, 9 . Med. College of Va., Richmond 1957] Proceedings 1956-1957 381 * Humphreys, Dr. Mary E., 4 . Box 127, Mary Baldwin College, Staunton Humphreys, Miss M. Gweneth, 2 Randolph-Maeon Women's College, Lynchburg Hundley, Dr. Louis R., 4 . V.M.I., Dept, of Biology, Lexington Hunt, Harvey L., 5, 7, 1 . 1411 N. Shore Dr., Norfolk —Hunter, J. M. . Va. State College, Petersburg Hunter, Louise S., 2 . Va. State College, Petersburg Hurley, John F., 10 . 1609 Pinewood St., Falls Church Husted, Dr. Ladley, 4 Dept, of Biology, Univ. of Va., Charlottesville —Hyde, Dr. Austin T., Jr., 4 .... Rutherford Hosp., Rutherfordton, N. C. Ikenberry, Dr. Emmert, 2 . 310 W. View St., Harrisonburg Imus, Henry A., 10 . 2828 Conn. Ave., N. W., Apt. 913 Washington 8, D. C. Inge, Dr. Frederick D., 4 . Hampton Institute, Hampton Ingersoll, Everett H., 9 . MCV Station, Richmond 19 Ingles, Andrew L., 4 . 1006-3rd St., West, Radford Irby, Richard M., Jr., 5 . 712 Spottswood Rd., Richmond Jackson, Caroline Goode, 4 . 1228 Stanhope Ave., Richmond Jackson, Eugene L., 4, 5, 9 . 1322 W. Broad St., Richmond Jackson, Dr. H. W., 4 . Sanitary Engineering Center, 4676 Columbia Parkway, Cincinnati 26, Ohio James, Dr. G. Watson, HI, 9 . MCV Station, Richmond James, Col. Harold C., 2, 11, 6 Kable Station 32, Staunton Jarman, Dr. A. M., 6, 10 . 1872 Winston Ave., Charlottesville Jarman, L. W., 6 . 4702 Pocahontas Ave., Richmond -Jeffers, Dr. George W., 4, 11 . Rt. 6, Farmville Jefferson, Miss Betty Lou, 11, 4 . 1211 Forest St., Danville Jeffrey, Jackson E., 4 . 709 S. Main St., Blacksburg Jeffreys, Dr. A. W., Jr., 10 . Western State Hosp., Staunton Jenkins, Herschel S., 5 . 2101 Hickory Rd., Richmond 25 Jennings, Dr. H. Y. . 128 Park Ave., Danville Jennings, Mae . . Radford High School, Radford Johnson, Dr. E. P., 9, 4 . Va. Agr. Exp. Station, Blacksburg Johnson, Dr. Harry I., 7, 5, 6 . 429 High St., Salem Johnson, James A., Jr., 5 . 1123 State Office Bldg. Richmond 19 Johnson, j. H., 6, 5 Booker T. Washington High School, Norfolk 4 Johnson, Rose Mary, C, 4 . Carrollton Apts., Jefferson Park Ave., Charlottesville Jonas, Dr. Herbert, 9, 4, 1 ... Cancer Research Lab., Univ. of Va. Med. School, Charlottesville Jones, Arthur Roland, 2 . 612 N. Main St., Lexington Jones, Dr. E. Ruffin, 4 . Dept, of Biology, Univ. of Fla. Gainesville, Fla. 382 The Virginia Journal of Science [September Jones, George D., 1, 4 . Box 448, Orange Jones, John C., 4 . 5810 Namakagan Rd., Washington 16, D. C. Jones, J. Claggett, 5 . 3906 Patterson Ave., Richmond 19 Jones, Mrs. Louise L., 9 . MCV Station, Richmond 19 Jones, Muriel M., 3 . MCV Station, Richmond 19 Jopson, Dr. Harry G. M., 4 Bridgewater College, Bridgewater Jones, George R., 3 . Luray Kane, John Kent II, 8 7 Fenimore Lane, St. Davids, Pa. Kapp, Mary E., 5 . 901 W. Franklin St., Richmond 20 Kassoff, Arthur L, 10 . 6602 Willston Place, Falls Church Kaye, Dr. Sidney, 9, 5 . 404 N. 12th St., Richmond 19 Keach, Charles C., 10 . 2531 Holmes Run Dr., Falls Church Kean, Dr. Robert H., 5 Old Farm Rd., “Bellair” Box 313, Rt. 5, Charlottesville Keeble, Prof. W. H., 2 . Box 607, Ashland Keiffer, Anne, 11, 8, 2 4411 S. Willetta Dr., Richmond 21 —Keith, B. Ashton, 8, 6 . % General Delivery, Washington, D. C. Kell, Dr. Joseph F., Jr., 9 . MCV Station, Richmond 19 Keller, Miss Janess, C, 4 . Box 144, St. Charles Keller, Dean May L., 6 . Univ. of Richmond, Richmond Kelly, J. J., Jr., 6 . Wise Kelly, Dr. John W., 9 Dept, of Anatomy, MCV Station, Richmond 19 Kelly, Dr. M. Mae, 10 . Radford College, Radford Kent, Prof. George W., 10 . Bridgewater Kepner, Dr. William A., 4 . 29 Univ. Place, University, Va. Kindred, Dr. J. E., 9 . Box 1873, Univ. Station, Charlottesville King, Dr. Kendall W., 3, 4 ' . Dept, of Biology, VPI, Blacksburg *Kise, Dr. M. A., 5 . : . Va. Smelting Co., W. Norfolk, Kiser, F. D., 11 . 5813 Westbourne Dr., Richmond 28 Knight, Robert J., C, 4 . The Blandy Experimental Farm, Bovce Knutson, Ray M., 8 . Austin ville Koenig, Donald F., 2 . 1629 Argonne Dr., Baltimore 11, Md. Koppel, Leopold, 5 . 16 West Street, Fort Plain, N. Y. Kramer, Clyde Y., C, 13 . Dept, of Statistics, VPI, Blacksburg Kreshover, Dr. Seymour J., 9 . 1204-A Willow Lawn, Keswiek Gardens, Richmond Kriegman, Mrs. Lois S., 10 . Lee Med. Bldg., Richmond Krug, Dr. Robert C., 5 Dept, of Chemistrv, VPI, Blacksburg Kuhlthan, Dr. A. R., 2 1615 Hardwood Ave., Charlottesville Kunz, Walter B., 5, 2, 6 American Viscose Corp., Mareus Hook, Pa. Kyle, Z. T., 6, 2 . Supv. of School Libraries & Text Books State Dept, of Educ., State Office Bldg., Richmond Lacv, O. W., 10 Trinitv College, Hartford 6, Conn. 1957] Proceedings 1956-1957 383 Lacy, William S., 6 111 N. 5th St., Richmond Lambert, Dean |. Wilfred, 10 . College of William & Mary, Williamsburg Lancaster, Dr. Dabney L., 6, 2 . Millboro Springs Lancaster, J. L., 6 . 416 17th St., N. W. Charlottesville Lane, Charles F., 8 . Longwood House, Farmville *Lane, E. H., 5 . The Lane Co., Altavista Langston, Dr. Henry J., 9 Cor. Main St. & Jefferson Ave., Danville — Larew, Dr. Gillie A., 2 Randolph Macon Women’s College, Lynchburg Larson, Dr. Paul S., 5, 9 Med. College of Va., Richmond Laswell, Dr. Troy j., 8 Dept, of Petroleum & Geological Engr. Lousiana Polytechnic Institute, Ruston, La. Lawless, Dr. Kenneth R., 5 Gobb Ghemical Lab., Gharlottesville Lawrenee, Dr. G. K., 5 . Glaremont Lawrence, Lt. James D., 2 113 W. Nelson St., Lexington Lebo, Dr. Dell, 10 812 Park Ave., Riehmond 20 Lee, Dr. Glaudius, 7 Box 157, Blacksburg Lee, Prof. Mary Ann, 2, 12 . Sweet Briar Leeper, Mrs. Annie S., 5 . 6727 Stuart Ave., Richmond Lefever, Miss Grace B., 2 Eastern Mennonite College, Harrisonburg Lefever, Dr. Robert A., 5 7905 Greenock Dr., Bon Air Lehman, Robert C., 2 Box 81, Eastern Mennonite Gollege, Harrisonburg Leidecker, Dr. Kurt F., 6 U.S.I.S., Box B APO 74, San Francisco, Galif. Leidheiser, Henry, Jr., 5, 2 Va. Inst. Scientific Research 326 N. Blvd., Richmond Leisner, Robert S., 4 210 Henderson St., Ghapel Hill, N. G. Leone, Dr. Louis A., 9 . Box 728 MGV Station, Richmond 19 Levin, Neal T., 5 250 Mt. Vernon Place, Apt. 10-E Newark 6, N. J. Lewis, Donald L., 11, 4 1004 Greenwood Blvd., Falls Church Lewis, Dr. Ivey F., 4 1110 Rugby Rd., Charlottesville *'*Lewis, John B., 1 R. F. D. Box 36, Broadnax Lewis, Mrs. Karen I., 9 500 John Adams Dr., San Antonio, Tex. Lewis, Miss Leah V., 6, 10 Va. L^nion Univ., Richmond 20 Lewis, Penelope, B., 10 Western State Hosp., Staunton Lewis, Virginia E., 11, 6 Culpeper Lewis, Walter H., C, 4 Dept, of Biology, Stephen F. Austin State College, Nacogdoches, Tex. Likes, Dr. Carl J,, 9 2006 Hanover Ave., Richmond Lindzev, Dr. James S., 4 Biology Dept., V.P.I., Blacksburg Line, Dr. Lloyd E., Jr., 2 Experiment Inc., Richmond Linfield, Dr. B. Z., 2, 12 1324 Hill Top Rd., Charlottesville Lister, Irvin C., C, 9 Hatton Point, % S. G. Townsend, Portsmouth -Littleton, Dr. Leonidas R., 5, 2 1611 N. Greenbrier St., Arlington 384 The Virginia Journal of Science [September Lloyd, Dr. Kenneth E., 10 Psychology Lab., Peabody Hall, L^niv. of Va., Charlottesville Lockett, Dr. J. L., 1 . Va. State College, Petersburg Loh, Hung-Yu, 2 . Box 767, Blacksburg Lombardi, Gerardo, J., 7, 12 1705 Indiana, N. E., Albequerque, N. M. Long, Dr. John H., 2 . R. F. D. 2, Williamsburg Loving, Mrs. Virginia K., 11, 4 Stage Junction Lowry, Miss Jean, 8 . 140 E. Union St., Wvtheville Lowry, W. D., 8 . 206 Rose Ave., Blacksburg Lundquist, Dr. Eugene, 2 . P. O. Box 462, Hampton Lurate, R. B., 8 . 15 Wynnewood Rd., Livingston, N. J. Lutz, Dr. Albert W., 5 1463 Merven Ave., Pittsburgh 16, Pa. Lyons, Dr. Harry . MCV Station, Richmond 19 Macon, Evelyn T., 11, 4 . 1110 Griffin St., Lynchburg Mahan, Dr. John G., 4 . Lynchburg College, Lynchburg Main, Ralph E., 11, 4 . 1415 Briarcliff Ave., Charlottesville Major, Dr. Randolph T., 5 . Cobb Chemical Lab., Charlottesville Malcom, Dr. Edward V., 10 . 603 Westcott St., Falls Church 'Manahan, Dr. John E., 2, 4 . Scottsville Maner, Alfred W., 7 . Va. Dept, of Highways, 1221 E. Broad St., Richmond Mangold, Carl, Jr., C, 8 . 104 Preston St., Lexington Mankin, Douglas W., 4 . Herndon Manzelli, Dr. M. A., 1 . Mount Bella Rd., Bon Air Mapp., John A., 10, 6 . Bristol Steel & Iron Co., Bristol Margolena, Mrs. Lubow A., 3, 4 7011 Fordham Ct., College Park, Md. Markees, D. G., 4, 5 . Biology Dept., Amherst College, Mass. Maroney, Samuel P., Jr., 4 . • . Dept, of Biology, Univ. of Va., Charlottesville Marshall, Lee, 8 . 3716 Cactus St., Ashland, Kv. Martin, Dorothy A., 4 553 Spotswood Ave., Apt. 4, Norfolk 7 -Martin, Dr. Walter B., 9 . 521 Wainwright Bldg., Norfolk -Martinson, Ensign Detlow Mainch, 8 USS Murrav (DDE-576) FPO New York, N. Y. Mason, Dr. A. Hughlett, 2 . 2119 H. St., N. W. No. 101, Washington, D. C. Mason, Ernest E., 5 906 Foley Dr., Williamsburg Mason, John Y., Jr., 1 5508 Bendley Rd., Richmond 26 Massey, Prof. A. B., 4, 1 . Box 95, Blacksburg Matthews, T. L., Jr., 10 8710 Bravmer Dr., Rt. 13, Richmond Matthews, Dr. Wm. P., 10 . 1008 Biltmore Ave., Lvnchburg Mattus, Dr. George, 1 Agri. Exp. Station, V.P.L, Blacksburg Maurice, Mrs. Elmira C., 6, 4, 11 1208 W. 45th St., Richmond 24 Maurice, H. A., Jr., 4 1208 W. 45th St., Richmond 24 1957] Proceedings 1956-1957 385 Mays, James W., 5 . Stony Creek McCorkle, T. A., 5 . Longwood College, Farmville McCrackan, Prof. Robert F., 5 . 41 Mill Rd., Spartanburg, S. C. McDaniel, Dr. R. R., 2, 12 . Va. State College, Petersburg McDannent, Captain Corley, 4, 2 .... Rt. 1, Eau Gallic, Fla. McDermott, Mrs. Kate B., 2, 11 . 331 Vernon St, Lynchburg MacDougall, Capt. Hugh, 10, 8, 4 Fork Union Military Academy, Fork Union McDowell, Gloria, 10 . 540 Argyle Dr., Apt. 4, Falls Chinch McEwen, Dr. Nobel, 10 . . 401 College Ave., Ashland McGehee, Dr. Frances, 10 . 2615 Rivermont Ave., Lynchburg McGill, William M., 8, 6, 7, 5 Va. Geological Survey, Box 1428, Charlottesville McCinnes, Burd S., C, 8 Box 4809 Va. Tech. Station, Blacksburg McGuigan, F. J., 10 Psychology Dept., Hollins College, Hollins McHugh, Dr. j. L., 4 Va. Fisheries Lab., Gloucester Point Mclnteer, Warren H., 2 . Laurel, Md. McKee, Betty A., 9 Apt. 2, 707 N. Colonial Ave., Richmond 21 McKennis, Dr. Herbert, Jr., 9, 5 Med. College of Va., Richmond McKillop, L. D., 5 . Box 117, Rt. 2, Glen .Allen McLaughlin, Sam B., 11, 4 Woodberry Forest School, Woodberry Forest McNutt, Mrs. Peggy, 5 2918 Flovd Ave., Richmond McPherson, Col. W. L., 5, 6 . Box 23, Blacksburg McShane, E. J., 2 . 209 Maury Ave., Charlottesville ‘'Medical College of Virginia . Richmond Mellette, Dr. Susan J., 9 Box 728, MCV Station, Richmond 19 Melton, Charles E., 2, 5 129 S. Purdue Ave., Oak Ridge, Tenn. Mengebier, Dr. W. L., 4 Dept, of Biology, Madison College, Harrisonburg Meredith, Dr. John M., 9 1200 E. Broad St., Richmond Merritt, Robert E., 4, 6 Longwood College, Farmville Michael, Dr. Archer L., 10 8844 Watertown Plank Rd., Milwaukee 13, Wise. Midvette, James W., Jr., 1 P. O. Box 228, Ashland Mill Dr. Cyril R., 10 . 407 N. 12th St, Richmond Miller, Prof. Edwin DeWitt, 4 Box 388, Madison College, Harrisonburg Miller, G. Tyler, 6 Hillcrest, Madison College, Harrisonburg Miller, Mrs. Helen P., 11, 4 . 3407 Griffin Ave., Richmond 22 Miller, Lawrence L, 1 Tidewater Research Station, Holland Miller, Robert R. 19 N. Queen St., Shippensburg, Pa, Miller, Miss Vada C., 4, 5 . Rt. 1, Bridgewater Miller, Dr. W. Schuyler 5 . . . Box 202, .Ashland Millhiser, Fred R., . 839 Jefferson Ave., Waimesboro 386 The Virginia Journal of Science [September Minton, Paul Dixon, 2, 12 Dept, of Statistics, V.P.I., Blacksburg Mitchell, Dr. Richard S., 8 Dept, of Geology, Univ. of Va., Charlottesville —Mitchell, Dr. S. A., 2 . Box 3466, Univ., Va. Mixson, Alan R., C, 8 . 6 S. Center St., Windsor Locks, Conn. M oiler. Dr. Elizabeth, 10 . Sweet Briar College, Sweet Briar Monsanto Chemical Co., B . 6429 Cottage Toll Road, Norfolk 9 Montgomery, Mrs. Dorothy D., 2 . Hollins College, Hollins Moody, Mr. W. L., 5 . 5 N. 6th St., Richmond Moomaw, Rawie P., 5, 7 . 1233 Floyd Ave., S. W., Roanoke 7 Moore, Robert C., 1 . Blacksburg Moore, Ross E., 8 . % Phillips Petroleum Co., 740 Main St., Grand Junction, Colo. Moore, Dr. Warren, 4, 1, 5 . Raphine Moran, Mrs. Leroy, 5 . 708 - 12th St., S. W. Roanoke Moreland, Dr. J. Earl, 10 Randolph-Macon College, Ashland Morgan, Herbert S., Jr., 5 . 610 Brentwood Circle Rt. 7, Richmond Morgan, Dr. William J., 10 . Merrifield Morgan, Mrs. William J., 10, 6 . Merrifield Philip Morris & Co. Ltd., Inc., B .... Robert N. DuPuis, Vice-Pres., Research, P. O. Box 1895, Richmond 15 Morton, D. P., 12 . 507 Progress St., Blacksburg Moschler, W. W., 1 . V.P.I., Agronomy Dept. Smyth Hall, Blacksburg Moseley, Edward C., 10 . 1607-B Mohle Dr., Austin, Tex. Moseley, John M., 5 . 5703 York Road, Richmond Mosman, Kenneth F., 10 . 4202 12th Rd., Arlington Mottley, Charles M., 12, 4 . 575 Park Ave., New York 21, N. Y. Mull, br. Helen K., 10 . . Sweet Briar College, Sweet Briar —Mullen, Dr. James W., 2, 7 . Box 1-T, Richmond 2 Mullin, George B. P., 1 Forest Supervisor - U. S., Dept. Agri., Jefferson National Forest, Roanoke Munford, George S., HI, 2, 8 . Pegan Lane, Dover, Mass. Murden, William P., 7 . 15 Gibson Rd., Hampton Murphy, Dr. Nelson F., 7, 5 . Box 104, Blacksi3urg Murphy, R. S., 5 . 502 McRae Rd., Bon Air Murray, Miss Frances B., 4 2815 Marshall Ave., Newport News Murray, J. J., Jr., 4 Dept, of Biology, Washington and Lee, Lexington Murray, Prof. W. A. 902 Gracelyn Court, Blacksburg Myers, Dr. Clifford E., 5 . Lynchburg College, Lynchburg *Nance, Mrs. W. R., 11, 6, 4 . Axton —Negus, Dr. Sidney S., MCV Station, Richmond 19 Nelson, Dr. Charles M., 9 906 W. Franklin St., Richmond Nelson, Dr. E. Clifford, 3, 9, 4 . MCV Station, Richmond 1957] Proceedings 1956-1957 387 Nelson, Prof. Wilbur A., 8 . Monroe Hall, Univ., Va. Nettles, Mrs. Frances, 4, 6 . 836 13th St., Newport News Newcomb, Dr. T. Robinson, 12 Box 162, Vienna Newell, Lt. H. W., 6, 4 . Box 5, Staunton Military Academy, Staunton Newman, Lt. Col. James B., 2 . 445 Institute Hill, Lexington **Tlie Newport News Shipbuilding & Drydock Co., “B” Newport News — Niemeier, B. A., 7 . 809 W. 44th St., Richmond Niemeyer, A. B., Jr., 5 . 85 Alywin Rd., Cradock, Portsmouth Nof singer. Dr. C. D., 9 . Lewis-Gale Hosp., Roanoke Norby, Dr. Darwin E., 4 . Dept, of Biology, V.P.L, Blacksburg Norfolk & Western Railway Co., B . Attn: Sidney F. Small, Vice-President, Roanoke 17 Norment, C. Russell, Jr., 11, 5, 2 . Ellerson —Norris, Dean Earle B., 7, 2 . Blacksburg Nugent, T. J., 1 . Box 2160, Norfolk — Obenshain, Dr. S. S., 8 . Blacksburg O’Connell, James L., 10 . 3468 Martha Custis Dr., Alexandria — Oglesbv, Prof. E. J., 2 Box 1887, Univ. Station, Charlottesville Old, Mrs. James E., Jr., 11 . 406 S. Main St., Norfolk 6 Old, William E., Jr., C, 4 . 728 Raleigh Ave., Norfolk 7 Olivier, Dr. Charles P., 2 . 521 N. Wynnewood Ave., Narberth, Pa. Olsson, Elis, 7 . The Chesapeake Corp., West Point O’Meara, Eleanor W., C, 5 . 316 Alderman Rd., Charlottesville O’Neill, Charles T., . P. O. Box 711, Charlottesville Osborne, Dr. Paul J., 4 . Lynchburg College, Lynchburg Osborne, J. Scott, Jr., 5 . 1317 Spring Rd., Richmond 25 Osborne, W. Wyatt, 4 . Plant Pathology Dept. V.P.L, Blacksburg Osvalds, Dr. V., 2 P. O. Box 3445, Univ. Station, Charlottesville Overcash, H. B., 4 . Hampden-Svdney Owen, Dr. Benton Brooks 5 Yale Univ., New Haven, Conn. Owen, Dr. Fletcher B., Jr., Box 726, MCV Station, Richmond Packard, Charles E., 4 . Randolph-Macon College, Ashland Paixad, Leonel Morand, C, 5 Long House Farm, Greenwood Palmer, Dr. James K., 5 . 326 N. Blvd., Richmond 20 Palmer, Mrs. Viola G., 3 Box 44, Hampton Institute, Hampton Parker, M. M., 1 . Box 2160, Norfolk Parkhurst, Dr. R. T., 1 . 702 Shenandoah Ave., N. W., Roanoke Parkins, John H., 5 . 288 Bank St., Norfolk Parnell, John V., Jr., 4 Va. State College, Petersburg Parrish, Mary Jo, 4 . 917 William St., Fredericksburg Parrott, W. T., 8 . Va. Dept, of Highways, Richmond Patterson, Dr. Paul M., 4 . Hollins College, Hollins 388 The Virginia Journal of Science [September Pattishall, Evan G., Jr., 6 . 138 W. Park Drive, Charlottesville Patton, James B., Jr., 6 State Dept, of Edu., State Office Bldg., Richmond Peabody, Dr. William A., 5, 9 4805 Brook Rd., Richmond Peachee, Charles A., Jr., 10 3612 Edgewood Ave., Richmond 22 Pedersen, P. M., 5, 2, 7, 12 4071 Crutchfield St., Richmond 24 Peery, G. G., 4 . 310 High St., Salem Pegau, Dr. A. A., 8 Va. Geological Survey, Box 1428, Univ., Va. Pegau, Lucy Byrd, 4 . 1808 Winston Rd., Charlottesville Pence, Col. J. Worth, 11, 6 Box 116, Kable Station, Staunton Perkins, Mrs. Frances R., 11, 2 2003 Le Suer Rd., Richmond 26 Perry, John L., 2 . 2839 Oak Ave., Norfolk 12 Pertzoff, Dr. V. A., 2 Keelona, R.F.D. 1, Charlottesville Petterson, Olga M., 9 Box 727, MCV Station, Richmond Pettigrew, T. P., 5 . 1015 W. 47th St., Richmond 25 Pettus, William C., 2 106 N. Shamrock Rd., Charlottesville Phillips, Dr. E. Lakin, 10 415 E. Jefferson St., Falls Church Phillips, Mrs. Margaret C., 2 . 114 Conway Ave., NorfoTlc 5 Phillips, Mrs. Wm. B., 11 . Church Road Phipps & Bird, Inc., B . 303 S. 6th St., Richmond Pickral, Col. George M., 5 315 Letcher Ave., Lexington Pierce, Dr. J. Stanton, 5 813 Roseneath Rd., Richmond Pincus, Dr. Albert 9 . Central Natl. Bank Bldg., Richmond Pitt, Lyndele A., 5, 6, 11 4303 New Kent Ave., Richmond 25 Pittman, Lawrence E., 11, 4 Prince George School, Prince George Pittman, Dr. Melvin A., 2 . College of William & Marv, Williamsburg Pitts, Prof. Frank P., 5 . Med. College of Va., Richmond Pitts, Dr. Grover C., 9 .. Dept, of Physiology, School of Med., Univ. of Va., Charlottesville Poindexter, Dr. R. J., 6 . Madison College, Harrisonburg Pond, John W., 3 . 3916 Pilots Lane, Apt. 5, Richmond 22 Porter, Dr. William B., 9 Med. College of Va., Richmond Powell, W. Allan, 5 . Box 86, Univ. of Richmond, Richmond **Powers and Anderson . 603 E. Main St., Richmond Pugh, Jean E., 4 Norfolk Division, W & M - V.P.I., Norfolk Pulliam, Miss Elizabeth, 3 3516 Stuart Ave., Apts., Richmond 21 Purser, William B., 12 Box 1358, Richmond Quarles, Dr. Lawrence R., 7 Thornton Hall, Univ. of Va., Charlottesville Quinn, I. T., 4 Box 1642, Richmond Rageot, Roger Norfolk Museum of Art & Sciences, Norfolk 10 Ragland, Richard S., 2 107 Sunset Blvd., Blacksburg 1957] Proceedings 1956-1957 389 Ramey, Dr. Robert L., 2, 7 Thornton Hall, Univ. of Va., Charlottesville Ramsey, E.W., 8 . Roek Castle Farm, Esmont Ramsey, John B., Jr., 2, 7 . 1420 Abingdon Dr., Apt. 201, Alexandria Ramsey, Mrs. Mollie H., 11, 5 Greenville Ramsey, M. M., 8 126 Observatory Ave., Charlottesville Ramsey, Robert A., 2 . 208 N. Lombardy St., Richmond 20 Ramsey, Dr. Robert W., 9 MCV Station, Richmond *Randolph-Macon Woman’s College Lynchburg Ransome, G. W., 11 . Box 88, Powhatan Rappaport, Dr. Jacques, 4 . .. Miller School of Biology, Charlottesville Rayburn, Dr. C. H., 5 . 5212 Devonshire Rd., Richmond Reams, William M., Jr., 4 Dept, of Anatomy, Med. College of Va., Richmond Reaves, Harry L., 2 305 Wall St., Blacksburg Reaves, Paul M., 1 215 Washington St., Blacksburg Redd, John B., Jr., 5 . Box 43, Powhatan Reeves, John H., 4 Dept, of Biology, V.M.I., Lexington Reid, Dr. J. Douglas, 3 . Univ. Hgts., R.F.D. 13, Richmond Reitz, John E., 4 1414 Gordon Ave., Charlottesville Remsburg, Vera Baron, 4 . Box 154, South Boston * Rennie, C. Bruce, 1, 7, 5 . Virginia-Carolina Chemical Corp., 401 E. Main St., Richmond Rennie, James G., Jr., 2 1202 Confederate .Ave., Richmond Revnolds, Emmett D., 1 Blacksburg Revnolds Metal Co., B . Richmond Rice, Dr. Nolen E., 4 Box 169, Univ. of Richmond, Richmond Rice, Dr. Wm. E., 5 Box 537. Rt. 10, Richmond Rich, Dr. C. I., 1 . Box 481, Blacksburg Rich, Dr. Gilbert J., 10 406 Allison Ave., S. W., Roanoke Richards, Walter L., Jr., 4 1502 Cedar Lane, Richmond 25 Richardson, Ruth E., 11, 2 . 2921 Midlothian Pike, Richmond 24 Richardson, Prof. W., 2 . 401 Roanoke St., Blacksburg —Richmond Public Schools . 312 N. Ninth St., Richmond 19 Ridge, Bradley B . U. S. Naval Hosp., Portsmouth Ridley, Walter N., 10, 6 . Va. State College, Petersburg Riese, Dr. Hertha, 10 . Rt. 2, Box 443, Glen .Allen Riffenburgh, Robert H., C, 12 . 1005 Draper, Rd., Blacksburg Riggins, Mrs. William M., Jr., 4 . Rt. 34, Lynchburg Riley, Mrs. Edna E., 11, 5 . P. O. Box 134, Falls Church Risley, Miss A. Marguerite, 2 .... Box 63, R.MrW. College, Lynchburg — Rison, J. Waddell . 216 Southern Bank Building, Richmond Ritchey, Col. H. E., 5 . 213 Maiden Lane, Lexington Robb, J. Bernard, 5 . % A.B.C. Board, Box 1395, Richmond 390 The Virginia Journal of Science [September Robbins, A. H., Co., Inc., B . 1407 Cummings Dr., Richmond Roberts, D. B., 7, 10, 6, 2 . Town House, Apt. 412, 601 - 19th St., N. W., Washington 6, D. C. Roberts, Dr. Joseph K., 8 Box 1471, University, Va. Roberts, J. W., 7 . Box 1-J, Richmond Robeson, Dr. Andrew, 2 . Box 145, Blacksburg Robey, Dr. Ashley, 5 . P. O. Box 421, Salem Robinson, Miss N. Virginia, C, 4, 7 916 Onslow Dr., Greensboro, N. C. Rodge, Lt. Bradley D., USN, 10 . . U. S. Naval Hosp., Portsmouth Rodger, E. E., 1 . 1427 Gentry Lane, Charlottesville Rogers, D. A., 1, 5 . % Allied Chem. & Dye Corp., Morristown, N. J. Rosbash, Dr. David O., 5, 3 . 3516 Brymoor Rd., S. W., Roanoke Rose, Dale E., 11, 5 Chem. Dept. Hampton High School, Hampton Rosenzweig, Abraham Leon 3 Vets. Administration Hosp., Richmond Rosser, Shirley E., 2 . Lynchburg College, Lynchburg Rowe, Maurice B., 1 . 1123 State Office Bldg., Richmond 19 Rowlett, Dr. Russell J., Jr., 5 . 4606 Wythe Ave., Richmond Rozsa, Dr. George 9, 5 6 Lexington Ave., Buffalo 22, N. Y. Runk, Dr. B. F. D., 4 . Miller School of Biologv, Univ. of Va., harlottesville Rusk, Richard W., 2 Box 318, Blacksburg Russell, Miss Catherine M., 3 Dept, of Miero-Biologv, Univ. of Va. Med. School, Charlottesville Russell, Edgar V., 5 . V.P.I., Blacksburg Ryman, Jacob F., 2 . Box 147, Blacksburg Sadie, Dr. Alexander, 5 Nitrogen Div., Allied Chem. & Dve Corp., Hopewell Sadler, O. P., 11 Buckingham Central High School, Buckingham *St. Clair, Dr. Huston, 9 . Tazewell Samuel, Boyd L., 5, 1 . 1123 State Office Bldg., Richmond Sander, Lt. William C., 2 . 115 Spinning Rd., Dayton 3, O. Sanders, H. W., 6 . Box 79, Blacksburg Sanders, Jerrell, 2 . 1546 Beekelev Ave., Petersburg Sanger, Dr. Wm. T., 9, 10, 6 Med. College of Va., Richmond Saunders, Mrs. Kirkland R., 4, 1 . 307 N. Granby St., Richmond Schaffuer, Mrs. Milton, 10 . 1212 N. Quincy St., Arlington Schaub, Richard, C, 8 . 162 Wheeling Ave., Ehn Grove, W, Va. Scherer, Dr. J. H., 9 . 820 W. Franklin St., Richmond Scherer, Dr. Phillip C., Jr., 5 . P. O. Box 80, Blacksburg Scherer, W. B., 10 2717 Hemico Dr., Richmond 22 Schillo, Richard J., 10 . 517 Valley Dr., S. E., Vienna Schneider, Dr. James Z., 5 . U.S.O.M., American Embassv, Quita, Ecuador Schoenbaum, Alexander W., 5, 7 403 Beechwood Dr., Richmond Proceedings 1956-1957 391 1957] Schumann, D. E. W., 12, 2 Dept, of Statistics, Univ. of Stellenbosch, Stellenbosch, South Africa Scott, Dr. A. P., 9 Allied Arts Bldg., Lynchburg Scott, Frances Deane, 10 6 . Woodstock Apt. 12, Lynchburg Scott, Frederic R., 4, 2 . 115 Kennondale Lane, Riehmond 26 ** Scott and Stringfellow . Richmond Scott, W. R., 2, 5, 7 125 1/2 N. Fourth St.,, Buckroe Beach Scott, Dr. William W., 4 Dept, of Biology, V.P.L, Blacksburg Sears, C. E., Jr., 8, 7 . Box 522, Blacksburg Sears, Dr. D. Scott, 5 . 8313 Sawmill Rd., Richmond 26 Sharpley, J. M., 3 421 Avon Rd., Memphis 17, Tenn. Shawver, M. C., 4 Box 278, Madison College, Harrisonburg Shelburne, Tilton E., 7, 8 Thornton Hall, Univ. of Va., Charlottesville Shelton, Ceorge E., 5 . Box 6-S, Richmond 17 Sheppard, Dr. L. Benjamin, 9 301 Medical Arts Bldg., Richmond Sherman, Charles L., IV, C, 8 P. O. Box 912, Lexington Sherwood, C. S., Ill, 5, 6, 8 . Ill W. Rd., Portsmouth Sholes, Dr. Dillard M., Jr., 5, 9 St. Elizabeth Gen. FIosp., Elizabethton ,Tenn. Shorts, Clyde P., 10 . Madison College, Harrisonburg Showalter, Dr. A. M., 4, 1 . 310 Paul St., Harrisonburg Shuey, Dr. Audrey M., 10 1059 Rivermont Terrace, Lynchburg Shuffleburger, T. E., Jr., 8 3804 Appletree Dr., Alexandria Sieburth, Dr. John, 3 . Va. Agr., Exp. Station, Blacksburg Siegel, Dr. Paul B., 1 . Univ. Club, V.P.L, Blacksburg Silas, Dr. Gordon, 10 . Roanoke College, Salem Silverberg, Dr. Jacob, 10 102 S. Drive, Richmond 25 Silverman, Miss Teressa, 9 3325 Stuart Ave., Richmond Simpson, Dr. J. A. G., 12 . 2215 Monument Ave., Richmond Simpson, Dr. R. L., Jr., 6, 9 Med. College of Va., Richmond Simpson, Dr. T. McN., Jr., 2 Ashland Singleton, Dr. Ralph W., 4 Dept, of Biology, Univ. of Va., Charlottesville Sitler, Miss Ida, 4 137 S. Second St., Lehighton, Pa. Sitterson, Miss Louise, II 118 Warren St., Apt. 1, Norfolk Skinner, W. French, 3, 9 . State Health Dept., Richmond Sloope, Billy W., 2 . 8906 Penquin Rd., Richmond Smart, Grover C., Jr., 4 Miller School of Biology, Univ. of Va., Charlottesville —Smart, Dr. Robert F., 4, 2 Box 108, Univ. of Richmond, Richmond Smiddy, Joseph C., 4 . Box 425, Big Stone Gap Smith, Alvin H., 10, 6 Hampden-Svdney Gollege, Hampden-Sydney Smith, Bessie S., 10 26 Elm Ave., Hilton Village Smith, Dr. Burke M., 10 827 Kerner Ave., Salem —Smith, Foley F., 5, 9, 1 . Box 1420, Richmond Smith, Dr. J. Doyle, 5 Med. Gollege of Va., Richmond 392 The Virginia Journal of Science [September Smidi, Dr. LeRoy, 9 1805 Monument Ave., Richmond Smith, Miss Pat, C, 4 . 298 Norma Park, Norfolk 5 Smith, Pauline, 11, 5 Rt. 2, Box 434, Manassas Smith, Robert L., 5 . 7324 Hermitage Rd., Richmond Smithey, Dr, William R., Jr., 5 Research Dept., Virginia-Carolina Chemical Corp., Richmond Snieszko, Dr. S. F., 3, 4 Kearneysville, W. Va. Snocldy, Virginia C., 4, 5 Jack Jouett Apts., Charlottesville Sohns, Dr. Ernest A., 4 6504 Brooke’s Hill Ct., Washington 16, D. C. Somerville, Dr. Paul N., 12 8650 Piney Branch Rd., Silver Spring, Md. Soinmerville, Dr. R. C., 10 307 Vernon St., Lvnchburg Speer, Miss Virginia Lee, 4, 3 5509 Alson Dr., Apt. 142-C, Norfolk Speese, Dr. Bernice M., 4 Dept, of Biology, College of W & M, Williamsburg Speidel, Dr. Carl C., 9, 4 . Univ., Va. Starling, Dr. James, 4 . Main St., Lexington Starr, Nicholas, 8 . 4443 Seminary Rd., Alexandria Stein, Seymour Samuel, 7 . 634 Hendrix St., Brooklyn 7; N. Y. Steinhardt, R. C., Jr., 5, 2 . Hollins College Stephens, William K., Jr., 5 . 2322 Colden Rd., Richmond Stern, Dr. E. Ceorge, 7 . Box 361, Blacksburg Stewart, John N., 2 Dept, of Physics, McCormick Rd., Univ. of Va. Charlottesville Stevens, Fred Jr., C, 7 . Box 108, Lorton Stevenson, Dr. Edward C., 2 Box 1893, Univ. Station, Charlottesville Stevens, Eleanor B., 11, 2, 5, 4 Foxcroft School, Middleburg Stevens, Dr. Kenneth P., 9, 4 . 404 E. Nelson St., Lexington Sticklev, Allen R., Jr., C, 4 . Va. Wildlife Unit., V.P.I., Blacksburg Stripe, Dr. J. Cordon, Jr., 2 . Randolph-Macon Woman’s College, Lvnchburg "^Strauss, Lewis L., 2, 1, 9 . Room 518, 620 Fifth .Ave., New York Citv 20, N. Y. Strickland, Dr. John C., 4 Biology Dept. Univ. of Richmond, Richmond **Strudwick, Edmund, Jr., . Fine Creek Mills Strunk, Dr. DeForest L., II, 10 Dept, of Education, Peabody Hall, Charlottesville Stucklen, Dr. Hildegard, 2 . Sweet Briar College Sturgill, Harold C, 8 . Box 233, Harmon Sumpter, Charles E., 3 . 5204 Lee Ave., Richmond 26 Suter, Daniel B., 4 Eastern Mennonite College, Harrisonburg —Sutton, Dr. Lee E., 9 . 1200 E. Broad St., Richmond 19 Sweeney, Hale C., 7, 12 202 Turner St., Blacksburg * Sweet Briar College . Sweet Briar Swem, Dr. Earl G., 6 119 Chandler Ct., Williamsburg 1957] Proceedings 1956-1957 393 Swertferger, Dr. Floyd F., 6, 10 Longwood College, FarmviUe Talley, Claude P., 5 5209 Sheridan Lane, Richmond Tanner, Mrs. Jesse D., 11 . Victoria High School, Victoria Tarr, Frederick H., Ill, C, 4, 8 . Box 903, Washington & Lee Univ., Lexington Taylor, Henry M., 12 . 1027 State Office Bldg., Richmond Taylor, Jackson J., 2 . Univ. of Richmond, Richmond Taylor, Dr. Mildred E., 2 . Mary Baldwin College, Staunton Taylor, Dr. Raymond L., 4 . 1820 N. Johnson St., Arlington 7 Taylor, Robert T., C, 12 . . 1211 Edmonston Dr., Rockville, Md. Teasley, Hany North, Jr., C, 4 2 N. Confederate Ave., Sandston Temple, Wade J., 2 P. O. Box 186, Ashland — Thalhimer, Morton G., 3202 Monument Ave., Richmond Thaver, J. Garland, 8, 6 . Rt. 1, Abingdon Thiers, Dr. Ralph, 5 9 Alton Place, Brookline, Mass. Thomas, Dr. Minor Wine, 10, 6 Radford College, Radford Thompson, Dr. Dorothy D., 5 Box 32, Sweet Briar College, Sweet Briar Thompson, Jesse C., 4 Biology Dept. Hollins College, Hollins Thompson, Norman R., 4 Dairv Science Dept., V.P.I., Blacksburg “Thomsen, Dr. Lillian, 4 Mary Baldwin College, Staunton Thornton, Dr. Nan V., 5 Box 292, R.M.W., College, Lynchburg -Thornton, Dr. S. F., 1 P. O. Box 1940, Norfolk Todd, R. G., 5 . A.B.C. Board, Box 1395, Richmond Toller, Louis, 2 . Box 478, Madison College, Harrisonburn^ Toone, Dr. Elam C., Jr., 9 1200 E. Broad St., Richmond Trattner, Dr. Sidney, 9, 4, 3 . 1210 Confederate Ave., Richmond Trout, Dr. William E., Jr., 5 Box 64, Univ. of Richmond, Richmond Trout, William E., Ill, C, 4 35 Towana Rd., Richmond Truitt, Prof. R. W., 7 Aero Engr. Dept., V.P.I., Blacksburg Tucker, Ellis N., 11, 2 . Woodberry Forest Turner, Edward F., Jr., 2 5412 Youngblood St., Falls Church -Turner, Dr. J. V., Jr., 9 804 Professional Bldg., Richmond Tweedie. Prof. M. C. K.. 12 Statistical Lab., Dept, of Mathematics, The University, Manchester 13, England Umphlett, Clyde J., 4 Biology Dept., V.P.I., Blacksburg “The University of Richmond . Richmond “Univensitv of Virginia Univ., Va. Updike, Dr. 1. A., 5, 6 Box 667, Ashland Updike, Dr. O. L., Jr., 7, 5 Thornton Hall, Univ. of Va., Charlottesville -Valentine, C. Braxton, 5, 9 Valentine, Granville G,, Jr., 5, 9, 3 Box 1214, Richmond Box 1214, Richmond 394 The Virginia Journal of Science [September AMERICA’S LEADING MANUFACTURER OF CIGARETTES 1957] Proceedings 1956-1957 395 Van Alstine, J. N., 8 . Rt. 2, New Castle Vanderrin, Dr. Jack, 5 . Box 539, V.P.L, Blacksburg Van Engel, Willard A., 4 Va. Fisheries Laboratories, Gloucester Point Vilbrandt, Dr. Frank C., 7, 5 . V.P.L, Box 126, Blacksburg Vingiello. Dr. Frank, 5 . 408 Roanoke St., Blacksburg Virginia-Carolina Chemical Corp., . Research Dept. Library, Box 1136, Richmond 8 Virginia Electric & Power Co., B . Richmond » Virginia Military Institute . Lexington V.M.I. Student Chapter, VAS . V.M.I., Lexington ‘Virginia Polytechnic Institute . Blacksburg Vogt, Herbert, 10 . 2101 N. 18th St., Arlington Volk, Dr. Wesley A., 4 . Dept, of Microbiology, School of Med., Univ. of Va., Charlottesville Von Gemmingen, Felix, Jr., 7, 2 3306 Kensington, Ave., Richmond 21 Vyssotsky, Dr. Alexander N., 2 . Box 3453, University, Va. Wagener, H. Dickerson, Sr., 8 . 3415 Gloucester Rd., Richmond Wagner, Dr. Kenneth A., 4 . College of William & Mary, Norfolk 8 Walker, Frank S., Jr., 1 . Box 605, Orange Walker, Dr. Paul A., 4 . Dept, of Biology, Randolph-Macon Woman's College, Lynchburg Walker, R. 9, 1, 6 . 2901 West Ave., Newport News Wallace, Donald S., 7 .. Box 1338, University Station, Charlottesville Wallace, John H., 4 . 1324 Eye St., N. W., Washington 5, D. C. VVallerstein, Dr. Emanuel U., 9 Professional Bldg., Richmond Walsh, Mrs. Robert E., 11, 5 5601 Second Street South, Arlington Walton, Benjamin F., 6 . Supt. of Schools, Brunswick County, Lawrenceville Walton, Harriet M., 11, 4 . 5818 York Rd., Richmond 26 Walton, Dr. Leon J., 9 . 713 Shenandoah Life Bldg., Roanoke Walton, Miss Lucile, 4 . 1116 E. Main St., Danville Walton, Miss Margaret, 4 . 1116 E. Main St., Danville Waller, Mrs. Marion, 9 . 3607 Florida Ave., Richmond 22 Ward, D. C., HI 8 1012 1/2 - 15th St., Boulder, Colo. -Ward, L. E., Jr., 1, 7 . % N. & W. Ry. Co., Roanoke Warren, Dr. Percy H., 4 . Madison College, Harrisonburg — Wartman, William B., Jr., 5 . 1020 Horsepen Rd., Richmond Wash, Dr. A. M., 9 . Medical Arts Bldg., Richmond ^Washington & Lee Univ . Lexington Waters, Mrs. Octavia C., . Beaverdam Watkins, Miss Leslie V., 2, 4 . 118 Academy St., Salem Watson, Dr. John W., 5 . Box 75, Blacksburg Watson, William L., 1 Box 327, Va. State College, Petersburg Watt, Dr. William J., 5 . Box 402, Washington & Lee Univ., Lexington 696 The Virginia Journal of Science [September Cat. No. 71-281-1 $45.00 Cat. No. 71-726 SIO.OO Without obligation send us com¬ plete information on your Pipette Dryer. Name Title Company Address . City . State In the laboratory this large capacity Pipette Dryer is special¬ ly recommended for thorough dry¬ ing pipettes of any size up to 375 mm. in length. Cylinder is mounted on vented base with specially designed heat¬ er placed in lower end of cylin¬ der. The instrument is designed to take the standard rack of 6-in. pipette washer. Rack is tak¬ en out of washer drained for about a minute and placed right into the dryer. Drying time varies according to size and load of pipettes. But this method of dry¬ ing means less handling by the technician thus the hazard of breakage is greatly reduced. The Pipette Dryer comes com¬ plete with cord and plug birt without rack The instrument operates on 115 volts AC or DC. [PUG U [p[P@ (!ii B Q BIDo okis^ y MANUFACTURERS AND DISTRIBUTORS OF SCIENTIFIC EQUIPMENT L±sJ 6TH & BYRD STREETS RICHMOND, VA. 1957] Proceedings 1956-1957 397 Wayne, Elinor R., C, 2 . Box 612, Madison College, Harrisonburg Weaver, Mrs. Meredith A., 5 . . 3208 Seminary Ave., Richmond Weaver, Col. R. C., 2 . 404 V.M.I. Parade, Lexington Weaver, Dr. Warren E., 3, 6, 9 MCV Station, Richmond 19 Webb, L. W., Jr., 2, 7 . 5234 Edgewater Drive, Norfolk 8 Weeks, Elie, 12 . Chief, Food Technology Branch, Fort Lee Weinberg, E. L., 8 . P. O. Box 67, Mineral Weiss, Otto H., 4 . Box 669, Newport News Wells, John C., 2, 11 . Madison College, Harrisonburg West, Warwick R., Jr., 4 . . Box 597, Univ. of Richmond, Richmond Westbrook, Dr. C. Hart, 10 . 17 Towana Rd., Richmond Whidden, Miss Helen L., 5, 2 . R.M.W. College, Lynchburg Whitehead, William M., 6 . Va. State School, Hampton Whitehurst, Prof. W. H., 4 . Box 422, Lawrenceville Whitlow, Arline, 5, 11 . Rt. 1, Gladys Whittimore, Dean J. W., 6, 7 . 900 Draper Rd., Blacksburg Whyburn, G. T., 2 . 133 Bollingwood Rd., Charlottesville Wilkinson, Emery C., 2 . 5503 Forest Hill Ave., Richmond ** Williams, Dr. Carrington, 9 . 805 W. Franklin St., Richmond 20 Williams, Kenneth D., C, 2 . Betsy Belle, Rt. 3, Charlottesville Williams, Dr. John E., 10 . 7303 Harlow Rd., Richmond * "Williams, Lewis C., 6, 12, 10 1001 E. Main St., Richmond Williams, Dr. Stanley B., 10 Dept, of Psychology, W & M College, Williamsburg Williams, Mrs. Stanley B., 10 . 504 Newport Ave., Williamsburg Wilson, Dr. David C., 9 . Universitv Hosp., Universitv, Va. Wilson, Dr. I. D., 9, 4, 1 . ' V.P.I., Blacksburg Wilson, Wingate, C, 4 . 32 University Circle, Charlottesville Wiltshire, Mrs. James W., Jr., 4 .... Randolph-Macon Woman’s College, Lynchburg Wine, R. Lowel, 12 . 909 Preston Ave., Blacksburg Wingard, S. A., 4, 1 . Box 425, V.P.I., Blacksburg Wingo, Dr. Alfred L., 6, 5, 1, 10 State Board of EdiT^ation, Richmond Wise, Dr. John H., 5, 2, 6 .... Dept, of Chem., Washington & Lee Univ., Lexington 6 —Wood, John E., 11, 2 . 13 E. Clifford St., Winchester Wood, Dr. John Thornton, 4, 9, 10 Burkeville Wood, Robert S., C, 8 . 308 Charmian Rd., Richmond Woodland, Dr. John T., 4 .. . Biology Dept., Northeastern Univ., 360 Huntington Ave., Boston 15, Mass. Woods, Prof. Walter A., 10, 12 . Box 718, Sparta, N. J. Woodson, Bernard R., Jr., 4 . Va. State College, Petersburg Woolcott, William S., 4 . Box 296, Univ. of Richmond, Richmond Worsham, James E., Jr., 5, 2 . Chem. Dept., Univ. of Richmond Wright, Miss E. Katherine, 5 203 S. Tremont Dr., Greensboro, N. C. 398 The Virginia Journal of Science r September 1957] Proceedings 1956-1957 399 Wright, H. E., Jr., 5 5500 Queensbiiry Rd., Richmond Yates, Dr. Robert C., 2 Mathematics Dept., W & M College Williamsburg Yoe, Dr. J. H., 5 University, Va. —York, James E., Jr., 5 . 1006 Bay wood Court, Richmond Youden, Dr. W. J., 12 . National Bureau of Standards, Washington 25, D. C. Young, Albert T., Jr., 10 713 Hailwood Ave., Falls Church —Young, Fred N., Jr., 5 7213 Sheffield Dr., Knoxville 19, Tenn. Young, Dr. Robert S., 8 Box 3667, Univ. Station, Charlottesville Young, Roderick W., . Box 66, Blacksburg Young, Virgil H., Jr., 1 . 8501 Spaulding Dr., Richmond Zimmerman, Henry D., 5 Zipf, Elizabeth M., C, 4 2410 Lake view Ave., Richmond Dept, of Biology, Princeton Univ., Princeton, N .J. 400 The Virginia Journal of Science [Septembe’ Virginia Academy of Science APPLICATION FOR MEMBERSHIP Full Official Name Name as Usually Written . Address . Institution . Position . Field of Interest . Date Membership Classification Desired $2.00 of Membership Dues is for a subscription to The Virginia Journal of Science for one year. FORM OF BEQUEST (To be used for immediate gifts, for inclusion in a will or for addition to a will as a codicil.) I give (or bequeath) to the VIRCINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE, Inc. the sum of . ( . ) to be applied as an addition to its present endowment fund for scientific research (or) to be applied as an endowment for the general purpose of the organiza¬ tion. Application for membership, together with membership dues, and forms of bequest should be sent to Mr. Foley F. Smith, Box 1420, Richmond, Virginia. The Annual Subscription Rate is $3.00, and the cost of a single number, $1.00. Reprints are available only if ordered when galley proof is returned. All orders except those involving exchanges should be addressed to Charles F. Lane, Stevens Hall, Longwood College, Farmville, Virginia. The University of Virginia Library has exclusive exchange arrangements, and communications relative to exchange should be addressed to The Librarian, Alderman Library, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia. Notice To Contributors Contributions to the Journal should be addressed to Robert T. Brumfield, Stevens Hall, Longwood College, Farmville, Virginia. If any preliminary notes have been pub¬ lished on the subject which is submitted to the editors, a statement to that effect must accompany the manuscript. Manuscripts must be submitted in triplicate, typewritten in double spacing on standard 8%” X 11” paper, with at least a one inch margin on all sides. Manuscripts are limited to seven pages, with the proviso that if additional pages are desired, the author may obtain them at cost. The author may estimate the length of his paper by counting the total number of characters, including blank spaces, and dividing this by 3300. The result is the approximate number of printed pages in the Journal. Division of the manuscripts into subheadings must follow a consistent plan, and be held to a minimum. It is desirable that a brief summary be included in all manuscripts. Footnotes should be included in the body of the manuscript immediately following the reference, and set off by a dashed-line above and below the footnote content. Footnotes should be numbered consecutively from the beginning to the end of the manuscript. Bibliographies (Literature Cited, References, etc.) should be arranged alphabetically according to author. Each reference should include the date, full title of the article, the name of the Journal, the volume, number (optional), pages, tables and figures (if any). For example: “Sniffen, Ernest W. 1940. Cobbles from the Pleistocene Terraces of the Lower York-James Peninsula Va. Journ. Sci., 1 (8) : 235-288 1 fig., 1 tab. Reference to the bibliographic citations should not be made by numbers. Instead, using the above citations, where a reference is desired: either “Sniffen (1940)”, (Sniffen, 1940: 186)”, or “Sniffen (1940) states that . . .” Explanation of figures, graphs, etc., should be typed on separate pages. All figures should be numbered consecutively beginning with the first text figure and continuing through the plates. If figures are to be inserted in the text this should be clearly indicated by writing “Figure — ” at the appropriate place in the mai'gin. Illustrations including lettering, should be arranged so that on reduction they will not exceed the dimensions of the maximum size of a printed page. 4-1/2” x 6-1/2”, and so that they are well balanced on the page. Large plates must be accompanied by 8-1 /2” x 11” photogiaphic copies which can be sent to the reviewers. The Journal will furnish the author with one plate (halftone or line reproduction) or its equivalent ; additional figures, colored illustrations or lithographs may be used only if the author makes a grant covering the cost of production. Original drawings (which must be done in black drawing ink) not photographs of drawings, should accompany the manuscript. Photo¬ graphs should not be used if a line and dot (stippled) drawing will suffice. If photo¬ graphic prints are to be used they should be glossy, sharp and show good contrast. Drawings not neatly executed and labeled (do not use a typewriter), or which are sub¬ mitted on yellow or yellow ish-white paper will not be accepted. Galley Proofs and engraver’s proofs of figures are sent to the author for correction. Costs of excessive changes from the original manuscript must be defrayed by the author. OFFICERS OF THE VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE William G. Guy, President John C. Forbes, President-Elect Paul M. Patterson, Secretary Foley F. Smith, Treasurer William B. Wartman, Jr. Assistant Secretary-Treasurer. COUNCIL (Board of Trustees) Sidney S. Negus (1957) Mrs. B. G. Heatwole (1960) Byron N. Cooper (1958) Horton H. Hobbs (1962) Robert T. Brumfield WilHam Hinton (1959) Irving G. Foster (1958) Charles F. Lane Thomas E. Gilmer (1961) Walter S. Flory ( 1959) Lynn D. Abbott, Jr. ' .h